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214109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallipoli%20campaign | Gallipoli campaign | The Gallipoli campaign was a military campaign in the First World War that took place on the Gallipoli peninsula (Gelibolu in modern Turkey), from 17 February 1915 to 9 January 1916. The Entente powers, Britain, France and Russia, sought to weaken the Ottoman Empire, one of the Central Powers, by taking control of the Turkish straits. This would expose the Ottoman capital at Constantinople to bombardment by Allied battleships and cut it off from the Asian part of the empire. With Turkey defeated, the Suez canal would be safe, and a year-round Allied supply route could be opened through the Black Sea to warm water ports in Russia.
The attempt by the Allied fleet to force the Dardanelles in February 1915 failed and was followed by an amphibious landing on the Gallipoli peninsula in April 1915. In January 1916, after eight months' fighting, with approximately 250,000 casualties on each side, the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force withdrawn. It was a costly campaign for the Entente powers and the Ottoman Empire, as well as for the sponsors of the expedition, especially the First Lord of the Admiralty (1911–1915), Winston Churchill. The campaign was considered a great Ottoman victory. In Turkey, it is regarded as a defining moment in the history of the state, a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire retreated. The struggle formed the basis for the Turkish War of Independence and the declaration of the Republic of Turkey eight years later, with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli, as founder and president.
The campaign is often considered to be the beginning of Australian and New Zealand national consciousness; 25 April, the anniversary of the landings, is known as Anzac Day, the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in the two countries, surpassing Remembrance Day (Armistice Day).
Background
On 29 October 1914, two former German warships, the Ottoman and , still under the command of German officers, conducted the Black Sea Raid, in which they bombarded the Russian port of Odessa and sank several ships. On 31 October, the Ottomans entered the war and began the Caucasus campaign against Russia. The British briefly bombarded forts in Gallipoli, invaded Mesopotamia and studied the possibility of forcing the Dardanelles.
Allied strategy and the Dardanelles
Before the Dardanelles operation was conceived, the British had planned to conduct an amphibious invasion near Alexandretta on the Mediterranean, an idea originally presented by Boghos Nubar in 1914. This plan was developed by the Secretary of State for War, Field Marshal Earl Kitchener to sever the capital from Syria, Palestine and Egypt. Alexandretta was an area with a Christian population and was the strategic centre of the Empire's railway network—its capture would have cut the empire in two. Vice Admiral Sir Richard Peirse, Commander-in-Chief, East Indies, ordered Captain Frank Larkin of to Alexandretta on 13 December 1914. The and the French cruiser were also there. Kitchener was working on the plan as late as March 1915 and was the beginning of the British attempt to incite an Arab Revolt. The Alexandretta landing was abandoned because militarily it would have required more resources than France could allocate and politically France did not want the British operating in their sphere of influence, a position to which Britain had agreed in 1912.
By late 1914, on the Western Front, the Franco-British counter-offensive of the First Battle of the Marne had ended and the Belgians, British and French had suffered many casualties in the First Battle of Ypres in Flanders. The war of manoeuvre had ended and been replaced by trench warfare. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary closed the overland trade routes between Britain and France in the west and Russia in the east. The White Sea in the arctic north and the Sea of Okhotsk in the Far East were icebound in winter and distant from the Eastern Front; the Baltic Sea was blockaded by the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy) and the entrance to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. While the Ottomans remained neutral, supplies could still be sent to Russia through the Dardanelles but prior to the Ottoman entry into the war, the straits had been closed; in November the Ottomans began to mine the waterway.
The French Minister of Justice, Aristide Briand, proposed in November to attack the Ottoman Empire but this was rejected and an attempt by the British to bribe the Ottomans to join the Allied side also failed. Later that month, Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, proposed a naval attack on the Dardanelles, based in part on erroneous reports of Ottoman troop strength. Churchill wanted to use a large number of obsolete battleships, which could not operate against the German High Seas Fleet, in a Dardanelles operation, with a small occupation force provided by the army. It was hoped that an attack on the Ottomans would also draw Bulgaria and Greece (formerly Ottoman possessions) into the war on the Allied side. On 2 January 1915, Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia appealed to Britain for assistance against the Ottomans, who were conducting the Caucasus campaign. Planning began for a naval demonstration in the Dardanelles, to divert Ottoman troops from Caucasia.
Attempt to force the Straits
On 17 February 1915, a British seaplane from flew a reconnaissance sortie over the Straits. Two days later, the first attack on the Dardanelles began when a strong Anglo-French task force, including the British dreadnought , began a long-range bombardment of Ottoman coastal artillery batteries. The British had intended to use eight aircraft from Ark Royal to spot for the bombardment but harsh conditions rendered all but one of these, a Short Type 136, unserviceable. A period of bad weather slowed the initial phase but by 25 February the outer forts had been reduced and the entrance cleared of mines. After this, Royal Marines were landed to destroy guns at Kum Kale and Seddülbahir, while the naval bombardment shifted to batteries between Kum Kale and Kephez.
Frustrated by the mobility of the Ottoman batteries, which evaded the Allied bombardments and threatened the minesweepers sent to clear the Straits, Churchill began pressuring the naval commander, Admiral Sackville Carden, to increase the fleet's efforts. Carden drew up fresh plans and on 4 March sent a cable to Churchill, stating that the fleet could expect to arrive in Istanbul within 14 days. A sense of impending victory was heightened by the interception of a German wireless message that revealed the Ottoman Dardanelles forts were running out of ammunition. When the message was relayed to Carden, it was agreed the main attack would be launched on or around 17 March. Carden, suffering from stress, was placed on the sick list by the medical officer and command was taken over by Admiral John de Robeck.
18 March 1915
On the morning of 18 March 1915, the Allied fleet, comprising with an array of cruisers and destroyers began the main attack against the narrowest point of the Dardanelles, where the straits are wide. Despite some damage to the Allied ships engaging the forts by Ottoman return fire, minesweepers were ordered along the straits. In the Ottoman official account, by 2:00 p.m. "all telephone wires were cut, all communications with the forts were interrupted, some of the guns had been knocked out ... in consequence the artillery fire of the defence had slackened considerably". The struck a mine, causing her to capsize in two minutes, with just 75 survivors out of a total crew of 718. Minesweepers, manned by civilians, retreated under Ottoman artillery fire, leaving the minefields largely intact. and struck mines and Irresistible was sunk, with most of her surviving crew rescued; Inflexible was badly damaged and withdrawn. There was confusion during the battle about the cause of the damage; some participants blamed torpedoes. was sent to rescue Irresistible but was disabled from an artillery shell, struck a mine, and was evacuated, eventually sinking.
The French battleships and sailed through a new line of mines placed secretly by the Ottoman minelayer Nusret ten days before and were also damaged. The losses forced de Robeck to sound the "general recall" to protect what remained of his force. During the planning of the campaign, naval losses had been anticipated and mainly obsolete battleships, unfit to face the German fleet, had been sent. Some of the senior naval officers like the commander of Queen Elizabeth, Commodore Roger Keyes, felt that they had come close to victory, believing that the Ottoman guns had almost run out of ammunition but the views of de Robeck, the First Sea Lord Jackie Fisher and others prevailed. Allied attempts to force the straits using naval power were terminated, due to the losses and bad weather. Planning to capture the Turkish defences by land, to open the way for the ships began. Two Allied submarines tried to traverse the Dardanelles but were lost to mines and the strong currents.
Prelude
Allied landing preparations
After the failure of the naval attacks, troops were assembled to eliminate the Ottoman mobile artillery, which was preventing the Allied minesweepers from clearing the way for the larger vessels. Kitchener appointed General Sir Ian Hamilton to command the of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF). Soldiers from the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) and New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) were encamped in Egypt, undergoing training prior to being sent to France. The Australian and New Zealand troops were formed into the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), commanded by Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood, comprising the volunteer 1st Australian Division and the New Zealand and Australian Division. The ANZAC troops were joined by the regular 29th Division and the Royal Naval Division. The French Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient (Orient Expeditionary Corps), initially consisting of two brigades within one division, was subsequently placed under Hamilton's command.
Over the following month, Hamilton prepared his plan and the British and French divisions joined the Australians in Egypt. Hamilton chose to concentrate on the southern part of the Gallipoli peninsula at Cape Helles and Seddülbahir, where an unopposed landing was expected. The Allies initially discounted the fighting ability of the Ottoman soldiers. The naïveté of the Allied planners was illustrated by a leaflet that was issued to the British and Australians while they were still in Egypt,
The underestimation of Ottoman military potential stemmed from a "sense of superiority" among the Allies, because of the decline of the Ottoman Empire and its poor performance in Libya during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912 and the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. Allied intelligence failed to adequately prepare for the campaign, in some cases relying on information gained from Egyptian travel guides. The troops for the assault were loaded on transports in the order they were to disembark, causing a long delay which meant that many troops, including the French at Mudros, were forced to detour to Alexandria to embark on the ships that would take them into battle. A five-week delay until the end of April ensued, during which the Ottomans strengthened their defences on the peninsula; although bad weather during March and April might have delayed the landings anyway, preventing supply and reinforcement. Following preparations in Egypt, Hamilton and his headquarters staff arrived at Mudros on 10 April. The ANZAC Corps departed Egypt in early April and assembled on the island of Lemnos in Greece on 12 April, where a small garrison had been established in early March and practice landings were undertaken. The British 29th Division departed for Mudros on 7 April and the Royal Naval Division rehearsed on the island of Skyros, after arriving there on 17 April. That day, the British submarine tried to run the straits but hit a submarine net, ran aground and was shelled by a Turkish fort, killing its commander, Lieutenant Commander Theodore S. Brodie and six of his crew; the survivors were forced to surrender. The Allied fleet and British and French troops assembled at Mudros, ready for the landings but poor weather from 19 March grounded Allied aircraft for nine days and on 24 days only a partial programme of reconnaissance flights were possible.
Ottoman defensive preparations
The Ottoman force prepared to repel a landing on either side of the Straits was the 5th Army. This force, which initially consisted of five divisions with another en route, was a conscript force, commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders. Many of the senior officers in the 5th Army were also German. Ottoman commanders and senior German officers debated the best means of defending the peninsula. All agreed that the best defence was to hold the high ground on the ridges of the peninsula. There was disagreement as to where the enemy would land and hence where to concentrate forces. Lieutenant Colonel Mustafa Kemal was familiar with the Gallipoli peninsula from his operations against Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and forecast that Cape Helles (the southern tip of the peninsula) and Gaba Tepe were the likely areas for landing.
Mustafa Kemal believed that the British would use their naval power to command the land from every side at the tip of the peninsula; at Gaba Tepe, the short distance to the eastern coast meant that the Allies could easily reach the Narrows (the right-angled bend in the middle of the Dardanelles). Sanders considered Besika Bay on the Asiatic coast to be the most vulnerable to invasion, since the terrain was easier to cross and was convenient to attack the most important Ottoman batteries guarding the straits and a third of the 5th Army was assembled there. Two divisions were concentrated at Bulair at the north end of the Gallipoli peninsula, to protect supply and communication lines to the defences further down the peninsula. The 19th Division (Kemal) and the 9th Division were placed along the Aegean coast and at Cape Helles on the tip of the peninsula. Sanders kept the bulk of the Ottoman forces inland in reserve, leaving a minimum of troops guarding the coast. The 3rd Division and a cavalry brigade arrived from Istanbul in early April, bringing the front line strength of the Ottomans to which Sanders concentrated in three groups. A maximum effort to improve land and sea communications was ordered, to move reinforcements swiftly to danger points; troops moved at night to avoid Allied air reconnaissance. Sanders' strategy was opposed by Ottoman commanders, including Kemal, who believed that the defenders were too widely dispersed to defeat the invasion on the beaches. Kemal thought Sander's classic strategy was suitable when there was strategic depth to the front, but Gallipoli did not offer that. His commander Esat Passa was not forceful enough in making the objection. Sanders was certain that a rigid system of defence would fail and that the only hope of success lay in the mobility of the three groups, particularly the 19th Division near Boghali, in general reserve, ready to move to Bulair, Gaba Tepe or the Asiatic shore.
The time needed by the British to organise the landings meant that Sanders, Colonel Hans Kannengiesser and other German officers, supported by Esat Pasha (III Corps) had more time to prepare their defences. Sanders later noted, "the British allowed us four good weeks of respite for all this work before their great disembarkation ... This respite just sufficed for the most indispensable measures to be taken". Roads were constructed, small boats built to carry troops and equipment across the Narrows, beaches were wired and improvised mines were constructed from torpedo warheads. Trenches and gun emplacements were dug along the beaches and troops went on route marches to avoid lethargy. Kemal, whose 19th Division was vital to the defensive scheme, observed the beaches and awaited signs of an invasion from his post at Boghali, near Maidos. The Ottomans created Ottoman Aviation Squadrons with German assistance and had four aircraft operating around Çanakkale in February, conducting reconnaissance and army co-operation sorties. From 11 April, an Ottoman aircraft made frequent flights over Mudros, keeping watch on the assembly of the British naval force and an airfield was established near Gallipoli.
Landings
The Allies planned to land and secure the northern shore, capture the Ottoman forts and artillery batteries for a naval force to advance through the Narrows and the Sea of Marmara towards Istanbul. Scheduled for 23 April but postponed until 25 April due to bad weather, landings were to be made at five beaches on the peninsula. The 29th Division was to land at Helles on the tip of the peninsula and then advance upon the forts at Kilitbahir. The ANZACs, with the 3rd Australian Infantry Brigade spearheading the assault, were to land north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast, from where they could advance across the peninsula, cut off the Ottoman troops in Kilitbahir and stop reinforcements from reaching Cape Helles. This sector of the Gallipoli Peninsula became known as ANZAC; the area held by the British and French became known as the Helles sector or Helles. The French made a diversionary landing at Kum Kale on the Asian shore before re-embarking to hold the eastern area of the Helles sector. The Royal Naval Division simulated landing preparations at Bulair and a New Zealand officer, Bernard Freyberg, swam ashore under fire to light flares to distract the defenders from the real landings; Freyberg was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order.
Arrangements for naval gunfire support to the landings had originally included bombarding the beaches and approaches but was changed to engagement of the ridges during the landings, with the beaches only to be shelled prior to the landings. No decision was ultimately made on the issue of close-support and it was left to the initiative of ships' captains. A reluctance to approach the shore later affected the landings at 'V' and 'W' beach where some of the worst losses among the infantry occurred, while naval gunfire was of some assistance at 'S', 'X' and ANZAC. Even then its effectiveness was limited by the initial confusion ashore, the broken terrain, thick vegetation and the lack of observation. Kitchener had ruled that air requirements must be met by the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) and the Allies employed a small force of seaplanes and other aircraft from 3 Squadron, RNAS (Commander Charles Samson) which arrived at Tenedos at the end of March. The aircraft were unopposed by the small Ottoman air force at first and during the planning, the force had been used to provide aerial reconnaissance, although this ultimately proved inadequate to meet the Allies' intelligence needs and make up for the lack of adequate maps. After the landings, Allied aircraft conducted photographic reconnaissance, observed naval gunfire, reported on Ottoman troop movements and conducted a small number of bombing raids.
ANZAC Cove
Allocated the northern landing, Birdwood's force included the 1st Australian Division (Major General William Bridges) and the New Zealand and Australian Division (Major General Sir Alexander Godley), about The force was to land and advance inland to cut the lines of communication to the Ottoman forces in the south. The 1st Australian Division would land first, with the 3rd Infantry Brigade leading as a covering force moving inland to establish positions on Gun Ridge. The 2nd Infantry Brigade was to follow and to capture the higher ground on Sari Bair. The 1st Infantry Brigade would land last as the divisional reserve. The New Zealand and Australian Division was to come ashore and form up to advance across the peninsula. The force was to assemble at night and land at dawn to surprise the defenders and on the evening of 24 April, the covering force embarked on battleships and destroyers, with the follow on forces in on transports. The troops would disembark from the transports into ships' boats and be towed close to the shore by steamboats and then row ashore.
At around 2:00 a.m., an Ottoman observer on a hill at Ariburnu saw a multitude of ships far on the horizon. Captain Faik, in charge of a company from the 27th Infantry Regiment verified it with his binoculars and immediately informed his commanding officer, Ismet Bey, at Kabatepe. By 3:00 a.m., the moon was covered and the ships were no longer visible to the Ottomans. The Ottomans were not sure if this was a real landing or a diversion. Once the intense artillery was heard, at around 6:00 a.m. the two remaining battalions of the 27th Infantry Regiment were ordered to make their way to Ariburnu urgently. Sanders had left his HQ and was at Bulair, distracted by the few Allied ships that had appeared; he had been confident that this was where the landings would take place. For two days, he remained at Bulair with the 5th Division waiting for the real landing. His absence created problems in chain of command and delays in decision making which negated his defence scheme that relied on rapid movement of troops.
At 4:00 a.m. on the morning of 25 April the first wave of troops from the 3rd Brigade began moving towards the shore on lighters and ships' boats. The covering force landed approximately too far north, in a bay just south of Ari Burnu, due to undetected currents or a navigational error. The landing was more difficult, over ground which rose steeply from the beaches, unlike the objective to the south, which was more open. The landing site was garrisoned by only two Ottoman companies but from positions on commanding ground the Ottomans inflicted numerous casualties on the Australians before being overcome. The broken terrain prevented a coordinated drive inland, with the Australians on unfamiliar ground and with inaccurate maps. In the maze of steep ravines, spurs and dense scrub, Australian parties that got forward quickly lost contact and were broken up into small groups. Some Australian troops reached the second ridge but fewer still reached their objectives and having become dispersed, the covering force could provide little support to the follow-up force.
The 1st and 2nd Brigades, then the New Zealand and Australian Division, landed on the beaches around Ari Burnu but became entangled, which took time to sort out. About four hours after the landings began, the bulk of the 1st Australian Division was ashore safely and its leading elements were pushing inland. By mid-morning Kemal had reorganised the defenders for a counter-attack on the commanding heights of Chunuk Bair and Sari Bair. The right flank of the small lodgement taken by the Australians was driven in at with most of being lost. During the afternoon and evening the left flank was pushed back from and the Nek. By evening, Bridges and Godley recommended re-embarkation; Birdwood agreed but after advice from the navy that re-embarkation was impossible, Hamilton ordered the troops dig-in instead. The Ottoman counter-attack was eventually repulsed and the Australians established a perimeter roughly from Walker's Ridge in the north to Shell Green in the south. ANZAC casualties on the first day numbered around killed or wounded. The failure to secure the high ground led to a tactical stalemate, with the landings contained by the defenders in a perimeter less than long.
The Australian submarine (Lieutenant Commander Henry Stoker) penetrated the Straits on the night of 24/25 April. As landings began at Cape Helles and ANZAC Cove at dawn on 25 April, AE2 reached Chanak by 6:00 a.m. and torpedoed a Turkish gunboat believed to be a Peyk-i Şevket-class cruiser then evaded a destroyer. The submarine ran aground beneath a Turkish fort but the Ottoman gunners could not bring their guns to bear and AE2 was manoeuvred free. Shortly after refloating, the periscope was sighted by a Turkish battleship firing over the peninsula at Allied landing sites and the ship ceased fire and withdrew. AE2 advanced toward the Sea of Marmara and at Stoker decided to rest the boat on the seabed until nightfall. At around , AE2 surfaced to recharge batteries and sent a wireless report to the fleet. The landing at Cape Helles was going well but the landing at Anzac Cove was not as successful and the Anzac commander, Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood, contemplated the re-embarkation of his troops. The success of AE2 was a consideration in Birdwood deciding to persist and reports about AE2 were relayed to the soldiers ashore to improve morale. Stoker was ordered to "generally run amok" and with no enemies in sight, he sailed into the Sea of Marmara, where AE2 cruised for five days to give the impression of greater numbers and made several attacks against Ottoman ships, which failed because of mechanical problems with the torpedoes.
Cape Helles
The Helles landing was made by the 29th Division (Major General Aylmer Hunter-Weston). The division landed on five beaches in an arc about the tip of the peninsula, named 'S', 'V', 'W', 'X' and 'Y' Beaches from east to west. On 1 May, the 29th Indian Brigade (including 1/6th Gurkha Rifles) landed, took and secured Sari Bair above the landing beaches and was joined by 1/5th Gurkha Rifles and 2/10th Gurkha Rifles; the Zion Mule Corps landed at Helles on 27 April. At 'Y' Beach, during the first engagement, the First Battle of Krithia, the Allies landed unopposed and advanced inland. There were only a small number of defenders in the village but lacking orders to exploit the position, the 'Y' Beach commander withdrew his force to the beach. It was as close as the Allies ever came to capturing the village as the Ottomans brought up a battalion of the 25th Regiment, checking any further movement.
The main landings were made at 'V' Beach, beneath the old Seddülbahir fortress and at 'W' Beach, a short distance to the west on the other side of the Helles headland. The covering force of Royal Munster Fusiliers and Hampshires landed from a converted collier, , which was run aground beneath the fortress so that the troops could disembark along ramps. The Royal Dublin Fusiliers landed at 'V' Beach and the Lancashire Fusiliers at 'W' Beach in open boats, on a shore overlooked by dunes and obstructed with barbed wire. On both beaches the Ottoman defenders occupied good defensive positions and inflicted many casualties on the British infantry as they landed. Troops emerging one by one from sally ports on River Clyde were shot by machine-gunners at the Seddülbahir fort and of the first to disembark, reached the beach.
The Ottoman defenders were too few to defeat the landing but inflicted many casualties and contained the attack close to the shore. By the morning of 25 April, out of ammunition and with nothing but bayonets to meet the attackers on the slopes leading up from the beach to the heights of Chunuk Bair, the 57th Infantry Regiment received orders from Kemal "I do not order you to fight, I order you to die. In the time which passes until we die, other troops and commanders can come forward and take our places". Every man of the regiment was either killed or wounded.
At 'W' Beach, thereafter known as Lancashire Landing, the Lancashires were able to overwhelm the defenders despite the loss of from . Six awards of the Victoria Cross were made among the Lancashires at 'W' Beach. A further six Victoria Crosses were awarded among the infantry and sailors at the 'V' Beach landing and three more were awarded the following day as they fought their way inland. Five squads of Ottoman infantry led by Sergeant Yahya distinguished themselves by repulsing several attacks on their hilltop position, the defenders eventually disengaging under cover of darkness. After the landings, so few men remained from the Dublin and Munster Fusiliers that they were amalgamated into The Dubsters. Only one Dubliner officer survived the landing, while of the who landed, just the Gallipoli campaign unscathed. After the landings, little was done by the Allies to exploit the situation, apart from a few limited advances inland by small groups of men. The Allied attack lost momentum and the Ottomans had time to bring up reinforcements and rally the small number of defending troops.
Land campaign
Early battles
On the afternoon of 27 April, the 19th Division, reinforced by six battalions from the 5th Division, counter-attacked the six Allied brigades at Anzac. With the support of naval gunfire, the Allies held back the Ottomans throughout the night. The following day the British were joined by French troops transferred from Kum Kale on the Asiatic shore to the right of the line near 'S' Beach at Morto Bay. On 28 April, the Allies fought the First Battle of Krithia to capture the village. Hunter-Weston made a plan which proved overly complex and was poorly communicated to the commanders in the field. The troops of the 29th Division were still exhausted and unnerved by the battles for the beaches and for Seddülbahir village, which was captured after much fighting on 26 April. The Ottoman defenders stopped the Allied advance halfway between the Helles headland and Krithia around having inflicted
As Ottoman reinforcements arrived, the possibility of a swift Allied victory on the peninsula disappeared and the fighting at Helles and Anzac became a battle of attrition. On 30 April, the Royal Naval Division (Major General Archibald Paris) landed. The same day, Kemal, believing that the Allies were on the verge of defeat, began moving troops forward through Wire Gulley, near the and Lone Pine. Eight battalions of reinforcements were dispatched from Istanbul a day later and that afternoon, Ottoman troops counter-attacked at Helles and Anzac. The Ottomans briefly broke through in the French sector but the attacks were repulsed by massed Allied machine-gun fire, which inflicted many casualties on the attackers. The following night, Birdwood ordered the New Zealand and Australian Division to attack from Russell's Top and Quinn's Post towards The Australian 4th Infantry Brigade (Colonel John Monash), the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and Royal Marines from the Chatham Battalion took part in the attack. Covered by a naval and artillery barrage, the troops advanced a short distance during the night but got separated in the dark. The attackers came under massed small-arms fire from their exposed left flank and were repulsed, having suffered about
On 30 April, the submarine AE2 began to rise uncontrollably and surfaced near the , then dropped precipitously below the safe diving depth, then broke the surface again at the stern. Sultanhisar immediately fired on the submarine, puncturing the pressure hull. Stoker ordered the company to abandon ship, scuttled the submarine and the crew was taken prisoner. AE2s achievements showed that it was possible to force the Straits and soon Ottoman communications were badly disrupted by British and French submarine operations. On 27 April, (Lieutenant Commander Edward Boyle), entered the Sea of Marmara on a three-week patrol, which became one of the most successful Allied naval actions of the campaign, in which four ships were sunk, including the transport Gul Djemal which was carrying and a field battery to Gallipoli. While the quantity and value of the shipping sunk was minor, the effect on Ottoman communications and morale was significant; Boyle was awarded the Victoria Cross. Following the success of AE2 and E14, the French submarine attempted the passage on 1 May but struck a mine and was lost with all hands. (Several weeks earlier another French boat, , had been lost after running aground near Nagara Point.)
Operations: May 1915
On 5 May, the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division was dispatched from Egypt. Believing Anzac to be secure, Hamilton moved the Australian 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, along with field guns, to the Helles front as reserves for the Second Battle of Krithia. Involving a force of , it was the first general attack at Helles and was planned for daylight. French troops were to capture Kereves Dere and the British, Australians and New Zealanders were assigned Krithia and Achi Baba. After of artillery preparation, the assault began at mid-morning on 6 May. The British and French advanced along the Gully, Fir Tree, Krithia and Kereves spurs which were separated by deep gullies, fortified by the Ottomans. As the attackers advanced, they became separated when trying to outflank Ottoman strong points and found themselves in unfamiliar terrain. Under artillery and then machine-gun fire from Ottoman outposts that had not been spotted by British aerial reconnaissance, the attack was stopped; next day, reinforcements resumed the advance.
The attack continued on 7 May and four battalions of New Zealanders attacked up Krithia Spur on 8 May; with the 29th Division the attackers managed to reach a position just south of the village. Late in the afternoon, the Australian 2nd Brigade advanced quickly over open ground to the British front line. Amidst small arms and artillery-fire, the brigade charged towards Krithia and gained , about short of the objective, with Near Fir Tree Spur, the New Zealanders managed to get forward and link up with the Australians, although the British were held up and the French were exhausted, despite having occupied a point overlooking their objective. The attack was suspended and the Allies dug in, having failed to take Krithia or Achi Baba.
A brief period of consolidation followed; the Allies had almost run out of ammunition, particularly for the artillery and both sides consolidated their defences. The Ottomans relieved troops opposite the Australian line, which was reinforced by the Australian Light Horse operating as infantry. Sporadic fighting continued, with sniping, grenade attacks and raids, the opposing trenches separated in places by only a few metres. The Australians lost a number of officers to sniping, including the commander of the 1st Division, Major General William Bridges, who was wounded while inspecting a 1st Light Horse Regiment position near "Steele's Post" and died of his injuries on the hospital ship on 18 May.
At the end of April Birdwood told GHQ MEF (General Headquarters Mediterranean Expeditionary Force) that he could not land 6,000 horses at Anzac Cove as there was no water for them. GHQ MEF was unhappy that the ANZAC force would be immobilised on the beachhead, but they would have been no use. Some of the thousands of men and horses remained on board ship for up to a month. Birdwood signalled on 17 May that 17 transports would be returning to Alexandria to offload 5,251 horses accompanied by 3,217 men. GHQ MEF insisted that some of the men remain in Alexandria to look after the horses and guard ANZACs "many vehicles and mountains of baggage".
Ottoman counter-offensive: 19 May
On 19 May, troops launched an attack at Anzac to push the and New Zealanders back into the sea. Short of artillery and ammunition, the Ottomans intended to rely on surprise and weight of numbers but on 18 May, the crews of a flight of British aircraft spotted the Ottoman preparations. The Ottomans suffered in the attack, of which were killed; Australian and New Zealand casualties were and . The dead included a stretcher bearer, John Simpson Kirkpatrick, whose efforts to evacuate wounded men on a donkey while under fire became famous amongst the Australians at Anzac; afterwards, his story becoming part of the Australian narrative of the campaign. Ottoman losses were so severe that a truce was organised by Aubrey Herbert and others on 24 May, to bury the dead lying in no man's land, which led to a camaraderie between the armies, much like the Christmas truce of 1914 on the Western Front.
An eyewitness account from Private Victor Laidlaw of the Australian 2nd Field Ambulance described the day:
The truce was not repeated formally.
The British advantage in naval artillery diminished after the battleship was torpedoed on 13 May by the . A German submarine, , sank on 25 May and on 27 May. More British reconnaissance patrols were flown around Gallipoli and U-21 was forced to leave the area but ignorant of this, the Allies withdrew most of their warships to Imbros, where they were "protectively tethered" between sorties, which greatly reduced Allied naval firepower, particularly in the Helles sector. The submarine (Lieutenant Commander Martin Nasmith, later awarded a Victoria Cross) passed through the Dardanelles on 18 May and sank or disabled eleven ships, including three on 23 May, before entering Constantinople Harbour, firing on a transport alongside the arsenal, sinking a gunboat and damaging the wharf.
The Ottoman forces lacked artillery ammunition and field batteries were only able to fire between early May and the first week of June. After the defeat of the counter-attack at Anzac in mid-May, the Ottoman forces ceased frontal assaults. Late in the month, the Ottomans began tunneling around Quinn's Post in the Anzac sector and early in the morning of 29 May, despite Australian counter-mining, detonated a mine and attacked with a battalion from the 14th Regiment. The Australian 15th Battalion was forced back but counter-attacked and recaptured the ground later in the day, before being relieved by New Zealand troops. Operations at Anzac in early June returned to consolidation, minor engagements and skirmishing with grenades and sniper-fire.
Operations: June–July 1915
In the Helles sector, which had been extensively entrenched by both sides, the Allies attacked Krithia and Achi Baba again, in the Third Battle of Krithia on 4 June, with the 29th Division, Royal Naval Division, 42nd Division and two French divisions. The attack was repulsed and with it, the possibility of a decisive breakthrough ended; trench warfare resumed, with objectives being measured in hundreds of yards. Casualties were approximately on both sides; the British lost from and the French from . Ottoman losses were according to the Turkish Official History and to another account.
In June, the seaplane carrier arrived and the Allied air effort increased from a squadron to No. 3 Wing RNAS. The 52nd (Lowland) Division also landed at Helles in preparation for the Battle of Gully Ravine, which began on 28 June and achieved a local success, which advanced the British line along the left (Aegean) flank of the battlefield. Sanders credited the defence to two Ottoman officers, Faik Pasa and Albay Refet. On 30 June, the French commander, Henri Gouraud who had earlier replaced Albert d'Amade, was wounded and replaced by his divisional commander, Maurice Bailloud. Between 1 and 5 July, the Ottomans counter-attacked the new British line several times but failed to regain the lost ground. Ottoman casualties for the period were estimated at On 12 July, two fresh brigades from the 52nd Division attacked at the centre of the line along Achi Baba Nullah (Bloody Valley), gained very little ground and lost out of the Royal Naval Division had and French losses were Ottoman losses were about and .
At sea, the submarine E14 made two voyages into the Marmara. The third tour began on 21 July, when E14 passed through the straits despite a new anti-submarine net placed near the Narrows. The next attempt was made by on 27 July, which was caught in the net, forced to the surface and bombarded by shore batteries; Mariotte was scuttled. On 8 August, E11 torpedoed the battleship Barbaros Hayreddin with the loss of and sank a gunboat, seven transports and 23 sailing vessels.
August offensive
The failure of the Allies to capture Krithia or make any progress on the Helles front led Hamilton to form a new plan to secure the Sari Bair Range of hills at the Battle of Sari Bair and capture high ground on in the Battle of Chunuk Bair. Both sides had been reinforced, the original five Allied divisions having been increased to fifteen and first six Ottoman divisions to sixteen. The Allies planned to land two fresh infantry divisions from IX Corps at Suvla, north of Anzac, followed by an advance on Sari Bair from the north-west. At Anzac, an offensive would be made against the Sari Bair range by advancing through rough and thinly defended terrain, north of the Anzac perimeter. This would be achieved by an attack on from the Nek by dismounted Australian light horsemen from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, in concert with an attack on Chunuk Bair summit by New Zealanders from the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, who would traverse Rhododendron Ridge, the Apex and the Farm. would be attacked by Gurkhas of the 29th Indian Brigade and the Australians of the 4th Infantry Brigade. The Allies had , mainly from 3 Wing RNAS at Imbros, which had replaced its Voisins with Farmans and Nieuport Xs; Escadrille MF98T had also been established at Tenedos. The Ottomans had , of which eight were stationed at Çanakkale. Allied aircraft made reconnaissance flights, spotted for naval guns and conducted low-level bombing of Ottoman reserves as they were brought up to the battlefield. Allied aircraft also undertook anti-shipping operations in the Gulf of Saros, where a seaplane from HMS Ben-my-Chree sank an Ottoman tug with an air-launched torpedo.
The landing at Suvla Bay took place on the night of 6 August against light opposition; the British commander, Lieutenant General Frederick Stopford, had limited his early objectives and then failed to forcefully push his demands for an advance inland and little more than the beach was seized. The Ottomans were able to occupy the Anafarta Hills, preventing the British from penetrating inland, which contained the landings and reduced the Suvla front to static trench warfare. The offensive was preceded on the evening of 6 August by diversions, at Helles, where the Battle of Krithia Vineyard became another costly stalemate. At Anzac, the diversionary Battle of Lone Pine, led by the Australian 1st Infantry Brigade, captured the main Ottoman trench line and diverted Ottoman forces but the attacks at Chunuk Bair and failed.
The New Zealand Infantry Brigade came within of the near peak of Chunuk Bair by dawn on 7 August but was not able to seize the summit until the following morning. On the morning of 7 August, the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade attacked on a narrow front at the Nek, to coincide with the New Zealand attack from Chunuk Bair against the rear of the Ottoman defences. The opening artillery barrage lifted seven minutes too soon, which alerted the Ottomans and the attack was a costly failure. An attack on never took place after the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade and an Indian brigade lost direction during the night. Attempts to resume the attack were easily repulsed by the Ottoman defenders, at great cost to the Allies. The New Zealanders held out on Chunuk Bair for two days before being relieved by two New Army battalions from the Wiltshire and Loyal North Lancashire Regiments but an Ottoman counterattack on 10 August, led by Mustafa Kemal, swept them from the heights. Of in the New Zealand Wellington Battalion who reached the summit, casualties. With the Ottoman recapture of the ground, the Allies' best chance of victory was lost.
The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the 10th (Irish) Division on 7 August, the 53rd (Welsh) Division, which began landing on 8 August, the 54th (East Anglian) Division arriving late on 10 August and the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division on 18 August. On 12 August, the 54th Division attacked Kavak Tepe and Tekke Tepe, crossing the Anafarta Plain. The attack failed and Hamilton briefly considered the evacuation of Suvla and Anzac.
Elements of the new Australian 2nd Division began arriving at Anzac from Egypt with the 5th Infantry Brigade landing from and the 6th Brigade and 7th Brigade arriving in early September. The 29th Division was also shifted from Helles to Suvla. The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August, in the Battle of Scimitar Hill and the Battle of Hill 60. Control of the hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts but the attacks failed. On 17 August, Hamilton had requested another but a day earlier, the French had announced plans to Kitchener for an autumn offensive in France. A meeting of the Dardanelles Committee on 20 August determined that the French offensive would be supported by a maximum effort, which left only about for the Dardanelles. On 23 August, after news of the failure at Scimitar Hill, Hamilton went onto the defensive as Bulgarian entry into the war, which would allow the Germans to rearm the Turkish army, was imminent and left little opportunity for the resumption of offensive operations. On 20 September 1915, the Newfoundland Regiment was deployed at Suvla Bay with the 29th Division. On 25 September, Kitchener proposed detaching two British and one French division for service in Salonika in Greece, which was the beginning of the end of the Allied campaign at Gallipoli. Instead, a counter proposal from Sir Ian Hamilton was agreed to; only the 10th (Irish) Division and the 156th Infantry Division (France) were withdrawn from the peninsula. By the end of September these troops were concentrating at Mudros for conveyance to the new front.
Alan Moorehead wrote that during the stalemate, an old Ottoman batman was regularly permitted to hang his platoon's washing on the barbed wire undisturbed and that there was a "constant traffic" of gifts being thrown across no-man's land, dates and sweets from the Ottoman side and cans of beef and packs of cigarettes from the Allied side. Conditions at Gallipoli grew worse for everyone as summer heat and poor sanitation resulted in an explosion in the fly population. Eating became extremely difficult as unburied corpses became bloated and putrid. The precarious Allied lodgements were poorly situated, which caused supply and shelter problems. A dysentery epidemic spread through the Allied trenches at Anzac and Helles, while the Ottomans also suffered heavily from disease which resulted in many deaths.
Evacuation
After the failure of the August Offensive, the Gallipoli campaign drifted. Ottoman success began to affect public opinion in Britain, with criticism of Hamilton's performance being smuggled out by Keith Murdoch, Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett and other reporters. Stopford and other dissident officers also contributed to the air of gloom and the possibility of evacuation was raised on 11 October 1915. Hamilton resisted the suggestion, fearing the damage to British prestige but was sacked shortly afterwards and replaced by Lieutenant General Sir Charles Monro. Autumn and winter brought relief from the heat but also led to gales, blizzards and flooding, resulting in men drowning and freezing to death, while thousands suffered frostbite. The Serbian defeat in the Serbian campaign in autumn 1915 prompted France and Britain to transfer troops from the Gallipoli campaign to Greek Macedonia; the Macedonian front was established to support the remnants of the Serbian army to conquer Vardar Macedonia.
On 4 September, the submarine was caught in the Ottoman anti-submarine net as it began another tour. Despite such reverses, by mid-September, Allied nets and mines had closed the eastern entrance to the Dardanelles to German U-boats and U-21 was thwarted when it tried to pass the straits to Istanbul on 13 September. The first French submarine to enter the Sea of Marmara was but it was forced to turn back; on 30 October, when returning through the straits, it ran aground beneath a fort and was captured intact. The crew of 25 were taken prisoner and documents detailing planned Allied operations were discovered, including a scheduled rendezvous with on 6 November. The rendezvous was kept by the German U-boat instead, which torpedoed and sank E20, killing all but nine of the crew.
The situation at Gallipoli was complicated by Bulgaria joining the Central Powers. In early October 1915, the British and French opened a second Mediterranean front at Salonika, by moving two divisions from Gallipoli and reducing the flow of reinforcements. A land route between Germany and the Ottoman Empire through Bulgaria was opened and the Germans rearmed the Ottomans with heavy artillery capable of devastating Allied trenches, especially on the confined front at Anzac, modern aircraft and experienced crews. In late November, an Ottoman crew in a German Albatros C.I shot down a French aircraft over Gaba Tepe and the Austro-Hungarian and artillery units arrived, providing a substantial reinforcement of the Ottoman artillery. Monro recommended evacuation to Kitchener, who in early November visited the eastern Mediterranean. After consulting with the commanders of VIII Corps at Helles, IX Corps at Suvla and Anzac, Kitchener agreed with Monro and passed his recommendation to the British Cabinet, who confirmed the decision to evacuate in early December.
Due to the narrowness of no man's land and the winter weather, many casualties were anticipated during the embarkation. The untenable nature of the Allied position was made apparent by a rainstorm on 26 November 1915. The downpour at Suvla lasted for three days and there was a blizzard in early December. Rain flooded trenches, drowned soldiers and washed unburied corpses into the lines; the following snow killed still more men from exposure. Suvla and Anzac were to be evacuated in late December, the last troops leaving before dawn on 20 December. Troop numbers had been slowly reduced since 7 December and ruses, such as William Scurry's self-firing rifle, which had been rigged to fire by water dripped into a pan attached to the trigger, were used to disguise the Allied departure. At Anzac Cove, troops maintained silence for an hour or more, until curious Ottoman troops ventured to inspect the trenches, whereupon the Anzacs opened fire. This incident successfully discouraged the Ottomans from inspecting when the actual evacuation occurred. A mine was detonated at the Nek, which killed soldiers. The Allied force was embarked, with the Australians suffering no casualties on the final night but large quantities of supplies and stores fell into Ottoman hands.
Helles was retained for a period but a decision to evacuate the garrison was made on 28 December. Unlike the evacuation from Anzac Cove, Ottoman forces were looking for signs of withdrawal. Having used the interval to bring up reinforcements and supplies, Sanders mounted an attack on the British at Gully Spur on 7 January 1916 with infantry and artillery but the attack was a costly failure. Mines were laid with time fuzes and that night and on the night of 7/8 January, under the cover of a naval bombardment, the British troops began to fall back from their lines to the beaches, where makeshift piers were used to board boats. The last British troops departed from Lancashire Landing around 04:00 on 8 January 1916. The Newfoundland Regiment was part of the rearguard and withdrew on 9 January 1916. Among the first to land, remnants of The Plymouth Battalion, Royal Marine Light Infantry were the last to leave the Peninsula.
Despite predictions of up to and mules, and of equipment were removed; that could not be embarked were killed so as not to fall into Ottoman hands and were left behind with smashed wheels. As at Anzac, large amounts of supplies (including 15 British and six French unserviceable artillery pieces which were destroyed), gun carriages and ammunition were left behind; hundreds of horses were slaughtered to deny them to the Ottomans. A sailor was killed by debris from a magazine that exploded prematurely and a lighter and a picket boat were lost. Shortly after dawn, the Ottomans retook Helles. In the final days of the campaign, Ottoman air defences had been increased by a German–Ottoman fighter squadron, which began operations over the peninsula and inflicted the first British flying losses a couple of days after the evacuation of Helles, when three shot down two RNAS aircraft.
Aftermath
Military repercussions
Historians are divided about how they summarise the campaign's result. Broadbent describes the campaign as "a close-fought affair" that was a defeat for the Allies, while Carlyon views the overall result as a stalemate. Peter Hart disagrees, arguing that the Ottoman forces "held the Allies back from their real objectives with relative ease", while Haythornthwaite calls it a "disaster for the Allies". The campaign did cause "enormous damage to ... [Ottoman] national resources", and at that stage of the war the Allies were in a better position to replace their losses than the Ottomans, but ultimately the Allied attempt at securing a passage through the Dardanelles proved unsuccessful. While it diverted Ottoman forces away from other areas of conflict in the Middle East, the campaign also consumed resources the Allies could have employed on the Western Front, and also resulted in heavy losses on the Allied side.
The Allied campaign was plagued by ill-defined goals, poor planning, insufficient artillery, inexperienced troops, inaccurate maps, poor intelligence, overconfidence, inadequate equipment, and logistical and tactical deficiencies at all levels. Geography also proved a significant factor. While the Allied forces possessed inaccurate maps and intelligence and proved unable to exploit the terrain to their advantage, the Ottoman commanders were able to utilise the high ground around the Allied landing beaches to position well-sited defences that limited the ability of Allied forces to penetrate inland, confining them to narrow beaches. The campaign's necessity remains the subject of debate, and the recriminations that followed were significant, highlighting the schism that had developed between military strategists who felt the Allies should focus on fighting on the Western Front and those who favoured trying to end the war by attacking Germany's "soft underbelly", its allies in the east.
British and French submarine operations in the Sea of Marmara were the one significant area of success of the Gallipoli campaign, forcing the Ottomans to abandon the sea as a transport route. Between April and December 1915, nine British and four French submarines carried out 15 patrols, sinking one battleship, one destroyer, five gunboats, 11 troop transports, 44 supply ships and 148 sailing vessels at a cost of eight Allied submarines sunk in the strait or in the Sea of Marmara. During the campaign there was always one British submarine in the Sea of Marmara, sometimes two; in October 1915, there were four Allied submarines in the region. E2 left the Sea of Marmara on 2 January 1916, the last British submarine in the region. Four E-class and five B-class submarines remained in the Mediterranean Sea following the evacuation of Helles. By this time the Ottoman navy had been all but forced to cease operations in the area, while merchant shipping had also been significantly curtailed. The official German naval historian, Admiral Eberhard von Mantey, later concluded that had the sea-lanes of communication been completely severed the Ottoman 5th Army would likely have faced catastrophe. As it was these operations were a source of significant anxiety, posing a constant threat to shipping and causing heavy losses, effectively dislocating Ottoman attempts to reinforce their forces at Gallipoli and shelling troop concentrations and railways.
Gallipoli marked the end for Hamilton and Stopford, but Hunter-Weston went on to lead VIII Corps on the first day of the Battle of the Somme. The competence of Australian brigade commanders, John Monash (4th Infantry Brigade) and Harry Chauvel (1st Light Horse Brigade, New Zealand and Australian Division), was recognised by promotion to divisional and corps command. The influence of Kitchener waned after the coalition government was formed in May 1915, partly because of the growing sense of failure in the Dardanelles and culminated in Kitchener being over-ruled on support for the French at Salonika in early December 1915, when his influence on the Cabinet was at its lowest. The campaign gave confidence to the Ottomans in their ability to defeat the Allies. In Mesopotamia, the Turks surrounded a British expedition at Kut Al Amara, forcing their surrender in April 1916. Ottoman forces in southern Palestine were poised to launch an attack against the Suez Canal and Egypt. Defeat at the Battle of Romani and lack of the materials to complete the military railway necessary for such an operation, marked the end of that ambition. The optimism gained from the victory at Gallipoli was replaced by a gathering sense of despair and the British remained on the offensive in the Middle East for the rest of the war.
The lessons of the campaign were studied by military planners prior to amphibious operations such as the Normandy Landings in 1944 and during the Falklands War in 1982. The lessons of the campaign influenced US Marine Corps amphibious operations during the Pacific War and continue to influence US amphibious doctrine. In 1996, Theodore Gatchel wrote that between the wars, the campaign "became a focal point for the study of amphibious warfare" in Britain and United States. In 2008, Glenn Wahlert wrote that Gallipoli involved "all four types of amphibious operations: the raid, demonstration, assault and withdrawal".
Russell Weigley wrote that analysis of the campaign before the Second World War led to "a belief among most of the armed forces of the world" that amphibious assaults could not succeed against modern defences and that despite landings in Italy, Tarawa and the Gilberts, arguably this perception continued until Normandy in June 1944. Hart wrote that despite the pessimistic analyses after 1918, the situation after 1940 meant that landings from the sea were unavoidable and it was only after Normandy that the belief that opposed landings were futile was overcome. The memory of Gallipoli weighed upon the Australians during the planning of the Huon Peninsula campaign in late 1943. In September, the Australians made their first opposed amphibious landing since Gallipoli at the Battle of Finschhafen in New Guinea. The landing was hampered by navigational errors and troops came ashore on the wrong beaches but they had been trained according to the lessons of Gallipoli and quickly reorganised to push inland.
Political effects
Political repercussions in Britain had begun during the battle, Fisher resigned in May after bitter conflict with Churchill. The crisis that followed after the Conservatives learned that Churchill would be staying, forced the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith to end his Liberal Government and form a Coalition Government with the Conservative Party. The Asquith government responded to the disappointment and outrage over Gallipoli and Kut by establishing commissions of inquiry into both episodes, which had done much to "destroy its faltering reputation for competence". The Dardanelles Commission was set up to investigate the failure of the expedition, the first report being issued in 1917, with the final report published in 1919. Following the failure of the Dardanelles expedition, Sir Ian Hamilton, commander of the MEF, was recalled to London in October 1915, ending his military career. Churchill was demoted from First Lord of the Admiralty as a condition of Conservative entry to the coalition but remained in the Cabinet in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Churchill resigned in November 1915 and left London for the Western Front, where he commanded an infantry battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers early in 1916.
Asquith was partly blamed for Gallipoli and other disasters and was overthrown in December 1916, when David Lloyd George proposed a war council under his authority, with the Conservatives in the coalition threatening to resign unless the plan was implemented. After failure to reach agreement, Lloyd George and then Asquith resigned, followed by Lloyd George becoming Prime Minister. Lloyd George formed a new government, from which Churchill, active again in the House of Commons from June 1916, was excluded because of Conservative opposition. In the summer of 1917, Churchill was eventually appointed to the cabinet-level post of Minister of Munitions but not to the War Cabinet. The final report of the Commission was issued in 1919, concluding that with the forces available, success was dependent on the government giving priority to the expedition and leaving the British Expeditionary Force in France to make do. The Commissioners found that Hamilton had been over-optimistic from the beginning and had added to Stopford's difficulties on 8 August 1915. Hamilton emerged from the investigation more favourably than perhaps was justified, partly because he made devious attempts to gain collusion from witnesses and obtain leaks from the deliberations of the Commission; Hamilton was never given another army appointment.
Casualties
Casualty figures for the campaign vary between sources but in 2001, Edward J. Erickson wrote that in the Gallipoli Campaign over were killed, including and around and French soldiers. Using the Ottoman Archives, Erickson estimated that Ottoman casualties in the Gallipoli Campaign were died from all causes, were wounded or injured and went missing or were captured. In 2001, Carlyon gave figures of killed or missing, including In September 1915 Godley complained that too few of the recovered sick or wounded casualties from Gallipoli were being returned from Egypt, and General John Maxwell replied that "the appetite of the Dardanelles for men has been phenomenal and wicked".
There were nearly during the campaign, with the British History of the Great War listing losses including sick as and troops (with some Turkish (sic) sources referring to Ottoman casualties have been disputed and in 2001, Tim Travers gave casualty figures of and ranks (battle and non-battle); included among this may be Sanders estimated that the Ottomans suffered casualties, including and that returned to duty.
The New Zealand semi-official history (1919, by Fred Waite) estimated that 8,556 New Zealanders served at Gallipoli and contained an estimate of battle casualties including In 2000, McGibbon wrote that had been killed, about a quarter of those who had initially landed on the peninsula; other estimates were 2,701 (Pugsley) or 2,779 (Stowers). A 2019 study by New Zealand historians John Crawford and Matthew Buck arrived at a higher estimate for the numbers of New Zealand soldiers who served at Gallipoli, over 16,000, perhaps 17,000 (rather than earlier revised figures of 13,000 to 14,000 and the 1919 figure of 8,556).
Sickness
Many soldiers became sick due to insanitary conditions, especially from typhoid, dysentery and diarrhoea. Cecil Aspinall-Oglander, the British official historian, reported that Empire soldiers were evacuated for illness during the campaign. A total of troops fell sick, not counting Dominion or Indian troops; of these, exclusive of those evacuated. The sick were transported from Gallipoli to hospitals in Egypt and Malta as quickly as possible as bases in the area of operations were insufficient. Approximately of men removed as non-battle casualties died, against in France and Flanders. The proportion of disease casualties to battle casualties was considerably higher in the Gallipoli campaign than it was on the campaigns of the Western Front. Aspinall-Oglander gave the number of Ottoman troops evacuated sick The largest cause of non-battle admissions to hospital for British troops was dysentery, with infected and another having diarrhoea. Other notable conditions were frostbite with gonorrhea and rheumatic fever French casualties during the campaign amounted to around 47,000. Of the French casualties, 27,169 were killed, wounded or missing with an implied 20,000 who fell sick.
Allegations were made that Allied forces had attacked or bombarded Ottoman hospitals and hospital ships on several occasions between the start of the campaign and September 1915. By July 1915, hospitals had been built with and three hospital ships were in the area. The French Government disputed these complaints through the Red Cross and the British responded that if it happened then it was accidental. Russia, in turn, claimed that the Ottomans had attacked two of their hospital ships, and Vperiod but the Ottoman Government replied that the vessels had been the victims of mines. No chemical weapons were used at Gallipoli, although the Allies debated their use throughout the campaign and transported to the theatre quantities of gas, which was used against Ottoman troops in the Middle Eastern theatre two years later, during the Second Battle of Gaza and the Third Battle of Gaza in 1917.
Graves and memorials
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is responsible for permanent cemeteries for all Commonwealth of Nations forces. There are 31 CWGC cemeteries on the Gallipoli peninsula: six at Helles (plus the only solitary grave, that of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Doughty-Wylie VC, Royal Welch Fusiliers), four at Suvla and For many of those killed or died on hospital ships and were buried at sea, there is no known grave; their names are recorded on one of five "memorials to the missing". The Lone Pine Memorial commemorates Australians killed in the Anzac sector, as well as New Zealanders with no known grave or who were buried at sea, while the Lone Pine, Hill 60 and Chunuk Bair memorials commemorate New Zealanders killed at Anzac. The Twelve Tree Copse Memorial commemorates the New Zealanders killed in the Helles sector, while British, Indian and Australian troops who died there are commemorated on the Helles Memorial at Cape Helles. British naval casualties who were lost or buried at sea are listed on memorials in the United Kingdom.
There are three more CWGC cemeteries on the Greek island of Lemnos, the first one for the 352 Allied soldiers in Portianou, the second one for the 148 Australian and 76 New Zealander soldiers in the town of Moudros and the third one for the Ottoman soldiers (170 Egyptian and 56 Turkish soldiers). Lemnos was the hospital base for the Allied forces and most of the buried were among the men who died of their wounds.
Makeshift graves were created during the campaign, often with simple wooden crosses or markers. However, some graves were decorated more extensively, such as that of John Hancox (pictured).
There is a French cemetery on the Gallipoli Peninsula, located at Seddülbahir.
There are no large Ottoman/Turkish military cemeteries on the peninsula but there are numerous memorials, the main ones being the Çanakkale Martyrs' Memorial at Morto Bay, Cape Helles (near 'S' Beach), the Turkish Soldier's Memorial on Chunuk Bair and the memorial and open-air mosque for the 57th Regiment near Quinn's Post (Bomba Sirt). There are a number of memorials and cemeteries on the Asian shore of the Dardanelles, demonstrating the greater emphasis that Turkish historians place on the victory of 18 March over the subsequent fighting on the peninsula.
Subsequent operations
Allied troops were withdrawn to Lemnos and then to Egypt. French forces (renamed the in late October) were subsumed into the Army of the Orient and later employed at Salonika. In Egypt, the British Imperial and Dominion troops from the Dardanelles along with fresh divisions from the United Kingdom and those at Salonika, became the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF), commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Archibald Murray. They joined the Force in Egypt to become the strategic reserve for the British Empire, consisting of 13 infantry and mounted divisions with . In March 1916, Murray took command of both these forces, forming them into the new Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) and reorganising the units for service in Europe, Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle East. While the ANZAC was disbanded, the AIF was expanded with three new Australian divisions being raised and a New Zealand Division was also formed. These units moved to the Western Front in mid-1916.
The British yeomanry units that had fought dismounted at Gallipoli were reinforced and reorganised, forming the 74th (Yeomanry) Division and a portion of the 75th Division. Along with the Australian Light Horsemen and New Zealand Mounted Rifles remounted and reorganised into the Anzac Mounted Division, infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division, 42nd (East Lancashire) Division, 53rd (Welsh) Division and 54th (East Anglian) Division, later joined by additional remounted Australian Light Horsemen and British yeomanry from the Australian Mounted Division, participated in the Sinai and Palestine campaign. The Egyptian Sinai was reoccupied in 1916, while Palestine and the northern Levant were captured from the Ottoman Empire during 1917 and 1918, before the Armistice of Mudros ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre on 31 October. The Allies subsequently occupied Gallipoli and Istanbul and partitioned the Ottoman Empire. The occupation ended in 1923.
Legacy
The significance of the Gallipoli campaign is felt strongly in both Australia and New Zealand, despite their being only a portion of the Allied forces; the campaign is regarded in both nations as a "baptism of fire" and had been linked to their emergence as independent states. Approximately 50,000 Australians served at Gallipoli and from 16,000 to 17,000 New Zealanders. It has been argued that the campaign proved significant in the emergence of a unique Australian identity following the war, which has been closely linked to popular conceptualisations of the qualities of the soldiers that fought during the campaign, which became embodied in the notion of an "Anzac spirit".
The landing on 25 April is commemorated every year in both countries as "Anzac Day". The first iteration was celebrated unofficially in 1916, at churches in Melbourne, Brisbane and London, before being officially recognised as a public holiday in all Australian states in 1923. The day also became a national holiday in New Zealand in the 1920s. Organised marches by veterans began in 1925, in the same year a service was held on the beach at Gallipoli; two years later the first official dawn service took place at the Sydney Cenotaph. During the 1980s, it became popular for Australian and New Zealand tourists to visit Gallipoli to attend the dawn service there and since then thousands have attended. Over 10,000 people attended the 75th anniversary along with political leaders from Turkey, New Zealand, Britain and Australia. Dawn services are also held in Australia; in New Zealand, dawn services are the most popular form of observance of this day. Anzac Day remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in Australia and New Zealand, surpassing Remembrance Day (Armistice Day).
Along with memorials and monuments established in towns and cities, many streets, public places and buildings were named after aspects of the campaign, especially in Australia and New Zealand. Some examples include Gallipoli Barracks at Enoggera in Queensland, and the Armed Forces Armoury in Corner Brook, Newfoundland which is named the Gallipoli Armouries. Gallipoli also had a significant impact on popular culture, including in film, television and song. In 1971, Scottish-born Australian folk singer-songwriter Eric Bogle wrote a song called "And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda" which consisted of an account from a young Australian soldier who was maimed during the Gallipoli campaign. The song has been praised for its imagery, evoking the devastation at the Gallipoli landings. It remains widely popular and is considered by some to be an iconic anti-war song.
In Turkey, the battle is thought of as a significant event in the state's emergence, although it is primarily remembered for the fighting that took place around the port of Çanakkale, where the Royal Navy was repulsed in March 1915. For the Turks, 18 March has a similar significance as 25 April to Australians and New Zealanders, it is not a public holiday but is commemorated with special ceremonies. The campaign's main significance to the Turkish people lies in the role it played in the emergence of Mustafa Kemal, who became the first president of the Republic of Turkey after the war. "Çanakkale geçilmez" (Çanakkale is impassable) became a common phrase to express the state's pride at repulsing the attack and the song "Çanakkale içinde" (A Ballad for Chanakkale) commemorates the Turkish youth who fell during the battle. Turkish filmmaker Sinan Cetin created a movie called Children of Canakkale.
See also
Timeline of the Gallipoli Campaign
Gallipoli, a 1981 Australian film directed by Peter Weir
Çanakkale 1915, a 2012 Turkish film based on some of the major political events of the Gallipoli campaign
The Water Diviner, a 2014 Australian film directed by Russell Crowe
Topical song "Suvla Bay" collected 1949 by British publishers
"Blamey's Boys" by Pte Thomas Norman, 2nd Battalion, AIF
"Heroes of the Dardanelles" 1915 by bugler Pte Reginald Stoneham service number 82, South Australia Contingent (Boer War)
Gallipoli Star, a Turkish military award
"And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda", a 1971 song by Eric Bogle
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
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Websites
Further reading
External links
Winston Churchill & Gallipoli – UK Parliament Living Heritage
1915 in the Ottoman Empire
1916 in the Ottoman Empire
Adrianople vilayet
Australia–Turkey relations
Battles of World War I involving Australia
Battles of World War I involving Austria-Hungary
Battles of World War I involving British India
Battles of World War I involving France
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of World War I involving Newfoundland
Battles of World War I involving New Zealand
Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire
Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War I involving Russia
Campaigns and theatres of World War I
Conflicts in 1915
Conflicts in 1916
History of Australia (1901–1945)
History of the Royal Marines
Middle Eastern theatre of World War I
New Zealand–Turkey relations
Ottoman Empire in World War I
Winston Churchill
galipoli
ANZAC
Amphibious operations involving the United Kingdom
Royal Newfoundland Regiment | [
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214114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Francis%20Hylan | John Francis Hylan | John Francis Hylan (April 20, 1868January 12, 1936) was the 96th Mayor of New York City (the seventh since the consolidation of the five boroughs), from 1918 to 1925. From rural beginnings in the Catskills, Hylan eventually obtained work in Brooklyn as a laborer on the elevated railroad. During his nine years with the company, he worked his way to engineer, and also studied to earn his high school diploma then his law degree. He practiced law for nine years and also participated in local Democratic politics.
In 1917 with the consent of Tammany and William Randolph Hearst, he was put forward as a Brooklyn Democratic candidate for Mayor and won the first of two terms. He was re-elected with a wide plurality, which swept many Brooklyn Democrats into office. His chief focus in office was to keep subway fares from rising. By the end of his second term, however, a report by a committee appointed by Governor Al Smith severely criticized his administration's handling of the subway system. Tammany ran Jimmy Walker against him for the Democratic nomination and Hylan lost. Walker appointed him to the Children's Court where he sat for many years. After his term as mayor, Hylan spent much time attacking the "interests," arguing that industrial concentration gave great power to individuals to influence politics and impoverish the working poor.
Early life
Hylan was born in 1868 in Hunter, New York, a town in upstate Greene County. He was the third child, and had two older sisters and two younger brothers. Hylan's father had emigrated from County of Cavan, Ulster, Ireland at the age of seven. He served as a corporal in the 120th New York Infantry, called the "Ulster Regiment," during the Civil War. Hylan's mother, who came from the Jones family upstate, had a Welsh father and a maternal grandfather, Jacob Gadron, who fought in the American Revolution among Lafayette's forces. He fondly remembered her throughout his life and wrote that the words she spoke on leaving the family ("Be honest, be truthful, be upright, and do by others as you would have them do unto you") were "indelibly imprinted on" his memory. Although his mother was Methodist, Hylan was raised a Catholic. His only surviving family, his sister Mary, died after being struck by an automobile on July 10, 1911.
Hylan's family owned a 60-acre farm in the then-undeveloped mountains and struggled to make the semi-annual interest on its $1,500 mortgage. As the oldest boy, Hylan was required to work long hours on the farm, which was not equipped with much more than hand tools. Farm work came first, the school district was impoverished, and only one family could afford the required grammar or history book, which Hylan occasionally borrowed. School lasted four to five hours a day for five months a year. In his teenage years, Hylan made extra money to help pay the mortgage interest by working each spring for the Catskill railroad, digging earth and tamping it beneath the tracks to stabilize them after the effects of winter weather.
Early career
By the winter of 1887, when he was 19, Hylan felt he could make more money for his parents by working downstate. So, with $3.50 and a few sets of clothes, he set off to New York, buying a $2 train ticket and then proceeding across the Brooklyn Bridge. On his first day he saw construction on an elevated railroad. Although he had never seen such a thing before, he climbed onto the structure and asked the foreman for a job, saying that he had worked on the Catskill railroad. He was told to report the next day, where his job was to lay rails. Seeking a promotion, he would apply at the office of the manager of the Brooklyn Union Elevated Railroad each day until he was finally granted an interview and promoted to fireman. He made $1.50 a day for this heavy labor. He reported to the East New York station on March 11, 1888, the day of the Great Blizzard. After two years as stoker, then as engine hostler, Hylan passed the required test and was given a job as an engineer, in "one of the happiest moments of [his] life." Making $3.50 a day, he said, "finally landed [him] on the right side of the engine cab." But it required long hours: 13-hour runs on weekdays, 12 hours on Saturdays, and 11 on Sundays.
When Hylan felt himself economically secure, even before he became engineer, he went back to Hunter and married his childhood sweetheart Marian O'Hara, and they moved to Bushwick, a section of Brooklyn where they would spend most of the rest of their lives. During his years as a motorman, he regularly paid the $75 semiannual interest payment for his family's farm and paid the principal off before he left that job. Hylan wrote that he had no inclination to seek any other position once he was settled and making $100 a month. Hylan considered law because his younger brother, who had been studying law and on whom his parents had pinned hopes and family pride, had died. His wife encouraged him, but because of his limited education, he had to study at the Long Island Business College to prepare himself for his Regents exam before he could begin to study law. He got into law school with the help of his wife, as well as that of a teacher who gave up his lunch hour to help and for whom Hylan later found a position in the Department of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity when he became mayor.
After he passed his Regents exam, he enrolled in New York Law School where Woodrow Wilson, who was teaching Constitutional Law there at the time, was among his professors. After graduating in October 1897, Hylan clerked for Long Island City attorney James T. Olwell. He prepared himself in two and a half years. The earliest bar exam he could take was in Syracuse, but immediately before he was set to take the exam, he was involved in a near accident with the railroad's supervisor. Hylan said that it was the supervisor's fault, but nonetheless, he was fired. Even so, the privileges of his membership in the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers enabled him to travel to Syracuse at no charge, and he passed the bar exam.
Law and politics
Law career
Hylan learned that law practices required startup cash, so he mortgaged the farm again to raise $500. With that sum, he set up an office on the corner of Gates Avenue and Broadway in Bushwick. He made $24 his first month, but gradually built up a good civil litigation practice. He soon formed a partnership with Harry C. Underhill, an attorney who had written a treatise on evidence and would go on to write on other practice topics. Underhill did the office work, while Hylan was the trial lawyer. The firm occasionally received positive local publicity, such as the time when they obtained a ruling that the Brooklyn Heights Railroad Company had to offer free transfers at all junctions. Hylan litigated small civil cases and family law matters, but he had little work in the police courts and "never cared for that branch of the law."
After eight years in the courts of Brooklyn, he was respected enough to begin getting appointments within the power of local judges. Hylan had higher ambitions, so he began making the kind of connections expected of someone considering a run for higher office. One connection he made, albeit by accident, was John H. McCooey, the future Brooklyn Democratic Party boss; they met when McCooey was a postal clerk and Hylan was sending money orders to his parents for interest payments on the family farm's mortgage. Hylan would remain grateful for the kindness McCooey showed him, and they remained friends thereafter. Other contacts were made by constant attendance at local organizations, political and otherwise. In addition to his union membership, which he kept up even when he was mayor, he was a member of the Foresters of America, the Broadway Board of Trade, the Twenty-eighth Ward Taxpayer Association, and he began working his way up the local Democratic club.
Politics and judgeships
Hylan emerged from obscurity in Brooklyn Democratic politics during the citywide elections of 1903, a campaign during which several internal Democratic power struggles worked themselves out. In Manhattan Charles Francis Murphy had recently replaced Richard Croker as head of the Tammany machine. Murphy, who had become independently wealthy from a trucking company which leased docks from the city and rented them to shipping companies, fixed his goal as Tammany chief to extend Tammany influence to all the boroughs and then beyond. He decided to dislodge Fusionist mayor Seth Low by running George B. McClellan Jr., son of the Civil War general who had run against Lincoln in 1864.
The move was unpopular in Brooklyn, whose leaders believed that McClellan would hurt down-ticket Brooklyn candidates; they concluded that running McClellan likely would cost them the district attorney and sheriff's offices, not to mention borough and judicial races. Some observers believed that it was Murphy's intention, despite the risk of lost votes in Brooklyn, as long as he could cut off the Kings County party's independent base of patronage. Murphy's highhandedness rankled others as well. At the City Committee meeting on September 18, party leaders from Queens, the Bronx and Richmond joined Brooklyn in expressing their concern. Independent Manhattan Democrats also objected to Murphy's action, including the Greater New York Democracy, which decided for the Fusion ticket, and former Tammany police chief Bill Devery, who decided to run for Mayor himself. Even several Tammany chiefs questioned the wisdom of the McClellan choice. Brooklyn party leader Hugh McLaughlin decided to test Murphy's hold over the outer boroughs and gave an interview promising to oppose Murphy's nominee at the city convention.
At the Democratic City Committee meeting on September 24, Murphy defied Brooklyn leaders to take the fight over McClellan to the Convention the next week, knowing that Tammany controlled a majority of the delegates. With a view to sowing confusion among the Fusionists, Murphy without consultation outside of Tammany proposed adding two Fusion candidates to the ticket—Edward M. Grout for Controller and Charles V. Fornes for President of the Board of Aldermen. The proposed nomination of two Fusion candidates by Tammany so disturbed the non-Tammany Democrats that, after much behind-the-scenes scheming, McLaughlin announced a complex plan the day before the convention to either dislodge McClellan from the ticket and Murphy from Tammany in the process or provide an anti-Tammany Democratic ticket that would run against Tammany's ticket.
The convention took place on October 1, 1903 at Carnegie Hall. At the beginning it looked as if the Kings County delegation could engineer a stampede against the Tammany ticket. Brooklyn Assistant District Attorney Martin W. Littleton led the charge, looking directly at Murphy in front of him and delivering a blistering speech scoring Tammany "treachery" for selecting Democratic "traitor" Grout. Robert H. Elder followed him, placing in nomination Julian D. Fairchild in Grout's place and reminded the convention that Grout had been a Republican and left the Brooklyn Democrats because of their association with Tammany. Littleton rose again to remind the delegates that Grout once called Tammany a "stench in his nostrils." And the "excitement reached a climax" when one Tammany leader broke with Murphy against Grout causing "wild applause." Murphy and the Tammany leaders sat through the abuse, smiling, and in the end the Brooklyn Democrats were routed by the near unanimous Tammany vote. While the Kings County delegation under the leadership of state senator Patrick H. McCarren made show of unity by moving the unanimous nomination of McClellan when its nominee was defeated, a similar motion for Grout and Fornes, however, was "howled down."
The next day at the Brooklyn Democratic headquarters in the auction room on Willoughby Street, all talk of McLaughlin's plan for an opposition ticket to Tammany's had ceased. If McClellan won the mayoralty, all Brooklyn patronage would go through him and Tammany. While Brooklyn maintained its objection to Grout and Fornes, that did little good for the Brooklyn party unless McClellan lost, but McCarren and the rest at the Convention eventually endorsed McClellan. As one Democrat put it: "Tammany's coming to Brooklyn sure and the Old Man [McLaughlin] will take his medicine." For McLaughlin whether he would remain in charge of the Brooklyn Democrats now depended on his former subordinate McCarren. McCarren, however, used the occasion to take over the Brooklyn organization, and in the turmoil Hylan made his first move for party advancement.
Mayor of New York City
Hylan defeated the reformer John Purroy Mitchel in the four-sided 1917 mayoral election, restoring the power of Tammany at City Hall. Hylan was the first Democratic candidate to obtain a significant portion of the African American voter base. He easily won re-election in 1921 but was defeated for re-nomination in 1925 by State Senator James J. "Jimmy" Walker. Walker later appointed Hylan to the municipal judiciary. As mayor, Hylan railed against "the interests" and put in motion the building of the Independent Subway System, which would later become part of the New York City Subway. On December 30, 1925, Hylan resigned from office one day before the end of his term in order to assure his eligibility for a $4,205 annual pension from the city. The Hylan Boulevard in Staten Island was renamed for him in 1923 over the protests of his political opponents.
Hylan developed a reputation for not being exceptionally intelligent or well-spoken. According to Robert Moses, Hylan went through most of a mayoral campaign using just one stump speech: a call to keep the five-cent subway fare in place. He asked for Moses' help in preparing another, and Moses obliged. The first time Hylan tried to deliver the new speech, he reached the climax—a Revolutionary War-inspired "I call for the spirit of 1776"—but rather than closing out on a high note, Hylan missed the context and read out the number's digits, saying, "I call for the spirit of one-seven-seven-six."
In another story recounted about Hylan's supposed lack of intelligence and articulateness, his successor Jimmy Walker appointed Hylan as judge of the Queens Children's Court. When journalist Alva Johnston asked Walker why he would appoint a rival to a judgeship, Walker quipped, "The children now can be tried by their peer."
Famous speech
Hylan's most famous statement against "the interests" was the following speech, made in 1922, while he was the sitting Mayor of New York City:
Death
Hylan died of a heart attack at the age of 67 on January 12, 1936, at his home in Forest Hills, Queens.
In popular culture
In the first issue of The New Yorker (February 21, 1925), a humor piece on the history of New York refers to John F. Hylan as "Jonef Hylan":
The next great figure in the early legends of New York is that of Jonef Hylan. Hylan, in all probability, was not a real person; but it is impossible to understand New York without giving careful study to the Hylan myth. In many respects, it resembles the Sun Myth of other great civilizations; for his head was as a head of flame, and he rose early each morning from beyond the East River, bringing light into all the dark places and heat into the sessions of the Board of Estimate. The populace called their Sun God "Red Mike"; but in the frenzy of their devotions, they simply yelled "Ra! Ra!"
He is then characterized as a "Champion of the People versus the Interests", which are "not people". Satan, it says, was behind the Interests, but William Randolph Hearst was behind Hylan, "and that evened things up".
In the April issue of The New Yorker the same year, a cartoon by Alfred Frueh shows firefighters carrying people from a burning building wearing placards with notices such as "This lucky man is being rescued by Mayor Hylan's firemen."
See also
List of mayors of New York City
Abridged recording of Mayor Hylan reading his acceptance speech on renomination as Mayor in 1921 for the General Phonograph Corporation.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Digitized photographs of John F. Hylan (1918-1922) from the NYPD Annual Reports, Lloyd Sealy Library Digital Collections
1868 births
1936 deaths
American people of French descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Welsh descent
Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens)
Mayors of New York City
New York (state) Democrats
New York Law School alumni
People from Bushwick, Brooklyn
People from Forest Hills, Queens
People from Greene County, New York
Catholics from New York (state) | [
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|
214116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic%20inch | Cubic inch | The cubic inch (symbol in3) is a unit of volume in the Imperial units and United States customary units systems. It is the volume of a cube with each of its three dimensions (length, width, and depth) being one inch long which is equivalent to 1/231 of a US gallon.
The cubic inch and the cubic foot are used as units of volume in the United States, although the common SI units of volume, the liter, milliliter, and cubic meter, are also used, especially in manufacturing and high technology. One cubic inch is approximately .
One cubic foot is equal to exactly 1,728 cubic inches because 123 = 1,728.
One U.S. gallon is equal to exactly 231 cubic inches.
Notation conventions
The following abbreviations have been used to denote the cubic inch: cubic in, cu inch, cu in, cui, cu. in.
The IEEE standard symbol is: in³
In internal combustion engines, the following abbreviations are used to denote cubic inch displacement: c.i.d., cid, CID, c.i., ci
Equivalence with other units of volume
1 cubic inch (assuming an international inch) is equal to:
(1 cu ft equals 1,728 cu in)
Roughly 1 tablespoon (1.0 U.S. gallon = 256 U.S. tablespoons = 231 cubic inches)
About
About
About 0.06926407 American/English cups
About
About
About
About (1.0 gallon equals 231 cu in exactly [3 in × 7 in × 11 in])
About of crude oil (1.0 barrel equals 42 gallons, by definition, or 9,702 cu in)
Exactly (1.0 liter is about )
Exactly or cubic centimeters (which in turn is approximately )
Exactly ( is about )
Uses of the cubic inch
Electrical box volume
The cubic inch was established decades ago in the National Electrical Code as the conventional unit in North America for measuring the volume of electrical boxes. Because of the extensive export of electrical equipment to other countries, some usage of the non-SI unit can be found outside North America.
Engine displacement
North America
The cubic inch was formerly used by the automotive industry and aircraft industry in North America (through the early 1980s) to express the nominal engine displacement for the engines of new automobiles, trucks, aircraft, etc. The cubic inch is still used for this purpose in classic car collecting. The auto industry now uses liters for this purpose, while reciprocating engines used in commercial aircraft often have model numbers based on the cubic inch displacement. The fifth generation Ford Mustang has a Boss 302 version that reflects this heritage - with a five-liter (302 cubic inch) engine similar to the original Boss. Chevrolet has also revived this usage on its 427 Corvette. Dodge has a "Challenger 392" (a conversion from its 6.4 liter V8 engine).
United Kingdom
In the UK, engine displacement is now denoted in litres. However, cubic inches were sometimes used in the past to denote model numbers. An example is the AEC Reliance bus which was available with five different engines:
AH470, 470 cubic inches, 7.7 litres = 1.6942 gallons
AH505, 505 cubic inches, 8.1 litres = 1.8203 gallons
AH590, 590 cubic inches, 9.6 litres = 2.1267 gallons
AH691, 691 cubic inches, 11.3 litres = 3.5925 gallons
AH760, 760 cubic inches, 12.4 litres = 3.9512 gallons
See also
Conversion of units
Orders of magnitude (volume)
Square inch
References
Customary units of measurement in the United States
Imperial units
Units of volume
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214117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustica | Ustica | Ustica (; ) is a small Italian island in the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is about across and is situated north of Capo Gallo, Sicily. Roughly 1,300 people live in the comune (municipality) of the same name. There is a regular ferry service from the island to Palermo in Sicily.
History
Excavations begun in 1989 at Tramontana, also known as Faraglioni, have unearthed what was a large prehistoric village dating from the 14th to the 13th century BC. The foundations of some 300 stone-built houses were discovered, and the defensive walls of the settlement are among the strongest fortifications of any period known in Italy. It is believed that these early settlers came over from the Aeolian Islands.
In historic times, the island has been populated at least since about 1500 BC by Phoenician peoples. In ancient Greece, the Island was named Osteodes (ossuary) in memory of the thousands of Carthaginian mutineers left there to die of hunger in the 4th century BC. The Romans renamed the island Ustica, Latin for burnt, for its black rocks. The island is also known locally as the "black pearl".
In the 6th century, a Benedictine community settled in the island, but was soon forced to move because of ongoing wars between Europeans and Arabs. Attempts to colonize the island in the Middle Ages failed because of raids by Barbary pirates.
In the mid-18th century, the island was settled by approximately 90 people from the island of Lipari, an island also located north of Sicily, but east of Ustica. They brought with them the patron saint of Lipari, Bartholomew the Apostle, who became the patron saint of Ustica as well. In the mid- to late 19th century and early 20th century, as the population of the island grew too large, hundreds of Ustican families emigrated to the United States. Many of these families settled in New Orleans and surrounding areas, where there are today thousands of descendants whose ties remain strong to Ustica. A smaller number of families settled in San Jose and San Francisco, in New York, Massachusetts, Oregon, Montana and in Chicago.
Fascist prison island
During the Fascist years in Italy and until the 1950s, Ustica was used as an island prison. Benito Mussolini banished thousands of political opponents to Ustica, often as many as 1,500 at a time; many were homosexuals. Both Antonio Gramsci and Amadeo Bordiga were sent there. In the early 1940s Yugoslav war prisoners were crammed onto the island, and many of them died from malnutrition and tuberculosis. In the 1950s they were followed by suspected Mafiosi expelled from Sicily.
On June 27, 1980, Itavia Flight 870 crashed into the sea off the island while en route to Palermo, killing all 81 people on board. The event became known as the Ustica massacre.
Environment
The island is characterized by reduced sources of water, and the vegetation is consequently scarce. The coast has numerous rocks and grottoes.
Ustica is home of the honeybee Apis mellifera sicula.
Tourism
Ustica is particularly known for scuba diving, with a number of diving schools established on the island. Recreational divers are attracted by the relatively deep dives, which are a feature of the island's volcanic geology.
See also
List of islands of Italy
References
External links
Ustica Genealogy
Islands of Sicily
Tyrrhenian Sea
Stratovolcanoes of Italy
Volcanoes of the Tyrrhenian
Pleistocene volcanoes
Pleistocene Europe
Province of Palermo | [
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|
214121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20largest%20optical%20reflecting%20telescopes | List of largest optical reflecting telescopes | This list of the largest optical reflecting telescopes with objective diameters of or greater is sorted by aperture, which is a measure of the light-gathering power and resolution of a reflecting telescope. The mirrors themselves can be larger than the aperture, and some telescopes may use aperture synthesis through interferometry. Telescopes designed to be used as optical astronomical interferometers such as the Keck I and II used together as the Keck Interferometer (up to 85 m) can reach higher resolutions, although at a narrower range of observations. When the two mirrors are on one mount, the combined mirror spacing of the Large Binocular Telescope (22.8 m) allows fuller use of the aperture synthesis.
Largest does not always equate to being the best telescopes, and overall light gathering power of the optical system can be a poor measure of a telescope's performance. Space-based telescopes, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, take advantage of being above the Earth's atmosphere to reach higher resolution and greater light gathering through longer exposure times. Location in the northern or southern hemisphere of the Earth can also limit what part of the sky can be observed, and climate conditions at the observatory site affect how often the telescope can be used each year.
The combination of large mirrors, locations selected for stable atmosphere and favorable climate conditions, and active optics and adaptive optics to correct for much of atmospheric turbulence allow the largest Earth based telescopes to reach higher resolution than the Hubble Space Telescope. Another advantage of Earth based telescopes is the comparatively low cost of upgrading and replacing instruments.
Table of reflecting telescopes
This list is ordered by optical aperture, which has historically been a useful gauge of limiting resolution, optical area, physical size, and cost. Multiple mirror telescopes that are on the same mount and can form a single combined image are ranked by their equivalent aperture. Fixed altitude telescopes (e.g. HET) are also ranked by their equivalent aperture. All telescopes with an effective aperture of at least at visible or near-infrared wavelengths are included.
There are only a few sites capable of polishing the mirrors for these telescopes. SAGEM in France polished the four VLT mirrors, the two Gemini mirrors, and the 36 segments for GTC. The Steward Observatory Mirror Lab cast and polished the two LBT mirrors, the two Magellan mirrors, the MMT replacement mirror, and the LSST primary/tertiary mirror. It is currently making the mirrors for the Giant Magellan Telescope. The Keck segments were made by Schott AG. The SALT and LAMOST segments were cast and polished by LZOS. The mirror for Subaru was cast by Corning and polished at Contraves Brashear Systems in Pennsylvania.
This table does not include all the largest mirrors manufactured. The Steward Observatory Mirror Lab produced the 6.5-metre f/1.25 collimator used in the Large Optical Test and Integration Site of Lockheed Martin, used for vacuum optical testing of other telescopes.
Segmented mirrors are also referred to as mosaic mirrors. Single mirrors are also referred to monolithic mirrors, and can be sub-categorized in types, such as solid or honeycomb.
Chronological list of largest telescopes
These telescopes were the largest in the world at the time of their construction, by the same aperture criterion as above.
Future telescopes
Under construction
These telescopes are currently under construction and will meet the list inclusion criteria once completed:
European Extremely Large Telescope . First light planned in 2027.
Thirty Meter Telescope . First light planned in 2027.
Giant Magellan Telescope. Seven 8.4 m mirrors on a single mount, giving the resolving power of a single 24.5 m mirror and the light gathering area of a single 21.4 m mirror. First light planned in 2029.
Vera C. Rubin Observatory . First light expected in 2022/23.
James Webb Space Telescope . Infrared space telescope, launched in December 2021, with operations beginning 6 months later.
San Pedro Martir Telescope . First light planned in 2023.
Magdalena Ridge Observatory Telescope Array. Optical interferometer array, 10 telescopes each of aperture; equivalent to a single aperture.
International Liquid Mirror Telescope . Construction began in 2013.
Timau National Observatory . First light planned in 2021.
Iranian National Observatory . First light planned in 2021.
Proposed
Selected large telescopes which are in detailed design or pre-construction phases:
Large UV Optical Infrared Surveyor (LUVOIR), a proposed space telescope for launch in the mid 2030s.
Tokyo Atacama Observatory (TAO)
Chinese Giant Solar Telescope (CGST), an infrared and optical solar telescope, with light-gathering power equivalent to a 5 m diameter aperture
See also
List of telescope types
Lists of telescopes
References
Further reading
External links
List of large reflecting telescopes
The World's Largest Optical Telescopes
Largest optical telescopes of the world
Selected largest telescopes
Sidereal Messenger Large refracting telescopes (date 1884)
Optical telescopes
Largest optical telescopes
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|
214124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbral%20calculus | Umbral calculus | In mathematics before the 1970s, the term umbral calculus referred to the surprising similarity between seemingly unrelated polynomial equations and certain "shadowy" techniques used to "prove" them. These techniques were introduced by and are sometimes called Blissard's symbolic method. They are often attributed to Édouard Lucas (or James Joseph Sylvester), who used the technique extensively.
Short history
In the 1930s and 1940s, Eric Temple Bell attempted to set the umbral calculus on a rigorous footing.
In the 1970s, Steven Roman, Gian-Carlo Rota, and others developed the umbral calculus by means of linear functionals on spaces of polynomials. Currently, umbral calculus refers to the study of Sheffer sequences, including polynomial sequences of binomial type and Appell sequences, but may encompass systematic correspondence techniques of the calculus of finite differences.
The 19th-century umbral calculus
The method is a notational procedure used for deriving identities involving indexed sequences of numbers by pretending that the indices are exponents. Construed literally, it is absurd, and yet it is successful: identities derived via the umbral calculus can also be properly derived by more complicated methods that can be taken literally without logical difficulty.
An example involves the Bernoulli polynomials. Consider, for example, the ordinary binomial expansion (which contains a binomial coefficient):
and the remarkably similar-looking relation on the Bernoulli polynomials:
Compare also the ordinary derivative
to a very similar-looking relation on the Bernoulli polynomials:
These similarities allow one to construct umbral proofs, which, on the surface, cannot be correct, but seem to work anyway. Thus, for example, by pretending that the subscript n − k is an exponent:
and then differentiating, one gets the desired result:
In the above, the variable b is an "umbra" (Latin for shadow).
See also Faulhaber's formula.
Umbral Taylor series
In differential calculus, the Taylor series of a function is an infinite sum of terms that are expressed in terms of the function's derivatives at a single point. That is, a real or complex-valued function f (x) that is infinitely differentiable at can be written as:
Similar relationships were also observed in the theory of finite differences. The umbral version of the Taylor series is given by a similar expression involving the k-th forward differences of a polynomial function f,
where
is the Pochhammer symbol used here for the falling sequential product. A similar relationship holds for the backward differences and rising factorial.
This series is also known as the Newton series or Newton's forward difference expansion.
The analogy to Taylor's expansion is utilized in the calculus of finite differences.
Bell and Riordan
In the 1930s and 1940s, Eric Temple Bell tried unsuccessfully to make this kind of argument logically rigorous. The combinatorialist John Riordan in his book Combinatorial Identities published in the 1960s, used techniques of this sort extensively.
The modern umbral calculus
Another combinatorialist, Gian-Carlo Rota, pointed out that the mystery vanishes if one considers the linear functional L on polynomials in z defined by
Then, using the definition of the Bernoulli polynomials and the definition and linearity of L, one can write
This enables one to replace occurrences of by , that is, move the n from a subscript to a superscript (the key operation of umbral calculus). For instance, we can now prove that:
Rota later stated that much confusion resulted from the failure to distinguish between three equivalence relations that occur frequently in this topic, all of which were denoted by "=".
In a paper published in 1964, Rota used umbral methods to establish the recursion formula satisfied by the Bell numbers, which enumerate partitions of finite sets.
In the paper of Roman and Rota cited below, the umbral calculus is characterized as the study of the umbral algebra, defined as the algebra of linear functionals on the vector space of polynomials in a variable x, with a product L1L2 of linear functionals defined by
When polynomial sequences replace sequences of numbers as images of yn under the linear mapping L, then the umbral method is seen to be an essential component of Rota's general theory of special polynomials, and that theory is the umbral calculus by some more modern definitions of the term. A small sample of that theory can be found in the article on polynomial sequences of binomial type. Another is the article titled Sheffer sequence.
Rota later applied umbral calculus extensively in his paper with Shen to study the various combinatorial properties of the cumulants.
See also
Umbral composition of polynomial sequences
Calculus of finite differences
Pidduck polynomials
Symbolic method in invariant theory
Notes
References
G.-C. Rota, D. Kahaner, and A. Odlyzko, "Finite Operator Calculus," Journal of Mathematical Analysis and its Applications, vol. 42, no. 3, June 1973. Reprinted in the book with the same title, Academic Press, New York, 1975.
. Reprinted by Dover, 2005.
External links
Roman, S. (1982), The Theory of the Umbral Calculus, I
Combinatorics
Polynomials
Finite differences | [
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214133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brideshead%20Revisited | Brideshead Revisited | Brideshead Revisited: The Sacred & Profane Memories of Captain Charles Ryder is a novel by English writer Evelyn Waugh, first published in 1945. It follows, from the 1920s to the early 1940s, the life and romances of the protagonist Charles Ryder, most especially his friendship with the Flytes, a family of wealthy English Catholics who live in a palatial mansion called Brideshead Castle. Ryder has relationships with two of the Flytes: Sebastian and Julia. The novel explores themes including nostalgia for the age of English aristocracy and Catholicism. A faithful and well-received television adaptation of the novel was produced in an 11-part miniseries by Granada Television in 1981.
Plot
The novel is divided into three parts, framed by a prologue and epilogue.
Prologue
The prologue takes place during the final years of the Second World War. Charles Ryder and his battalion are sent to a country estate called Brideshead, which prompts his recollections which form the rest of the story.
Et In Arcadia Ego
In 1923, protagonist and narrator Charles Ryder, an undergraduate reading history at a college very similar to Hertford College, Oxford, is befriended by Lord Sebastian Flyte, the younger son of the aristocratic Lord Marchmain and an undergraduate at Christ Church. Sebastian introduces Charles to his eccentric friends, including the haughty aesthete and homosexual Anthony Blanche. Sebastian also takes Charles to his family's palatial mansion, Brideshead Castle, in Wiltshire, where Charles later meets the rest of Sebastian's family, including his sister Julia.
During the long summer holiday, Charles returns home to London, where he lives with his widowed father, Edward Ryder. The conversations there between Charles and Edward provide some of the best-known comic scenes in the novel. Charles is called back to Brideshead after Sebastian incurs a minor injury, and Sebastian and Charles spend the remainder of the holiday together.
Sebastian's family are Catholic, which influences the Flytes' lives as well as the content of their conversations, all of which surprises Charles, who had always assumed Christianity was "without substance or merit". Lord Marchmain had converted from Anglicanism to Catholicism to marry his wife, but he later abandoned both his marriage and his new religion, and moved to Venice, Italy. Left alone, Lady Marchmain focuses even more on her faith, which is also enthusiastically espoused by her elder son, Lord Brideshead ("Bridey"), and by her younger daughter, Cordelia.
Brideshead Deserted
The Flyte family becomes aware of Sebastian's drinking problem and attempt to stop him drinking which only worsens the situation. Lady Marchmain falls out with Charles and he leaves Brideshead for what he thinks is the last time.
Julia marries the rich but unsophisticated Canadian-born businessman and politician Rex Mottram. This marriage causes great sorrow to her mother, because Rex, though initially planning to convert to Catholicism, turns out to be a divorcé with an ex-wife living in Canada. He and Julia subsequently marry without fanfare in the Savoy Chapel, an Anglican church where marriage between divorcees with one or more prior living spouses is permissible.
Sebastian, a troubled young man, descends into alcoholism, drifting away from the family over a two-year period. He flees to Morocco, where his drinking ruins his health. He eventually finds some solace as an under-porter and object of charity at a Catholic monastery in Tunisia.
Sebastian's drifting leads to Charles's own estrangement from the Flytes.
Julia asks Charles to go and find Sebastian because Lady Marchmain (Sebastian's mother) is ill. Charles finds Sebastian in the monastery in Morocco. Sebastian is too ill to return to England, so Charles returns to London to see Brideshead and sort out Sebastian's financial affairs.
Charles is commissioned by Brideshead to paint images of Marchmain House, in London, before its demolition. The paintings are very successful. Charles talks to Cordelia while he paints and discovers more about the Flyte family.
A Twitch Upon the Thread
Charles finds success as an architectural painter and visits Latin America to portray the buildings there.
Charles marries and fathers two children, but he becomes cold towards his wife, and she is unfaithful to him. He eventually forms a relationship with Sebastian's younger sister, Julia. Julia has separated from Rex Mottram.
Charles and Julia plan to divorce their respective spouses so that they can marry each other.
Cordelia returns from ministering to the wounded in the Spanish Civil War with disturbing news about Sebastian's nomadic existence and steady decline over the past few years. She predicts he will die soon in the Tunisian monastery.
On the eve of the Second World War, the ageing Lord Marchmain, terminally ill, returns to Brideshead to die in his ancestral home. Appalled by the marriage of his elder son Brideshead to a middle-class widow past childbearing age, he names Julia heir to the estate, which prospectively offers Charles marital ownership of the house. However, Lord Marchmain's return to the faith on his deathbed changes the situation: Julia decides she cannot enter a sinful marriage with Charles, who has also been moved by Lord Marchmain's acceptance of the Last Rites.
Epilogue
The plot concludes in the early spring of 1943 (or possibly 1944 – the date is disputed). Charles is "homeless, childless, middle-aged and loveless". He has become an army officer and finds himself unexpectedly billeted at Brideshead, which has been taken into military use. He finds the house damaged by the army, but the private chapel, closed after Lady Marchmain's death in 1926, has been reopened for the soldiers' use. It occurs to him that the efforts of the builders – and, by extension, God's efforts – were not in vain, although their purposes may have appeared, for a time, to have been frustrated.
Motifs
Catholicism
Catholicism is a significant theme of the book. Evelyn Waugh was a convert to Catholicism and Brideshead depicts the Catholic faith in a secular literary form. Waugh wrote to his literary agent A. D. Peters:I hope the last conversation with Cordelia gives the theological clue. The whole thing is steeped in theology, but I begin to agree that the theologians won't recognize it.
The book brings the reader, through the narration of the initially agnostic Charles Ryder, in contact with the severely flawed but deeply Catholic Flyte family. The Catholic themes of divine grace and reconciliation are pervasive in the book. Most of the major characters undergo a conversion in some way or another. Lord Marchmain, a convert from Anglicanism to Catholicism, who lived as an adulterer, is reconciled with the Church on his deathbed. Julia, who entered a marriage with Rex Mottram that is invalid in the eyes of the Catholic Church, is involved in an extramarital affair with Charles. Julia realizes that marrying Charles will separate her forever from her faith and decides to leave him, in spite of her great attachment to him. Sebastian, the charming and flamboyant alcoholic, ends up in service to a monastery while struggling against his alcoholism.
Most significant is Charles's apparent conversion, which is expressed subtly at the end of the book, set more than 20 years after his first meeting Sebastian. Charles kneels down in front of the tabernacle of the Brideshead chapel and says a prayer, "an ancient, newly learned form of words" – implying recent instruction in the catechism. Waugh speaks of his belief in grace in a letter to Lady Mary Lygon:I believe that everyone in his (or her) life has the moment when he is open to Divine Grace. It's there, of course, for the asking all the time, but human lives are so planned that usually there's a particular time – sometimes, like Hubert, on his deathbed – when all resistance is down and grace can come flooding in.
Waugh quotes from a short story by G. K. Chesterton to illustrate the nature of grace. Cordelia, in conversation with Charles Ryder, quotes a passage from the Father Brown detective story "The Queer Feet":I caught him, with an unseen hook and an invisible line which is long enough to let him wander to the ends of the world, and still to bring him back with a twitch upon the thread.
This quotation provides the foundation for Waugh's Catholic treatment of the interplay of free will and grace in the moment of conversion.
The same themes were criticised by Waugh's contemporaries. Novelist Henry Green wrote to Waugh:The end was not for me. As you can imagine my heart was in my mouth all through the deathbed scene, hoping against hope that the old man would not give way, that is, take the course he eventually did.
Edmund Wilson, who had praised Waugh as the hope of the English novel, wrote:The last scenes are extravagantly absurd, with an absurdity that would be worthy of Waugh at his best if it were not – painful to say – meant quite seriously.
Nostalgia for an age of English nobility
The Flyte family may be taken to symbolise the English nobility. One reads in the book that Brideshead has "the atmosphere of a better age", and (referring to the deaths of Lady Marchmain's brothers in the Great War) "these men must die to make a world for Hooper ... so that things might be safe for the travelling salesman, with his polygonal pince-nez, his fat, wet handshake, his grinning dentures".
According to Martin Amis, the book "squarely identifies egalitarianism as its foe and proceeds to rubbish it accordingly".
Charles and Sebastian's relationship
The question of whether the relationship between Charles and Sebastian is homosexual or platonic has been debated, particularly in an extended exchange between David Bittner and John Osborne in the Evelyn Waugh Newsletter and Studies from 1987 to 1991. In 1994 Paul Buccio argued that the relationship was in the Victorian tradition of "intimate male friendships", which includes "Pip and Herbert Pocket [from Charles Dickens' Great Expectations], ... Sherlock Holmes and Doctor Watson, Ratty and Mole (The Wind in the Willows)", and Tennyson and Arthur Henry Hallam (In Memoriam). David Higdon argued that "[I]t is impossible to regard Sebastian as other than gay; [and] Charles is so homoerotic he must at least be cheerful"; and that the attempt of some critics to downplay the homoerotic dimension of Brideshead is part of "a much larger and more important sexual war being fought as entrenched heterosexuality strives to maintain its hegemony over important twentieth century works". In 2008 Christopher Hitchens derided "the ridiculous word 'platonic' that for some peculiar reason still crops up in discussion of the story".
Those who interpret the relationship as overtly homosexual note that the novel states that Charles had been "in search of love in those days" when he first met Sebastian, and quote his finding "that low door in the wall ... which opened on an enclosed and enchanted garden" (an allusion to Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, or, more likely, "The Door in the Wall" by H. G. Wells). The phrase "our naughtiness [was] high on the catalogue of grave sins" is also seen as a suggestion that their relationship is homosexual, because this is a mortal sin in Roman Catholic doctrine. Attention has also been drawn to the fact that Charles impatiently awaits Sebastian's letters, and the suggestion in the novel that one of the reasons Charles is later in love with Julia is her physical similarity to Sebastian. When the two become a couple in the novel's third part, Julia asks Charles, "You loved him, didn't you?" to which Charles replies, "Oh yes. He was the forerunner."
Waugh wrote in 1947 that "Charles's romantic affection for Sebastian is part due to the glitter of the new world Sebastian represents, part to the protective feeling of a strong towards a weak character, and part a foreshadowing of the love for Julia which is to be the consuming passion of his mature years." In the novel, Cara, Lord Marchmain's mistress, says to Charles that his romantic relationship with Sebastian forms part of a process of emotional development typical of "the English and the Germans". This passage is quoted at the beginning of Paul M. Buccio's essay on the Victorian and Edwardian tradition of romantic male friendships.
Principal characters
Charles Ryder – The protagonist and narrator of the story was raised primarily by his father after his mother died. Charles's family background is financially comfortable but emotionally hollow. He is unsure about his desires or goals in life, and is dazzled by the charming, flamboyant and seemingly carefree young Lord Sebastian Flyte. Charles, though dissatisfied with what life seems to offer, has modest success both as a student and later as a painter; less so as an Army officer. His path repeatedly crosses those of various members of the Marchmain family, and each time they awaken something deep within him. It has been noted that Charles Ryder bears some resemblance to artist Felix Kelly (1914–1994), who painted murals for aristocratic country houses. Kelly was commissioned to paint murals for Castle Howard, which was used as a location in the television series and is where Ryder is depicted painting a mural for the Garden Room.
Edward "Ned" Ryder – Charles's father is a somewhat distant and eccentric figure, but possessed of a keen wit. He seems determined to teach Charles to stand on his own feet. When Charles is forced to spend his holidays with him because he has already spent his allowance for the term, Ned, in what are considered some of the funniest passages in the book, strives to make Charles as uncomfortable as possible, indirectly teaching him to mind his finances more carefully.
Lord Marchmain (Alexander Flyte, Marquess of Marchmain) – As a young man, Lord Marchmain fell in love with a Roman Catholic woman and converted to marry her. The marriage was unhappy and, after the First World War, he refused to return to England, settling in Venice with his Italian mistress, Cara.
Lady Marchmain (Teresa Flyte, Marchioness of Marchmain) – A member of an ancient Recusant Roman Catholic family (the people that Waugh himself most admired). She brought up her children as Roman Catholics against her husband's wishes. Abandoned by her husband, Lady Marchmain rules over her household, enforcing her Roman Catholic morality upon her children.
"Bridey" (Earl of Brideshead) – The elder son of Lord and Lady Marchmain who, as the Marquess's heir, holds the courtesy title "Earl of Brideshead". He follows his mother's strict Roman Catholic beliefs, and once aspired to the priesthood. However, he is unable to connect in an emotional way with most people, who find him cold and distant. His actual Christian name is not revealed.
Lord Sebastian Flyte – The younger son of Lord and Lady Marchmain is haunted by a profound unhappiness brought on by a troubled relationship with his mother. An otherwise charming and attractive companion, he numbs himself with alcohol. He forms a deep friendship with Charles. Over time, however, the numbness brought on by alcohol becomes his main desire. He is thought to be based on Alastair Hugh Graham (whose name was mistakenly substituted for Sebastian's several times in the original manuscript), Hugh Patrick Lygon and Stephen Tennant. Also, his relationship with his teddy bear, Aloysius, was inspired by John Betjeman and his teddy bear Archibald Ormsby-Gore.
Lady Julia Flyte – The elder daughter of Lord and Lady Marchmain, who comes out as a debutante in the beginning of the story, eventually marrying Rex Mottram. Charles loves her for much of their lives, due in part to her resemblance to her brother Sebastian. Julia refuses at first to be controlled by the conventions of Roman Catholicism, but turns to it later in life.
Lady Cordelia Flyte – The youngest of the siblings is the most devout and least conflicted in her beliefs. She aspires solely to serve God.
Anthony Blanche – A friend of Charles and Sebastian's from Oxford, and an overt homosexual. His background is unclear but there are hints that he may be of Italian or Spanish extraction. Of all the characters, Anthony has the keenest insight into the self-deception of the people around him. Although he is witty, amiable and always an interesting companion, he manages to make Charles uncomfortable with his stark honesty, flamboyance, and flirtatiousness. The character is mainly based on Brian Howard, a contemporary of Waugh at Oxford and flamboyant homosexual, although the scene in which Blanche declaims extracts from The Waste Land through a megaphone from his upper-storey college window was inspired by Harold Acton. When Sebastian and Charles return to Oxford, in the Michaelmas term of 1923, they learn that Anthony Blanche has been sent down.
Viscount "Boy" Mulcaster – An acquaintance of Charles from Oxford. Brash, bumbling and thoughtless, he personifies the privileged hauteur of the British aristocracy. He later proves an engaging and fondly doting uncle to "John-john" Ryder. As with Lord Brideshead, his Christian name is never revealed.
Lady Celia Ryder – Charles's wife, "Boy" Mulcaster's sister, and Julia's former schoolmate; a vivacious and socially active beauty. Charles marries her largely for convenience, which is revealed by Celia's infidelities. Charles feels freed by Celia's betrayal and decides to pursue love elsewhere, outside their marriage.
Rex Mottram – A Canadian of great ambition, said to be based on Lord Beaverbrook, Lord Birkenhead and Brendan Bracken. Mottram wins a seat in the House of Commons. Through his marriage to Julia, he connects to the Marchmains as another step on the ladder to the top. He is disappointed with the results, and he and Julia agree to lead separate lives.
"Sammy" Samgrass – A fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, and Lady Marchmain's "pet don". Lady Marchmain funds Samgrass's projects and flatters his academic ego, while asking him to keep Sebastian in line and save him from expulsion. Samgrass uses his connections with the aristocracy to further his personal ambitions. Samgrass is an unflattering portrait of Maurice Bowra. Waugh was annoyed when friends did not recognize Bowra, and additionally annoyed to hear that Bowra claimed to enjoy the caricature.
Cara – Lord Marchmain's Italian mistress. She is very protective of Lord Marchmain and is forthright and insightful in her relationship with Charles.
Minor characters
Jasper – Charles's cousin, who gives him advice about student life at Oxford, which Charles ignores.
Kurt – Sebastian's German friend. A deeply inadequate ex-soldier with a permanently septic foot (due to a self-inflicted gunshot wound) whom Sebastian meets in Tunisia, a man so inept that he needs Sebastian to look after him.
Mrs (Beryl) Muspratt – The widow of an admiral, she meets and marries a smitten Brideshead, but never becomes mistress of the great house.
"Nanny" Hawkins – Beloved nanny to the four Flyte children, who lives in retirement at Brideshead.
Waugh's statements about the novel
Waugh wrote that the novel "deals with what is theologically termed 'the operation of Grace', that is to say, the unmerited and unilateral act of love by which God continually calls souls to Himself". This is achieved by an examination of the Roman Catholic aristocratic Flyte family as seen by the narrator, Charles Ryder.
In various letters, Waugh himself refers to the novel a number of times as his magnum opus; however, in 1950 he wrote to Graham Greene stating "I re-read Brideshead Revisited and was appalled." In Waugh's preface to his revised edition of Brideshead (1959) the author explained the circumstances in which the novel was written, following a minor parachute accident in the six months between December 1943 and June 1944. He was mildly disparaging of the novel, stating; "It was a bleak period of present privation and threatening disaster – the period of soya beans and Basic English – and in consequence the book is infused with a kind of gluttony, for food and wine, for the splendours of the recent past, and for rhetorical and ornamental language which now, with a full stomach, I find distasteful."
Reception
Acclaim
In the United States, Brideshead Revisited was the Book of the Month Club selection for January 1946. In 1998, the Modern Library ranked Brideshead Revisited No. 80 on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 45 on the BBC survey The Big Read. In 2005, it was chosen by Time magazine as one of the one hundred best English-language novels from 1923 to the present. In 2009, Newsweek magazine listed it as one of the 100 best books of world literature.
Controversy
Brideshead Revisited landed on the American Library Association's (ALA) list of banned and challenged classics. In 2005, Alabama Representative Gerald Allen (R-Cottondale) proposed a bill that would prohibit the use of public funds for the "purchase of textbooks or library materials that recognize or promote homosexuality as an acceptable lifestyle." The bill, which would have impacted all Alabama school, public, and university libraries, also proposed to remove and destroy novels and college textbooks that suggested that homosexuality is natural.
Adaptations
In 1981 Brideshead Revisited was adapted as an 11-episode TV serial, produced by Granada Television and aired on ITV, starring Jeremy Irons as Charles Ryder and Anthony Andrews as Lord Sebastian Flyte. The bulk of the serial was directed by Charles Sturridge, with a few sequences filmed by Michael Lindsay-Hogg. John Mortimer was given a credit as writer, but most of the scripts were based on work by producer Derek Granger.
To mark the 70th anniversary of its publication in 2003, BBC Radio 4 Extra produced a four-part adaptation, with Ben Miles as Charles Ryder and Jamie Bamber as Lord Sebastian Flyte. This version was adapted for radio by Jeremy Front and directed by Marion Nancarrow.
In 2008 BBC Audiobooks released an unabridged reading of the book by Jeremy Irons. The recording is 11.5 hours long and consists of 10 CDs.
There is an abridged audiobook version read by Sir John Gielgud available on Youtube.
In 2008 Brideshead Revisited was developed into a feature film of the same title, with Emma Thompson as Lady Marchmain, Matthew Goode as Charles Ryder, and Ben Whishaw as Lord Sebastian Flyte. The film was directed by Julian Jarrold and adapted by Jeremy Brock and Andrew Davies.
In 2020, it was announced that the novel will be adapted again for HBO. Andrew Garfield is set to play Charles Ryder, while Joe Alwyn will play Sebastian Flyte. Sebastian's sister, Julia, will be played by Rooney Mara. Ralph Fiennes will reportedly play Lord Marchmain, while Cate Blanchett is said to be in negotiations to play Lady Marchmain. Production for the film was set to begin in spring 2021, with filming taking place both in the U.K. and Italy, but was postponed indefinitely. In 2022 Garfield confirmed his involvement by stating that “It’s a matter of time and schedule, and financing”
References in other media
In scene 2 of Tom Stoppard's play Arcadia (1993), one character refers to another character who attends Oxford as "Brideshead Regurgitated". Et in Arcadia ego, the Latin phrase which is the title of the major section (Book One) of Brideshead Revisited, is also a central theme to Tom Stoppard's play. Stoppard's phrase may have been inspired by the 1980s BBC comedy series Three of a Kind, starring Tracey Ullman, Lenny Henry and David Copperfield, which featured a recurring sketch entitled "Brideshead Regurgitated", with Henry in the role of Charles Ryder.
In the early 1980s, following the release of the television series, the Australian Broadcasting Commission (from 1983, Australian Broadcasting Corporation) produced a radio show called Brunswick Heads Revisited. Brunswick Heads is a coastal town in northern New South Wales. The series was a spoof, and made fun of the 'Englishness' of Brideshead and many amusing parallels could be drawn between the upper class characters from Brideshead and their opposite numbers from rural Australia.
Paula Byrne's biography of Evelyn Waugh, titled Mad World: Evelyn Waugh and the Secrets of Brideshead, was published by HarperPress in the UK in August 2009 and HarperCollins New York in the US in April 2010. An excerpt was published in the Sunday Times 9 August 2009 under the headline "Sex Scandal Behind 'Brideshead Revisited'". The book concerns the 7th Earl of Beauchamp, who was the father of Waugh's friend Hugh Lygon. It states that the exiled Lord Marchmain is a version of Lord Beauchamp and Lady Marchmain of Lady Beauchamp, that the dissolute Lord Sebastian Flyte was modelled after Hugh Lygon and Lady Julia Flyte after Lady Mary Lygon. The book, which Byrne describes in the preface as a "partial life", identifies other real-life bases for events and characters in Waugh's novel, though Byrne argues carefully against simple one-to-one correspondences, suggesting instead that Waugh combined people, places and events into composite inventions, subtle transmutations of life into fiction. An illustrated extract appeared in the April 2010 issue of Vanity Fair in advance of American publication.
The novel is mentioned in Season 1, Episode 4 of Maron. Maron's date Justine (played by Maribeth Monroe) names Waugh as one of her favorite female authors; Maron corrects her and concedes that the novel "read as chick lit".
Related works
Marchmain House, the "supposedly luxurious" block of flats that replaced the Flytes' town house, serves as the wartime base for HOO (Hazardous Offensive Operations) Headquarters in Waugh's later novel Officers and Gentlemen (1955).
A fragment about the young Charles Ryder, entitled "Charles Ryder's Schooldays", was found after Waugh's death and is available in collections of Waugh's short works
There are many similarities between Brideshead Revisited and an earlier work, A Fellow of Trinity, 1891, by Alan St. Aubyn, the pen-name for Mrs Frances Marshall.
It has been suggested that the novel is influenced by The Thibaults by Roger Martin du Gard, another novel that centers on an intense relationship between two young men of opposing religious backgrounds.
References
Further reading
Mulvagh, Jane (2008) "Madresfield: The Real Brideshead". London, Doubleday.
Byrne, Paula (2009). Mad World: Evelyn Waugh and the Secrets of Brideshead. London: Harper Press.
External links
Hutchens, John K. (30 December 1945). "Evelyn Waugh's Finest Novel". The New York Times.
A Companion to the novel with exhaustive footnotes on cultural references in the text
Downloadable audio about Brideshead Revisited and Evelyn Waugh from EWTN
Guardian.co.uk, Article Regarding Waugh and Hollywood.
May 2008 Telegraph.co.uk, Telegraph Magazine, edited extract from 'Madresfield: The Real Brideshead' by Jane Mulvagh (Doubleday)
English novels
1945 British novels
Christ Church, Oxford
Novels set in University of Oxford
Novels by Evelyn Waugh
Family saga novels
LGBT and Catholicism
British LGBT novels
British novels adapted into films
British novels adapted into television shows
Novels set in the 1920s
Novels set in Wiltshire
Novels with gay themes
Catholicism in fiction
Catholic novels
Chapman & Hall books
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|
214137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear%20form | Linear form | In mathematics, a linear form (also known as a linear functional, a one-form, or a covector) is a linear map from a vector space to its field of scalars (often, the real numbers or the complex numbers).
If is a vector space over a field , the set of all linear functionals from to is itself a vector space over with addition and scalar multiplication defined pointwise. This space is called the dual space of , or sometimes the algebraic dual space, when a topological dual space is also considered. It is often denoted , or, when the field is understood, ; other notations are also used, such as , or When vectors are represented by column vectors (as is common when a basis is fixed), then linear functionals are represented as row vectors, and their values on specific vectors are given by matrix products (with the row vector on the left).
Examples
The "constant zero function," mapping every vector to zero, is trivially a linear functional. Every other linear functional (such as the ones below) is surjective (that is, its range is all of ).
Linear functionals in Rn
Suppose that vectors in the real coordinate space are represented as column vectors
For each row vector there is a linear functional defined by
and each linear functional can be expressed in this form.
This can be interpreted as either the matrix product or the dot product of the row vector and the column vector :
Trace of a square matrix
The trace of a square matrix is the sum of all elements on its main diagonal. Matrices can be multiplied by scalars and two matrices of the same dimension can be added together; these operations make a vector space from the set of all matrices. The trace is a linear functional on this space because and for all scalars and all matrices
(Definite) Integration
Linear functionals first appeared in functional analysis, the study of vector spaces of functions. A typical example of a linear functional is integration: the linear transformation defined by the Riemann integral
is a linear functional from the vector space of continuous functions on the interval to the real numbers. The linearity of follows from the standard facts about the integral:
Evaluation
Let denote the vector space of real-valued polynomial functions of degree defined on an interval If then let be the evaluation functional
The mapping is linear since
If are distinct points in then the evaluation functionals form a basis of the dual space of ( proves this last fact using Lagrange interpolation).
Non-example
A function having the equation of a line with (for example, ) is a linear functional on , since it is not linear. It is, however, affine-linear.
Visualization
In finite dimensions, a linear functional can be visualized in terms of its level sets, the sets of vectors which map to a given value. In three dimensions, the level sets of a linear functional are a family of mutually parallel planes; in higher dimensions, they are parallel hyperplanes. This method of visualizing linear functionals is sometimes introduced in general relativity texts, such as Gravitation by .
Applications
Application to quadrature
If are distinct points in , then the linear functionals defined above form a basis of the dual space of , the space of polynomials of degree The integration functional is also a linear functional on , and so can be expressed as a linear combination of these basis elements. In symbols, there are coefficients for which
for all This forms the foundation of the theory of numerical quadrature.
In quantum mechanics
Linear functionals are particularly important in quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanical systems are represented by Hilbert spaces, which are anti–isomorphic to their own dual spaces. A state of a quantum mechanical system can be identified with a linear functional. For more information see bra–ket notation.
Distributions
In the theory of generalized functions, certain kinds of generalized functions called distributions can be realized as linear functionals on spaces of test functions.
Dual vectors and bilinear forms
Every non-degenerate bilinear form on a finite-dimensional vector space induces an isomorphism such that
where the bilinear form on is denoted (for instance, in Euclidean space, is the dot product of and ).
The inverse isomorphism is , where is the unique element of such that
for all
The above defined vector is said to be the dual vector of
In an infinite dimensional Hilbert space, analogous results hold by the Riesz representation theorem. There is a mapping from into its V.
Relationship to bases
Basis of the dual space
Let the vector space have a basis , not necessarily orthogonal. Then the dual space has a basis called the dual basis defined by the special property that
Or, more succinctly,
where δ is the Kronecker delta. Here the superscripts of the basis functionals are not exponents but are instead contravariant indices.
A linear functional belonging to the dual space can be expressed as a linear combination of basis functionals, with coefficients ("components") ,
Then, applying the functional to a basis vector yields
due to linearity of scalar multiples of functionals and pointwise linearity of sums of functionals. Then
So each component of a linear functional can be extracted by applying the functional to the corresponding basis vector.
The dual basis and inner product
When the space carries an inner product, then it is possible to write explicitly a formula for the dual basis of a given basis. Let have (not necessarily orthogonal) basis In three dimensions (), the dual basis can be written explicitly
for where ε is the Levi-Civita symbol and the inner product (or dot product) on .
In higher dimensions, this generalizes as follows
where is the Hodge star operator.
Over a ring
Modules over a ring are generalizations of vector spaces, which removes the restriction that coefficients belong to a field. Given a module over a ring , a linear form on is a linear map from to , where the latter is considered as a module over itself. The space of linear forms is always denoted , whether is a field or not. It is an right module, if is a left module.
The existence of "enough" linear forms on a module is equivalent to projectivity.
Change of field
Suppose that is a vector space over Restricting scalar multiplication to gives rise to a real vector space called the of
Any vector space over is also a vector space over endowed with a complex structure; that is, there exists a real vector subspace such that we can (formally) write as -vector spaces.
Real versus complex linear functionals
Every linear functional on is complex-valued while every linear functional on is real-valued. If then a linear functional on either one of or is non-trivial (meaning not identically ) if and only if it is surjective (because if then for any scalar ), where the image of a linear functional on is while the image of a linear functional on is
Consequently, the only function on that is both a linear functional on and a linear function on is the trivial functional; in other words, where denotes the space's algebraic dual space.
However, every -linear functional on is an -linear (meaning that it is additive and homogeneous over ), but unless it is identically it is not an -linear on because its range (which is ) is 2-dimensional over Conversely, a non-zero -linear functional has range too small to be a -linear functional as well.
Real and imaginary parts
If then denote its real part by and its imaginary part by
Then and are linear functionals on and
The fact that for all implies that for all
and consequently, that and
The assignment defines a bijective -linear operator whose inverse is the map defined by the assignment that sends to the linear functional defined by
The real part of is and the bijection is an -linear operator, meaning that and for all and
Similarly for the imaginary part, the assignment induces an -linear bijection whose inverse is the map defined by sending to the linear functional on defined by
This relationship was discovered by Henry Löwig in 1934 (although it is usually credited to F. Murray), and can be generalized to arbitrary finite extensions of a field in the natural way. It has many important consequences, some of which will now be described.
Properties and relationships
Suppose is a linear functional on with real part and imaginary part
Then if and only if if and only if
Assume that is a topological vector space. Then is continuous if and only if its real part is continuous, if and only if 's imaginary part is continuous. That is, either all three of and are continuous or none are continuous. This remains true if the word "continuous" is replaced with the word "bounded". In particular, if and only if where the prime denotes the space's continuous dual space.
Let If for all scalars of unit length (meaning ) then
Similarly, if denotes the complex part of then implies
If is a normed space with norm and if is the closed unit ball then the supremums above are the operator norms (defined in the usual way) of and so that
This conclusion extends to the analogous statement for polars of balanced sets in general topological vector spaces.
If is a complex Hilbert space with a (complex) inner product that is antilinear in its first coordinate (and linear in the second) then becomes a real Hilbert space when endowed with the real part of Explicitly, this real inner product on is defined by for all and it induces the same norm on as because for all vectors Applying the Riesz representation theorem to (resp. to ) guarantees the existence of a unique vector (resp. ) such that (resp. ) for all vectors The theorem also guarantees that and It is readily verified that Now and the previous equalities imply that which is the same conclusion that was reached above.
In infinite dimensions
Below, all vector spaces are over either the real numbers or the complex numbers
If is a topological vector space, the space of continuous linear functionals — the — is often simply called the dual space. If is a Banach space, then so is its (continuous) dual. To distinguish the ordinary dual space from the continuous dual space, the former is sometimes called the . In finite dimensions, every linear functional is continuous, so the continuous dual is the same as the algebraic dual, but in infinite dimensions the continuous dual is a proper subspace of the algebraic dual.
A linear functional on a (not necessarily locally convex) topological vector space is continuous if and only if there exists a continuous seminorm on such that
Characterizing closed subspaces
Continuous linear functionals have nice properties for analysis: a linear functional is continuous if and only if its kernel is closed, and a non-trivial continuous linear functional is an open map, even if the (topological) vector space is not complete.
Hyperplanes and maximal subspaces
A vector subspace of is called maximal if (meaning and ) and does not exist a vector subspace of such that A vector subspace of is maximal if and only if it is the kernel of some non-trivial linear functional on (that is, for some linear functional on that is not identically ). An affine hyperplane in is a translate of a maximal vector subspace. By linearity, a subset of is a affine hyperplane if and only if there exists some non-trivial linear functional on such that
If is a linear functional and is a scalar then This equality can be used to relate different level sets of Moreover, if then the kernel of can be reconstructed from the affine hyperplane by
Relationships between multiple linear functionals
Any two linear functionals with the same kernel are proportional (i.e. scalar multiples of each other).
This fact can be generalized to the following theorem.
If is a non-trivial linear functional on with kernel , satisfies and is a balanced subset of , then if and only if for all
Hahn–Banach theorem
Any (algebraic) linear functional on a vector subspace can be extended to the whole space; for example, the evaluation functionals described above can be extended to the vector space of polynomials on all of However, this extension cannot always be done while keeping the linear functional continuous. The Hahn–Banach family of theorems gives conditions under which this extension can be done. For example,
Equicontinuity of families of linear functionals
Let be a topological vector space (TVS) with continuous dual space
For any subset of the following are equivalent:
is equicontinuous;
is contained in the polar of some neighborhood of in ;
the (pre)polar of is a neighborhood of in ;
If is an equicontinuous subset of then the following sets are also equicontinuous:
the weak-* closure, the balanced hull, the convex hull, and the convex balanced hull.
Moreover, Alaoglu's theorem implies that the weak-* closure of an equicontinuous subset of is weak-* compact (and thus that every equicontinuous subset weak-* relatively compact).
See also
Notes
Footnotes
Proofs
References
Bibliography
Functional analysis
Linear algebra
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|
214138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Anger | St. Anger | St. Anger is the eighth studio album by American heavy metal band Metallica, released on June 5, 2003. It was the last Metallica album released through Elektra Records and the final collaboration between Metallica and longtime producer Bob Rock, with whom the band had worked since 1990.
This is also Metallica's only album as an official trio, as bassist Jason Newsted left the band prior to the recording sessions: the band accepted an offer from Rock to play bass on the album in Newsted's place.
Recording began on April 23, 2001, but was postponed after rhythm guitarist and vocalist James Hetfield entered rehabilitation for alcoholism and various other addictions, and did not resume until May 2002. The recording is the subject of the 2004 documentary film Metallica: Some Kind of Monster. With an alternative metal style, raw production, and no guitar solos, St. Anger departed from Metallica's signature style. The artwork was created by frequent Metallica collaborator Pushead.
St. Anger was intended for release on June 10, 2003, but was released five days earlier due to concerns over unlicensed distribution via peer-to-peer file sharing networks. Despite mixed reviews, it debuted at the top of sales charts in 14 countries, including the US Billboard 200. After release, Metallica spent two years touring to promote the album. In 2004, the lead single, "St. Anger", won a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance. St. Anger was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping two million copies in the US; it has sold nearly six million copies worldwide.
Recording
Metallica rented an old United States Army barracks on the Presidio of San Francisco, and converted it into a makeshift studio in January 2001.
As plans were being made to enter the studio to write and record its first album in nearly five years, the band postponed the recording because of the departure of bassist Jason Newsted on January 17, 2001, with Newsted stating his departure was due to "private and personal reasons and the physical damage I have done to myself over the years while playing the music that I love". Due to the difficulty in immediately finding or auditioning for a new bassist to write and record with so close to the rescheduled sessions, Metallica accepted an offer from Bob Rock to play bass on the album, and stated they would find an official bass player upon the album's completion. In February 2003, as St. Anger was nearing completion, Metallica hired Robert Trujillo as their new bassist. He appeared on the footage of studio rehearsals of St. Anger in its entirety, which was included on DVD in the album package.
In July 2001, recording came to a halt when James Hetfield entered rehab for alcoholism and other undisclosed addictions. Hetfield returned to the band in December, but was only allowed to work on the album from noon to 4:00 PM. Due to his personal problems, as well as Metallica's internal struggles, the band hired a personal enhancement coach, Phil Towle. This, and the recording of the album, was documented by filmmakers Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky and released in 2004 as the film Metallica: Some Kind of Monster. From May 2002 until April 2003, the album was recorded at a new studio in San Rafael, California, known as "HQ".
Hetfield stated that the album was written with "a lot of passion". He said, "There's two years of condensed emotion in this. We've gone through a lot of personal changes, struggles, epiphanies, it's deep. It's so deep lyrically and musically. [St. Anger] is just the best that it can be from us right now." The band purposely wanted a raw sound on the album, so that Rock did not polish the sound while mixing. The band desired the raw sound because of the depth of the emotion they felt and did not want to "mess with it". Rock commented, "I wanted to do something to shake up radio and the way everything else sounds. To me, this album sounds like four guys in a garage getting together and writing rock songs. There was really no time to get amazing performances out of James. We liked the raw performances. And we didn't do what everyone does and what I've been guilty of for a long time, which is tuning vocals. We just did it, boom, and that was it." St. Anger is seen as a departure from the band's previous work, described as alternative metal and nu metal. The album also uses strong elements of groove metal and speed metal.
Guitarist Kirk Hammett commented on the lack of guitar solos on St. Anger, a departure for Metallica: "We wanted to preserve the sound of all four of us in a room just jamming. We tried to put guitar solos on, but we kept on running into this problem. It really sounded like an afterthought." Hammett said that he was happy with the final product. Rock stated, "We made a promise to ourselves that we'd only keep stuff that had integrity. We didn't want to make a theatrical statement by adding overdubs." Drummer Lars Ulrich recorded his drums without using the snares on his snare drum, resulting in a drum tone with far more "ring" than is usual in rock. Ulrich said, "One day I forgot to turn the snare on because I wasn't thinking about this stuff. At the playbacks, I decided I was really liking what I was hearing—it had a different ambience. It sang back to me in a beautiful way." Rock said the group spent only "15 minutes" on the drum sound, with fewer microphones than usual.
Artwork
Brian Schroeder designed the album cover and interior artwork for St. Anger. Schroeder has designed a number of items for Metallica in the past, including liner artwork of ...And Justice for All, several single covers, and many T-shirts; however, the album marks his first studio album cover art for the band. Originally, according to Metallica's official website, four different limited color variations of the cover were planned, but the idea was eventually scrapped.
Release and promotion
St. Anger was released on June 5, 2003. It was originally scheduled for June 10, but due to Metallica's previous battle with Napster and fear that it would be released illegally onto peer-to-peer file sharing networks, the band pushed the release date ahead by five days. A special edition of the album was released with a bonus DVD, featuring live, in-the-studio rehearsals of all of the St. Anger tracks. First week sales of the album were 417,000 copies, and it debuted at number 1 on the U.S. Billboard 200, as well as in 30 other countries around the world. In 2004, Metallica won the award for Best Metal Performance, for the title track.
After St. Angers release, Metallica embarked on a tour that lasted nearly two years. The first leg was the U.S. 2003 Summer Sanitarium tour with support from: Limp Bizkit, Deftones, Linkin Park, and Mudvayne. After Summer Sanitarium, the band began the Madly in Anger with the World Tour with support from Godsmack, Lostprophets, and Slipknot (both on certain European dates), which lasted until late 2004. The St. Anger songs "Frantic", "St. Anger", "Dirty Window" and "The Unnamed Feeling" were performed frequently during the tour. "Some Kind of Monster" was also played live, but not as often as other songs on the album, and “Sweet Amber” was played only once. The album tracks were altered when played live; sometimes they were shortened, or in some cases a guitar solo was added. Sometimes, only one song from the album was played live. By 2009, the songs from St. Anger were completely absent from Metallica's set lists. After "Frantic" was performed on October 21, 2008, songs from the album would entirely disappear from set lists on major tours, although it and "Dirty Window" were performed again on December 10, 2011, during the last concert of Metallica's special and private 30th Anniversary Tour, in San Francisco, California. "St. Anger" was also played again during the "Metallica by Request" tour in 2014 when it was voted by the fans, and also occasionally during concerts in 2014 and 2015. In October 2007, "All Within My Hands" was performed live for the first time, albeit rearranged and acoustically, at both nights of the Bridge School Benefit concerts; it would be performed similarly in November 2018 at the AWMH Foundation's Helping Hands concert in San Francisco, and again in September 2019 during the S&M 2 concert, also in San Francisco. On May 1, 2019, "Frantic" was performed on the WorldWired Tour in Lisbon, Portugal after many years of absence. It and the title track would be performed regularly on this leg of the tour. “Frantic” and “Dirty Window” were played during the 40th Anniversary shows in San Francisco in December 2021.
Metallica also released four singles from St. Anger. The order of the releases was: "St. Anger", "Frantic", "The Unnamed Feeling" and "Some Kind of Monster". On the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart, these singles charted at number 2, number 21, number 28 and number 18, respectively. Promotional music videos were also made for all four of the songs. These videos can be found on Metallica's DVD video collection, titled The Videos 1989-2004, and the video for "Some Kind of Monster" can also be found on the film Some Kind of Monster.
Critical reception
St. Anger received mixed reviews from critics; the album holds a score of 65 out of 100, based on 20 reviews, on review-aggregating website Metacritic. Adrien Begrand of PopMatters noted positive and negative aspects of the album, saying, "While it's an ungodly mess at times, what you hear on this album is a band playing with passion for the first time in years." Talking about the album, Greg Kot of Blender said, "It may be too late to rehabilitate Metallica's image, but once again, their music is all about bringing the carnage." Writing for NME, Ian Watson said that: ...the songs are a stripped back, heroically brutal reflection of this fury. You get the sense that, as with their emotional selves, they've taken metal apart and started again from scratch. There's no space wasted here, no time for petty guitar solos or downtuned bass trickery, just a focused, relentless attack. Johnny Loftus of AllMusic praised the album and described it as a "punishing, unflinching document of internal struggle—taking listeners inside the bruised yet vital body of Metallica, but ultimately revealing the alternately torturous and defiant demons that wrestle inside Hetfield's brain. St. Anger is an immediate record." Barry Walter of Rolling Stone magazine also had a positive reaction to the direction taken on St. Anger, stating: "No wonder there's an authenticity to St. Angers fury that none of the band's rap-metal followers can touch." He also went further to note the lack of commercial influence and modern rock aspects of previous albums, continuing: "There's no radio-size, four-minute rock here, no pop-friendly choruses, no ballads, no solos, no wayward experimentation."
Although some reviews of St. Anger were positive, other reviewers had a strong distaste for the album. Brent DiCrescenzo of Pitchfork criticized Ulrich and Hammett, saying that Ulrich was "playing a drum set consisting of steel drums, aluminum toms, programmed double kicks, and a broken church bell. The kit's high-end clamor ignored the basic principles of drumming: timekeeping," he added, "Hetfield and Hammett's guitars underwent more processing than cat food. When they both speedstrummed through St. Anger, and most other movements, [Hetfield and Hammett] seemed to overwhelm each other with different, terrible noise. Also the duration of most songs made it boring to hear them." Playlouder reviewer William Luff cited the album's 75-minute length and sound ("a monolithic slab of noise") as reasoning that St. Anger was "just too dense and daunting to be truly enjoyable." PopMatters reporter Michael Christopher said "St. Anger dispenses with the recent spate of radio friendly pleasantries in favor of pedal to the floor thrash, staggered and extended song structures, quick changes and a muddled production that tries to harken back to the Kill 'Em All days. All attempts fail miserably."
The album's snare drum sound was widely criticized. Ulrich dismissed the criticism as "closed-minded", and in July 2020 he affirmed that "I stand behind it 100% because, at that moment, that was the truth." In 2017, Hetfield said, "There are things I would like to change on some of the records, but it gives them so much character that you can’t change them ... St. Anger could use a little less tin snare drum, but those things are what make those records part of our history."
Track listing
Personnel
Metallica
James Hetfield – vocals, rhythm guitar, production
Kirk Hammett – lead guitar, production
Lars Ulrich – drums, production
Additional personnel
Bob Rock – bass, production, engineering, mixing
Production
Mike Gillies – assistant engineering, mixing, digital engineering
Eric Helmkamp – assistant engineering, mixing
Vlado Meller – mastering
Pushead – cover design
Anton Corbijn – photography
Brad Klausen – production design
Matt Mahurin, Forhelvede Productions, Pascal Brun, Comenius Röthlisberger – illustration and images
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
External links
2003 albums
Albums produced by Bob Rock
Elektra Records albums
Alternative metal albums by American artists
Metallica albums
Vertigo Records albums
Albums with cover art by Pushead | [
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214144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very-long-baseline%20interferometry | Very-long-baseline interferometry | Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) is a type of astronomical interferometry used in radio astronomy. In VLBI a signal from an astronomical radio source, such as a quasar, is collected at multiple radio telescopes on Earth or in space. The distance between the radio telescopes is then calculated using the time difference between the arrivals of the radio signal at different telescopes. This allows observations of an object that are made simultaneously by many radio telescopes to be combined, emulating a telescope with a size equal to the maximum separation between the telescopes.
Data received at each antenna in the array include arrival times from a local atomic clock, such as a hydrogen maser. At a later time, the data are correlated with data from other antennas that recorded the same radio signal, to produce the resulting image. The resolution achievable using interferometry is proportional to the observing frequency. The VLBI technique enables the distance between telescopes to be much greater than that possible with conventional interferometry, which requires antennas to be physically connected by coaxial cable, waveguide, optical fiber, or other type of transmission line. The greater telescope separations are possible in VLBI due to the development of the closure phase imaging technique by Roger Jennison in the 1950s, allowing VLBI to produce images with superior resolution.
VLBI is best known for imaging distant cosmic radio sources, spacecraft tracking, and for applications in astrometry. However, since the VLBI technique measures the time differences between the arrival of radio waves at separate antennas, it can also be used "in reverse" to perform earth rotation studies, map movements of tectonic plates very precisely (within millimetres), and perform other types of geodesy. Using VLBI in this manner requires large numbers of time difference measurements from distant sources (such as quasars) observed with a global network of antennas over a period of time.
Method
In VLBI, the digitized antenna data are usually recorded at each of the telescopes (in the past this was done on large magnetic tapes, but nowadays it is usually done on large arrays of computer disk drives). The antenna signal is sampled with an extremely precise and stable atomic clock (usually a hydrogen maser) that is additionally locked onto a GPS time standard. Alongside the astronomical data samples, the output of this clock is recorded. The recorded media are then transported to a central location. More recent experiments have been conducted with "electronic" VLBI (e-VLBI) where the data are sent by fibre-optics (e.g., 10 Gbit/s fiber-optic paths in the European GEANT2 research network) and not recorded at the telescopes, speeding up and simplifying the observing process significantly. Even though the data rates are very high, the data can be sent over normal Internet connections taking advantage of the fact that many of the international high speed networks have significant spare capacity at present.
At the location of the correlator, the data are played back. The timing of the playback is adjusted according to the atomic clock signals, and the estimated times of arrival of the radio signal at each of the telescopes. A range of playback timings over a range of nanoseconds are usually tested until the correct timing is found.
Each antenna will be a different distance from the radio source, and as with the short baseline radio interferometer the delays incurred by the extra distance to one antenna must be added artificially to the signals received at each of the other antennas. The approximate delay required can be calculated from the geometry of the problem. The tape playback is synchronized using the recorded signals from the atomic clocks as time references, as shown in the drawing on the right. If the position of the antennas is not known to sufficient accuracy or atmospheric effects are significant, fine adjustments to the delays must be made until interference fringes are detected. If the signal from antenna A is taken as the reference, inaccuracies in the delay will lead to errors and in the phases of the signals from tapes B and C respectively (see drawing on right). As a result of these errors the phase of the complex visibility cannot be measured with a very-long-baseline interferometer.
Temperature variations at VLBI sites can deform the structure of the antennas and affect the baseline measurements. Neglecting atmospheric pressure and hydrological loading corrections at the observation level can also contaminate the VLBI measurements by introducing annual and seasonal signals, like in the Global Navigation Satellite System time series.
The phase of the complex visibility depends on the symmetry of the source brightness distribution. Any brightness distribution can be written as the sum of a symmetric component and an anti-symmetric component. The symmetric component of the brightness distribution only contributes to the real part of the complex visibility, while the anti-symmetric component only contributes to the imaginary part. As the phase of each complex visibility measurement cannot be determined with a very-long-baseline interferometer the symmetry of the corresponding contribution to the source brightness distributions is not known.
Roger Clifton Jennison developed a novel technique for obtaining information about visibility phases when delay errors are present, using an observable called the closure phase. Although his initial laboratory measurements of closure phase had been done at optical wavelengths, he foresaw greater potential for his technique in radio interferometry. In 1958 he demonstrated its effectiveness with a radio interferometer, but it only became widely used for long-baseline radio interferometry in 1974. At least three antennas are required. This method was used for the first VLBI measurements, and a modified form of this approach ("Self-Calibration") is still used today.
Scientific results
Some of the scientific results derived from VLBI include:
High resolution radio imaging of cosmic radio sources.
Imaging the surfaces of nearby stars at radio wavelengths (see also interferometry) – similar techniques have also been used to make infrared and optical images of stellar surfaces.
Definition of the celestial reference frame.
Motion of the Earth's tectonic plates.
Regional deformation and local uplift or subsidence.
Earth's orientation parameters and fluctuations in the length of day.
Maintenance of the terrestrial reference frame.
Measurement of gravitational forces of the Sun and Moon on the Earth and the deep structure of the Earth.
Improvement of atmospheric models.
Measurement of the fundamental speed of gravity.
The tracking of the Huygens probe as it passed through Titan's atmosphere, allowing wind velocity measurements.
First imaging of a supermassive black hole.
VLBI arrays
There are several VLBI arrays located in Europe, Canada, the United States, Russia, China, South Korea, Japan, Mexico, Australia and Thailand. The most sensitive VLBI array in the world is the European VLBI Network (EVN). This is a part-time array that brings together the largest European radiotelescopes and some others outside of Europe for typically weeklong sessions, with the data being processed at the Joint Institute for VLBI in Europe (JIVE). The Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), which uses ten dedicated, 25-meter telescopes spanning 5351 miles across the United States, is the largest VLBI array that operates all year round as both an astronomical and geodesy instrument. The combination of the EVN and VLBA is known as Global VLBI. When one or both of these arrays are combined with space-based VLBI antennas such as HALCA or Spektr-R, the resolution obtained is higher than any other astronomical instrument, capable of imaging the sky with a level of detail measured in microarcseconds. VLBI generally benefits from the longer baselines afforded by international collaboration, with a notable early example in 1976, when radio telescopes in the United States, USSR and Australia were linked to observe hydroxyl-maser sources. This technique is currently being used by the Event Horizon Telescope, whose goal is to observe the supermassive black holes at the centers of the Milky Way Galaxy and Messier 87.
e-VLBI
VLBI has traditionally operated by recording the signal at each telescope on magnetic tapes or disks, and shipping those to the correlation center for replay. Recently, it has become possible to connect VLBI radio telescopes in close to real-time, while still employing the local time references of the VLBI technique, in a technique known as e-VLBI. In Europe, six radio telescopes of the European VLBI Network (EVN) are now connected with Gigabit per second links via their National Research Networks and the Pan-European research network GEANT2, and the first astronomical experiments using this new technique were successfully conducted in 2011.
The image to the right shows the first science produced by the European VLBI Network using e-VLBI. The data from 6 telescopes were processed in real time at the European Data Processing centre at JIVE. The Netherlands Academic Research Network SURFnet provides 6 x 1 Gbit/s connectivity between JIVE and the GEANT2 network.
Space VLBI
In the quest for even greater angular resolution, dedicated VLBI satellites have been placed in Earth orbit to provide greatly extended baselines. Experiments incorporating such space-borne array elements are termed Space Very Long Baseline Interferometry (SVLBI). The first SVLBI experiment was carried out on Salyut-6 orbital station with KRT-10, a 10-meter radio telescope, which was launched in July 1978.
The first dedicated SVLBI satellite was HALCA, an 8-meter radio telescope, which was launched in February 1997 and made observations until October 2003. Due to the small size of the dish, only very strong radio sources could be observed with SVLBI arrays incorporating it.
Another SVLBI satellite, a 10-meter radio telescope Spektr-R, was launched in July 2011 and made observations until January 2019. It was placed into a highly elliptical orbit, ranging from a perigee of 10,652 km to an apogee of 338,541 km, making RadioAstron, the SVLBI program incorporating the satellite and ground arrays, the biggest radio interferometer to date. The resolution of the system reached 8 microarcseconds.
International VLBI Service for Geodesy and Astrometry
The International VLBI Service for Geodesy and Astrometry (IVS) is an international collaboration whose purpose is to use the observation of astronomical radio sources using (VLBI) to precisely determine earth orientation parameters (EOP) and celestial reference frames (CRF) and terrestrial reference frames (TRF). IVS is a service operating under the International Astronomical Union (IAU) and the International Association of Geodesy (IAG).
References
External links
E-MERLIN fibre-linked radio telescope array used in VLBI observations
EXPReS Express Production Real-time e-VLBI Service: a three-year project (est. March 2006) funded by the European Commission to develop an intercontinental e-VLBI instrument available to the scientific community
JIVE Joint Institute for VLBI in Europe
The International VLBI Service for Geodesy and Astrometry (IVS)
IVSOPAR: the VLBI analysis center at the Paris Observatory
"VLBI - Canada's Role"
Astronomical imaging
Interferometry
Radio astronomy
Geodesy
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|
214148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletproof%20Monk | Bulletproof Monk | Bulletproof Monk is a 2003 American superhero comedy film directed by Paul Hunter in his directorial debut, and starring Chow Yun-fat, Seann William Scott, and Jaime King. The film is loosely based on the comic book written by Brett Lewis with art by Michael Avon Oeming. The film was shot in Toronto and Hamilton, Canada, and other locations that resemble New York City.
Plot
In Tibet, 1943, a Tibetan monk is informed by his master that he has fulfilled a series of prophecies that mark him as his successor. The monk, forgoing his name, is entrusted with guarding a scroll his master protected, that contains knowledge that will make its reader powerful, young, and immune to injury. Granted its powers, the monk learns he will need to find his own successor to pass on the scroll in his future. Shortly after he receives the scroll, he is forced to flee when Nazi German soldiers, led by their officer Strucker, attack the monk's temple and kill his master. Strucker, who sought the scroll for his own desires, vows to track down the monk.
Sixty years later, in 2003, the nameless Monk witnesses a young pickpocket named Kar, fleeing from police after he was caught robbing one of their officers, along with members of a local gang who do not like him pick-pocketing on their turf. When the pair collide with a young girl and put her into the path of an oncoming train, Kar and Monk rescue her. Shortly after the pair introduce themselves to each other, Kar steals the scroll from Monk and runs away. Monk pursues him, suspecting he may be a suitable successor to him, based on three prophecies his master told him before his death, the first of which Kar has fulfilled. When Kar finds himself fighting against the local gang's leader, he meets a young woman named Jade, whom he falls in love with. The next day, Monk meets with Kar to talk with him, just as Jade approaches them to ask Kar to return her necklace to her, which he had stolen to earn her esteem. The meeting is interrupted when Monk is forced to run from a group of mercenaries seeking him, taking Kar with him.
At an Asian laundromat, Monk reveals that its cellar houses a group of fellow monks who aid him, and decides to show Kar some advanced combat techniques. While training at an abandoned warehouse, the pair are attacked by the mercenaries, who steal the scroll for their employer Nina, the head of the Human Rights Organisation, and Strucker, her grandfather. However, the pair discover the scroll is a fake; Kar learns that the real secret in it was tattooed onto Monk's body. Angered, Nina visits Kar's home to track the pair down, murdering Kar's employer. When Kar learns of this, he proceeds to seek out help from Monk at the laundromat. An ambitious monk betrays the group to Strucker and Nina. While Monk and Kar escape, the mercenaries capture all of the monks and take them to a secret facility beneath the Organisation's headquarters, where they are all tortured; the monk who betrayed them is killed.
Seeking help, Kar and Monk visit Jade at her home, learning that she is the daughter of a currently imprisoned Russian crime lord. Monk realises that this fact and a small tussle between Kar and Jade inside the house, have fulfilled the second prophecy he was told about. At that moment, the group are interrupted by Nina and her mercenaries, who capture Monk and take him back to their base. Jade, having met Nina earlier that day when she was opening an exhibit created by the Organisation, helps Kar infiltrate their headquarters. Both later get separated. Strucker, dressed in his officer's uniform, begins reading the scroll on Monk's body and regains his youth. However, he finds that the scroll's last verse, which Monk reveals he memorised, is missing. Before Strucker can scan Monk's brain for it, Kar arrives and distracts him, allowing Monk to break free. While Jade, having dealt with Nina, works to free the monks, Monk and Kar engage with Strucker and throw him off the headquarters' roof and onto some electric cables.
Believing he has been dealt with, Monk and Kar reunite with the monks and Jade, before the Scroll's contents are transferred to Kar, having fulfilled the third prophecy. Strucker, still alive, attempts to kill Kar, but is killed himself instead by a falling statue. Kar is then surprised to find that Jade has the Scroll's power herself, having survived being shot at by Strucker - like Kar, she also fulfilled the three prophecies, and has the Scroll's content on her body as well. Monk, now aged, meets with Kar and Jade the next day, giving each one half of the final verse, deeming them now inseparable. The pair wish him a good vacation from his duties, before departing to fulfill their new roles.
Cast
Chow Yun-fat as Monk with No Name
Seann William Scott as Kar
Jaime King as Jade "Bad Girl" Kerensky
Karel Roden as Strucker
Victoria Smurfit as Nina Strucker
Roger Yuan as Brother Tenzin
Mako as Mr. Kojima
Marcus Jean Pirae as "Funktastic"
Production
In May 2000, it was announced MGM had paid high six figures against a potential seven-figure deal to turn the cult comic “Bulletproof Monk” into a live-action film that would star Chow Yun-fat as the title character with John Woo and Terence Chang’s Lion Rock Productions producing. Seann William Scott was cast in November 2001.
Reception
Box office
The film grossed approximately $23 million in the United States, with a worldwide total of $37 million, less than the production budget of $52 million.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 23% based on 132 reviews. The site's consensus reads: "Venerable action star Chow Yun-Fat is the only saving grace in this silly action flick that more often than not resembles a commercial in style." On Metacritic it has a score of 40% based on reviews from 29 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B on scale of A to F.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 2 out of 4, and wrote: "The fight scenes in Bulletproof Monk are not as inventive as some I've seen (although the opening fight on a rope bridge is so well done that it raises expectations it cannot fulfill)."
Robert Koehler of Variety wrote: "adults will likely object to the innumerable plot question marks coming off the screen like so many kung-fu kicks to the head." Koehler compares the film to Hong Kong action movies, noting that the fights are relatively tame, but the visual effects are generally excellent.
Jamie Russell at the BBC gave it 3/5 and called it "Truly naff, but endearingly silly."
David Edelstein of Slate contended that Bulletproof Monk was "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon for the American Pie audience"; panning its poor special effects and cinematography (the former he compared to an "afternoon Japanese kiddie series"), and concluded that "they made a ton of junky movies in Hong Kong, but those were dazzlingly fluid and high-flying junky movies. This American retread has the same sort of hack plot but none of the bravura. It makes them look like monkeys, and not bulletproof ones."
Bill Stamets of the Chicago Reader panned Bulletproof Monk for having "routine" fight scenes and juvenile humor, and that "the film plays off Chow's imperturbable persona, but the Tibetan philosophy boils down to the paradox of hot dogs coming ten to a package while buns are sold in sets of eight."
References
External links
2003 films
2000s action comedy films
2000s buddy films
2000s fantasy films
2003 martial arts films
2000s superhero films
American films
American action comedy films
American buddy films
American martial arts films
American superhero films
English-language films
Films scored by Éric Serra
Films based on Image Comics
Films about Tibet
Films based on American comics
Films shot in Hamilton, Ontario
Films shot in Toronto
Lakeshore Entertainment films
Live-action films based on comics
Martial arts comedy films
Martial arts fantasy films
2003 directorial debut films
2003 comedy films
Films set in a movie theatre | [
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214155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stenka%20Razin | Stenka Razin | Stepan Timofeyevich Razin (, ; 1630 – ), known as Stenka Razin ( ), was a Cossack leader who led a major uprising against the nobility and tsarist bureaucracy in southern Russia in 1670–1671.
Early life
Razin's father, Timofey Razya, supposedly came from a suburb of Voronezh, a city near Russia's steppe frontier, called the Wild Fields. Razin's uncle and grandmother still lived in the village of New Usman''' or Usman' Sobakina, outside of Voronezh, until 1667. The identity of Razin's mother is debated. In one document, Razin was referred to as a tuma Cossack which means "half-blood", leading to a hypothesis that his mother was a captured "Turkish" (turchanka) or Crimean Tatar woman. However, this term was also used by "upper Cossacks" as a derogatory nickname towards all "lower Cossacks" regardless of origin Another hypothesis draws on information about Razin's godmother Matrena Govorukha. According to tradition, a godmother should be related to a birthmother, and Stenka's godmother lived in the town of in Sloboda Ukraine. Thus, Stepan's mother could also be Ukrainian.
Razin was first mentioned in historical sources in 1652, when he asked for permission to go on a long-distance pilgrimage to the great Solovetsky Monastery on the White Sea. In 1661, he was mentioned as part of a diplomatic mission from the Don Cossacks to the Kalmyks. After that, all trace of him was lost for six years, after which he reappeared as the leader of a robber community established at Panshinskoye, among the marshes between the Tishina and Ilovlya rivers, whence he levied tribute from all vessels passing up and down the Volga. In 1665, his elder brother, Ivan, was executed by order of for unauthorized desertion from the war with Poles.
Protracted wars with Poland in 1654–1667 and the Russo-Swedish War (1656–1658) put a heavy burden upon the people of Russia. Taxes increased, as did conscription. Many peasants, hoping to escape these burdens, fled south and joined Razin's bands of Cossacks. They were also joined by many others who were disaffected with the Russian government, including people of the lower classes, as well as representatives of non-Russian ethnic groups such as Kalmyks, that were being oppressed at the time.
Razin's first notable exploit was to destroy the great naval convoy consisting of the treasury barges and the barges of the Patriarch and the wealthy merchants of Moscow. Razin then sailed down the Volga with a fleet of 35 vessels, capturing the more important forts on his way and devastating the country. At the beginning of 1668, he defeated the voivode Yakov Bezobrazov, sent against him from Astrakhan, and in the spring embarked on a predatory expedition into Daghestan and the Persia, which lasted for eighteen months.
Background
The Time of Troubles, which lasted from 1598 to 1613, had proven a difficult period for Russia. The direct male line of Rurik dynasty tsars died out in 1598, and the rule of the Romanov dynasty (which would eventually end with the February Revolution of 1917) began only in 1613. The reigns of Michael Romanov (tsar from 1613 to 1645) and of his son Alexis (tsar from 1645 to 1676) saw a strengthening of the power of the tsar with a view to stabilizing the Russian lands after the turmoil of the Time of Troubles. As a result, the Zemsky Sobor and the boyar council, two other bodies of government in Russia, slowly lost influence. The Russian population went from fifteen years of "near anarchy" to the reigns of strong, centralizing autocrats.
In addition, a deep divide existed between the peasantry and the nobility in Russia. Changes in the treatment and legal standing of peasants, including the institutionalization of serfdom with the Law Code of 1649, contributed to unrest among the peasantry. The Don Cossacks, a largely lower-class group which lived independently near the Don River and which the tsar's government subsidized in exchange for defending Russia's southern borders, led Razin's rebellion. Historian Paul Avrich characterizes Razin's revolt as a "curious mixture of brigandage and revolt", similar to other popular uprisings of the period. Razin revolted against the "traitor-boyars" rather than against the tsar. Cossacks supported the tsar in that they worked for him as contracted military forces - just as they had previously served the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Departure from the Don
In 1667, Razin gathered a small group of Cossacks and left the Don for an expedition in the Caspian Sea. He aimed to set up a base in Yaitsk (now known as Oral, located in Kazakhstan on the Ural River) and plunder villages from there. However, Moscow learned of Razin's plans and attempted to stop him. As Razin traveled down the Volga River to Tsaritsyn, the voivodes of Astrakhan warned Andrei Unkovsky (the voivode or governor of Tsaritsyn) of Razin's arrival and recommended that he not allow the Cossacks to enter the town.
Unkovsky attempted to negotiate with Razin, but Razin threatened to set fire to Tsaritsyn if Unkovsky interfered. When he encountered a group of political prisoners being transported by the tsar's representatives on his way from the Don to the Volga, Razin reportedly said, "I shall not force you to join me, but whoever chooses to come with me will be a free Cossack. I have come to fight only the boyars and the wealthy lords. As for the poor and plain folk, I shall treat them as brothers."
When Razin sailed by Tsartisyn, Unkovsky did not attack (possibly either because he felt that Razin posed a threat or because the guards of Tsaritsyn sympathized with Razin's Cossacks). This incident gave Razin the reputation of an "invincible warrior endowed with supernatural powers." He continued his travels down the Volga and into the Caspian Sea, defeating several detachments of streltsy, or musketeers. In July 1667, Razin captured Yaitsk by disguising himself and some of his companions as pilgrims to pray at the cathedral. Once inside Yaitsk, they opened the gates for the rest of the troops to enter and occupy the city. The opposition sent to fight Razin felt reluctant to do so because they sympathized with the Cossacks.
In the spring of 1668, Razin led the majority of his men down the Yaik River (also known as the Ural River) while a small portion stayed behind to guard Yaitsk. However, the government defeated Razin's men in Yaitsk and Razin lost his base there.
Persian expedition
After losing Yaitsk, Razin sailed south down the coast of the Caspian Sea to continue his pillaging. He and his men then attacked Persia. Failing to capture the well-defended fortress port of Darband/Derbent in present-day Dagestan, his forces moved south to attack the small port of Badkuba (present Baku) located on the Absheron Peninsula in present-day Republic of Azerbaijan, but at Rasht (in the southwest Caspian Sea in modern Iran) the Persians killed roughly 400 Cossacks in a surprise attack. Razin went to Isfahan to ask the shah for land in Persia in exchange for loyalty to the shah, but departed on the Caspian for more pillaging before they could reach an agreement. Razin arrived in Farahabad (on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea in Iran) and masqueraded as a merchant in the city for several days before he and his men pillaged the city for two days. That winter the Cossacks with Razin fended off starvation and disease on the Miankaleh Peninsula, and in the spring of 1669 Razin built a base on the eastern side of the Caspian Sea and began raiding Turkmen villages. Then in the spring of 1669 he established himself on the isle of Suina, off which, in July, he annihilated a Persian fleet sent against him. Stenka Razin, as he was generally called, had now become a potentate with whom princes did not disdain to treat.
In August 1669 he reappeared at Astrakhan and accepted a fresh offer of pardon from Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich there; the common people were fascinated by his adventures. The lawless Russian border region of Astrakhan, where the whole atmosphere was predatory and many people were still nomadic, was the natural milieu for such a rebellion as Razin's.
Open rebellion
In 1670 Razin, while ostensibly on his way to report at the Cossack headquarters on the Don, openly rebelled against the government, capturing Cherkassk and Tsaritsyn. After capturing Tsaritsyn, Razin sailed up the Volga with his army of almost 7,000 men. The men traveled toward Cherny Yar, a government stronghold between Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan. Razin and his men swiftly took Cherny Yar when the Cherny Yar streltsy rose up against their officers and joined the Cossack cause in June 1670. On June 24 he reached the city of Astrakhan. Astrakhan, Russia's wealthy "window on the East," occupied a strategically important location at the mouth of the Volga River on the shore of the Caspian Sea. Razin plundered the city despite its location on a strongly fortified island and the stone walls and brass cannons that surrounded the central citadel. The local streltsy's rebellion allowed Razin to gain access to the city.
After massacring all who opposed him (including two Princes Prozorovsky) and giving the rich bazaars of the city over to pillage, he converted Astrakhan into a Cossack republic, dividing the population into thousands, hundreds, and tens, with their proper officers, all of whom were appointed by a veche or general assembly, whose first act was to proclaim Razin their gosudar (sovereign).
After a three-week carnival of blood and debauchery, Razin quit Astrakhan with two hundred barges full of troops. His aim was to establish the Cossack republic along the whole length of the Volga as a preliminary step towards advancing against Moscow. Saratov and Samara were captured, but Simbirsk defied all efforts, and after two bloody encounters close at hand on the banks of the Sviyaga River (October 1 and 4), Razin was ultimately routed by the army of Yuri Baryatinsky and fled down the Volga, leaving the bulk of his followers to be extirpated by the victors.
But the rebellion was by no means over. The emissaries of Razin, armed with inflammatory proclamations, had stirred up the inhabitants of the modern governments of Nizhny Novgorod, Tambov, and Penza, and penetrated even as far as Moscow and Novgorod. It was not difficult to stir the oppressed population to revolt by promising deliverance from their yoke. Razin proclaimed that his object was to root out the boyars and all officials, to level all ranks and dignities, and establish Cossackdom, with its corollary of absolute equality, throughout Russia.
Even at the beginning of 1671 the outcome of the struggle was doubtful. Eight battles had been fought before the insurrection showed signs of weakening, and it continued for six months after Razin had received his quietus. At Simbirsk his prestige had been shattered. Even his own settlements at Saratov and Samara refused to open their gates to him, and the Don Cossacks, hearing that the Patriarch had anathematized Razin, also declared against him. The tsar sent troops to suppress the revolt. As Paul Avrich notes in Russian Rebels, 1600–1800, "The brutality of the repressions by far exceeded the atrocities committed by the insurgents." The tsar's troops mutilated the rebels' bodies and displayed them in public to serve as a warning to potential dissenters.
In 1671, Stepan and his brother Frol Razin were captured at Kagalnik Fortress (Кагальницкий городок) by Cossack elders. They were given over to Tsarist officials in Moscow, and on 16 June 1671, following the announcement of the verdict against him, Stepan Razin was quartered on the scaffold on Red Square. A sentence of death was read aloud: Razin listened to this calmly, then turned to the church, bowed in three directions, passing the Kremlin and the tsar and said: "Forgive me". The executioner then proceeded to first cut off his right hand to his elbow, then his left foot to the knee. His brother Frol, witnessing Stepan's torment, shouted out: "I know the word and the matter of the sovereign!" (that is, "I am willing to inform upon those disloyal to the tsar"). Stepan shouted back, "Shut up, dog!" These were his last words; after them the executioner hurriedly cut off his head. Razin's hands, legs, and head, according to the testimony of the Englishman Thomas Hebdon, were stuck on five specially-placed stakes. The confession helped Frol to postpone his own execution, although five years later, in 1676, he was executed too.
Implications
Razin originally set out to loot villages, but as he became a symbol of peasant unrest, his movement turned political. Razin wanted to protect the independence of the Cossacks and to protest an increasingly centralized government. The Cossacks supported the tsar and autocracy, but they wanted a tsar that responded to the needs of the people and not just those of the upper class. By destroying and pillaging villages, Razin intended to take power from the government officials and give more autonomy to the peasants. However, Razin's movement failed and the rebellion led to increased government control. The Cossacks lost some of their autonomy, and the tsar bonded more closely with the upper class because both feared more rebellion. On the other hand, as Avrich asserts, "[Razin's revolt] awakened, however dimly, the social consciousness of the poor, gave them a new sense of power, and made the upper class tremble for their lives and possessions."
At the time of the Russian Civil War, the famous writer and White emigre Ivan Bunin compared Razin to Bolshevik leaders, writing "Good God! What striking similarity there is between the time of Sten'ka and the pillaging that is going on today in the name of the 'Third International.'"
In Russian-language culture and folklore
Razin and the "Persian princess"
One of the most popular cultural motives associated with Razin is the episode with the drowning of the "Persian princess" in the river. Modern historians doubt the reality of this episode. There are two reports of foreigners who ended up in Astrakhan during the uprising. One of the testimonies is the memoirs of the Dutch traveler Jan Struis. This testimony is much more famous, it was widely used by Russian historians and it served as the basis for the plot of the song. The other is the notes of the Dutchman Ludwig Fabricius, which became known only after the Second World War. In the first, a Persian princess appears, drowned in the Volga, in the second, a certain "Tatar maiden" drowned in the Yaik River. Streis conveys the story as drunken cruelty, and Fabritius as the fulfillment of the oath that Razin made to a certain "water god" Ivan Gorinovich, who controls the Yaik River: Razin promised that as a reward for good luck he would give this "god" the best he has.
In 1883, the Russian poet Dmitry Sadovnikov published the poem "Stenka Razin", which he, as was customary, presented as a "folk epic". The text of this poem, with minor changes, was set to music by an unknown author and became extremely popular, and was performed by many famous singers. The lyrics of the song were dramatized in one of the first Russian narrative films, Stenka Razin directed by Vladimir Romashkov in 1908. The film lasts about 10 minutes. The screenplay was written by Vasily Goncharov, and the music (the first film music to be specially written to accompany a silent film) was by Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov. The song recounts that Razin aboard his ship tames the captured "Persian princess" and his men accuse him of weakness — communicating with a woman, he himself became a "woman" the next morning. Hearing these speeches, Razin throws the "princess" into the water as a gift to the Volga river, and continues the drunken fun with his men.
The song was included in early radio broadcasts in 1923, designed to introduce the new media to peasant communities. An account of this was given by Charles Ashleigh who visited a training college for electrical engineers located in Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius.
The popular song is known by the words Volga, Volga mat' rodnaya, Iz za ostrova na strezhen, and, simply, Stenka Razin. The song gave the title to the famous Soviet musical comedy Volga-Volga. The melody was used by Tom Springfield in the song "The Carnival Is Over" that placed The Seekers at #1 in 1965 in Australia and the UK.
A version of this song is also performed by Doukhobors in Canada.
Score:
Other Issues
Razin is the subject of a symphonic poem by Alexander Glazunov, Symphony no. 8 by Myaskovsky (op. 26, 1925), a cantata by Shostakovich, op. 119; The Execution of Stepan Razin (1964), a poem by Yevgeny Yevtushenko, and a novel, '', (Я пришёл дать вам волю) by Vasily Shukshin.
Beside that, Razin was glorified in the Soviet drama film of 1939 directed by Ivan Pravov and Olga Preobrazhenskaya.
One of his atamans, Alena Arzamasskaia, was a former nun.
Razin is the subject of the Landmark book "Chief of the Cossacks".
References
Citations
125 p. Biography in English.
319 p. Biography in Russian.
93 p. Biography in Russian.
, 383 p. Biography in Russian.
External links
Recording of Doukhobor Peter Gritchen performing verses of Volga, Volga mat' rodnaya
1630 births
1671 deaths
17th-century conflicts
Don Cossacks
Tsardom of Russia people
Peasant revolts
Russian pirates
Cossack rebels
Executed revolutionaries
Executed people from Voronezh Oblast
Russian folklore characters
Characters in Bylina
17th-century executions by Russia
People executed by dismemberment | [
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|
214156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia%20Folk%20Festival | Philadelphia Folk Festival | The Philadelphia Folk Festival is a folk music festival held annually at Old Pool Farm in Upper Salford, Pennsylvania, in the vicinity of Philadelphia.
The four-day festival, which is produced and run almost entirely by volunteers and sponsored by the non-profit Philadelphia Folksong Society, is claimed to be the oldest continually-run outdoor music festival in North America.
The event hosts contemporary and traditional artists in genres under the umbrella of Folk, including World/Fusion, Celtic, Singer/Songwriter, Folk Rock, Country, Klezmer, and Dance.
Gene Shay and folklorist Kenneth S. Goldstein founded the festival, along with George Britton, Bob Seigel, David Baskin, Esther Halpern, and others. Shay has acted as Master of Ceremonies since its inception and Goldstein served as Program Director for the first 15 years.
Originally held on Wilson Farm in Paoli, Pennsylvania, each year the event hosts over 35,000 visitors and nearly 7,000 campers at the Old Pool Farm. The event presents over 75 hours of music with local, regional, and national talent on 8 stages. A special Camp Stage show takes place on Thursday night, hosted by WXPN radio for the nationally syndicated World Cafe with David Dye.
The Philadelphia Folksong Society presents the Philadelphia Folk Festival and has a full-time, year-round staff. The current PFS Executive Director is Justin Nordell. A role given to him by his Mother, Lisa while she was the president of the board of directors for the parent organization. Past E.D.s include Lauri Barish and Levi Landis.
This festival went online in 2020, as live concerts were cancelled caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. It is unclear if the festival will continue at this point. The parent organization, The Philadelphia Folk Song Society, is experiencing significant financial issues, due to the poor management of the Folk Festival, and the Society in general…
See also
Newport Folk Festival
References
Folk festivals in the United States
Music festivals in Philadelphia
1962 establishments in Pennsylvania
Music festivals established in 1962 | [
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|
214164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby%20M | Baby M | Baby M (born March 27, 1986) was the pseudonym used in the case In re Baby M, 537 A.2d 1227, 109 N.J. 396 (N.J. 1988) for the infant whose legal parentage was in question.
Origins
In re Baby M was a custody case that became the first American court ruling on the validity of surrogacy. William Stern entered into a surrogacy agreement with Mary Beth Whitehead, arranged by the Infertility Center of New York ("ICNY"), opened in 1981 by a Michigan attorney, Noel Keane According to the agreement, Mary Beth Whitehead would be inseminated with William Stern's sperm (making her a traditional, as opposed to gestational, surrogate), bring the pregnancy to term, and relinquish her parental rights in favor of William's wife, Elizabeth. Mary Beth initially relinquished the child to the Sterns per the contract, but returned the next day, threatening to kill herself if she couldn't see the infant. The Sterns, not wanting to risk Mary Beth's life, agreed to let her see the baby for an additional day or two. Instead of returning to the Sterns, Mary Beth and her husband Richard kidnapped Baby M for 87 days. The Sterns turned to the courts, who issued an ex parte order for the child to be returned to New Jersey, where the matter would be discussed in court, and temporary custody was awarded to the Sterns.
Aftermath
Judge Harvey Sorkow of the New Jersey Superior Court, Chancery Division, Family Part, awarded permanent custody of Baby M to the father, Judge Sorkow enforced the contract signed by both parties before the child was conceived and terminated the parental rights of the birth mother. He based the custody decision on the best interests of the child, taking into account testimony on the stability of Whitehead and Stern and their respective family situations, and also found that the surrogate parenting agreement was valid and enforceable.
Whitehead appealed the decision to the New Jersey Supreme Court. It upheld the awarding of custody to Mr. Stern as in the child's best interest, but held the contract to be unenforceable and restored Whitehead's parental rights, leaving the terms of her visitation rights as noncustodial parent to be established by the trial court.
Background details
In March 1984, Mary Beth Whitehead responded to an ad placed by the Infertility Center of New York in the Asbury Park Press seeking women willing to help infertile couples have children. She was a high school drop-out who had married Richard Whitehead, a truck driver with whom she had two children, Ryan and Tuesday. At roughly the time of her pregnancy with Baby M, Richard was in an accident. He failed to notice that a trailer carrying a full-sized bulldozer had detached from the large dump truck he was driving, as he passed through South Jersey's largest traffic circle.
Elizabeth Stern was not infertile, but had multiple sclerosis and she and her husband William Stern were worried about the potential health implications of pregnancy, including temporary paralysis. While in vitro fertilization of harvested eggs, followed by implantation of a blastula/embryo was an available technology, Elizabeth Stern feared the then-totally-unknown genetic risk factors, the choice repeatedly subject of the Court's questions to Stern and his counsel. In court, Bill Stern testified that having a child who was related to him by blood was of particular importance because he is the last survivor of a family wiped out by the Holocaust in Nazi Germany.
The Sterns and Mary Beth Whitehead entered into a "surrogacy contract," according to which Whitehead would be artificially inseminated with Stern's sperm, and relinquish her parental rights in favor of the Sterns, in return for $10,000, and possibly expenses.
On March 27, 1986, Whitehead gave birth to a daughter. She managed, initially, to get a birth certificate naming the infant Sara Elizabeth Whitehead. Three days after the birth, the infant was handed to the Sterns, who named her Melissa Elizabeth Stern. The very next day, Whitehead went back to the Sterns and demanded that the baby be given back to her. She told them that she could not live without her baby, that she must have her, even if only for one week, that thereafter she would surrender her child. The Sterns, concerned that Mrs. Whitehead might indeed commit suicide, not wanting under any circumstances to risk that, and in any event believing that Mrs. Whitehead would keep her word, turned the child over to her.
The Whiteheads claimed that Mary Beth was suffering a debilitating post-partum bladder infection at the time, but in fact they kidnapped Baby M and fled from New Jersey for Florida. The Sterns’ counsel applied for, and the county prosecutor issued, warrants for their arrest.
Whilst on the run, Whitehead made contact with the Sterns via telephone. William Stern, on the advice of counsel, recorded these conversations. Tapes were later introduced as evidence during court proceedings. In one 45-minute long conversation, Mrs Whitehead threatens to kill Baby M multiple times: “I gave her life. I can take her life away,” and “Forget it, Bill. I’ll tell you right now, I’d rather see me and her dead before you get her.”
Trials
On March 31, 1987, New Jersey Superior Court Judge Harvey R. Sorkow formally validated the surrogacy contract and awarded custody of Melissa to the Sterns under a "best interest of the child analysis." Whitehead's parental rights were terminated and Elizabeth Stern was taken into chambers immediately after the ruling was read to formalise the adoption.
Whitehead appealed the ruling. The Supreme Court of New Jersey continued the visitation schedule as it were during the initial trial while they considered their ruling. Whitehead took several actions either to claim the child, or incite the Sterns, including returning her wearing a hand-lettered shirt saying "I have a brother and sister."
On February 3, 1988, the Supreme Court of New Jersey, led by Chief Justice Robert Wilentz, invalidated surrogacy contracts as against public policy but in dicta affirmed the trial court's use of a "best interest of the child" analysis and remanded the case to family court. On remand, the lower court awarded custody to the Sterns and Whitehead was given visitation rights.
Legal significance
The case attracted much attention as it demonstrated that the possibilities of third party reproduction raise novel legal and social questions about the meaning of parenthood and the possibility of contracting around issues of pregnancy and childbirth. Among other points of contention, feminists argued about whether a woman's basic human right to make decisions about her own body implied the ability to contract away parental rights to a child born to her, or whether recognizing such a right would entail too great risks of exploitation.
The New Jersey court's finding that no contract can alter the legal position of a woman who bears a child as that child's mother seemed to settle the question of the status of surrogacy contracts in America, at least until technological advances permitting gestational surrogacy—in which a woman can bear and birth a child to whom she has no genetic relation—reopened the question in many jurisdictions.
At least in New Jersey, however, the Baby M. ruling continues as precedent. In 2009, New Jersey Superior Court ruled that In re Baby M applies to gestational surrogacy as well as traditional surrogacy cases, in A.G.R. v. D.R.H & S.H.. The intended parents were a homosexual male couple. They created an embryo using an anonymous donor ovum and the sperm of one of the husbands. The sister of the other husband carried the embryo to term and originally delivered the child to her brother and his husband, but a year later asserted her own parental rights even though she was not genetically related to the child. Judge Francis Schultz relied on In re Baby M to recognize the gestational mother as the child's legal mother. However, a later ruling in 2011 awarded full custody to the biological father.
Aftermath
The Whiteheads divorced and Mary Beth married Dean Gould. The couple had two children, Austin and Morgan.
Mary Beth and her ex-husband Richard sued ICNY and its founder, Noel Keane, claiming they committed fraud in the Baby M contract. The suit questioned whether Mrs. Whitehead Gould was properly counseled before becoming a surrogate mother. The parties settled out of court and the agreement, signed by Judge Pierre N. Leval of the Federal District Court, dismissed the case without costs or lawyers' fees but does not reveal terms of the settlement. It has been reported Keene and ICNY agreed to pay the couple $30,000 to $40,000.
Mary Beth Whitehead Gould continued to court media attention and wrote a book about her experience in 1989.
The Sterns continued to shun media attention. After reaching the age of maturity in March 2004, Melissa Stern legally terminated Mary Beth's parental rights and formalized Elizabeth's maternity through adoption proceedings. "I love my family very much and am very happy to be with them," Melissa told a reporter for the New Jersey Monthly in 2007, referring to the Sterns. "I'm very happy I ended up with them. I love them, they're my best friends in the whole world, and that's all I have to say about it."
Melissa is a graduate of George Washington University with a degree in religion. She completed her master's degree at King's College London, authoring a dissertation entitled 'Reviving Solomon: Modern Day Questions Regarding the Long-term Implications for the Children of Surrogacy Arrangements'
Melissa married Jake Clements in 2011. The couple currently reside in London have a daughter named Henrietta, born in 2018.
In popular culture
An ABC Network miniseries, simply titled Baby M, was broadcast in May 1988. The miniseries starred JoBeth Williams as Mary Beth Whitehead, John Shea as William, Bruce Weitz as Mary Beth's husband Rick, Robin Strasser as Elizabeth and Dabney Coleman as Gary Skoloff. The miniseries received seven Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Miniseries, which it did not win. Williams, Shea, Weitz, and Coleman all received nominations for their performances, but only Shea won. Williams also was nominated for a Golden Globe for her performance.
In 1989, Mary Beth Whitehead published her own book about her experiences, A Mother's Story: The Truth About the Baby M Case.
In 1988, artist Martha Rosler made the video "Born to be Sold: Martha Rosler Reads the Strange Case of Baby M".
Mary Beth Whitehead is referenced in the Seinfeld episode "The Bottle Deposit," when Jerry's mechanic (played by Brad Garrett) steals Jerry's car after he feels that Jerry isn't caring for it properly.
References
Further reading
Chesler, Phyllis. Sacred bond: The legacy of Baby M. (Vintage, 1989)
McDonald, Christie. "Changing the Facts of Life: The Case of Baby M." [SubStance (1991): 31–48. in JSTOR
Sanger, Carol. "Developing markets in baby-making: in the matter of baby M." Harvard. Journal of Law & Gender 30 (2007): 67+ online
Whitehead, Mary Beth, and Loretta Schwartz-Nobel. A mother's story: the truth about the Baby M Case (St. Martin's Press, 1989), Memoir by the mother
External links
Summary of the Baby M case
1986 births
United States family case law
Fertility medicine
Legal issues in pregnancy
New Jersey state case law
Sperm donation
Surrogacy
Trials regarding custody of children
Pseudonymous children
Living people
Donor conceived people | [
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214167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse%20of%20the%20Bambino | Curse of the Bambino | The Curse of the Bambino was a superstitious sports curse in Major League Baseball (MLB) derived from the 86-year championship drought of the Boston Red Sox between and . The superstition was named after Babe Ruth, colloquially known as "The Bambino", who played for the Red Sox until he was sold to the New York Yankees in 1920. While some fans took the curse seriously, most used the expression in a tongue-in-cheek manner.
Prior to the drought, the Red Sox had been one of the most successful professional baseball franchises. They won five of the first fifteen World Series titles, including the first in 1903, more than any other MLB team at the time. During this period, Ruth was a core contributor to the Red Sox's three championships in , , and . Following the sale of Ruth, however, the once lackluster Yankees became one of the most dominant professional sports franchises in North America, winning more than twice as many World Series titles as any other MLB team. The curse became a focal point of the Yankees–Red Sox rivalry over the years.
Talk of the curse as an ongoing phenomenon ended when the Red Sox won the 2004 World Series. The Red Sox's championship was prefaced by them overcoming a 0–3 deficit against the Yankees in the American League Championship Series (ALCS), the first and, to date, only time an MLB team won a best-of-seven playoff series after losing the first three games.
The curse had been such a part of Boston culture that when a "reverse curve" road sign on Longfellow Bridge over the city's Storrow Drive was graffitied to read "Reverse The Curse," officials left it in place until the Red Sox won the 2004 World Series. After the World Series that year, the road sign was edited to read "Reversed Curse" in celebration.
Lore
Although it had long been noted that the selling of Ruth had been the beginning of a decline in the Red Sox' fortunes, the term "curse of the Bambino" was not in common use until the publication of the book The Curse of the Bambino by Dan Shaughnessy in 1990. It became a key part of Red Sox lore in the media thereafter, and Shaughnessy's book became required reading in some high school English classes in New England.
Although the title drought dated back to , the sale of Ruth to the Yankees was completed January 3, 1920. In standard curse lore, Red Sox owner and theatrical producer Harry Frazee used the proceeds from the sale to finance the production of a Broadway musical, usually said to be No, No, Nanette. In fact, Frazee backed many productions before and after Ruth's sale, and No, No, Nanette did not see its first performance until five years after the Ruth sale and two years after Frazee sold the Red Sox. In 1921, Red Sox manager Ed Barrow left to take over as general manager of the Yankees. Other Red Sox players were also later sold or traded to the Yankees.
Neither the lore, nor the debunking of it, entirely tells the story. As Leigh Montville wrote in The Big Bam: The Life and Times of Babe Ruth, the production No, No, Nanette had originated as a non-musical stage play called My Lady Friends, which opened on Broadway in December 1919. That play had, indeed, been financed as a direct result of the Ruth deal. Various researchers, including Montville and Shaughnessy, have pointed out that Frazee had close ties to the Yankees owners, and that many of the player deals, as well as the mortgage deal for Fenway Park itself, had to do with financing his plays.
Yankee fans taunted the Red Sox with chants of "1918!" one weekend in September 1990. The demeaning chant echoed at Yankee Stadium each time the Red Sox were there. Yankee fans also taunted the Red Sox with signs saying "1918!", "CURSE OF THE BAMBINO", pictures of Babe Ruth, and wearing "1918!" T-shirts each time they were at the Stadium.
Reportedly cursed results
Before Ruth left Boston, the Red Sox had won five of the first fifteen World Series, with Ruth pitching for the and championship teams (he was with the Sox for the 1915 World Series but the manager used him only once, as a pinch-hitter, and he did not pitch). The Yankees had not played in any World Series up to that time. In the 84 years after the sale, the Yankees played in 39 World Series, winning 26 of them, twice as many as any other team in Major League Baseball. Meanwhile, over the same time span, the Red Sox played in only four World Series and lost each in seven games.
Even losses that occurred many years before the first mention of the supposed curse, in 1986, have been attributed to it. Some of these instances are listed below:
In 1946, the Red Sox appeared in their first World Series since the sale of Babe Ruth and were favored to beat the St. Louis Cardinals. The series went to a seventh game at Sportsman's Park in St. Louis. In the bottom of the eighth inning, with the score tied at 3–3, the Cardinals had Enos Slaughter on first base and Harry Walker at the plate. On a hit and run, Walker hit a double to very short left-center field. Slaughter ran through the third base coach's stop sign and beat Boston shortstop Johnny Pesky's relay throw to home plate. Some say Pesky hesitated on the throw, allowing Slaughter to score, but Pesky always denied this charge. Film footage is inconclusive, except that it shows Pesky in bright sunlight and Slaughter in shadow. Boston star Ted Williams, playing with an injury, was largely ineffective at bat in his only World Series.
In 1948, the Red Sox finished the regular season tied for first place, only to lose the pennant to the Cleveland Indians in the major leagues' first-ever one-game playoff.
In 1949, the Red Sox needed to win just one of the last two games of the season to win the pennant, but lost both games to the Yankees, who won a record five consecutive World Series from to .
In 1967, the Red Sox surprisingly reversed the awful results of the 1966 season by winning the American League pennant on the last weekend of the season. In the World Series, they once again faced the Cardinals, and just as in 1946, the Series went to a seventh game. St. Louis won the deciding contest, 7–2, behind their best pitcher Bob Gibson; Gibson defeated Boston ace Jim Lonborg, who was pitching on short rest and was ineffective. Gibson even hit a home run against Lonborg in the game.
In 1972, the Red Sox ended the regular season with a three-game series against the Detroit Tigers, over whom they held a half-game lead in the American League East. Detroit won two of the three games to capture the division by half a game. (Due to the players' strike at the beginning of the season and the decision of Commissioner Bowie Kuhn not to reschedule any strike-cancelled games, the Tigers ended up playing and winning one more game than the Red Sox, finishing with a 86–70 record to Boston's 85–70.)
In 1975, the Red Sox won the pennant and met the dynastic Cincinnati Reds in the World Series. The Red Sox won Game 6 on a walk-off home run by catcher Carlton Fisk, setting the stage for the deciding Game 7. Boston took a quick 3–0 lead, but the Reds tied the game. In the top of the ninth, the Reds brought in the go-ahead run on a Joe Morgan single that scored Ken Griffey, Sr., winning what is regarded as one of the greatest World Series ever played.
In 1978, the Red Sox held a 14-game lead in the American League East over the Yankees on July 18. However, the Yankees subsequently caught fire, eventually tying Boston atop the standings on September 10 after sweeping a four-game series at Fenway Park, an event known to Red Sox fans as the "Boston Massacre." Six days later, the Yankees held a game lead over the Red Sox, but the Sox won 12 of their next 14 games to overcome that deficit and force a one-game playoff on October 2 at Fenway Park. The memorable moment of the game came when light-hitting Yankee shortstop Bucky Dent cracked a three-run home run in the seventh inning that hit the top of the left field wall (the Green Monster) and skipped out of the park, giving New York a 3–2 lead. The Yankees held on to win the playoff game, 5–4, eventually winning the World Series.
In Game 6 of the 1986 World Series, Boston (leading the series three games to two) took a 5–3 lead in the top of the 10th inning. Red Sox reliever Calvin Schiraldi retired the first two batters, putting the team within one out (and shortly within one strike) of winning the World Series. However, the New York Mets scored three runs, tying the game on a wild pitch from Bob Stanley and winning it when Boston first baseman Bill Buckner allowed a ground ball hit by the Mets' Mookie Wilson to roll through his legs, scoring Ray Knight from second base. In the seventh game, the Red Sox took an early 3–0 lead, only to lose, 8–5. The collapses in the last two games prompted The New York Times columnist George Vecsey to write articles describing the Red Sox as cursed.
In 1988 and 1990, the Red Sox advanced to the American League Championship Series, only to suffer four-game sweeps both times at the hands of the Oakland Athletics. They were also swept by the Cleveland Indians in the 1995 AL Division Series in three games (extending their postseason losing streak to a major-league record 13 games), lost again to the Indians in the 1998 ALDS three games to one, and were defeated by the Yankees four games to one in the 1999 ALCS.
In 2003, the Red Sox were playing the Yankees in Game 7 of the American League Championship Series. Boston held a 5–2 lead in the eighth inning, and manager Grady Little opted to stay with starting pitcher Pedro Martínez rather than go to the bullpen. New York rallied against the tired Martínez, scoring three runs on a single and three doubles to tie the game. In the bottom of the 11th inning, Aaron Boone launched a solo home run against knuckleballing Boston starter Tim Wakefield (pitching in relief) to win the game and the pennant for the Yankees.
Attempts to break the curse
Red Sox fans attempted various methods over the years to exorcise their famous curse. These included placing a Boston cap atop Mount Everest and burning a Yankees cap at its base camp and finding a piano owned by Ruth that he had supposedly pushed into a pond near his Sudbury, Massachusetts farm, Home Plate Farm.
In 1976, Laurie Cabot, the Official Witch of Massachusetts, was brought in to end a 10-game losing streak. While the losing streak ended, the Curse of the Bambino did not.
In Ken Burns's 1994 documentary Baseball, former Red Sox pitcher Bill Lee suggested that the Red Sox should exhume the body of Babe Ruth, transport it back to Fenway and publicly apologize for trading Ruth to the Yankees.
Some declared the curse broken during a game on August 31, 2004, when a foul ball hit by Manny Ramírez flew into Section 9, Box 95, Row AA and struck a boy's face, knocking two of his teeth out. 16-year-old Lee Gavin, a Boston fan whose favorite player was Ramirez, lived on the Sudbury farm owned by Ruth. That same day, the Yankees suffered their worst loss in team history, a 22–0 clobbering at home against the Cleveland Indians.
Some fans also cite a comedy curse-breaking ceremony performed by musician Jimmy Buffett and his warm-up team (one dressed as Ruth and one dressed as a witch doctor) at a Fenway concert in September 2004. Just after being traded to the Red Sox, Curt Schilling appeared in an advertisement for the Ford F-150 pickup truck hitchhiking with a sign indicating he was going to Boston. When picked up, he said that he had "an 86-year-old curse" to break.
End of the curse
In 2004, the Red Sox once again met the Yankees in the American League Championship Series. The Red Sox lost the first three games, including losing Game 3 at Fenway by the lopsided score of 19–8.
The Red Sox trailed 4–3 in the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 4. But the team tied the game with a walk by Kevin Millar and a stolen base by pinch-runner Dave Roberts, followed by an RBI single against Yankee closer Mariano Rivera by third baseman Bill Mueller, and won on a two-run home run in the 12th inning by David Ortiz. The Red Sox won the next three games to become the first and only MLB team to win a seven-game postseason series after losing the first three games.
The Red Sox then faced the St. Louis Cardinals, the team to whom they had lost in and , and led throughout the series, winning in a four-game sweep. Cardinals shortstop Édgar Rentería, who wore the same number as Ruth (3), was the final out of the series, a ground ball back to pitcher Keith Foulke.
Antisemitism
Glenn Stout argues that the idea of a curse was indirectly influenced by antisemitism, although that aspect was not part of its modern usage; he even says "This does not mean that ... anyone who writes or speaks of the Curse today—as a journalist or a fan—is either anti-Semitic or even remotely aware of the anti-Semitic roots of the Curse." Because Frazee was from New York and involved in theatre, it was assumed he was Jewish (he was actually a Presbyterian). Though Frazee was well respected in Boston, Henry Ford's Dearborn Independent ran a series of articles purporting to expose how Jews were "destroying America," and among these were articles lambasting Frazee, saying that with his purchase of the Red Sox "another club was placed under the smothering influences of the 'chosen race'." These articles turned the tide of both baseball owners and public opinion against Frazee, and Fred Lieb's vilification of Frazee in his history of the Red Sox portrayed him implicitly as a Jew. Stout argues that this hatred indirectly created the atmosphere where the "curse" could be accepted.
In popular culture
Non-fiction works
The 2004 Red Sox season was the subject of several non-fiction books, including Faithful: Boston Red Sox Fans Chronicle the Historic 2004 Season, whose authors Stewart O'Nan and Stephen King decided to write the book before the season began, and Reversing the Curse by Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe.
In the fall of 2003, HBO produced a documentary called The Curse of the Bambino, featuring commentary from native Boston celebrities such as Denis Leary, narrated by Ben Affleck. After the 2004 World Series, the ending of the documentary was re-filmed with a number of the same celebrities and it was retitled Reverse of the Curse of the Bambino, narrated by Liev Schreiber.
Fiction
The British memoir Fever Pitch, about author Nick Hornby's obsession with the Arsenal FC English soccer team, was adapted into an American film of the same name by the Farrelly brothers. The American adaptation was about an obsessive Red Sox fan. It was made during the 2004 World Series, which forced the filmmakers to rework the story; the Red Sox were not originally supposed to make it to the World Series.
In the movie 50 First Dates, Adam Sandler's character Henry Roth reminds his girlfriend about what happened in 2003 including a screen capture showing the Red Sox winning the World Series, until the next clip shows the title 'just kidding'. The movie was released in February 2004.
On the television show Lost, Jack and his father Christian often use the phrase "That's why the Sox will never win the damn series" to describe fate. In season 3, Ben shows the end of the 2004 game to try to convince Jack that the Others have contact with the outside world.
In the movie Moneyball, Brad Pitt's character Billy Beane talks to the Boston Red Sox's owner about a job as GM after taking the Oakland A's to a 20-game winning streak. When the Red Sox's owner asks Billy Beane why he returned his call, he says because he wants to help them end the Curse of the Bambino.
An episode of the children's TV series Arthur titled "The Curse of the Grebes" has Elwood City's baseball team losing two of its games in the world championship series due to events based directly on Bucky Dent's homer and Bill Buckner's error. The episode states that the team had not won a championship in 87 years and that their opponents, the Crown City Kings, had won 25 since then. Johnny Damon, Edgar Renteria, and Mike Timlin all voice caricatures of themselves.
Music
The Dropkick Murphys song "Tessie" on the 2005 album The Warrior's Code is about the game that broke the curse.
The Ben Harper song "Get It Like You Like It" from his 2006 album Both Sides of the Gun includes the lines "In 1918 the Great Bambino kicked a piano into Willis Pond. But Johnny Damon swung his bat, grand slam, that was that. An 86-year curse is gone."
James Taylor "Angels of Fenway" (Album – Before This World) released June 15, 2015. Taylor sings "86 summers gone by. Bambino put a hex on the Bean. We were living on a tear and a sigh. In the shadow of the Bronx machine..."
Other
At WrestleMania XIV held in Boston in 1998, guest ring announcer Pete Rose taunted the Boston crowd about the curse (Rose was on the Cincinnati Reds team that beat Boston in the 1975 World Series) before he was tombstoned by Kane.
After New York's defeat, the Curse was poked fun at during the Weekend Update segment of Saturday Night Live, when the ghost of Babe Ruth explains that he left during Game Four with the ghosts of Mickey Mantle and Rodney Dangerfield to go drinking.
Video games
In the Fallout universe, one of the events in the Timeline Divergence is that the curse was never broken and the Boston Red Sox never won the World Series, even up to 2077.
The curse is referenced in Valve's Team Fortress 2, with an achievement named "A Year To Remember". It can be unlocked by obtaining 2,004 lifetime kills with the Scout, who is himself a Boston native and baseball enthusiast.
See also
Baseball superstition
Sports-related curses
References
Inline citations
Bibliography
External links
ESPN account of Ruth's sale to the Yankees.
A "Curse" Born of Hate, a skeptical history of the curse lore, written by Glenn Stout during the 2004 playoffs.
The Boston Globe article "Taking teeth out of curse?"
Audio of 1978 Bucky Dent homer
Cartoon regarding 2004 Yankee loss to the Red Sox
Cartoon regarding 1978 Bucky Dent homer
The Curse of the Bambino: an HBO documentary (2003)
The Curse of the Bambino: A musical by Steven Bergman and David Kruh (2001)
Red Sox Were Cursed by Stupid, Racist Management, Not Babe Ruth by Ken Braiterman (January 15, 2012)
Babe Ruth
Boston Red Sox
New York Yankees
Bambino
Baseball terminology
Urban legends
American folklore | [
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214169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsweek | Newsweek | Newsweek is an American weekly news magazine founded in 1933, and was widely distributed through the 20th century, with many notable editors-in-chief. In 1961 the magazine was acquired by The Washington Post Company and remained under its ownership until 2010. Between 2008 and 2012, Newsweek experienced financial difficulties, leading to the cessation of print publication and a transition to an all-digital format at the end of 2012. It was relaunched (print and digital) in 2014 under the ownership of IBT Media, which also owns the International Business Times.
Revenue declines prompted an August 2010 sale by The Washington Post Company to audio pioneer Sidney Harman—for a purchase price of one dollar and an assumption of the magazine's liabilities. Later that year, Newsweek merged with the news and opinion website The Daily Beast, forming The Newsweek Daily Beast Company. Newsweek was jointly owned by the estate of Harman and the diversified American media and Internet company IAC. In 2013, a company named IBT Media announced it had acquired Newsweek from IAC; the acquisition included the Newsweek brand and its online publication, but did not include The Daily Beast. IBT Media rebranded itself as Newsweek Media Group. In 2018, one day before the District Attorney of Manhattan announced the indictment of Etienne Uzac, the co-owner of IBT Media, the company announced it would split into two companies, Newsweek and IBT Media. Since then, Newsweek has been co-owned by Johnathan Davis, who also shares ownership with Uzac of IBT Media, and Dev Pragad, who is also the CEO.
History
Founding and early years (1933–1961)
News-Week was launched in 1933 by Thomas J. C. Martyn, a former foreign-news editor for Time. He obtained financial backing from a group of U.S. stockholders "which included Ward Cheney, of the Cheney silk family, John Hay Whitney, and Paul Mellon, son of Andrew W. Mellon". Paul Mellon's ownership in Newsweek apparently represented "the first attempt of the Mellon family to function journalistically on a national scale". The group of original owners invested around $2.5 million. Other large stockholders prior to 1946 were public utilities investment banker Stanley Childs and Wall Street corporate lawyer Wilton Lloyd-Smith.
Journalist Samuel T. Williamson served as the first editor-in-chief of Newsweek. The first issue of the magazine was dated February 17, 1933. Seven photographs from the week's news were printed on the first issue's cover.
In 1937 News-Week merged with the weekly journal Today, which had been founded in 1932 by future New York Governor and diplomat W. Averell Harriman, and Vincent Astor of the prominent Astor family. As a result of the deal, Harriman and Astor provided $600,000 in venture capital funds and Vincent Astor became both the chairman of the board and its principal stockholder between 1937 and his death in 1959.
In 1937 Malcolm Muir took over as president and editor-in-chief. He changed the name to Newsweek, emphasized interpretive stories, introduced signed columns, and launched international editions.
Under Post ownership (1961–2010)
The magazine was purchased by The Washington Post Company in 1961.
Osborn Elliott was named editor of Newsweek in 1961 and became the editor-in-chief in 1969.
In 1970, Eleanor Holmes Norton represented sixty female employees of Newsweek who had filed a claim with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission that Newsweek had a policy of only allowing men to be reporters. The women won, and Newsweek agreed to allow women to be reporters. The day the claim was filed, Newsweek cover article was "Women in Revolt", covering the feminist movement; the article was written by a woman who had been hired on a freelance basis since there were no female reporters at the magazine.
Edward Kosner became editor from 1975 to 1979 after directing the magazine's extensive coverage of the Watergate scandal that led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974.
Richard M. Smith became chairman in 1998, the year that the magazine inaugurated its "Best High Schools in America" list, a ranking of public secondary schools based on the Challenge Index, which measures the ratio of Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate exams taken by students to the number of graduating students that year, regardless of the scores earned by students or the difficulty in graduating. Schools with average SAT scores above 1300 or average ACT scores above 27 are excluded from the list; these are categorized instead as "Public Elite" High Schools. In 2008, there were 17 Public Elites.
Smith resigned as board chairman in December 2007.
Restructuring and new owner (2008–2010)
During 2008–2009, Newsweek undertook a dramatic business restructuring. Citing difficulties in competing with online news sources to provide unique news in a weekly publication, the magazine refocused its content on opinion and commentary beginning with its May 24, 2009, issue. It shrank its subscriber rate base, from 3.1 million to 2.6 million in early 2008, to 1.9 million in July 2009 and then to 1.5 million in January 2010—a decline of 50% in one year. Meacham described his strategy as "counterintuitive" as it involved discouraging renewals and nearly doubling subscription prices as it sought a more affluent subscriber base for its advertisers. During this period, the magazine also laid off staff. While advertising revenues were down almost 50% compared to the prior year, expenses were also diminished, whereby the publishers hoped Newsweek would return to profitability.
The financial results for 2009 as reported by The Washington Post Company showed that advertising revenue for Newsweek was down 37% in 2009 and the magazine division reported an operating loss for 2009 of $29.3 million compared to a loss of $16 million in 2008. During the first quarter of 2010, the magazine lost nearly $11 million.
By May 2010, Newsweek had been losing money for the past two years and was put up for sale. The sale attracted international bidders. One bidder was Syrian entrepreneur Abdulsalam Haykal, CEO of Syrian publishing company Haykal Media, who brought together a coalition of Middle Eastern investors with his company. Haykal later claimed his bid was ignored by Newsweek bankers, Allen & Co.
The magazine was sold to audio pioneer Sidney Harman on August 2, 2010, for $1 in exchange for assuming the magazine's financial liabilities. Harman's bid was accepted over three competitors. Meacham left the magazine upon completion of the sale. Sidney Harman was the husband of Jane Harman, at that time a member of Congress from California.
Merger with The Daily Beast (2010–2013)
At the end of 2010, Newsweek merged with the online publication The Daily Beast, following extensive negotiations between the respective proprietors. Tina Brown, The Daily Beast editor-in-chief, became editor of both publications. The new entity, The Newsweek Daily Beast Company, was 50% owned by IAC/InterActiveCorp and 50% by Harman.
Redesign (2011)
Newsweek was redesigned in March 2011. The new Newsweek moved the "Perspectives" section to the front of the magazine, where it served essentially as a highlight reel of the past week on The Daily Beast. More room was made available in the front of the magazine for columnists, editors, and special guests. A new "News Gallery" section featured two-page spreads of photographs from the week with a brief article accompanying each one. The "NewsBeast" section featured short articles, a brief interview with a newsmaker, and several graphs and charts for quick reading in the style of The Daily Beast. This is where the Newsweek staple "Conventional Wisdom" was located. Brown retained Newsweek focus on in-depth, analytical features and original reporting on politics and world affairs, as well as a new focus on longer fashion and pop culture features. A larger culture section named "Omnivore" featured art, music, books, film, theater, food, travel, and television, including a weekly "Books" and "Want" section. The back page was reserved for a "My Favorite Mistake" column written by celebrity guest columnists about a mistake they made that helped shape who they are.
Cessation of print format (2012)
On July 25, 2012, the company operating Newsweek indicated the publication was likely to go digital to cover its losses and could undergo other changes by the next year. Barry Diller, chairman of the conglomerate IAC/InterActiveCorp, said his firm was looking at options since its partner in the Newsweek/Daily Beast operation had pulled out.
On October 18, 2012, the company announced that the American print edition would be discontinued at the end of 2012 after 80 years of publication, citing the increasing difficulty of maintaining a paper weekly magazine in the face of declining advertising and subscription revenues and increasing costs for print production and distribution. The online edition is named Newsweek Global.
Spin-off to IBT Media, return to print (2013–2018)
In April 2013, IAC chairman and founder Barry Diller stated at the Milken Global Conference that he "wished he hadn't bought" Newsweek because his company had lost money on the magazine and called the purchase a "mistake" and a "fool's errand".
On August 3, 2013, IBT Media acquired Newsweek from IAC on terms that were not disclosed; the acquisition included the Newsweek brand and its online publication, but did not include The Daily Beast.
On March 7, 2014, IBT Media relaunched a print edition of Newsweek with a cover story on the alleged creator of Bitcoin, which was widely criticized for its lack of substantive evidence. The magazine stood by its story.
IBT Media announces that the publication returned to profitability on October 8, 2014.
In February 2017, IBT Media appointed Matt McAllester, then editor of Newsweek International, as global editor-in-chief of Newsweek.
In January 2018, Newsweek offices were raided by the Manhattan District Attorney's office as part of an investigation into co-owner and founder, Etienne Uzac. Columbia Journalism Review noted the probe "focused on loans the company took out to purchase the computer equipment", and several Newsweek reporters were fired after reporting on the issue. Uzac plead guilty to fraud and money-laundering in 2020.
Spin-off from IBT Media (2018–present)
In September 2018, after completing the strategic structural changes initially announced in March of the same year, IBT Media spun off Newsweek into its own entity, awarding half ownership to Johnathan Davis, Uzac's business partner as well as co-founder of IBT Media.
Circulation and branches
In 2003, worldwide circulation was more than 4 million, including 2.7 million in the U.S; by 2010 it reduced to 1.5 million (with newsstand sales declining to just over 40,000 copies per week). Newsweek publishes editions in Japanese, Korean, Polish, Romanian, Spanish, Rioplatense Spanish, Arabic, Turkish, Serbian, as well as an English-language Newsweek International. Russian Newsweek, published since 2004, was shut in October 2010. The Bulletin (an Australian weekly until 2008) incorporated an international news section from Newsweek.
Based in New York City, the magazine claimed 22 bureaus in 2011: nine in the U.S.: New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago/Detroit, Dallas, Miami, Washington, D.C., Boston and San Francisco, and others overseas in London, Paris, Berlin, Moscow, Jerusalem, Baghdad, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Beijing, South Asia, Cape Town, Mexico City and Buenos Aires.
According to a 2015 column in the New York Post, after returning to print publications Newsweek was selling c. 100.000 copies per month, with staff at that time numbering "about 60 editorial staffers", up from a low of "less than 30 editorial staffers" in 2013, but with announced plans then to grow the number to "close to 100 in the next year".
Controversies
Allegations of sexism
In 1970, Eleanor Holmes Norton represented sixty female employees of Newsweek who had filed a claim with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission that Newsweek had a policy of only allowing men to be reporters. The women won, and Newsweek agreed to allow women to be reporters. The day the claim was filed, Newsweek cover article was "Women in Revolt", covering the feminist movement; the article was written by Helen Dudar, a freelancer, on the belief that there were no female writers at the magazine capable of handling the assignment. Those passed over included Elizabeth Peer, who had spent five years in Paris as a foreign correspondent.
The 1986 cover of Newsweek featured an article that said "women who weren't married by 40 had a better chance of being killed by a terrorist than of finding a husband". Newsweek eventually apologized for the story and in 2010 launched a study that discovered 2 in 3 women who were 40 and single in 1986 had married since. The story caused a "wave of anxiety" and some "skepticism" amongst professional and highly educated women in the United States. The article was cited several times in the 1993 Hollywood film Sleepless in Seattle starring Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan. Comparisons have been made with this article and the current rising issues surrounding the social stigma of unwed women in Asia called sheng nu.
Former Alaska Governor and 2008 Republican vice presidential nominee Sarah Palin was featured on the cover of the November 23, 2009, issue of Newsweek, with the caption "How do you Solve a Problem Like Sarah?" featuring an image of Palin in athletic attire and posing. Palin herself, the Los Angeles Times and other commentators accused Newsweek of sexism for their choice of cover in the November 23, 2009 issue discussing Palin's book, Going Rogue: An American Life. "It's sexist as hell," wrote Lisa Richardson for the Los Angeles Times. Taylor Marsh of The Huffington Post called it "the worst case of pictorial sexism aimed at political character assassination ever done by a traditional media outlet". David Brody of CBN News stated: "This cover should be insulting to women politicians." The cover includes a photo of Palin used in the August 2009 issue of Runner's World. The photographer may have breached his contract with Runner's World when he permitted its use in Newsweek, as Runner's World maintained certain rights to the photo until August 2010. It is uncertain, however, whether this particular use of the photo was prohibited.
Minnesota Republican Congresswoman and presidential candidate Michele Bachmann was featured on the cover of Newsweek magazine in August 2011, dubbed "the Queen of Rage". The photo of her was perceived as unflattering, as it portrayed her with a wide eyed expression some said made her look "crazy". Conservative commentator Michelle Malkin called the depiction "sexist", and Sarah Palin denounced the publication. Newsweek defended the cover's depiction of her, saying its other photos of Bachmann showed similar intensity.
Factual errors
Unlike most large American magazines, Newsweek has not used fact-checkers since 1996. In 1997, the magazine was forced to recall several hundred thousand copies of a special issue called Your Child, which advised that infants as young as five months old could safely feed themselves zwieback toasts and chunks of raw carrot (to the contrary, both represent a choking hazard in children this young). The error was later attributed to a copy editor who was working on two stories at the same time.
In 2017, Newsweek published a story claiming that the First Lady of Poland refused to shake U.S. President Donald Trump's hand; Snopes described the assertion as "false". Newsweek corrected its story.
In 2018, Newsweek ran a story asserting that President Trump had wrongly colored the American flag while visiting a classroom; Snopes was unable to corroborate the photographic evidence.
In August 2018, Newsweek falsely reported that the Sweden Democrats, a far-right party, could win a majority in the 2018 Swedish parliamentary elections. Polls showed that the party was far away from winning a majority. By September 2018, Newsweek inaccurate article was still up.
Newsweek journalists have expressed criticism of the editorial quality of reporting under its new ownership. In 2018, former Newsweek journalist Jonathan Alter wrote in The Atlantic that since being sold to the International Business Times in 2013 the magazine had "produced some strong journalism and plenty of clickbait before becoming a painful embarrassment to anyone who toiled there in its golden age". Former Newsweek writer Matthew Cooper criticized Newsweek for running multiple inaccurate stories in 2018.
2018 investigation and firings
The Manhattan District Attorney's office raided Newsweek's headquarters in Lower Manhattan on January 18, 2018, and seized 18 computer servers as part of an investigation related to the company's finances. IBT, which owned Newsweek, had been under scrutiny for its ties to David Jang, a South Korean pastor and the leader of a Christian sect called "the Community".
In February 2018, two top editors and an undetermined number of reporters were fired without explanation. Celeste Katz, a reporter who was dismissed, had reported on the company's affairs, including the raid by the Manhattan District Attorney's office; executive news editors Kenneth Li, who was also fired, had overseen the coverage. After the firings were announced, senior writer Matthew Cooper quit in protest. In a resignation letter that he posted on Twitter, Cooper denounced Newsweek Media Group both for the firings and for what he called a pattern of "reckless leadership".
Other
Fareed Zakaria, a Newsweek columnist and editor of Newsweek International, attended a secret meeting on November 29, 2001, with a dozen policy makers, Middle East experts and members of influential policy research organizations that produced a report for President George W. Bush and his cabinet outlining a strategy for dealing with Afghanistan and the Middle East in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. The meeting was held at the request of Paul D. Wolfowitz, then the Deputy Secretary of Defense. The unusual presence of journalists, who also included Robert D. Kaplan of The Atlantic Monthly, at such a strategy meeting was revealed in Bob Woodward's 2006 book State of Denial: Bush at War, Part III. Woodward reported in his book that, according to Kaplan, everyone at the meeting signed confidentiality agreements not to discuss what happened. Zakaria told The New York Times that he attended the meeting for several hours but did not recall being told that a report for the president would be produced. On October 21, 2006, after verification, the Times published a correction that stated:
An article in Business Day on Oct. 9 about journalists who attended a secret meeting in November 2001 called by Paul D. Wolfowitz, then the deputy secretary of defense, referred incorrectly to the participation of Fareed Zakaria, the editor of Newsweek International and a Newsweek columnist. Mr. Zakaria was not told that the meeting would produce a report for the Bush administration, nor did his name appear on the report.
The cover story of the January 15, 2015, issue, titled "What Silicon Valley Thinks of Women" proved controversial, due to both its illustration, described as "the cartoon of a faceless female in spiky red heels, having her dress lifted up by a cursor arrow", and its content, described as "a 5,000-word article on the creepy, sexist culture of the tech industry". Among those offended by the cover were Today Show co-host Tamron Hall, who commented "I think it's obscene and just despicable, honestly." Newsweek editor-in-chief James Impoco explained "We came up with an image that we felt represented what that story said about Silicon Valley ... If people get angry, they should be angry." The article's author, Nina Burleigh, asked, "Where were all these offended people when women like Heidi Roizen published accounts of having a venture capitalist stick her hand in his pants under a table while a deal was being discussed?"
In January 1998, Newsweek reporter Michael Isikoff was the first reporter to investigate allegations of a sexual relationship between U.S. President Bill Clinton and Monica Lewinsky, but the editors spiked the story. The story soon surfaced online in the Drudge Report.
In the 2008 U.S. presidential election, the John McCain campaign wrote a lengthy letter to the editor criticizing a cover story in May 2008.
In December 2019, journalist Tareq Haddad said he resigned from Newsweek when it refused to publish his story about documents published by WikiLeaks concerning the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons' report into the 2018 Douma chemical attack. Haddad said his information was inconvenient to the U.S. government which had retaliated after the chemical attack. A Newsweek spokesperson responded that Haddad "pitched a conspiracy theory rather than an idea for objective reporting. Newsweek editors rejected the pitch."
Contributors and staff members
Notable contributors or employees have included:
Shana Alexander
Jonathan Alter
David Ansen
Pete Axthelm
Maziar Bahari
Paul Begala
Arnold Beichman
Peter Beinart
Peter Benchley
Lester Bernstein
Ben Bradlee
Dik Browne
William Broyles Jr.
Hal Bruno
Eleanor Clift
Arnaud de Borchgrave
Kenneth G. Crawford
Bill Downs
Joshua DuBois
Kurt Eichenwald
Osborn Elliott
Niall Ferguson
Howard Fineman
Nikki Finke
Karl Fleming
Lawrence Fried
Milton Friedman
David Frum
Freeman Fulbright
Robin Givhan
Michelle Goldberg
Meg Greenfield
Henry Hazlitt
Wilder Hobson
Robert Cunningham Humphreys
Michael Isikoff
Roger Kahn
Jack Kroll
Howard Kurtz
Eli Lake
John Lake
Charles Lane
John Lardner
Robert K. Massie
Jon Meacham
Elizabeth Peer
Lynn Povich
Anna Quindlen
Karl Rove
Paul Samuelson
Dick Schaap
Allan Sloan
Andrew Sullivan
Ralph de Toledano
Michael Tomasky
Peter Turnley
Margaret Warner
Mark Whitaker
George Will
Elijah Wolfson
Fareed Zakaria
Those who held the positions of president, chairman, or publisher under The Washington Post Company ownership include:
Gibson McCabe
Robert D. Campbell
Peter A. Derow
David Auchincloss
Alan G. Spoon
Richard Mills Smith
See also
List of magazines by circulation
Newsweek Argentina
Newsweek Pakistan
Newsweek gay actor controversy
Russky Newsweek
References
External links
Graham Holdings Company
History and Demographics of Newsweek
Newsweek Atlanta Bureau records at the Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library
1933 establishments in New York (state)
Magazines established in 1933
News magazines published in the United States
Weekly magazines published in the United States
Magazines published in New York City
Independent magazines
IBT Media
1961 mergers and acquisitions
2010 mergers and acquisitions
2013 mergers and acquisitions
Weekly news magazines | [
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|
214171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macworld | Macworld | Macworld is a website dedicated to products and software of Apple Inc., published by Mac Publishing, which is headquartered in San Francisco, California. It started life as a print magazine in 1984 and had the largest audited circulation (both total and newsstand) of Macintosh-focused magazines in North America, more than double its nearest competitor, MacLife (formerly MacAddict). Macworld was founded by David Bunnell (publisher) and Andrew Fluegelman (editor). It was the oldest Macintosh magazine still in publication, until September 10, 2014, when IDG, its parent company, announced it was discontinuing the print edition and laid off most of the staff, while continuing an online version.
History of Macworld
In 1997, the publication was renamed Macworld, incorporating MacUser (a name reflected subtly on the magazine's Table of Contents page) to reflect the consolidation of the Ziff-Davis-owned MacUser magazine into the International Data Group-owned Macworld within the new Mac Publishing joint venture between the two publishers. In 1999, the combined company also purchased the online publication MacCentral Online, because Macworld didn't have a powerful online news component at the time. In late 2001 International Data Group (IDG) bought out Ziff-Davis' share of Mac Publishing, making it a wholly owned subsidiary of IDG.
The magazine was published in many countries, either by other IDG subsidiaries or by outside publishers who have licensed the brand name and its content. These editions included Australia, Germany (Macwelt), Italy, Spain, Sweden (MacWorld), Turkey, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Indonesia. Its content was also incorporated into a number of other IDG publications.
At one time, the magazine's publisher licensed its name to another IDG subsidiary, IDG World Expo, for the Macworld Conference & Expo (later Macworld/iWorld), which took place every January at the Moscone Convention Center in San Francisco.
Macworld has also published in Indonesia by Megindo Tunggal Sejahtera, between 2008 until December 2011.
Podcast
The Macworld Podcast was a weekly podcast published by Macworld. The Macworld Podcast began life on April 26, 2005 as the "Geek Factor Podcast," hosted by Cyrus Farivar, but was upgraded into the official "Macworld Podcast" with its fifth installment in August 2005. It was hosted at various times across its 12-year run by Chris Breen, Philip Michaels, Serenity Caldwell, Glenn Fleishman, and Susie Ochs. The podcast went on hiatus in June 2017.
See also
Macworld Australia
References
links
Macworld (US)
Macworld UK
Archived Macworld magazines on the Internet Archive
1984 establishments in California
2014 disestablishments in California
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Computer magazines published in the United Kingdom
Defunct computer magazines published in the United States
Computer magazines published in Germany
International Data Group
Magazines published in Indonesia
Computer magazines published in Italy
Macintosh magazines
Magazines established in 1984
Magazines disestablished in 2014
Magazines published in San Francisco
Online magazines with defunct print editions
Computer magazines published in Australia
Computer magazines published in Spain
Computer magazines published in Sweden | [
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214172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch%20Nikon%20of%20Moscow | Patriarch Nikon of Moscow | Nikon (, Old Russian: Нїконъ), born Nikita Minin (Никита Минин; 7 May 1605 – 17 August 1681) was the seventh Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus' of the Russian Orthodox Church, serving officially from 1652 to 1666. He was renowned for his eloquence, energy, piety and close ties to Tsar Alexis of Russia. Nikon introduced many reforms, including liturgical reforms that were unpopular among conservatives. These divisions eventually led to a lasting schism known as Raskol (schism) in the Russian Orthodox Church. For many years, he was a dominant political figure, often equaling or even overshadowing the Tsar. In December 1666, Nikon was tried by a synod of church officials, deprived of all his sacerdotal functions, and reduced to the status of a simple monk.
Early life
Son of a Russian peasant farmer named Mina, he was born on 7 May 1605 in the village of Valmanovo, 90 versts (96 km or 60 miles) from Nizhny Novgorod. His mother died soon after he was born, and his father remarried. His stepmother mistreated him. He learned reading and writing with the parish priest. At the age of 12 he ran away from home to Makaryev Monastery where he remained until 1624 as a novice.
Then he returned home due to his parents' insistence, married, and became a parish priest in a nearby village.
His eloquence attracted the attention of some Moscow merchants who were coming to the area because of a famous trade fair held on Makaryev Monastery grounds. Through their efforts he was invited to serve as a priest at a populous parish in the capital.
He served there about ten years. Meanwhile, by 1635, his three little children died. He saw that as a providential sign and decided to become a monk. First he persuaded his wife to take the veil and then withdrew himself to a desolate hermitage on the isle of Anzersky on the White Sea. On becoming a monk he took the name Nikon.
In 1639, he had a quarrel with the father superior, and fled the monastery by boat; a tempest broke out and his boat was cast ashore on Kiy Island, where he would later establish a great monastery. He eventually reached the Kozheozersky Monastery, in the diocese of Novgorod, of which he became abbot in 1643.
Meeting with the Tsar
In his official capacity, he visited Moscow in 1646, and paid homage to the young Tsar Alexei I, as was the custom at the time. Alexei, who was rather pious, was quite impressed with Nikon, and appointed him archimandrite, or prior, of the important Novospassky monastery in Moscow. This monastery was especially associated with the House of Romanovs.
Zealots of Piety
While serving at Novospassky Monastery, Nikon became a member of the circle of the Zealots of Piety. This was a group of ecclesiastical and secular individuals that started in the late 1630s, gathering around Stefan Vonifatiyev, the confessor of tsar Alexei.
In the wake of the Time of Troubles, the members believed the problems of the time were the manifestation of a wrathful God, angry with the Russian people's lack of religiosity. The group called for the rebirth of the Russian Orthodox faith, and a renewal of the religious piety of the masses. This group included Fyodor Rtishchev, Abbot Ivan Neronov of the Kazan Cathedral, Protopope Avvakum, and others.
In 1649, Nikon became metropolitan of Great Novgorod. He was given some special privileges there. During his tenure, a riot started in the city, and Nikon was severely beaten by the mobs. Nevertheless, he managed to resolve the matters peacefully, by leading a religious procession against the rioters.
Elected as patriarch (1652)
On 1 August 1652 he was elected patriarch of Moscow. Nikon knew that he was rather unpopular with the nobility, and declined the offer several times.
It was only with the utmost difficulty that Nikon could be persuaded to become the arch-pastor of the Russian Church. He gave in after the Tsar himself and the boyars fell on their knees, begging him to accept. He only yielded after imposing upon the whole assembly a solemn oath of obedience to him in everything concerning the dogmas, canons and observances of the Orthodox Church.
Nikon's reforms
When Nikon was appointed, ecclesiastical reform was already in the air. A number of ecclesiastical dignitaries, known as the party of the protopopes (deans), had accepted the responsibility for the revision of the church service-books inaugurated by the late Patriarch Joasaph, and a few other minor rectifications of certain ancient observances. But they were far too timid to attempt anything really effectual.
Nikon launched bold reforms. He consulted the most learned of the Greek prelates abroad, invited them to a consultation at Moscow, and finally the scholars of Constantinople and Kiev convinced Nikon that the Muscovite service-books were heterodox, and that the icons actually in use had very widely departed from the ancient Constantinopolitan models, being for the most part imbued with the Frankish and Polish (West European) baroque influences.
Nikon criticized severely the use of such new-fangled icons; he ordered a house-to-house search for them to be made. His soldiers and servants were charged first to gouge out the eyes of these heretical counterfeits and then carry them through the town in derision. He also issued an ukase threatening with the severest penalties all who dared to make or use such icons in future.
Later research was to determine that Muscovite service-books did belong to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries, were newer, and contained innovations.
In 1654, Nikon summoned a synod to re-examine the service-books revised by the Patriarch Joasaf, and the majority of the synod decided that "the Greeks should be followed rather than our own ancients." A second council, held at Moscow in 1656, sanctioned the revision of the service-books as suggested by the first council, and anathematized the dissenting minority, which included the party of the protopopes and Paul, bishop of Kolomna. The reforms coincided with a great plague in 1654.
Construction of tent-like churches (of which Saint Basil's Cathedral is a prime example) was strictly forbidden, and many old uncanonical churches were demolished to make way for new ones, designed in the "Old Byzantine" style. This ruthlessness goes far to explain the unappeasable hatred with which the Old Believers, as they now began to be called, ever afterwards regarded Nikon and all his works.
His building program
He enriched the numerous and splendid monasteries which he built with valuable libraries. His emissaries scoured Muscovy and the Orient for precious Greek and Slavonic manuscripts, both sacred and profane.
Among the great monasteries he founded were Valday Iversky Monastery, the New Jerusalem Monastery, and Kiy Island Monastery.
Political power
From 1652 to 1658, Nikon was not so much the minister as the colleague of the tsar. Both in public documents and in private letters he was permitted to use the sovereign title. This was especially the case during the wars with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1654–1667, when the tsar was away from Moscow with his armies. In 1654, while starting on his great military campaign, the tsar left Nikon at home as the chief ruler. Needless to say, this created some considerable resentment among the high level boyars.
Nikon made it his mission to remove the Church from secular authority, and permanently separate the Church from the state. He believed that the Church and state should work in harmony, while remaining separate from each other. He also sought to organize the Church with a hierarchy similar to the state's – with the Patriarch in complete control.
Nikon especially protested Sobornoye Ulozheniye (Russian Legal Code) of 1649, which reduced the status of the clergy, and made the Church in effect subservient to the state. Also, according to this Code, the taxation of monastery lands was used for the benefit of the state.
But his actions raised up a whole host of enemies against him, and by the summer of 1658 they had convinced Alexius that the sovereign patriarch was eclipsing the sovereign tsar. Alexius suddenly grew cold towards his own "bosom friend," as he called him.
Nikon leaves Moscow (1658)
Almost as a test of wills and, perhaps, hoping to dramatize his own importance and indispensability, Nikon publicly stripped himself of his patriarchal vestments in 1658, and went to live at the New Jerusalem Monastery, that he, himself, founded in the town of Istra, 40 kilometers west of Moscow. But he actually did not officially resign from his position.
For nearly two years Tsar Alexius and Nikon remained estranged and their conflict unresolved. In February 1660 a synod was held at Moscow to elect a new Patriarch to the throne, vacant now for nearly two years. The synod decided not only that a new patriarch should be appointed, but that Nikon had forfeited both his archiepiscopal rank and his priests orders.
Against the second part of the synod's decision, however, the great ecclesiastical expert Epifany Slavinetsky protested energetically, and ultimately the whole inquiry collapsed. The tsar was unwilling to enforce the decrees of the synod being unsure of its ecclesiastical validity.
For six years longer the Russian Orthodoxy remained without a patriarch. Every year the question of Nikon's deposition became more complicated and confusing. Almost every contemporary Eastern Orthodox scholar was consulted on the subject, and no two authorities agreed. At last the matter was submitted to a pan-Orthodox synod.
Condemned by synod (1667)
In December 1667, Nikon was tried by a synod of church officials, known as the Great Moscow Synod. It was presided over by "two foreign Patriarchs ... [and consisting of] thirteen metropolitans, nine archbishops, five bishops and thirty-two archmandrites." The two patriarchs at the synod were Paisios of Alexandria, and Macarius III of Antioch. Symeon of Polotsk was one of the key theologians preparing the documents of the synod.
According to Robert Massie, during the proceedings, Nikon staunchly defended his belief that the church's authority and power were, and ought to be, supreme; however, Nikon was rather insisting that the church's authority and power ought to be supreme only in ecclesiastical matters.
On 12 December 1667, the synod pronounced Nikon guilty of reviling the tsar and the whole Muscovite Church, of deposing Paul, bishop of Kolomna, contrary to the canons, and of beating and torturing his dependents. His sentence was deprivation of all his sacerdotal functions; henceforth, he was to be known simply as the monk Nikon. The same day he was put into a sledge and sent as a prisoner to the far northern Ferapontov monastery. However, the very council which had deposed him confirmed all his reforms, and anathematized all who refused to accept them, like protopope Avvakum.
Nikon survived Tsar Alexis, with whom something of the old intimacy had been resumed in 1671. In 1681, the new tsar Fedor (Alexius's son), on hearing that Nikon was dying, allowed him to return to Moscow and, under a partial pardon, take up residence in his former Moscow home, the New Jerusalem Monastery. At Yaroslavl on his way there, after crossing the Kotorosl River, he died in Tropino on 17 August 1681. The monastery remained unfinished, however, but the royal family paid particular attention to ensuring its completion. Nikon's cleric later recorded that, for the church's consecration in 1685, Tserevna Tatyana prepared gold and silver, arranged for icons to be made, and personally embroidered veils to cover paraphernalia for the eucharist.
References
Parts of this article are translated from Russian Wikipedia.
Further reading
Lobachev, Sergei V. "Patriarch Nikon's Rise to Power." Slavonic and East European Review (2001): 290–307. in JSTOR
Meyendorff, Paul. Russia, ritual, and reform: the liturgical reforms of Nikon in the 17th century (RSM Press, 1991)
Shusherin, Ioann. From Peasant to Patriarch: Account of the Birth, Uprising, and Life of His Holiness Nikon, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia (2008)
Spinka, Matthew."Patriarch Nikon and the Subjection of the Russian Church to the State." Church History 10#4 (1941): 347–366. in JSTOR
1605 births
1681 deaths
People from Perevozsky District
Mordvin people
Metropolitans and Patriarchs of Moscow
Tsardom of Russia people
17th-century Russian clergy
17th-century Eastern Orthodox bishops | [
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|
214175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor | Chancellor | Chancellor () is a title of various official positions in the governments of many nations. The original chancellors were the of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the or lattice work screens of a basilica or law court, which separated the judge and counsel from the audience. A chancellor's office is called a chancellery or chancery. The word is now used in the titles of many various officers in various settings (government, education, religion). Nowadays the term is most often used to describe:
The head of the government
A person in charge of foreign affairs
A person with duties related to justice
A person in charge of financial and economic issues
The head of a university
Governmental positions
Head of government
Austria
The Chancellor of Austria, denominated for males and for females ("Federal Chancellor"), is the title of the head of the Government of Austria. The current Chancellor of Austria is Karl Nehammer.
Germany
The Chancellor of Germany or (official German title which means "Federal Chancellor") is the title for the head of government in Germany ( being the feminine form). In German politics, the position is equivalent to that of a prime minister and is elected by the ("Federal Diet", the directly elected federal parliament) every four years on the beginning of the electoral period after general elections. Between general elections, the Federal Chancellor (together with the whole cabinet) can only be removed from office by a ("constructive motion of no confidence"), which consists in the candidacy of an opposition candidate for the office of Chancellor in the . If this candidate gets a majority of the entire membership of the , he or she will be sworn in immediately as new Federal Chancellor.
The current German is Olaf Scholz of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)
The former German Empire, the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany had the equivalent position of ("Reich Chancellor") as the head of the executive. Between 1871 and 1918, the Chancellor was appointed by the German Emperor. During the Weimar Republic (1919-1933), the Chancellor was chosen by the Reichspräsident ("Reich President") and stood under his authority. This continued (formally) during the first two years of the Nazi regime until the death of President Paul von Hindenburg in 1934. Between 1934 and 1945, Adolf Hitler was dictatorial head of state and government of Nazi Germany, being officially titled "" (literally "Leader and Reich Chancellor").
Switzerland
Swiss Confederation
In Switzerland, the Federal Chancellor (, , ) is not the political head of government, but rather its administrative head as the Chief of Staff of the Swiss Federal Government. He or she is elected by the Swiss Federal Assembly (, , ) to head the Federal Chancellery () — the general staff of the seven-member executive Federal Council, the Swiss federal government. The Chancellor participates in the meetings of the seven Federal Councilors with a consultative vote and prepares the reports on policy and activities of the council to parliament (assembly). The chancellery is responsible for the publication of all federal laws.
Swiss cantons
In most Swiss cantons there is a State Chancellor who heads the central administrative unit of the cantonal government. In the Canton of Geneva, the first documents attesting to the existence of a Chancellor go back to the 12th century. In the 16th century the Chancery is officially described as the permanent secretariat of the executive and legislature. The first of these functions still constitutes an important part of its activities in Geneva and other cantons. In the Canton of Berne, the Chancellor is elected by the Grand Council (i.e. Parliament) and has the task of supporting the Grand Council and the Executive Council in carrying out their tasks. The Chancellor directs the staff of the Executive Council, supports the President of the Government and the Executive Council in the performance of their duties, and usually participates as an advisor to the President of the Grand Council in Grand Council sessions.
Foreign minister and diplomatic official
In most countries of Latin America, the equivalents to "chancellor" (Canciller in Spanish and Chanceler in Portuguese) are commonly used to refer to the post of foreign minister. It is often used as a synonym to the full titles of the ministers of foreign affairs. Likewise, the ministry of foreign affairs in Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas is referred to as the Cancillería or in Portuguese-speaking Brazil as Chancelaria. However, in Spain the term canciller refers to a civil servant in the Spanish diplomatic service responsible for technical issues relating to foreign affairs. As to the German foreign service, the term Kanzler (chancellor) refers to the administrative head of a diplomatic mission.
Functions related to justice and the law
Finland
In Finland the Chancellor of Justice (, ) supervises the legality of actions taken by the government and monitors the implementation of basic civil liberties. In this special function the chancellor also sits in the Finnish Cabinet, the Finnish Council of State.
Sweden
In Sweden the Chancellor of Justice or acts as the Solicitor General for the Swedish Government. The office was introduced by Charles XII of Sweden in 1713. Historically there was also a Lord High Chancellor or as the most senior member of the Privy Council of Sweden. There is in addition to this a University Chancellor or , who leads the National Agency for Higher Education.
United Kingdom
In the legal system of the United Kingdom, the term can refer to two officials:
The Lord Chancellor (Lord High Chancellor, King's Chancellor) is the occupant of one of the oldest offices of state, dating back to the Kingdom of England, and older than Parliament itself. Theoretically, the Lord Chancellor is the Chancellor of Great Britain. A former office of "Chancellor of Ireland" was abolished in 1922, when all but Northern Ireland left the United Kingdom. The Lord Chancellor is the second-highest non-royal subject in precedence (after the Archbishop of Canterbury). In addition to various ceremonial duties, he is head of the Ministry of Justice, which was created in May 2007 from the Department for Constitutional Affairs (which was created in 2003 from the Lord Chancellor's Department). In this role, he sits in the Cabinet. Until the Constitutional Reform Act of 2005, the Lord Chancellor had two additional roles:
Head of the English, but not Scottish, judiciary. In previous centuries, the Lord Chancellor was the sole judge in the Court of Chancery; when, in 1873, that court was combined with others to form the High Court, the Lord Chancellor became the nominal head of the Chancery Division. The Lord Chancellor was permitted to participate in judicial sittings of the House of Lords; he also chose the committees that heard appeals in the Lords. The de facto head of the Chancery Division was the Vice-Chancellor, and the role of choosing appellate committees was in practice fulfilled by the Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary.
De facto speaker of the House of Lords. These duties are now undertaken by the Lord Speaker. Jack Straw was the first Lord Chancellor to be a member of the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords or its predecessor, the Curia Regis, since Sir Christopher Hatton in 1578.
The Chancellor of the High Court is the head of the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice. Before 2005, the judge occupying this position was known as the Vice-Chancellor, the Lord Chancellor being the nominal head of the Division.
Some states in the United States
Some U.S. states, like Delaware, Tennessee, and Mississippi, still maintain a separate Court of Chancery with jurisdiction over equity cases. Judges who sit on those courts are called chancellors.
Other governmental positions
Denmark
In Denmark, the office of chancellor (or royal chancellor) seems to have appeared in the 12th century, and until 1660 it was the title of the leader of the state administration (a kind of a "Home Office" but often with foreign political duties). Often he appeared to be the real leader of the government. From 1660 until 1848, the title continued as "Grand Chancellor" or "President of the Danish Chancellery", and was replaced in 1730 by the title "Minister of Domestic Affairs".
Estonia
In Estonia, a Chancellor () directs the work of a ministry and coordinates institutions subject to the ministry. A ministry can also have one or several Vice-Chancellors (Asekantsler), who fulfill the duties of the Chancellor, when they are absent. The Chancellor of Justice (, currently Ülle Madise) supervises the legality of actions taken by the government and monitors the implementation of basic civil liberties.
United Kingdom
Several posts carry the title of Chancellor in the United Kingdom:
Chancellor of the Exchequer, the minister with overall responsibility for HM Treasury. This is an ancient title dating back to the Kingdom of England. It is roughly the equivalent of the Minister of Finance or Secretary of the Treasury in other governmental systems. In recent years, when the term chancellor is used in British politics, it is taken as referring to the Chancellor of the Exchequer. As Second Lord of the Treasury, the Chancellor has an official residence at 11 Downing Street, next door to the First Lord of the Treasury, the Prime Minister, at 10 Downing Street, in London.
In a county palatine or liberty, where a local lord exercised personal jurisdiction that elsewhere was reserved to the Crown, the head of the lord's administration was often titled "chancellor". Where the lord was a bishop (as with the Bishop of Ely in Isle of Ely or the Archbishop of York in Hexhamshire) then this officer was called the temporal chancellor to distinguish him from the bishop's ecclesiastical chancellor. While palatine and liberty jurisdictions are practically obsolete, the ceremonial title chancellor remains in use:
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster: in effect, as the sinecure position of a minister without portfolio, often given to senior politicians so they have a seat in the cabinet.
Chancellor of Cornwall, Keeper of the Great Seal, second only to the Lord Warden of the Stannaries within the Duchy of Cornwall.
United States
In the United States, the only "chancellor" established by the federal government is the Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution, a largely ceremonial office held by the Chief Justice of the United States. As the Smithsonian is a research and museum system, its use of the title is perhaps best thought of as akin to a university's chancellor.
Ecclesiastical position
The chancellor is the principal record-keeper of a diocese or eparchy, or their equivalent. The chancellor is a notary, so that he may certify official documents, and often has other duties at the discretion of the bishop of the diocese: he may be in charge of some aspect of finances or of managing the personnel connected with diocesan offices, although his delegated authority cannot extend to vicars of the diocesan bishop, such as vicars general, episcopal vicars or judicial vicars. His office is within the "chancery". Vice-chancellors may be appointed to assist the chancellor in busy chanceries. Normally, the chancellor is a priest or deacon, although in some circumstances a layperson may be appointed to the post. In the eparchial curia a chancellor is to be appointed who is to be a presbyter (priest) or deacon and whose principal obligation, unless otherwise established by the particular law, is to see that the acts of the curia are gathered and arranged as well as preserved in the archives of the eparchial curia.
In England, the Consistory courts of the Church of England are each presided over by a Chancellor of the Diocese.
In the United Methodist Church, each Annual Conference has a Conference Chancellor, who is the Annual Conference's legal adviser and representative. While the Annual Conference usually hires outside professional counsel in matters that require legal representation, that hiring and representation is done under the supervision, and with the consent, of the Conference Chancellor.
Educational position
A chancellor is the leader (either ceremonial or executive) of many public and private universities and related institutions.
The heads of the New York City Department of Education and the District of Columbia Public Schools, who run the municipally-operated public schools in those jurisdictions, carry the title of Chancellor. New York State also has a Chancellor of the University of the State of New York, the body that licenses and regulates all educational and research institutions in the state and many professions (not to be confused with the State University of New York, an actual institution of higher learning).
In a few instances, the term chancellor applies to a student or faculty member in a high school or an institution of higher learning who is either appointed or elected as chancellor to preside on the highest ranking judicial board or tribunal. They handle non-academic matters such as violations of behavior.
In Germany many heads of university administration carry the title (Chancellor) while the academical heads carry the title (Rector). In order to avoid any misunderstanding, the head of the German Federal Government is therefore usually called by the official title (Federal Chancellor).
Historical uses
Chancellor or Grand Chancellor is the common translation of the Chinese title zǎixiàng (Chinese: ), or chéngxiàng (), which in imperial China was the highest-ranking executive official serving under the emperor. See also: Chancellor of the Tang dynasty.
The chancellor in the government of the Holy Roman Empire.
There are two ancient Egyptian titles sometimes translated as chancellor.
The "royal sealer" (xtmtj-bity or xtmw-bity), a title which conveyed a certain rank at the royal court, attested since the First Dynasty (about 3000 BC). People holding the post include Imhotep and Hemaka.
The "Keeper of the Royal Seal" (or overseer of the seal or treasurer—imy-r xtmt) was responsible for the state's income. This position appears around 2000 BC. Officials holding the post include Bay or Irsu, Khety Meketre, and Nakhti.
For centuries, the King of France appointed the Chancellor of France (), a Great Officer of the Crown, as an office associated with that of keeper of the seals. The chancelier was responsible for some judicial proceedings. During the reigns of Louis XVIII, Charles X and Louis Philippe, the Chancellor of France presided over the Chamber of Peers, the upper house of the royal French parliament.
In the Kingdom of Poland from the 14th century, there was a royal chancellor (). In the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795), the four chancellors were among the ten highest officials of the state. Poland and Lithuania each had a Grand Chancellor and a Deputy Chancellor, each entitled to a senatorial seat, responsible for the affairs of the whole Kingdom, each with his own chancery. See Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In the Russian Empire, the chancellor was the highest rank of civil service as defined by the Table of Ranks and on the same grade as field marshal and General Admiral. Only the most distinguished government officials were promoted to this grade, such as foreign ministers Alexander Gorchakov and Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin.
In Norway the Chancellor of Norway (modern Norwegian: Norges rikes kansler, "Chancellor of Norway's Realm") was the most important aide of the King of Norway during the Middle Ages. He issued laws and regulations, and was responsible for day-to-day administration of the kingdom. From 1270, the Chancellor resided in Bergen. Haakon V of Norway moved the Chancellor's residence to Oslo; on 31 August 1314 the provost of St Mary's Church became Chancellor on a permanent basis. He was given the Great Seal of the Realm "for eternity." The Chancellors were originally chosen from the clergy. The position lost its importance after Jens Bjelke's tenure, and was abolished in 1679.
The Lord Chancellor of Scotland.
The canghellor of medieval Wales administered the peasantry of the king's demesne and was charged with holding the king's pleas and "waste".
A "State Chancellor" (German: Staatskanzler) was head of government in German-Austria after World War I and again after World War II in post-war Austria. Both times the State Chancellor was Karl Renner.
See also
Logothete
Prime minister
References
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|
214176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII%20%28magazine%29 | ASCII (magazine) | was a monthly released microcomputer magazine in Japan, published by ASCII Corporation from 1977. It targeted business users who used a personal computer in their home and office, but it sometimes introduced computer games and computer music. It was also known as the written along with the title from Vol. 2 No. 4, and distinguish with the founded in 1997. The ASCII was rebranded as the in 2008, and ceased in 2010. Its news website and the Weekly ASCII are continuing as in 2016.
The , a computer game magazine, was first published as an extra issue of the ASCII in 1982, and the was branched from the LOGiN.
Foundation
In 1976, NEC released the TK-80, a single-board computer kit, and it became popular among hobbyists in Japan. joined foundation of the first Japanese microcomputer magazine I/O (ja) as an editor when he was a student at the Waseda University. The I/O initially served information for assembled microcomputer systems with a few video game columns. Growing the video game market, it was shifted to a video game magazine. Against it, Nishi considered that personal computers must have far more potential than video games.
In April 1977, Nishi left the company, borrowed money from his grandmother and visited the West Coast Computer Faire held in San Francisco. Then, he realized the difference between Japan and the United States. "In Japan, the TK-80 just caused a microcomputer craze. While in the United States, it seems the beginning of the personal computer revolution. Each persons try to face a personal computer, based on their own identity," he said.
On May 24, 1977, Nishi founded with his friends, and . They published the ASCII as a microcomputer magazine for business, while the I/O was for hobbyists. The first issue was sold 5,000 copies. It became one of the most popular computer magazine in 1980s in Japan. In 1999, the magazine reached its largest circulation of 170,000 copies.
References
External links
ASCII.jp
Defunct computer magazines
Defunct magazines published in Japan
Magazines established in 1977
Magazines disestablished in 2008
Magazines published in Tokyo
Monthly magazines published in Japan | [
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|
214178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBeans | NetBeans | NetBeans is an integrated development environment (IDE) for Java. NetBeans allows applications to be developed from a set of modular software components called modules. NetBeans runs on Windows, macOS, Linux and Solaris. In addition to Java development, it has extensions for other languages like PHP, C, C++, HTML5, and JavaScript. Applications based on NetBeans, including the NetBeans IDE, can be extended by third party developers.
History
NetBeans began in 1996 as Xelfi (word play on Delphi), a Java IDE student project under the guidance of the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics at Charles University in Prague. In 1997, Roman Staněk formed a company around the project and produced commercial versions of the NetBeans IDE until it was bought by Sun Microsystems in 1999. Sun open-sourced the NetBeans IDE in June of the following year. Since then, the NetBeans community has continued to grow. In 2010, Sun (and thus NetBeans) was acquired by Oracle Corporation. Under Oracle, NetBeans competed with JDeveloper, a freeware IDE that has historically been a product of the company. In September 2016, Oracle submitted a proposal to donate the NetBeans project to the Apache Software Foundation, stating that it was "opening up the NetBeans governance model to give NetBeans constituents a greater voice in the project's direction and future success through the upcoming release of Java 9 and NetBeans 9 and beyond". The move was endorsed by Java creator James Gosling. The project entered the Apache Incubator in October 2016.
NetBeans IDE releases
NetBeans IDE 6.5, released in November 2008, extended the existing Java EE features (including Java Persistence support, EJB 3 and JAX-WS). Additionally, the NetBeans Enterprise Pack supports the development of Java EE 5 enterprise applications, including SOA visual design tools, XML schema tools, web services orchestration (for BPEL), and UML modeling. The NetBeans IDE Bundle for C/C++ supports C/C++ and FORTRAN development.
NetBeans IDE 6.8 is the first IDE to provide complete support of Java EE 6 and the GlassFish Enterprise Server v3. Developers hosting their open-source projects on kenai.com additionally benefit from instant messaging and issue tracking integration and navigation right in the IDE, support for web application development with PHP 5.3 and the Symfony framework, and improved code completion, layouts, hints and navigation in JavaFX projects.
NetBeans IDE 6.9, released in June 2010, added support for OSGi, Spring Framework 3.0, Java EE dependency injection (JSR-299), Zend Framework for PHP, and easier code navigation (such as "Is Overridden/Implemented" annotations), formatting, hints, and refactoring across several languages.
NetBeans IDE 7.0 was released in April 2011. On August 1, 2011, the NetBeans Team released NetBeans IDE 7.0.1, which has full support for the official release of the Java SE 7 platform.
NetBeans IDE 7.3 was released in February 2013 which added support for HTML5 and web technologies.
NetBeans IDE 7.4 was released on 15 October 2013.
NetBeans IDE 8.0 was released on 18 March 2014.
NetBeans IDE 8.1 was released on 4 November 2015.
NetBeans IDE 8.2 was released on 3 October 2016.
Netbeans 9.0, which adds support for Java 9 and 10, was released on 29 July 2018, by the Apache Incubator project.
NetBeans 10.0 was released on 27 December 2018. It brings support for Java 11 and improved support for PHP (7.0–7.3).
NetBeans 11.0 was released on 4 April 2019.
NetBeans 11.1 was released on 22 July 2019.
NetBeans 11.2 was released on 25 October 2019.
NetBeans 11.3 was released on 24 February 2020.
NetBeans 12.0 was released on 4 June 2020.
NetBeans 12.5 was released on 13 September 2021.
NetBeans IDE
NetBeans IDE is an open-source integrated development environment. NetBeans IDE supports development of all Java application types (Java SE (including JavaFX), Java ME, web, EJB and mobile applications) out of the box. Among other features are an Ant-based project system, Maven support, refactorings, version control (supporting CVS, Subversion, Git, Mercurial and Clearcase).
Modularity: All the functions of the IDE are provided by modules. Each module provides a well-defined function, such as support for the Java language, editing, or support for the CVS versioning system, and SVN. NetBeans contains all the modules needed for Java development in a single download, allowing the user to start working immediately. Modules also allow NetBeans to be extended. New features, such as support for other programming languages, can be added by installing additional modules. For instance, Sun Studio, Sun Java Studio Enterprise, and Sun Java Studio Creator from Sun Microsystems are all based on the NetBeans IDE.
License: The IDE is licensed under the Apache License 2.0. Previously, from July 2006 through 2007, NetBeans IDE was licensed under Sun's Common Development and Distribution License (CDDL), a license based on the Mozilla Public License (MPL). In October 2007, Sun announced that NetBeans would henceforth be offered under a dual license of the CDDL and the GPL version 2 licenses, with the GPL linking exception for GNU Classpath. Oracle has donated NetBeans Platform and IDE to the Apache Foundation where it underwent incubation and graduated as a top level project in April 2019.
Other products
In an October 2016 interview with Gabriela Motroc, Oracle Vice President Bill Pataky stated that Oracle has a number of products that depend on NetBeans.
Oracle Developer Studio, a commercial C, C++, Fortran and Java development environment is 100% based on NetBeans
Oracle JDeveloper, an end-to-end development for Oracle's technology stack takes major subsystems from NetBeans
Oracle JavaScript Extension Toolkit, a modular, open source toolkit based on modern JavaScript, CSS3 and HTML5 design and development principles uses NetBeans as its preferred IDE
Alternative distributions
Integrated Modules
These modules are part of the NetBeans IDE:
NetBeans Profiler
The NetBeans Profiler is a tool for the monitoring of Java applications: It helps developers find memory leaks and optimize speed. Formerly downloaded separately, it is integrated into the core IDE since version 6.0.
The Profiler is based on a Sun Laboratories research project that was named JFluid. That research uncovered specific techniques that can be used to lower the overhead of profiling a Java application. One of those techniques is dynamic bytecode instrumentation, which is particularly useful for profiling large Java applications. Using dynamic bytecode instrumentation and additional algorithms, the NetBeans Profiler is able to obtain runtime information on applications that are too large or complex for other profilers. NetBeans also support Profiling Points that let you profile precise points of execution and measure execution time.
GUI design tool
Formerly known as project Matisse, the GUI design-tool enables developers to prototype and design Swing GUIs by dragging and positioning GUI components.
The GUI builder has built-in support for JSR 295 (Beans Binding technology), but the support for JSR 296 (Swing Application Framework) was removed in 7.1.
NetBeans JavaScript editor
The NetBeans JavaScript editor provides extended support for JavaScript, Ajax, and CSS.
JavaScript editor features comprise syntax highlighting, refactoring, code completion for native objects and functions, generation of JavaScript class skeletons, generation of Ajax callbacks from a template; and automatic browser compatibility checks.
CSS editor features comprise code completion for styles names, quick navigation through the navigator panel, displaying the CSS rule declaration in a List View and file structure in a Tree View, sorting the outline view by name, type or declaration order (List & Tree), creating rule declarations (Tree only), refactoring a part of a rule name (Tree only).
The NetBeans 7.4 and later uses the new Nashorn JavaScript engine developed by Oracle.
NetBeans IDE Download Bundles
Users can choose to download NetBeans IDE bundles tailored to specific development needs. Users can also download and install all other features at a later date directly through the NetBeans IDE.
NetBeans IDE Bundle for Web and Java EE
The NetBeans IDE Bundle for Web & Java EE provides complete tools for all the latest Java EE 6 standards, including the new Java EE 6 Web Profile, Enterprise Java Beans (EJBs), servlets, Java Persistence API, web services, and annotations.
NetBeans also supports the JSF 2.0 (Facelets), JavaServer Pages (JSP), Hibernate, Spring, and Struts frameworks, and the Java EE 5 and J2EE 1.4 platforms. It includes GlassFish and Apache Tomcat.
Some of its features with Java EE include:
Improved support for CDI, REST services and Java Persistence
New support for Bean Validation
Support for JSF component libraries, including bundled PrimeFaces library
Improved editing for Expression Language in JSF, including code completion, refactoring and hints
NetBeans IDE Bundle for PHP
NetBeans supports PHP since version 5.6. The bundle for PHP includes:
syntax highlighting, code completion, occurrence highlighting, error highlighting, CVS version control
semantic analysis with highlighting of parameters and unused local variables
PHP code debugging with xdebug
PHP Unit testing with PHPUnit and Selenium
Code coverage
Symfony framework support (since version 6.8)
Zend Framework support (since version 6.9)
Yii Framework support (since version 7.3)
PHP 5.3 namespace and closure support (since version 6.8)
Code Folding for Control Structures (since version 7.2 dev)
NetBeans IDE Complete Bundle
Oracle also releases a version of NetBeans that includes all of the features of the above bundles. This bundle includes:
NetBeans Base IDE
Java SE, JavaFX
Web and Java EE
Java ME
C/C++
PHP (Version 5.5 and later)
asd
Apache Groovy
GlassFish
Apache Tomcat
Official Ruby support was removed with the release of 7.0.
Localization
NetBeans IDE is translated into the following languages:
Brazilian Portuguese (BR), as of 5.5
Japanese (JP), as of 3.4
Simplified Chinese (ZH-CN)
Community translations of the IDE are also available in the following languages:
See also
Comparison of integrated development environments
Eclipse IDE
JetBrains IntelliJ
Oracle JDeveloper
Oracle Developer Studio
Sun Microsystems
References
Further reading
External links
2000 software
Apache Software Foundation projects
Android (operating system) development software
Code navigation tools
Cross-platform free software
Formerly proprietary software
Web development software
Free HTML editors
Free integrated development environments
Free software programmed in Java (programming language)
Free UML tools
Development
Integrated development environments
Java development tools
Java platform
Linux integrated development environments
Linux programming tools
MacOS programming tools
MacOS text editors
Programming tools for Windows
Software development kits
Software using the CDDL license
Sun Microsystems software | [
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214179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry%20%28band%29 | Ministry (band) | Ministry is an American industrial metal band founded in Chicago, Illinois in 1981 by producer, singer and instrumentalist Al Jourgensen. Originally a synth-pop outfit, Ministry evolved into one of the pioneers of industrial metal in the late 1980s. The band's lineup has changed frequently, leaving Jourgensen as the sole original member left in Ministry. Musicians who have contributed to the band's studio or live activities include vocalists Nivek Ogre, Chris Connelly, Gibby Haynes, Burton C. Bell and Jello Biafra, guitarists Mike Scaccia and Tommy Victor, bassists Paul Barker, Paul Raven, Jason Christopher, Tony Campos and Paul D'Amour, drummers Bill Rieflin, Martin Atkins, Rey Washam, Max Brody, Joey Jordison and Roy Mayorga, keyboardist John Bechdel, and rappers and producers DJ Swamp and Arabian Prince.
Ministry attained commercial success in the late 1980s and early 1990s with three of their studio albums: The Land of Rape and Honey (1988), The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste (1989) and Psalm 69 (1992). The first two were certified gold while Psalm 69 was certified platinum by the RIAA. Psalm 69 was followed by Filth Pig (1996), which was a stylistic departure for the band, and earned Ministry its highest chart position on the Billboard 200 at number nineteen, although it was met with mixed reception by critics and marked the beginning of the band's commercial decline. The lackluster response to their next album, Dark Side of the Spoon (1999), resulted in Warner Bros. dropping Ministry from the label and the group entered an extended hiatus in early 2000s, when Jourgensen entered rehab after years of substance abuse.
Following Jourgensen's recovery, Ministry resurfaced in 2003 with Animositisomina, which turned out to be their last album with Paul Barker, who had left the band early the next year after nearly two decades as an official member. Ministry returned to their thrash/industrial style of Psalm 69 and released three albums critical of then-President of the United States, George W. Bush, dubbed the "Bush Trilogy": Houses of the Molé (2004), Rio Grande Blood (2006) and The Last Sucker (2007); these albums effectively revitalized the band's commercial viability. Although The Last Sucker was initially intended to be the band's final album, Ministry reformed in 2011 and released Relapse in the following year. On December 23, 2012, longtime guitar contributor Mike Scaccia died of a heart attack, and he was posthumously featured in the next Ministry album, From Beer to Eternity (2013), which was again supposed to be their last album, as Jourgensen thought his death was the end of the band. Despite this, Ministry has since released two more albums: AmeriKKKant (2018) and Moral Hygiene (2021), and they are working on new material for a sixteenth studio album as of October 2021.
The band has been nominated for six Grammy Awards and has performed at several music festivals, including the second annual Lollapalooza tour in 1992, co-headlining Big Day Out in 1995 and performing at Wacken Open Air thrice (in 2006, 2012 and 2016).
History
Formation and early days (1981–1982)
Ministry's origins date to 1978, when Jourgensen moved from Denver to Chicago to attend the University of Illinois at Chicago. He was introduced to the local underground scene by his then-girlfriend, and in 1979 he replaced Tom Hoffmann on guitars in Special Affect, a post-punk group which featured vocalist Frank Nardiello (Groovie Mann of My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult), drummer Harry Rushakoff (Concrete Blonde) and bassist Marty Sorenson. Following Special Affect's split in 1980, Jourgensen formed a short-lived band called The Silly Carmichaels, which featured members of The Imports and played two shows.
In 1981, Jourgensen met Jim Nash and Danny Flesher, co-founders and co-owners of the indie record label and shop Wax Trax! Records who recommended him as a touring guitarist for Divine. After playing a few concerts with the latter, Jourgensen began to write and record songs in his apartment, using a newly bought ARP Omni synthesizer, a drum machine, and a reel-to-reel tape recorder. He presented a demo to Jim Nash, who suggested Jourgensen record a single and form a touring band, which Jourgensen decided to call Ministry.
The first line-up of Ministry consisted of keyboardists Robert Roberts and John Davis, bassist Sorenson, and drummer Stephen George; Jourgensen auditioned several singers, all of whom were unsatisfactory, so he decided to perform vocals himself. Nash purchased recording sessions at Hedden West studios which resulted in a twelve-inch single featuring "I'm Falling" and instrumental track "Primental" on the A-side, with the song "Cold Life" on the B-side. The record was co-produced by Jay O'Roarke and Iain Burgess and released in late 1981 on Wax Trax! in the US. In March 1982, the single was licensed by British label Situation Two, with "Cold Life" as the A-side.
Ministry performed their debut concert on New Year's Eve 1982 in the Chicago club Misfits, and, in the spring, commenced a tour of the Northeast and the Midwest, supporting Medium Medium, A Flock of Seagulls, Culture Club, and Depeche Mode. Meanwhile, the "I'm Falling / Cold Life" single reached No. 45 in the Billboard Hot Dance/Disco chart with approximately 10,000 copies as of September 1982, and thus scoring Wax Trax!' first hit.
With Sympathy and later Wax Trax! singles (1983–1985)
The band's initial success drew the attention of Arista Records founder and chief executive Clive Davis, who offered them a deal, promising to make them "the next Joy Division"—a promise that Jourgensen later considered to be misleading. Signing a six-figure, two-album deal, the band—with Jourgensen and George comprising the official line-up—moved to record at the Synchro Sound studios in Boston, with producers Vince Ely (former drummer of Psychedelic Furs) and Ian Taylor (former assistant of Roy Thomas Baker), as well as keyboardists Roberts and Davis as session musicians.
A 12-inch single containing the song "Same Old Madness" was recorded and planned for release, along with its accompanying music video. However, "Same Old Madness"—both the song and video—did not surface until 2014; instead, "Work for Love" was released in January 1983 and peaked No. 20 on the Hot Dance/Disco chart. Ministry's debut album, entitled With Sympathy (also known as Work for Love in Europe), was finished around this time and issued in May, reaching No. 94 in the Billboard 200. On release, the album was supported by two more singles—"Revenge" (with a music video partially reworked from "Same Old Madness") and "I Wanted to Tell Her" (a reworked version of "Primental"), and a supporting concert tour with The Police during the North American leg of their Synchronicity tour. During this time, Jourgensen met the members of Seattle-based band The Blackouts—namely bassist Paul Barker and drummer Bill Rieflin, as well their then-manager Patty Marsh, who later became Jourgensen's wife from 1984 to 1995.
In spite of With Sympathys success, Jourgensen's relations with Arista were acrimonious. Eventually, Jourgensen sent a demo tape featuring a cover version of Roxy Music's song "Same Old Scene" before parting ways with Arista, suing the latter for violating contractual obligations. Since then, Jourgensen has expressed dislike for the With Sympathy-era, often providing different (and widely conflicting) explanations for his antipathy. In a 2004 interview, conducted by Mark Prindle, Jourgensen said that after signing with Arista, all artistic control of Ministry was "handed over" to other writers and producers. In his 2013 autobiography, Jourgensen gave a different explanation, saying that he was pressured by Arista management into producing his existing songs in the then-popular synthpop style, as a means of making them more commercially palatable. However, in the 1980s, Jourgensen said that when he discovered hardcore music, his musical direction simply changed; Jourgensen reiterated this point in 2012, and again in 2018. In 2019, he stated that the record was "fine", only that it could have been a lot better without interference from the record company. In 2021, Jourgensen resurrected the story that Arista took full control of the production and songwriting process, made Jourgensen cut his hair and bought him a wardrobe of sharkskin suits, and this time added the label wanted Ministry to sound like Wham! (a band who were not successful in the US until 1984-one year after With Sympathy had been released). Jourgensen assumes a false English accent for all of the album's songs, for which he also later expressed great dislike, though Patty Marsh stated in a 2013 interview "...the English accent thing was more an homage to the bands he loved than anything else. He was not trying to come off as British. The Stones used a southern accent and no one crawled up their ass for it.", an explanation Jourgensen himself had also given in a prior, 1983 interview with Richard Skinner.
Departed from Arista, Jourgensen returned with Ministry on Wax Trax! in mid-1984. While working as a cashier in the Wax Trax! store, he continued to record new material. In Autumn 1984, Ministry embarked on a new tour with a renewed line-up, supported by Belgian industrial dance act Front 242. During this tour, Sire Records co-owner Seymour Stein attended several gigs, offering the band a new deal; Jourgensen, recalling his negative experience with Arista, repeatedly declined, but eventually agreed to sign on the condition that Sire would provide resources to support the Wax Trax! imprint; as Jourgensen put it, "it was kind of a personal sacrifice to keep that company rolling and allow them to keep signing bands." George left Ministry soon after this tour, disagreeing with Jourgensen over increased use of drum machines, and went on to form the short-lived band Colortone, and, much later, to pursue a record engineering career. Ministry released several singles throughout the Summer of 1985—"All Day", "(Every Day Is) Halloween" and "The Nature of Love", as well as a reissue of "Cold Life"—which were cited as marking Jourgensen's first attempt at injecting industrial elements into Ministry's sound. Initially the B-side on "All Day" single, "... Halloween" became viewed as a goth anthem similar to Bauhaus' "Bela Lugosi's Dead"; "The Nature of Love", which came out in June 1985, became Ministry's final single on Wax Trax!; in July 1985, the band was shown as signed to Sire Records.
Twitch (1985–1987)
Ministry debuted on Sire/Warner Bros. in late 1985 with the single "Over the Shoulder", preceding the release of the band's second studio album, Twitch, in March 1986. Twitch was recorded and mixed largely at Southern Studios in London and Hansa Tonstudio in West Berlin during 1985, with the On-U Sound Records owner Adrian Sherwood and Jourgensen sharing co-production duties. Despite the contribution of several others (namely Belgian singer Luc van Acker and Sherwood's acquaintance Keith LeBlanc), the album's material was mainly performed by Jourgensen, listed as the band's sole member. Some material, recorded during the Twitch sessions, was later used for LeBlanc's and Sherwood's other projects, most prominently LeBlanc's solo album Major Malfunction.
On release, Twitch hit No. 194 in Billboard 200, and was supported by a US and Canadian tour. Jourgensen assembled a new touring line-up, featuring Roland Barker on keyboards, Paul Barker on bass and Bill Rieflin on drums.; . Twitch received mixed reviews, with a music critic Robert Christgau stating, "Chicago's Anglodisco clones meet Anglodisco renegade Adrian Sherwood and promptly improve themselves by trading in wimpy on arty"; nevertheless, the album came to be viewed as a pivotal point in the band's discography, as it signaled ongoing changes in Ministry's sound. In later publications, Jourgensen credited Sherwood with giving his music an aggressive edge and providing production advice, but considered the record "so Adrian Sherwood-influenced."
Breakthrough success (1988–1993)
After Twitch, Paul Barker became Jourgensen's primary collaborator in Ministry; until his departure, he was the only person credited as a member of the band other than Jourgensen. Jourgensen then made another significant change to Ministry's sound when he resumed playing electric guitar. With Rieflin on drums, Ministry recorded The Land of Rape and Honey (1988). The album continued their success in the underground music scene. The Land of Rape and Honey made use of synthesizers, keyboards, tape loops, jackhammering drum machines, dialogue excerpted from movies, unconventional electronic processing, and, in parts, heavy distorted electric guitar and bass.
The album was supported by a tour in 1988 and the singles and music videos for "Stigmata" and "Flashback". "Stigmata" was also used in a key scene in Richard Stanley's 1990 film Hardware, although the band shown performing the song was Gwar.
The follow-up album, The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste, was released in 1989. Due to the complex nature of the album's drumming, a second drummer, Martin Atkins (formerly of Public Image Ltd. and Killing Joke), was hired. In addition to Atkins, a ten piece touring line-up was formed, consisting of Chris Connelly (keyboards and vocals), Skinny Puppy vocalist Nivek Ogre (vocals and keyboards), Joe Kelly (vocals and backing vocals) and guitarists Mike Scaccia, Terry Roberts, and William Tucker, with Jourgensen, Paul Barker and Rieflin serving as the group's core members. This tour was documented on In Case You Didn't Feel Like Showing Up. Two opening tracks, "Burning Inside" and "Thieves", were released as a commercial single; "Burning Inside" was accompanied by a music video.
After completing the Revolting Cocks tour in early 1991, Jourgensen and his bandmates began work on a follow-up to The Mind ... at Chicago Trax! studios, amidst problems brought on by growing substance abuse. During these initial sessions, Gibby Haynes of the Butthole Surfers recorded vocals for what became "Jesus Built My Hotrod", which hit No. 19 in the Modern Rock Tracks chart with approximately 128,000 copies as of mid-July 1992; considered Ministry's first and biggest commercial hit, it built significant anticipation for their upcoming album, then titled The Tapes of Wrath. In an attempt to distance themselves from drugs and find fresh perspective, the band relocated from Chicago to Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, to record at Royal Recorders studios for ten weeks. After considering the Wisconsin sessions a "washout", they returned to Chicago to complete the album – now entitled Psalm 69: The Way to Succeed and the Way to Suck Eggs, after a chapter from Aleister Crowley's The Book of Lies – by early May 1992, with only nine of about thirty songs written being chosen to feature. The album was influenced by speed and thrash metal, often being described as their fastest record by fans and critics. It was released on July 14, 1992 and peaked at No. 27 on the Billboard 200 chart. Soon after, Ministry was invited to headline the second Lollapalooza tour with Pearl Jam, Red Hot Chili Peppers and Soundgarden, among others, before commencing a tour of Europe and the US, with Helmet and Sepultura as supporting acts.
Middle years, turmoil and Jourgensen's drug addiction (1994–2001)
In October 1994, Ministry performed at the eighth Bridge School Benefit charity concert, with sets of cover songs (most prominently Bob Dylan's "Lay Lady Lay") and one original song, "Paisley", which was intended to be on their next album. After constructing a studio in Austin, Texas in 1993, the band proceeded to record a new album in July 1994. After refusing to perform drums on a cover version of "Lay Lady Lay", Rieflin parted ways with Jourgensen midway through the recording process. Along with newly recruited Rey Washam (formerly of Scratch Acid, Didjits, and Rapeman) who performed the rest of the album's drum work, Ministry performed as one of the headliners for Australia and New Zealand's Big Day Out touring festival in January 1995. In spite of their growing success, Ministry was nearly derailed by drug problems and a series of arrests followed in August 1995. Completed at Chicago Trax Studios, Filth Pig was released in 1996. Musically, Filth Pig was more heavy metal than industrial, with synthesizers and samples mostly stripped from a mix that focused on conventional hard rock instrumentation.
The album's songs were played mostly at slower tempos than those on their previous three LPs, giving it an almost doom metal feel. Filth Pig was supported with the singles/videos "Reload", "The Fall", "Lay Lady Lay" and "Brick Windows" and with a tour in 1996 (the live performances were later anthologized on the Sphinctour album and DVD in 2002). Jourgensen has subsequently said that he was severely depressed during this period, that Filth Pig reflects this, and that he dislikes performing music from Filth Pig.
Ministry recorded their final studio album for Warner Bros. Records, Dark Side of the Spoon (1999), which they dedicated to William Tucker, who committed suicide earlier that year. For Dark Side of the Spoon, Ministry tried to diversify their sound by adding some melodic and synthetic touches to their usual electro-metal sound, along with some jazz influences, but the album was not well received, critically or commercially. However, the single "Bad Blood" appeared on the soundtrack album of The Matrix and was nominated for a 2000 Grammy award. During this period, Jourgensen had an infected toe amputated after accidentally stepping on a discarded hypodermic needle.
In the summer of 2000, Ministry was invited to that year's Ozzfest; amidst a management changeover, they were dropped from the bill and replaced by Soulfly.
After Ministry were dropped from Warner Bros. in 2000, the label issued the 2001 collection Greatest Fits, which featured a new song, "What About Us?". Ministry would later perform the song in a cameo appearance in the Steven Spielberg film AI: Artificial Intelligence. In 2000–2002, disputes with Warner Bros. Records resulted in the planned live albums Live Psalm 69, Sphinctour and ClittourUS on Ipecac Recordings being canceled. Sphinctour was released on Sanctuary Records.
Jourgensen's recovery from drug addiction and comeback (2001–2007)
Around 2001, Jourgensen almost lost his arm when he was bitten by a venomous spider. By his own admission, Jourgensen was suicidal during this period and decided to call an acquaintance he had met years earlier; the acquaintance, Angelina Luckacin, helped Jourgensen give up his massive substance habit, which included heroin and cocaine "speedballs", crack, LSD, various pharmaceuticals and as many as two full bottles of Bushmills whiskey per day (Luckacin and Jourgensen married soon after). Jourgensen and Barker, along with Max Brody who had joined as a saxophone player for the 1999 tour, focused on developing songs for a new record during 2001 and 2002, with the band issuing Animositisomina on Sanctuary Records in 2003. The sound was strongly heavy metal with voice effects, though it featured an almost-pop cover of Magazine's "The Light Pours Out Of Me". Animositisomina, compared to previous releases, sold poorly and singles for "Animosity" and "Piss" were canceled before they could be released.
Barker announced his departure from Ministry in January 2004. He stated that the trigger was his father dying while the band was wrapping up a summer tour in Europe, and also stated that his family life was his main focus at that particular time. Lukacin stated in 2013 that Jourgensen fell out with Barker over the band's finances. Jourgensen continued Ministry with Mike Scaccia and various other musicians.
For Ministry's next album, Jourgensen released the song "No W", a song critical of then-U.S. President George W. Bush; an alternate version of the track was placed on the multi-performer compilation Rock Against Bush, Vol. 1. The follow-up LP, Houses of the Molé (2004), contained the most explicitly political lyrics Jourgensen had yet written, with songs played more crudely than on previous recordings, giving the album the most metal-oriented sound of their career. In 2006, the band released Rio Grande Blood, an LP on Jourgensen's own 13th Planet Records. With Prong's Tommy Victor and Killing Joke's Paul Raven, the album featured an even heavier thrash metal sound drawing comparison to Slayer. The single "Lieslieslies" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance at the 49th annual Grammy Awards. It, along with another song on the album, "The Great Satan", is also available as a downloadable content song for the 2008 video game Rock Band 2. In July 2007, the band released Rio Grande Dub, an album featuring remixes from the band's 2006 Rio Grande Blood album.
What Jourgensen expected to be Ministry's "final" album, The Last Sucker was released on September 18, 2007.
Paul Raven died on October 20, 2007, a month and two-days after the release of The Last Sucker, suffering an apparent heart attack shortly after arriving in Europe to commence recording for the French industrial band Treponem Pal near the Swiss border.
Breakup and posthumous releases (2008–2011)
Jourgensen remixed and co-produced Spyder Baby's "Bitter", which was released by Blind Prophecy Records in early 2008.
A song titled "Keys to the City", which became the theme song for the Chicago Blackhawks, was released on March 5, 2008. In addition to this single, two albums of covers/remixes, Cover Up (April 1, 2008) and Undercover (December 6, 2010) were released. All of these releases are credited to Ministry and Co-Conspirators''', since they feature collaborations between Jourgensen and other musicians.
Ministry's "farewell" tour, the "C-U-LaTour", started its North American leg on March 26, 2008 with Meshuggah performing as special guests and Hemlock as an opening act. They played their final North American shows in Chicago on May 10 and 12, 2008. The final date on the international leg of the tour was at the Tripod in Dublin, Ireland on July 18, 2008. During the performance, Jourgensen repeatedly reaffirmed it would indeed be the last Ministry show. Due to a large demand for tickets, an extra gig was added at the Tripod on July 19, 2008. The band again played to a full house. Ministry's final song at this show (and ostensibly their last live performance) was a rendition of their cover version of "What a Wonderful World".Adios ... Puta Madres, a live album featuring material culled from the tour, was released in 2009 on CD and DVD.
A documentary film called Fix: The Ministry Movie was planned for release sometime in 2010. However, the release date was pushed back to early 2011. Eventually, it premiered at the Chicago International Movies & Music Festival. Jourgensen sued the filmmaker, Doug Freel, for failing to fulfill a portion of the contract giving Jourgensen approval over the final cut, along with "thousands of dollars". The lawsuit was dropped in July 2011. On July 21, the film was screened privately at the Music Box Theater in Los Angeles.
Reunion, Relapse, death of Mike Scaccia and From Beer to Eternity (2011–2015)
On August 7, 2011, Ministry announced they would reform and would play at Germany's Wacken Open Air festival, set to take place on August 2–4, 2012. The reunion lineup featured Al Jourgensen on vocals, Mike Scaccia and Tommy Victor on guitar, Aaron Rossi on drums, John Bechdel on keyboards, and Tony Campos on bass.
Jourgensen told Metal Hammer in August 2011 that Ministry was working on a new album called Relapse, which they hoped to release by Christmas. Regarding the sound of the new material, he explained, "We've only got five songs to go. I've been listening to it the last couple of weeks and I wasn't really in the mood, I was just taking it as a joke. Just to pass the time at first but [Mikey's] raving about it. It's like, dude c'mon, this is not about Bush, so ... that part's over. The ulcers are gone and Bush is gone so it's time for something new. I think this is actually gonna wind up being the fastest and heaviest record I've ever done. Just because we did it as anti-therapy therapy against the country music we would just take days off and thrash faster than I've done in a long time, faster than Mikey's done in a long time. He just did a Rigor Mortis tour and said it was easy compared to this Ministry stuff so it's gonna be brutal and it's gonna freak a lot of people out."
Ministry announced on their website that they entered the studio on September 1, 2011 with engineer Sammy D'Ambruoso to begin recording their new album. During the third webisode featuring behind-the-scenes footage from the making of Relapse, a release date of March 23, 2012 was announced.
On December 23, 2011, Ministry released "99 Percenters", the first single from Relapse, and began streaming it on their Facebook page two days later. On February 24, 2012, Ministry released a second single, "Double Tap", which was included in the April 2012 issue of the Metal Hammer magazine. On March 23, 2012, Relapse was released; it was supported with "Defibrillatour", a concert tour which lasted from that year's June to August.
On December 23, 2012, guitarist Mike Scaccia died following an on-stage heart attack, while playing with his other band, Rigor Mortis. In an interview with Noisey in March 2013, Jourgensen announced that Ministry would break up again, explaining that he did not want to carry on without Scaccia. He explained, "Mikey was my best friend in the world and there's no Ministry without him. But I know the music we recorded together during the last weeks of his life had to be released to honor him. So after his funeral, I locked myself in my studio and turned the songs we had recorded into the best and last Ministry record anyone will ever hear. I can't do it without Mikey and I don't want to. So yes, this will be Ministry's last album." The album, titled From Beer to Eternity, was released on September 6, 2013. Jourgensen stated that Ministry would tour in support of From Beer to Eternity, but would not record any more albums.
AmeriKKKant, Moral Hygiene and upcoming sixteenth studio album (2016–present)
In an April 2016 interview with Loudwire, Jourgensen stated that Ministry would make a follow-up to From Beer to Eternity "if the circumstances are right." When asked in July about the possibility of a new album, Jourgensen stated, "When I was asked [before], it was after Mikey passed and the entire media immediately starts asking me what is going to happen to Ministry. He wasn't even buried yet. I thought, 'Fuck you.' I was really pissed and really angry. I said, 'Fuck Ministry and fuck you for asking.' They want to comment on Ministry when my best friend had died. It's been more than two years now, and I got more ideas and I have done albums with Mikey and have done them without him. It's time to get another record out. I have a bunch of songs written in my head. I wanted to have time to mourn before people start asking me about touring dates. It was sick. I was bombarded and email boxes were overloaded with 'what are you going to do now?' It was kind of creepy."
By February 2017, Ministry had begun working on their fourteenth studio album, titled AmeriKKKant. The album, released on March 9, 2018, includes guest appearances from Burton C. Bell of Fear Factory, former N.W.A member Arabian Prince, DJ Swamp and Lord of the Cello. During their performance at the Blackest of the Black Fest in Silverado, California in May 2017, Ministry debuted their first song in four years, "Antifa", which, at the time, was expected to appear on AmeriKKKant.
In an October 2018 interview with Billboard magazine, Jourgensen revealed that he had begun working on new material for Ministry's fifteenth studio album. He explained, "I have to get as many albums as I can done while Trump is still president, and then what am I going to do: write those crappy albums that I write while Democrats are president?" A month later, media reports noted that Jourgensen had reconnected with Barker after 15 years, hinting that the two might collaborate once again on the upcoming Ministry album.
In a 2019 interview with Revolver magazine, Jourgensen reaffirmed that he had been working on new material since 2018, and revealed that he had hired Paul D'Amour (formerly of Tool) as the new bassist of Ministry. The band – alongside Primus and Philip H. Anselmo & The Illegals – opened for Slayer on the final North American leg of their farewell tour, which took place in November 2019.
In December 2019, the band released a visual history coffee table book, Ministry: Prescripture, with author Aaron Tanner.
In January 2020, Ministry announced the "Industrial Strength Tour" would start in 2020, with drummer London May of Samhain, which would feature both KMFDM and Front Line Assembly as guests. The tour was to begin on 1 July and extend until August. In May 2020, the band announced that they postponed all dates on the Industrial Strength Tour until 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The 25–date tour, with KMFDM and Front Line Assembly, was scheduled to take place in March and April 2021; the trek was once again postponed to the fall of 2021, this time with Helmet replacing KMFDM, who were unable to partake in the tour because of restrictions caused by the COVID in their native Germany. On September 24, 2021, Ministry announced that The Industrial Strength tour had been postponed once more because of the pandemic, with the tour now scheduled to take place in March and April 2022, and the Melvins and Corrosion of Conformity replacing Front Line Assembly and Helmet as special guests.
On January 17, 2020, Billboard released an exposé on guitar player Sin Quirin, detailing accounts of Quirin's alleged behavior including sexual relationships with underage females while touring in San Antonio, TX, Portland, OR, and Tacoma, WA, in the early 2000s. In May 2021, Quirin announced via Facebook that he was leaving Ministry.
On March 24, 2020, longtime drummer Bill Rieflin died of cancer, which had been kept private. His death was announced the next day by Robert Fripp of King Crimson via Facebook.
On April 24, 2020, one month after Rieflin's passing, Ministry released their first song in two-and-a-half years, "Alert Level", which was expected to appear on the band's then-upcoming fifteenth studio album.
In May 2021, the band announced that drummer Roy Mayorga has rejoined the band.
On July 8, 2021, Ministry released "Good Trouble" as the first single from their fifteenth studio album Moral Hygiene, which was released on October 1.
About two weeks after the release of Moral Hygiene, Jourgensen revealed that another Ministry album "will be out in 6-8 months."
Artistry
Ministry's experimentation, stylistic variation and changes during its career cross several genres of popular music. Alternative rock subgenres such as industrial rock and industrial metal are umbrella terms predominantly used to describe the band's career in general. Ministry has been classified under many other genres, including EBM/industrial dance, techno-rock, hard rock, heavy metal, speed metal, thrash metal, and electro-industrial; their early output has been categorised as new wave, synth-pop, dance-pop, electronic dance, and dark wave. In the April 1989 issue of Spin Magazine, an author Michael Corcoran labelled the band as "industrial disco"; in 1994, writer Simon Glickman used this term as well. AllMusic's Steve Huey states that, previous to Nine Inch Nails' rise to mainstream popularity, "Ministry did more than any other band to popularize industrial dance music, injecting large doses of punky, over-the-top aggression and roaring heavy metal guitar riffs that helped their music find favor with metal and alternative audiences outside of industrial's cult fan base." Despite frequent descriptions of the band's music as industrial,; . Jourgensen disputed the use of this tag in several publications since the early 1990s, preferring instead to identify his style as "aggro", and, much later "industrious".
Despite Jourgensen's dislike of touring, Ministry are noted for their live performances, featuring extended versions of songs (as evidenced on In Case You Didn't Feel Like Showing Up) and disturbing visual imagery. MTV also recognized the band as an influential heavy metal act, highlighting the use of sampling during their heyday. Alternative Press included Ministry in their 1996 list of 100 underground inspirations of the past 20 years, stating that they merged "metal, samples, synths, and the 100-mph sound of urban paranoia, they pretty much created industrial music as we know it."
Related projects
Jourgensen, with former and current bandmates, has been active in a number of musical projects besides Ministry. Foremost of these was the Revolting Cocks, founded by Jourgensen, Richard 23 and Luc van Acker during Ministry and Front 242's tour in 1984. Since its formation, the band has released a number of records, and has gone through several line-up changes. 1000 Homo DJs, a project purposed for outtakes from The Land of Rape and Honey and The Mind ... , has recorded a cover of Black Sabbath's "Supernaut", featuring Nine Inch Nails frontman and one-time Revolting Cocks touring member Trent Reznor. PTP, a project led by Jourgensen and Barker, included the assistance from Nivek Ogre on one occasion, and Connelly on another, and notably provided the song "Show Me Your Spine" featured in Paul Verhoeven's 1987 film RoboCop. Other notable projects include Pailhead with Ian MacKaye of Minor Threat and Fugazi, Lard with former Dead Kennedys lead singer Jello Biafra, and Acid Horse with Cabaret Voltaire members Richard H. Kirk and Stephen Mallinder. Buck Satan and the 666 Shooters, a country project led by Jourgensen, released the sole album, Bikers Welcome Ladies Drink Free, in 2012 through 13th Planet Records. Surgical Meth Machine, a speed metal project originally tributed to guitarist Mike Scaccia
Barker has released several solo recordings under various monikers, including Age of Reason and Chicks & Speed: Futurism as Lead into Gold in 1990, The Perfect Pair as Flowering Blight in 2008, and Fix This!!!, an accompanying soundtrack of Fix: The Ministry Movie, under his own name in 2012. Through the 2000s, Barker formed Pink Anvil with Max Brody and U.S.S.A. with the Jesus Lizard guitarist Duane Denison. Brody and Scaccia have also released materials as Goobersmoochers via Brody's Bandcamp site.
Members
Current members
Al Jourgensen – lead vocals, guitars, keyboards, programming, harmonica, bandolin, production (1981–present)
John Bechdel – keyboards (2006–2008, 2011–present)
Cesar Soto – guitars, backing vocals (2015–present)
Paul D'Amour – bass (2019–present)
Roy Mayorga – drums (2016–2017, 2021–present)
Monte Pittman – guitars (2014, 2021–present)
Former members
Keyboards
John Davis – keyboards, backing vocals (1981–1982; died 2005)
Robert Roberts – keyboards, backing vocals (1981–1983)
Duane Buford – keyboards (1994–1999)
DJ Swamp – turntables (2017–2018)
Drums
Stephen George – drums (1981–1984)
Bill Rieflin – drums, keyboards, guitar (1986–1994; died 2020)
Rey Washam – drums (1994–1999, 2003)
Max Brody – drums, saxophone (1999–2004)
Aaron Rossi – drums (2008, 2011–2016)
Derek Abrams – drums (2017–2019)
London May – drums (2020–2021)
Guitar
Mike Scaccia – guitars (1989–1995, 2003–2006, 2011–2012; died 2012)
Louis Svitek – guitars (1992–1999, 2003)
Zlatko Hukic – guitars (1996–1999)
Tommy Victor – guitars (2004–2008, 2011–2012)
Sin Quirin – guitars, bass, keyboards (2007–2008, 2012–2021)
Bass
Brad Hallen – bass (1983–1984)
Paul Barker – bass, keyboards, programming, production, vocals (1986–2003)
Paul Raven – bass, keyboards (2005–2007; died 2007)
Jason Christopher – bass, backing vocals (2016–2017)
Tony Campos – bass, backing vocals (2008, 2011–2015, 2017–2019)
Additional/touring musicians
Keyboards
Paul Taylor – keyboards (1981)
Mark Pothier – keyboards, backing vocals (1983)
Doug Chamberlin – keyboards, backing vocals (1983–1984)
Patty Jourgensen – keyboards, backing vocals (1984)
John Soroka – keyboards, backing vocals, percussion (1984)
Roland Barker – keyboards (1986, 1992–1993), saxophone (1986)
Sarolta DeFaltay – keyboards, backing vocals (1986)
Marston Daley – keyboards (1987)
Michael Balch – keyboards, programming (1991–1992)
Darrell James – keyboards (2003–2004)
Guitar
William Tucker – guitar (1989–1990; died 1999)
Terry Roberts – guitar, backing vocals (1989–1990)
Michel Bassin – guitar (1992)
Sam Ladwig – guitar (1992)
Rick Valles – guitar (2004)
Drums
Jeff Ward – drums (1988; died 1993)
Martin Atkins – drums (1989–1990)
Tia Sprocket – drums (2003; died 2017)
Mark Baker – drums (2004–2005)
Joey Jordison – drums (2006; died 2021)
Thomas Holtgreve – drums (2017)
Bass
Martin Sorenson – bass (1981–1982)
Casey Orr – bass (1992, 2012)
John Monte – bass (2004)
Eddy Garcia – bass (2004)
Vocals
Audrey Stanzler – vocals (1981–1982)
Shay Jones – vocals (1982–1983)
Yvonne Gage – vocals (1983–1984)
Chris Connelly – vocals (1989–1990, 1992–1993), keyboards (1989–1990)
Nivek Ogre – vocals (1988–1990)
Joe Kelly – vocals (1989–1990)
Marco Neves – vocals (1992)
Burton C. Bell – vocals (2008, 2018)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
With Sympathy (1983)
Twitch (1986)
The Land of Rape and Honey (1988)
The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste (1989)
Psalm 69: The Way to Succeed and the Way to Suck Eggs (1992)
Filth Pig (1996)
Dark Side of the Spoon (1999)
Animositisomina (2003)
Houses of the Molé (2004)
Rio Grande Blood (2006)
The Last Sucker (2007)
Relapse (2012)
From Beer to Eternity (2013)
AmeriKKKant (2018)
Moral Hygiene'' (2021)
Tours
With Sympathy Tour, 1983
Wax Trax! Singles Tour, 1984
Twitch Tour, 1986–1987
The Land of Rape and Honey Tour, 1988
The Mind Tour, 1989–1990
Lollapalooza 1992
Psalm 69 Tour, 1992–1994
Big Day Out, 1995
Sphinctour, 1996
ClitourUS, 1999
Fornicatour, 2003
Evil Doer Tour, 2004–2005
MasterBaTour, 2006
C-U-LaTour, 2008
DeFiBriLaTouR / Relapse Tour, 2012
From Beer to EternaTour, 2015
Death Grips and Ministry US Tour 2017
The AmeriKKKan Tour, 2018
EU/UK Summer Tour, 2019
Industrial Strength Tour, 2022 (initially scheduled to take place in summer 2020, later rescheduled to fall 2021 and then spring 2022 due to COVID-19)
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Ministry @ prongs.org
1981 establishments in Illinois
American industrial metal musical groups
American industrial music groups
Rock music groups from Illinois
Arista Records artists
Heavy metal musical groups from Illinois
Musical groups established in 1981
Musical groups disestablished in 2008
Musical groups reestablished in 2011
Musical groups from Chicago
Nuclear Blast artists
Political music groups
Sire Records artists
Situation Two artists
Warner Records artists
Wax Trax! Records artists | [
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|
214180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Aruba | History of Aruba | Aruba's first inhabitants were the Caquetio Indians from the Arawak tribe, who migrated there from Venezuela to escape attacks by the Caribs. Fragments of the earliest known Indian settlements date back to about 1000. Due to Aruba's mostly distant location from other Caribbean islands and strong currents in the sea which made canoe travel to the other islands difficult, the Caquetios remained more tied to South America than the Caribbean.
In 1636, Aruba was acquired by the Netherlands and remained under their control for nearly two centuries.
In 1796, the town that was later named Oranjestad, was founded and became the island's capital.
During the Napoleonic wars, the British Empire took control over the island, between 1799 and 1802, and between 1804 and 1816, before handing it back to the Dutch.
A 19th-century gold rush was followed by prosperity brought on by first the opening of a crude oil transshipment facility in 1924 and then in 1928 with the opening of an oil refinery. This was the Lago Oil and Transport Company a 100% owned subsidiary of Standard Oil of New Jersey. The Lago refinery was located on the east end of the island and on the west end Royal Dutch Shell had a small refinery, the Eagle Refinery which closed soon after World War II. The last decades of the 20th century saw a boom in the tourism industry, which became Aruba's primary industry when the refinery closed in 1985.
In 1986, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles and became a separate, autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, under the Dutch crown. Movement toward full independence was halted at Aruba's prerogative in 1990. Aruba has a mixture of people from South America, Europe, the Far East, and other islands of the Caribbean.
After a break in the coalition between the ruling Arubaanse Volkspartij (AVP) and the Organisashon Liberal Arubano (OLA), the election of July 1998 was pushed forward to December 1997. The results were unclear, with votes equally divided between the People's Electoral Movement Party (MEP), the AVP, and the OLA. After negotiations failed to unite the MEP and AVP, a new coalition between the AVP and OLA formed, which forced the MEP to be the opposition.
See also
Historical Museum of Aruba
References
Sources and external links
Aruba Esso News and other historical materials from the National Library of Aruba
National Library of Aruba | [
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|
214182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20of%20Aruba | Military of Aruba | Defense on Aruba is the responsibility of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Netherlands Military forces that protect Aruba include the Royal Netherlands Navy, the Netherlands Marine Corps and the Netherlands Coastguard. There is also a small indigenous "Arubaanse Militie" (ARUMIL) (litr. "Aruban militia") of about platoon strength, and a shared Dutch Caribbean Coast Guard consisting of three Damen Stan 4207 patrol boats.
All forces are stationed at Marines Barracks Savaneta.
Early history
Up to 1929, there were hardly any military forces present on the Dutch Antilles including Aruba. On the 28th of June 1929 the Venezuelan rebel leader Rafael Simón Urbina attacked Curaçao and took several hostages amongst whom was the governor and the garrison commander Borren. They were all taken to Venezuela where Urbina had hoped to overthrow the Government. His attempt failed and Urbina was taken prisoner. All hostages were returned to Curaçao.
Three Dutch soldiers were killed in action during this attack.
After Urbina's attack, the Dutch government decided to station one naval ship ("stationsschip") in the Antilles permanently. It also decided to raise a volunteer defence corps on both Curaçao and Aruba (vrijwilligerskorps Curaçao (VKC) and Vrijwilligerskorps Aruba (VKA)). After World War II, the VKA and VKC were redesignated Antiliaanse Militie (ANTMIL) which still exists on Curaçao. When Aruba obtained its independence within the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1986, the ANTMIL on Aruba was redesignated Arubaanse militie or ARUMIL.
World War II
For the Kingdom of the Netherlands, World War II started with the invasion of the Netherlands by Germany on May 10, 1940. Because of the Lago oil refinery at San Nicolas, Aruba was deemed strategically important to the allied war effort and that same night 180 French marines arrived on Aruba to assist the local military. On July 6 they were replaced by 120 British soldiers who in turn were replaced by the 4th Battalion Queens Own Cameron Highlanders in September. In December an artillery unit from the Dutch East Indies army (KNIL) was also sent to Aruba to improve the defences. Also in December military service became compulsory and the VKA grew in size. All soldiers were billeted near the oil refinery at Savaneta, the present location of the marines barracks. Early 1942, the British troops were replaced by over a thousand American soldiers. The Dutch coastal batteries on Aruba and Curaçao engaged U-boats at least three times during World War II, during the Attack on Aruba in February 1942 and again during the Bombardment of Curaçao. Later a Dutch battery on Curaçao engaged another U-boat when it attacked an oil tanker sailing off the island. None of the batteries hit their targets.
Present
ARUMIL soldiers are volunteers and are led by their own NCOs and officers. The ARUMIL are trained by Royal Netherlands Marines. When basic training is completed every soldier in the ARUMIL becomes an Aruban Marine. Basic training and selection takes place on Aruba, most further training takes place in either the Netherlands or Curaçao.
ARUMIL officers have to complete the regular Netherlands Marine Corps Officers training course (Praktische opleiding tot officier der mariniers, POTOM). The ARUMIL platoon works closely with the Dutch Marines company stationed at Aruba.
An increase of instability in South America, specifically Venezuela, made the Netherlands heighten the security level and increase monitoring of the Dutch island in cooperation with the United States.
References
Government of Aruba
Military in the Caribbean
Military of the Netherlands | [
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|
214183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications%20in%20Aruba | Telecommunications in Aruba | This article is about communications systems in Aruba.
Telephone
Telephones - main lines in use: 38,700 (2006)
country comparison to the world: 166
Telephones - mobile cellular: 105,700 (2006)
country comparison to the world: 178
Telephone system:
general assessment: modern fully automatic telecommunications system
domestic: increasing competition through privatization; 3 wireless service providers are now licensed
international: 1 submarine cable to Sint Maarten (Netherlands Antilles); extensive inter-island microwave radio relay links. Satellite connection with the rest of the world are also available.
Radio
Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 16, shortwave 0 (2004)
Radios: 50,000 (1997)
Television
Television broadcast stations: 3 (2004)
Televisions: 60,000 (2004)
Internet
Internet country code: AW
Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Setar NV
International Carriers: IP Globalcom N.V. (2008)
Internet hosts: 17,611 (2008)
country comparison to the world: 97
Internet users: 24,000 (2007)
country comparison to the world: 183
As of May 2007, the whole island of Aruba has 3G cellular internet connections.
References
Aruba
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|
214184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport%20in%20Aruba | Transport in Aruba | Taxis, buses, and personal automobiles are the most common ways to travel in Aruba. The majority of the roads are paved, but toward the interior of the island the roads are less commonly paved. Coastal areas most often feature paved roads. With a total of 800 km of road, 287 km are unpaved.
Overview
Arubus is the government-owned bus company with some 29 buses in service. Mini-buses are also common. The main Arubus station is located in downtown Oranjestad.
Despite Aruba's location near Curaçao and Venezuela, boat crossings are not generally available. Private boaters can make the journey, but there is no public transport via the sea. Travelers may choose to take short plane flights from the Queen Beatrix International Airport.
There are three ports or harbors on the island: Barcadera, Oranjestad, and San Nicolas. The Aruba Ports Authority operates the ports in Barcadera and Oranjestad, while the Valero Aruba Refining Company operates the third port. Barcadera and San Nicolaas are mainly industrial and oil ports.
Rental car companies Hertz, Avis, and Alamo have locations at Queen Beatrix International Airport. Local rental car companies are also available. Arubans drive on the right side of the road, so that an American tourist will have little problem adjusting to the driving pattern.
Railways
There were, historically, three industrial narrow-gauge railways; but they no longer exist. One was for the guano mines in Seroe Colorado, and two were for the oil refineries of Lago Oil and Transport Company (ExxonMobil) and Arend Petroleum Maatschappij (Royal Dutch Shell).
In 2012 a tramway line was inaugurated in Downtown Oranjestad.
See also
Aruba
References
External links | [
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|
214185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20Aruba | Demographics of Aruba | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Aruba, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
Having poor soil and aridity, Aruba was detached from plantation economics and the slave trade. In 1515, the Spanish transported the entire population to Hispaniola to work in the copper mines; most were allowed to return when the mines were tapped out. The Dutch, who took control a century later, left the Arawaks to graze livestock, using the island as a source of meat for other Dutch possessions in the Caribbean. The Arawak heritage is stronger on Aruba than on most Caribbean islands.
The population is estimated to be 75% mixed European/African/Amerindian, 15% Black and 10% other ethnicities. Although no full-blooded Aboriginals remain, the features of half of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic Arawak heritage. The population is descended from Caquetio Indians, Afro-Caribbeans, Dutch, Spanish, Italians and to a lesser extent of Indo-Caribbeans, Portuguese, English, French, and Philippine diaspora. Recently, there has been substantial immigration to the island from neighboring mainland American and Caribbean nations, possibly attracted by the higher paid jobs. In 2007, new immigration laws were introduced to help control the growth of the population by restricting foreign workers to a maximum of three years residency on the island. Demographically, Aruba has felt the impact of its proximity to Venezuela. Many of Aruba's families are descended from Venezuelan immigrants. There is a seasonal increase of Venezuelans living in second homes. As Aruba has a little proximity to Colombia, Colombian residents and their children are found here. Descendants of Indian and Javanese contract workers also live in Aruba.
The two official languages are the Dutch language and the predominant, national language Papiamento, which is classified as a creole language. This creole language is formed primarily from 16th century Portuguese, and several other languages. Spanish and English are also spoken. Islanders can often speak four or more languages.
Many people in the Aruba island culture are multilingual, meaning they can speak more than two or three languages. Languages in this culture are known to be mainly Spanish and English, but also include languages such as Dutch, Portuguese and a local language known as Papiamentu. The Leeward islands also known as the (ABC) islands are Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao. All three islands include the languages listed above.
Children in Aruba are known to start school by the age of four and are commonly known to be multilingual by this time. Although main languages for Aruba are Papiamentu and Dutch, English is taught through education when reaching the sixth grade.
Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion, practiced by about 75% of the population. Various Protestant denominations are also present on the island.
Population
The estimated population as of is , per . The population is of mixed ancestry, including Caquetio Indians, Africans, and Europeans. Between 1985 and 1987, the population declined due to emigration, but in 1990 this trend was reversed due to the development of the oil industry.
Vital statistics
Structure of the population
Structure of the population (01.07.2013) (Estimates) :
Ethnic groups
The population is estimated to be 75% mixed European/African/Amerindian, 15% Black and 10% other ethnicities.
In 2019, recently arrived Venezuelan refugees were estimated to number around 17,000, accounting for some 15% of the island’s population.
Languages
Religions
References
Aruban society | [
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|
214186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20Aruba | Economy of Aruba | The economy of Aruba is an open system, with tourism currently providing the largest percentage of the country's income. Because of tourism's rapid growth in the last 80 years, related industries like construction have also flourished in Aruba. Other primary industries include oil refining and storage, as well as offshore banking. Despite the island's low rainfall in the past year, the people have proven that Aruba's soil is full of nutrients and many crops do amazingly well in the soil. Many more locals have started participating more to horticulture, permaculture and agriculture. Creating a start to an internal economy. Aloe cultivation, livestock, and fishing also contribute to Aruba's economy. In addition, the country also exports art and collectibles, machinery, electrical equipment, and transport equipment. Aruba's small labor force and low unemployment rate have led to many unfilled job vacancies, despite sharp rises in wage rates in recent years.
With such a large part of its economy dependent on tourism, a few political parties are striving to increase business in other sectors to protect against possible industry slumps to prevent another economic shut-down like what was experienced during 2020. Their current focus is on expanding into the cannabis and hemp industry, transitioning to a Circular Economy, creating an internal economy in the primary sector, technology, and finance.
History
Unlike many Caribbean islands, a plantation economy never developed on Aruba due to its arid climate. Early Spanish explorers considered the island of little value, partly because the poor soil made growing crops difficult and partly because their attempts to find gold turned up empty-handed. However, long after the Dutch obtained control of Aruba, they found the gold the Spanish had been seeking.
Gold
With the discovery of gold on Aruba in 1800, mining became the island's foremost industry. Aruba's economy boomed. However, by 1916 the gold supply had mostly been tapped out, making it impossible for companies to turn a profit. As the gold mining industry waned, so did the economy.
Aloe
First planted on Aruba in 1850, aloes throve in its desert conditions. With a healthy demand for aloe products, it became an important part of Aruba's economy. In fact, for many years, the country was aloe's top exporter. But over the years, many aloe fields were replaced by buildings, diminishing its production and exports declined.
The oldest company on the island, Aruba Aloe, has recently instituted changes in the hopes of becoming Aruba's leading product manufacturer. It built a new, modern facility, an aloe museum, and designed new packaging. Although most of their product line sells in the national market, a 2005 exporting deal with a U.S. company and sales through their website have increased their international market.
Oil
Despite setbacks caused by the troubled gold and aloe industries, Aruba's economy didn't suffer long. Because of its location near Venezuela, the island became an attractive spot for oil refineries. The Lago Oil and Transport Company, owned by Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon), opened in 1929 near the transshipping port of San Nicolaas. Following in their footsteps, the Eagle Oil Refinery opened soon after. Over the next few decades, the oil industry took over as Aruba's primary economic force.
With the United States entry into World War II in 1942 the demand for Aviation gasoline further increased and considerable expansion was done at the Lago Refinery soon after the United States entered the war. With this expansion, Lago became one of the largest refineries in the world, only bested by Royal Dutch Shell Isla refinery on Curaçao, and a major producer of petroleum products for the Allied war efforts. The importance of the Lago refinery was well known to the German High Command and on February 16, 1942 the Lago refinery was attacked by the . Due to mistakes by the German deck gunner the refinery was not damaged but three of the Lago tankers were torpedoed in San Nicolaas harbour.
The Eagle Oil Refinery shut down and was dismantled in the late 1950s. But the Lago refinery kept going until 1985, when the demand for oil fell and Exxon closed it. In 1991, the Coastal Corporation bought it, scaled down operations, and reopened it. Coastal later sold the refinery to Valero Energy Corporation in 2004. Its reopening didn't raise Aruba's oil industry to its previous heights although it did revive that sector and continued to be a key contributor to the country's economy until 2009 when it was closed. In December 2010, Valero Energy announced plans to reopen the refinery.
Tourism
In 1947, Aruba's government founded a tourist board to explore the possibility of developing a tourism industry. Several years later, cruise ships began to dock in Oranjestad, Aruba's capital city. The island's first luxury hotel was built in 1959, giving the fledgling industry a good start. Over the years, tourism grew and helped create a prosperous economy.
As the oil industry waned, tourism increased in importance. The government offered fiscal incentives to spur growth of hotels and other tourist-oriented businesses. Their efforts resulted in a steady and rapid rise in tourism. When a surplus of these jobs couldn't be filled, they placed a one-year moratorium on new hotel construction and new tourist corporations.
Following the September 11 attacks, tourism temporarily declined because of grounded flights and travel fears. Aruba stepped up its visible security force in tourist areas to heighten safety and reassure visitors.
After a short time, tourism rebounded strongly.
Another potential threat to the industry occurred in 2005, when the May 30 disappearance of vacationing Alabama teen Natalee Holloway made international news. Claiming that Aruban authorities weren't taking the case seriously enough, her mother and the Governor of Alabama called for a nationwide boycott of Aruba. However, the U.S. federal government didn't back the proposed boycott. Aruba's reputation as one of the safest islands in the Caribbean may have helped it overcome any negative stigma caused by the case. The amount of tourism in June, 2005, actually rose by 9% from the previous year.
References
Aruba.com - Official Government Website
CIA World Factbook - Aruba
See also
Economy of the Caribbean
Aruban florin
Central Bank of Aruba
Central banks and currencies of the Caribbean
Euronext
List of countries by credit rating
List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP growth
List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)
List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)
List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP
List of countries by future gross government debt
List of countries by leading trade partners | [
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|
214187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography%20of%20Aruba | Geography of Aruba | Aruba is an island in the south of the Caribbean in the Caribbean Sea. It is westernmost island of the ABC Islands and of the Leeward Antilles. It is located 25 km north of the coast of Venezuela and 68 km northwest of Curaçao. The island has a total area of and a coast line of . Mount Jamanota of is the highest point.
Politically, Aruba is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Oranjestad is the largest settlement with a population of 32,748.
Geography
Geology
Aruba is situated on the Caribbean Tectonic Plate. Aruba, as well as the rest of the ABC islands and also Trinidad and Tobago, lies on the continental shelf of South America, and is thus geologically considered to lie entirely in South America.
The core of the island is made up of Turonian submarine and subaerial basalts which were formed in the Caribbean large igneous province. These basalts were intruded by a pluton shortly after their eruption. The shore areas are mainly limestone.
Mountains and hills
Aruba is almost entirely flat. The two most known rock formations are Ayo Rock Formations and Casibari, both are tourist attractions.
Along the northern coast it is more hilly, especially in the Arikok National Park. The highest elevation, known as Mount Jamanota, is only above sea level and the Arikok itself is . The Hooiberg is . While the Hooiberg is not the highest point on the island, it does look so, because of the flat surroundings it lies in. The Hooiberg can be seen from nearly every point of the island and is so known it has its on place on the Coat of arms of Aruba.
Coast and beaches
While Aruba's northern coast is rocky and mostly formed by corral plateaus with many small sandy bay like openings called 'Bocas', Papiamento for mouths. The sea is rough and dark blue compared with the southern coastal areas and swimming here is discouraged.
Climate
Aruba has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh) and nearly constant temperatures throughout the year.
The rainy season occurs between October and December, but exhibits very high variability due to the powerful influence of the Southern Oscillation. During strong El Niño years like 1911/1912, 1930/1931, 1982/1983 and 1997/1998 annual (fiscal year) rainfall can be as little as , while in contrast, as much as may fall during a strong La Niña year like 1933/1934, 1970/1971, 1988/1989, 1999/2000 or 2010/2011. The highest monthly totals during these La Niña events are between .
Climate crisis
In 2016, in response to a ban of plastic bags by the government, the Minister of Finance, Economic Affair and Culture, Xiomara Ruiz-Maduro, called for further increases to Aruba's environmental initiatives. She cited the fact that no environmental protection law had yet been passed in the territory.
Human geography
The island is divided into eight regions:
Noord/Tanki Leendert
Oranjestad West
Oranjestad Oost
Paradera
Santa Cruz
Savaneta
San Nicolas Noord
San Nicolas Zuid
References
External links
Map of Aruba
Maps of Aruba (including island map, and detail maps of Oranjestad and San Nicolas)
Islands of the Netherlands Antilles
Leeward Islands (Caribbean) | [
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|
214188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics%20of%20Aruba | Politics of Aruba | Politics of Aruba, a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic country, whereby the governor in his capacity as the King's representative is the de jure head of government and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Aruba has full autonomy on most matters. Exceptions are defense, foreign affairs, and the Supreme Court. The constitution was enacted in 1986.
Executive
Executive power is exercised by the Aruban Cabinet on behalf of the governor, the cabinet consists out of the prime minister and other ministers. the Governor is appointed for a six-year term by the monarch which can be extended with another term.
Legislature
The Parliament has 21 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional representation. Each member holds their seats until Parliament is dissolved or they resign their seat. The leader of the party who gains majority usually becomes the Prime Minister.
Judicial
Aruba's judicial system, which has mainly been derived from the Dutch system, operates independently of the legislature and the executive. Jurisdiction, including appeal, lies with the Common Court of Justice of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles and the Supreme Court of Justice in the Netherlands.
External links
References
Politics of the Caribbean by territory or dependency | [
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214192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking%20FK | Viking FK | Viking Fotballklubb, commonly known as Viking or Viking Stavanger internationally, is a Norwegian football club from the city of Stavanger. The club was founded in 1899. It is one of the most successful clubs in Norwegian football, having won 8 Norwegian top division titles, most recently in 1991, and 6 domestic Norwegian Cup titles, most recently in 2019. The club has played more top-flight league games than any other club in Norway. It has played in the top division since the league was established, except for the years 1966–67, 1987–88 and 2018. Notable European successes include knocking English side Chelsea out of the UEFA Cup during the 2002–03 season, knocking out Sporting CP from the same tournament in 1999–2000, and qualifying for the group stages of the 2005–06 UEFA Cup.
History
Viking was founded in Stavanger in 1899 and played mainly local games in the early years. From the 1930s, the club established itself at the national level, playing in the 1933 cup final, which it lost to Mjøndalen. During the 1930s the club produced several of its best known players, most prominently Reidar Kvammen, who played in Norway's bronze medal winning 1936 olympic team. His brother Arthur Kvammen was also capped for Norway, while Bernhard Lund later went on to write the club anthem.
After the Second World War, Viking became a dominant side in the 1950s, beating Lillestrøm in the 1953 cup final and Sandefjord in the 1959 final, as well as winning the league title in 1957–58. Long-serving goalkeeper Sverre Andersen was the most prominent player in this generation, while Edgar Falch also earned several caps for Norway. Rolf and Kåre Bjørnsen, Asbjørn Skjærpe and Leif Nicolaysen were other prominent players, while a young Olav Nilsen began his remarkable Viking career in 1959. The club attendance record also stems from the semifinal of the 1959 cup, when 18,892 spectators saw Viking beat Odd 4–0.
While the 1960s was a somewhat quieter decade for Viking, the club returned to dominate Norwegian football in the 1970s. Viking won four straight league titles from 1972 to 1975, as well as the double in 1979. Innovative 1972 manager Kjell Schou-Andreassen has been credited for laying the foundation for the success, with his ideas on cooperative behaviour and his revolutionary use of pacey, attacking full backs Sigbjørn Slinning and Anbjørn Ekeland. However, the team had a new manager every year, with Sverre Andersen, Stuart Williams and Olav Nilsen leading them to the title in the subsequent years, and Tony Knapp managing the 1979 team. Midfielder Olav Nilsen was also a crucial player on the pitch in the first half of the decade, earning the nickname "Olav Viking", while fellow midfielder Svein Kvia was awarded the Norwegian Player of the Year title on several occasions. Arvid Knutsen, Reidar Goa, Hans Edgar Paulsen, Erik Johannessen, Inge Valen, Johannes Vold, Svein Hammerø, Gunnar Berland and Trygve Johannessen were other key players.
The 1980s started well for the club. Kjell Schou Andreassen returned to guide the club to the league title in 1982. They also finished runners-up in the league in 1981 and 1984, and in the cup in 1984, producing players such as Bjarne Berntsen, Per Henriksen, Erik Thorstvedt, Svein Fjælberg, Nils Ove Hellvik, Tonning Hammer, Isak Arne Refvik, Torbjørn Svendsen, Trygve Johannessen and Gary Goodchild. However, the mid-80s saw the club relegated to the Second Division, and 1987 was the club's worst season in recent memory as the club fell to 8th position in the Second Division, while local rivals Bryne won the cup and neighbouring minnows Vidar almost won promotion to the Tippeligaen.
Swedish manager Benny Lennartsson and players Kjell Jonevret and Per Holmberg arrived on large salaries to save the club. The gamble paid off when charismatic striker Alf Kåre Tveit secured a controversial penalty in the 95th minute against Vard in the final league game of the 1988 season. Arild Ravndal converted the spot kick to give Viking the victory and secure promotion, dubbed "the miracle in Haugesund". This signalled the start of a new era, and the club won the cup in 1989 and the league in 1991. Lars Gaute Bø, Roger Nilsen, Kent Christiansen, Egil Fjetland, Jan Fjetland, Trond Egil Soltvedt, Mike McCabe and Børre Meinseth were other key players in a young Viking team.
However, many of the young players from the 1991 league winning squad did not manage to live up to their expectations, and the club was almost relegated under new manager Arne Larsen Økland in 1992. Bjarne Berntsen took over as manager in mid-season and secured renewed Tippeligaen status. Viking FK almost knocked the world famous side FC Barcelona, the second sports team with 100 million Facebook followers, out of the European Cup. While the club spent most of the 1990s challenging for Premier League medals, it did however never manage to challenge Rosenborg for the league championships. The 1990s was also the era of player exports in Norwegian football, and Viking made substantial earnings from the sales of striker Egil Østenstad to Southampton for £900,000 in 1996 and goalkeeper Thomas Myhre to Everton for £800,000 in 1997, among others. Gunnar Aase, Lars Gaute Bø, Magnus Svensson, Bjarte Aarsheim, Kenneth Storvik, Roger Nilsen and Ingve Bøe were other key players in this generation.
Benny Lennartson returned in 2000 to take over from Dane Poul Erik Andreasen, and this resulted in two bronze medals, a cup title and a memorable European Cup victory over Chelsea. In 2003, Kjell Inge Olsen took over as manager, and the club finished fifth in the league.
At the beginning of the 2004 season, the club moved to its new stadium in Jåttåvågen, named Viking Stadion. At the same time, Englishman Roy Hodgson took over as manager. The club finished ninth in its first season in the new stadium and fifth in the 2005 campaign. Brede Hangeland, Egil Østenstad, Peter Kopteff and Frode Hansen were notable players in this period. At the end of the 2005 season, Roy Hodgson quit his job as Viking coach to take over as Finland manager, and he was replaced by Tom Prahl.
The 2006 season started poorly for Prahl's team and poor soon turned to terrible. With seven matches to go, the once so feared team were situated at the bottom of the table. Former Start coach Tom Nordlie was brought in on a three-month contract to replace Tom Prahl and save Viking from relegation. Under new leadership, Viking won three of the first four games, jumping to tenth place in the standings, but were then defeated twice in a row to once again fall into the relegation zone. Now lying second from the bottom, it looked like the best the club could hope for was making the play-off spot. The season finale proved to be extraordinary, however, as Viking crushed league runners-up Brann 5–0 at home to pass both HamKam and Odd Grenland in the standings and ultimately retain their spot in the Tippeligaen. Tom Nordlie was considered the favorite for the manager role after the season, but he chose a move to Lillestrøm instead. On 22 November 2006, Viking appointed Uwe Rösler (who was replaced by Tom Nordlie in Lillestrøm just one week earlier) as their new manager.
Under Rösler, Viking returned as a top team, and claimed the 3rd spot on the table in 2007. However, the following seasons were less successful, with Viking ending on 6th place in 2008 and 10th in 2009. They were also surprisingly knocked out of the UEFA Cup by Finnish team FC Honka in 2008, and suffered an embarrassing loss against local rivals Bryne in the domestic cup in 2009. After not living up to the expectations two seasons in a row, Rösler resigned from his position as manager on 18 November 2009.
In early December 2009, after a period of massive speculation in local newspapers, Viking appointed Åge Hareide, former manager of the Norway national football team, as their new manager. Failing to bring any titles to Stavanger, Hareide was sacked by the club on 9 June 2012.
Kjell Jonevret signed as the club's new manager on 19 June 2012. Jonevret had previously had a spell at Viking during his playing career, from 1988 to 1990. Jonevret spent over four years in charge of a team suffering from the club's increasing financial difficulties, achieving acceptable results despite the difficult financial premises. In August 2015, he renewed his contract until the end of the 2018 season. However, after the 2016 season the club reached a mutual agreement with Jonevret to terminate his contract.
On 24 November 2016, Englishman Ian Burchnall was announced as the club's new manager. Despite Viking signing an inexperienced manager and having financial trouble, Norwegian media predicted Viking to finish mid-table ahead of the 2017 season. However, it proved to be a difficult season for Burchnall, as the team struggled throughout the year, being in the relegation zone from start to finish. Two matches before the end of the 2017 season, Burchnall was fired from the job following the club's relegation to the 1. divisjon. Assistant manager Bjarte Lunde Aarsheim took charge as head coach for the last two matches, achieving a win in Viking's last match in the league.
On 19 December 2017, Bjarne Berntsen left his role as vice president of the Norwegian FA to take over the manager position at Viking. Berntsen has previously served as player, manager and director at the club.
On 11 November 2018 Viking secured promotion to Eliteserien by placing 1st in 1. divisjon, in a tight ending of the season where two points were the difference between 1st and 3rd place. Viking defeated Kongsvinger 3–1 in front of a packed Viking Stadion on the last day of the season to secure the 1. divisjon title and put the club back in the Eliteserien after just one season on the second tier of Norwegian football.
On 8 December 2019 Viking won the Norwegian Cup after a 1–0 victory over FK Haugesund. Goalscorer was Zlatko Tripić on a penalty kick.
Crest and shirt
The original kit colours in 1899 were all white. This turned out to be problematic at that time. To avoid colour bleeding from the red and yellow club badge when cleaning the white shirts, the badge had to be removed from each shirt prior to washing and then re-attached afterwards. The club therefore changed to dark blue, and is now nicknamed after the dark blue colour of their shirts.
The club badge is shaped like a flag, and remained relatively unchanged from the club's formation in 1899 until 2020. In January 2020, the club introduced a redesigned badge. The flag shape remained, but the font was changed. The oak tree stump graphics were also changed, the year of foundation (1899) was moved and the name of the home city (Stavanger) was made slightly smaller. The flag shape is not uncommon for Norwegian football clubs formed during the transition from the 19th to the 20th century; other examples include Start and Fredrikstad.
From 2011, Diadora is the technical sponsor.
The Norwegian power company Lyse has been the club's main shirt sponsor since 1999.
Stadium
Since the 2004 season, Viking Stadion has been Viking's home stadium. Previously, the club played at Stavanger Stadion, which had a capacity of 17,555. Stavanger Stadion had been the club's stadium since the club was founded in 1899.
Attendances
The first season with Viking Stadion saw the average attendance increase from 6,712 in 2003 to 12,450 in 2004. The average attendance numbers have been around 10,000 since the stadium was inaugurated. The lowest average attendance came in 2017, when Viking finished in 16th place and were relegated from Eliteserien. In 2007, Viking had an average attendance of 15,842, which is the highest in Viking's history. The official supporter club of Viking, is Vikinghordene (the Viking hordes). Other supporter groups are F19 Stavanger, Viking Oslo and Blå Brigade 99.
Rivalries
Viking's biggest rivals both locally and historically are Brann, Bryne, Haugesund, Sandnes Ulf, Start and Rosenborg BK. The rivalries with Brann and Haugesund are often referred to as Vestlandsderbyet (the Western Norway derby). The rivalry with Start is commonly known as Sørvestlandsderbyet (the Southwestern Norway derby). Bryne, Haugesund and Sandnes Ulf are all located in Rogaland, the same county as Viking. Bryne and Sandnes Ulf are geographically the two closest rivals. Bryne is often considered Viking's biggest rival. The 2003 season was the last season Bryne and Viking played against each other in the league, even though the clubs have met in the cup since then.
Honours
League
First tier
Winners (8): 1957–58, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1979, 1982, 1991
Runners-up (2): 1981, 1984
Third place (9): 1968, 1971, 1978, 1994, 1996, 2000, 2001, 2007, 2021
Second tier
Winners (3): 1967, 1988, 2018
Runners-up (1): 1966
Cup
Norwegian Cup
Winners (6): 1953, 1959, 1979, 1989, 2001, 2019
Runners-up (5): 1933, 1947, 1974, 1984, 2000
Recent seasons
In European football
Overall record
Source: UEFA.com
Players
Current squad
Reserve team
Personnel
Technical staff
Administrative staff
Managerial history
Reinhard Andersen (1946)
Sophus Jensen (1947–49)
Frantz Gutkas (1950)
Gunnar Stensland (1951–52)
Georg Monsen (1953–54)
William Danielsen (1955)
Georg Monsen (1956–57)
William Danielsen (1958–59)
Sverre Andersen (1960)
Svend Aage Jespersen (1961)
Georg Monsen (1962–63)
Reidar Kvammen (1964)
Georg Monsen (1965)
Sverre Andersen (1966–70)
Kjell Schou-Andreassen (1971–72)
Sverre Andersen (1973)
Stuart Williams (1974)
Olav Nilsen (1975)
Arvid Knutsen (1976)
Svein Kvia (1977)
Tony Knapp (1978–1981)
Kjell Schou-Andreassen (1982)
Andreas Morisbak (1983)
Keith Blunt (1984)
Svein Kvia (1984)
Bill Foulkes (1985)
Sverre Andersen (1985)
Svein Kvia (1986–87)
Kjell Schou-Andreassen (1987)
Benny Lennartsson (1988–91)
Arne Larsen Økland (1992)
Bjarne Berntsen (1992–95)
Poul Erik Andreasen (1996–99)
Benny Lennartsson (2000–02)
Kjell Inge Olsen (2003–04)
Bjarne Berntsen (interim) (2004)
Roy Hodgson (2004–05)
Tom Prahl (2006)
Tom Nordlie (2006)
Uwe Rösler (2007–09)
Åge Hareide (2010–12)
Kjell Jonevret (2012–16)
Ian Burchnall (2017)
Bjarte Lunde Aarsheim (interim) (2017)
Bjarne Berntsen (2018–20)
Bjarte Lunde Aarsheim & Morten Jensen (2021–)
References
External links
Official website
Supporter sites
Vikinghordene – Official supporter club
Association football clubs established in 1899
1899 establishments in Norway
Football clubs in Norway
Eliteserien clubs
Sport in Stavanger | [
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214193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni%20Bellini | Giovanni Bellini | Giovanni Bellini (; c. 1430 – 26 November 1516) was an Italian Renaissance painter, probably the best known of the Bellini family of Venetian painters. He was raised in the household of Jacopo Bellini, formerly thought to have been his father, but now that familial generational relationship is questioned. An older brother, Gentile Bellini was more highly regarded than Giovanni during his lifetime, although the reverse is true today. His brother-in-law was Andrea Mantegna.
Giovanni Bellini was considered to have revolutionized Venetian painting, moving it toward a more sensuous and colouristic style. Through the use of clear, slow-drying oil paints, Giovanni created deep, rich tints and detailed shadings. His sumptuous coloring and fluent, atmospheric landscapes had a great effect on the Venetian painting school, especially on his pupils Giorgione and Titian.
Life
Early career
Giovanni Bellini was born in Venice. The painter Jacopo Bellini had long been considered Giovanni's father, but the art historian Daniel Wallace Maze has advanced the theory that in fact, Jacopo was his much elder brother. Nonetheless, Giovanni was brought up in Jacopo's house, and always lived and worked in the closest fraternal relation with his elder brother, Gentile. Up until the age of nearly thirty we find in his work a depth of religious feeling and human pathos which is his own. His paintings from the early period are all executed in the old tempera method: the scene is softened by a new and beautiful effect of romantic sunrise color (as, for example, in the St. Jerome in the Desert).
In a changed and more personal manner, he drew Dead Christ paintings (In these days one of the master's most frequent themes e.g. Dead Christ Supported by the Madonna and St. John, or Pietà). with less harshness of contour, a broader treatment of forms and draperies and less force of religious feeling. Giovanni's early works have often been linked both compositionally and stylistically to those of Andrea Mantegna, his brother-in-law.
In 1470 Giovanni received his first appointment to work along with his elder brother, Gentile, and other artists in the Scuola di San Marco, where among other subjects he was commissioned to paint a Deluge with Noah's Ark. None of the master's works of this kind, whether painted for the various schools or confraternities or for the ducal palace, has survived.
Maturity
To the decade following 1470 must probably be assigned the Transfiguration now in the Capodimonte Museum of Naples, repeating with greatly ripened powers and in a much serener spirit the subject of his early effort at Venice.
Also likely from this period is the great altar-piece of the Coronation of the Virgin at Pesaro, which would seem to be his earliest effort in a form of art previously almost monopolized in Venice by the rival school of the Vivarini.
As is the case with a number of his brother, Gentile's public works of the period, many of Giovanni's great public works are now lost. The still more famous altar-piece painted in tempera for a chapel in the church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, where it perished along with Titian's Peter Martyr and Tintoretto's Crucifixion in the disastrous fire of 1867.
After 1479–1480 much of Giovanni's time and energy must also have been taken up by his duties as conservator of the paintings in the great hall of the Doge's Palace. The importance of this commission can be measured by the payment Giovanni received: he was awarded, first the reversion of a broker's place in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, and afterward, as a substitute, a fixed annual pension of eighty ducats. Beside repairing and renewing the works of his predecessors, he was commissioned to paint a number of new subjects, six or seven in all, in further illustration of the part played by Venice in the wars of Frederick Barbarossa and the pope. These works, executed with much interruption and delay, were the object of universal admiration while they lasted, but not a trace of them survived the fire of 1577; neither have any other examples of his historical and processional compositions come down, enabling us to compare his manner in such subjects with that of his brother Gentile.
Of the other, the religious class of his work, including both altar-pieces with many figures and simple Madonnas, a considerable number have been preserved. They show him gradually throwing off the last restraints of the Quattrocento manner; gradually acquiring a complete mastery of the new oil medium introduced in Venice by Antonello da Messina about 1473, and mastering with its help all, or nearly all, the secrets of the perfect fusion of colors and atmospheric gradation of tones. The old intensity of pathetic and devout feeling gradually fades away and gives place to a noble, if more worldly, serenity and charm. The enthroned Virgin and Child (such as the one at left) become tranquil and commanding in their sweetness; the personages of the attendant saints gain in power, presence and individuality; enchanting groups of singing and viol-playing angels symbolize and complete the harmony of the scene. The full splendour of Venetian color invests alike the figures, their architectural framework, the landscape and the sky.
High Renaissance
An interval of some years, no doubt chiefly occupied with work in the Hall of the Great Council, seems to separate the San Giobbe Altarpiece, and that of the church of San Zaccaria at Venice. Formally, the works are very similar, so a comparison between serves to illustrate the shift in Bellini's work over the last decade of the fifteenth century. Both paintings are of the Holy Conversation (sacred conversation between the Madonna and Saints) type. Both show the Madonna seated on a throne (thought to allude to the throne of Solomon), between classicizing columns. Both place the holy figures beneath a golden mosaicked half dome that recalls the Byzantine architecture in the basilica of St. Mark.
In the later work Bellini depicts the Virgin surrounded by (from left): St. Peter holding his keys and the Book of Wisdom; the virginal St. Catherine and St. Lucy closest to the Virgin, each holding a martyr's palm and her implement of torture (Catherine a breaking wheel, and Lucy a dish with her eyes); St. Jerome, with a book symbolizing his work on the Vulgate.
Stylistically, the lighting in the San Zaccaria piece has become so soft and diffuse that it makes that in the San Giobbe appear almost raking in contrast. Giovanni's use of the oil medium had matured, and the holy figures seem to be swathed in a still, rarefied air. The San Zaccaria is considered perhaps the most beautiful and imposing of all Giovanni's altarpieces, and is dated 1505, the year following that of Giorgione's Madonna of Castelfranco.
Other late altarpiece with saints include that of the church of San Francesco della Vigna at Venice, 1507; that of La Corona at Vicenza, a Baptism of Christ in a landscape, 1510; and that of San Giovanni Crisostomo at Venice of 1513.
Of Giovanni's activity in the interval between the altar-pieces of San Giobbe and San Zaccaria, there are a few minor works left, although the great mass of his output perished with the fire of the Doge's Palace in 1577. The last ten or twelve years of the master's life saw him besieged with more commissions than he could well complete. Already in the years 1501–1504 the marchioness Isabella Gonzaga of Mantua had experienced great difficulty in obtaining delivery from him of a painting of the Madonna and Saints (now lost) for which part payment had been made in advance.
In 1505 she endeavoured through Cardinal Bembo to obtain from him another painting, this time of a secular or mythological character. What the subject of this piece was, or whether it was delivered, we do not know.
Albrecht Dürer, visiting Venice for a second time in 1506, describes Giovanni Bellini as still the best painter in the city, and as full of all courtesy and generosity toward foreign brethren of the brush.
In 1507 Bellini's brother Gentile died, and Giovanni completed the painting of the Preaching of St. Mark which his brother had left unfinished; a task on the fulfillment of which the bequest by the elder brother to the younger of Jacopo's sketch-book had been made conditional.
In 1513 Giovanni's position as sole master (since the death of Gentile and of Alvise Vivarini) in charge of the paintings in the Hall of the Great Council was threatened by one of his former pupils. Young Titian desired a share of the same undertaking, to be paid for on the same terms. Titian's application was granted, then after a year rescinded, and then after another year or two granted again; and the aged master must no doubt have undergone some annoyance from his sometime pupil's proceedings. In 1514 Giovanni undertook to paint The Feast of the Gods for the duke Alfonso I of Ferrara, but died in 1516.
Bellini died on 26 November 1516. He was interred in the Basilica di San Giovanni e Paolo, a traditional burial place of the doges.
Assessment
Both in the artistic and in the worldly sense, the career of Bellini was, on the whole, very prosperous. His long career began with Quattrocento styles, but matured into the progressive post-Giorgione Renaissance styles. He lived to see his own school far outshine that of his rivals, the Vivarini of Murano; he embodied, with growing and maturing power, all the devotional gravity and much also of the worldly splendour of the Venice of his time; and he saw his influence propagated by a host of pupils, two of whom at least, Giorgione and Titian, equaled or even surpassed their master. Bellini outlived Giorgione by five years; Titian, as we have seen, challenged him, claiming an equal place beside his teacher. Other pupils of the Bellini studio included Girolamo Galizzi da Santacroce, Vittore Belliniano, Rocco Marconi, Andrea Previtali and possibly Bernardino Licinio.
Bellini was essential to the development of the Italian Renaissance for his incorporation of aesthetics from Northern Europe. Significantly influenced by Antonello da Messina and contemporary trends such as oil painting, Bellini introduced the pala, or single-panel altarpieces, to Venetian society with his work Coronation of the Virgin. Certain details in this piece, such as breaks in the modeling of figures and shadows, imply that Bellini was still working to master the use of oil. This painting also differs from previous coronation scenes as it appears as a "window" to a natural scene, and excludes the typical accompanying paradise hosts. The simple scenery allows viewers to relate with more ease to the scene itself than before, reflecting Alberti's humanist and inventio concepts. He also used the disguised symbolism integral to the Northern Renaissance. Bellini was able to master the Antonello style of oil painting and surface texture, and to use this skill to create a refined and distinctly Venetian approach to painting. He blends this new technique with Venetian and the Byzantine traditions (previously influencing art in the city) of iconography and color to create a spiritual theme not found in Antonello's pieces. The realism of oil painting coupled with the religious traditions of Venice were unique elements to Bellini's style, which set him apart as one of the most innovative painters in the Venetian Renaissance. As demonstrated in such works as St. Francis in Ecstasy (c. 1480) and the San Giobbe Altarpiece (c. 1478), Bellini makes use of religious symbolism through natural elements, such as grapevines and rocks. Yet his most important contribution to art lies in his experimentation with the use of color and atmosphere in oil painting.
The Bellini cocktail is named in his honor.
Spanish Museums own a scarce, but high-quality, presence of his works. The Prado Museum owns a Virgin and child between two Saints, with the collaboration of the workshop. The Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum preserves a Nunc Dimittis, and The Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando holds a Saviour.
References
Further reading
Roger Fry, Giovanni Bellini (At the Sign of the Unicorn, 1899; Ursus Press, 1995).
Peter Humfrey, Giovanni Bellini: An Introduction (Marsilio Editori, 2021). ()
Oskar Batschmann, Giovanni Bellini (London, Reaktion Books, 2008).
Rona Goffen, Giovanni Bellini (Yale University Press, 1989).
Carolyn C. Wilson (ed.), Examining Giovanni Bellini: An Art "More Human and More Divine" (Brepols, 2015). ()
External links
Giovanni Bellini biography, style and critical reception
Giovanni Bellini in "A World History of Art"
The National Gallery
Web Gallery of Art
Biblical art by Bellini
National Gallery of Art
Masters in Art online
Carl Brandon Strehlke, "Virgin and Child by Giovanni Bellini (cat. 165)" in The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works, a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication.
Italian Renaissance painters
Quattrocento painters
Painters from Venice
1430s births
1516 deaths
Italian male painters
15th-century Italian painters
16th-century Italian painters
15th-century Venetian people
16th-century Venetian people
Sibling artists
Catholic painters
Burials at Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice | [
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214195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentile%20Bellini | Gentile Bellini | Gentile Bellini (c. 1429 – 23 February 1507) was an Italian painter of the school of Venice. He came from Venice's leading family of painters, and at least in the early part of his career was more highly regarded than his younger brother Giovanni Bellini, the reverse of the case today. From 1474 he was the official portrait artist for the Doges of Venice, and as well as his portraits he painted a number of very large subjects with multitudes of figures, especially for the Scuole Grandi of Venice, wealthy confraternities that were very important in Venetian patrician social life.
In 1479 he was sent to Constantinople by the Venetian government when the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II requested an artist; he returned the next year. Thereafter a number of his subjects were set in the East, and he is one of the founders of the Orientalist tradition in Western painting. His portrait of the Sultan was also copied in paintings and prints and became known all over Europe.
Biography
Gentile was born into the leading family of painters in Venice. His father Jacopo Bellini, was a Venetian pioneer in the use of oil paint as an artistic medium; his brother was Giovanni Bellini, and his brother-in-law Andrea Mantegna. He was christened Gentile after Jacopo's master, Gentile da Fabriano. Gentile was taught painting in the workshop of his father. Although today Gentile is often seen in the shadow of his more famous family members, in his own time he was considered among the greatest living painters in Venice and had no shortage of commissions; his talent as a portraitist revealed itself at an early age.
Paintings
Gentile's earliest signed work is The Blessed Lorenzo Giustinian (1445), one of the oldest surviving oil paintings in Venice (now at the Accademia Museum). During the 1450s Bellini worked on a commission for the Scuola Grande di San Marco and painted in conjunction with his brother, Giovanni Bellini. From 1454 he was also the official portrait artist for the Doges of Venice, (for example, see image of the Doge Giovanni Mocenigo at right).
Much of Gentile Bellini's surviving work consists of very large paintings for public buildings, including those for the Scuola Grande di San Giovanni Evangelista. Along with Lazzaro Bastiani, Vittore Carpaccio, Giovanni Mansueti and Benedetto Rusconi, Bellini was one of the artists of hired to paint the 10-painting narrative cycle known as The Miracles of the Relic of the Cross. The commission was intended to celebrate the relic of the Holy Cross which the confraternity had received in 1369. Gentile's contributions include the Procession of the True Cross in Piazza San Marco, which dates from 1496, and the Miracle of the True Cross at the S. Lorenzo Bridge, dating from 1500 and featuring Gentile's self-portrait and that of his brother Giovanni.
Bellini and the East
Venice was, at that time, a very important point in which cultures and trade bordered on the eastern Mediterranean Sea and provided gateways to Asia and Africa. As noted, in his lifetime, Gentile was the most prestigious painter in Venice. Therefore, in 1479, he was chosen by the government of Venice to work for Sultan Mehmed II in Constantinople. However, in addition to his work at the Ottoman Court, Gentile's work also responded to other aspects of the East, including the Byzantine Empire.
Istanbul
In September 1479 Gentile was sent by the Venetian Senate to the new Ottoman capital Istanbul as part of the peace settlement between Venice and the Turks. His role was not only as a visiting painter in an exotic locale, but also as a cultural ambassador for Venice. This was important to Mehmed II, as he was particularly interested in the art and culture of Italy, and he attempted on several occasions to have himself portrayed by Italian artists. He finally reached his goal with Gentile, who is believed to have painted the portrait of Mehmed II now in the National Gallery, London, (but largely overpainted).
Subsequently, an Oriental flavour appears in several of his paintings, including the portrait of a Turkish artist and St. Mark Preaching at Alexandria (above). The last was completed by his brother, Giovanni Bellini.
According to Carlo Ridolfi (who was born 87 years after Bellini's death) in his 1648 history of the Venetian painters:Bellini made a painting of the head of John the Baptist on a charger, the saint being revered by the Turks as a prophet. When the picture was brought before the Sultan, he praised the skill exhibited there, but drew Gentile's attention nonetheless to an error, which was that the neck stretched out too far from the head, and as it appeared to him that Gentile appeared unconvinced, to enable him to see the natural effect, he had a slave brought to him and had his head chopped off, demonstrating to him how, once separated from the chest, the neck contracted. Gentile, fearful at such barbarities, immediately tried in every way to be released from his contract in case one day he himself should be the victim of such a joke.This anecdote is likely apocryphal, as a similar story had been told by Seneca of Parrhasius, as well as of Michelangelo via a dubious source.
Greece
Gentile responded to other aspects of the East, including the Byzantine Greek Empire, as well as Venice's other trading partners in North Africa and Levant. Venice had a long-established relationship with the Eastern Mediterranean. Saint Mark, Venice's patron, was from the Egyptian city of Alexandria, and Venice's cultural and spiritual centre – the basilica of San Marco – was built in his honor (and as his mausoleum) in the Greek Byzantine style. Although Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Greek Byzantine world had a continuing impact upon Venetian art and culture as a number of Greek Christians fled Muslim rule. It was here that Gentile painted the portrait of Queen Caterina Cornaro of Cyprus (at right). This is counted as the second known portrait including the queen, which is now in the collection of the Szepmuveszeti Museum in Budapest.
Retirement years and legacy
Bellini's most important paintings, the monumental canvases in the Doge's Palace in Venice, were destroyed by fire in 1577. Only a few of his other works remain, namely the large narrative paintings The Procession in Piazza San Marco (above left) and The Preaching of Saint Mark in Alexandria (above right), produced in his final years. Little remains of Gentile's art from the 1470s and 1480s, except for the works made in Constantinople. Moreover, many workshop paintings and drawings have been assigned to Gentile Bellini. This has had the unfortunate consequence of confirming his reputation as an awkward artist, especially in comparison with his beloved brother Giovanni. Gentile's fall from popular favor seems to have begun shortly after his death; by 1557 Lodovico Dolce made a rather acerbic comment about him as an early teacher of Titian:
He was interred in the Basilica di San Giovanni e Paolo, a traditional burial place of the doges.
In recent years, Gentile has once again generated interest, especially in a recent spate of scholarly publications and exhibitions on the subject of cross-cultural exchange between Europe and the Levant.
Selected works
Madonna Enthroned with Child (1475–1485) - National Gallery, London
Portrait of Doge Giovanni Mocenigo (1478–1485) - Museo Correr, Venice
Procession in St. Mark's Square (1496) - Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice
Miracle of the True Cross at the Bridge of S. Lorenzo (1500) - Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice
Miracle of the Reliquary of the Cross (1500)
St. Mark Preaching in Alexandria (1504–1507) - Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan
Man with a Pair of Dividers
St. Dominic
Mehmet the Conqueror
Portrait of Caterina Cornaro, Queen of Cyprus - Szépmüvészeti Múzeum, Budapest
The Annunciation, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid, Spain.
Notes
References
Hartt, Frederick, History of Italian Renaissance Art, (2nd edn.)1987, Thames & Hudson (US Harry N Abrams),
See also
List of Orientalist artists
Orientalism
External links
Gentile Bellini in "A World History of Art"
Gentile Bellini and the East exhibition
1420s births
1507 deaths
15th-century Venetian people
16th-century Venetian people
15th-century Italian painters
16th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Italian medallists
Italian Renaissance painters
German orientalists
Orientalist painters
Quattrocento painters
Painters from Venice
Sibling artists
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214196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary | Secretary | A secretary, administrative professional, or personal assistant is a person whose work consists of supporting management, including executives, using a variety of project management, communication, or organizational skills. However this role should not be confused with the role of an executive secretary, who differs from a personal assistant.
The functions of a personal assistant may be entirely carried out to assist one other employee or may be for the benefit of more than one. In other situations a secretary is an officer of a society or organization who deals with correspondence, admits new members, and organizes official meetings and events.
Duties and functions
A secretary, also known as a personal assistant (PA) or administrative assistant, can have many administrative duties. The title "secretary" is not used as often as in decades past, and responsibilities have evolved in response to the technological age, requiring knowledge in software such as the Microsoft Office suite of applications. The duties may vary according to the nature and size of the company or organization, and might include managing budgets, bookkeeping, attending telephone calls, handling visitors, maintaining websites, travel arrangements, and preparing expense reports. Secretaries might also manage all the administrative details of running a high-level conference or meeting and be responsible for arranging the catering for a lunch meeting. Often executives will ask their assistant to take the minutes at meetings and prepare meeting documents for review. In addition to the minutes, the secretary may be responsible for keeping all of the official records of a company or organization. A secretary is also regarded as an "office manager".
Etymology
The term is derived from the Latin word , "to distinguish" or "to set apart", the passive participle () meaning "having been set apart", with the eventual connotation of something private or confidential, as with the English word secret. A was a person, therefore, overseeing business confidentially, usually for a powerful individual (a king, pope, etc.). As the duties of a modern secretary often still include the handling of confidential information, the literal meaning of their title still holds true.
Origin
From the Renaissance until the late 19th century, men involved in the daily correspondence and the activities of the powerful had assumed the title of secretary.
With time, like many titles, the term was applied to more and varied functions, leading to compound titles to specify various secretarial work better, like general secretary or financial secretary. Just "secretary" remained in use either as an abbreviation when clear in the context or for relatively modest positions such as administrative assistant of the officer(s) in charge, either individually or as member of a secretariat. As such less influential posts became more feminine and common with the multiplication of bureaucracies in the public and private sectors, new words were also coined to describe them, such as personal assistant.
Modern developments
In the 1840s and 1850s, commercial schools were emerging to train male and female students the skills needed to work in a clerical position. In 1870, Sir Isaac Pitman founded a school where students could qualify as shorthand writers to "professional and commercial men". Originally, this school was only for male students. In 1871, there were more than 150 such schools operating in the United States, a number that grew to as many as 500 by the 1890s.
In the 1880s, with the invention of the typewriter, more women began to enter the field and during the upcoming years, especially since World War I, the role of secretary has been primarily associated with women. By the 1930s, fewer men were entering the field of secretaries.
In an effort to promote professionalism among United States secretaries, the National Secretaries Association was created in 1942. Today, this organization is known as the International Association of Administrative Professionals (IAAP). The organization developed the first standardized test for office workers called the Certified Professional Secretaries Examination (CPS). It was first administered in 1951.
By the mid-20th century, the need for secretaries was great and offices and organizations featured large secretarial pools. In some cases the demand was great enough to spur secretaries being recruited from overseas; in particular, there was often a steady demand for young British women to come to the U.S. and fill temporary or permanent secretarial positions. Several organizations were created to assist secretaries from foreign lands, including the Society of International Secretaries and the Association of British Secretaries in America.
In 1952, Mary Barrett, president of the National Secretaries Association, C. King Woodbridge, president of Dictaphone Corporation, and American businessman Harry F. Klemfuss created a special Secretary's Day holiday, to recognize the hard work of the staff in the office. The holiday caught on, and during the fourth week of April is now celebrated in offices all over the world. It has been renamed "Administrative Professional's Week" to highlight the increased responsibility of today's secretary and other administrative workers, and to avoid embarrassment to those who believe that "secretary" refers only to women or to unskilled workers.
Contemporary employment
In a business, many job descriptions overlap. However, while administrative assistant is a generic term, not necessarily implying directly working for a superior, a secretary is usually the key person for all administrative tasks, and often referred to as the "gate keeper". Other titles describing jobs similar to or overlapping those of the traditional secretary are Office Coordinator, Executive Assistant, Office Manager and Administrative Professional.
At the most basic level a secretary is usually an audio typist with a small number of administrative roles. A good command of the prevailing office language and the ability to type is essential. At higher grades and with more experience they begin to take on additional roles and spend more of their time maintaining physical and electronic files, dealing with the post, photocopying, emailing clients, ordering stationery and answering telephones.
A more skilled executive assistant may be required to type at high speeds using technical or foreign languages, organize diaries, itineraries and meetings and carry out administrative duties which may include accountancy. A secretary / executive assistant may also control access to a manager, thus becoming an influential and trusted aide. Executive assistants are available for contact during off hours by new electronic communication methods for consultations. Specialized secretaries at higher level also include Medical and Legal Secretaries/Personal Assistants.
The largest difference between a generalized secretary and skilled executive assistants is that the executive assistant is required to be able to interact extensively with the general public, vendors, customers, and any other person or group that the executive is responsible to interact with. As the level that the executive interacts with increases so does the level of skill required in the executive assistant that works with the executive. Those executive assistants that work with corporate officers must be capable of emulating the style, corporate philosophy, and corporate persona of the executive for which they work. In the modern workplace the advancement of the executive assistants is codependent on the success of the executive and the ability of both to make the job performance of the team seamless whereas the job place evaluation is reflective of each other's performance executive secretary for now.'''
This should be distinguished from the Company secretary, a senior role within a company responsible for compliance with statutory and regulatory requirements.
Training
In the United States, a variety of skills and adaptability to new situations is necessary. As such, a four-year degree is often preferred and a two-year degree is usually a requirement. Another option is to get a professional certification from a national association.
Executive assistant
Civilian
The work of an executive assistant (sometimes called a management assistant) differs a great deal from that of an administrative assistant. In many organizations, an executive assistant is a high-ranking position in the administrative hierarchy. Executive assistants work for a company officer or executive (at both private and public institutions), and possess the authority to make crucial decisions affecting the direction of such organizations. As such, executive assistants play a role in decision-making and policy setting. The executive assistant performs the usual roles of managing correspondence, preparing research, and communication, often with one or more administrative assistants or scheduling assistants who report to him or her. The executive assistant also acts as the "gatekeeper", understanding in varying degree the requirements of the executive, and with an ability through this understanding to decide which scheduled events, meetings, teleconferences, or e-mails are most appropriate for allocation of the executive's time.
An executive assistant may, from time to time, act as proxy for the executives, representing him/her/them in meetings or communications and project managing the production of reports or other deliverables in the absence of the executive. An executive assistant differs from an administrative assistant (a job which is often part of the career path of an executive assistant) in that they are expected to possess a higher degree of business acumen, be able to manage projects, as well as have the ability to influence others on behalf of the executive. In the past, executive assistants were required to have a high school diploma, but increasingly jobs are requiring a bachelor's degree.
Military
In the U.S. Department of Defense, the title of military assistant (MA) or executive assistant (EA) is typically held by Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps colonels, lieutenant colonels, and senior majors and Navy captains, commanders and senior lieutenant commanders who are in direct support of the Secretary of Defense, Deputy Secretary of Defense and other civilian defense officials down to the level of a Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense, as well as general officers or flag officers.
The Secretary of Defense also has a lieutenant general or vice admiral as his/her senior military assistant.
Like their civilian counterparts, EAs are also a resource in decision-making, policy setting, and will have leadership oversight of the entire military and civilian staff supporting the civilian official, general officer, or flag officer. EAs are often interchangeable with other senior military officers of equivalent rank holding the title of chief of staff in other service organizations headed by a flag officer or general officer. In the case of unified combatant commands and service major commands, the Chief of Staff is often a general officer or flag officer himself/herself, typically at the 1-star or 2-star level, but he or she should not be confused with the 4-star officers holding the title of Chief of Staff of the Army or Chief of Staff of the Air Force.
See also
Clerk
Legal secretary
Cabinet secretary or Department secretary
Office lady
Personal assistant
Receptionist
References
Further reading
The debate theorical-methodological in field of secretariat: diversities and singularities
Educational handbooks for professions occupied by females in the 1960s and 1970s.
External links
American Society of Administrative Professionals
Administrative Professional Resources
iaap - International Association of Administrative Professionals
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|
214199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WMD | WMD | WMD, or wmd, may refer to:
Science and technology
Weapon of mass destruction
Weighted mean in statistics
Wiggle-match-dating or wiggle matching in carbon dating
Transportation
WMD, the National Rail code for Wymondham railway station in Norfolk, UK
WMD, the station code for Westmead railway station in Sydney, Australia
Other uses
West Midlands (county), metropolitan county in England, Chapman code
wmd, the ISO 639-3 code for the Mamaindê language spoken in the Mato Grosso state of Brazil
World Malaria Day
W.M.D., a 2017 film
See also | [
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|
214200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacopo%20Bellini | Jacopo Bellini | Jacopo Bellini (c. 1400 – c. 1470) was one of the founders of the Renaissance style of painting in Venice and northern Italy. His sons Gentile and Giovanni Bellini, and his son-in-law Andrea Mantegna, were also famous painters.
Few of Bellini's paintings still exist, but his surviving sketch-books (one in the British Museum and one in the Louvre) show an interest in landscape and elaborate architectural design and are his most important legacy. His surviving works show how he accommodated linear perspective to the decorative patterns and rich colors of Venetian painting.
Biography
Born in Venice, Jacopo had probably been a pupil of Gentile da Fabriano, who was then in Venice. In 1411–1412 he was in Foligno, where with Gentile he worked at the Palazzo Trinci frescoes. In 1423 Bellini was in Florence, where he knew the new works by Brunelleschi, Donatello, Masolino da Panicale and Masaccio.
In 1424 he opened a workshop in Venice, which he ran right up until his death, and which trained his sons and other artists.
Many of his greatest works, including the enormous Crucifixion in the cathedral of Verona (1436), have disappeared. From c. 1430 is the panel with Madonna and Child, in the Accademia Carrara, once attributed to Gentile da Fabriano. In 1441, at Ferrara, where he was at the service of Leonello d'Este together with Leon Battista Alberti, he executed a portrait of that Marquess, now lost. Of this period survives the Madonna dell'Umiltà, probably commissioned by one of the brothers of Leonello.
The influence from Masolino da Panicale towards more modern, early Renaissance themes is visible in the Madonna with Child (dated 1448) in the Pinacoteca di Brera: for the first time, perspective is present and the figure are more monumental. Later he contributed with works now lost to the Venetian churches of San Giovanni Evangelista (1452) and St. Mark (1466). From 1459 is a Madonna with Blessing Child in the Gallerie dell'Accademia.
Later he sojourned in Padua, where he trained a young Andrea Mantegna in perspective and classicist themes and where, in 1460, he finished a portrait of Erasmo Gattamelata, now lost. Of his late phase, a ruined Crucifix in the Museum of Verona and an Annunciation in the church of Sant'Alessandro of Brescia remain.
Giovanni Fontana showed Bellini a treatise on perspective.
References
Sources
C. Eisler, The genius of Jacopo Bellini: the complete paintings and drawings (London, The British Museum Press, 1989)
External links
Italian Paintings, Venetian School, a collection catalog containing information about Bellini and his works (see index; plate 9).
Italian Renaissance painters
Quattrocento painters
Painters from Venice
1396 births
1470 deaths
Italian male painters
15th-century Venetian people
15th-century Italian painters | [
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|
214201 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verse | Verse | Verse may refer to:
Poetry
Verse, an occasional synonym for poetry
Verse (poetry), a metrical structure, a stanza
Blank verse, a type of poetry having regular meter but no rhyme
Free verse, a type of poetry written without the use of strict meter or rhyme, but still recognized as poetry
Versed, 2009 collection of poetry by Rae Armantrout
Verse, an international poetry journal with Henry Hart (author) as founding editor
Religion
Chapters and verses of the Bible
Ayah, one of the 6,236 verses found in the Qur'an
Music
Verse (band), a hardcore punk band
Verse (rapper) (b. 1986), British hip hop artist
Verse (popular music), roughly corresponds to a poetic stanza
Verse-chorus form, a musical form common in popular music where the chorus is highlighted
Verses (album), a 1987 album by jazz trumpeter Wallace Roney
Verses (Apallut), a 2001 album by the Alaskan group Pamyua
Verse, a 2002 album by Patricia Barber
Ben Mount (born 1977), also known as The Verse or MC Verse, British rapper, producer and record label owner
"Verses", a commonly used unofficial title for a studio outtake by Cardiacs included on Toy World
Other uses
Verse (film), a 2009 Bolivian film
Verse protocol, a networking protocol allowing real-time communication between computer graphics software
Verse (river), a river of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
See also
Versus (disambiguation) | [
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|
214203 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stetsasonic | Stetsasonic | Stetsasonic is an American hip hop band. Formed in 1981 in Brooklyn, New York City, New York, Stetsasonic was one of the first hip hop acts to perform with a full band and use live instrumentation in their recordings, paving the way for future hip hop bands such as The Roots. The band combined beat-boxing, sampling technology, and live band performance, incorporating R&B, jazz, dancehall reggae, and rock into its sound. Stetsasonic is also considered one of the acts that pioneered jazz rap.
Though rumored to have disbanded in 1991, soon after the release of its third album, Blood, Sweat & No Tears, Stetsasonic continues to record and perform together, as evidenced by their subsequent release, "People In The Neighborhood", and their performance at the Urban Matterz Hip Hop Festival in 2019. Individual members branched out to explore solo careers, while still maintaining Stetsasonic. Frukwan and Prince Paul were founding members of the Gravediggaz, while the latter also became a record producer, as did Daddy-O.
History
Originally, the band was known as The Stetsasonic 3 MC's. The original group consisted of Daddy-O, Delite, and Crown Supreme. Daddy-O and Delite changed the group's name and style to Stetsasonic the Hip-Hop Band. Additional members were: Wise The Human Mix Machine; Prince Paul; the Devastating Beat Creator (DBC); drummer Bobby Simmons; and Frukwan, who replaced Crown Supreme. Stetsasonic clinched a deal with Tommy Boy Records when DBC created and played the funky bassline for its debut single "If You Can't Say It All Just Say STET", live for Tom Silverman, owner of Tommy Boy. After a few months of the single being in regular rotation on radio stations, the band released its first album On Fire (1986). The album received mixed reviews, though the follow-ups, In Full Gear and Blood, Sweat & No Tears, were critically acclaimed.
A 1988 The New York Times article said that the band mirrored the rise of artistic, profound rap music: "While pop's political commentary often seems secondary to catchy melodies and commercial acceptability, rap's tough sound sharpens its commentary". As a "hip hop band", dependent on instruments as well as turntables, the band was also known for live shows, though sometimes the "rap-show format prevented Stetsasonic from employing the band instrumentation and studio layering that make their records so distinctive."
Fruitkwan and Prince Paul were founding members of the Gravediggaz, while the latter also became a record producer. Daddy-O went on to a solo career, while also working as a record producer, working with Freestyle Fellowship, Mary J. Blige, Positive K and the Red Hot Chili Peppers, among others. Prince Paul went on to produce the trio De La Soul. Drummer Bobby Simmons pursued work in public access, forming the show Flava Videos in the mid-1990s on Channel 26 (New York). In 2017, Simmons was a contestant on the FOX game show Beat Shazam where he was partnered with singer Shannon. MC Delite is currently the President and CEO of Flight Entertainment and a public speaker. DBC proceeded to produce tracks for Third World and the Cookie Crew, among others. In 1995, he became the owner and operator of Raw Beat Productions, a music & video recording studio, located in Philadelphia. In 2016, he invented the MN-1 Advanced Portable Power System, which is a sustainable energy source with a swappable battery compartment and solar-based charging system.
Wise also participated in a few commercials in which he lends his beatbox sounds. One was for Campbell's Soup in which a cartoon of a B-boy bear beatboxes. The commercial was broadcast amid Saturday morning cartoons. Wise was also featured in a documentary on the art of the human beatbox, Breath Control: the History of the Human Beat Box, which was shown at the Tribeca Film Festival and also featured fellow human percussionists such as Doug E. Fresh, Biz Markie, Ready Rock C, and Emanon.
Stetsasonic's most recent release was "(Now Ya'll Givin' Up) Love" (2020). They proposed an upcoming album.
Discography
Studio albums
EPs
Singles
As lead artist
As featured artist
Guest appearances
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Interview with Daddy-O
Unofficial lyrics page for On Fire
Official Facebook Page
East Coast hip hop groups
Tommy Boy Records artists
Musical groups from Brooklyn
American hip hop groups
African-American musical groups
Five percenters
Musical groups established in 1979
Musical groups disestablished in 1991
Musical groups reestablished in 2008
Alternative hip hop groups | [
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|
214209 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic%20bomber | Strategic bomber | A strategic bomber is a medium- to long-range penetration bomber aircraft designed to drop large amounts of air-to-ground weaponry onto a distant target for the purposes of debilitating the enemy's capacity to wage war. Unlike tactical bombers, penetrators, fighter-bombers, and attack aircraft, which are used in air interdiction operations to attack enemy combatants and military equipment, strategic bombers are designed to fly into enemy territory to destroy strategic targets (e.g., infrastructure, logistics, military installations, factories, cities and civilians). In addition to strategic bombing, strategic bombers can be used for tactical missions. There are currently only three countries that operate strategic bombers: the United States, Russia and China.
The modern strategic bomber role appeared after strategic bombing was widely employed, and atomic bombs were first used in combat during World War II. Nuclear strike missions (i.e., delivering nuclear-armed missiles or bombs) can potentially be carried out by most modern fighter-bombers and strike fighters, even at intercontinental range, with the use of aerial refueling, so any nation possessing this combination of equipment and techniques theoretically has such capability. Primary delivery aircraft for a modern strategic bombing mission need not always necessarily be a heavy bomber type, and any modern aircraft capable of nuclear strikes at long range is equally able to carry out tactical missions with conventional weapons. An example is France's Mirage IV, a small strategic bomber replaced in service by the ASMP-equipped Mirage 2000N fighter-bomber and Rafale multirole fighter.
History
First and Second World Wars
The first strategic bombing efforts took place during World War I (1914–18), by the Russians with their Sikorsky Ilya Muromets bomber (the first heavy four-engine aircraft), and by the Germans using Zeppelins or long-range multi-engine Gotha aircraft. Zeppelins reached England on bombing raids by 1915, forcing the British to create extensive defense systems including some of the first anti-aircraft guns which were often used with searchlights to highlight the enemy machines overhead. Late in the war, American fliers under the command of Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell were developing multi-aircraft "mass" bombing missions behind German lines, although the Armistice ended full realization of what was being planned.
Study of strategic bombing continued in the interwar years. Many books and articles predicted a fearful prospect for any future war, paced by political fears such as those expressed by British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin who told the House of Commons early in the 1930s that "the bomber will always get through" no matter what defensive systems were undertaken. It was widely believed by the late 1930s that strategic "terror" bombing of cities in any war would quickly result in devastating losses and might decide a conflict in a matter of days or weeks. But theory far exceeded what most air forces could actually put into the air. Germany focused on short-range tactical bombers. Britain's Royal Air Force began developing four-engine long-range bombers only in the late 1930s. The U.S. Army Air Corps (Army Air Forces as of mid-1941) was severely limited by small budgets in the late 1930s, and only barely saved the B-17 bomber that would soon be vital. The equally important B-24 first flew in 1939. Both aircraft would constitute the bulk of the American bomber force that made the Allied daylight bombing of Nazi Germany possible in 1943–45.
At the start of World War II, so-called "strategic" bombing was initially carried out by medium bomber aircraft which were typically twin-engined, armed with several defensive guns, but only possessed limited bomb-carrying capacity and range. Both Britain and the US were developing larger two- and four-engined designs, which began to replace or supplement the smaller aircraft by 1941–42. After American entry into the war, late, in 1941, the U.S. 8th Air Force began to develop a daylight bombing capacity using improved B-17 and B-24 four-engine aircraft. In order to assemble the formations to carry out these bombing campaigns, assembly ships were used to quickly form defensive combat boxes. The RAF concentrated its efforts on night bombing. But neither force was able to develop adequate bombsights or tactics to allow for often-bragged "pinpoint" accuracy. The post-war U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey studies supported the overall notion of strategic bombing, but underlined many of its shortcomings as well. Attempts to create pioneering examples of "smart bombs" resulted in the Azon ordnance, deployed in the European Theater and CBI Theater from B-24s.
Following the untimely death of the top German advocate for strategic bombing, General Walther Wever in early June 1936, the focus of Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe bomber forces, the so-named Kampfgeschwader (bomber wings) became the battlefield support of the German Army as part of the general Blitzkrieg form of warfare, carried out with both medium bombers such as the Heinkel He 111, and Schnellbombers such as the Junkers Ju 88A. General Wever's support of the Ural bomber project before WW II's start dwindled after his passing, with the only aircraft design that could closely match the Allied bomber force's own aircraft – the early November 1937-origin Heinkel He 177A, deployed in its initial form in 1941–42, hampered by a RLM requirement for the He 177A to also perform medium-angle dive bombing, not rescinded until September 1942 – unable to perform either function properly, with a powerplant selection and particular powerplant installation design features on the 30-meter wingspan Greif, that led to endless problems with engine fires. The March 1942-origin, trans-Atlantic ranged Amerika Bomber program sought to ameliorate the lack of a seriously long-ranged bomber for the Luftwaffe, but resulted with only three Messerschmitt-built and a pair of Junkers-built prototypes ever flown, and no operational "heavy bombers" for strategic use for the Third Reich, outside of the roughly one thousand examples of the He 177 that were built.
By the end of the Second World War in 1945, the "heavy" bomber, epitomized by the British Avro Lancaster and American Boeing B-29 Superfortress used in the Pacific Theater, showed what could be accomplished by area bombing of Japan's cities and the often small and dispersed factories within them. Under Major General Curtis LeMay, the U.S. 20th Air Force, based in the Mariana Islands, undertook low-level incendiary bombing missions, results of which were soon measured in the number of square miles destroyed. The air raids on Japan had withered the nation's ability to continue fighting, although the Japanese government delayed surrender, resulting in the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.
The Cold War and its aftermath
During the Cold War, the United States and United Kingdom on one side and the Soviet Union on the other kept strategic bombers ready to take off on short notice as part of the deterrent strategy of mutually assured destruction (MAD). Most strategic bombers of the two superpowers were designed to deliver nuclear weapons. For a time, some squadrons of Boeing B-52 Stratofortress bombers were kept in the air around the clock, orbiting some distance away from their fail-safe points near the Soviet border.
The British produced three different types of "V bombers" for the Royal Air Force which were designed and designated to be able to deliver British-made nuclear bombs to targets in European Russia. These bombers would have been able to reach and destroy cities like Kiev or Moscow before American strategic bombers. While they were never used against the Soviet Union or its allies, two types of V bombers, the Avro Vulcan and the Handley Page Victor were used in the Falklands War towards the end of their operational lives.
The Soviet Union produced hundreds of unlicensed, reverse-engineered copies of the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress, which the Soviet Air Forces called the Tupolev Tu-4. The Soviets later developed the jet-powered Tupolev Tu-16 "Badger".
The People's Republic of China produced a version of Tupolev Tu-16 on license from the Soviet Union in the 1960s which they named the Xian H-6.
During the 1960s France produced its Dassault Mirage IV nuclear-armed bomber for the French Air Force as a part of its independent nuclear strike force, the Force de Frappe, using French-made bombers and IRBMs to deliver French-made nuclear weapons. Mirage IVs served until mid-1996 in the bomber role, and to 2005 as a reconnaissance aircraft.
Today the French Republic has limited its strategic armaments to a squadron of four nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines, with 16 SLBM tubes apiece. France also maintains an active force of supersonic fighter-bombers carrying stand-off nuclear missiles such as the ASMP, with Mach 3 speed and a range of 500 kilometers. These missiles can be delivered by the Dassault Mirage 2000N and Rafale fighter-bombers; the Rafale is also capable of refueling others in flight using a buddy refueling pod.
Newer strategic bombers such as the Rockwell International B-1B Lancer, the Tupolev Tu-160, and the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit designs incorporate various levels of stealth technology in an effort to avoid detection, especially by radar networks. Despite these advances earlier strategic bombers, for example the B-52 (last produced in 1962) or the Tupolev Tu-95 remain in service and can also deploy the latest air-launched cruise missiles and other "stand-off" or precision guided weapons such as the JASSM and the JDAM.
The Russian Air Force's new Tu-160 strategic bombers are expected to be delivered on a regular basis over the course of 10 to 20 years. In addition, the current Tu-95 and Tu-160 bombers will be periodically updated, as was done during the 1990s with the Tu-22M bombers.
Strategic bombers of the Cold War were primarily armed with nuclear weapons. During the post-1940s Indochina Wars, and also since the end of the Cold War, modern bombers originally intended for strategic use have been exclusively employed using non-nuclear, high explosive weapons. During the Vietnam War, Operation Menu, Operation Freedom Deal, Gulf War, military action in Afghanistan, and the 2003 invasion of Iraq, American B-52s and B-1s were mostly employed in tactical roles. During the Soviet-Afghan war in 1979–88, Soviet Air Forces Tu-22Ms carried out several mass air raids in various regions of Afghanistan.
Notable strategic bombers
Nomenclature
Bombers listed below were used in the main or represented a shift in long-range bomber design (Maximum bomb load). In practice, bomb loads carried are dependent on factors such as the distance to target and the individual type, size or weight of bombs used.
Nomenclature for size classification of aircraft types used in strategic bombing varies, particularly since the time of World War II due to sequential technological advancements and changes in aerial warfare strategy and tactics. The B-29, for example was a benchmark aircraft of the heavy bomber type at end of World War II due to its size, range and load carrying ability; as the Cold War began, it became an intercontinental range strategic bomber with the development of new techniques, such as aerial refueling (which also greatly extended the range of other medium- to long-range bombers, fighter-bombers and attack aircraft).
During the 1950s the U.S. Strategic Air Command also briefly brought back the outdated term "medium bomber" to distinguish its Boeing B-47 Stratojets from somewhat larger contemporary Boeing B-52 Stratofortress "heavy bombers" in bombardment wings; older B-29 and B-50 heavy bombers were also redesignated as "medium" during this period. SAC's nomenclature here was purely semantic and bureaucratic, however as both the B-47 and B-52 strategic bombers were much larger and had far greater performance and load-carrying ability than any of the World War II-era heavy or medium bombers.
Other aircraft such as the twin-jet US FB-111, Douglas A-3 Skywarrior and France's Dassault Mirage IV had nominal warloads of less than , and were significantly smaller in size and gross weight compared with their strategic bomber contemporaries, based on which they might be classified as medium bombers. In the nuclear strike role, France would replace its Mirage IVs beginning in the late 1980s with the even smaller, single-engine Mirage 2000N fighter-bomber, a further example of advancing technologies and changing tactics in military aviation and aircraft design. France's newer twin-engine Dassault Rafale multirole fighter also has nuclear strike capability.
World War I
Caproni Ca.1
Caproni Ca.3 ()
Gotha G.IV ()
Zeppelin Staaken R.VI ()
Zeppelin (about )
Handley Page Type O ()
Handley Page V/1500 ()
Sikorsky Ilya Muromets ()
Interwar/World War II
Boeing YB-9 (prototype strategic bomber, inspiration for the B-17)
Martin B-10 (successors B-17 and B-24 therefore and theoretically the first strategic bomber of the USAAF at that time despite being a medium bomber.)
Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress () (theoretical maximum: )
Consolidated B-24 Liberator ()
Boeing B-29 Superfortress () (maximum of (2 Grand Slams))
Consolidated B-32 Dominator ()
Handley Page Halifax ()
Avro Lancaster ()
Short Stirling ()
Farman F.220 ()
Heinkel He 177 ()
Petlyakov Pe-8 ()
Piaggio P.108 ()
Cold War
Weapons loads can include nuclear-armed missiles as well as aerial bombs
Reciprocating/Turbine engine
Lockheed P-2 Neptune – small number converted as carrier-launched nuclear-armed bombers which would have to ditch/recover at land bases
Boeing B-50 Superfortress ()
Convair B-36 Peacemaker ()
Tupolev Tu-4 – reverse-engineered version of B-29 Superfortress
Tupolev Tu-95 ()
Avro Lincoln ()
Jet engine
North American B-45 Tornado ()
Boeing B-47 Stratojet ()
Douglas A-3 Skywarrior – nuclear-armed, carrier-based
Boeing B-52 Stratofortress ()
Myasishchev M-4 ()
Tupolev Tu-16 ()
Vickers Valiant ()
Avro Vulcan ()
Handley Page Victor ()
Xian H-6 ()
Supersonic
Convair B-58 Hustler ()
General Dynamics FB-111A – strategic bomber version of the F-111 swing wing strike aircraft
North American A-5 Vigilante – nuclear-armed, carrier-based (only deployed for a brief period in strategic nuclear strike role for which it was originally designed before transitioning to reconnaissance role)
Rockwell B-1 Lancer ( – use of external hardpoints restricted by START I)
Dassault Mirage IV ()
Tupolev Tu-22M Backfire ()
Tupolev Tu-160 Blackjack ()
Tupolev Tu-22 Blinder ()
others designed and built which did not enter operational service:
North American XB-70 Valkyrie
Myasishchev M-50 Bounder
Sukhoi T-4 Sotka
BAC TSR-2
Post Cold War
Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit ()
List of active strategic bombers
Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit ()
Boeing B-52 Stratofortress ()
Rockwell B-1 Lancer ()
Xian H-6 ()
Tupolev Tu-22M Backfire ()
Tupolev Tu-95 Bear ()
Tupolev Tu-160 Blackjack ()
Future
Xian H-20. An under-development stealth bomber by China. Planned to be deployed in 2025.
Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider. An under-development stealth bomber by the United States, with a goal of supplanting a portion or all of the current Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, Rockwell B-1 Lancer and Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit. Planned to be deployed in 2026–2027.
Tupolev PAK DA. An under-development stealth bomber by Russia, with a goal of supplanting a portion or all of the current Tupolev Tu-95. Planned to be deployed in 2027.
See also
Carpet bombing
High level bombing
Long Range Strike Bomber program
Next-Generation Bomber
Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit
Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider
Strategic bombing
Tactical bombing
Tupolev PAK DA
References
Brown, Michael E. Flying Blind: The Politics of the U.S. Strategic Bomber Program. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992.
Cross, Robin. The Bombers: The Illustrated Story of Offensive Strategy and Tactics in the Twentieth Century. New York: Macmillan, 1987.
Green, William. Famous Bombers of the Second World War. New York: Doubleday, 1959, 1960 (two vols).
Green, William. Warplanes of the Third Reich. New York: Doubleday, 1970.
Haddow, G. W., and Peter M. Grosz The German Giants: The German R-Planes 1914–1918. London: Putnam, 1969 (2nd ed.)
Hastings, Max. Bomber Command. New York: Dial Press, 1979
Jones, Lloyd S. U.S. Bombers 1926 to 1980s. Fallbrook, CA: Aero Publishers, 1980 (3rd ed.)
Neillands, Robin. The Bomber War: The Allied Offensive Against Nazi Germany. Woodstock, NY: Overlook, 2001.
Robinson, Douglas H. The Zeppelin in Combat: A History of the German Naval Airship Division, 1912–1918. Atglen, PA: Schiffer, 1994.
United States Strategic Bombing Survey. Over-all Report (European War). Washington: Government Printing Office, September 30, 1945.
Bomber aircraft
Russian inventions
Strategic bombers | [
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214210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20J.%20Blige | Mary J. Blige | Mary Jane Blige (; born January 11, 1971) is an American singer, songwriter and actress. Often referred to as the "Queen of Hip-Hop Soul", Blige has won nine Grammy Awards, four American Music Awards, and ten Billboard Music Awards. She has been nominated for three Golden Globe Awards and two Academy Awards, including one for her supporting role in the film Mudbound (2017) and another for its original song "Mighty River", becoming the first person nominated for acting and songwriting in the same year.
Her career began in 1991 when she was signed to Uptown Records. In 1992, Blige released her debut album, What's the 411?, which is credited for introducing the mix of R&B and hip hop into mainstream pop culture. Its 1993 remix album became the first album by a singer to have a rapper on every song, popularizing rap as a featuring act. Both What's the 411? and her 1994 album My Life are featured on the Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list, and the latter on Time magazine's All-Time 100 Albums. Throughout her career, Blige went on to release 14 studio albums, all of which have reached the top ten on the Billboard 200 chart, including four number-one albums. Her biggest hits include "Real Love", "Not Gon' Cry", "Be Without You" and the Billboard Hot 100 number-one single "Family Affair".
Blige has also made a successful transition to both the television and movie screens, with supporting roles in films such as Prison Song (2001), Rock of Ages (2012), Betty and Coretta (2013), Black Nativity (2013), her Oscar and Golden Globe-nominated breakthrough performance as Florence Jackson in Mudbound (2017), Trolls World Tour (2020), Body Cam (2020), The Violent Heart (2021) and co-starring as jazz singer Dinah Washington in the Aretha Franklin biopic Respect (2021). In 2019, Blige starred as Cha-Cha on the first season of the Netflix television series The Umbrella Academy. She currently stars as Monet Tejada in the spin-off of the highly rated TV drama Power in Power Book II: Ghost.
She received a Legends Award at the World Music Awards in 2006, and the Voice of Music Award from ASCAP in 2007. Billboard ranked Blige as the most successful female R&B/Hip-Hop artist of the past 25 years. In 2017, Billboard magazine named her 2006 song "Be Without You" as the most successful R&B/Hip-Hop song of all time, as it spent an unparalleled 15 weeks atop the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and over 75 weeks on the chart. In 2011, VH1 ranked Blige as the 80th greatest artist of all time. In 2012, VH1 ranked Blige at number 9 in "The 100 Greatest Women in Music" list. In February 2021, Blige became a first-time nominee for the 2021 class of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. A documentary film about her musical career, titled Mary J. Blige's My Life, was released on Amazon Prime Video later that year.
Life and music career
1971–1991: Early life and career beginnings
Blige was born January 11, 1971, in Fordham Hospital in the borough of the Bronx, New York City. She was born to mother Cora, a nurse, and father Thomas Blige, a jazz musician. She is the second of four children. She has an elder sister, LaTonya Blige-DaCosta, a younger brother, Bruce Miller, and a younger sister, Jonquell, from a later relationship Blige's mother had with another man after divorcing Mary and LaTonya's father.
She spent her early childhood in Atlanta, Georgia, and In Atlanta, Georgia, where she sang in a Pentecostal church. She and her family later moved back to New York and resided in the Schlobohm Housing Projects, located in Yonkers. The family subsisted on her mother's earnings as a nurse after her father left the family in the mid-1970s. Her father was a Vietnam War veteran who suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder and alcoholism.
At the age of five, she was molested by a family friend, and as a teenager she endured years of sexual harassment from her peers. She would eventually turn to alcohol, drugs and promiscuous sex to try and numb the pain. Blige dropped out of high school in her junior year.
Pursuing a musical career, Blige spent a short time in a Yonkers band named Pride with band drummer Eddie D'Aprile. In early 1988, she recorded an impromptu cover of Anita Baker's "Caught Up in the Rapture" at a recording booth in the Galleria Mall in White Plains, New York. Her mother's boyfriend at the time later played the cassette for Jeff Redd, a recording artist and A&R runner for Uptown Records. Redd sent it to the president and CEO of the label, Andre Harrell. Harrell met with Blige and in 1989 she was signed to the label as a backup vocalist for artists such as Father MC, becoming the company's youngest and first female artist.
1992–1996: What's The 411? and My Life
After being signed to Uptown, Blige began working with record producer Sean Combs, also known as Puff Daddy. He became the executive producer and produced a majority of her first album. The title, What's the 411? it was an indication by Blige of being the "real deal". What's the 411? nevertheless established Blige as a dynamic storyteller whose performances of love narrative drew upon both her musical influences and her lived experiences as a hip-hop-generation woman. The music was described as "revelatory on a frequent basis". Blige was noted for having a "tough girl persona and streetwise lyrics".
On July 28, 1992, Uptown/MCA Records released What's the 411?, to positive reviews from critics. What's the 411? peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 and topped the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. It also peaked at number 53 on the UK Albums Chart. It was certified three times Platinum by the RIAA. According to Entertainment Weeklys Dave DiMartino, with the record's commercial success and Blige's "powerful, soulful voice and hip-hop attitude", she "solidly connected with an audience that has never seen a woman do new jack swing but loves it just the same". According to Dave McAleer, Blige became the most successful new female R&B artist of 1992 in the United States.
What's the 411? earned her two Soul Train Music Awards in 1993: Best New R&B Artist and Best R&B Album, Female. It was also voted the year's 30th best album in the Pazz & Jop—an annual poll of American critics nationwide, published by The Village Voice. By August 2010, the album had sold 3,318,000 copies in the US.
What's the 411? has since been viewed by critics as one of the 1990s' most important records. Blige's combination of vocals over a hip hop beat proved influential in contemporary R&B. With the album, she was dubbed the reigning "Queen of Hip Hop Soul"
The album's success spun off What's the 411? Remix, a remix album released in December that was used to extend the life of the What's the 411? singles on the radio into 1994, as Blige recorded her follow-up album.
Following the success of her debut album and a remixed version in 1993, Blige went into the recording studio in the winter of 1993 to record her second album, My Life.
The album was a breakthrough for Blige, who at this point was in a clinical depression, battling both drugs and alcohol – as well as being in an abusive relationship with K-Ci Hailey. On November 29, 1994, Uptown/MCA released My Life to positive reviews. The album peaked at number seven on the US Billboard 200 and number one of the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart for selling 481,000 copies in its first week and remaining atop the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart for an unprecedented eight weeks. It ultimately spent 46 weeks on the Billboard 200 and 84 weeks on the R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. In 2002, My Life was ranked number 57 on Blenders list of the 100 greatest American albums of all time. The following year, Rolling Stone placed it at number 279 on their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and in 2006, the record was included in Times 100 greatest albums of all-time list.
Blige involved herself in several outside projects, recording a cover of Aretha Franklin's "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman" for the soundtrack to the FOX series New York Undercover, and "Everyday It Rains" (co-written by R&B singer Faith Evans) for the soundtrack to the hip hop documentary, The Show. Later in the year, she recorded the Babyface-penned and produced "Not Gon' Cry", for the soundtrack to the motion picture Waiting to Exhale. The platinum-selling single rose to number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs in early 1996. Blige gained her first two Grammy nominations and won the 1996 Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for her collaboration with Method Man on "I'll Be There for You/You're All I Need to Get By". Shortly after, Blige was featured on Jay-Z's breakthrough single, "Can't Knock the Hustle", from his debut Reasonable Doubt (1996) and with Ghostface Killah on "All That I Got Is You" from his debut, Ironman, which was also released that year. In addition, Blige co-wrote four songs, provided background vocals and was featured prominently on two singles with fellow R&B singer Case on his self-titled debut album (1996) including the US top 20 hit, "Touch Me, Tease Me", which also featured then up-and-coming rapper Foxy Brown.
What's the 411? highlights the featuring of woman centered narratives although in this album her narratives were regularly policed and told through male emcees. Nonetheless, it marked the start of a transition towards black women centered narratives that focused on the daily experiences and troubles of the black experience through the lens of women rather than necessarily singing about black trauma. Treva B. Lindsey in her piece "If you look in my life: Love, Hip-hop soul, and contemporary African American womanhood" highlights the regulating by men saying, "Although the lyrics on What's the 411? establish an African American woman-centered discourse, male artists' words of adoration and longing first introduce listeners to Blige as a hip-hop storyteller. What's the 411?, therefore, functions as an African American woman-centered storytelling space created largely by black men.
1997–2000: Share My World and Mary
On April 22, 1997, MCA Records (parent company to Uptown Records, which was in the process of being dismantled) released Blige's third album, Share My World. By then, she and Combs had dissolved their working relationship. In his place were the Trackmasters, who executive-produced the project along with Steve Stoute. Sharing production duties were producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, R. Kelly, Babyface and Rodney Jerkins. The album was made at a time when Blige was trying to "get her life together", by trying to overcome drugs and alcohol, as well as the ending of her relationship with Hailey. After an encounter with a person who threatened her life the previous year, she tried to quit the unhealthy lifestyle and make more upbeat, happier music. As a result, songs such as "Love Is All We Need" and "Share My World" were made. Share My World debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and spawned five hit singles: "Love Is All We Need" (featuring Nas), "I Can Love You" (featuring Lil' Kim), "Everything", "Missing You" (UK only) and "Seven Days" (featuring George Benson). In February 1997, Blige performed her hit at the time, "Not Gon' Cry", at the 1997 Grammy Awards, which gained her a third Grammy Award nomination, her first for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance, as Blige was recording the follow-up to My Life. In early 1998, Blige won an American Music Award for "Favorite Soul/R&B Album". That summer, she embarked on the Share My World Tour, which resulted in a Gold-certified live album released later that year, simply titled The Tour. The album spawned one single, "Misty Blue".
On August 17, 1999, Blige's fourth album, titled Mary was released. It marked a departure from her more familiar hip hop-oriented sound; this set featured a more earthy, whimsical, and adult contemporary-tinged collection of songs, reminiscent of the 1970s to early 1980s soul. She also appeared on In Concert: A Benefit for the Crossroads Centre at Antigua with Eric Clapton in 1999. On December 14, 1999, the album was re-released as a double-disc set. The second disc was enhanced with the music videos for the singles "All That I Can Say" and "Deep Inside" and included two bonus tracks: "Sincerity" (featuring Nas, Andy Hogan and DMX) and "Confrontation" (a collaboration with hip hop duo Funkmaster Flex & Big Kap originally from their 1999 album The Tunnel). The Mary album was critically praised, becoming her most nominated release to date, and was certified double platinum. It was not as commercially successful as Blige's prior releases, though all of the singles: "All That I Can Say", "Deep Inside", "Your Child", and "Give Me You" performed considerably on the radio. In the meantime, MCA used the album to expand Blige's demographic into the nightclub market, as club-friendly dance remixes of the Mary singles were released. The club remix of "Your Child" peaked at number-one on the Billboard's Hot Dance Club Play chart in October 2000. In 2001, a Japan-only compilation, Ballads, was released. The album featured covers of Stevie Wonder's "Overjoyed", and previous recordings of Aretha Franklin's "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman" and Dorothy Moore's "Misty Blue". In 1999, George Michael and Mary J. Blige covered the song 'As' written by Stevie Wonder, and worldwide outside of the United States, it was the second single from George Michael's greatest hits album Ladies & Gentlemen: The Best of George Michael. It became a top ten UK pop hit, reaching number four on the chart. It was not released on the U.S. version of the greatest hits collection or as a single in the U.S. Michael cited Blige's record company president for pulling the track in America after Michael's arrest for committing a lewd act.
In January 2001, Blige performed as a special guest in the Super Bowl XXXV halftime show.
2001–2004: No More Drama and Love & Life
On August 28, 2001, MCA released Blige's fifth studio album, No More Drama. The album's first single, "Family Affair" (produced by Dr. Dre) became her first and only number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100, where it remained for six consecutive weeks. It was followed by two further hit singles, the European only single "Dance for Me" featuring Common with samples from "The Bed's Too Big Without You" by The Police, and the Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis-produced title track (originally recorded for the Mary album), which sampled "Nadia's Theme", the piano-driven theme song to the daytime drama The Young and the Restless. Though the album sold nearly two million copies in the U.S., MCA was underwhelmed by its sales, and subsequently repackaged and re-released the album on January 29, 2002. The No More Drama re-release featured a new album cover, deleted three of the songs from the original tracklisting, while adding two brand-new songs—one of which was the fourth single and top twenty Hot 100 hit "Rainy Dayz", (featuring Ja Rule), plus two remixes; one of the title track, serviced by Sean Combs/Puff Daddy and the single version of "Dance for Me" featuring Common. Blige won a Grammy for 'Best Female R&B Vocal Performance' for the song "He Think I Don't Know". In April 2002, Blige performed with Shakira with the song "Love Is a Battlefield" on VH1 Divas show live in Las Vegas, she also performed "No More Drama" and "Rainy Dayz" as a duet with the returning Whitney Houston.
On July 22, 2002, MCA released Dance for Me, a collection of club remixes of some of her past top hits including the Junior Vasquez remix of "Your Child", and the Thunderpuss mix of "No More Drama". This album was released in a limited edition double pack 12" vinyl for DJ-friendly play in nightclubs.
On August 26, 2003, Blige's sixth album Love & Life was released on Geffen Records (which had absorbed MCA Records.) Blige heavily collaborated with her one-time producer Sean Combs for this set. Due to the history between them on What's the 411? and My Life, which is generally regarded as their best work, and Blige having just come off of a successful fifth album, expectations were high for the reunion effort.
Despite the album debuting at number one on the Billboard 200 and becoming Blige's fourth consecutive UK top ten album, Love & Lifes lead-off single, the Diddy-produced "Love @ 1st Sight", which featured Method Man, barely cracked the top ten on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, while altogether missing the top twenty on the Hot 100 (although peaking inside the UK top twenty). The following singles, "Ooh!", "Not Today" featuring Eve, "Whenever I Say Your Name" featuring Sting on the international re-release, and "It's a Wrap" fared worse. Although the album was certified platinum, it became Blige's lowest-selling at the time. Critics and fans alike largely panned the disc, citing a lack of consistency and noticeable ploys to recapture the early Blige/Combs glory. Blige and Combs reportedly struggled and clashed during the making of this album, and again parted ways upon the completion of it.
The album became Blige's first album in six years to debut at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 285,298 copies in first week. Love & Life received mixed reviews from music critics. AllMusic gave it 4 stars and said the album "beamed with joy" and Rolling Stone gave it three stars, saying "You may not always love Blige's music, but you will feel her". The album was eventually certified Platinum by the RIAA. To date the album has sold over 1,000,000 copies in the US and over 2,000,000 copies worldwide. The album was nominated for the Best Contemporary R&B Album at the 46th Grammy Awards.
2005–2006: The Breakthrough and Reflections – A Retrospective
Geffen Records released Blige's seventh studio album, The Breakthrough on December 20, 2005. For the album, Blige collaborated with J.U.S.T.I.C.E. League, Rodney Jerkins, will.i.am, Bryan-Michael Cox, 9th Wonder, Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Raphael Saadiq, Cool and Dre, and Dre & Vidal. The cover art was photographed by Markus Klinko & Indrani. It debuted at number one on both the Billboard 200 and Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums charts. Selling 727,000 copies in its first week, it became the biggest first-week sales for an R&B solo female artist in SoundScan history, the fifth largest first-week sales for a female artist, and the fourth largest debut of 2005.
The lead-off single, "Be Without You", peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, while peaking at number one on the R&B chart for a record-setting fifteen consecutive weeks; it remained on the chart for over sixteen months. "Be Without You" found success in the UK (peaking in the lower end of the top forty) it became Blige's longest charting single on the UK Singles Chart. It is her second longest charting single to date. The album produced three more singles including two more top-five R&B hits—"Enough Cryin'", which features Blige's alter ego Brook-Lynn (as whom she appeared on the remix to Busta Rhymes's "Touch It" in 2006); and "Take Me as I Am" (which samples Lonnie Liston Smith's "A Garden of Peace"). Blige's duet with U2 on the cover of their 1992 hit, "One" gave Blige her biggest hit to date in the UK, peaking at number two on the UK Singles Chart eventually being certified one of the forty highest-selling singles of 2006; it was her longest charting UK single.
The success of The Breakthrough won Blige nine Billboard Music Awards, two American Music Awards, two BET Awards, two NAACP Image Awards, and a Soul Train Award. She received eight Grammy Award nominations at the 2007 Grammy Awards, the most of any artist that year. "Be Without You" was nominated for both "Record of the Year" and "Song of the Year". Blige won three: "Best Female R&B Vocal Performance", "Best R&B Song" (both for "Be Without You"), and "Best R&B Album" for The Breakthrough. Blige completed a season sweep of the "big three" major music awards, having won two American Music Awards in November 2006 and nine Billboard Music Awards in December 2006.
In December 2006, a compilation called Reflections (A Retrospective) was released. It contained many of Blige's greatest hits and four new songs, including the worldwide lead single "We Ride (I See the Future)". In the UK, however, "MJB da MVP" (which appeared in a different, shorter form on The Breakthrough) was released as the lead single from the collection. The album peaked at number nine in the U.S, selling over 170,000 copies in its first week, while reaching number forty in the UK In 2006, Blige recorded a duet with rapper Ludacris, "Runaway Love", which is the third single on his fifth album, Release Therapy. It reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 and the R&B chart. Blige was featured with Aretha Franklin and the Harlem Boys Choir on the soundtrack to the 2006 motion picture Bobby, on the lead track "Never Gonna Break My Faith" written by Bryan Adams. The song was nominated for a Golden Globe and won the Grammy Award for Best Gospel Performance at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards.
2007–2008: Growing Pains
Blige's eighth studio album, Growing Pains, was released on December 18, 2007, debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 and at number one on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. It sold 629,000 copies in its first week, marking the third time since Nielsen SoundScan began collecting data in 1991 that two albums sold more than 600,000 copies in a week in the United States. In its second week, the album climbed to number one, making it Blige's fourth number-one album. The lead single, "Just Fine", peaked at number twenty-two on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number three on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. "Just Fine" was nominated for the Grammy Award for "Best Female R&B Vocal Performance", and Blige won "Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals" for the Chaka Khan duet "Disrespectful" (featured on Khan's album Funk This) which Blige wrote.
Growing Pains was not released in the UK until February 2008, where it became Blige's fifth top ten and third-highest-charting album.The Breakthrough and Reflections (A Retrospective) were released in the Christmas rush and therefore settled for lower peaks, although both selling more than her top five album Mary. "Just Fine" returned Blige to the UK singles chart top 20 after her previous two singles failed to chart highly. Subsequent singles from Growing Pains include "Work That", which accompanied Blige in an iTunes commercial, and "Stay Down".
Blige was featured on 50 Cent's 2007 album, Curtis, in the song "All of Me". In March 2008, she toured with Jay-Z in the Heart of the City Tour. They released a song called "You're Welcome". In the same period, cable network BET aired a special on Blige titled The Evolution of Mary J. Blige, which showcased her career. Celebrities such as Method Man and Ashanti gave their opinions about Blige and her music. Blige is featured on singles by Big Boi, and Musiq Soulchild.
Growing Pains was nominated for and won the Grammy Award for "Best Contemporary R&B Album", at the 51st Grammy Awards held on February 8, 2009, earning Blige her 27th Grammy nomination, in a mere decade.
Blige went on the Growing Pains European Tour, her first tour there in two years. A tour of Australia and New Zealand was scheduled for June but was postponed due to "weariness from an overwhelming tour schedule" and then eventually canceled entirely.
On August 7, 2008, it was revealed Blige faced a US$2 million federal suit claiming Neff-U wrote the music for the song "Work That", but was owned by Dream Family Entertainment. The filing claimed that Dream Family never gave rights to use the song to Blige, Feemster or Geffen Records. Rights to the lyrics of the song used in an iPod commercial are not in question.
2009–2010: Stronger with Each Tear
Blige returned to performing in January 2009 by performing the song "Lean on Me" at the Presidential Inauguration Committee's, "We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial". Blige also performed her hit 2007 single, "Just Fine", with a new intro at the Neighborhood Inaugural Ball after Barack Obama was sworn in on January 20, 2009. Blige appeared as a marquee performer on the annual Christmas in Washington television special.
Blige's ninth studio album, Stronger with Each Tear, was released on December 21, 2009, debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 and at number one on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, selling 332,000 units in its first week of release. It became her fifth album not to take the top spot in the United States. Blige recorded "Stronger", as the lead single from the soundtrack to the basketball documentary "More than a Game" in August 2009. The second single from Stronger with Each Tear, "I Am", was released in December 2009 and reached number fifty-five on the Hot 100. The third international single from the album, "Each Tear", was remixed with different featured artists from different countries, then being released in February 2010. The single failed to chart anywhere except in the UK where it reached number one-hundred-eighty-three and in Italy where it reached number one. The album's third U.S. single, "We Got Hood Love" featuring Trey Songz, was released in March 2010 and reached number tw25 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles chart though it failed to reach the Hot 100. One of Blige's representatives reported to Us Weekly magazine that a tour in support of Stronger with Each Tear would begin in the fall of 2010. In March 2010, Blige released Stronger with Each Tear in the United Kingdom, as well as in the European markets. The album performed modestly in the United Kingdom, debuting at number 33 on the UK Albums Chart and at number four on the UK R&B Chart. It reached the top 100 in other countries.
Blige was honored at the 2009 BET Honors Ceremony and was paid tribute by Anita Baker and Monica. On November 4, 2009, Blige sang The Star-Spangled Banner at Yankee Stadium before the New York Yankees and Philadelphia Phillies played the last game (game 6) of the World Series. Blige performed two songs from her ninth album as well as her previous hits, "No More Drama" and "Be Without You" along with the song "Color", which was featured on the Precious soundtrack. Blige appeared as a guest judge on the ninth season of American Idol on January 13, 2010.
On January 23, 2010, Blige released a track "Hard Times Come Again No More" with the Roots as well as performing it at the Hope for Haiti Now telethon. At the 2010 Grammy Awards, Blige and Andrea Bocelli performed" Bridge over Troubled Water". Blige also performed on BET's SOS Help For Haiti, singing "Gonna Make It" with Jazmine Sullivan and "One." Blige also took part in February 2010's We Are the World 25 for Haiti, singing the solo originally sung by Tina Turner in the original 1985 We Are the World version. At the 41st NAACP Image Awards Blige won Outstanding Female Artist and Outstanding Album for Stronger with Each Tear. On November 18, 2010, Billboard revealed Mary J. Blige as the most successful female R&B/hip hop artist on the Top 50 R&B/Hip Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years list. She came in at number 2 overall.
2011–2013: My Life II... The Journey Continues (Act 1) and A Mary Christmas
In January 2011, Hot 97 premiered Blige's teaser track "Someone to Love Me (Naked)" featuring vocals by Lil Wayne. In July 2011, Blige released the song "The Living Proof" as the lead single to the soundtrack of the film The Help. On July 24, VH1 premiered their third Behind the Music that profiled her personal and career life. In August 2011, Blige released her first single off the album, "25/8". Blige's tenth studio album, My Life II... The Journey Continues (Act 1), was released in November 2011. The album, primarily recorded in Los Angeles and New York City, saw Blige looking toward the future while acknowledging the past. "From me to you, My Life II... Our journey together continues in this life", the singer explained. "It's a gift to be able to relate and identify with my fans at all times. This album is a reflection of the times and lives of people all around me." The album features production by Kanye West and the Underdogs. The second single "Mr. Wrong" featuring Canadian rapper Drake was the most successful single from the album, peaking at number 10 on Billboards R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. The rest of the songs released, including lead single "25/8" achieved only moderate success, peaking within the top 40 on R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. The album itself debuted at No. 5 on the Billboard 200, selling 156,000 copies in the first week; it was eventually certified Gold in 2012 and has sold 763,000 in the US.
On February 28, 2012, Blige performed "Star Spangled Banner" at the 2012 NBA All-Star Game. Blige appeared as guest mentor on American Idol on March 7, 2012, and performed "Why" on the results show the following night. On September 23, 2012, Blige was a performer at the iHeartRadio Music Festival at the MGM Grand Las Vegas. Blige was featured on the song "Now or Never" from Kendrick Lamar's album Good Kid, M.A.A.D City, released on October 22, 2012.
In early 2013, reports surfaced that Blige was recording a Christmas album. The album, titled, A Mary Christmas was released on October 15, 2013, through Matriarch and Verve Records, her first release with the latter. The album includes collaborations with Barbra Streisand, the Clark Sisters, Marc Anthony and Jessie J. In early December, A Mary Christmas became Blige's 12th top ten album after it rose to No. 10 in its eight week.
On October 23, 2013, Blige sang the national anthem before Game 1 of the 2013 World Series.
2014–2019: The London Sessions and Strength of a Woman
On February 5, 2014, a remix of Disclosure's "F for You" featuring guest vocals from Mary was released.It was announced May 30, 2014, that Think Like a Man Too (Music from and Inspired by the Film), released June 17 on Epic Records, would introduce new songs by Mary J. Blige, including the single "Suitcase". Blige recorded a collection of music from and inspired by the film. In the United States, Think Like a Man Too debuted at number 30 on the Billboard 200, with 8,688 copies sold in its first week, becoming the lowest sales debut of any of her studio albums. On Billboards R&B/Hip-Hop chart, the soundtrack album charted at number six, marking Blige's 16th top ten entry on the chart, tying her with Mariah Carey for the second-most top tens by a female artist.
June 2, 2014 saw Blige pairing up with another English musician with the release of a re-worked version of Sam Smith's "Stay with Me". A live visual to the song was released on the same day.
Following her concert date at the Essence Festival, on July 9, 2014, it was announced Blige would move to London to experiment with a new sound for her new album. Blige spent a month in London recording her album in RAK Studios with a host of young British acts, including Disclosure, Naughty Boy, Emeli Sandé and Sam Smith. Ten new songs, co-written and recorded by the singer, were released on November 24, 2014, on an album titled The London Sessions. That same month, she announced that she left Geffen and Interscope and signed with Capitol Records.
In August 2016, Blige was recruited to perform the new theme song for the ABC Daytime talk show The View for its twentieth season titled "World's Gone Crazy" written by Diane Warren. A music video was also shot for the new theme song with co-hosts Whoopi Goldberg, Joy Behar, Candace Cameron Bure, Raven-Symoné, Paula Faris, Sara Haines, Sunny Hostin and Jedediah Bila. Blige also appeared on The View alongside Maxwell during its premiere week on September 9, 2016, to discuss their joint tour and theme song.
On September 30, 2016, Blige premiered a new show, The 411, on Apple Music. On its debut episode, she interviewed Hillary Clinton. A trailer was released online with Blige singing a cover of Bruce Springsteen's "American Skin" to a bewildered Clinton. The exchange received mixed and negative reaction on social media. Two weeks later, a studio version, this time featuring a verse from American rapper Kendrick Lamar was released online.
Following her highly publicized divorce from Kendu Issacs, Blige released two songs within October, "Thick of It" and "U + Me (Love Lesson)". On April 28, 2017, her thirteenth studio album, Strength of a Woman, was released. It peaked at number three on the Billboard 200, number two on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart and topped the R&B Albums chart. On July 12, 2018, Blige released the single "Only Love" on Republic Records, following her exit from Capitol Records.
On April 16, 2019, Blige announced that she is co-headlining a North American summer tour with Nas titled The Royalty Tour. On May 8, Blige released the single "Thriving" featuring Nas. During an interview with Ebro Darden on Beats 1 for the premiere of "Thriving", Blige announced that her next studio album would be released before July. On June 23, at the BET Awards 2019, she was honored with the Lifetime Achievement Award for her extraordinary contributions to music industry. On June 25, The New York Times Magazine listed Mary J. Blige among hundreds of artists whose material was destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.
2021–present: The Super Bowl, Good Morning Gorgeous and endeavors with Dr. Dre
In June 2021, Blige celebrated the 25th anniversary of her album My Life with the release of the Amazon Studios documentary Mary J. Blige's My Life, directed by Vanessa Roth.
In December 2021, it was announced that Blige had formed her own label Mary Jane Productions, in conjunction with 300 Entertainment. Along with the news came the release of two new singles, "Good Morning Gorgeous" and "Amazing" featuring DJ Khaled. The songs appear on Blige's fourteenth studio album, also titled Good Morning Gorgeous, which was released on February 11, 2022.
In January 2022, Blige released an additional song from Good Morning Gorgeous titled "Rent Money" featuring Dave East.
On February 13, 2022, Blige performed at the Super Bowl LVI Halftime Show alongside Dr. Dre, Eminem, 50 Cent, Kendrick Lamar, and Snoop Dogg. Days later, on February 17, Blige said on the radio show The Breakfast Club that she is working on an album entirely produced by Dr. Dre.
Acting career
1998–2016: Early works
In 1998, Blige made her acting debut on the sitcom The Jamie Foxx Show, playing the apparently southern Ola Mae, a preacher's daughter who wanted to sing more than gospel music. Her father was portrayed by Ronald Isley of the Isley Brothers. In 2001, Blige starred opposite rapper Q-Tip in the independent film Prison Song. That same year, Blige made a cameo on the Lifetime network series, Strong Medicine; playing the role of Simone Fellows, the lead singer of a band who was sick, but would not seek treatment. In 2000, Blige was featured in a superhero web cartoon in junction with Stan Lee. Blige used the cartoon as part of her performance while on her 2000 Mary Show Tour. In 2004, Blige starred in an Off-Broadway play, The Exonerated, which chronicled the experiences of death row inmates. Blige portrayed Sunny Jacobs, a woman who spent 20 years in prison for a crime she did not commit. In late 2005, it was reported that Blige landed the starring role in the upcoming MTV Films biopic on American singer/pianist and civil rights activist, Nina Simone. By spring of 2010, Blige was slated to star as Simone with British actor David Oyelowo portraying her manager Clifton Henderson. Blige later dropped out of the role due to financial issues and the role was subsequently recast with actress Zoe Saldana as Simone in Nina, released in 2016.
In February 2007, Blige guest-starred on Ghost Whisperer, in the episode "Mean Ghost", as the character Jackie Boyd, the school's cheerleader coach grieving for the death of her brother and affected by the ghost of a dead cheerleader. The episode features many of Blige's songs. In August 2007, Blige was a guest star on Entourage, in the role of herself, as a client of Ari Gold's agency. In October 2007, Blige was also a guest star on America's Next Top Model, as a creative director for a photoshoot by Matthew Rolston. In May 2009, Mary made a guest appearance on 30 Rock, as an artist recording a benefit song for a kidney. Blige also had a supporting role in Tyler Perry's movie I Can Do Bad All by Myself, which was released in September 2009.
Blige starred alongside Tom Cruise, Julianne Hough, and Alec Baldwin in the film adaptation of the 1980s jukebox hit musical Rock of Ages. Blige played Justice Charlier, the owner of a Sunset Strip gentlemen's club. Production began in May 2011 and the film was released in June 2012.
Blige starred in the Lifetime movie Betty and Coretta alongside Angela Bassett, Malik Yoba and Lindsay Owen Pierre. She played Dr. Betty Shabazz, the widow of Malcolm X. The film premiered in February 2013. In December 2015, she portrayed Evillene, the Wicked Witch of the West in NBC's The Wiz Live!. In October 2016, Blige guest-starred on ABC legal drama How to Get Away with Murder as an old acquaintance of Annalise Keating played by Viola Davis.
2017–present
In 2017, Blige starred in the period drama film Mudbound directed by Dee Rees. Playing Florence Jackson, the matriarch of her family, she received praise such as Variety's review: "Mary J. Blige, as the mother of the Jackson family, gives a transformative performance that will elevate the acting career of the R&B star." For her performance in Mudbound, Blige was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress, the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actress, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role, and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. As she was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song (with Taura Stinson and Raphael Saadiq), she became the first person nominated for an Academy Award for acting and original song in the same year. Her nomination also made Dee Rees the first black woman to direct a film for which an actor was nominated for an Academy Award.
Blige voiced Irene Adler in the 2018 animated film Sherlock Gnomes, and in 2020 voiced Queen Essence in the animated musical film Trolls World Tour. In 2018, it was announced that Blige was cast as Sherry Elliot in Scream: Resurrection, the third season of the slasher television series Scream. The season premiered on VH1 on July 8, 2019. In 2019, Blige starred in the role of Cha-Cha, a main antagonist in the Netflix superhero series The Umbrella Academy.
In 2020, Blige played a leading role in the horror film Body Cam. She also starred in the independent drama film Pink Skies Ahead. Blige currently stars as Monet Stewart Tejada in Power Book II: Ghost, the first spin-off for the highly rated Starz cable drama Power which premiered in September 2020. Blige played singer Dinah Washington in the biographical drama film Respect about life and career of Aretha Franklin. The film was released theatrically on August 13, 2021.
Personal life
In the 1990s, Blige spent six years in a relationship with singer Cedric "K-Ci" Hailey of the R&B group Jodeci. During a 1995 interview on the UK television show The Word, Blige confirmed the two were engaged; Hailey denied that they were going to get married. Their turbulent relationship inspired Blige's album My Life.
Blige married her manager, Martin "Kendu" Isaacs, on December 7, 2003. At the time, Isaacs had two children, Nas and Jordan, with his first wife, and an older daughter, Briana, from a teenage relationship. In July 2016, Blige filed for divorce, citing "irreconcilable differences". Blige and Isaacs' divorce was finalized on June 21, 2018.
A Democrat, Blige performed for Barack Obama at the 2012 Democratic National Convention.
Blige has dealt with drug and alcohol addiction, and has been sober for several years.
Other ventures
In 2004, Blige launched her own record label, Matriarch Records, distributed through Interscope, and in mid-2012, discovered girl group Just'Us, making the group the first ladies of the label. Blige says "These are my little Mary's; they each remind me of myself at different points in my life." Blige has been reported to be working with Just'Us on their debut album.
In July 2010, Blige launched her first perfume, My Life (through Carol's Daughter), exclusively on HSN. The fragrance's success broke sales records in hours and has been awarded two prestigious FIFI awards from the Fragrance Foundation. The newest fragrance, My Life Blossom launched in August 2011 exclusively to HSN.
In October 2010, Blige released a line of sunglasses called "Melodies by MJB". The first Melodies collection featured four styles with a total of 20 color options. Each style represented a specific facet of Blige's life. Essence magazine reported that in the spring of 2011, "Melodies by MJB" extended their collection to offer more styles.
Blige's production company, along with William Morris Endeavor, is also working on several TV and film projects.
In partnership with the Home Shopping Network (HSN) and Carol's Daughter, Blige released her "My Life" perfume. The perfume broke HSN records by selling 65,000 bottles during its premiere. The scent went on to win two FiFi Awards, including the "Fragrance Sales Breakthrough" award.
Blige has had endorsement contracts with Reebok, Air Jordan, Pepsi, Coca-Cola, Gap, Target, American Express, AT&T Inc., M·A·C, Apple Inc., Burger King and Chevrolet. She has also been a spokesperson with Carol's Daughter beauty products and Citibank's with Nickelback program.
Legacy
Called the "Queen of Hip-Hop Soul", Blige is credited with influencing the musical marriage of hip hop and R&B. Ethan Brown of The New Yorker says that albums "What's the 411?" and "My Life", in hindsight, invented "the sample-heavy sound that reinvigorated urban radio and became a blueprint for nineties hip-hop and R&B". Tom Horan of The Daily Telegraph comments that Blige, being an immensely influential figure in popular music, "invented what is now called R&B by successfully combining female vocals with muscular hip hop rhythm tracks. All over the world, that recipe dominates today's charts." Called one of the "most explosive, coming-out displays of pure singing prowess" and "one of the most important albums of the nineties", What's the 411? saw Blige pioneer "the movement that would later become neo soul, generating gripping songs that were also massive radio hits".
African American scholars have noted the implications of Blige's presentation and representation of black womanhood and femininity in the typically male-dominated and centric sphere of hip hop. Blending the vocal techniques of rapping in hip hop with aspirational messages in R&B, Blige is credited with articulating black women's experiences in a "more factual and objective" manner than typical stereotypes and tropes of black women in the media. Using her personal experiences and struggles with her family as source material for her songs, Blige refutes notions of black female hypersexuality by "imploring women to love and empower themselves through both autonomy and intimacy." This desire for love does more than connect to her audience members. With particular attention on her single "Real Love", critics note how the song is "a performative text, declaratively demand[ing] recognition of Blige's full humanity and, more broadly, that of hip-hop-generation women."
Blige has received notable awards and achievements. In 2010, she was ranked 80th on VH1's list of the 100 Greatest Artist of All Time. Blige was listed as one of the 50 most influential R&B singers by Essence. In 2003, Rolling Stone magazine ranked My Life at number 279 on its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. The album was also included on Time's list of the 100 Greatest albums of All Time. In 2020, both What's the 411? and My Life were featured in a rebooted list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, at 271 and 126 respectively. Alternately called the "Queen of R&B" for her success in the realm of R&B, Blige has amassed ten number one albums on the R&B/Hip Hop Albums chart . Blige is also the only artist to have won Grammys in the R&B, hip hop, pop, and gospel fields.
Blige and her work have influenced several recording artists, including Beyoncé, Adele, Taylor Swift, Monica, Layton Greene, Keyshia Cole, Bryson Tiller, Cheryl, Teyana Taylor Keke Palmer, Jess Glynne, Sam Smith, and Alexandra Burke.
As an actress, Blige received the Breakthrough Performance Award at the 2018 Palm Springs International Film Festival for her role in Mudbound.
In 2020, Kamala Harris, the first Black and South Asian female Vice President-elect on a major party, walked out to "Work That" at the 2020 Democratic National Convention, campaign events (including her own presidential campaign), and her victory speech.
Discography
What's the 411? (1992)
My Life (1994)
Share My World (1997)
Mary (1999)
No More Drama (2001)
Love & Life (2003)
The Breakthrough (2005)
Growing Pains (2007)
Stronger with Each Tear (2009)
My Life II... The Journey Continues (Act 1) (2011)
A Mary Christmas (2013)
The London Sessions (2014)
Strength of a Woman (2017)
Good Morning Gorgeous (2022)
Tours
Headlining
Share My World Tour (1997–98)
The Mary Show Tour (2000)
No More Drama Tour (2002)
Love & Life Tour (2004)
The Breakthrough Experience Tour (2006)
Growing Pains European Tour (2008)
Love Soul Tour (2008)
Music Saved My Life Tour (2010–11)
The London Sessions Tour (2015)
Strength of a Woman Tour (2017)
Co-headlining
Heart of the City Tour (2007)
The Liberation Tour (2012–13)
King and Queen of Hearts World Tour (2016)
The Royalty Tour (2019)
Supporting
Humpin' Around the World Tour (1992–1993)
Filmography
Film
Television
See also
List of artists who reached number one in the United States
List of black Golden Globe Award winners and nominees
Honorific nicknames in popular music
References
External links
Official website
Mary J. Blige on Instagram
1971 births
Living people
Actresses from New York City
African-American actresses
African-American women singer-songwriters
African-American songwriters
African-American women rappers
American contemporary R&B singers
American women rappers
American film actresses
American hip hop musicians
American female hip hop musicians
American female hip hop singers
American hip hop singers
American soul singers
American television actresses
American voice actresses
Geffen Records artists
Grammy Award winners
MCA Records artists
Entertainers from the Bronx
People from Cresskill, New Jersey
People from Yonkers, New York
Singers from New York City
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
21st-century American women singers
World Music Awards winners
21st-century American rappers
20th-century American women singers
New Jersey Democrats
New York (state) Democrats
Singer-songwriters from New York (state) | [
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214213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea%20Mantegna | Andrea Mantegna | Andrea Mantegna (, , ; September 13, 1506) was an Italian painter, a student of Roman archeology, and son-in-law of Jacopo Bellini.
Like other artists of the time, Mantegna experimented with perspective, e.g. by lowering the horizon in order to create a sense of greater monumentality. His flinty, metallic landscapes and somewhat stony figures give evidence of a fundamentally sculptural approach to painting. He also led a workshop that was the leading producer of prints in Venice before 1500.
Biography
Youth and education
Mantegna was born in Isola di Carturo, Venetian Republic close to Padua (now Italy), second son of a carpenter, Biagio. At the age of eleven he became the apprentice of Paduan painter Francesco Squarcione. Squarcione, whose original profession was tailoring, appears to have had a remarkable enthusiasm for ancient art, and a faculty for acting. Like his famous compatriot Petrarca, Squarcione was an ancient Rome enthusiast: he traveled in Italy, and perhaps also in Greece, collecting antique statues, reliefs, vases, etc., making drawings from them himself, then making available his collection for others to study. All the while, he continued undertaking works on commission, to which his pupils, no less than himself, contributed.
As many as 137 painters and pictorial students passed through Squarcione's school, which had been established around 1440 and which became famous all over Italy. Padua attracted artists not only from the Veneto but also from Tuscany, such as Paolo Uccello, Filippo Lippi and Donatello; Mantegna's early career was shaped by impressions of Florentine works. At the time, Mantegna was said to be a favorite pupil of Squarcione, who taught him Latin and instructed him to study fragments of Roman sculpture. The master also preferred forced perspective, recollection of which may account for some of Mantegna's later innovations. However, at the age of seventeen Mantegna left Squarcione's workshop. He later claimed that Squarcione had profited from his work without sufficient payment.
Mantegna's first work, now lost, was an altarpiece for the church of Santa Sofia in 1448. The same year he was called, together with Nicolò Pizolo, to work with a large group of painters entrusted with the decoration of the Ovetari Chapel in the transept of the church of the Eremitani. It is probable, however, that before this time some of the pupils of Squarcione, including Mantegna, had already begun the series of frescoes in the chapel of S. Cristoforo, in the church of Sant'Agostino degli Eremitani, which are today considered a masterpiece. After a series of coincidences, Mantegna finished most of the work alone, though Ansuino, who collaborated with Mantegna in the Ovetari Chapel, brought his style from the Forlì school of painting. The now critical Squarcione carped about the earlier works of this series, illustrating the life of St James; he said the figures were like men made of stone, and should have been painted stone color.
This series was almost entirely lost in the 1944 Allied bombings of Padua. The most dramatic work of the fresco cycle was the work set in the worm's-eye view perspective, St. James Led to His Execution. (For an example of Mantegna's use of a lowered viewpoint, see the image at right of Saints Peter and Paul; though much less dramatic in its perspective than the St. James picture, the San Zeno altarpiece was around 1455 not long after the St. James cycle was finished, and uses many of the same techniques, including an architectural structure based on Classical antiquity.)
The sketch for the St. Stephen fresco survived and is the earliest known preliminary sketch which still survives to compare with the corresponding fresco. The drawing shows proof that nude figures—which were later painted as clothed—were used in the conception of works during the Early Renaissance. In the preliminary sketch, the perspective is less developed and closer to a more average viewpoint however. Despite the authentic Classical look of the monument, it is not a copy of any known Roman structure. Mantegna also adopted the wet drapery patterns of the Romans, who took the form from the Greek invention, for the clothing of his figures, although the tense figures and interactions are derived from Donatello.
Among the other early Mantegna frescoes are the two saints over the entrance porch of the church of Sant'Antonio in Padua, 1452, and the 1453 San Luca Altarpiece, with St. Luke and other saints, for the church of S. Giustina and now in the Brera Gallery in Milan. As the young artist progressed in his work, he came under the influence of Jacopo Bellini, father of the celebrated painters Giovanni Bellini and Gentile Bellini, and met his daughter Nicolosia. In 1453 Jacopo consented to a marriage between Nicolosia and Mantegna.
Aesthetic
Mantegna was criticized for his body forms being too statuesque. His art, however, differentiates between ancient classical aesthetics in nude forms and purposeful depictions of sculptural illusion. The age-old criticism stems from Mantegna's master teacher Francesco Squarcione of Padua, described in Gorgio Vasari's The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects. Pertaining to the Ovetari Chapel frescoes in the Church of Eremitani, Vasari writes that Squarcione stingingly remarked that "Andrea would have done much better with those figures if he had given them the tint of marble and not all those colours; they would have been nearer to perfection since they had no resemblance to life." This is ironic since, according to Vasari, it was Squarcione's love of ancient Roman art that influenced Mantegna. Mantegna is believed to have studied reproduced castings of these sculptures at Squarcione's Studio. He was also influenced by the work of Donatello and models he himself sculpted to capture anatomy. Later in life, he was in Rome from 1488 to 1490 where he also studied sculptural masterpieces.
Andrea seems to have been influenced by his old preceptor's strictures, although his later subjects, for example, those from the legend of St. Christopher, combine his sculptural style with a greater sense of naturalism and vivacity. Trained as he had been in the study of marbles and the severity of the antique, Mantegna openly avowed that he considered ancient art superior to nature as being more eclectic in form. As a result, the painter exercised precision in outline, privileging the figure. Overall, Mantegna's work thus tended towards rigidity, demonstrating an austere wholeness rather than graceful sensitivity of expression. His draperies are tight and closely folded, being studied (it is said) from models draped in paper and woven fabrics gummed in place. His figures are slim, muscular and bony; the action impetuous but of arrested energy. Finally, tawny landscape, gritty with littering pebbles, marks the athletic hauteur of his style.
Mantegna never changed the manner which he had adopted in Padua, though his coloring—at first neutral and undecided—strengthened and matured. Throughout his works there is more balancing of color than fineness of tone. One of his great aims was optical illusion, carried out by a mastery of perspective which, though not always mathematically correct, attained an astonishing effect for the times.
Successful and admired though he was there, Mantegna left his native Padua at an early age, and never returned there; the hostility of Squarcione has been cited as the cause. He spent the rest of his life in Verona, Mantua and Rome; it has not been confirmed that he also stayed in Venice and Florence. In Verona between 1457 and 1459, he painted a grand altarpiece for the church of San Zeno Maggiore, depicting a Madonna and angels, with four saints on each side on the San Zeno Altarpiece, central panel, San Zeno, Verona. It was probably the first good example of Renaissance art in Verona, and inspired a similar painting by the Veronese artist Girolamo dai Libri.
Work in Mantua
The Marquis Ludovico III Gonzaga of Mantua had for some time been pressing Mantegna to enter his service; and the following year, 1460 Mantegna was appointed court artist. He resided at first from time to time at Goito, but, from December 1466 onwards, he moved with his family to Mantua. His engagement was for a salary of 75 lire a month, a sum so large for that period as to mark conspicuously the high regard in which his art was held. He was in fact the first painter of any eminence to be based in Mantua.
His Mantuan masterpiece was painted for the court of Mantua, in the apartment of the Castle of the city, today known as Camera degli Sposi (literally, "Wedding Chamber") of Palazzo Ducale, Mantua: a series of full compositions in fresco including various portraits of the Gonzaga family and some figures of genii and others.
The Chamber's decoration was finished presumably in 1474. The ten years that followed were not happy ones for Mantegna and Mantua: Mantegna grew irritable, his son Bernardino died, as well as the Marchese Ludovico, his wife Barbara and his successor Federico (who had dubbed Mantegna cavaliere, "knight" ). Only with the election of Francesco II of the House of Gonzaga did artistic commissions in Mantua recommence. He built a stately house in the area of the church of San Sebastiano, and adorned it with a multitude of paintings. The house can still be seen today, although the pictures no longer survive. In this period he began to collect some ancient Roman busts (which were given to Lorenzo de Medici when the Florentine leader visited Mantua in 1483), painted some architectonic and decorative fragments, and finished the intense St. Sebastian now in the Louvre (box at top).
In 1488 Mantegna was called by Pope Innocent VIII to paint frescoes in a chapel Belvedere in the Vatican. This series of frescoes, including a noted Baptism of Christ, was later destroyed by Pius VI in 1780. The pope treated Mantegna with less liberality than he had been used to at the Mantuan court; but all things considered their connection, which ceased in 1500, was not unsatisfactory to either party. Mantegna also met the famous Turkish hostage Jem and carefully studied Rome's ancient monuments, but his impression of the city was a disappointing one overall. Returned to Mantua in 1490, he embraced again his more literary and bitter vision of antiquity, and entered in strong connection with the new Marchesa, the cultured and intelligent Isabella d'Este.
In what was now his city he went on with the nine tempera pictures of the Triumphs of Caesar, which he had probably begun before his leaving for Rome, and which he finished around 1492. These superbly invented and designed compositions are gorgeous with the splendor of their subject matter, and with the classical learning and enthusiasm of one of the masters of the age. Considered Mantegna's finest work, they were sold in 1628 along with the bulk of the Mantuan art treasures to King Charles I of England.
Later years
Despite his declining health, Mantegna continued to paint. Other works of this period include the Madonna of the Caves, the St. Sebastian and the famous Lamentation over the Dead Christ, probably painted for his personal funerary chapel. Another work of Mantegna's later years was what is known as the Madonna della Vittoria, now in the Louvre. It was painted in tempera about 1495, in commemoration of the Battle of Fornovo, whose questionable outcome Francesco Gonzaga was eager to show as an Italian League victory; the church which originally housed the picture was built from Mantegna's own design. The Madonna is here depicted with various saints, the archangel Michael and St. Maurice holding her mantle, which is extended over the kneeling Francesco Gonzaga, amid a profusion of rich festooning and other accessories. Though not in all respects of his highest order of execution, this counts among the most obviously beautiful of Mantegna's works in which the qualities of beauty and attractiveness are less marked than those other excellences more germane to his severe genius, tense energy passing into haggard passion.
After 1497 Mantegna was commissioned by Isabella d'Este to translate the mythological themes written by the court poet Paride Ceresara into paintings for her private apartment (studiolo) in the Palazzo Ducale. These paintings were dispersed in the following years: one of them, the legend of the God Comus, was left unfinished by Mantegna and completed by his successor as court painter in Mantua, Lorenzo Costa. The other painters commissioned by Isabella for her studiolo were Perugino and Correggio.
After the death of his wife, Mantegna became at an advanced age the father of an illegitimate son, Giovanni Andrea; and, finally, although he continued embarking on various expenses and schemes, he had serious tribulations, such as the banishment from Mantua of his son Francesco, who had incurred the displeasure of the Marchese. The difficult situation of the aged master and connoisseur required the hard necessity of parting with a beloved antique bust of Faustina.
Very soon after this transaction he died in Mantua, on September 13, 1506. In 1516, a handsome monument was set up to him by his sons in the church of Sant'Andrea, where he had painted the altarpiece of the mortuary chapel. The dome is decorated by Correggio.
Engravings
Mantegna was no less eminent as an engraver, though his history in that respect is somewhat obscure, partly because he never signed or dated any of his plates, but for a single disputed instance of 1472. The account which has come down to us from Vasari (who was, as usual, keen to assert that everything flows from Florence) is that Mantegna began engraving in Rome, prompted by the engravings produced by the Florentine Baccio Baldini after Sandro Botticelli. This is now considered most unlikely as it would consign all the numerous and elaborate engravings made by Mantegna to the last sixteen or seventeen years of his life, which seems a brief period for them. Besides, the earlier engravings reflect an earlier period of his artistic style. It is possible that Mantegna may have begun engraving while still in Padua, under the tuition of a distinguished goldsmith, Niccolò. He and his workshop engraved about thirty plates, according to the usual reckoning; large, full of figures, and highly studied. It is now considered either that he only engraved seven himself, or none. Another artist from the workshop who made several plates is usually identified as Giovanni Antonio da Brescia (aka Zoan Andrea).
Among the principal examples are: Battle of the Sea Monsters, Virgin and Child, a Bacchanal Festival, Hercules and Antaeus, Marine Gods, Judith with the Head of Holofernes, the Deposition from the Cross, the Entombment, the Resurrection, the Man of Sorrows, the Virgin in a Grotto, and several scenes from the Triumph of Julius Caesar after his paintings. Several of his engravings are supposed to be executed on some metal less hard than copper. The technique of himself and his followers is characterized by the strongly marked forms of the design, and by the parallel hatching used to produce shadows. The closer the parallel marks, the darker the shadows were. The prints are frequently to be found in two states, or editions. In the first, the prints have been produced using a roller, or even by hand pressing, and they are weak in tint; in the second, a printing press has been used, and the ink is stronger.
Neither Mantegna or his workshop are now believed to have produced the so-called Mantegna Tarocchi cards.
Assessment and legacy
Giorgio Vasari eulogizes Mantegna, although pointing out his litigious character. He had been fond of his fellow pupils in Padua: and with two of them, Dario da Trevigi and Marco Zoppo, he retained steady friendships. Mantegna became very expensive in his habits, fell at times into financial difficulties, and had to press his valid claims for payment upon the attention of the Marchese.
In terms of Classical taste, Mantegna distanced all contemporary competition. Though substantially related to the 15th century, his influence on the style and trends of his age was very marked over Italian art generally. Giovanni Bellini, in his earlier works, obviously followed the lead of his brother-in-law Andrea. Albrecht Dürer was influenced by his style during his two trips in Italy, reproducing several of his engravings. Leonardo da Vinci took from Mantegna the use of decorations with festoons and fruit.
Mantegna's main legacy in considered the introduction of spatial illusionism, both in frescoes and in sacra conversazione paintings: his tradition of ceiling decoration was followed for almost three centuries. Starting from the faint cupola of the Camera degli Sposi, Correggio built on the research of his master and collaborator into perspective constructions, eventually producing a masterwork like the dome of Cathedral of Parma.
Major works
St. Jerome in the Wilderness (c. 1448–1451) - Tempera on wood, 48 × 36 cm, São Paulo Museum of Art, São Paulo, Brazil
The Adoration of the Shepherds (c. 1451–1453) - Tempera on canvas transferred from wood, 40 × 55,6 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
San Luca Altarpiece (1453) - Panel, 177 × 230 cm, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan
St Euphemia (1454) - Glue on tempera on canvas, 171 × 78 cm, Museo nazionale di Capodimonte, Naples
Presentation at the Temple (c. 1455) - Tempera on wood, 68.9 × 86.3 cm, Staatliche Museen, Berlin, Germany
Madonna and Child with Saint Jerome and Saint Louis of Toulouse (c. 1455) - Tempera on panel, Musée Jacquemart-André, Paris
Crucifixion (1457–1459) - Wood, 67 × 93 cm, Louvre, Paris
Christ as the Suffering Redeemer (1495–1500) - Tempera on wood, 78 × 48 cm, Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen, Denmark
Agony in the Garden (c. 1459) - Tempera on wood, 63 × 80 cm, National Gallery, London
Portrait of Cardinal Ludovico Trevisan, (c. 1459–1460) - Tempera on wood, 44 × 33 cm, Staatliche Museen, Berlin
St. Bernardino of Siena between Two Angels, (attributed, 1460) - Tempera on canvas, 385 × 220 cm, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan
Portrait of a Man (c. 1460–1470) - Wood, 24.2 × 19 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., US
Death of the Virgin (c. 1461) - Panel, 54 × 42 cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid
Portrait of Francesco Gonzaga (c. 1461) - Panel, 25 × 18 cm, Capodimonte Museum, Naples
Madonna with Sleeping Child (c. 1465–1470) - Oil on canvas, 43x32 cm, Staatliche Museen, Berlin
St. George (c. 1460) - Tempera on panel, 66 × 32 cm, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice
San Zeno Altarpiece (1457–1460) - Panel, 480 × 450 cm, San Zeno, Verona
St. Sebastian (c. 1457–1459) - Wood, 68 × 30 cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
St. Sebastian - Panel, 255 × 140 cm, Louvre, Paris
Adoration of the Magi (1462) - Tempera on panel, 76 × 76.5 cm, Uffizi, Florence
The Ascension (1462) - Tempera on panel, 86 × 42.5 cm, Uffizi, Florence
The Circumcision (1462–1464) - Tempera on panel, 86 × 42.5 cm, Uffizi, Florence
Portrait of Carlo de' Medici (c. 1459–1466) - Tempera on panel, 40.6 × 29.5 cm, Uffizi, Florence
The Madonna of the Cherubim (c. 1485) - Panel, 88 × 70 cm, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan
Triumphs of Caesar (c. 1486) - Hampton Court Palace, England
The Lamentation over the Dead Christ (c. 1490) - Tempera on canvas, 68 × 81 cm, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan
Madonna of the Caves (1489–1490) - Uffizi, Florence
St. Sebastian (1490) - Panel, 68 × 30 cm, Ca' d'Oro, Venice
Madonna della Vittoria (1495) - Tempera on canvas, 285 × 168 cm, Louvre, Paris
Ecce homo (1500)- Tempera on canvas, 54 × 72 cm, Musée Jacquemart-André, Paris
Holy Family (c. 1495–1500) - Tempera on canvas, 75.5 × 61.5 cm, The Dresden Gallery, Dresden
Judith and Holofernes (1495) - Egg-tempera on wood, National Gallery of Art, Washington
Trivulzio Madonna (1497) - Tempera on canvas, 287 × 214 cm, Museo Civico d'Arte Antica, Milan
Parnassus (Mars and Venus) (1497) - Canvas, 160 × 192 cm, Louvre, Paris
Minerva Chases the Vices from the Garden of Virtue (c. 1502) Oil on canvas, 160 × 192 cm, Louvre, Paris
Mantegna's only known sculpture is a Sant'Eufemia in the Cathedral of Irsina, Basilicata.
Notes
References
Janson, H.W., Janson, Anthony F.History of Art. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers. 6 edition. January 1, 2005.
Early Italian Engravings from the National Gallery of Art; J.A. Levinson (ed); National Gallery of Art, 1973, LOC 7379624
Martineau, Jane (ed.), Suzanne Boorsch (ed.). Andrea Mantegna (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1992) Exhibition Catalog: Metropolitan Museum of Art; Royal Academy of Arts
Berger, John and Katya, Lying Down to Sleep. Corraini Edizioni. 2010.
External links
Links to all the engravings; see section B
Video about the St Sebastian by Andrea Mantegna (french)
Brief bio of Mantegna from Web Gallery of Art
Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Mantegna (see index)
Works by Andrea Mantegna at the National Gallery, London
Andrea Mantegna at the National Gallery of Art
Italian Renaissance painters
Quattrocento painters
Italian engravers
1430s births
1506 deaths
Court painters
Italian male painters
People from the Province of Padua
15th-century Italian painters
16th-century Italian painters
15th-century engravers
15th-century antiquarians
16th-century antiquarians
Catholic engravers
Catholic painters | [
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|
214214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%2077 | New Jersey Route 77 | Route 77 is a state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey. It runs from an intersection with Route 49 in Bridgeton, Cumberland County north to a junction with Route 45 in Mullica Hill, Gloucester County. It is a mostly two-lane, undivided road traversing through farmland in Cumberland, Salem, and Gloucester Counties. Along the way, Route 77 intersects Route 56 in Upper Deerfield Township and U.S. Route 40 (US 40) in Upper Pittsgrove Township.
Prior to 1927, the route was a branch of pre-1927 Route 6 that ran from Bridgeton to Mullica Hill. In 1927, it was designated as Route 46, which replaced the Bridgeton-Mullica Hill branch of pre-1927 Route 6. In 1953, it was renumbered to Route 77 to avoid conflicting with US 46 in the northern part of the state.
Route description
Route 77 heads north from Route 49 and County Route 609 (CR 609) in Bridgeton, Cumberland County on Pearl Street. In a short distance, the route intersects CR 670 and then crosses CR 552, which ends a block to the west at Laurel Street. It continues north through residential areas of Bridgeton, meeting CR 665 and CR 659. Route 77 heads into a commercial area, passing under a Winchester and Western Railroad line and crossing into Upper Deerfield Township at the junction with Laurel Plaza Drive. The route intersects the western terminus of Route 56 and CR 622, where the route is briefly a four-lane road. Past this junction, Route 77 heads into farmland, where it encounters several county roads including CR 704, CR 617, and CR 658. It heads north into Seabrook, where it meets CR 743 and CR 711. Route 77 intersects CR 612 and CR 630 before crossing CR 540 in Deerfield. Past CR 540, the route has junctions with CR 640 and CR 730. Route 77 then encounters CR 614, the last county route intersection in Cumberland County.
Route 77 crosses into Upper Pittsgrove Township, Salem County, where it becomes Pole Tavern-Bridgeton Road, and crosses CR 611 in Shirley. It continues north through farms to Pole Tavern, where Route 77 meets US 40, CR 604, and CR 635 at the Pole Tavern Circle. Past the Pole Tavern Circle, the route becomes Bridgeton Pike and crosses CR 660. Before leaving Salem County, Route 77 intersects two more county routes: CR 619 and CR 666.
Route 77 crosses Oldmans Creek into Elk Township, Gloucester County, meeting CR 641 and CR 616 before crossing CR 538. Past this junction, the route crosses CR 618 and enters Harrison Township. Route 77 continues northwest and enters Mullica Hill, where it intersects the northern terminus of CR 581 and heads north on South Main Street. Route 77 ends at Route 45, where Route 45 continues to the north on South Main Street.
History
Prior to 1927, the route was a branch of pre-1927 Route 6, which had run south from Camden and split into two branches in Mullica Hill that ran to Salem and Bridgeton. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 46 was designated along the former branch of pre-1927 Route 6 that ran from Bridgeton to Mullica Hill. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, which stated that no state route and U.S. route could share the same number, Route 46 was changed to Route 77 to avoid a conflict with US 46 in North Jersey.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
NJ State Highways: Route 77
Route 77 Photos
New Jersey Route 77: Start / End Photos
Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 77
077
Transportation in Cumberland County, New Jersey
Transportation in Gloucester County, New Jersey
Transportation in Salem County, New Jersey | [
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|
214216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%2079 | New Jersey Route 79 | Route 79 is a state highway located in Monmouth County in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It runs from an intersection with U.S. Route 9 (US 9) in Freehold Township north to an intersection with Route 34 and County Route 516 Spur (CR 516 Spur) in Matawan. The route is a mostly two-lane undivided road that passes through both suburban residential areas and rural areas. The route intersects Route 33 in Freehold Township, Route 33 Business and CR 537 in Freehold Borough, Route 18 and CR 520 in Marlboro Township, and CR 516 in Matawan.
In 1927, the current alignment of Route 79 was designated as a part of Route 4, which was to run from Cape May to the George Washington Bridge, with US 9 additionally being designated along the route by the 1940s. After US 9 and Route 4 were moved to a new routing between Freehold and Cheesequake, the former route became Route 4A, a spur of Route 4. In 1953, Route 4A became Route 79 between Freehold and Matawan and an extension of Route 34 between Matawan and Cheesequake.
Route description
Route 79 begins at an intersection with US 9 in Freehold Township, heading north on South Street, a two-lane divided highway that soon becomes an undivided road. It interchanges with Route 33 and continues through a mix of residential and commercial areas. The route enters Freehold Borough, where it crosses Route 33 Business. Route 79 heads into downtown Freehold, where it crosses Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Freehold Industrial Track and intersects CR 537. Here, the route heads northeast on Main Street to run concurrent with County Route 537 for a short distance. It eventually splits from CR 537 by forking to the left to head northeast on Broadway. The route travels on Broadway, as it heads past homes and eventually passes by Freehold High School at the corner of Route 79 and Dutch Lane Road (CR 46). Route 79 crosses back into Freehold Township, where it continues through suburban residential areas, with intermittent farms and woods. It heads into Marlboro Township, where the name becomes Marlboro Road. The route passes some businesses before it widens into a four-lane divided highway and comes to an interchange with the Route 18 freeway.
Past this interchange, Route 79 heads through a mix of homes and businesses, narrowing back into a two-lane undivided road. The name of the road changes to North Main Street at the School Road intersection. The road passes through residential and commercial areas with some farm fields, along with passing by Marlboro High School, and then intersecting with CR 520. Past this intersection, Route 79 continues north and heads into more suburban areas. The road heads through wooded areas with some development, intersects CR 3 in Morganville, forming a short concurrency with that route that lasts until CR 3 heads northeast on Lloyd Road. Route 79 continues north through wooded neighborhoods and enters Matawan, where it becomes Main Street. It passes through residential areas before the road crosses CR 516 in a commercial area. Route 79 continues a short distance north past this intersection to its northern terminus at Route 34. At this intersection, unsigned CR 516 Spur continues northeast on Main Street.
History
What has become Route 79 is an original road for the area. On June 7, 1701 a patent was granted to John Johnstone for a road from old Oysterbank Landing (Matawan Creek) to Wickatunk. This would have roughly followed that Route 79 path. Almost the entirety of the road was maintained in the late 19th century as part of the Monmouth County Plank Road. Before 1927, what is today Route 79 was an unnumbered road. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, the route was legislated as part of Route 4, which was to run from Cape May to the George Washington Bridge. By the 1940s, US 9 was realigned to follow this portion of road along with Route 4. Eventually, US 9 and Route 4 were moved to a new alignment between Freehold and Cheesequake, and the former alignment between these two points became Route 4A, a spur of Route 4. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 4A became Route 79 between Freehold and Matawan and an extension of Route 34 between Matawan and Cheesequake. On December 15, 2006, a project which rebuilt the intersection between US 9 and Route 79 was completed. This project's goals included improved safety and reduced traffic congestion.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
New Jersey Roads: Route 79
Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 79
079
Transportation in Monmouth County, New Jersey
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|
214219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Oblongs | The Oblongs | The Oblongs (stylized as the Oblongs...) is a short-lived American adult animated sitcom created by Angus Oblong and Jace Richdale. It was Mohawk Productions' first venture into animation. The series premiered on April 1, 2001 on The WB, and was removed on May 20th, leaving the last five episodes unaired. The remaining episodes were later aired on Cartoon Network's late-night programming block Adult Swim in August 2002, and later aired on Teletoon's "Teletoon Unleashed" (later become former block Teletoon at Night) block. The series is loosely based on a series of characters introduced in a picture book entitled Creepy Susie and 13 Other Tragic Tales for Troubled Children.
The show was produced by Jobsite Productions and Mohawk Productions in association with Warner Bros. Television, and the theme song for the series was composed and performed by They Might Be Giants.
A total of 13 episodes were produced. All thirteen episodes of The Oblongs were released on DVD on October 4, 2005.
As of February 2022, the series is available on Tubi.
Setting and premise
The series focuses on the antics of a family who live in a poor valley community, and as a result of pollution and radiation exposure, are all disabled or deformed. The pollution is the direct result of the lavish lifestyle of the rich community known as "The Hills", whose residents exploit and harm the valley residents with absolutely no regard for their safety or well-being.
Social commentary
Many reviewers and fans see the series as a commentary on social stratification.
Characters
The Oblong family
Bob Oblong (Will Ferrell) – Born without arms or legs, Bob works at a poison factory called the Globocide. Despite his deformities, he is very chipper and sunny, and is modeled after various fathers from 1950s TV shows. He has a happy-go-lucky attitude. He is married to Pickles and is the father of Biff, Chip, Milo, and Beth. The only time he had limbs was in the episode "My Name is Robbie". While he mostly uses his mouth for tasking, he can often drive with his mind in various episodes, or read a newspaper with his mind, as seen in "Flush, Flush, Sweet Helga", which assumes that he may have mind powers.
Marie "Pickles" Oblong (Jean Smart) – A chain smoking alcoholic who was originally a Hill resident but moved to the valley after marrying Bob. All of her hair has since fallen out (something which is usually hidden by an extremely tall blonde beehive wig) due to the hazardous atmosphere of The Valley, and she is now regarded as an outcast by her former Hill friends. While not bitter about losing her privileged life, she often expresses disdain towards her self-centered former neighbors in the Hills. She is married to Bob, and is the mother of Biff, Chip, Milo, and Beth.
Biff Oblong (Randy Sklar) and Chip Oblong (Jason Sklar) – 17-year-old conjoined twins who are attached at the waist and share a middle leg. Biff is a hard worker obsessed with sports, while Chip is more laid back. It is frequently implied that Biff is gay and attracted to their coach; however, there are instances when the two are seen lusting after girls together. Biff and Chip each occasionally go into "trances" to give the other brother privacy.
Milo Oblong (Pamela Adlon) – The youngest son. Often referred to by other kids as a “psycho”, he is afflicted with numerous mental and social disorders and is on "everything from Ritalin to Rogaine." Despite his afflictions, he is a very forthright and benevolent boy, though he envies the Hill lifestyle and wishes to rise above his economic status. He has a single hair sticking up on his head, a squint in one eye (which also occasionally twitches) and often wears a shirt that says "NO".
Beth Oblong (Jeannie Elias) – The youngest child and only daughter, she has a warty, elongated growth growing out of her head. Despite her appendage, she is shown to be better adjusted than the rest of her family. In the episode "Pickles' Little Amazons", it is revealed that the growth on her head is the result of eating meat containing bovine growth hormones. In the episode "My Name is Robbie", it is revealed that her birthday is June 7.
Grammy Oblong – Bob's vegetative mother who resides in a motorized wheelchair and is unable to speak. Instead, she communicates using a green light which means yes, a red light which means no, and a flashing red light which means she has soiled herself and that her diaper needs changing.
Lucky – The one-lunged family cat who chain-smokes cigarettes and wears an uninterested, deadpan expression.
Scottie – Milo's narcoleptic dog, a result of perfume used on him during his tenure as a test animal at Globocide. Scottie was based on the short story "Narcoleptic Scottie" in Creepy Susie.
Milo's friends, "The Clubhouse Kids"
Helga Phugly (Lea DeLaria) – An overweight, toad-like girl who will eat virtually anything. She lives in a fantasy world, believing that she is pretty and popular and that the "Debbies'" actually like her (she stubbornly believes this, as when told that the Debbies hate her, she covered her ears, shut her eyes, and started stomping around humming very loudly). At times, she is shown to have a crush on Milo, leading to her kidnapping him in the episode "Milo Interrupted". When her parents went on vacation and never returned, Helga was forced to live at home by herself, eating only rejected wedding cakes from a nearby wedding cake factory and the occasional animal that she spotted. Milo eventually locates her parents when Mrs. Hubbard, a Bible-thumping, gun-toting old woman, tries to adopt Helga. Her last name, Phugly, is derived from the word "fugly", which is a term short for "fucking ugly".
Creepy Susie (Jeannie Elias) – A melancholic goth girl who speaks with a deadpan French accent and appears to float instead of walk, as her legs are never shown. She is obsessed with death, and has a problem with pyromania, but it has been revealed she does enjoy hula hoops.
Peggy (Becky Thyre) – A girl who has one breast and lacks a lower jaw, causing her to spit and talk with a lisp. Despite her deformities, Peggy is cheerful and upbeat. The daughter of a gay couple, she dreams of being president and marrying a handsome speech therapist.
Mikey (Jeannie Elias) – A boy saddled with a dangling, doubled posterior. Standard underwear will not fit him, so he wears his grandmother's old bra like backwards suspenders. He is also known to habitually probe his nose and ears with his finger. Because of his larger deformed posterior, he takes jokes about the area more literally especially since they often come true soon after. As a running gag, he is inflicted with severe misfortune in almost every appearance, ranging from being stung by bees to being attacked by dogs.
The Hill residents
George Klimer (Billy West) – Bob's rich and snobby boss. He represents the power and arrogance of the people of the Hills. He is very condescending to his employees, especially Bob and James. He is husband to Pristine and father of Jared and Debbie Klimer.
Pristine Klimer (Becky Thyre) – The wife of George and mother to Jared and Debbie. Pristine was good friends with Pickles before she married Bob, but abandoned her once she went to live in the valley.
Jared Klimer (Pamela Adlon) – The arrogant son of George and Pristine and brother to Debbie. He likes to taunt The Clubhouse Kids, along with his equally snobbish best friend Blaine. He calls Milo "Obdong". In the episode "Get Off My Back", Milo retorts with the information that a rumor of Jared and Blaine claims the two have had sex with each other.
Debbie Klimer (Becky Thyre; Pamela Adlon, in some episodes) - The only daughter of George and Pristine Klimer, and sister of Jared. She is the leader of the Debbies and is considered the most beautiful and popular girl in school, even though all of her friends are identical. Like most Hill residents, she often treats the people in the Valley with cruelty. She is the only Debbie with her last name known, besides Debbie Bledsoe.
The Debbies (Becky Thyre, Pamela Adlon in some episodes) – A popular clique of identical girls who all look exactly the same and are all named Debbie. Despite them all being identical, each Debbie is the daughter of a different wealthy Hill resident, with no relation. They seem to be a symbol of how most popular people tend to be conformists and lack individuality. The Debbies are often cruel to the Valley kids, especially Helga who aspires to be accepted by them.
Mayor Johnny "The Mayor" Bledsoe (Billy West) – The town's mayor and a masked pro wrestler. He is corrupt, and his daughter is a Debbie.
Leland Bergstein (Billy West) – The kids' homeroom teacher, who is shown to be weak and easily cowed by the Debbies and the rich residents of the town. It is revealed that he lives in the Hills, as seen in the episode "Milo Interrupted".
Sheriff Pepper (Maurice LaMarche) – Hill Valley's inept, corrupt law enforcer. He favors the people of the Hills and provides better law enforcement for them.
Dr. Hofschneider (Billy West) – The Oblongs' condescending and uninterested doctor.
Mrs. Hubbard (Laraine Newman) – The town's Bible-thumping, gun-toting old biddy who is appointed czar of child and family services after a disturbance in the Hills is blamed on valley kids. She is a spinster who never married or had children. She wears a chastity belt called "The Forni-Guard 2000".
The Valley residents
Anita Bidet (Billy West) – The owner of the bar Pickles frequents, The Rusty Bucket. Her name is a play on the phrase "I need a bidet." It is implied that she is transgender. Her assumed male form is seen during a flashback of how Bob and Pickles met, although when questioned about it in the present, Anita claims that she had a brother.
Nurse Rench (Laraine Newman) – The school nurse who is described by Peggy as "a godless butcher without a shred of legitimate medical training". She has a scary operating contraption in place of her right arm, has four breasts arranged in a pattern resembling a cow's udder, and a deformed left hand.
James (Billy West) – Bob's hunchbacked co-worker. He is a people-pleaser and lacks self-esteem, buying friends on eBay to attend his bachelor party.
Minor characters
Yvette (Michelle Ruff) – An additional member of the Debbies, the only one who does not carry the same name. An extraterrestrial masquerading as a human, she has long blonde hair in a ponytail. She takes an interest in Milo, though only to experiment on his brain. When it appears that Milo has been killed, she is forced to self-destruct, as it is more cost-effective than returning to her base of operations. She only appeared in the episode "Misfit Love".
Principal Davis (Debra Wilson) – The African-American school principal. She appeared in the episode "Disfigured Debbie".
Homeless Bill (Billy West) – Hill Valley's resident street urchin. He appeared in the episodes "Narcoleptic Scottie" and "Bucketheads".
The Girl with a Beak (Becky Thyre) – An aptly named, bird-like classmate of The Clubhouse Kids. She often is spurned by the kids despite their own maladies. She was never given an actual name. She appeared in the episodes "Narcoleptic Scottie" and "Bucketheads".
Coach (Will Ferrell) – Biff and Chip's school coach, with whom Biff has an unhealthy obsession. He also teaches the sex and driver's education classes; however, he seems to confuse the two. He appeared in the episode "Bucketheads".
Verdelle Diver (Lea DeLaria) – The regional coordinator of The Li'l Amazons, a Girl Scouts-like troop. She and the organization in general are implied to be lesbian (hence her last name, referring to the slur "muff diver"). Verdelle hits on Pickles frequently during Pickles' court-ordered tenure as Beth's den mother. She appeared in the episode "Pickles' Little Amazons".
Tommy Vinegar (Maurice LaMarche) — Pickles' ex-boyfriend. He got rich after Pickles taught him how to be cool and popular, and then promptly dumped her after all his coolness went to his head. He appeared in the episode "Bucketheads".
Velva, the Warrior (Pamela Adlon) – A version of Xena, whom Beth adores. Her name is a pun on "vulva", and her show has heavy lesbian/anti-male overtones (all of the villains are male while all the heroes are female), not to mention blatant advertising of Velva merchandise and numerous genital references. Her sidekick is named Majora, she has a horse named Fallopious, and a pet bird named Placentor. She appeared in the episode "Heroine Addict".
Dusty (Becky Thyre) – Bob's one-time co-worker and a lifeguard. It is heavily suggested that she has had a lot of cosmetic surgery. She appeared in the episode "My Name Is Robbie".
Courtney (Becky Thyre) – Chip's girlfriend who only appears in "Get Off My Back." Not much is known about her, but she seems to be live somewhere in the Valley. Her deformity is unknown however. She also gets easily annoyed, as shown when she wishes that Milo would also go into a trance alongside Biff, during a date with Chip and accuses him of trying to grab her breasts. However, she seems to be easily moved, as Milo is able to prevent her from abandoning Chip when he says that his brother thinks she "has a beautiful soul."
Episodes
Broadcast
The show premiered on April 1, 2001 on The WB but failed to find an audience. On May 20, 2001, The WB aired "Disfigured Debbie," the second episode produced, as the season finale, leaving five episodes unaired. Reruns of the first eight episodes, and the five remaining episodes, aired on Cartoon Network's late-night programming block, Adult Swim, in 2002. Reruns of the series continue to air intermittently on Adult Swim. In Canada, the series airs on Teletoon as part of "Teletoon Unleashed".
In Australia, the show premiered on the Nine Network on December 8, 2001, however due to insufficient ratings, it was withdrawn after one episode, but was eventually shown in a late-night/early morning time slot. The series aired from 2005 to 2006 on TBS's late-night programming block, Too Funny To Sleep.
Home media
The entire series was released on two disc DVD set in the United States on October 4, 2005.
Awards and nominations
The Oblongs won the Artios award in 2001 for Best Casting for Animated Voiceover – Television Mary V. Buck Susan Edelman.
See also
Creepy Susie and 13 Other Tragic Tales for Troubled Children
Angus Oblong
References
External links
2000s American adult animated television series
2000s American black comedy television series
2000s American sitcoms
2000s American surreal comedy television series
2001 American television series debuts
2002 American television series endings
American adult animated comedy television series
American animated sitcoms
English-language television shows
Fictional characters with disfigurements
Television series by Film Roman
Television shows about disability
Anime-influenced Western animated television series
The WB original programming
Television shows based on books
Television series by Mohawk Productions
Television series by Warner Bros. Animation
Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios
Animated television series about children
Animated television series about dysfunctional families
Animated television series about teenagers
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214221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umm%20Kulthum | Umm Kulthum | Umm Kulthum (, ; ; born Fāṭima ʾIbrāhīm es-Sayyid el-Beltāǧī, ; 31 December 1898 – 3 February 1975) was an Egyptian singer, songwriter, and film actress active from the 1920s to the 1970s. She was given the honorific title (, 'Star of the East'). She is considered a national icon in her native Egypt; she has been dubbed "The voice of Egypt", the Lady of Arabic Song and "Egypt's fourth pyramid".
Biography
Early life
Umm Kulthum was born in the village of Tamay e-Zahayra, belonging to the city of Senbellawein, Dakahlia Governorate, in the Nile Delta to a family with a religious background as her father Ibrahim El-Sayyid El-Beltagi was an imam from the Egyptian countryside, her mother was Fatmah El-Maleegi, a housewife. She learned how to sing by listening to her father teach her older brother, Khalid. From a young age, she showed exceptional singing talent. Through her father, she learned to recite the Qur'an, and she reportedly memorized the entire book. Her grandfather was also a well known reader of the Quran and she remembered how the villagers used to listen to him when he recited the Qu'ran. When she was 12 years old, having noticed her strength in singing, her father asked her to join the family ensemble, upon which she joined as a supporting voice, at the beginning just repeating what the others sung. On stage, she wore a boy's cloak and bedouin head covering in order to alleviate her father's anxiety about her reputation and public performance. At the age of 16, she was noticed by Mohamed Abo Al-Ela, a modestly famous singer, who taught her the old classical Arabic repertoire. A few years later, she met the famous composer and oudist Zakariyya Ahmad, who invited her to Cairo. Although she made several visits to Cairo in the early 1920s, she waited until 1923 before permanently moving there. She was invited on several occasions to the home of Amin Beh Al Mahdy, who taught her to play the oud, a type of lute. She developed a close relationship with Rawheya Al-Mahdi, Amin's daughter, and became her closest friend. Umm Kulthum even attended Rawheya's daughter's wedding, although she ordinarily preferred not to appear in public (offstage).
During her early career years, she faced staunch competition from two prominent singers: Mounira El Mahdeya and Fathiyya Ahmad, who had similar voices. El Mahdeya's friend, who worked as an editor at Al-Masra, several times suggested that Umm Kulthum must have married one of the guests who frequently visited her household, to the extent that her father decided to return to the village they came from together with his family. Her father would only change his mind upon the persuasive arguments of Amin Al Mahdi. Following Umm Kulthum made a public statement regarding visits in her household, which she announced she would not receive. in 1923 she struck a contract with Odeon records which by 1926 would pay her more than any other Egyptian musical artist per record.
Professional career
Amin El Mahdi welcomed her into the cultural circles in Cairo. In 1924, she was introduced to the poet Ahmed Rami, who was to write 137 songs for her and also introduced her to French literature eventually becoming her head mentor in Arabic literature and literary analysis. In 1926, she left Odeon records for Gramophone records who would pay her about the double per record and even gave her an additional annual income of $10,000. She also maintained a tightly managed public image, which undoubtedly added to her allure. Furthermore, she was introduced to the renowned oud virtuoso and composer Mohamed El Qasabgi, who introduced her to the Arabic Theatre Palace, where she would experience her first real public success. Other musicians who influenced her musical performances at the time were Dawwod Hosni or . Al-Ila Muhammad instructed her in the control over her voice, and variants of the Arabic Muwashshah. By 1930, she was so well known to the public, that she was the example to follow for several young female singers. In 1932, she embarked upon a major tour of the Middle East and North Africa, performing in prominent Arab capital cities such as Damascus, Baghdad, Beirut, Rabat, Tunis, and finally Tripoli.
In 1934, Umm Kulthum sang for the inaugural broadcast of Radio Cairo, the state station. From then on onwards, she performed at a concert on every first Thursday of a month for forty years. Her influence kept growing and expanding beyond the artistic scene: the reigning royal family would request private concerts and even attend her public performances.
In 1944, King Farouk I of Egypt decorated her with the highest level of orders (nishan el kamal), a decoration reserved exclusively to members of the royal family and politicians. Despite this recognition, the royal family rigidly opposed her potential marriage to the King's uncle, a rejection that deeply wounded her pride and led her to distance herself from the royal family and embrace grassroots causes, such as her answering the request of the Egyptian legion trapped in the Faluja Pocket during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War to sing a particular song. Among the army men trapped were the figures who were going to lead the bloodless revolution of 23 July 1952, prominently Gamal Abdel Nasser.
Following the revolution, the Egyptian musicians guild of which she became a member (and eventually president) rejected her because she had sung for the then-deposed King Farouk of Egypt. When Nasser discovered that her songs were banned from being aired on the radio, he reportedly said something to the effect of "What are they, crazy? Do you want Egypt to turn against us?" Later, Nasser would schedule his speeches so they would not interfere with the radio performances of Umm Kulthum.
Some claim that Umm Kulthum's popularity helped Nasser's political agenda. For example, Nasser's speeches and other government messages were frequently broadcast immediately after Umm Kulthum's monthly radio concerts. She sang many songs in support of Nasser, with whom she developed a close friendship. One of her songs associated with Nasser—"Wallāhi Zamān, Yā Silāḥī" ("It's Been a Long Time, O Weapon of Mine")—was adopted as the Egyptian national anthem from 1960 to 1979, when President Sadat revoked it because of the peace negotiations with Israel and replaced it by the less militant "Bilady, Bilady, Bilady", which continues to be Egypt's anthem today.
Umm Kulthum was also known for her continuous contributions to works supporting the Egyptian military efforts. Until 1972, for about half a century she gave at least one monthly concert. Umm Kulthum's monthly concerts were renowned for their ability to clear the streets of some of the world's most populous cities as people rushed home to tune in.
Her songs deal mostly with the universal themes of love, longing and loss. A typical Umm Kulthum concert consisted of the performance of two or three songs over a period of three to four hours. These performances are in some ways reminiscent of the structure of Western opera, consisting of long vocal passages linked by shorter orchestral interludes. However, Umm Kulthum was not stylistically influenced by opera, and she sang solo most of her career.
During the 1930s her repertoire took the first of several specific stylistic directions. Her songs were virtuosic, as befitted her newly trained and very capable voice, and romantic and modern in musical style, feeding the prevailing currents in Egyptian popular culture of the time. She worked extensively with texts by romance poet Ahmad Rami and composer Mohammad El-Qasabgi, whose songs incorporated European instruments such as the violoncello and double bass, as well as harmony. In 1936 she made her debut an actress in the movie Weddad by Fritz Kramp. During her career, she would act in five more movies, of which four would be directed by Ahmad Badrakhan while Sallama and Fatma would be the most acclaimed.
Golden age
Umm Kulthum's musical directions in the 1940s and early 1950s and her mature performing style led this period to becoming popularly known as "the golden age" of Umm Kulthum. In keeping with changing popular taste as well as her own artistic inclinations, in the early 1940s, she requested songs from composer Zakariya Ahmad and colloquial poet Mahmud Bayram el-Tunsi cast in styles considered to be indigenously Egyptian. This represented a dramatic departure from the modernist romantic songs of the 1930s, mainly led by Mohammad El-Qasabgi. Umm Kulthum had abstained from singing Qasabgi's music since the early 1940s. Their last stage song collaboration in 1941 was "Raq el Habib" ("The lover's heart softens"), one of her most popular, intricate, and high-caliber songs.
The reason for the separation is not clear. It is speculated that this was due in part to the popular failure of the movie Aida, in which Umm Kulthum sings mostly Qasabgi's compositions, including the first part of the opera. Qasabgi was experimenting with Arabic music, under the influence of classical European music, and was composing a lot for Asmahan, a singer who immigrated to Egypt from Syria and was the only serious competitor for Umm Kulthum before Asmahan's death in a car accident in 1944.
Simultaneously, Umm Kulthum started to rely heavily on a younger composer who joined her artistic team a few years earlier: Riad Al-Sunbati. While Sonbati was evidently influenced by Qasabgi in those early years, the melodic lines he composed were more lyrical and more acceptable to Umm Kulthum's audience. The result of collaborations with Rami/Sonbati and al-Tunisi/Ahmad was a populist and popular repertoire that had lasting appeal for the Egyptian audience.
In 1946, Umm Kulthum defied all odds by presenting a religious poem in classical Arabic. Salou Qalbi ["Ask My Heart"] was written by Ahmad Shawqi and composed by Ryad Al Sunbati. The success was immediate and it reconnected Umm Kulthum with her early singing years. Similar poems written by Shawqi were subsequently composed by Sonbati and sung by Umm Kulthum, including Woulida el Houda ["The Prophet is Born"] 1949), in which she surprised royalists by singing a verse that describes the Prophet Mohammad as "the Imam of Socialists".
At the peak of her career, in 1950, Umm Kulthum sang Sonbati's composition of excerpts of what Ahmad Rami considered the accomplishment of his career: the translation from Persian into classical Arabic of Omar Khayyám's quatrains (Rubayyiat el Khayyam). The song included quatrains that deal with both epicurianism and redemption. Ibrahim Nagi's poem "Al-Atlal" ["The Ruins"] was sung by Umm Kalthum in a personal version and in a melody composed by Sonbati and premiered in 1966, is considered a signature song of hers. As Umm Kulthum's vocal abilities had regressed considerably by then, the song can be viewed as the last example of genuine Arabic music at a time when even Umm Kulthum had started to compromise by singing Western-influenced pieces composed by her old rival Mohammed Abdel Wahab.
The duration of Umm Kulthum's songs in performance was not fixed as upon the audience request for more repetitions, she would repeat the lines requested at length and her performances usually lasted for up to five hours, during which three songs were sung. For example, the available live performances (about 30) of Ya Zalemni, one of her most popular songs, varied in length from 45 to 90 minutes, depending on both her creative mood for improvisations, illustrating the dynamic relationship between the singer and the audience as they fed off each other's emotional energy. An improvisatory technique, which was typical of old classical Arabic singing, and which she executed for as long as she could have (both her regressing vocal abilities with age and the increased Westernization of Arabic music became an impediment to this art), was to repeat a single line or stance over and over, subtly altering the emotive emphasis and intensity and exploring one or various musical modal scales (maqām) each time to bring her audiences into a euphoric and ecstatic state known in Arabic as "tarab" طرب. Her concerts used to broadcast from Thursday 9.30 P.M., until the early morning hours on Friday.
The spontaneous creativity of Umm Kulthum as a singer is most impressive when, upon listening to these many different renditions of the same song over a time span of five years (1954–1959), the listener is offered a totally unique and different experience. This intense, highly personalized relationship was undoubtedly one of the reasons for Umm Kulthum's tremendous success as an artist. Worth noting though that the length of a performance did not necessarily reflect either its quality or the improvisatory creativity of Umm Kulthum. Around 1965, Umm Kulthum started collaborating with composer Mohammed Abdel Wahab. Her first song composed by Abdel Wahab, Enta Omri ["you are my life"]. According to André Chouraqui, in May 1967, just before the Six-Day War, she was heard on Radio Cairo and Radio Damas singing "Slaughter, slaughter, slaughter and have no pity ..." toward the Zionist Israelis. Another source mentions the creation of a song of war. Laura Lohman has identified several other war songs created for her in that same period. In 1969 it was followed by another, Asbaha al-Ana 'indi Bunduqiyyah ["I now have a rifle"].
Her songs took on more a soul-searching quality in 1967 following the defeat of Egypt during the Six-Day War. Hadeeth el Rouh ["sermon of the soul"], which is a translation from the poet Mohammad Iqbal's "Shikwa", set up a very reflective tone. Generals in the audience are said to have been left in tears. Following the formation of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 1971, she staged several concerts upon invitation of its first president Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan to celebrate the event.
Umm Kulthum also sang for composers Mohammad El Mougi, Sayed Mekawy, and Baligh Hamdi.
Death and funeral
Umm Kulthum died on 3 February 1975, from kidney failure. Her funeral procession became a national event, with around 4 million Egyptians lining the streets to catch a glimpse as her cortège passed. Her funeral's attendance drew a greater audience than the one of the Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. In the area where the funeral procession took place, traffic was cut off two hours ahead of the procession. The mourners would also wrest the casket from the shoulders of its bearers, force the procession to change its direction and brought her coffin to the prominent Al Azhar mosque. She was buried in a Mausoleum close to the Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i in the City of the Dead in Cairo.
Artistic legacy
Umm Kulthum is regarded as one of the greatest singers in the history of Arab music, with significant influence on a number of musicians, both in the Arab World and beyond. Jah Wobble has cited her as a significant influence on his work, and Bob Dylan has been quoted praising her as well. Maria Callas, Marie Laforêt, Bono, and Robert Plant, among many other artists, are also known admirers of Kulthum's music. Youssou N'Dour, a fan of hers since childhood, recorded his 2004 album Egypt with an Egyptian orchestra in homage to her legacy. One of her best-known songs, Enta Omri, has been covered and reinterpreted numerous times. "Alf Leila wa Leila" was translated into jazz on French-Lebanese trumpeter Ibrahim Maalouf's 2015 album "Kalthoum".
She was referred to as "the Lady" by Charles de Gaulle and is regarded as the "Incomparable Voice" by Maria Callas. It is difficult to accurately measure her vocal range at its peak, as most of her songs were recorded live. Even today, she has retained a near-mythical status among young Egyptians. In 2001, the Egyptian government opened the Kawkab al-Sharq ["Star of the East"] Museum in the singer's memory. Housed in a pavilion on the grounds of Cairo's Manesterly Palace, the collection includes a range of Umm Kulthum's personal possessions, including her trademark sunglasses and scarves, along with photographs, recordings, and other archival material.
Critics and journalists note that while she was known to have touched many different artists, she had also touched the lives of millions of her listeners and fans. Her performances combined raw emotion and political rhetoric; she was greatly influential and spoke about politics through her music. An example of this is seen in her music performed after World War II. The theme at the surface was love, yet a deeper interpretation of the lyrics – for example in the song "Salue Qalbi" – reveals questioning of political motives in times of political tension. Umm Kulthum's political rhetoric in her music is still influential today, not only in Egypt, but in many other Middle Eastern countries and even globally. Her entire catalogue was acquired by Mazzika Group in the early 2000s.
Voice
Umm Kulthum was a contralto. Contralto singers are uncommon and sing in the lowest register of the female voice. She was known to be able to improvise and it is said that she wouldn't sing a line the same way twice. She was a student of Abu al-Ila Muhammad from soon after she arrived to Cairo to when he died in 1927. He taught her to adapt her voice to the meaning and the melody in a traditional Arabic aesthetic.
Remembrance
She is referenced at length in the lyrics of the central ballad "Omar Sharif" in the musical The Band's Visit. A pearl necklace with 1,888 pearls, she received from Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, is exhibited at the Louvre in Abu Dhabi. In memory of her, also 40 years after her death Egyptian Radio stations used to broadcast her music every first Thursday of a month her music.
In January 2019, at the Winter in Tantora festival in Al-'Ula for the first time they had a performed live concert with her "appearing as a hologram with accompaniment by an orchestra and bedecked in flowing, full-length gowns as she had when debuting in the 1920s." Hologram concerts featuring her have been organized also by the Egyptian Minister of Culture Inas Abde-Dayem in Cairo and the Dubai Opera.
Notable Songs
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="2"
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Translation
! scope="col" | Label
! scope="col" | Lyricist
! scope="col" | Composer
|-
|1944
|Ghaneely Shwaya Shwaya(from the film "Sallama")
|Sing Softly for Me
|Orient
|Bayram al-Tunisi
|Zakaria Ahmed
|-
|1946
|Walad Al Hoda
|Child of Guidance
|Cairophon
|Ahmed Shawki
|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|1960
|Howa Saheeh El Hawa Ghallab
|It's True That Love Is Overpowered
|Sono Cairo
|Ma'moun El Shinnawi
|rowspan="2"|Baligh Hamdi
|-
|1961
|Hayyart Alby
|You Confused My Heart
|rowspan="2"|Philips
|Ahmed Rami
|-
|1962
|Ha Seebak Lezzaman
|I'm Going to Leave You
|Mohammed Abdel Wahab
|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|rowspan="3"|1963
|Betfakker Fe Meen
|Who Are You Thinking of
|Sono Cairo
|Ma'moun El Shinnawi
|Baligh Hamdi
|-
|La Ya Habibi
|No My Love
|Philips
|Abdel Fattah Mustafa
|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|Lel Sabre Hedoud
|Limits to Patience
|rowspan="37"|Sono Cairo
|Mohammed El Mougi
|Mohammed Abdel Wahab
|-
|rowspan="2"|1964
|Seeret Hob
|Love Story
|Morsi Gamil Aziz
|Baligh Hamdi
|-
|Inta Omri
|You're My Life
|Ahmed Shafik Kamel
|rowspan="3"|Mohammed Abdel Wahab
|-
|rowspan="2"|1965
|Inta Al Hob
|You're Love
|Ahmed Rami
|-
|Amal Hayaty
|Hope of My Life
|Ahmed Shafik Kamel
|-
|rowspan="3"|1966
|Al Atlal
|The Ruins
|Ibrahim Nagi
|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|Fakkarouny
| They reminded Me
|Mohammed Abdel Wahab
|Mohammed Abdel Wahab
|-
|Hagartak
|I Left You
|Ahmed Rami
|rowspan="3"|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|rowspan="4"|1967
|Hadeeth El Rouh
|The Language of the Soul
|Mohammed Iqbal
|-
|El Hob Keda
|That's How Love Is
|Bayram al-Tunisi
|-
|Awedt Eni
|I Got Used to Your Sight
|Ahmed Rami
|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|Fat Al Mi'aad
|Too Late
|Morsi Gamil Aziz
|Baligh Hamdi
|-
|rowspan="2"|1968
|Ruba'iyat Al Adawiya
|The Quatrains of Adawiya
|Tahar Aboufacha
|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|Hathihy Leilty
|This Is My Night
|Mohammed Abdel Wahab
|Georges Gerdaq
|-
|rowspan="3"|1969
|Alf Leila W Leila
|1001 Nights
|Morsi Gamil Aziz
|Baligh Hamdi
|-
|Aqbel Al Leil
|The Night Is Coming
|Ahmed Rami
|rowspan="2"|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|Arooh Lemeen
|Who Do I Go to
|Abdel Munaim al-Siba'i
|-
|rowspan="5"|1970
|Es'al Rohak
|Ask Yourself
|Mohammed El Mougi
|Mohammed Abdel Wahab
|-
|Zekrayat
|Souvenirs
|Ahmed Rami
|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|El Hob Kollo
|All the Love
|Ahmed Shafik Kamel
|Baligh Hamdi
|-
|Ruba'iyat Al Khiyam
|The Quatrains of the Tents
|Ahmed Rami
|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|W Marret Al Ayam
|And the Days Passed
|Ma'moun El Shinnawi
|Mohammed Abdel Wahab
|-
|rowspan="5"|1971
|Al Thulathiya Al Muqaddassa
|The Holy Tercet
|Saleh Gawdat
|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|Mesh Momken Abadan
|Impossible At All
|Ma'moun El Shinnawi
|Baligh Hamdi
|-
|El Alb Ye'sha|The Heart Loves
|rowspan="3"|Bayram al-Tunisi
|rowspan="2"|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|Aghda Al'ak'''
|Longing for You|-
|Al Amal|Hope|Zakaria Ahmed
|-
|rowspan="3"|1972
|Raq El Habib|Vengeance of the Lover|Ahmed Rami
|Mohamed El Qasabgi
|-
|Lasto Fakir|I'm Still Thinking|Abdel Fattah Mustafa
|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|Ya Masharny|The One Who's Keeping Me Up|Ahmed Rami
|Sayed Mekawy
|-
|rowspan="5"|1973
|Hakam Alayna Al Hawa|We're in the Hands of Love|Mohammed Abdel Wahab
|Baligh Hamdi
|-
|Ahl El Hawa|The Lovers|Bayram al-Tunisi
|Zakaria Ahmed
|-
|Yally Kan Yeshguik 'Anni|Whoever Talked to You About Me|rowspan="3"|Ahmed Rami
|rowspan="4"|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|Sahran La Wahdi|Up on My Own|-
|Daleely Ahtar|I'm Confused|-
|rowspan="2"|1974
|Shams El Aseel|The Lovers|rowspan="2"|Bayram al-Tunisi
|-
|Ana Fe Intizarak|I"m Waiting for You|Zakaria Ahmed
|-
|rowspan="5"|1975
|Ya Toul 'Azaby|My Suffering|Cairophon
|Ahmed Rami
|rowspan="4"|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|Sallou Alby|Entertaining My Heart|Relax-In
|Ahmed Shawqi
|-
|Ozkourini|Think of Me|Cairophon
|rowspan="2"|Ahmed Rami
|-
|Aghar Min Nesmat Al Gnoub|Jealous of the Southern Breeze|rowspan="7"|Sono Cairo
|-
|Al Oula Fel Gharam|The Best at Falling in Love|Bayram al-Tunisi
|Zakaria Ahmed
|-
|rowspan="4"|1976
|Misr Tatahaddath 'an Nafsaha|Egypt Speaks of Itself|Hafez Ibrahim
|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|Helm|Dream|rowspan="2"|Bayram al-Tunisi
|rowspan="2"|Zakaria Ahmed
|-
|Al Ahat|The Groans|-
|Arak Assi Addame
|I See You Crying|Abu Firas al-Hamdani
|rowspan="2"|Riad Al Sunbati
|-
|1978
|Sourat Al Shakk|Doubt|Abdallah Al Faisal
|-
|}
Filmography
Weddad (1936)https://elcinema.com/en/work/1005927 El-Cinema
Nashid al-Amal (The Chant of Hope) (1937)https://elcinema.com/en/work/1004598 El-Cinema
Dananir (1940)https://elcinema.com/en/work/1502168 El-Cinema
Aydah (1942)https://elcinema.com/en/work/1008811 El-Cinema
Salamah (1945)https://elcinema.com/en/work/1011672 El-Cinema
Fatmah (1947)https://elcinema.com/en/work/1001660 El-Cinema
References
Sources
Halfaouine: Boy of the Terraces (film, 1990). This DVD contains an extra feature short film that documents Arab film history, and it contains several minutes of an Umm Kulthum public performance.
– articles and essays marking the 25th anniversary of the singer's death
from Tuesday, 17 June 2008 to Sunday, 2 November 2008
Virginia Danielson. "Umm Kulthūm". Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online''. Oxford University Press. Web. 20 July 2016.
– an English-language film about the singer
Murat Özyıldırım, Arap ve Turk Musikisinin 20. yy Birlikteligi, Bağlam Yay. (Müzik Bilimleri Serisi, Edt. V. Yildirim), Istanbul Kasım 2013.
External links
The Star of the East at Østfold College, Halden, Norway from almashriq.hiof.no
20th-century Egyptian women singers
1898 births
1975 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Contraltos
Egyptian nationalists
Egyptian film actresses
Singers who perform in Egyptian Arabic
Singers who perform in Classical Arabic
EMI Classics and Virgin Classics artists
People from Dakahlia Governorate
Deaths from kidney failure
People who memorized the Quran | [
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|
214223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Swinburne | James Swinburne | Sir James Swinburne, 9th Baronet, FRS (28 February 1858 – 30 March 1958) was a British electrical engineer and manufacturer. He was born in Inverness in 1858 into a well-known Northumbrian family. Educated at Clifton College, he went to work at a locomotive works in Manchester and later to a Tyneside firm where he became interested in electrical work. Often called the "Father of British Plastics", Swinburne revolutionized the plastics industry throughout Europe and his native Britain.
Swinburne was a prominent engineer in the electrical industry. He worked on the first electric lightbulb and coined many new electrical words. Swinburne was a member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) for a record-breaking 73 years, serving as president from 1902 to 1903. He was named a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1906. He soon joined the Faraday Society, serving as its president from 1909 to 1911. He briefly explored thermodynamics.
His involvement with plastic began with his introduction to phenol formaldehyde. Swinburne was so impressed with the possibilities of the product that he formed a company called Fireproof Celluloid Syndicate Limited, which was dedicated to research and marketing of the product. Swinburne and Leo Baekeland later founded the Damard Lacquer Company, which eventually became Bakelite Limited, which Swinburne served as chairman and, in 1948, as honorary president.
In 1934, Swinburne succeeded his kinsman as 9th Baronet of Capheaton, Northumberland.
Sir James Swinburne died a month after his 100th birthday.
Family
Swinburne had four children, two from his first marriage and two from his second;
Anthony Swinburne, born 1887
Spearman Charles Swinburne, born 1893
Ida Swinburne, born 1899
Marjorie Swinburne, born 1904
Writings
Swinburne authored a number of books, including:
Practical electrical units popularly explained : with numerous illustrations and remarks (London: E. & F.N. Spon, 1883).
Entropy; or, Thermodynamics from an engineer's standpoint, and the reversibility of thermodynamics (Westminster: Constable, 1904).
References
Further reading
Freeth, F.A. "James Swinburne. 1858–1958." Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 5. (Feb., 1960), pp. 253–268.
External links
Swinburne biography at IEE website
Swinburne biography at Plastiquarian (Plastics Historical Society
Baronetcies in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
1858 births
1958 deaths
People educated at Clifton College
English centenarians
Men centenarians
English electrical engineers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Baronets in the Baronetage of England | [
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|
214226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%20156 | New Jersey Route 156 | Route 156 is a long state highway in New Jersey, United States. It is a short connector in Yardville, a census-designated place which is part of Hamilton Township, Mercer County. It is an old two-lane alignment of U.S. Route 130 (US 130) that was bypassed by a new multi-lane highway a short distance to the east in the 1950s, and designated just before the 1953 renumbering of state highways. The route intersects Route 130 at both termini; it carries local traffic to and from US 130 southbound through Yardville. The route has remained mainly intact since 1953.
Route description
Route 156 begins at a right-in/right-out intersection with US 130 in Hamilton Township, just north of the Crosswicks Creek and the Bordentown Township, Burlington County border. The route passes a catering business before crossing Doctors Creek and heads northeast into the community of Yardville. In Yardville, the route parallels US 130 and several residential homes before intersecting Church Street (County Route 609 or CR 609) in the southern end of the community. After Church Street, the density of homes decrease and the road heads past a church and some businesses until it reaches a four-way stop intersection with South Broad Street (CR 672). A short distance after, Route 156 intersects CR 524 (Yardville-Allentown Road), which runs as the main thoroughfare in Yardville, at a signalized intersection. After CR 524, the highway continues to the northeast along the Route 130 parallel passing homes and local roads before the route merges back in with the southbound lanes at a different right-in/right out intersection.
There is no access to Route 156 to and from US 130 northbound; access to Route 156 and Yardville is provided through interchanges with each of the three county roads that intersect Route 156. Conversely, the only access to and from US 130 southbound is provided via Route 156.
History
Route 156 was originally an alignment of State Highway Route 25 (co-designated US 130) in the 1927 state highway renumbering through Yardville. The route was realigned on a bypass around 1952, a year before the 1953 renumbering, in which Route 25 was decommissioned. Route 130 ran on a four-lane bypass to the east, while the alignment in Yardville became Route 156. Except for the removal of a ramp from the northern terminus of the route to US 130 northbound between 2008 and 2010, the route has remained virtually unchanged since then.
In 2014, Route 156 had the highest number of crashes among New Jersey state highways with 14.09 crashes per million vehicle miles of travel. Steve Carrellas of the New Jersey chapter of the National Motorists Association stated that the design of undivided roads contributes to a high crash rate and that while major highways have more crashes, the high volume they carry lowers its crash rate.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
New Jersey Roads: Route 156
Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 156
156
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|
214232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco%20II%20Gonzaga%2C%20Marquess%20of%20Mantua | Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua | Francesco II (or IV) Gonzaga (10 August 1466 – ) was the ruler of the Italian city of Mantua from 1484 until his death.
Biography
Francesco was born in Mantua, the son of Marquess Federico I Gonzaga.
Francesco had a career as a condottiero acting as Venice's commander from 1489 to 1498. He was the commander-in-chief of the army of the Italian league in the battle of Fornovo, under the tutorage of his more experienced uncle Ridolfo Gonzaga: even though Francesco was unable to stop Charles VIII and his army from returning to France, he claimed Fornovo as a victory. Francesco was described as "short, pop-eyed, snub-nosed and exceptionally brave, and was regarded as the finest knight in Italy".
Francesco briefly commanded the Venetian army, but in 1502 he left to pay his respects to Louis XII who was then at Milan. By 29 April, he was with Louis XII when Genoa fell to the French army. Francesco, taking the initiative after the French victory at Agnadello, was occupying lands that he had lost to Venice. He was marching to Legnago with a company of French lances, when he was captured by the Venetians. Francesco only gained his freedom by giving his son Federico II as hostage. Once free, he was placed in command of papal troops, although he was ineffective since he stayed in Mantua. By 17 February 1510, Francesco, no longer involved in the war, allowed a French army under Gaston of Foix to march through his territory to reach Brescia.
During Francesco's absences, Mantua was governed by his wife Isabella d'Este, whom he had married on 12 February 1490. Under their reign, Mantua knew a great age of cultural splendour, with the presence in the city of artists such as Andrea Mantegna and Jacopo Bonacolsi. Francesco had the Palace of St. Sebastian built, where Mantegna's Triumph of Caesar was eventually placed. The Palace was where Francesco lived when in Mantua. His wife, Isabella d'Este remained at the Castello di San Giorgio where she had her own suite of rooms. On completing the decoration of his rooms at the palace, Francesco asked his wife for her views. Isabella commented favourably, though she did say that the decorations were almost as good as those within her studiolo.
Beginning in 1503, he started a long relationship with Lucrezia Borgia.
On 29 March 1519, Francesco, who had suffered from syphilis, died. He was succeeded by his son Federico, with Isabella acting as regent. Another son, Ferrante Gonzaga originated the branch of the Counts of Guastalla.
Loves
Francesco was known for his passion for women, so much so that, on the occasion of the siege of Novara in 1495, his sister-in-law Beatrice d'Este, wanting to ingratiate herself with him, offered to personally procure him a "femmina di partito" with whom to celebrate the victory, under the pretext of protecting both him and his wife and sister Isabella from malfrancese.
Nevertheless, Francis also actively practiced sodomy, according to the ancient Greek custom, very widespread almost everywhere at that time, as he himself proudly claims in his poisonous letter of accusations to Galeazzo Sanseverino, dated 1503: "I am reputed and raised by nobility of birth and good morals; you for human and ass favors (and I usually have a party at the door of others, and not at mine!)".
It is well known that he surrounded himself with ruffians and mezzani, who had the task of procuring for him girls and young ephebes. One of these was, among others, , who therefore ran into the hatred of the Marquise.
Family
Isabella d'Este and Francesco Gonzaga had:
Eleonora Gonzaga, born 1493, died 1570. Married Francesco Maria I della Rovere Duke of Urbino.
Margherita, born 1496.
Livia, born 1501, died 1508.
Ippolita Gonzaga, born 1503, died 1570. Ippolita became a nun in the Dominican convent of S. Vincenzo.
Federico II, Duke of Mantua, born 1500, died 1540. First betrothed to Maria Palaeologina but later married her sister Margaret Palaeologina.
Ercole Gonzaga, born 1506, died 1565. Became a Cardinal.
Ferrante Gonzaga, born 1507, died 1557. Married Isabella di Capua.
Livia, later known as Sister Paola, born 1508, died 1569
Ancestry
See also
Rulers of Mantua
Condottieri
Italian Wars
Notes
Sources
External links
Two busts of Francesco II Gonzaga
Francesco 2
Francesco 2
Military leaders of the Italian Wars
15th-century condottieri
Italian patrons of the arts
Military personnel from Mantua
1466 births
1519 deaths
16th-century Italian nobility
Burials in the Church of Santa Paola, Mantua | [
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214233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina%20Simone | Nina Simone | Eunice Kathleen Waymon (February 21, 1933 – April 21, 2003), known professionally as Nina Simone, was an American singer, songwriter, musician, arranger, and civil rights activist. Her music spanned styles including classical, jazz, blues, folk, R&B, gospel and pop.
The sixth of eight children born to a poor family in Tryon, North Carolina, Simone initially aspired to be a concert pianist. With the help of a few supporters in her hometown, she enrolled in the Juilliard School of Music in New York City. She then applied for a scholarship to study at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia, where she was denied admission despite a well received audition, which she attributed to racism. In 2003, just days before her death, the Institute awarded her an honorary degree.
To make a living, Simone started playing piano at a nightclub in Atlantic City. She changed her name to "Nina Simone" to disguise herself from family members, having chosen to play "the devil's music" or so-called "cocktail piano". She was told in the nightclub that she would have to sing to her own accompaniment, which effectively launched her career as a jazz vocalist. She went on to record more than 40 albums between 1958 and 1974, making her debut with Little Girl Blue. She had a hit single in the United States in 1958 with "I Loves You, Porgy". Her musical style fused gospel and pop with classical music, in particular Johann Sebastian Bach, and accompanied expressive, jazz-like singing in her contralto voice.
Biography
1933–1954: Early life
Simone was born on February 21, 1933, in Tryon, North Carolina. The sixth of eight children in a poor family, she began playing piano at the age of three or four; the first song she learned was "God Be With You, Till We Meet Again". Demonstrating a talent with the piano, she performed at her local church. Her concert debut, a classical recital, was given when she was 12. Simone later said that during this performance, her parents, who had taken seats in the front row, were forced to move to the back of the hall to make way for white people. She said that she refused to play until her parents were moved back to the front, and that the incident contributed to her later involvement in the civil rights movement. Simone's mother, Mary Kate Waymon (née Irvin, November 20, 1901 – April 30, 2001), was a Methodist minister and a housemaid. Her father, Rev. John Devan Waymon (June 24, 1898 – October 23, 1972), was a handyman who at one time owned a dry-cleaning business, but also suffered bouts of ill health. Simone's music teacher helped establish a special fund to pay for her education. Subsequently, a local fund was set up to assist her continued education. With the help of this scholarship money, she was able to attend Allen High School for Girls in Asheville, North Carolina.
After her graduation, Simone spent the summer of 1950 at the Juilliard School as a student of Carl Friedberg, preparing for an audition at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia. Her application, however, was denied. Only 3 of 72 applicants were accepted that year, but as her family had relocated to Philadelphia in the expectation of her entry to Curtis, the blow to her aspirations was particularly heavy. For the rest of her life, she suspected that her application had been denied because of racial prejudice, a charge the staff at Curtis have denied. Discouraged, she took private piano lessons with Vladimir Sokoloff, a professor at Curtis, but never could re-apply due to the fact that at the time the Curtis institute did not accept students over 21. She took a job as a photographer's assistant, but also found work as an accompanist at Arlene Smith's vocal studio and taught piano from her home in Philadelphia.
1954–1959: Early success
In order to fund her private lessons, Simone performed at the Midtown Bar & Grill on Pacific Avenue in Atlantic City, New Jersey, whose owner insisted that she sing as well as play the piano, which increased her income to $90 a week. In 1954, she adopted the stage name "Nina Simone". "Nina", derived from niña, was a nickname given to her by a boyfriend named Chico, and "Simone" was taken from the French actress Simone Signoret, whom she had seen in the 1952 movie Casque d'Or. Knowing her mother would not approve of playing "the Devil's music", she used her new stage name to remain undetected. Simone's mixture of jazz, blues, and classical music in her performances at the bar earned her a small but loyal fan base.
In 1958, she befriended and married Don Ross, a beatnik who worked as a fairground barker, but quickly regretted their marriage. Playing in small clubs in the same year, she recorded George Gershwin's "I Loves You, Porgy" (from Porgy and Bess), which she learned from a Billie Holiday album and performed as a favor to a friend. It became her only Billboard top 20 success in the United States, and her debut album Little Girl Blue followed in February 1959 on Bethlehem Records. Because she had sold her rights outright for $3,000, Simone lost more than $1 million in royalties (notably for the 1980s re-release of her version of the jazz standard "My Baby Just Cares for Me") and never benefited financially from the album's sales.
1959–1964: Burgeoning popularity
After the success of Little Girl Blue, Simone signed a contract with Colpix Records and recorded a multitude of studio and live albums. Colpix relinquished all creative control to her, including the choice of material that would be recorded, in exchange for her signing the contract with them. After the release of her live album Nina Simone at Town Hall, Simone became a favorite performer in Greenwich Village. By this time, Simone performed pop music only to make money to continue her classical music studies, and was indifferent about having a recording contract. She kept this attitude toward the record industry for most of her career.
Simone married a New York police detective, Drew Stroud, in December 1961. In a few years he became her manager and the father of her daughter Lisa, but later he abused Simone psychologically and physically.
1964–1974: Civil Rights era
In 1964, Simone changed record distributors from Colpix, an American company, to the Dutch Philips Records, which meant a change in the content of her recordings. She had always included songs in her repertoire that drew on her African-American heritage, such as "Brown Baby" by Oscar Brown and "Zungo" by Michael Olatunji on her album Nina at the Village Gate in 1962. On her debut album for Philips, Nina Simone in Concert (1964), for the first time she addressed racial inequality in the United States in the song "Mississippi Goddam". This was her response to the June 12, 1963, murder of Medgar Evers and the September 15, 1963, bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, that killed four young black girls and partly blinded a fifth. She said that the song was "like throwing ten bullets back at them", becoming one of many other protest songs written by Simone. The song was released as a single, and it was boycotted in some southern states. Promotional copies were smashed by a Carolina radio station and returned to Philips. She later recalled how "Mississippi Goddam" was her "first civil rights song" and that the song came to her "in a rush of fury, hatred and determination". The song challenged the belief that race relations could change gradually and called for more immediate developments: "me and my people are just about due". It was a key moment in her path to Civil Rights activism. "Old Jim Crow", on the same album, addressed the Jim Crow laws. After "Mississippi Goddam", a civil rights message was the norm in Simone's recordings and became part of her concerts. As her political activism rose, the rate of release of her music slowed.
Simone performed and spoke at civil rights meetings, such as at the Selma to Montgomery marches. Like Malcolm X, her neighbor in Mount Vernon, New York, she supported black nationalism and advocated violent revolution rather than Martin Luther King Jr.'s non-violent approach. She hoped that African Americans could use armed combat to form a separate state, though she wrote in her autobiography that she and her family regarded all races as equal.
In 1967, Simone moved from Philips to RCA Victor. She sang "Backlash Blues" written by her friend, Harlem Renaissance leader Langston Hughes, on her first RCA album, Nina Simone Sings the Blues (1967). On Silk & Soul (1967), she recorded Billy Taylor's "I Wish I Knew How It Would Feel to Be Free" and "Turning Point". The album 'Nuff Said! (1968) contained live recordings from the Westbury Music Fair of April 7, 1968, three days after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. She dedicated the performance to him and sang "Why? (The King of Love Is Dead)", a song written by her bass player, Gene Taylor. In 1969, she performed at the Harlem Cultural Festival in Harlem's Mount Morris Park, immortalized in Questlove's 2021 documentary Summer of Soul.
Simone and Weldon Irvine turned the unfinished play To Be Young, Gifted and Black by Lorraine Hansberry into a civil rights song of the same name. She credited her friend Hansberry with cultivating her social and political consciousness. She performed the song live on the album Black Gold (1970). A studio recording was released as a single, and renditions of the song have been recorded by Aretha Franklin (on her 1972 album Young, Gifted and Black) and Donny Hathaway. When reflecting on this period, she wrote in her autobiography, "I felt more alive then than I feel now because I was needed, and I could sing something to help my people".
1974–1993: Later life
In an interview for Jet magazine, Simone stated that her controversial song "Mississippi Goddam" harmed her career. She claimed that the music industry punished her by boycotting her records. Hurt and disappointed, Simone left the US in September 1970, flying to Barbados and expecting her husband and manager (Andrew Stroud) to communicate with her when she had to perform again. However, Stroud interpreted Simone's sudden disappearance, and the fact that she had left behind her wedding ring, as an indication of her desire for a divorce. As her manager, Stroud was in charge of Simone's income.
When Simone returned to the United States, she learned that a warrant had been issued for her arrest for unpaid taxes (unpaid as a protest against her country's involvement with the Vietnam War), and returned to Barbados to evade the authorities and prosecution. Simone stayed in Barbados for quite some time, and had a lengthy affair with the Prime Minister, Errol Barrow. A close friend, singer Miriam Makeba, then persuaded her to go to Liberia. When Simone relocated, she abandoned her daughter Lisa in Mount Vernon. Lisa eventually reunited with Simone in Liberia, but, according to Lisa, her mother was physically and mentally abusive. The abuse was so unbearable that Lisa became suicidal and she moved back to New York to live with her father Andrew Stroud. Simone recorded her last album for RCA, It Is Finished, in 1974, and did not make another record until 1978, when she was persuaded to go into the recording studio by CTI Records owner Creed Taylor. The result was the album Baltimore, which, while not a commercial success, was fairly well received critically and marked a quiet artistic renaissance in Simone's recording output. Her choice of material retained its eclecticism, ranging from spiritual songs to Hall & Oates' "Rich Girl". Four years later, Simone recorded Fodder on My Wings on a French label, Studio Davout.
During the 1980s, Simone performed regularly at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club in London, where she recorded the album Live at Ronnie Scott's in 1984. Although her early on-stage style could be somewhat haughty and aloof, in later years, Simone particularly seemed to enjoy engaging with her audiences sometimes, by recounting humorous anecdotes related to her career and music and by soliciting requests. By this time she stayed everywhere and nowhere. She lived in Liberia, Barbados and Switzerland and eventually ended up in Paris. There she regularly performed in a small jazz club called Aux Trois Mailletz for relatively small financial reward. The performances were sometimes brilliant and at other times Nina Simone gave up after fifteen minutes. Often she was too drunk to sing or play the piano properly. At other times she scolded the audience. The end of Nina Simone seemed in sight. Manager Raymond Gonzalez, guitarist Al Schackman and Gerrit de Bruin, a Dutch friend of hers, decided to intervene.
Simone moved to Nijmegen in the Netherlands in the spring of 1988. She had just scored a huge European hit with the song "My Baby Just Cares for Me". Recorded by her for the first time in 1958, the song was used in a commercial for Chanel No. 5 perfume in Europe, leading to a re-release of the recording. This stormed to number 4 on the UK's NME singles chart, giving Simone a brief surge in popularity in the UK and elsewhere.
In 1988 she bought an apartment next to the Belvoir Hotel with view of the Waalbrug and Ooijpolder, with the help of her friend Gerrit de Bruin, who lived with his family a few corners away and kept an eye on her. The idea was to bring Simone to Nijmegen to relax and get back on track. A daily caretaker, Jackie Hammond from London, was hired for her. She was known for her temper and outbursts of aggression. Unfortunately, the tantrums followed her to Nijmegen. Simone was diagnosed with bipolar disorder by a friend of De Bruin, who prescribed Trilafon for her. Despite the miserable illness, it was generally a happy time for Simone in Nijmegen, where she could lead a fairly anonymous life. Only a few recognized her, but most Nijmegen people did not know who she was. Slowly but surely her life started to improve, and she was even able to make money from the Chanel commercial after a legal battle. In 1991 Nina Simone exchanged Nijmegen for the more lively Amsterdam, where she lived for two years with friends and Hammond.
1993–2003: Final years, illness and death
In 1993, Simone settled near Aix-en-Provence in southern France (Bouches-du-Rhône). In the same year, her final album, A Single Woman, was released. She variously contended that she married or had a love affair with a Tunisian around this time, but that their relationship ended because, "His family didn't want him to move to France, and France didn't want him because he's a North African." During a 1998 performance in Newark, she announced, "If you're going to come see me again, you've got to come to France, because I am not coming back." She suffered from breast cancer for several years before she died in her sleep at her home in Carry-le-Rouet (Bouches-du-Rhône), on April 21, 2003. Her Catholic funeral service at the local parish was attended by singers Miriam Makeba and Patti LaBelle, poet Sonia Sanchez, actors Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee, and hundreds of others. Simone's ashes were scattered in several African countries. Her daughter Lisa Celeste Stroud is an actress and singer who took the stage name Simone, and who has appeared on Broadway in Aida.
Activism
Influence
Simone's consciousness on the racial and social discourse was prompted by her friendship with black playwright Lorraine Hansberry. Simone stated that during her conversations with Hansberry "we never talked about men or clothes. It was always Marx, Lenin and revolution – real girls’ talk". The influence of Hansberry planted the seed for the provocative social commentary that became an expectation in Simone's repertoire. One of Nina's more hopeful activism anthems, "To Be Young, Gifted and Black", was written with collaborator Weldon Irvine in the years following the playwright's passing, acquiring the title of one of Hansberry's unpublished plays. Simone's social circles included notable black leftists such as James Baldwin, Stokely Carmichael and Langston Hughes: the lyrics of her song "Backlash Blues" were written by the latter.
Beyond the civil rights movement
Simone's social commentary was not limited to the civil rights movement; the song "Four Women" exposed the eurocentric appearance standards imposed on black women in America, as it explored the internalized dilemma of beauty that is experienced between four black women with skin tones ranging from light to dark. She explains in her autobiography I Put a Spell on You that the purpose of the song was to inspire black women to define beauty and identity for themselves without the influence of societal impositions. Chardine Taylor-Stone has noted that, beyond the politics of beauty, the song also describes the stereotypical roles that many black women have historically been restricted to: the mammy, the tragic mulatto, the sex worker and the angry black woman.
Artistry
Simone standards
Throughout her career, Simone assembled a collection of songs that became standards in her repertoire. Some were songs that she wrote herself, while others were new arrangements of other standards, and others had been written especially for the singer. Her first hit song in America was her rendition of George Gershwin's "I Loves You, Porgy" (1958). It peaked at number 18 on the Billboard magazine Hot 100 chart.
During that same period Simone recorded "My Baby Just Cares for Me", which would become her biggest success years later, in 1987, after it was featured in a 1986 Chanel No. 5 perfume commercial. A music video was also created by Aardman Studios. Well-known songs from her Philips albums include "Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood" on Broadway-Blues-Ballads (1964); "I Put a Spell on You", "Ne me quitte pas" (a rendition of a Jacques Brel song), and "Feeling Good" on I Put a Spell On You (1965); and "Lilac Wine" and "Wild Is the Wind" on Wild is the Wind (1966).
"Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood" and her takes on "Feeling Good" and "Sinnerman" (Pastel Blues, 1965) have remained popular in cover versions (most notably a version of the former song by The Animals), sample usage, and their use on soundtracks for various movies, television series, and video games. "Sinnerman" has been featured in the films The Crimson Pirate (1952), The Thomas Crown Affair (1999), High Crimes (2002), Cellular (2004), Déjà Vu (2006), Miami Vice (2006), Golden Door (2006), Inland Empire (2006), and Harriet (2019), as well as in TV series such as Homicide: Life on the Street (1998, "Sins of the Father"), Nash Bridges (2000, "Jackpot"), Scrubs (2001, "My Own Personal Jesus"), Boomtown (2003, "The Big Picture"), Person of Interest (2011, "Witness"), Shameless (2011, "Kidnap and Ransom"), Love/Hate (2011, "Episode 1"), Sherlock (2012, "The Reichenbach Fall"), The Blacklist (2013, "The Freelancer"), Vinyl (2016, "The Racket"), Lucifer (2017, "Favorite Son"), and The Umbrella Academy (2019, "Extra Ordinary"), and sampled by artists such as Talib Kweli (2003, "Get By"), Timbaland (2007, "Oh Timbaland"), and Flying Lotus (2012, "Until the Quiet Comes"). The song "Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood" was sampled by Devo Springsteen on "Misunderstood" from Common's 2007 album Finding Forever, and by little-known producers Rodnae and Mousa for the song "Don't Get It" on Lil Wayne's 2008 album Tha Carter III. "See-Line Woman" was sampled by Kanye West for "Bad News" on his album 808s & Heartbreak. The 1965 rendition of "Strange Fruit", originally recorded by Billie Holiday, was sampled by Kanye West for "Blood on the Leaves" on his album Yeezus.
Simone's years at RCA-Victor spawned many singles and album tracks that were popular, particularly in Europe. In 1968, it was "Ain't Got No, I Got Life", a medley from the musical Hair from the album 'Nuff Said! (1968) that became a surprise hit for Simone, reaching number 2 on the UK Singles Chart and introducing her to a younger audience. In 2006, it returned to the UK Top 30 in a remixed version by Groovefinder.
The following single, a rendition of the Bee Gees' "To Love Somebody", also reached the UK Top 10 in 1969. "The House of the Rising Sun" was featured on Nina Simone Sings the Blues in 1967, but Simone had recorded the song in 1961 and it was featured on Nina at the Village Gate (1962).
Performance style
Simone's bearing and stage presence earned her the title "the High Priestess of Soul". She was a pianist, singer and performer, "separately, and simultaneously." As a composer and arranger, Simone moved from gospel to blues, jazz, and folk, and to numbers with European classical styling. Besides using Bach-style counterpoint, she called upon the particular virtuosity of the 19th-century Romantic piano repertoire—Chopin, Liszt, Rachmaninoff, and others. Jazz trumpeter Miles Davis spoke highly of Simone, deeply impressed by her ability to play three-part counterpoint (her two hands on the piano and her voice each providing a separate but complementary melody line). Onstage, she incorporated monologues and dialogues with the audience into the program, and often used silence as a musical element. Throughout most of her life and recording career she was accompanied by percussionist Leopoldo Fleming and guitarist and musical director Al Schackman. She was known to pay close attention to the design and acoustics of each venue, tailoring her performances to individual venues.
Simone was perceived as a sometimes difficult or unpredictable performer, occasionally hectoring the audience if she felt they were disrespectful. Schackman would try to calm Simone during these episodes, performing solo until she calmed offstage and returned to finish the engagement. Her early experiences as a classical pianist had conditioned Simone to expect quiet attentive audiences, and her anger tended to flare up at nightclubs, lounges, or other locations where patrons were less attentive. Schackman described her live appearances as hit or miss, either reaching heights of hypnotic brilliance or on the other hand mechanically playing a few songs and then abruptly ending concerts early.
Critical reputation
Simone is regarded as one of the most influential recording artist of 20th-century jazz, cabaret and R&B genres. According to Rickey Vincent, she was a pioneering musician whose career was characterized by "fits of outrage and improvisational genius". Pointing to her composition of "Mississippi Goddam", Vincent said Simone broke the mold, having the courage as "an established black musical entertainer to break from the norms of the industry and produce direct social commentary in her music during the early 1960s".
In naming Simone the 29th-greatest singer of all time, Rolling Stone wrote that "her honey-coated, slightly adenoidal cry was one of the most affecting voices of the civil rights movement", while making note of her ability to "belt barroom blues, croon cabaret and explore jazz — sometimes all on a single record." In the opinion of AllMusic's Mark Deming, she was "one of the most gifted vocalists of her generation, and also one of the most eclectic". Creed Taylor, who annotated the liner notes for Simone's 1978 Baltimore album, said the singer possessed a "magnificent intensity" that "turns everything—even the most simple, mundane phrase or lyric—into a radiant, poetic message". Jim Fusilli, music critic for The Wall Street Journal, writes that Simone's music is still relevant today: "it didn't adhere to ephemeral trends, it isn't a relic of a bygone era; her vocal delivery and technical skills as a pianist still dazzle; and her emotional performances have a visceral impact."
"She is loved or feared, adored or disliked", Maya Angelou wrote in 1970, "but few who have met her music or glimpsed her soul react with moderation". Robert Christgau, who disliked Simone, wrote that her "penchant for the mundane renders her intensity as bogus as her mannered melismas and pronunciation (move over, Inspector Clouseau) and the rote flatting of her vocal improvisations." Regarding her piano playing, he dismissed Simone as a "middlebrow keyboard tickler ... whose histrionic rolls insert unconvincing emotion into a song". He later attributed his generally negative appraisal to Simone's consistent seriousness of manner, depressive tendencies, and classical background.
Mental health
Simone was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in the late 1980s. She was known for her temper and outbursts of aggression. In 1985, Simone fired a gun at a record company executive, whom she accused of stealing royalties. Simone said she "tried to kill him" but "missed". In 1995 while living in France, she shot and wounded her neighbor's son with an air gun after the boy's laughter disturbed her concentration and she perceived his response to her complaints as racial insults; she was sentenced to eight months in jail, which was suspended pending a psychiatric evaluation and treatment.
According to a biographer, Simone took medication from the mid-1960s onward, although this was supposedly only known to a small group of intimates. After her death the medication was confirmed as the anti-psychotic Trilafon, which Simone's friends and caretakers sometimes surreptitiously mixed into her food when she refused to follow her treatment plan. This fact was kept out of public view until 2004 when a biography, Break Down and Let It All Out, written by Sylvia Hampton and David Nathan (of her UK fan club), was published posthumously. Singer-songwriter Janis Ian, a one-time friend of Simone's, related in her own autobiography, Society's Child: My Autobiography, two instances to illustrate Simone's volatility: one incident in which she forced a shoe store cashier at gunpoint to take back a pair of sandals she'd already worn; and another in which Simone demanded a royalty payment from Ian herself as an exchange for having recorded one of Ian's songs, and then ripped a pay telephone out of its wall when she was refused.
Awards and recognition
Simone was the recipient of a Grammy Hall of Fame Award in 2000 for her interpretation of "I Loves You, Porgy." On Human Kindness Day 1974 in Washington, D.C., more than 10,000 people paid tribute to Simone.
Simone received two honorary degrees in music and humanities, from Amherst College and Malcolm X College. She preferred to be called "Dr. Nina Simone" after these honors were bestowed upon her. She was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2018.
Two days before her death, Simone learned she would be awarded an honorary degree by the Curtis Institute of Music, the music school that had refused to admit her as a student at the beginning of her career.
Simone has received four career Grammy Award nominations, two during her lifetime and two posthumously. In 1968, she received her first nomination for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance for the track "(You'll) Go to Hell" from her thirteenth album Silk & Soul (1967). The award went to "Respect" by Aretha Franklin.
Simone garnered a second nomination in the category in 1971, for her Black Gold album, when she again lost to Franklin for "Don't Play That Song (You Lied)". Franklin would again win for her cover of Simone's "Young, Gifted and Black" two years later in the same category. In 2016, Simone posthumously received a nomination for Best Music Film for the Netflix documentary What Happened, Miss Simone? and in 2018 she received a nomination for Best Rap Song as a songwriter for Jay-Z's "The Story of O.J." from his 4:44 album which contained a sample of "Four Women" by Simone.
In 2018, Simone was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by fellow R&B artist Mary J. Blige.
In 2019, "Mississippi Goddam" was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Legacy and influence
Music
Musicians who have cited Simone as important for their own musical upbringing include Elton John (who named one of his pianos after her), Madonna, Aretha Franklin, Adele, David Bowie, Patti LaBelle, Boy George, Emeli Sandé, Antony and the Johnsons, Dianne Reeves, Sade, Janis Joplin, Nick Cave, Van Morrison, Christina Aguilera, Elkie Brooks, Talib Kweli, Mos Def, Kanye West, Lena Horne, Bono, John Legend, Elizabeth Fraser, Cat Stevens, Anna Calvi, Cat Power, Lykke Li, Peter Gabriel, Justin Hayward, Maynard James Keenan, Cedric Bixler-Zavala, Mary J. Blige, Fantasia Barrino, Michael Gira, Angela McCluskey, Lauryn Hill, Patrice Babatunde, Alicia Keys, Alex Turner, Lana Del Rey, Hozier, Matt Bellamy, Ian MacKaye, Kerry Brothers, Jr., Krucial, Amanda Palmer, Steve Adey and Jeff Buckley. John Lennon cited Simone's version of "I Put a Spell on You" as a source of inspiration for the Beatles' song "Michelle". American singer Meshell Ndegeocello released her own tribute album Pour une Âme Souveraine: A Dedication to Nina Simone in 2012. The following year, experimental band Xiu Xiu released a cover album, Nina. In late 2019, American rapper Wale released an album titled Wow... That's Crazy, containing a track called "Love Me Nina/Semiautomatic" which contains audio clips from Simone.
Simone's music has been featured in soundtracks of various motion pictures and video games, including La Femme Nikita (1990), Point of No Return (1993), Shallow Grave (1994), The Big Lebowski (1998), Any Given Sunday (1999), The Thomas Crown Affair (1999), Disappearing Acts (2000), Six Feet Under (2001), The Dancer Upstairs (2002), Before Sunset (2004), Cellular (2004), Inland Empire (2006), Miami Vice (2006), Sex and the City (2008), The World Unseen (2008), Revolutionary Road (2008), Home (2008), Watchmen (2009), The Saboteur (2009), Repo Men (2010), Beyond the Lights (2014), and "Nobody" (2021). Frequently her music is used in remixes, commercials, and TV series including "Feeling Good", which featured prominently in the Season Four Promo of Six Feet Under (2004). Simone's "Take Care of Business" is the closing theme of The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (2015), Simone's cover of Janis Ian's "Stars" is played during the final moments of the season 3 finale of BoJack Horseman (2016), and "I Wish I Knew How It Would Feel to Be Free" and "Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood" were included in the film Acrimony (2018).
Film
The documentary Nina Simone: La légende (The Legend) was made in the 1990s by French filmmakers and based on her autobiography I Put a Spell on You. It features live footage from different periods of her career, interviews with family, various interviews with Simone then living in the Netherlands, and while on a trip to her birthplace. A portion of footage from The Legend was taken from an earlier 26-minute biographical documentary by Peter Rodis, released in 1969 and entitled simply Nina. Her filmed 1976 performance at the Montreux Jazz Festival is available on video courtesy of Eagle Rock Entertainment and is screened annually in New York City at an event called "The Rise and Fall of Nina Simone: Montreux, 1976" which is curated by Tom Blunt.
Footage of Simone singing "Mississippi Goddam" for 40,000 marchers at the end of the Selma to Montgomery marches can be seen in the 1970 documentary King: A Filmed Record... Montgomery to Memphis and the 2015 Liz Garbus documentary What Happened, Miss Simone?
Plans for a Simone biographical film were released at the end of 2005, to be based on Simone's autobiography I Put a Spell on You (1992) and to focus on her relationship in later life with her assistant, Clifton Henderson, who died in 2006; Simone's daughter, Lisa Simone Kelly, has since refuted the existence of a romantic relationship between Simone and Henderson on account of his homosexuality. Cynthia Mort (screenwriter of Will & Grace and Roseanne), wrote the screenplay and directed the 2016 film Nina, starring Zoe Saldana who has since openly apologized for taking the controversial title role.
In 2015, two documentary features about Simone's life and music were released. The first, directed by Liz Garbus, What Happened, Miss Simone? was produced in cooperation with Simone's estate and her daughter, who also served as the film's executive producer. The film was produced as a counterpoint to the unauthorized Cynthia Mort film (Nina, 2016), and featured previously unreleased archival footage. It premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2015 and was distributed by Netflix on June 26, 2015. It was nominated on January 14, 2016, for a 2016 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.
The second documentary in 2015, The Amazing Nina Simone is an independent film written and directed by Jeff L. Lieberman, who initially consulted with Simone's daughter, Lisa before going the independent route and then worked closely with Simone's siblings, predominantly Sam Waymon. The film debuted in cinemas in October 2015, and has since played more than 100 theatres in 10 countries.
Drama
She is the subject of Nina: A Story About Me and Nina Simone, a one-woman show first performed in 2016 at the Unity Theatre, Liverpool — a "deeply personal and often searing show inspired by the singer and activist Nina Simone" — and which in July 2017 ran at the Young Vic, before being scheduled to move to Edinburgh's Traverse Theatre.
Books
As well as her 1992 autobiography I Put a Spell on You (1992), written with Stephen Cleary, Simone has been the subject of several books. They include Nina Simone: Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood (2002) by Richard Williams; Nina Simone: Break Down and Let It All Out (2004) by Sylvia Hampton and David Nathan; Princess Noire (2010) by Nadine Cohodas; Nina Simone (2004) by Kerry Acker; Nina Simone, Black is the Color (2005) by Andrew Stroud; and What Happened, Miss Simone? (2016) by Alan Light.
Simone inspired a book of poetry, Me and Nina, by Monica Hand, and is the focus of musician Warren Ellis's book Nina Simone's Gum (2021).
Honors
In 2002, the city of Nijmegen, Netherlands, named a street after her, as "Nina Simone Street": she had lived in Nijmegen between 1988 and 1990. On August 29, 2005, the city of Nijmegen, the De Vereeniging concert hall, and more than 50 artists (among whom were Frank Boeijen, Rood Adeo, and Fay Claassen) honored Simone with the tribute concert Greetings from Nijmegen.
Simone was inducted into the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame in 2009.
In 2010, a statue in her honor was erected on Trade Street in her native Tryon, North Carolina.
The promotion from the French Institute of Political Studies of Lille (Sciences Po Lille), due to obtain their master's degree in 2021, named themselves in her honor. The decision was made that this promotion was henceforth to be known as 'la promotion Nina Simone' after a vote in 2017.
Simone was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2018.
The Proms paid a homage to Nina Simone in 2019, an event called Mississippi Goddamn was performed by The Metropole Orkest at Royal Albert Hall led by Jules Buckley. Ledisi, Lisa Fischer and Jazz Trio, LaSharVu provided vocals.
Discography
References
Sources
External links
The Amazing Nina Simone: A Documentary Film
1933 births
2003 deaths
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|
214234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Brand%20New%20Heavies | The Brand New Heavies | The Brand New Heavies is an acid jazz and funk group formed in 1985 in Ealing in west London. Centered around songwriters/multi-instrumentalists Simon Bartholomew and Andrew Levy, the core members of the group since its founding, Brand New Heavies are best known for a string of successful singles in the early 1990s featuring N'Dea Davenport as lead vocalist.
Biography
1980s–1990s
The Brand New Heavies began in the 1980s as an instrumental acid jazz group called Brothers International.
The group came up with the Heavies name after signing their first record contract, borrowing from a liner note on a James Brown single declaring the artist "Minister of New Super Heavy Funk". As The Brand New Heavies they gained a cult following in the London club scene and soon signed to Cooltempo as acid jazz replaced rare groove in clubs. The band issued a debut recording for Eddie Piller's Acid Jazz label in 1990 with Jay Ella Ruth as lead singer.
A single, "Got to Give", came out on Cooltempo before the Brand New Heavies signed to Acid Jazz Records and released Brand New Heavies to critical acclaim. The band signed to a division of Chrysalis Records in the UK, and American distribution was picked up by influential label Delicious Vinyl, and N'Dea Davenport (who had signed an artist development deal with Delicious Vinyl) joined the group. A revamped version of the first album with vocals by N'Dea Davenport was then released, and the singles "Dream Come True", "Never Stop" and "Stay This Way", all with Davenport on lead vocals, became hits on both sides of the Atlantic, with the latter becoming a music video directed by Douglas Gayeton that saw heavy rotation on MTV.
The group's appearance with MC Serch (formerly of 3rd Bass) and Q-Tip (of A Tribe Called Quest) at a performance in New York City, inspired the group to incorporate elements of hip hop music. Their next album was the critically acclaimed Heavy Rhyme Experience, Vol. 1, which included collaborations with Guru of Gang Starr and The Pharcyde, among others, but lacked any female vocals.
The Brand New Heavies released Brother Sister in 1994 which was the last album for a while with N'Dea Davenport, who had left to complete her solo album (which she had put on hold to join the Heavies). The album spawned more singles, though one of them, a cover of Maria Muldaur's "Midnight at the Oasis", was popular only in the UK because it was not included in the US version of the album.
Siedah Garrett joined the group for their next album, Shelter (1997). It contained the minor hit, the Carole King-penned song "You've Got a Friend" that was originally made famous by James Taylor. Again, though, this song did not appear on the US version of the album. The album also contained the hit "Sometimes". The remix of "Sometimes" included the rap vocals of Q-Tip.
2000s–present
The Brand New Heavies then released their greatest hits album, Trunk Funk – The Best of The Brand New Heavies (2000) with Carleen Anderson on vocals for some newly recorded songs, followed by the Japan only album We Won't Stop (2003) featuring a variety of vocalists and Allaboutthefunk (2005) co-written and co-produced by Nicole Russo (as detailed on the album sleeve) who also featured as Lead vocalist.
For We Won't Stop album, The Brand New Heavies relied on singer/songwriter Sy Smith for the bulk of the female vocals. Original member Jan Kincaid takes the lead on three of the tracks, and Los Angeles-based poet Gina Loring makes several appearances on the album. Where the Heavies typical sound had typically been more 1970s funk-styled and acoustically driven, We Won't Stop sees the band experimenting with more electronic elements and contemporary R&B.
The album marked the first commercial release of "What Do You Take Me For", the band's lone track featuring former flagship lead vocalist N'Dea Davenport. The track would be later re-recorded in a more modern configuration with Nicole Russo on lead for the Allabouthefunk album. The sound and musical arrangement heard on these first releases of "Music", "Love Is...", and the title track "We Won't Stop" were re-recorded with new leads on N'Dea Davenport's 2006 return to the band for the comeback album Get Used to It.
In April 2006, the Brand New Heavies reunited with N'Dea Davenport and former label Delicious Vinyl. A new album, Get Used to It was released on 27 June 2006 via Starbucks and more traditional music retail outlets. The album was recorded in New York and London; and the lead single "I Don't Know Why (I Love You)" was issued in early May. The single was notable for being one of very few late releases to feature the trademarked A Tom Moulton Mix, as he had been asked to contribute remixes. Later that year, their Heavy Rhyme Experience, Vol. 1 album track "Jump 'n' Move" featuring Jamal-ski was featured on the soundtrack for the 2006 computer animated feature film Happy Feet and the in-game soundtrack for 2004's NBA Live 2005 and 2009's NBA 2k10. The band toured at the end of 2006.
The Heavies recorded a cover of "C'est Magnifique" (originally from Cole Porter's 1953 musical Can-Can) for an early 2009 TV ad by Lancôme. The song also appeared in an early track listing of the Heavies' 2009 live album, but wasn't eventually included. The 2-CD Live in London was released in October 2009. The studio version of "C'est Magnifique" was released as a download and also included on a couple of various artists compilations.
The Brand New Heavies released a download instrumental album called Dunk Your Trunk in November 2011. The album, recorded in only four days and described as 'funky library music' is directed at 'TV and Movie people to add to their programmes and films'. The 5-track Dunk Your Trunk Remixed E.P. was released on download on 1 May 2013.
The Brand New Heavies eighth studio album Forward was released on 6 May 2013. Lead vocal duties on the album are divided evenly between N'Dea Davenport, who features on the first single "Sunlight", Jan Kincaid and Simon Bartholomew, making his debut as lead vocalist on this album, and new UK vocalist Dawn Joseph. While the album was produced by the Heavies themselves, as all their previous albums, there are also new collaborators, including songwriters Johan Jones Wetterberg, Marc Jackson Burrows, Rita Campbell and Tim Laws and mixing engineer Toni Economides.
On 10 October 2013, The Brand New Heavies announced via their website that Dawn Joseph had officially joined the band as full-time lead vocalist and that the band were working on a new studio album slated for release in early 2014.
On 21 February 2014, The Brand New Heavies played at Buxton Opera House with support from British acoustic blues singer songwriter Matt Woosey. The Brand New Heavies ninth studio album Sweet Freaks, with Dawn Joseph on vocals, was released on 24 October 2014.
Jan Kincaid and Dawn Joseph both left The Brand New Heavies in late 2015. In July 2016, the band began touring extensively in Europe and Japan with Sulene Fleming on vocals. She stayed until 2018. In November 2018 the band started touring with Angela Ricci on vocals.
The Brand New Heavies premiered their new single "Getaway" with N'Dea Davenport on vocals in April 2019. A new studio album, TBNH, was released on September 6, 2019 on Acid Jazz Records and features Davenport, Siedah Garrett, Angie Stone, Beverley Knight, Angela Ricci, Jack Knight, Honey Larochelle, and Laville. The fUnKin in the UK Tour brought the band all across the UK in 2021, after the live shows were rescheduled following the Covid-19 pandemic.
Awards and nominations
Members
Current members
Angela Ricci – vocals (2018–present)
Simon Bartholomew – vocals, guitar, producer (1985–present)
Andrew Levy – bass, keyboards, producer (1985–present)
Matt Steele – keyboards, piano, synth programming (2013–present)
Luke Harris – drums (2016–present)
Hannah McGuigan – background vocals (2014–present)
Lily Gonzalez – background vocals (2016–present)
Bryan Corbett – trumpet (2015–present)
Richard Beesley – saxophone (2015–present)
Former members
Jan Kincaid – vocals, drums (1985–2015)
Lascelles Gordon – percussion, keyboards (1985–1992)
Ceri Evans – keyboards (1985–1992)
Jay Ella Ruth – lead vocals (1990)
Rob Cremona – keyboards (1990–1991)
Jim Wellman – saxophone (1990–1991)
N'Dea Davenport – lead vocals, tambourine (1990–1995, 2005–2013, 2016, 2019)
Siedah Garrett – lead vocals (1997–1998, 2019)
Carleen Anderson – lead vocals (1999–2000)
Sy Smith – lead vocals (2003)
Nicole Russo – lead vocals (2003–2004)
Dawn Joseph – lead vocals (2013–2015)
Sulene Fleming – vocals (2016–2018)
John Thirkell - trumpet, flugel (1994–1997)
Mike Smith - saxophone (1994–1996)
Dennis Rollins - trombone (1994–1996)
Ivana Kotov - background vocals (2012–2016)
Discography
Studio albums
Compilation albums
Live albums
Remix albums
Singles
"Never Stop" and "Stay This Way" peaked at number 19 on the UK Singles Chart, on 25.04.1992, as part of the Ultimate Trunk Funk EP with "Never Stop" being the lead track. The other track on the EP was "Mr. Tanaka".
"Stay This Way" didn't chart on its own, in the UK, in 1991, the song was released on its own, after its inclusion on the "Ultimate Trunk Funk EP" in December 1992, peaking at number 40 on 26.12.92.
Songs featured on soundtracks
1992: "People Get Ready (Remix)" in Juice
1994: "Close to You" in Prêt-à-Porter
1994: "Higher Learning/Time for Change" in Higher Learning
1996: "World Keeps Spinning" in The Truth About Cats & Dogs
1997: "I Like It" in Love Jones
1998: "More Love" in Sliding Doors
1999: “Midnight at the Oasis” in American Pie
2006: "Jump n' Move" in Happy Feet
References
External links
Official Website
Musical groups established in 1985
English dance music groups
Musical groups from the London Borough of Ealing
English jazz ensembles
Acid jazz ensembles
English funk musical groups
Delicious Vinyl artists
FFRR Records artists
1985 establishments in England | [
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|
214236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20History%20of%20Middle-earth | The History of Middle-earth | The History of Middle-earth is a 12-volume series of books published between 1983 and 1996 that collect and analyse much of Tolkien's legendarium, compiled and edited by his son, Christopher Tolkien. The series shows the development over time of Tolkien's conception of Middle-earth as a fictional place with its own peoples, languages, and history, from his earliest notions of a "mythology for England" through to the development of the stories that make up The Silmarillion and The Lord of the Rings. It is not a "history of Middle-earth" in the sense of being a chronicle of events in Middle-earth written from an in-universe perspective; it is instead an out-of-universe history of Tolkien's creative process. In 2000–01, the twelve volumes were republished in three limited edition omnibus volumes. Non-deluxe editions of the three volumes were published in 2002.
Contents
Some of the content consists of earlier versions of already published works, while other portions are new material. These books are extremely detailed, often analysing a scrap of paper to provide the full evolution of two or even three different versions of a passage that were rewritten over each other. Despite the great amount of material in the twelve volumes, numerous unpublished texts are still known to exist in the Bodleian and Marquette University libraries, and in other papers held by individuals or organizations, such as the Elvish Linguistic Fellowship.
The first five books track the early history of The Silmarillion and related texts. Books six to nine discuss the development of The Lord of the Rings; book nine also discusses the Númenor story in the form of The Notion Club Papers. Books ten and eleven focus on material from the Silmarillion that Tolkien worked on after The Lord of the Rings was published, including the Annals of Beleriand and the Annals of Aman. Book twelve discusses the development of the Appendices to The Lord of the Rings and examines assorted writings from the last years of Tolkien's life.
Christopher Tolkien made the decision not to include any material related to The Hobbit in The History of Middle-earth because it was not originally intended to form part of the mythology, but was a children's story and originally not set in Middle-earth, revised during the writing of The Lord of the Rings. The History of The Hobbit was published separately, in two volumes, in 2007 and was edited by John D. Rateliff.
Volumes
A combined index was published six years after the series was completed as The History of Middle-earth: Index (2002).
A shorter version of volume 9, omitting material not related to The Lord of the Rings, was published as The End of the Third Age; this is usually sold as a boxed set along with volumes 6, 7 and 8 as The History of the Lord of the Rings.
References
Further reading
External links
A detailed list of content in History of Middle-earth volumes and Unfinished Tales
Middle-earth books
Collections of works by J. R. R. Tolkien
Books about Middle-earth
Series of books
Books published posthumously
Fictional history | [
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214237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%20130 | U.S. Route 130 | U.S. Route 130 (US 130) is a U.S. Highway that is a spur route of US 30, located completely within the state of New Jersey. It is signed with north and south cardinal directions, following a general northeast–southwest diagonal path, with "north" corresponding to the general eastward direction and vice versa. The route runs from Interstate 295 (I-295) and US 40 at Deepwater in Pennsville Township, Salem County, where the road continues south as Route 49, north to US 1 in North Brunswick Township, Middlesex County, where Route 171 continues north into New Brunswick. The route briefly runs concurrent with US 30 near Camden, about one-third of the way to New Brunswick. The road runs within a close distance of I-295 south of Bordentown and a few miles from the New Jersey Turnpike for its entire length, serving as a major four- to six-lane divided local road for most of its length. US 130 passes through many towns including Penns Grove, Bridgeport, Westville, Camden, Pennsauken, Burlington, Bordentown, Hightstown, and North Brunswick.
In 1916, pre-1927 Route 2 was designated to run along the present US 130 between the Camden area and Bordentown while pre-1927 Route 1 was to follow the current route between Robbinsville and New Brunswick. The current route between Penns Grove and Westville was to become pre-1927 Route 17S in 1923. In 1926, US 130 was designated to run from US 30 in Camden to US 1 in Trenton along the alignment of pre-1927 Route 2. A year later, the alignment of US 130 became Route 25 between Camden and Bordentown, Route 39 between Bordentown and White Horse, and Route 37 between White Horse and Trenton. US 130 was extended to Pennsville in 1938 along Route 45 and Route 44 while it was realigned to follow Route 25 and Route 25M between Bordentown and Route 27 in New Brunswick by the 1940s. In 1953, the state highways running concurrent with US 130 were removed. Around the time of the renumbering, limited-access bypasses for US 130 were built around Carneys Point and between Bridgeport and Westville; the former alignments eventually became Route 44. In the 1960s, I-295 was designated onto most of these freeway alignments of US 130, which was moved back to its original route in Carneys Point. In 1969, the north end of US 130 was cut back to its current location, with the old road into New Brunswick becoming Route 171. The Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission had proposed a US 130 freeway between Camden and Burlington, but it was never built.
Route description
Salem and Gloucester counties
US 130's south end is in Pennsville Township, Salem County at the east end of the Delaware Memorial Bridge, which carries I-295 and US 40. The New Jersey Turnpike begins at this interchange, and Route 49 heads south. From here, the route heads northeast on Shell Road, a two-lane undivided road, passing development before entering Carneys Point Township. In Carneys Point Township, the road intersects the west end of Route 140 before passing to the east of a DuPont plant and a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad yard near wooded areas. US 130 makes a turn to the north into more residential development, crossing into Penns Grove, where the route turns northeast again as Virginia Avenue and intersects the western terminus of Route 48. Past the Route 48 intersection, the road enters Carneys Point Township again and crosses Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Penns Grove Secondary railroad line before continuing through a mix of agricultural and industrial areas. Upon entering Oldmans Township, US 130 heads through more rural areas as Bridgeport-Penns Grove Road.
After crossing Oldmans Creek on a former drawbridge, the route enters Logan Township, Gloucester County and becomes a four-lane divided highway called Crown Point Road. It heads east-northeast through Nortonville before continuing through marshland and woodland. After crossing Raccoon Creek on a fixed bridge, the road passes some homes in Bridgeport before reaching a cloverleaf interchange with US 322/CR 536 that provides access to the Commodore Barry Bridge. At this point, a freeway section of US 130 begins. The freeway heads east to its first interchange after US 322, a right-in/right-out at Barker Avenue, with an overpass just to the west at Springers Road. Barker Avenue leads east to the south end of Route 44. The next interchange provides direct access to Route 44. After Route 44, the route passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Penns Grove Secondary railroad line. Following this, the highway has an interchange with Cedar Swamp Road before US 130 merges into I-295 for a concurrency.
Along I-295, the route is a six-lane freeway, coming to an exit for CR 684. Continuing east, the freeway crosses into Greenwich Township and has an interchange with CR 607. After passing near Greenwich Lake, there are exits for CR 653 and CR 673 within a short distance of each other. I-295/US 130 reaches an interchange with CR 680 on the border of Greenwich Township and East Greenwich Township. The road runs through a portion of East Greenwich Township before crossing back into Greenwich Township and coming to an interchange with CR 678 and CR 667 on the border of Greenwich Township and Paulsboro. Past this point, the freeway runs through marshy areas of Mantua Creek and continues into West Deptford Township. Here, there is an exit for CR 656. Passing near more industrial areas, I-295/US 130 has an interchange with the Mid-Atlantic Parkway, which provides access to Route 44 as well as to CR 643 and CR 660. Continuing northeast, the freeway passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Penns Grove Secondary and reaches an interchange with Route 44 and CR 640. At this point, Route 44 begins to parallel I-295/US 130 on its northwest side as the two roads cross the Woodbury Creek. Route 44 ends at a cul-de-sac that has a ramp from the southbound direction of I-295/US 130 prior to another interchange that provides access to CR 644. The freeway passes near some homes before US 130 splits from I-295.
After splitting from I-295, US 130 continues northeast as a four-lane divided road called Crown Point Avenue. The route passes past an oil refinery before forming the border between West Deptford Township to the north and Westville to the south, where it begins to pass residences along the south side of the road. The road fully enters Westville before encountering the northern terminus of Route 45 at a Y-intersection. Past this intersection, the lanes of US 130 split briefly before rejoining.
Camden County
Upon crossing Big Timber Creek, the route enters Brooklawn, Camden County, where the name becomes Crescent Boulevard and it comes to a traffic circle with CR 551. Here, US 130 and CR 551 head concurrent to the east, passing under Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Vineland Secondary, and come to another traffic circle. At this circle, Route 47 and CR 551 head south while US 130 continues east on Crescent Boulevard, lined with suburban shopping centers. After CR 551 Spur heads east, US 130 makes a turn to the northeast, widening into a six-lane highway with many intersections controlled by jughandles and crossing Little Timber Creek into Gloucester City. In Glocuester City, the median of the route widens as it interchanges with I-76 at a partial interchange. From this interchange, the road continues north-northeast heads across Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Grenloch Industrial Track line and crosses Newton Creek into Haddon Township. US 130 comes to an interchange with Route 76C that has access towards I-76, I-676, and the Walt Whitman Bridge to and from the northbound direction of US 130. The highway continues to a channelized intersection with Route 168. Following this intersection, US 130 continues through urban areas, passing through a small corner of Camden before entering Collingswood as it crosses under Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Beesleys Point Secondary railroad line. In Collingswood, the road is lined with suburban businesses again prior to meeting US 30 at the former Collingswood Circle.
At this point, US 30 forms a concurrency with US 130 and the two routes head north, passing under the PATCO Speedline before meeting CR 561 at an interchange. Past CR 561, the road passes to the east of Harleigh Cemetery prior to crossing Cooper River into Pennsauken Township. In Pennsauken, US 30/US 130 comes to the Airport Circle. Airport Circle is an intersection with several flyovers; US 30 splits to the west, while Route 38 heads east, soon splitting with Route 70. US 130, meanwhile, continues northeast through more commercial areas. The road briefly enters Camden again right before an interchange with CR 537. The route crosses under NJ Transit’s Atlantic City Line before coming to a large interchange with Route 90 that provides access to the Betsy Ross Bridge. Within this interchange, the lanes of US 130 split. A short distance later, the route reaches an interchange with Route 73, which runs to the Tacony–Palmyra Bridge.
Burlington County
A short distance after the Route 73 interchange, US 130 crosses North Branch of Pennsauken Creek into Cinnaminson Township, Burlington County and continues northeast. The route turns to the east-northeast and enters Delran Township, where there is an interchange with CR 613. Immediately after this interchange, the road crosses Rancocas Creek and forms the border between Delanco Township to the northwest and Willingboro Township to the southeast as it passes a couple of lakes. US 130 continues along the border of Edgewater Park Township and Willingboro Township. After briefly forming the border between Burlington Township and Willingboro Township, the road entirely enters Burlington Township. The route forms a concurrency with CR 543 prior to entering Burlington. A bypass takes US 130 and CR 543 around the downtown area of Burlington. The road comes to an intersection with Route 413, which provides access to the Burlington–Bristol Bridge. Past this intersection, US 130/CR 543 turns east, with the median widening to include businesses. Along this portion of road, there is an intersection with the northern terminus of CR 541. The six-lane section of US 130 decreases to four lanes as it crosses Assicunk Creek, where the median also narrows. The road turns northeast into a residential area, and CR 543 splits from US 130 by heading to the east.
Past this intersection, US 130 passes some businesses and crosses back into Burlington Township, where it runs a short distance to the southeast of NJ Transit's River Line. The road enters less dense commercial and industrial development, along with some farmland and woodland, as it continues into Florence Township. An interchange with the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95) is present in Florence Township. Following this interchange, US 130 continues through development before crossing Crafts Creek into Mansfield Township Here, the surroundings become more wooded with a few areas of agriculture. The route continues into Bordentown Township, where the road widens to six lanes as it has a partial cloverleaf interchange with I-295. From this point, US 130 continues to an intersection with CR 545, where it narrows back to four lanes. The surroundings become more developed as US 130 merges with US 206 at an interchange, bypassing Bordentown to the east. The two routes continue north on a six-lane divided highway, briefly skirting the eastern edge of Bordentown as the road crosses CR 528. After entering Bordentown Township again, US 130 splits from US 206 by heading to the northeast at an interchange. Upon splitting, the route becomes a four-lane divided highway again, passing homes and businesses with areas of woods.
Mercer and Middlesex counties
After crossing Crosswicks Creek, US 130 continues into Hamilton Township, Mercer County, where Route 156 splits to the west to parallel US 130 as it bypasses Yardville to the east. The route intersects several roads at northbound-only interchanges, including CR 609, CR 672 (South Broad Street), and CR 524 (Yardville- Allentown Road); Route 156 provides southbound access. Past these interchanges, the road passes some homes before Route 156 merges back into it. From this point, US 130 runs through commercial areas, where it has a brief six-lane segment prior to reaching a cloverleaf interchange with I-195. Following this interchange, the road enters Robbinsville Township. In Robbinsville, the route forms a short concurrency with CR 526. At the point CR 526 turns east, Route 33 joins US 130 from the west. US 130 and Route 33 run together through rural areas with some development. The road bypasses Windsor to the east prior to entering East Windsor Township. Here, the road widens to six lanes and Route 33 splits from US 130, heading east into Hightstown. US 130 narrows back to four lanes and runs around the commercial west side of Hightstown, crossing CR 571. Shortly after this intersection, the route has a partial cloverleaf interchange with Route 133.
US 130 crosses Millstone River into Cranbury Township, Middlesex County, where it has an intersection with the northern terminus of CR 539. From this point, the route heads north through a mix of rural surroundings and inhabited neighborhoods, bypassing downtown Cranbury to the east and crossing CR 615. Past this intersection, the road continues into development, crossing Brainerd Lake before forming a short concurrency with CR 535. US 130 briefly forms the border between South Brunswick Township to the west and Cranbury Township to the east before fully entering South Brunswick Township as the road runs through a mix of rural areas and business parks. The road comes to a directional Y-intersection with the western terminus of Route 32, which provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike and Monroe Township. A park and ride lot serving Coach USA buses to New York City is located west of this intersection. Following Route 32, US 130 crosses over Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Amboy Secondary before coming to an interchange with CR 522. At this point, CR 522 forms a brief concurrency with US 130 before splitting to the west. After the CR 522 concurrency, the route continues north into mostly forested areas, crossing Davidsons Mill Pond before continuing into North Brunswick Township. In North Brunswick Township, the road heads northeast through increasing development as the route starts to turn more to the north. US 130 comes to an end at an interchange with US 1, where the road continues north as Route 171 (Georges Road) into New Brunswick.
History
What is now US 130 was a part of two Lenape trails: the Pensaukin Trail, running from what is now Camden to Crosswick; and the Lower Assunpink or Crosswicksung Trail, running from there north to Ahandewamock Village, near modern-day New Brunswick. The section of this trail between Crosswicks and Cranbury became part of a King's Highway connecting South Amboy and Salem. North of Cranbury, the Assunpink trail was later called the Lower Road, then George's Road. The route was incorporated into several turnpikes in the 19th century. In 1808, the Burlington Turnpike was chartered to run from Burlington north to the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike through Bordentown. The Bordentown and South Amboy Turnpike was chartered in 1818 to run from Bordentown to South Amboy, bypassing the King's Highway from East Brunswick to Cranbury. In 1849 the Westfield and Camden Turnpike was legislated along the Burlington Road from Camden to the bridge at Rancoas Creek. The New Brunswick and Cranbury Turnpike was chartered in 1865 to run from the Bordentown-South Amboy Turnpike to New Brunswick along the old George's Road.
The entire length of US 130 follows a part of the Ocean Highway, a coastal highway that ran from New Brunswick south to Jacksonville, Florida. The stretch from New Brunswick to Robbinsville was signed as the Cranbury Trail, an alternative to the Lincoln Highway running from New Brunswick to Trenton. The current route was designated as portions of three state routes prior to 1927. In 1916, the road between the Camden area and Bordentown was legislated as part of pre-1927 Route 2 while the current US 130 north of Robbinsville was to become a part of pre-1927 Route 1. In addition, pre-1927 Route 17S was legislated to run from Penns Grove northeast to Westville in 1923; the only portion of road built ran from Pennsville south to Salem. When the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926, US 130 was designated to connect US 30 in Camden to US 1 in Trenton, following pre-1927 Route 2. In the 1927 renumbering a year later, the US 130 alignment was designated Route 25 from Camden to Bordentown, Route 39 from Bordentown to White Horse, and Route 37 from White Horse to Trenton.
By 1938, US 130 was extended south along Route 45 and Route 44 to end at US 40 in Pennsville where the connection to Hook Road now hits Route 49. By the 1940s, it was rerouted to follow Route 25 and Route 25M from Bordentown to Route 27 in New Brunswick The former US 130 between Bordentown and Trenton was designated as a part of US 206. During the 1940s, a new alignment for US 130 was built through South Brunswick Township. After the Delaware Memorial Bridge opened in 1951, the south end of US 130 was moved to its current location. Shortly before the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, US 130 was aligned to bypass Yardville with the old route becoming Route 156 in 1953. Also, prior to 1953, US 130 had been aligned to bypass Carneys Point and a stretch of Route 44 between Bridgeport and Westville.
In the 1953 renumbering, US 130 replaced Route 44 and parts of Route 45 and Route 25, as well as the short Route 25M into New Brunswick. With the 1953 renumbering freeing up the Route 44 designation, that number was eventually assigned to the two sections of old road. In the 1960s, I-295 was built through Salem and Gloucester counties, following a portion of the US 130 freeway bypass of Carneys Point as well as the freeway portion of the route from north of Bridgeport to Westville. As a result of this construction, US 130 was moved back to its original alignment in Carneys Point, replacing that portion of Route 44. US 130 was cut back to its current north end at US 1 in 1969, and the continuation into New Brunswick was assigned Route 171.
In the late 1960s, a freeway was proposed by the Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission to alleviate traffic on US 130 between Camden and Burlington. This freeway was originally planned as a parkway between the two cities in 1932 that never materialized. The proposed freeway, which was to connect the Ben Franklin Bridge to I-295 near the Assicunk Creek, was to cost $53 million and mostly follow a Conrail railroad line between the two cities. However, the NJDOT never followed through with the proposal. In 2009, the Collingswood Circle at the southern terminus of the US 30 concurrency was replaced with an at-grade intersection with jughandles.
In 2013 the road was one of three that tied for the #1 ranking on the Tri-State Transportation Campaign's list of the top ten most dangerous roads for pedestrians in New Jersey, New York and Connecticut. The route, along with US 40/US 322 in Atlantic County and US 1 in Middlesex County, were so ranked due to the nine pedestrian deaths that occurred on each of those roads from 2009 to 2011.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
Endpoints of U.S. Highway 130
Enlarged view of confluence of I-295, US40, US 130, NJ 49, NJ140 and the NJTP in the area of Carneys Point Township
Enlarged view of confluence of I-295 and US 130 in the area of West Deptford Township
Enlarged view of confluence of I-76 and US 130 in the area of Haddon Township
Enlarged view of confluence of US 30, US 130 and NJ 138 in the area of Pennsauken Township
Enlarged view of confluence of US 130 and NJ 90 in Pennsauken Township
Speed Limits for State Roads: U.S. Route 130
Limited-access roads in New Jersey
30-1
Transportation in Burlington County, New Jersey
Transportation in Camden County, New Jersey
Transportation in Gloucester County, New Jersey
Transportation in Mercer County, New Jersey
Transportation in Middlesex County, New Jersey
Transportation in Salem County, New Jersey
30-1
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|
214240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Cunanan | Andrew Cunanan | Andrew Phillip Cunanan (August 31, 1969 – July 23, 1997) was an American spree killer who verifiably murdered five people over three months from April 27 to July 15, 1997. His victims include Italian fashion designer Gianni Versace and Chicago real estate developer Lee Miglin. Cunanan died by gunshot suicide on July 23, 1997, eight days after murdering Versace.
Early life and education
The youngest of four children, Andrew Phillip Cunanan was born August 31, 1969, in National City, California, to Modesto "Pete" Cunanan, a Filipino-American, and Mary Anne Schillaci (died 2012), an Italian-American. Modesto was serving in the United States Navy in the Vietnam War at the time of his son's birth. After leaving the Navy, where he had served as a chief petty officer, Modesto worked as a stockbroker.
In his youth, Cunanan lived with his family in National City and attended Bonita Vista Middle School. In 1981, his father enrolled him in The Bishop's School, an independent day school located in the affluent La Jolla neighborhood of San Diego. There Cunanan met his lifelong best friend, Elizabeth "Liz" Cote.
At school, he was remembered as being bright and very talkative, and testing with an IQ of 147.
As a teenager, Cunanan developed a reputation as a prolific liar, given to telling tall tales about his family and personal life. He was adept at changing his appearance according to what he felt was most attractive at a given moment. Cunanan identified as gay in high school, when he began having liaisons with wealthy older men. He was voted "least likely to be forgotten." After graduating from high school in 1987, Cunanan enrolled at the University of California, San Diego (UC San Diego), where he majored in American history.
In 1988, when Cunanan was 19, his father deserted his family and moved to the Philippines to evade arrest for embezzlement. That same year, Cunanan had begun frequenting local gay clubs and restaurants, and his mother, who was deeply religious, learned about his sexual orientation. During an argument, Cunanan threw his mother against a wall, dislocating her shoulder. Later examination of his behavior indicates that he may have suffered from antisocial personality disorder, characterized by a lack of remorse and empathy. In 1989, Cunanan dropped out of UC San Diego and settled in the Castro District of San Francisco, a center of gay culture, moving in with Cote and her boyfriend, Phil Merrill.
Adult life
In San Francisco, Cunanan continued his practice of befriending wealthy older men, and also reportedly began creating violent pornography. He also socialized in the Hillcrest and La Jolla neighborhoods of San Diego, as well as in Scottsdale, Arizona, "apparently living off the largesse of one wealthy patron or another." Cunanan is also believed to have been dealing drugs, including prescription opioids, cocaine, and marijuana. He used several aliases: Andrew DeSilva, Lt. Cmdr. Andy Cummings, Drew Cunningham, and Curt Matthew Demaris.
Cunanan allegedly first met fashion designer Gianni Versace in San Francisco in October 1990, when Versace was in town to be fitted for the costumes he had designed for the San Francisco Opera production of Richard Strauss's opera Capriccio, although Versace's family has always denied that the two men ever met. In December 1995, Cunanan met David Madson, a Minneapolis architect, in a San Francisco bar. They began a long-distance relationship shortly after, but Madson ended the relationship in the spring of 1996, telling friends he sensed something "shady" about Cunanan. Cunanan told friends that Madson was the "love of my life".
In September 1996, Cunanan broke up with Norman Blachford, a wealthy older man who had been hosting and financially supporting him. He soon maxed out his credit cards. Cunanan's close friend Jeffrey "Jeff" Trail, a former Navy officer working as a district manager for a propane delivery company in Minneapolis, had told his former roommate Michael Williams that Cunanan had resumed selling drugs. Cunanan also was known to regularly consume these drugs, especially methamphetamine.
By April 1997, friends reported Cunanan was abusing painkillers and was drinking alcohol "like there was no tomorrow". Later that month, he told friends he was leaving San Diego for Minneapolis to "take care of some business matters" with Trail, who had recently distanced himself from Cunanan. Trail expected Cunanan to move to San Francisco upon leaving Minneapolis. Before Cunanan's visit, Trail told his sister that he "did not want Andrew to come." A week before his death, Trail told Williams that he had had a "huge falling out" with Cunanan and said, "I made a lot of enemies this weekend... I've got to get out of here. They're going to kill me."
On April 24, Cunanan and four friends attended a going-away party at Hillcrest's California Cuisine, a rare occasion when Cunanan did not cover the tab. He had reached the credit limit on both his credit cards, and had to ask for a credit extension to afford his plane ticket to Minneapolis. Upon arriving there the next day, Cunanan stayed with Madson, a mutual friend of his and Trail's, in Madson's loft apartment. That night, Cunanan and Madson dined at Nye's Restaurant and visited The Gay 90's nightclub. On April 26, Cunanan stayed in Trail's apartment while Trail was out of town with his boyfriend, Jon Hackett. The following afternoon, Trail told Hackett that he needed to have a "pretty important" conversation with Cunanan. When Trail and Hackett later returned to the apartment, there was no sign of Cunanan or his belongings. Trail left his apartment to see Cunanan shortly after 9p.m. and was likely let into Madson's apartment at 9:45p.m.
Murders
Jeffrey Trail
Cunanan's killings began in Minneapolis on April 27, 1997, with the murder of his friend, 28-year-old Jeffrey Trail. After an argument in Trail's apartment, Cunanan stole Trail's gun and took it to second victim David Madson's apartment. Cunanan rang Trail from Madson's apartment to come and retrieve his gun. On arrival Cunanan beat Trail to death with a hammer in front of Madson. On April 29, one of Madson's coworkers, concerned about his absence from work, visited his apartment to check on him. They discovered Trail's body rolled in a rug and placed behind a sofa. Trail's watch had stopped at 9:55p.m., believed by authorities to be the time of the killing.
David Madson
Madson, 33, was Cunanan's second victim. Authorities believe Madson remained in his apartment with Cunanan two days after Trail's murder, as one neighbor witnessed both men in the apartment elevator on April 28, and another neighbor witnessed the pair walking Madson's dog on April 29. Investigators then treated Madson as a suspect in Trail's murder, but Madson's family insisted he was held hostage by Cunanan. On May 2, Madson and Cunanan were seen north of Minneapolis, driving in Madson's Jeep and eating lunch together in a bar. The following morning, Madson's body was found on the east shore of Rush Lake near Rush City, Minnesota, with gunshot wounds to the head and back from a .40-caliber Taurus PT100 semi-automatic pistol Cunanan had taken from Trail's home.
Lee Miglin
On May 4, Cunanan drove to Chicago, Illinois, and killed 72-year-old Lee Miglin, a prominent real estate developer. He bound Miglin's hands and feet and wrapped his head with duct tape, then stabbed Miglin more than twenty times with a screwdriver, slit his throat with a hacksaw, and stole his car. Miglin's family maintain that the killing was random, but former FBI agent Gregg McCrary argues it is unlikely that Cunanan would have bound and tortured Miglin without some motive.
Investigators noted Miglin's 1994 green Lexus LS sedan was missing from his garage and found Madson's red Jeep parked on the street near Miglin's house. Miglin's Lexus was equipped with a car phone, which, according to Ameritech Cellular records, was activated on May 4 in Union County, Pennsylvania. Authorities began monitoring this phone's activity and found it was also activated on May 8 in Philadelphia and on May 9 near Penns Grove and Carneys Point Township, New Jersey.
William Reese
On May 9, in Pennsville Township, New Jersey, at Finn's Point National Cemetery, Cunanan shot and killed 45-year-old cemetery caretaker William Reese. Later that day, when Reese did not return home for dinner, his wife visited the cemetery to check on him and found the caretaker's office door ajar with the radio playing inside. She then called the police, who found Reese shot in the head by the same Taurus pistol Cunanan used to murder Madson. Unlike Cunanan's other victims, whom he killed for seemingly personal reasons, authorities believe Cunanan murdered Reese simply for his 1995 red Chevrolet pickup truck. Cunanan used this truck to drive to Florida.
On May 12, Cunanan began staying at the Normandy Plaza Hotel in Miami Beach, Florida, where he paid $29 per night in cash. On June 12, he was listed on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list. While the manhunt unsuccessfully focused on Reese's stolen truck that Cunanan was using, the killer "hid in plain sight" for two months. Cunanan used his own name to pawn a stolen item on July 7, despite knowing that police routinely reviewed pawn shop records. On July 14, seemingly out of money, Cunanan checked out of his hotel without paying for his last night there.
Gianni Versace
Around 8:45a.m. on July 15, Cunanan murdered 50-year-old Gianni Versace on the front steps of Casa Casuarina, his mansion in Miami Beach. Versace was returning from a visit to the News Cafe, where he picked up magazines, when he was shot once in the back of the head and once in the left cheek with the same Taurus pistol Cunanan used to murder Madson and Reese. A witness pursued Cunanan but was unable to catch him as he fled into a nearby parking garage. Versace was pronounced dead at Jackson Memorial Hospital at 9:21a.m.
Responding police found Reese's stolen vehicle in a nearby parking garage. It contained Cunanan's clothes and clippings of newspaper reports about the earlier murders.
Death
On July 23, 1997, Cunanan's body was found in a luxury houseboat in Miami Beach, after a caretaker reported hearing a gunshot to police. He shot himself in the head with the Taurus pistol stolen from Trail; it was the same weapon he used to kill Madson, Reese, and Versace.
Cunanan's cremated remains are interred in the mausoleum at Holy Cross Cemetery in San Diego.
Motive
Cunanan's motivation remains unknown; at the time of the murders there was extensive public and press speculation linking the crimes to Cunanan's alleged discovery that he was HIV positive, although an autopsy revealed he was HIV negative.
Although police searched the houseboat where Cunanan died, he left no suicide note and few personal belongings. Investigators noted Cunanan's reputation for acquiring money and expensive possessions from wealthy older men. Police considered few of the findings to be of note, except multiple tubes of hydrocortisone cream and a fairly extensive collection of fiction by C. S. Lewis.
In popular culture
Cunanan was portrayed by Shane Perdue in the film The Versace Murder (1998), Jonathan Trent in the film Murder in Fashion (2009), Luke Morrison in the television film House of Versace (2013), and Darren Criss in The Assassination of Gianni Versace (2018), the second season of the television series American Crime Story.
He has also been the subject of several true crime television series' episodes: Mugshots on Court TV, with "Andrew Cunanan – The Versace Killer", and Six Degrees of Murder, with "The Body in the Rug". He has also been featured on ABC's news television series 20/20, and Investigation Discovery's show Most Evil in various episodes, where he is examined by Columbia University forensic psychiatrist Michael H. Stone.
See also
List of serial killers in the United States
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Andrew Cunanan's FBI file
1969 births
1997 deaths
1997 murders in the United States
20th-century American criminals
American male criminals
American male prostitutes
American spree killers
American people of Filipino descent
American people of Kapampangan descent
American people of Italian descent
FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives
Fugitives
Gay men
LGBT American people of Asian descent
LGBT people from California
Male serial killers
Murder–suicides in Florida
People from Chula Vista, California
People from National City, California
People from San Diego
People with antisocial personality disorder
1997 suicides
Suicides by firearm in Florida
University of California, San Diego alumni
Violence against men in North America | [
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|
214241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenoid | Terpenoid | The terpenoids, also known as isoprenoids, are a large and diverse class of naturally occurring organic chemicals derived from the 5-carbon compound isoprene, and the isoprene polymers called terpenes. While sometimes used interchangeably with "terpenes", terpenoids contain additional functional groups, usually containing oxygen. Terpenoids are the largest class of plant secondary metabolites, representing about 60% of known natural products. Many terpenoids have substantial pharmacological bioactivity and are therefore of interest to medicinal chemists.
Plant terpenoids are used for their aromatic qualities and play a role in traditional herbal remedies. Terpenoids contribute to the scent of eucalyptus, the flavors of cinnamon, cloves, and ginger, the yellow color in sunflowers, and the red color in tomatoes. Well-known terpenoids include citral, menthol, camphor, salvinorin A in the plant Salvia divinorum, the cannabinoids found in cannabis, ginkgolide and bilobalide found in Ginkgo biloba, and the curcuminoids found in turmeric and mustard seed. The provitamin beta carotene is a terpene derivative called a carotenoid.
The steroids and sterols in animals are biologically produced from terpenoid precursors. Sometimes terpenoids are added to proteins, e.g., to enhance their attachment to the cell membrane; this is known as isoprenylation.
Structure and classification
Terpenoids are modified terpenes, wherein methyl groups have been moved or removed, or oxygen atoms added. Some authors use the term "terpene" more broadly, to include the terpenoids. Just like terpenes, the terpenoids can be classified according to the number of isoprene units that comprise the parent terpene:
Terpenoids can also be classified according to the type and number of cyclic structures they contain: linear, acyclic, monocyclic, bicyclic, tricyclic, tetracyclic, pentacyclic, or macrocyclic. The Salkowski test can be used to identify the presence of terpenoids.
Biosynthesis
Terpenoids, at least those containing an alcohol functional group, often arise by hydrolysis of carbocationic intermediates produced from geranyl pyrophosphate. Analogously hydrolysis of intermediates from farnesyl pyrophosphate gives sesquiterpenoids, and hydrolysis of intermediates from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate gives diterpenoids, etc.
See also
List of antioxidants in food
List of phytochemicals in food
Nutrition
Phytochemistry
Secondary metabolites
References
External links
IUPAC definition of terpenoids
Plant communication
cs:Izoprenoidy
es:Terpenoides
it:Terpeni | [
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|
214242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpene | Terpene | Terpenes () are a class of natural products consisting of compounds with the formula (C5H8)n. Comprising more than 30,000 compounds, these unsaturated hydrocarbons are produced predominantly by plants, particularly conifers. Terpenes are further classified by the number of carbons: monoterpenes (C10), sesquiterpenes (C15), diterpenes (C20), etc. A well known monoterpene is alpha-pinene, a major component of turpentine.
History and terminology
The term "terpene" was coined in 1866 by the German chemist August Kekulé. The name "terpene" is a shortened form of "terpentine", an obsolete spelling of "turpentine".
Although sometimes used interchangeably with "terpenes", terpenoids (or isoprenoids) are modified terpenes that contain additional functional groups, usually oxygen-containing. The terms terpenes and terpenoids are used interchangeably by some. Both have strong and often pleasant odors, which may protect their hosts or attract pollinators. The inventory of terpenes and terpenoids is estimated at 55,000 chemical entities.
The 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Leopold Ružička "for his work on polymethylenes and higher terpenes", "including the first chemical synthesis of male sex hormones."
Biological function
Terpenes are also major biosynthetic building blocks. Steroids, for example, are derivatives of the triterpene squalene. Terpenes and terpenoids are also the primary constituents of the essential oils of many types of plants and flowers. In plants, terpenes and terpenoids are important mediators of ecological interactions. For example, they play a role in plant defense against herbivory, disease resistance, attraction of mutualists such as pollinators, as well as potentially plant-plant communication. They appear to play roles as antifeedants. Other functions of terpenoids include cell growth modulation and plant elongation, light harvesting and photoprotection, and membrane permeability and fluidity control.
Higher amounts of terpenes are released by trees in warmer weather, where they may function as a natural mechanism of cloud seeding. The clouds reflect sunlight, allowing the forest temperature to regulate.
Some insects use some terpenes as a form of defense. For example, termites of the subfamily Nasutitermitinae ward off predatory insects through the use of a specialized mechanism called a fontanellar gun, which ejects a resinous mixture of terpenes.
Applications
The one terpene that has major applications is natural rubber (i.e. polyisoprene). The possibility that other terpenes could be used as precursors to produce synthetic polymers has been investigated as an alternative to the use of petroleum-based feedstocks. However, few of these applications have been commercialized. Many other terpenes, however, have smaller scale commercial and industrial applications. For example, turpentine, a mixture of terpenes (e.g. pinene), obtained from the distillation of pine tree resin, is used as an organic solvent and as a chemical feedstock (mainly for the production of other terpenoids). Rosin, another by-product of conifer tree resin, is widely used as an ingredient in a variety of industrial products, such as inks, varnishes and adhesives. Terpenes are widely used as fragrances and flavors in consumer products such as perfumes, cosmetics and cleaning products, as well as food and drink products. For example, the aroma and flavor of hops comes, in part, from sesquiterpenes (mainly α-humulene and β-caryophyllene), which affect beer quality. Some form hydroperoxides that are valued as catalysts in the production of polymers.
Many terpenes have been shown to have pharmacological effects, although most studies are from laboratory research, and clinical research in humans is preliminary. Terpenes are also components of some traditional medicines, such as aromatherapy.
Terpenes (and terpenoids) are prevalent in cannabis (marijuana) and have been postulated to modulate the medicinal or psychological effects of cannabinoids (e.g., THC or CBD) in humans; this is often referred to as the "entourage effect".
However, there is currently little human clinical data supporting this hypothesis.
Reflecting their defensive role in plants, terpenes are used as active ingredients of pesticides in agriculture.
Physical and chemical properties
Terpenes are colorless, although impure samples are often yellow. Boiling points scale with molecular size: terpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes respectively at 110, 160, and 220 °C. Being highly non-polar, they are insoluble in water. Being hydrocarbons, they are highly flammable and have low specific gravity (float on water).
Terpenoids (mono-, sesqui-, di-, etc.) have similar physical properties but tend to be more polar and hence slightly more soluble in water and somewhat less volatile than their terpene analogues. Highly polar derivative of terpenoids are the glycosides, which are linked to sugars. They are water-soluble solids. They are tactilely light oils considerably less viscous than familiar vegetable oils like corn oil (28 cP), with viscosity ranging from 1 cP (ala water) to 6 cP. Like other hydrocarbons, they are highly flammable. Terpenes are local irritants and can cause gastrointestinal disturbances if ingested.
Biosynthesis
Isoprene unit formation
Conceptually derived from isoprenes, the structures and formulas of terpenes follow the biogenetic isoprene rule or the C5 rule, as described in 1953 by Leopold Ružička and colleagues. The C5 isoprene units are provided in the form of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP). DMAPP and IPP are structural isomers to each other. This pair of building blocks are produced by two distinct metabolic pathways: the mevalonate (MVA) pathway and the non-mevalonate (MEP) pathway. These two pathways are mutually exclusive in most organisms, except for some bacteria and land plants. In general, archaea and eukaryotes mostly have the MVA pathway, while bacteria mostly have the MEP pathway. IPP and DMAPP are final products of both MVA and MEP pathways and the relative abundance of these two isoprene units is enzymatically regulated in host organisms.
Mevalonate (MVA) pathway
This pathway conjugates three molecules of acetyl CoA.
The MVA pathway is distributed in all three domains of life; archaea, bacteria and eukaryotes. The MVA pathway is universally distributed in archaea and non-photosynthetic eukaryotes, while the pathway is sparse in bacteria. In photosynthetic eukaryotes, some species possess the MVA pathway, while others have the MEP pathway or both MVA and MEP pathways. This is due to the acquisition of the MEP pathway by a common ancestor of Archaeplastida (algae + land plants) through the endosymbiosis of ancestral cyanobacteria that possessed the MEP pathway. The MVA and MEP pathways were selectively lost in individual photosynthetic lineages.
Also, the archaeal MVA pathway is not completely homologous to the eukaryotic MVA pathway. Instead, the eukaryotic MVA pathway is closer to the bacterial MVA pathway.
Non-mevalonate (MEP) pathway
The non-mevalonate pathway or the 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway starts with pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) as the carbon source.
C5 IPP and C5 DMAPP are the end-products in either pathway, and are the precursors of terpenoids with various carbon numbers (typically C5 to C40), side chains of (bacterio)chlorophylls, hemes and quinones. Synthesis of all higher terpenoids proceeds via formation of geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP), farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP), and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP).
Geranyl pyrophosphate phase and beyond
In both MVA and MEP pathways, IPP is isomerized to DMAPP by the enzyme isopentenyl pyrophosphate isomerase. IPP and DMAPP condense to give geranyl pyrophosphate, the precursor to monoterpenes and monoterpenoids.
Geranyl pyrophosphate is also converted to farnesyl pyrophosphate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, respectively C15 and C20 precursors to sesquiterpenes and diterpenes (as well as sesequiterpenoids and diterpenoids). Biosynthesis is mediated by terpene synthase.
Terpenes to terpenoids
The genomes of 17 plant species contain genes that encode terpenoid synthase enzymes imparting terpenes with their basic structure, and cytochrome P450s that modify this basic structure.
Structure
Terpenes can be visualized as the result of linking isoprene (C5H8) units "head to tail" to form chains and rings. A few terpenes are linked “tail to tail”, and larger branched terpenes may be linked “tail to mid”.
Formula
Strictly speaking all monoterpenes have the same chemical formula C10H16. Similarly all sesquiterpenes and diterpenes have formulas of C15H24 and C20H32 respectively. The structural diversity of mono-, sesqui-, and diterpenes is a consequence of isomerism.
Chirality
Terpenes and terpenoids are usually chiral. Chiral compounds can exist as non-superposable mirror images, which exhibit distinct physical properties such as odor or toxicity.
Unsaturation
Most terpenes and terpenoids feature C=C groups, i.e. they exhibit unsaturation. Since they carry no functional groups aside from their unsaturation, terpenes are structurally distinctive. The unsaturation is associated with di- and trisubstituted alkenes. Di- and trisubstituted alkenes resist polymerization (low ceiling temperatures) but are susceptible to acid-induced carbocation formation.
Classification
Terpenes may be classified by the number of isoprene units in the molecule; a prefix in the name indicates the number of isoprene pairs needed to assemble the molecule. Commonly, terpenes contain 2, 3, 4 or 6 isoprene units; the tetraterpenes (8 isoprene units) form a separate class of compounds called carotenoids; the others are rare.
Hemiterpenes consist of a single isoprene unit. Isoprene itself is the only hemiterpene, but oxygen-containing derivatives such as prenol and isovaleric acid are hemiterpenoids.
Monoterpenes consist of two isoprene units and have the molecular formula C10H16. Examples of monoterpenes and monoterpenoids include geraniol, terpineol (present in lilacs), limonene (present in citrus fruits), myrcene (present in hops), linalool (present in lavender), hinokitiol (present in cypress trees) or pinene (present in pine trees). Iridoids derive from monoterpenes. Examples of iridoids include aucubin and catalpol.
Sesquiterpenes consist of three isoprene units and have the molecular formula C15H24. Examples of sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpenoids include humulene, farnesenes, farnesol, geosmin. (The sesqui- prefix means one and a half.)
Diterpenes are composed of four isoprene units and have the molecular formula C20H32. They derive from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. Examples of diterpenes and diterpenoids are cafestol, kahweol, cembrene and taxadiene (precursor of taxol). Diterpenes also form the basis for biologically important compounds such as retinol, retinal, and phytol.
Sesterterpenes, terpenes having 25 carbons and five isoprene units, are rare relative to the other sizes. (The sester- prefix means two and a half.) An example of a sesterterpenoid is geranylfarnesol.
Triterpenes consist of six isoprene units and have the molecular formula C30H48. The linear triterpene squalene, the major constituent of shark liver oil, is derived from the reductive coupling of two molecules of farnesyl pyrophosphate. Squalene is then processed biosynthetically to generate either lanosterol or cycloartenol, the structural precursors to all the steroids.
Sesquarterpenes are composed of seven isoprene units and have the molecular formula C35H56. Sesquarterpenes are typically microbial in their origin. Examples of sesquarterpenoids are ferrugicadiol and tetraprenylcurcumene.
Tetraterpenes contain eight isoprene units and have the molecular formula C40H64. Biologically important tetraterpenoids include the acyclic lycopene, the monocyclic gamma-carotene, and the bicyclic alpha- and beta-carotenes.
Polyterpenes consist of long chains of many isoprene units. Natural rubber consists of polyisoprene in which the double bonds are cis. Some plants produce a polyisoprene with trans double bonds, known as gutta-percha.
Norisoprenoids, such as the C13-norisoprenoid 3-oxo-α-ionol present in Muscat of Alexandria leaves and 7,8-dihydroionone derivatives, such as and found in Shiraz leaves (both grapes in the species Vitis vinifera) or wine (responsible for some of the spice notes in Chardonnay), can be produced by fungal peroxidases or glycosidases.
Industrial syntheses
While terpenes and terpenoids occur widely, their extraction from natural sources is often problematic. Consequently, they are produced by chemical synthesis, usually from petrochemicals. In one route, acetone and acetylene are condensed to give 2-Methylbut-3-yn-2-ol, which is extended with acetoacetic ester to give geranyl alcohol. Others are prepared from those terpenes and terpenoids that are readily isolated in quantity, say from the paper and tall oil industries. For example, α-pinene, which is readily obtainable from natural sources, is converted to citronellal and camphor. Citronellal is also converted to rose oxide and menthol.
References
External links
Institute of Chemistry - terpenes
Structures of alpha pinene and beta pinene
This contains a detailed survey of the chemistry of many terpenes, which had recently been investigated fully.
Plant communication | [
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|
214243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College%20of%20Staten%20Island | College of Staten Island | The College of Staten Island (CSI) is a public college in Staten Island, New York. It is one of the 11 four-year senior colleges within the City University of New York system. Programs in the liberal arts and sciences and professional studies lead to bachelor's and associate degrees. The master's degree is awarded in 13 professional and liberal arts and sciences fields of study. A clinical doctorate is awarded by the department of physical therapy. The college participates in doctoral programs of the CUNY Graduate Center in biochemistry, biology, chemistry, computer science, nursing, physics, and psychology.
History
The College of Staten Island is the product of a merger in 1976 of Staten Island Community College (SICC), founded in 1956, and Richmond College, founded in 1965. Richmond College had been threatened with closure because of New York City's financial crisis, while SICC, because of its status as a community college, received state support. The merger was particularly logical since the community college offered two-year degrees, while Richmond College was an "upper divisional" college (the third in the nation) that offered degrees to those in their third and fourth years of schooling.
The College of Staten Island has been located on the grounds of the former Willowbrook State School since 1993. It is the largest campus, in terms of physical size, in New York City. Before the relocation to Willowbrook, the college had a split campus, located at the former Staten Island Community College (in Sunnyside, on Todt Hill; the campus now houses the Michael J. Petrides School) and Richmond College (in St. George).
Presidents
Walter L. Willig, 1955–1968, was the inaugural president of College of Staten Island predecessor institution Staten Island Community College (SICC). His academic area of expertise was civil engineering.
Herbert Schueler, 1966–1973, was the first president of College of Staten Island predecessor institution Richmond College. His academic specialties were German literature and philosophy.
William M. Birenbaum, 1968–1976, served as president of College of Staten Island predecessor institution Staten Island Community College (SICC) until the merger of SICC and Richmond College in 1976, which resulted in the formation of the College of Staten Island. His academic focus was access to higher education for all.
Edmond Volpe, 1976–1994, an American literature scholar, retired in 1994, after having successfully handled the merger of the two colleges and the unification of the two campuses.
Marlene Springer, 1994–2007, an English and American literature scholar, under whose leadership the college improved academic standards, introduced several master's programs, raised the level of the faculty, added research institutes, and introduced an Honors College, The Verrazano School, and the CSI High School for International Studies, retired in August 2007
Tomás D. Morales, 2007–2012; arranged for a free shuttle from the Staten Island Ferry to the Willowbrook campus; announced in May 2012 that he would be leaving to become president of California State University at San Bernardino some months after the faculty senate passed a motion of no confidence
William J. Fritz, geologist, appointed interim president on August 15, 2012, and as president on May 6, 2014
Academics
Research
CSI has more than 80 science labs which includes the Center for Developmental Neuroscience and The CUNY Interdisciplinary High-Performance Computing Center (HPCC). HPPC is made to advance the university's educational and research mission by providing advanced high-performance computing technology resources and corresponding technical assistance to faculty and students. It is one of the most powerful supercomputers in the region.
Rankings
As of the 2016 school year, U.S. News & World Report has ranked The College of Staten Island between 146th and 187th in their Best Regional Universities in the North category, and tied for 118th in Best Undergraduate Engineering Programs that do not offer a doctorate, yet the college is unranked nationally. For 2018, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings has placed The College of Staten Island between 601st and 800th in their US University Rankings category, while Forbes ranks the college 451st nationally, 152nd in their Public Colleges category, and 164th in the Northeast. Furthermore, Forbes ranks the college 111th in their America's Best Value Colleges. The college is also very research oriented and the High Impact Universities Research Performance Index (RPI) grades CSI with a B for its research performance. Furthermore, the college is ranked 37th nationally in the 2017 SMI Ranking which measures the upward economic mobility.
Athletics
The College of Staten Island athletic teams are known as the Dolphins. The university is a provisional member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division II, and set to join the East Coast Conference (ECC) in the 2020–21 academic year. The university previously competed at the Division III level as a member of the City University of New York Athletic Conference (CUNYAC) from 1979–80 to 2019–20. The college began the transition to Division II during the 2019–20 season playing a mixed schedule of Division II and Division III teams, the college. During the following two years of provisional status the Dolphins will compete in the conference and are eligible for conference awards but will not be eligible for ECC and NCAA championships until completing the transition process for the 2022–23 academic year. The men's and women's swimming and diving teams will remain in the Metropolitan Swimming Conference (METS) as the ECC doesn't sponsor the sport. The college competes in 16 sports. Men's sports are baseball, basketball, cross country, soccer, swimming and diving, tennis, and track and field (indoor and outdoor); women's sports are basketball, cross country, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, and track and field (indoor and outdoor).
Notable people
Faculty/staff
Nancy Bogen, professor of English, producer of mixed media combining photography, poetry and music
Patricia J. Brooks, professor of psychology, director of the Language Learning Laboratory
Jean Halley, professor of sociology, focusing on issues of social power
Tyehimba Jess, professor of English, recipient of 2017 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry
Sarah Schulman, CUNY distinguished professor of the Humanities, novelist, playwright, nonfiction writer, screenwriter and AIDS historian
Patricia Smith, professor of English, winner of the 2018 NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Literary Work—Poetry
Charles Liu, professor of Astrophysics, former director of the Verrazano School and of the William E. Macaulay Honors College at CSI
Cate Marvin, professor of English, writer of poetry and recipient of 2015 Guggenheim Fellowship
Alumni
Farooque Ahmed, imprisoned for planning to bomb Washington Metro stations
Joanne Bland, civil rights activist in Alabama
Justin Brannan, New York City Council since 2018, representing Brooklyn; former musician
Sara M. Gonzalez, New York City Council 2002–2014, representing Brooklyn
Vinny Guadagnino, American reality television personality, best known for MTV's Jersey Shore
Muriel A. Howard, president of Buffalo State College 1996–2009
Raj Amit Kumar, filmmaker and writer, best known for Unfreedom which is banned in India
Jeremy Luke, film and television actor
Bahman Maghsoudlou, filmmaker and film historian, CSI Alumni Hall of Fame
Michael Mulgrew, fifth President of the United Federation of Teachers
Joe Rigby, jazz saxophonist, NYC music teacher of the year 1996
Gene Simmons, co-lead singer and bassist from the band Kiss
Kevin Sussman, actor in The Big Bang Theory.
References
External links
Official website
Official athletics website
Staten Island, College of
Universities and colleges in Staten Island
1976 establishments in New York City | [
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|
214246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20of%20Gonzaga | House of Gonzaga | The House of Gonzaga (, ) is an Italian princely family that ruled Mantua in Lombardy, Northern Italy from 1328 to 1708 (first as a captaincy-general, then margraviate, and finally duchy). They also ruled Monferrato in Piedmont and Nevers in France, as well as many other lesser fiefs throughout Europe. The family includes a saint, twelve cardinals and fourteen bishops. Two Gonzaga descendants became empresses of the Holy Roman Empire (Eleonora Gonzaga and Eleonora Gonzaga-Nevers), and one became queen of Poland (Marie Louise Gonzaga).
History
The first members of the family of historical importance are known to have collaborated with the Guelph faction alongside the monks of the Polirone Abbey. Starting from the 12th century they became a dominant family in Mantua, growing in wealth when their allies, the Bonacolsi, defeated the traditional familiar enemy, the Casalodi. In 1328, however, Ludovico I Gonzaga overthrew the Bonacolsi lordship over the city with the help of the Scaliger, and entered the Ghibelline party as capitano del popolo ("people's captain") of Mantua and imperial vicar of Emperor Louis IV.
Ludovico was succeeded by Guido (1360–1369) and Ludovico II (1369–1382), while Feltrino, lord of Reggio until 1371, formed the cadet branch of the Gonzaga of Novellara, whose state existed until 1728. Francesco I (1382–1407) abandoned the traditional alliance with the Visconti of Milan, in order to align their rising power with the Republic of Venice.
In 1433, Gianfrancesco I assumed the title of Marquis of Mantua with the recognition of Emperor Sigismund, while obtaining recognition from the local nobility through the marriage of his daughter Margherita to Leonello d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara in 1435. In 1530 Federico II (1500–1540) received the title of Duke of Mantua. In 1531, the family acquired the Marquisate of Montferrat through marriage. Through maternal ancestors, the Gonzagas inherited also the Imperial Byzantine ancestry of the Paleologus, an earlier ruling family of Montferrat.
A cadet branch of the Mantua Gonzagas became dukes of Nevers and Rethel in France when Luigi (Louis) Gonzaga, a younger son of Federico II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, and Margherita Paleologa, married the heiress. The Gonzaga-Nevers later came to rule Mantua again when Louis's son Charles (Carlo) inherited Mantua and Montferrat, triggering the War of the Mantuan Succession.
Another cadet branch were first sovereign counts, later dukes of Guastalla. They descended from Ferrante, a younger son of Duke Francesco II of Mantua (1484–1519). Ferrante's grandson, Ferrante II, also played a role in the War of the Mantuan Succession. A further cadet branch was that of Sabbioneta, founded by Gianfrancesco, son of Ludovico III.
Marie Louise Gonzaga, daughter of Prince Charles Gonzaga-Nevers, was a Polish queen consort from 1645 to her death in 1667.
Two daughters of the house, both named Eleanor Gonzaga, became Holy Roman Empresses, by marrying emperors Ferdinand II of Germany and Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, respectively. From the latter Empress Eleonora, the current heirs of the Gonzaga descend.
Saint Aloysius Gonzaga was a member of a junior branch of this family.
The House of Gonzaga is the inspiration for the play-within-the-play in Shakespeare's Hamlet. In Act 3 scene 2, they act out a play called The Murder of Gonzago (or The Mousetrap).
Gonzaga rule continued in Mantua until 1708 and in Guastalla until 1746. Both ruling lines going extinct until passing on to a minor Gonzaga-Vescovato branch, which is the only remaining existing branch.
Family tree
The branches of the Gonzaga family, showing marquises and (subsequently) dukes of Mantua in bold, dukes of Nevers and Rethel in italics and the Guastalla line to the right.
Saint Aloysius Gonzaga
Aloysius Gonzaga, SJ 1568–1591, canonized by the Catholic Church in 1726
Roman Catholic cardinals
Francesco Gonzaga (1444–1483)
Sigismondo Gonzaga (1469–1525)
Pirro Gonzaga (1490–1529)
Ercole Gonzaga (1505–63)
Francesco Gonzaga (1538–66)
Federico Gonzaga (1540–65)
Giovanni Vincenzo Gonzaga (1540–91)
Scipione Gonzaga (1542–93)
Francesco Gonzaga (1546–1620)
Ferdinando Gonzaga (1587–1626), became Duke of Mantua, as Ferdinando I, in 1612
Vincenzo Gonzaga (1594–1627), became Duke of Mantua, as Vincenzo II, in 1626
See also
Duchy of Mantua, a list of House of Gonzaga rulers
Duchy of Guastalla
Duchy of Sabbioneta
County of Novellara and Bagnolo
Bibliography
References
External links
Albero genealogico dei Gonzaga
Nobility of Mantua | [
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214249 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico%20II%20Gonzaga%2C%20Duke%20of%20Mantua | Federico II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua | Federico II of Gonzaga (17 May 1500 – 28 August 1540) was the ruler of the Italian city of Mantua (first as Marquis, later as Duke) from 1519 until his death. He was also Marquis of Montferrat from 1536.
Biography
Federico was son of Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua and Isabella d'Este. Due to the turbulent politics of the time, from the age of ten, he spent three years as a hostage in Rome under Pope Julius II. From 1515 to 1517, Federico was the hostage of King Francis I of France, to ensure Gonzaga assistance in Italy.
On 3 April 1519, Federico succeeded his father as Marquis of Mantua, initially under the regency of his mother and his uncles Sigismondo and Giovanni Gonzaga. He received the imperial investiture from emperor Charles V on 7 April 1521. Pope Leo X named him Captain General of the Church (commander in chief of the Papal Army) in July 1521, and he fought against the French at Parma in 1521 and at Piacenza in 1522.
Federico signed a marriage contract with the heir to the Marquisate of Monteferrat, Maria Palaeologina, with the aim of acquiring that land. In 1528, however, in exchange for two prisoners, Pope Clement VII voided the marriage contract.
Federico then signed another marriage contract with Charles V's third cousin, Julia of Aragon. In lieu of this move, in 1530 he was granted the ducal title, whereby their dynasty became Dukes of Mantua. However, when Boniface died by a fall from horse on 25 March of that year, Federico paid 50,000 ducats to Charles in exchange for the annulment of the contract, and pushed the pope for the restoration of his earlier marriage agreement. When Maria also died, he was able to marry her sister Margaret on 3 October 1531. At the death of the last legitimate male heir of the Palaiologos family, Giovanni Giorgio (1533), the marquisate of Montferrat passed to the Gonzaga, who held it until the 18th century.
Like his parents, he was a patron of the arts; he commissioned the Palazzo Te, designed and decorated by Giulio Romano, as his summer palace just outside Mantua. Romano spent 16 years as court artist under Federico's patronage. He also bought and commissioned several paintings from Titian, and had his portrait painted by both Titian and Raphael.
Federico suffered long from syphilis, like his father. He died on 28 June 1540 at his villa at Marmirolo. His son Francesco briefly held the title of 2nd Duke of Mantua before dying in his teens; the second son, Gugliemo, became 3rd Duke of Mantua as well as Duke of Montferrat and carried on the line.
Family and issue
Federico and Margaret were parents to seven children:
Eleonora Gonzaga.
Anna Gonzaga.
Francesco III Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (10 March 1533 - 22 February 1550)
Isabella Gonzaga, married Francesco Ferdinando d'Ávalos
Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (24 April 1538 - 14 August 1587), married Archduchess Eleanor of Austria
Louis Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers (22 October 1539 - 23 October 1595). Father of Charles I, Duke of Mantua
Cardinal Federico Gonzaga (1540 - 21 February 1565).
Ancestry
See also
Sack of Rome
Italian Wars
References
Sources
External links
Biography
|-
1500 births
1540 deaths
Federico 2
Federico 2
Federico 2
Federico 2 of
16th-century Italian nobility
Burials at the Palatine Basilica of Santa Barbara (Mantua)
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|
214250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico%20III%20Gonzaga%2C%20Marquis%20of%20Mantua | Ludovico III Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua | Ludovico III Gonzaga of Mantua, also spelled Lodovico (also Ludovico II; 5 June 1412 – 12 June 1478) was the ruler of the Italian city of Mantua from 1444 to his death in 1478.
Biography
Ludovico was the son of Gianfrancesco I Gonzaga and Paola Malatesta daughter of Malatesta IV Malatesta of Pesaro.
Ludovico followed the path of his father, Gianfrancesco, fighting as a condottiero from as early as 1432, when Gianfrancesco was vice-commander of Francesco Bussone's army. In 1433, he married Barbara of Brandenburg, niece of emperor Sigismund.
Starting from 1436 (perhaps without the approval of his father) he entered the service of the Visconti of the Duchy of Milan. The result was that Gianfrancesco exiled Ludovico from Mantua, together with his wife, naming Carlo Gonzaga as heir. However, in 1438 Gianfrancesco himself was hired by the Visconti, and reconciled with Ludovico in 1441. Ludovico succeeded to the marquisate of Mantua in 1444, although part of the family fiefs went to his brothers Carlo, Gianlucido and Alessandro. At the time, the Mantuan state was reduced in size and in poor conditions after years of war and large expenses.
From 1445 to 1450 Ludovico served as condottiero for Milan, Florence, Venice, and Naples, switching his allegiance in order to grant a higher level of peace for his lands. In 1448 he took part in the battle of Caravaggio, and was forced to flee. In 1449 he entered the service of Venice in the league formed with Florence against Milan. In 1450 he received permission to lead an army for King Alfonso of Naples in Lombardy, with the intent of gaining some possessions for himself. However, Francesco Sforza, the new duke of Milan, enticed him into an alliance with the promise of turning over to him Lonato, Peschiera and Asola, formerly Mantuan territories but then part of Venice. Venice responded by sacking Castiglione delle Stiviere (1452) and hiring Ludovico's brother, Carlo.
Carlo Gonzaga invaded his brother Ludovico's Mantuan territories on the 9th of March 1453 with 4,000 soldiers, seizing Castelbelforte (then known as Castelbonafisso) and Bigarello. Ludovico gathered an army of 3,000 horse and 500 infantry and alongside with a detachment of Milanese troops led by the condottiere Tiberio Brandolini defeated Carlo at Castellaro Lagusello near Monzambano. Ludovico then pursued the retreating Carlo across the river Adige and on the 14th of June 1453 routed the troops of Carlo Gonzaga at Villabona near Goito. Venetian troops under Niccolò Piccinino however thwarted his attempt to regain Asola. The Peace of Lodi (1454) obliged Ludovico to give back all his conquests, and to renounce definitively his claim to the three cities. However, he obtained his brother's land after Carlo's childless death in 1456.
The moment of highest prestige for Mantua was the Council, held in the city from 27 May 1459 to 19 January 1460, summoned by Pope Pius II to launch a crusade against the Ottoman Turks, who had conquered Constantinople some years earlier. However, the pope was not satisfied with the host city, writing: "The place was marshy and unhealthy, and the heat burnt up everything; the wine was unpalatable and the food unpleasant." However, the council ended on a note of great personal prestige for Ludovico with the elevation of his son Francesco to the purple.
From 1466 Ludovico was more or less constantly at the service of the Sforza of Milan. He died in Goito in 1478, during a plague. He was buried in Mantua cathedral.
Education and enculturation
On the orders of his father, Ludovico's education had been entrusted to the humanist Vittorino da Feltre. Vittorino undertook "the difficult enterprise in the interests of the commonwealth for... the education of a good prince would benefit the people he ruled." The teaching was markedly moral and religious and contained a "vein of laical asceticism almost." This, argues the arts scholar Franco Borsi, explains not only Ludovico's religious faith that led him to found churches and host Pius II's Council, but also his concern for a humanistic culture and the growth in public works throughout the city, from the paving of the streets and building of a clock tower to the reorganization of the city centre. Among the famous humanists invited to the city was the Florentine Leon Battista Alberti, who designed the San Sebastiano church and the San' Andrea church. Also, in 1460, Ludovico appointed Andrea Mantegna as court artist to the Gonzaga family.
Ludovico is featured in the Treatise on Architecture, from circa 1465, by the Florentine sculptor-architect Antonio di Pietro Averlino (c. 1400 – c. 1469), better known as Filarete. The treatise takes the format of a Platonic dialogue, featuring an unnamed architect (evidently Filarete himself) who is building a new city for a princely patron (evidently Francesco Sforza of Milan). During the dialogue interspersing the treatise they are visited by another lord, in the figure of Ludovico: his role in the dialogue is to persuade Sforza that he has seen the error of his ways in showing favour to "modern architecture", by which is meant Gothic architecture, and, having seen the architecture of antiquity in Rome, now favours such architecture instead, which is also what Filarete is also trying to persuade his patron.
Children
Ludovico III and Barbara had fourteen children:
Federico (1438? – died in infancy).
Maddalena (1439? – died in infancy).
Elisabetta (1440? – died in infancy).
Federico I (1441 – 1484), Marquis of Mantua; married Margaret of Bavaria, daughter of Albert III, Duke of Bavaria and Anna, Duchess of Brunswick-Grubenhagen; and sister of John IV, Duke of Bavaria.had issue.
Francesco (1444 – 1483), created Cardinal by Pope Pius II.
Paola Bianca (1445-1447), died in infancy.
Gianfrancesco (1446 – 1496), Count of Sabbioneta and Lord of Bozzolo; married Antonia del Balzo. Had issue
Susanna (1447-1481), a nun at Santa Paola di Mantua.
Dorotea (1449-1467), married to Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan.
Cecilia (1451-1472), a nun at Santa Chiara di Mantua.
Rodolfo (1452–1495), Lord of Castiglione delle Stiviere, Solferino, Suzzara and Poviglio; married firstly daughter of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta and then Caterina Pico. His great-grandson was Aloysius Gonzaga.
Barbara (1455-1503), married in 1474 Eberhard I, Duke of Württemberg [One child who died young].
Ludovico (1460-1511), Bishop of Mantua.
Paola (1463-1497), married Leonhard, Count of Gorizia.
In addition, Ludovico III had two illegitimate daughters: Caterina (wife of Gianfrancesco Secco, Conte di Calcio) and Gabriella (wife of Corrado Fogliani, Marchese di Vighizzolo).
It was said that the daughters of Barbara and Ludovico III had hunched backs, that is why Susanna was spurned by Galeazzo Maria Sforza and the marriage with Dorotea was delayed until the Milanese court found that her physical problems aren't so notorious like her oldest sister. Leonhard of Gorizia also postponed his marriage to Paola due to this and when they eventually married they had one stillborn child as it is thought that this deformity in her made it harder to have children.
See also
Wars in Lombardy
References
Sources
1412 births
1478 deaths
Ludovico 02
15th-century condottieri
Ludovico 2 | [
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|
214256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordstrom | Nordstrom | Nordstrom, Inc. () is an American luxury department store chain. Founded in 1901 by John W. Nordstrom and Carl F. Wallin, it originated as a shoe store and evolved into a full-line retailer with departments for clothing, footwear, handbags, jewelry, accessories, cosmetics, and fragrances. Some stores feature home furnishings and wedding departments, and several have in-house cafes, restaurants, and espresso bars.
, Nordstrom operates 100 stores in 32 U.S. states and three Canadian provinces since entering the market in 2014. One location in Puerto Rico was in operation from 2015 through 2020. The corporate headquarters and flagship store are located in the former Frederick & Nelson building in Seattle, Washington; a second flagship store is located near Columbus Circle in New York City. Its subsidiaries include the off-price department store chain Nordstrom Rack and the members-only online store HauteLook.
Early history
John W. Nordstrom was born on February 15, 1871, in the town of Luleå in Northern Sweden. In 1887, Nordstrom immigrated to the United States at the age of 16. His name at birth was Johan Nordström, which he later anglicized to John Nordstrom. After landing in New York, he began working in Michigan and was able to save enough money to purchase a potato farm in Arlington, Washington. In 1897, he joined the Klondike Gold Rush in Canada's Yukon Territory. After two years of prospecting, he finally struck gold, but sold his disputed claim for $13,000. Returning to Seattle with his newfound wealth, he married Hilda Carlson in 1900 and searched for a business venture.
Operations during 20th century
Wallin & Nordstrom and Nordstrom Best
Nordstrom eventually settled on a shoe store that opened in 1901, called Wallin & Nordstrom. Carl F. Wallin, the co-founder of the store, was the owner of the adjacent shoe repair shop. John and Hilda had five children, three of whom would follow him into the family business, Everett W. (1903), Elmer J. (1904) and Lloyd N. Nordstrom.
In 1928, John W. Nordstrom retired and sold his shares to two of his sons, Everett and Elmer. In 1929, Wallin also retired and sold his shares to them. The 1930 grand opening of the remodeled Second Avenue store marked the change of name to Nordstrom's. Lloyd Nordstrom subsequently joined the company in 1933, and the three brothers ran the business together for almost forty years.
By 1958, Nordstrom had expanded to eight stores in two states but still sold only shoes. Apparel came with its purchase of Best's Apparel of Seattle in 1963, and the company's name was changed to Nordstrom Best.
Following renaming to Nordstrom
In 1971, the company was taken public on NASDAQ. It was moved to the New York Stock Exchange in 1999 under the ticker symbol JWN after John W. Nordstrom, its founder.
Their business continued beyond stores in 1974. On December 5, the National Football League announced the signing of a franchise agreement that would put a team in Seattle, Washington. Representing the family as majority partner of the consortium was Lloyd W. Nordstrom. However, he would never see a game as owner, as he died of a heart attack on January 20, 1976, eight months before the newly-christened Seattle Seahawks took the field. While the Nordstrom group had majority control, entrepreneur Herman Sarkowsky was the first chief operating officer.
By 1975, Nordstrom expanded into Alaska (the only time by acquisition) by purchasing Northern Commercial Company and opened its first Nordstrom Rack clearance store in Seattle. A strong northwest regional retailer with sales already approaching $250 million making it the third-largest specialty retailer in the United States, the company opened its first Southern California store at South Coast Plaza in Costa Mesa in 1978. By the early 1990s, it had opened 26 stores plus Racks in California. Subsequent expansion relied on creating a strongly decentralized regional structure, beginning with the Northeast in the Tysons Corner Center in Virginia (1988), the Midwest in the Oakbrook Center in Illinois (1991), the Southeast in Atlanta (1998), and the Southwest in Dallas (1996). In a new region, the initial store was used as a base for training and recruitment for subsequent expansion, and was usually backed by its own distribution center. From 1978 to 1995, Nordstrom opened a total of 46 full-line department stores.
In 1976, Nordstrom opened a series of stores called Place Two to sell a more limited selection of apparel in smaller markets. By 1983, there were ten Place Two stores, but the cost of upgrading the smaller stores, especially from a systems perspective, outweighed the benefit, and the division was discontinued. The last two remaining Place Two stores closed on April 1, 1995. The company also expanded into direct sales in 1993, beginning with a catalog division led by John N.'s son Dan that was followed by an e-commerce business. Nordstrom.com's fulfillment and contact centers are located in Cedar Rapids, Iowa; and Seattle, Washington. Currently, it has distribution centers in Ontario, California; Newark, California; Portland, Oregon; Dubuque, Iowa; Upper Marlboro, Maryland; and Gainesville, Florida.
Nordstrom FSB, a wholly owned subsidiary of Nordstrom, Inc., is a federally chartered savings bank doing business as Nordstrom Bank. It was formed in 1991 in Scottsdale, Arizona, with its customer contact center in Centennial, Colorado. Nordstrom FSB was formerly known as Nordstrom National Credit Bank and changed its name to Nordstrom FSB in March 2000. The bank offers various banking and credit products, such as Nordstrom Signature VISA, Nordstrom retail credit and debit cards, interest-bearing checking accounts, check cards, and certificates of deposits. It offers Nordstrom customers cards under Nordstrom Rewards – its customer loyalty program – where customers earn points when making purchases with the card at Nordstrom and other retailers. Other rewards include Nordstrom Notes which are redeemed or used like cash in stores for new purchases and the Nordstrom Signature VISA card also has an optional travel/leisure rewards feature. The Nordstrom Rewards program features 4 levels of status depending on annual spending and offers various promotional times throughout the year to earn double, triple and even ten-times points.
In 1995, Nordstrom opened their first store location in New York State. It is located at The Westchester, an upscale shopping mall in White Plains, New York, a suburb of New York City. Nordstrom has since opened stores in Garden City, New York, and Manhattan (in 2019).
Beginning in 1995, the fourth generation of brothers and cousins had been co-presidents for a time. After John Whitacre was appointed as the first non-Nordstrom CEO in 1997, In 1998, Nordstrom replaced its downtown Seattle store with a new flagship location in the former Frederick & Nelson building across the street. A two-year renovation of this location was completed in 2016. At , the downtown Seattle location is the chain's largest store. By contrast, the smallest Nordstrom store, as of September 2008, opened in 1980 in Salem, Oregon, with a total area of just under . This location has since closed.
Operations during 21st century
2000–2009
In 2000 the Nordstrom family reasserted its control, with the sons of Bruce A. (Blake, Erik and Peter) assuming senior roles in the company which they continue to hold. Blake Nordstrom served as sole President of the company from 2000 to 2014 with Erik and Peter joining him as co-Presidents in 2015.
Nordstrom sold its stand-alone boutique chain Façonnable in 2007, though it still offers that label in its lineup.
2010–2019
In February 2011, Nordstrom announced the acquisition of HauteLook, an LA-based online retailer that offers flash sales on designer goods. The deal included Nordstrom paying $180 million in stock and a three-year "earn-out" payment based on HauteLook's financial performance. On May 26, 2011, Nordstrom announced that they would be closing the downtown Indianapolis, Indiana Circle Center Mall location due to declining business at the site. The remaining location on the north side of the city at the Fashion Mall at Keystone as well as the future Nordstrom Rack store in the Rivers Edge Shopping Center, also on the north side, remained as the only two locations in the state. Erik Nordstrom, president of stores at Nordstrom stated, "We've enjoyed serving our customers in downtown Indianapolis, but unfortunately our business has declined over the long term for some time and despite our efforts to turn things around we don't see the outlook significantly changing."
In August 2011, Nordstrom opened the store Treasure & Bond in SoHo, New York. Intended to test the waters of the tumultuous high-end department store scene in New York, all profits of Treasure & Bond are donated to charity. The customer base of the smaller store is thought to be the younger sisters of the typical Nordstrom customer.
Nordstrom announced plans to open a Nordstrom Rack in Milwaukee in 2014. In late November 2012, Nordstrom announced that they would also be opening a full-line Nordstrom Department Store in 2015 in Milwaukee at Mayfair Mall, a half-mile away from the Nordstrom Rack location. Milwaukee was the largest metropolitan area in the country that did not have a Nordstrom until 2015. Such unmet demand was highlighted in Nordstrom's decision to open in the Milwaukee area.
On January 4, 2013, Nordstrom announced plans for a new location in the Minneapolis-Saint Paul metropolitan region. The store, to be located at the Ridgedale Center, would be the second in the area. Following the success of its Mall of America opening in 1991, Nordstrom sought to expand in the Twin Cities market. Plans for a Ridgedale Center store were first released in 2007, only to be canceled in 2009. The location eventually opened in September 2015.
In May 2015, Pete and Erik Nordstrom joined their brother Blake Nordstrom as co-presidents of Nordstrom. This arrangement lasted until Blake Nordstrom's death in January 2019.
Before this appointment, Pete Nordstrom was executive vice president and president of merchandising while Erik Nordstrom was executive vice president and president of Nordstrom.com.
Nordstrom opened its first Rack location in Philadelphia in the fall of 2014. In the fall of 2015, Nordstrom opened their first Nordstrom Rack store in Delaware. The company is opening its first full-line store in New York City on April 12, 2018, a three-floor store at 57th Street and Broadway, in the Columbus Circle neighborhood.
In 2016, Nordstrom entered into a partnership with Tesla Motors under which the automaker opened retail galleries inside the Nordstrom locations in The Grove, Los Angeles, in SouthPark Mall in Charlotte, North Carolina and in Somerset Collection in Troy, Michigan.
In 2016, Nordstrom began selling products from J. Crew, Olivia Palermo + Chelsea28, Adore Me, and Eloquii. In 2017, Nordstrom announced they would be expanding their natural beauty-focused stations.
On February 2, 2017, Bloomberg News reported that Nordstrom would cease to carry Ivanka Trump's branded fashion line, citing weak sales. The retailer cuts 10 percent of its most poorly performing brands each year. Nordstrom's action came after a boycott campaign against retailers carrying products having Trump family labels. President Donald Trump responded with a tweet directed at Nordstrom, condemning the brand for its treatment of his daughter. The company's stock dropped by 0.65% in the aftermath of the tweet before ending the day with a gain of more than 4%. Fortune declared this quick recovery to have broken Trump's market-moving "tweet curse".
In October 2017, Nordstrom launched its first "Nordstrom Local" in West Hollywood, which is set to focus on personal shopping and styling, rather than carrying merchandise. In June 2017, Nordstrom Inc.'s founding family, which owned 31.2 percent of the company, said it was looking to take Nordstrom private. In October, the family suspended its efforts, because of trouble completing a financing package. Lenders were asking for 13 percent interest, about twice the typical rate for retailers.
On January 2, 2019 Blake Nordstrom, co-president of Nordstrom, died suddenly at the age of 58. He was a lifetime employee of his family's company, rising through the ranks until he became a vice-president and then co-president.
In fiscal year 2019, digital sales reached 33% of total sales, marking a growing transition to online retail.
2020–present
On March 3, 2020, Erik Nordstrom became the sole CEO of Nordstrom.
On March 16, the company announced that effective the following day, all locations would temporarily close during the COVID-19 pandemic. On May 5, Nordstrom began reopening stores and announced that sixteen locations would permanently close by August.
In late September, Nordstrom announced that by the end of 2021, their stores and websites would no longer sell products made from fur or exotic skins.
In October 2021, Nordstrom announced a partnership with 11 Honoré, a luxury e-retailer focused on plus-sized designer fashion, where the company's clothing will be accessible in Nordstrom stores as well as on the retailer's website.
International expansion
Canada
The Calgary store opened in Chinook Centre on September 19, 2014, the Ottawa store opened in Rideau Centre on March 6, 2015, the Vancouver Pacific Centre store opened on September 18, 2015, and the Toronto Eaton Centre in 2016. Later in 2016, a second Toronto location was opened at Yorkdale Shopping Centre on October 21, 2016. Additionally, a third Toronto store in Sherway Gardens opened on September 15, 2017. The first Nordstrom Rack opened at Vaughan Mills on March 21, 2018; and then a second location in Deerfoot Meadows in Calgary and a flagship location at One Bloor in Toronto opened on May 3, 2018. Nordstrom Rack opened three other additional stores in Fall 2018; one at Heartland Town Centre in Mississauga, one at Ottawa Trainyards, and finally one at South Edmonton Commons.
Puerto Rico
Nordstrom opened a 138,000-square-foot, two-level, full-line store March 2015 in The Mall of San Juan in San Juan, Puerto Rico. After Hurricane Maria in 2017, the store suffered major water damage and it closed temporarily after the hurricane. Nordstrom reopened the store on November 9, 2018.
List of banners
Brand identity
Logo
Sales events
Nordstrom holds six annual sales. Two of these are Half-Yearly sales, which take place semi-annually in May and late December, as well as three additional seasonal sales.
Nordstrom's largest sale event is the Nordstrom Anniversary Sale, which is held each July. Limited amounts of merchandise set to be released for the following fall are sent to Nordstrom stores early, where they are sold at discount. For ten days prior to Anniversary Sale, Nordstrom gives early access to members who make appointments.
Rankings
In 2009, Nordstrom was listed at No. 72 in Fortune magazine's 100 Best Companies to Work For 2009. Nordstrom is a Hall of Fame member of Fortune magazine's "100 Best Companies to Work For". Nordstrom was No. 36 on the same list in 2008, No. 24 in 2007, No. 46 in 2006 and No. 88 in 2005. For the 20th year in a row, they made the list coming in at No. 94 in 2017.
In 2010, it ranked number 53, and dropped to 61 in 2012.
In 2018, the company was ranked 183rd on the Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by revenue.
In December 2013, the fashion trade magazine, Women's Wear Daily reported Nordstrom as the top fashion retailer.
2019 was the 25th year that Nordstrom was listed on the Fortune 500.
References
External links
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Department stores of the United States
Department stores of Canada
Companies based in Seattle
Clothing retailers of the United States
American companies established in 1901
Retail companies established in 1901
1901 establishments in Washington (state)
1970s initial public offerings
[[Category:Nordstrom Guidenace ]]
Family-owned companies of the United States | [
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|
214257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateful%20firewall | Stateful firewall | In computing, a stateful firewall is a network-based firewall that individually tracks sessions of network connections traversing it. Stateful packet inspection, also referred to as dynamic packet filtering, is a security feature often used in non-commercial and business networks.
Description
A stateful firewall keeps track of the state of network connections, such as TCP streams, UDP datagrams, and ICMP messages, and can apply labels such as LISTEN, ESTABLISHED, or CLOSING. State table entries are created for TCP streams or UDP datagrams that are allowed to communicate through the firewall in accordance with the configured security policy. Once in the table, all RELATED packets of a stored session are streamlined allowed, taking fewer CPU cycles than standard inspection. Related packets are also permitted to return through the firewall even if no rule is configured to allow communications from that host. If no traffic is seen for a specified time (implementation dependent), the connection is removed from the state table. Applications can send keepalive messages periodically to prevent a firewall from dropping the connection during periods of no activity or for applications which by design have long periods of silence.
The method of maintaining a session's state depends on the transport protocol being used. TCP is a connection oriented protocol and sessions are established with a three-way handshake using SYN packets and ended by sending a FIN notification. The firewall can use these unique connection identifiers to know when to remove a session from the state table without waiting for a timeout. UDP is a connectionless protocol, which means it does not send unique connection related identifiers while communicating. Because of that, a session will only be removed from the state table after the configured time-out. UDP hole punching is a technology that abuses this trait to allow for dynamically setting up data tunnels over the internet. ICMP messages are distinct from TCP and UDP and communicate control information of the network itself. A well known example of this is the ping utility. ICMP responses will be allowed back through the firewall. In some scenarios, UDP communication can use ICMP to provide information about the state of the session so ICMP responses related to a UDP session will also be allowed back through.
See also
Computer security
Netfilter
References
Computer network security
Packets (information technology)
Data security
Cyberwarfare | [
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|
214261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Mutual | Washington Mutual | Washington Mutual, Inc—abbreviated to WaMu—was a savings bank holding company and the former owner of WaMu Bank, which was the United States' largest savings and loan association until its collapse in 2008.
On Thursday, September 25, 2008, the United States Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS) seized WaMu Bank from WaMu, Inc. and placed it into receivership with the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). The OTS took the action due to the withdrawal of $16.7 billion in deposits during a 9-day bank run (amounting to 9% of the deposits it had held on June 30, 2008). The FDIC sold the banking subsidiaries (minus unsecured debt and equity claims) to JPMorgan Chase for $1.9 billion, which JPMorgan Chase had been planning to acquire as part of a confidential plan internally nicknamed Project West. All WaMu branches were rebranded as Chase branches by the end of 2009. The holding company, WaMu, Inc., was left with $33 billion in assets, and $8 billion in debt, after being stripped of its banking subsidiary by the FDIC. The next day, WaMu, Inc. filed for Chapter 11 voluntary bankruptcy in Delaware, where it was incorporated.
Regarding total assets under management, WaMu's closure and receivership is the largest bank failure in American financial history.
Before the receivership action, it was the sixth-largest bank in the United States.
According to WaMu Inc.'s 2007 SEC filing, the holding company held assets valued at $327.9 billion.
On March 20, 2009, WaMu filed suit against the FDIC in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, seeking damages of approximately $13 billion for an alleged unjustified seizure and unfair low sale price to JPMorgan Chase. JPMorgan Chase promptly filed a counterclaim in the Federal Bankruptcy Court in Delaware, where the WaMu bankruptcy proceedings had been continuing since the Office of Thrift Supervision's seizure of the holding company's bank subsidiaries.
Business operations prior to bank receivership
Despite its name, WaMu ceased being a mutual company in 1983 when it demutualized and became a public company on March 11. On June 30, 2008, WaMu had total assets of US$307 billion, with 2,239 retail branch offices operating in 15 states, with 4,932 ATMs, and 43,198 employees. It held liabilities in the form of deposits of $188.3 billion, and owed $82.9 billion to the Federal Home Loan Bank, and had subordinated debt of $7.8 billion. It held as assets of $118.9 billion in single-family loans, of which $52.9 billion were “option adjustable rate mortgages” (Option ARMs), with $16 billion in subprime mortgage loans, and $53.4 billion of Home Equity lines of Credit (HELOCs) and credit cards receivables of $10.6 billion. It was servicing for itself and other banks loans totaling $689.7 billion, of which $442.7 were for other banks. It had non-performing assets of $11.6 billion, including $3.23 billion in payment option ARMs and $3.0 billion in subprime mortgage loans.
On September 15, 2008, the holding company received a credit rating agency downgrade. From that date through September 24, 2008, WaMu experienced a bank run whereby customers withdrew $16.7 billion in deposits over those nine days, and in excess of $22 billion in cash outflow since July 2008, both conditions which ultimately led the Office of Thrift Supervision to close the bank.
The FDIC then sold most of the bank's assets to JPMorgan Chase for $1.9 billion in cash plus assumption of all secured debt and some unsecured debt. Claims of the subsidiary bank's equity holders, senior and subordinated debt (all primarily owned by the holding company) were not assumed by JPMorgan Chase.
History
Mutual savings bank
WaMu was incorporated as the Washington National Building Loan and Investment Association on September 25, 1889, after the Great Seattle Fire destroyed 120 acres (49 ha) of the central business district of Seattle. The newly formed company made its first home mortgage loan on the West Coast on February 10, 1890. It changed its name to Washington Savings and Loan Association on June 25, 1908. By September 12, 1917, it was operating under the name WaMu Savings Bank. The company purchased its first company, the financially distressed Continental Mutual Savings Bank, on July 25, 1930. Its marketing slogan for much of its history was “The Friend of the Family”.
Post-demutualization growth
In April 1982, WaMu purchased the brokerage firm Murphey Favre for undisclosed amount in cash and demutualized the following year, converting into a capital stock savings bank. Stock in the capital stock savings bank was first offered for sale on March 11, 1983. By 1989, its assets had doubled.
In November 1994, WaMu formed a new holding called Washington Mutual, Inc. and separated its non-banking units from its primary banking unit, Washington Mutual Savings Bank, which was simultaneously renamed Washington Mutual Bank. The company's stock continued to trade on Nasdaq under WAMU.
In October 2005, WaMu purchased the formerly "subprime" credit card issuer Providian for approximately $6.5 billion, although Providian's new management team's strategy of targeting Prime credit card consumers had been underway since 2001, therefore the credit card unit's nonperforming loan portfolio had improved significantly prior to the company's sale to WaMu. In March 2006, WaMu began the move into its new headquarters, WaMu Center, located in downtown Seattle. The company's previous headquarters, WaMu Tower, stands about a block away from the new building on Second Avenue. In August 2006, WaMu began using the official abbreviation of WaMu in all but legal situations.
Acquisitions
After the acquisition of Murphey Favre, WaMu made numerous acquisitions with the aim of expanding the corporation. By acquiring companies including PNC Mortgage, Fleet Mortgage and Homeside Lending, WaMu became the third-largest mortgage lender in the U.S. With the acquisition of Providian Financial Corporation in October 2005, WaMu became the nation's 9th-largest credit-card company.
Many of WaMu's acquisitions became reviled as the rapid post-merger integrations resulted in numerous errors. The purchase of the original PNC Mortgage came at a time when subprime lending was in a “boom” period, with PNC Financial Services believing that the market was too volatile. (PNC later re-entered the mortgage market in 2009 through its acquisition of National City Corp., with no plans to re-enter subprime lending.) The Dime merger resulted in account ownership to be split with account beneficiaries. The Fleet Mortgage merger resulted in entire loans simply disappearing—being serviced, but unable to be found by customer service representatives.
Expansion in Washington
In April 1983, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of three branch offices from the Tacoma-based United Mutual Savings Bank for $3.25 million. In April 1984, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Spokane-based Lincoln Mutual Savings Bank with 14 of its 16 branch offices for $4.5 million. At the time of the announcement, WaMu had 39 branch offices, mostly in western Washington.
In May 1987, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Wenatchee-based Columbia Federal Savings Bank for $40 million and also the Seattle-based Shoreline Savings Bank for $7.5 million. At the time of the announcement in May 1987, WaMu had 50 branch offices, all within Washington state. Both acquisitions were completed in April 1988.
In January 1990, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of all seven offices of the Seattle-based Old Stone Bank of Washington from the Rhode Island-based Old Stone Corporation for an undisclosed amount. Old Stone originally entered the state of Washington through the acquisition of the ailing Seattle-based Citizens Federal Savings and Loan Association in 1985 with the assistance of the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation. The acquisition by WaMu was completed in June 1990 for $10 million.
In June 1990, WaMu announced the completed acquisition of all six offices of the failed Walla Walla-based Frontier Federal Savings and Loan Association in Eastern Washington from the Resolution Trust Corporation for $1.8 million.
In September 1990, WaMu announced the completed acquisition of all three Washington branches of the failed Utah-based Williamsburg Federal Savings and Loan Association from the Resolution Trust Corporation for $1.3 million.
In November 1990, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Vancouver-based VanFed Bancorp with its Vancouver Federal Savings Bank subsidiary for $23.3 million. At the time of the announcement in November 1990, WaMu had 75 branch offices, all within Washington state. The acquisition was completed in August 1991.
The acquisition of the Pacific Northwest branch offices from the New York-based CrossLand Savings Bank that was announced in April 1991 and completed in November 1991 gave WaMu four offices within the state of Washington in addition to other offices located in the state of Oregon.
In August 1991, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Seattle-based Sound Savings and Loan Association for an undisclosed amount. At the time of the announcement in August 1991, WaMu had 84 branch offices, all within Washington state. The acquisition was completed in January 1992.
In September 1991, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Bremerton-based GNW Financial Corporation with its Great Northwest Bank subsidiary for $64 million in cash and stock. The acquisition was completed in April 1992.
In December 1991, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of both Washington state branch offices of the California-based World Savings and Loan Association of America, a subsidiary of Golden West Financial, for an undisclosed amount. The acquisition was completed in March 1992.
In August 1992, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Lynnwood-based Pioneer Savings Bank for $181 million in stock. The acquisition was completed in March 1993.
In October 1992, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the ailing Seattle-based Pacific First Financial Corporation with its Pacific First Bank subsidiary for $663 million from its Canada-based parent Royal Trustco. The acquisition was contingent on having Pacific First dispose of its branch offices in California and having its Canadian parent Royal Trustco assume all of Pacific First's bad loans. The acquisition was completed in April 1993. At the time of the initial announcement in October 1992, WaMu had 118 branch offices in Washington and Oregon while Pacific First had 127 branch offices in Washington, Oregon and California. Pacific First had previously announced that it was trading its California offices for Great Western's Washington offices. As a result of the Pacific First acquisition, WaMu became one of the largest banking institution based upon consumer deposits in the state of Washington, second only to Seafirst.
In June 1994, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Bellevue-based Summit Bancorp with its Summit Savings Bank subsidiary for $25 million in stock. At the time of the announcement, WaMu had 231 branch offices in Washington and Oregon. The acquisition was completed in November 1994.
In June 1995, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Bellevue-based Enterprise Bank for $26.8 million in stock, this was WaMu's entry into the commercial banking sector. Enterprise Bank was a highly profitable one unit carriage trade business bank staffed with highly successful management. WaMu named Tom Cleveland President of the commercial banking unit which later included Western Bank in Coos Bay Oregon. At the time of the announcement, WaMu had 260 branch offices. Unlike the previous acquisition targets, Enterprise held a commercial bank charter and not a thrift charter.
Expansion in Oregon
In April 1991, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the 25 offices in the Portland, Oregon / Vancouver, Washington area from the ailing New York-based CrossLand Savings Bank, a subsidiary of Brooklyn Bancorp, for an undisclosed amount. The acquisition was completed in November 1991. Seven of the 25 offices were located in Washington with the remainder in Oregon. As part of the transaction, CrossLand Savings closed seven offices in Oregon and three offices in Washington, leaving eleven offices in Oregon and four in Washington. CrossLand had previously entered Oregon (and three other states) through the relatively recent acquisition of the troubled Utah-based Western Savings and Loan Association. The CrossLand acquisition gave WaMu a toe hold entry into Oregon via Portland.
As a result of the Pacific First acquisition in April 1993, WaMu became the fourth largest banking institution based upon consumer deposits within the state of Oregon. Originally, Pacific First grew quickly in Oregon during the late 1980s through the acquisition of troubled savings and loans. By February 1991, Pacific First had 78 branches in Oregon, more than any other thrift. Pacific First had 71 branches in Oregon by July 1992.
In April 1994, WaMu announced the completed acquisition of three Portland-area offices of the failed Portland-based Far West Federal Savings Bank from the Resolution Trust Corporation for $2.2 million.
In October 1995, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Coos Bay-based Western Bank for $156 million in stock. The acquisition was completed in February 1996. Since Western Bank possessed a commercial bank charter and not a more restrictive savings & loan charter, WaMu decided to allow Western Bank to keep its charter and name and to remain semi-autonomous for a while. At the time of the acquisition, Western Bank had 41 offices throughout Oregon. Five years later, WaMu decided to abandon the Western Bank brand and integrate most of the former Western Bank offices into the existing WaMu network in Oregon in 2001. Due to branch overlaps between the two brands, 12 Western Bank branch offices and one WaMu branch office were sold to the Klamath Falls-based Klamath First Bancorp for $33 million.
Expansion in Idaho
In March 1994, WaMu announced that they were planning to expand into the state of Idaho by building new branch offices inside Fred Meyer supermarket stores with the first three being opened in the Boise-area in July and August.
In the following year, WaMu opened a fourth Idaho location in a Moscow supermarket in February 1995.
A branch office in Idaho Falls was acquired from the Utah-based United Savings Bank when WaMu purchased the savings bank in January 1997.
By March 2000, there were 9 locations within Idaho and later 22 locations in 2008 when Chase acquired WaMu.
Expansion in Utah
In July 1994, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Salt Lake City-based Olympus Capital Corporation with its Olympus Bank, FSB, subsidiary for $52.1 million in stock. At the time of the announcement, WaMu had 250 branch offices in Washington and Oregon while Olympus had eight branch offices in Utah and two in Montana. The acquisition was completed in May 1995.
In March 1996, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Ogden-based Utah Federal Savings Bank for an undisclosed amount. At the time of the announcement, Utah Federal had five branch offices while WaMu had 16 within Utah. The acquisition was completed in December 1996 for $15.2 million.
In September 1996, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Salt Lake City-based United Western Financial Group Inc. with its United Savings Bank subsidiary for $80.3 million in cash. At the time of the announcement, United Savings Bank had eight branch offices in Utah and one in Idaho. The acquisition was completed in January 1997.
Expansion in Montana
In May 1995, WaMu acquired two branch offices in Butte as the result of the acquisition of the Utah-based Olympus Capital Corporation with its Olympus Bank FSB subsidiary. Four years later, WaMu later sold the two offices to Glacier Bancorp in 1999 for an undisclosed amount and quietly left the state of Montana.
Expansion in California
In July 1996, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Fort Worth, Texas-based Keystone Holdings Inc. with its Irvine-based American Savings Bank subsidiary for $1.6 billion in stock. At the time of the announcement, WaMu had 317 branch offices in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Utah and Montana while American Savings Bank had 220 branch offices in California. The acquisition was completed in December 1996. American kept its name after the acquisition. The result of the acquisition nearly doubled the total deposits of all WaMu subsidiaries from $22 billion to $42 billion.
In February 1997, the Chatsworth-based Great Western Financial, the holding company for second largest thrift in the nation Great Western Bank, found itself the target of a hostile takeover attempt of arch-rival H. F. Ahmanson & Co., the holding company for the largest thrift in the nation Home Savings of America, that would have involved $5.8 billion worth of stock. Since the two companies had large overlapping territories, many Great Western offices would have been closed by the victor if the takeover attempt had succeeded. The only way the combat a hostile takeover was to find another company, a so-called white knight, that would allow a merger on much better terms. One such company was WaMu. In March, Great Western Financial announced that it had accepted WaMu's merger proposal for $6.6 billion in WaMu stock. Ahmanson quickly increased their bids but the bids were also rejected. Great Western approved the merger with WaMu in June and the merger was completed in July. As part of its merger agreement, it was originally announced that Great Western offices would be allowed to keep the Great Western name and there were later discussion of converting the American Savings offices to the Great Western brand. In the end, it was felt that it was best for the company to have only one brand throughout the nation instead of multiple regional brands so it was announce in December 1997 that both Great Western and American names would be retired in favor of the WaMu name. The previous month, it was announced in November that 85 redundant branch offices were identified in California and were to be closed within the following year. Before the merger was complete, WaMu had a total of 413 branch operating under various names across the country while Great Western had 416 branch offices operating in California and Florida.
In March 1998, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Irwindale-based H. F. Ahmanson & Company with its Home Savings of America subsidiary for approximately $10 billion in stock. The acquisition was completed in October 1998 for only $6.9 billion in stock. Before the merger was complete, WaMu had a total of 892 branch operating under various names (WaMu, American Savings, Great Western, etc.) across the country while Home Savings had 409 branch offices operating in California and Texas. A few days after the completion of the merger, WaMu announced plans to close 161 branch offices in California.
Expansion in Texas
Through the 1998 acquisition of Home Savings, WaMu had gained 48 branch offices in Texas.
In August 2000, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Houston-based Bank United Corporation with its 155 branch offices, all located in Texas, for $1.49 billion in stock. The acquisition was completed in February 2001.
As a result of branch overlap between Bank United and WaMu, 17 branch offices were closed in Texas, 10 of which were in Houston.
Expansion in New York
In June 2001, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the New York City-based Dime Bancorp with its Dime Savings Bank subsidiary for $5.2 billion in cash and stock. The acquisition was completed in January 2002. Dime had 123 branch offices in the New York City area of both New York and New Jersey.
Commercial banking
With a thrift charter, there were a few things that WaMu was not able to do until it was able to obtain a commercial bank charter, such as making commercial loans above a certain size. To get around this problem, WaMu began to purchase commercial banks and maintain them as separate business entities. In August 1995, WaMu acquired the one office Bellevue-based Enterprise Bank in Washington. A few months later, WaMu acquired the 41 office Coos Bay-based Western Bank in Oregon. By 1997, the Enterprise name and Western Bank name were merged and operated under Western Bank moniker.
After WaMu expanded into California through the acquisitions of American Savings, Great Western, and Home Savings, WaMu quietly acquired the one-office Industrial Bank in the Van Nuys neighborhood of Los Angeles an undisclosed amount in 1999 and renamed it WM Business Bank.
By 2001, WaMu had 38 specialized business banking centers operating under the Western Bank name in the Northwest and the WM Business Bank name in California when they decided to exit their ill-fated venture into the commercial banking market that was then dominated with the likes of Wells Fargo and Bank of America.
Mortgage banking
During the late 1990s and early 2000s, WaMu decided to aggressively expand in the subprime mortgage lending field through the acquisition of existing mortgage companies at a time when other financial institutions were leaving.
In May 1999, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Orange, California-based Long Beach Financial Corporation with its Long Beach Mortgage Company subsidiary for $350.4 million in cash and stock. The acquisition was completed in October 1999. Long Beach had specialized in providing subprime mortgages. Some of Long Beach's questionable business practices may have led to WaMu's failure in 2008.
In January 2000, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Los Angeles-based Alta Residential Mortgage Trust for $23 million.
In October 2000, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Vernon Hills, Illinois-based PNC Mortgage Corporation and PNC Mortgage Securities Corporation from the PNC Financial Services Group for $605 million in cash. The acquisition was completed in February 2001. The result of the PNC Mortgage acquisition made WaMu the nation's third-largest lender.
In April 2001, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Columbia, South Carolina-based Fleet Mortgage Corporation from FleetBoston Financial for $660 million in cash. The acquisition was completed in June 2001. The result of the Fleet Mortgage acquisition made WaMu the nation's second-largest mortgage-servicing business.
In December 2001, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Jacksonville, Florida-based HomeSide Lending, Inc. from the National Australia Bank for $1.9 billion. The agreement did not include the mortgage servicing rights and related financial hedges for the business. The acquisition was completed in March 2002. In August 2002, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the rest of HomeSide that included the mortgage servicing rights on a mortgage portfolio worth about $131 billion for $1.3 billion in cash and the assumption of $735 million in debt. The acquisition was completed in October 2002.
In July 2002, the San Mateo, California-based Bay View Capital Corporation announced the pending sale of the mortgage loan portfolio for its Bay View Bank subsidiary to WaMu for a "slight premium to book value". The sale was completed in the following month.
In April 2006, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of the Irvine, California-based Commercial Capital Bancorp, Inc. with its Commercial Capital Bank FSB subsidiary for $983 million in cash. The acquisition was completed in October 2006. Commercial Capital had specialized in loans for the multifamily and small commercial real estate lending markets and was the third largest multifamily lender in California.
Credit cards
In June 2005, WaMu announced the pending acquisition of Providian Financial Corporation, tenth-largest credit-card issuer in the country, for $6.45 billion in stock and cash. The acquisition was completed in June 2005.
Prior to this acquisition, WaMu had their credit cards initially issued by Associates National Bank and later Citibank South Dakota, N.A. and was one of the largest banking organization that did not issue its own credit cards. In 2005, chairman and chief executive officer Kerry Killinger said that lack of company-issued credit cards was a "major hole in our product line." Credit cards were not mentioned on their website nor in their published annual reports as an available service offered by their company prior to 2001.
Rise and fall
"Wal-Mart of Banking"
Chairman and CEO Kerry Killinger had pledged in 2003: "We hope to do to this industry what Wal-Mart did to theirs, Starbucks did to theirs, Costco did to theirs and Lowe's, Home Depot did to their industry. And I think if we've done our job, five years from now you're not going to call us a bank."
Killinger's goal was to build WaMu into the "Wal-Mart of Banking", which would cater to lower- and middle-class consumers that other banks deemed too risky. Complex mortgages and credit cards had terms that made it easy for the least creditworthy borrowers to get financing, a strategy the bank extended in big cities, including Chicago, New York and Los Angeles. WaMu pressed sales agents to approve loans while placing less emphasis on borrowers' incomes and assets. WaMu set up a system that enabled real estate agents to collect fees of more than $10,000 for bringing in borrowers. Variable-rate loans – Option Adjustable Rate Mortgages (Option ARMs) in particular – were especially attractive, because they carried higher fees than other loans and allowed WaMu to book profits on interest payments that borrowers deferred. As WaMu was selling many of its loans to investors, it worried less about defaults.
Subprime losses
In December 2007, the subsidiary WaMu Bank reorganized its home-loan division, closing 160 of its 336 home-loan offices and removing 2,600 positions in its home-loan staff (a 22% reduction).
In March 2008, on the same weekend that JPMorgan Chase Chairman and CEO Jamie Dimon negotiated the takeover of Bear Stearns, he secretly dispatched members of his team to Seattle to meet with WaMu executives, urging them to consider a quick deal. However, WaMu Chairman and CEO Kerry Killinger rejected JPMorgan Chase's offer that valued WaMu at $8 a share, mostly in stock.
In April 2008, the holding company, responding to losses and difficulties sustained as a result of the 2007–2008 subprime mortgage crisis, announced that 3,000 people companywide would lose their jobs, and the company stated its intent to close its approximately 176 remaining stand-alone, home-loan offices, including 23 in Washington and a loan-processing center in Bellevue, Washington. It stopped buying loans from outside mortgage brokers — known in the trade as "wholesale lending." WaMu also announced a $7 billion infusion of new capital by new outside investors led by TPG Capital. TPG agreed to pump $2 billion into the WaMu holding company; other investors, including some of WaMu's current institutional holders, agreed to buy an additional $5 billion in newly issued stock. This angered many investors, as TPG's investment would dilute the holdings of existing shareholders, and as WaMu executives excluded mortgage losses from computing bonuses.
In June 2008, Kerry Killinger stepped down as the chairman, though remaining the Chief Executive Officer. On September 8, 2008, under pressure from investors, the WaMu holding company's board of directors dismissed Killinger as the CEO. Alan H. Fishman, chairman of mortgage broker Meridian Capital Group, and a former chief operating officer of Sovereign Bank, was named the new CEO for 17 days.
Seizure by OTS and FDIC
By mid-September 2008, WaMu's share price had closed as low as $2.00. It had been worth over $30.00 in September 2007, and had briefly traded as high as $45 in the previous year. While WaMu publicly insisted it could stay independent, earlier in the month it had quietly hired Goldman Sachs to identify potential bidders. However, several deadlines passed without anyone submitting a bid. At the same time, WaMu suffered a massive run (mostly via electronic banking over the internet and wire transfer ); customers pulled out $16.7 billion in deposits in a ten-day span.
This led the Federal Reserve and the Treasury Department to step up pressure for WaMu to find a buyer, as a takeover by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) could have been a severe drain on the FDIC insurance fund, which had already been hard hit by the failure of IndyMac that year. The FDIC ultimately held a secret auction of WaMu Bank, which was won by JPMorgan Chase. On the morning of Thursday, September 25 (which happened to be the 119th anniversary of WaMu's establishment), regulators informed officials at JPMorgan Chase that they were the winners.
On Thursday night (shortly after the close of business on the West Coast), the Office of Thrift Supervision seized WaMu Bank and placed it into the receivership of the FDIC. In a statement, the OTS said that the massive run meant that WaMu was no longer sound. The FDIC then sold most of WaMu Bank's assets, including the branch network, to JPMorgan Chase for $1.9 billion. JPMorgan Chase agreed to assume the bank's secured debts and liabilities to depositors. The transaction did not require any FDIC insurance funds. Normally, bank seizures take place after the close of business on Fridays. However, due to the bank's deteriorating condition and leaks that a seizure was imminent, regulators felt compelled to act a day early.
Because JPMorgan Chase bought WaMu's assets for a low price, WaMu's stockholders were nearly wiped out. Its stock price dropped to $0.16 a share, well below its high of a year earlier. In its Chapter 11 filing, WaMu listed assets of $33 billion and debt of $8 billion. (ref. Appendix A). The filing also indicates that enough funds are available for distribution to unsecured creditors.
Within days of the seizure, a hedge fund adviser and investment strategist, Mike Stathis of AVA Investment Analytics, issued a formal complaint to the Securities and Exchange Commission, demonstrating evidence of insider trading. The complaint also alleged that WaMu was not insolvent, and several Wall Street firms and hedge funds had conspired to short the stock. He also stated that he spoke with a reporter from the Associated Press who told him that he was contacted by a WaMu executive hours before the seizure, telling the reporter that it would happen for "political reasons." In later criticisms, Stathis discussed that neither the FDIC nor OTS ever disclosed any evidence of WaMu's insolvency. Stathis stated that within a few weeks of submitting his complaint, he was visited by federal agents who held him in an interrogation room for questioning. As a result of this, Stathis stated that he felt bullied and did not release the SEC complaint into the public domain until a year later.
Shareholders fought what they considered the illegal seizure of WaMu through such websites as WaMuCoup.com (dead link) and others, claiming that the OTS acted in an arbitrary and capricious manner and seized the bank for political reasons or for the benefit of JPMorgan Chase, which acquired a large network of branches at what they claim to be an unfairly low price. Shareholders claimed that as of the date of the takeover, the bank had enough liquidity to meet all its obligations and was in compliance with the business plan negotiated with the OTS 2 weeks earlier and that the holding company's board and management was kept completely in the dark about the government's negotiations with Chase, hampering the bank's ability to sell itself on its own. Chief executive Alan H. Fishman was flying from New York to Seattle on the day the bank was closed, and eventually received a $7.5 million sign-on bonus and cash severance of $11.6 million (which he declined) after being CEO for 17 days. Senator Maria Cantwell demanded an explanation from the government and threatened to open an investigation and WaMu's former shareholders have threatened a lawsuit demanding compensation for the lost value of their shares.
The seizure of WaMu Bank resulted in the largest bank failure in American financial history, dwarfing the failure of Continental Illinois in 1984.
Bankruptcy
On September 26, 2008, WaMu, Inc., and its remaining subsidiary, WMI Investment Corp., filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. WaMu, Inc., was promptly delisted from trading on the New York Stock Exchange, and commenced trading via Pink Sheets. The bankruptcy was the second major filing in as many weeks, after the Lehman Brothers filing eleven days earlier; both bankruptcies far outpaced WorldCom's 2002 filing, which had held the record with just under $104 billion in assets (WaMu's alone, which was approximately half that of Lehman Brothers, was three times as much as WorldCom's).
All assets but only some liabilities (including deposits, covered bonds, and other secured debt) of WaMu Bank were assumed by JPMorgan Chase. Under the deal, JPMorgan Chase acquired all the banking operations of WaMu, including $307 billion in assets and $188 billion in deposits, for a price of $1.9 billion plus debt assumptions. Unsecured senior debt obligations of the bank were not assumed by JPMorgan Chase, leaving holders of those obligations with little meaningful source of recovery. On the morning of September 26, WaMu Bank customers were informed that all deposits held by WaMu were now liabilities of JPMorgan Chase.
The IRS claimed $12.5 billion in back taxes from WaMu, Inc. The company filed court papers on January 22, 2009 alleging losses were $20 billion, and the company requested that it pay nothing of the tax debt, stating that the IRS could owe WaMu Inc. a tax refund. In a 2010 settlement between Wash. Mutual Inc. (in receivership), the FDIC, and JPMorgan Chase, a tax refund of about US$5.7 billion will be shared between Wash. Mutual Inc., JPMorgan Chase and FDIC.
WaMu, Inc., sued the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) for US$13 billion after the sale of its banking operations to JPMorgan Chase. WMI attorneys claim the bank did not get fair value for the bank, and multiple subsidiaries belonging to the parent company were taken.
On January 11, 2010, the United States Department of Justice, Office of the United States Trustee, District of Delaware, pursuant to Section 1102(a)(1) of the Bankruptcy Code, appointed a Committee of Equity Security Holders to represent all shareholders of both preferred and common stock. All of the Motions to Disband the Committee of Equity Security Holders were denied on January 28, 2010 by U.S. Bankruptcy Judge Mary F. Walrath, District of Delaware.
On July 20, 2010, bankruptcy judge Mary Walrath approved a motion of the EC for an examiner to investigate potential legal claims and assets of WMI, handing a victory to shareholders. The Judge directed the examiner to investigate not just the legal settlement with the FDIC and JPMorgan Chase at the heart of WaMu's reorganization, but also all potential claims and assets that are part of the settlement or that will be retained by the company.
On July 26, 2010, U.S. Trustee Roberta A. DeAngelis appointed veteran bankruptcy examiner and McKenna Long & Aldridge LLP partner Joshua R. Hochberg to conduct a probe into the proposed settlement between WMI, JPMorgan Chase and the FDIC. Hochberg is a partner in McKenna Long & Aldridge's Washington office whose practice focuses on individual and corporate white collar defense, internal investigations and compliance.
On August 10, 2010, the bankruptcy judge rejected WaMu Inc.'s effort to obtain personal financial information from shareholders demanding that the company schedule an annual meeting. Attorneys for the EC said that WMI was simply trying to delay scheduling a shareholder meeting by seeking personal information. The judge agreed that WMI was not entitled to the information.
On November 1, 2010, examiner Joshua R. Hochberg from McKenna Long & Aldridge LLP presented his long-awaited report, but it did not meet the expectations of the court, since the report was based on unsworn interviews and confidential attorney-client work. On December 12, the court decided to exclude the examiner's report during the plan confirmation hearings, saying it can't be considered expert testimony or submitted as evidence unless it is subject to questioning to determine the basis of its conclusions.
On January 7, 2011, the bankruptcy court rejected the 6th proposed plan of reorganization, which was proposed by the debtors and their lawyers from Weil, Gotshal & Manges LLP. Judge Mary Walrath focused many of her criticisms on the company's releases of liability granted to directors, officers and others including some hedge funds, who she said did not contribute anything to the settlement. She noted for example that shareholders, who will likely get nothing, should not have to release the company's board from the threat of being sued by them. However, many WaMu shareholders believe there will be a significant recovery when WaMu emerges from bankruptcy.
On September 14, 2011, the court also rejected the modified 6th proposed plan of reorganization. Judge Mary F. Walrath wrote that four hedge funds that had played a role in WaMu's restructuring might have received confidential information that could have been used to trade improperly in the bank's debt. The four hedge funds are Appaloosa Management, Aurelius Capital Management, Centerbridge Partners and Owl Creek Asset Management.
A seventh plan of reorganization was announced in February 2012 and the company finally emerged from Chapter 11 bankruptcy the following month as WMI Holdings Corporation. By 2015, WMI Holdings was able to raise $598 million and was looking for new acquisitions.
Post receivership bank operations
During 2009, all of the WaMu Bank branches that had been purchased from the FDIC after the bank had been placed into receivership, were rebranded to Chase or shuttered. All financial documents issued by WaMu were changed to carry the Chase logo. Credit and debit cards issued by WaMu or Providian were changed to carry the Chase logo.
The transition to Chase began in early 2009, when Chase ATMs became accessible for WaMu customers at no extra charge. All branches and accounts were formally merged in 2009 as the WaMu brand was retired. Branches in the Pacific Northwest, Idaho, and Utah were rebranded in May 2009; branches in Florida, Georgia, Texas, Illinois, and Greater New York were rebranded in July 2009, and the remaining branches in Nevada, California, Arizona, and Colorado were rebranded in October 2009. The last rebrandings formally retired the WaMu name.
In markets where Chase already had a dominant presence, such as Greater New York and Chicago (owing to the presence of Chase and predecessor Bank One), Chase further disposed of such branches to other banks. In New York, for instance, the acquisition resulted in Chase branches located on the same block as WaMu branches.
Advertising campaigns
"Free Checking Account"
This advertising campaign was introduced between 2005 and 2007. Numerous WaMu commercials showed traditionally-dressed 60-70-year-old overweight bankers laughing out loud at a WaMu representative (who is much younger and fitter), who says the words "Free Checking Account".
"The Power of Yes"
WaMu introduced an advertising campaign during the 2003 Academy Awards known as "The Power of Yes". This was to promote the offering of loans to all consumers, particularly borrowers that the banks deemed too risky. Another commercial in the ad series showed WaMu representatives in casual clothes, contrasting with traditionally-dressed bankers in suits.
"Whoo hoo"
"Whoo hoo!" was an advertising campaign introduced by WaMu in February 2008. As fears of an economic crisis were rising, and WaMu was looking to become an "iconic brand that people love", they began courting consumers with a new slogan, designed to position WaMu as a consumer-friendly institution.
During its run, the Whoo hoo! ads, created by TBWA\Chiat\Day of Playa del Rey, California, become widespread in web navigation. After WaMu launched the new advertisement, there was double digit growth at its website and the term "wamu" appeared in searches over 1,000% more between January and March than in all of 2007.
WaMu (before the bank's September 2008 conservatorship and sale to JPMorgan Chase) applied to register a trademark in the phrase. Initially, the bank wanted to use "woo hoo" (without the "h" in the first word) as the slogan, but they were concerned because of the existing use of the phrase by Homer Simpson, a character in The Simpsons.
Occasio branch design
WaMu introduced a unique branch design known as Occasio which eliminated traditional teller windows and queuing stanchions in favor of an open, circular floor plan with a greeter or "concierge" position and tellers working from behind podiums. The Occasio design was introduced in 2000 and patented in 2004, but was phased out following the JPMorgan Chase acquisition of WaMu's retail banking operations.
See also
Bank failure
List of largest U.S. bank failures (WaMu tops this list)
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
Financial crisis of 2007–2008
2008–2011 bank failures in the United States
List of acquired or bankrupt United States banks in the late 2000s financial crisis
References
External links
(Archive)
(list also includes pre-merger acquisitions by American Savings)
(high resolution binaries; large file sizes)
(mostly ASCII pdf or html; small file sizes)
(settlement of bankruptcy and related lawsuits)
2000s economic history
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2008
Bank failures in the United States
Banks based in Washington (state)
American companies established in 1889
Banks established in 1889
Banks disestablished in 2009
JPMorgan Chase
Defunct banks of the United States
1889 establishments in Washington (state)
2009 disestablishments in Washington (state)
Defunct companies based in Seattle
Private equity portfolio companies
TPG Capital companies
Subprime mortgage crisis
Subprime mortgage lenders | [
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|
214268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown | Breakdown | Breakdown may refer to:
Breaking down
Breakdown (vehicle), failure of a motor vehicle in such a way that it cannot be operated
Chemical decomposition, also called chemical breakdown, the breakdown of a substance into simpler components
Decomposition, the process by which tissues of a dead organism break down into simpler forms of matter
Drop set, also called a breakdown, a bodybuilding and weight training technique
Electrical breakdown, the failure of an electric circuit or a rapid reduction in the resistance of an electrical insulator that can lead to a spark
Mental breakdown, an acute, time-limited phase of exhibiting symptoms of a specific disorder, most commonly, depression and anxiety
Script breakdown, a step in the production of a play, film, or comic book
Arts and media
Comics and games
Breakdown (comics), a 2000s comic written by Chuck Dixon, and drawn by Dave Ross, about Paragon, the world's first superhero
Breakdowns (comics), 1977 collection of comics by Art Spiegelman
Breakdown (Transformers), several fictional nervous and cowardly robot supervillain characters in the Transformers robot superhero franchise
Breakdown (video game), a 2004 first-person action game for the Xbox, noted for unique gameplay mechanics and deeper method of storytelling
Film and television
Breakdown (1952 film), a film noir starring Ann Richards
The Loveless, originally titled Breakdown, a 1981 outlaw biker film starring Willem Dafoe
Breakdown (1997 film), a 1997 thriller starring Kurt Russell
Breakdown (2016 film), a 2016 British thriller film
Breakdown: In Your House, a 1998 professional wrestling pay-per-view event
Music
Breakdown (music), an instrumental or percussion section or interlude during a song
Breakdown (band), a 1980s New York hardcore band
Albums
Breakdown (Melissa Etheridge album), a 1999 Melissa Etheridge album
Breakdown (Old & In the Way album), a 1997 bluegrass album by Old and in the Way
Breakdown (Paulinho da Costa album), a 1987 fusion studio album by Paulinho da Costa
Break Down (EP), a 2011 mini album by South Korean Kim Hyun Joong of SS501
Break Down (album), a 2013 album by South Korean boy band Super Junior M
Songs
"Breakdown" (Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers song), 1977 (later covered by Grace Jones)
"Breakdown" (Fu-Schnickens song), 1994
"Breakdown" (Group 1 Crew song), 2010
"Breakdown" (Jack Johnson song), 2005
"Breakdown" (Mariah Carey song), 1998
"Breakdown" (Seether song), 2008
"Breakdown" (Tantric song), 2001
"Breakdown" (Clock DVA song), 1983
"Breakdown" (Queensrÿche song), 1999
"Breakdown," by The Alan Parsons Project from the album I Robot
"Breakdown", by Black Gold
"Breakdown", by Breaking Benjamin from the album We Are Not Alone
"Breakdown", by Daughtry from the album Daughtry
"Breakdown", by Gravity Kills from the album Superstarved
"Breakdown", by Guns N' Roses from the album Use Your Illusion II
"Breakdown", by J. Cole from the album Cole World: The Sideline Story
"Breakdown", by Meg & Dia from the album Cocoon
"Breakdown", by Parliament
"Breakdown", by Ryan Adams from the album Prisoner
"Breakdown", by Suede from the album Suede
Other media
Breakdown: How America's Intelligence Failures Led to September 11, a book by Bill Gertz
Breakdown, a 2016 novel by Jonathan Kellerman in the Alex Delaware series
Break Down (Landy artwork), a 2001 artwork by Michael Landy
The Breakdown, a controversial 1926 painting about the Jazz Age
The Breakdown, a 2017 novel by B.A. Paris
Other uses
Breakdown (rugby union), the period of open play immediately after a tackle and before and during the ensuing ruck in Rugby Union
Lance Hoyt (born 1977), American professional wrestler who previously used the ring name Breakdown
See also
Broken Down (disambiguation)
Breaking Dawn (disambiguation) | [
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|
214269 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergent%20algorithm | Emergent algorithm | An emergent algorithm is an algorithm that exhibits emergent behavior. In essence an emergent algorithm implements a set of simple building block behaviors that when combined exhibit more complex behaviors. One example of this is the implementation of fuzzy motion controllers used to adapt robot movement in response to environmental obstacles.
An emergent algorithm has the following characteristics:
it achieves predictable global effects
it does not require global visibility
it does not assume any kind of centralized control
it is self-stabilizing
Other examples of emergent algorithms and models include cellular automata, artificial neural networks and swarm intelligence systems (ant colony optimization, bees algorithm, etc.).
See also
Emergence
Evolutionary computation
Fuzzy logic
Genetic algorithm
Heuristic
References
Algorithm
Heuristic algorithms
Algorithms | [
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|
214272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burned-over%20district | Burned-over district | The term "burned-over district" refers to the western and central regions of New York State in the early 19th century, where religious revivals and the formation of new religious movements of the Second Great Awakening took place, to such a great extent that spiritual fervor seemed to set the area on fire.
Charles Grandison Finney (1792–1875) popularized the term: his posthumous 1876 book Autobiography of Charles G. Finney referred to a "burnt district" to denote an area in central and western New York State during the Second Awakening: "I found that region of country what, in the western phrase, would be called, a 'burnt district.' There had been, a few years previously, a wild excitement passing through that region, which they called a revival of religion, but which turned out to be spurious." ... "It was reported as having been a very extravagant excitement; and resulted in a reaction so extensive and profound, as to leave the impression on many minds that religion was a mere delusion. A great many men seemed to be settled in that conviction. Taking what they had seen as a specimen of a revival of religion, they felt justified in opposing anything looking toward the promoting of a revival." These spurious movements created feelings of apprehension towards the revivals in which Finney was influential as a preacher.
In references where the religious revival is related to reform movements of the period, such as abolition, women's rights, and utopian social experiments, the defined "burned-over" region expands to include areas of central New York that were important to these movements.
Historical study of the phenomenon began with Whitney R. Cross, in 1951. Subsequent study in the last quarter of the twentieth century re-assessed the extent to which religious fervor actually affected the region. Linda K. Pritchard uses statistical data to show that, compared to the rest of New York State, to the Ohio River Valley in the lower Midwest, and to the United States as a whole, the religiosity of the Burned-over district was typical rather than exceptional. More recent works have argued that these revivals in Western New York had a unique and lasting impact upon the religious and social life of the entire nation.
Religion
Western New York was still a United States frontier during the early Erie Canal boom, and professional and established clergy were scarce. Many of the self-taught people were susceptible to enthusiasms of folk religion. Evangelists won many converts to Protestant sects, such as Congregationalists, Baptists, and Methodists. Converts in nonconformist sects became part of numerous new religious movements, all of which were founded by laypeople during the early 19th century and included the following:
The Mormon movement (whose largest branch is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), originating circa 1828. Joseph Smith, Jr., lived in the area and said he was led by the angel Moroni to his source for the Book of Mormon, the Golden Plates, near Palmyra, New York.
The Millerites, originating circa 1834. William Miller was a farmer who lived in Low Hampton, New York. He preached that the literal Second Coming would occur on October 22, 1844." Millerism became extremely popular in western New York state. Some of its concepts are still held by church organizations affiliated with Adventism, such as the following:
Adventists
Seventh-day Adventists
The Fox sisters of Hydesville, New York, conducted the first table-rapping séances in the area around 1848, leading to the American movement of Spiritualism (centered in the retreat at Lily Dale and in the Plymouth Spiritualist Church in Rochester, New York), which taught communion with the dead.
The Shakers were very active in the area, establishing their communal farm in central New York in 1826, and a major revival in 1837. (The first Shaker settlement in America, also a communal farm, was established in 1776 just north of Albany in an area first known as Niskayuna, then Watervliet, now the town of Colonie. Shaker leader Mother Ann Lee is buried at the Albany site.)
The Oneida Society was a large utopian group that established a successful community in central New York, founded in 1848; it disbanded in 1881. It was known for its unique interpretation of group marriage under which mates were paired by committee; the children of the community were raised in common.
The Social Gospel, founded by Washington Gladden while he was living in nearby Owego, New York, during his childhood and teens, circa 1832 to 1858. Gladden was succeeded by Walter Rauschenbusch of Rochester, New York.
The Ebenezer Colonies, calling themselves the True Inspiration Congregations (German: Wahre Inspirations-Gemeinden), they first settled in New York near Buffalo in what is now the town of West Seneca. However, seeking more isolated surroundings, they moved to Iowa (near present-day Iowa City) in 1856, becoming the Amana Colony.
In addition to religious activity, the region known as the Burned-over district was noted for social radicalism. The Oneida Institute (1827–1843) was a hotbed of abolitionism and the first college in the country to admit black students on the same terms as white students. The short-lived New-York Central College was the first college to accept both black students and women from its beginning and was also the first college in the country to employ African-American professors. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the early American feminist, was a resident of Seneca Falls in central New York in the mid-1800s. She and others in the community organized the Seneca Falls Convention devoted to women's suffrage and rights in 1848.
The larger region was the main source of converts to the Fourierist utopian socialist movement, starting around 1816. The Skaneateles Community in central New York, founded in 1843, was such an experiment. The Oneida Society was also considered a utopian group. Related to radical reform, Upstate New York provided many members of Hunter Patriots, some of whom volunteered to invade Canada during the Patriot War from December 1837 to December 1838.
Location
The District can be broadly described as the area in New York State between the Finger Lakes and Lake Erie, and contains the following counties:
Allegany
Cattaraugus
Chautauqua
Erie
Genesee
Livingston
Madison
Monroe
Niagara
Oneida
Ontario
Orleans
Seneca
Steuben
Wayne
Wyoming
Yates
See also
Ellen G. White
John Humphrey Noyes
Seventh-day Adventists
References
Further reading
Backman, Milton V. "Awakenings in the Burned-over District: New Light on the Historical Setting of the First Vision." Brigham Young University Studies 9.3 (1969): 301-320. online
Cross, Whitney R. "Mormonism in the" Burned-Over District"." New York History 25.3 (1944): 326-338 online.
Foster, Lawrence. Religion and sexuality : the Shakers, the Mormons, and the Oneida Community (Urbana : University of Illinois Press, 1984)
Friedman, Lawrence J. "The Gerrit Smith circle: Abolitionism in the burned-over district." Civil War History 26.1 (1980): 18-38.
Hill, Marvin S. "The Rise of Mormonism in the Burned-over District: Another View." New York History 61.4 (1980): 411-430. online
Martin, J.E. "Saints, Sinners and Reformers: The Burned-over District Re-Visited", The Crooked Lake Review, Fall 2005, no. 137. Book-length study in a local history quarterly.
Roach, Monique Patenaude. "The Rescue of William" Jerry" Henry: Antislavery and Racism in the Burned-over District." New York History (2001): 135-154 online.
Wellman, Judith. "Crossing over Cross: Whitney Cross's Burned-over District as social history." Reviews in American History 17#1 (1989): 159-174. online
External links
The "Burned-over District, 1810–1830, Federal Census Indices", Oliver Cowdery
Christianity in New York (state)
Former regions and territories of the United States
History of Christianity in the United States
History of New York (state) | [
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|
214273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20known%20as%20the%20Great | List of people known as the Great | This is a list of people known as the Great, or the equivalent, in their own language. Other languages have their own suffixes, such as Persian e Bozorg and Urdu e Azam.
In Persia, the title "the Great" at first seems to have been a colloquial version of the Old Persian title "Great King". It was first used by Cyrus II of Persia. The title was inherited by Alexander III when he conquered the Persian Empire, and the epithet eventually became personally associated with him. The first reference to this is in a comedy by Plautus, in which it is assumed that everyone knew who "Alexander the Great" was; however, there is no evidence that he was called "the Great" before this. The early Seleucid kings, who succeeded Alexander in Persia, used "Great King" in local documents, but the title was most notably used for Antiochus the Great. Once the term gained currency, it was broadened to include persons in other fields, such as the philosopher Albert the Great.
Later rulers and commanders were given the epithet during their lifetime, for example, the Roman general Pompey. Others received the title posthumously, such as the Indian emperor Ashoka. As there are no objective criteria for "greatness", the persistence of the designation varies greatly. For example, Louis XIV of France was often referred to as "the Great" in his lifetime, but is rarely called such nowadays, later writers preferring his more specific epithet "the Sun King". German Emperor Wilhelm I was often called "the Great" in the time of his grandson Wilhelm II, but rarely before or after.
Monarchs
Aristocrats
Military
Religious figures
Christian
Jewish
Legendary and mythological figures
See also
List of monarchs by nickname
List of nicknames of European royalty and nobility
James Stanley, 7th Earl of Derby (1607–1651), "Yn Stanlagh Mooar" ("the Great Stanley"), also Lord of Mann
Bantul the Great, a Bengali comic strip character
Notes
References
Lists of people by epithet | [
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|
214280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom%20of%20expression%20%28disambiguation%29 | Freedom of expression (disambiguation) | Freedom of speech (FoS), or freedom of expression (FoE), is the right to communicate one's opinions and ideas.
It may also refer to:
Affirmation of Freedom of Speech and rejection of anti-blasphemy laws
Defamation of religion, affirmation of Freedom of Speech, and UN
Freedom from religion
Freedom of religion
Freedom of expression in India
Section Two of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms#Freedom of expression
Freedom of Expression (book), a book by Kembrew McLeod about freedom of speech issues
See also
Blasphemy
Figure of speech
Freedom of thought
Freethought | [
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214281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottage%20cheese | Cottage cheese | Cottage cheese is a cheese curd product with a mild flavor and a creamy, non-homogenous, soupy texture. It is also known as curds and whey. It is made from cow's milk by draining the cheese, as opposed to pressing it to make cheese curd—retaining some of the whey and keeping the curds loose. An important step in the manufacturing process distinguishing cottage cheese from other fresh cheeses is the adding of a "dressing" to the curd grains, usually cream, which is largely responsible for the taste of the product. Cottage cheese is not aged.
Cottage cheese can be low in calories compared to other types of cheese, making it popular among dieters and some health devotees, similar to yogurt. It can be used with a wide variety of foods such as yogurt, fruit, toast, granola, in salads, as a dip, and as a replacement for mayonnaise.
History
Origin
A popular story on the origin of cheese was taken from Homer's Odyssey, in which the poet describes how the Cyclops Polyphemus made cheese by storing milk in animal stomachs. The enzymes from the stomach would have induced a coagulation process separating the curds from the milk.
Cheese is thought to have originated in the Middle East around 5,000 BC. Evidence of cheese can be found in a band of carvings on the walls of an ancient Mesopotamian temple that date back to 3,000 BC. The ancient carvings show the process in which the civilization created a cheese-like substance, using salt and milk to create a salty sour curd mixture believed to be somewhat similar to today's cottage cheese. As Rome expanded its empire, they spread the knowledge of cheese, discovering many new forms of it.
Popularization
In late 19th century Minnesota, when milk went sour, farmers sometimes made something they called "Dutch cheese", which is said to have been similar to modern industrial cottage cheese, in order not to waste the bad milk. In the early 20th century farmers in northeastern British Columbia made something they called "homesteader's cheese", which is said to have been similar to modern industrial cottage cheese (a "Dutch cheese" also existed there at the time, but this was something else). The term cottage cheese first began to be used for such simple home-made cheese in America in the mid-19th century.
The first American cheese factory opened in 1868, beginning the wholesale cheese industry. Popularity in the United States of industrial cheese in general increased greatly at the end of the 19th century; by the turn of the century, farm production of cheese had become significant.
Cottage cheese was widely promoted in America during the First World War, along with other dairy products, to save meat for infantry rations. This promotion was shown in many war posters, including one which claimed that one pound of cottage cheese contains more protein than a pound of lamb, pork, beef, or chicken.
After the First World War, cottage cheese quickly became more popular. of cottage cheese was produced in 1919 (out of of cheese in general in 1920), but by 1928, was manufactured. Consumption peaked in the United States in the 1970s when dieting became popular and some $1.3 billion of it was sold per year, but in the 1980s yogurt became more popular and sales dropped considerably further in the 2000s.
In 2016, a Wall Street Journal article theorized that cottage cheese might be ready for a resurgence following the popularity of Greek yogurt due to its high levels of protein and low levels of sugar.
Manufacture
Since the 1930s, industrial cottage cheese has been manufactured using pasteurized skim milk, or in more modern processes using concentrated nonfat milk or reconstituted nonfat dry milk. A bacterial culture that produces lactic acid (Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis or L. lactis ssp. cremoris strains such as are usually used) or a food-grade acid such as vinegar is added to the milk, which allows the milk to curdle and parts to solidify, and it is heated until the liquid reaches , after which it is cooled to . The solids, known as curd, form a gelatinous skin over the liquid (known as whey) in the vat, which is cut into cubes with wires, allowing more whey to drain from the curds. The curds are then reheated to for one or two hours. In Iowa in the early 1930s, hot water was poured into the vat, which further firms the curds. Once the curds have been drained and are mostly dry the mass is pressed to further dry the curds. The curds are then rinsed in water. Finally, salt and a "dressing" of cream is added, and the final product is packaged and shipped for consumption. Some modern manufactures add starches and gums to stabilize the product. Some smaller modern luxury creameries omit the first heating step but allow the milk to curdle much longer with bacteria to produce the curds, or use crème fraîche as dressing.
Cottage cheese made with a food-grade acid must be labelled as "Direct Acid set".
Usually, a small amount of low -producing citrate-fermenting lactococci or leuconostoc bacterial strains are added to the starter mix for the production of diacetyl for added buttery or creamy flavors. Producers must be careful that the final product contains approximately 2 ppm diacetyl, and that the ratio of diacetyl to acetaldehyde is 3–5 to 1, to achieve the typical cottage cheese flavor. Too small a ratio and the product tastes grassy, too much and the taste becomes harsh.
Cottage cheese is naturally a yellow colour due to the cream dressing, but to increase consumer acceptance and appeal of the final product titanium dioxide is usually added to the dressing to make it a brilliant white colour and enhance marketability of the finished product. In the United States, the FDA allows the additive in many dairy products (not whole milk) up to 1% of total volume by weight, but it must be labelled in the ingredient list. It may also be used in Canada and the European Union. Relatively recently, producers have added this ingredient in nanoparticle form. In the US, the FDA does not restrict nanoparticle technology usage in food, but in Europe, it must be first submitted for approval as a food ingredient. According to the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, it is found in hundreds of products, not always labelled as such, including many organic products, however a number of large US producers have denied using it.
Cottage cheese may be marketed as a small-curd (<4 mm diameter) or large-curd (>8 mm diameter).
Nutrition
Cottage cheese is popular among dieters and some health food devotees. It is also relatively popular among bodybuilders and athletes for its high content of casein protein while being relatively low in fat. Cottage cheese is also safe to eat during pregnancy, in contrast to some cheese products that are not recommended.
The sour taste of the product is due to lactic acid, which is present at 124–452 mg/kg. Formic, acetic, propionic and butyric acid contribute to the aroma.
Consumption
In the United States and Canada, cottage cheese is popular in many culinary dishes. It can be combined with fruit and sugar, salt and pepper, fruit purée, tomatoes, or granola and cinnamon. It can be eaten on toast, in salads, as a chip dip, as a replacement for mayonnaise in tuna salad, and as an ingredient in recipes such as jello salad and various desserts. Cottage cheese is also popular with fruit, such as pears, peaches, or mandarin oranges. Cottage cheese is sometimes used as a substitute for meat because it has high levels of protein, but fewer total calories and less fat than meats contain. Many recipes can use cottage cheese.
See also
Cottage cheese boycott, a consumer boycott in 2011 in Israel against the rise of food prices
Cheese curds, moist pieces of curdled milk
Faisselle, a French cheese, similar to cottage cheese
Fromage blanc, a soft French cheese
Mascarpone, an Italian cheese made from cream, coagulated with citric acid or acetic acid
Chhena, an Indian cheese, similar to cottage cheese
Paneer, another Indian cheese similar to Chhena
Quark, a curd and cheese
Queso fresco, a Spanish and Latin American soft cheese
Ricotta, an Italian whey cheese
References
External links
Acid-set cheeses
Jewish American cuisine
American cuisine
Israeli cuisine
Jewish cuisine
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214284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherbrooke | Sherbrooke | Sherbrooke ( ; ) is a city in southern Quebec, Canada. It is at the confluence of the Saint-François and Magog rivers in the heart of the Estrie administrative region. Sherbrooke is also the name of a territory equivalent to a regional county municipality (TE) and census division (CD) of Quebec, coextensive with the city of Sherbrooke. With 161,323 residents at the Canada 2016 Census, It is the sixth largest city in the province and the 30th largest in Canada. The Sherbrooke Census Metropolitan Area had 212,105 inhabitants, making it the fourth largest metropolitan area in Quebec and 19th in Canada.
Sherbrooke is the primary economic, political, cultural and institutional centre of Estrie, and was known as the Queen of the Eastern Townships at the beginning of the 20th century.
There are eight institutions educating 40,000 students and employing 11,000 people, 3,700 of whom are professors, teachers and researchers. The direct economic impact of these institutions exceeds 1 billion dollars. The proportion of university students is 10.32 students per 100 inhabitants. With one student per 10 inhabitants, Sherbrooke has the largest concentration of students in Quebec.
Sherbrooke rose as a manufacturing centre in the 1800s and today the service sector is prominent.
The Sherbrooke region is surrounded by mountains, rivers and lakes There are several ski hills nearby and various tourist attractions in regional flavour. Mont-Bellevue Park, a large park in the city, is used for downhill skiing.
Toponymy
The city was named in 1818 for John Coape Sherbrooke, a former Governor General of Canada.
History
First Nations settled the region 8,000-3,000 years ago. The Abenaki called it Ktinékétolékouac (The Large Forks), or Shacewanteku (where one smokes).
The first settler was the farmer Jean-Baptiste Nolain, in 1779. The area was first surveyed in 1792. Americans from Vermont built mills in the area in 1802. Gilbert Hyatt led a group of loyalists, who settled around 1803. He dammed the Magog River and a gristmill and a sawmill were soon built nearby. The settlement was then known as Hyatt's Mills. The first immigrants from England arrived in 1815.
The British American Land Company was formed in 1832}} to acquire and develope almost of Crown land and other lands in the area. It prioritized speculation over immigration.
In 1852 a railway linked Montreal and Portland, Maine via Sherbrooke. By the 1890s there were rail connections to Boston, Halifax, and New York City.
Immigration from the rest of Quebec began in 1850, and by 1871 francophones were in the majority.
By the turn of the 20th century, Sherbrooke was a thriving industrial city, with manufacturing benefitting from locally-produced hydroelectricity. From the 1950s, some the steel and textile industries declined, giving way to government services and education.
As part of the 2000–2006 municipal reorganization in Quebec, the city grew considerably on 1 January 2002, with the amalgamation of Sherbrooke, Ascot, Bromptonville, Deauville, Fleurimont, Lennoxville, Rock Forest, and Saint-Élie-d'Orford. Part of Stoke was also annexed to the newly expanded Sherbrooke.
In 2012, a local Vitamin production factory suffered an explosion, which killed 2, and injured 19, some severely. A large toxic cloud enveloped part of the city, raising health concerns.
Geography
Located at the confluence of the Saint-François (St. Francis) and Magog rivers in the heart of the Eastern Townships and the administrative region. Sherbrooke is also the name of a territory equivalent to a regional county municipality (TE) and census division (CD) of Quebec, coextensive with the city of Sherbrooke. Its geographical code is 43.
Climate
Sherbrooke has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), with long, cold, and snowy winters, warm summers, and short but crisp springs and autumns. Highs range from in January to in July. In an average year, there are 34 nights at or colder than , and 6.5 nights at or colder than ; 4.1 days will see highs reaching . Annual snowfall is large, averaging at , sometimes falling in May and October. Precipitation is not sparse any time of the year, but is the greatest in summer and fall and at its least from January to April, totalling annually.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Sherbrooke was on 1 & 2 July 1931. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 15 January 2004.
Cityscape
Neighbourhoods
The city includes several neighbourhoods:
Le quartier universitaire
Le Vieux-Nord
Collinsville
Secteur Galvin
L'Est
Ascot
Mi-Vallon
du Pin-Solitaire
Le Petit Canada
Demographics
According to the 2016 census, there were 161,323 people residing in Sherbrooke, a 4.3% increase over the 2011 census. The city of Sherbrooke has a land area of , and a population density of . The median age of the population was 40.5 in 2016. The census metropolitan area consists of Sherbrooke, Ascot Corner, Compton, Hatley (township), Magog, North Hatley, Orford, Saint-Denis-de-Brompton, Stoke, Val-Joli, Waterville. In the 2006 census, the census metropolitan area had not included Orford and Val-Joli.
88.4% of Sherbrooke residents spoke French as a first language in 2016, while those whose mother tongue was English accounted for 3.4%. The next most common first languages were Spanish (1.6%), Arabic (1.1%) and Persian/Farsi (0.8%)
As of 2016, approximately 88.8% of Sherbrooke residents were white, while 7.3% were visible minorities and 3.9% were aboriginal. The largest visible minority groups in Sherbrooke were Black (2.2%), Latin American (1.7%), Arab (1.2%), and West Asian (0.8%).
Census Metropolitan Area
The Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) comprises the cities of Sherbrooke, Magog and Waterville, the municipalities of Ascot Corner, Compton, Stoke and Val-Joli; the parish municipality of Saint-Denis-de-Brompton; the township municipalities of Hatley and Orford; and the village municipality of North Hatley. The population in 2016 was 212,105. The median age was 42.
Approximately 90.3% of the greater Sherbrooke area residents were white, while 5.8% were visible minorities and 3.9% were Aboriginal.
French was mother tongue to 90.1% of residents (counting both single and multiple responses). The next most common mother tongues were English (5.4%), Spanish (1.3%), Arabic (1.2%) Persian (0.5%), German (0.4%), and Italian (0.4%). (Percentages may total more than 100% owing to rounding and multiple responses).
About 78.4% of the population identified as Catholic in 2011 while 13.8% said they had no religious affiliation,1.7% were Muslim 0.6% Anglican, 0.6% Baptists, 0.6% Eastern Orthodox and 0.5% United Church. Pentecostals, Hindus and Buddhists made up 0.2% of the population each.
Economy
Sherbrooke, which is the economic centre of Estrie, is a significant cultural, industrial, and academic hub in the province. The city is directly served by two railways: the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad and the Canadian Pacific Railway. Sherbrooke is also served by four highways as well as a regional airport, named for Sherbrooke, but located in the nearby city of Cookshire-Eaton. However the airport no longer offers commercial services as of March 2010.
According to data from the Institut de la statistique du Québec, average personal income per capita in the Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) of Sherbrooke amounted to in 2010. Estrie's GDP for the same year was $.
Largest employers
As of 2010, the largest employers in Sherbrooke are Université de Sherbrooke (6,000 employees), Centre hospitalier universitaire de Sherbrooke (5,511), Commission scolaire de la Région-de-Sherbrooke (3,050), Centre de santé et de services sociaux – Institut universitaire de gériatrie de Sherbrooke (2,650), City of Sherbrooke (1,913), Desjardins Group (1,713), Cégep de Sherbrooke (800), Centre Jeunesse de l'Estrie (527), Nordia Inc. (500), Canada Post (497), Kruger Inc. - Publication papers business unit (455), Bishop's University (450) and McDonald's (400). These include enterprises operating in Sherbrooke only and having 400 or more employees.
Culture
In the summer season, several festivals, concerts, and events are held in the city, such as the Fête du Lac des Nations, Sherblues & Folk, and the Festival des traditions du monde. Come winter, the city hosts the Carnaval de Sherbrooke.
The city has British architectural heritage, as seen in the buildings in Vieux-Nord.
The city has the fourth largest theatre in Quebec, the Maurice O'Bready University Cultural Centre of Sherbrooke (Salle Maurice-O’bready du centre culturel de l’Université de Sherbrooke). Music, theatre, and dance shows are staged there. The Centennial Theatre of Bishop's University also hosts music and dance concerts from around the world. The Vieux Clocher, owned by the Université de Sherbrooke, has two stages, the primary being used by various music groups and comedians from around the province. The Théâtre Granada, designated as a historical site by the Canadian government, holds music concerts. It has retained its original architecture since its opening. The Petit Théâtre de Sherbrooke, located downtown, presents musicals and plays for children.
Since 2007, the Centre des arts de la scène Jean-Besré (CASJB), built by the city with the support of the Ministry of Culture and Communications, has assisted in the creation and production of material for the region's artistic community. It serves as the location for training theatre, music, and dance professionals. It contains three rehearsal studios, a production room, a decoration workshop, and a costume workshop, as well as administrative offices for each of its resident companies.
Auditoriums
Salle Maurice-O'Bready
Granada Theatre
Centennial Theatre
Vieux Clocher
Le Petit Théâtre de Sherbrooke
Théâtre Léonard Saint-Laurent
Salle Alfred-Des Rochers
Libraries
La bibliothèque municipale Éva-Senécal, the main city library (opened 22 December 1990), is named for Éva Senécal (1905-1988), poet, novelist and journalist.
La bibliothèque du secteur de Rock Forest
La bibliothèque du secteur de Saint-Élie
La bibliothèque Gisèle-Bergeron
La bibliothèque de Lennoxville, at the intersection of rue Queen and rue College, near Bishop's University, offers a book lending service in French and English.
Attractions
Museums and visitors' centres
Sherbrooke Nature and Science Museum
Centre d'interprétation de l'histoire de Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke Museum of Fine Arts
Centre culturel et du patrimoine Uplands
Art gallery at the Centre Culturel of Sherbrooke University
Centre d'art actuel Sporobole
Prison Winter
Parks
Johnville Bog & Forest Park
Forêt jardinée de l'aéroport de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke has parks and greenspaces that encompass a variety of recreational activities. In total, there are 108 in the municipality. Parks Jacques-Cartier, Mont Bellevue, Bois Beckett, Lucien-Blanchard, Central, Quintal, Victoria, and Marais Réal-D.-Carbonneau are among the most popular destinations.
Jacques-Cartier Park
Situated along lac des Nations, this park is about away from the downtown area and is connected to the lac des Nations promenade. It contains several sports facilities including soccer fields and tennis courts. Several festivals are held here including the Fête du Lac des Nations, the Carnaval de Sherbooke, the festivities for the Fête Nationale and Canada Day.
Mont Bellevue Park
This park is the largest in Sherbrooke, with an area of . Situated partially on the campus of the Université de Sherbrooke, it is managed by the city and developed by volunteer organization Regroupement du Mont-Bellevue. Within the park are mounts Bellevue and John-S.-Bourque, the former of which has a small ski station. The park is also used for cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, walking, and tubing in winter; as well as hiking, mountain biking, archery, tennis, and jogging in summer. The park contains a total of of trails and several different types of ecosystems.
Bois Beckett Park
This park was established on an old maple grove that belonged to Major Henry Beckett between 1834 and 1870. The property remained in his family until it was acquired by the city in 1963. In 2000, the Ministère de Ressources naturelles et de la Faune recognized the property as an old-growth forest. The oldest tree is said to be 270 years old. The park is maintained, protected and promoted by a volunteer group. Several trails have been built by the city which are open year-round. Within the park, there are several artifacts left behind by Beckett, such as foundations, wells, and farm equipment.
Lucien-Blanchard Park
Situated west of downtown on the bank of the Magog River, this park is open to several outdoor activities such as swimming and beach volleyball. Bicycles, canoes, kayaks, paddle boats, and dragon boats are available for rent. There is an interpretation centre with an emphasis on the reptiles and amphibians of the region as well as a boutique.
Central Park
At the heart of the Rock Forest–Saint-Élie–Deauville borough, this park is equipped for soccer, tennis, baseball, beach volleyball, and has a playground and an outdoor pool.
Quintal Park
Formerly called Parc Central de Fleurimont, this park is situated in the borough of Fleurimont, and mirrors Central Park of Rock Forest-Saint-Élie-Deauville. In early July, the Pif Classic baseball tournament is held in the park, and in August, it hosts the Festival des Traditions du Monde.
Victoria and Sylvie-Daigle Parks
Across Terrill Street from one another, these parks are situated just east of downtown. Inside these parks lie pedestrian trails, Olympic-size soccer fields, a handicap accessible outdoor pool, and a sports complex. This multifunctional facility, called the Centre MultiSport Roland-Dussault, has an artificial turf allowing local teams the opportunity to practise indoor soccer, baseball, football, rugby, and so on. There is a hockey arena.
Marais Réal-D.-Carbonneau
Located near the Saint-François River, this marsh was developed by CHARMES, a non-profit management corporation that seeks to promote ecotourism in and around Sherbrooke. The park is located on of land and allows visitors access to wooden piers and observation towers, where there are over 50 tree and shrub species and birds.
Sports
Baseball
The Sherbrooke Expos of the Ligue de Baseball Majeur du Québec, an amateur baseball league, play their home games at Amedée Roy Stadium.
The city also hosted some games of the 2002 World Junior Baseball Championship, and the 2013 Canada Games.
Historically, several professional teams based in Sherbrooke competed in Minor League Baseball or in independent baseball leagues:
Ice hockey
The Sherbrooke Phoenix is a junior hockey team playing in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League.
The Sherbrooke Canadiens competed in the American Hockey League from 1984 to 1990.
Government
Sherbrooke is the seat of the judicial district of Saint-François.
Municipal
Local governance is provided by the Sherbrooke City Council. The mayor is Évelyne Beaudin.
Under the 2000–2006 municipal reorganization in Quebec, Sherbrooke merged with most of the suburban municipalities in the surrounding area: Rock Forest, Saint-Élie-d'Orford, Deauville, Fleurimont, Bromptonville, Ascot, and Lennoxville. This resulted in the creation of six Boroughs of Sherbrooke: Brompton, Fleurimont, Lennoxville, Mont-Bellevue, Rock Forest–Saint-Élie–Deauville, and Jacques-Cartier. Each of the boroughs is subdivided into electoral districts, with the number varying based on population. For example, there are only two districts in Brompton, which only has 6,314 inhabitants, whereas Fleurimont (pop. 40,824) has five. Sherbrooke has 21 districts total, for which the average population is 7,200 inhabitants.
Federal and provincial
Sherbrooke is split into the federal electoral districts of Sherbrooke, represented by Élisabeth Brière of the Liberal party of Canada and Compton—Stanstead, represented by Marie-Claude Bibeau of the Liberals.
Provincially, Sherbrooke is divided into three electoral districts. Sherbrooke is represented by Christine Labrie of the Québec solidaire (QS), Saint-François is represented by Guy Hardy of the PLQ and Richmond is represented by Karine Vallières of the PLQ.
Public safety
In 2007, the crime rate was 5,491 per 100,000.
Military
Sherbrooke does not host any units from the Regular Force with the exception of a recruiting centre, but four Primary Reserve units are stationed in the city:
52nd Field Ambulance, formerly known as 8th Medical Company.
714th Communication Squadron
Les Fusiliers de Sherbrooke
The Sherbrooke Hussars, formed from the amalgamation of The Sherbrooke Regiment and the 7th/11th Hussars in 1965.
A Canadian military artifact is preserved at the William Street Armoury, the Sherman tank "Bomb" which helped liberate Europe fighting with the Sherbrooke Fusilier Regiment and is the only Canadian tank to have landed on the Normandy beach on D-Day and fought through to VE Day without being knocked out.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Sherbrooke Airport, in Cookshire-Eaton is just east of the city. There are currently no scheduled flights operating out of the airport.
Transdev Limocar provides bus service to Montreal via Granby and Magog. Formerly, Autobus Jordez linked Sherbrooke to Drummondville and Trois-Rivières, and also to Victoriaville and Quebec City, but since the company lost their licence to operate heavy vehicles, they have sold their licence to Autobus La Québécoise, who now provide the service. The last passenger train for the city was VIA Rail's Montreal – Saint John, New Brunswick Atlantic, which ended service in 1994.
Société de transport de Sherbrooke (STS) provides bus service within the city. It operates 17 bus routes, 11 minibus routes, and 5 taxibus routes.
The city is located at the eastern terminus of A-10, and directly on the Autoroute Trans-Québécoise (A-55). A-10 provides a direct freeway connection to Montreal and points west, while A-55 connects directly to Trois-Rivières, Shawinigan, and points north, as well as to Interstate 91 to the south (Vermont). A-410 and A-610 are the southern and northern bypass roads, respectively.
Public health
The suburban Sherbrooke University Hospital ("CHUS" or "Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Sherbooke) has over 5,200 employees, including 550 doctors. It includes a clinical research facility, the Étienne-Lebel Research Centre.
Education
Sherbrooke has eight institutions that make up the Sherbrooke University Pole, which educates some 40,000 students and employs about 11,000 persons. University students comprise 10.32% of the population, the highest concentration in Quebec.
The city is the location of one French-language university, the Université de Sherbrooke, and an English-language university, Bishop's University. Université de Sherbrooke is a comprehensive university with schools of medicine and law and extensive graduate programs. Bishop's University is smaller and predominantly undergraduate. There are three CEGEPs in Sherbrooke, two of them French-language, the Cégep de Sherbrooke and the Séminaire de Sherbrooke, and one English-language, Champlain College Lennoxville. CCSQ and CDE College which currently enrols International Students. In the past over 100 International students have graduated and landed jobs in Sherbrooke City itself, making it an attraction to the Indian student division. There currently over 100 South Asians residing in the City of Sherbrooke which consists of Hindu, Punjabi and Gujrati ethnic background.
There are also public high school boards such as the English Eastern Townships School Board, French Commission scolaire de la Région-de-Sherbrooke and private high schools such as Séminaire de Sherbrooke founded in 1875, Bishop's College School founded in 1836, etc.
Media
See also
List of mayors of Sherbrooke
List of people from Sherbrooke
List of regional county municipalities and equivalent territories in Quebec
References
External links
Sherbrooke website
André Nadeau outdoor recreational centr, park in Sherbrooke
Cities and towns in Quebec
Territories equivalent to a regional county municipality | [
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|
214287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curd | Curd | Curd is obtained by coagulating milk in a sequential process called curdling. It can be a final dairy product or the first stage in cheesemaking. The coagulation can be caused by adding rennet or any edible acidic substance such as lemon juice or vinegar, and then allowing it to coagulate. The increased acidity causes the milk proteins (casein) to tangle into solid masses, or curds. Milk that has been left to sour (raw milk alone or pasteurized milk with added lactic acid bacteria) will also naturally produce curds, and sour milk cheeses are produced this way. Producing cheese curds is one of the first steps in cheesemaking; the curds are pressed and drained to varying amounts for different styles of cheese and different secondary agents (molds for blue cheeses, etc.) are introduced before the desired aging finishes the cheese. The remaining liquid, which contains only whey proteins, is the whey. In cow's milk, 90 percent of the proteins are caseins.
Types of curd
There are two methods to make curd, with rennet and with acid. Using acid, like lemon juice or lactic acid, to make curd releases the lactose into the water. Thus the solid curd formed from this method is good for people with lactose intolerance. This type of curd is known as Chhena in India.
Using rennet to make curd attaches the lactose to the solid coagulated proteins. Thus it is not recommended for people with lactose intolerance. This type of curd is the commercial cheese available in supermarkets, such as Cheddar, Mozzarella, Swiss, and Parmesan. Vegetarian rennet, usually from Withania coagulans, is used to make paneer in India.
Uses
Curd products vary by region and include cottage cheese, curd cheese (both curdled by bacteria and sometimes also rennet), farmer cheese, pot cheese, queso blanco, and paneer. The word can also refer to a non-dairy substance of similar appearance or consistency, though in these cases a modifier or the word curdled is generally used.
In England, curds produced using rennet are referred to as junket; true curds and whey are produced from the natural separation of milk due to its environment (temperature, acidity). Curds are used to make pudding as well, with semolina, raisins, chopped nuts and other ingredients. This can be baked, or the curd pudding can be used to bake thin custard pancakes.
Cheese curds, drained of the whey and served without further processing or aging, are popular in some French-speaking regions of Canada, such as Quebec, parts of Ontario, and Atlantic Canada. These are often sold in snack-sized packaging and seen as a typically Canadian food item. Throughout Canada cheese curds are served with french fries and gravy in a popular snack called poutine. Curds are also typical of some Germanic-descent regions such as historic Waterloo County in Ontario.
In some parts of the Midwestern U.S., especially in Wisconsin, curds are eaten fresh without further additions, or they are breaded and fried.
In Turkey, curds are called keş and are served on fried bread and are also eaten with macaroni in the provinces of Bolu and Zonguldak.
In Mexico, chongos zamoranos is a dessert prepared with milk curdled with sugar and cinnamon.
Albanian is made by boiling whey for about 15 minutes and adding vinegar or lemon. The derivative is drained and salted to taste. can be served immediately or refrigerated for a couple of days.
See also
Aarts, Mongolian fermented curd, eaten as a dried snack or reconstituted as a hot beverage
Chongos zamoranos, a dessert prepared with milk curdled with sugar and cinnamon
Cuajada (or Coalhada), usually sweetened and eaten for breakfast or dessert, popular in Spain and Central America
Curd snack, a snack popular in the Baltic States
Çökelek, a form of fermented buttermilk or yogurt curd from Turkey
Farmer cheese
Hoop cheese
Key lime pie, prepared by curdling condensed milk
Kesú Paraguay, a Paraguayan formed cottage cheese
Kurt or Qurut, central Asian cheese curd
Leipäjuusto, Finnish cheese
Ostkaka, Swedish style cheese cake, some call it a Swedish National dish
Paskha, a Russian Easter dessert made of quark
Ricotta, an Italian whey cheese
Skyr, Icelandic curd
Tofu, the coagulated product from soy milk, from eastern and south-eastern Asian countries
Túró Rudi, a Hungarian chocolate bar with curd
Urdă, a Balkan fresh white cheese made from whey.
List of dairy products
References
External links
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Dairy products
Cheese dishes | [
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|
214290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20white%20pelican | American white pelican | The American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) is a large aquatic soaring bird from the order Pelecaniformes. It breeds in interior North America, moving south and to the coasts, as far as Central America and South America, in winter.
Taxonomy
The German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin described the American white pelican in 1789. The scientific name means "red-billed pelican", from the Latin term for a pelican, Pelecanus, and erythrorhynchos, derived from the Ancient Greek words (ἐρυθρός, "red") + (ῥύγχος, "bill").
Description
The American white pelican rivals the trumpeter swan, with a similar overall length, as the longest bird native to North America. Both very large and plump, it has an overall length of about , courtesy of the huge beak which measures in males and in females. It has a wingspan of about . The species also has the second largest average wingspan of any North American bird, after the California condor. This large wingspan allows the bird to easily use soaring flight for migration. Body weight can range between , although typically these birds average between . One mean body mass of was reported. Another study found mean weights to be somewhat lower than expected, with eleven males averaging and six females averaging . Among standard measurements, the wing chord measures and the tarsus measures long. The plumage is almost entirely bright white, except the black primary and secondary remiges, which are hardly visible except in flight. From early spring until after breeding has finished in mid-late summer, the breast feathers have a yellowish hue. After moulting into the eclipse plumage, the upper head often has a grey hue, as blackish feathers grow between the small wispy white crest.
The bill is huge and flat on the top, with a large throat sac below, and, in the breeding season, is vivid orange in color as is the iris, the bare skin around the eye, and the feet. In the breeding season, there is a laterally flattened "horn" on the upper bill, located about one-third the bill's length behind the tip. This is the only one of the eight species of pelican to have a bill "horn". The horn is shed after the birds have mated and laid their eggs. Outside the breeding season the bare parts become duller in color, with the naked facial skin yellow and the bill, pouch, and feet an orangy-flesh color.
Apart from the difference in size, males and females look exactly alike. Immature birds have light grey plumage with darker brownish nape and remiges. Their bare parts are dull grey. Chicks are naked at first, then grow white down feathers all over, before moulting to the immature plumage.
Distribution and ecology
American white pelicans nest in colonies of several hundred pairs on islands in remote brackish and freshwater lakes of inland North America. The most northerly nesting colony can be found on islands in the rapids of the Slave River between Fort Fitzgerald, Alberta, and Fort Smith, Northwest Territories. Several groups have been visiting the bird sanctuary at Useless Bay in the state of Washington since 2015. About 10–20% of the population uses Gunnison Island in the Great Basin's Great Salt Lake as a nesting ground. The southernmost colonies are in southwestern Ontario and northeastern California. Nesting colonies exist as far south as Albany County in southern Wyoming.
They winter on the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico coasts from central California and Florida south to Panama, and along the Mississippi River at least as far north as St. Paul, Minnesota. In winter quarters, they are rarely found on the open seashore, preferring estuaries and lakes. They cross deserts and mountains but avoid the open ocean on migration. But stray birds, often blown off course by hurricanes, have been seen in the Caribbean. In Colombian territory it has been recorded first on February 22, 1997, on the San Andrés Island, where they might have been swept by Hurricane Marco which passed nearby in November 1996. Since then, there have also been a few observations likely to pertain to this species on the South American mainland, e.g. at Calamar.
Wild American white pelicans may live for more than 16 years. In captivity, the record lifespan stands at over 34 years.
Food and feeding
Unlike the brown pelican (P. occidentalis), the American white pelican does not dive for its food. Instead it catches its prey while swimming. Each bird eats more than 4 pounds of food a day, mostly fish such as Cypriniformes like Common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Lahontan Tui chub (Gila bicolor obesa) and shiners, Perciformes like Sacramento perch (Archoplites interruptus) or Yellow perch (Perca flavescens), Salmoniformes like rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Siluriformes (catfish), and jackfish. Other animals eaten by these birds are crayfish and amphibians, and sometimes larval salamanders. Birds nesting on saline lakes, where food is scarce, will travel great distances to better feeding grounds.
American white pelicans like to come together in groups of a dozen or more birds to feed, as they can thus cooperate and corral fish to one another. When this is not easily possible – for example in deep water, where fish can escape by diving out of reach – they prefer to forage alone. But the birds also steal food on occasion from other birds, a practice known as kleptoparasitism. White pelicans are known to steal fish from other pelicans, gulls and cormorants from the surface of the water and, in one case, from a great blue heron while both large birds were in flight.
Reproduction
As noted above, they are colonial breeders, with up to 5,000 pairs per site. The birds arrive on the breeding grounds in March or April; nesting starts between early April and early June. During the breeding season, both males and females develop a pronounced bump on the top of their large beaks. This conspicuous growth is shed by the end of the breeding season.
The nest is a shallow depression scraped in the ground, into which some twigs, sticks, reeds or similar debris have been gathered. After about one week of courtship and nest-building, the female lays a clutch of usually two or three eggs, sometimes just one, sometimes up to six.
Both parents incubate for about one month. The young leave the nest 3–4 weeks after hatching; at this point, usually only one young per nest has survived. They spend the following month in a creche or "pod", moulting into immature plumage and eventually learning to fly. After fledging, the parents care for their offspring some three more weeks, until the close family bond separates in late summer or early fall, and the birds gather in larger groups on rich feeding grounds in preparation for the migration to the winter quarters. They migrate south by September or October.
Predation
Occasionally, these pelicans may nest in colonies on isolated islands, which is believed to significantly reduce the likelihood of mammalian predation. Red foxes and coyotes predate colonies that they can access, the latter being the only known species to hunt brooding adult pelicans (which are too large for most bird predators to subdue). Several gulls have been known to predate pelican eggs and nestlings (including herring, ring-billed and California gull), as well as common ravens. Young pelicans may be hunted by great horned owls, red-tailed hawks, bald eagles, and golden eagles. The pelicans react to mammalian threats differently from avian threats. Though fairly approachable while feeding, the pelicans may temporarily abandon their nests if a human closely approaches the colony. If the threat is another bird, however, the pelicans do not abandon the nest and may fight off the interloper by jabbing at them with their considerable bills.
Status and conservation
This species is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. It has the California Department of Fish and Game protective status California species of special concern (CSC). On a global scale however, the species is common enough to qualify as a Species of Least Concern according to the IUCN.
Habitat loss is the largest known cause of nesting failure, with flooding and drought being recurrent problems. Human-related losses include entanglement in fishing gear, boating disturbance and poaching as well as additional habitat degradation.
There was a pronounced decline in American white pelican numbers in the mid-20th century, attributable to the excessive spraying of DDT, endrin and other organochlorides in agriculture as well as widespread draining and pollution of wetlands. But populations have recovered well after stricter environmental protection laws came into effect, and are stable or slightly increasing today. By the 1980s, more than 100,000 adult American white pelicans were estimated to exist in the wild, with 33,000 nests altogether in the 50 colonies in Canada, and 18,500 nests in the 14–17 United States colonies. Shoreline erosion at breeding colonies remains a problem in some cases, as are the occasional mass poisonings when pesticides are used near breeding or wintering sites.
References
External links
American white pelican profile at The Nature Conservancy
American white pelican pictures from 'Field Guide' page on Flickr
Stamps (for British Virgin Islands, Canada, Cuba, Turks and Caicos) – with Range Map at bird-stamps.org
Photos of the American White Pelican by Klaus Nigge
American white pelican
American white pelican
Native birds of the Canadian Prairies
Native birds of the Western United States
Birds of North America
Birds of the Dominican Republic
Birds of the Caribbean
American white pelican
American white pelican
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|
214293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherbrooke%20%28disambiguation%29 | Sherbrooke (disambiguation) | Sherbrooke may refer to:
Places
Australia
Sherbrooke, Victoria, a town
Sherbrooke Forest, in Victoria
Shire of Sherbrooke, a former local government area of Victoria
Electoral district of Sherbrooke
Canada
Sherbrooke, a city in Quebec
Sherbrooke Regional County Municipality, a former name of the now-defunct La Région-Sherbrookoise Regional County Municipality
Sherbrooke (electoral district), a federal electoral district
Sherbrooke (provincial electoral district), a provincial electoral district of Quebec
Town of Sherbrooke, a past federal electoral district from 1867 to 1925
Sherbrooke Airport
Université de Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, Edmonton, a neighbourhood in Edmonton, Alberta
Sherbrooke, Nova Scotia, a small rural community in Nova Scotia
Sherbrooke, Prince Edward Island, a small settlement in Prince Edward Island
Sherbrooke Street, a major road in Montreal
Sherbrooke (Montreal Metro), a Montreal Metro station
Sherbrooke Township, Ontario
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Sherbrooke
United States
Sherbrooke, North Dakota
People
John Coape Sherbrooke (1764–1830), British soldier and colonial administrator
Robert Sherbrooke (1901–1972), English recipient of the Victoria Cross
Robert Lowe, 1st Viscount Sherbrooke (1811–1892), British and Australian statesman
Other uses
, a ship of the Royal Canadian Navy during the Second World War
Sir John Sherbrooke, one of two privateer vessels by the same name during the War of 1812
See also
Sherbrooke Lake (disambiguation) | [
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|
214294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis%20D | Hepatitis D | Hepatitis D is a type of viral hepatitis caused by the hepatitis delta virus (HDV). HDV is one of five known hepatitis viruses: A, B, C, D, and E. HDV is considered to be a satellite (a type of subviral agent) because it can propagate only in the presence of the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Transmission of HDV can occur either via simultaneous infection with HBV (coinfection) or superimposed on chronic hepatitis B or hepatitis B carrier state (superinfection).
HDV and HBV infecting a person simultaneously is considered the most serious type of viral hepatitis due to its severity of complications. These complications include a greater likelihood of experiencing liver failure in acute infections and a rapid progression to liver cirrhosis, with an increased risk of developing liver cancer in chronic infections. In combination with hepatitis B virus, hepatitis D has the highest fatality rate of all the hepatitis infections, at 20%. A recent estimate from 2020 suggests that currently 48 million persons are infected with this virus.
Virology
Structure and genome
The hepatitis delta viruses, or HDV, are eight species of negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses (or virus-like particles) classified together as the genus Deltavirus, within the realm Ribozyviria. The HDV virion is a small, spherical, enveloped particle with a 36 nm diameter; its viral envelope contains host phospholipids, as well as three proteins taken from the hepatitis B virus—the large, medium, and small hepatitis B surface antigens. This assembly surrounds an inner ribonucleoprotein (RNP) particle, which contains the genome surrounded by about 200 molecules of hepatitis D antigen (HDAg) for each genome. The central region of HDAg has been shown to bind RNA. Several interactions are also mediated by a coiled-coil region at the N terminus of HDAg.
The HDV genome is negative sense, single-stranded, closed circular RNA; with a genome of approximately 1700 nucleotides, HDV is the smallest "virus" known to infect animals. It has been proposed that HDV may have originated from a class of plant pathogens called viroids, which are much smaller than viruses. Its genome is unique among animal viruses because of its high GC nucleotide content. Its nucleotide sequence is about 70% self-complementary, allowing the genome to form a partially double-stranded, rod-like RNA structure. HDV strains are highly divergent; fusions of different strains exist and sequences had been deposited in public databases employing different start sites for the circular viral DNA involved. This had resulted in something of chaos with respect to molecular classification of this virus, a situation which has been resolved recently with the adoption of a proposed reference genome and a uniform classification system.
Life cycle
Like hepatitis B, HDV gains entry into liver cells via the NTCP bile transporter. HDV recognizes its receptor via the N-terminal domain of the large hepatitis B surface antigen, HBsAg. Mapping by mutagenesis of this domain has shown that amino acid residues 9–15 make up the receptor-binding site. After entering the hepatocyte, the virus is uncoated and the nucleocapsid translocated to the nucleus due to a signal in HDAg Since the HDV genome does not code for an RNA polymerase to replicate the virus’ genome, the virus makes use of the host cellular RNA polymerases. Initially thought to use just RNA polymerase II, now RNA polymerases I and III have also been shown to be involved in HDV replication.
Normally RNA polymerase II utilizes DNA as a template and produces mRNA. Consequently, if HDV indeed utilizes RNA polymerase II during replication, it would be the only known animal pathogen capable of using a DNA-dependent polymerase as an RNA-dependent polymerase.
The RNA polymerases treat the RNA genome as double-stranded DNA due to the folded rod-like structure it is in. Three forms of RNA are made; circular genomic RNA, circular complementary antigenomic RNA, and a linear polyadenylated antigenomic RNA, which is the mRNA containing the open reading frame for the HDAg. Synthesis of antigenomic RNA occurs in the nucleolus, mediated by RNA polymerase I, whereas synthesis of genomic RNA takes place in the nucleoplasm, mediated by RNA polymerase II. HDV RNA is synthesized first as linear RNA that contains many copies of the genome. The genomic and antigenomic RNA contain a sequence of 85 nucleotides, the hepatitis delta virus ribozyme, that acts as a ribozyme, which self-cleaves the linear RNA into monomers. These monomers are then ligated to form circular RNA.
Delta antigens
A significant difference between viroids and HDV is that, while viroids produce no proteins, HDV is known to produce one protein, namely HDAg. It comes in two forms; a 27kDa large-HDAg, and a small-HDAg of 24kDa. The N-terminals of the two forms are identical, they differ by 19 more amino acids in the C-terminal of the large HDAg. Both isoforms are produced from the same reading frame which contains an UAG stop codon at codon 196, which normally produces only the small-HDAg. However, editing by cellular enzyme adenosine deaminase-1 changes the stop codon to UGG, allowing the large-HDAg to be produced. Despite having 90% identical sequences, these two proteins play diverging roles during the course of an infection. HDAg-S is produced in the early stages of an infection and enters the nucleus and supports viral replication. HDAg-L, in contrast, is produced during the later stages of an infection, acts as an inhibitor of viral replication, and is required for assembly of viral particles. Thus RNA editing by the cellular enzymes is critical to the virus’ life cycle because it regulates the balance between viral replication and virion assembly.
Antigenic loop infectivity
The HDV envelope protein has three of the HBV surface proteins anchored to it. The S region of the genome is most commonly expressed and its main function is to assemble subviral particles. HDV antigen proteins combine with the viral genome to form a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) which when enveloped with the subviral particles can form viral-like particles that are almost identical to mature HDV, but they are not infectious. Researchers had concluded that the determinant of infectivity of HDV was within the N-terminal pre-S1 domain of the large protein (L). It was found to be a mediator in binding to the cellular receptor. Researchers Georges Abou Jaoudé and Camille Sureau published an article in 2005 that studied the role of the antigenic loop, found in HDV envelope proteins, in the infectivity of the virus. The antigenic loop, like the N-terminal pre-S1 domain of the large protein, is exposed at the virion surface. Jaoudé and Sureau's study provided evidence that the antigenic loop may be an important factor in HDV entry into the host cell and by mutating parts of the antigenic loop, the infectivity of HDV may be minimized.
Transmission
The routes of transmission of hepatitis D are similar to those for hepatitis B. Infection is largely restricted to persons at high risk of hepatitis B infection, particularly injecting drug users and persons receiving clotting factor concentrates. Worldwide more than 15 million people are co-infected. HDV is rare in most developed countries, and is mostly associated with intravenous drug use. However, HDV is much more common in the immediate Mediterranean region, sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and the northern part of South America. In all, about 20 million people may be infected with HDV.
Prevention
The vaccine for hepatitis B protects against hepatitis D virus because of the latter's dependence on the presence of hepatitis B virus for it to replicate.
In absence of a specific vaccine against delta virus, the vaccine against HBV must be given soon after birth in risk groups.
Treatment
Hepatitis D is generally considered the dominant virus over hepatitis B except in rare instances. Current established treatments for chronic hepatitis D include conventional or pegylated interferon alpha therapy. Latest evidence suggests that pegylated interferon alpha is effective in reducing the viral load and the effect of the disease during the time the drug is given, but the benefit generally stops if the drug is discontinued. The efficiency of this treatment does not usually exceed ~20%, and late relapse after therapy has been reported.
In May 2020, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use of the European Medicines Agency approved the antiviral Hepcludex (bulevirtide) to treat hepatitis D and B. Bulevirtide binds and inactivates the sodium/bile acid cotransporter, blocking both viruses from entering hepatocytes.
Epidemiology
Those afflicted are individuals who have been infected with Hepatitis B virus as the Hepatitis D (HDV) virus needs the HBsAg (hepatitis B surface antigen) for packaging and transmission. The disease is present worldwide. Infection with HDV is a major medical scourge in low income regions of the globe in which the HBV remains endemic. It is therefore most prevalent in countries where HBV infection is also common, currently the Amazon basin and low income regions of Asia and Africa. Improved measures to control HBV in industrialised countries (such as by vaccination) have also reduced the prevalence of HDV, with the main remaining at-risk populations in those countries being injection drug users and immigrants from endemic HDV areas.
History
Hepatitis D virus was first reported in 1977 as a nuclear antigen in patients infected with HBV who had severe liver disease. This nuclear antigen was then thought to be a hepatitis B antigen and was called the delta antigen. Subsequent experiments in chimpanzees showed that the hepatitis delta antigen (HDAg) was a structural part of a pathogen that required HBV infection to produce a complete viral particle. The entire genome was cloned and sequenced in 1986. It was subsequently placed in its own genus: Deltavirus.
Lábrea fever
Lábrea fever is a lethal tropical infection discovered in the 1950s in the city of Lábrea, in the Brazilian Amazon basin, where it occurs mostly in the area south of the Amazon River, in the states of Acre, Amazonas, and Rondônia. The disease has also been diagnosed in Colombia and Peru. It is now known to be a coinfection or superinfection of hepatitis B (HBV) with hepatitis D.
Lábrea fever has a sudden onset, with jaundice, anorexia (lack of appetite), hematemesis (vomiting of blood), headache, fever and severe prostration. Death occurs by acute liver failure (ALF). In the last phase, neurological symptoms such as agitation, delirium, convulsions and hemorrhagic coma commonly appear. These symptoms arise from a fulminant hepatitis which may kill in less than a week, and which characteristically affects children and young adults, and more males than females. It is accompanied also by an encephalitis in many cases. The disease is highly lethal: in a study carried out in 1986 at Boca do Acre, also in the Amazon, 39 patients out of 44 died in the acute phase of the disease. Survivors may develop chronic disease.
The main discovery of delta virus and HBV association was done by Gilberta Bensabath, of the Instituto Evandro Chagas, of Belém, state of Pará, and her collaborators.
Infected patients show extensive destruction of liver tissue, with steatosis of a particular type (microsteatosis, characterized by small fat droplets inside the cells), and infiltration of large numbers of inflammatory cells called morula cells, comprised mainly by macrophages containing delta virus antigens.
In the 1987 Boca do Acre study, scientists did an epidemiological survey and reported delta virus infection in 24% of asymptomatic HBV carriers, 29% of acute nonfulminant hepatitis B cases, 74% of fulminant hepatitis B cases, and 100% of chronic hepatitis B cases. The delta virus seems to be endemic in the Amazon region.
Evolution
Three genotypes (I–III) were originally described. Genotype I has been isolated in Europe, North America, Africa and some Asia. Genotype II has been found in Japan, Taiwan, and Yakutia (Russia). Genotype III has been found exclusively in South America (Peru, Colombia, and Venezuela). Some genomes from Taiwan and the Okinawa islands have been difficult to type but have been placed in genotype 2. However it is now known that there are at least 8 genotypes of this virus (HDV-1 to HDV-8). Phylogenetic studies suggest an African origin for this pathogen.
An analysis of 36 strains of genotype 3 estimated that the most recent common ancestor of these strains originated around 1930. This genotype spread exponentially from early 1950s to the 1970s in South America. The substitution rate was estimated to be 1.07 substitutions per site per year. Another study found an overall evolution rate of 3.18 substitutions per site per year. The mutation rate varied with position : the hypervariable region evolved faster (4.55 substitutions per site per year) than the hepatitis delta antigen coding region (2.60 substitutions per site per year) and the autocatalytic region (1.11 substitutions per site per year). A third study suggested a mutation rate between 9.5 to 1.2 substitutions/site/year.
Genotypes, with the exception of type 1, appear to be restricted to certain geographical areas: HDV-2 (previously HDV-IIa) is found in Japan, Taiwan and Yakutia; HDV-4 (previously HDV-IIb) in Japan and Taiwan; HDV-3 in the Amazonian region; HDV-5, HDV-6, HDV-7 and HDV-8 in Africa. Genotype 8 has also been isolated from South America. This genotype is usually only found in Africa and may have been imported into South America during the slave trade.
HDV-specific CD8+ T cells can control the virus, but it has been found HDV mutates to escape detection by CD8+ T cells.
Related species
A few other viruses with similarity to HDV have been described in species other than humans. Unlike HDV, none of them depend on a Hepadnaviridae (HBV family) virus to replicate. These agents have rod-like structure, a delta antigen, and a ribozyme. HDV and all such relatives are classified in their own realm, Ribozyviria, by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses.
References
Bibliography
External links
World Health Organization Fact sheet on Hepatitis D
ICTV Report: Deltavirus
Viralzone: Deltavirus
Protein families
+D
Satellite viruses
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214296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20pelican | Brown pelican | The brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) is a bird of the pelican family, Pelecanidae, one of three species found in the Americas and one of two that feed by diving into water. It is found on the Atlantic Coast from New Jersey to the mouth of the Amazon River, and along the Pacific Coast from British Columbia to northern Chile, including the Galapagos Islands. The nominate subspecies in its breeding plumage has a white head with a yellowish wash on the crown. The nape and neck are dark maroon–brown. The upper sides of the neck have white lines along the base of the gular pouch, and the lower fore neck has a pale yellowish patch. The male and female are similar, but the female is slightly smaller. The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the nonbreeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre-tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish-gray.
The brown pelican mainly feeds on fish, but occasionally eats amphibians, crustaceans, and the eggs and nestlings of birds. It nests in colonies in secluded areas, often on islands, vegetated land among sand dunes, thickets of shrubs and trees, and mangroves. Females lay two or three oval, chalky white eggs. Incubation takes 28 to 30 days with both sexes sharing duties. The newly hatched chicks are pink, turning gray or black within 4 to 14 days. About 63 days are needed for chicks to fledge. Six to 9 weeks after hatching, the juveniles leave the nest, and gather into small groups known as pods.
The brown pelican is the national bird of Saint Martin, Barbados, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the Turks and Caicos Islands, and the official state bird of Louisiana, appearing on the flag, seal, or coat of arms of each. It has been rated as a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It was listed under the United States Endangered Species Act from 1970 to 2009, as pesticides such as dieldrin and DDT threatened its future in the Southeastern United States and California. In 1972, the use of DDT was banned in Florida, followed by the rest of the United States. Since then, the brown pelican's population has increased. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt set aside the first National Wildlife Refuge, Florida's Pelican Island, to protect the species from hunters.
Taxonomy
The brown pelican was described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 1766 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis. It belongs to the New World clade of the genus Pelecanus.
Five subspecies of the brown pelican are recognized. These subspecies are genetically distinct despite a similar phenotype. Different habitats allow to recognize them. :
The brown pelican is part of a clade that includes the Peruvian pelican (P. thagus) and the American white pelican (P. erythrorhynchos). The Peruvian pelican was previously treated as a subspecies of the brown pelican, but is now considered a separate species on the basis of its much greater size (around double the weight of the brown pelican), differences in bill color and plumage, and a lack of hybridization between the forms despite a large range overlap. In contrast, hybridization between brown and white pelicans is possible.
In 1932, James L. Peters separated the American white pelican and the brown pelican (including the Peruvian pelican) into monospecific subgenera. This separation was also supported by Jean Dorst and Raoul J. Mougin in 1979. The spot-billed pelican and the pink-backed pelican were considered to be sister species by Andrew Elliott in 1992 and Joseph B. Nelson in 2005, and the divergence between the brown and the Peruvian pelicans was found to be the most in the pelican family. In 1993, Paul Johnsgard hypothesized that the pelicans derived from a south Asian or African ancestor, and spread through northern Asia and Australia before finally coming to North America. This hypothesis would imply that, unless the brown pelican and the American white pelican resulted from multiple invasions of North America, they would be sister taxa. However, trees derived from genetic data disagree. In 1990, Charles Sibley and John E. Ahlquist's Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA) tree based on DNA–DNA hybridization data found that the American white pelican, the pink-backed pelican, the great white pelican, and the Australian pelican were sister species, and the brown pelican was the most divergent of all.
Description
The brown pelican is the smallest of the eight extant pelican species, but is often one of the larger seabirds in their range nonetheless. It measures in length and has a wingspan of . The weight of adults can range from , about half the weight of the other pelicans found in the Americas, the Peruvian and American white pelicans. The average weight in Florida of 47 females was , while that of 56 males was . Like all pelicans, it has a very long bill, measuring in length.
The nominate subspecies in its breeding plumage has a white head with a yellowish wash on the crown. The nape and neck are dark maroon–brown. The upper sides of the neck have white lines along the base of the gular pouch, and the lower foreneck has a pale yellowish patch. The feathers at the center of the nape are elongated, forming short, deep chestnut crest feathers. It has a silvery gray mantle, scapulars, and upperwing coverts (feathers on the upper side of the wings), with a brownish tinge. The lesser coverts have dark bases, which gives the leading edge of the wing a streaky appearance. The uppertail coverts (feathers above the tail) are silvery white at the center, forming pale streaks. The median (between the greater and the lesser coverts), primary (connected to the distal forelimb), secondary (connected to the ulna), and greater coverts (feathers of the outermost, largest, row of upperwing coverts) are blackish, with the primaries having white shafts and the secondaries having variable silver-gray fringes. The tertials (feathers arising in the brachial region) are silver-gray with a brownish tinge. The underwing has grayish-brown remiges with white shafts to the outer primary feathers. The axillaries and covert feathers are dark, with a broad, silver–gray central area. The tail is dark gray with a variable silvery cast. The lower mandible is blackish, with a greenish-black gular pouch at the bottom for draining water when it scoops out prey. The breast and belly are dark, and the legs and feet black. It has a grayish white bill tinged with brown and intermixed with pale carmine spots. The crest is short and pale reddish-brown in color. The back, rump, and tail are streaked with gray and dark brown, sometimes with a rusty hue. The male and female are similar, but the female is slightly smaller. It is exceptionally buoyant due to the internal air sacks beneath its skin and in its bones. It is as graceful in the air as it is clumsy on land.
The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck, and the pre-breeding adult has a creamy yellow head. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the non-breeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish-gray. It has pale blue to yellowish white irides which become brown during the breeding season. During courtship, the bill becomes pinkish red to pale orange, redder at the tip, and the pouch is blackish. Later in the breeding season the bill becomes pale ash-gray over most of the upper jaw and the basal third of the mandible.
The juvenile is similar, but is grayish-brown overall and has paler underparts. The head, neck, and thighs are dusky-brown, and the abdomen is dull white. The plumage of the male is similar to a fully adult female, although the male's head feathers are rather rigid. The tail and flight feathers are browner than those of the adult. It has short, brown upperwing coverts, which are often darker on greater coverts, and dull brownish-gray underwing coverts with a whitish band at the center. The irides are dark brown and the facial skin is bluish. It has a gray bill which is horn-yellow to orange near the tip, with a dark gray to pinkish-gray pouch. It acquires adult plumage at over 3 years of age, when the feathers on the neck become paler, the upperparts become striped, the greater upperwing and median coverts become grayer, and the belly acquires dark spots.
The brown pelican is readily distinguished from the American white pelican by its nonwhite plumage, smaller size, and habit of diving for fish from the air, as opposed to co-operative fishing from the surface. It and the Peruvian pelican are the only true marine pelican species.
The brown pelican produces a wide variety of harsh, grunting sounds, such as a low-pitched hrrraa-hrra, during displays. The adult also rarely emits a low croak, while young frequently squeal.
Distribution and habitat
The brown pelican lives on the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts in the Americas. On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from the New Jersey coast to the mouth of the Amazon River. Along the Pacific Coast, it is found from British Columbia to south-central Chile, including the Galapagos Islands. After nesting, North American birds move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter. In the non-breeding season, it is found as far north as Canada. It is a rare and irregular visitor south of the Piura in Peru, where generally it is replaced by the Peruvian pelican, and can occur as a non-breeding visitor south at least to Ica during El Niño years. Small numbers of brown pelicans have been recorded from Arica in far northern Chile. It is fairly common along the coast of California, South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia, the West Indies, and many Caribbean islands as far south as Guyana. Along the Gulf Coast, it inhabits Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico.
The brown pelican is a strictly marine species, primarily inhabiting marine subtidal, warm estuarine, and marine pelagic waters. It is also found in mangrove swamps, and prefers shallow waters, especially near salty bays and beaches. It avoids the open sea, seldom venturing more than 20 miles from the coast. Some immature birds may stray to inland freshwater lakes. Its range may also overlap with the Peruvian pelican in some areas along the Pacific coast of South America. It roosts on rocks, water, rocky cliffs, piers, jetties, sand beaches, and mudflats.
Migration
Most brown pelican populations are resident (nonmigratory) and dispersive (species moving from its birth site to its breeding site, or its breeding site to another breeding site), although some migration is observed, especially in the northern areas of its range, but these movements are often erratic, depending on local conditions. Southwards, they are vagrants (found outside its usual range) in Tierra del Fuego. They have been recorded off the eastern coast of Brazil, in Alagoas. Rare inland vagrants, generally caused by hurricanes or El Niño phenomena, have been reported from the Colombian Andes. They were first recorded in July 2009 at the Interandean Valley where they remained for at least 161 days. There are four records far inland in Amazônia Legal along the Amazon River and its tributaries.
Behavior
The brown pelican is a very gregarious bird; it lives in flocks of both sexes throughout the year. In level flight, brown pelicans fly in groups, with their heads held back on their shoulders and their bills resting on their folded necks. They may fly in a V formation, but usually in regular lines or single file, often low over the water's surface. To exclude water from the nasal passage, they have narrower internal regions of the nostrils.
Feeding
The brown pelican is a piscivore, primarily feeding on fish. Menhaden may account for 90% of its diet, and the anchovy supply is particularly important to the brown pelican's nesting success. Other fish preyed on with some regularity includes pigfish, pinfish, herring, sheepshead, silversides, mullets, sardines, minnows, and topminnows. Brown pelicans residing in Southern California rely especially heavily on pacific sardine as a major food source which can compose up to 26% of their diet, making them one of the top three predators of sardines in the area. Non-fish prey includes crustaceans, especially prawns, and it occasionally feeds on amphibians and the eggs and nestlings of birds (egrets, common murres and its own species).
As the brown pelican flies at a maximum height of above the ocean, it can spot schools of fish while flying. When foraging, it dives bill-first like a kingfisher, often submerging completely below the surface momentarily as it snaps up prey. Besides its sister species, the Peruvian pelican, this is the only pelican to primarily forage via diving, all other extant pelican merely float on the waters' surface when foraging. Upon surfacing, it spills the water from its throat pouch before swallowing its catch. Only the Peruvian pelican shares this active foraging style (although that species never dives from such a great height), while other pelicans forage more inactively by scooping up corralled fish while swimming on the water surface. It is an occasional target of kleptoparasitism by other fish-eating birds such as gulls, skuas, and frigatebirds. They are capable of drinking saline water due to the high capacity of its salt glands to excrete salt.
Breeding
The brown pelican is a monogamous breeder within a breeding season, but does not pair for life. Nesting season peaks during March and April. The male chooses a nesting site and performs a display of head movements to attract a female. At the proposed nest site, major courtship displays such as head swaying, bowing, turning, and upright (standing on its legs without any support) are performed by both the sexes. They may also be accompanied by low raaa calls.
Once a pair forms a bond, overt communication between them is minimal. It is a colonial species, with some colonies maintained for many years. Probably owing to disturbance, tick infestation, or alteration in food supply, colonies frequently shift. It nests in secluded area, often on islands, vegetated spots among sand dunes, thickets of shrubs and trees, and in mangroves, although sometimes on cliffs, and less often in bushes or small trees. Nesting territories are clumped, as individual territories may be at a distance of just from each other. They are usually built by the female from reeds, leaves, pebbles, and sticks, and consist of feather-lined impressions protected with a rim of soil and debris. They are usually found above the ground. Renesting may occur if eggs are lost from the nest early in the breeding season.
There are usually two to three, or sometimes even four, oval eggs in a clutch, and only one brood is raised per year. The egg is chalky white, and can measure about in length and in width. Incubation takes 28 to 30 days with both sexes sharing duties, keeping the eggs warm by holding them on or under their webbed feet. It takes 28 to 30 days for the eggs to hatch, and about 63 days to fledge. After that, the juvenile leave the nest and gather into small groups known as pods. The newly hatched chicks are pink and weigh about . Within 4 to 14 days, they turn gray or black. After that, they develop a coat of white, black or grayish down. Fledging success may be as high as 100% for the first hatched chick, 60% for the second chick, and just 6% for the third chick.
The parents regurgitate predigested food for the young to feed upon until they reach their fledging stage. After about 35 days, the young venture out of the nest by walking. The young start flying about 71 to 88 days after hatching. The adults remain with them until some time afterwards and continue to feed them. In the 8- to 10-month period during which they are cared for, the nestling pelicans are fed by regurgitated, partially digested food of around of fish. The young reach sexual maturity (and full adult plumage) at anywhere from three to five years of age. A brown pelican has been recorded to have lived for over 31 years in captivity.
Predators and parasites
Predation is occasional at colonies, and predators of eggs and young (usually small nestlings are threatened but also occasionally up to fledgling size depending on the size of the predator) can include gulls, raptors (especially bald eagles), spiny-tailed iguanas, alligators, vultures, feral cats, feral dogs, raccoons, fish crows, and corvids. Predation is likely reduced if the colony is on an island. Although it is rare, bobcats have been documented eating both the offspring and injured adults. Predation on adult brown pelicans is rarely reported, but cases where they have fallen prey to bald eagles have been reported. Also, South American sea lions and unidentified large sharks have been observed to prey on adult brown pelicans by seizing them from beneath while the birds are sitting on ocean waters. The invasive red imported fire ant is known to prey on hatchlings. Like all pelicans, brown pelicans are highly sensitive to disturbances by humans (including tourists or fishermen) at their nests, and may even abandon their nests. Due to their size, non-nesting adults are rarely predated. Brown pelicans have several parasitic worms such as Petagiger, Echinochasmus, Phagicola longus, Mesostephanus appendiculatoides, Contracaecum multipapillatum, and Contracaecum bioccai, from its prey diet of black mullets, white mullets, and other fish species.
Relationship with humans
The brown pelican is now a staple of crowded coastal regions and is tolerated to varying degrees by fishermen and boaters. In the early twentieth century, hunting was a major cause of its death, and people still hunt adults for their feathers and collect eggs on the Caribbean coasts, in Latin American, and occasionally in the United States, even though it is protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.
Depictions in culture
The brown pelican is the national bird of Saint Martin, Barbados, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the Turks and Caicos Islands. In 1902, it was made a part of the official Louisiana seal and, in 1912, a pelican and her young became part of the Flag of Louisiana as well. One of Louisiana's state nicknames is "The Pelican State", and the brown pelican is the official state bird of Louisiana. It is one of the mascots of Tulane University, present on its seal, and is also present on the crest of the University of the West Indies. The National Basketball Association (NBA)'s New Orleans Pelicans are named in the honor of the brown pelican.
In the 1993 film The Pelican Brief, based on the novel of the same name by John Grisham, a legal brief speculates that the assassins of two supreme court justices were motivated by a desire to drill for oil on a Louisiana marshland that was a habitat of the endangered brown pelican. In the same year, Jurassic Park showed a pod of brown pelicans at the end of the film. In 1998, American conductor David Woodard performed a requiem for a California brown pelican on the seaward limit of the berm of a beach where the animal had fallen. In the 2003 Disney/Pixar film Finding Nemo, a brown pelican (voiced by Geoffrey Rush in an Australian accent) was illustrated as a friendly, virtuous talking character named Nigel.
Status and conservation
Since 1988, the brown pelican has been rated as least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered species based on its large range—greater than 20,000 km2 (7700 mi2)—and an increasing population trend. The population size is also well beyond the threshold for vulnerable species. The nominate race population is thought to number at least 290,000 in the West Indies, and 650,000 globally. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt set aside Pelican Island, now known as Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge, to solely protect the brown pelican from hunters.
Starting in the 1940s with the invention and extensive use of pesticides such as DDT, the brown pelican population had drastically declined due to a lack of breeding success. By the 1960s, it had almost disappeared along the Gulf Coast and, in southern California, it had suffered almost total reproductive failure, due to DDT usage in the United States. The brown pelican was listed under the United States Endangered Species Act from 1970 to 2009. A research group from the University of Tampa, headed by Ralph Schreiber, conducted research in Tampa Bay, and found that DDT caused the pelican eggshells to be too thin to support the embryo to maturity. In 1972, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) banned DDT usage in the United States and limited the use of other pesticides. There has been a decline in chemical contaminant levels in brown pelican eggs since then, and a corresponding increase in its nesting success. It became extinct in 1963 in Louisiana. Between 1968 and 1980, the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries' reintroduction program re-established the brown pelican, and its population numbers in California and Texas were restored due to improved reproduction and natural recolonization of the species. By 1985, its population in the eastern United States, including Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, and northward along the Atlantic Coast, had recovered and the species was removed from the Endangered Species List. Its population has grown by about 68% per decade over a period of 40 years in North America, and this trend appears to be continuing. It is still listed as endangered in the Pacific Coast region of its range and in the southern and central United States. Although the United States Gulf Coast populations in Louisiana and Texas are still listed as endangered, they were recently estimated in 2009 about 12,000 breeding pairs. Since that time the Deepwater Horizon oil spill has adversely affected populations, and current population figures are not available.
Indicator species
The brown pelican abundance has steadily recovered from the drastic population decreases in the 1940s, however bottom up control threatens the Southern California populations as food sources become diminished. It is common for forage fish populations to experience regular fluctuations, however there has been a consistent decrease in the Pacific sardine population beginning as early as 2014. In 2019 these declines were found to have reached levels which were a mere 10% of the highest reported abundances. Fluctuations in sardine populations have largely been attributed to bottom-up control, primarily including climate variability and ocean temperature. The significant decrease in pacific sardine population can be linked to the levels of nitrogen within their habitat, a limiting factor in plankton production. Pacific sardines in the California current system rely on wind driven upwelling to push cooler, nitrogen rich waters towards the surface, maintaining a sustainable, nutrient abundant environment. Continued environmental disruptions, such as El Niño, rising ocean temperatures, and increased commercial fishing, have drastic effects on nutrient cycling within the California current system, leading to lasting impacts on Pacific sardine productivity and reproductive success.
The brown pelican has been predicted to have high vulnerability to declining sardine populations . At the lowest levels of sardine abundance, the brown pelican population has been predicted to decline up to 50%. Even with a more moderate decline in sardine abundance (50% relative abundance), brown pelicans have been predicted to decrease by up to 27%. A recent decline in brown pelican breeding success coincides with the population decline of the Pacific sardine. Between 2014 and 2016, brown pelicans experienced a continuous breeding failure. These breeding failures have been characterized by decreased numbers of pelicans arriving at nesting colonies, large scale abandonment and early migration due to an inability to feed hatchlings, and sub-optimal breeding by those who do attempt to breed. Breeding success is greatly reduced by oceanic anomalies, specifically warm-phase anomalies that increase the intensity of upwellings. Increased upwellings disrupt marine productivity and forage fish availability. These trends have important implications for the health and conservation of brown pelicans, as well as other seabirds.
Seabirds have become increasingly important as an indicator species. They are often used in order to indirectly track changes in fish stocks, ecosystem health, and climate change. Environmental changes tend to have fast acting impacts on marine bird populations due to the simplicity of their trophic cascade, allowing for complex, long term trends in ecosystem health and resources to be easily realized and tracked. Brown pelicans have proven to be a useful indicator in determining the effects of the well established fishing industry in Southern California. Sardine fishery in the Gulf of California has been showing signs of overfishing since the early 1990s. Sardine population and abundance, however, is difficult to monitor and obtain indicators for. Since lacking food availability has negative implications for breeding success in seabirds, seabird diet and breeding success has been used to indirectly measure the population status of the fish they feed on. This model has been shown to work using brown pelicans as an indicator species. As the proportion of sardines in the brown pelicans diet decreases, the success of fisheries declines to a lesser extent. When eventually the sardine abundance has declined enough for brown pelicans to move away and begin feeding on other forage fish, commercial fishing still would be fishing in significant numbers. This indicates that even when fisheries are not seeing signs of declining sardine abundance, brown pelicans may have already been affected to the point of locating other food sources. This availability of sardines may decline even further during El Niño anomalies, when thermoclines prevent brown pelicans from reaching their prey. Brown pelican diet will mostly indicate declines in sardine abundance for fisheries during the same season, as brown pelicans feed mostly on the same adult fish that are commercially fished. Although brown pelicans serve as an important indicator species for fisheries, declining sardine abundance due to both climate changes and overfishing have huge implications on overall ecosystem health, within or outside the individual trophic cascade.
Notes
References
External links
Field Guide Page on Flickr
brown pelican
Native birds of the Southeastern United States
Birds of Central America
Birds of Colombia
Birds of Ecuador
Birds of Venezuela
Birds of Mexico
Birds of the Caribbean
Birds of the Dominican Republic
Galápagos Islands coastal fauna
Least concern biota of North America
Least concern biota of the United States
Symbols of Louisiana
brown pelican
brown pelican
Articles containing video clips
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214297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolactin | Prolactin | Prolactin, also known as lactotropin, is a protein best known for its role in enabling mammals, usually females, to produce milk. It is influential in over 300 separate processes in various vertebrates, including humans. Prolactin is secreted from the pituitary gland in response to eating, mating, estrogen treatment, ovulation and nursing. It is secreted heavily in pulses in between these events. Prolactin plays an essential role in metabolism, regulation of the immune system and pancreatic development.
Discovered in non-human animals around 1930 by Oscar Riddle and confirmed in humans in 1970 by Henry Friesen, prolactin is a peptide hormone, encoded by the PRL gene.
In mammals, prolactin is associated with milk production; in fish it is thought to be related to the control of water and salt balance. Prolactin also acts in a cytokine-like manner and as an important regulator of the immune system. It has important cell cycle-related functions as a growth-, differentiating- and anti-apoptotic factor. As a growth factor, binding to cytokine-like receptors, it influences hematopoiesis and angiogenesis and is involved in the regulation of blood clotting through several pathways. The hormone acts in endocrine, autocrine, and paracrine manners through the prolactin receptor and numerous cytokine receptors.
Pituitary prolactin secretion is regulated by endocrine neurons in the hypothalamus. The most important of these are the neurosecretory tuberoinfundibulum (TIDA) neurons of the arcuate nucleus that secrete dopamine (a.k.a. Prolactin Inhibitory Hormone) to act on the D2 receptors of lactotrophs, causing inhibition of prolactin secretion. Thyrotropin-releasing factor (thyrotropin-releasing hormone) has a stimulatory effect on prolactin release, although prolactin is the only adenohypophyseal hormone whose principal control is inhibitory.
Several variants and forms are known per species. Many fish have variants prolactin A and prolactin B. Most vertebrates, including humans, also have the closely related somatolactin. In humans, three smaller (4, 16, and 22 kDa) and several larger (so-called big and big-big) variants exist.
Functions
Prolactin has a wide variety of effects. It stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk (lactation): increased serum concentrations of prolactin during pregnancy cause enlargement of the mammary glands and prepare for milk production, which normally starts when levels of progesterone fall by the end of pregnancy and a suckling stimulus is present. Prolactin plays an important role in maternal behavior.
It has been shown in rats and sheep that prolactin affects lipid synthesis differentially in mammary and adipose cells. Prolactin deficiency induced by bromocyptine increased lipogenesis and insulin responsiveness in adipocytes while decreasing them in the mammary gland.
In general, dopamine inhibits prolactin but this process has feedback mechanisms.
Elevated levels of prolactin decrease the levels of sex hormones—estrogen in women and testosterone in men. The effects of mildly elevated levels of prolactin are much more variable, in women, substantially increasing or decreasing estrogen levels.
Prolactin is sometimes classified as a gonadotropin although in humans it has only a weak luteotropic effect while the effect of suppressing classical gonadotropic hormones is more important. Prolactin within the normal reference ranges can act as a weak gonadotropin, but at the same time suppresses gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion. The exact mechanism by which it inhibits gonadotropin-releasing hormone is poorly understood. Although expression of prolactin receptors have been demonstrated in rat hypothalamus, the same has not been observed in gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons. Physiologic levels of prolactin in males enhance luteinizing hormone-receptors in Leydig cells, resulting in testosterone secretion, which leads to spermatogenesis.
Prolactin also stimulates proliferation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells. These cells differentiate into oligodendrocytes, the cells responsible for the formation of myelin coatings on axons in the central nervous system.
Other actions include contributing to pulmonary surfactant synthesis of the fetal lungs at the end of the pregnancy and immune tolerance of the fetus by the maternal organism during pregnancy. Prolactin promotes neurogenesis in maternal and fetal brains.
Functions in other vertebrate species
The primary function of prolactin in fish is osmoregulation, i.e., controlling the movement of water and salts between the tissues of the fish and the surrounding water. Like mammals, however, prolactin in fish also has reproductive functions, including promoting sexual maturation and inducing breeding cycles, as well as brooding and parental care. In the South American discus, prolactin may also regulate the production of a skin secretion that provides food for larval fry. An increase in brooding behaviour caused by prolactin has been reported in hens.
Prolactin and its receptor are expressed in the skin, specifically in the hair follicles, where they regulate hair growth and moulting in an autocrine fashion. Elevated levels of prolactin can inhibit hair growth, and knock-out mutations in the prolactin gene cause increased hair length in cattle and mice. Conversely, mutations in the prolactin receptor can cause reduced hair growth, resulting in the "slick" phenotype in cattle. Additionally, prolactin delays hair regrowth in mice.
Analogous to its effects on hair growth and shedding in mammals, prolactin in birds controls the moulting of feathers, as well as the age at onset of feathering in both turkeys and chickens.
Regulation
In humans, prolactin is produced at least in the anterior pituitary, decidua, myometrium, breast, lymphocytes, leukocytes and prostate.
Pituitary prolactin is controlled by the Pit-1 transcription factor that binds to the prolactin gene at several sites. Ultimately dopamine, extrapituitary prolactin is controlled by a superdistal promoter and apparently unaffected by dopamine. The thyrotropin-releasing hormone and the vasoactive intestinal peptide stimulate the secretion of prolactin in experimental settings, however their physiological influence is unclear. The main stimulus for prolactin secretion is suckling, the effect of which is neuronally mediated. A key regulator of prolactin production is estrogens that enhance growth of prolactin-producing cells and stimulate prolactin production directly, as well as suppressing dopamine.
In decidual cells and in lymphocytes the distal promoter and thus prolactin expression is stimulated by cAMP. Responsivness to cAMP is mediated by an imperfect cAMP–responsive element and two CAAT/enhancer binding proteins (C/EBP). Progesterone upregulates prolactin synthesis in the endometrium and decreases it in myometrium and breast glandular tissue. Breast and other tissues may express the Pit-1 promoter in addition to the distal promoter.
Extrapituitary production of prolactin is thought to be special to humans and primates and may serve mostly tissue-specific paracrine and autocrine purposes. It has been hypothesized that in vertebrates such as mice a similar tissue-specific effect is achieved by a large family of prolactin-like proteins controlled by at least 26 paralogous PRL genes not present in primates.
Vasoactive intestinal peptide and peptide histidine isoleucine help to regulate prolactin secretion in humans, but the functions of these hormones in birds can be quite different.
Prolactin follows diurnal and ovulatory cycles. Prolactin levels peak during REM sleep and in the early morning. Many mammals experience a seasonal cycle.
During pregnancy, high circulating concentrations of estrogen and progesterone increase prolactin levels by 10- to 20-fold. Estrogen and progesterone inhibit the stimulatory effects of prolactin on milk production. The abrupt drop of estrogen and progesterone levels following delivery allow prolactin—which temporarily remains high—to induce lactation.
Sucking on the nipple offsets the fall in prolactin as the internal stimulus for them is removed. The sucking activates mechanoreceptors in and around the nipple. These signals are carried by nerve fibers through the spinal cord to the hypothalamus, where changes in the electrical activity of neurons that regulate the pituitary gland increase prolactin secretion. The suckling stimulus also triggers the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland, which triggers milk let-down: Prolactin controls milk production (lactogenesis) but not the milk-ejection reflex; the rise in prolactin fills the breast with milk in preparation for the next feed.
In usual circumstances, in the absence of galactorrhea, lactation ceases within one or two weeks following the end of breastfeeding.
Levels can rise after exercise, high-protein meals, minor surgical procedures, following epileptic seizures or due to physical or emotional stress. In a study on female volunteers under hypnosis, prolactin surges resulted from the evocation, with rage, of humiliating experiences, but not from the fantasy of nursing.
Hypersecretion is more common than hyposecretion. Hyperprolactinemia is the most frequent abnormality of the anterior pituitary tumors, termed prolactinomas. Prolactinomas may disrupt the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis as prolactin tends to suppress the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus and in turn decreases the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary, therefore disrupting the ovulatory cycle. Such hormonal changes may manifest as amenorrhea and infertility in females as well as erectile dysfunction in males. Inappropriate lactation (galactorrhoea) is another important clinical sign of prolactinomas.
Structure and isoforms
The structure of prolactin is similar to that of growth hormone and placental lactogen. The molecule is folded due to the activity of three disulfide bonds. Significant heterogeneity of the molecule has been described, thus bioassays and immunoassays can give different results due to differing glycosylation, phosphorylation and sulfation, as well as degradation. The non-glycosylated form of prolactin is the dominant form that is secreted by the pituitary gland.
The three different sizes of prolactin are:
Little prolactin—the predominant form. It has a molecular weight of approximately 22-kDa. It is a single-chain polypeptide of 198 amino acids and is apparently the result of removal of some amino acids.
Big prolactin—approximately 48 kDa. It may be the product of interaction of several prolactin molecules. It appears to have little, if any, biological activity.
Big big prolactin—approximately 150 kDa. It appears to have a low biological activity.
The levels of larger ones are somewhat higher during the early postpartum period.
Prolactin receptor
Prolactin receptors are present in the mammillary glands, ovaries, pituitary glands, heart, lung, thymus, spleen, liver, pancreas, kidney, adrenal gland, uterus, skeletal muscle, skin and areas of the central nervous system. When prolactin binds to the receptor, it causes it to dimerize with another prolactin receptor. This results in the activation of Janus kinase 2, a tyrosine kinase that initiates the JAK-STAT pathway. Activation also results in the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and Src kinase.
Human prolactin receptors are insensitive to mouse prolactin.
Diagnostic use
Prolactin levels may be checked as part of a sex hormone workup, as elevated prolactin secretion can suppress the secretion of follicle stimulating hormone and gonadotropin-releasing hormone, leading to hypogonadism and sometimes causing erectile dysfunction.
Prolactin levels may be of some use in distinguishing epileptic seizures from psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. The serum prolactin level usually rises following an epileptic seizure.
Units and unit conversions
The serum concentration of prolactin can be given in mass concentration (µg/L or ng/mL), molar concentration (nmol/L or pmol/L), or international units (typically mIU/L). The current IU is calibrated against the third International Standard for Prolactin, IS 84/500. Reference ampoules of IS 84/500 contain 2.5 µg of lyophilized human prolactin and have been assigned an activity of .053 International Units. Measurements that are calibrated against the current international standard can be converted into mass units using this ratio of grams to IUs; prolactin concentrations expressed in mIU/L can be converted to µg/L by dividing by 21.2. Previous standards use other ratios.
The first International Reference Preparation (or IRP) of human Prolactin for Immunoassay was established in 1978 (75/504 1st IRP for human prolactin) at a time when purified human prolactin was in short supply. Previous standards relied on prolactin from animal sources. Purified human prolactin was scarce, heterogeneous, unstable, and difficult to characterize. A preparation labeled 81/541 was distributed by the WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization without official status and given the assigned value of 50 mIU/ampoule based on an earlier collaborative study. It was determined that this preparation behaved anomalously in certain immunoassays and was not suitable as an IS.
Three different human pituitary extracts containing prolactin were subsequently obtained as candidates for an IS. These were distributed into ampoules coded 83/562, 83/573, and 84/500. Collaborative studies involving 20 different laboratories found little difference between these three preparations. 83/562 appeared to be the most stable. This preparation was largely free of dimers and polymers of prolactin. On the basis of these investigations, 83/562 was established as the Second IS for human prolactin. Once stocks of these ampoules were depleted, 84/500 was established as the Third IS for human prolactin.
Reference ranges
General guidelines for diagnosing prolactin excess (hyperprolactinemia) define the upper threshold of normal prolactin at 25 µg/L for women and 20 µg/L for men. Similarly, guidelines for diagnosing prolactin deficiency (hypoprolactinemia) are defined as prolactin levels below 3 µg/L in women and 5 µg/L in men. However, different assays and methods for measuring prolactin are employed by different laboratories and as such the serum reference range for prolactin is often determined by the laboratory performing the measurement. Furthermore, prolactin levels vary according to factors as age, sex, menstrual cycle stage and pregnancy. The circumstances surrounding a given prolactin measurement (assay, patient condition, etc.) must therefore be considered before the measurement can be accurately interpreted.
The following chart illustrates the variations seen in normal prolactin measurements across different populations. Prolactin values were obtained from specific control groups of varying sizes using the IMMULITE assay.
Inter-method variability
The following table illustrates variability in reference ranges of serum prolactin between some commonly used assay methods (as of 2008), using a control group of healthy health care professionals (53 males, age 20–64 years, median 28 years; 97 females, age 19–59 years, median 29 years) in Essex, England:
An example of the use of the above table is, if using the Centaur assay to estimate prolactin values in µg/L for females, the mean is 7.92 µg/L and the reference range is 3.35–16.4 µg/L.
Conditions
Elevated levels
Hyperprolactinaemia, or excess serum prolactin, is associated with hypoestrogenism, anovulatory infertility, oligomenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, unexpected lactation and loss of libido in women and erectile dysfunction and loss of libido in men.
Physiological
Coitus
Exercise
Lactation
Pregnancy
Sleep
Stress
Depression
Pharmacological
Anesthetics
Anticonvulsant
Antihistamines (H2)
Antihypertensives
Cholinergic agonist
Drug-induced hypersecretion
Catecholamine depletor
Dopamine receptor blockers
Dopamine synthesis inhibitor
Estrogens
Oral contraceptives
Oral contraceptive withdrawal
Antipsychotics
Neuropeptides
Opioids and opioid receptor antagonists
Pathological
Hypothalamic-pituitary stalk damage
Granulomas
Infiltrations
Radiation
Rathke's cyst
Trauma
Pituitary stalk resection
Suprasellar surgery
Tumors
Craniopharyngioma
Germinoma
Hypothalamic metastases
Meningioma
Suprasellar pituitary mass extension
Surgery
Pituitary
Acromegaly
Idiopathic
Lymphocytic hypophysitis or parasellar mass
Macroadenoma (compressive)
Macroprolactinemia
Plurihumoral adenoma
Prolactinoma
Systemic disorders
Chest-neurologic chest wall trauma
Herpes Zoster
Chronic renal failure
Cirrhosis
Cranial radiation
Epileptic seizures
Polycystic ovarian disease
Pseudocyesis
Chronic low levels of thyroid hormone
Decreased levels
Hypoprolactinemia, or serum prolactin deficiency, is associated with ovarian dysfunction in women, and arteriogenic erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation, oligozoospermia, asthenospermia, hypofunction of seminal vesicles and hypoandrogenism in men. In one study, normal sperm characteristics were restored when prolactin levels were raised to normal values in hypoprolactinemic men.
Hypoprolactinemia can result from hypopituitarism, excessive dopaminergic action in the tuberoinfundibular pathway and ingestion of D2 receptor agonists such as bromocriptine.
In medicine
Prolactin is available commercially for use in other animals, but not in humans. It is used to stimulate lactation in animals. The biological half-life of prolactin in humans is around 15–20 minutes. The D2 receptor is involved in the regulation of prolactin secretion, and agonists of the receptor such as bromocriptine and cabergoline decrease prolactin levels while antagonists of the receptor such as domperidone, metoclopramide, haloperidol, risperidone, and sulpiride increase prolactin levels. D2 receptor antagonists like domperidone, metoclopramide, and sulpiride are used as galactogogues to increase prolactin secretion in pituitary gland and induce lactation in humans.
See also
Breast-feeding
Breastfeeding and fertility
Epileptic seizure
Hyperprolactinaemia
Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
Male lactation
Prolactin modulator
Prolactin receptor
Prolactin-releasing hormone
Prolactinoma
Weaning
References
External links
Peptide hormones
Anterior pituitary hormones
Breastfeeding
Hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-prolactin axis
Hormones of the pregnant female
Human hormones
Human female endocrine system | [
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|
214300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samantha%20Eggar | Samantha Eggar | Victoria Louise Samantha Marie Elizabeth Therese Eggar (born 5 March 1939) is a British-American retired actress. After beginning her career in Shakespearean theatre, she rose to fame for her performance in William Wyler's thriller The Collector (1965), which earned her a Golden Globe Award and an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress.
She later appeared as Emma Fairfax in Doctor Dolittle (1967), and the American drama The Molly Maguires (1970). In the early 1970s, Eggar relocated to the United States and Canada, where she later starred in several horror films, including The Dead Are Alive (1972), The Uncanny (1977), and David Cronenberg's cult thriller The Brood (1979).
Eggar has also worked as a voice actress, as Hera in Walt Disney's Hercules (1997), and lent her voice to several video games, including Gabriel Knight 3: Blood of the Sacred, Blood of the Damned and 007: Nightfire. Her television work includes roles on Fantasy Island, and a recurring part as Charlotte Devane in the soap opera All My Children in 2000.
Early life
Samantha Eggar was born Victoria Louise Samantha Marie Elizabeth Therese Eggar on 5 March 1939 in Hampstead, London, to Ralph Alfred James Eggar (a brigadier in the British Army) and Muriel Olga Palache-Bouma, who was of Dutch and Portuguese descent. The initials of the two triplets of given names form the initials of each of her parents' first lovers. Soon after her birth, her family relocated to rural Bledlow, Buckinghamshire, during World War II, where she spent her childhood.
Eggar was brought up as a Catholic and educated at St Mary's Providence Convent in Woking, Surrey. Reflecting on her time in convent school, Eggar said: "The nuns didn't have too much success with me – I've always had a violent temper. In fact, once I almost killed one of the nuns." At age 16, she began to go by the name Samantha. Although Eggar expressed interest in acting at a young age, she was urged against a career in the theatre by her parents. She was offered a scholarship to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts, but instead studied fashion for two years at the Thanet School of Art. After completing her studies, she enrolled at the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art in London.
Career
Theatre and early work
Eggar began her acting career in several Shakespearean companies, notably playing Titania in a 1962 production of A Midsummer Night's Dream, directed by Tony Richardson. She also appeared onstage in a production of Douglas Seale's Landscape with Figures, where she was noticed by a talent scout, and from there was cast in the biographical film Dr. Crippen (1962), opposite Donald Pleasence. Her second film role was in 1962 in The Wild and the Willing; the same year, she appeared onstage again as Olivia in a production of Twelfth Night by George Devine.
In 1965, Eggar appeared in the thriller The Collector, directed by William Wyler, playing a kidnap victim. She received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress, and won a Golden Globe award for her performance. She was also awarded Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival in 1966. On her role as Miranda in The Collector, Eggar has said: "My biggest relationship on set was with William Wyler. The tension on set was real. And if the tension wasn't there – if I didn't exude precisely what he wanted – well, Willi just poured cold water over me."
The following year, Eggar starred in the comedy Walk, Don't Run (1966) with Cary Grant (his last motion picture) and Jim Hutton, followed by a lead role as Emma Fairfax in Richard Fleischer's musical adaptation of Doctor Dolittle (1967). In 1963, she played the title character in "Marcia", a second-season episode of The Saint. After her appearance in The Saint, Eggar did not appear in television for 10 years, instead focusing exclusively on feature films. These included The Molly Maguires (1970), in which she starred with Sean Connery, The Walking Stick, opposite David Hemmings, and The Light at the Edge of the World (1971), in which she starred with Kirk Douglas. Although she co-starred with Yul Brynner in the television series Anna and the King (1972), she did not make another television guest appearance until 1973, when she starred in the episode "The Cardboard House" of the romantic anthology series Love Story. That same year, she played Phyllis Dietrichson in a TV remake of the 1944 film Double Indemnity.
Move to United States
In 1973, Eggar relocated to the United States, settling in Los Angeles, and appeared first in television, guest starring on episodes of Starsky & Hutch and Columbo, the latter with Peter Falk and Theodore Bikel in the episode "The Bye-Bye Sky High IQ Murder Case". She would go on to star in a number of horror films, including The Dead Are Alive (1972), A Name for Evil (1973), The Uncanny (1977), and David Cronenberg's cult sci-fi film The Brood (1979). In 1980, she filmed the Canadian slasher film Curtains, released in 1983.
She also appeared as Maggie Gioberti in "The Vintage Years", the pilot for the drama Falcon Crest, but was replaced by Susan Sullivan when the series went into production. She appeared twice on The Love Boat first charming ship's captain Merrill Stubing (played by Gavin McLeod) as fortune teller Mary-Louise Murphy on 2 March 1979's "A Funny Valentine". Her second sailing in "Touchdown Twins" which was aired on 14 February 1981, as she was Meg Chase, the mother of Billy (played by Philip Brown (actor)) whose friend Frank (played by Vincent Van Patten) develops a crush on Eggar's character. She appeared in the drama Dark Horse (1992), followed by the superhero film The Phantom (1996). In 1997, she provided the voice of Hera in Disney's animated film Hercules; she would also supply the voice for the subsequent television series. Eggar also had a role in the sci-fi thriller The Astronaut's Wife (1999), which starred Johnny Depp.
She has appeared as the wife of Captain Jean-Luc Picard's brother Robert on the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, and as Sarah Templeton, the wife of Speaker of the House Nathan Templeton (Donald Sutherland), on the short-lived television series Commander in Chief, which starred Geena Davis. In the year 2000, she had a brief run as Charlotte Devane in the American soap opera All My Children. In 2003, she appeared in the first season of Cold Case, episode 14 ("The Boy in the Box") as Sister Vivian. In 2009, she played the mother of Jack and Becky Gallagher in season 1, episode 11 ("Lines in the Sand") of the Fox television series Mental.
Personal life
In 1964, she married actor Tom Stern, and the couple have two children: film producer Nicolas Stern (b. 1965), and actress Jenna Stern (b. 1967). Eggar and Stern divorced in 1971.
Eggar holds dual UK and American citizenship. She is retired and resides in Los Angeles.
Filmography
Film
Television
Stage credits
Awards and nominations
References
Notes
Sources
External links
Official website
1939 births
20th-century English actresses
21st-century English actresses
Actresses from London
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress winners
British expatriate actresses in the United States
English Shakespearean actresses
English expatriates in the United States
English film actresses
English people of Dutch descent
English people of Irish descent
English people of Portuguese descent
English Roman Catholics
English soap opera actresses
English stage actresses
English television actresses
English voice actresses
Alumni of the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art
Living people
People from Hampstead | [
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214301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Collector | The Collector | The Collector is a 1963 thriller novel by English author John Fowles, in his literary debut. Its plot follows a lonely, psychotic young man who kidnaps a female art student in London and holds her captive in the cellar of his rural farmhouse. Divided in two sections, the novel contains both the perspective of the captor, Frederick, and that of Miranda, the captive. The portion of the novel told from Miranda's perspective is presented in epistolary form.
Fowles wrote the novel between November 1960 and March 1962. It was adapted into an Academy Award–nominated feature film of the same name in 1965 starring Terence Stamp and Samantha Eggar.
Plot
The novel is about a lonely young man, Frederick Clegg, who works as a clerk in a city hall and collects butterflies in his spare time. The first part of the novel tells the story from his point of view.
Clegg is obsessed with Miranda Grey, a middle-class art student at the Slade School of Fine Art. He admires her from a distance but is unable to make any contact with her because he is socially underdeveloped. One day, he wins a large prize in the football pools. He quits his job and buys an isolated house in the countryside. He feels lonely, however, and wants to be with Miranda. Unable to make any normal contact, Clegg decides to add her to his "collection" of pretty, preserved objects, in the hope that if he keeps her captive long enough, she will grow to love him.
After careful preparations, he kidnaps Miranda by drugging her with chloroform and locks her up in the cellar of his house. He is convinced that Miranda will start to love him after some time. However, when she wakes up, she confronts him with his actions. Clegg is embarrassed and promises to let her go after a month. He promises to show her "every respect", pledging not to sexually molest her and to shower her with gifts and the comforts of home, on one condition: she can't leave the cellar.
The second part of the novel is narrated by Miranda in the form of fragments from a diary that she keeps during her captivity. Miranda reminisces over her previous life throughout this section of the novel; and many of her diary entries are written either to her sister or to a man named G.P., whom she respected and admired as an artist. Miranda reveals that G.P. ultimately fell in love with her and consequently severed all contact with her.
At first, Miranda thinks that Clegg has sexual motives for abducting her; but, as his true character begins to be revealed, she realises that this is not true. She begins to pity her captor, comparing him to Caliban in Shakespeare's play The Tempest because of his hopeless obsession with her. Clegg tells Miranda that his first name is Ferdinand (eventual winner of Miranda's affections in The Tempest).
Miranda tries to escape several times, but Clegg stops her. She also tries to seduce him to convince him to let her go. The only result is that he becomes confused and angry. As Clegg repeatedly refuses to release her, she begins to fantasize about killing him. After a failed attempt to do so, Miranda enters a period of self-loathing. She decides that to kill Clegg would lower her to his level. She refrains from any further attempts to do so. Before she can try to escape again, she becomes seriously ill and dies.
The third part of the novel is narrated by Clegg. At first, he wants to commit suicide after he finds Miranda dead; but, after he reads in her diary that she never loved him, he decides that he is not responsible for what happened to her and is better off without her. He buries her corpse in the garden. The book ends with his announcement that he plans to kidnap another girl.
Analysis and themes
Social class
Literary scholars have noted the theme of class in the British caste system as a prominent point of interest in the novel. Critic Hayden Carruth noted that Fowles is preoccupied with "reshuffling classes under British socialism", evoked in the differences in social background between the characters of the working-class Frederick, and Miranda, a member of the bourgeoisie.
Some scholars have compared the power struggle between Frederick and Miranda as exemplifying the Hegelian "master–slave dialectic", and that both exert power over one another—both physically and psychologically—despite their differences in social background. Pamela Cooper writes in her book The Fictions of John Fowles: Power, Creativity, Femininity, that The Collector "dramatizes the clash between a socially entrenched, wealthy middle class and an underprivileged but upwardly mobile working or lower middle class." Additionally, Cooper views the novel as a Gothic-inspired work presenting this class struggle "with an insistence on the tedium of Miranda's ordeal."
Absurdism and irony
In the Journal of Modern Literature, scholar Shyamal Bagchee attests that the novel possesses an "ironic-absurdist view" and contains a significant number of events which are hinged purely on chance. He compares the world of the novel to the "tragically absurd worlds" of Franz Kafka and Samuel Beckett's novels. "The world of The Collector, especially towards the end, is not our world; however, it is similar to the view of the world we have in our darkest hours."
Bagchee notes the novel's greatest irony being that Miranda seals her own fate by continually being herself, and that through "each successive escape attempt she alienates and embitters Clegg the more." Despite this, Bagchee views The Collector as a "horrifying" and "ironic" love story:
Furthermore, Bagchee notes Miranda's evolution as a character only while in captivity as another paradox in the novel: "Her growing up is finally futile; she learns the true meaning of existentialist choice when, in fact, she has very limited actual choice. And she learns to understand herself and her life when, in effect, that life has come to a standstill." Cooper, who interprets the novel as a critique of "masculine sexual idealization", notes another paradox in the way the novel connects both photography and collecting as "twin obscenities in order to show the erotic worshipper, with his puritanical hatred of "the crude animal thing" and his belief in his "own higher aspirations", is himself prey to the desires he tries to reject."
Narrative technique
Bagchee notes that the divided narrative structure of the novel—which first presents the perspective of Frederick, followed by that of Miranda (the latter divulged in epistolary form via scattered diary entries)—has the characters mirroring each other in a manner that is "richly ironic and reveals of a sombre and frightening view of life's hazards." Bagchee notes that "the two narrations frequently agree not only about physical descriptions of incidents that take place, but often also in the way two very different characters react similarly to given situations or display similar attitudes."
Scholar Katarina Držajić considers The Collector "one of the most prominent novels of the 20th century, [which] may be
viewed from many interesting perspectives – as a psychological thriller, a Jungian
study, a modern or postmodern piece of literature. John Fowles is well established as a master of language, using a variety of tools to convey different
meanings and bring his characters closer to his reader."
Reception
Alan Pryce-Jones of The New York Times wrote of the novel: "John Fowles is a very brave man. He has written a novel which depends for its effect on total acceptance by the reader. There is no room in it for the least hesitation, the smallest false note, for not only is it written in the first person singular, but its protagonist is a very special case indeed. Mr. Fowles's main skill is in his use of language. There is not a false note in his delineation of Fred." Hayden Carruth of the Press & Sun-Bulletin praised the novel as "brisk" and "professional," adding that Fowles "knows how to evoke the oblique horror of innocence as well as the direct horror of knowledge."
In 2014, Mary Andrews of The Guardian wrote that "Fowles invites us to defy his main character's excuses and read between the lines, and the facts paint a more chilling picture. Fred doesn't accidentally abduct Miranda, there's a sense that he's been leading up to this event his whole life," and deemed Frederick Clegg "one of literature's most evil characters."
Adaptations
The Collector has been adapted as a film and several times as a play. It's also referred to in various songs, television episodes and books.
The novel was adapted as a feature film by the same name in 1965. The screenplay was by Stanley Mann and John Kohn, and it was directed by William Wyler, who turned down The Sound of Music to direct it. It starred Terence Stamp and Samantha Eggar. The 1980 Tamil language film Moodu Pani, according to its director Balu Mahendra, is partly based on The Collector. The novel was also loosely adapted into a Filipino film as a Bilanggo sa Dilim (Prisoner in the Dark) in 1986.
A stage adaptation by the actor Brian McDermott (writing as David Parker) was first performed in 1971; among its earliest productions was a West End presentation at the St Martin's Theatre in 1974, with Marianne Faithfull as Miranda and Simon Williams as Clegg. Another adaptation - written, again, by an actor: Mark Healy - was first performed at Derby Playhouse in October 1998, later appearing at Sweden's Gothenburg English Studio Theatre in April 2007. Yet another adaptation, by Tim Dalgleish and Caz Tricks, was written for Bare Bones Theatre Company (of Wolverton, Milton Keynes) in 1997.
In October 2021, Suntup Editions announced a limited 1000 editions of the novel with an introduction by Bradford Morrow and six illustrations by David Álvarez.
Associations with serial killers
In several cases since the novel was published, serial killers, spree killers, kidnappers, and other criminals have claimed that The Collector was the basis, the inspiration, or the justification for their crimes.
Leonard Lake and Charles Ng
In 1985, Leonard Lake and Charles Chi-Tat Ng abducted 18-year-old Kathy Allen and later 19-year-old Brenda O'Connor. Lake is said to have been obsessed with The Collector. Lake described his plan for using the women for sex and housekeeping in a "philosophy" videotape. The two are believed to have murdered at least 25 people, including two entire families. Although Lake had committed several crimes in the Ukiah, California, area, his "Operation Miranda" did not begin until after he moved to remote Wilseyville, California. The videotapes of his murders and a diary written by Lake were found buried near the bunker in Wilseyville. They revealed that Lake had named his plot Operation Miranda after the character in Fowles' book.
Christopher Wilder
Christopher Wilder, a spree/serial killer of young girls, had The Collector in his possession when he was killed by police in 1984.
Robert Berdella
In 1988, Robert Berdella held his male victims captive and photographed their torture before killing them. He claimed that the film version of The Collector had been his inspiration when he was a teenager.
References
Sources
External links
Verbal Struggle for Power in "The Collector" by John Fowles
The Official John Fowles website
1963 British novels
British horror novels
British novels adapted into films
English-language books
Epistolary novels
Jonathan Cape books
Novels by John Fowles
Novels set in Sussex
Novels about sociopathy
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|
214303 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piero%20della%20Francesca | Piero della Francesca | Piero della Francesca (, also , ; – 12 October 1492), originally named Piero di Benedetto, was an Italian painter of the Early Renaissance. To contemporaries he was also known as a mathematician and geometer. Nowadays Piero della Francesca is chiefly appreciated for his art. His painting is characterized by its serene humanism, its use of geometric forms and perspective. His most famous work is the cycle of frescoes The History of the True Cross in the church of San Francesco in the Tuscan town of Arezzo.
Biography
Early years
Piero was born Piero di Benedetto in the town of Borgo Santo Sepolcro, modern-day Tuscany, to Benedetto de' Franceschi, a tradesman, and Romana di Perino da Monterchi, members of the Florentine and Tuscan Franceschi noble family. His father died before his birth, and he was called Piero della Francesca after his mother, who was referred to as "la Francesca" due to her marriage into the Franceschi family (similar to how Lisa Gherardini became known as "la Gioconda" through her marriage into the Giocondo family). Romana supported his education in mathematics and art.
He was most probably apprenticed to the local painter Antonio di Giovanni d'Anghiari, because in documents about payments it is noted that he was working with Antonio in 1432 and May 1438. He certainly took notice of the work of some of the Sienese artists active in San Sepolcro during his youth; e.g. Sassetta. In 1439 Piero received, together with Domenico Veneziano, payments for his work on frescoes for the church of Sant'Egidio in Florence, now lost. In Florence he must have met leading masters like Fra Angelico, Luca della Robbia, Donatello, and Brunelleschi. The classicism of Masaccio's frescoes and his majestic figures in the Santa Maria del Carmine were for him an important source of inspiration. Dating of Piero's undocumented work is difficult because his style does not seem to have developed over the years.
Mature work
Piero returned to his hometown in 1442 and was elected to the City Council of Sansepolcro. Three years later, he received his first commission, to paint the Madonna della Misericordia altarpiece for the church of the Misericordia in Sansepolcro, which was completed in the early 1460s. In 1449 he executed several frescoes in the Castello Estense and the church of Sant'Andrea of Ferrara, now also lost. His influence was particularly strong in the later Ferrarese allegorical works of Cosimo Tura.
The Baptism of Christ, now in the National Gallery in London, was completed in about 1450 for the high altar of the church of the Priory of S. Giovanni Battista at Sansepolcro. Other notable works are the frescoes of The Resurrection in Sansepolcro, and the Madonna del parto in Monterchi, near Sansepolcro.
Two years later he was in Rimini, working for the condottiero Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta. In 1451, during that sojourn, he executed the famous fresco of St. Sigismund and Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta in the Tempio Malatestiano, as well as a portrait of Sigismondo. In Rimini, Piero may have met the famous Renaissance mathematician and architect Leon Battista Alberti, who had redesigned the Tempio Malatestiano, although it is known that Alberti directed the execution of his designs for the church by correspondence with his building supervisor. Thereafter Piero was active in Ancona, Pesaro and Bologna.
In 1454, he signed a contract for the Polyptych of Saint Augustine in the church of Sant'Agostino in Sansepolcro. The central panel of this polyptych is lost, and the four panels of the wings, with representations of saints, are now scattered around the world. A few years later, summoned by Pope Nicholas V, he moved to Rome, where he executed frescoes in the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, of which only fragments remain. Two years later he was again in the Papal capital, painting frescoes in the Vatican Palace, which have since been destroyed.
Frescoes in San Francesco at Arezzo
In 1452, Piero della Francesca was called to Arezzo to replace Bicci di Lorenzo in painting the frescoes of the basilica of San Francesco. The work was finished in 1464.
The History of the True Cross cycle of frescoes is generally considered among his masterworks and those of Renaissance painting in general. The story in these frescoes derives from legendary medieval sources as to how timber relics of the True Cross came to be found. These stories were collected in the Golden Legend of Jacopo da Varazze (Jacopo da Varagine) of the mid-13th century.
Piero's activity in Urbino
At some point, Giovanni Santi invited Piero to Urbino. Between 1469 and 1486 Piero worked repeatedly in the service of Count Federico III da Montefeltro (Duke in 1474). The Flagellation is generally considered Piero's oldest work in Urbino (c. 1455–1470). It is one of the most famous and controversial pictures of the early Renaissance. As discussed in its own entry, it is marked by an air of geometric sobriety, in addition to presenting a perplexing enigma as to the nature of the three men standing at the foreground.
Another famous work painted in Urbino is the Double Portrait of Federico and his wife Battista Sforza, in the Uffizi. The portraits in profile take their inspiration from large bronze medals and stucco roundels with the official portraits of Fedederico and his wife. Other paintings made in Urbino are the monumental Montefeltro Altarpiece (1474) in the Brera Gallery in Milan and the Madonna of Senigallia.
In Urbino Piero met the painters Melozzo da Forlì, Fra Carnevale, and the Flemish Justus van Gent, the mathematician Fra Luca Pacioli, the architect Francesco di Giorgio Martini, and probably also Leon Battista Alberti.
Later years
In his later years, painters such as Perugino and Luca Signorelli frequently visited his workshop. He completed the treatise On Perspective in Painting in the mid-1470s to 1480s. By 1480, his vision began to deteriorate, but he continued writing treatises such as Short Book on the Five Regular Solids in 1485. It is documented that Piero rented a house in Rimini in 1482. Piero made his will in 1487 and he died five years later, on 12 October 1492, in his own house in San Sepolcro. He left his possessions to his family and the church.
Criticism and interpretation
Recently, the Frick Collection in New York until 19 May 2013, collected seven of the eight extant paintings of Piero known to exist in the United States for exhibition. Of the seven pieces in the exhibit, critic Jerry Saltz writing in New York magazine singled out Piero's Virgin and Child Enthroned With Four Angels for its exemplary qualities.
Saltz states that, "The Virgin and child are elevated two steps. They are in a world itself apart from this world apart. Mary isn't looking at her child and looks instead at the rose he reaches for. You begin to glean the revelation she is having. The flower represents love, devotion, and beauty. It also symbolizes blood and the crown of thorns Christ will wear. This child who will suffer a horrendous death reaches for his acceptance of fate. Mary does not pull the flower back. You sense an inner agony, noticing her deep-blue robe open to reveal scarlet beneath, symbol of outward passion and pain to come. In the dead-center vertical line of the painting is Christ's right palm that will be nailed to the cross."
Saltz accepted this oil painting as the most exceptional work of Piero on display in the exhibit.
Work in mathematics and geometry
Piero's deep interest in the theoretical study of perspective and his contemplative approach to his paintings are apparent in all his work.
In his youth, Piero was trained in mathematics, which most likely was for mercantilism. Three treatises written by Piero have survived to the present day: , De quinque corporibus regularibus (On the Five Regular Solids) and De Prospectiva pingendi (On Perspective in painting). The subjects covered in these writings include arithmetic, algebra, geometry and innovative work in both solid geometry and perspective. Much of Piero's work was later absorbed into the writing of others, notably Luca Pacioli. Piero's work on solid geometry was translated in Pacioli's Divina proportione, a work illustrated by Leonardo da Vinci. Biographers of his patron Federico da Montefeltro of Urbino record that he was encouraged to pursue the interest in perspective which was shared by the Duke.
In the late 1450s, Piero copied and illustrated the following works of Archimedes: On the Sphere and Cylinder, Measurement of a Circle, On Conoids and Spheroids, On Spirals, On the Equilibrium of Planes, The Quadrature of the Parabola, and The Sand Reckoner. The manuscript consists of 82 folio leaves, is held in the collection of the Biblioteca Riccardiana and is a copy of the translation of the Archimedean corpus made by Italian humanist Iacopo da San Cassiano.
Inspirations
Bohuslav Martinů wrote a three movement work for orchestra entitled Les Fresques de Piero della Francesca. Dedicated to Rafael Kubelik, it was premiered by Kubelik and the Vienna Philharmonic at the 1956 Salzburg Festival.
Piero's geometrical perfection and the almost magic atmosphere of the light in his painting inspired modern painters like Giorgio de Chirico, Massimo Campigli, Felice Casorati, and Balthus.
Selected works
Polyptych of the Misericordia (1445–62) – Tempera and oil on panel, 273 x 330 cm, Museo Civico Sansepolcro
The Baptism of Christ (c. 1448–50) – Tempera on panel, 168 × 116 cm, National Gallery, London
St. Jerome in Penitence (c. 1449–51) – Tempera on panel, 51 × 38 cm, Staatliche Museen, Berlin
St. Jerome and a Donor (Girolamo Amadi) (1451) – Tempera and oil on panel, 49 × 42 cm, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice
Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta Praying in Front of St. Sigismund (1451) – Fresco (transferred to canvas), 257 x 345 cm, Tempio Malatestiano, Rimini
Portrait of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta (c. 1451) – Tempera and oil on panel, 44.5 × 34.5 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris
The History of the True Cross (c. 1455–66) – Fresco cycle, Basilica of San Francesco, Arezzo
The Flagellation of Christ (c. 1460) – Tempera on panel, 58.4 x 81.5 cm, Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, Urbino
Polyptych of Saint Augustine (1460–70) – Tempera and oil on panels, dispersed in several museums
Resurrection (c. 1463) –Fresco, 225 × 200 cm, Museo Civico Sansepolcro
Hercules (c. 1465) –Fresco (detached), 151 × 126 cm, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston
St. Mary Magdalene (c. 1466, 1458–70s) – Fresco, 190 × 180 cm, Cathedral, Arezzo
Madonna del Parto (1459–67) – Detached fresco, 260 × 203 cm, Chapel of the cemetery, Monterchi
The Nativity (c. 1470) – Oil on panel, 124.5 × 123 cm, National Gallery, London
Polyptych of Saint Anthony (c. 1470) – Oil on panel, 338 × 230 cm, Galleria Nazionale dell'Umbria, Perugia
Brera Madonna, i.e. Montefeltro Altarpiece, (1472–74) – Oil on panel, 248 × 170 cm, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan
Diptych of the Duke and Duchess of Urbino, Federico da Montefeltro and Battista Sforza – Oil on panel, each 47,4 × 33,6 cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
Madonna di Senigallia (c. 1474) – Oil on panel, 67 × 53.5 cm, Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, Urbino
References
Footnotes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Berenson, Bernard, Piero della Francesca or The Ineloquent in Art, The Macmillan Company, 1954.
Chieli, Francesca, "La grecità antica e bizantina nell'opera di Piero della Francesca", Firenze, 1993.
Cole, Bruce, Piero della Francesca: Tradition and Innovation in Renaissance Art, HarperCollins Publishers, 1991. .
Damisch, Hubert, Un souvenir d'enfance par Piero della Francesca, Edition du Seuil, Paris, 1997; Engl. ed.: A Childhood Memory by Piero della Francesca, Stanford University Press, 2007. .
Gantz, Jeffrey, "Strong, silent type: Piero della Francesca, international artist of mystery", The Boston Phoenix, Arts section, 1 September 2006.
Ginzburg, Carlo, Indagini su Piero, Eunaudi, Torino, 1982; Engl. ed.: The Enigma of Piero: Piero della Francesca, Verso, 1985, new edition 2002. .
Keim, Frank, Piero della Francesca: Der Maler als Astronom und Physiker (Schriften zur Kunstgeschichte), Hamburg 2016. .
Israëls, Machtelt, Piero della Francesca and the Invention of the Artist, Reaktion Books, 2020. .
Longhi, Roberto, Piero de' Franceschi, Rom, 1927; Engl. ed. translated by Leonard Penlock: Piero della Francesca, F. Warne & Co., London and New York, 1930; new ed. with expansions until 1962, 1963 translation by David Tabbat: Sheep Meadow, 2002. .
Maetzke, Anna Maria; Bertelli, Carlo, eds., Piero della Francesca: The Legend of the True Cross in the Church of San Francesco in Arezzo, Skira, 2001. .
Manescalchi, Roberto, L'Ercole di Piero, tra mito e realtà,(ParteI), Grafica European Center of Fine Art (Terre di Piero), Firenze, 2011.
Manescalchi, Roberto, "Piero alla corte dei Pichi", in Studi e Documenti Pierfrancescani II, Sansepolcro 2014.
Pacioli, Luca, Libellus de quinque corporibus regularibus, corredato della versione volgare [fac-sim du Codice Vat. Urb. Lat. 632]; eds. Cecil Grayson,... Marisa Dalai Emiliani, Carlo Maccagni. Firenze, Giunti, 1995. 3 vol. (68 ff., XLIV-213, XXII-223 pp.).
Piero's Archimedes, [fac-sim du Codice Riccardiano 106 par Piero della Francesca]; eds. Roberto Manescalchi, Matteo Martelli, James Banker, Giovanna Lazzi, Pierdaniele Napolitani, Riccardo Bellè. Sansepolcro, Grafica European Center of Fine Arts e Vimer Industrie Grafiche Italiane, 2007. 2 vol. (82 ff., XIV-332 pp. English, French, Spanish, German, Italian and Arabic). .
Pope-Hennessy, John, The Piero della Francesca Trail, Walter Neurath Memorial Lectures, Thames and Hudson, London, 1991; new ed. expanded with Aldous Huxley, "The Best Picture", The Little Bookroom, 2002. .
Tofanelli, Pierpaolo, "La Madonna del Parto", Pagine Nuove di Storia dell'Arte e dell'Architettura N. 3, Firenze, 2009. .
Tofanelli, Pierpaolo, "La Natività", Pagine Nuove di Storia dell'Arte e dell'Architettura N. 4, Firenze, 2010.
Varisco, Alessio, Borgo Sansepolcro. Città di Cavalieri e Pellegrini, Pessano con Bornago, Mimep-Docete, 2012.
External links
Italian Renaissance painters
Quattrocento painters
Painters from Tuscany
1415 births
1492 deaths
Artist authors
Geometers
Italian male painters
Mathematical artists
People from Sansepolcro
15th-century people of the Republic of Florence
15th-century Italian mathematicians
15th-century Italian painters
Catholic painters
Renaissance painters | [
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|
214304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Hartman | Elizabeth Hartman | Mary Elizabeth Hartman (December 23, 1943 – June 10, 1987) was an American actress of the stage and screen. She is best known for her debut performance in the 1965 film A Patch of Blue, playing a blind girl named Selina D'Arcy, opposite Sidney Poitier, a role for which she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress and a Golden Globe Award.
She appeared in Francis Ford Coppola's You're a Big Boy Now as Barbara Darling, for which she was nominated for a second Golden Globe Award.
Hartman also starred opposite Clint Eastwood and Geraldine Page in Don Siegel's The Beguiled, and the 1973 film Walking Tall.
On stage, Hartman was best known for her interpretations of Laura Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie, for which she won Ohio's "Actress of the Year" award, and Emily Webb in the 1969 Broadway production of Our Town. Hartman retired from acting in 1982 after portraying Mrs. Brisby in Don Bluth's first animated feature, The Secret of NIMH (1982).
Early life
Mary Elizabeth Hartman was born December 23, 1943, in Youngstown, Ohio, the daughter of Claire (née Mullaly; 1918–1997) and B.C. Hartman (1914–1964). She had a sister, Janet, and a brother, William. She was a standout dramatic student at Boardman High School, where she graduated in 1961. She won a statewide award for best actress in a high school production for her performance as Laura in The Glass Menagerie. She performed in several productions at the Youngstown Playhouse during her youth, including A Clearing in the Woods by Arthur Laurents and Our Town. She attended Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, where she met her future husband, Gill Dennis, and spent her summers acting with the Kenley Players.
Hartman also performed at the Cleveland Playhouse in several productions, including The Madwoman of Chaillot and Bus Stop. She was encouraged to move to New York City and begin auditioning for plays there. In 1964, Hartman was signed to play the ingénue lead in the comedy Everybody Out, the Castle is Sinking, which was not a success, however her performance was again positively received, and film producers took notice.
Career
In 1964, Hartman was screen-tested by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Warner Brothers. In the early autumn of 1964, she was offered a leading role in A Patch of Blue, opposite Sidney Poitier and Shelley Winters. The role won widespread critical acclaim for Hartman, a fact proudly noted by the news media in her hometown. During this time, her father, who worked in construction, died. The role also won an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for Hartman. At the time of her nomination in 1966, Elizabeth Hartman (who was 22 years old) was the youngest nominee ever in the Best Actress category. That same year, she received an achievement award from the National Association of Theater Owners. Hartman also won a Golden Globe for New Star of the Year for her performance. In 1966, she starred as Laura opposite Mercedes McCambridge as Amanda in a production of The Glass Menagerie in Pittsburgh.
In January 1967, columnist Dorothy Manners reported that Hartman had been cast in the role of Neely O'Hara in the movie version of Valley of the Dolls, beating out some more famous Hollywood actresses. She was said to have won over director Mark Robson, who had been enthralled with her performance in You're a Big Boy Now. However, the following month, it was announced that Oscar-winner Patty Duke had signed on to play Neely, albeit against her agent's advice.
Between the mid-1960s and early 1970s, Hartman appeared in three well-received films, two of which starred Broadway and Hollywood legend Geraldine Page, The Group (1966), You're a Big Boy Now (1966), and The Beguiled (1971). Portraying Pauline Mullins, the wife of former Sheriff Buford Pusser, she starred in the cult classic and major box office hit Walking Tall (1973). In 1975, Hartman starred in the premiere of Tom Rickman's play Balaam, a play about political intrigue in Washington, D.C. The production was mounted in Old Town Pasadena, California, by the Pasadena Repertory Theatre located in The Hotel Carver. It was directed by Hartman's husband, Gill Dennis. In 1981, she starred in a touring production of Morning's at Seven, but left the tour due to declining mental health. Her last on-screen performance was in 1981's horror-spoof, Full Moon High, where she appeared as Miss Montgomery. In 1982, she appeared in Don Bluth's The Secret of NIMH, where she portrayed the film's protagonist, Mrs. Brisby. She was highly praised for the performance; however, this proved to be her last Hollywood film role.
Later years and death
Throughout much of her life, Hartman suffered from depression. In 1978, she was treated at The Institute of Living in Hartford, Connecticut. In 1984, she divorced her husband, screenwriter Gill Dennis, after a five-year separation. In the last few years of her life, she gave up acting altogether and worked at a museum in Pittsburgh while receiving treatment for her condition at an outpatient clinic. In 1981, she returned to theater, portraying Myrtle Brown in a regional stage production of Morning's at Seven. Her sister and caretaker, Janet, told the Los Angeles Times:
On June 10, 1987, Hartman died after jumping from the window of her fifth floor apartment. Earlier that morning, she had reportedly called her psychiatrist saying that she felt despondent. Hartman was buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in her hometown.
Filmography
Film
Television
Stage credits
Accolades
See also
List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees
References
Sources
External links
1943 births
1987 deaths
20th-century American actresses
Actresses from Pittsburgh
Actresses from Youngstown, Ohio
American film actresses
American stage actresses
American voice actresses
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players
New Star of the Year (Actress) Golden Globe winners
Suicides by jumping in the United States
Suicides in Pennsylvania
People from Boardman, Ohio
1987 suicides
Female suicides | [
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|
214306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Kenyans | List of Kenyans | The following list gives a categorised overview of notable people from Kenya.
Pre-colonial leaders
Koitalel Arap Samoei
Mekatilili Wa Menza
Nabongo Mumia
Waiyaki Wa Hinga
Anti-colonial activists
Bildad Kaggia
Dedan Kimathi
Dennis Akumu
Elijah Omolo Agar
Esau Khamati Oriedo
Fitz Remedios Santana de Souza
Fred Kubai
Harry Thuku
Jaramogi Oginga Odinga
John Keen (Kenya politician)
Jomo Kenyatta
Joseph Murumbi
J.M. Kariuki
Kung'u Karumba
Makhan Singh (Kenyan trade unionist)
Martin Shikuku
Mary Muthoni Nyanjiru
Masinde Muliro
Musa Mwariama
Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo
Paul Ngei
Pio Gama Pinto
Ramogi Achieng Oneko
Stanley Mathenge
Tom Mboya
Wambui Otieno
Waruhiu Itote
Politicians
Moody Awori, Vice President, August, 2003–December 2007
Nicholas Biwott, Member of Parliament, former Cabinet Ministère
Cyrus Jirongo
Josephat Karanja, Vice President 1988–1989
J. M. Kariuki, assassinated 1975
Uhuru Kenyatta, son of the first President, Jomo Kenyatta and 4th President of Kenya, 2013–present
Mwai Kibaki, third President of Kenya December 2002 – March 2013
Esau Khamati Oriedo, first served in the District House Assembly the Local Native Council (LNC) of North Nyanza; original member of KAU progenitor to KANU.
Michael Wamalwa Kijana, Vice President 3 January 2003 – August 2003
Catherine Omanyo, Member of Parliament and school founder
Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo, Member of Parliament, Assistant Cabinet Minister
John Mwirichia
Tom Mboya, Cabinet Minister, assassinated 1969
Kenneth Matiba
Musalia Mudavadi, Vice President 4 November 2002 – 30 December 2002
Joseph Murumbi, Vice President 1965–1967
Simeon Nyachae
Daisy Nyongesa (born 1989), senator
Charity Ngilu, first female to run for presidency
Raila Odinga, former Cabinet Minister, Member of Parliament. Son of Oginga Odinga and former Prime Minister
Esther Passaris
Quincy Timberlake, President, Platinum Centraliser and Unionist Party of Kenya
Appolo Ohanga
James Orengo
Robert Ouko, Cabinet Minister, assassinated 1990
Pio Gama Pinto, assassinated 1965
Charles Rubia
George Saitoti, Vice President May 1989 – Dec 1997, April 1999 – 30 August 2002
Makhan Singh, freedom fighter
Fitz R S de Souza, Member of Parliament and Deputy Speaker 1963–1970
Kalonzo Musyoka, Vice President Jan 2008 – March 2013
William Ruto, Deputy Vice-President April 2013–present
Martha Karua
John Michuki
Njenga Karume
Jeremiah Nyagah, long-serving cabinet minister and member of Parliament
Harry Thuku
Koigi Wa Wamwere
Martin Nyaga Wambora, first Governor of Embu, former chairman of Kenya Airports Authority, successful Runyenjes MP and noted former Kenyan trade secretary
Samuel Kivuitu, Electoral Commissioner of Kenya (2013)
Prof. Crispus Makau Kiamba, Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology, Government of Kenya from 2008 to 2013.
Activists
Auma Obama
Boniface Mwangi
Esau Khamati Oriedo
Samwel Mohochi, human rights lawyer
Ciiru Waithaka CEO of Funkidz
Notable civil servants
Barack Obama Sr.
Edward H Ntalami
Stanley Kamang Nganga
Chris Kirubi
Margaret Nyakang'o
Muthui Kariuki
Academics, scientists and medical professionals
Ali Mazrui
Amina Abubakar
Bethwell Allan Ogot
Borna Nyaoke-Anoke
Calestous Juma
Charity Wayua
Davy Kiprotich Koech
Dorothy Wanja Nyingi
Elizabeth Gitau
Esther Ngumbi
Evelyn Gitau
Fardosa Ahmed
Gladys Ngetich
Hope Mwanake
Jemimah Kariuki, doctor
Juliet Obanda Makanga
Leah Marangu
Louise Leakey
Maina wa Kinyatti
Margaret Ogola
Mary Abukutsa-Onyango
Miriam Were
Moses Rugut
Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o
Ng'endo Mwangi
Paula Kahumbu
Peter Amollo Odhiambo
Reuben Olembo
Richard Leakey
Stellah Wairimu Bosire-Otieno
Steven Runo
Teresia Mbaika Malokwe
Thomas R. Odhiambo
Washington Yotto Ochieng
Winnie Apiyo
Yash Ghai
Religious leaders
Cardinal John Njue
Cardinal Maurice Michael Otunga
Archbishop John Njenga
Judy Mbugua (born 1947), chair of the Pan African Christian Women Alliance
Business people and entrepreneurs
Benson Wairegi
Chris Kirubi
Dominic Kiarie
Eric Kinoti
Esther Muchemi
Isis Nyong'o
James Mwangi
James Mworia
Jamila Abbas
Mubarak Muyika
Muhoho Kenyatta
Peter Ndegwa
Pradeep Paunrana
Rosemary Odinga
Samuel Kamau Macharia
Sauda Rajab
Susan Oguya
Trushar Khetia
Wilfred Musau
Sports persons
Elisha Barno, distance runner
Matthew Birir
Amos Biwott
Mike Boit
Richard Chelimo
Lonah Chemtai, Kenyan-Israeli Olympic marathon runner
Joyce Chepchumba
Jason Dunford
Paul Ereng
Chris Froome
John Rugoiyo Gichuki
Mbarak Hussein, born in Kenya, now a U.S. citizen, long-distance runner,
Ben Jipcho
Julius Kariuki
Kipchoge Keino
Ezekiel Kemboi
Joseph Keter
Wilson Kipketer, born and raised in Kenya, now a citizen of Denmark
Wilson Boit Kipketer
Moses Kiptanui
Sally Kipyego, All American runner for Texas Tech University
Ismael Kirui
Samson Kitur
Daniel Komen
Julius Korir
Paul Korir
Reuben Kosgei
Bernard Lagat
Tegla Loroupe
Edith Masai
Shekhar Mehta
Catherine Ndereba (born 1972), marathon runner
Noah Ngeny
John Ngugi
Margaret Okayo (born 1976), marathon runner
Dennis Oliech, soccer player now based in France
Yobes Ondieki
Dominic Ondoro, distance runner
Henry Rono
Peter Rono
David Rudisha
Moses Tanui
William Tanui
Naftali Temu
Paul Tergat
Steve Tikolo, widely regarded in cricket as the best batsman outside of the test playing nations
Robert Wangila
McDonald Mariga, soccer player now based in Italy, plays for Serie A club Internazionale
Victor Wanyama, soccer player now based in England, plays for Southampton and captains the Kenya national team
Biko Adema, national rugby team player
Environmentalists and conservationists
Elizabeth Wathuti
George Adamson
Helen Gichohi
Ikal Angelei
Joy Adamson
Daphne Sheldrick
Phyllis Omido
Saba Douglas-Hamilton
Wangari Maathai
Wanjira Mathai
Musicians
Timothy "Ennovator" Rimbui
Akothee
Juacali
Jimw@t
Otile Brown
Sauti Sol
Elani
Henrie Mutuku
Naiboi
Sanaipei Tande
Size 8
Gloria Muliro
Mbuvi
Nameless
Writers and playwrights
Asenath Bole Odaga
Binyavanga Wainaina
Chacha Nyaigotti-Chacha
Charity Waciuma
Charles Mangua
Clifton Gachagua
Grace Ogot
Hazel de Silva Mugot
Iman Verjee
Khadambi Asalache
Kinyanjui Kombani
Koigi wa Wamwere
Kuki Gallmann
Makena Onjerika
Margaret Ogola
Marjorie Oludhe Macgoye
Meja Mwangi
Micere Githae Mugo
Moraa Gitaa
Mũkoma wa Ngũgĩ
Mwangi Ruheni
Nanjala Nyabola,
Ngugi wa Mirii
Ngugi Wa Thiong'o
Rocha Chimera
Shailja Patel
Tony Mochama
Wangui wa Goro
Yvonne Adhiambo Owuor
Journalists, bloggers and media personalities
Catherine Kasavuli
Cyprian Nyakundi
Farida Karoney
Hilary Ng'weno
Janet Mbugua
Jeff Koinange
Julie Gichuru
Kui Kinyanjui
Linus Kaikai
Ory Okolloh
Pamella Makotsi-Sittani
Patrick Gathara
Priya Ramrakha
Robert Alai
Xtian Dela
Zain Verjee
Actors and actresses
Avril (singer)
Charles Gitonga Maina
Christopher Okinda
Eddy Kimani
Edi Gathegi
Edwin Mahinda
John Sibi-Okumu
Joseph Olita
Kiran Shah
Lupita Nyong'o
Maqbul Mohammed
Nana Gichuru
Nini Wacera
Oliver Litondo
Patricia Kihoro
Jackie Nyaminde
Paul Onsongo
Raymond Ofula
Sarah Hassan
Sidede Onyulo
References
See also
List of Kenyan artists
List of writers from Kenya | [
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|
214309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico%20II%20da%20Montefeltro | Federico II da Montefeltro | Federico II Paolo Novello da Montefeltro (died c. 1370) was Count of Urbino from 1364 until his death. He was the son of Nolfo da Montefeltro. He had four sons, of which Antonio returned to become Count of Urbino in 1364.
References
Federico 2
Federico 2
Federico 2
Year of birth unknown | [
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214312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Man%20and%20a%20Woman | A Man and a Woman | A Man and a Woman () is a 1966 French film written and directed by Claude Lelouch and starring Anouk Aimée and Jean-Louis Trintignant. Written by Lelouch and Pierre Uytterhoeven, the film is about a young widow and widower who meet by chance at their children's boarding school and whose budding relationship is complicated by the memories of their deceased spouses. The film is notable for its lush photography, which features frequent segues among full color, black-and-white, and sepia-toned shots, and for its memorable musical score by Francis Lai.
A Man and a Woman sold a total of 4,272,000 cinema tickets in France and was also the 6th highest-grossing film of the year. In the United States, the film earned $14,000,000. The film won several awards, including the Palme d'Or at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival, two Golden Globe Awards for Best Foreign Language Film and Best Actress - Drama (for Aimée), and two Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film and Best Original Screenplay. A sequel, A Man and a Woman: 20 Years Later (Un Homme et une Femme, 20 Ans Déjà) was released in 1986, followed by The Best Years of a Life, which was released in 2019.
Plot
A young widow, Anne Gauthier (Anouk Aimée), is raising her daughter Françoise (Souad Amidou) alone following the death of her husband (Pierre Barouh) who worked as a stuntman and who died in a movie set accident that she witnessed. Still working as a film script supervisor, Anne divides her time between her home in Paris and Deauville in northern France where her daughter attends boarding school. A young widower, Jean-Louis (Jean-Louis Trintignant), is raising his son Antoine (Antoine Sire) alone following the death of his wife Valerie (Valerie Lagrange) who committed suicide after Jean-Louis was in a near fatal crash during the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Still working as a race car driver, Jean-Louis divides his time between Paris and Deauville where his son also attends boarding school.
One day Anne and Jean-Louis meet at the Deauville boarding school after Anne misses the last train back to Paris. Jean-Louis offers her a lift and the two become acquainted during the drive home, enjoying each other's company. When he drops her off, he asks if she would like to drive up together the following weekend, and she gives him her phone number. After a busy week at the track preparing for the next race, Jean-Louis calls and they meet early Sunday morning and drive to Deauville in the rain. Clearly attracted to each other, they enjoy a pleasant Sunday lunch with their children who get along well. Later that afternoon they go for a boat ride followed by a walk on the beach at sunset.
Jean-Louis spends the following week preparing for and driving in the Monte Carlo Rally in southeast France. Every day, Anne closely follows news reports of the race, which takes place in poor weather conditions along the icy roads of the French Riviera. Of the 273 cars that started the race, only 42 were able to finish, including Jean Louis's white Ford Mustang, number 145. Watching the television coverage of the conclusion of the race, Anne sends Jean-Louis a telegram that reads, "Bravo! I love you. Anne."
That night at a dinner for the drivers at the Monte Carlo Casino, Jean-Louis receives the telegram and leaves immediately. He jumps into the other Mustang (number 184) used during the race and drives through the night to Paris, telling himself that when a woman sends a telegram like that, you go to her no matter what. Along the way he imagines what their reunion will be like. At her Paris apartment, Jean-Louis learns that Anne is in Deauville, so he continues north. Jean-Louis finally arrives in Deauville and finds Anne and the two children playing on the beach. When they see each other, they run into each other's arms and embrace.
After dropping their children off at the boarding school, Jean-Louis and Anne drive into town where they rent a room and begin to make love with passionate tenderness. While they are in each other's arms, however, Jean-Louis senses that something is not right. Anne's memories of her deceased husband are still with her and she feels uncomfortable continuing. Anne says it would be best for her to take the train back to Paris alone. After dropping her off at the station, Jean-Louis drives home alone, unable to understand her feelings. On the train Anne can only think of Jean-Louis and their time together. Meanwhile, Jean-Louis drives south through the French countryside to the Paris train station, just as her train is arriving. As she leaves the train, she spots Jean-Louis and is surprised, hesitates briefly, and then walks toward him and they embrace.
Cast
Anouk Aimée as Anne Gauthier
Jean-Louis Trintignant as Jean-Louis Duroc
Pierre Barouh as Pierre Gauthier
Valérie Lagrange as Valerie Duroc
as Antoine Duroc
Souad Amidou as Françoise Gauthier
as Jean Louis' co-driver
as Jean Louis' mistress
Paul Le Person as Petrol pump attendant
Simone Paris as Head Mistress
as Radio commentator
Gérard Larrousse as Rally driver
as the waiter
Clive Roberts as Rally driver
Production
Story and script
According to director Claude Lelouch, the story originated from an experience following his disappointment trying to get a distribution deal for his film Les Grands Moments. As was his habit during troubling times, he went for a long drive and ended up on the shore at Deauville at 2:00 am. After a few hours sleep in the car, he was awakened by the sunrise and saw a woman walking on the beach with her daughter and a dog. This sparked his creativity which led to the story and script which he co-wrote with Pierre Uytterhoeven within a month.
Casting
A key casting decision for Lelouch was Jean-Louis Trintignant.
For the female lead, Trintignant asked Lelouch who his ideal woman would be, and Lelouch indicated Anouk Aimée, who had appeared in Fellini's La Dolce Vita (1960) and 8½ (1962). Trintignant happened to be a close friend of hers and told him to call her. When he did, she accepted without reading the script. Although early disagreements and the low-budget skeleton crew caused initial tension between the director and actress, they quickly resolved their differences and the two went on to become close friends.
Filming
Once the script was drafted, the film was made relatively quickly, with one month of preproduction work, three weeks of principal photography, and three weeks editing. Due to budget constraints, he used an older handheld camera that was not soundproof, so blankets were frequently employed to dampen the camera noise.
Lelouch is considered a pioneer in mixing different film stocks: black-and-white with color, and 35mm with 16mm and super 8. For years film critics debated the symbolism of the mixed film stocks, but Lelouch acknowledged that the primary reason was that he was running out of money, and black and white stock was cheaper. His original plan involved shooting strictly in black and white, but when an American distributor offered him $40,000 to film in color, he filmed the outdoor sequences in color, and the indoor scenes in black and white.
The music soundtrack was recorded prior to filming, and Lelouch would play the music on the set to inspire the actors. Lelouch encouraged his actors to improvise some of the dialogue, and several key scenes were improvised. The climactic scene at a train station was not scripted at the time of shooting, and Aimée did not know that director Lelouch had decided on the two main characters reuniting at the end. The look of surprise on Aimée's face is genuine.
The film was shot, among others, in Paris, Monte Carlo and Deauville. The love scene was shot in the Hotel Barrière Le Normandy Deauville which, in memory of the film, has a suite entitled "A Man and a Woman". (Info by the Dizionario del Turismo Cinematografico)
Reception
Box office
The film earned theatrical rentals of $4.6 million in the United States and Canada and $4 million internationally during its initial theatrical release. It played for 83 weeks in Boston, 73 weeks in Syracuse and 61 weeks in Seattle. An English language version of the film was shown in the United States and Canada from July 1, 1968 and the film eventually earned rentals of $6.3 million in the US and Canada.
It was the sixth most popular film at the French box office in 1966, after La Grande Vadrouille, Dr Zhivago, Is Paris Burning?, A Fistful of Dollars and Lost Command.
Critical response
Upon its theatrical release in the United States, A Man and a Woman received mostly positive reviews. In his review in The New York Times, Bosley Crowther wrote, "For a first-rate demonstration of the artfulness of a cameraman and the skill at putting together handsome pictures and a strongly sentimental musical score, there is nothing around any better than Claude Lelouch's A Man and a Woman." Crowther lauded the "beautiful and sometimes breath-taking exposition of visual imagery intended to excite the emotions" and praised the director for his ability to create something unique from the commonplace:
The review in Variety noted the performances of the lead actors: "Anouk Aimee has a mature beauty and an ability to project an inner quality that helps stave off the obvious banality of her character, and this goes too for the perceptive Jean-Louis Trintignant as the man."
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 75% based on reviews from 14 critics.
The film was selected for screening as part of the Cannes Classics section at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival.
Awards and nominations
Soundtrack
The soundtrack was written by Francis Lai and earned "Best Original Score" nominations at both the BAFTA Awards and Golden Globe Awards in 1967. The film's theme song, with music by Francis Lai and lyrics by Pierre Barouh, was also nominated for "Best Original Song in a Motion Picture" at the Golden Globe Awards. In Finland it has become one of the most easily recognizable TV advertisement themes, having been used for decades by the cruise ferry brand Silja Line.
Pierre Barouh, who plays the deceased husband in the film, also sings the songs in the soundtrack. In a sequence of the film, he makes a brief reappearance singing "Samba Saravah", a French version with lyrics by Barouh himself of the Brazilian song "Samba da Benção" written by Baden Powell with original lyrics by Vinicius de Moraes.
A 200 a l'heure is used as the theme for the BBC's Panorama current affairs program, The song "Aujourd'hui C'est Toi" for Rede Globo's Jornal Hoje midday newscast, and YLE's Ajankohtainen kakkonen weekly current affairs television program in Finland on TV2 from 1969 to 2015. Harry James recorded a version of the film's theme song on his album For Listening And Dancing, released in 1981 on Reader's Digest RD4A 213.
Track listing
Un homme et une femme (A Man and a Woman) performed by Nicole Croisille and Pierre Barouh (2:40)
Samba Saravah by Pierre Barouh (4:30)
Aujourd'hui c'est toi (Today It's You) by Nicole Croisille (2:06)
Un homme et une femme (A Man and a Woman) (2:37)
Plus fort que nous (Stronger Than Us) (3:15)
Aujourd'hui c'est toi (Today It's You) (2:35)
A l'ombre de nous (In Our Shadow) by Pierre Barouh (4:55)
Plus fort que nous (Stronger Than Us) by Nicole Croisille and Pierre Barouh (3:43)
A 200 a l'heure (124 Miles An Hour) (2:30)
See also
List of submissions to the 39th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of French submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
Notes
References
External links
1960s romantic drama films
1966 drama films
1966 films
Allied Artists films
Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners
Best Foreign Language Film Golden Globe winners
French films
French romantic drama films
French-language films
French auto racing films
Fictional couples
Films directed by Claude Lelouch
Films featuring a Best Drama Actress Golden Globe-winning performance
Films partially in color
Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay Academy Award
Films scored by Francis Lai
Palme d'Or winners | [
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|
214315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco%20Squarcione | Francesco Squarcione | Francesco Squarcione (c. 1395 – after 1468) was an Italian artist from Padua. His pupils included Andrea Mantegna (with whom he had many legal battles), Cosimo Tura and Carlo Crivelli. There are only two works signed by him: the Madonna and Child (now in Berlin) and the Lazara Altarpiece (now in Padua).
Biography
Squarcione, whose original vocation was tailoring, appears to have had a remarkable enthusiasm for ancient art, and a faculty for acting. Squarcione was interested in ancient Rome; he travelled in Italy, and perhaps Greece, collecting antique statues, reliefs, vases, and other works of art, forming a collection of such works, making drawings from them himself, and throwing open his stores for others to study from. Based on this collection, he undertook works on commission for which his pupils no less than himself were made available. As many as 137 painters and pictorial students passed through his school, established in 1431 and which became famous all over Italy. Squarcione's favorite pupil was Mantegna. Squarcione taught Mantegna the Latin language and instructed him to study fragments of Roman sculpture.
Squarcione's Polyptych of Lazarus, originally in the Carmine church in Padua, is not on display in the Museo Civici di Padua at the former Eremitani monastery.
Pupils or followers of Squarcione include Francesco Verla, Pietro Calzetta, and Andrea Bellunello.
References
1390s births
1468 deaths
Painters from Padua
15th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Italian antiquarians | [
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|
214316 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Naval%20Treaty | London Naval Treaty | The London Naval Treaty, officially the Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament, was an agreement between the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Italy, and the United States that was signed on 22 April 1930. Seeking to address issues not covered in the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, which had created tonnage limits for each nation's surface warships, the new agreement regulated submarine warfare, further controlled cruisers and destroyers, and limited naval shipbuilding.
Ratifications were exchanged in London on 27 October 1930, and the treaty went into effect on the same day, but it was largely ineffective.
The treaty was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 6 February 1931.
Conference
The signing of the treaty remains inextricably intertwined with the ongoing negotiations, which began before the official start of the London Naval Conference of 1930, evolved throughout the progress of the official conference schedule, and continued for years afterward.
During the first four decades of the 20th century, Prince Tokugawa Iesato led a political movement in Japan that promoted democracy and international goodwill with the United States, Europe, and the rest of Asia. During the 1921-1922 Washington Naval Conference, Tokugawa headed the Japanese delegation that ratified that treaty. The December 23, 1929 photograph to the right presents the Japanese, who again participated in the renewal of the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty.
Terms
The treaty was seen as an extension of the conditions agreed in the Washington Naval Treaty, an effort to prevent a naval arms race after World War I.
The conference was a revival of the efforts that had gone into the 1927 Geneva Naval Conference at which the various negotiators had been unable to reach agreement because of bad feelings between the British and the American governments. The problem may have initially arisen from discussions held between US President President Herbert Hoover and UK Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald at Rapidan Camp in 1929, but a range of factors affected tensions, which were exacerbated by the other nations at the conference.
Under the treaty, the standard displacement of submarines was restricted to 2,000 tons, with each major power being allowed to keep three submarines of up to 2,800 tons except that France was allowed to keep one. The submarine gun caliber was also restricted for the first time to with one exception, an already-constructed French submarine being allowed to retain guns. That put an end to the 'big-gun' submarine concept pioneered by the British M class and the French Surcouf.
The treaty also established a distinction between cruisers armed with guns up to ("light cruisers" in unofficial parlance) from those with guns up to ("heavy cruisers"). The number of heavy cruisers was limited: Britain was permitted 15 with a total tonnage of 147,000, the Americans 18 totalling 180,000, and the Japanese 12 totalling 108,000 tons. For light cruisers, no numbers were specified but tonnage limits were 143,500 tons for the Americans, 192,200 tons for the British, and 100,450 tons for the Japanese.
Destroyer tonnage was also limited, with destroyers being defined as ships of less than 1,850 tons and guns up to . The Americans and the British were permitted up to 150,000 tons and Japan 105,500 tons.
Article 22 relating to submarine warfare declared international law applied to them as to surface vessels. Also, merchant vessels that demonstrated "persistent refusal to stop" or "active resistance" could be sunk without the ship's crew and passengers being first delivered to a "place of safety."
Article 8 outlined smaller surface combatants. Ships between 600 and 2,000 tons, with guns not exceeding with a maximum of four gun mounts above without torpedo armament and up to , were exempt from tonnage limitations. The maximum specifications were designed around the Bougainville-class avisos, which entering French service.
Warships under 600 tons were also completely exempt. That led to creative attempts to use the unlimited nature of the exemption with the Italian Spica-class torpedo boats, Japanese Chidori-class torpedo boats, French La Melpomène-class torpedo boats and British Kingfisher-class sloops.
Aftermath
The next phase of attempted naval arms control was the Second Geneva Naval Conference in 1932. That year, Italy "retired" two battleships, twelve cruisers, 25 destroyers and 12 submarines; in all, 130,000 tons of naval vessels were scrapped or put into reserve. Active negotiations among the other treaty signatories continued during the following years.
That was followed by the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936.
See also
Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armament
Washington Naval Treaty
Second London Naval Treaty – List of treaties signed in London.
Treaty of London – List of treaties signed in London.
May 15 Incident - attempted coup in Japan
Notes
Further reading
Dingman, Roger. Power in the Pacific: The Origins of Naval Arms Limitation, 1914–1922 (1976)
Goldstein, Erik, and John H. Maurer, eds. The Washington Conference, 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor (Taylor & Francis, 1994).
Maurer, John, and Christopher Bell, eds. At the Crossroads between Peace and War: The London Naval Conference in 1930 (Naval Institute Press, 2014).
Redford, Duncan. "Collective Security and Internal Dissent: The Navy League's Attempts to Develop a New Policy towards British Naval Power between 1919 and the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty." History 96.321 (2011): 48-67.
Roskill, Stephen. Naval Policy Between Wars. Volume I: The Period of Anglo-American Antagonism 1919–1929 (Seaforth Publishing, 2016).
Steiner, Zara S. (2005). The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ; OCLC 58853793
External links
Text of the treaty
1930 in France
1930 in Italy
1930 in Japan
1930 in London
1930 in the United Kingdom
20th-century military history of the United Kingdom
Arms control treaties
Naval treaties
British defence policymaking
History of the French Navy
History of the Royal Navy
Imperial Japanese Navy
Interwar-period treaties
Japan–United States relations
Naval history of Italy
Naval history of Japan
Treaties concluded in 1930
Treaties of the Empire of Japan
Treaties of the French Third Republic
Treaties of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
Treaties of the United Kingdom
Treaties of the United States
United States Navy in the 20th century | [
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|
214317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ida%20Kami%C5%84ska | Ida Kamińska | Ida Kamińska (September 18, 1899 – May 21, 1980) was a Polish actress and director. Known mainly for her work in the theatre, she was the daughter of Ester Rachel Kamińska who was known as the Mother of the Jewish Stage. The Jewish Theatre in Warsaw, Poland is named in their honor. In her long career Kamińska produced more than 70 plays, and performed in more than 150 productions. She also wrote two plays of her own and translated many works in Yiddish. World War II disrupted her career, and she later immigrated to the United States where she continued to act. In 1967, she directed herself in the lead role of Mother Courage and Her Children on Broadway. In 1973, she released her autobiography, titled My Life, My Theater.
She starred in the 1965 film The Shop on Main Street, which won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Film. For her performance, she received special mention at the Cannes Film Festival, as well as nominations for the Golden Globe Award and the Academy Award for Best Actress.
Early life and career
She was born in Odessa, Russian Empire (now Ukraine), the daughter of Yiddish stage actress Ester Rachel Kamińska (1870–1925) and actor, director and stage producer Abraham Izaak Kamiński (pl) (1867–1918). Her sister was Regina Kamińska (pl), who was also an actress. Her brother was Joseph Kaminski (pl), a composer. Her mother was described as the "Jewish Eleanor Duse".
Ida Kamińska began her stage career at the age of six. One of her earliest roles was in Jakob Gordin's play Mirele Efros, as the grandson of the title character, who was played by her mother. She was acting in both tragedies and comedies, as well as directing plays in her father's troupe by the time she was 18.
In 1918 she married the Yiddish actor and director Zygmunt Turkow (1896-1970), who was a member of her parents' troupe. She and Turkow had a daughter, Ruth Kamińska-Turkow, who was born in 1919. Following a three-year tour of the Kamiński theater in the Soviet Union, the young couple settled in Warsaw, and together established the Warsaw Jewish Art Theater, in 1922, with Ida Kamińska as the principal actress. They divorced in 1932, and in the same year Ida organized her own company in Warsaw, the Drama Theater of Ida Kamińska, which she continued to direct until 1939. In July 1936 Kamińska married the Yiddish actor Marian (Meir) Melman (1900-1978).
In October 1939, in the early part of the Second World War, Kamińska and family members, including her husband, Melman, and daughter, Ruth, fled to Lwów (Lviv, Ukraine), which was under Soviet occupation. There she was able to direct a Yiddish theater funded by the Soviet authorities. She and her family took shelter with friends there, and were under surveillance by Soviet authorities, due to their performances being deemed as anti-Hitler (the USSR and Nazi Germany had recently signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact). Kamińska and her family were subsequently relocated to various localities in the Soviet Union, ending up in the Kirghiz SSR, present-day Kyrgyzstan. Her and Melman's son, Victor, was born in Frunze (Bishkek), in Soviet Central Asia, in fall 1941. In 1944 they came to Moscow, where Kamińska again acted in Yiddish productions.
Postwar career
After the war, Kamińska and her family returned to Warsaw. The Polish Jewish population had been decimated by the events of the Holocaust. Nevertheless, Kamińska and Melman made the decision to try to reestablish the Jewish theater. A Yiddish theater reopened in Warsaw in November 1946. In 1949, the Polish government granted a subsidy for the establishment of the Jewish State Theater of Poland, with Kamińska serving as its artistic director. The composer Shaul Berezovsky, who had also returned to Poland after the war, wrote music for this new theatre. In its early period the theater toured between the cities of Łódź (1949-1953) and Wrocław (1953-1955). In 1955, it was established permanently in Warsaw, as the State Jewish Theater, later named after Ida and her mother Ester (the Ester Rachel Kamińska and Ida Kamińska State Jewish Theater). Ida Kamińska continued to direct the theater until 1968.
In 1957, she toured Israel for the first time, where she performed for Prime Minister Golda Meir.
In 1965, she starred as Mrs. Lautmann in the Czechoslovak movie The Shop on Main Street (Obchod na korze, directed by Ján Kadár and Elmar Klos), for which she received a nomination for Academy Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role at the 39th Academy Awards.
In protest against government antisemitic campaign during March 1968 events, she left Poland forever in July 1968, first to Israel and eventually New York.
Her last role was The Angel Levine (1970), directed by Ján Kadár.
Death and legacy
Ida Kamińska died of cardiovascular disease in 1980, aged 80. Her husband, Meir Melman, had died in 1978.
She was interred in the Yiddish theater section of the Mount Hebron Cemetery in Flushing, New York. Also buried in Mount Hebron is Yiddish-American theatre operator Molly Picon.
In 2014, the Jewish Theatre in Warsaw held a special exhibition in her honor. The exhibit featured costumes worn by Kamińska, as well as photographs and memorabilia from her esteemed career.
References
External links
Ida Kamińska and Meir Melman papers at the YIVO Archives
Friends of Ida Kamińska Theatre Foundation archives at the American Jewish Historical Society
Actors from Odessa
Polish stage actresses
Polish film actresses
Odessa Jews
Yiddish theatre performers
Jewish Polish actresses
1899 births
1980 deaths
Burials at Mount Hebron Cemetery (New York City)
Polish actresses
Polish emigrants to the United States | [
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|
214320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpaccio | Carpaccio | Carpaccio (, , ) is a dish of meat or fish (such as beef, veal, venison, salmon or tuna), thinly sliced or pounded thin, and served raw, typically as an appetizer. It was invented in 1950 by Giuseppe Cipriani from Harry's Bar in Venice, Italy and popularised during the second half of the twentieth century. The beef was served with lemon, olive oil, and white truffle or Parmesan cheese. Later, the term was extended to dishes containing other raw meats or fish, thinly sliced and served with lemon or vinegar, olive oil, salt and ground pepper.
History
The dish, based on the Piedmont speciality carne cruda all'albese, was invented in 1950 by Giuseppe Cipriani, founder of Harry's Bar in Venice. He originally prepared the dish for the countess Amalia Nani Mocenigo when he learned that her doctors had recommended that she eat raw meat. The dish was named carpaccio after Vittore Carpaccio, the Venetian painter known for the characteristic red and white tones of his work.
See also
Bresaola
Ceviche
Chee kufta
Crudo
Gored gored
Kibbeh nayyeh
Kitfo
Kuai
Mett
Neobiani
Poke
Sashimi
Steak tartare
Stroganina
Yukhoe
References
Further reading
Italian meat dishes
Appetizers
Veal dishes
Uncooked meat dishes
Seafood
Raw beef dishes
Uncooked fish dishes | [
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|
214323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Brady | James Brady | James Scott Brady (August 29, 1940 – August 4, 2014) was an assistant to the U.S. President and the seventeenth White House Press Secretary, serving under President Ronald Reagan. In 1981, Brady became permanently disabled from a gunshot wound during the attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan, just two months and 10 days after Reagan's inauguration.
Brady's death in 2014 was eventually ruled a homicide, caused by the gunshot wound he received 33 years earlier.
Early career
Brady began his career in public service as a staff member in the office of Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen (R-IL). In 1964, he was the campaign manager for Congressional candidate Wayne Jones in the race for Illinois' 23rd District. In 1970, Brady directed a campaign in the same district for Phyllis Schlafly.
Brady served various positions in both the private sector and the government, including service as Special Assistant to the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, James Thomas Lynn; Special Assistant to the Director of the Office of Management and Budget; Assistant to the Secretary of Defense; and member of the staff of Senator William V. Roth, Jr. (R-DE). He also served as Press Secretary in 1979 to presidential candidate John Connally.
After Connally withdrew his candidacy from the race, Brady became Director of Public Affairs and Research for the Reagan-Bush Committee, then Spokesperson for the Office of the President-elect. After Reagan took office, Brady became White House Press Secretary.
Shooting
On March 30, 1981, 69 days into his presidency, Ronald Reagan and his cabinet members and staff, including Brady, were leaving the Washington Hilton Hotel when a gunman opened fire. The first of six bullets hit Brady. The gunman was 25-year-old John Hinckley Jr.
Secret Service and police officers forced the suspect to the ground and arrested him. Hinckley had fired 6 shots from a .22 caliber Röhm RG-14 revolver. Brady was hit in the head above his left eye passing through underneath his brain and shattering his brain cavity, exploding on impact. President Reagan, Secret Service agent Timothy McCarthy and District of Columbia police officer Thomas Delahanty were also injured from the shooting. Brady, Reagan and McCarthy were taken to George Washington University Hospital in Washington, D.C.
During the confusion that followed the shooting, all major media outlets erroneously reported that Brady had died. When ABC News anchorman Frank Reynolds, a friend of Brady, was later forced to retract the report, he angrily said on-air to his staff, "C'mon, let's get it nailed down!", as a result of the miscommunication.
During the hours-long operation on Brady at the George Washington University Hospital, surgeon Arthur Kobrine was informed of the media's announcement of Brady's death, to which he said, "No one has told me and the patient."
Although Brady survived, the wound left him with slurred speech and partial paralysis that required the full-time use of a wheelchair. Kobrine, his neurosurgeon, described him as having difficulty controlling his emotions while speaking after the shooting, saying "he would kind of cry-talk for a while", and suffering deficits in memory and thinking, such as failing to recognize people.
Brady was unable to work as the White House Press Secretary but remained in the position until the end of the Reagan Administration with Larry Speakes and Marlin Fitzwater performing the job on an "acting" or "deputy" basis.
Gun control advocate
With his wife Sarah Brady, who served as Chair of the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence, Brady subsequently lobbied for stricter handgun control and assault weapon restrictions. The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act, also known as "the Brady Bill", was named in his honor.
Brady received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from McKendree College, Lebanon, Illinois, in 1982. Sarah and James Brady were each awarded a doctorate degree (of Humane Letters) by Drexel University in 1993. In 1994, James and Sarah received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by the Jefferson Awards Foundation. In 1994, James and Sarah received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 1996, Brady received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Bill Clinton, the highest civilian award in the United States.
Personal life
Brady married Sue Beh in 1960. The marriage ended in divorce in 1967. In 1972, Brady married Sarah Jane Kemp.
In 2000, the White House press briefing room was renamed the James S. Brady Press Briefing Room in his honor.
Death
Brady died on August 4, 2014, in Alexandria, Virginia. Four days later, the medical examiner ruled that his death was a homicide, caused by the gunshot wound which he sustained in 1981. Hinckley did not face any charges for Brady's death because he had been found not guilty by reason of insanity.
Portrayals in film
Brady's recovery after the shooting was dramatized in the 1991 HBO film Without Warning: The James Brady Story, with Brady portrayed by Beau Bridges. Brady was also portrayed by John Connolly in the 2001 Showtime film The Day Reagan Was Shot. Michael H. Cole portrayed him in the 2016 television film Killing Reagan.
Season 1, Episode 4, "In Control" of the TV series The Americans takes place on the day of Reagan's assassination attempt as the main characters try to figure out what's happening. The episode depicts the media falsely reporting Brady having died before issuing the correction that he's still alive.
References
External links
A Final Walk with Jim Brady
Brady Death Ruled Homicide
Opinion James Brady and the case for gun safety laws
1940 births
2014 deaths
2014 murders in the United States
American gun control activists
American people with disabilities
Assassinated American politicians
Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan
Blind activists
Blind people from the United States
Burials in Pennsylvania
Crimes in Washington, D.C.
Deaths by firearm in Virginia
Illinois Republicans
Male murder victims
People murdered in Virginia
People from Centralia, Illinois
People with paraplegia
People with traumatic brain injuries
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Reagan administration personnel
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign alumni
White House Press Secretaries | [
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|
214324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Shop%20on%20Main%20Street | The Shop on Main Street | The Shop on Main Street (Czech/Slovak: Obchod na korze; in the UK The Shop on the High Street) is a 1965 Czechoslovakian film about the Aryanization program during World War II in the Slovak State.
The film was written by Ladislav Grosman and directed by Ján Kadár and Elmar Klos. It was funded by the Czechoslovakian central authorities (as were all films under the Communist regime), produced at the Barrandov Film Studio in Prague, and filmed with a Slovak cast on location in the town of Sabinov in north-eastern Slovakia and on the Barrandov sound stage. It stars Jozef Kroner as the Slovak carpenter Tóno Brtko and Polish actress Ida Kamińska as the Jewish widow Rozália Lautmannová.
The film won the 1965 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and Kamińska was nominated one year later for Best Actress in a Leading Role. It was entered into the 1965 Cannes Film Festival.
Plot
During World War II in a small town in the First Slovak Republic (a client state of Nazi Germany), mild-mannered Slovak carpenter Anton "Tóno" Brtko is chosen by his brother-in-law, who holds an influential position in the local fascist government, to take over the sewing notions (i.e. haberdasher) shop owned by the elderly Jewish widow Rozália Lautmannová as part of the Aryanization efforts in the country. While Brtko is struggling to explain to Lautmannová, who is nearly deaf, oblivious to the outside world, and generally confused, that he is now her supervisor, Imrich Kuchár, Brtko's friend and a Slovak who opposes Aryanization, enters and informs Brtko that the business is unprofitable and Lautmannová relies on donations to make ends meet. Kuchár tells Lautmannová that Brtko has come to help her and connects Brtko with the leadership of the Jewish community of the town, who agree to pay him a regular salary to remain the official Aryan controller of the shop, since, if he quits, he might be replaced by someone more militantly fascist or anti-Semitic.
Brtko lets Lautmannová continue to run things in her shop, spending most of his time fixing her furniture or ineptly trying to assist her with customers, and the pair begin to develop a close relationship. When he hears that the authorities are going to gather the Jewish citizenry of the town and transport them elsewhere en masse, he does not tell Lautmannová and at first considers hiding her, but he starts to question this course of action when the roundup actually begins. Drinking steadily, he eventually loses his nerve and attempts to cajole and then force Lautmannová to join her friends in the street. She finally recognizes that a pogrom is happening and panics. Brtko chases her around inside the shop, but he stops and feels ashamed of himself after he witnesses his other Jewish neighbors actually being carted away. Seeing some soldiers heading toward the shop, he throws Lautmannová, who is in a frenzy, into a closet to hide her. The soldiers just glance in the window and keep walking. When Brtko opens the closet door, he discovers Lautmannová's dead body, and, devastated, hangs himself. The movie ends with a fantasy sequence in which the now deceased Lautmannová and Brtko run and dance through the town square together.
Cast
The Shop on Main Street was filmed on location at the town of Sabinov in north-eastern Slovakia with numerous local extras, whose voices bring in hints of the eastern regional variety of Slovak. Ida Kamińska's Polish accent is employed to the same effect.
Screenplay
The screenplay had a bilingual Czech/Slovak history. The screenwriter Ladislav Grosman (1921–1981) was born and grew up in Slovakia, but he was writing in Czech at that point in his career. He published the short story "The Trap" ("Past"), a precursor to the screenplay that contained three themes that made it into the final film, in Czech in 1962. He reworked and expanded this story, still in Czech, as a literary-narrative screenplay that was published in 1964 under the title "The Shop on Main Street" (Obchod na korze). This version contained what would become the film's storyline, but it was not in a typical (American) screenplay format. Grosman reworked it into a shooting script with Slovak dialogue in cooperation with the film's designated directors, Ján Kadár and Elmar Klos.
The only other language in the film, other than Slovak, is Yiddish (which is sometimes misidentified as German), though this is limited to several lines that Mrs. Lautmannová mutters to herself. Her Hebrew reading from the siddur is indistinct.
Score
The score was composed by Zdenek Liska. It incorporates traditional brass band style music that would have been common in Czechoslovakia during the 1940s. The soundtrack was released on record in the US—the first Czech movie soundtrack to see such a release.
See also
List of submissions to the 38th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Czechoslovak submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film
List of films featuring the deaf and hard of hearing
List of Czech Academy Award winners and nominees
BFI Top 100 British films
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Steven Banovac, "Ján Kadár and Elmar Klos: The Shop on Main Street (Obchod na korze) 1965."
The Shop on Main Street: Not the Six Million but the One an essay by Ján Kadár at the Criterion Collection
The Shop on Main Street on Criterion Channel
1965 films
1960s war drama films
Czechoslovak films
Czechoslovak drama films
Slovak-language films
World War II films
Holocaust films
Czech films
Czech war drama films
Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners
Films directed by Ján Kadár
1965 drama films
Czech World War II films
Czechoslovak World War II films | [
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|
214325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brady%20Handgun%20Violence%20Prevention%20Act | Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act | The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act (), often referred to as the Brady Act or the Brady Bill, is an Act of the United States Congress that mandated federal background checks on firearm purchasers in the United States, and imposed a five-day waiting period on purchases, until the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) was implemented in 1998. The act was appended to the end of Section 922 of title 18, United States Code. The intention of the act was to prevent persons with previous serious convictions from purchasing firearms.
The original legislation was introduced into the House of Representatives by Representative Charles E. Schumer in March 1991, but was never brought to a vote. The bill was reintroduced by Rep. Schumer on February 22, 1993, and the final version was passed on November 11, 1993. It was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on November 30, 1993, and the law went into effect on February 28, 1994. The Act was named after James Brady, who was shot and wounded by John Hinckley Jr. during an attempted assassination of President Ronald Reagan on March 30, 1981.
Provisions
The Brady Bill requires that background checks be conducted on individuals before a firearm may be purchased from a federally licensed dealer, manufacturer or importer—unless an exception applies. If there are no additional state restrictions, a firearm may be transferred to an individual upon approval by the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) maintained by the FBI. In some states, proof of a previous background check can be used to bypass the NICS check. For example, a state-issued concealed carry permit usually includes a background check equivalent to the one required by the Act. Other alternatives to the NICS check include state-issued handgun purchase permits or mandatory state or local background checks.
In Section 922(g) of title 18, United States Code the Brady Bill prohibits certain persons from shipping or transporting any firearm in interstate or foreign commerce, or receiving any firearm which has been shipped or transported in interstate or foreign commerce, or possessing any firearm in or affecting commerce. These prohibitions apply to any person who:
Has been convicted in any court of a crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year;
Is a fugitive from justice;
Is an unlawful user of or addicted to any controlled substance;
Has been adjudicated as a mental defective or committed to a mental institution;
Is an alien illegally or unlawfully in the United States;
Has been discharged from the Armed Forces under dishonorable conditions;
Having been a citizen of the United States, has renounced U.S. citizenship;
Is subject to a court order that restrains the person from harassing, stalking, or threatening an intimate partner or child of such intimate partner, or;
Has been convicted in any court of a misdemeanor crime of domestic violence.
Section 922(n) of title 18, United States Code makes it unlawful for any person who is under indictment for a crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year to ship or transport any firearm in interstate or foreign commerce, or receive any firearm which has been shipped or transported in interstate or foreign commerce.
After a prospective buyer completes the appropriate form, the holder of a Federal Firearms License (FFL) initiates the background check by phone or computer. Most checks are determined within minutes. If a determination is not obtained within three business days then the transfer may legally be completed.
Firearm transfers by unlicensed private sellers that are "not engaged in the business" of dealing firearms are not subject to the Brady Act, but may be covered under other federal, state, and local restrictions.
The Brady Bill also does not apply to licensed Curios & Relics (C&R) collectors, but only in respect to C&R firearms. The FFL Category 03 Curio & Relic license costs $30 and is valid for three years. Licensed C&R collectors may also purchase C&R firearms from private individuals or from federal firearms dealers, whether in their home state or in another state, and ship C&R firearms in interstate commerce by common carrier. Curios or relics are defined in as "Firearms which are of special interest to collectors by reason of some quality other than is associated with firearms intended for sporting use or as offensive or defensive weapons." The regulation further states:
James and Sarah Brady
James Brady was press secretary to President Ronald Reagan when both he and the president, along with Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy and District of Columbia police officer Thomas Delehanty, were shot on March 30, 1981, during an assassination attempt by John Hinckley Jr., Brady was shot in the head and suffered a serious wound that left him partially paralyzed for life.
John Hinckley Jr. bought the .22 caliber Röhm RG-14 revolver used in the shooting at a Dallas, Texas, pawn shop on October 13, 1980. In a purchase application that he filled out before taking possession of the revolver, he provided a false home address on the form and showed an old Texas driver's license as "proof" that he lived there. This constituted a felony offense. Additionally, Hinckley had been arrested four days earlier at the Metropolitan Airport in Nashville, Tennessee, when he attempted to board an American Airlines flight for New York with three handguns and some loose ammunition in his carry-on bag. That same day, President Jimmy Carter was in Nashville and scheduled to travel to New York. Finally, Hinckley had been under psychiatric care prior to his gun purchase.
According to Sarah Brady, had a background check been conducted on Hinckley, it could have detected some, or all, of this important criminal and mental health history.
Sarah Brady, James's wife, became active in the gun control movement a few years after the shooting. She joined the Board of Handgun Control, Inc. (HCI) in 1985 and became its chair in 1989. Two years later, she became Chair of the center to Prevent Handgun Violence, HCI's 501(c)(3) sister organization. In 2001, the organizations were renamed the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence and the Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence in honor of James and Sarah.
On February 4, 1987, the Brady Act was introduced in the U.S. Congress for the first time. Sarah Brady and HCI made the passage of the Brady bill, as it was commonly called, their top legislative priority. In a March 1991 editorial, President Reagan opined that the Brady Act would provide a crucial "enforcement mechanism" to end the "honor system" of the 1968 Gun Control Act and "can't help but stop thousands of illegal handgun purchases."
James and Sarah Brady were guests of honor when President Bill Clinton signed the Brady Act into law on November 30, 1993. President Clinton has stated, "If it hadn't been for them, we would not have passed the Brady Law." In December 2000, the Boards of Trustees for HCI and the center to Prevent Handgun Violence voted to honor James and Sarah Brady's hard work and commitment to gun control by renaming the two organizations the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence and the Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence.
In 2000, controversy arose when Sarah Brady purchased a .30-06 Springfield rifle in Delaware for her son. Gun rights groups claimed that this action was a straw purchase, intended to avoid the NICS, and may have also violated Delaware firearms purchase laws. No charges were ever filed against Sarah Brady, however. A firearm purchased as a gift is not considered a straw purchase under U.S. federal law if the recipient may legally possess it. Critics pointed out, however, that private firearm transfers like the one made by Sarah Brady are a common concern of gun control advocates (although exemptions for family members have been allowed in past legislation to regulate such sales).
Opposition by National Rifle Association
After the Brady Act was originally proposed in 1987, the National Rifle Association (NRA) mobilized to defeat the legislation, spending millions of dollars in the process. While the bill eventually did pass in both chambers of the United States Congress, the NRA was able to win an important concession: the final version of the legislation provided that, in 1998, the five-day waiting period for handgun sales would be replaced by an instant computerized background check that involved no waiting periods.
The NRA then funded lawsuits in Arizona, Louisiana, Mississippi, Montana, New Mexico, North Carolina, Texas, Vermont and Wyoming that sought to strike down the Brady Act as unconstitutional. These cases wound their way through the courts, eventually leading the U.S. Supreme Court to review the Brady Act in the case of Printz v. United States.
In Printz, the NRA argued that the Brady Act was unconstitutional because its provisions requiring local law enforcement officers to conduct background checks was a violation of the 10th Amendment to the Constitution (Brief Amicus Curiae of the National Rifle Association of America in Support of Petitioners, Printz v. United States, 521 U.S. 898, 1997). Based on these grounds, the NRA told the Court "the whole Statute must be voided."
In its 1997 decision in the case, the Supreme Court ruled that the provision of the Brady Act that compelled state and local law enforcement officials to perform the background checks was unconstitutional on 10th amendment grounds. The Court determined that this provision violated both the concept of federalism and that of the unitary executive. However, the overall Brady statute was upheld and state and local law enforcement officials remained free to conduct background checks if they so chose. The vast majority continued to do so. In 1998, background checks for firearm purchases became mostly a federally run activity when NICS came online, although many states continue to mandate state run background checks before a gun dealer may transfer a firearm to a buyer.
Background checks for firearms purchases operate in only one direction because of the Firearm Owners Protection Act. That is, although a firearms dealer may obtain electronic information that an individual is excluded from firearms purchases, the FBI and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF) do not receive electronic information in return to indicate what firearms are being purchased.
Since 1998
From the inception of the NICS system in 1998 through 2014, more than 202 million Brady background checks have been conducted. During this period approximately 1.2 million attempted firearm purchases were blocked by the Brady background check system, or about 0.6 percent. The most common reason for denials are previous felony convictions.
Prosecution and conviction of violators of the Brady Act, however, is extremely rare. During the first 17 months of the Act, only seven individuals were convicted. In the first year of the Act, 250 cases were referred for prosecution and 217 of them were rejected.
A 2000 study found that the implementation of the Brady Act was associated with "reductions in the firearm suicide rate for persons aged 55 years or older but not with reductions in homicide rates or overall suicide rates."
See also
Federal Assault Weapons Ban
Gun law in the United States
Gun politics in the United States
References
External links
The text of the Brady Bill from the U.S. Government Printing Office
The Brady Campaign website
Printz v. United States (95–1478), 521 U.S. 898 (1997), from Legal Information Institute
Roll call vote from the U.S. Senate
Roll call vote from the U.S. House of Representatives
1993 in American law
103rd United States Congress
Gun politics in the United States
United States federal criminal legislation
United States federal firearms legislation | [
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214327 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violent%20Crime%20Control%20and%20Law%20Enforcement%20Act | Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act | The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, commonly referred to as the 1994 Crime Bill, the Clinton Crime Bill, or the Biden Crime Law, is an Act of Congress dealing with crime and law enforcement; it became law in 1994. It is the largest crime bill in the history of the United States and consisted of 356 pages that provided for 100,000 new police officers, $9.7 billion in funding for prisons and $6.1 billion in funding for prevention programs, which were designed with significant input from experienced police officers. Sponsored by U.S. Representative Jack Brooks of Texas, the bill was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bill Clinton. Then-Senator Joe Biden of Delaware drafted the Senate version of the legislation in cooperation with the National Association of Police Organizations, also incorporating the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) with Senator Orrin Hatch.
Following the 101 California Street shooting, the 1993 Waco Siege, and other high-profile instances of violent crime, the Act expanded federal law in several ways. One of the most noted sections was the Federal Assault Weapons Ban. Other parts of the Act provided for a greatly expanded federal death penalty, new classes of individuals banned from possessing firearms, and a variety of new crimes defined in statutes relating to hate crimes, sex crimes, and gang-related crime. The bill also required states to establish registries for sexual offenders by September 1997.
Origins
During the 1992 presidential campaign, Bill Clinton sought to reposition the Democratic Party, which had previously been attacked as "soft on crime," as an advocate for "get-tough" policing strategies as well as investing in community policing. Federal funding for additional police and community policing were both priorities of the Democratic Leadership Council, of which Clinton was a member. In an announcement that the New York Times described as "a page from the Republican playbook," Clinton said on July 23, 1992:We cannot take our country back until we take our neighborhoods back. Four years ago this crime issue was used to divide America. I want to use it to unite America. I want to be tough on crime and good for civil rights. You can't have civil justice without order and safety.Clinton's platform, Putting People First, proposed to:Fight crime by putting 100,000 new police officers
on the streets. We will create a National Police Corps and offer unemployed veterans and active military personnel a chance to become law enforcement officers at home. We will also expand community policing, fund more drug treatment, and establish community boot camps to discipline first-time non-violent offenders.The 135,000-member National Association of Police Officers endorsed Clinton for president in August 1992.
Senator Joe Biden drafted the Senate version of the legislation in cooperation with National Association of Police Officers president Tom Scotto. According to the Washington Post, Biden later described their involvement: “You guys sat at that conference table of mine for a six-month period, and you wrote the bill.”
Provisions
Federal Assault Weapons Ban
Title XI-Firearms, Subtitle A-Assault Weapons, formally known as the Public Safety and Recreational Firearms Use Protection Act but commonly known as the Federal Assault Weapons Ban or the Semi-Automatic Firearms Ban, barred the manufacture of 19 specific semi-automatic firearms, classified as "assault weapons", as well as any semi-automatic rifle, pistol, or shotgun capable of accepting a detachable magazine that has two or more features considered characteristic of such weapons. The list of such features included telescoping or folding stocks, pistol grips, flash suppressors, grenade launchers, and bayonet lugs.
This law also banned possession of newly manufactured magazines holding more than ten rounds of ammunition.
The ban took effect September 13, 1994 and expired on September 13, 2004, by a sunset provision. Since the expiration date, there is no federal ban on the subject firearms or magazines capable of holding more than ten rounds of ammunition.
Federal Death Penalty Act
Title VI, the Federal Death Penalty Act, created 60 new death penalty offenses under 41 federal capital statutes, for crimes related to acts of terrorism, non-homicidal narcotics offenses, murder of a federal law enforcement officer, civil rights-related murders, drive-by shootings resulting in death, the use of weapons of mass destruction resulting in death, and carjackings resulting in death.
The 1995 Oklahoma City bombing occurred a few months after this law came into effect, and the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 was passed in response, which further increased the federal death penalty. In 2001, Timothy McVeigh was executed for the murder of eight federal law enforcement agents under that title.
The Federal Death Penalty Act was declared unconstitutional in the case of U.S. v Quinones, ruling that the Act presented an "undue risk of executing innocent people".
Elimination of higher education for inmates
One of the more controversial provisions of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act overturned a section of the Higher Education Act of 1965 permitting prison inmates to receive a Pell Grant for higher education while they were incarcerated. The amendment is as follows:
The VCCLEA effectively eliminated the ability of lower-income prison inmates to receive college educations during their term of imprisonment, thus ensuring the education level of most inmates remains unimproved over the period of their incarceration.
There is growing advocacy for reinstating Pell Grant funding for all prisoners who would qualify despite their incarceration status. Perhaps the most prominent statement has come from Donna Edwards along with several other members of the House of Representatives, who introduced the Restoring Education and Learning Act (REAL Act) in the spring of 2013. At the executive level, the Obama administration backed a program under development at the Department of Education to allow for a limited lifting of the ban for some prisoners, called the Second Chance Pell Pilot. SpearIt has argued, "First, there are genuine penal and public benefits that derive from educating prisoners. Second, and perhaps more critically, revoking Pell funding fails to advance any of the stated purposes of punishment. In the decades since the VCCLEA's enactment, there is little indication that removing prisoners from Pell eligibility has produced tangible benefits; on the contrary, among other unfavorable outcomes, disqualifying prisoners may reduce public safety and exact severe social and financial costs."
Violence Against Women Act
Title IV, the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA), allocated $1.6 billion to help prevent and investigate violence against women. VAWA was renewed in 2000, 2005, and 2013. This includes:
The Safe Streets for Women Act, which increased federal penalties for repeat sex offenders and requires mandatory restitution for the medical and legal costs of sex crimes.
The Safe Homes for Women Act increased federal grants for battered women's shelters, created a National Domestic Violence Hotline, and required for restraining orders of one state to be enforced by the other states. It also added a rape shield law to the Federal Rules of Evidence.
Part of VAWA was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in United States v. Morrison (2000).
Driver's Privacy Protection Act
Title XXX, the Driver's Privacy Protection Act, governs the privacy and disclosure of personal information gathered by the states' Departments of Motor Vehicles. The law was passed in 1994; it was introduced by Jim Moran in 1992 after an increase in opponents of abortion rights using public driving license databases to track down and harass abortion providers and patients, most notably by both besieging Susan Wicklund's home for a month and following her daughter to school.
Jacob Wetterling Crimes Against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Act
Under Title XVII, known as the Jacob Wetterling Crimes Against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Act, guidelines were established for states to track sex offenders. States had also been required to track sex offenders by confirming their place of residence annually for ten years after their release into the community or quarterly for the rest of their lives if the sex offender was convicted of a violent sex crime. The Wetterling Act was later amended in 1996 with Megan's Law, which permanently required states to give public disclosure of sex offenders. In 2006, the Wetterling Act's state registers was replaced with a federal register through the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act.
Community Oriented Policing Services
Since 1994, the COPS Office has provided $30 billion in assistance to state and local law enforcement agencies to help hire community policing officers. The COPS Office also funds the research and development of guides, tools and training, and provides technical assistance to police departments implementing community policing principles. The law authorized the COPS Office to hire 100,000 more police officers to patrol the nation's streets.
Violent Offender Incarceration and Truth-in-Sentencing Incentive Grants Program
Title II of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 provided incentive grants to build and expand correctional facilities to qualifying states that enforced mandatory sentencing of 85% of a person's sentence conviction. "One purpose of theVOI/TIS incentive grants," the Bureau reported, "is to enable States to manage prison capacity by providing funds to increase prison beds for violent offenders."
Other provisions
The Act authorized the initiation of "boot camps" for delinquent minors and allocated a substantial amount of money to build new prisons.
Fifty new federal offenses were added, including provisions making membership in gangs a crime. Some argued that these provisions violated the guarantee of freedom of association in the Bill of Rights. The Act did incorporate elements of H.R. 50 "Federal Bureau of Investigation First Amendment Protection Act of 1993" (into §2339A (c)) to prohibit investigations based purely on protected First Amendment activity, but this was effectively removed in the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996.
The Act also generally prohibits individuals who have been convicted of a felony involving breach of trust from working in the business of insurance, unless they have received written consent from state regulators.
The Act also made drug testing mandatory for those serving on federal supervised release.
The Act prohibits "any person acting on behalf of a governmental authority, to engage in a pattern or practice ... that deprives persons of rights, privileges, or immunities secured or protected by the Constitution or laws of the United States." (Title XXI, Subtitle D.) Subtitle D further requires the United States Department of Justice to issue an annual report on "the use of excessive force by law enforcement officers." Such reports have not been issued, however.
The Act included a three-strikes provision addressing repeat offenders.
The Act expanded the scope of required FBI data to include hate crimes based on disability, and the FBI began collecting data on disability bias crimes on January 1, 1997.
Legacy and impacts
The 1994 Crime Bill marked a shift in the politics of crime and policing in the United States. Sociologist and criminologist William R. Kelly states that, "While the longer-term impact of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 was questionable, the political impact was clear — crime control or 'tough on crime' became a bipartisan issue."
Bill Clinton has claimed credit for the reduction in crime rates in the 1990s, stating that, "Because of that bill we had a 25-year low in crime, a 33-year low in the murder rate, and because of that and the background-check law, we had a 46-year low in deaths of people by gun violence.” Crime rates underwent a long period of reduction in beginning in 1991 and declined by 26% during this eight-year period. The primary reasons for this reduction remain a topic of debate. A study by the General Accounting Office found that grant funding from the Community Oriented Policing Services program supported the hiring of an estimated 17,000 additional officers in 2000, its peak year of impact, and increased additional employment by 89,000 officer-years from 1994 to 2001. This was an increase of 3% in the number of sworn officers in the United States. The GAO concluded that the COPS Office potentially had a modest impact in reducing crime, contributing to an approximate 5% reduction in overall crime rates from 1993 to 2001. A published study by criminologists John Worrell and Tomislav Kovandzic found that "COPS spending had little to no effect on crime." The Crime Bill has also become emblematic of a shift towards mass incarceration in the United States, although its contribution to the long-term trend of expanding prisons is debated. The Justice Policy Institute stated in 2008 that "the Clinton Administration's 'tough on crime' policies resulted in the largest increases in federal and state inmate populations of any president in American history". Jeremy Travis, former director of the National Institute of Justice, described the truth-in-sentencing provisions of the law as a catalyst: "Here's the federal government coming in and saying we'll give you money if you punish people more severely, and 28 states and the District of Columbia followed the money and enacted stricter sentencing laws for violent offenses." The Act may have had a minor effect on mass incarceration and prison expansion. In 1998, twenty-seven states and the District of Columbia qualified for that Federal grant program. Thirteen more states adopted truth-in-sentencing law applying to some crimes or with a lower percentage threshold. By 1997, sixty-nine percent of sentenced violent offenders were in states meeting the 85% "truth-in-sentencing" threshold and over ninety percent faced at least a 50% threshold. The Bureau of Justice Statistics projected in 1999 that, "As a result of truth-in-sentencing practices, the State prison population is expected to increase through the incarceration of more offenders for longer periods of time," and found that the State prison population had "increased by 57%" to "a high of 1,075,052 inmates" while the number of people sentenced to prison each year was only up by 17%. However, a GAO report found that federal incentives were "not a factor" in enacting truth in sentencing provisions in 12 of the 27 states that qualified, and "a key factor" in just four.
The legal system relied on plea bargains to minimize the increased case load. Jerry Brown and Bill Clinton later expressed regret over the portions of the measure that led to increased prison population like the three strikes provision.
See also
Incarceration in the United States
United States incarceration rate
Comparison of United States incarceration rate with other countries
References
External links
Full text of the Act
103rd United States Congress
United States federal firearms legislation
United States federal criminal legislation
Gun politics in the United States | [
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|
214328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn%20Redgrave | Lynn Redgrave | Lynn Rachel Redgrave (8 March 1943 – 2 May 2010) was an English actress. She won two Golden Globe Awards, was a two-time Oscar nominee and received Emmy, Grammy, and Tony nominations.
A member of the Redgrave family of actors, Lynn trained in London before making her theatrical debut in 1962. By the mid-1960s, she had appeared in several films, including Tom Jones (1963) and Georgy Girl (1966), which won her a New York Film Critics Award, a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Musical/Comedy, as well as earning her a nomination for an Academy Award.
She made her Broadway debut in 1967, and performed in several stage productions in New York City while making frequent returns to London's West End. Redgrave performed with her sister Vanessa in Three Sisters in London, and in the title role of Baby Jane Hudson in a television production of What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? in 1991.
She made a return to cinema in the late 1990s, in films such as Shine (1996) and Gods and Monsters, (1998) for which she received her second Academy Award nomination and won a Golden Globe Award For Best Supporting Actress. Lynn Redgrave is the only person to have been nominated for all of the 'Big Four' American entertainment awards (Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony, collectively known when all four have been won as "EGOT") without winning any of them.
Early life and theatrical family
Redgrave was born in Marylebone, London, to actors Sir Michael Redgrave and Rachel Kempson. Her sister is actress Vanessa Redgrave; her brother was actor and political activist Corin Redgrave. She was the aunt of writer/director Carlo Gabriel Nero and of actresses Joely Richardson, Jemma Redgrave and Natasha Richardson, and the sister-in-law of director Tony Richardson, actress Kika Markham and Italian actor Franco Nero. Her grandfather was silent screen leading man Roy Redgrave.
Career
After training at London's Central School of Speech and Drama, Redgrave made her professional debut in a 1962 production of A Midsummer Night's Dream at the Royal Court Theatre. Following a tour of Billy Liar and repertory work in Dundee, she made her West End debut at the Haymarket, in N. C. Hunter's The Tulip Tree with Celia Johnson and John Clements.
She was invited to join the National Theatre for its inaugural season at the Old Vic, working with such directors as Laurence Olivier, Franco Zeffirelli, and Noël Coward in roles such as Rose in The Recruiting Officer, Barblin in Andorra, Jackie in Hay Fever, Kattrin in Mother Courage, Miss Prue in Love for Love, and Margaret in Much Ado About Nothing which kept her busy for the next three years.
During that time, she appeared in films such as Tom Jones (1963), Girl with Green Eyes (1964), The Deadly Affair (1966), and the title role in Georgy Girl (also 1966, and which featured her mother, Rachel Kempson). For the last of these roles, she gained the New York Film Critics Award, the Golden Globe, and an Oscar nomination.
In 1967, she made her Broadway debut in Black Comedy with Michael Crawford and Geraldine Page. London appearances included Michael Frayn's The Two of Us with Richard Briers at the Garrick, David Hare's Slag at the Royal Court, and Born Yesterday, directed by Tom Stoppard at Greenwich in 1973.
Redgrave returned to Broadway in 1974, in My Fat Friend. There soon followed Knock Knock with Charles Durning, Mrs. Warren's Profession (for a Tony nomination) with Ruth Gordon, and Saint Joan. In the 1985–1986 season she appeared with Rex Harrison, Claudette Colbert, and Jeremy Brett in Aren't We All?, and with Mary Tyler Moore in A. R. Gurney's Sweet Sue.
In 1983, Redgrave played Cleopatra in an American television version of Antony and Cleopatra opposite Timothy Dalton. She was in Misalliance in Chicago with Irene Worth (earning the Sarah Siddons and Joseph Jefferson awards), Twelfth Night at the American Shakespeare Festival, California Suite, The King and I, Hellzapoppin''', Les Dames du Jeudi, Les Liaisons Dangereuses, and The Cherry Orchard. In 1988, she narrated a dramatised television documentary, Silent Mouse, which told the story of the creation of the Christmas carol Silent Night. She starred with Stewart Granger and Ricardo Montalbán in a Hollywood production of Don Juan in Hell in the early winter of 1991.
With her sister Vanessa as Olga, she returned to the London stage playing Masha in Three Sisters in 1991 at the Queen's Theatre, London, and later played the title role in a television production of Whatever Happened to Baby Jane? again with her sister. Highlights of her early film career also include The National Health, Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex* (*But Were Afraid to Ask), The Happy Hooker and Getting It Right. In the United States she was seen in such television series as Teachers Only, House Calls, Centennial and Chicken Soup.
She also starred in BBC productions such as The Faint-Hearted Feminist, A Woman Alone, Death of a Son, Calling the Shots and Fighting Back. She played Broadway again in Moon Over Buffalo (1996) with co-star Robert Goulet, and starred in the world premier of Tennessee Williams' The Notebook of Trigorin, based on Anton Chekhov's The Seagull. She won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play for her performance in Talking Heads.
Redgrave became well-known in the United States after appearing in the television series House Calls, for which she received an Emmy nomination. She was fired from the series after she insisted on bringing her child to rehearsals so as to continue a breastfeeding schedule. A lawsuit ensued, but was dismissed a few years later. Following that, she appeared in a long-running series of television commercials for H. J. Heinz Company, then the manufacturer of the weight loss foods for Weight Watchers, a Heinz subsidiary. Her signature line for the ads was "This Is Living, Not Dieting!". She wrote a book of her life experiences with the same title, which included a selection of Weight Watchers recipes. The autobiographical section later became the basis of her one-woman play Shakespeare for My Father.
In 1989, she appeared on Broadway in Love Letters with her husband John Clark, and thereafter they performed the play around the country, on one occasion for the jury in the O. J. Simpson case. In 1993, she appeared on Broadway in the one-woman play Shakespeare for My Father, which Clark produced and directed. She was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play. In 1993, she was elected president of the Players' Club.
In 2005, Redgrave appeared at Quinnipiac University and Connecticut College in the play Sisters of the Garden, about the sisters Fanny and Rebekka Mendelssohn and Nadia and Lili Boulanger. She was also reported to be writing a one-woman play about her battle with breast cancer and her 2003 mastectomy, based on her book Journal: A Mother and Daughter's Recovery from Breast Cancer with photos by her daughter Annabel and text by Redgrave herself.
In September 2006 she appeared in Nightingale, the U.S. premiere of her new one-woman play based upon her maternal grandmother Beatrice, at Los Angeles' Mark Taper Forum. She also performed the play in May 2007 at Hartford Stage in Hartford, Connecticut. In 2007, she appeared in an episode of Desperate Housewives as Dahlia Hainsworth, the mother of Susan Delfino's boyfriend Ian Hainsworth.
She also appeared in an episode of ABC's television series Ugly Betty and an episode of Law & Order: Criminal Intent.
In 2009, she was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame.
Voice work
Redgrave narrated approximately 20 audiobooks, including Prince Caspian: The Chronicles of Narnia by C. S. Lewis for Harper Audio and Inkheart by Cornelia Funke for Listening Library.
Personal life
On 2 April 1967, Lynn Redgrave married English actor John Clark. Together they had three children. Her marriage to Clark was dissolved in 2000, two years after he revealed that he had had an affair with her personal assistant, Nicolette Hannah, and that Lynn's supposed grandson Zachary was in fact Clark's own son by Hannah, who had married (and subsequently divorced) their son Benjamin. The divorce proceedings were acrimonious and became front-page news, with Clark alleging that Redgrave had also been unfaithful.
Redgrave was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 2002 New Year Honours for services to acting and the cinema and to the British community in Los Angeles. She was a naturalised citizen of the United States.
Death
Redgrave discussed her health problems associated with bulimia and breast cancer. She was diagnosed with breast cancer in December 2002, had a mastectomy in January 2003, and underwent chemotherapy. She died from breast cancer at her home in Kent, Connecticut on 2 May 2010, aged 67.
Redgrave's funeral was held on 8 May 2010 at the First Congregational Church in Kent. She was interred in St Peter's Episcopal Cemetery in the hamlet of Lithgow, New York, where her mother Rachel Kempson and her niece Natasha Richardson are also interred.
In 2012, the Folger Shakespeare Library acquired Redgrave's collection of personal papers and photographs.
Legacy
In 2013, the Lynn Redgrave Theater was opened Off-Broadway in New York City; it was previously known as the Bleecker Street Theater.
Filmography
Film
Television
Theatre
Awards and nominations
In 2001, Lynn Redgrave received a LIVING LEGEND honor at The WINFemme Film Festival and The Women's Network Image Awards.
References
External links
Lynn Redgrave – Downstage Center'' interview at American Theatre Wing.org, July 2005.
Write TV Public Television interview
1943 births
2010 deaths
20th-century English dramatists and playwrights
20th-century English actresses
21st-century English actresses
Actresses from London
Alumni of the Royal Central School of Speech and Drama
Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Deaths from breast cancer
Deaths from cancer in Connecticut
Drama Desk Award winners
English emigrants to the United States
English film actresses
English stage actresses
English television actresses
English voice actresses
Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female winners
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People from Kent, Connecticut
People from Marylebone
Redgrave family
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|
214330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone | Zone | Zone or The Zone may refer to:
Places
Climate and altitude zones
Death zone (originally the lethal zone), altitudes above a certain point where the amount of oxygen is insufficient to sustain human life for an extended time span
Frigid zone, a geographical zone on Earth
Hardiness zone, a geographically-defined zone in which a specific category of plant life is capable of growing
Temperate zone, a geographical zone on Earth
Torrid zone, a geographical zone on Earth
Military zones
Zone, any of the divisions of France during the World War II German occupation
Zone, any of the divisions of Germany during the post-World War II Allied occupation
DMZ or DZ or demilitarized zone, an area in which treaties or agreements between nations, military powers, or contending groups forbid military installations, activities, or personnel
Green Zone, a military zone in Baghdad, Iraq
Korean Demilitarized Zone
Place-names
Administrative divisions of India, known as Zones
Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone, commonly known as "The Zone", a self-declared commune and partially autonomous intentional community in Seattle, Washington
Zone (colony) (Ζώνη), an ancient Greek city
Zone, Lombardy, a comune in the province of Brescia
List of zones of Ethiopia, administrative divisions
The Zone (die Zone in German), a derogatory term for the German Democratic Republic
Zone Coopérative de l'Université Laval, a university cooperative in Quebec, Canada
Zone of alienation, the exclusion zone around the site of the Chernobyl disaster
Zones of Nepal, administrative divisions
Other places
Exclusion zone, a geographic area in which certain activities are prohibited
International zone, an extraterritorial political zone
Apparel
Zone (vestment), a belt worn by priests and bishops of the Eastern Orthodox Church
Zone, a girdle worn by a woman around the waist
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
The Zone (2003 film), a Swedish short documentary
The Zone (2011 film), an American thriller
The Zone (2017 film), a movie inspired by French filmmaker Chris Marker
Transformers: Zone, a 1990 OVA
Games
Zone (video games), an area within a virtual environment
Zone.com, alternate name for MSN Games
Zones, level names in early Sonic the Hedgehog games
Literature
Zone (magazine), an Argentina-based forum for international poetry and prose
Zone (play), a French language play written by Canadian Marcel Dubé
"Zone", a poem by Guillaume Apollinaire
Zones (novel), 1997, by Damien Broderick and Rorey Barns
Music
Groups and labels
Zone (band), an all-female J-pop group
Zones (band), a British punk band
Zone Records, a record label
Albums
Zone (album), 1996, by Southern Sons
The Zone (album), 2007, by Enter Shikari
Songs
"Zone", a 1976 single by The Rhythm Makers
"Zone", a 2019 single by Arizona Zervas
"Zone", a bonus track on the 2017 digital release of the Macintosh Plus album Floral Shoppe
"The Zone" (song), a 2011 song by The Weeknd
Television
The Zone (Australian TV program), a 1990s Australian video games news and reviews television program
The Zone (British game show), a 2007 interactive game show
The Zone (New Zealand TV channel), a former TV channel
The Zone (ITV), a British teleshopping and interactive gaming TV channel
The Zone (YTV), a Canadian television programming block
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
1280 The Zone, the branding of the American radio station KZNS (AM)
A Nymph unclasping her Zone, a sculpture by Richard Westmacott
The Zone, a fictional area in the Andrei Tarkovsky movie Stalker
Computing
Zone, a region in region-based memory management
DNS zone, a portion of computer network namespace
Fibre Channel zoning, a method of network partitioning
Solaris Zones, a virtualization feature of the Solaris operating system
Science and technology
Zone (convex polytope), in geometry/algorithmic, a kind of convex polytope
Brillouin zone, the primitive cell of a lattice in reciprocal space
Chronozone, a sequence of rocks deposited within a particular time interval
Erogenous zone, an area on the body which may respond sexually to stimulation
Spherical zone, the surface area of a spherical segment
Thermal zone, or just zone, in heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
Zone diet, a diet involving precise proportions by weight of protein, fat, and carbohydrate
Zone plate, a device used to focus light or other things exhibiting wave character
Zone System, a photographic technique for determining optimal film exposure and development
Sports
Zone defense, in team sports
Zoning (Australian rules football), a method of allocating players to clubs
Other uses
Zone (guitar), a Fender bass guitar model
Zone, a short name for DVD region code
Zones (permaculture), a method of planning civil and agricultural placement
Da share z0ne, a satirical social media account
Flow (psychology), or "the zone", a mental state attained by a person fully immersed in some activity
Time zone
Zone pricing, based on the location of the buyer
Zoning, in urban planning, a system of land-use regulation
TheZone, summer camp of Oorah
See also
AutoZone
Combat Zone (disambiguation)
In the Zone (disambiguation)
La Zona (disambiguation)
Region (mathematics)
ZoneAlarm | [
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|
214331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan%20%E2%80%93%20A%20Suitable%20Case%20for%20Treatment | Morgan – A Suitable Case for Treatment | Morgan – A Suitable Case for Treatment (also called Morgan!) is a 1966 comedy film made by British Lion. It was directed by Karel Reisz and produced by Leon Clore from a screenplay by David Mercer, based on his BBC television play A Suitable Case for Treatment (1962), the leading role at that time being played by Ian Hendry.
The film stars David Warner, Vanessa Redgrave, and Robert Stephens, with Irene Handl and Bernard Bresslaw.
Plot
Morgan Delt (David Warner) is a failed working-class London artist, who was raised as a communist by his parents. His upper-class wife, Leonie (Vanessa Redgrave), has given up on him and is in the process of getting a divorce in order to marry Charles Napier (Robert Stephens), an art gallery owner of her own social standing. Locked into a personal world of fantasy, Morgan performs a series of bizarre stunts in a campaign to win back Leonie, including putting a skeleton in her bed and blowing up the bed as her mother sits on it. When these stunts fail, Morgan secures the help of Wally "The Gorilla" (Arthur Mullard), a pro wrestler friend of his mother (Irene Handl), to kidnap Leonie, who still nurtures residual feelings of love tinged with pity for Morgan. Leonie is left with Morgan and Wally on the British countryside, with are ironically intercut with clips from Tarzan. Leonie soon gets rescued, and Morgan is arrested and imprisoned.
After escaping, he crashes the wedding reception of Leonie and Charles dressed as a gorilla (with clips from King Kong used to illustrate Morgan's fantasy world). Morgan flees the wedding on a motorcycle with his gorilla suit on fire, and subsequently is committed to an insane asylum, where Leonie visits him looking visibly pregnant. With a wink, Leonie tells him he is the child's father. Morgan returns to tending a flowerbed, as the camera pulls out to a longshot of the entire circular flowerbed with the enclosed flowers arranged into a hammer and sickle.
Cast
David Warner as Morgan Delt
Vanessa Redgrave as Leonie Delt
Robert Stephens as Charles Napier
Irene Handl as Mrs. Delt
Bernard Bresslaw as Policeman
Arthur Mullard as Wally
Newton Blick as Mr. Henderson
Nan Munro as Mrs. Henderson
Peter Collingwood as Geoffrey
Graham Crowden as Counsel
John Garrie as Tipstaff
John Rae as Judge
Peter Cellier as Second Counsel
Reception
The film was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Actress in a Leading Role (Vanessa Redgrave) and Best Costume Design, Black-and-White (Jocelyn Rickards).
The film was also nominated for the Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival and Redgrave was awarded Best Actress.
A film poster for Morgan is prominently shown in the 2016 film High-Rise (adapted from the novel of the same name by J.G. Ballard).
References
External links
1966 films
1966 comedy-drama films
British comedy-drama films
British films
British independent films
British black-and-white films
English-language films
Films directed by Karel Reisz
Films about psychopaths
Films set in London
1966 independent films
Films scored by John Dankworth | [
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|
214334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic%20Violence%20Offender%20Gun%20Ban | Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban | The Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban, often called the "Lautenberg Amendment" ("Gun Ban for Individuals Convicted of a Misdemeanor Crime of Domestic Violence", , ), is an amendment to the Omnibus Consolidated Appropriations Act of 1997, enacted by the 104th United States Congress in 1996, which bans access to firearms by people convicted of crimes of domestic violence. The act is often referred to as "the Lautenberg Amendment" after its sponsor, Senator Frank Lautenberg (D - NJ). Lautenberg proposed the amendment after a decision from the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, involving underenforcement of domestic violence laws brought under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. President Bill Clinton signed the law as part of the Omnibus Appropriations Act of 1997.
Summary
The act bans shipment, transport, possession, ownership, and use of guns or ammunition by individuals convicted of misdemeanor crime of domestic violence. The 1968 Gun Control Act and subsequent amendments had previously prohibited anyone convicted of a felony and anyone subject to a domestic violence protective order from possessing a firearm. The act also makes it unlawful to knowingly sell or give a firearm or ammunition to such persons.
The definition of 'convicted' can be found in and has exceptions:
(i) A person shall not be considered to have been convicted of such an offense for purposes of this chapter, unless—
(I) the person was represented by counsel in the case, or knowingly and intelligently waived the right to counsel in the case; and
(II) in the case of a prosecution for an offense described in this paragraph for which a person was entitled to a jury trial in the jurisdiction in which the case was tried, either
(aa) the case was tried by a jury, or
(bb) the person knowingly and intelligently waived the right to have the case tried by a jury, by guilty plea or otherwise.
(ii) A person shall not be considered to have been convicted of such an offense for purposes of this chapter if the conviction has been expunged or set aside, or is an offense for which the person has been pardoned or has had civil rights restored (if the law of the applicable jurisdiction provides for the loss of civil rights under such an offense) unless the pardon, expungement, or restoration of civil rights expressly provides that the person may not ship, transport, possess, or receive firearms.
Restraining order restrictions (preceded the Lautenberg Amendment)
The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 included a provision restricting respondents to final protective orders from possessing, receiving, transporting, or shipping firearms or ammunition. For restrictions arising from a restraining order there are several requirements before the restrictions apply as follows:
Hearing--the defendant must have had the opportunity to be heard at a hearingIntimate Partner--the defendant and petitioner must be intimate partnersRestrains Future Contact--must restrain the defendant from harassing, stalking, or threatening behaviorCredible Threat or Physical Force--defendant must be deemed a credible threat to the petitioner or be barred from the use of physical force
The hearing requirement ensures that the firearms restrictions will not apply after an initial ex parte hearing during which a temporary order is granted, but only after a longer term order is granted following a hearing in which both parties have the opportunity to be heard. The intimate partner requirement says that the relationship must be both sexual and involve cohabitation or a child in common. A Brady indicator trigger is generated when the requirements apply, resulting in the restraining order being noted in a federal database as prohibiting the possession of firearms. However, the state forms used for restraining orders do not always clearly indicate whether the specific federal criteria apply, making it difficult to determine whether the firearms restriction applies without a detailed reading of the order, the petition, and other court records.
Court history
This law has been tested in federal court with the case United States v. Emerson (No. 99-10331) (5th Cir. 2001). See also U.S. v. Emerson, 231 Fed. Appx. 349 (5th Cir. 2007) (Same defendant seeking review of judgment). The case involved a challenge to the Constitutionality of 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(8)(C)(ii), a federal statute that prohibited the transportation of firearms or ammunition in interstate commerce by persons subject to a court order that, by its explicit terms, prohibits the use of physical force against an intimate partner or child. Emerson does not address the portion of the Lautenberg Amendment involving conviction for misdemeanor domestic violence. It was initially overturned in 1999 for being unconstitutional, but that case was reversed upon appeal in 2001.
The case Gillespie v. City of Indianapolis, Indiana, 185 F.3d 693 (7th Cir. 1999) also challenged this law, and the case was rejected.
The ex post facto aspects of the law were challenged with:
United States v. Brady, 26 F.3d 282 (2nd Cir.), cert. denied, 115 S.Ct. 246 (1994) (denying ex post facto challenge to a 922(g)(1) conviction) and
United States v. Waters, 23 F.3d 29 (2nd Cir. 1994) (ex post facto based challenge to a 922(g)(4) conviction).
Both of the challenges were denied.
Likewise this law was invoked in United States v. Jardee where it was ruled that the threat of being subjected to the gun ban did not turn an otherwise "petty" crime into a "serious" one requiring a jury trial.
United States v. Castleman (2014) challenged the application of the law to misdemeanor convictions which did not involve "the use or attempted use of physical force". In a 9–0 decision, the United States Supreme Court held that Castleman's conviction of "misdemeanor domestic assault" did qualify as a "misdemeanor crime of domestic violence" under Tennessee state law. Specifically holding that the ""physical force" requirement is satisfied by the degree of force that supports a common-law battery conviction — namely, offensive touching", thereby preventing him from possession of firearms.
Most recently, the Supreme Court in Voisine v. United States, 579 U.S. ___ (2016), decided that the Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban in U.S. federal law extends to those convicted of reckless domestic violence.
See also
Boyfriend loophole
Gun Control Act
Firearm Owners Protection Act
External links
Department of Justice Criminal Resource Manual
The Consumer Law Page Article
Misdemeanor Crime of Domestic Violence archive
The Emerson Case
References
United States federal criminal legislation
United States federal firearms legislation
Acts of the 104th United States Congress
Gun politics in the United States | [
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|
214337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed%20flags%20of%20Taiwan | Proposed flags of Taiwan | Several proposals for a flag of Taiwan have been initiated by supporters of formal Taiwan independence to replace the flag of the Republic of China as the national flag flown over Taiwan. Supporters of Taiwan independence object to the use of the flag of the Republic of China since it was designed by and is closely associated with the Kuomintang. However, no single flag has been established as the symbol of the independence movement, and moderate supporters of Taiwan independence, such as the Democratic Progressive Party, have accepted the flag of the Republic of China for the time being and have not pushed for a new flag. The flag of the Republic of China in current use is defined in the 6th article of the Constitution, and amending the Constitution requires a referendum which would only succeed with wide political support. The Republic of China, originally based in mainland China, retreated to Taiwan in 1949 and established its capital in Taipei. The country, since then referred to as "Taiwan" in vernacular, retains its official name "Republic of China" and still officially claims territories governed by the People's Republic of China, just as the PRC claims all ROC territories.
Prominent proposals
From the mid-1950s to the 1970s, a self-proclaimed Republic of Taiwan Provisional Government was active in Japan. Its president was Thomas Liao, who was in exile there. This government used a flag of a blue field charged with a white sun and a white crescent moon.
In 1994, a campaign called “New Name, New Flag, New Anthem” was launched to rename the Republic of China, replace the flag of the Republic of China, and the National Anthem of the Republic of China, all of which were brought to Taiwan when the Kuomintang government retreated to the island in 1949. After a contest in which 187 different flags were entered, the “hearts-in-harmony flag” emerged as the winner. The green field was to symbolize the natural beauty of the island and the need to protect the environment; the white in the Canadian pale was to symbolize the purity of the people on the island and the desire to preserve the natural beauty; and the device in the centre was to symbolize four hearts in harmony, representing the four population groups on the island: the indigenous peoples, Hakka, Hoklo, and mainlanders. This flag has emerged as the most well-known proposed flag of Taiwan, though it has not gained acceptance with the mainstream Democratic Progressive Party. Some Chinese nationalists criticized the design as being reminiscent of the Imperial Seal of Japan where a chrysanthemum is present. By extension, the design can be seen as an endorsement of historical Japanese colonial influence on Formosa/Taiwan.
In September 2013, the 908 Taiwan Republic Campaign held a ceremony in front of the Presidential Office Building in Taipei, raising a flag for Taiwan that had been proposed by the World Taiwanese Congress. This flag has a green field and a green map of Taiwan with its associated islands (excluding Kinmen and Matsu) in a Canadian pale.
Earlier in 2005, the same 908 Campaign had raised instead its own banner at the same place, in front of a crowd of about 500 (mostly Taiwan Solidarity Union supporters) on 8 September 2005 – a date it proclaimed "Taiwan's Independence Day" to mark the anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952 in which Japan relinquished its claim to Taiwan. This banner, which had been featured in smaller rallies elsewhere in Taiwan, featured three horizontal stripes in blue, white, and green transitioning in color gradients and a red circle in the middle along with the characters "State of Taiwan" (). The banner was meant to symbolize history of Taiwan: the red circle to represent Japan, the blue to represent the KMT, and green to represent the DPP. It was unique, as other flag proposals avoid the color blue altogether.
In 2016, Taiwan independence proponent Chih-Hao Chen designed the Flag of Taiwan the Formosa (“台灣翠青” or “Taiwan the Green” in Chinese language, inspired by the poem and hymn of the same name), which has since been adopted by supporters of the Taiwan independence movement as a symbol of Taiwan independence ideology and Taiwanese identity. Despite its colonial roots, Chen admitted his fondness of the Seal of the Government-General of Taiwan, for its meaning (the “Tai” in “Taiwan” in both Chinese and Japanese writing) and its geometrical resemblance of the impression of an island (two triangles in mirror images), and therefore introduced the seal into the flag's design. The flag adopts an aspect ratio of 1:1.5. The stacked green triangle and white triangle represent the layers of mountain ranges as the island would be viewed from ships sailing on nearby seas, with tree-clad mountains in the foreground and snow-covered mountains in the background. Switching to bird's-eye view, one could see Taiwan (as symbolized by the seal) advancing forward in the ocean and stirring up white waves, indicating Taiwanese people's determination to pursue its independence. On selecting the flag colors, deep blue in the background represents the ocean; white represents waves of immigrants with diversified cultural backgrounds at different periods throughout the history of Taiwan, migrating and assimilating into the Taiwanese society; and the bright green (Pantone 3255C) represents the first dwellers of the island – the Taiwanese indigenous peoples.
Prospects
While there have been some debates about replacing the ROC flag, the likelihood of doing so is not high given that it requires a constitutional amendment, which needs wide bipartisan support and a referendum under the conditions of the article 12 of the Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China:
Amendment of the Constitution shall be initiated upon the proposal of one-fourth of the total members of the Legislative Yuan, passed by at least three-fourths of the members present at a meeting attended by at least three-fourths of the total members of the Legislative Yuan, and sanctioned by electors in the free area of the Republic of China at a referendum held upon expiration of a six-month period of public announcement of the proposal, wherein the number of valid votes in favor exceeds one-half of the total number of electors. The provisions of Article 174 of the Constitution [the previous method of amendment, via the National Assembly of the Republic of China] shall not apply.
The present flag has a huge amount of support among Pan-Blue Coalition supporters as the symbol of a Chinese democracy and even acquiescence by some independence supporters for various other reasons. On the other hand, some supporters of Taiwan Independence seek the flag change as part of a larger change to replace the Constitution of Republic of China that was brought to Taiwan by the Kuomintang at the end of the civil war on the Mainland in 1949.
While green has emerged as the color of Taiwan independence and can be seen ubiquitously in pro-independence rallies, at the moment, no one flag has achieved consensus among the various groups. Unlike other political movements, those in Taiwan do not feel there is a historical or local flag suitable for use as a symbol. The flag of the short-lived Republic of Formosa is considered to be unsuitable by some, since that republic was declared by Chinese loyalists and designed as a tributary state in a failed attempt to avert Japanese colonization in 1895. The present national flag, the flag of the Republic of China, is seen by others as a symbol of Chinese nationalism.
At rallies of the Pan-Green Coalition, green campaign banners and party flags are common while the national flag is rarely displayed, but the various proposed flags are never seen in unison. A dilemma arose when Lee Teng-hui was scheduled to speak at the National Press Club in Washington, DC in 2005: while National Press Club conventions would have called the ROC flag to be flown to reflect the nationality of the speaker, pro-independence groups objected to using the flag of the Republic of China. However, the National Press Club's only other alternative, a Democratic Progressive Party flag, would have been inappropriate anyway as Lee was not a DPP member.
In popular culture
The hearts-in-harmony flag was a prominent part of the plot in the episode "A Change Is Gonna Come" of the TV series The West Wing.
The hearts-in-harmony flag was used to illustrate the entry for Taiwan in a World Factfile supplement of the British newspaper The Guardian on 25 April 2009. The entry also omitted using the name "Republic of China".
In the Taiwanese TV series Island Nation 2, there is a scene based on the real event when former WUFI chair , wearing a T-shirt decorated with the hearts-in-harmony flag, challenged President Lee Teng-hui during his lecture at Cornell University in 1995.
See also
Chinese Taipei Olympic flag
Flag of the Republic of China
Taiwan the Formosa, a proposed national anthem for Taiwan
References
Taiwan, Proposed
Taiwan independence movement
Taiwan | [
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|
214340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavo%20%28constellation%29 | Pavo (constellation) | Pavo is a constellation in the southern sky whose name is Latin for "peacock". Pavo first appeared on a 35-cm (14 in) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius and was depicted in Johann Bayer's star atlas Uranometria of 1603, and was likely conceived by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. French explorer and astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille gave its stars Bayer designations in 1756. The constellations Pavo, Grus, Phoenix and Tucana are collectively known as the "Southern Birds".
The constellation's brightest member, Alpha Pavonis, is also known as Peacock and appears as a 1.91-magnitude blue-white star, but is actually a spectroscopic binary. Delta Pavonis is a nearby Sun-like star some 19.9 light-years distant. Six of the star systems in Pavo have been found to host planets, including HD 181433 with a super-earth, and HD 172555 with evidence of a major interplanetary collision in the past few thousand years. The constellation contains NGC 6752, the third-brightest globular cluster in the sky, and the spiral galaxy NGC 6744, which closely resembles the Milky Way but is twice as large. Pavo displays an annual meteor shower known as the Delta Pavonids, whose radiant is near the star δ Pav.
History and mythology
History of the modern constellation
Pavo was one of the twelve constellations established by Petrus Plancius from the observations of the southern sky by explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition, known as the Eerste Schipvaart, to the East Indies. It first appeared on a 35-cm (14 in) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius. The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in German cartographer Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603. De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name De Pauww, "The Peacock". Pavo and the nearby constellations Phoenix, Grus and Tucana are collectively called the "Southern Birds".
The peacock in Greek mythology
According to Mark Chartrand, former executive director of the National Space Institute, Plancius may not have been the first to designate this group of stars as a peacock: "In Greek myth the stars that are now the Peacock were Argos [or Argus], builder of the ship Argo. He was changed by the goddess Juno into a peacock and placed in the sky along with his ship." Indeed, the peacock "symboliz[ed] the starry firmament" for the Greeks, and the goddess Hera was believed to drive through the heavens in a chariot drawn by peacocks.
The peacock and the "Argus" nomenclature are also prominent in a different myth, in which Io, a beautiful princess of Argos, was lusted after by Zeus (Jupiter). Zeus changed Io into a heifer to deceive his wife (and sister) Hera and couple with her. Hera saw through Zeus's scheme and asked for the heifer as a gift. Zeus, unable to refuse such a reasonable request, reluctantly gave the heifer to Hera, who promptly banished Io and arranged for Argus Panoptes, a creature with one hundred eyes, to guard the now-pregnant Io from Zeus. Meanwhile, Zeus entreated Hermes to save Io; Hermes used music to lull Argus Panoptes to sleep, then slew him. Hera adorned the tail of a peacock—her favorite bird—with Argus's eyes in his honor.
As recounted in Ovid's Metamorphoses, the death of Argus Panoptes also contains an explicit celestial reference: "Argus lay dead; so many eyes, so bright quenched, and all hundred shrouded in one night. Saturnia [Hera] retrieved those eyes to set in place among the feathers of her bird [the peacock, Pavo] and filled his tail with starry jewels."
It is uncertain whether the Dutch astronomers had the Greek mythos in mind when creating Pavo but, in keeping with other constellations introduced by Plancius through Keyser and De Houtmann, the "peacock" in the new constellation likely referred to the green peacock, which the explorers would have encountered in the East Indies, rather than the blue peacock known to the ancient Greeks.
Equivalents in other cultures
The Wardaman people of the Northern Territory in Australia saw the stars of Pavo and the neighbouring constellation Ara as flying foxes.
Characteristics
Pavo is bordered by Telescopium to the north, Apus and Ara to the west, Octans to the south, and Indus to the east and northeast. Covering 378 square degrees, it ranks 44th of the 88 modern constellations in size and covers 0.916% of the night sky. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Pav". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 10 segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −56.59° and −74.98°. As one of the deep southern constellations, it remains below the horizon at latitudes north of the 30th parallel in the Northern Hemisphere, and is circumpolar at latitudes south of the 50th parallel in the Southern Hemisphere.
Features
Stars
Although he depicted Pavo on his chart, Bayer did not assign its stars Bayer designations. French explorer and astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille labelled them Alpha to Omega in 1756, but omitted Psi and Xi, and labelled two pairs of stars close together Mu and Phi Pavonis. In 1879, American astronomer Benjamin Gould designated a star Xi Pavonis as he felt its brightness warranted a name, but dropped Chi Pavonis due to its faintness.
Lying near the constellation's northern border with Telescopium is Alpha Pavonis, the brightest star in Pavo. Its proper name — Peacock — is an English translation of the constellation's name. It was assigned by the British Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office in the late 1930s; the Royal Air Force insisted that all bright stars must have names, the star hitherto having lacked a proper name. Alpha has an apparent (or visual) magnitude of 1.91 and spectral type B2IV. It is a spectroscopic binary system, one estimate placing the distance between the pair of stars as 0.21 astronomical units (AU), or half the distance between Mercury and the Sun. The two stars rotate around each other in a mere 11 days and 18 hours. The star system is located around 180 light years away from Earth.
With an apparent magnitude of 3.43, Beta Pavonis is the second-brightest star in the constellation. A white giant of spectral class A7III, it is an aging star that has used up the hydrogen fuel at its core and has expanded and cooled after moving off the main sequence. It lies 135 light years away from the Solar System.
Lying a few degrees west of Beta is Delta Pavonis, a nearby Sun-like but more evolved star; this is a yellow subgiant of spectral type G8IV and apparent magnitude 3.56 that is only 19.9 light years distant from Earth. East of Beta and at the constellation's eastern border with Indus is Gamma Pavonis, a fainter, solar-type star 30 light years from Earth with a magnitude of 4.22 and stellar class F9V. Other nearby stars in Pavo are much fainter: SCR 1845-6357 (the nearest star in Pavo) is a binary system with an apparent magnitude of 17.4 consisting of a red dwarf and brown dwarf companion lying around 12.6 light years distant, while Gliese 693 is a red dwarf of magnitude 10.78 lying 19 light years away.
Pavo contains several variable stars of note. Lambda Pavonis is a bright irregular variable ranging between magnitudes 3.4 and 4.4; this variation can be observed with the unaided eye. Classed as a Gamma Cassiopeiae variable or shell star, it is of spectral type B2II-IIIe and lies around 1430 light years distant from Earth. Kappa Pavonis is a W Virginis variable—a subclass of Type II Cepheid. It ranges from magnitude 3.91 to 4.78 over 9 days and is a yellow-white supergiant pulsating between spectral classes F5I-II and G5I-II. NU and V Pavonis are pulsating semiregular variable red giant stars. NU has a spectral type M6III and ranges from magnitude 4.9 to 5.3, while V Pavonis ranges from magnitude 6.3 to 8.2 over two periods of 225.4 and 3735 days concurrently. V is a carbon star of spectral type C6,4(Nb) with a prominent red hue.
Located in the west of the constellation and depicting the peacock's tail are Eta and Xi Pavonis. At apparent magnitude 3.6, Eta is a luminous orange giant of spectral type K2II some 350 light years distant from Earth. Xi Pavonis is a multiple star system visible in small telescopes as a brighter orange star and fainter white companion. Located around 470 light years from Earth, the system has a magnitude of 4.38. AR Pavonis is a faint but well-studied eclipsing binary composed of a red giant and smaller hotter star some 18000 light years from Earth. It has some features of a cataclysmic variable, the smaller component most likely having an accretion disc. The visual magnitude ranges from 7.4 to 13.6 over 605 days.
Solar Twin
In November 2018, the 8th magnitude star, HD 186302 became the second star identified to be a solar sibling, this one being particularly sun like, same spectra G2, virtually the same mass as well, with a twin spectra revealing identical metallicity.
The first star identified as a solar sibling in May 2014, HD 162826, within Hercules is an F type main sequence star somewhat more powerful than the Sun, with a mass 15% greater.
Planetary systems and debris disks
Six stars with planetary systems have been found. Three planets have been discovered in the system of the orange star HD 181433, an inner super-earth with an orbital period of 9.4 days and two outer gas giants with periods of 2.6 and 6 years respectively. HD 196050 and HD 175167 are yellow G-class Sun-like stars, while HD 190984 is an F-class main sequence star slightly larger and hotter than the Sun; all three are accompanied by a gas giant companion. HD 172555 is a young white A-type main sequence star, two planets of which appear to have had a major collision in the past few thousand years. Spectrographic evidence of large amounts of silicon dioxide gas indicates the smaller of the two, which had been at least the size of Earth's moon, was destroyed, and the larger, which was at least the size of Mercury, was severely damaged. Evidence of the collision was detected by NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope. In the south of the constellation, Epsilon Pavonis is a 3.95-magnitude white main sequence star of spectral type A0Va located around 105 light years distant from Earth. It appears to be surrounded by a narrow ring of dust at a distance of 107 AU.
Deep-sky objects
The deep-sky objects in Pavo include NGC 6752, the third-brightest globular cluster in the sky, after 47 Tucanae and Omega Centauri. An estimated 100 light years across, it is thought to contain 100,000 stars. Barely visible behind the cluster is a dwarf spheroidal galaxy known as Bedin I. Lying three degrees to the south is NGC 6744, a spiral galaxy around 30 million light years away from Earth that resembles the Milky Way, but is twice its diameter. A type 1c supernova was discovered in the galaxy in 2005; known as SN2005at, it peaked at magnitude 16.8. The dwarf galaxy IC 4662 lies 10 arcminutes northeast of Eta Pavonis, and is of magnitude 11.62. Located only 8 million light years away, it has several regions of high star formation. The 14th-magnitude galaxy IC 4965 lies 1.7 degrees west of Alpha Pavonis, and is a central member of the Shapley Supercluster. The galactic wind bearing NGC 6810 and the interacting NGC 6872/IC 4970 galaxies lie 87 and 212 million light-years away from Earth respectively.
Meteor showers
Pavo is the radiant of two annual meteor showers: the Delta Pavonids and August Pavonids. Appearing from 21 March to 8 April and generally peaking around 5 and 6 April, Delta Pavonids are thought to be associated with Comet Grigg-Mellish. The shower was discovered by Michael Buhagiar from Perth, Australia, who observed meteors on six occasions between 1969 and 1980. The August Pavonids peak around August 31 and are thought to be associated with the Halley-type Comet Levy (P/1991 L3).
See also
Pavo (Chinese astronomy)
Notes
References
Sources
External links
The clickable Pavo
Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius
Southern constellations
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214341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9%20Bessette | André Bessette | André Bessette, C.S.C. (9 August 1845 – 6 January 1937), more commonly known as Brother André (), and since his canonization as Saint André of Montreal, was a lay brother of the Congregation of Holy Cross and a significant figure of the Roman Catholic Church among French-Canadians, credited with thousands of reported miraculous oil healings associated with his pious devotion to Saint Joseph.
Bessette was declared venerable in 1978 and was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1982. Pope Benedict XVI approved the decree of sainthood for Blessed André on 19 February 2010, with the formal canonization taking place on 17 October 2010. He is the first Canadian living after Confederation to be canonized.
Early life
He was born Alfred Bessette in Mont-Saint-Grégoire, Canada East (Québec), a small town situated southeast of Montreal. His father, Isaac Bessette, was a carpenter and lumberman, while his mother, Clothilde Foisy Bessette, saw to the education of the children. Alfred was the eighth of 12 children, four of whom died in infancy. At birth, Alfred was so frail that the curé baptized him "conditionally" in an emergency ritual the following day. In 1849, with employment scarce and his family living in poverty, Alfred's father moved to Farnham, Quebec to work as a lumberman, but soon perished, having been tragically crushed by a falling tree. Alfred was nine years old, and his mother, at 40, remained with ten children in her care. Clothilde died of tuberculosis within three years, and Alfred became orphaned at the age of twelve.
According to Laurent Boucher, C.S.C., author of the book Brother André: the Miracle Man of Mount Royal, Alfred was placed under the care of Timothée and Rosalie Nadeau of Saint-Césaire, Quebec following his mother's death. While with the Nadeau family, Alfred attended catechetical lessons taught by his parish's pastor, Rev. André Provençal. It was during these lessons that Alfred developed his two lifelong devotions: Saint Joseph and the Passion of Christ. In June 1858, at age 12, Alfred was confirmed by Bishop Jean-Charles Prince of the Diocese of Saint-Hyacinthe. When Alfred was 14, the Nadeaus began to send him to school. However, Alfred was soon removed from school, having only learned to read and sign his name, both with difficulty. Timothée Nadeau intended to train Alfred as a labourer, seeing no need for an orphan to be educated. Alfred soon left the Nadeaus and was brought in by Louis Ouimet, the mayor of Saint-Césaire. While living with the Ouimet family, Alfred had a series of short-lived occupations, working as a farmer, tinsmith, blacksmith, wheelwright, cobbler, and baker, all of which Alfred was too physically weak to sustain. Searching for work, Alfred moved to Moosup, Connecticut at the age of 18, where he joined several of his relatives in work at textile mills across Connecticut and Rhode Island. Bessette returned to Canada in 1867 following the Canadian Confederation.
Call to devotion
The pastor of his parish, the Rev. André Provençal, noticed the devotion and generosity of the young man. He decided to present Alfred to the Congregation of Holy Cross in Montreal, writing a note to the superior, "I'm sending you a saint." Although he was initially rejected by the order because of frail health, Archbishop Ignace Bourget of Montreal intervened on his behalf, and in 1872, Alfred was accepted and entered the novitiate of the congregation, receiving the religious name of Brother André, by which he was known for the rest of his life. He made his final vows on February 2, 1874, at the age of 28.
"André was given the task of porter at Collège Notre-Dame in Côte-des-Neiges, Quebec, with additional duties as sacristan, laundry worker and messenger. "When I joined this community, the superiors showed me the door, and I remained 40 years," he said."
"His great confidence in Saint Joseph inspired him to recommend the saint's devotion to all those who were afflicted. On his many visits to the sick in their homes, he would rub the sick person lightly with oil taken from a lamp burning in the college chapel and recommend them in prayer to Saint Joseph."
People claimed that they had been cured through the prayers of the good Brother and Saint Joseph, and they were grateful their prayers had been heard. Brother André steadfastly refused to take any credit for these cures. Bessette's desire to see Saint Joseph honoured led him in 1904 to launch a campaign to build a chapel for that purpose.
"When an epidemic broke out at a nearby college, André volunteered to nurse. Not one person died. The trickle of sick people to his door became a flood. His superiors were uneasy; diocesan authorities were suspicious; doctors called him a quack. "I do not cure," he said again and again. "Saint Joseph cures." In the end he needed four secretaries to handle the 80,000 letters he received each year."
As tensions increased at the college with so many of the sick coming to see the porter, the school officials decided that Brother André could no longer continue with his ministry. He was permitted to receive the sick in the nearby tramway station rather than the college. As his reputation spread, Brother André became quite a controversial figure. There were many religious in the Congregation of Holy Cross, teachers and parents of students at the College who supported him but many others opposed him and even considered him dangerous to the well-being of the school's reputation because they regarded him as a charlatan. Others were concerned for the good health of the children, fearing the possibility of contagion in the school spread from diseases carried by the sick who frequented Brother André.
In 1924 construction of a basilica named Saint Joseph's Oratory began on the side of the mountain, near Bessette's chapel.
Death and path to canonization
Bessette died in 1937, at the age of 91. A million people filed past his coffin.
The remains of Bessette lie in the church he helped build. His body lies in a tomb built below the Oratory's Main Chapel, except for his heart, which is preserved in a reliquary in the same Oratory. The heart was stolen in March 1973, but was recovered in December 1974 with the help of famous criminal lawyer Frank Shoofey .
Brother André was beatified by Pope John Paul II on May 23, 1982. The miracle cited in support of his beatification was the healing in 1958 of Giuseppe Carlo Audino, who suffered from cancer.
St. Andre is commemorated in most of the world by an optional memorial on January 6. His memorial is celebrated in Canada on January 7.
On December 19, 2009, Pope Benedict XVI promulgated a decree recognizing a second miracle at Blessed André's intercession, and on October 17, 2010, formally declared sainthood for him. Blessed Brother André was the first saint of the Congregation of Holy Cross, the same religious order that founded the University of Notre Dame.
Legacy
Andre Hall houses the School of Humanities at St. Edward's University, a Holy Cross school, in Austin, Texas.
A Catholic high school in Markham, Ontario, St. Brother André Catholic High School, is named in his honour.
There is a high school built on Fanshawe Park Rd in northwest London, Ontario Canada called Saint Andre Bessette Secondary School.
A program to support student learning at Notre Dame College Prep in Niles, Illinois, is named after Saint Andre. Students in the program are known as St. Andre Scholars.
There is an elementary school, Brother André Catholic School, in Beacon Heights (a suburb of Ottawa), Ontario, Canada. Another elementary school in Brampton, Ontario is called St. Andre Bessette.
The French Catholic mission in York Region - North of Toronto - is named "Mission Catholique St-Frère-André". Services are held at the region's only French Catholic High School: ÉSC Renaissance.
A Roman Catholic church named St. André Bessette will be opening soon in Vaughan, Ontario. It is now under construction.
St. André Bessette Parish is located in Laconia, New Hampshire; a small New England city with strong French Canadian Heritage.
St. André Bessette Catholic Church is a bilingual church (Spanish, English) located in Ecorse, Michigan.
St André Bessette Catholic Church is located in Downtown Portland, Oregon. Its former name was Downtown Chapel.
St André Bessette Catholic Church is a church located in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.
There is a Catholic high school called St. André Bessette Catholic High School in Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta, serving students in grades 9-12.
St. André French Immersion Catholic Elementary School in Tecumseh, Ontario was opened in 2015 by the Windsor-Essex Catholic District School Board.
André House is a ministry to the homeless and poor populations of the Phoenix area.
Bibliography
Joel Schorn, God's Doorkeepers: Padre Pio, Solanus Casey and André Bessette: Servant Publications, (September 30, 2006),
Laurent Boucher, c.s.c., Brother André: the miracle man of Mount Royal: Montreal, 1997, 329 p.
Lafrenière, Bernard, c.s.c., Brother André. According to the Witnesses, Montreal, St. Joseph 's Oratory, 1997, 212 p.
Henri-Paul Bergeron, Brother André, Apostle of Saint Joseph: Montreal 1958
Katherine Burton, Brother André of Mount-Royal, USA: The Ave Maria press, 1942, 310 pages
Media
Brother André still with us: Le Centre Saint-Pierre and Saint Joseph's Oratory of Mount-Royal, 2004 (1 DVD - 62 minutes)
The Greatness and Beauty of Saint Joseph's Oratory of Mount Royal: Montreal, Les Productions de la Montagne and Saint Joseph's Oratory of Mount Royal, 1995 (1 DVD, color, 26 minutes)
By Jean-Claude Labrecque: Brother André: Montreal, Les Productions de la Montagne, 1987 (Movie, on 1 DVD, color, 88 minutes)
God's Doorkeeper: St. André of Montreal, 2010
Bible
References
External links
Blessed Brother André Bessette, C.S.C. — Short Biography on the Holy Cross Brothers site.
1845 births
1937 deaths
People from Montérégie
People from Montreal
Congregation of Holy Cross
Burials in Quebec
Beatifications by Pope John Paul II
Canonizations by Pope Benedict XVI
19th-century Christian saints
20th-century Christian saints
Canonized Roman Catholic religious brothers
Wonderworkers
Canadian Roman Catholic saints | [
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|
214343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Barr | Bob Barr | Robert Laurence Barr Jr. (born November 5, 1948) is an American attorney and politician. He served as a federal prosecutor and as a Congressman. He represented Georgia's 7th congressional district as a Republican from 1995 to 2003. Barr attained national prominence as one of the leaders of the impeachment of President Bill Clinton. During his time in the House of Representatives, he famously authored the Defense of Marriage Act, which was later overturned.
Barr joined the Libertarian Party in 2006 and served on its National Committee. He was the Libertarian Party's nominee for President of the United States in the 2008 election. Barr announced his return to the Republican party in December 2011. He lost a subsequent bid in 2014 for a Congressional seat.
Early life
Barr was born in Iowa City, Iowa, to Robert Laurence Barr and Beatrice Barr. His father, a career military officer who had graduated from West Point, was stationed in various locations around the world while pursuing his career in civil engineering.
The second of six children, Bob Jr. lived as a boy in Malaysia, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Baghdad, and finally Tehran, Iran, where he graduated from Community High School in 1966.
He returned to the United States for college, attending the University of Southern California. There he joined the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity in 1967. He was elected to the position of Grand Prytanis on the fraternity's Grand Council, serving from 2013 to 2015.
During this time, Barr's mother Beatrice introduced him to the work of writer Ayn Rand. This fostered a new-found appreciation for conservatism and prompted Barr to join the Young Trojan Republican Club. He completed his B.A., cum laude, from the University of Southern California (USC) in 1970. He married his first wife while still in college. They divorced in 1976.
Early career
Barr continued in graduate school, earning a master's degree in International Affairs from George Washington University's Elliott School of International Affairs in 1972. He next earned his J.D. from Georgetown University Law Center (attending at night) in 1977. From 1971 (1970?) to 1978, Barr worked for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) as an analyst of Latin American issues.
Barr married his second wife, Gail, in 1976. They have two children. Gail and Bob Barr divorced in 1986.
After leaving the CIA, Barr moved to northern Georgia. He practiced law and became active in the Republican Party, serving as county chair. Barr made an unsuccessful bid for the Georgia House of Representatives in 1984.
In 1986 Barr married his third wife, Jerilyn Dobbins, who was later known as Jeri Barr. Barr's website stated in 2008 that Jeri and he have four children and six grandchildren.
In 1986, Barr was appointed by President Ronald Reagan to serve as U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of Georgia – a post Barr held until 1990. His office prosecuted state and local officials, members of the Medellin drug cartel, and got a perjury indictment on then-sitting Republican Congressman Pat Swindall, who ultimately served a year in prison on the charges. From 1990 to 1991, Barr was president of the Southeastern Legal Foundation , an Atlanta-based law firm and policy center that litigates in support of "limited government, individual economic freedom, and the free enterprise system".
Congressional career
Barr sought the Republican Party nomination for U.S. Senate in 1992, but lost the primary election to Paul Coverdell. The primary was very close, with Barr losing by fewer than 1,600 votes in a runoff election. Subsequently, Coverdell came in behind incumbent Senator Wyche Fowler in the general election, but the 3% showing by a Libertarian candidate (Jim Hudson) forced a runoff, which Coverdell won.
Barr was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1994 as a Republican, upsetting six-term Democrat Buddy Darden, to represent Georgia's 7th congressional district in the 104th United States Congress. Barr was one of 73 Republican freshmen ushered into Congress in that election. The election became known as the "Republican Revolution" because it resulted in the first Republican House majority in 40 years – since the 1955 adjournment of the 83rd Congress.
After a Federal Election Commission audit of his 1994 and 1996 campaigns, Barr paid a $28,000 fine for illegal campaign payments.
Barr was later re-elected three times, serving from 1995 to 2003. While in Congress, Barr served as a senior member of the Judiciary Committee, as Vice-Chairman of the Government Reform Committee, and as a member of the Committee on Financial Services and the Committee on Veteran's Affairs.
In Congress, Barr became famous for his "dour" image and told constituents, "You don't send me to Washington to smile." He also said in a radio interview "If it's not in the Constitution, I won't smile". He later explained "I don't consider politicians who smile to be worth a heck of a lot... all things considered, it doesn't make a dime's worth of difference if the politicians in Washington smile or not, what matters is how much of your hard-earned dollars they take to spend in pure pork". Barr said in 2010 "I can see a situation where the federal government is going to bring an entire suitcase of San Francisco values to the American family, and while I would love to explain all the things that are wrong with that, the fact is that this is a corrupting, left-leaning, influence on a section of society that so many liberal elites want to see taken out of the 'red state' column. The only solution to this kind of behavior is dour and austere social conservatism, like my own". Adding to his image, Barr has frequently protested about "cult hairstyles", saying "I cannot abide by people who adopt a cult hairstyle, or persistently dress inappropriately for meetings with me".
Georgia's congressional districts were reorganized by the Democratic-controlled Georgia legislature ahead of the 2002 elections for the 108th Congress. As part of the legislature's effort to get more Democrats elected from the state, Barr's district was renumbered as the 11th District and made significantly more Democratic. A large slice of his base was drawn into the same district as fellow Republican John Linder. The new district was numerically Barr's district – the 7th – but contained most of the territory from Linder's old 11th District. This move profited Democrats by leading to the inevitable defeat of an incumbent Republican (i.e., either Barr or Linder). Recognizing Barr's precarious situation, the Libertarian Party seized on the opportunity to oust one of the federal drug war's most vocal proponents (Barr), and ran TV ads criticizing Barr's opposition to medical marijuana during the Republican primaries. Barr was soundly defeated by a 2-to-1 margin. Before the medical marijuana ads were aired, the Linder campaign acknowledged the race as being tight; and Pat Gartland, southeastern director of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, called it "too close to call".
Barr's defeat was applauded by many Democrats and Libertarians. Rob Kampia of the Marijuana Policy Project called it "glorious news". Ron Crickenberger, the Libertarian Party's political director and producer of the TV ads, was quick to warn other supporters of the War on Drugs:
However, some individuals within these groups lamented Barr's defeat as a setback for privacy rights and libertarian causes in general. J. Bradley Jansen, vice chair of the Libertarian Party in the District of Columbia, opined:
Political positions in Congress
During his tenure, Barr was regarded as one of the most conservative members of Congress. In 2002, he was described by Bill Shipp in an OnlineAthens.com article as "the idol of the gun-toting, abortion-fighting, IRS-hating hard right wing of American politics". However, Barr's criticism of the Bush administration's policies on privacy and other civil liberties after the 9/11 attacks was unusual among House Republicans (see Criticism of Bush Administration below). This criticism earned Barr other labels such as "Maverick", "Jekyll-and-Hyde", and "Libertarian".
Gun ownership
Barr is a staunch proponent of gun rights, and is opposed to any and all efforts to restrict the ownership of guns.
During the 2002 race, a supporter handed Barr an antique pistol during a fundraiser at a private home. The gun went off in Barr's hands, though no one was injured.
War on drugs
Barr was originally a strong supporter of the War on Drugs, reflecting his previous experience as an Anti-Drug Coordinator for the United States Department of Justice. While in Congress, he was a member of the Speaker's Task Force for a Drug-Free America. This task force was established in 1998 by then-Speaker Newt Gingrich to "design a World War II-style victory plan to save America's children from illegal drugs." The task force crafted legislation specifically designed to "win the War on Drugs by 2002".
Barr advocated complete federal prohibition of medical marijuana. In 1998, he successfully blocked implementation of Initiative 59 – the "Legalization of Marijuana for Medical Treatment Initiative of 1998" – which would have legalized medical marijuana in Washington, D.C. The "Barr Amendment" to the 1999 Omnibus spending bill not only blocked implementation of Initiative 59, but also prohibited the vote tally from even being released. Nearly a year passed before a lawsuit filed by the American Civil Liberties Union eventually revealed the initiative had received 69 percent of the vote. In response to the judge's ruling, Barr simply attached another "Barr Amendment" to the 2000 Omnibus spending bill that overturned Initiative 59 outright. The Barr Amendment also prohibited future laws that would "decrease the penalties for marijuana or other Schedule I drugs" in Washington, D.C. This preemptively blocked future attempts by Marijuana Policy Project (MPP) to reform marijuana laws in DC via the initiative process. In March 2002, U.S. District Judge Emmet Sullivan struck down this portion of the Barr Amendment as being an unconstitutional restriction on free speech. Barr's response to the ruling was defiant:
The federal government later prevailed on appeal, reinstating the Barr Amendment just in time to thwart MPP's initiative 63 – "The Medical Marijuana Initiative of 2002" – which had already qualified for the November 2002 ballot. In 2009, both the United States Senate and House of Representatives voted to lift the ban against a medical marijuana initiative, effectively overturning the Barr Amendment.
Barr later reversed his position on medical marijuana, joining MPP as a lobbyist five years later. In a June 4, 2008, interview with Stephen Colbert on the Colbert Report, Barr confirmed that he now supports ending marijuana prohibition, as well as the War on Drugs, for which he once vehemently fought. In 2009, he was hired by the MPP to lobby to successfully overturn the amendment that he had authored.
Same-sex marriage
Barr took a lead in legislative debate concerning same-sex marriage. He authored and sponsored the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), a law enacted in 1996 which states that only marriages that are between a man and a woman can be federally recognized, and individual states may choose not to recognize a same-sex marriage performed in another state. At the 2008 Libertarian National Convention, he apologized for the part of DOMA which prevents the federal government from recognizing same-sex marriages.
He now supports same-sex marriage and opposed the Federal Marriage Amendment, having contended that it is a violation of states' rights. Before the United States Supreme Court mandated recognition of same-sex marriage in Obergefell v. Hodges, Barr supported the Respect for Marriage Act, which would have repealed the Defense of Marriage Act.
Terrorism
He voted for the first USA PATRIOT Act, but only after his amendments adding "sunset clauses" were added to the final bill. Barr played a similar role during the debate over Bill Clinton's Comprehensive Anti-terrorism Act of 1995, crafting pro-civil liberties amendments to the original text. He now publicly regrets his Patriot Act vote.
War in Iraq
In 2002 Barr voted for the Iraq Resolution. He has since called for withdrawal of U.S. forces from Iraq, leaving no permanent military bases. A press release from Barr's presidential campaign stated: "The next president should commit to a speedy and complete withdrawal from Iraq, and tell the Iraqi people that the U.S. troops will be going home."
Religious freedom
In Congress, he also proposed that the Pentagon ban the practice of Wicca in the military.
Economic freedom
Barr advocates the repeal of the 16th Amendment, which gives the U.S. Congress the power to levy an income tax without apportionment. As an alternative, he proposes a form of consumption tax, such as the FairTax.
He also favors drastic reductions in government spending and the elimination of corporate welfare.
Waco hearings
The National Review described Barr as one of the few people able to "ask effective questions and make clear points" while questioning government witnesses during the 1995 House Waco siege hearings on the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives and Federal Bureau of Investigation actions against the Branch Davidians in 1993, sponsored by subcommittees of the House Judiciary Committee and Government Reform and Oversight Committee. Barr has written: "The hearing was a farce: a virtual lovefest, during which members of the Clinton Administration responded to softball questions from their colleagues in the House with superficial answers, and Republican queries were ignored or glossed over with disdain, if not outright contempt." Barr called for Congress to reopen investigations, but senior House Republicans refused. In 2003 testimony submitted to the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Barr wrote: "[T]here remains time to turn back the constitutional clock and roll back excessive post-9/11 powers before we turn the corner into another Japanese internment or, closer to our own experiences, before we witness a legally sanctioned Ruby Ridge or Waco scenario."
Controversies over Barr's personal conduct
In the early 1990s, Barr was photographed at a fundraising event licking whipped cream off a woman. According to The Washington Post "Two people who observed the act say it wasn't exactly a bosom lick but more like a neckline lick, at the sort of event where business and civic leaders perform dares to raise money. 'Not exactly Mr. Effusive,' says Matt Towery, the former chairman of Newt Gingrich's political organization, who observed the brief and awkward licking. 'You can hardly get the guy to smile.'"
Role in Clinton impeachment
Barr is best known for his role as one of the House managers during President Bill Clinton's impeachment trial.
In the spring of 1997, Republican, Bob Barr, wrote House Committee on the Judiciary chairman Henry Hyde, encouraging him to open an impeachment inquiry. Hyde responded that such an action would be premature.
In November 1997, Barr first introduced a resolution directing the House Judiciary Committee to inquire into impeachment proceedings, months before the Monica Lewinsky scandal came to light. This resolution, introduced in November 1997 did not specify any charges or allegations. Foremost among the concerns Barr cited at the time was apparent obstruction of Justice Department investigations into Clinton campaign fundraising from foreign sources, chiefly the People's Republic of China. Barr argued that Clinton had been "systematically operating outside the bounds" of the law. He accused Clinton of "systematic abuse of office", alleging campaign finance law violations and obstruction of congressional investigations. Eighteen other Republican members of the House of Representatives joined Barr in signing on to the resolution as co-sponsors. These members were Roscoe Bartlett, Helen Chenoweth, Barbara Cubin, John Doolittle, Lindsey Graham, Duncan L. Hunter, Sam Johnson, Jack Kingston, Jack Metcalf, John Mica, Ron Paul, Dana Rohrabacher, Pete Sessions, Chris Smith, Mark Souder, Linda Smith, Bob Stump, and Todd Tiahrt.
After the Lewinsky scandal broke, Barr was the first lawmaker in either chamber to call for Clinton's resignation. After the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal came to light, Barr ramped up his efforts to push for Clinton's impeachment, appearing regularly on television, as well as even publishing a scholarly article in the Texas Law Review on the subject.
During debate on the 1998 impeachment resolution on the House floor, Barr argued that Clinton's attempt to interfere with Lewinsky's testimony in the Paula Jones case endangered the Constitution. In doing so, Barr said, Clinton violated what Barr called a "fundamental right" of any American citizen – "the unshakable right each one of us has to walk into a courtroom and demand the righting of a wrong."
In 1999, during Clinton's impeachment trial, Hustler publisher Larry Flynt offered money to anyone who could provide evidence about prominent Republicans who had engaged in an extramarital affair. According to the American Journalism Review, investigators for Flynt said that Barr was "guilty of king-size hypocrisy." Flynt subsequently paid a sum of money to Barr's second wife, Gail Barr, after she had sworn out an affidavit. Investigators reported that Bob Barr then "invoked a legal privilege from his 1985 divorce proceeding so he could refuse to answer questions on whether he'd cheated on his second wife with the woman who is now his third" (Jerilyn).
Criticism of Bush Administration
Since leaving Congress in 2003, Barr has become a vocal opponent of the Patriot Act and has stated that he voted for it reluctantly and regrets voting for it, only agreeing because the Bush administration promised not to attempt to expand the granted powers or use them for non-terrorism purposes, and the administration agreed to report to Congress on their usage. Barr says that the Bush administration promptly ignored these three promises given to Congress and has used the powers granted from the Patriot Act to further erode due process of law even in matters unrelated to terrorism. Barr claims that the Clinton administration did much of the same thing. In 2005 – the year the Patriot Act was due for renewal – Barr helped found an organization called Patriots to Restore Checks and Balances, a bipartisan group dedicated to eliminating aspects of the Patriot Act that could potentially affect law-abiding citizens rather than terrorists, and to "restore traditional checks and balances on government power so the country can effectively fight terror without sacrificing the rights of innocent Americans, rights that are guaranteed by the Constitution." Barr still serves as the group's chairman.
Barr has been a vocal opponent of President George W. Bush's claim of authorization to wiretap transnational phone calls without individual judicial license. He has said, "What's wrong with it is several-fold. One, it's bad policy for our government to be spying on American citizens through the National Security Agency. Secondly, it's bad to be spying on Americans without court oversight. And thirdly, it's bad to be spying on Americans apparently in violation of federal laws against doing it without court order."
In 2006, he debated the architect of the Patriot Act, Viet Dinh, on terrorism and privacy issues.
Departure from Republican Party
In the 2004 presidential election, Barr left the Republican Party and publicly endorsed the Libertarian Party presidential nominee Michael Badnarik.
In 2006, he joined the Libertarian Party as a regional representative, then serving on the Libertarian National Committee.
Political associations
Barr sat on the Board of Directors of the National Rifle Association from 2001 to 2007.
Barr is a commentator on political and social issues and is chairman of the American Conservative Union Foundation's '21st Century Center for Privacy and Freedom'.
In January 2006, to emphasize the bipartisan nature of the event, Barr planned on introducing Al Gore at a speech co-sponsored by the Liberty Coalition and the American Constitution Society for Law and Policy to address what they called the "NSA Spying Scandal", in which Gore compared warrantless wiretapping to the FBI's illegal COINTELPRO project surveilling, discrediting and disrupting Martin Luther King Jr.
Libertarian Party
On December 12, 2006, Barr became a regional representative on the Libertarian National Committee, representing the Party's Southeast Region. Barr said: "I'm happy to announce that I am now a proud, card-carrying Libertarian who is committed to helping elect leaders who will strive for smaller government, lower taxes and abundant individual freedom."
Marijuana Policy Project
In Congress, Barr's strong stance against medical marijuana put him at odds with marijuana policy reformers such as the Marijuana Policy Project (MPP). Despite this historic antagonism, in March 2007, Barr reversed his stance on medical marijuana and began lobbying on behalf of MPP. This new partnership saw Barr working to repeal his very own "Barr Amendment" – the amendment that overturned a voter-approved medical marijuana initiative in Washington, D.C. and bars consideration of similar initiatives.
Barr has been careful to note that he isn't pro-drug, but rather against government intrusion. In interviews he has expressed the nuanced position of simultaneously opposing legalization, yet advocating the federalist ideals of State legislation and enforcement over Federal control.
Barr's reversal on drug policy surprised many, particularly MPP. His new-found appreciation for harm reduction was heartily welcomed:
American Freedom Agenda
Barr is one of the four founders of the American Freedom Agenda, which is described as "a coalition established to restore checks and balances and civil liberties protections under assault by the executive branch." The American Freedom Agenda has established a 10-point Freedom Pledge for presidential candidates to confirm their commitment to civil liberties. He is also a member of the Constitution Project's bipartisan Liberty and Security Committee.
Liberty Guard
Barr is Chairman of the Board of Directors of Liberty Guard, an IRS 501(c)4 organization, which states its mission is to protect and defend individual liberty.
National Popular Vote
Barr is a supporter of the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact.
Other activities
In early 2008, Barr became an adjunct professor at Kennesaw State University and was scheduled to teach a course on privacy rights titled "Privacy and Public Policy in 21st Century Business and Society."
Barr appeared in the mock documentary Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan. In his scene, he met with "Borat Sagdiyev" (portrayed by Sacha Baron Cohen) in the United States Capitol. Borat gave him cheese described as being made from Borat's wife's breast milk.
Barr endorsed the Free State Project on July 22, 2008 saying, "I think it's tremendous!"
Barr is listed as the President of the Law Enforcement Education Organization, a non-profit organization with a mission of serving "active-duty and retired law enforcement officers, by educating and assisting law enforcement personnel and agencies meet challenges posed by certain laws and regulations."
Publications and commentary
Barr wrote The Meaning of Is: The Squandered Impeachment and Wasted Legacy of William Jefferson Clinton (published in 2004). He briefly wrote a regular column for Creative Loafing (Atlanta), an alternative weekly newspaper serving the Atlanta metropolitan area.
In 2008 Barr hosted a political talk radio show on Radio America called Bob Barr's Laws of the Universe. He has said that he plans to write a book with that title.
In August 2008, Barr published an opinion piece in The Washington Times that criticized the United States' response to the conflict between Russia and Georgia as being too emotional and not based on legitimate American national security concerns. He wrote: "The most important American interest is defending America; and intervening on behalf of Georgia against Russia has nothing to do with defending America." In October 2008, Barr gave a one-hour talk at Carnegie Mellon University, allowing time to take audience questions. This was one of numerous lectures for which he was paid.
In 2008, in an Op-Ed article published in the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Barr lambasted the new policy of Boston, Massachusetts police to allow warrantless search for firearms in teenagers' homes. On March 7, 2009, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution announced that Barr would be a weekly columnist for the paper. His blog is known as The Barr Code.
Advising former Haitian dictator Jean-Claude Duvalier
In 2011, Barr traveled to Haiti to lobby on behalf of "former Haitian dictator Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier." According to Barr, "he is not serving as Duvalier's attorney, but is in Port-au-Prince to consult, assist and be Duvalier's voice to the international community."
2008 presidential campaign
In early 2008, rumors circulated that Barr was considering a presidential run under the Libertarian Party banner. Activists began a Facebook group dedicated to drafting Barr into the nomination contest, and Barr later confirmed his interest. He launched a presidential exploratory committee and campaign website on April 5, and formally announced his candidacy for the Libertarian nomination on May 12. His announcement came a mere ten days before the start of the Libertarian Party Convention, where delegates select the presidential candidate.
Following his announcement, Rasmussen Reports had Barr polling at 6% nationwide against Barack Obama (42%), John McCain (38%), and Ralph Nader (4%). The study identified Barr as the Libertarian candidate, but most voters said they did not know enough about him to have an opinion of him personally. Barr's support in the poll was a net drain on Republicans; he picked up 7% of the Republican vote, 5% of the Democratic vote, and 5% of the unaffiliated vote.
On May 25, 2008, Barr became the 2008 Libertarian presidential nominee after six rounds of voting at the 2008 Libertarian convention. He beat Mary Ruwart in the final round of voting, with 324 delegates to Ruwart's 276, with 26 none-of-the-above votes. Barr had received the endorsement of Wayne Allyn Root, one of his rivals for the nomination, after Root was eliminated following the fifth round of balloting. Barr, in turn, endorsed Root for the party's vice presidential nomination, which he received. Reason magazine senior editor Radley Balko called Barr "the first serious candidate the LP has run since I've been eligible to vote."
On June 4, 2008, Barr invited the Republican Party's presumptive presidential nominee, John McCain, and the Democratic Party's presumptive presidential nominee, Barack Obama, to weekly presidential debates through an official press release.
Many opinion leaders predicted that Barr could siphon off conservative votes that would have otherwise gone to McCain. John Linder, who defeated Barr for the Republican nomination in a 2002 congressional race, said that Barr could cause serious problems for McCain in some states. Barr repeatedly rejected this assertion as scapegoating, responding that small-government Republicans would not vote for McCain anyway, nor would civil liberties advocates vote for Obama.
Barr appeared on the ballot in 45 states. In July, he filed a lawsuit against Oklahoma for its unusually restrictive ballot access laws, which he contends are contrary to the First Amendment right to petition one's government for a redress of grievances. In July, a Zogby poll had Barr receiving 6% of the vote nationwide, as well as double digits in several states.
A Zogby poll released on August 15, 2008, indicated that most Republican and Democratic voters wanted Barr to be included in the presidential debates. The poll also indicated that almost 70% of independent voters would have liked to see him included.
On September 17, 2008, Barr filed suit in Texas to remove both McCain and Obama from the ballot. Both political parties failed to file their nominees by the deadline. On September 23, 2008, the Texas Supreme Court rejected the request without giving a reason for its decision.
Among his campaign positions, Barr distinguished himself strongly from Obama and McCain by opposing the financial bailout bill.
On November 4, 2008, Barr received 523,686 votes, 0.4% of the national vote.
Return to Republican Party
Following his statement that he would not challenge the Republican incumbent in the 2012 primary race for Georgia's 14th congressional district, he subsequently indicated his return to the Republican Party and support for 2012 GOP congressional candidates when stating – "Our country is at a serious cross-roads, without question we need new leadership in the White House, and a part of that turnaround in 2012 will be solid GOP majorities in both chambers of Congress."
Aborted 2012 congressional campaign
Barr had expressed interest in running for Congress again as a Republican in 2012, challenging incumbent Republican Tom Graves in Georgia's 14th district. The newly created district included Floyd and Paulding counties, which were part of the territory Barr represented in his first congressional stint. Between them, they made up 38 percent of the 14th's population. Barr has lived in Smyrna, in Cobb County, for many years, but told several friends he planned to move to Paulding County in order to challenge Graves. Despite strong polling numbers, Barr chose to abandon his plans for running, citing concern on the potential impact it would have on his law firm and family.
2014 congressional campaign
Barr held a news conference on March 28, 2013 at Adventure Outdoors in Smyrna, Georgia where he announced his upcoming run for his old congressional seat, the 11th. The seat had come open after his successor, Phil Gingrey, gave it up to run for Senate. Barr was vying to become the first Georgia Republican to return to the U.S. House after a gap in service. Barr placed second in his six-way House primary with 26% of the vote. State Senator Barry Loudermilk, who was backed by the Senate Conservatives Fund, placed first in the primary with 37%. Since no candidate won at least 50% (plus 1) of the vote, a runoff took place on July 22, 2014. Barr lost the runoff to Loudermilk by a nearly 2:1 margin.
See also
List of federal political sex scandals in the United States
Defense of Marriage Act
References
External links
Bob Barr papers at the University of West Georgia
Liberty Strategies Barr's consulting firm
Liberty Guard Barr's blog
Presidential campaign
Official 2008 Presidential Campaign website
Campaign page at YouTube
Candidate profile at Project Vote Smart
Issue positions and quotes at OnTheIssues.org
Campaign contributions of The Bob Barr Leadership Fund from the FEC
Bob Barr, "Why I Want to be President" at Reason.tv
Presidential campaign FEC disclosure report
Video
Barr interviewed on Fox News
Video interview/discussion with Barr by Jane Hamsher on Bloggingheads.tv
Congress
Library of Congress web archive of 2002 campaign website
Writings
The Barr Code archives of his columns from The Atlanta Journal-Constitution (2008)
Bob Barr column archives at the American Conservative Union (2003–2007)
Bob Barr's blog at The Huffington Post (2005–2006)
The FBI's Pre-Emptive Interrogations Of "Possible" Demonstrators – Article by Barr on FindLaw, August 25, 2004
|-
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University of Southern California alumni | [
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|
214345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Military%20Commission%20%28China%29 | Central Military Commission (China) | The Central Military Commission (CMC) is the highest national defense organization in the People's Republic of China. It operates within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) under the name "Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China", and as the military branch of the central government under the name "Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China".
Under the arrangement of "one organization with two names", both commissions have identical personnel, organization and function, and operate under both the party and state systems. The commission's parallel hierarchy allows the CCP to supervise the political and military activities of the People's Liberation Army (PLA), including issuing directives on senior appointments, troop deployments and arms spending.
The CMC is chaired by Xi Jinping, the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and paramount leader. Almost all the members are senior generals, but the most important posts have always been held by the party's most senior leaders to ensure absolute loyalty of the armed forces. CMC has control over 6.8 million personnel.
The CMC is housed in the Ministry of National Defense compound ("August 1st or 'Eight-One' Building") in western Beijing.
History
The party military committee dates back to October 1925, and while operating under various degrees of authority and responsibility, was consistently named the CCP Central Military Commission (). Among Western commentators, “Affairs” is frequently dropped from the title. As a commission, it ranks higher in the party hierarchy than departments such as the Organization or United Front Departments. In 1937 the CCP Central Revolutionary Military Commission () was created after the Chinese Soviet Republic's Chinese Red Army were integrated into the Kuomintang's army for the anti-Japanese war, and it later evolved into the Central Military Commission after the Party's 7th Congress in 1945. In this period, the committee was always chaired by Mao Zedong.
In the September 1949 reorganization, military leadership was transferred to a government body, the People's Revolutionary Military Commission of the Central People's Government (). The final coexistence of two military committees was set in 1954, as the CCP Central Military Commission was re-established, while state military authority rested into a National Defense Council of the People's Republic of China () chaired by the President in keeping with the 1954 Constitution.
As Mao Zedong was also the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party and led military affairs as a whole, the CMC and NDC's day-to-day work was carried out by its first-ranking vice-chairman, a post which was occupied by Lin Biao until his death in 1971, then by Ye Jianying. As a consequence of the Cultural Revolution, the Party CMC became the sole military overseeing body, and the National Defence Council was abolished in 1975.
Deng Xiaoping's efforts to institutionally separate the CCP and the state led to the establishment of today’s State CMC, which was created in 1982 by the Constitution of China in order to formalize the role of the military within the government structure. Both the National Defense Commission and State CMC have been described as 'consultative' bodies. Contrarily to the National Defense Commission, however, the Party and state CMCs are almost identical in leadership, composition, and powers.
The Commission included the post of secretary-general until 1992. This post was held by Yang Shangkun (1945–1954), Huang Kecheng (1954–1959), Luo Ruiqing (1959–1966), Ye Jianying (1966–1977), Luo Ruiqing (1977–1979), Geng Biao (1979–1981), Yang Shangkun (1981–1989), Yang Baibing (1989–1992).
In 2016, the 4 traditional general departments were dissolved by order of Chairman Xi Jinping, and in their place 15 new departments were created as part of the ongoing modernization of the PLA.
Command structure
Unlike in most countries, the Central Military Commission is not organizational equivalent of other government ministries. Although China does have a Ministry of National Defense, headed by a Minister of National Defense, it exists solely for liaison with foreign militaries and does not have command authority.
The most important chain of command runs from the CMC to the 15 general departments (Joint Staff Department, Political Work Department, Logistic Support Department, Equipments Development Department) and, in turn, to each of the service branches (ground, navy and air forces). In addition, the CMC also has direct control over the Rocket Forces, Strategic Support Forces, the National Defense University, and the Academy of Military Sciences. As stipulated in the 1997 National Defense Law, the CMC also controls the paramilitary People’s Armed Police (PAP), who have the politically sensitive role of guarding key government buildings (including the main leadership compound of Zhongnanhai in Beijing), armed offender response, emergency response and disaster relief work around China. China Coast Guard (CCG) and the Militia force are also under the control of the CMC. The CMC shared command authority over the PAP with the State Council mostly via the Ministry of Public Security; from 2018 the PAP is under the sole control of the CMC.
Although in theory the CMC has the highest military command authority, in reality the ultimate decision-making power concerning war, armed forces, and national defense resides with the Politburo of the CCP. The CMC is usually chaired by the General Secretary of the CCP, who is supported by two to three vice-chairmen, sometimes, but not currently, including the Defense Minister. Members of the CMC used to include the heads of the PLA’s four general departments and the Commanders of the Ground Force, Air Force, Navy and Rocket Force; but after the recent reform only Minister of National Defense, Chief of Joint Staff, Director of Political Work, and Secretary of Discipline Inspection are included.
Political structure
The armed forces of China also have Joint Staff Department, the Political Work Department, the Logistics Support Department and the Equipment Development Department, which implements the directives of the Central Military Commission. Along with the General Secretary of the Communist Party and Premier of the State Council, the Chairman of the Central Military Commission have consistently been one of the most powerful political leaders in China.
The Chairman of the CMC was twice in its history held by a senior official who had given up his other posts: by Deng in the late 1980s, and by Jiang in the early 2000s. In the case of Deng Xiaoping, because of his prestige, he was able to exercise considerable power after his retirement, in part due to his holding the position of CMC Chairman. There was speculation that Jiang Zemin would have been able to retain similar authority after his retirement from the positions of General Secretary and President, but ultimately Jiang was unable to do so. One major factor is that, in contrast to Deng Xiaoping, who always had close relations with the People's Liberation Army, Jiang had no military background. In addition, with the promotion of the fourth generation of Chinese leaders to lead the civilian party, there was also a corresponding promotion of military leaders. All the military members of the CMC come from Hu Jintao's generation rather than from Jiang's, and at the time of the leadership transition, there appeared some very sharp editorials from military officers suggesting that the military would have strong objections to Jiang attempting to exercise power behind the scenes.
Jiang Zemin relinquished his post as Chairman of the party's Central Military Commission in September 2004 to Hu Jintao, and from the state commission in March 2005, which appeared to solidify Hu's position as paramount leader. However, Jiang had appointed two generals who maintained good relations with him, Xu Caihou, and Guo Boxiong, to the vice-chairman positions, and continued to wield influence through them at the expense of Hu. Unlike Deng and Jiang, Hu relinquished his CMC post along with his remaining leadership offices in favour of his successor Xi Jinping.
In China's state-party-military tripartite political system, the CMC itself is a decision-making body whose day-to-day affairs are not nearly as transparent as that of the Central Committee or the State Council. As one of China's three main decision-making bodies the relative influence of the CMC can vary depending on the time period and the leaders. In the event of war or political crisis, for example, the CMC may well function as a de facto executive for the country's daily affairs.
The Tiananmen Protests of 1989 illustrates how the Central Military Commission functions. CMC Chairman Deng Xiaoping proposed the imposition martial law and the use of armed soldiers to suppress unarmed demonstrations in Beijing.
The Library of Congress says of the two CMCs: "The state Central Military Commission was the state's decision-making body in military affairs and directed and commanded the armed forces. The state Central Military Commission consisted of the chairman, who was commander in chief of the armed forces, an executive vice chairman, two vice chairmen, and four other members. Because the PLA has been under party control since its inception, the leadership of the party over the military did not change with the establishment of the state Central Military Commission. Although parallel leadership blurred the distinction between the two groups, the party Central Military Commission retained its traditional, preeminent position in charge of military affairs."
Election of members
Theoretically, the CCP (Party) CMC is elected by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and is subordinate to the CCP Politburo and the Politburo Standing Committee (PBSC). In practice, membership is very closely controlled by the PBSC.
Similarly, the State CMC is nominally elected by the National People's Congress and theoretically reports to the Congress, but is in practice indistinguishable from the CCP CMC. This difference in elections also results in the only difference in membership between the two bodies, as party organs, such as the party congress and the Central Committee assemble at different times than the National People's Congress. For example, some were elected into the party CMC in the Sixteenth National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in November 2002, but they entered the State CMC in March 2003, when the 10th National People's Congress convened.
The members are generally uniformed military commanders, except for the chairman and first vice-chairman, who have both been drawn from the Politburo in recent years. The military members are generally members of neither the Politburo Standing Committee nor the State Council outside of the Minister of National Defense, although they all tend to be members of the Communist Party and are members of the Central Committee. The military members are apparently chosen with regular promotion procedures from within the PLA.
Members
The make-up of the current Central Military Commission of the Communist Party was determined at the 19th Party Congress held in October 2017; the state commission awaits confirmation at the 2018 National People's Congress.
Chairman
Xi Jinping, also General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, President of the People's Republic of China, and Leader of the CMC Leading Group for National Defence and Military Reform
Vice Chairmen (2)
Air Force General Xu Qiliang, Member of the 19th Politburo, Executive Deputy Leader of the CMC Leading Group for National Defence and Military Reform
General Zhang Youxia, Member of the 19th Politburo, Deputy Leader of the CMC Leading Group for National Defence and Military Reform
Members (4)
General Wei Fenghe, State Councilor and Minister of National Defense
General Li Zuocheng, Chief of Joint Staff
Admiral Miao Hua, Director of the CMC Political Work Department
General Zhang Shengmin, Secretary of the CMC Commission for Discipline Inspection, also a Deputy Secretary of the CCP Central Commission for Discipline Inspection
Organization
The exact internal organisation of the CMC is highly secretive. However, until 2015 it is known that the CMC contained least five key departments. The Joint Staff Department is the nerve center of the entire Chinese military command and control system, responsible for daily administrative duties of the CMC. The General Office processes all CMC communications and documents, coordinate meetings, and convey orders and directives to other subordinate organs.
During the 2015 military reform, by order of Chairman Xi Jinping, 15 departments were created to replace the 5 organs, which were disbanded. The new 15 departments are:
General Office ()
Joint Staff Department ()
Political Work Department ()
Logistic Support Department ()
Equipment Development Department ()
Training and Administration Department ()
National Defense Mobilization Department ()
Discipline Inspection Commission ()
Politics and Legal Affairs Commission ()
Science and Technology Commission ()
Office for Strategic Planning ()
Office for Reform and Organizational Structure ()
Office for International Military Cooperation ()
Audit Office ()
Agency for Offices Administration ()
See also
Leader of the Chinese Communist Party
Ministry of National Defense of the People's Republic of China
Central Security Bureau of the Chinese Communist Party
2015 People's Republic of China military reform
References
Citations
Sources
Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Defence agencies of China
Government agencies of China
Military of the People's Republic of China
National security councils | [
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|
214348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor%20vehicle%20theft | Motor vehicle theft | Motor vehicle theft (also called car theft and, in the United States, grand theft auto) is the criminal act of stealing or attempting to steal a motor vehicle. Nationwide in the United States in 2020, there were 810,400 vehicles reported stolen, up from 724,872 in 2019. Property losses due to motor vehicle theft in 2020 were estimated at $7.4 billion. There were 505,100 car thefts in the EU in 2019, a 43% decrease from 2008.
Methods
Some methods used by criminals to steal motor vehicles:
Theft of an unattended vehicle without a key: the removal of a parked vehicle either by breaking and entry, followed by hotwiring or other tampering methods to start the vehicle, or else towing. In London, the police say that 50% of the annual 20,000 car thefts are now from high-tech OBD (Onboard Diagnostic Port) key-cloning kits (available online) and bypass immobilizer simulators.
Taking without owner's consent (TWOC): the unauthorized use of a car short of theft. This term is used in the United Kingdom, as is the derivative "twocking".
Opportunistic theft: either the removal of a vehicle that is unattended with the keys visible and sometimes the engine idling, or theft of a vehicle offered for sale during what the thief represents as a test drive. A "test drive" may also give a potential thief insight into where the vehicle keys are stored, so that the thief may return later to steal the vehicle.
Carjacking: taking a vehicle by force, or threat of force, against its owner or operator. In most places, this is the most serious form of vehicle theft, because assault also occurs and the method of taking over the vehicle is essentially a robbery, a more serious form of theft. In some carjackings, the operators and passengers are forced from the vehicle while the thief is driving it. In other incidents, the operator and/or passenger(s) are held hostage in it. In still others, which are less common, the assailant forces the lawful operator to drive in accordance with the demands of the assailant, who rides as a passenger.
Fraudulent theft: illegal acquisition of a vehicle from a seller through fraudulent transfer of funds that the seller will ultimately not receive (such as by identity theft or counterfeiting a cashier's check), or through the use of a loan obtained under false pretenses. Many vehicles stolen via fraud are soon resold, by the thieves. Using this approach, the thief can quietly evade detection and continue stealing vehicles in different jurisdictions. Car rental companies and car dealerships are also defrauded by car thieves into renting, selling, financing, or leasing them cars with fake identification, checks, and credit cards. This is a common practice near national borders, where tracking devices are less effective because the victims may lack jurisdiction in the countries into which the vehicles quickly are removed.
Frosting: Occurring in winter, which involves an opportunist thief stealing a vehicle with its engine running whilst the owner de-ices it.
"Hanoi burglary", where a vehicle is taken during a house burglary, often done with the explicit purpose of obtaining car keys. Named after the first police operation targeting the method.
Joyriding: refers to driving or riding in a stolen vehicle, most commonly a car, with no particular goal other than the pleasure or thrill of doing so.
Keyless-Go systems theft: The risk of cars with keyless entry being stolen is high. These are cars where the owner does not have to even press a button to unlock as long as the key is located at a certain distance from the vehicle. In theory, the key's signal should no longer reach the car when the driver moves away, making it impossible to unlock the car. Car thieves extend the signal from the owner's key with the help of simple signal amplifiers. and then all they have to do is open the door, hit the start button and drive away unnoticed. The car's alarm system is totally blind to this.
Auto-theft tools and paraphernalia
A thin metal strap or rod that slips inside a door's cavity at the base of the window, to manipulate an internal locking mechanism or linkage. A famously known tool is called the "slim jim".
A long rod with a hooked end that slips between door and frame, or through an opened window, that can reach and manipulate the door handle or lock from inside the vehicle cab. (A primary technique used professionally.)
Broken pieces of ceramic, often from a spark plug insulator, used for throwing at car door windows so they shatter quietly.
Specially cut or filed-down car keys, numerous tryout keys, jigglers and other lock picking tools.
Slide hammer puller to break apart door locks, steering-wheel locks, and ignition switch locks by forced removal of the cylinder core.
Multimeter or electrician's test lamp to locate a power source, for disabling alarms and jump starting vehicles.
Spare wires and/or a screwdriver to connect a power source to the ignition and starter wires.
Unusual looking electronics gear that may include; laptop or tablet, radio antennas, cables, battery packs, and other modified computer components that look homemade.
Many keyless ignition/lock cars have weak cryptographic protection of their unlock radio signal or are susceptible to some form of record-and-playback or range extending attack. While proof-of-concept "thefts" of top-of-the-line luxury cars have been demonstrated by academic researchers using commercially available tools, such as RFID microreaders, examples of actual car theft using these methods are not very prevalent.
A firearm, knife or other weapon used to break a window.
OBD key cloning kit.
Vehicles most frequently stolen
The makes and models of vehicles most frequently stolen vary by several factors, including region and ease of theft. In particular, the security systems in older vehicles may not be up to the same standard as current vehicles, and thieves also have longer to learn their weaknesses. Scrap metal and spare part prices may also influence thieves to prefer older vehicles.
In Bangkok, Thailand, the most frequently stolen vehicles are Toyota cars, Toyota Hilux and Isuzu D-Max pickups.
In Malaysia, Proton models are the most frequently stolen vehicles, with the Proton Wira being the highest, followed by the Proton Waja and the Proton Perdana.
In the United Kingdom, the Mercedes-Benz C-Class was the most stolen car in 2018, followed by the BMW X5. Police said the growing number of vehicles featuring keyless entry technology was a contributing factor to a rising number of stolen vehicles.
Prevention
There are various methods of prevention to reduce the likelihood of a vehicle getting stolen. These include physical barriers, which make the effort of stealing the vehicle more difficult. Some of these include:
Devices used to lock a part of the vehicle necessary in its operation, such as the wheel, steering wheel or brake pedal. A commonly used device of this kind is the steering-wheel lock (also known as a crook lock or club lock).
Immobilisers allow the vehicle to start only if a key containing the correct chip is present in the ignition. These work by locking the steering wheel and disabling the ignition.
Hidden kill switches cut electric current to the ignition coil, fuel pump, or other system to frustrate or slow down a thief.
Deterrents tell the thief they are more likely to get caught if the vehicle is stolen. These include:
Car alarm systems are triggered by breaking and entry into the vehicle.
Microdot identification tags allow individual parts of a vehicle to be identified.
Signs on windows warning of other deterrents, sometimes as a bluff.
VIN etching may reduce the resale value of parts or increase risk of resale.
Recovery of stolen vehicles
Recovery rates for stolen vehicles vary, depending on the effort a jurisdiction's police department puts into recovery, and devices a vehicle has installed to assist in the process.
Police departments use various methods of recovering stolen vehicles, such as random checks of vehicles that come in front of a patrol unit, checks of all vehicles parked along a street or within a parking lot using automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) or keeping a watchlist of all the vehicles reported stolen by their owners. Police departments also receive tips on the location of stolen vehicles through StolenCar.com or isitnicked.com in the United Kingdom.
In the UK, the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA) provides information on the registration of vehicles to certain companies for consumer protection and anti-fraud purposes. The information may be added by companies with details from the police, finance and insurance companies. Such companies include Carfax in the US, AutoCheck and CarCheck in the United Kingdom, Gapless in Germany and Cartell in Ireland, VinCheckFree Worldwide which then provide online car check services for the public and motor trade.
Vehicle tracking systems, such as LoJack, automatic vehicle location, or OnStar, may enable the location of the vehicle to be tracked by local law enforcement or a private company. Other security devices such as microdot identification allow individual parts of a vehicle to also be identified and potentially returned.
Statistics
Motor vehicle thefts, by country
Criminologist Frank E. Hagan wrote that, "Probably the most important factor in the rate of motor vehicle theft is the number of motor vehicles per capita in the country." Using data supplied by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the estimated worldwide auto-theft rate is 85.3 per 100,000 residents. However, data is not available for all countries, and this crime rate reflects only the most recent year (2018) of reported data. For the 2,302,190,898 people these countries represent, there were a total 1,963,007 cars stolen. New Zealand has the highest auto-theft rate for any fairly large country in the world, at 1172.0 per 100,000 residents in 2018. However Bermuda in its most recent year of reported auto-thefts (2016), reported a rate of 1215.3 per 100,000 people. But the population of Bermuda (63,360) is smaller than many cities in countries such as the US and Canada. Some cities have higher rates than Bermuda, such as Richmond, California, which had an auto-theft rate of 1,518.3 in 2018.
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime notes "that when using the figures, any cross-national comparisons should be conducted with caution because of the differences that exist between the legal definitions of offenses in countries, or the different methods of offense counting and recording". Crime rates in certain neighborhoods or areas in each country may also be higher or lower than the nationwide rate. Furthermore, because the vehicle theft rates shown in the table below are "per 100,000 population"—not per 100,000 vehicles—countries with low vehicle ownership rates will appear to have lower theft rates even if the theft rate per vehicle is relatively high.
See also
Containerization § Hazards
References
External links
Crimes
Property crimes
Vehicle security systems | [
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|
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