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213805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20Underground | Digital Underground | Digital Underground was an American alternative hip hop group from Oakland, California. Their personnel changed and rotated with each album and tour.
Digital Underground's leader and mainstay was Greg "Shock G" Jacobs (also known as Humpty Hump); Shock G formed the group in 1987 with Jimi "Chopmaster J" Dright of Berkeley, California, and Tampa hip-hop radio deejay Kenneth "Kenny-K" Waters.
Heavily influenced by the various funk bands of the 1970s, Digital Underground sampled such music frequently, which became a defining element of West Coast rap. As "Rackadelic", Jacobs designed album covers and cartoon-laced liner notes, in homage to Parliament-Funkadelic album designs. Digital Underground is also notable for launching the career of member Tupac Shakur, as well as spinning off side projects and solo acts including Raw Fusion, Saafir, and singer Mystic.
Following the release of their "Doowutchyalike" single and video in the summer of 1989, the band gained popularity with their song "The Humpty Dance" in 1990. Digital Underground toured nearly every year until 2008; this consisted of live shows in Europe, Japan, Canada, Australia, and the U.S. While the group's origins lay mostly in Oakland and Berkeley, California, various characters and voices from around the U.S and U.K. appeared on the band's albums. Shock G and Money-B were the only individuals to appear on every album. Other recurring key contributors were David "DJ Fuze" Elliot, and deejay/producer Jeremy "J-Beats" Jackson, who both assisted Jacobs in developing the sound.
After approximately 20 years of touring, Shock G announced that the group would officially disband in 2008. Shortly after that announcement was made, the group also confirmed that their May 2008 album ..Cuz a D.U. Party Don't Stop! would be their last studio effort.
History
Formation
Jacobs spent most of his youth in Tampa, Florida and New York City. Founded in 1987, the group's image was originally more militant, and was intended to be a tribute to social activists The Black Panthers. However, when groups like Public Enemy and N.W.A rose to prominence, Jacobs chose to take the image in a more whimsical and upbeat direction.
Sex Packets
Sex Packets, the group's debut album, was released in the spring of 1990 following the success of its two lead off singles. First came "Doowutchyalike," a moderate club hit, followed by the more successful song "The Humpty Dance", a humorous dance number that reached #11 on the Billboard Hot 100, #7 on the R&B charts, and #1 on the Billboard Rap Singles chart. It was rapped by Shock G's alter ego Humpty Hump, and featured a drum track with over 50 confirmed usages in other songs. Sex Packets features P-Funk samples, jazz-influenced interludes, and a combination of samples and live instrumentation, earning it positive reviews and platinum sales.
This Is an EP Release
This Is an EP Release is the RIAA Gold certified second Digital Underground release, from which two songs, "Tie the Knot" and "Same Song" were featured in the film Nothing But Trouble starring Dan Aykroyd, Chevy Chase, Demi Moore, and John Candy. "Tie The Knot," features jazzy piano tracks and a comedic interpretation of "Bridal Chorus". "Same Song" has an organ solo and improvised organ bits throughout the song, making it one of hip hop's first singles to successfully integrate live instrumentation with music samples. Tupac Shakur made his debut on the latter song and portrayed an African king in the video. Tupac also can be heard joking around on the remixed version of "The Way We Swing" as a background vocalist, adding humorous ad-libs between the verses. Tupac first began to appear on stage with the group as one of its dancers and "hype men".
Sons of the P
The group's second full album featured two singles, "No Nose Job" and "Kiss You Back", the latter of which featured multi-layered choruses and background vocals sung by Boni Boyer, who briefly worked with Digital Underground shortly after her stint with Prince's Sign of the Times/Love Sexy band. Despite the fact that a choir of singers were portrayed in the video, the actual studio singing was exclusively Boni on all tracks, excluding the male voices. It has been mistakenly reported that "Kiss You Back" was co-written and co-performed by George Clinton, but his name appears in the writers credit due to a sample of "(Not Just) Knee Deep" by Funkadelic being used. He did, however, actively participate in the writing and recording of the title track "Sons of the P", which he also contributed vocals to, and which marked one of the earliest studio guest appearances by Clinton on a Hip Hop release, which is preceded only by Kurtis Blow's "Magilla Gorilla" released in 1986. Both the album and the "Kiss You Back" single were each certified Gold by the RIAA.
The Body-Hat Syndrome
With the leading single "The Return of the Crazy One," and its accompanying X-rated video, which was reworked for public consumption, gaining positive feedback, the rest of The Body-Hat Syndrome unfurled to less than outstanding crossover commercial acclaim. The album's second single, an anti-racism cultural awareness politico called "Wussup Wit the Luv," featured a solo from Funkadelic guitarist Michael Hampton, as well as a verse and video appearance from Tupac Shakur. This would be the last time Tupac appeared on any Digital Underground release, while lead rappers Saafir and Clee were added to the band's line-up. This album also features "The Humpty Dance Awards", the group's humorous shout-out to the artists who sampled the Humpty Dance prior to 1993.
Future Rhythm
Future Rhythm, the group's fourth full album, would be their first independent release, including two songs that were featured in the Wayans brothers' film Don't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood: "Food Fight", featuring Del tha Funkee Homosapien, and "We Got More" with Luniz. The album also contains an early performance from rapper Sly Boogy, while he was still a member of the Black Spooks, who appeared on the song "Fool Get a Clue."
Who Got the Gravy?
In 1998, eight years after the group's first album, Digital Underground released Who Got the Gravy?, which reached #91 on the Top 200 R&B/Hip-Hop Albums charts. Digital Underground being a West Coast act, the album intentionally featured several East Coast rappers at a time when the East vs. West rivalry was active, in an attempt to both ignore and ridicule it. The guests included New York City natives Big Pun, Biz Markie and KRS-One, and introduced Whuteva and Stylez, while also introducing west coast bay area newcomers Esinchill and female emcee Mystic.
..Cuz A D.U. Party Don't Stop!
Digital Underground's final studio album, ..Cuz a D.U. Party Don't Stop!, was released on May 20, 2008, although a substantial portion of it was recorded at a live show from 2005. Shortly before its release, the group embarked on an indefinite hiatus. Money-B has stated that Shock G expressed interest in writing a book and exploring music that the latter would deem unfit for the Digital Underground name.
On May 18, 2010, The Greenlight EP was released, which features some previously unreleased Digital Underground tracks.
Discography
Albums
Sex Packets (1990) US #24, R&B #8; UK # 59
Sons of the P (1991) US #44, R&B #23
The Body-Hat Syndrome (1993) US #79, R&B #16
Future Rhythm (1996) US #113, R&B #26
Who Got the Gravy? (1998) R&B #91
..Cuz a D.U. Party Don't Stop! (2008)
EPs
This Is an EP Release a.k.a. Same Song (1991) US #29, R&B #7, UK #52
The Greenlight EP (2010)
Soundtracks
Nothing But Trouble (1991)
Don't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood (1996)
Tupac: Resurrection (2003)
Compilations
Yo! Rap Hits (1991)
Oakland Soul: The Bay Area Soundtrack' (1997)
No Nose Job: The Legend of Digital Underground (2002)
The Lost Files (1999)
Outrageous Rap (2002)
Playwutchyalike: The Best of Digital Underground (2003)
Rhino Hi-Five: Digital Underground (2005)
Songs You Know: Ol' Skool Hip Hop (2007)
Westside Bugg Presents... The Best of the West'' (2008)
Singles
Videos
"Doowutchyalike" (1989)
"The Humpty Dance" (1990)
"Doowutchyalike" (video remix) (1990)
"Same Song" (1991)
"Kiss You Back" (1991)
"No Nose Job" (1992)
"Wussup Wit the Luv" (1993)
"Return of the Crazy One" (1994)
"Oregano Flow" (1996)
"Walk Real Kool" (1996)
"Wind Me Up" (1998)
DVDs
Tupac Shakur: Thug Angel: The Life of an Outlaw (2000)
Tupac: Resurrection (2003)
Digital Underground: Raw and Uncut (2004)
One Nation Under a Groove (2005)
References
External links
1987 establishments in California
2008 disestablishments in California
Tupac Shakur
Musical groups from Oakland, California
African-American musical groups
Musical groups established in 1987
Musical groups disestablished in 2008
Hip hop groups from California
Tommy Boy Records artists
Bands with fictional stage personas
Alternative hip hop groups
Hip hop collectives | [
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|
213806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imprisonment | Imprisonment | Imprisonment (from imprison Old French, French emprisonner, from en in + prison prison, from Latin prensio, arrest, from prehendere, prendere, to seize) is the restraint of a person's liberty, for any cause whatsoever, whether by authority of the government, or by a person acting without such authority. In the latter case it is "false imprisonment". Imprisonment does not necessarily imply a place of confinement, with bolts and bars, but may be exercised by any use or display of force (such as placing one in handcuffs), lawfully or unlawfully, wherever displayed, even in the open street. People become prisoners, wherever they may be, by the mere word or touch of a duly authorized officer directed to that end. Usually, however, imprisonment is understood to imply an actual confinement in a jail or prison employed for the purpose according to the provisions of the law.
Sometimes gender imbalances occur in imprisonment rates, with incarceration of males proportionately more likely than incarceration of females.
History
Africa
Before colonisation, imprisonment was used in sub-Saharan Africa for pre-trial detention, to secure compensation and as a last resort but not generally as punishment, except in the Songhai Empire (1464-1591) and in connection with the slave trade. In the colonial period, imprisonment provided a source of labor and a means of suppression. The use of imprisonment has continued to the present day.
Australia
Incarceration in what became known as Australia was introduced through colonization. As noted by scholar Thalia Anthony, the Australian settler colonial state has engaged in carceral tactics of containment and segregation against Aboriginal Australians since colonizers first arrived, "whether that be for Christian, civilizing, protectionist, welfare, or penal purposes." When settlers arrived, they invented courts and passed laws without consent of Indigenous peoples that stated that they had jurisdiction over them and their lands. When Indigenous peoples challenged these laws, they were imprisoned.
England and Wales
In English law, imprisonment is the restraint of a person's liberty. The 17th century book Termes de la Ley contains the following definition:
Imprisonment without lawful cause is a tort called false imprisonment.
In England and Wales, a much larger proportion of the black population is imprisoned than of the white.
See also
Detention (imprisonment)
Life imprisonment
Imprisonment for public protection
Prison
Prisoner of war
Notes and references
External links | [
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|
213814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%20Vollmer | August Vollmer | August "Gus" Vollmer (March 7, 1876 – November 4, 1955) was the first police chief of Berkeley, California, and a leading figure in the development of the field of criminal justice in the United States in the early 20th century. He has been described as "the father of modern policing". Vollmer played an influential role in introducing early 20th-century police reforms, which increasingly militarized police departments in the United States. A veteran of the Spanish–American War in the Philippines and the Philippine–American War, Vollmer introduced reforms that reflected his experiences in the U.S. military.
Early life
Vollmer was born in New Orleans to German immigrant parents, John and Philopine (Klundt) Vollmer. His father saw to it that he learned to box and swim, both of which he excelled at. Upon his father's death, his mother returned to Germany with her children for two years, after which she returned to New Orleans in 1886, but soon thereafter decided to move her family to San Francisco. In July 1890, the Vollmer family moved across the bay to Berkeley.
Before he was 20, August helped organize the North Berkeley Volunteer Fire Department, and in 1897, was awarded the Berkeley Fireman medal. He supported his mother and the rest of his family as a partner in Patterson and Vollmer, a hay, grain, wood and coal supply store, at the corner of Shattuck Avenue and Vine Street near a fire station north of downtown Berkeley.
In 1898, August enlisted in the Eighth Corps of the United States Army, fighting in numerous engagements in the Spanish–American War in the Philippines as well as taking part in occupation duties following the close of formal combat. Vollmer left the military in August 1899 and returned to Berkeley. In March 1900, he began working for the local post office.
Law enforcement
In 1904, Vollmer became a local hero when he leapt onto a runaway railroad freight car on Shattuck Avenue in downtown Berkeley and applied its brakes, preventing a disastrous collision with a passenger coach loaded with commuters at the Berkeley station. This event led to his election as town marshal on April 10, 1905.
In 1907, Vollmer was re-elected town marshal. He was also elected president of the California Association of Police Chiefs, even though, by title, he was not yet a police chief himself. In 1909, Berkeley created the office of police chief, and Vollmer became the first to hold that office.
Drawing on his military experience, and his own research, Vollmer reorganized the Berkeley police force. Vollmer had discovered that very little literature existed in the United States on the subject of police work, so he located and read a number of European works on the subject, in particular, Criminal Psychology, by Hans Gross, an Austrian criminologist, and Memoirs of Vidocq, by Eugène François Vidocq, head of the detective division of the French police in Paris. He then set out on a program of modernization. He established a bicycle patrol and created the first centralized police records system, designed to streamline and organize criminal investigations. He established a call box network. And he trained his deputies in marksmanship.
In the ensuing years, Vollmer's reputation as the "father of modern law enforcement" grew. He was the first chief to require that police officers attain college degrees, and persuaded the University of California to teach criminal justice. In 1916, UC Berkeley established a criminal justice program, headed by Vollmer. At Berkeley, he taught O. W. Wilson, who went on to become a professor and continued efforts to professionalize policing, by being the first to establish the first police science degree at Municipal University of Wichita (now Wichita State University). This is often seen as the start of criminal justice as an academic field.
Vollmer's courses taught how there were "racial types", and how "heredity" and "racial degeneration" contributed to crime.
Vollmer was also the first police chief to create a motorized force, placing officers on motorcycles and in cars so that they could patrol a broader area with greater efficiency. Radios were included in patrol cars. He was also the first to use the lie detector, developed at the University of California, in police work. Vollmer supported programs to assist disadvantaged children, and was often criticized for his leniency towards petty offenders such as drunks and loiterers. He also encouraged the employment and training of African American (first hired in 1919) and female (first hired in 1925) police officers. This included the hiring of Walter A. Gordon, who became the recipient of the Benjamin Ide Wheeler Medal in 1955.
In 1921, Vollmer was elected president of the International Association of Chiefs of Police. Vollmer left the Berkeley Police Department for a brief stint as police chief of the Los Angeles Police Department from 1923 to 1924, but returned upon being disillusioned by the extent of corruption and hostility towards leadership coming from outside the department. Nonetheless, Vollmer introduced militaristic reforms to the LAPD.
Vollmer married Millicent Gardner in 1924. They had no children. In 1926, Vollmer played himself in the silent serial Officer 444 which was filmed in Berkeley under the direction of John Ford's brother Francis Ford.
Vollmer contributed to sections of the Wickersham Commission national criminal justice report of 1931, namely to the fourteenth and final volume, The Police, which advocated for a well-selected, well-educated, and well-funded professionalized police force. Other portions of the Wickersham report were sharply critical of current police practice; one of the volumes was entitled Lawlessness in Law Enforcement. Vollmer was the 1931 recipient of the Benjamin Ide Wheeler Medal.
He retired from the Berkeley Police in 1932 as his eyesight began to fail. He was then appointed as a professor of police administration in the Political Science Department at the University of California, and went on to found its School of Criminology. He was also among the five people elected as the first directors of the East Bay Regional Parks District in 1934. The same year Vollmer was awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences. In 1941, he was instrumental in the establishment of what would become the American Society of Criminology, the leading professional criminological association in the world.
Drug prohibition
Vollmer was against police involvement with the problem of drug addiction, which he viewed as a medical and regulatory issue rather than a criminal one: "Like prostitution, and like liquor, drug use was not a police problem; it never has been and never can be solved by policemen." Vollmer wrote that enforcement of moralistic vice laws leads to police corruption and "engenders disrespect both for law and for the agents of law enforcement." Vollmer supported the establishment of federal distribution, at cost, of habit-forming drugs. Vollner's views, however, found little favor in the prohibitionist-dominated consensus of the time.
Later life and death
Late in life, Vollmer developed Parkinson's disease and cancer. On the morning of November 4, 1955, he told his housekeeper, "I'm going to shoot myself. Call the Berkeley Police", then stepped outside and did so.
Tributes
Bald Peak in the hills above Berkeley was renamed Vollmer Peak.
In 2004 the Alameda County Sheriff's Office christened a new 32-foot custom patrol boat the August Vollmer.
In 1959 the American Society of Criminology established the August Vollmer Award to recognize an individual whose scholarship or professional activities have made outstanding contributions to justice or to the treatment or prevention of criminal or delinquent behavior.
In the Nero Wolfe detective stories created by Rex Stout, Wolfe's doctor, who frequently helps him with his cases, is Dr. Vollmer.
See also
Militarization of police
Notes
References
Oliver, Willard M (2017). August Vollmer: The Father of American Policing. Carolina Academic Press.
Carte, Gene E. and Elaine H. (1975). Police Reform in the United States: The Era of August Vollmer. University of California Press.
Parker, Alfred E. (1972). The Berkeley Police Story (Springfield, Ill: Charles C. Thomas, 1972)
International Assn. of Police Chiefs - Past Presidents
Berkeley Gazette, April 11, 1905
Eugenic Nation: Faults and Frontiers of Better Breeding in Modern America, Alexandra Minna Stern, University of California Press, 2005
Go, Julian (2020). "The Imperial Origins of American Policing: Militarization and Imperial Feedback in the Early 20th Century" American Journal of Sociology 125, (5) https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/708464, 1207.
External links
Guide to the August Vollmer Papers at The Bancroft Library
History, Berkeley Police Department
Vollmer and the Polygraph
Officer 444 at the Internet Movie Database
Officer 444 at the Internet Archive
Photo: August Vollmer, Volunteer Fireman (figure on right with colleague's hand on his shoulder)
Formal Portrait
"Berkeley police treasure found in Texas ‘mystery box’", Berkeleyside, April 22, 2017
1876 births
1955 deaths
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
Criminal justice
Chiefs of the Los Angeles Police Department
People from Berkeley, California
Suicides by firearm in California
1955 suicides | [
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213819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Jay%20College%20of%20Criminal%20Justice | John Jay College of Criminal Justice | The John Jay College of Criminal Justice (John Jay) is a public college focused on criminal justice and located in New York City. It is a senior college of the City University of New York (CUNY). John Jay was founded as the only liberal arts college with a criminal justice and forensic focus in the United States.
History
Founding
In 1964, a committee convened by the Board of Higher Education recommended the establishment of an independent, degree-granting school of police science. The College of Police Science (COPS) of the City University of New York was subsequently founded and admitted its first class in September 1965. Within a year, the school was renamed John Jay College of Criminal Justice to reflect broader education objectives. The school's namesake, John Jay (1745–1829), was the first chief justice of the United States Supreme Court and a Founding Father of the United States. Jay was a native of New York City and served as governor of New York State.
Classes were originally held at the Police Academy on East 20th Street. Leonard E. Reisman served as college president from 1964 to 1970, succeeded by Donald Riddle, president from 1970 to 1975.
Era of protests and disputes
In the spring of 1970, after President Nixon announced that the Cambodian Campaign would be extended, the college held two "heated" teach-ins about the conflict. Many other college campuses were home to student strikes across the nation. On May 7, 1970, the faculty voted 52–39 in favor of closing the college in protest of President Nixon's handling of the Vietnam War and the killing of students by National Guardsmen at Kent State University and Jackson State College. But the closing of John Jay College would ultimately be up to its students, the faculty decided. At an impassioned student meeting, the final vote was 865–791 in favor of keeping the college open.
In the summer of 1970, Professor Abe Blumberg made some criticisms of the FBI and the Director J. Edgar Hoover in a graduate course on the sociology of law. One of his students, an FBI agent named Jack Shaw, examined the agency's role in American society in his master's thesis, granting that some of Blumberg's criticisms may have been valid. His paper found its way to Hoover's hands, who ordered that Shaw resign and told President Riddle that as long as Blumberg (a tenured professor) remained on the faculty, no FBI agents would attend John Jay. Riddle defended Blumberg, citing academic freedom. After Hoover's death in 1972, FBI agents began to enroll again at the college. The FBI later paid former agent Shaw $13,000 in back pay.
Open admissions
CUNY's open admissions Program came into effect in the fall of 1970. Adopting the Open Admissions policy meant that the university would now provide a place for any high school graduate who desired to attend. Across CUNY, student enrollment ballooned. At John Jay, undergraduates numbered 2,600 in 1969; 4,400 in 1970; 6,700 in 1972; and 8,600 in 1973. The size of the faculty grew by over 200% between 1970 and 1972. Moreover, the policy brought many more "civilian" (non-law enforcement) students to the college. The school's massive and sudden growth had a profound effect. More of the college's budget went toward remedial programs to help transition underprepared freshmen. In addition, the college broadened its curriculum, expanding into liberal arts. Majors including English, Math, American Studies, and Chemistry were introduced during this period in the early 1970s. The SEEK program developed during this time as well, supporting students from underprivileged backgrounds who showed academic promise.
President Riddle resigned to become chancellor of the University of Illinois at Chicago. From 1975 to 1977, Gerald W. Lynch served as acting president, and in 1977, he was sworn in as college president, a position he would hold until 2004.
As the school grew, its space constraints were felt, despite having acquired the Miles Shoe Building on West 59th Street (North Hall) in 1969. In 1973, John Jay rented the former 20th Century Fox building (South Hall) a few blocks from North Hall.
CUNY fiscal crisis of 1976
In 1976, City University Board of Trustees threatened to shut down the college during a time of fiscal crisis for CUNY and New York City as a whole. Throughout the campaign to "save John Jay," the faculty and administration united to advocate the sentiment voiced by President Lynch in a memo: "John Jay can contribute to the city as a unique resource to help solve the problems of crime, public productivity, manpower needs, and budget management." After weeks of turmoil, the college decided to trim its budget to remain independent rather than merge with Baruch College. On April 5, the Board of Higher Education voted to preserve John Jay. Though the budget cuts were still painful, the college community's efforts were successful.
Curricular expansion
In 1980, at President Lynch's urging, the college established its first doctorate program, offering a Ph.D. in Criminal Justice on the heels of several Master's programs. In the next two decades of Lynch's presidency, enrollment and the faculty grew, the school's external activities expanded, and its curriculum continued to evolve. John Jay continued to pursue an approach to education more attuned to the liberal arts. The college supported more curricular cultural diversity, establishing an Ethnic Studies track and strengthening its Women's Studies program. Between 1985 and 1988, as faculty pursued more research opportunities, the amount of grant money given to John Jay faculty increased by over 500%.
Again, the college felt the constraints of space, and in 1986 acquired Haaren Hall (formerly DeWitt Clinton High School) across the intersection from North Hall. After renovation, Haaren Hall was opened to students in 1988. The new hall included a spacious two-level library, christened Lloyd Sealy Library in 1991 for Lloyd Sealy,
the first African-American Associate Professor of Law and Police Science.
CUNY fiscal crisis of 1995
In 1995, CUNY suffered another fiscal crisis when Governor George Pataki announced a $162 million cut in state financing for the university. The CUNY board of trustees declared a state of financial emergency. By June, in response to the threat of budget cuts, CUNY had adopted a stricter admissions policy for its senior colleges: students deemed unprepared for college would not be admitted, a departure from the 1970 Open Admissions program, in order to save money spent on remedial programs. The proposed $162 million in cuts was reduced to $102 million, which CUNY absorbed by increasing tuition by $750 and offering a retirement incentive plan for faculty. (In May 1996, a State Supreme Court justice ruled that CUNY misused their emergency financial authority to lay off professors, close departments, and cut remedial aid.)
Academic overhaul and campus expansion
On September 11, 2001, John Jay lost 67 alumni and students, many of them firefighters, in the World Trade Center attacks. The school resumed class on September 13, providing additional counseling for students, many of whom saw their studies and career aspirations in a new light. In September 2011, John Jay dedicated a memorial to the fallen members of its community who died on 9/11. The memorial, a large steel fragment from the World Trade Center ruins, was officially unveiled in September 2013.
In 1998, the New York State Legislature had approved a five-year capital budget of $352 million for the college to improve its facilities. The college continued to expand its campus as enrollment grew. The "New Building," a 13-story tower connected to Haaren Hall's west side, opened in 2011, dramatically increasing the college's square footage and adding green space to the campus.
John Jay joined the Macaulay Honors College, an advising program for top students, in September 2012. In December 2012, the college received its largest-ever donation: $5 million from adjunct professor and alumnus Dr. Andrew Shiva.
President Lynch retired in 2004, having headed the longest senior-level administration in City University of New York history. He was succeeded by Jeremy Travis, who was previously a Senior Fellow at the Justice Policy Center and had directed the National Institute of Justice. Travis retired in 2017. Karol Mason, former Assistant Attorney General, assumed the office of college president in August 2017.
Academics
John Jay College of Criminal Justice is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. The school is primarily known for its criminal justice studies, forensic psychology, and forensic science programs, supported by a liberal arts curriculum. The student-faculty ratio is 16:1, and the average freshman retention rate is 78%. The college offers a variety of in-person, online, and hybrid courses. There are a total of 1,100 faculty employed by the school, over one-third of which are full-time faculty members.
Rankings
Forbes, in its 2016 rankings of America's Top Colleges, ranked John Jay as the #497 best college in the country; Forbes also ranked John Jay #175 in the Best College in the Northeast category and #169 in the Best Public Colleges category respectively.
In 2016, Washington Monthly ranked John Jay #72 in its Master's Universities Ranking, which rated universities on their contribution to the public good in three broad categories: social mobility (recruiting and graduating low-income students), research (producing cutting-edge scholarship and PhDs), and service (encouraging students to give something back to their country).
As of 2016, U.S. News and World Report ranked John Jay's Criminology graduate program #10 nationally and its Public Affairs graduate program #56 in the country (in the top 20%). The same publication also ranked John Jay College of Criminal Justice #108 in the Regional Universities North Category, as well as the 34th-top public school in the same region. In an alternative ranking of the top public universities in New York for 2016, Niche ranked John Jay #9. Niche's rankings were based on "key statistics and student reviews" and "the top ranked public colleges are elite academic institutions that provide a good value for in-state students and offer an exceptional college experience" according to Niche's assessment.
John Jay College of Criminal Justice was ranked as the 61st-top college in the United States by Payscale and CollegeNet's Social Mobility Index in 2015, which ranked colleges and universities on their ability to improve both economic opportunity and social stability in our country.
In 2016, Business Insider recognized John Jay as having the 18th-safest college campus in America.
The Military Times ranked John Jay as the #3 Best College for Veterans in its 2015 rankings.
The Conference on College Composition and Communication awarded a certificate of excellence to the John Jay College Writing Program in 2012–2013 for "imaginatively address[ing] the needs and opportunities of its students, instructors, institution, and locale" and offering "exemplary ongoing professional development" for faculty.
Admissions
John Jay College of Criminal Justice had a 37% admission rate in its most recent undergraduate admissions cycle.
Honors programs
John Jay College is a member of the selective Macaulay Honors College program, which awards academically gifted students with a full four-year tuition scholarship, specialized academic advisers, and an Opportunities Fund of $7,500, to be used toward academically enriching experiences. Students accepted into the program are deemed University Scholars and collaborate with other honors students across CUNY campuses. The Macaulay program at John Jay is currently directed by scientist and author Nathan H. Lents.
Research
The college houses multiple research centers and institutes focused on crime and justice:
Academy of Critical Incident Analysis
Center for Crime Prevention and Control
Center for Cybercrime Studies
Center for International Human Rights
Center on Media, Crime and Justice
Center on Race, Crime and Justice
Center on Terrorism
Christian Regenhard Center for Emergency Response Studies
CUNY Dispute Resolution Consortium
Institute for Criminal Justice Ethics
Prisoner Reentry Institute - studies prisoner reentry
Research & Evaluation Center
Degrees offered
John Jay awards bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees, as well as certificates. The college discontinued issuing associate degrees in 2010.
In 2014 John Jay College launched two completely online master's degrees and one online professional certificate. The online portion of the college currently offers a master's degree in Security Management, Master's degree in Public Management, Certificate in Terrorism Studies, and a non-credit Certificate in Homeland Security. John Jay College Online plans to launch more degrees and certificates in the future.
Student life
Approximately 13,000 undergraduate students and 2,000 graduate students attend John Jay.
Although 95% of students enrolled are in-state residents, the college offers a diverse and inclusive environment. Over 75% of the student body identify as a minority (39% Hispanic, 28% White, 21% Black, 12% Asian), while over 130 nationalities are represented among those enrolled at the college. The college's diversity is highlighted even further by the fact that 47% of the student body are first-generation Americans, about half speak a language other than English at home, and 33% are foreign-born.
There are 52 student organizations that are active on campus, many of which are housed in "Club Row", a series of hallways where the student clubs are given space.
The Student Council disburses funds for organizations deemed "Essential Service," such as the Yearbook committee.
Athletics
College teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division III. The Bloodhounds are a member of the City University of New York Athletic Conference (CUNYAC). The following sports are sponsored:
Fall: Men's and Women's Soccer, Women's Volleyball, Women's Tennis, Men's and Women's Cross Country
Winter: Men's and Women's Basketball, Women's Swimming, Rifle and Cheerleading
Spring: Baseball, Softball, Men's Volleyball, and Men's Tennis
Campus
The college consists of six buildings. It is located in Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan close to Central Park, Columbus Circle, Carnegie Hall and Lincoln Center.
The college's newest building, a 13-story, facility, opened in 2011 and occupies a full city block in midtown.
Known around campus as the "New Building" it has been recognized as an "overlooked architectural masterpiece" by The Real Deal, a leading New York City real estate news publication, which recently listed the building among the “ten best buildings to see in America” and one of “coolest works of architecture in the country.
Haaren Hall
Haaren Hall, also known as the 'Tenth Avenue building or, simply, the T building, is the main campus building of John Jay. Located at 899 tenth Avenue, it houses the majority of the administrative departments and classrooms. Originally designed by Charles B.J. Snyder to house De Witt Clinton High School, the building was erected in 1903. In 1988, Haaren Hall was acquired by John Jay and now contains the Lloyd Sealy Library, the Gerald W. Lynch Theater, a gymnasium, and a swimming pool.
North Hall
North Hall, also known as the N building, is located at 445 West 59th Street, diagonally across the intersection from Haaren Hall. Prior to the acquisition in 1973, the building was a shoe factory.
Westport Building
Westport Building, also referred as the W building, is a 24-story residential/commercial skyscraper located at 500 West 56th Street. Constructed in 2003 by The Related Companies, the first two floors of Westport Building are occupied by John Jay. It was also the location of the John Jay branch of Barnes & Noble College Booksellers, until the summer of 2014, in which the bookstore was closed as the campus switched to a digital service.
BMW Building
The BMW Building is a commercial skyscraper on 555 West 57th Street, opened in 1992. Located adjacent to the New Building, the sixth floor of the BMW Building houses the Academic Centers and Training Rooms of John Jay.
54th Street Annex
The 54th Street Annex is a 10-story building, built in 1930 and located at 619 West 54th Street. It is the southernmost structure of the campus. Some of John Jay's administrative offices are located there.
The "New" Building
(Also known as "The Tower" and denoted "NB".) The New Building is located at 11th Avenue between West 58th and 59th Streets. The modernistic , 13-story structure was designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, and structurally engineered by Leslie E. Robertson Associates. The New Building was opened on November 2, 2011, at a cost of $600 million. The tower is directly connected to the western side of Haaren Hall and includes classrooms, conference rooms, a black box theater, a mock court, a 9/11 memorial, and an exterior roof quad called the "Jay Walk."
Notable people
Alumni
Eric Adams (BA), 110th Mayor of New York City (2021–present); 18th Borough President of Brooklyn (2014-2021)
Karl A. Brabenec (MPA), New York State Assemblyman representing district 98
Edward Thomas Brady (MA), trial attorney and former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of North Carolina
Jennings Michael Burch (BA), author of 1984 best-selling memoir They Cage the Animals at Night
Elisa Crespo (BA), executive director of the New Pride Agenda, former candidate for the 15th District in the 2021 New York City Council election
Marcos Crespo (BA), former New York State Assemblyman representing district 85
Petri Hawkins-Byrd (BS 1989), television personality known for his role as bailiff for entire series run of 25 seasons of Judge Judy (1996-2021)
Catalina Cruz (BA), New York State Assembly Member representing district 39 in Queens
Edward A. Flynn, Chief of the Milwaukee Police Department
Dr. Henry Lee (BS '72), forensic scientist and founder of the Henry C. Lee Institute of Forensic Science
Eva Norvind (MA), actor and director
James P. O'Neill (BA), former NYPD Commissioner
Pauley Perrette, actor best known for her role as Abby Scuito on NCIS
Ronald Rice, New Jersey State Senator
Ariel Rios, undercover special agent for the United States Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), killed in the line of duty
Imette St. Guillen, criminal justice graduate student murdered in February 2006. A scholarship was created in her name
Ronald Spadafora, (BA), FDNY Chief
Scott Stringer (BA) (born 1960), former New York City Comptroller (2014-2921), Manhattan Borough President (2006-2013), 2021 mayoral candidate for New York City
Kenneth P. Thompson (BA), former Kings County District Attorney (2014-2016) and former attorney for Dominique Strauss-Kahn accuser Nafissatou Diallo
John Timoney (BA 1974), Chief of the Miami Police Department (2003–10)
Dorothy Uhnak (BA), novelist and detective for the New York City Transit Police Department
Lovely A. Warren (BA), 67th Mayor of Rochester, New York
Faculty, past and present
James DiGiovanna, author and award-winning film reviewer and filmmaker
Sofija Grandakovska, author in the field of comparative literature studies and interdisciplinary studies in Holocaust, Jewish history, literature and culture
Michelle Holder, economist and author
Saul Kassin, distinguished professor of psychology best known for starting the scientific study of police-induced false confessions
Jane Katz, Olympic swimmer and member of the National Jewish Sports Hall of Fame
David M. Kennedy, author of Don't Shoot (2011) and professor of criminology
Nathan H. Lents, scientist and author
John Matteson, winner of the Pulitzer Prize in 2008 for the biography Eden's Outcasts: The Story of Louisa May Alcott and Her Father
Peter Moskos, former Baltimore Police Department officer and author of Cop in the Hood
Kevin Nadal, notable Filipino American professor, author, and microaggressions researcher
Serena Nanda (born 1938), author, anthropologist, and professor emeritus
Steven Penrod, distinguished professor of psychology specializing in the studies of jury decision-making and eyewitness testimony.
Rosalie Purvis, theater director and choreographer
Flora Rheta Schreiber, author of Sibyl (1973)
Lloyd George Sealy, NYPD's first African-American officer to graduate from the FBI National Academy and the first African-American officer in the NYPD to make rank as the commander of a police station
Jay Sexter, psychologist and President Emeritus of Mercy College
Ilyasah Shabazz, author, social activist, and daughter of Malcolm X and Betty Shabazz
Mike Wallace, co-author of the 1999 Pulitzer Prize–winning Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898
Benjamin Ward, first African American New York City Police Commissioner
Nick Wasicsko, youngest-ever mayor of Yonkers, and the youngest mayor in a major American city
Cathy Spatz Widom, distinguished professor of psychology and expert on the long-term consequences of child abuse and neglect, winner of 2016 Stockholm Prize in Criminology.
See also
William E. Macaulay Honors College
John Jay Report, full name: The Nature and Scope of the Problem of Sexual Abuse of Minors by Catholic Priests and Deacons in the United States, a 2004 report commissioned by the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops
Anya and Andrew Shiva Art Gallery
Lloyd Sealy Library
List of NCAA rifle programs
References
External links
Official website
Official athletics website
Educational institutions established in 1964
College of Criminal Justice
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill buildings
Universities and colleges in Manhattan
1964 establishments in New York City
Colleges of the City University of New York
Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan | [
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|
213820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20Bookham | Little Bookham | Little Bookham is a small, historic village in Surrey, England between Great Bookham the “parent” village and Effingham. It is home to several listed historical buildings, included in a large conservation area, along with Ye Olde Windsor Castle public house, Manor House School, and All Saints' Church. The village is centred immediately north of the North Downs and is contiguous with Great Bookham, the two divisions of Bookham having been made in the early medieval period.
History
It is difficult to conjecture when the parish of Little Bookham was formed. The first documentary evidence can be found after the conversion of England to Christianity in the 7th century. The Venerable Bede states that Erconwald, who became Bishop of London in 674, founded the Benedictine Abbey of St. Peter of Chertsey in 666, and Frithuwald, who was sub-king or regent of Surrey, joined in the grant endowing the abbey with certain lands.
Frithuwald, however, seems to have been the subject at that time of Ecgberht, King of Kent, and the charter is stated to have been confirmed by Wulfhere, King of Mercia, to whom the overlordship of Surrey must have been passed before his death in 675. It has been stated that the monastery was first built under King Egbert.
According to a charter C.675, the original of which is lost but which exists in a later form, there was granted to the Abbey twenty dwellings at Bocham cum Effingham. This was confirmed by four Saxon kings; Offa, "King of the Mercians and of the nations roundabout" in 787; Æthelstan who was "King and ruler of the whole island of Britain" in 933 confirmed the privileges to the monastery; King Edgar, "Emperor of all Britain" in 967 confirmed "twelve mansiones" in Bocham, and King Edward the Confessor, "King of the English" in 1062 confirmed twenty mansae at Bocham cum Effingham, Driteham and Pechingeorde. Driteham and Pechingeorde are both referred to in the Domesday Book and appear to have been absorbed into the manors of Effingham and Effingham East Court.
Little Bookham lay within the Anglo-Saxon administrative district of Effingham half hundred.
Little Bookham appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Bocheham. It was held by Halsard from William de Braiose. Its Domesday Assets were: 2 hides; 2 ploughs, of meadow, herbage and pannage worth 11 hogs. It rendered (in total): £3.
Parts of the present parish of Effingham, however, lying to the east of Effingham Common Road at one time belonged to the parish of Little Bookham. The charters of Frithwald, Offa, Edgar and Edward the Confessor are all believed to be substantially fabricated, but probably embodied authentic material or recorded an earlier genuine transaction. These charters were probably written at a later date than stated in order to confirm a position which was thought to have existed at that earlier date. The Charter of Æthelstan is believed to be complete fabrication.
It seems probable, as the number of cottages in Bocham cum Effingham remained constant, that the later charters must have been copies of earlier charters which were not revised to accord with the actual number of cottages at any one time.
The Old Rectory
The King and Queen of Yugoslavia were evacuated to the Old Rectory in Little Bookham during the Second World War, now partly redeveloped into six houses.
Domesday Book record
The Domesday Book of 1086, which was a survey for taxation purposes, makes the first known distinction between the parishes of Great and Little Bookham, if it is assumed that there was no separate parish at the time of the charter of Edward the Confessor in 1062. As the Domesday Book makes no reference to there being a church in Little Bookham, then the church must have been built sometime subsequent to that date and that the parish of Little Bookham is likely a slice cut from the parish of Bookham. By way of confirmation of this supposition that there is no distinction between the two parishes, as recently as 1824, lay documents relate to land transactions, in which land was described as being "in Great Bookham in the parish of Bookham".
The Domesday survey refers to the manor of Little Bookham being held by Halsard of William de Braose, Lord of Bramber, and the manor appears to have remained in the Halsard or Hansard family until about 1291. It would seem, therefore, that Little Bookham Parish Church was built by the Hansard family about 1100 and probably at first was a manorial chapel. It is dedicated to All Saints and is a Grade II* listed building.
Roads in Little Bookham
Lower Road, Water Lane, Manor House Lane, Guildford Road, Woodlands Road, Links Way, Chalkpit Lane, Rectory Lane, Little Bookham Street, Long Meadow, Bennetts Farm Place, Heatherside Close, Fox Lane, Longheath Drive, Burnhams Road, Edgeley, Atwood, Maddox Park, Maddox Lane, Little Acre.
Petition to create Little Bookham postal locality
Royal Mail do not recognise prefixes 'Great' or 'Little' in its published data cross referencing the optional locality line(s) with numerical subdistricts (inward codes) of postcodes, meaning that residents' addresses are incomplete when the information is computer-generated or looked up using postcodes alone.
Royal Mail are willing to update their records to add the specific localities to its data if Mole Valley D.C. and MP, Paul Beresford, need to give permission for this.
The Council have asked residents to sign a petition to show that they support this update, before they decide whether to give their permission. The petition reached sufficient initial support to be hosted at the local authority website. The problem can be overcome manually by broader postcode to traditional/main locality search boxes online.
As of April 2020, Royal Mail now recognises both Little Bookham and Great Bookham as separate localities by their postcodes.
Images
See also
Bookham Commons
Great Bookham
Manor House School, Little Bookham
References
External links
Villages in Surrey
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|
213835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescence | Incandescence | Incandescence is the emission of electromagnetic radiation (including visible light) from a hot body as a result of its high temperature. The term derives from the Latin verb incandescere, to glow white. A common use of incandescence is the incandescent light bulb, now being phased out.
Incandescence is due to thermal radiation. It usually refers specifically to visible light, while thermal radiation refers also to infrared or any other electromagnetic radiation.
Observation and use
In practice, virtually all solid or liquid substances start to glow around , with a mildly dull red color, whether or not a chemical reaction takes place that produces light as a result of an exothermic process. This limit is called the Draper point. The incandescence does not vanish below that temperature, but it is too weak in the visible spectrum to be perceptible.
At higher temperatures, the substance becomes brighter and its color changes from red towards white and finally blue.
Incandescence is exploited in incandescent light bulbs, in which a filament is heated to a temperature at which a fraction of the radiation falls in the visible spectrum. The majority of the radiation, however, is emitted in the infrared part of the spectrum, rendering incandescent lights relatively inefficient as a light source. If the filament could be made hotter, efficiency would increase; however, there are currently no materials able to withstand such temperatures which would be appropriate for use in lamps.
More efficient light sources, such as fluorescent lamps and LEDs, do not function by incandescence.
Sunlight is the incandescence of the "white hot" surface of the sun.
See also
Red heat
List of light sources
luminescence (light emission by substances not resulting from heat)
References
External links
Electromagnetic radiation
Light sources
Luminescence | [
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213836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pippi%20Longstocking | Pippi Longstocking | Pippi Longstocking () is the fictional main character in an eponymous series of children's books by Swedish author Astrid Lindgren. Pippi was named by Lindgren's daughter Karin, who asked her mother for a get-well story when she was off school.
Pippi is red-haired, freckled, unconventional and superhumanly strong – able to lift her horse one-handed. She is playful and unpredictable. She often makes fun of unreasonable adults, especially if they are pompous and condescending. Her anger comes out in extreme cases, such as when a man mistreats his horse. Pippi, like Peter Pan, does not want to grow up. She is the daughter of a buccaneer captain and has adventure stories to tell about that, too. Her four best friends are her horse and monkey, and the neighbours' children, Tommy and Annika.
After being rejected by Bonnier Publishers in 1944, Lindgren's first manuscript was accepted by Rabén and Sjögren. The three Pippi chapter books (Pippi Longstocking, Pippi Goes on Board, and Pippi in the South Seas) were published from 1945 to 1948, followed by three short stories and a number of picture book adaptations. They have been translated into 76 languages and made into several films and television series.
Character
Pippi Longstocking is a nine-year-old girl. At the start of the first novel, she moves into Villa Villekulla: the house she shares with her monkey, named Mr. Nilsson, and her horse that is not named in the novels but called Lilla Gubben (Little Old Man) in the movies. Pippi soon befriends the two children living next door, Tommy and Annika Settergren. With her suitcase of gold coins, Pippi maintains an independent lifestyle without her parents: her mother died soon after her birth; her father, Captain Ephraim Longstocking, goes missing at sea, ultimately turning up as king of a South Sea island. Despite periodic attempts by village authorities to make her conform to cultural expectations of what a child's life should be, Pippi happily lives free from social conventions. According to Eva-Maria Metcalf, Pippi "loves her freckles and her tattered clothes; she makes not the slightest attempt to suppress her wild imagination, or to adopt good manners." Pippi also has a penchant for storytelling, which often takes the form of tall tales.
When discussing Pippi, Astrid Lindgren explained that "Pippi represents my own childish longing for a person who has power but does not abuse it." Although she is the self-proclaimed "strongest girl in the world," Pippi often uses nonviolence to solve conflicts or protect other children from bullying. Pippi has been variously described by literary critics as "warm-hearted," compassionate, kind, clever, generous, playful, and witty to the point of besting adult characters in conversation. Laura Hoffeld wrote that while Pippi's "naturalness entails selfishness, ignorance, and a marked propensity to lie," the character "is simultaneously generous, quick and wise, and true to herself and others."
Development
Biographer Jens Andersen locates a range of influences and inspiration for Pippi not only within educational theories of the 1930s, such as those of A. S. Neill and Bertrand Russell, but also contemporary films and comics that featured "preternaturally strong characters" (e.g. Superman and Tarzan). Literary inspiration for the character can be found in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, E. T. A. Hoffmann's The Strange Child, Anne of Green Gables, and Daddy Long Legs in addition to myths, fairytales, and legends. Andersen argues that the "misanthropic, emotionally stunted age" of the Second World War, during which Lindgren was developing the character, provided the most influence: the original version of Pippi, according to Andersen, "was a cheerful pacifist whose answer to the brutality and evil of war was goodness, generosity, and good humor."
Pippi originates from bedside stories told for Lindgren's daughter, Karin. In the winter of 1941, Karin had come down with an illness and was confined to her sickbed; inspired by Karin's request to tell her stories about Pippi Longstocking—a name Karin had created on the spot—Lindgren improvised stories about an "anything-but-pious" girl with "boundless energy." As a child, Karin related more to Annika and Tommy, rather than Pippi, who she felt was very different from her personality. Pippi became a staple within the household, with Karin's friends and cousins also enjoying her adventures. In April 1944, while recovering from a twisted ankle, Lindgren wrote her stories about Pippi in shorthand, a method she used throughout her writing career; a copy of the clean manuscript was turned into a homemade book for Karin and given to her on May 21, while another was posted to publisher Bonnier Förlag, where it was rejected in September on the grounds of being "too advanced."
After her critical success with her debut children's novel The Confidences of Britt-Mari (1944), Lindgren sent the manuscript for Pippi Longstocking to her editor at Rabén and Sjögren, the children's librarian and critic Elsa Olenius, in May 1945. Olenius advised her to revise some of the "graphic" elements, such as a full chamber pot being used as a fire extinguisher, and then to enter it into the upcoming competition at Rabén and Sjögren, which was for books targeted at children between the ages of six and ten. Critic Ulla Lundqvist estimates that a third of the manuscript was altered, with some changes made to improve its prose and readability, and others done to the character of Pippi, who according to Lundqvist "acquire[d] a new modesty and tenderness, and also a slight touch of melancholy," as well as "less intricate" dialogue. Pippi Longstocking placed first and was subsequently published in November 1945 with illustrations by Ingrid Vang Nyman. Two more books followed: Pippi Goes on Board (1946) and Pippi in the South Seas (1948). Three picture books were also produced: Pippi's After Christmas Party (1950), Pippi on the Run (1971), and Pippi Longstocking in the Park (2001).
Name
The original Swedish language books give Pippi's full name as Pippilotta Viktualia Rullgardina Krusmynta Efraimsdotter Långstrump. Although her surname Långstrump – literally long stocking – translates easily into other languages, her personal names include invented words that cannot be translated directly, and a patronymic (Efraimsdotter) which is unfamiliar to many cultures. English language books and films about Pippi have given her name in the following forms:
Pippilotta Rollgardinia Victualia Peppermint Longstocking
Pippilotta Delicatessa Windowshade Mackrelmint Efraim's Daughter Longstocking
Pippilotta Delicatessa Windowshade Mackrelmint Efraimsdotter Longstocking
Pippilotta Provisionia Gaberdina Dandeliona Ephraimsdaughter Longstocking
In 2005, UNESCO published lists of the most widely translated books. In regard to children's literature, Pippi Longstocking was listed as the fifth most widely translated work with versions in 70 different languages. As of 2017, it was revealed that Lindgren's works had been translated into 100 languages. Here are the character's names in some languages other than English.
In Afrikaans
In Albanian
In Arabic
In Armenian
In Azerbaijani
In Basque
In Belarusian
In Bulgarian
In Breton
In Catalan
In Chinese
In Czech
In Danish
In Dutch
In Esperanto
In Estonian
In Faroese
In Filipino
In Finnish
In French (literally "Fifi Strand of Steel")
In Galician
In Georgian or
In German
In Greek (literally "Pippi the freckle-nosed girl")
In Hebrew or or the phonetic matching בילבי לא-כלום bílbi ló khlum, literally "Bilby Nothing" in old translations
In Hungarian
In Icelandic
In Indonesian
In Irish
In Italian
In Japanese
In Karelian
In Khmer
In Korean
In Kurdish
In Latvian
In Lithuanian
In Macedonian
In Mongolian
In Norwegian
In Persian
In Polish or
In Portuguese (Brazil), (Portugal)
In Romanian (Romania), (Moldova)
In Russian or
In Scottish Gaelic
In Scots
In Serbian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Bosnian /
In Slovak
In Slovene
In Spanish (Spain), or (Latin America)
In
In Thai
In Turkish
In Ukrainian
In Urdu
In Vietnamese
In Welsh
In Yiddish
Cultural impact
Pippi Longstocking quickly became popular in Sweden upon publication, and by the end of the 1940s, 300,000 copies had been sold, saving Rabén and Sjögren from impending financial ruin. This was partially due to Olenius's marketing: she ensured that the book was frequently read to a radio audience, as well as helping to put on a popular adaptation of the book at her children's theatre at Medborgarhuset, Stockholm, in March 1946, for which only a library card was required for admission. This performance also toured other Swedish cities, including Norrköping, Göteborg, and Eskilstuna. Another factor in the book's success was two positive reviews by the influential Swedish critics of children's culture, Eva von Zweigbergk and Greta Bolin, writing for Dagens Nyheter and Svenska Dagbladet, respectively; they praised the main character as "a liberatory force." Zweigbergk wrote that Pippi could provide an outlet for regular children who do not have the considerable freedom she possesses, with which Bolin agreed, remarking that Pippi's humor and antics would also appeal to adults for the same reason.
Subsequent reviews of Pippi Longstocking echoed the general opinions of von Zweigbergk and Bolin towards the book, until John Landquist's criticism in an August 1946 piece published in Aftonbladet, titled "BAD AND PRIZEWINNING." Landquist, who worked as a professor at Lund University, argued that the book was badly done, harmful to children, and that Pippi herself was mentally disturbed. Further criticism of Pippi's supposedly "unnatural" and harmful behavior followed in an article in the teachers' magazine Folkskollärarnas Tidning and in readers' letters to magazines. This debate over Pippi's performance of childhood colored the reviews of the sequel Pippi Goes On Board (October 1946), some of which responded to Landquist's argument within the review itself. Regardless, Pippi continued to maintain her popularity and was featured in a range of merchandising, adaptations, and advertising.
In 1950, Pippi Longstocking was translated into American English by Viking Books, featuring Louis Glanzman's artwork. It did not become a bestseller, although sales did eventually improve after the initial release; more than five million copies had been sold by 2000. Pippi was positively received by American reviewers, who did not find her behavior "subversive" or problematic, but rather "harmless" and entertaining. Eva-Maria Metcalf has argued that Pippi was subject to a "double distancing" as both a foreign character and one believed to be nonsensical, thus minimizing her potentially subversive actions that had stirred the minor controversy earlier in Sweden. As a result of Pippi and Lindgren's growing recognition in the United States, Pippi's behavior in later books became more critically scrutinized by literary critics, some of whom were less sure of the "hilarious nonsensical behavior, the goodness of her heart, and the freedom of her spirit" that had been lauded in earlier reviews. Reviewers of Pippi in the South Seas in The Horn Book Magazine and The Saturday Review found Pippi to be less charming than in earlier books, with The Saturday Review describing her as "noisy and rude and unfunny."
An influential television adaptation of Pippi Longstocking debuted on 8 February 1969 in Sweden, and was broadcast for thirteen weeks, during which it acquired a considerable following. It was directed by Olle Hellbom, who later directed other adaptations of Lindgren's works. Inger Nilsson starred as Pippi, and upon the broadcast of the television series, she became a celebrity along with her co-stars Pär Sundberg and Maria Persson, who played Tommy and Annika respectively. In this adaptation Pippi's horse that is unnamed in the novels was called Lilla Gubben (Little Old Man). As a result of Lindgren's considerable unhappiness with the lesser-known Swedish film adaptation of Pippi Longstocking (1949), she wrote the screenplay for the television adaptation, which stuck more closely to the narrative of the books than the film had. Scholar Christine Anne Holmlund briefly discussed the difference she found between the two iterations of Pippi, namely that Viveca Serlachius's portrayal of Pippi sometimes took on middle-class sensibilities in a way that other iterations of Pippi had not, for example, purchasing a piano in one scene only to show it off in Villa Villakula. In contrast, the Pippi of Hellbom's television series and subsequent tie-in 1970 films, Pippi in the South Seas and Pippi on the Run, is an "abnormal, even otherworldly," periodically gender-defying bohemian reminiscent of Swedish hippies. Holmlund argued that both Gunvall and Hellbom's adaptations depict her as a "lovably eccentric girl."
In the twenty-first century, Pippi has continued to maintain her popularity, often placing on lists of favorite characters from children's literature or feminist characters. She is regarded as the most well-known of Lindgren's creations, and appears as a character in Astrid Lindgren's World, a theme park in Vimmerby, Sweden, dedicated to Lindgren's works, and on the obverse of the Swedish 20 kronor note, as issued by Riksbank. Additionally, Pika's Festival, a children's festival in Slovenia, borrows its name from her. Pippi has also inspired other literary creations: for his character Lisbeth Salander in the Millennium series, Stieg Larsson was inspired by his idea of what Pippi might have been like as an adult. Pippi has continued to remain popular with critics, who often cite her freedom as part of her appeal. The Independents Paul Binding described her as "not simply a girl boldly doing boys' things," but rather "[i]n her panache and inventiveness she appeals to the longings, the secret psychic demands of girls and boys, and indeed has happily united them in readership all over the world." Susanna Forest of The Telegraph called Pippi "still outrageous and contemporary" and "the ultimate imaginary friend to run along rooftops and beat up the bad guys." In 100 Best Books for Children, Anita Silvey praised the character as "the perfect fantasy heroine — one who lives without supervision but with endless money to execute her schemes."
Pippi has been subject to censorship in translations. A censored edition of Pippi Longstocking appeared in France, with changes made to her character to make her "a fine young lady" instead of "a strange, maladjusted child." Additionally, the publisher, Hachette, thought that Pippi's ability to lift a horse would seem unrealistic to French child readers, and thus changed the horse to a pony. In response to this change, Lindgren requested that the publisher give her a photo of a real French girl lifting a pony, as that child would have a "secure" weightlifting career. Sara Van den Bossche has hypothesized that the lack of controversy as a result of the censorship might be why Pippi Longstocking went mainly unremarked upon in France, whereas in Germany and Sweden, the book quickly became accepted within the countries' respective children's literature canon, even as it stirred controversy over its "anti-authoritarian tendencies." In 1995, an uncensored version of Pippi Longstocking was released in France, which "shook" French readers, although the book did not reach the cultural status as it had in Germany and Sweden.
The character has also centered in debates about how to handle potentially offensive racial language in children's literature. In 2014, the Swedish public broadcaster SVT edited the 1969 television adaptation of Pippi Longstocking with the approval of Astrid Lindgren's heirs: the first edit removed Pippi's reference to her father as "King of the Negroes," a term now offensive in Sweden; and the second eliminated Pippi slanting her eyes, although it kept her pretending to sing in "Chinese". These changes received a backlash: of the first 25,000 Swedish readers polled by the Aftonbladet on Facebook, eighty-one percent disagreed with the idea of removing outdated racial language and notions from Pippi Longstocking, and the columnist Erik Helmerson of Dagens Nyheter labelled the changes as censorship. One of Lindgren's grandchildren, Nils Nyman, defended the edits, arguing that to not do so might have diluted Pippi's message of female empowerment.
Pippi books in Swedish and English
The three main Pippi Longstocking books were published first in Swedish and later in English:
Pippi Långstrump, illustrated by Ingrid Nyman (Stockholm, 1945), first published in English as Pippi Longstocking, translated by Florence Lamborn, illustrated by Louis S. Glanzman (New York, 1950)
Pippi Långstrump går ombord, illustrated by Ingrid Nyman (Stockholm, 1946), translated as Pippi Goes on Board, translated by Florence Laborn and illustrated by Louis S. Glanzman (New York, 1957)
Pippi Långstrump i Söderhavet (Stockholm, 1948), illustrated by Ingrid Nyman, first published in English as Pippi in the South Seas (New York, 1959), translated by Gerry Bothmer and illustrated by Louis S. Glanzman
There are also a number of additional Pippi stories, some just in Swedish, others in both Swedish and English:
Pippi Långstrump har julgransplundring, a picture book first published in Swedish in the Christmas edition of Allers Magazine in 1948, later published in book form in 1979, illustrated by Ingrid Nyman. It was first published in English in 1996 as Pippi Longstocking's After-Christmas Party, translated by Stephen Keeler and illustrated by Michael Chesworth.
Pippi flyttar in, illustrated by Ingrid Nyman, was first published in Swedish as a picture book in 1969, and appeared as a comic book in 1992. Translated by Tiina Nunnally, it was published in English as Pippi Moves In in 2012.
Pippi Långstrump i Humlegården, a picture book illustrated by Ingrid Nyman, published in Swedish in 2000. It was published in English in April 2001 as Pippi Longstocking in the Park, illustrated by Ingrid Nyman.
Pippi ordnar allt (1969), translated as Pippi Fixes Everything (2010)
Other books in Swedish include:
Känner du Pippi Långstrump? (1947)
Sjung med Pippi Långstrump (1949)
Pippi håller kalas (1970)
Pippi är starkast i världen (1970)
Pippi går till sjöss (1971)
Pippi vill inte bli stor (1971)Pippi Långstrump på Kurrekurreduttön (2004)Pippi hittar en spunk (2008)Pippi går i affärer'' (2014)
Notes
Citations
References
Further reading
External links
The home of Pippi Longstocking
Pippi Longstocking and Astrid Lindgren
Japanese stage musical starring Tomoe Shinohara (in Japanese)
Astrid Lindgren characters
Characters in novels of the 20th century
Fictional characters with superhuman strength
Literary characters introduced in 1945
Child characters in film
Child characters in literature
Female characters in film
Female characters in literature
Characters in children's literature
Series of children's books
Sweden in fiction
Swedish children's literature
Fictional Swedish people
Fictional sailors
Fictional princesses
1945 establishments in Sweden
Book series introduced in 1945
ABC Weekend Special
Comedy literature characters | [
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|
213837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20of%20Country%20Music | Academy of Country Music | The Academy of Country Music (ACM) was founded in 1964 in Los Angeles, California as the Country & Western Music Academy. Among the founders were Eddie Miller, Tommy Wiggins, and Mickey and Chris Christensen. They wanted to promote country music in the western 13 states with the support of artists based on the West Coast. Artists such as Johnny Bond, Glen Campbell, Merle Haggard, Roger Miller and others influenced them. A board of directors was formed to govern the academy in 1965.
History and mission
The Country & Western Music Academy was founded in 1964. The Academy sought to promote country/western music in the western states; this was in contrast to the Country Music Association, based in Nashville, Tennessee (then the center of the pop-oriented Nashville sound). During the early 1970s, the organization changed its name to the Academy of Country and Western Music and finally to the Academy of Country Music to avoid confusion about whether the organization was a school. Being based in the West, its early membership was largely composed of those country performers based there. This is evidenced by the early awards shows being dominated by Bakersfield artists Buck and Bonnie Owens, and Merle Haggard. Due to the convergence of country and western music into one genre in the late 20th century, the Academy and the Association no longer have a significant distinction in the artists each organization promotes and recognizes.
At the first ceremony held in 1966 (thus predating its Nashville counterpart's award ceremony by a year), honoring the industry and artist from the previous year. This ceremony was the first awards ceremony in country music. Winners from the first ceremony included Kay Adams, Merle Haggard, Bonnie Owens and Buck Owens. Fran Boyd, the first paid employee, created the original signature “hat” trophy. A different, stylized version is used today. During this time, they expanded the efforts by sponsoring “Country Music Caravan” in Los Angeles and promoting their events (also held in Los Angeles) to benefit Prisoners of War.
Awards
The awards are “dedicated to honoring and showcasing the biggest names and emerging talent in the country music industry.” Every year, the ceremony is televised live from the MGM Grand Garden Arena. Typically, the ACM Awards are presented in April or May and recognize the achievements from the previous year.
The most prestigious awards are for Artist of the Decade and Entertainer of the Year as well as Pioneer. There are a number of other awards to recognize male and female vocalists, albums, videos, songs and musicians.
See also
Country Music Association
Country Music Hall of Fame
Grand Ole Opry
References
External links
Official Broadcast
Music industry associations
American country music
Music organizations based in the United States | [
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|
213839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary%20LaFree | Gary LaFree | Gary LaFree is a Professor and Chair of the Criminology and Criminal Justice department at the University of Maryland, College Park, the Director of the Maryland Crime Research and Innovation Center (MCRIC) and the Founding Director of the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START). His main areas of expertise are sociology, criminology, race and crime, cross-national comparative research and political violence and terrorism.
Education
LaFree received his B.A. (1973), his M.A. (1975) and his Ph.D. (1979) from Indiana University.
Career
Before joining the faculty at Maryland, Dr. LaFree served as the Chair of the Sociology and Criminology Department at the University of New Mexico for six years and as the Director of the New Mexico Criminal Justice Statistics Analysis Center for 13 years (1988-2001). Dr. LaFree was appointed by the Governor of New Mexico to chair the State Crime and Juvenile Justice Coordinating Council—a position that he filled for four years. LaFree previously taught at Indiana University (1975-1976) and the University of New Mexico (1979-2000).
Memberships
LaFree is a member of the American Society of Criminology (ASC) and a past member of the National Consortium on Violence Research. He was president of the American Society of Criminology for the year 2005-2006 and became a Fellow of the ASC in 2007. LaFree has been or is currently on the editorial boards of several scientific journals including Criminology, the Journal of Quantitative Criminology, the Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, the International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, the Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology and the International Journal of Conflict and Violence.
Works (selection)
On violent crime
Nature of Crime in America with R. Bursik, J. Short, and R. Taylor. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice (2000).
Losing Legitimacy: Street Crime and the Decline of Institutions in America. Boulder, CO: Westview Perseus (1998).
Rape and Criminal Justice: The Social Construction of Sexual Assault. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth (1989).
Educational spending and imprisonment risk: The role of schools as prison gatekeepers with Richard Arum (2009)
Developmental victimology and the homicide victimization of infants and young children with Gwen Hunnicut (2008)
The situational analysis of crime and deviance with Christopher Birkbeck (1993)
On race and crime
Is the gap between black and white arrest rates narrowing? National trends for personal contact crimes, 1960 to 2002 with Robert O'Brien and Erich Baumer (2006)
The effect of racially segregated schools on African American and white incarceration rates, 1970 to 1990 with Richard Arum (2006)
Race and crime with Michelle Hussong (2000)
African-American collective action and crime with Kriss Drass (1997)
Race and crime trends in the United States, 1946‑1990 (1994)
The argument for studying race and crime with Katheryn K. Russell (1993)
On terrorism
Why democracy has failed to reduce terrorism in the Middle East and why protecting human rights might be more successful. With Nancy Morris and Eray Karlidag. (2020).
Who is more violent in extremist groups? A comparison of leaders and followers. With Katarzyna Jasko (2020).
Islamist Terrorism, Diaspora Links and Casualty Rates with James Piazza (2019).
Religion and Support for Political Violence among Christians and Muslims in Sub-Saharan Africa with Amy Adamczyk (2019).
Using Google and Twitter to measure, validate and understand views about religion across Africa with Amy Adamczyk and Maria Barrera Vilert (2019).
Prison and violent political extremism in the United States with Bo Jiang and Lauren Porter (2019).
Is Antifa a terrorist group? (2018).
Correlates of violent political extremism in the United States with Michael Jensen, Patrick James and Aaron Safer-Lichtenstein (2018).
Cut from the same cloth? Comparing gangs and violent political extremists with David Pyrooz, Scott Decker and Patrick James (2017).
Countering Terrorism with Martha Crenshaw. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution (2017).
Handbook of the Criminology of Terrorism. Edited with Joshua Freilich. New York: Wiley (2017).
Applying Criminology Theories to Terrorism: New Applications and Approaches. Edited with Josh Freilich. Milton Park, UK: Taylor and Francis (2015).
LaFree, Gary, Laura Dugan and Erin Miller. 2015. Putting Terrorism in Context: Insights from the Global Terrorism Database. with Laura Dugan and Erin Miller. London: Routledge (2015).
The impact of British counter terrorist strategies on political violence in Northern Ireland: Comparing deterrence and backlash models with Laura Dugan and Raven Korte (2009)
Build a criminal justice policy for terrorism with James Hendrickson (2007)
Global terrorism and failed states with Laura Dugan and Susan Fahey (2007)
See also
Race and crime in the United States
References
Sources
Gary LaFree at the Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice of the University of Maryland.
External links
Gary LaFree at the Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice of the University of Maryland.
Gary LaFree's Curriculum Vitae hosted at the Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice of the University of Maryland.
American criminologists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Indiana University alumni
University of New Mexico faculty
Living people
Presidents of the American Society of Criminology
University of Maryland, College Park faculty | [
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213841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalanine%20hydroxylase | Phenylalanine hydroxylase | Phenylalanine hydroxylase. (PAH) () is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydroxylation of the aromatic side-chain of phenylalanine to generate tyrosine. PAH is one of three members of the biopterin-dependent aromatic amino acid hydroxylases, a class of monooxygenase that uses tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4, a pteridine cofactor) and a non-heme iron for catalysis. During the reaction, molecular oxygen is heterolytically cleaved with sequential incorporation of one oxygen atom into BH4 and phenylalanine substrate. In humans, mutations in its encoding gene, PAH, can lead to the metabolic disorder phenylketonuria.
Enzyme mechanism
The reaction is thought to proceed through the following steps:
formation of a Fe(II)-O-O-BH4 bridge.
heterolytic cleavage of the O-O bond to yield the ferryl oxo hydroxylating intermediate Fe(IV)=O
attack on Fe(IV)=O to hydroxylate phenylalanine substrate to tyrosine.
Formation and cleavage of the iron-peroxypterin bridge. Although evidence strongly supports Fe(IV)=O as the hydroxylating intermediate, the mechanistic details underlying the formation of the Fe(II)-O-O-BH4 bridge prior to heterolytic cleavage remain controversial. Two pathways have been proposed based on models that differ in the proximity of the iron to the pterin cofactor and the number of water molecules assumed to be iron-coordinated during catalysis. According to one model, an iron dioxygen complex is initially formed and stabilized as a resonance hybrid of Fe2+O2 and Fe3+O2−. The activated O2 then attacks BH4, forming a transition state characterized by charge separation between the electron-deficient pterin ring and the electron-rich dioxygen species. The Fe(II)-O-O-BH4 bridge is subsequently formed. On the other hand, formation of this bridge has been modeled assuming that BH4 is located in iron's first coordination shell and that the iron is not coordinated to any water molecules. This model predicts a different mechanism involving a pterin radical and superoxide as critical intermediates. Once formed, the Fe(II)-O-O-BH4 bridge is broken through heterolytic cleavage of the O-O bond to Fe(IV)=O and 4a-hydroxytetrahydrobiopterin; thus, molecular oxygen is the source of both oxygen atoms used to hydroxylate the pterin ring and phenylalanine.
Hydroxylation of phenylalanine by ferryl oxo intermediate. Because the mechanism involves a Fe(IV)=O (as opposed to a peroxypterin) hydroxylating intermediate, oxidation of the BH4 cofactor and hydroxylation of phenylalanine can be decoupled, resulting in unproductive consumption of BH4 and formation of H2O2. When productive, though, the Fe(IV)=O intermediate is added to phenylalanine in an electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction that reduces iron from the ferryl to the ferrous state. Although initially an arene oxide or radical intermediate was proposed, analyses of the related tryptophan and tyrosine hydroxylases have suggested that the reaction instead proceeds through a cationic intermediate that requires Fe(IV)=O to be coordinated to a water ligand rather than a hydroxo group. This cationic intermediate subsequently undergoes a 1,2-hydride NIH shift, yielding a dienone intermediate that then tautomerizes to form the tyrosine product. The pterin cofactor is regenerated by hydration of the carbinolamine product of PAH to quinonoid dihydrobiopterin (qBH2), which is then reduced to BH4.
Enzyme regulation
PAH is proposed to use the morpheein model of allosteric regulation.
Mammalian PAH exists in an equilibrium consisting of tetramers of two distinct architectures, with one or more dimeric forms as part of the equilibrium. This behavior is consistent with a dissociative allosteric mechanism.
Many studies suggest that mammalian PAH shows behavior comparable to porphobilinogen synthase (PBGS), wherein a variety of factors such as pH and ligand binding are reported to affect enzyme activity and protein stability.
Structure
The PAH monomer (51.9 kDa) consists of three distinct domains: a regulatory N-terminal domain (residues 1–117) that contains a Phe-binding ACT subdomain, the catalytic domain (residues 118–427), and a C-terminal domain (residues 428–453) responsible for oligomerization of identical monomers. Extensive crystallographic analysis has been performed, especially on the pterin- and iron-coordinated catalytic domain to examine the active site. The structure of the N-terminal regulatory domain has also been determined, and together with the solved structure of the homologous tyrosine hydroxylase C-terminal tetramerization domain, a structural model of tetrameric PAH was proposed. Using X-ray crystallography, the structure of full-length rat PAH was determined experimentally and showed the auto-inhibited, or resting-state form of the enzyme. The resting-state form (RS-PAH) is architecturally distinct from the activated form (A-PAH). A full-length structure of A-PAH is currently lacking, but the Phe stabilized ACT-ACT interface that is characteristic of A-PAH has been determined and a structural model of A-PAH based on SAXS analysis has been proposed.
Catalytic domain
Solved crystal structures of the catalytic domain indicate that the active site consists of an open and spacious pocket lined primarily by hydrophobic residues, though three glutamic acid residues, two histidines, and a tyrosine are also present and iron-binding. Contradictory evidence exists about the coordination state of the ferrous atom and its proximity to BH4 within the active site. According to crystallographic analysis, Fe(II) is coordinated by water, His285, His290, and Glu330 (a 2-his-1-carboxylate facial triad arrangement) with octahedral geometry. Inclusion of a Phe analogue in the crystal structure changes both iron from a six- to a five-coordinated state involving a single water molecule and bidentate coordination to Glu330 and opening a site for oxygen to bind. BH4 is concomitantly shifted toward the iron atom, although the pterin cofactor remains in the second coordination sphere. On the other hand, a competing model based on NMR and molecular modeling analyses suggests that all coordinated water molecules are forced out of the active site during the catalytic cycle while BH4 becomes directly coordinated to iron. As discussed above, resolving this discrepancy will be important for determining the exact mechanism of PAH catalysis.
N-terminal regulatory domain
The regulatory nature of the N-terminal domain (residues 1–117) is conferred by its structural flexibility. Hydrogen/deuterium exchanges analysis indicates that allosteric binding of Phe globally alters the conformation of PAH such that the active site is less occluded as the interface between the regulatory and catalytic domains is increasingly exposed to solvent. This observation is consistent with kinetic studies, which show an initially low rate of tyrosine formation for full-length PAH. This lag time is not observed, however, for a truncated PAH lacking the N-terminal domain or if the full-length enzyme is pre-incubated with Phe. Deletion of the N-terminal domain also eliminates the lag time while increasing the affinity for Phe by nearly two-fold; no difference is observed in the Vmax or Km for the tetrahydrobiopterin cofactor. Additional regulation is provided by Ser16; phosphorylation of this residue does not alter enzyme conformation but does reduce the concentration of Phe required for allosteric activation. This N-terminal regulatory domain is not observed in bacterial PAHs but shows considerable structural homology to the regulatory domain of phosphogylcerate dehydrogenase, an enzyme in the serine biosynthetic pathway.
Tetramerization domain
Prokaryotic PAH is monomeric, whereas eukaryotic PAH exists in an equilibrium between homotetrameric and homodimeric forms. The dimerization interface is composed of symmetry-related loops that link identical monomers, while the overlapping C-terminal tetramerization domain mediates the association of conformationally distinct dimers that are characterized by a different relative orientation of the catalytic and tetramerization domains (Flatmark, Erlandsen). The resulting distortion of the tetramer symmetry is evident in the differential surface area of the dimerization interfaces and distinguishes PAH from the tetramerically symmetrical tyrosine hydroxylase. A domain-swapping mechanism has been proposed to mediate formation of the tetramer from dimers, in which C-terminal alpha-helixes mutually alter their conformation around a flexible C-terminal five-residue hinge region to form a coiled-coil structure, shifting equilibrium toward the tetrameric form. Although both the homodimeric and homotetrameric forms of PAH are catalytically active, the two exhibit differential kinetics and regulation. In addition to reduced catalytic efficiency, the dimer does not display positive cooperativity toward L-Phe (which at high concentrations activates the enzyme), suggesting that L-Phe allosterically regulates PAH by influencing dimer-dimer interaction.
Biological function
PAH is a critical enzyme in phenylalanine metabolism and catalyzes the rate-limiting step in its complete catabolism to carbon dioxide and water. Regulation of flux through phenylalanine-associated pathways is critical in mammalian metabolism, as evidenced by the toxicity of high plasma levels of this amino acid observed in phenylketonuria (see below). The principal source of phenylalanine is ingested proteins, but relatively little of this pool is used for protein synthesis. Instead, the majority of ingested phenylalanine is catabolized through PAH to form tyrosine; addition of the hydroxyl group allows for the benzene ring to be broken in subsequent catabolic steps. Transamination to phenylpyruvate, whose metabolites are excreted in the urine, represents another pathway of phenylalanine turnover, but catabolism through PAH predominates.
In humans, this enzyme is expressed both in the liver and the kidney, and there is some indication that it may be differentially regulated in these tissues. PAH is unusual among the aromatic amino acid hydroxylases for its involvement in catabolism; tyrosine and tryptophan hydroxylases, on the other hand, are primarily expressed in the central nervous system and catalyze rate-limiting steps in neurotransmitter/hormone biosynthesis.
Disease relevance
Deficiency in PAH activity due to mutations in PAH causes hyperphenylalaninemia (HPA), and when blood phenylalanine levels increase above 20 times the normal concentration, the metabolic disease phenylketonuria (PKU) results. PKU is both genotypically and phenotypically heterogeneous: Over 300 distinct pathogenic variants have been identified, the majority of which correspond to missense mutations that map to the catalytic domain. When a cohort of identified PAH mutants were expressed in recombinant systems, the enzymes displayed altered kinetic behavior and/or reduced stability, consistent with structural mapping of these mutations to both the catalytic and tetramerization domains of the enzyme. BH44 has been administered as a pharmacological treatment and has been shown to reduce blood levels of phenylalanine for a segment of PKU patients whose genotypes lead to some residual PAH activity but have no defect in BH44 synthesis or regeneration. Follow-up studies suggest that in the case of certain PAH mutants, excess BH44 acts as a pharmacological chaperone to stabilize mutant enzymes with disrupted tetramer assembly and increased sensitivity to proteolytic cleavage and aggregation. Mutations that have been identified in the PAH locus are documented at the Phenylalanine Hydroxylase Locus Knowledgbase (PAHdb, https://web.archive.org/web/20130718162051/http://www.pahdb.mcgill.ca/).
Since phenylketonuria can cause irreversible damage, it is imperative that deficiencies in the phenylalanine hydroxylase are determined early on in development. Originally, this was done using a bacterial inhibition assay known as the Guthrie Test. Now, PKU is part of newborn screening in many countries, and elevated phenylalanine levels are identified shortly after birth by measurement with tandem mass spectrometry. Placing the individual on a low phenylalanine, high tyrosine diet can help prevent any long-term damage to their development.
Related enzymes
Phenylalanine hydroxylase is closely related to two other enzymes:
tryptophan hydroxylase (EC number 1.14.16.4), which controls levels of serotonin in the brain and the gastrointestinal tract
tyrosine hydroxylase (EC number 1.14.16.2), which controls levels of dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine in the brain and the adrenal medulla.
The three enzymes are homologous, that is, are thought to have evolved from the same ancient hydroxylase.
References
Further reading
External links
GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Phenylalanine Hydroxylase Deficiency
Locus-specific database of the human phenylalanine hydroxylase gene variants
Molecule of the Month: Phenylalanine Hydroxylase
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|
213844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiff-tailed%20duck | Stiff-tailed duck | The stiff-tailed ducks, Oxyura, are part of the Oxyurini tribe of ducks. The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek oxus, "sharp", and oura, "tail".
All have, as their name implies, long, stiff tail feathers, which are erected when the bird is resting. All have relatively large, swollen bills. These are freshwater diving ducks. Their legs are set far back, which makes them awkward on land, so they rarely leave the water.
Their unusual displays involve drumming noises from inflatable throat sacs, head throwing, and erecting short crests. Plumage sequences are complicated, and aging difficult. Plumage is vital for survival because of this animals tendency to spend time in the water.
The six extant members of this genus in summation are distributed widely throughout North America, South America, Australia, Asia, and much of Africa.
Species
A fossil species from the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene of Jalisco (Mexico) was described as Oxyura zapatanima. It resembled a small ruddy duck or, even more, an Argentine blue-bill. A larger Middle Pleistocene fossil form from the southwestern United States was described as Oxyura bessomi; it was probably quite close to the ruddy duck.
"Oxyura" doksana from the Early Miocene of Dolnice (Czech Republic) cannot be assigned to any anatine subfamily with certainty.
References
Further reading
Worthy, Trevor H.; Tennyson, A.J.D.; Jones, C.; McNamara, J.A. & Douglas, B.J. (2007): Miocene waterfowl and other birds from central Otago, New Zealand. J. Syst. Palaeontol. 5(1): 1-39. (HTML abstract)
Oxyura
Ducks
Extant Miocene first appearances
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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|
213848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxyurini | Oxyurini | The Oxyurini are a tribe of the duck subfamily of birds, the Anatinae. It has been subject of considerable debate about its validity and circumscription. Some taxonomic authorities place the group in its own subfamily, the Oxyurinae. Most of its members have long, stiff tail feathers which are erected when the bird is at rest, and relatively large, swollen bills. Though their relationships are still enigmatic, they appear to be closer to swans and true geese than to the typical ducks. The highest diversity is found in the warmer parts of the Americas, but at least one species occurs in a major part of the world.
Their habitus resembles a freshwater diving duck, particularly when moving on dry land. Their legs are set far back, making them awkward walkers, so they rarely leave the water. When at rest, their tails are a notable difference, and in the water they often swim very deep-set. Their unusual courtship displays involve drumming noises from inflatable throat sacs, head throwing, and erecting short crests. Most display singly with a very elaborate and peculiar display, but musk ducks congregate at leks and have a more limited display.
Systematics
One mid-sized genus and two or three which are monotypic are described today:
Heteronetta – black-headed duck
Nomonyx – masked duck
Oxyura – stiff-tailed ducks
The black-headed duck of Heteronetta is indisputably quite basal, looking more like a typical duck-like Anatidae with a short tail and normal bill. The masked duck of Nomonyx has a more intermediate position; it probably diverged from the lineage leading to the main radiation some time after Heteronetta.
The musk ducks (Biziura), sometimes included in this group, are noted for their bizarre habitus and pronounced sexual dimorphism; they are of uncertain position and decidedly aberrant. Their anatomy is more similar to Oxyura than to the two less derived genera, but still unique in many respects. mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data suggest a closer relationship with the pink-eared ducks (Malacorhynchus) which if correct would represent one of the most drastic cases of divergent adaptation in the whole Anseriformes.
Altogether, however, the only thing that seems clear is that the musk ducks probably are not part of the stiff-tailed ducks in the strict sense, but rather represent a not-too-distantly related lineage that is highly convergent as regards their hind limb anatomy. These two are probably part of a very ancient radiation of Gondwanan (often Australian) waterfowl, including such forms as the Cape Barren goose (Cereopsis), the coscoroba swan (Coscoroba), the freckled duck (Stictonetta) which once was placed in the Oxyurinae, or the pygmy geese (Nettapus), but the exact relationships between these lineages remains unresolved. For example, the African white-backed duck (Thalassornis) also shows some similarities to Oxyura, but again, this may be yet another case of convergent evolution.
One fossil genus of Oxyurini, Tirarinetta from the Pliocene of Australia, and some prehistoric members of genera are still extant. Three enigmatic genera of waterfowl, Mionetta from the Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene of central Europe and Dunstanetta and Manuherikia from the Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zealand, show some similarities to oxyurine ducks and judging from biogeography, the latter two may plausibly be related. However, Manuherikia and Mionetta are sometimes held to be Dendrocheninae adapted to diving, so closer to whistling ducks, a very ancient lineage of the Anatidae.
References
External links
Ducks
Extant Chattian first appearances | [
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|
213858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord%20Snellius | Willebrord Snellius | Willebrord Snellius (born Willebrord Snel van Royen) (13 June 158030 October 1626) was a Dutch astronomer and mathematician, known in the English-speaking world as Snell. In the west, especially the English speaking countries, his name is attached to the law of refraction of light (Snell's law).
The lunar crater Snellius is named after Willebrord Snellius. The Royal Netherlands Navy has named three survey ships after Snellius, including a currently-serving vessel.
Biography
Willebrord Snellius was born in Leiden, Netherlands. In 1613 he succeeded his father, Rudolph Snel van Royen (1546–1613) as professor of mathematics at the University of Leiden.
Snellius' triangulation
In 1615, Snellius, after the work of Eratosthenes in Ptolemaic Egypt in the 3rd century BC, probably was the first to try to do a large-scale experiment to measure the circumference of the earth using triangulation. He was helped in his measurements by two of his students, the Austrian barons Erasmus and Casparus Sterrenberg. In several cities he also received support of friends among the city leaders (regenten). In his work The terrae Ambitus vera quantitate (1617) under the author's name ("The Dutch Eratosthenes") Snellius describes the methods he used. He came up with an estimate of 28,500 Rhineland rods – in modern units 107.37 km for one degree of latitude. 360 times 107.37 then gives a circumference of the Earth of 38,653 km. The actual circumference is 40,075 kilometers, so Snellius underestimated the circumference of the earth by 3.5%.
Snellius came to his result by calculating the distances between a number of high points in the plain west and southwest of the Netherlands using triangulation. In order to carry out these measurements accurately Snellius had a large quadrant built, with which he could accurately measure angles in tenths of degrees. This quadrant can still be seen in the Museum Boerhaave in Leiden. In a network of fourteen cities a total of 53 triangulation measurements were made. In his calculations Snellius made use of a solution for what is now called the Snellius–Pothenot problem.
By necessity Snellius's high points were nearly all church spires. There were hardly any other tall buildings at that time in the west of the Netherlands. More or less ordered from north to south and/or in successive order of measuring, Snellius used a network of fourteen measure points: Alkmaar : St. Laurenskerk; Haarlem : Sint-Bavokerk; Leiden : a then new part (built in 1599) of the City walls; The Hague : Sint-Jacobskerk; Amsterdam : Oude Kerk; Utrecht : Cathedral of Utrecht; Zaltbommel : Sint-Maartenskerk; Gouda : Sint Janskerk; Oudewater : Sint-Michaelskerk; Rotterdam : Sint-Laurenskerk; Dordrecht : Grote Kerk; Willemstad : Koepelkerk; Bergen-op-Zoom : Gertrudiskerk; Breda : Grote Kerk
The actual distance between the two church spires in Alkmaar and Breda, two places nearly on the same meridian, is 116.1 kilometers. The difference in latitude between Alkmaar (52° 37' 57" N) and Breda (51° 35' 20" N) is 1.0436 degree. Assuming Snellius corrected for this he must have calculated a distance of 107.37 * 1.0436 = 112.05 kilometers between the Sint-Laurenskerk in Alkmaar and the Grote Kerk in Breda.
Mathematics and physics
Snellius was also a distinguished mathematician, producing a new method for calculating π—the first such improvement since ancient times. He rediscovered the law of refraction in 1621.
Other works
In addition to the Eratosthenes Batavus, he published (1621), and Tiphys Batavus (1624). He also edited Coeli et siderum in eo errantium observationes Hassiacae (1618), containing the astronomical observations of Landgrave William IV of Hesse. A work on trigonometry (Doctrina triangulorum) authored by Snellius was published a year after his death.
Death
Snellius died in Leiden in October 1626, at the age of 46 from an illness diagnosed as colic. His grave can be seen in the Pieterskerk, Leiden.
Honours
Snellius Glacier in Antarctica is named after Willebrord Snellius.
Works
See also
Resection (orientation)
Snellius–Pothenot problem
Notes
References
Willebrord Snellius (1580-1626): a humanist reshaping the mathematical sciences, thesis of Liesbeth de Wreede, Dissertation Utrecht 2007
N. Haasbroek: Gemma Frisius, Tycho Brahe and Snellius and their triangulations. Delft 1968.
Klaus Hentschel: Das Brechungsgesetz in der Fassung von Snellius. Rekonstruktion seines Entdeckungspfades und eine Übersetzung seines lateinischen Manuskriptes sowie ergänzender Dokumente. Archive for History of Exact Sciences 55,4 (2001), doi:10.1007/s004070000026.
External links
17th-century Dutch mathematicians
1580 births
1626 deaths
Astronomy in the Dutch Republic
Burials at Pieterskerk, Leiden
17th-century Dutch astronomers
Geodesists
Leiden University faculty
Mathematics educators | [
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|
213859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20O.%20Barton | Mark O. Barton | Mark Orrin Barton (April 2, 1955 – July 29, 1999) was an American spree killer from Stockbridge, Georgia, who killed twelve people and injured many more on July 29, 1999. The murders occurred at Barton's home as well as at two Atlanta-area day trading firms, Momentum Securities and the All-Tech Investment Group, where he had previously been employed as a day trader. It is believed that Barton was motivated by large financial losses incurred during the previous two months. Barton killed himself before he could be apprehended by police.
Police searching Barton's home found that his second wife, Leigh Ann Vandiver Barton, together with the two children from his first marriage, Matthew David Barton (12) and Mychelle Elizabeth Barton (10), had been murdered by hammer blows before the shooting spree started. The slain children were placed in bed as if asleep. According to a note left at the scene by Barton, his wife was killed on July 27 before the children were on the following day.
Before the massacre, Barton was a suspect in the 1993 beating deaths of his first wife, Debra Spivey, and her mother, Eloise Spivey, in Cherokee County, Alabama; however, he was never charged for their murders and always denied having had any part in them, including in the note he left behind with the bodies of his children and his second wife. Notwithstanding his denials, authorities still consider Barton a suspect in the 1993 murders.
Background
Mark Barton was born on April 2, 1955, in Stockbridge, Georgia, to an Air Force family and was raised in South Carolina. He attended Clemson University and the University of South Carolina, where he earned a degree in chemistry despite an ongoing drug habit. Back in Atlanta, Barton married Debra Spivey, with whom he had two children named Matthew and Mychelle.
Barton's family moved to Alabama as his employer required him there. Barton grew paranoid and started distrusting his wife. He lost his employment after his performance plummeted. He was also caught sabotaging data of the company that had fired him and served a short jail term for this retaliatory act. Barton found a new employer in Georgia and a mistress in one of his wife's acquaintances, with whom he had an affair. In 1993, Spivey and her mother Eloise were killed by bludgeoning. Barton was the prime suspect in the double-murder, but was not charged due to the lack of evidence. He married his former mistress, Leigh Ann Vandiver, in 1995. His mental health continued to deteriorate, however, and he began to suffer from both severe depression and paranoid delusions.
Barton had received a $294,000 insurance settlement from his first wife's death and used the funds to finance his day trading career, preferring high risk Internet-related stocks. In the month prior to his killing spree, Barton had lost $105,000, and Momentum Securities had cancelled his account.
Killing spree
On July 27, 1999, Barton woke up early in the morning and bludgeoned Leigh Ann to death as she slept. The next night, he also beat his children Matthew and Mychelle to death. He covered them with blankets and left notes on their bodies, reading in part:
I killed Leigh Ann because she was one of the main reasons for my demise. ... I know that Jehovah will take care of all of them in the next life. I'm sure the details don't matter. There is no excuse, no good reason I am sure no one will understand. If they could I wouldn't want them to. I just write these things to say why. Please know that I love Leigh Ann, Matthew and Mychelle with all my heart. If Jehovah's willing I would like to see them all again in the resurrection to have a second chance. I don't plan to live very much longer, just long enough to kill as many of the people that greedily sought my destruction.
On July 29, he went to the offices of his former employer, Momentum Securities. Witnesses say that Barton briefly chatted with coworkers before suddenly pulling out two pistols and opening fire. He shot and killed four people and attempted to execute Brad Schoemehl, who was shot three times at point-blank range. Barton then walked to the nearby All-Tech Investment Group building and murdered an additional five victims. Barton left the scene before police could arrive. The police searched his house and found the bodies of his family and the notes that he had left with them, in which Barton vehemently denied responsibility for the deaths of his first wife and mother-in-law.
An intensive manhunt ensued. Four hours after the All-Tech Investment Group shooting, Barton accosted and threatened a young girl in Kennesaw, apparently attempting to secure a hostage for his escape. The young girl escaped and called police. Responding police officers spotted Barton in his minivan and a chase ensued, culminating at a gas station in Acworth. As law enforcement attempted to apprehend him, Barton shot and killed himself.
On July 29, 2009, Atlanta marked the 10th anniversary of the tragedy.
Victims
The following is a list of those killed:
Leigh Ann Vandiver Barton, 27, wife of Mark Barton
Matthew David Barton, 11, son of Mark Barton
Michelle Elizabeth Barton, 8, daughter of Mark Barton
Allen Charles Tenenbaum, 48, day trader at All-Tech Investment Group
Dean Delawalla, 52, day trader at All-Tech Investment Group
Joseph J. Dessert, 60, day trader at All-Tech Investment Group
Jamshid Havash, 45, day trader at All-Tech Investment Group
Vadewattee Muralidhara, 44, a computer course student at All-Tech Investment Group
Edward Quinn, 58, day trader at Momentum Securities
Kevin Dial, 38, office manager at Momentum Securities
Russell J. Brown, 42, day trader at Momentum Securities
Scott A. Webb, 30, day trader at Momentum Securities
References
Further reading
BBC News stories on the Atlanta shootings
Manhunt under way for suspect in Atlanta shootings, CNN (July 29, 1999)
Investigators search for answers after 12 die in Georgia killings, CNN (July 30, 1999)
Blood bath followed suspect's mounting stock losses, CNN (July 31, 1999)
Mourners remember gunman's wife as soccer mom, Scout leader, CNN (August 1, 1999)
A Portrait of the Killer, Time Magazine (August 9, 1999)
Riding the Mo in the Lime Green Glow, New York Times (November 21, 1999)
External links
CourtTV's Crime Library feature
1955 births
1999 deaths
University of South Carolina alumni
1999 in Georgia (U.S. state)
1999 mass shootings in the United States
1999 murders in the United States
American murderers of children
Criminals from Georgia (U.S. state)
American spree killers
Attacks in the United States in 1999
Crimes in Georgia (U.S. state)
Familicides
Filicides in Georgia (U.S. state)
Uxoricides
History of Atlanta
Mass murder in 1999
Mass shootings in Georgia (U.S. state)
Mass shootings in the United States
Murder–suicides in Georgia (U.S. state)
Unsolved murders in the United States
People from Stockbridge, Georgia
Suicides by firearm in Georgia (U.S. state)
1999 suicides | [
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|
213867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuw-Dijk | Nieuw-Dijk | Nieuw-Dijk is a small village in the municipality of Montferland in the Dutch province of Gelderland, close to Germany, with a population of approximately 834 people.
Nieuw-Dijk has its own Roman Catholic parish church and primary school, both named for Saint Anthony of Padua.
In 1926 a local football club was established, called the Sprinkhanen ("Grasshoppers").
The village also has its own traditional shooting club (schutterij).
Activities for children are the Schuttersfeest and the Elfstratentocht, this is an inline skating route made by the village.
Gallery
External links
http://www.nieuw-dijk.nl
Populated places in Gelderland
Montferland | [
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|
213873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20de%20Blois | Louis de Blois | Abbot Louis de Blois, O.S.B., (October 1506 – 7 January 1566) was a Flemish monk and mystical writer, generally known under the name of Blosius.
Life
He was born at the château of Donstienne, near Liège, of an illustrious family to which several crowned heads were allied.
He was educated at the court of the Habsburg Netherlands with the future emperor Charles V, who remained to the last his staunch friend. At the age of fourteen he received the Benedictine habit in Liessies Abbey in Hainaut, of which he became Abbot in 1530. Though Charles V pressed in vain upon him the archbishopric of Cambrai, Blosius studiously exerted himself in the reform of his monastery and in the composition of devotional works. He died at his monastery on 7 January 1566.
Works
Blosius's works, which were written in Latin, have been translated into almost every European language, and have appealed not only to Roman Catholics, but to many English laymen of note, such as William Ewart Gladstone and Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
The best editions of his collected works are the first edition by J Frojus (Leuven, 1568), and the Cologne reprints (1572, 1587). His best-known works are:
the Institutio Spiritualis (Eng. trans., A Book of Spiritual Instruction, London, 1900)
Consolatio Pusillanimium (Eng. trans., Comfort for the Faint Hearted, London, 1903)
Sacellum Animae Fidelis (Eng. trans., The Sanctuary of the Faithful Soul, London, 1905)
All these three works were translated and edited by Father Bertrand Wilberforce, O.P., and have been reprinted several times; and especially Speculum Monachorum (French trans. by Félicité de Lamennais, Paris, 1809; Eng. trans., Paris, 1676; re-edited by Lord Coleridge, London, 1871, 1872, and inserted in "Paternoster" series, 1901).
See Georges de Blois, Louis de Blois, un Bénédictin au XVIème siècle (Paris, 1875), Eng. trans. by Lady Lovat (London, 1878, etc.).
References
Louis de Blois at Catholic Encyclopedia
Louis
1506 births
1566 deaths
16th-century Christian mystics
Abbots of Liessies
Abbots of the Spanish Netherlands
Benedictine abbots
Benedictine mystics
Prince-Bishopric of Liège clergy
Roman Catholic mystics | [
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|
213874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on%20Foucault | Léon Foucault | Jean Bernard Léon Foucault (, , ; 18 September 1819 – 11 February 1868) was a French physicist best known for his demonstration of the Foucault pendulum, a device demonstrating the effect of the Earth's rotation. He also made an early measurement of the speed of light, discovered eddy currents, and is credited with naming the gyroscope.
Early years
The son of a publisher, Foucault was born in Paris on 18 September 1819. After an education received chiefly at home, he studied medicine, which he abandoned in favour of physics due to a blood phobia. He first directed his attention to the improvement of Louis Daguerre's photographic processes. For three years he was experimental assistant to Alfred Donné (1801–1878) in his course of lectures on microscopic anatomy.
With Hippolyte Fizeau he carried out a series of investigations on the intensity of the light of the sun, as compared with that of carbon in the arc lamp, and of lime in the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; on the interference of infrared radiation, and of light rays differing greatly in lengths of path; and on the chromatic polarization of light.
In 1849, Foucault experimentally demonstrated that absorption and emission lines appearing at the same wavelength are both due to the same material, with the difference between the two originating from the temperature of the light source.
Middle years
In 1850, he did an experiment using the Fizeau–Foucault apparatus to measure the speed of light; it came to be known as the Foucault–Fizeau experiment, and was viewed as "driving the last nail in the coffin" of Newton's corpuscular theory of light when it showed that light travels more slowly through water than through air.
In 1851, he provided an experimental demonstration of the rotation of the Earth on its axis (diurnal motion). This experimental setup had been used by Vincenzo Viviani but became well known to the public by Foucault's work. Foucault achieved the demonstration by showing the rotation of the plane of oscillation of a long and heavy pendulum suspended from the roof of the Panthéon, Paris. The experiment caused a sensation in both the learned and popular worlds, and "Foucault pendulums" were suspended in major cities across Europe and America and attracted crowds. In the following year he used (and named) the gyroscope as a conceptually simpler experimental proof. In 1855, he received the Copley Medal of the Royal Society for his 'very remarkable experimental researches'. Earlier in the same year he was made physicien (physicist) at the imperial observatory at Paris.
In September 1855 he discovered that the force required for the rotation of a copper disc becomes greater when it is made to rotate with its rim between the poles of a magnet, the disc at the same time becoming heated by the eddy current or "Foucault currents" induced in the metal.
In 1857 Foucault invented the polarizer which bears his name, and in the succeeding year devised a method of testing the mirror of a reflecting telescope to determine its shape. The so-called "Foucault knife-edge test" allows the worker to tell if the mirror is perfectly spherical or has non-spherical deviation in its figure. Prior to Foucault's publication of his findings, the testing of reflecting telescope mirrors was a "hit or miss" proposition.
Foucault's knife edge test determines the shape of a mirror by finding the focal lengths of its areas, commonly called zones and measured from the mirror center. In the test, light from a point source is focused onto the center of curvature of the mirror and reflected back to a knife edge. The test enables the tester to quantify the conic section of the mirror, thereby allowing the tester to validate the actual shape of the mirror, which is necessary to obtain optimal performance of the optical system. The Foucault test is in use to this date, most notably by amateur and smaller commercial telescope makers as it is inexpensive and uses simple, easily made equipment.
With Charles Wheatstone’s revolving mirror he, in 1862, determined the speed of light to be 298,000 km/s – 10,000 km/s less than that obtained by previous experimenters and only 0.6% in error of the currently accepted value.
Later years
In 1862 Foucault was made a member of the Bureau des Longitudes and an officer of the Legion of Honour. He became a member of the Royal Society of London in 1864, and member of the mechanical section of the Institute a year later. In 1865 he published his papers on a modification of James Watt's centrifugal governor; he had for some time been experimenting with a view to making its period of revolution constant and developing a new apparatus for regulating the electric light. Foucault showed how, by the deposition of a transparently thin film of silver on the outer side of the object glass of a telescope, the sun could be viewed without injuring the eye. His chief scientific papers are to be found in the Comptes Rendus, 1847–1869. Near his death he returned to Roman Catholicism that he previously abandoned.
Death and afterwards
Foucault died of what was probably a rapidly developing case of multiple sclerosis on 11 February 1868 in Paris and was buried in the Montmartre Cemetery.
The asteroid 5668 Foucault was named for him. His is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.
Bibliography
Collected Works:
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de Léon Foucault Volume One, Volume Two, 1878. (Université de Strasbourg) or Internet Archive (US)
Donné & Foucault Atlas of medical micrographs 1845
See also
Foucault pendulum vector diagrams
Schlieren
References
Further reading
Amir D. Aczel, Pendulum: Léon Foucault and the Triumph of Science, Washington Square Press, 2003,
Umberto Eco, Foucault's Pendulum (trans. William Weaver). Secker & Warburg, 1989.
William Tobin, Perfecting the Modern Reflector. Sky & Telescope, October 1987.
William Tobin, Evolution of the Foucault-Secretan Reflecting Telescope. Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 19, 106-184 pdf & 361-362 pdf, 2016.
William Tobin, Léon Foucault. Scientific American, July 1998.
William Tobin, The Life and Science of Léon Foucault: The Man who Proved the Earth Rotates. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Foucault Disk – Interactive Java Tutorial Foucault created this device showing how eddy currents work (National High Magnetic Field Laboratory)
"Foucault and Measuring the Speed of Light in Water and in Air", analysis of his 1853 thesis (BibNum, click "À télécharger" for English text)
Virtual exhibition on Paris Observatory digital library
1819 births
1868 deaths
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery
Neurological disease deaths in France
Deaths from multiple sclerosis
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
19th-century French physicists
French Roman Catholics
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Optical physicists
Recipients of the Copley Medal | [
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|
213877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippolyte%20Fizeau | Hippolyte Fizeau | Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau FRS FRSE MIF (23 September 181918 September 1896) was a French physicist, best known for measuring the speed of light in the namesake Fizeau experiment.
Biography
Fizeau was born in Paris to Louis and Beatrice Fizeau. He married into the de Jussieu botanical family. His earliest work was concerned with improvements in photographic processes. Following suggestions by François Arago, Léon Foucault and Fizeau collaborated in a series of investigations on the interference of light and heat. In 1848, he predicted the redshifting of electromagnetic waves.
In 1849, Fizeau calculated a value for the speed of light to a better precision than the previous value determined by Ole Rømer in 1676. He used a beam of light reflected from a mirror 8 kilometers away. The beam passed through the gaps between teeth of a rapidly rotating wheel. The speed of the wheel was increased until the returning light passed through the next gap and could be seen.
Fizeau calculated the speed of light to be , which was within 5% of the correct value (299,792.458 kilometers per second). Fizeau published the first results obtained by his method for determining the speed of light in 1849. (See Fizeau–Foucault apparatus.) Fizeau made the first suggestion in 1864 that the "speed of a light wave be used as a length standard".
Fizeau was involved in the discovery of the Doppler effect, which is known in French as the Doppler–Fizeau effect.
In 1853, Fizeau described the use of the capacitor (sometimes called a "condenser") as a means to increase the efficiency of the induction coil. Later on, he studied the thermal expansion of solids and applied the phenomenon of interference of light to the measurement of the dilatations of crystals. He became a member of the Académie des Sciences in 1860 and a member of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1878. He died at Venteuil on 18 September 1896.
"Fizeau" is one of the 72 names inscribed at the base of Eiffel Tower, and of the 72 scientists and engineers listed on the tower, Fizeau is the only one who was still alive when the tower was opened to the public for the 1889 World's Fair. The crater Fizeau on the far side of the Moon is named after him.
See also
Fizeau–Foucault apparatus
Fizeau experiment
Fizeau interferometer
Léon Foucault
References
External links
Open Library
1819 births
1896 deaths
Scientists from Paris
French physicists
Optical physicists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
French Roman Catholics | [
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|
213878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad%20Boy%20Records | Bad Boy Records | Bad Boy Records is an American record label founded in 1993, by Sean "Puff Daddy" Combs. It operates as an imprint of Epic, a division of Sony. It has been home to many artists, including Craig Mack, The Notorious B.I.G., Faith Evans, Mase, 112, Total, The Lox, Machine Gun Kelly, French Montana, Cassie, Janelle Monáe, Danity Kane, Day 26, and Elephant Man.
History
Beginnings
After his climb from a non-paid internship to becoming an A&R executive at Uptown, Sean "Puffy" Combs was fired in mid-1993 by Andre Harrell and founded his own label, Bad Boy Records, in late 1993. The label's first release was "Flava in Ya Ear" by Craig Mack, followed quickly by Mack's debut album, Project Funk da World in 1994. On the heels of these releases came "Juicy" and Ready to Die, the lead single and debut album from The Notorious B.I.G. (a.k.a. Biggie Smalls), released the same year. While Mack's album went Gold, Ready to Die achieved multi-platinum success. Dominating the charts in 1995, B.I.G. became one of the genre's biggest names of the day and Bad Boy's premier star. Also in 1995, the label continued its success with platinum releases by Total and Faith Evans. Bad Boy, meanwhile, staffed a bevy of in-house writer/producers, including: Easy Mo Bee, Chucky Thompson and D Dot—all of whom were instrumental in producing many of Bad Boy's most noted releases during this time.
Feud with Death Row
The rapid success of The Notorious B.I.G., and Bad Boy as a company, raised some tensions, especially with the Los Angeles, California-based Death Row. For 3 years leading up to 1995, West Coast hip hop, dominated by labels such as Death Row, had been preeminent in mainstream Rap. Suge Knight, CEO of Death Row, held Sean Combs responsible for the shooting death of his friend Jake Robles, allegedly at the hands of Sean Combs' bodyguard. Tensions were heightened when Death Row signed 2Pac, who alleged that Bad Boy, notably The Notorious B.I.G. and Puff Daddy, had been complicit in the November 1994 shooting of Tupac in the lobby of Quad Studios in Times Square.
After the June 1996 release of 2Pac's "Hit 'Em Up", smearing Bad Boy, tensions escalated. 2Pac was shot in Las Vegas, Nevada on September 7, 1996, and died September 13. Bad Boy issued a statement of condolences. On March 9, 1997, while Bad Boy were preparing the release of The Notorious B.I.G.'s double album Life After Death, he was killed in Los Angeles, California. Their deaths left many to speculate if the coastal hostility had been responsible for their deaths. The police investigations were criticized by public and judicial sources. Both cases remain officially unsolved.
Life after The Notorious B.I.G. and rebuilding the label
Posthumously, Biggie's Life After Death reached number one on the Billboard Top 200. Its first two singles, "Hypnotize" and "Mo Money, Mo Problems" also topped the singles charts. The album eventually sold over 10 million copies in the U.S. alone, and is one of the highest selling rap albums ever in the U.S..
In 1996, Puff Daddy had begun recording his own solo debut album. The 1st single, "Can't Nobody Hold Me Down", peaked at No. 1 on the Rap, R&B, and pop charts that spring. In response to Biggie's death, the label rush-released a Puff Daddy tribute song, "I'll Be Missing You", which featured Biggie's widow, Faith Evans, and Bad Boy's R&B singing group 112. The single topped the charts for eleven weeks and became the hasty second single from Combs' album, No Way Out, which was released in the summer and sold 7 million copies in the U.S.. Mase, Combs' newest protégé, in the meantime was immediately thrust into the void that The Notorious B.I.G. left. His own debut album, Harlem World, also released the same year, would go Quadruple Platinum. Due to the successive successes of Life After Death, No Way Out and Harlem World, by the end of 1997, Bad Boy as a label and brand name had hit a commercial peak. During this time, the label began to promote its latest signing The L.O.X., who had been prominently featured on various Bad Boy releases that year. Highly anticipated, their 1998 debut album, Money, Power & Respect was certified Platinum by the RIAA. Shortly thereafter, the group departed the label and entered into a long-standing publishing dispute with Combs over the latter receiving 50% of their publishing that would continue until 2005.
In 1998, Combs decided to expand Bad Boy's roster to genres other than hip-hop and R&B, and subsequently signed Fuzzbubble to the label as its 1st rock act. The group appeared on the rock remix of Puff Daddy's "It's All About the Benjamins", but parted ways with the label before releasing a full-length album.
In the years to follow, Bad Boy saw a commercial decline. In 1999, Mase became religious and abruptly retired from the business, leaving a serious dent in the company, especially since his 2nd album had just been released. Bad Boy found some success with Shyne, a young rapper from Brooklyn, who garnered generally mixed reviews for his deep voice and slow flow—which many considered to be too reminiscent to, and perhaps a rip-off of The Notorious B.I.G., meanwhile, Combs' later albums failed to generate the same kind of acclaim that his debut had. In an attempt to further market himself, he underwent several name changes; from "Puff Daddy" to "Puffy" to "P. Diddy", to simply just "Diddy" then shortly Diddy- Dirty Money". But with the split of the group he abruptly returned to "Diddy".
As the 2000s emerged, Bad Boy had noticeably floundered. Many of its more noted acts would eventually vacate the label, while those who remained saw their album sales dwindle as time went on. In spite of continually releasing new material, and various attempts at building artists to the status of Bad Boy's The Notorious B.I.G., few proved as successful as the company hoped.
Southern rap duo 8Ball & MJG released an album called Living Legends to some success in 2004, prompting the creation of Bad Boy South—which would eventually house acts such as Yung Joc. In 2002, Combs' participated in MTV's Making The Band 2, which spun off the Bad Boy assembled act, Da Band. Their MTV exposure lead to a Gold selling debut album. At this time, the label also signed a rapper named Aasim, whose Bad Boy debut (as of 2013) still has not been released.
Resurgence
Bad Boy saw its fortunes improve in 2005, with the success of releases from new signees: Cassie and Yung Joc (both of whom would score top five singles/debut albums). Also in 2006, Bad Boy hit paydirt with Making The Band 3's Danity Kane, whose debut album topped the charts at No. 1 (the label's first chart topping album since the Bad Boys II soundtrack three years prior), and spun off a top five single. Their second album, Welcome to the Dollhouse also debuted at No. 1, and contained the group's second top ten single "Damaged". Diddy also signed Day26 and Donnie Klang to the label.
However, by 2009, Combs had dissolved Danity Kane, terminating Aubrey O'Day's, D. Woods', Shannon Bex's and Aundrea Fimbres' contracts. Dawn Richard remained signed working as solo artist and songwriter for Bad Boy. In March 2009, it was reported that Richard and Combs were assembling a new girl group but later formed Diddy – Dirty Money, composed of Combs, Richard and a singer-songwriter named Kalenna Harper. In April 2009, Bad Boy also signed Red Cafe.
In September 2009, it was announced that Combs would be leaving Warner, inking a new deal with Universal's Interscope. Under the terms of the new deal, Combs rebooted the Bad Boy name and trademark, to be operated through Interscope. The previous Bad Boy catalog and roster, however, remains under the control of Warner.
2010–present
In 2010, Diddy offered Mase a 1-year release from Bad Boy to settle their differences after the 2009 incident with Mase wanting to be released from Bad Boy. With this Mase decided to retire from rap for good, although he was to be reassigned to Bad Boy after his year break was done. In 2011, under his new deal with Interscope-Geffen-A&M, Diddy stated he was looking for new talent to add to his new Bad Boy roster. Jay Electronica, who had close ties with Diddy, was originally planned to be signed to the label but had signed with Jay-Z's Roc Nation imprint instead. Machine Gun Kelly announced that he signed to Bad Boy/Interscope on August 3, 2011. French Montana and Los also were announced as signees to the label in 2012.
On April 25, 2012, Mase featured alongside Diddy on Wale's "Slight Work" remix, marking the first appearance of the Harlem rapper on record since 2010. Rumors began to start that Mase, as well as singer Omarion, were both signing to Rick Ross' Maybach Music Group. It was later revealed that Bad Boy artist French Montana was the reason Mase was making his third comeback. According to Montana, Mase is serving as an A&R representative on Montana's forthcoming Bad Boy debut, "Excuse My French", as well as appearing on the remix of Montana's "Everything's a Go". "I'm not sure what kind of decisions he's going to make," Montana says, "[but] I would love to see him in my camp." Mase is currently resigned to Bad Boy Records but has yet to announce whether he is resigned as part of a joint venture deal between Bad Boy and MMG. He later announced he had gotten his release from Bad Boy. In April 2013, Cassie released her first full-length project seven years after her debut album, a mixtape titled RockaByeBaby, to positive reception. Rapper Los announced his departure from Bad Boy Records on March 19, 2014.
On October 5, 2015, Combs announced that Bad Boy would be distributed by Epic Records. This will mark the second time that Epic president L.A. Reid oversaw distribution for Bad Boy, having previously overseen distribution for the label 15 years earlier after being appointed president of Arista in 2000. Despite founding the label in 1993, Bad Boy began celebrating their 20th anniversary in 2015 with a 20-minute mega-medley performance at the BET Awards. It stretched into 2016, starting with the label's May reunion sold-out shows at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, and originating the Bad Boy Family Reunion Tour, starting in North America in the last week of August 2016.
Artists
Current acts
Former acts
The Hitmen
The Hitmen is the production team for Bad Boy Records. The collective consisted of several notable producers and musicians that either worked solo or alongside Combs in composing tracks for the artists on Bad Boy as well as outside the label.
On August 20, 2015, it was announced that Kanye West was a part of the current roster.
Discography
Albums
Label compilations
References
Bad Boy Entertainment
The Notorious B.I.G.
1993 establishments in New York City
Companies based in New York City
Contemporary R&B record labels
Hip hop record labels
Labels distributed by Warner Music Group
Music publishing companies of the United States
Music production companies
New York (state) record labels
Record labels established in 1993
Vanity record labels | [
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|
213879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycophron | Lycophron | Lycophron (; ; born about 330–325 BC) was a Hellenistic Greek tragic poet, grammarian, sophist, and commentator on comedy, to whom the poem Alexandra is attributed (perhaps falsely).
Life and miscellaneous works
He was born at Chalcis in Euboea, and flourished at Alexandria in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285–247 BC). According to the Suda, the massive tenth century Byzantine Greek historical encyclopaedia, he was the son of Socles, but was adopted by Lycus of Rhegium. He was entrusted by Ptolemy with the task of arranging the comedies in the Library of Alexandria; as the result of his labours he composed a treatise On Comedy. Lycophron is also said to have been a skilful writer of anagrams.
Tragedies
The poetic compositions of Lycophron chiefly consisted of tragedies, which secured him a place in the Pleiad of Alexandrian tragedians. The Suda gives the titles of twenty tragedies, of which a very few fragments have been preserved: Aeolus, Allies (Symmakhoi), Andromeda, Chrysippus, Daughters of Aeolus, Daughters of Pelops, Elephenor, Herakles, Hippolytus, Kassandreis, Laius, Marathonians, Menedemus, Nauplius, Oedipus (two versions), Orphan (Orphanos), Pentheus, Suppliants (Hiketai), Telegonus, and the Wanderer (Aletes). Among these, a few well-turned lines show a much better style than the Alexandra. Lycophron's tragedies are said to have been much admired by Menedemus of Eretria, although Lycophron had ridiculed him in a satyr play.
The Alexandra
One poem traditionally attributed to him, Alexandra or Cassandra, has been preserved in its complete form, running to 1474 iambic trimeters. It consists of a prophecy uttered by Cassandra and relates the later fortunes of Troy and of the Greek and Trojan heroes. References to events of mythical and later times are introduced, and the poem ends with a reference to Alexander the Great, who was to unite Asia and Europe in his world-wide empire.
The style obtained for the poem's author, even among the ancients, the title of "obscure"; one modern scholar says the Alexandra "may be the most illegible piece of classical literature, one which nobody can read without a proper commentary and which even then makes very difficult reading." The poem is evidently intended to display the writer's knowledge of obscure names and uncommon myths; it is full of unusual words of doubtful meaning gathered from the older poets, and long-winded compounds coined by the author. It was probably written as a show-piece for the Alexandrian school, rather than as straight poetry. It was very popular in the Byzantine period, and was read and commented on very frequently; the manuscripts of the Alexandra are numerous. Two explanatory paraphrases of the poem survive, and the collection of scholia by Isaac and John Tzetzes is very valuable (much used by, among others, Robert Graves in his Greek Myths).
A pseudepigraphic work?
Some modern studies have concluded that the Alexandra cannot be the work of the third-century BC author; in one scholar's summary of this view, the poem was:written in the immediate aftermath of the victory of Flamininus at Battle of Cynoscephalae over Philip V of Macedon in 197/6 BC. The author, whose true name and place of origin are probably concealed beneath the impenetrably enigmatic biographical tradition concerning "Lycophron," probably used the name, and some of the literary substance, of Lycophron, not in emulation, but as an ironic reminiscence of the earlier writer, who had combined the practice of tragedy and the elucidation of comedy. Only on this assumption of a deliberate pseudepigraphon can the full irony of his work be appreciated.
The question turns on passages in the poem (1226–1280; cf. 1446-1450) that describe Roman dominance in terms that only fit the situation after the Second Macedonian War. Cassandra prophesies that her Trojan ancestors' descendants "shall with their spears win the foremost crown of glory, obtaining the sceptre and monarchy of earth and sea" and elaborates with allusions to the course of historical events. Some scholars, such as Stephanie West, regard these passages as interpolations and defend the attribution of the bulk of the poem to Lycophron the tragic poet.
Editions
Aldus Manutius (1513), Aldine Press, editio princeps
John Potter (1697, 1702)
Ludwig Bachmann (1830), with notes and Scaliger's Latin verse translation online
Félix Désiré Dehèque (1853), with French translation, Latin paraphrase, and notes online
Gottfried Kinkel (1880)
Eduard Scheer (1881–1908), including the paraphrases and Tzetzian scholia
Carl von Holzinger (1895), Teubner edition with German translation and commentary online
Emanuele Ciaceri (1901), edition with Italian translation and commentary online
George W. Mooney (1921), edition with facing English translation and explanatory notes. {reprinted Arno Press, 1979]
Lorenzo Mascialino (1964), Teubner edition
Pascal Quignard, Lycophron. Alexandra, Paris, Mercure de France (1971)
André Hurst and Antje Kolde (2008), Budé edition
Simon Hornblower (repr. 2017), with translation and commentary
Translations
Philip Yorke, Viscount Royston (1784 - 1808, posthumously published 1832) online
A. W. Mair (1921), Loeb Classical Library (online at the Internet Archive; online on Google Books)
George W. Mooney (1921)
References
Further reading
Studies
J. Konze, De Dictione Lycophronis (1870)
Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, De Lycophronis Alexandra (1884) online
A. Rozokoki, The negative presentation of the Greeks in Lycophron’s Alexandra and the dating of the poem, (2019)
External links
Online text: Lycophron's Alexandra translated by A. W. Mair, 1921
An ancient Life of Lycophron, compiled by Tzetzes
Ancient Euboeans
Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights
Ancient Greek poets
Ancient Greek grammarians
3rd-century BC Greek people
3rd-century BC poets
Tragic poets
Sophists
Ptolemaic court
Anagrammatists | [
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|
213884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus%20Smyrnaeus | Quintus Smyrnaeus | Quintus Smyrnaeus (also Quintus of Smyrna; , Kointos Smyrnaios) was a Greek epic poet whose Posthomerica, following "after Homer" continues the narration of the Trojan War. The dates of Quintus Smyrnaeus' life and poetry are disputed: by tradition, he is thought to have lived in the latter part of the 4th century AD, but early dates have also been proposed.
His epic in fourteen books, known as the Posthomerica, covers the period between the end of Homer's Iliad and the end of the Trojan War. Its primary importance is as the earliest surviving work to cover this period, the archaic works in the Epic Cycle, which he knew and drew upon, having been lost. His materials are borrowed from the cyclic poems from which Virgil (with whose works he was probably acquainted) also drew, in particular the Aethiopis (Coming of Memnon) and the Iliupersis (Destruction of Troy) of Arctinus of Miletus, the now-lost Heleneis of Philodoppides and the Ilias Mikra (Little Iliad) of Lesches. His work is closely modelled on Homer. For a long time, Quintus' work was considered inferior to Homer; however, it is now understood how inventively and creatively Quintus is responding to Homeric epic.
Life
The dates of Quintus's life are controversial, but they are traditionally placed in the latter part of the 4th century AD. Way suggests that "His date is approximately settled by two passages in the poem, viz. vi. 531 sqq., in which occurs an illustration drawn from the man-and-beast fights of the amphitheatre, which were suppressed by Theodosius I. (379–395 AD); and xiii. 335 sqq., which contains a prophecy, the special particularity of which, it is maintained by Koechly, limits its applicability to the middle of the fourth century AD."
Some scholars suggest an earlier date in the 3rd or even the 2nd century, arguing that his Posthomerica shows an influence from the "Second Sophistic", the school of Greek orators who flourished in the 1st and 2nd centuries. According to his own account (xii. 310), he began composing poetry in his early youth while tending sheep near Smyrna (present-day İzmir).
A Christian poet of the 4th-century, Dorotheus, known for his Greek epic poem, The Vision of Dorotheus, has been identified as the son of Quintus Smyrnaeus. At the end of the manuscript of his Vision, he identifies himself as "Dorotheus, son of Quintus the poet". This identification is supported by the facts that there is no other poet Quintus in this period and Dorotheus uses the same Homeric poetic structure as Quintus. Despite this, Dorotheus commits many metric errors which Quintus avoids, indicating that Dorotheus did not inherit Quintus' Homeric culture.
The Posthomerica
The plot of Posthomerica begins where Homer's Iliad ends, immediately after Hector's body was regained by the Trojans. The first four books, covering the same ground as the Aethiopis of Arctinus of Miletus, describe the doughty deeds and deaths of the Amazon Penthesileia and of Aethiopian king Memnon, the son of the dawn goddess Eos, both slain by Achilles, and the death of Achilles himself and the funeral games in his honour.
Books five through twelve, covering the same ground as the Little Iliad of Lesches, span the contest between Aias and Odysseus for the arms of Achilles, the death of Aias of suicide after his loss, the exploits of Neoptolemus, Eurypylus and Deiphobus, the deaths of Paris and Oenone, and the building of the wooden horse. As well as drawing inspiration from Lesches' work, it is likely that these books gathered source material from Greek tragedy, such as Sophocles' depiction of Ajax.
The remaining books, covering the same ground as Arctinus' The Sack of Troy, relate the capture of Troy by means of the wooden horse, the sacrifice of Polyxena at the grave of Achilles, the departure of the Greeks, and their dispersal by storm.
Editions
The Editio princeps by Aldus Manutius was published at Venice, 1504 under the title Quinti Calabri derelictorum ab Homero libri XIV. Aldus calls him Quintus Calabrus, because the only known manuscript of his poem was discovered at Otranto in Calabria by Cardinal Bessarion, in 1450. His familiar name was first given him by his editor Lorenz Rhodomann, in 1577, who included a Latin translation by Michael Neander.
There has been a renewed interest in the poet and his poem in the twentieth century, with A. Way's translation (Loeb Classical Library vol. 19, 1913); a new edition of the text with partial commentary and French translation done by Francis Vian (3 vols. published by Budé, 1963, 1966, 1969); Frederick Combellack's English translation; Alan James and Kevin Lee's detailed commentary on book 5; and Alan James's English translation, with newly edited text and commentary.
Citations
References
Way, A. S., Quintus Smyrnaeus: The Fall of Troy, Translator: A.S. Way; Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1913. Internet Archive
Hermann Kochly (ed. major with elaborate prolegomena, 1850; ed. minor, 1853)
Z. Zimmermann (author of other valuable articles on the poet), (1891)
Franz Kehmptzow, De Quinti Smyrnaei fontibus ac mythopoeia (1889)
C.-A. Sainte-Beuve, Etude sur . . . Quinte de Smyrne (1857)
F.A. Paley, Quintus Smyrnaeus and the "Homer" of the tragic Poets (1879)
G. W. Paschal, A Study of Quintus Smyrnaeus (Chicago, 1904).
External links
Editio princeps (Greek text, Venice, Aldus)
Quintus Smyrnaeus: a modern bibliography
Roman-era poets
Late Antique writers
Roman-era Greeks
Ancient Greek epic poets
4th-century poets
Ancient Smyrnaeans
People from İzmir
Poets of ancient Ionia | [
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|
213887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semipermeable%20membrane | Semipermeable membrane | Semipermeable membrane is a type of biological or synthetic, polymeric membrane that will allow certain molecules or ions to pass through it by osmosis. The rate of passage depends on the pressure, concentration, and temperature of the molecules or solutes on either side, as well as the permeability of the membrane to each solute. Depending on the membrane and the solute, permeability may depend on solute size, solubility, properties, or chemistry. How the membrane is constructed to be selective in its permeability will determine the rate and the permeability. Many natural and synthetic materials which are rather thick are also semipermeable. One example of this is the thin film on the inside of the egg.
Biological membranes are selectively permeable, with the passage of molecules controlled by facilitated diffusion, passive transport or active transport regulated by proteins embedded in the membrane.
Biological membranes
An example of a biological semi-permeable membrane is the lipid bilayer, on which is based on the plasma membrane that surrounds all biological cells. A group of phospholipids (consisting of a phosphate head and two fatty acid tails) arranged into a double layer, the phospholipid bilayer is a semipermeable membrane that is very specific in its permeability. The hydrophilic phosphate heads are in the outside layer and exposed to the water content outside and within the cell. The hydrophobic tails are the layer hidden in the inside of the membrane. The phospholipid bilayer is most permeable to small, uncharged solutes. Protein channels are embedded in or through phospholipids, and, collectively, this model is known as the fluid mosaic model. Aquaporins are protein channel pores permeable to water.
Cellular communication
Information can also pass through the plasma membrane when signaling molecules bind to receptors in the cell membrane. The signaling molecules bind to the receptors, which alters the structure of these proteins. A change in the protein structure initiates a signalling cascade;
The G protein-coupled receptor signalling provides is an important subset of such signalling processes.
Reverse osmosis
The bulk flow of water through a selectively permeable membrane because of an osmotic pressure difference is called osmosis. This allows only certain particles to go through including water and leaving behind the solutes including salt and other contaminants. In the process of reverse osmosis, water is purified by applying high pressure to a solution and thereby push water through a thin-film composite membrane (TFC or TFM). These are semipermeable membranes manufactured principally for use in water purification or desalination systems. They also have use in chemical applications such as batteries and fuel cells. In essence, a TFC material is a molecular sieve constructed in the form of a film from two or more layered materials. Sidney Loeb and Srinivasa Sourirajan invented the first practical synthetic semi-permeable membrane. Membranes used in reverse osmosis are, in general, made out of polyamide, chosen primarily for its permeability to water and relative impermeability to various dissolved impurities including salt ions and other small molecules that cannot be filtered. Another example of a semipermeable membrane is dialysis tubing.
Other types
Other types of semipermeable membranes are cation-exchange membranes (CEMs), anion-exchange membranes (AEMs), alkali anion exchange membranes (AAEMs) and proton-exchange membranes (PEMs).
References
Further reading
See this document for definitions of penetrant (permeant), synthetic (artificial) membrane, and anion-exchange membrane.
External links
The European Membrane House, a non-profit international association created to continue the work of the network and parternships developed in NanoMemPro, an earlier EU-funded European network of membrane researchers.
Short, non-scholarly WiseGeek article, "What is a Semipermeable Membrane.
Diffusion
Filters
Membrane biology
Membrane technology | [
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|
213891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20Apthorp%20Paley | Frederick Apthorp Paley | Frederick Apthorp Paley (14 January 1815 – 8 December 1888), was an English classical scholar.
Life
Born at Easingwold in Yorkshire, to Rev. Edmund Paley and Sarah (née Apthorp), he was the grandson of William Paley, and brother of architect E.G. Paley, and was educated at Shrewsbury School and St John's College, Cambridge (BA 1838). His conversion to Roman Catholicism forced him to leave Cambridge in 1846, but he returned in 1860 and resumed his work as "coach," until in 1874 he was appointed by Mgr Thomas Capel as professor of classical literature at the newly founded Roman Catholic University at Kensington. This institution was closed in 1877 for lack of funds, and Paley removed to Boscombe, where he lived until his death.
Works
His most important editions are:
Aeschylus, with Latin notes (1844-1847), the work by which he first attracted attention
Aeschylus (4th ed., 1879)
Euripides (2nd ed., 1872)
Propertius, Carmina. The Elegies of Propertius, with English notes (2nd ed., 1872), London : Bell & Dandy
Hesiod (2nd ed., 1883)
Homer's Iliad (2nd ed., 1884)
Sophocles' Philoctetes, Electra, Trachiniae, Ajax (1880)--all with English commentary and forming part of the Bibliotheca classica
select private orations of Demosthenes (3rd ed., 1896-1898)
Theocritus (2nd ed., 1869), with brief Latin notes, one of the best of his minor works
He possessed considerable knowledge of architecture, and published a Manual of Gothic Architecture (1846) and Manual of Gothic Mouldings (1845).
References
Citations
Sources
1815 births
1888 deaths
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Catholic University College, Kensington
Converts to Roman Catholicism
People educated at Shrewsbury School
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|
213895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesches | Lesches | Lesches () is a semi-legendary early Greek poet and the reputed author of the Little Iliad. According to the usually accepted tradition, he was a native of Pyrrha in Lesbos, and flourished about 660 BC (others place him about 50 years earlier). Proclus refers to him as "Lesches of Mytilene". Mytilene and Lesbos are names of the same Greek island used interchangeably.
The lost epic Little Iliad, in four books, was commonly attributed to Lesches. It took up the story of the Homeric Iliad, and, beginning with the contest between Telamonian Ajax and Odysseus for the arms of Achilles, carried it down to the feast of the Trojans over the captured Trojan Horse, according to the epitome in Proclus, or to the Fall of Troy, according to Aristotle. Some ancient authorities ascribe the work to a Spartan named Cinaethon, and even to Homer.
References
Sources
Georg Heinrich Bode, Geschichte der Hellenischen Dichtkunst, i.
Karl Otfried Müller and John William Donaldson, History of Greek Literature, i. ch. 6
Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker, Der epische Cyclus (1865-1882)
Early Greek epic poets
Poets from ancient Lesbos
7th-century BC Greek people
7th-century BC poets
Ancient Greek writers known only from secondary sources | [
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|
213897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ownership | Ownership | Ownership is the state or fact of legal possession and control over property, which may be any asset, tangible or intangible. Ownership can involve multiple rights, collectively referred to as title, which may be separated and held by different parties.
The process and mechanics of ownership are fairly complex: one can gain, transfer, and lose ownership of property in a number of ways. To acquire property one can purchase it with money, trade it for other property, win it in a bet, receive it as a gift, inherit it, find it, receive it as damages, earn it by doing work or performing services, make it, or homestead it. One can transfer or lose ownership of property by selling it for money, exchanging it for other property, giving it as a gift, misplacing it, or having it stripped from one's ownership through legal means such as eviction, foreclosure, seizure, or taking. Ownership is self-propagating in that the owner of any property will also own the economic benefits of that property.
History
Over the millennia and across cultures, notions regarding what constitutes "property" and how it is treated culturally have varied widely. Ownership is the basis for many other concepts that form the foundations of ancient and modern societies such as money, trade, debt, bankruptcy, the criminality of theft, and private vs. public property. Ownership is the key building block in the development of the capitalist socio-economic system. Adam Smith stated that one of the sacred laws of justice was to guard a person's property and possessions.
Types of owners
In person
Individuals may own property directly. In some societies only adult men may own property; in other societies (such as the Haudenosaunee), property is matrilinear and passed on from mother to the offspring. In most societies both men and women can own property with no restrictions and limitations at all.
Structured ownership entities
Throughout history, nations (or governments) and religious organizations have owned property. These entities exist primarily for purposes other than to own or operate property; hence, they may have no clear rules regarding the disposition of their property.
To own and operate property, structures (often known today as legal entities) have been created in many societies throughout history. The differences in how they deal with members' rights is a key factor in determining their type. Each type has advantages and disadvantages derived from their means of recognizing or disregarding (rewarding or not) contributions of financial capital or personal effort.
Cooperatives, corporations, trusts, partnerships, and condominium associations are only some of the many varied types of structured ownership; each type has many subtypes. Legal advantages or restrictions on various types of structured ownership have existed in many societies past and present. To govern how assets are to be used, shared, or treated, rules and regulations may be legally imposed or internally adopted or decreed.
Liability for the group or for others in the group
Ownership by definition does not necessarily imply a responsibility to others for actions regarding the property. A "legal shield" is said to exist if the entity's legal liabilities do not get redistributed among the entity's owners or members. An application of this, to limit ownership risks, is to form a new entity (such as a shell company) to purchase, own and operate each property. Since the entity is separate and distinct from others, if a problem occurs which leads to a massive liability, the individual is protected from losing more than the value of that one property. Many other properties are protected, when owned by other distinct entities.
In the loosest sense of group ownership, a lack of legal framework, rules and regulations may mean that group ownership of property places each member in a position of responsibility (liability) for the actions of every other member. A structured group duly constituted as an entity under law may still not protect members from being personally liable for each other's actions. Court decisions against the entity itself may give rise to unlimited personal liability for each and every member. An example of this situation is a professional partnership (e.g. law practice) in some jurisdictions. Thus, being a partner or owner in a group may give little advantage in terms of share ownership while producing a lot of risk to the partner, owner or participant.
Sharing gains
At the end of each fiscal year, accounting rules determine a surplus or profit, which may be retained inside the entity or distributed among owners according to the initial setup intent when the entity was created. For public corporations, common shareholders have no right to receive any of the profit.
Entities with a member focus will give financial surplus back to members according to the volume of financial activity that the participating member generated for the entity. Examples of this are producer cooperatives, buyer cooperatives and participating whole life policyholders in both mutual and share-capital insurance companies.
Entities with shared voting rights that depend on financial capital distribute surplus among shareholders without regard to any other contribution to the entity. Depending on internal rules and regulations, certain classes of shares have the right to receive increases in financial "dividends" while other classes do not. After many years the increase over time is substantial if the business is profitable. Examples of this are common shares and preferred shares in private or publicly listed share capital corporations.
Entities with a focus on providing service in perpetuam do not distribute financial surplus; they must retain it. It will then serve as a cushion against losses or as a means to finance growth activities. Examples of this are not-for-profit entities: they are allowed to make profits, but are not permitted to give any of it back to members except by way of discounts in the future on new transactions.
Depending on the charter at the foundation of the entity, and depending on the legal framework under which the entity was created, the form of ownership is determined once and for all time. To change it requires significant work in terms of communicating with stakeholders (member-owners, governments, etc.) and acquiring their approval. Whatever structural constraints or disadvantages exist at the creation thus remain an integral part of the entity. Common in, for instance, New York City, Hamburg, and Berlin is a form of real estate ownership known as a cooperative (also co-operative or co-op, in German Wohnungsgenossenschaft – apartment co-operative, also "Wohnbaugenossenschaft" or simply "Baugenossenschaft") which relies heavily on internal rules of operation instead of the legal framework governing condominium associations. These "co-ops", owning the building for the mutual benefit of its members, can ultimately perform most of the functions of a legally constituted condominium, i.e. restricting use appropriately and containing financial liabilities to within tolerable levels. To change their structure now that they are up and operating would require significant effort to achieve acceptance among members and various levels of government.
Sharing use
The owning entity makes rules governing use of property; each property may comprise areas that are made available to any and every member of the group to use. When the group is the entire nation, the same principle is in effect whether the property is small (e.g. picnic rest stops along highways) or large (such as national parks, highways, ports, and publicly owned buildings). Smaller examples of shared use include common areas such as lobbies, entrance hallways and passages to adjacent buildings.
One disadvantage of communal ownership, known as the Tragedy of the Commons, occurs where unlimited unrestricted and unregulated access to a resource (e.g. pasture land) destroys the resource because of over-exploitation. The benefits of exploitation accrue to individuals immediately, while the costs of policing or enforcing appropriate use, and the losses dues to over exploitation, are distributed among many, and are only visible to these gradually.
In a communist nation, the means of production of goods would be owned communally by all people of that nation; the original thinkers did not specify rules and regulations.
Ownership models
State ownership: ownership of an industry, asset, or enterprise by the state or a public body representing a community as opposed to an individual or private party.
Public ownership: ownership and operation of an enterprise by a central government; also an ambiguous term that could refer to either social, partial state, or full state ownership.
Private ownership: exclusive ownership of property by non-governmental legal entities.
Fractional ownership: ownership held in percentage shares of an expensive asset, sold to individual owners, who are charged fees for the asset's management and variable use.
Collective ownership: either joint ownership of an economic entity (e.g., a cooperative) or public ownership.
Cooperative ownership: ownership by the people who together operate and trade with an enterprise.
Common ownership non-exclusive ownership of property by everyone involuntarily.
Property is also distinguished by whether it is movable (personal property) or immovable (immovable property and real property).
Property can also be distinguished by whether or not it is owned with exclusive rights, such rights grant owners a monopoly to refuse ownership to non-owners.
Concerning ownership of means of production and delineating which groups receive the direct profits, capitalism's private ownership is distinguished from socialism's social ownership.
Ownership of resources can be distinguished as either as individual or communal, analogous to private or public in delineating who has rights of use.
Types of property
Personal property
Personal property is a type of property. In the common law systems personal property may also be called chattels. It is distinguished from real property, or real estate. In the civil law systems personal property is often called movable property or movables – any property that can be moved from one location or another. This term is used to distinguish property that different from immovable property or immovables, such as land and buildings. This also means the direct owner of the item(s) is in full control of them/it until either stolen, confiscated by law enforcement, or destroyed.
Personal property may be classified in a variety of ways, such as goods, money, negotiable instruments, securities, and intangible assets including choses in action.
Land ownership
Real estate or immovable property is a legal term (in some jurisdictions) that encompasses land along with anything permanently affixed to the land, such as buildings. Real estate (immovable property) is often considered synonymous with real property, in contrast from personal property (also sometimes called chattel or personalty). However, for technical purposes, some people prefer to distinguish real estate, referring to the land and fixtures themselves, from real property, referring to ownership rights over real estate. The terms real estate and real property are used primarily in common law, while civil law jurisdictions refer instead to immovable property.
In law, the word real means relating to a thing (from Latin reālis, ultimately from rēs, 'matter' or 'thing'), as distinguished from a person. Thus the law broadly distinguishes between real property (land and anything affixed to it) and personal property (everything else, e.g., clothing, furniture, money). The conceptual difference is between immovable property, which would transfer title along with the land, and movable property, which a person would retain title to.
With the development of private property ownership, real estate has become a major area of business.
Corporations and legal entities
An individual or group of individuals can own shares in corporations and other legal entities, but do not necessarily own the entities themselves. A legal entity is a legal construct through which the law allows a group of natural persons to act as if it were an individual for certain purposes.
Some duly incorporated entities may not be owned by individuals nor by other entities; they exist without being owned once they are created. Not being owned, they cannot be bought and sold. Mutual life insurance companies, credit unions, foundations and cooperatives, not for profit organizations, and public corporations are examples of this. No person can purchase the company, as their ownership is not legally available for sale, neither as shares nor as a single whole.
Intellectual property
Intellectual property (IP) refers to a legal entitlement which sometimes attaches to the expressed form of an idea, or to some other intangible subject matter. This legal entitlement generally enables its holder to exercise exclusive rights of use in relation to the subject matter of the IP. The term intellectual property reflects the idea that this subject matter is the product of the mind or the intellect, and that IP rights may be protected at law in the same way as any other form of property.
Intellectual property laws confer a bundle of exclusive rights in relation to the particular form or manner in which ideas or information are expressed or manifested, and not in relation to the ideas or concepts themselves (see idea-expression divide). It is therefore important to note that the term "intellectual property" denotes the specific legal rights which authors, inventors and other IP holders may hold and exercise, and not the intellectual work itself.
Intellectual property laws are designed to protect different forms of intangible subject matter, although in some cases there is a degree of overlap.
Copyright may subsist in creative and artistic works (e.g. books, movies, music, paintings, photographs and software), giving a copyright holder the exclusive right to control reproduction or adaptation of such works for a certain period of time.
A patent may be granted in relation to an invention that is new, useful and not simply an obvious advancement over what existed when the application was filed. A patent gives the holder an exclusive right to commercially exploit the invention for a certain period of time (typically 20 years from the filing date of a patent application).
A trademark is a distinctive sign which is used to distinguish the products or services of one business from those of another business.
An industrial design right protects the form of appearance, style or design of an industrial object (e.g. spare parts, furniture or textiles).
A trade secret (also known as "confidential information") is an item of confidential information concerning the commercial practices or proprietary knowledge of a business.
Patents, trademarks and designs fall into a particular subset of intellectual property known as industrial property.
Like other forms of property, intellectual property (or rather the exclusive rights which subsist in the IP) can be transferred (with or without consideration) or licensed to third parties. In some jurisdictions it is possible to use intellectual property as collateral for a loan.
The basic public policy rationale for the protection of intellectual property is that IP laws facilitate and encourage disclosure of innovation into the public domain for the common good, by granting authors and inventors exclusive rights to exploit their works and invention for a limited period.
However, various schools of thought are critical of the very concept of intellectual property, and some characterise IP as intellectual protectionism. There is ongoing debate as to whether IP laws truly operate to confer the stated public benefits, and whether the protection they are said to provide is appropriate in the context of innovation derived from such things as traditional knowledge and folklore, and patents for software and business methods. Manifestations of this controversy can be seen in the way different jurisdictions decide whether to grant intellectual property protection in relation to subject matter of this kind, and the stark divide on issues of the role and scope of intellectual property laws.
Chattel slavery
"Slavery" is usually taken to mean chattel slavery.
The living human body is, in modern societies, considered something which cannot be the property of anyone but the person whose body it is. Its opposite, in which the person in the body does not own their body, is chattel slavery. Chattel slavery was defined as the absolute legal ownership of a person, including the legal right to buy and sell them. Persons who were so enslaved did not have the freedom to direct their own actions, and their legal rights were either severely limited or nonexistent. The Antebellum period in the United States is considered both the worst for the exploitation of chattel slaves, and also where the practice aroused such fierce opposition and support that it led to the American Civil War.
Chattel slavery is currently (2020) illegal in every country in the world. However, until the 19th century slavery in one form or another existed in most societies and was thought of as the normal state of things; slaves of whatever ethnicity were considered racially inferior. Notwithstanding the illegality of enslavement, virtual slavery still exists in various forms today, although called by other names.
Critical views
The question of ownership reaches back to the ancient philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, who held different opinions on the subject. Plato (428/427 BC – 348/347 BC) thought private property created divisive inequalities, while Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) thought private property enabled people to receive the full benefit of their labor. Private property can circumvent what is now referred to as the “tragedy of the commons” problem, where people tend to degrade common property more than they do private property. While Aristotle justified the existence of private ownership, he left two open questions
how to allocate property between what is private and common, and
how to allocate the private property within society
Modern Western views
In modern western politics, some people believe that exclusive ownership of property underlies much social injustice, and facilitates tyranny and oppression on an individual and societal scale. Others consider the striving to achieve greater ownership of wealth as the driving factor behind human technological advancement and increasing standards of living. Some support the latter view, believing that ownership is necessary for liberty itself.
Ownership society
Ownership society was a political slogan used by United States President George W. Bush to promote a series of policies aimed to increase the control of individual citizens over health care and social security payments and policies. Critics have claimed that slogan hid an agenda that sought to implement tax cuts and curtail the government's role in health care and retirement saving.
See also
Bubuti system
Cadastre
Dominium
Owned, a slang term for dominance or control
Ownership society
Possession (law)
Public ownership
State ownership
References
Legal terminology
Ownership | [
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213900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap%20Anson | Cap Anson | Adrian Constantine Anson (April 17, 1852 – April 14, 1922), nicknamed "Cap" (for "Captain") and "Pop", was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) first baseman. Including his time in the National Association (NA), he played a record 27 consecutive seasons. Anson was regarded as one of the greatest players of his era and one of the first superstars of the game. He spent most of his career with the Chicago Cubs franchise (then known as the "White Stockings" and later the "Colts"), serving as the club's manager, first baseman and, later in his tenure, minority owner. He led the team to six National League pennants in the 1880s. Anson was one of baseball's first great hitters, and probably the first to tally over 3,000 career hits.
His contemporary influence and prestige are regarded by historians as playing a major role in establishing the racial segregation in professional baseball that persisted until the late 1940s. On several occasions, Anson refused to take the field when the opposing roster included black players. Anson may have influenced the most noted vote in 19th-century professional baseball in favor of segregation: one on July 14, 1887 by the high-minor International League to ban the signing of new contracts with black players.
After retiring as a player and leaving the Colts, Anson briefly managed the New York Giants. He ran several enterprises in Chicago, including opening a billiards and bowling hall and running a semi-professional baseball team he dubbed "Anson's Colts". Anson also toured extensively on the vaudeville circuit, performing monologues and songs. Many of his business ventures failed. As a result, Anson lost his ownership stake in the Colts (by then known as the Cubs) and filed for bankruptcy. Anson was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1939.
Early life
Anson was born in Marshalltown, Iowa. Beginning in 1866, he spent two years at the high-school age boarding school of the University of Notre Dame after being sent there by his father in hopes of curtailing his mischievousness. His time away did little to discipline him. Soon after he returned home, his father sent him to the University of Iowa, where his bad behavior resulted in the school asking him to leave after one semester.
Professional career
National Association
Anson played on a number of competitive baseball clubs in his youth and began to play professionally in the National Association (NA) at the age of 19, playing primarily third base for the Rockford Forest Citys, one of the original teams of the Association. He was a large and powerful man, standing tall and weighing about .
After being traded to Philadelphia Athletics, in 1872 and 1873, Anson finished in the NA's top five in batting, on-base percentage (OBP), and on-base plus slugging (OPS). He led the NA in OBP in 1872. His numbers declined slightly in 1874 and 1875, but he was still good enough that Chicago White Stockings secretary-turned-president William Hulbert sought him to improve his club for the 1876 season. Hulbert broke league rules by negotiating with Anson and several other stars while the 1875 season was still in progress and ultimately founded the new National League to forestall any disciplinary action.
Anson, who had become engaged to a Philadelphia native in the meantime, had second thoughts about going west, but Hulbert held Anson to his contract and he eventually warmed to the Windy City.
Chicago White Stockings/Colts
The White Stockings won the first league title, but fell off the pace the following two seasons. During this time, Anson was a solid hitter, but not quite a superstar. Both his fortunes and those of his team would change after Anson was named captain-manager of the club in 1879.
His new role led to the nickname "Cap", though newspapers typically called him by the more formal "Captain Anson" or "Capt. Anson". With Anson pacing the way, the White Stockings won five pennants between 1880 and 1886. They were helped to the titles using new managerial tactics, including the use of a third-base coach, having one fielder back up another, signaling batters, and the rotation of two star pitchers. In the first half of the 1880s, aided by speedy players like Mike Kelly, Anson had his players aggressively run the bases, forcing the opposition into making errors. After the expression first became popular in the 1890s, he retroactively claimed to use some of the first "hit and run" plays.
Anson shares credit as an innovator of modern spring training along with the president of the Chicago club, Albert Spalding. They were among the first to send their clubs to warmer climates in the South to prepare for the season, beginning in Hot Springs, Arkansas in 1886. On the field, Anson was the team's best hitter and run producer. In the 1880s, he won two batting titles (1881, 1888) and finished second four times (1880, 1882, 1886–1887). During the same period, he led the league in runs batted in (RBIs) seven times (1880–82, 1884–86, 1888). His best season was in 1881, when he led the league in batting (.399), OBP (.442), OPS (.952), hits (137), total bases (175), and RBIs (82). He also became the first player to hit three consecutive home runs, five homers in two games, and four doubles in a game, as well as being the first to perform two unassisted double plays in a game. He is one of only a few players to score six runs in a game, a feat he accomplished on August 24, 1886.
Anson signed a ten-year contract in 1888 to manage the White Stockings (which, because of a typographical error he failed to spot, ended after the 1897 season instead of 1898), but his best years were behind him. He led the league in walks in 1890 and garnered his eighth and final RBI crown in 1891. On the managerial front, he failed to win another pennant.
As the end of the 1880s approached, the club had begun trading away its stars in favor of young players, with the exception of the veteran Anson. Local newspapers had started to call the team "Anson's Colts", or just "Colts", before the decade was out. With the advent of the Players' League in 1890, what little talent the club still had was drained away, and the team nickname "Colts", though never official, became standard usage in the local media along with variants such as (Anson's) White Colts and (Anson's) Broncos.
He also mellowed enough that he became a fatherly figure and was often called "Pop". When he was fired as manager after the 1897 season, it also marked the end of his 27-year playing career. The following season, newspapers dubbed the Colts the "Orphans", as they had lost their "Pop".
Racial intolerance
Anson refused to play in exhibition games versus dark-skinned players.
On August 10, 1883, he refused to play an exhibition game against the Toledo Blue Stockings because their catcher, Moses Fleetwood Walker, was African American. When Blue Stockings Manager Charlie Morton told Anson the White Stockings would forfeit the gate receipts if they refused to play, Anson backed down, but not before uttering the word nigger on the field and vowing that his team would not play in such a game again.
In 1884, Chicago again played an exhibition game at Toledo, which was now in the American Association, a major league. Walker sat it out, however, it is uncertain whether he did so to placate Chicago or due to injury; Jimmy McGuire instead did the catching. Both had sore hands, the Toledo Blade had said a few days earlier. Of the two catchers, Walker was seemingly the more injured, as he did not play in Toledo's second-most recent game.
Among Anson's incidents, this one is unique in that private correspondence provides insight. Three months before the game, Chicago Treasurer-Secretary John A. Brown wrote Toledo manager Charlie Morton that "the management of the Chicago Ball Club have no personal feeling about the matter, while "the players do most decisively object and to preserve harmony in the club it is necessary that I have your assurance in writing that [Walker] will not play any position in your nine July 25. I have no doubt such is your meaning[;] only your letter does not express in full [sic]. I have no desire to replay the occurrence of last season and must have your guarantee to that effort.
Walker and his brother Welday were released from their team later that year, Welday last playing on August 6 and Fleet on September 4. On July 14, 1887 the Chicago White Stockings played an exhibition game against the Newark Little Giants. African American George Stovey was listed in the Newark News as the scheduled Newark starting pitcher. Anson objected, and Stovey did not pitch. Moreover, International League owners had voted 6-to-4 at a 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. meeting in Buffalo on the morning of the game to exclude African-American players from future contracts.
Betting on baseball/personal character
Anson acted in ways that would not be tolerated today, because the sport's rules are stricter in certain respects. One was the relative freedom a captain had in his day to argue with the usually lone umpire. Also, starting in the latter 1880s, he often bet on baseball, mainly on his team's chances to win the pennant. In that era, the big taboo was for players to take bribes to purposely lose games. Betting by players, managers, and owners was regarded as acceptable so long as they did not bet against their team doing well or associate with gamblers.
On corruption in sports, he said the following in 1891: "The time may have been, and probably was, when base-ball was as rotten as horse racing, but that time has gone by. The men in control of base-ball matters are of the highest personal character, and no one will say anything against them. As to the charges against any individual player, I will believe them when they have been proved. Every thing [sic] possible has been done to protect the patrons of the National game, and efforts in that direction will never be abated. I don’t know of any crookedness in the ball field. If I did I’d undoubtedly say something about it."
A chronological review of 162 reports of bets on regular season baseball by players, managers or club officials, from 1876 to 1900, tallied the sport's top bettors in that era as follows:
1. Anson (57), Chicago's captain-manager; Hall of Famer
2. (tie) Jim Mutrie (9), mainly as manager of the New York Giants, and his bets were mostly with Anson
2. Edward Talcott (9), millionaire stockbroker as treasurer of the New York Giants
4. (tie) King Kelly (7), mainly as Boston's captain; Hall of Famer
4. Frank Robison (7), Cleveland Spiders owner
Albert Spalding and James Hart
Anson first met Albert Spalding while both were players; Spalding was a pitcher for the Rockford Forest Citys, Anson played for the Marshalltown, Iowa, team. Spalding convinced the 18-year-old Anson to come play for the Forest Citys at a salary of $65 per month. In 1876, when Anson was playing for Philadelphia, Spalding and William Hulbert lured Anson to the Chicago team, which Spalding now managed. After signing the contract, Anson had second thoughts (his future wife did not want to leave her family in Philadelphia), and offered Spalding $1,000 to void the contract. Spalding held Anson to the contract, and Anson came to Chicago in March 1876.
Spalding retired as a player and manager after the 1877 season, but continued as secretary, and later president, of the White Stockings. Anson became a player/manager of the team in 1879, and by 1889 had a 13% ownership. In 1888 Spalding announced that the White Stockings, including Anson, and a "picked nine" from the rest of the National League would begin a World Tour after the end of the season. Spalding put up most of the money, but Anson invested $3,750 of his own. James Hart was hired as business manager and Anson developed an intense dislike for him.
After Spalding stepped down as president of the Chicago club in 1891, he appointed James Hart to the position, which Anson felt should have been his despite his dismal business record. Spalding, however, continued to run the club behind the scenes. In December 1892, Hart, with Spalding's blessing, reorganized the White Stockings into a stock company. Anson was required to sign a new contract, which ended in 1898 instead of 1899 as the previous one had. Anson spotted the error later but said nothing, trusting that Spalding would honor the previous terms.
Hart began to undermine Anson's managerial decisions by reversing fines and suspensions imposed by Anson. By 1897 Anson had little control over his players; after Anson demanded a sportswriter print that Anson thought "the Chicago ball club is composed of drunkards and loafers who are throwing him down", his days as manager were numbered. Spalding invited Anson and his wife on a four-week journey to England in late November 1897. Spalding dropped many hints on the voyage, encouraging Anson to voluntarily retire, but Anson had no intention of doing so. Things remained in limbo until January 29, 1898 when the Associated Press printed a statement by Spalding: "I have taken pains as a mediator to find out from Chicagoans how they feel about a change of management. There has been a decided undercurrent in favor... Lovers of baseball think that Anson has been in power too long."
Career hits total
There has been some controversy as to whether Anson should be considered the first player ever to reach the 3,000 hit milestone. For many years, official statistics credited him with achieving that goal. When the first edition of Macmillan's Baseball Encyclopedia was published in 1969, it disregarded a rule in place only for the 1887 season which counted base-on-balls (walks) as hits and times-at-bat instead of zeroes in both categories as they were before and have been since. Anson's 60 walks were removed from his 1887 hit total, resulting in a career mark of 2,995, though later editions of the encyclopedia still added five more hits to exactly 3,000.
The other controversy over Anson's total hits had to do with his five years in the National Association. Neither the Macmillan Encyclopedia editions nor MLB itself at that time recognized the National Association as being a true major league. MLB.com does not count Anson's time in the NA in his statistics, but tallies his NL total as 3,011 hits. This places Anson 25th on the all-time list.
Other sources credit Anson with a different number of hits, largely because scoring and record keeping was haphazard in baseball until well into the 20th century.
Beginning with the publication of the Baseball Encyclopedia, statisticians have continually found errors and have adjusted career totals accordingly. According to the Sporting News baseball record book, which does not take NA statistics into account, Anson had 3,012 hits over his career. Baseball Reference also credits Anson with 3,012 hits during his NL career; including his time in the NA, Anson is credited with 3,435 hits. The National Baseball Hall of Fame, which uses statistics verified by the Elias Sports Bureau, credits Anson with 3,081 hits. This figure disregards games played in the NA, but includes the walks earned during 1887 as hits.
Retirement
Anson briefly made a return to baseball managing the New York Giants in June and July of 1898. He then attempted to buy a Chicago team in the Western League, but failed after being opposed by Spalding. In 1900, he helped to organize a new version of the defunct American Association, called the New American Base Ball Association, and was named its president. However, at the first sign of trouble he dissolved the league before a single game was played, drawing heated criticism from other backers.
After a number of failed business attempts, including a handball arena and bottled ginger beer that exploded on store shelves, he was later elected city clerk of Chicago in 1905. After serving one term, he failed in the Democratic primary to become sheriff in 1907.
In 1907, Anson made another attempt to come back to baseball, acquiring a semi-pro team in the Chicago City League, which he would call "Anson's Colts". Anson initially had no intention of playing for the team, but in June 1907, at the age of 55, Anson started playing some games at first base in an attempt to boost poor attendance. Despite the draw of seeing Anson play, the team did not attract much attendance, and lost money for Anson. In the fall of 1908, Anson assembled a semi-pro football team, also called Anson's Colts. Although the football team won the city championship, they were not a financial success.
Anson's few successful ventures included a combination billiards hall and a bowling alley he opened in downtown Chicago in 1899. Anson was named vice-president of the American Bowling Congress in 1903, and led a team to the five-man national championship in 1904. Anson was forced to sell the billiards hall in 1909 when faced with mounting financial problems that led to his bankruptcy. Anson was also an avid golfer.
Anson's 1900 book A Ball Player's Career: Being the Personal Reminiscences of Adrian C. Anson, was ghostwritten by Chicago horse racing writer and poet Richard Cary Jr., who had the pen name of Hyder Ali. Right after it was published, Cary told the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, "I really thought when I started that the ‘Cap’ [sic] would be able to reel off the story of his life about as fast as a nimble man would care to write it. It took me just two days to find that was not the case. A day and a half to get the ‘Cap’ to sit down and the other half day in egging him on. The story had to be literally dragged out of him. The incidents of his baseball career were apparently fresh in his mind, but when it came to actual dates he was all at sea. When he did give a date nine times out of ten it was wrong and had to be corrected later on." The New York Times said whether Anson "wrote every word in this volume of reminiscences or not[,] the book reads characteristically. The expression is Ansonian."
Anson began acting during his baseball career. In 1888, he made his stage debut with a single appearance in Hoyt's play A Parlor Match at the Theatre Comique in Harlem. He also played himself in an 1895 Broadway play called The Runaway Colt, written to take advantage of his fame. Later, Anson began touring on the vaudeville circuit, a common practice for athletes of the time, which lasted up until about a year before his death.
He first appeared in vaudeville in 1913 doing a monologue and a short dance. In 1914, George M. Cohan wrote a monologue for him, and in 1917, Cohan, with Chicago Tribune sportswriter Ring Lardner wrote another piece for him, titled First Aid for Father. Anson appeared with two of his grown daughters, Adele and Dorothy, and would bat papier-mâché baseballs made by Albert Spalding into the audience. He appeared in 1921 accompanied by his two daughters in an act written by Ring Lardner with songs by Herman Timberg.
Anson retired from vaudeville in 1921, and continued to refuse a pension from Major League Baseball, despite having no other income. In April 1922, he became the general manager of a new golf club in the South Side of Chicago.
Death
Anson died from a glandular ailment on April 14, 1922, three days shy of his 70th birthday. He was interred at the Oak Woods Cemetery in Chicago.
Legacy
Anson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1939, one of the first 19th century players selected. Over 100 years after his retirement, he still holds several Cubs franchise records, including most career RBI, runs, hits, singles, and doubles while being the only Cub in the 3,000 hit club.
Defensively, he also holds the franchise record for putouts, but also is second in franchise history for errors.
On the managerial side, he was the second manager to ever reach 1,000 wins (doing so after Harry Wright), a feat that has seen over sixty managers join the mark since the 20th century. Anson won 1,282 games with the Cubs, a mark that still stands after a century. Just 24 other managers have won 1,000 games with one team in Major League Baseball.
In a 1992 The Simpsons episode, "Homer at the Bat", Anson, along with several other players, was suggested by Mr. Burns as one of the players for his 'all stars' Baseball team to represent the Springfield power plant, before being informed that they are all long since deceased.
Personal life
In 1872, the 20-year-old Anson met 13-year-old Virginia Fiegal, the daughter of a Philadelphia bar and restaurant owner, whom he married on November 21, 1876. The marriage lasted until her death in 1915. For the first seven years of their marriage, the couple lived in Chicago during the baseball season and Philadelphia during the off-season, but eventually moved to Chicago on a year-round basis.
The Ansons had seven children, three of whom died in infancy. Daughter Grace was born in October 1877; son Adrian Hulbert was born in 1882 and died four days later; daughter Adele was born in April 1884; son Adrian Constantine, Jr. was born in 1887 and died four months later; daughter Dorothy was born in 1889; son John Henry was born in 1892 and died four days later; and daughter Virginia Jeanette was born in 1899.
See also
List of Major League Baseball individual streaks
List of Major League Baseball hit records
List of Major League Baseball RBI records
List of Major League Baseball doubles records
List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
3,000 hit club
List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball career triples leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders
List of Major League Baseball batting champions
List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
Major League Baseball titles leaders
List of Major League Baseball player-managers
List of Major League Baseball managers by wins
References
Further reading
External links
capanson.com
Baseball players from Iowa
Major League Baseball first basemen
Rockford Forest Citys players
Philadelphia Athletics (NA) players
Chicago White Stockings players
Chicago Colts players
Philadelphia Athletics (NA) managers
Chicago White Stockings (original) managers
New York Giants (NL) managers
Notre Dame Fighting Irish baseball players
National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
National League batting champions
National League RBI champions
Baseball managers
Major League Baseball player-managers
19th-century baseball players
Vaudeville performers
Sportspeople from Marshalltown, Iowa
1852 births
1922 deaths
American white supremacists | [
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|
213901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Payne%20Collier | John Payne Collier | John Payne Collier (11 January 1789, London – 17 September 1883, Maidenhead) was an English Shakespearean critic and forger.
Reporter and solicitor
His father, John Dyer Collier (1762–1825), was a successful journalist, and his connection with the press obtained for his son a position on the Morning Chronicle as leader writer, dramatic critic and reporter, which continued until 1847; he was also for some time a reporter for The Times. He was summoned before the House of Commons in 1819 for giving an incorrect report of a speech by Joseph Hume. He entered the Middle Temple in 1811, but was not called to the bar until 1829. The delay was partly due to his indiscretion in publishing the Criticisms on the Bar (1819) by "Amicus Curiae."
Controversial Shakespearean scholar
Collier's leisure was given to the study of Shakespeare and the early English drama. After some minor publications, he produced in 1825–1827 a new edition of Dodsley's Old Plays and in 1833 a supplementary volume entitled Five Old Plays. In 1831 appeared his 3-volume History of English Dramatic Poetry to the Time of Shakespeare and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration, a badly arranged but valuable work. It obtained for him the post of librarian to the 6th Duke of Devonshire, and, subsequently, access to the chief collections of early English literature throughout the kingdom, especially to the treasures of Lord Ellesmere at Bridgewater House.
He produced the Memoirs of Edward Alleyn for the Shakespeare Society in 1841. He followed up this volume with the Alleyn Papers (1843) and the Diary of Philip Henslowe (1845). Collier used these opportunities to commence a series of literary fabrications, as the debates of the following decades revealed. His 8-volume edition of the Works of Shakespeare began to appear in 1842. His edition attracted criticism from his long-time friend, the literary historian Revd. Alexander Dyce, who nonetheless also found much to commend in it, including Collier's biographical essay. In 1847 he was appointed secretary to the Royal Commission on the British Museum.
The Perkins Folio
Over the next several years he claimed to find a number of new documents relating to Shakespeare's life and business. After New Facts, New Particulars and Further Particulars respecting Shakespeare had appeared and passed muster, Collier produced (1852) the famous Perkins Folio, a copy of the Second Folio (1632), so called from a name written on the title-page. In this book were numerous manuscript emendations of Shakespeare, said by Collier to be from the hand of an "old corrector". He published these alterations as Notes and Emendations to the Text of Shakespeare (1853) as a supplementary volume to his edition of Shakespeare's works, bringing out a revised edition of this volume within months of the first. At the same time he published an edition of the plays in a single volume (the "Monovolume" edition), incorporating the Perkins Folio amendments without any detailed commentary.
Unfavourable reception
Collier's friend Dyce was among the first to reject many of the alterations by the "Old Corrector" as "ignorant, tasteless and wanton", while recognizing that others required no more authority than common sense to be accepted as correct, many having been proposed already by other scholars. The authenticity of the whole, however, was roundly rejected, on internal evidence, by S. W. Singer in The Text of Shakespeare Vindicated (1853). In 1853 J.O. Halliwell showed the Dulwich letter to have been (at best) misinterpreted by Collier, and stated (with the owner's permission) his misgivings that Lord Ellesmere's Shakespearean manuscripts were all modern forgeries.
In 1855, in Notes and Queries, Volume X, Collier reported a new "find" in the re-discovery of his own shorthand notes from lectures given by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1811 or 1812, which he published as a volume in 1856 together with a list of the emendations in the Perkins Folio. In a public letter soon extended into a short tract of 1855, A.E. Brae (anonymously) brought evidence challenging the authenticity of Collier's lecture notes, and in effect accusing Collier of having perpetrated the Shakespeare alterations as a fraud. In response to these challenges, in January 1856 Collier made a legal affidavit swearing to the truth of his statements regarding the Coleridge lectures and the Perkins folio, and sought to move the Court of Queen's Bench for a criminal action for libel against the publisher John Russell Smith. While Lord Campbell, presiding, refused to proceed, he commended the character of the applicant and pronounced him to be vindicated by his affidavit, and afterwards gave Collier other tokens of his friendship and esteem.
Controversy and exposure
Collier's second edition of the Works of Shakespeare appeared in 6 volumes in 1858, and bore both in its Preface and in the notes to the text a scathing attack on (among others) Alexander Dyce, accusing him of selective appropriation of Collier's emendations without acknowledgement, motivated by an intention to disparage. Their friendship irrecoverably broken, Dyce responded in a full volume by rejecting Collier's charges against him as artful and deliberate misrepresentations.
In 1853 Collier had made a gift of the Perkins Folio to his patron, the 6th Duke of Devonshire, who remained supportive towards him but died in 1858. In 1859, his cousin and successor the 7th Duke submitted the Folio to the scrutiny of Sir Frederic Madden, Keeper of Manuscripts at the British Museum, and Nicholas Hamilton, of that Department, who pronounced that the emendations were incontestably forgeries of modern date. These findings were further confirmed by a microscopic physical analysis by N.S. Maskelyne, Keeper of the Mineral Department, showing that the supposed archaic handwriting of the emendations was made using not ink but a sepia paint, which overlay erased pencil annotations in modern handwriting closely resembling that of John Payne Collier. The facts were presented by C.M. Ingleby in collected form in 1859, with a full-page dedication naming Andrew Edmund Brae as the first to protest against the specious readings of the Perkins Folio, and, by the use of philological methods, the first to prove that they were modern fabrications.
Ingleby showed that the annotations incorporated ideas drawn from very recent scholarship, knowledge or usage. Hamilton's findings were more fully expressed in his Inquiry (1860). A.E. Brae, now in his own name, reviewed the matter more at length in 1860, and Ingleby gave a fuller account of the discussion raised by Collier's emendations in his Complete View of the Shakespeare Controversy (1861).
Legacy
During the later 18th century, literary forgeries had a certain esteem, when audacious impostures like the De Situ Britanniae, the pseudo-Ossian, the medieval poems of Thomas Chatterton, or the works of William Henry Ireland might carry their own worth, and capture the romantic imagination. The case of Collier, in the mid-19th century, was different, because it was profoundly shocking to the scholarly establishment to discover that a long-established colleague in their midst, a person closely associated with the British Museum, the editor of numerous important editions, with privileged access to the primary documents of English literature, should become suspected of the systematic falsification of evidence and possibly the mutilation of original materials, especially in relation to William Shakespeare. Much as Sir Edward Dering's forgeries had corrupted the historical record in ways that were then not yet recognized, such a presence placed a question-mark over the authenticity of the whole resource, and over the work of other scholars whom he might have misled.
It became clear during the 1850s to most of his critics, that Collier was himself the deceiver, not the deceived. Since then, the falsifications of which he was unquestionably guilty among the manuscripts at Dulwich College have left little doubt of it. He interpolated the name of Shakespeare in a genuine letter at Dulwich, and the spurious entries in Alleyn's Diary were proved to be by Collier's hand when the sale of his library in 1884 gave access to a transcript he had made of the Diary with interlineations corresponding with the Dulwich forgeries. No statement of his can be accepted without verification, nor any manuscript handled by him, without careful examination, but he did much useful work. He compiled a valuable Bibliographical and Critical Account of the Rarest Books in the English Language (1865); he reprinted a great number of early English tracts of extreme rarity and rendered good service to the numerous antiquarian societies with which he was connected, especially in the editions he produced for the Camden Society and the Percy Society.
His Old Man's Diary (1871–72) is an interesting record, though even here the taint of fabrication is not absent. Unfortunately, what he did amiss is more striking to the imagination than what he did aright, and he will be chiefly remembered by it. He died at Maidenhead, where he had long resided, on 17 September 1883.
Modern views
An attempt to redeem Collier's reputation from the charge of forgery was made by Dewey Ganzel in his 1982 study Fortune and Men's Eyes. He argued that Collier's accusers, led by Frederic Madden, were motivated largely by envy and class bias, and that they were upper-class dilettantes determined to put down a lower-class but ferociously hard-working and talented striver. Some of the accusations against Collier, such as the claim by American psychiatrist Samuel A. Tannenbaum that Collier had forged all the accounts of the Master of the Revels, do not stand up to critical examination.
Scholarly opinion, however, still convicts Collier of the forgeries. Samuel Schoenbaum pointed out that in 1875, many years after the Perkins Folio affair, Collier claimed to possess a John Milton folio "full of Milton's brief notes and references; 1500 of them." By that time his reputation was so tarnished that a fresh campaign was impossible. His "Milton" folio is preserved in the New York Public Library, but the annotations are not by Milton. Schoenbaum also referred to entries in Collier's diary in which, late in life, he expressed an unspecified remorse. On 19 February 1881 he wrote, "I have done many base things in my time—some that I knew to be base at the moment, and many that I deeply regretted afterwards and up to this very day": and on 14 May 1882 he wrote, "I am bitterly sad and most sincerely grieved that in every way I am such a despicable offender[.] I am ashamed of almost every act of my life... My repentance is bitter and sincere[.]" Frank Kermode observed that Collier's "repentance would have been more useful if he had identified his fabrications and forgeries."
A more recent study in two volumes by Arthur Freeman and Janet Ing Freeman, after re-examining the evidence, again concluded that Collier was a forger. Dewey Ganzel responded to this study,"He [Arthur Freeman] assumes Collier's guilt and that leads to looking at Collier's work with the expectation of finding fraud... my study revealed what was the irrefutable evidence that he was a victim of a conspiracy of which Frederick Madden was a part... Freeman starts with a criminal; I tried to end up with a man. Freeman says that in 'suspending judgement' of Collier's guilt 'one forfeits the opportunity to explain him at all.' That confusion leads to only one kind of explanation of the events he describes, and, for me, not a very satisfactory one. The point is, the crimes are not 'unproven'; the perpetrators are."
Ganzel suggested that Collier's so-called "confession" may have referred to non-acceptance of certain Christian beliefs. Richard J. Westall, Collier's great-great-grandson, published a note which Collier dictated to his daughter shortly before his death: "I have written much in verse and prose, but can confidently say that I never produced a line, either in verse or prose that was calculated to be injurious either to morality or religion". Westall also referred to Arthur Freeman's comment in a letter to Westall, that "we never presume JPC guilty until the evidence is sifted": Westall remarks that this "hardly squares with the disparagement made in their [the Freemans'] biography of those who 'high-mindedly' suspend judgement", by which they state that such an approach "forfeits the opportunity to explain him at all".
References
External links
1789 births
1883 deaths
English literary critics
Shakespearean scholars
Members of the Middle Temple
People associated with the British Museum
Forgers | [
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|
213908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20High%20Admiral | Lord High Admiral | Lord High Admiral can refer to:
Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom (of England until 1707, of Great Britain until 1709, and of the United Kingdom from 1964 to date)
Lord High Admiral of Scotland
Lord High Admiral of the Wash
Lord High Admiral of Sweden
Lord High Admiral, Pimlico, London public house
See also
List of Lords High Admiral
List of the First Lords of the Admiralty
List of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty | [
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213909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnsley | Barnsley | Barnsley () is a large market town in South Yorkshire, England. As the main settlement of the Metropolitan Borough of Barnsley and the fourth largest settlement in South Yorkshire, the 2011 Census gave the town a population of 91,297 compared to the wider borough which had a population of 246,866. Historically in the West Riding of Yorkshire, it is located between the cities of Sheffield, Manchester, Wakefield, and Leeds. The larger towns of Rotherham, Huddersfield and Doncaster are nearby.
Barnsley's former industries include linen, coal mining, glassmaking and textiles. These declined in the 20th century, but Barnsley's culture is rooted in its industrial heritage and it has a tradition of brass bands, originally created as social clubs by its mining communities. It is also home of the Barnsley chop.
The town is near to the M1 motorway and is served by Barnsley Interchange railway station on the Hallam and Penistone Lines. Barnsley has competed in the second tier of English football for most of its history, but won the FA Cup in 1912 and competed in the Premier League during the 1997–98 season.
History
The first reference to Barnsley occurs in 1086 in the Domesday Book, in which it is called Berneslai and has a population of around 200. The origin of the name Barnsley is subject to debate, but Barnsley Council claims that its origins lie in the Saxon word "Berne", for barn or storehouse, and "Lay", for field.
The town was in the parish of Silkstone and developed little until in the 1150s when it was given to the Pontefract Priory. The monks built a town where three roads met: the Sheffield to Wakefield, Rotherham to Huddersfield and Cheshire to Doncaster routes. The Domesday village became known as Old Barnsley, and a town grew up on the new site.
The monks erected a chapel of ease dedicated to Saint Mary, which survived until 1820 , and established a market. In 1249, a Royal charter was granted to Barnsley permitting it to hold a weekly market on Wednesdays and annual four-day fair at Michaelmas. By the 1290s, three annual fairs were held. The town was the centre of the Staincross wapentake, but in the mid-16th century had only 600 inhabitants.
From the 17th century, Barnsley developed into a stop-off point on the route between Leeds, Wakefield, Sheffield and London. The traffic generated as a result of its location fuelled trade, with hostelries and related services prospering. A principal centre for linen weaving during the 18th and 19th century, Barnsley grew into an important manufacturing town.
The first passenger station to serve Barnsley was opened by the North Midland Railway in 1840. Barnsley station (latter called Cudworth railway station) was located some 2½ miles away at Cudworth. On 1 January 1850 the Manchester and Leeds Railway opened Barnsley Exchange station, close to the town centre. On 1 May 1870 the Midland Railway opened Regent Street station, a temporary structure. A new station was opened by the MR on the Regent Street site on 23 August 1873. As it incorporated the old court house in its construction Regent Street station was renamed Barnsley Court House station.
Barnsley became a municipal borough in 1869, and a county borough in 1913. The town's boundaries were extended to absorb Ardsley and Monk Bretton in 1921 and Carlton in 1938.
Barnsley was the site of a human crush that resulted in the deaths of 16 children in 1908, at a public hall now known as The Civic, when children were rushing to watch a film in the building.
Barnsley has a long tradition of glass-making, however Barnsley is most famous for its coal mines. In 1960, there were 70 collieries within a 15-mile radius of Barnsley town centre, but the last of these closed in 1994. The National Union of Mineworkers still has its HQ in Barnsley.
George Orwell mentioned the town in The Road to Wigan Pier. He arrived in the town on 11 March 1936 and spent a number of days in the town living in the houses of the working class miners while researching for the book. He wrote very critically of the council's expenditure on the construction of Barnsley Town Hall and claimed that the money should have been spent on improving the housing and living conditions of the local miners.
Governance
The Town Hall itself is visible behind some gardens; the building is made of white stone and has an impressive clock tower. Opened on 14 December 1933, Barnsley Town Hall is the seat of local government in the Metropolitan Borough of Barnsley.
Barnsley was created a county borough in 1913, administered independently of the West Riding of Yorkshire. In 1974, following the Local Government Act 1972, the county borough was abolished and Barnsley became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Barnsley in the new county of South Yorkshire, along with nine urban districts and parts of two rural districts of the surrounding area, including many towns and villages including Penistone and Cudworth.
Elections to Barnsley Metropolitan Borough Council have seen the Labour Party retain control of the council at every election. Following the latest election in 2012 the council has 53 Labour, 5 Barnsley Independent Group and 5 Conservative councillors. The borough council elects the mayor every year. On the day of the election, a parade takes place in front of the town hall in honour of the new mayor.
Barnsley is split into four constituencies, Barnsley Central, whose MP is Dan Jarvis of the Labour Party, Barnsley East, whose MP is Stephanie Peacock of the Labour Party, Penistone and Stocksbridge, whose MP is Miriam Cates of the Conservative Party, and Wentworth and Dearne, whose MP is John Healey of the Labour Party.
Geography
Divisions and suburbs
Ardsley, Athersley, Barugh Green, Darton, Carlton, Cudworth, Cundy Cross, Darfield, Dodworth, Elsecar, Gawber, Higham, Honeywell, Hoyland, Kendray, Kexbrough, Kingstone, Lundwood, Mapplewell, Monk Bretton, New Lodge, Oakwell, Old Town, Pogmoor, Royston, Shafton, Smithies, Staincross, Stairfoot, Thurnscoe Wilthorpe, Woolley Colliery, Worsbrough (includes Worsbrough Bridge, Worsbrough Common, Worsbrough Dale, Worsbrough Village, and Ward Green), Wombwell.
Green belt
Barnsley is within a green belt region that extends into the borough and wider surrounding counties. It is in place to reduce urban sprawl, prevent the towns in the Barnsley/Dearne Valley conurbation from further convergence, protect the identity of outlying communities, encourage brownfield reuse, and preserve nearby countryside. This is achieved by restricting inappropriate development within the designated areas, and imposing stricter conditions on permitted building.
The green belt surrounds the Barnsley built-up area, separating towns and villages throughout the borough. Larger outlying communities such as Cudworth, Dodworth, Kendray, Monk Bretton, and Worsbrough are also exempt from the green belt area. However, nearby smaller villages, hamlets and rural areas such as Swaithe, Smithley, Low Laithes, and Upper Norcroft are 'washed over' by the designation. Much semi-rural land on the fringes is also included. The green belt was first defined in 1979, and the area in 2017 amounted to some , 77% of the borough.
A subsidiary aim of the green belt is to encourage recreation and leisure interests, with rural landscape features, greenfield areas and facilities including the River Dearne valley, and tributaries Cawthorne Dyke and Tanyard Beck; Hugset and Dovecliffe Woods; Worsbrough Mill Park and reservoir; Dearne Valley Park; Trans Pennine Trail; Kendray recreation ground; Locke Park; Stainborough Cricket Club and Park; Wentworth Castle and gardens; Barnsley Colliery; Monk Bretton Priory; Laithes Lane playing fields; and Barnsley Golf Club. Beyond Penistone, the green belt also borders the Peak District National Park.
Demography
The 2011 census recorded that the population of the town was 91,297.
Ethnicity
According to the 2011 census Barnsley was:
94.7% White British
1.1% Asian
0.8% Black
Economy
The town was known for a thriving linen trade prior to the arrival of the coal industry. From the 1850s onwards, a large number of coal pits were opened, mostly in the villages surrounding the town, especially those to the east. Coal mining was the major industry of the town until the late 1950s, when a long-term decline set in. All the mines in the borough are now closed, the last to shut being Goldthorpe Colliery in 1994. Wire, linen and glass making were also major industries, but only glass making remains, with one company still operating. The coat of arms for the town has both a coal miner and a glass-blower supporting a shield and depicting local families and other industries, above a ribbon bearing the town's motto, Spectemur agendo ("Let us be judged by our acts").
Major companies in Barnsley include online retailer ASOS, the largest cake bakery in Europe, Premier Foods (formerly Lyons Bakery) who make the Mr Kipling Cake brand, Ardagh Glass (glass bottle makers), Symphony Kitchens, Premdor, several double glazing joinery manufacturers and a number of other large food manufacturers. Most of these businesses are based on industrial parks outside the town centre including many on reclaimed former coal mine sites. The town centre is now moving towards a service economy.
In July 2007, unemployment stood at 2.8% in Barnsley West & Penistone, 4.2% in Barnsley Central and 4.0% in Barnsley East & Mexborough, compared to the national average of 3.1%. Between 1997 and 2007, unemployment fell by 55.2%, 52.5% and 52.5% in the three areas respectively.
The western half of the borough stretches from the M1 to the edge of the Peak District and is rural in character. This western part includes the market town of Penistone and Wentworth Castle and its Grade I listed gardens, Cannon Hall Park and Museum, Cawthorne Jubilee Museum, Wortley Hall and gardens, and Wortley Top Forge (16th century Forge). Pot House Hamlet
In 2002, Barnsley Council and partners launched a consultation, "Rethinking Barnsley". It led to a regeneration programme centred on the town centre which is still underway. Developments included the transport interchange, a cultural centre in the old Civic Hall, a Digital Media Centre (opened August 2007), and new offices and apartments throughout the town centre. At the same time new housing areas were developed. Business parks on the M1 at Junctions 37 and 36, and in the Dearne Valley, have expanded job opportunities. Unemployment is now below the national average. The economic development of Barnsley is led by the Barnsley Development Agency.
Significant industrial employers include the Ardagh Group and ASOS.com.
Town centre
A large part of Barnsley town centre was constructed during the 1960s. The area around Cheapside and May Day Green, the Metropolitan Centre, is home to the market and many national high street chains such as Marks & Spencer, Carphone Warehouse, Vodafone, Boots, and The Body Shop. It is in the process of renovation to make space for a new retail and leisure development. Alhambra Shopping Centre, which was opened in 1991, houses retailers such as Next, Poundstretcher,and Primark. Other prominent areas include Queen Street, home to Marks and Spencer, Market Street, Eldon Street and the Victorian Arcade, which houses the majority of the independent and designer retailers in Barnsley. The town also has a large concentration of pubs and bars in the central district. There is also a twin auditorium cinema called Parkway Cinema Barnsley occupying what once was the Odeon Cinema on Eldon Street.
Outside the town centre are large retail units, retail parks and supermarkets, which include Asda, Morrisons, Currys, and Halfords.
The development of a new shopping centre was started in the town centre in late 2015.
Development
Barnsley town centre is undergoing a period of change. Projects include:
The new Barnsley Interchange (now completed).
The Digital Media Centre (now completed).
Gateway Plaza at Town End (now completed).
Experience Barnsley – The creation of the Barnsley People's Museum and Archives Centre. This project was awarded almost £3m of funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund, which means two floors of Barnsley's distinctive town hall were transformed into state-of-the-art museum galleries, the first devoted to the borough's stories, past and present. (Now completed)
Barnsley College A Block was completed and opened in September 2011.
Aimed for opening in 2021, a new area of town, covering the current Cheapside and semi-open market area is set to open by spring 2021. The facility is under construction, and is named 'The Glass Works'. The first stage of the development has opened and consists of the town's famous market. The new facility will create an urban, glass and steel fronted open-top shopping area, comparable to that of Trinity Walk in Wakefield. The development will include a 20-screen Cineworld cinema, bowling alley and high street brands never before seen in Barnsley. (under construction)
Landmarks
Alhambra Centre
Barnsley College
Barnsley Town Hall, recently turned into Experience Barnsley, a locally focused museum
Cannon Hall Museum, Park & Gardens
Cannon Hall Farm, is a working farm and tourist attraction.
Houndhill
Locke Park
Oakwell Stadium football ground, home of Barnsley Football Club
Wentworth Castle & Gardens
Barnsley Interchange
Barnsley Main, a Grade 2 listed building and the last remaining pithead in Barnsley, currently under development.
Barnsley Metrodome
The first bottle bank for glass recycling collection in the United Kingdom was introduced by both Stanley Race CBE, then president of the Glass Manufacturers' Federation and major employer Redfearn's (now Rexam Glass) and Ron England in Barnsley. The bottle bank opened on 24 August 1977.
Transport
The main transport hub is Barnsley Interchange, a combined rail and bus station that was opened on Sunday 20 May 2007, and was the first project in the remaking Barnsley scheme to be completed.
Stagecoach Yorkshire run most bus services within Barnsley, operating to and from Barnsley Interchange. Stagecoach acquired the company from Yorkshire Traction in 2005.
Train services are provided by Northern. Northbound there is a half-hourly express service to Leeds which takes around 35 minutes augmented by a slower service via Castleford which takes around 50 minutes. There is an hourly service to Huddersfield via the Penistone Line. Southbound there are four trains per hour to Meadowhall Interchange and Sheffield, two of which are local stopping services and two of which are express. One service per hour continues to Chesterfield and Nottingham. Evenings and Sundays there is a less frequent service.
Barnsley is also served by:
Dodworth railway station west of the town centre, which is a stop on the Penistone Line, and has one platform.
Darton railway station however, is on the Hallam Line, has two platforms and is in the north of Barnsley.
The nearest airport is Robin Hood Airport approximately away.
Education
Barnsley College is situated on a number of sites throughout the town centre, chiefly Old Mill Lane campus, SciTech Centre, Honeywell Sports campus, CUBE Construction Centre and STEM Centre. The University of Huddersfield has recently opened a campus in the town on Church Street besides Barnsley Town Hall. This is known as the University Campus Barnsley.
All 14 secondary schools in Barnsley were demolished and replaced by academy education centres, named 'SuperSchools'. These new schools combined all the previous LEA run comprehensive schools in the area into newly PFI built academies under the Building Schools for the Future programme.
Notable people
John Stones, football player in Manchester City football club and England national football team
Culture
Barnsley is home to a tradition of brass bands, which were originally created as social clubs for the mining communities. Grimethorpe Colliery Band, located in Grimethorpe, to the east of Barnsley, is perhaps the best known brass band in Britain. It rose to fame in the film Brassed Off and is now the 'artist in residence' at the Royal College of Music, London. The band has performed in Hyde Park during the Last Night of the Proms. Other events include Picnic In The Park, being held annually to raise funds for Barnsley Hospice
The 'Bard of Barnsley' Ian McMillan writes a column in the Barnsley Chronicle. He was nominated for a chair of poetry at Oxford University, and appears on BBC Radio 4. Barnsley has long been known as Tarn by locals.
Ken Loach's 1969 film Kes was set and filmed in several villages in Barnsley, including Lundwood and Monk Bretton, using local actors such as Freddie Fletcher. His 1977 film The Price of Coal was set at a fictional Milton colliery in the Barnsley area, although the site of filming was Thorpe Hesley, near Rotherham.
There is a live rock and hip hop music scene, which reached its height in the Britpop years, around 1997, due to its close proximity to Sheffield and Manchester. The 1980s saw the rise of Saxon (metal band), Danse Society (Goth) and Party Day (Indie-rock). Two of the Arctic Monkeys studied music at Barnsley College
Barnsley is the home of several live music venues such as The Underground, The Garrison, The Old No 7 and The Old School House. Barnsley formerly hosted the Barnsley Origin Music festival (BOMfest), an outdoor summer music festival which catered for local and national artists which made The Daily Telegraph top 100 U.K. Summer festivals in 2009. It now hosts Barnsley Live, an annual music festival featuring local acts that takes place in the town centre over a weekend in June.
Barnsley Council operates five museums, Elsecar Heritage Centre, Cannon Hall, the Cooper Gallery Worsbrough Mill and Experience Barnsley which opened in the Town Hall in 2015. Other museums in Barnsley include the volunteer-run Darfield Museum and the Cawthorne Victoria Jubilee Museum. Other heritage sites include Wortley Top Forge, Wortley Hall, Wentworth Castle, Monk Bretton Priory and Pot House Hamlet.
HIVE Gallery is a contemporary art gallery founded in 2007 by Creative Barnsley and Patrick Murphy. It is situated in Elsecar Heritage Centre and curates eight contemporary art exhibitions per year. The HIVE programme ranges from supporting emerging contemporary artists to exhibiting the work of nationally and internationally known artists. Previous shows have included famous artists such as Sir Peter Blake and Patrick Caulfield.
The Lamproom Theatre has four theatrical companies, and showcases theatre in the town.
The Academy Theatre is part of the Take 2 Centre where performances range from comedy, West End performers, musicals and the traditional "An Evening With... ". The Take 2 Centre houses The Take 2 Performing Arts Academy, The Academy Cafe, The Take 2 Music Centre and Lynx Training and Development.
The Civic, in Barnsley town centre, is a multi-purpose performance venue in a grade II listed building, The Civic was re-opened in March 2009 after a major redevelopment. The Civic has hosted high-profile acts such as Al Murray and Russell Howard. The Civic houses a contemporary art gallery that hosts touring exhibition from the V&A and the Flow Gallery in London. The Civic also curates its own work for touring, such as Little Black Dress and most recently Brazil +55.
Twin towns
Barnsley is twinned with:
Sport
Barnsley F.C. play in the Championship, the second tier of English football. Their home ground, Oakwell Stadium is situated in Oakwell, just outside the town centre. The club has had a mixed recent history. In the late 1990s they had a brief spell in the Premier League, but were relegated after one season. Subsequent seasons saw them relegated to the third tier of English football; they were promoted to the second tier in 2006, beating Swansea in the play off final. They were relegated in the 2013–14 season. After two seasons, Barnsley regained a place in the second tier, following a victory at Wembley in the 2016 Football League One play-off Final, and the winners of the 2016 Football League Trophy Final. They were again relegated to the third tier at the end of the 2017–18 season.
Also in Barnsley, there is a women's football team called Barnsley WFC, who currently play in the North East Regional Women's Football League Premier Division.
Speedway racing was staged at a track near Barnsley at Lundwood. The track entered a team in the Northern Leagues of 1929 and 1930. Two-time British Under-21 Championship rider Josh Bates hails from the town. Greyhound racing was held at Dillington Park Stadium from 1934 -1990 and at the Dearne Athletic and Sports Stadium in Old Mill Lane, from 1934 to 1935. A third venue at the Queen's Ground was refused three times by the Corporation in 1936.
Rugby league is played in the town, at a number of clubs, past and present.
Dodworth ARLFC played in the second division of the BARLA run Pennine League, playing through the winter. They played at the Miners Welfare ground in Dodworth until deteriorating player participation forced the club to fold 5 games into the 2013/14 season.
The same fate befell Hoyland Vikings ARLFC, prompting talk of a merger. This however failed to materialise leaving only one club to represent the town.
The only representation now comes from the Dearne Valley Bulldogs in nearby Bolton on Dearne. Like Dodworth and Hoyland, they participate in the Pennine League.
Barnsley Broncos play in the RFL conference, which is a summer competition and runs from May to September. Also based at the Miners Welfare, Barnsley Broncos were set up to play in the less intense summer season.
Shaw Lane is the home to many sports in town, cricket, rugby union, squash, bowls, football, athletics and archery are all played to a high standard and host many of the towns teams including Barnsley CC and Barnsley RUFC. Peoples Sport in Barnsley is a project writing the history of participation in sport in Barnsley is in progress and is expected to be complete in 2015.
The town also has a high standard badminton league, with three separate tiers.
The town is home to Barnsley Harriers, a nationally recognised running club.
Ardsley Golf Club, Barnsley, (now defunct) first appeared in the 1930s. The club disappeared at the onset of the Second World War. Golf can still be played at Hillies in Wombwell and there is also a driving range at Staincross.
There are a number of cycling clubs in and around Barnsley, including Barnsley Road Club itself, the long-established Birdwell Wheelers and Team Cystic Fibrosis (a charity-focused team), together covering many different forms of cycle sport and leisure. There have also been various other initiatives set up to promote cycling in the town and district of Barnsley.
Freedom of the Town
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Town of Barnsley.
Individuals
Henry Horsfield (Town Clerk): 1912
Charles Wray (Alderman and former Mayor 1896–1898 and 1903–1905): 1921
Lieut-Colonel W. E. Raley (Alderman, 34 years service to Barnsley Corporation): 1921
David Lloyd George (Prime Minister): 1921
Harold Bird : 2000.
Rita Britton: 2000.
Rt Hon Lord Mason of Barnsley : 2007.
Dr Joann Fletcher: 7 June 2016.
Ian McMillan: 7 June 2016.
David Moody Lord Lieutenant of South Yorkshire: 7 June 2016.
Kate Rusby: 7 June 2016.
Military units
The Light Dragoons
The Yorkshire Regiment
See also
Holy Rood Church, Barnsley
Listed buildings in Barnsley (Central Ward)
References
External links
Barnsley Metropolitan Borough Council
Barnsley Development Agency
Barnsley & Rotherham Chamber Of Commerce
Barnsley and Surrounding Villages History
Towns in South Yorkshire
County towns in England
Unparished areas in South Yorkshire
Geography of the Metropolitan Borough of Barnsley | [
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|
213910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergslagen | Bergslagen | Bergslagen is a historical, cultural, and linguistic region located north of Lake Mälaren in northern Svealand, Sweden, traditionally known as a mining district. In Bergslagen, the mining and metallurgic industries have been important since the Middle Ages although Malmfälten ("the Ore Fields"), the mining district of northernmost Sweden centered at the towns of Kiruna and Malmberget, has been of greater importance during the 20th century.
Bergslagen is not precisely defined, but generally understood to cover part of the provinces of Västmanland, Dalarna (the southern part), and Värmland (the eastern part). Typical towns in the area include Lindesberg, Nora, Fagersta, Sala, Kristinehamn, Filipstad, Grythyttan, Ludvika and Hedemora. Also parts of northern Östergötland, around Finspång, as well as southern Närke can be included, then often referring to South Bergslagen. A wider definition of the area can include parts of Gästrikland (Hofors) and Uppland (the former iron manufacturing district centred on Dannemora) as well.
History
The conflict of interests between iron exports from Bergslagen and territorial conflicts at Denmark's southern border was a chief reason behind the Engelbrekt rebellion in 1434 and the following strifes that ultimately resulted in the dissolution of the Kalmar Union in 1523.
The region was an industrial powerhouse from the 17th century, up to the Steel crisis during the 1970s.
Minerals and mining
The area is very rich in minerals. Mining has been focused on iron ore for centuries but other ores have been mined as well. Most mines are now closed, but in the 1970s many mines were still in operation. The earliest signs of iron making date back to 400 BC while industrial scale activities date back to the 17th century.
At Långban, where iron and manganese have been mined, 270 mineral species have been reported to date. Many of these minerals are unique to the Långban deposit, and 67 minerals were first found at this site.
See also
Ecomuseum Bergslagen
Falu red
Roslagen
Mälaren Valley
References
External links
Ecomuseum Bergslagen - Official site
Långban and its minerals
Mining in Sweden
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|
213914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Dodsley | Robert Dodsley | Robert Dodsley (13 February 1703 – 23 September 1764) was an English bookseller, publisher, poet, playwright, and miscellaneous writer.
Life
Dodsley was born near Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, where his father was master of the free school.
He is said to have been apprenticed to a stocking-weaver in Mansfield, from whom he ran away, going into service as a footman. Profits and fame from his early literary works enabled Dodsley to establish himself with the help of his friends (Alexander Pope lent him £100) as a bookseller at the sign of Tully's Head in Pall Mall, London, in 1735.
He soon became one of the foremost publishers of the day. One of his first publications was Samuel Johnson's London for which he paid ten guineas in 1738. He published many of Johnson's works, and he suggested and helped to finance Johnson's Dictionary. Pope also made over to Dodsley his interest in his letters. In 1738, the publication of Paul Whitehead's Manners was voted scandalous by the House of Lords and led to Dodsley's imprisonment for a brief period. Dodsley published for Edward Young and Mark Akenside, and in 1751 brought out Thomas Gray's Elegy. He was also publisher to the Rev. Joseph Spence and Joseph Warton, and collaborated with John Baskerville, the innovative Birmingham printer.
In 1759 Dodsley retired, leaving the conduct of the business to his brother James (1724–1797), with whom he had been in partnership for many years. He died and was buried at Durham while he was on a visit to his friend Joseph Spence.
Works
In 1729 Dodsley published his first work, Servitude: a Poem written by a Footman, with a preface and postscript ascribed to Daniel Defoe; and a collection of short poems, A Muse in Livery, or the Footman's Miscellany, was published by subscription in 1732, Dodsley's patrons comprising many persons of high rank. This was followed by a satirical farce called The Toy-Shop (Covent Garden, 1735), in which the toymaker indulges in moral observations on his wares, a hint which was probably taken from Thomas Randolph's Conceited Pedlar. In 1737 his King and the Miller of Mansfield, a "dramatic tale" of King Henry II, was produced at Drury Lane, and received with much applause; the sequel, Sir John Cockle at Court, a farce, appeared in 1738. Dodsley displayed his egalitarian leanings with the anonymous The Chronicle of the Kings of England by "Nathan ben Saddi" (1740), rewriting English history in the style of the King James Version of the Pentateuch. The Oeconomy of Human Life appeared in 1750, a collection of moral precepts attributed to ancient authors in India and China, set out in a King James Version style of English attributed to an anonymous translator.
Dodsley is, however, best known as the editor of two collections, one of plays, and one of poems. The first was the Select Collection of Old Plays (12 vols., 1744; 2nd edition with notes by Isaac Reed, 12 vols., 1780; 4th edition, by William Carew Hazlitt, 1874–1876, 15 vols). Dodsley's collection of poems, A collection of Poems by Several Hands (1748, 3 vols.) was ‘to preserve to the public those poetical performances, which seemed to merit a longer remembrance than what would probably be secured to them by the Manner wherein they were originally published’ (Collection of Poems, 1748, vol. 1.iii–iv). Given his literary circle, he was able to fill three volumes of poetry by the time of the first edition on 15 January 1748. By March 1755 it had entered four editions and he added a fourth volume, and in 1758 volumes five and six, hence the change in titles.
In 1745 he published a collection of his dramatic works, and some poems which had been issued separately in one volume under the modest title of Trifles. This was followed by The Triumph of Peace, a Masque occasioned by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1749); his three-canto blank verse georgic on Agriculture (1753), originally intended as part of a longer work to be titled Public Virtue; The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green (acted at Drury Lane 1739, printed 1741); and an ode, Melpomene (1751). His tragedy of Cleone (1758) had a long run at Covent Garden, 2000 copies being sold on the day of publication, and it passed through four editions within the year.
Dodsley also founded several literary periodicals: The Museum (1746–1767, 3 vols.); The Preceptor containing a general course of education (1748, 2 vols.), with an introduction by Dr Johnson; The World (1753–1756, 4 vols.); and The Annual Register, founded in 1758 with Edmund Burke as editor. To these various works, Horace Walpole, Akenside, Soame Jenyns, Lord Lyttelton, Lord Chesterfield, Burke and others were contributors.
He produced and published more successful works towards the end of his life. The Select Fables of Esop (1761), which remained in print in various editions for many decades, for which he and some of his friends wrote additional fables. The Works of William Shenstone (3 vols., 1764–1769) was brought out as a memorial after Shenstone's sudden death, and was very selectively edited so as to show that writer at his best.
List of selected works
12 Volumes: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
12 Volumes: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
12 Volumes: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
15 Volumes: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
3 Volumes.
V1 V2 V3 V4
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6
See also
Book trade in the United Kingdom
References
Bibliography
Knight, Charles. Shadows of the Old Booksellers. London: Bell and Daldy, 1865.
"At Tully's Head." In Eighteenth Century Vignettes, 2nd series. Edited by Austin Dobson. London: Chatto and Windus, 1907.
Banham, Martin. The Cambridge Guide to the Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Dickens, Charles. "The Muse in Livery" in "Household Words, A Weekly Journal" Vol. 11, No. 13, Whole No. 266, 1855
Hartnoll, Phyllis. The Oxford Companion to the Theatre. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
Solomon, Harry M. The Rise of Robert Dodsley: Creating the New Age of Print. Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1996.
External links
Robert Dodsley at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
The King and the Miller of Mansfield (1737) at the Internet Archive
1703 births
1764 deaths
English dramatists and playwrights
English booksellers
Publishers (people) from London
People from Mansfield
Bookshops in London
18th-century English businesspeople
English male dramatists and playwrights
English male poets | [
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213915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular%20number | Triangular number | A triangular number or triangle number counts objects arranged in an equilateral triangle. Triangular numbers are a type of figurate number, other examples being square numbers and cube numbers. The th triangular number is the number of dots in the triangular arrangement with dots on each side, and is equal to the sum of the natural numbers from 1 to . The sequence of triangular numbers, starting with the 0th triangular number, is
0, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, 66, 78, 91, 105, 120, 136, 153, 171, 190, 210, 231, 253, 276, 300, 325, 351, 378, 406, 435, 465, 496, 528, 561, 595, 630, 666...
(This sequence is included in the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences .)
Formula
The triangular numbers are given by the following explicit formulas:
where is a binomial coefficient. It represents the number of distinct pairs that can be selected from objects, and it is read aloud as " plus one choose two".
The first equation can be illustrated using a visual proof. For every triangular number , imagine a "half-square" arrangement of objects corresponding to the triangular number, as in the figure below. Copying this arrangement and rotating it to create a rectangular figure doubles the number of objects, producing a rectangle with dimensions , which is also the number of objects in the rectangle. Clearly, the triangular number itself is always exactly half of the number of objects in such a figure, or: . The example follows:
The first equation can also be established using mathematical induction: Since is equal to one, a basis case is established. It follows from the definition that , so assuming the inductive hypothesis for , adding to both sides immediately gives
In other words, since the proposition (that is, the first equation, or inductive hypothesis itself) is true when , and since being true implies that is also true, then the first equation is true for all natural numbers. The above argument can be easily modified to start with, and include, zero.
The German mathematician and scientist, Carl Friedrich Gauss, is said to have found this relationship in his early youth, by multiplying pairs of numbers in the sum by the values of each pair . However, regardless of the truth of this story, Gauss was not the first to discover this formula, and some find it likely that its origin goes back to the Pythagoreans in the 5th century BC. The two formulas were described by the Irish monk Dicuil in about 816 in his Computus.
The triangular number solves the handshake problem of counting the number of handshakes if each person in a room with people shakes hands once with each person. In other words, the solution to the handshake problem of people is . The function is the additive analog of the factorial function, which is the products of integers from 1 to .
The number of line segments between closest pairs of dots in the triangle can be represented in terms of the number of dots or with a recurrence relation:
In the limit, the ratio between the two numbers, dots and line segments is
Relations to other figurate numbers
Triangular numbers have a wide variety of relations to other figurate numbers.
Most simply, the sum of two consecutive triangular numbers is a square number, with the sum being the square of the difference between the two (and thus the difference of the two being the square root of the sum). Algebraically,
This fact can be demonstrated graphically by positioning the triangles in opposite directions to create a square:
There are infinitely many triangular numbers that are also square numbers; e.g., 1, 36, 1225. Some of them can be generated by a simple recursive formula:
with
All square triangular numbers are found from the recursion
with and
Also, the square of the th triangular number is the same as the sum of the cubes of the integers 1 to . This can also be expressed as
The sum of the first triangular numbers is the th tetrahedral number:
More generally, the difference between the th -gonal number and the th -gonal number is the th triangular number. For example, the sixth heptagonal number (81) minus the sixth hexagonal number (66) equals the fifth triangular number, 15. Every other triangular number is a hexagonal number. Knowing the triangular numbers, one can reckon any centered polygonal number; the th centered -gonal number is obtained by the formula
where is a triangular number.
The positive difference of two triangular numbers is a trapezoidal number.
The pattern found for triangular numbers and for tetrahedral numbers which uses binomial coefficients, can be generalized. This leads to the formula:
Other properties
Triangular numbers correspond to the first-degree case of Faulhaber's formula.
Alternating triangular numbers (1, 6, 15, 28, ...) are also hexagonal numbers.
Every even perfect number is triangular (as well as hexagonal), given by the formula
where is a Mersenne prime. No odd perfect numbers are known; hence, all known perfect numbers are triangular.
For example, the third triangular number is (3 × 2 =) 6, the seventh is (7 × 4 =) 28, the 31st is (31 × 16 =) 496, and the 127th is (127 × 64 =) 8128.
The final digit of a triangular number is 0, 1, 3, 5, 6, or 8. A final 3 must be preceded by a 0 or 5; a final 8 must be preceded by a 2 or 7.
In base 10, the digital root of a nonzero triangular number is always 1, 3, 6, or 9. Hence, every triangular number is either divisible by three or has a remainder of 1 when divided by 9:
There is a more specific property to the triangular numbers that aren't divisible by 3; that is, they either have a remainder 1 or 10 when divided by 27. Those that are equal to 10 mod 27 are also equal to 10 mod 81.
The digital root pattern for triangular numbers, repeating every nine terms, as shown above, is "1, 3, 6, 1, 6, 3, 1, 9, 9".
The converse of the statement above is, however, not always true. For example, the digital root of 12, which is not a triangular number, is 3 and divisible by three.
If is a triangular number, then is also a triangular number, given is an odd square and . Note that
will always be a triangular number, because , which yields all the odd squares are revealed by multiplying a triangular number by 8 and adding 1, and the process for given is an odd square is the inverse of this operation.
The first several pairs of this form (not counting ) are: , , , , , , ... etc. Given is equal to , these formulas yield , , , , and so on.
The sum of the reciprocals of all the nonzero triangular numbers is
This can be shown by using the basic sum of a telescoping series:
Two other formulas regarding triangular numbers are
and
both of which can easily be established either by looking at dot patterns (see above) or with some simple algebra.
In 1796, Gauss discovered that every positive integer is representable as a sum of three triangular numbers (possibly including = 0), writing in his diary his famous words, "ΕΥΡΗΚΑ! ". This theorem does not imply that the triangular numbers are different (as in the case of 20 = 10 + 10 + 0), nor that a solution with exactly three nonzero triangular numbers must exist. This is a special case of the Fermat polygonal number theorem.
The largest triangular number of the form is 4095 (see Ramanujan–Nagell equation).
Wacław Franciszek Sierpiński posed the question as to the existence of four distinct triangular numbers in geometric progression. It was conjectured by Polish mathematician Kazimierz Szymiczek to be impossible and was later proven by Fang and Chen in 2007.
Formulas involving expressing an integer as the sum of triangular numbers are connected to theta functions, in particular the Ramanujan theta function.
Applications
A fully connected network of computing devices requires the presence of cables or other connections; this is equivalent to the handshake problem mentioned above.
In a tournament format that uses a round-robin group stage, the number of matches that need to be played between teams is equal to the triangular number . For example, a group stage with 4 teams requires 6 matches, and a group stage with 8 teams requires 28 matches. This is also equivalent to the handshake problem and fully connected network problems.
One way of calculating the depreciation of an asset is the sum-of-years' digits method, which involves finding , where is the length in years of the asset's useful life. Each year, the item loses , where is the item's beginning value (in units of currency), is its final salvage value, is the total number of years the item is usable, and the current year in the depreciation schedule. Under this method, an item with a usable life of = 4 years would lose of its "losable" value in the first year, in the second, in the third, and in the fourth, accumulating a total depreciation of (the whole) of the losable value.
Triangular roots and tests for triangular numbers
By analogy with the square root of , one can define the (positive) triangular root of as the number such that :
which follows immediately from the quadratic formula. So an integer is triangular if and only if is a square. Equivalently, if the positive triangular root of is an integer, then is the th triangular number.
Alternative name
An alternative name proposed by Donald Knuth, by analogy to factorials, is "termial", with the notation ? for the th triangular number. However, although some other sources use this name and notation, they are not in wide use.
See also
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯
Doubly triangular number, a triangular number whose position in the sequence of triangular numbers is also a triangular number
Tetractys, an arrangement of ten points in a triangle, important in Pythagoreanism
References
External links
Triangular numbers at cut-the-knot
There exist triangular numbers that are also square at cut-the-knot
Hypertetrahedral Polytopic Roots by Rob Hubbard, including the generalisation to triangular cube roots, some higher dimensions, and some approximate formulas
Factorial and binomial topics
Integer sequences
Proof without words
Squares in number theory
Triangles
Simplex numbers | [
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213919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square%20number | Square number | In mathematics, a square number or perfect square is an integer that is the square of an integer; in other words, it is the product of some integer with itself. For example, 9 is a square number, since it equals and can be written as .
The usual notation for the square of a number is not the product , but the equivalent exponentiation , usually pronounced as " squared". The name square number comes from the name of the shape. The unit of area is defined as the area of a unit square (). Hence, a square with side length has area . In other words, if a square number is represented by n points, the points can be arranged in rows as a square each side of which has the same number of points as the square root of n; thus, square numbers are a type of figurate numbers (other examples being cube numbers and triangular numbers).
Square numbers are non-negative. Another way of saying that a (non-negative) integer is a square number is that its square root is again an integer. For example, so 9 is a square number.
A positive integer that has no perfect square divisors except 1 is called square-free.
For a non-negative integer , the th square number is , with being the zeroth one. The concept of square can be extended to some other number systems. If rational numbers are included, then a square is the ratio of two square integers, and, conversely, the ratio of two square integers is a square, for example,
.
Starting with 1, there are square numbers up to and including , where the expression represents the floor of the number .
Examples
The squares smaller than 602 = 3600 are:
02 = 0
12 = 1
22 = 4
32 = 9
42 = 16
52 = 25
62 = 36
72 = 49
82 = 64
92 = 81
102 = 100
112 = 121
122 = 144
132 = 169
142 = 196
152 = 225
162 = 256
172 = 289
182 = 324
192 = 361
202 = 400
212 = 441
222 = 484
232 = 529
242 = 576
252 = 625
262 = 676
272 = 729
282 = 784
292 = 841
302 = 900
312 = 961
322 = 1024
332 = 1089
342 = 1156
352 = 1225
362 = 1296
372 = 1369
382 = 1444
392 = 1521
402 = 1600
412 = 1681
422 = 1764
432 = 1849
442 = 1936
452 = 2025
462 = 2116
472 = 2209
482 = 2304
492 = 2401
502 = 2500
512 = 2601
522 = 2704
532 = 2809
542 = 2916
552 = 3025
562 = 3136
572 = 3249
582 = 3364
592 = 3481
The difference between any perfect square and its predecessor is given by the identity . Equivalently, it is possible to count square numbers by adding together the last square, the last square's root, and the current root, that is, .
Properties
The number m is a square number if and only if one can arrange m points in a square:
The expression for the th square number is . This is also equal to the sum of the first odd numbers as can be seen in the above pictures, where a square results from the previous one by adding an odd number of points (shown in magenta). The formula follows:
For example, .
There are several recursive methods for computing square numbers. For example, the th square number can be computed from the previous square by . Alternatively, the th square number can be calculated from the previous two by doubling the th square, subtracting the th square number, and adding 2, because . For example,
.
One number less than a square (m − 1) is always the product of and (for example, 8 × 6 equals 48, while 7 equals 49). Thus, 3 is the only prime number one less than a square.
A square number is also the sum of two consecutive triangular numbers. The sum of two consecutive square numbers is a centered square number. Every odd square is also a centered octagonal number.
Another property of a square number is that (except 0) it has an odd number of positive divisors, while other natural numbers have an even number of positive divisors. An integer root is the only divisor that pairs up with itself to yield the square number, while other divisors come in pairs.
Lagrange's four-square theorem states that any positive integer can be written as the sum of four or fewer perfect squares. Three squares are not sufficient for numbers of the form . A positive integer can be represented as a sum of two squares precisely if its prime factorization contains no odd powers of primes of the form . This is generalized by Waring's problem.
In base 10, a square number can end only with digits 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9, as follows:
if the last digit of a number is 0, its square ends in 0 (in fact, the last two digits must be 00);
if the last digit of a number is 1 or 9, its square ends in 1;
if the last digit of a number is 2 or 8, its square ends in 4;
if the last digit of a number is 3 or 7, its square ends in 9;
if the last digit of a number is 4 or 6, its square ends in 6; and
if the last digit of a number is 5, its square ends in 5 (in fact, the last two digits must be 25).
In base 12, a square number can end only with square digits (like in base 12, a prime number can end only with prime digits or 1), that is, 0, 1, 4 or 9, as follows:
if a number is divisible both by 2 and by 3 (that is, divisible by 6), its square ends in 0;
if a number is divisible neither by 2 nor by 3, its square ends in 1;
if a number is divisible by 2, but not by 3, its square ends in 4; and
if a number is not divisible by 2, but by 3, its square ends in 9.
Similar rules can be given for other bases, or for earlier digits (the tens instead of the units digit, for example). All such rules can be proved by checking a fixed number of cases and using modular arithmetic.
In general, if a prime divides a square number then the square of must also divide ; if fails to divide , then is definitely not square. Repeating the divisions of the previous sentence, one concludes that every prime must divide a given perfect square an even number of times (including possibly 0 times). Thus, the number is a square number if and only if, in its canonical representation, all exponents are even.
Squarity testing can be used as alternative way in factorization of large numbers. Instead of testing for divisibility, test for squarity: for given and some number , if is the square of an integer then divides . (This is an application of the factorization of a difference of two squares.) For example, is the square of 3, so consequently divides 9991. This test is deterministic for odd divisors in the range from to where covers some range of natural numbers
A square number cannot be a perfect number.
The sum of the n first square numbers is
The first values of these sums, the square pyramidal numbers, are:
0, 1, 5, 14, 30, 55, 91, 140, 204, 285, 385, 506, 650, 819, 1015, 1240, 1496, 1785, 2109, 2470, 2870, 3311, 3795, 4324, 4900, 5525, 6201...
The sum of the first odd integers, beginning with one, is a perfect square: 1, 1 + 3, 1 + 3 + 5, 1 + 3 + 5 + 7, etc. This explains Galileo's law of odd numbers: if a body falling from rest covers one unit of distance in the first arbitrary time interval, it covers 3, 5, 7, etc., units of distance in subsequent time intervals of the same length. From s = ut + at2, for u = 0 and constant a (acceleration due to gravity without air resistance); so s is proportional to t2, and the distance from the starting point are consecutive squares for integer values of time elapsed.
The sum of the n first cubes is the square of the sum of the n first positive integers; this is Nicomachus's theorem.
All fourth powers, sixth powers, eighth powers and so on are perfect squares.
Odd and even square numbers
Squares of even numbers are even, and are divisible by 4, since (2n)2 = 4n2. Squares of odd numbers are odd, and are congruent to 1 modulo 8, since (2n + 1)2 = 4n(n + 1) + 1, and n(n + 1) is always even. In other words, all odd square numbers have a remainder of 1 when divided by eight.
Every odd perfect square is a centered octagonal number. The difference between any two odd perfect squares is a multiple of 8. The difference between 1 and any higher odd perfect square always is eight times a triangular number, while the difference between 9 and any higher odd perfect square is eight times a triangular number minus eight. Since all triangular numbers have an odd factor, but no two values of differ by an amount containing an odd factor, the only perfect square of the form is 1, and the only perfect square of the form is 9.
Special cases
If the number is of the form where represents the preceding digits, its square is where and represents digits before 25. For example, the square of 65 can be calculated by which makes the square equal to 4225.
If the number is of the form where represents the preceding digits, its square is where . For example, the square of 70 is 4900.
If the number has two digits and is of the form where represents the units digit, its square is where and . Example: To calculate the square of 57, 25 + 7 = 32 and 72 = 49, which means 572 = 3249.
If the number ends in 5, its square will end in 5; similarly for ending in 25, 625, 0625, 90625, ... 8212890625, etc. If the number ends in 6, its square will end in 6, similarly for ending in 76, 376, 9376, 09376, ... 1787109376. For example, the square of 55376 is 3066501376, both ending in 376. (The numbers 5, 6, 25, 76, etc. are called automorphic numbers. They are sequence A003226 in the OEIS.)
See also
Some identities involving several squares
Notes
Further reading
Conway, J. H. and Guy, R. K. The Book of Numbers. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 30–32, 1996.
Kiran Parulekar. Amazing Properties of Squares and Their Calculations. Kiran Anil Parulekar, 2012 https://books.google.com/books?id=njEtt7rfexEC&source=gbs_navlinks_s
Elementary arithmetic
Figurate numbers
Integer sequences
Integers
Number theory
Quadrilaterals
Squares in number theory | [
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|
213920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Knight%20%28publisher%29 | Charles Knight (publisher) | Charles Knight (15 March 1791 – 9 March 1873) was an English publisher, editor and author. He published and contributed to works such as The Penny Magazine, The Penny Cyclopaedia, and The English Cyclopaedia, and established the Local Government Chronicle.
Early life
The son of a bookseller and printer at Windsor, he was apprenticed to his father. On completion of his indentures he took up journalism and had an interest in several newspaper speculations, including the Windsor, Slough and Eton Express.
In 1823, in conjunction with friends he had made as publisher (1820–1821) of The Etonian, he started Knight's Quarterly Magazine, to which Winthrop Mackworth Praed, Derwent Coleridge and Thomas Macaulay contributed. It lasted for only six issues, but it made Knight's name as publisher and author, beginning a career which lasted over forty years. The periodical included an 1824 review of Frankenstein in which Percy Bysshe Shelley was attributed as the author in a comparison with his wife's second novel Valperga. One of his early publications was the diary of the naval chaplain Henry Teonge (c. 1620–1690).
Editor
In 1827 Knight was forced to give up publishing, and became the superintendent of the publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for which he projected and edited The British Almanack and Companion, begun in 1828. In 1829 he resumed business on his own account with the publication of The Library of Entertaining Knowledge, writing several volumes of the series himself. In 1832 and 1833 he started The Penny Magazine (1832-1845) and The Penny Cyclopaedia. Both sold well, the Penny Magazine with a circulation of 200,000 by the end of its first year. The Penny Cyclopaedia, as a result of the heavy excise duty on paper, was only completed in 1844 at a financial loss of £40,000.
He edited and published London (1841) in three volumes, a heavily illustrated history of the city.
Besides many illustrated editions of standard works, including in 1842 an edition of the works of William Shakespeare entitled The Pictorial Shakspere, which had appeared in parts (1838–1841), Knight published a variety of illustrated works, such as Old England and The Land we Live in and The Pictorial Gallery of Arts – Useful Arts, the latter based on the Great Exhibition of 1851. He also undertook the series known as Knight's Weekly Volume for All Readers (sometimes referred to as Knight's Weekly Volumes), himself contributing the first volume, a biography of William Caxton. Many famous books, Harriet Martineau's Tales, Anna Brownell Jameson's Early Italian Painters and G. H. Lewes's Biographical History of Philosophy, appeared for the first time in this series.
His zeal for popular instruction saw him publish The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge (1847-1851) in 12 volumes, and, The English Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Useful Knowledge (1854-1862) in 22 volumes, with a 4 volume supplement. The latter work essentially a revision of The Penny Cyclopaedia. Knight also launched the Local Government Chronicle in 1855, and at about the same time he began his Popular History of England (8 vols., 1856–1862).
Author
In addition to being the editor and author of Penny Magazine and Penny Cyclopedia, and other popular works, Knight wrote The Results of Machinery (1831) and Knowledge is Power, which was published in 1855.
A Popular History of England over eight volumes appeared in 1856. In 1864 he withdrew from the business of publishing, but he continued to write nearly to the close of his long life, authoring The Shadows of the Old Booksellers (1865), an autobiography under the title Passages of a Working Life during Half a Century (2 vols., 1864–1865), and an historical novel, Begg'd at Court (1867).
Inventor
In 1838 Knight took out a patent for, "improvements in the process and in the apparatus used in the production of coloured impressions on paper, vellum, parchment and pasteboard by surface printing."
Legacy
Charles Knight died at Addlestone, Surrey on 9 March 1873. A gateway was erected in his memory at the cemetery adjacent to Bachelors Acre in Windsor, where he was buried. He is considered to be the first person to propose the use of stamped newspaper wrappers in 1834, thus is attributed as their inventor.
Works
The Old Printer and the Modern Press (1854)
The Popular History of England (1856)
Knowledge is Power, A View of the Productive Forces of Modern Society and the Results of Labor, Capital and Skill. (1859)
See also
Charles Macfarlane
References
Sources
Alice Ada Clowes, Knight, a Sketch (1892);
Francis Espinasse, in The Critic (May 1860).
External links
Windsor People series: Charles Knight – Biography on The Royal Windsor Web Site
Central America. II. Including Texas, California, and the northern states of Mexico. – Portal to Texas History: 1842 map published by Charles Knight (Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge)
Engravings from Charles Knight's books – FromOldBooks.org: with some text, includes Old England: A Pictorial Museum
1791 births
1873 deaths
English book editors
English male journalists
English encyclopedists | [
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|
213923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Carew%20Hazlitt | William Carew Hazlitt | William Carew Hazlitt (22 August 18348 September 1913), known professionally as W. Carew Hazlitt, was an English lawyer, bibliographer, editor and writer. He was the son of the barrister and registrar William Hazlitt, a grandson of the essayist and critic William Hazlitt, and a great-grandson of the Unitarian minister and author William Hazlitt. William Carew Hazlitt was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School and was called to the bar of the Inner Temple in 1861.
Works
Among Hazlitt's many publications are Handbook to the Popular, Poetical and Dramatic Literature of Great Britain: From the Invention of Printing to the Restoration (1867). Hazlitt published further contributions to the subject in Bibliographical Collections and Notes on Early English Literature, Made During the Years 1893–1903 (1903), and a Manual for the Collector and Amateur of Old English Plays ... (1892). He was also the chief editor of an edition of Warton's History of English Poetry (1871) and compiled the Catalogue of the Huth Library (1880).
He edited A Select Collection of Old English Plays, 4th edition (London: Reeves and Turner, 1874-76), which had been originally published by Dodsley in 1744.
He also published Collections and Notes, 1867-1876 (London: Reeves & Turner, 1876, containing detailed bibliographical entries on many early English printed books) followed by Bibliographical Collections and Notes on Early English Literature 1474-1700: Second Supplement (1882).
In 1897 Hazlitt published his autobiography under the title The Confessions of a Collector.
In 1875, he published an edition of the works of Thomas Randolph. In 1877 he published a new edition of Charles Cotton's translation of Montaigne's Essays.
He also published The History of the Venetian Republic: Her Rise, Her Greatness, and Her Civilization (1860) and Old Cookery Books and Ancient Cuisine (1886).
Of great use, historical interest and delight to gardeners and collectors of herbals, etc., is his Gleanings in Old Garden Literature, published by Elliot Stock, London, 1887, in The Book-Lover's Library. This book includes, in its final chapter, a Bibliography of Gardening Literature, 1603–1800, and of Herbals and Bee Culture. The book focuses on European gardening and British adoptions and modifications thereof from the 15th through the 17th century.
Compendious in scope and idiosyncratic in selection is his , which preserves evidence of numerous folk customs now extinct.
Notes
References
External links
Early Modern English Library Catalogues, William M Hamlin, 2006.
1834 births
1913 deaths
English bibliographers
People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood
William Hazlitt | [
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|
213924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail%20Kuzmin | Mikhail Kuzmin | Mikhail Alekseevich Kuzmin () ( – March 1, 1936) was a Russian poet, musician and novelist, a prominent contributor to the Silver Age of Russian Poetry.
Biography
Born into a noble family in Yaroslavl, Kuzmin grew up in St. Petersburg and studied music at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory under Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. He did not graduate, however, later explaining his move towards poetry thus: "It's easier and simpler. Poetry falls ready-made from the sky, like manna into the mouths of the Israelites in the desert." But he did not give up music; he composed the music for Meyerhold's famous 1906 production of Alexander Blok's play Balaganchik (The Fair Show Booth), and his songs were popular among the Petersburg elite: "He sang them, accompanying himself on the piano, first in various salons, including Ivanov's Tower, and then at The Stray Dog. Kuzmin liked to say of his work that 'it's only little music, but it has its poison.'"
One of his closest friends and major influences as a young man was the polyglot Germanophile aristocrat Georgy Chicherin (who later entered the diplomatic service and after the October Revolution became People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs), a passionate supporter of Wagner and Nietzsche. Another strong influence was his travels, first to Egypt and Italy and then to northern Russia, where he was deeply impressed by the Old Believers. Settling down in St. Petersburg, he became close to the circle around Mir iskusstva (World of Art). His first published writings appeared in 1905 and attracted the attention of Valery Bryusov, who invited him to contribute to his influential literary magazine Vesy (The Balance), the center of the Symbolist movement, where in 1906 he published his verse cycle "Alexandrian Songs" (modeled on Les Chansons de Bilitis, by Pierre Louÿs) and the first Russian novel with a homosexual theme, Wings, which instantly achieved notoriety and made him a widely popular writer. In 1908 appeared his first collection of poetry, Seti (Nets), which was also widely acclaimed. In the words of Roberta Reeder, "His poetry is erudite and the themes range from Ancient Greece and Alexandria to modern-day Petersburg."
In 1908 he was living with Sergei Sudeikin and his first wife Olga Glebova, whom he had married just the year before; when Olga discovered her husband was having an affair with Kuzmin, she insisted Kuzmin move out. "But in spite of this contretemps, Kuzmin, Sudeikin, and Glebova continued to maintain a productive, professional relationship, collaborating on many ventures—plays, musical evenings, poetry declamations—especially at the St. Petersburg cabarets." Kuzmin was also one of the favorite poets of Sudeikin's second wife, Vera, and her published album contains several of his manuscript poems.
Kuzmin met Yuri Yurkun, a poet, in 1913. The two men lived together with Yurkun's mother, and Yurkun’s wife, Olga Arbenina, joined them, for a short while. Kuzmin and Yurkun's relationship lasted until Kuzmin's death. Kuzmin died in 1936 of pneumonia, two years before Yurkun and many other writers were arrested under the Stalinist regime and shot.
Kuzmin's association with the Symbolists was never definitive, and in 1910 he helped give rise to the Acmeist movement with his essay "O prekrasnoi yasnosti" (On beautiful clarity), in which he attacked "incomprehensible, dark cosmic trappings" and urged writers to be "logical in the conception, the construction of the work, the syntax... love the word, like Flaubert, be economical in means and niggardly in words, precise and genuine -- and you will find the secret of an amazing thing — beautiful clarity — which I would call clarism." He was no more a member of the group than he had been of the Symbolists, but he was personally associated with a number of them; in the years 1910-12 he lived in the famous apartment (called the Tower) of Vyacheslav Ivanov, who was another formative influence on the Acmeists, and he was a friend of Anna Akhmatova, for whose first book of poetry, Vecher [Evening], he wrote a flattering preface. (In later years Kuzmin incurred Akhmatova's enmity, probably because of a 1923 review she took as condescending, and she made him a prototype of one of the villains in her "Poem Without a Hero".)
The last volume of poetry Kuzmin published during his lifetime was The Trout Breaks the Ice (1929), a cycle of narrative poetry.
In the 1920s and 1930s Kuzmin made his living primarily as a literary translator, most notably of Shakespeare's plays. He died in Leningrad.
Legacy
Contemporary poet and critic Alexei Purin thinks the openly "tragic," socially oriented tradition of Russian literature has been exhausted and it needed to reorient itself along the more personal and artistic tradition exemplified by Kuzmin and Vladimir Nabokov. He quotes Innokenty Annensky as saying it was important to avoid "the persistent embrace of the 'like everyone'" and writes: "It is precisely the poetry of Annensky and Kuzmin that at the beginning of the twentieth century took the first and decisive step away from this 'like everyone' — in the direction of psychologically interpreted details and the everyday word, in the direction of living intonation — a step to be compared, perhaps, only with the Pushkin revolution. All succeeding Russian lyric poetry is unimaginable without it."
Mandelstam, in his 1916 review "On Contemporary Poetry," wrote:Kuzmin's classicism is captivating. How sweet it is to read a classical poet living in our midst, to experience a Goethean blend of "form" and "content," to be persuaded that the soul is not a substance
made of metaphysical cotton, but rather the carefree, gentle Psyche. Kuzmin's poems not only lend themselves easily to memorization, but also to recall, as it were (the impression of recollection after the very first reading), and they float up to the surface as if out of oblivion (Classicism)...And in his essay "A Letter about Russian Poetry" (1922), he said "Kuzmin brought dissident songs from the Volga shores, an Italian comedy from his own native Rome, and the entire history of European culture insofar as it had become music—from Giorgione's "Concert" at the Pitti Palace to the most recent tone poems of Debussy."
References
Translations
Александрийские песни|Canções alexandrinas, Oleg Almeida (Trans.), (n.t.) Revista Literária em Tradução, nº 2 (mar/2011), Fpolis/Brasil, ISSN 2177-5141.
Canções alexandrinas: Tradução, apresentação e notas explicativas de Oleg Almeida. Arte Brasil: São Paulo, 2011, 50 p. .
M. Kuzmin, Wings, tr. H. Aplin (2007)
M. Kuzmin, 'The Venetian Madcaps', tr. M. Green, in Russian Literature Triquarterly; 7 (1973), p. 119-51.
M. Kuzmin, Wings: prose and poetry, tr. N. Granoien, M. Green (1972)
M. Kuzmin, Alexandrinische Gesange, tr. A. Eliasberg (1921).
External links
Collection of Poems by Mikhail Kuzmin
The Kuzmin collection compiled by John Barnstead
Mikhail Kuzmin Selected Writings. Translated by Michael A. Green and Stanislav A. Shvabrin. Lewisburg: Bucknell UP: 2005
Collection of Kuzmin's texts
Essay on homosexual love in Russian literature, including in Kuzmin's writings, by Professor Simon Karlinsky
1872 births
1936 deaths
People from Yaroslavl
People from Yaroslavl Governorate
Russian male poets
Russian male novelists
Russian translators
Members of the Union of the Russian People
Symbolist dramatists and playwrights
Saint Petersburg Conservatory alumni
Russian musicians
LGBT musicians from Russia
LGBT dramatists and playwrights
Gay writers
Russian male dramatists and playwrights
LGBT poets from Russia | [
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|
213925 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird%20of%20paradise | Bird of paradise | Bird of paradise may refer to:
Bird-of-paradise, a family of birds of the family Paradisaeidae
Plants
Strelitzia, bird of paradise flower or plant, a genus of perennial plants
Erythrostemon gilliesii, or bird of paradise, a shrub
Caesalpinia pulcherrima, or Mexican bird of paradise, a shrub
Arts and entertainment
Literature
The Bird of Paradise (play), a 1912 play by Richard Walton Tully
The Birds of Paradise, a 1962 novel by Paul Scott
Film and television
Bird of Paradise (1932 film), based on Tully's play
Bird of Paradise (1951 film), a colour film, based on Tully's play
Birds of Paradise (2008 film), a Ukrainian film
Birds of Paradise (2010 film), an Argentine-American computer-animated film
Birds of Paradise (2021 film), an American film
"Bird of Paradise", an episode of Godzilla, 1998
"Birds of Paradise", an episode of Natural World, 2010
"Birds of Paradise", an episode of Twice in a Lifetime, 2000
"Bird of Paradise", an episode of Xiaolin Showdown, 2005
Music
Birds of Paradise (musical), a 1987 Off-Broadway musical
"Bird of Paradise" (Snowy White song), 1983
"Bird of Paradise", a song by the Appleseed Cast from the 2001 album Low Level Owl, Vol. 1
"Bird of Paradise", a song by Charlie Parker
"Birds of Paradise", a song by Peter, Sue and Marc
Other uses
Bird of Paradise (aircraft), a 1927 American military airplane
Bird of Paradise Island, or Little Tobago, part of Trinidad and Tobago, named for the imported Paradisaea apoda
See also
Apus, a small constellation in the southern sky representing a bird of paradise
The Byrds of Paradise, a television series
Heliconia, or false bird-of-paradise, a genus of flowering plants
Huma bird, a mythological creature commonly depicted in Persian, Ottoman Turkish, and Urdu poetry
"May the Bird of Paradise Fly up Your Nose", a 1965 song by Jimmy Dickens
Paradise Bird, a 1979 album by Amii Stewart | [
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|
213926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP%20Sauce | HP Sauce | HP Sauce is a brown sauce, the main ingredients of which are tomatoes and tamarind extract. The sauce was originally produced in the United Kingdom, but is now made by Heinz in the Netherlands. It was named after London's Houses of Parliament. After making its first appearance on British dinner tables in the late 19th century, HP Sauce went on to become an icon of British culture. It was the best-selling brand of brown sauce in the UK in 2005, with 73.8% of the retail market.
HP Sauce has a tomato base, blended with malt vinegar and spirit vinegar, sugars (molasses, glucose-fructose syrup, sugar), dates, cornflour, rye flour, salt, spices and tamarind. It is used as a condiment with hot and cold savoury food, and as an ingredient in soups and stews.
The picture on the front of the bottle is a selection of London landmarks including Elizabeth Tower, the Palace of Westminster, and Westminster Bridge.
History
The original recipe was invented and developed by David Hoe of Bottesford, who had been making sauces since 1854 to complement locally made pork pies. This business later evolved into David Hoe & Sons, and Hoe Brothers, sauce manufacturers. Hoe's sauces were patronised by the Prince of Wales. The recipe was sold to Frederick Gibson Garton, a grocer from Nottingham, who registered the name H.P. Sauce in 1895, after reportedly hearing that a restaurant in the Houses of Parliament had begun serving it. In 1903, Garton sold the recipe to Edwin Samson Moore, founder of the Midlands Vinegar Company, for the sum of £150 and the settlement of some unpaid bills.
For many years the bottle labels have carried a picture of the Houses of Parliament.
In the United Kingdom, HP Sauce became informally known as "Wilson's gravy" in the 1960s and 1970s, after the wife of Prime Minister Harold Wilson gave an interview to The Sunday Times, in which she said: "If Harold has a fault, it is that he will drown everything with HP Sauce."
Heinz takeover
The brand passed from the Midlands Vinegar Company to Smedley HP Foods Limited, which was subsequently acquired by a division of Imperial Tobacco, before being sold to the French Groupe Danone SA in 1988 for £199 million.
In June 2005, Heinz purchased the parent company, HP Foods, from Danone. In October of that year the United Kingdom Office of Fair Trading referred the takeover to the Competition Commission, which approved the £440 million acquisition in April 2006.
In May 2006, Heinz announced plans to switch production of HP Sauce from Aston in Birmingham to its European sauces facility in Elst, Netherlands, only weeks after HP launched a campaign to "Save the Proper British Cafe". The announcement prompted a call to boycott Heinz products. The move, resulting in the loss of approximately 125 jobs at the Aston factory, was criticised by politicians and union officials, especially as the parent company still wanted to use the image of the House of Commons on its bottles. In the same month, local Labour MP Khalid Mahmood brandished a bottle of HP Sauce during Prime Minister's Questions in the House of Commons as part of a protest against the Heinz move. He also made reference to the sauce's popularity with the former Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson. These plans were confirmed on 23 August 2006 and the factory at Aston ceased production on 16 March 2007. A week later a "wake" was held at the location of the factory.
The factory was demolished in the summer of 2007.
The six-acre Aston site was purchased by developer Chancerygate in 2007 at £800,000 per acre; they subsequently sold it for half that price and it now houses a distribution warehouse for East End Foods.
Varieties
HP Sauce is available in a range of formats and sizes, including the iconic 9 oz/255 g glass bottle, plastic squeeze bottle, and TopDown bottle.
Also the ingredients vary markedly. In 2007 for example the varieties from Mexico and Canada were lighter and less concentrated.
HP Fruity is a milder version of the Original brown sauce, using a blend of fruits including oranges and mango to give a milder, tangier taste. This variety has been renamed "HP Chicken & Rib" in Canada and the US (though it can be found in some stores with the original name).
HP Bold is a spicier variant in Canada.
HP BBQ Sauce is a range of barbecue sauces, and is the UK's best selling barbecue sauce product.
Since 2011 the original HP sauce has been manufactured with a new reduced-sodium recipe, with 0.8 g per 100 g. The traditional recipe was 1.2 g sodium per 100 g. This was a direct result of Government policy with regard to salt levels in food.
References
External links
BBC News – Final Bottle of HP
Food brands of the United Kingdom
British brands
British condiments
Brown sauces
Heinz brands
Brand name condiments
Products introduced in 1895
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|
213927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Chalmers | Alexander Chalmers | Alexander Chalmers (29 March 1759 – 29 December 1834) was a Scottish writer.
He was born in Aberdeen.
Trained as a doctor, he gave up medicine for journalism, and was for some time editor of the Morning Herald. Besides editions of the works of William Shakespeare, James Beattie, Henry Fielding, Samuel Johnson, Joseph Warton, Alexander Pope, Edward Gibbon, and Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke, he published A General Biographical Dictionary in 32 volumes (1812–1817); a Glossary to Shakspeare (1807); an edition of George Steevens's Shakespeare (1809); and the British Essayists, beginning with the Tatler and ending with the Observer, with biographical and historical prefaces and a general index.
A quotation is often attributed to him: "The three grand essentials of happiness are: Something to do, someone to love, and something to hope for." His papers are held at the National Library of Scotland.
References
Sources
External links
1759 births
1834 deaths
People from Aberdeen
Scottish book editors
Scottish journalists
Writers from Aberdeen | [
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213933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomar%20Garciaparra | Nomar Garciaparra | Anthony Nomar Garciaparra (; born July 23, 1973) is an American retired Major League Baseball player and current SportsNet LA analyst. After playing parts of nine seasons as an All-Star shortstop for the Boston Red Sox, he played shortstop, third base and first base for the Chicago Cubs, Los Angeles Dodgers, and the Oakland Athletics. He is one of 13 players in Major League history to hit two grand slams during a single game, and the only player to achieve the feat at his home stadium.
Garciaparra is a six-time All-Star (1997, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2006), and was the AL Rookie of the Year and AL Silver Slugger Award winner at shortstop in 1997. In 2001, he suffered a wrist injury, the first in a series of significant injuries that plagued the remainder of his career. Known for his ability to hit for average, Garciaparra is a lifetime .313 hitter. He had the highest single-season batting average by a right-handed batter in the post-war era, batting .372 in 2000, and was the first right-handed batter to win the AL Batting Title in consecutive seasons since Joe DiMaggio, when he accomplished the feat in 1999 and 2000.
Early years
Garciaparra, who is of Mexican-American descent, was born in Whittier, California and attended St. John Bosco High School in Bellflower, California. His middle name comes from his father, Ramon; Nomar is "Ramon" spelled backwards. When Nomar was a young boy, his father stressed the importance of not striking out, offering him 25 cents for each hit in tee ball and fining him 50 cents for every strikeout. When Nomar was 13, Ramon once put him in a batting cage against a college pitcher who could throw . After missing the first pitch, Nomar proceeded to hit solid line drives on the next two pitches. As a boy, Nomar was nicknamed "No Nonsense Nomar" for his methodical and tireless preparation as an athlete.
The Milwaukee Brewers selected Garciaparra in the fifth round of the 1991 draft, but he did not sign. Instead, he enrolled at the Georgia Institute of Technology, where he played college baseball for the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets. Garciaparra helped the Yellow Jackets reach the College World Series title game in 1994; they lost to Oklahoma. Garciaparra was an Atlantic Coast Conference All-Star and a first team All-American twice in 1993–94. He batted .427 in his final season at Georgia Tech. In 1993, he played collegiate summer baseball for the Orleans Cardinals of the Cape Cod Baseball League (CCBL). Garciaparra batted .321 and led Orleans to the league championship. He was inducted into the CCBL Hall of Fame in 2002.
Professional career
Minor leagues
Following his career at Georgia Tech, Garciaparra was a first round draft pick of the Red Sox in 1994, and entered the Red Sox farm system. He began his professional career in Class A Advanced, as a member of the Sarasota Red Sox following his NCAA season. Since the season was already well underway by the point Garciaparra joined the team, he only appeared in 28 games. However, he batted .295 and hit his first professional home run.
In 1995, Garciaparra moved up to join the Double-A Trenton Thunder. In 125 games, he batted .267 with 8 home runs and again walked more than he struck out. He also showcased his speed, stealing 35 bases, and continued gathering experience at shortstop. After the 1995 season, rather than go home, Garciaparra embarked on an ambitious off-season training regimen to add 15 pounds of muscle. In 1996, he found himself at the highest level of the minors playing for the Triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox. That season, Garciaparra batted .343 with 16 home runs and 46 RBI in just 43 games and earned a late-season call up to the Major Leagues.
Boston Red Sox (1996–2004)
1996–1997
Garciaparra made his Major League debut on August 31, 1996, as a defensive replacement against Oakland, going 0-for-1. His first Major League hit was a home run off Oakland pitcher John Wasdin on September 1, a game in which Garciaparra recorded three hits. Garciaparra batted .241 with 4 home runs, 16 RBI, and 5 stolen bases in his initial stint with the club at the end of 1996. On September 18, 1996, Garciaparra stole his first major league base against the Tigers, which happened on the same night where Roger Clemens tied his own MLB record for striking out 20 batters in a game.
When he returned in 1997, Garciaparra set the league on fire in his rookie season. He hit 30 home runs among his 209 base hits (a Red Sox rookie record), and drove in 98 runs, setting a new MLB record for RBIs by a leadoff hitter and most homers by a rookie shortstop. He also batted .306, and his 30-game hitting streak set an A.L. rookie record. Garciaparra also stole 22 bases, and his 11 triples led the league. He was named Rookie of the Year in a unanimous vote, competed in the Home Run Derby as well as his first MLB All-Star Game, finished eighth in MVP voting, and captured the Silver Slugger Award for AL Shortstop. He also won the immediate admiration of Red Sox fans, who referred to him in Boston accents as "NO-mah!".
1998–2000
In the spring of 1998, Garciaparra and the Red Sox signed a five-year contract worth $23.25 million. The deal also included two team options (for 2003 and 2004) that, if exercised, would boost the deal to $44.25 million. At the time, it was unprecedented for a team to sign a player who had just completed his rookie season to a long-term contract. Once the 1998 season started, Garciaparra moved down in the batting order, typically batting third or cleanup. He finished with 35 home runs and 122 RBI in 1998, and placed as the runner-up for AL MVP. His batting average of .323 was good for 6th in the AL among qualifiers. Both he and teammate Pedro Martínez were instrumental in leading the Red Sox to the postseason. Though the team lost to the Cleveland Indians in the 1998 American League Division Series, Garciaparra had an outstanding postseason debut in the series, batting .333 with 3 homers and 11 RBI in the 4 game loss. He hit a memorable 3-run home run in the 5th inning of Game 1, the only game in the series won by the Red Sox.
Garciaparra then continued to come into his own in 1999, winning the batting title by hitting .357 (including .400 against left-handed pitchers). He reached the century mark in RBIs once again, with 27 home runs and 104 batted in in only 135 games. On May 10, he hit three home runs, including two grand slams, and drove in 10 RBI in a game against the Seattle Mariners. He was named an MLB All-Star in 1999, earning the right to start at shortstop and bat second for the game which took place in front of his hometown fans at Boston's Fenway Park. He again led the Red Sox to the postseason, where they defeated the Indians in 5 games in the 1999 American League Division Series, and Nomar was again a key cog despite battling injury as he hit .417 in the 4 games he was able to appear in. Garciaparra became the first player in MLB history to hit safely and score a run in the first five games of his post-season career (1998–99), a feat completed in Game 1 of the 1999 ALDS. He is since joined by Ian Kinsler (2010) as the only other player to start his post-season career in that manner. Against the New York Yankees in the 1999 American League Championship Series, Garciaparra was again at his finest, hitting .400 with 2 home runs, but the team lost in 5 games. After the season, he finished 7th in MVP voting.
The year 2000 was a year of transition for the Red Sox, but little changed for Nomar. By the end of June, his average was sitting at .396, prompting some to speculate he might be the first batter to hit .400 since Ted Williams. Indeed, Garciaparra did reach the mark, batting .403 as late in the season as July 20. However, as the summer went on, Garciaparra's batting average slipped from those lofty heights. He finished the season with a .372 batting average, which was the highest batting average by a right-handed batter in the post-war era. He also easily won the American League batting title, becoming the first right-handed batter to win consecutive titles in the American League since Joe DiMaggio. He also homered 21 times and drove in 96 runs. Despite the strong individual play, however, the Red Sox missed the postseason in 2000.
2001
In February 2001, a shirtless and muscular Garciaparra appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated, with the headline "A Cut Above... baseball's toughest out". Sports Illustrated later described the cover photo as "controversial", adding that it "forever fueled the inevitable speculation of steroid usage". Baseball fans looked forward to see if he might challenge the .400 mark, and Red Sox fans hoped he would lead them back to the postseason with new acquisition Manny Ramirez. However, the week after the issue hit newsstands, Garciaparra aggravated an old wrist injury and had to start the season on the disabled list. He did not play in his first game during 2001 until July 29, though he hit a memorable home run on his return in that game. However, by the end of August, the wrist acted up yet again, and Garciaparra missed the rest of the season due to the injury. He only saw action in 21 games, batting .289 with 4 homers and 8 RBI during the shortened campaign. Many believe that the wrist injury not only ruined his season, but altered the trajectory of his career. Before the 2001 season, Scott Boras had run a statistical study of Garciaparra for his own client (Alex Rodriguez) predicting that by age 40, Nomar would hit 513 home runs, have 3581 hits, and have .336 career batting average.
2002–03
By the start of the 2002 season, Garciaparra had recovered from his wrist injury. He posted a .310 mark in 2002, homering 24 times, and driving in 120 runs. His 56 doubles led the league. On July 23 (his 29th birthday), he homered 3 times and drove in 8 runs in the first game of a doubleheader against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. On September 2, Garciaparra recorded his 1,000th hit in his 745th game, becoming the fastest Red Sox player to the milestone, in a game against the New York Yankees. Garciaparra was recognized by baseball in making his fourth MLB All-Star Game, and he finished 11th in AL MVP voting at the end of the season. That season, Garciaparra played in 156 games, the highest single season total of his career. However, even with Nomar helping the team win 93 games during the season, the Red Sox did not qualify for the postseason.
Before the 2002 season, a new ownership group purchased the Red Sox. Contract extension negotiations between Garciaparra's agent (Arn Tellem) and Red Sox brass went on during the offseason, but an agreement could not be reached. Though the sides agreed on a four-year, $60 million deal, the sticking point was the $8 million signing bonus Garciaparra requested. Garciaparra entered the 2003 season without a new pact. In 2003, Garciaparra had another productive All-Star season. On April 20, he hit a walk-off home run to give the Red Sox a 6–5 win over the Toronto Blue Jays. He batted .319 over the season's first half, earning yet another All-Star selection, but a late season slump caused him to finish at .301. His 28 home runs were the most he had hit in a single season since 1998, and he drove in 105 runs. He appeared in 156 games again, tying his career high from the previous year. The Red Sox returned to MLB's postseason for the first time since 1999, largely due to a potent lineup that featured Garciaparra, Manny Ramirez, and David Ortiz. Additionally, new stars and cult heroes, led by Kevin Millar, began to emerge in Boston. Unfortunately, Garciaparra's September slump (he batted .170 during the month) followed him into the postseason. While he hit .300 in the 2003 American League Division Series against the Oakland Athletics, he did not drive in a run. The Red Sox won the series in 5 games to face the rival Yankees in the ALCS, where Garciaparra fared even worse. In the tense 7-game series, Garciaparra batted only .241 with just 1 RBI and an uncharacteristic 8 strikeouts. However, he did record a memorable hit in Game 6, tripling and scoring on an error in the top of the 7th inning. At the time, Boston was down 6–4 and facing elimination, but the hit started a rally that saw the Red Sox come back and win 9–6 to force a fateful Game 7. However, the Red Sox lost that game and the series on Aaron Boone's infamous extra inning walk-off home run.
With Nomar's contract situation still not settled, Red Sox management explored trading Manny Ramírez to the Texas Rangers for shortstop Alex Rodriguez after the 2003 season. Simultaneously, the team had exploratory talks with the Chicago White Sox about trading Garciaparra for Magglio Ordóñez if the Alex Rodriguez trade was finalized. The Nomar talks had been intended to be covert but quickly leaked out, angering Garciaparra and his agent. In the end, the MLB Players Association objected to Rodriguez's willingness to sacrifice a huge amount of his $250 million contract to facilitate a deal to Boston, so both deals were shut down. And ironically, after Aaron Boone injured his knee playing off-season basketball, it was the rival Yankees who instead acquired Rodriguez. Garciaparra thus returned to Boston for the start of the 2004 season in the final year of the old contract from March 1998, without an extension, and it quickly became clear that he was displeased with the team's handling of the situation. It was believed by Red Sox brass that Nomar would not return to Boston when his contract expired after the 2004 season.
2004
The 2004 season began with Garciaparra's future in Boston unresolved. Complicating matters was an Achilles' injury that kept him out until June. When he returned, Garciaparra continued to hit well, batting .321 with 5 home runs and 21 RBI in 38 games. On July 10, 2004, in a 14–6 win over the Rangers, Garciaparra went 4 for 5 with three runs batted in and fell a triple shy of the cycle. However, his defense saw a significant decline, primarily in his fielding range, which was believed to be due to the effects of his injury. General Manager Theo Epstein believed defense was the team's weak point, and felt he needed to improve it for Boston to have any shot at winning a World Series. Additionally, the nature of Garciaparra's injury required him to get frequent days off, which meant his bat was not even guaranteed to be in the lineup every day (and thus the weaker bats of the backup players would be during a pennant race). Finally, at the July 31, 2004 trading deadline, Boston decided to trade away Garciaparra.
Garciaparra finished his Red Sox career with a .323 average, 178 home runs, and 690 RBI over parts of 9 seasons.
Chicago Cubs (2004–05)
2004–05
On July 31, 2004 (the MLB trading deadline), Garciaparra was the key player involved in a four-team deal that sent him and Matt Murton to the wild-card-leading Chicago Cubs. The Red Sox received shortstop Orlando Cabrera from the Montreal Expos and first baseman Doug Mientkiewicz from the Minnesota Twins. Nomar expressed his appreciation to Red Sox fans in a speech to the media and left for Chicago. At first, Garciaparra was assigned jersey number 8, because Cub catcher Michael Barrett wore number 5, but a few days later, they switched numbers. Garciaparra drove in 3 runs in his first 3 games as a Cub. However, he continued to battle his Achilles' injury down the stretch, and in 43 games after the trade, he hit .297 with 4 home runs and 20 RBI in Chicago. Combined, his 2004 totals were a .308 average, 9 home runs, and 41 RBI. The Cubs led the wild card until mid-September, but finished the 2004 season with 89 wins and out of the playoffs. Meanwhile, the Red Sox finally overcame the Yankees en route to a World Series sweep of the St. Louis Cardinals, after which Nomar's former teammates voted to give him a World Series ring and three-fourths of a playoff share ($167,715). Curt Schilling noted that if not for Nomar, the Red Sox might not have been in a position to win at all, clearly referencing the role Nomar's ascension as a player had in drawing talent like Pedro Martínez, Manny Ramirez, and even himself to Boston.
After the season, Garciaparra was unable to get the long-term contract he had hoped for. His injury was the most significant reason why, as it was apparent he could still hit when healthy. So in the offseason, Garciaparra signed a 1-year deal worth $8.25 million to remain with the Cubs. Once the 2005 season began, a torn left groin forced him onto the disabled list in late April for more than three months. At the time of the injury, Garciaparra was hitting just .157. On April 23, 2005, following the publication of an op-ed in which Boston Globe columnist Bob Ryan speculated that Garciaparra's many injuries might be caused by steroid use, Garciaparra "flatly denied" having used steroids and called the speculation "ridiculous". Garciaparra resumed play on August 5, 2005 and almost immediately began raising his batting average. In late August, when Cubs regular third baseman Aramis Ramírez went on the disabled list for the remainder of the 2005 season, Garciaparra volunteered to play third base, and Cubs manager Dusty Baker agreed. Aside from his first game in the Majors, where he played second base, Nomar had played shortstop in all of his other Major League games up to that point in his career. Garciaparra finished 2005 with a .283 average, 9 homers, and 30 RBI, and again became a free agent.
Los Angeles Dodgers (2006–08)
2006
In 2006, Garciaparra returned to his hometown, signing with the Los Angeles Dodgers, who were minutes from Garciaparra's childhood home in Whittier. The contract was again a one-year deal that Garciaparra hoped would lead to a multi-year offer following a strong season. The contract was worth $6 million, with another $2.5 million in performance bonuses. Also part of the lure of the Dodgers was that former Red Sox players Bill Mueller and Derek Lowe, and former manager Grady Little, were already with the team. Though he was able to retain his original jersey number (5), he moved to first base, as the Dodgers had also signed Rafael Furcal from the Atlanta Braves to step in for the recovering César Izturis at shortstop.
Healthy for the first extended period of time since 2003, Garciaparra regained his offensive stroke. On June 6, while facing the New York Mets Nomar hit a two-run home run on the first pitch he ever saw against former teammate and fellow Boston icon Pedro Martínez. Coincidentally, Derek Lowe was the starting pitcher for the Dodgers that day. Just days later, on June 9, Garciaparra's batting average stood at .370. On June 25, he hit his 200th career home run against the Pittsburgh Pirates. By the MLB All-Star Break, Nomar was tied with Pittsburgh's Freddy Sanchez for the lead in batting average among all MLB infielders and all NL batters with a .358 batting average, to go along with 11 home runs and 53 RBIs, and carrying a 21-game hitting streak into the break. It was the second highest batting average entering the All-Star Break by a Dodger since they moved into Dodger Stadium in 1962, with the only higher mark being held by Mike Piazza (.363 in 1996). Garciaparra was rewarded for his strong first half with his sixth All-Star selection. The selection came as the National League All-Star Final Vote winner, as he received about six million fan votes to earn the honor. It was his first All-Star appearance since 2003, and his first selection at any position other than shortstop.
Nomar adjusted well to playing first base, only committing 1 error through his first 588.2 innings played, and finishing with 4 for the entire season. However, his lofty batting average steadily declined to .303 by the end of the season as nagging injuries returned. Despite this, he prevailed in the clutch for the Dodgers during their playoff race with two game-winning home runs. The first capped off one of the most remarkable games of the season on September 18, as the Dodgers hit four consecutive home runs in the ninth inning against the San Diego Padres to tie the game. After the Padres scored a run in the tenth inning, Nomar hit a game-winning, two-run walk-off home run in the bottom of the 10th inning to win the game 11–10. Six days later on September 24, Garciaparra hit a game-winning grand slam against the Arizona Diamondbacks to give the Dodgers a 5–1 victory with one week left in the regular season. The Dodgers went on to win their last seven games of the regular season, qualifying for the postseason. For the season, Garciaparra batted .303 with 20 home runs and 93 RBI, and struck out only 30 times, in 122 games. On October 7, Garciaparra was named the National League's Comeback Player of the Year for 2006. He received 72,054 votes. Ultimately, the Dodgers were swept by the New York Mets in the 2006 NLDS. Garciaparra batted only .222 in the series, but did drive in 2 runs. On November 20, 2006, the Dodgers re-signed Garciaparra to a 2-year contract worth $18.5 million, keeping him with the team through the 2008 season.
2007–08
Garciaparra got off to a strong start in 2007, batting .307 in April, but did not hit for power as he usually did, with only 1 home run during the first two and a half months of the season. On June 25, 2007, Garciaparra volunteered to move from first to third base in order to make room for rookie James Loney. He missed time in August and September due to injury, but still appeared in 121 games. His numbers were down, however, as he batted .283 with just 7 home runs and 59 RBI.
During 2008 spring training Garciaparra suffered a microfracture to his hand after a hit-by-pitch. That forced him to start the 2008 MLB season on the Disabled List. Rookie Blake DeWitt played third base in the meantime. On April 16, he started his first game against the Pittsburgh Pirates, only to suffer a strained left calf muscle nine days later, resulting in another trip to the DL. He returned July 4, playing at shortstop for the first time since 2005 due to an injury to Rafael Furcal. On August 1, Garciaparra was placed on the DL to make room for Manny Ramirez, who had been acquired in a trade. Nomar had sprained his knee in a July 27 contest against the Washington Nationals after being slid into spikes first at third base as Garciaparra had attempted to field a throw and tag the runner, Lastings Milledge. He returned on August 12, and continued seeing time at shortstop through the end of the month. On August 13, he hit a walk-off home run against the Philadelphia Phillies, giving the Dodgers a 7–6 win. Garciaparra actually saw more time at shortstop during 2008 than any other position, to accommodate other players on the Dodgers. But by September, he was back to seeing time at first base and third base, and being used as a pinch hitter. Despite the return to the position he enjoyed the most success in his career, it was a difficult season for Nomar. He hit .264 for the year, with 8 home runs and 28 RBI, as he appeared in only 55 games. The Dodgers met the Phillies in the 2008 NLCS once the postseason started, and Garciaparra hit well, going 3-for-7 (.429) with 1 RBI in the series. However, he did not appear in Game 1, and subsequently did not play the entirety of any game in the series, as he was either used as a substitute, or was replaced as the game went on in Games 2–5. The Dodgers were defeated in the fifth game by the Phillies, who eventually moved on to win the 2008 World Series.
Oakland Athletics
2009
On March 6, 2009, Garciaparra signed a one-year deal with the Oakland Athletics. With the acquisition of Matt Holliday from the Colorado Rockies in the off-season, Nomar was not granted his accustomed number 5, instead wearing number 1. Immediately after Holliday's trade to the St. Louis Cardinals, Eric Patterson was called up and given number 5. Garciaparra and Patterson subsequently switched numbers. In his final season, Garciaparra batted .281 with 3 home runs and 16 RBI in 65 games with Oakland.
Career statistics
In 1434 games over 14 seasons, Garciaparra posted a .313 batting average (1747-for-5586) with 927 runs, 370 doubles, 52 triples, 229 home runs, 936 RBI, 95 stolen bases, 403 bases on balls, .361 on-base percentage, and .521 slugging percentage. He finished his career with an overall .975 fielding percentage. In 32 postseason games, he was productive, batting .321 (36-for-112) with 7 home runs and 24 RBI.
Retirement
On March 10, 2010, Garciaparra signed a one-day contract with the Boston Red Sox to enable him to retire as a member of the Red Sox. Garciaparra took a position at ESPN, contributing analysis for the program Baseball Tonight as well as select Wednesday Night Baseball telecasts. He has also been one of the lead analysts on ESPN's coverage of the College World Series.
On May 5, 2010, the Red Sox hosted "Nomar Garciaparra Night," honoring Garciaparra before a game against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. He was given two official seats from Fenway by Johnny Pesky, one bearing Garciaparra's own number 5, and the other bearing Pesky's number 6.
Garciaparra threw out the first pitch on Nomar Day, with his signature off-balance sidearm throw, to his former teammate Jason Varitek.
On December 2, 2013, the Los Angeles Dodgers announced that Garciaparra would be part of their broadcast team beginning with the 2014 season. He served as a pre-and-post game analyst for the Dodgers' telecasts on SportsNet LA, and also teamed with Rick Monday to call most of the team's road games on KLAC and the Dodgers Radio Network. However, a few months into the season he was promoted from the radio broadcasts and added to the television crew, working with Charley Steiner and Orel Hershiser on road games.
On Wednesday, February 5, 2014, it was announced that Garciaparra would be inducted into the Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame, along with former pitchers Pedro Martínez and Roger Clemens, as well as longtime radio announcer Joe Castiglione.
In a rare non-sports appearance, he had a gag cameo as himself on the October 14, 2000 episode of Saturday Night Live. The show itself had referenced Garciaparra during 14 sketches called The Boston Teens starring Jimmy Fallon and Rachel Dratch who played a pair of Lexington, Massachusetts teenagers. The duo were avid fans of the Boston Red Sox; in particular their favorite player, who they called: "Nomah" and sported team shirts.
In 2016, he still lived in Whittier with his family, and was doing commentary for local Los Angeles Dodgers broadcasts. By 2020, he and his family were based out of Manhattan Beach in California.
Personal life
Garciaparra's younger brother, Michael, was selected by the Seattle Mariners in the first round of the 2001 MLB draft and played in Minor League Baseball until 2010.
On November 22, 2003, Garciaparra married Olympian and World Cup Champion soccer star Mia Hamm. The couple has twin girls, Grace Isabella and Ava Caroline, who were born on March 27, 2007, in Los Angeles. The couple also welcomed their first son named Garrett Anthony born in January 2012. Hamm and Garciaparra originally met at a 1998 promotional event in Boston where Hamm defeated Garciaparra in a soccer shootout. Hamm, married at the time, later stated that she was impressed with Garciaparra's passion for the game, and the two kept in touch as friends. Sometime after Hamm's 2001 divorce, the two began dating.
Garciaparra is known for his elaborate routine between pitches when batting. This includes batting glove adjustments and alternating toe taps on the ground prior to an ensuing pitch.
On October 7, 2005, Garciaparra and his uncle Victor Garciaparra were alerted to the screams of two women who had fallen into Boston Harbor outside his condominium. One of the women sustained injuries to her head after hitting the pier on her way in. Garciaparra quickly jumped into the harbor and saved both women, who were later taken to the hospital.
In November 2014, Garciaparra became a minority investor in Los Angeles F.C.
See also
List of Major League Baseball hitters with two grand slams in one game
List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders
List of Major League Baseball batting champions
List of Major League Baseball doubles records
List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual triples leaders
List of Major League Baseball single-game hits leaders
References
External links
Page at Baseball Library
1973 births
Living people
American baseball players of Mexican descent
American League All-Stars
American League batting champions
Arizona League Cubs players
Baseball players at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Baseball players from California
Boston Red Sox players
Chicago Cubs players
National College Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets baseball players
Gulf Coast Red Sox players
Hispanic and Latino American sportspeople
Las Vegas 51s players
Los Angeles Dodgers announcers
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Major League Baseball broadcasters
Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners
Major League Baseball shortstops
National League All-Stars
Oakland Athletics players
Olympic baseball players of the United States
Orleans Firebirds players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
Peoria Chiefs players
Sarasota Red Sox players
Sportspeople from Whittier, California
Trenton Thunder players
West Tennessee Diamond Jaxx players
Silver Slugger Award winners
All-American college baseball players | [
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|
213934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform%20Crime%20Reports | Uniform Crime Reports | The Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program compiles official data on crime in the United States, published by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). UCR is "a nationwide, cooperative statistical effort of nearly 18,000 city, university and college, county, state, tribal, and federal law enforcement agencies voluntarily reporting data on crimes brought to their attention".
Crime statistics are compiled from UCR data and published annually by the FBI in the Crime in the United States series. The FBI does not collect the data itself. Rather, law enforcement agencies across the United States provide the data to the FBI, which then compiles the Reports.
The Uniform Crime Reporting program began in 1929, and since then has become an important source of crime information for law enforcement, policymakers, scholars, and the media.
History
The UCR Program was based upon work by the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) and the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) throughout the 1920s to create a uniform national set of crime statistics, reliable for analysis. In 1927, the IACP created the Committee on Uniform Crime Reporting to determine statistics for national comparisons. The committee determined seven crimes fundamental to comparing crime rates: murder and non-negligent manslaughter, forcible rape, burglary, aggravated assault, larceny and motor vehicle theft (the eighth, arson, was added under a congressional directive in 1979). The early program was managed by the IACP, prior to FBI involvement, done through a monthly report. The first report in January 1930 reported data from 400 cities throughout 43 states, covering more than 20 million individuals, approximately twenty percent of the total U.S. population.
On June 11, 1930, through IACP lobbying, the United States Congress passed legislation enacting 28 U.S.C. § 534, which granted the office of the Attorney General the ability to "acquire, collect, classify, and preserve identification, criminal identification, crime, and other records" with the ability to appoint officials to oversee this duty, including the subordinate members of the Bureau of Investigation. The Attorney General, in turn, designated the FBI to serve as the national clearinghouse for the data collected, and the FBI assumed responsibility for managing the UCR Program in September 1930. The July 1930 issue of the IACP crime report announced the FBI's takeover of the program. While the IACP discontinued oversight of the program, they continued to advise the FBI to better the UCR.
Since 1935, the FBI served as a data clearinghouse; organizing, collecting, and disseminating information voluntarily submitted by local, state, federal and tribal law enforcement agencies. The UCR remained the primary tool for collection and analysis of data for the next half century. Throughout the 1980s, a series of National UCR Conferences were with members from the IACP, Department of Justice, including the FBI, and newly formed Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). The purpose was to determine necessary system revisions and then implement them. The result of these conferences was the release of a Blueprint for the Future of the Uniform Crime Reporting Program release in May 1985, detailing the necessary revisions. The report proposed splitting reported data into two separate categories, the eight serious crimes (which later became known as "Part I index crimes") and 21 less commonly reported crimes (which later became known as "Part II index crimes").
In 2003, FBI UCR data were compiled from more than 16,000 agencies, representing 93 percent of the population in 46 states and the District of Columbia. While nationally reporting is not mandated, many states have instituted laws requiring law enforcement within those states to provide UCR data.
Divisions
The UCR Program consists of four parts:
Traditional Summary Reporting System (SRS) and the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) – Offense and arrest data
Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA) Program
Hate Crime Statistics Program – hate crimes
Cargo Theft Reporting Program – cargo theft
The FBI publishes annual data from these collections in Crime in the United States, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted, and Hate Crime Statistics.
Data collection
Each month, law enforcement agencies report the number of known index crimes in their jurisdiction to the FBI. This mainly includes crimes reported to the police by the general public, but may also include crimes that police officers discover, and known through other sources. Law enforcement agencies also report the number of crime cases cleared.
UCR crime categories
For reporting purposes, criminal offenses are divided into two major groups: Part I offenses and Part II offenses.
In Part I, the UCR indexes reported incidents of index crimes which are broken into two categories: violent and property crimes. Aggravated assault, forcible rape, murder, and robbery are classified as violent while arson, burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft are classified as property crimes. These are reported via the document named Return A – Monthly Return of Offenses Known to the Police. Part 1 crimes are collectively known as Index crimes, this name is used because the crimes are considered quite serious, tend to be reported more reliably than others, and the reports are taken directly by the police and not a separate agency which aggregates the data and does not necessarily contribute to the UCR.
In Part II, the following categories are tracked: simple assault, curfew offenses and loitering, embezzlement, forgery and counterfeiting, disorderly conduct, driving under the influence, drug offenses, fraud, gambling, liquor offenses, offenses against the family, prostitution, public drunkenness, runaways, sex offenses, stolen property, vandalism, vagrancy, and weapons offenses.
Two property reports are also included in addition to the "Return A". The first is the Property Stolen by Classification report. This report details the number of actual crimes of each type in the "Return A" and the monetary value of property stolen in conjunction with that crime. Some offenses are reported in greater detail on this report than on the "Return A". For example, on the "Report A", burglaries are divided into three categories: Forcible Entry, Unlawful Entry – No Force, and Attempted Forcible Entry. On the Property Stolen by Classification report, burglaries are divided into six categories based on location, type (method and success of entry), and the time of the offense. Offenses are counted in residences with offense times of 6 p.m. to 6 a.m., 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. and Unknown Time and Non-residences with the same three time groupings.
The second property report is the Property Stolen by Type (of Property) and Value report. The monetary value of both stolen and recovered property are totaled and classified as one of eleven property types:
Currency, Notes, Etc.
Jewelry and Precious Metals
Clothing and Furs
Locally Stolen Motor Vehicles
Office Equipment
Televisions, Radios, Stereos, Etc.
Firearms
Household goods
Consumable goods
Livestock
Miscellaneous
The FBI began recording arson rates, as part of the UCR, in 1979. This report details arsons of the following property types:
Single Occupancy Residential (houses, townhouses, duplexes, etc.)
Other Residential (apartments, tenements, flats, hotels, motels, dormitories, etc.)
Storage (barns, garages, warehouses, etc.)
Industrial/Manufacturing
Other Commercial (stores, restaurants, offices, etc.)
Community/Public (churches, jails, schools, colleges, hospitals, etc.)
All Other Structures (out buildings, monuments, buildings under construction, etc.)
Motor Vehicles (automobiles, trucks, buses, motorcycles, etc.)
Other Mobile Property (trailers, recreational vehicles, airplanes, boats, etc.)
Other (crops, timber, fences, signs, etc.)
Advisory groups
The Criminal Justice Information Systems Committees of the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) and the National Sheriffs' Association (NSA) serve in an advisory capacity to the UCR Program and encourage local police departments and sheriff's departments to participate fully in the program.
In 1988, a Data Providers' Advisory Policy Board was established to provide input for UCR matters. The Board operated until 1993 when it combined with the National Crime Information Center Advisory Policy Board to form a single Advisory Policy Board (APB) to address all issues regarding the FBI's criminal justice information services. In addition, the Association of State UCR Programs (ASUCRP) focuses on UCR issues within individual state law enforcement associations and promotes interest in the UCR Program. These organizations foster widespread and responsible use of UCR statistics and assist data contributors when needed.
Limitations
The UCR itself warns that it reflects crime reports by police, not later adjudication.
See also
National Crime Victimization Survey
Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook
References
Further reading
Lynch, J. P., & Addington, L. A. (2007). Understanding crime statistics: revisiting the divergence of the NCVS and UCR. Cambridge studies in criminology. Cambridge University Press.
Kaplan, Jacob. 2021. Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program Data: A Practitioner’s Guide.
External links
Uniform Crime Reports, all years (official)
Uniform Crime Report Statistics Graphed
Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook (FBI)
United States: Uniform Crime Report – State Statistics from 1960 to 2005
Officer Survival Spotlight - Officer Perception and Assault Prevention FBI
Law enforcement databases in the United States
United States Department of Justice publications
Crime statistics
Academic works about criminology
1930 establishments in the United States
Publications established in 1930 | [
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|
213936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harriet%20Martineau | Harriet Martineau | Harriet Martineau (; 12 June 1802 – 27 June 1876) was an English social theorist often seen as the first female sociologist. She wrote from a sociological, holistic, religious and feminine angle, translated works by Auguste Comte, and rarely for a woman writer at the time, earned enough to support herself. The young Princess Victoria enjoyed her work and invited her to her 1838 coronation. Martineau advised "a focus on all [society's] aspects, including key political, religious, and social institutions". She applied thorough analysis to women's status under men. The novelist Margaret Oliphant called her "a born lecturer and politician... less distinctively affected by her sex than perhaps any other, male or female, of her generation."
Early life
The sixth of eight children, Harriet Martineau was born in Norwich, England, where her father Thomas was a textile manufacturer. A highly respected Unitarian, he was deacon of the Octagon Chapel, Norwich from 1797. Harriet's mother was the daughter of a sugar refiner and grocer.
The Martineau family was of French Huguenot ancestry and professed Unitarian views. Her uncles included the surgeon Philip Meadows Martineau (1752–1829), whom she had enjoyed visiting at his nearby estate, Bracondale Lodge, and businessman and benefactor Peter Finch Martineau. Martineau was closest to her brother James, who became a philosopher and clergyman in the tradition of the English Dissenters. According to the writer Diana Postlethwaite, Harriet's relationship with her mother was strained and lacking affection, which contributed to views expressed in her later writing. Martineau claimed her mother abandoned her to a wet nurse.
Her ideas on domesticity and the "natural faculty for housewifery", as described in her book Household Education (1848), stemmed from her lack of nurture growing up. Although their relationship was better in adulthood, Harriet saw her mother as the antithesis of the warm and nurturing qualities which she knew to be necessary for girls at an early age. Her mother urged all her children to be well read, but at the same time opposed female pedantics "with a sharp eye for feminine propriety and good manners. Her daughters could never be seen in public with a pen in their hand". Despite this conservative approach to raising girls, Martineau was not the only academically successful daughter in the family; her sister Rachel ran her own Unitarian Academy with artist Hilary Bonham Carter as one of her students. Martineau's mother strictly enforced proper feminine behaviour, pushing her daughter to "hold a sewing needle" as well as the (hidden) pen.
Martineau began losing her senses of taste and smell at a young age, becoming increasingly deaf and having to use an ear trumpet. It was the beginning of many health problems in her life. In 1821 she began to write anonymously for the Monthly Repository, a Unitarian periodical, and in 1823 she published Devotional Exercises and Addresses, Prayers and Hymns.
In 1829, the family's textile business failed. Martineau, then 27 years old, stepped out of the traditional roles of feminine propriety to earn a living for her family. Along with her needlework, she began selling her articles to the Monthly Repository, earning accolades, including three essay prizes from the Unitarian Association. Her regular work with the Repository helped establish her as a reliable and popular freelance writer.
In Martineau's Autobiography, she reflects on her success as a writer and her father's business failure, which she describes as "one of the best things that ever happened to us". She described how she could then "truly live instead of vegetate". Her reflection emphasizes her experience with financial responsibility in her life while she writes "[her] fusion of literary and economic narratives".
Her first commissioned book, Illustrations of Political Economy, was a fictional tutorial intended to help the general public understand the ideas of Adam Smith. Illustrations was published in February 1832 in an edition of just 1500 copies, since the publisher assumed it would not sell well. Yet it very quickly became highly successful, and would steadily out-sell the work of Charles Dickens. Illustrations was her first work to receive widespread acclaim, and its success served to spread the free-market ideas of Adam Smith and others throughout the British Empire. Martineau then agreed to compose a series of similar monthly stories over a period of two years, the work being hastened by having her brother James also work on the series with her.
The subsequent works offered fictional tutorials on a range of political economists such as James Mill, Bentham and Ricardo, the latter especially forming her view of rent law. Martineau relied on Malthus to form her view of the tendency of human population to exceed its means of subsistence. However, in stories such as "Weal and Woe in Garvelock", she promoted the idea of population control through what Malthus referred to as "voluntary checks" such as voluntary chastity and delayed marriages.
London and the United States
In the early 19th century, most social institutions and norms were strongly shaped by gender, or the perception of what was appropriate for men versus for women. Writing was no exception; non-fiction works about social, economic and political issues were dominated by men, while limited areas, such as romance fiction, and topics dealing with domesticity were considered to be appropriate for women authors. Despite these gendered expectations in the literary world, Martineau strongly expressed her opinions on a variety of topics.
Martineau's frequent publication in the Repository acquainted her with editor Rev. William Johnson Fox (not William Darwin Fox, see disambiguation). First coming to London around 1830, she joined Fox's social circle of prominent thinkers which also introduced her to Erasmus Alvey Darwin, older brother to Charles Darwin.
In November 1832 Martineau moved to London. Among her acquaintances were: Henry Hallam, Harriet Taylor, Alexander Maconochie, Henry Hart Milman, Thomas Malthus, Monckton Milnes, Sydney Smith, John Stuart Mill, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Sarah Austin, and Charles Lyell, as well as Jane Welsh Carlyle and Thomas Carlyle. She met Florence Nightingale, Charlotte Brontë, George Eliot and Charles Dickens later on in her literary career.
Until 1834 Martineau was occupied with her brother James on the political economy series, as well as a supplemental series of Poor Laws and Paupers Illustrated and Illustrations of Taxation which was intended to directly influence government policy. About the same time, she published four stories expressing support of the Whig Poor Law reforms. These tales (direct, lucid, written without any appearance of effort, and yet practically effective) display the characteristics of their author's style. Tory paternalists reacted by calling her a Malthusian "who deprecates charity and provision for the poor", while Radicals opposed her to the same degree. Whig high society fêted her.
In May 1834 Charles Darwin, on his expedition to the Galapagos Islands, received a letter from his sisters saying that Martineau was "now a great Lion in London, much patronized by Ld. Brougham who has set her to write stories on the poor Laws" and recommending Poor Laws and Paupers Illustrated in pamphlet-sized parts. They added that their brother Erasmus "knows her & is a very great admirer & every body reads her little books & if you have a dull hour you can, and then throw them overboard, that they may not take up your precious room".
In 1834, after completing the economic series, Harriet Martineau paid a long visit to the United States during which she visited a great many people, some little known, others as famous as James Madison, the former US president, at his home at Montpelier. She also met numerous abolitionists in Boston and studied the emerging schools for the education of girls. Her support of abolitionism, then widely unpopular across the U.S., caused controversy, which her publication, soon after her return, of Society in America (1837) and How to Observe Morals and Manners (1838), only fuelled. The two books are considered significant contributions to the then-emerging field of sociology.
In Society in America, Martineau angrily criticised the state of women's education. She wrote,
Her article "The Martyr Age of the United States" (1839), in the Westminster Review, introduced English readers to the struggles of the abolitionists in America several years after Britain had abolished slavery.
In October 1836, soon after returning from the voyage of the Beagle, Charles Darwin went to London to stay with his brother Erasmus. He found him spending his days "driving out Miss Martineau", who had returned from her trip to the United States. Charles wrote to his sister,
Our only protection from so admirable a sister-in-law is in her working him too hard." He commented, "She already takes him to task about his idleness — She is going some day to explain to him her notions about marriage — Perfect equality of rights is part of her doctrine. I much doubt whether it will be equality in practice.The Darwins shared Martineau's Unitarian background and Whig politics, but their father Robert was concerned that, as a potential daughter-in-law, she was too extreme in her politics. Charles noted that his father was upset by a piece in the Westminster Review calling for the radicals to break with the Whigs and give working men the vote "before he knew it was not [Martineau's], and wasted a good deal of indignation, and even now can hardly believe it is not hers". In early December 1836 Charles Darwin called on Martineau and may have discussed the social and natural worlds she was writing about in her book Society in America, including the "grandeur and beauty" of the "process of world making" she had seen at Niagara Falls. He remarked in a letter, She was very agreeable and managed to talk on a most wonderful number of subjects, considering the limited time. I was astonished to find how little ugly she is, but as it appears to me, she is overwhelmed with her own projects, her own thoughts and own abilities. Erasmus palliated all this, by maintaining one ought not to look at her as a woman.Significantly, Martineau's earlier popularization of Thomas Malthus' theories of population control may have helped convince Charles to read Malthus, which provided the breakthrough ideas for his nascent theory of evolution.
In April 1838 Charles wrote to his older sister Susan thatErasmus has been with her noon, morning, and night: — if her character was not as secure, as a mountain in the polar regions she certainly would lose it. — Lyell called there the other day & there was a beautiful rose on the table, & she coolly showed it to him & said 'Erasmus Darwin' gave me that. — How fortunate it is, she is so very plain; otherwise I should be frightened: She is a wonderful woman.
Martineau wrote Deerbrook (1838), a three-volume novel published after her American books. She portrayed a failed love affair between a physician and his sister-in-law. It was considered her most successful novel. She also wrote The Hour and the Man: An Historical Romance (1839), a three-volume novel about the Haitian slave leader Toussaint L'Ouverture, who contributed to the island nation's gaining independence in 1804.
Newcastle and Tynemouth
In 1839, during a visit to Continental Europe, Martineau was diagnosed with a uterine tumour. She several times visited her brother-in-law, Thomas Michael Greenhow, who was a celebrated doctor in Newcastle upon Tyne, to try to alleviate her symptoms. On the last occasion she stayed for six months in the Greenhow family house at 28 Eldon Square. Immobile and confined to a couch, she was cared for by her mother until purchasing a house and hiring a nurse to aid her.
She next moved downriver to Tynemouth where she regained her health. She stayed at Mrs Halliday's boarding-house, 57 Front Street, for nearly five years from 16 March 1840. The establishment is still open as a guest house today, now named the "Martineau Guest House" in her honour.
The critic Diana Postlethwaite wrote of this period for Martineau: Being homebound is a major part of the process of becoming feminine. In this interior setting she (Martineau) is taught the home arts of working, serving, and cleaning, as well as the rehearsals for the role of mothering. She sees her mother... doing these things. They define femininity for her.Her illness caused her to literally enact the social constraints of women during this time.
Martineau wrote a number of books during her illness, and a historical plaque marks this house. In 1841 she published a series of four novels for children, The Playfellow, comprising The Settlers at Home, The Peasant and the Prince, Feats on the Fiord, and The Crofton Boys. In 1844 she published Life in the Sickroom: Essays by an Invalid, an autobiographical reflection on invalidism. She wrote Household Education (1848), the handbook on the "proper" way to raise and educate children. Lastly, she began working on her autobiography. Completed much later, it included some hundred pages on this period. Notable visitors included Richard Cobden and Thomas and Jane Carlyle.
Life in the Sickroom is considered to be one of Martineau's most under-rated works. It upset evangelical readers as they "thought it dangerous in 'its supposition of self-reliance'". This series of essays embraced traditional womanhood. Martineau dedicated it to Elizabeth Barrett, as it was "an outpouring of feeling to an idealized female alter ego, both professional writer and professional invalid- and utterly unlike the women in her own family". Written during a kind of public break from her mother, this book was Martineau's proclamation of independence.
At the same time, Martineau turned the traditional patient–doctor relationship on its head by asserting control over her space even in sickness. The sickroom was her space. Life in the Sickroom explained how to regain control even in illness. Alarmed that a woman was suggesting such a position in the power dynamic, critics suggested that, as she was an invalid, her mind must also be sick and the work was not to be taken seriously. British and Foreign Medical Review dismissed Martineau's piece on the same basis as the critics: an ill person cannot write a healthy work. They thought it was unheard of for a woman to suggest being in a position of control, especially in sickness. Instead, the Review recommended that patients follow "unconditional submission" to the advice of doctors. They disagreed with the idea that Martineau might hold any sort of "authority to Britain's invalids".
Expecting to remain an invalid for the rest of her life, Martineau delighted in the new freedom of views using her telescope. Across the Tyne was the sandy beach "where there are frequent wrecks — too interesting to an invalid... and above the rocks, a spreading heath, where I watch troops of boys flying their kites; lovers and friends taking their breezy walks on Sundays..." She expressed a lyrical view of Tynemouth:
When I look forth in the morning, the whole land may be sheeted with glittering snow, while the myrtle-green sea swells and tumbles... there is none of the deadness of winter in the landscape; no leafless trees, no locking up with ice; and the air comes in through my open upper sash brisk, but sun-warmed. The robins twitter and hop in my flower-boxes... And at night, what a heaven! What an expanse of stars above, appearing more steadfast, the more the Northern Lights dart and quiver!
During her illness, she for a second time declined a pension on the civil list, fearing to compromise her political independence. After publication of her letter on the subject, some of her friends raised a small annuity for her soon after.
In 1844 Martineau underwent a course of mesmerism, returning to health after a few months. There was national interest in mesmerism at this time. Also known as 'animal magnetism', it can be defined as a "loosely grouped set of practices in which one person influenced another through a variety of personal actions, or through the direct influence of one mind on another mind. Mesmerism was designed to make invisible forces augment the mental powers of the mesmeric object." She eventually published an account of her case in 16 Letters on Mesmerism, which caused much discussion. Her work led to friction with "the natural prejudices of a surgeon and a surgeon's wife" (i.e., her brother-in-law, Thomas Michael Greenhow and her sister, Elizabeth Greenhow, née Martineau).
Ambleside – views on religion, philosophical atheism, and Darwin
In 1845 she left Tynemouth for Ambleside in the Lake District, where she designed herself and oversaw the construction of the house called The Knoll, Ambleside, where she spent the greater part of her later life. In 1845 she published three volumes of Forest and Game Law Tales. In 1846, she resided with her elderly mother, Elizabeth, in Birmingham for some time, following which she then toured Egypt, Palestine and Syria with some friends. On her return she published Eastern Life, Present and Past (1848), in which she reports a breakthrough realization standing on a prominence looking out across the Nile and desert to the tombs of the dead, where "the deceased crossed the living valley and river" to "the caves of the death region" where Osiris the supreme judge "is to give the sign of acceptance or condemnation". Her summary: "the mortuary ideas of the primitive Egyptians, and through them, of the civilized world at large, have been originated by the everlasting conflict of the Nile and the Desert".
This epiphany changed the course of her life. Eastern Life expressed her concept that, as humanity passed through one after another of the world's historic religions, the conception of the deity and of divine government became at each step more and more abstract and indefinite. She believed the ultimate goal to be philosophic atheism, but did not explicitly say so in the book. She described ancient tombs, "the black pall of oblivion" set against the paschal "puppet show" in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and noted that Christian beliefs in reward and punishment were based on and similar to heathen superstitions. Describing an ancient Egyptian tomb, she wrote, "How like ours were his life and death!... Compare him with a retired naval officer made country gentleman in our day, and in how much less do they differ than agree!" The book's "infidel tendency" was too much for the publisher John Murray, who rejected it. Martineau's biographer, Florence Fenwick Miller, wrote that "all her best moral and intellectual faculties were exerted, and their action becomes visible, at one page or another" of this work. Eastern Life, Present and Past marked an important chapter in Martineau's life as it documented her move away from Unitarianism towards atheism, which was never fully achieved. This shifting of religiosity can best be seen in her instruction to travel with the hopes of gaining a historical understanding of holy places and in her critiques on biblical literalism, as influenced by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Eastern Life, Present and Past is also important historically, as Billie Melman notes, it was the "first feminine travelogue proper that is not an account of a pilgrimage." In her doing so, Martineau's so-called "anti-pilgrimage" became an important point in the growth of female academia, as well as an addition to the growing field of Egyptology.
Martineau wrote Household Education in 1848, lamenting the state of women's education. She believed women had a natural inclination to motherhood and believed domestic work went hand in hand with academia for a proper, well-rounded education. She stated, "I go further than most persons... in desiring thorough practice in domestic occupations, from an early age, for young girls". She proposed that freedom and rationality, rather than command and obedience, are the most effectual instruments of education.
Her interest in schemes of instruction led her to start a series of lectures, addressed at first to the school children of Ambleside, but afterward extended to their parents at the request of the adults. The subjects were sanitary principles and practice, the histories of England and North America, and the scenes of her Eastern travels. At the request of the publisher Charles Knight, in 1849 she wrote The History of the Thirty Years' Peace, 1816–1846, an excellent popular history from the point of view of a "philosophical Radical". Martineau spanned a wide variety of subject matter in her writing and did so with more assertiveness than was expected of women at the time. She has been described as having an "essentially masculine nature". It was commonly thought that a "progressive" woman, in being progressive, was improperly emulating the qualities of a man.
Martineau's work included a widely used guide book to the Lake District, A Complete Guide to the English Lakes, published in 1855 and in its 4th edition by 1876. This served as the definitive guidebook for the area for 25 years, effectively replacing the earlier guide by William Wordsworth, and continued in common usage until the publication of Baddeley's Thorough Guide to the English Lake District in 1880.
Martineau edited a volume of Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature and Development, published in March 1851. Its epistolary form is based on correspondence between her and the self-styled scientist Henry G. Atkinson. She expounded the doctrine of philosophical atheism, which she thought the tendency of human belief. She did not deny a first cause but declared it unknowable. She and Atkinson thought they affirmed man's moral obligation. Atkinson was a zealous exponent of mesmerism. The prominence given to the topics of mesmerism and clairvoyance heightened the general disapproval of the book. Literary London was outraged by its mesmeric evolutionary atheism, and the book caused a lasting division between Martineau, her beloved brother, James who had become a Unitarian cleric, and some of her friends.
From 1852 to 1866, she contributed regularly to the Daily News, writing sometimes six leaders a week. She wrote over 1600 articles for the paper in total. It also published her Letters from Ireland, written during a visit to that country in the summer of 1852. For many years she was a contributor to the Westminster Review; in 1854 she was among financial supporters who prevented its closing down.
Martineau believed she had experienced psychosomatic symptoms and later benefits from mesmerism; this medical belief of the times related the uterus to emotions and hysteria. She had symptoms of hysteria in her loss of taste and smell. Her partial deafness throughout life may have contributed to her problems. Various people, including the maid, her brother, and Spencer T. Hall (a notable mesmerist) performed mesmerism on her. Some historians attribute her apparent recovery from symptoms to a shift in the positioning of her tumor so that it no longer obstructed other organs. As the physical improvements were the first signs of healing she had in five years and happened at the same time of her first mesmeric treatment, Martineau confidentially credited mesmerism with her "cure".
She continued her political activism during the late 1850s and 1860s. She supported the Married Women's Property Bill and in 1856 signed a petition for it organised by Barbara Bodichon. She also pushed for licensed prostitution and laws that addressed the customers rather than the women. She supported women's suffrage and signed Bodichon's petition in its favour in 1866.
In the early part of 1855, Martineau was suffering from heart disease. She began to write her autobiography, as she expected her life to end. Completing the book rapidly in three months, she postponed its publication until after her death, and lived another two decades. It was published posthumously in 1877.
When Darwin's book The Origin of Species was published in 1859, his brother Erasmus sent a copy to his old flame Harriet Martineau. At age 58, she was still reviewing from her home in the Lake District. From her "snow landscape", Martineau sent her thanks, adding that she had previously praised
the quality & conduct of your brother's mind, but it is an unspeakable satisfaction to see here the full manifestation of its earnestness & simplicity, its sagacity, its industry, & the patient power by which it has collected such a mass of facts, to transmute them by such sagacious treatment into such portentous knowledge. I should much like to know how large a proportion of our scientific men believe he has found a sound road.Martineau supported Darwin's theory because it was not based in theology. Martineau strove for secularism stating, "In the present state of the religious world, Secularism ought to flourish. What an amount of sin and woe might and would then be extinguished." She wrote to her fellow Malthusian (and atheist) George Holyoake enthusing, "What a book it is! – overthrowing (if true) revealed Religion on the one hand, & Natural (as far as Final Causes & Design are concerned) on the other. The range & mass of knowledge take away one's breath." To Fanny Wedgwood (the wife of Hensleigh Wedgwood) she wrote,
I rather regret that C.D. went out of his way two or three times to speak of "The Creator" in the popular sense of the First Cause.... His subject is the "Origin of Species" & not the origin of Organisation; & it seems a needless mischief to have opened the latter speculation at all – There now! I have delivered my mind.
Economics and social sciences
Harriet Martineau propounds political economic theories in Illustrations of Political Economy. She is seen as a frontrunner who merges fiction and economy in a time period when "fiction claimed authority over emotional knowledge, while economics claimed authority over empirical knowledge". Moreover, Martineau's text sets the stage for women to enter into economics. For example, Dalley Lana explains that "by bringing the topic of domestic economy to bear on political economy, Martineau places women more centrally within economic theory and practice. In this context, women – as readers of the Illustrations and as characters with the tales – are not only rendered a part of larger-scale economics but also (because of their participation) encourage to learn the principles of political economy."
As early as 1831, Martineau wrote on the subject "Political Economy" (as the field of economics was then known). Her goal was to popularise and illustrate the principles of laissez faire capitalism, though she made no claim to original theorising.
Martineau's reflections on Society in America, published in 1837, are prime examples of her sociological methods. Her ideas in this field were set out in her 1838 book How to Observe Morals and Manners. She believed that some very general social laws influence the life of any society, including the principle of progress, the emergence of science as the most advanced product of human intellectual endeavour, and the significance of population dynamics and the natural physical environment.
Auguste Comte coined the name sociology and published a lengthy exposition under the title of Cours de Philosophie Positive in 1839. Martineau undertook a concise translation that was published in two volumes in 1853 as The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (freely translated and condensed by Harriet Martineau). It was a remarkable achievement, and a successful one; Comte recommended her volumes to his students instead of his own. Some writers regard Martineau as the first female sociologist. Her introduction of Comte to the English-speaking world and the elements of sociological perspective in her original writings support her credit as a sociologist.
Death
Harriet Martineau died of bronchitis at "The Knoll" on 27 June 1876. She was buried alongside her mother in Key Hill Cemetery, Hockley, Birmingham. The following April, at Bracondale, her cousin's estate, much of Martineau's extensive art collection was sold at auction.
Memorial
Her name is listed on the east face of the Reformers Memorial in Kensal Green cemetery in London.
Legacy
She left an autobiographical sketch to be published by the Daily News, in which she wrote:
Her original power was nothing more than was due to earnestness and intellectual clearness within a certain range. With small imaginative and suggestive powers, and therefore nothing approaching to genius, she could see clearly what she did see, and give a clear expression to what she had to say. In short, she could popularize while she could neither discover nor invent.
In 1877 her autobiography was published. It was rare for a woman to publish such a work, let alone one secular in nature. Her book was regarded as dispassionate, "philosophic to the core" in its perceived masculinity, and a work of necessitarianism. She deeply explored childhood experiences and memories, expressing feelings of having been deprived of her mother's affection, as well as strong devotion to her brother James Martineau, a theologian.
Anthony Giddens and Simon Griffiths argue that Martineau is a neglected founder of sociology and that she remains important today. She taught that study of the society must include all its aspects, including key political, religious and social institutions, and she insisted on the need to include the lives of women. She was the first sociologist to study such issues as marriage, children, religious life, and race relations. Finally, she called on sociologists to do more than just observe, but also work to benefit the society.
In February 2014, it was reported that London's National Portrait Gallery held several portraits of Harriet, whose great nephew, Francis Martineau Lupton, was the great–great–grandfather of Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, the gallery's patron. Harriet was close to her niece Frances Lupton, who worked to open up educational opportunities for women.
Bibliography
Books
Illustrations of taxation; 5 volumes; Charles Fox, 1834
Illustrations of Political Economy; 9 volumes; Charles Fox, 1834
Miscellanies; 2 volumes; Hilliard, Gray and Co., 1836
Society in America; 3 volumes; Saunders and Otley, 1837; (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ); Internet Archive
Retrospect of Western Travel; Saunders and Otley, 1838, (Project Gutenberg Volume 1, Volume 2)
How to Observe Morals and Manners; Charles Knight and Co, 1838; Google Books, Project Gutenberg
Deerbrook; London, 1839; Project Gutenberg
The Hour and the Man: An Historical Romance, 1839, Project Gutenberg
The Playfellow (comprising The Settlers at Home, The Peasant and the Prince, Feats on the Fiord, and The Crofton Boys); Charles Knight, 1841
Life in the Sickroom, 1844
The Billow and the Rock, 1846
Household Education, 1848, Project Gutenberg
Eastern Life. Present and Past; 3 volumes; Edward Moxon, 1848
The History of the Thirty Years' Peace, A.D. 1816–1846 (1849)
Feats on the Fiord. A Tale of Norway; Routledge, Warne, & Routledge, 1865, Project Gutenberg
Harriet Martineau's Autobiography. With Memorials by Maria Weston Chapman; 2 volumes; Smith, Elder & Co, 1877; Liberty Fund.
A Complete Guide to the English Lakes; John Garnett 1855 and later editions
H. G. Atkinson and H. Martineau, Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature and Development; Chapman, 1851 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )
A. Comte, tr. H. Martineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte; 2 volumes; Chapman, 1853 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )
Archives
The Cadbury Research Library (University of Birmingham) holds three archive collections concerning Harriet Martineau: her papers and correspondence, letters additional, and the Martineau family papers.
See also
History of feminism
List of sociologists
List of suffragists and suffragettes
Notes
References
Fenwick Miller, Harriet Martineau (1884, "Eminent Women Series")
Paul L. Riedesel, "Who Was Harriet Martineau?", Journal of the History of Sociology, vol. 3, 1981. pp. 63–80
Robert K. Webb, Harriet Martineau, a Radical Victorian, Heinemann, London 1960
Gaby Weiner, "Harriet Martineau: A reassessment (1802–1876)", in Dale Spender (ed.), Feminist Theorists: Three Centuries of Key Women Thinkers, Pantheon 1983, pp. 60–74
Attribution
Further reading
Chapman Maria Weston, Autobiography, with Memorials (1877). Virago, London 1983
Brian Conway and Michael R. Hill, 2009 Harriet Martineau and Ireland. In: Social Thought on Ireland in the Nineteenth Century. University College Dublin Press, Dublin, pp. 47–66.
Ella Dzelzainis and Cora Kaplan, eds. Harriet Martineau: Authorship, Society, and Empire (Manchester University Press, 2011); 263 pp.; essays on her views of race, empire, and history, including the 1857 Indian Mutiny and the Atlantic slave trade
Lana L. Dalley, "On Martineau's Illustrations of Political Economy, 1832–34.” BRANCH: Britain, Representation and Nineteenth-Century History, ed. Dino Franco Felluga. Extension of Romanticism and Victorianism on the Net. Web. Essay on Martineau's burgeoning career as a writer, which demarcates a time period economical upheaval
Shelagh Hunter, Harriet Martineau: The Poetics of Moralism. Scolar Press: 1995
Valerie Kossew Pichanick, Harriet Martineau: The Woman and Her Work, 1802–76. University of Michigan Press: 1980
Vera Wheatley, The Life and Work of Harriet Martineau. Essential Books: 1957
External links
Martineau Society (.co.uk)
Essays by Harriet Martineau, Quotidiana.org
The positive philosophy of Auguste Comte / freely translated and condensed by Harriet Martineau, Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection.
Guide to the Harriet Martineau Papers, The Bancroft Library
Papers of Harriet Martineau are held at The Women's Library at the Library of the London School of Economics, ref 7HRM
Retrospect of Western Travel by Harriet Martineau, 1838
Harriet Martineau, spartacus-educational.com
Letters from Harriet Martineau mainly to Sarah Martineau at Cumbria Archive Centre, Kendal
1802 births
1876 deaths
19th-century atheists
19th-century British philosophers
19th-century British translators
19th-century British women scientists
19th-century British writers
19th-century economists
19th-century English women writers
British atheism activists
British classical liberals
British women essayists
Burials at Key Hill Cemetery
Classical economists
Deaf people from England
Deaf writers
English abolitionists
English atheists
English people of French descent
English sociologists
English suffragists
English translators
English Unitarians
English women philosophers
Feminism and history
People from Ambleside
Writers from Norwich
Positivists
Structural functionalism
Victorian novelists
Victorian women writers
Women of the Victorian era
British women sociologists
Works originally published in Once a Week (magazine) | [
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|
213939 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%20More%20Mr.%20Nice%20Guy | No More Mr. Nice Guy | No More Mr. Nice Guy may refer to:
Music
"No More Mr. Nice Guys", a song from Halfnelson by Sparks, 1971
"No More Mr. Nice Guy" (song), by Alice Cooper, 1973, later covered by Megadeth
No More Mr. Nice Guy (Gang Starr album), 1989
No More Mr. Nice Guy (Steve Wariner album), 1996
In a Metal Mood: No More Mr. Nice Guy, a 1997 album by Pat Boone
"No More Mr. Nice Guy", a song sung by the character Rothbart in the 1994 animated feature The Swan Princess. Dr. John also sang this song for The Swan Princess: Music from the Motion Picture soundtrack
Film and television
No More Mr. Nice Guy (film), a 1993 German film
"No More Mr. Nice Guy" (Freddy's Nightmares), the first episode of the first season of Freddy's Nightmares
"No More Mr. Nice Guy" (House), the thirteenth episode of the fourth season of House, and the eighty-third episode overall
"No More Mr. Nice Guy", a Welcome Back, Kotter episode
"No More Mr. Nice Guy", a Dukes of Hazzard episode
Other uses
No More Mr. Nice Guy: A Proven Plan for Getting What You Want in Love, Sex, and Life, 2003 book by Robert A. Glover
No More Mr Nice Guy, a spaceship (and its artificial mind) in Ian M. Banks' novel Consider Phlebas
No More Mr. Nice Guy, a novel by Howard Jacobson
See also
Mr. Nice Guy (disambiguation) | [
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213940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myxomatosis | Myxomatosis | Myxomatosis is a disease caused by Myxoma virus, a poxvirus in the genus Leporipoxvirus. The natural hosts are tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis) in South and Central America, and brush rabbits (Sylvilagus bachmani) in North America. The myxoma virus causes only a mild disease in these species, but causes a severe and usually fatal disease in European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Myxomatosis is an excellent example of what occurs when a virus jumps from a species adapted to it to a naive host, and has been extensively studied for this reason. The virus was intentionally introduced in Australia, France, and Chile in the 1950s to control wild European rabbit populations.
Cause
Myxoma virus is in the genus Leporipoxvirus (family Poxviridae; subfamily Chordopoxvirinae). Like other poxviruses, myxoma viruses are large DNA viruses with linear double-stranded DNA. Virus replication occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. The natural hosts are tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis) in South and Central America, and brush rabbits (Sylvilagus bachmani) in North America. The myxoma virus causes only a mild disease in these species, with symptoms limited to the formation of skin nodules.
Myxomatosis is the name of the severe and often fatal disease in European rabbits caused by the myxoma virus. Different strains exist which vary in their virulence. The Californian strain, which is endemic to the west coast of the United States and Baja in Mexico, is the most virulent, with reported case fatality rates of 100%. The South American strain, present in South America and Central America, is slightly less virulent, with reported case fatality rates of 99.8%. Strains present in Europe and Australia have become attenuated, with reported case fatality rates of 50–95%. While wild rabbits in Europe and Australia have developed some immunity to the virus, this is not generally true of pet rabbits.
Transmission
Myxomatosis is transmitted primarily by insects. Disease transmission commonly occurs via mosquito or flea bites, but can also occur via the bites of flies and lice, as well as arachnid mites. The myxoma virus does not replicate in these arthropod hosts, but is physically carried by biting arthropods from one rabbit to another. Seasonality is driven by the availability of arthropod vectors and the proximity of infected wild rabbits.
The myxoma virus can also be transmitted by direct contact. Infected rabbits shed the virus in ocular and nasal secretions and from areas of eroded skin. The virus may also be present in semen and genital secretions. Poxviruses are fairly stable in the environment and can be spread by contaminated objects such as water bottles, feeders, caging, or people's hands. They are resistant to drying but are sensitive to some disinfectants.
Pathophysiology
A laboratory study in which European rabbits received intradermal injections of a South American strain of the myxoma virus demonstrated the following progression of disease. Initially the virus multiplied in the skin at the site of inoculation. Approximately 2 days following inoculation the virus was found in nearby lymph nodes, and at 3 days it was found in the bloodstream and abdominal organs. At approximately 4 days the virus was isolated from non-inoculated skin as well as from the testes. Slight thickening of the eyelids and the presence of virus in conjunctival fluid was detectable on day 5. Testicular engorgement was noticed on day 6.
Clinical presentation in European rabbits
The clinical signs of myxomatosis depend on the strain of virus, the route of inoculation, and the immune status of the host. Symptoms of the classic nodular form of the disease include a subcutaneous mass at the site of inoculation, swelling and edema of the eyelids and genitals, a milky or purulent ocular discharge, fever, lethargy, depression, and anorexia.
According to Meredith (2013), the typical time course of the disease is as follows:
In peracute disease with a highly virulent strain, death may occur within 5 to 6 days of infection with minimal clinical signs other than the conjunctivitis. Death usually occurs between days 10 and 12. Highly virulent strains, such as those present in North and South America, have essentially 100% case fatality rates.
In rabbits infected with attenuated, less virulent strains of the virus, the lesions seen are more variable and generally milder, and the time course is delayed and prolonged. Many rabbits will survive and the cutaneous lesions gradually scab and fall off, leaving scarring. A milder form of the disease is also seen in previously vaccinated domestic rabbits that have partial immunity. Vaccinated rabbits often present with localized scabbed lesions, frequently on the bridge of the nose and around the eyes, or multiple cutaneous masses over the body. They are often still bright and alert, and survive with nursing care.
Respiratory symptoms are a common finding in rabbits that survive the first stages of myxomatosis. Mucopurulent nasal discharge occurs, leading to gasping and stertorous respiration with extension of the head and neck. Secondary bacterial pneumonia occurs in many cases. Chronic respiratory disease, such as nasal discharge, is common in surviving rabbits. Even in apparently recovered rabbits, it is not unusual to find lung lobes filled with fluid rather than air at necropsy.
Since the 1970s an "amyxomatous" form of the disease has been reported in Europe which lacks the cutaneous nodules typical of myxomatosis. This form is clinically milder and generally nonlethal. Respiratory signs, including clear or purulent nasal discharge, predominate. Perineal edema, swollen eyelids, and purulent blepharoconjunctivitis are generally still present. This form has been observed in wild rabbits, but is significant mainly in farmed rabbits.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis of myxomatosis in European rabbits is often made on the basis of the characteristic clinical appearance. If a rabbit dies without exhibiting the classic symptoms of myxomatosis, or if further confirmation is desired, a number of laboratory tests are available. Historically these have included histopathology, electron microscopy, and virus isolation. Histopathologic examination of affected skin typically shows undifferentiated mesenchymal cells within a matrix of mucin, inflammatory cells, and edema. Intracytoplasmic inclusions may be seen in the epidermis and in conjunctival epithelium. Negative-stain electron microscopic examination can also be used for diagnosis due to the large size and distinctive structure of poxviruses. This method allows rapid visualization of poxviruses, but does not allow specific verification of virus species or variants. Virus isolation remains the "gold standard" against which other methods of virus detection are compared. Theoretically at least, a single viable virus present in a specimen can be grown in cultured cells, thus expanding it to produce enough material to permit further detailed characterization.
The more recent development of molecular methods such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and real-time polymerase chain reaction assays has created faster and more accurate methods of myxoma virus identification. Real time PCR simplifies the diagnosis of myxomatosis by allowing nasal, ocular, or genital swabs to be quickly tested. It can also be used on paraffin-embedded tissue samples to confirm the presence of Myxoma virus and identify the viral strain.
Treatment
At present, no specific treatment exists for myxomatosis. If the decision is made to attempt treatment, careful monitoring is necessary to avoid prolonging suffering. Previously vaccinated rabbits or those infected with an attenuated strain may recover given supportive care with fluids, food, and broad spectrum antivirals. Cessation of food and water intake, ongoing severe weight loss, or rectal temperatures below 37 C (98.6 F) are reasons to consider euthanasia.
Prevention
Vaccination
Vaccines against myxomatosis are available in some countries. All are modified live vaccines based either on attenuated myxoma virus strains or on the closely related Shope fibroma virus, which provides cross-immunity. It is recommended that all rabbits in areas of the world where myxomatosis is endemic be routinely vaccinated, even if kept indoors, because of the ability of the virus to be carried inside by vectors or fomites. In group situations where rabbits are not routinely vaccinated, vaccination in the face of an outbreak is beneficial in limiting morbidity and mortality. The vaccine does not provide 100% protection, so it is still important to prevent contact with wild rabbits and insect vectors. Myxomatosis vaccines must be boostered regularly to remain effective, and annual vaccinations are usually recommended.
In Europe and the United Kingdom a bivalent vectored vaccine called Nobivac Myxo-RHD is available that protects against both myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease. This vaccine is licensed for immunization of rabbits 5 weeks of age or older, with onset of immunity taking approximately 3 weeks. Protection against myxomatosis and rabbit hemorrhagic disease has a duration of immunity for 12 months, and annual vaccination is recommended to ensure continued protection. The vaccine has been shown to reduce mortality and clinical signs of myxomatosis.
Vaccination against myxomatosis is currently prohibited in Australia due to concerns that the vaccine virus could spread to wild rabbits and increase their immunity to myxomatosis. As feral rabbits in Australia already cause a great deal of environmental damage, this concern is taken seriously by the government. Many pet rabbits in Australia continue to die from myxomatosis due to their lack of immunity. There is at least one campaign to allow the vaccine for domestic pets. The Australian Veterinary Association supports the introduction of a safe and effective myxomatosis vaccine for pet rabbits, and the RSPCA of Australia has repeatedly called for a review of available myxoma virus vaccines and a scientific assessment of their likely impacts in the Australian setting.
Although myxomatosis is endemic in parts of Mexico and the United States, there is no commercially available vaccine in either of these countries. Information on recently reported cases in the United States is available from the House Rabbit Society. In the United States the importation of vaccines is overseen by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, part of the Department of Agriculture.
Other preventive measures
In locations where myxomatosis is endemic but no vaccine is available, preventing exposure to the myxoma virus is of vital importance. Even vaccinated rabbits need protection, as the vaccines are not 100% effective. The risk of a pet's contracting myxomatosis can be reduced by preventing contact with wild rabbits, keeping rabbits indoors (preferred) or behind screens to prevent mosquito exposure, and using rabbit-safe medications to treat and prevent fleas, lice, and mites. Any new rabbit that may have been exposed should be quarantined, and rabbits suspected of having myxomatosis should be immediately isolated until the diagnosis is ruled out.
If the disease is confirmed all contaminated cages, dishes, or other objects should be disinfected with 10% bleach, 10% sodium hydroxide, or 1%–1.4% formalin.
Use as a population control agent
Myxoma virus was the first virus intentionally introduced into the wild with the purpose of eradicating a vertebrate pest, namely the European rabbit in Australia and Europe. The long-term failure of this strategy has been due to natural selective pressures on both the rabbit and virus populations, which resulted in the emergence of myxomatosis-resistant animals and attenuated virus variants. The process is regarded as a classical example of host–pathogen coevolution following cross-species transmission of a pathogen.
Australia
European rabbits were brought to Australia in 1788 by early English settlers (see Rabbits in Australia). Initially used as a food source, they later became feral and their numbers soared. In November 1937, the Australian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research used Wardang Island to conduct its first field trials of myxomatosis, which established the methodology for the successful release of the myxoma virus throughout the country. In 1950, the SLS strain of myxoma virus from the South American tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis) was released in Australia as a biological control agent against feral rabbits. The virus was at first highly lethal, with an estimated case fatality rate of close to 99.8%. Within a few years, however, this strain was replaced by less virulent ones, which permitted longer survival of infected rabbits and enhanced disease transmission. The virus created strong selection pressure for the evolution of rabbits resistant to myxomatosis. As rabbits became more resistant the viral strains responded by becoming less virulent. Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus has also been used to control wild rabbit populations in Australia since 1995.
Europe
In June 1952 Paul-Félix Armand-Delille, the owner of an estate in northwestern France, inoculated two wild rabbits with the Lausanne strain of myxoma virus. His intention was to only eradicate rabbits on his property, but the disease quickly spread through Western Europe, Ireland and the United Kingdom. Some dissemination of the virus clearly appeared deliberate, such as the introduction into Britain in 1953 and the introduction into Ireland in 1954. Unlike in Australia, however, strenuous efforts were made to stop the spread in Europe. These efforts proved in vain. According to estimates, the wild rabbit population in the United Kingdom fell by 99%, in France by 90% to 95%, and in Spain by 95%. This in turn drove specialized rabbit predators, such as the Iberian lynx and the Spanish imperial eagle, to the brink of extinction. As well as decreasing the wild rabbit population and the population of its natural predators, myxomatosis had significant impacts on the large rabbit-farming industry, which produced domestic rabbits for meat and fur.
The Lausanne strain of the myxoma virus causes the formation of large purple skin-nodules, a symptom not seen in other strains. As happened in Australia, the virus has generally become less virulent and the wild rabbit populations more resistant subsequently.
New Zealand
The introduction of myxomatosis into New Zealand in 1952 to control a burgeoning rabbit problem failed for lack of a vector.
South America
Two pairs of European rabbits set free in 1936 at Punta Santa Maria resulted in an infestation that spread over the northern half of Tierra del Fuego. More rabbits were introduced in 1950 near Ushuaia by the Argentinian Navy and a private rabbit farmer. The rabbits quickly became pests, riddling the ground with holes and leaving it bare of grass. By 1953 the rabbit population numbered about 30 million. In 1954 Chilean authorities introduced a Brazilian strain of myxoma virus to Tierra del Fuego, which succeeded in bringing rabbits to very low population levels.
Use as an evolutionary model
Given the importance of viral evolution to disease emergence, pathogenesis, drug resistance, and vaccine efficacy, it has been well studied by theoreticians and experimentalists. The introductions of myxoma virus into European rabbit populations in Australia and France created natural experiments in virulence evolution. While initial viral strains were highly virulent, attenuated strains were soon recovered from the field. These attenuated strains, which allowed rabbits to survive longer, came to dominate because they were more readily transmitted. As the complete genome sequences of multiple myxoma strains have been published, scientists have been able to pinpoint exactly which genes are responsible for the changes in the myxoma virus's virulence and behavior.
In fiction
Myxomatosis is referred to as "the white blindness" by the rabbit characters of the novel Watership Down by Richard Adams, and in the story a rabbit chief had driven out all rabbits who seemed to be afflicted. In one of the novel's folk tales about the rabbit hero El-ahrairah, the transmission of the disease is explained to him by the lord of the rabbit underworld, the Black Rabbit of Inle ("it is carried by the fleas in rabbits' ears; they pass from the ears of a sick rabbit to those of his companions").
References
Further reading
External links
An interview with Frank Fenner
A Statement from the Chief Veterinary Officer (Australia) on myxomatosis vaccine availability in Australia
Animal viral diseases
CSIRO
Rabbit diseases
Poxviruses
Animal virology | [
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|
213942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isles%20of%20Shoals | Isles of Shoals | The Isles of Shoals are a group of small islands and tidal ledges situated approximately off the east coast of the United States, straddling the border of the states of Maine and New Hampshire.
They have been occupied for more than 400 years, first by fishing communities and more recently as the site of private homes, a large seasonal hotel and a marine research facility.
History
Some of the islands were used for seasonal fishing camps by Indigenous peoples and first settled by Europeans in the early 17th century. They became one of the many fishing areas for the young British and French colonies. This was one of the most northern fishing ports, the closest one to the south being Rockport, Massachusetts. The Isles of Shoals were named the "Smith Iles" by English explorer Capt. John Smith after sighting them in 1614. This name did not last once colonization of New England by the British began. The first recorded landfall of an Englishman was that of explorer Captain Christopher Levett, whose 300 fishermen in six ships discovered that the Isles of Shoals were largely abandoned in 1623.
"The first place I set my foot upon in New England was the Isle of Shoals, being islands in the sea about two leagues from the main," Levett wrote later. "Upon these islands I neither could see one good timber-tree nor so much good ground as to make a garden. The place is found to be a good fishing-place for six ships, but more can not be well there, for want of convenient stage room, as this year's experience hath proved."
In 1628 the Plymouth Pilgrims exiled Thomas Morton on the island due to his libertine activities with the Indians at Merrymount.
The first town, "Apledoore", included all of the Isles of Shoals, and was incorporated by the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony on May 22, 1661. At that time, the province of New Hampshire and the province of Maine were both part of Massachusetts Bay Colony. By 1665, the name of the town had changed to "Iles of Shoales". Starting in 1680 and continuing for several years, there was a general migration of the population to Star Island in what is now New Hampshire, departing from Hog Island (now known as Appledore) in what is now Maine. In 1696, the town was annexed by Kittery. In 1715 the township of Gosport was established by New Hampshire on Star Island.
The Gosport community was fairly prosperous up until about 1778, when the islanders were evacuated to Rye, New Hampshire, due to the Revolutionary War. Though a small population remained, the islands were largely abandoned until the middle of the 19th century, when Thomas Laighton and Levi Thaxter opened a popular summer hotel on Appledore Island. Laighton's daughter, Celia, married Levi at the age of fifteen and as Celia Thaxter became the most popular American female poet of the 19th century. She hosted an arts community on the island frequented by authors including Nathaniel Hawthorne, John Greenleaf Whittier, Oliver Wendell Holmes and Sarah Orne Jewett, and the Impressionist painter Childe Hassam. Having executed his last drawing three days previous, the Boston painter William Morris Hunt drowned there in 1879, reportedly a suicide. Hunt's body was discovered by Celia Thaxter.
The popularity of Laighton's Appledore House soon led to establishment of the Mid-Ocean House on Smuttynose Island, and the Oceanic Hotel, which is still in use today on Star Island.
Appledore Island
Appledore Island, in Maine, is the largest of the Isles of Shoals, at . Formerly known as Hog Island, and prior to that as Farm Island, it is approximately from east to west, and from north to south. It was home to a large hotel, The Appledore House, during the 19th century. Built in 1847 and opened the following year, the hotel was lost to a fire in 1914. According to Celia Thaxter, as late as 1873, "Philip Babb, or some evil-minded descendant of his, haunted Appledore." Today, the island is the operating station of the Shoals Marine Laboratory, run cooperatively by Cornell University and the University of New Hampshire. The island is mostly owned by the Star Island Corporation.
Star Island
Second in size at , Star Island is located in New Hampshire within the borders of the town of Rye and is the only island served by a commercial boat from the mainland. It is a religious and educational conference center, owned by the Star Island Corporation, which is affiliated with the Unitarian Universalist Association and the United Church of Christ. During the summer, the island hosts a number of week-long and shorter conferences which make use of the Oceanic Hotel, Gosport House, the over 200-year-old chapel, and several buildings dating back to the original village. Short-term day visitors are also welcomed, although that may depend on the boat schedule. This is also a popular destination for sailboats wishing to tie up overnight in Gosport harbor.
Smuttynose and Malaga Islands
Smuttynose Island, at , is the third-largest island. It is allegedly the site of Blackbeard's honeymoon, later for the shipwreck of the Spanish ship Sagunto in 1813, and then for the notorious 1873 murders of two young women. The latter is recalled in the story, "A Memorable Murder", by Celia Thaxter, in the 1997 novel, The Weight of Water, by Anita Shreve (and in the 2000 film), and in the song, "The Ballad of Louis Wagner" by John Perrault. There are two small houses on the island. One of them, the Samuel Haley house, was once believed to be the oldest structure in the state of Maine. Smuttynose is not populated today, but the Stewards of Smuttynose Island, a group consisting of volunteer individuals and families, participate in the care and upkeep of the two historic dwellings and grounds of the island. Each 'Steward' is allocated one week on the island, where they greet visitors, conduct tours, and mow the lawn! There is a substantial waiting list...
Malaga Island is a diminutive island just to the west of Smuttynose, connected to it by a breakwater. The original breakwater was built around 1820 by Captain Samuel Haley, who is reputed to have paid for its construction with proceeds from four bars of pirate silver that he found under a flat rock on the island.
White and Seavey Islands
White Island and Seavey Island are located at the southern end of the Isles of Shoals, within the borders of the town of Rye, New Hampshire. During low tide, the two islands are connected by a land bridge.
White Island is dominated by Isles of Shoals Light, now automated, and the keeper's house. The lighthouse, one of two on the New Hampshire coast, and associated buildings are now owned by the state of New Hampshire. The island hosts a coastal weather station which frequently records sustained hurricane-force winds from Nor'easter coastal storms in the winter, due to the exposed nature of the island. The lighthouse tower was restored in 2005 as the result of the efforts of a group of seventh graders in nearby North Hampton, known as the Lighthouse Kids (a chapter of the American Lighthouse Foundation). Poet Celia Thaxter grew up on this island before moving to Smuttynose Island and eventually Appledore Island.
Seavey Island has been the site of a tern restoration project conducted by the Audubon Society of New Hampshire in recent years.
Other islands
Lunging, Duck, and Cedar islands are also part of the Isles of Shoals. Lunging, on the New Hampshire side of the border, formerly Londoner's Island, was the site of an early trading post for codfish. Today it is privately owned.
Duck and Cedar are islands on the Maine side. Duck Island lies about to the north and once was used as a bombing range for the US Navy. It was sold by the Star Island Corporation to Maine Coast Heritage Trust in 2002, and was transferred to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2003. It is kept as a wildlife sanctuary. It is home to a seal colony and has never supported a human population.
Cedar Island is connected by breakwaters to both Smuttynose Island and Star Island and is privately owned.
See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in York County, Maine
National Register of Historic Places listings in Rockingham County, New Hampshire
References
External links
Star Island Corporation
Shoals Marine Laboratory
Isles of Shoals Association (Unitarian-Universalist)
Islands of New Hampshire
Isles of Shoals
Isles of Shoals
Borders of Maine
Borders of New Hampshire
Islands of York County, Maine
East Coast islands of the United States
Kittery, Maine
Islands of Maine
Isles of Shoals
Isles of Shoals
1661 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Coastal islands of Maine
Coastal islands of New Hampshire | [
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|
213946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%20More%20Mr.%20Nice%20Guy%20%28Gang%20Starr%20album%29 | No More Mr. Nice Guy (Gang Starr album) | No More Mr. Nice Guy is the debut album by hip hop duo Gang Starr. The album was released on April 22, 1989. It peaked at #83 on the Billboard R&B chart. The song "Positivity" peaked at #19 on the Billboard rap chart.
Critical reception
Trouser Press wrote that "DJ Premier provides samples, beats and rhythms that are perfectly adequate, if not up to his future level."
Track listing
All songs are produced by DJ Premier & Guru, except for tracks #5 & #13 produced by The 45 King
The PRT Records cassette issue in the UK contains "Movin' On (Vocal)" and "Movin' On (Dub)" as bonus tracks B7 and B8.
Singles
Charts
Singles
References
1989 debut albums
Gang Starr albums
Albums produced by the 45 King
Albums produced by DJ Premier
Albums produced by Guru
EMI Records albums
Wild Pitch Records albums | [
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|
213948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group%20of%2077 | Group of 77 | The Group of 77 (G77) at the United Nations (UN) is a coalition of 134 developing countries, designed to promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations. There were 77 founding members of the organization headquartered in Geneva, but it has since expanded to 134 member countries according to the organization. China does not consider itself to be a member, nor did it when it was generally regarded as a developing country. However, the country supports and financially contributes to G77, and official statements are made with China. Pakistan holds the chairmanship as of 2021.
The group was founded on 15 June 1964, by 77 non-aligned nations in the "Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries" issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The first major meeting was in Algiers in 1967, where the Charter of Algiers was adopted and the basis for permanent institutional structures was begun under the leadership of Raul Prebisch who had previously worked at ECLA. There are Chapters of the Group of 77 in Geneva (UN), Rome (FAO), Vienna (UNIDO), Paris (UNESCO), Nairobi (UNEP) and the Group of 24 in Washington, D.C. (International Monetary Fund and World Bank).
Policies
The group was credited with a common stance against apartheid and for supporting global disarmament. It has been supportive of the New International Economic Order. It has been subject to criticism for its lacklustre support, or outright opposition, to pro-environmental initiatives, which the group considers secondary to economic development and poverty eradication initiatives.
Members
As of 2020, the group comprises all of the UN member states (along with the U.N. observer State of Palestine), excluding the following countries:
Members of the Council of Europe, except for Azerbaijan.
Members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, except for Costa Rica, Chile and Colombia.
Members of the Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area, except for Tajikistan.
Two Pacific microstates: Palau and Tuvalu.
Current founding members
Other current members
Former members
signed the original "Joint Declaration of the Developing Countries" in October 1963 but pulled out of the group before the formation of the G77 in 1964 (it joined the OECD in 1973).
was a founding member but left the Group after joining the OECD in 1994. It had presided over the group in 1973–1974, 1983–1984; however, it is still a member of G-24.
was a founding member but left the Group after joining the OECD in 1996.
was a founding member; by the late 1990s, it was still listed on the membership list, but it was noted that it "cannot participate in the activities of G77." It was removed from the list in late 2003. It had presided over the group from 1985 to 1986. Bosnia and Herzegovina is the only part of former Yugoslavia that is currently in the G77. Bosnia and Herzegovina is no longer a member since 2019.
was a founding member but was no longer listed on the official membership list after it acceded to the European Union in 2004.
was admitted to the Group in 1976 but was no longer listed on the official membership list after it acceded to the European Union in 2004.
joined the Group in 2002 but withdrew in 2004, having decided that it could best pursue its environmental interests through the Alliance of Small Island States.
was classed as a Latin American country for the purposes of the G77, having joined in 1976. The G77 was divided into geographical regions, and because there was technically no European area, Romania was placed under the umbrella of Latin America. Romania left the G77 following its accession to the European Union.
China
The Group of 77 lists China as one of its members. The Chinese government provides consistent political support to the G77 and has made financial contributions to the Group since 1994, but it does not consider itself to be a member. As a result, official statements of the G77 are delivered in the name of The Group of 77 and China or G77+China.
Presiding countries
The following is the chain of succession of the chairmanship of the G77:
Group of 24
The Group of 24 (G-24) is a chapter of the G-77 that was established in 1971 to coordinate the positions of developing countries on international monetary and development finance issues and to ensure that their interests were adequately represented in negotiations on international monetary matters. Every member of the G-24, except for Mexico, is also a member of the G77.
See also
Non-Aligned Movement
Third World
Global South
North–South divide
South–South cooperation
G20 developing nations
Politics of climate change
List of country groupings
List of multilateral free-trade agreements
Nozipho Mxakato-Diseko
Notes
References
External links
Official website of the Group of 24
Group of Eight
United Nations coalitions and unofficial groups
China and the United Nations
Organizations established in 1964
Economic country classifications | [
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|
213956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan%20Aglukark | Susan Aglukark | Susan Aglukark, (Inuktitut syllabics: ᓲᓴᓐ ᐊᒡᓘᒃᑲᖅ suusan agluukkaq), (born 27 January 1967) is a Canadian singer whose blend of Inuit folk music traditions with country and pop songwriting has made her a major recording star in Canada. Her most successful song/single is "O Siem", which reached No. 1 on the Canadian country and adult contemporary charts in 1995. Overall, she has released seven studio albums and has won three Juno Awards.
Biography
Early life
Aglukark was born in Churchill, Manitoba and raised in Arviat, Northwest Territories (now in Nunavut). She endured sexual abuse as a child and has been vocal about this issue in some of the first nations in Northern Ontario. After graduating from high school, she worked in Ottawa, Ontario as a linguist with the Department of Indian & Northern Affairs, and then returned to the Northwest Territories to work as an executive assistant with the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada.
Career
While working with the Inuit Tapirisat, she began to perform as a singer, and quickly became a popular performer in Inuit communities. She soon attracted the attention of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, who included her in a compilation of Arctic performers. In 1992, she released an independent album, Arctic Rose. The following year, she signed to a major record label, releasing an album of Christmas music that year.
Aglukark has also acted as spokesperson for several non-profit groups working with aboriginal and Inuit youth, notably through her writing workshops for Attawapiskat First Nation youth and her involvement in Northern Canada's food crisis. However, she has said that while she is proud to be a role model for aboriginal people in Canada, she ultimately sees herself as an artist with a universal message of self-respect and strength to which she hopes that people of all cultural backgrounds can relate.
This Child
This Child, released in 1995, became her breakthrough album. The first single from that album, "O Siem", went to number one on the Canadian adult contemporary and country charts that year, making Aglukark the first Inuk performer to have a Top 40 hit. "Hina Na Ho (Celebration)" and "Breakin' Down" became hit singles as well. The album was eventually certified triple platinum (300,000 copies sold) in Canada.
Unsung Heroes
In 2000, Aglukark released Unsung Heroes, which spawned another pop hit with "One Turn Deserves Another." This album also included "Turn of the Century," a song about the creation of Nunavut. In 2004, she released Big Feeling.
She sometimes deals with painful subjects in her songs. "Kathy" is about her niece who died by suicide, and "Still Running" is about the trauma of sexual abuse. Aglukark has also recorded a version of "Amazing Grace" in Inuktitut.
Her song "Never Be the Same" was featured on Dawson's Creek in Episode No. 3–14 ("Valentine's Day Massacre"), as well as her song "One Turn Deserves Another" in Episode No. 3–15 ("Crime And Punishment").
Aglukark's second holiday album, Dreaming of Home, was released on 5 November 2013.
She currently resides in Oakville, Ontario.
Awards and recognition
In 2004, Aglukark was awarded an honorary DFA from the University of Lethbridge. She was named an officer of the Order of Canada in 2005, and in the same year received an honorary LL.D. degree from the University of Alberta. In the summer of 2006, she performed nightly in the evening grandstand show at the Calgary Stampede.
1995: winner, Juno Awards for Best New Solo Artist and Best Music of Aboriginal Canada Recording, Arctic Rose
1996: nominee, Juno Awards for Best Female Vocalist, Best Album (This Child), Single of the Year ("O Siem"), Best Music of Aboriginal Canada Recording (This Child), Best Video ("O Siem")
2001: nominee, Juno Award for Best Music of Aboriginal Canada Recording, Unsung Heroes
2004: winner, Juno Award for Aboriginal Recording, Big Feeling
2004: appointed Officer of the Order of Canada
2007: nominee, Juno Award for Aboriginal Recording of the Year, Blood Red Earth
2008: appointed as Distinguished Scholar in Residence at the University of Alberta
2016: Governor General's Performing Arts Awards - Lifetime Artistic Achievement
The book Aboriginal Carol (2007, Red Deer Press), by David Bouchard, illustrated by Moses Beaver, bilingual (English & Inuktitut), translation and music by Susan Aglukark, was awarded a White Raven by the International Youth Library
Discography
Albums
Singles
See also
Music of Canada
Aboriginal music of Canada
Notable Aboriginal people of Canada
List of Canadian musicians
References
Citations
External links
Susan Aglukark Official site
Canadian Pop Music Encyclopedia's entry
1967 births
Living people
People from Churchill, Manitoba
People from Arviat
Officers of the Order of Canada
Inuit musicians
Canadian women country singers
Canadian country singer-songwriters
Canadian women singer-songwriters
Canadian folk singer-songwriters
Canadian Inuit women
Musicians from Nunavut
Canadian women pop singers
Indspire Awards
Canadian Country Music Association Rising Star Award winners
Juno Award for Indigenous Music Album of the Year winners
Juno Award for Breakthrough Artist of the Year winners
20th-century Canadian women singers
21st-century Canadian women singers
Inuit from the Northwest Territories
Inuit from Nunavut
Musicians from Manitoba | [
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|
213959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winthrop%20Mackworth%20Praed | Winthrop Mackworth Praed | Winthrop Mackworth Praed (28 July 180215 July 1839)—typically written as W. Mackworth Praed—was an English politician and poet.
Life
Early life
Praed was born in London, United Kingdom. The family name of Praed was derived from the marriage of the poet's great-grandfather to a Cornish heiress. Winthrop's father, William Mackworth Praed, was a serjeant-at-law (1756–1835) and revising barrister for Bath. His mother belonged to the English branch of the New England family of Winthrop.
In 1814 Praed was sent to Eton College, where he founded a manuscript periodical called Apis matina. This was succeeded in October 1820 by the Etonian, a paper projected and edited by Praed and Walter Blount, which appeared every month until July 1821, when the chief editor, who signed his contributions "Peregrine Courtenay," left Eton, and the paper died. Henry Nelson Coleridge, William Sidney Walker, and John Moultrie were the three best known of his collaborators on this periodical, which was published by Charles Knight, and of which details are given in Knight's Autobiography and in Henry Maxwell Lyte's Eton College.
Before Praed left school he had established, over a shop at Eton, a "boys' library," the books of which were later amalgamated in the School Library. His career at Trinity College, Cambridge was a brilliant one. He gained the Browne medal for Greek verse four times, and the Chancellor's Gold Medal for English verse twice in 1823 and 1824. He was bracketed third in the classical tripos in 1825, won a fellowship at his college in 1827, and three years later carried off the Seatonian prize. At the Union his speeches were rivalled only by those of Macaulay and of Charles Austin, who subsequently made a great reputation at the parliamentary bar. The character of Praed during his university life is described by Bulwer-Lytton in the first volume of his Life.
Political career
Praed began to study law, and in 1829 was called to the bar at the Middle Temple. On the Norfolk circuit, his prospects of advancement were bright, but his inclination was towards politics, and after a year or two he took up political life. Whilst at Cambridge he tended to Whiggism, and up to the end of 1829 he continued to have these sympathies, but during the agitation for parliamentary reform his opinions changed, and when he was returned to parliament for St Germans (17 December 1830), his election was due to the Tory party. He sat for that borough until December 1832, and on its extinction contested the borough of St Ives, within the limits of which the Cornish estates of the Praeds were situated.
The pieces he wrote on this occasion were collected in a volume printed at Penzance in 1833 and entitled Trash, dedicated without respect to James Halse, M.P., his successful opponent. Praed sat for Great Yarmouth from 1835 to 1837, and was Secretary to the Board of Control during Sir Robert Peel's short administration. He sat for Aylesbury from 1837 until his death. During the progress of the Reform Act 1832 he advocated the creation of three-cornered constituencies, in which each voter should have the power of giving two votes only, and maintained that freeholds within boroughs should confer votes for the boroughs and not for the county. Neither of these suggestions was then adopted, but the former ultimately formed part of the Reform Act 1867.
Personal life
In 1835, he married Helen Bogle. He died of tuberculosis at Chester Square, London, two weeks before his 37th birthday.
Works
W. Mackworth Praed was famed for his verse charades. H. Austin Dobson praised Praed's "sparkling wit, the clearness and finish of his style, and the flexibility and unflagging vivacity of his rhythm" (Humphry Ward's English Poets). His verse abounded in allusions to the characters and follies of the day. His humour was much imitated.
His poems were first edited by Rufus Wilmot Griswold (New York, 1844); another American edition, by W. A. Whitmore, appeared in 1859; an authorized edition with a memoir by Derwent Coleridge appeared in 1864: The Political and Occasional Poems of W. M. Praed (1888), edited with notes by his nephew, Sir George Young, included many pieces collected from various newspapers and periodicals. Sir George Young separated from his work some poems, the work of his friend Edward FitzGerald, generally confused with his. Praed's essays, contributed to various magazines, were published in Morley's Universal Library in 1887.
Legacy
Praed was not only successful at Eton during his lifetime, but a society still exists that bears his name. The "Praed" society is the poetry society currently existing at Eton. It meets at a master's house and membership is by invitation.
References
Citations
Sources
External links
1802 births
1839 deaths
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Tuberculosis deaths in England
Members of the Middle Temple
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
People educated at Eton College
UK MPs 1830–1831
UK MPs 1831–1832
UK MPs 1835–1837
UK MPs 1837–1841
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Politics of the Borough of Great Yarmouth
English male poets
19th-century English poets | [
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|
213960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZC | ZC | ZC, Zc, or zC may refer to:
ZC, in set theory, a formal system with Zermelo's first five axioms plus the axiom of choice
Zadoff–Chu sequence, in mathematics, a certain complex-valued sequence with the CAZAC property
Zangger Committee, a committee on nuclear proliferation
Zeptocoulomb, another SI unit of electric charge
Zettacoulomb, an SI unit of electric charge
Honda D engine, an engine variant produced by Honda Motor Company
Zc(3900), a subatomic particle | [
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|
213966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston%20Confucians | Boston Confucians | The Boston Confucians are a group of New Confucians from Boston, of whom the best known are Tu Wei-Ming of Harvard, and John Berthrong and Robert Neville of Boston University. Boston Confucianism belongs to the larger discussion of what it means to study and practice Confucianism in a context outside China and East Asia and the significance of Confucianism for modern-day American life.
Boston Confucianism
Boston Confucianism refers to those who hold that Confucianism could be successfully adapted to a Western perspective. Confucianism is seen as a tradition with rich spiritual and cultural resources that can inform other world traditions. Boston Confucianism also argues for the transportability of Confucianism to geographical locations beyond Asia proper. The internationalized character of Boston Confucianism is to a great extent a central feature in the second generation of the New Confucians. Both Platonism and Christianity began as such portable traditions, which could be practiced outside of the Greek and Jewish roots which originally generated them.
However, this is a view that is common to New Confucians in general, whether from Boston, Beijing, Taipei, Hong Kong or Singapore. Indeed, there are contemporary advocates of Confucianism who are not New Confucians, but who would agree that Confucianism is not geographically or culturally parochial, any more than Buddhism or Islam have been. Philip J. Ivanhoe, Joel J. Kupperman and David B. Wong would fall into this latter category. Consequently, "Boston Confucian" is a term more closely linked to geography than intellectual content. Boston Confucianism seeks to explore different applications of Confucianism in the age of globalization.
The school of Boston Confucianism has become especially well known in academic circles in China. Chinese scholars see it as the first indication of Confucianism's ability to be enthusiastically endorsed by non-Asian North-American scholars and theologians for non-academic purposes.
A Facebook closed group named "Friends from Afar: A Confucianism Group" was established in 2015 Furthermore, a Facebook open group called "Ruism Discussion Group: Confucianism in America" was started in 2016. . Dr. Bin Song has published a range of articles in The Huffington Post about Boston Confucianism. Dr. Song received a Ph.D. from Boston University and now teaches at Washington College .
Key texts
In his 1988 essay "The Meaning of Life", Tu Wei-ming (1988) writes that:
Copernicus decentered the earth, Darwin relativized the god-like image of man, Marx exploded the ideology of social harmony, and Freud complicated our conscious life. They have redefined humanity for the modern age. Yet they have also empowered us, with a communal, critical self-awareness, to renew our faith in the ancient Confucian wisdom that the globe is the center of our universe and the only home for us, and that we are the guardians of the good earth, the trustees of the mandate of Heaven that enjoins us to make our bodies healthy, our hearts sensitive, our minds alert, our souls refined and our spirits brilliant [...] We are here because embedded in our human nature is the secret code for heaven’s self-realization. Heaven is certainly omnipresent, may even be omniscient, but is most likely not omnipotent. It needs our active participation to realize its own truth. We are heaven’s partners, indeed co creators. We serve heaven with common sense, the lack of which nowadays has brought us to the brink of self-destruction. Since we help heaven to realize itself through our self-discovery and self-understanding in day-to-day living, the ultimate meaning of life is found in our ordinary human existence.
"The Western Inscription" by the 11th century Confucian Chang Tsai is a favorite of the Boston Confucians, according to Dr. John Berthrong, {https://open.bu.edu/bitstream/handle/2144/49/20001022-exploring_the_dao_.htm?sequence=1&isAllowed=y} as it points toward ecological concerns:
Heaven is my father and earth is my mother, and even such a small creature as I finds an intimate place in their midst. Therefore, that which extends throughout the universe I regard as my body and that which directs the universe I consider as my nature. All people are my brothers and sisters and all things are my companions. Respect the aged...Show affection toward the orphaned and weak...The sage identifies his character with Heaven and earth, and the virtuous man is best. {among the children of Heaven and earth}. Even those who are tired and infirm, crippled and sick, those who have no brothers or children, wives or husbands, are all my brothers who are in distress and have no one to turn to.
Citations
4. Exploring the Dao, A UU Sermon by Dr. John Berthrong https://open.bu.edu/bitstream/handle/2144/49/20001022- exploring_the_dao_.htm?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
References
Robert Neville, Boston Confucianism. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2000.
Bryan W. Van Norden, Review of Boston Confucianism in Philosophy East & West 53:3 (July 2003): 413-417..
John Berthrong, "A Sermon: Exploring the Dao." https://open.bu.edu/bitstream/handle/2144/49/20001022-exploring_the_dao_.htm?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (October 22, 2000).
Tu Wei-ming, "The Big Picture: The Meaning of Life" in Life (December 1988) No. 14, 76-101 (49th in list of 50 prominent people) http://www.maryellenmark.com/text/magazines/life/905W-000-037.html
John Grim & Mary Evelyn Tucker. "The Forum on Religion and Ecology at Yale" Sacred Texts: #2 Classic Resources. (2009) http://fore.yale.edu/religion/confucianism/texts/
See also
List of ethicists
Boston
Confucianism in the United States
New Confucian philosophers
Culture of Boston
Religion in Boston | [
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|
213968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative%20atomic%20mass | Relative atomic mass | Relative atomic mass (symbol: A) or atomic weight is a dimensionless physical quantity defined as the ratio of the average mass of atoms of a chemical element in a given sample to the atomic mass constant. The atomic mass constant (symbol: m) is defined as being of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Since both quantities in the ratio are masses, the resulting value is dimensionless; hence the value is said to be relative.
For a single given sample, the relative atomic mass of a given element is the weighted arithmetic mean of the masses of the individual atoms (including their isotopes) that are present in the sample. This quantity can vary substantially between samples because the sample's origin (and therefore its radioactive history or diffusion history) may have produced unique combinations of isotopic abundances. For example, due to a different mixture of stable carbon-12 and carbon-13 isotopes, a sample of elemental carbon from volcanic methane will have a different relative atomic mass than one collected from plant or animal tissues.
The more common, and more specific quantity known as standard atomic weight (A) is an application of the relative atomic mass values obtained from multiple different samples. It is sometimes interpreted as the expected range of the relative atomic mass values for the atoms of a given element from all terrestrial sources, with the various sources being taken from Earth. "Atomic weight" is often loosely and incorrectly used as a synonym for standard atomic weight (incorrectly because standard atomic weights are not from a single sample). Standard atomic weight is nevertheless the most widely published variant of relative atomic mass.
Additionally, the continued use of the term "atomic weight" (for any element) as opposed to "relative atomic mass" has attracted considerable controversy since at least the 1960s, mainly due to the technical difference between weight and mass in physics. Still, both terms are officially sanctioned by the IUPAC. The term "relative atomic mass" now seems to be replacing "atomic weight" as the preferred term, although the term "standard atomic weight" (as opposed to the more correct "standard relative atomic mass") continues to be used.
Definition
Relative atomic mass is determined by the average atomic mass, or the weighted mean of the atomic masses of all the atoms of a particular chemical element found in a particular sample, which is then compared to the atomic mass of carbon-12. This comparison is the quotient of the two weights, which makes the value dimensionless (having no unit). This quotient also explains the word relative: the sample mass value is considered relative to that of carbon-12.
It is a synonym for atomic weight, though it is not to be confused with relative isotopic mass. Relative atomic mass is also frequently used as a synonym for standard atomic weight and these quantities may have overlapping values if the relative atomic mass used is that for an element from Earth under defined conditions. However, relative atomic mass (atomic weight) is still technically distinct from standard atomic weight because of its application only to the atoms obtained from a single sample; it is also not restricted to terrestrial samples, whereas standard atomic weight averages multiple samples but only from terrestrial sources. Relative atomic mass is therefore a more general term that can more broadly refer to samples taken from non-terrestrial environments or highly specific terrestrial environments which may differ substantially from Earth-average or reflect different degrees of certainty (e.g., in number of significant figures) than those reflected in standard atomic weights.
Current definition
The prevailing IUPAC definitions (as taken from the "Gold Book") are:
atomic weight — See: relative atomic mass
and
relative atomic mass (atomic weight) — The ratio of the average mass of the atom to the unified atomic mass unit.
Here the "unified atomic mass unit" refers to of the mass of an atom of C in its ground state.
The IUPAC definition of relative atomic mass is:
An atomic weight (relative atomic mass) of an element from a specified source is the ratio of the average mass per atom of the element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of C.
The definition deliberately specifies "An atomic weight…", as an element will have different relative atomic masses depending on the source. For example, boron from Turkey has a lower relative atomic mass than boron from California, because of its different isotopic composition. Nevertheless, given the cost and difficulty of isotope analysis, it is common practice to instead substitute the tabulated values of standard atomic weights, which are ubiquitous in chemical laboratories and which are revised biennially by the IUPAC's Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW).
Historical usage
Older (pre-1961) historical relative scales based on the atomic mass unit (symbol: a.m.u. or amu) used either the oxygen-16 relative isotopic mass or else the oxygen relative atomic mass (i.e., atomic weight) for reference. See the article on the history of the modern unified atomic mass unit for the resolution of these problems.Relative atomic mass[RAM]:is the ratio of the RAM unit to 1/12 of the carbon_12 atom
Standard atomic weight
The IUPAC commission CIAAW maintains an expectation-interval value for relative atomic mass (or atomic weight) on Earth named standard atomic weight. Standard atomic weight requires the sources be terrestrial, natural, and stable with regard to radioactivity. Also, there are requirements for the research process. For 84 stable elements, CIAAW has determined this standard atomic weight. These values are widely published and referred to loosely as 'the' atomic weight of elements for real-life substances like pharmaceuticals and commercial trade.
Also, CIAAW has published abridged (rounded) values and simplified values (for when the Earthly sources vary systematically).
Other measures of the mass of atoms
Atomic mass (ma) is the mass of a single atom, with unit Da or u (the dalton). It defines the mass of a specific isotope, which is an input value for the determination of the relative atomic mass. An example for three silicon isotopes is given below.
The relative isotopic mass is specifically the ratio of the mass of a single atom to the mass of a unified atomic mass unit. This value, too, is relative, and therefore dimensionless.
Determination of relative atomic mass
Modern relative atomic masses (a term specific to a given element sample) are calculated from measured values of atomic mass (for each nuclide) and isotopic composition of a sample. Highly accurate atomic masses are available for virtually all non-radioactive nuclides, but isotopic compositions are both harder to measure to high precision and more subject to variation between samples. For this reason, the relative atomic masses of the 22 mononuclidic elements (which are the same as the isotopic masses for each of the single naturally occurring nuclides of these elements) are known to especially high accuracy. For example, there is an uncertainty of only one part in 38 million for the relative atomic mass of fluorine, a precision which is greater than the current best value for the Avogadro constant (one part in 20 million).
The calculation is exemplified for silicon, whose relative atomic mass is especially important in metrology. Silicon exists in nature as a mixture of three isotopes: Si, Si and Si. The atomic masses of these nuclides are known to a precision of one part in 14 billion for Si and about one part in one billion for the others. However, the range of natural abundance for the isotopes is such that the standard abundance can only be given to about ±0.001% (see table).
The calculation is as follows:
A(Si) = ( × 0.922297) + ( × 0.046832) + ( × 0.030872) = 28.0854
The estimation of the uncertainty is complicated, especially as the sample distribution is not necessarily symmetrical: the IUPAC standard relative atomic masses are quoted with estimated symmetrical uncertainties, and the value for silicon is 28.0855(3). The relative standard uncertainty in this value is 1 or 10 ppm.
Apart from this uncertainty by measurement, some elements have variation over sources. That is, different sources (ocean water, rocks) have a different radioactive history and so different isotopic composition. To reflect this natural variability, the IUPAC made the decision in 2010 to list the standard relative atomic masses of 10 elements as an interval rather than a fixed number.
See also
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW)
References
External links
IUPAC Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights
NIST relative atomic masses of all isotopes and the standard atomic weights of the elements
Standard Atomic Weights
Amount of substance
Chemical properties
Stoichiometry
Periodic table | [
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|
213971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna%20Brownell%20Jameson | Anna Brownell Jameson | Anna Brownell Jameson (17 May 179417 March 1860) was an Anglo-Irish art historian. Born in Ireland, she migrated to England at the age of four, becoming a well-known British writer and contributor to nineteenth-century thought on a range of subjects including early feminism, art history (particularly sacred art), travel, Shakespeare, poets, and German culture. Jameson was connected to some of the most prominent names of the period including Fanny Kemble, Elizabeth Barrett-Browning and Robert Browning, Harriet Martineau, Ottilie von Goethe (the daughter-in-law of Goethe), Lady Byron, Charles and Elizabeth Eastlake, and Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon.
Biography
Anna Murphy was born in Dublin, 17 May 1794. Her father, Denis Brownell Murphy (died 1842), was a miniaturist and enamel painter. He moved to England in 1798 with his wife Johanna and four daughters (of whom Anna was the eldest) and eventually settled at Hanwell, London.
At sixteen years of age, she became governess in the family of Charles Paulet, 13th Marquess of Winchester. In 1821 she was engaged to lawyer and later Upper Canada jurist Robert Jameson. The engagement was broken off, and Anna Murphy accompanied a young pupil to Italy, writing a "autobiographical" narrative under the guise of an unnamed and ailing young woman who eventually dies. She gave this diary to a bookseller on condition of receiving a guitar if he secured any profits. Colburn ultimately published it as The Diary of an Ennuyée (1826), which attracted much attention, not least because the identity of the writer was soon discovered creating a scandal among reviewers in particular who felt they had been duped. For Anna however, it was the first taste of notoriety. Anna Murphy was governess to the children of Edward Littleton, later created Baron Hatherton, from 1821 to 1825, when she relented and married Jameson.
The marriage proved unhappy. In 1829, when Jameson was appointed puisne judge in the island of Dominica, he left Anna in England (never sending for her during his time there despite repeated promises), and she visited Continental Europe again with her father. In that year she made her name when the Loves of the Poets was published. The book attracted a poem by Mrs. Cornwell Baron Wilson in tribute.
The first work which displayed her powers of original thought was her Characteristics of Women (1832).
These analyses of William Shakespeare's heroines are remarkable for their delicacy of critical insight and fineness of literary touch.
German literature and art had aroused much interest in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and Jameson paid her first visit to the German Confederation in 1833. The conglomerations of hard lines, cold colours and pedantic subjects which decorated Munich under the patronage of King Ludwig I of Bavaria, were new to the world, and Jameson's enthusiasm first gave them an English reputation.
In 1836, Jameson was summoned to Canada by her husband, who had been appointed to the Court of Chancery of the province of Upper Canada. Jameson and her husband had already lived apart for over four years, during which Anna made a good living for herself as a writer. She made no secret of the fact that she was unhappy in her marriage. Upon her arrival, her husband failed to meet her at New York and she was left to make her way alone in winter to Toronto. Here she began the travelogue of her journey, Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada, which was published in Britain in 1838. She writes in this book her initial distaste for Toronto in her first few months there, describing it as "ugly" and "inefficient." After eight months of travelling and writing in Canada, she felt it useless to prolong a life far from all ties of family happiness and opportunities for a woman of her class and education. Before leaving, she undertook a journey to the depths of the Indian settlements in Canada; she explored Lake Huron, and saw much of emigrant and aboriginal life unknown to colonial travellers. She returned to Great Britain in 1838.
At this period Jameson began making careful notes of the chief private art collections in and near London. The result appeared in her Companion to the Private Galleries (1842), followed in the same year by the Handbook to the Public Galleries. She edited the Memoirs of the Early Italian Painters in 1845. That same year she visited her friend Ottilie von Goethe. Her friendship with Annabella Byron, 11th Baroness Wentworth, dates from about this time and lasted for some seven years; it was brought to an end apparently through the Baroness's unreasonable temper.
A volume of essays published in 1846 contains one of Jameson's best pieces of work, The House of Titian. In 1847 she went to Italy with her niece and subsequent biographer (Memoirs, 1878), Gerardine Bate (later the wife of the noted photographer Robert Macpherson), to collect materials for the work on which her reputation rests: her series of Sacred and Legendary Art. The time was ripe for such contributions to the traveller's library. The Acta Sanctorum and the Book of the Golden Legend had had their readers, but no one had ever pointed out the connection between these tales and the works of Christian art. The way to these studies had been pointed out in the preface to Kugler's Handbook of Italian Painting by Sir Charles Eastlake, who had intended pursuing the subject himself.
Eventually he made over to Jameson the materials and references he had collected. She recognised the extent of the ground before her as a mingled sphere of poetry, history, devotion, and art. She infected her readers with her own enthusiastic admiration; and, in spite of her slight technical and historical equipment, Jameson produced a book which thoroughly deserved its great success.
She also took a keen interest in questions affecting the education, occupations, and maintenance of her own sex. Her early essay on The Relative Social Position of Mothers and Governesses was the work of one who knew both sides; and in no respect does she more clearly prove the falseness of the position she describes than in the certainty with which she predicts its eventual reform. To her we owe the first popular enunciation of the principle of male and female co-operation in works of mercy and education. In her later years she took up a succession of subjects all bearing on the same principles of active benevolence and the best ways of carrying them into practice. Sisters of charity, hospitals, penitentiaries, prisons, and workhouses all claimed her interest – all more or less included under those definitions of "the communion of love and communion of labour" which are inseparably connected with her memory. To the clear and temperate forms in which she brought the results of her convictions before her friends in the shape of private lectures (published as Sisters of Charity, 1855, and The Communion of Labour, 1856) may be traced the source whence later reformers and philanthropists took counsel and courage.
She left the last of her Sacred and Legendary Art series in preparation. It was completed as The History of Our Lord in Art, by Lady Eastlake.
References
Further reading
Judith Johnston, 'Anna Brownell Jameson and the Monthly Chronicle''', In Garlick & Harris , eds., Victorian Journalism: Exotic and Domestic (Queensland University Press, 1998)
Judith Johnston, 'Anna Jameson: Victorian, Feminist, Woman of Letters.' Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1997.
Gerardine Bate (Mrs. Robert) Macpherson, Memoirs of the Life of Anna Jameson (Boston, 1878)
Thomas, Clara. Love and Work Enough: The Life of Anna Jameson. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967.
Jameson, Anna. (1832). Characteristics of Women: Moral, Poetical, and Historical. Saunders and Otley (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )
Jameson, Anna. (1838). Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada.'' 3 vols. London: Saunders and Otley.
External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
Works by Mrs. Jameson at Open Library
Different sides of the picture. Four Women's Views of Canada (1816 - 1838). Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, by Susan Birkwood, Faculty of Graduate Studies, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, 1997 (Ann Cuthbert Knight; Jameson; Frances Trollope; Frances Wright)
Electronic editions
1794 births
1860 deaths
19th-century British women writers
British art historians
British governesses
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
People from Hanwell
Writers from London | [
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|
213974 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AL | AL | AL, Al or al may stand for:
Arts and entertainment
Fictional characters
Al (Aladdin) or Aladdin, the main character in Aladdin media
Al Borland, a character in the Home Improvement universe
Al Bundy, a character in the television series Married... with Children
Al Calavicci, a character in the television series Quantum Leap
Al (EastEnders), a minor character in the soap opera EastEnders
Al (Fullmetal Alchemist) or Alphonse Elric, a character in Fullmetal Alchemist media
Al McWhiggin, a supporting villain of Toy Story 2
Al, or Aldebaran, a character in Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World media
Music
American Life, an album by Madonna
A L, an EP by French singer Amanda Lear
Mythology and religion
Al (folklore), a spirit in Persian and Armenian mythology
Al Basty, a tormenting female night demon in Turkish folklore
Liber AL, the central sacred text of Thelema
People
Al (given name)
A. L., pseudonym of the British composer Amelia Lehmann
Places
Alabama, a state of the United States (postal abbreviation: AL)
Alagoas, a state of Brazil
Albania, a country in Europe
Allen County, Kansas, US (county code AL)
Province of Alessandria, a province of Italy in the ISO 3166-2:IT code
AL postcode area, St Albans, UK
Al, Iran, a village
Al, Yenişehir
Transport
AL (automobile), a French hybrid car in 1907
AL, reporting mark of Almanor Railroad, California, US
AL, IATA airline designator of:
TransAVIAexport Airlines, Minsk, Belarus
The now defunct Allegheny Airlines, Virginia, US
The now defunct Skyway Airlines, Wisconsin, US
Science and technology
-al, a suffix used in organic chemistry
Aluminium, the chemical element represented by "Al" on the periodic table
Allylescaline, a psychedelic drug
Artificial life
.al, Internet top-level domain name for Albania
AL register, the low byte of an X86 16-bit AX register
AL, a measure of inductance in a magnetic core
Sports
American League, part of Major League Baseball
Asia League Ice Hockey
Airtricity League, the current official name of the League of Ireland
Other uses
Arab League, a regional organization of 22 Arab states
Al- ), Arabic prefix meaning "the" (definite article in Arabic), used in many family names
Al () (sometimes rendered as "Aal"), meaning "family of" (and distinct from the definite article ), used in some family names by important dynasties in Arabic; see Arabic names
Alternative List, a Swiss political party
Anno Lucis, a dating system used in Freemasonry
Armia Ludowa, the Soviet-backed Polish army in World War II, in contrast to the Western-backed Armia Krajowa (AK)
Assembleia Legislativa (disambiguation)
Awami League, a political party in Bangladesh
, Indonesian for "Naval Force", common initialism associated with the Indonesian Navy
See also
A1 (disambiguation)
A/L or GCE Advanced Level
Ai (disambiguation) | [
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213976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embalming | Embalming | Embalming is the art and science of preserving human remains by treating them (in its modern form with chemicals) to forestall decomposition. This is usually to make the deceased suitable for public or private viewing as part of the funeral ceremony or keep them preserved for medical purposes in an anatomical laboratory. The three goals of embalming are sanitization, presentation, and preservation, with restoration being an important additional factor in some instances. Performed successfully, embalming can help preserve the body for a duration of many years. Embalming has a very long and cross-cultural history, with many cultures giving the embalming processes a greater religious meaning.
Animal remains can also be embalmed by similar methods, but embalming is distinct from taxidermy. Embalming preserves the body intact, whereas taxidermy is the recreation of an animal's form often using only the creature's skin mounted on an anatomical form.
History
It is important to note that whilst the term embalming is used for both ancient and modern methods toward preservation of a deceased person there is very little connection in terms of actual practises or final aesthetic results.
The Chinchorro culture in the Atacama desert of present-day Chile and Peru are among the earliest cultures known to have performed artificial mummification as early as 5000–6000 BCE.
Perhaps the ancient culture that developed embalming to the greatest extent was Egypt. As early as the First Dynasty (3200 BCE), specialized priests were in charge of embalming and mummification. They did so by removing organs, ridding the body of moisture, and covering the body with natron. The ancient Egyptians believed that mummification enabled the soul to return to the preserved corpse after death.
Other cultures known to have used embalming techniques in antiquity include the Meroites, Guanches, Peruvians, Jivaro Indians, Aztecs, Toltecs, Mayans, and Tibetan and southern Nigerian tribes.
The earliest known evidence of artificial preservation in Europe was found in Osorno (Spain) and are about 5000 years old human bones covered in cinnabar for preservation, but embalming remained unusual in Europe up to the time of the Roman Empire.
In China, artificially preserved remains have been recovered from the period of the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), the main examples being those of Xin Zhui and the Mawangdui Han tombs site. While these remains have been extraordinarily well preserved, the embalming fluids and methods used are unknown.
In Europe the ancient practice of artificial preservation had become widespread by about 500 CE. The period of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance is known as the anatomists' period of embalming and is characterized by an increased influence of scientific developments in medicine and the need for bodies for dissection purposes. Early methods used are documented by contemporary physicians such as Peter Forestus (1522–1597) and Ambroise Pare (1510-1590). The first attempts to inject the vascular system were made by Alessandra Giliani, who died in 1326. Various attempts and procedures have been reported by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Jacobus Berengar (1470–1550), Bartholomeo Eustachius (1520–1574), Reinier de Graaf (1641–1673), Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680), and Frederik Ruysch (1638–1731).
Modern methods
The modern method of embalming involves the injection of various chemical solutions into the arterial network of the body to primarily disinfect and slow the decomposition process. William Harvey, the 17th century English physician who was the first to detail the system of blood circulation, made his discoveries by injecting colored solutions into corpses.
The Scottish surgeon William Hunter was the first to apply these methods to the art of embalming as part of mortuary practice. He wrote a widely read report on the appropriate methods for arterial and cavity embalming in order to preserve bodies for burial. His brother, John Hunter, applied these methods and advertised his embalming services to the general public from the mid-18th century.
One of his more notorious clients was dentist Martin Van Butchell. When his wife Mary died on 14 January 1775, he had her embalmed as an attraction to draw more customers. Hunter injected the body with preservatives and color additives that gave a glow to the corpse's cheeks, replaced her eyes with glass eyes, and dressed her in a fine lace dress. The body was embedded in a layer of plaster of Paris in a glass-topped coffin. Butchell exhibited the body in the window of his home and many Londoners came to see it; but Butchell drew criticism for the display. A rumor, possibly started by Butchell himself, claimed that his wife's marriage certificate had specified that her husband would only have control over her estate after her death for as long as her body was kept unburied.
Interest in, and demand for, embalming grew steadily in the 19th century largely for sentimental reasons. People sometimes wished to be buried at far-off locations which became possible with the advent of the railways, and mourners wanted the chance to pay their last respects beside the displayed body. Other motives behind embalming were prevention of disease and the wish to prepare funerals and burials, which were becoming more elaborate, without undue haste. After Lord Nelson was killed in the Battle of Trafalgar, his body was preserved in brandy and spirits of wine mixed with camphor and myrrh for over two months. At the time of his state funeral in 1805, his body was found to still be in excellent condition and completely plastic.
Alternative methods of preservation, such as ice packing or laying the body on so called 'cooling boards', gradually lost ground to the increasingly popular and effective methods of embalming. By the mid 19th century, the newly emerging profession of businessmen-undertakers - who provided funeral and burial services - began adopting embalming methods as standard.
Embalming became more common in the United States during the American Civil War, when servicemen often died far from home. The wish of families for their remains to be returned home for local burial and lengthy transport from the battlefield meant it became common in the United States.
The period from about 1861 is sometimes known as the funeral period of embalming and is marked by a separation of the fields of embalming by undertakers and embalming (anatomical wetting) for medical and scientific purposes. Dr. Thomas Holmes received a commission from the Army Medical Corps to embalm the corpses of dead Union officers to return to their families. Military authorities also permitted private embalmers to work in military-controlled areas. The passage of Abraham Lincoln's body home for burial was made possible by embalming, and it brought the possibilities and potential of embalming to wider public notice.
Until the early 20th century, embalming fluids often contained arsenic until it was supplanted by more effective and less toxic chemicals. There was concern about the possibility of arsenic from embalmed bodies contaminating ground water supplies and legal concerns that people suspected of murder by arsenic poisoning might claim in defense that levels of poison in the deceased's body were the result of post-mortem embalming not homicide.
In 1867, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann discovered formaldehyde, whose preservative properties were soon noted, and it became the foundation for modern methods of embalming.
Dr. Frederic Ruysch was the first one to have used the arterial injection method for embalming. His work of embalming was so nearly perfect that people thought the dead body was actually alive; however, he only used it to prepare specimens for his anatomical work.
Today
Modern embalming is most often performed to ensure a better presentation of the deceased for viewing by friends and relatives. It is also used for medical research or training.
A successful viewing of the body is considered to be helpful in the grieving process. Embalming has the potential to prevent mourners from having to deal with the rotting and eventual putrescence of the corpse. It is a general legal requirement for international repatriation of human remains (although exceptions do occur) and is required by a variety of laws depending on locality and circumstance, such as for extended time between death and final disposition or above-ground entombment.
A new embalming technique developed gradually since the 1960s by anatomist Walter Thiel at the Graz Anatomy Institute in Austria has been the subject of various academic papers, as the cadaver retains the body's natural color, texture and plasticity after the process. The method uses 4-chloro-3-methylphenol and various salts for fixation, boric acid for disinfection, and ethylene glycol for the preservation of tissue plasticity. The embalmed cadavers are used in anatomical research, surgical and anaesthesia training, preoperative test procedures, CT image quality studies.
Jessica Mitford and the Revisionist Position
This beneficial perception of the viewing of a properly embalmed deceased person has been challenged, however, by authors such as Jessica Mitford, who point out that there is no general consensus that viewing an embalmed corpse is somehow "therapeutic" to the bereaved, and that terms such as "memory picture" were invented by the undertakers themselves, who have a financial interest in selling the costly process of embalming to the public. This argument ignores the fact that there is no general consensus for any funeral practice, and the indisputable fact that, ceteris paribus, an embalmed body will look better than an unembalmed one, which is still actively decomposing. Mitford also points out that, in many countries, embalming is rare, and the populace of such countries are still able to grieve normally, although this argument would be of equal validity about any number of technologies or knowledges common in one place but lacking in another that thus manages without them.
Terms for embalmers
An embalmer is someone who has been trained and qualified in the art and science of sanitization, presentation, and preservation of the human deceased. The term mortician is far more generic; it may refer to someone who is a funeral director, an embalmer, or just a person who prepares the deceased, with or without the formal qualification of an embalmer. Thus whilst all embalmers are morticians, many morticians are not embalmers and the terms are not intrinsically synonymous. Embalming training commonly involves formal study in anatomy, thanatology, chemistry, and specific embalming theory (to widely varied levels depending on the region of the world one lives in) combined with practical instruction in a mortuary with a resultant formal qualification granted after the passing of a final practical examination and acceptance into a recognized society of professional embalmers. The roles of a funeral director and embalmer are different, depending on the locals custom and licensing body for a region in which the funeral director and/or embalmer operate. A funeral director arranges for the final disposition of the deceased, and may or may not prepare the deceased, including embalming, for viewing (or other legal requirements).
Legal requirements over who can practice vary geographically. Some regions or countries do not have specific requirements, whilst others have clear prohibitions. In the United States, the title of an embalmer is largely based on the state in which they are licensed. Additionally, in many places, embalming is not done by specialist embalmers, but rather by doctors, medical technicians or laboratory technicians who, while they have the required anatomical or chemical knowledge, are not trained specialists in this field. Today, embalming is a common practice in North America, Australia, New Zealand, Britain and Ireland, while it is much less frequent in many parts of Europe; most modern countries have embalming available in some manner.
Modern practices
As practiced in the funeral home embalming involves several distinct steps. Modern embalming techniques are not the result of a single practitioner, but rather the accumulation of many decades, even centuries, of research, trial and error, and invention. A standardized version follows below, but variation in techniques are common.
The first step in embalming is to verify the permissions and requests of the family followed by a careful plan for the deceased's preparation, including reviewing the medical certificate of death. The deceased is placed on the mortuary table in the supine anatomical position with the head elevated by a head rest. Before commencing any preparation the embalmer will verify the identity of the body (normally via wrist or leg bracelets or tags). At this point, embalmers commonly perform an initial evaluation of the deceased's condition, noting things such as rigor mortis, skin condition, edema, intravenous injection sites, presence of fecal matter, tissue gas and numerous other factors which may affect the procedure and final outcome. The embalming procedure is a surgical one, albeit rather minimally invasive. The process requires significant effort over the course of multiple hours, including intensive planning, evaluation, and chemical selection.
Any clothing on the body is removed and set aside, and any personal effects such as jewelry are inventoried. A modesty cloth is commonly placed over the genitalia. The body is washed in a germicidal soap. During this process the embalmer bends, flexes, and massages the arms and legs to relieve rigor mortis. The eyes are posed using an eye cap that keeps them shut and in the proper expression. The mouth may be closed via suturing with a needle and ligature, using an adhesive, or by setting a wire into the maxilla and mandible with a needle injector, a specialized device most commonly used in North America and unique to mortuary practice. Care is taken to make the expression look as relaxed and natural as possible, and ideally, a recent photograph of the deceased in good health is used as a reference. The process of closing the mouth and eyes, shaving, etc. is collectively known as setting the features. Features may also be set after the completion of the arterial embalming process, which allows the embalmer to clean and remove any purge that occurs during the embalming process.
The actual embalming process usually involves four parts:
Arterial embalming, which involves the injection of embalming chemicals into the blood vessels, usually via the right common carotid artery. Blood and interstitial fluids are displaced by this injection and, along with excess arterial solution, are expelled from the right jugular vein and collectively referred to as drainage. The embalming solution is injected with a centrifugal pump, and the embalmer massages the body to break up circulatory clots so as to ensure the proper distribution of the embalming fluid. This process of raising vessels with injection and drainage from a solitary location is known as a single-point injection. In cases of poor circulation of the arterial solution, additional injection points (commonly the axillary, brachial, or femoral arteries, with the ulnar, radial, and tibial vessels if necessary) are used. The corresponding veins are commonly also raised and utilized for drainage. Cases where more than one vessel is raised are referred to as multiple-point injection, with a reference to the number of vessels raised (i.e. a six-point injection or six-pointer). As a general rule, the more points needing to be raised, the greater the difficulty of the case. In some cases draining from a different site from injection (i.e. injecting arterial fluid into the right common carotid artery and draining from the right femoral vein) is referred to as a split (or sometimes cut) injection. In certain cases the embalmer may deem it necessary to perform a restricted cervical injection, which involves injecting the head of the deceased separately from the rest of body. This is done in cases where distention (swelling) has a greater chance of occurring. In many cases, an embalmer may select to perform what is known as a pre-injection. A pre-injection is a solution of chemicals that do not contain any preservative chemicals, but rather chemicals that encourage vasodilation, help disperse blood clots, and act as chelating agents. The focus of this "pre-injection" is to allow for a more complete drainage and better distribution of the arterial embalming solution.
Cavity treatment/embalming refers to the removal of internal fluids inside body cavities via the use of an aspirator and trocar. The embalmer makes a small incision just above the navel (two inches superior and two inches to the right) and pushes the trocar into the abdominal and chest cavities. This first punctures the hollow organs and aspirates their contents. The embalmer then fills the cavities with concentrated chemicals (known as Cavity Chemicals) that contain formaldehyde, which are delivered to the chest cavity via the trocar inserted through the diaphragm. The incision is either sutured closed (commonly using the purse-string or 'N' suture methods) or a "trocar button" is secured into place.
Hypodermic embalming is a supplemental method which refers to the injection of embalming chemicals into tissue with a hypodermic needle and syringe, which is generally used as needed on a case-by-case basis to treat areas where arterial fluid has not been successfully distributed during the main arterial injection.
Surface embalming, another supplemental method, utilizes embalming chemicals to preserve and restore areas directly on the skin's surface and other superficial areas as well as areas of damage such as from accident, decomposition, cancerous growths, or skin donation.
The duration of an embalming can vary greatly, but a common approximate time of between two and four hours to complete an embalming is typical. However, an embalming case that presents excessive complications could require substantially longer. The treatment of someone who has undergone an autopsy, cases of extreme trauma, or the restoration of a long-bone donor are a few such examples, and embalmings which require multiple days to complete are known.
Embalming is meant to temporarily preserve the body of a deceased person. Regardless of whether embalming is performed, the type of burial or entombment, and the materials used – such as wood or metal coffins and vaults – the body of the deceased will, under most circumstances, eventually decompose. Modern embalming is done to delay decomposition so that funeral services may take place or for the purpose of shipping the remains to a distant place for disposition.
Grooming
After the body is rewashed and dried, a moisturizing cream is applied to the face, hands and arms. Ideally the deceased will usually sit for as long as possible for observation by the embalmer. After being dressed for visitation or funeral services, cosmetics are commonly, but not universally, applied to make the body appear more lifelike and to create a "memory picture" for the deceased's friends and relatives. For babies who have died, the embalmer may apply a light cosmetic massage cream after embalming to provide a natural appearance; massage cream is also used on the face to prevent it from dehydrating, and the infant's mouth is often kept slightly open for a more natural expression. If possible, the funeral director uses a light, translucent cosmetic; sometimes, heavier, opaque cosmetics are used to hide bruises, cuts, or discolored areas. Makeup is applied to the lips to mimic their natural color. Sometimes a very pale or light pink lipstick is applied on males, while brighter colored lipstick is applied to females. Hair gel or baby oil is applied to style short hair; while hairspray is applied to style long hair. Powders (especially baby powder) are applied to the body to eliminate odors, and it is also applied to the face to achieve a matte and fresh effect to prevent oiliness of the corpse. Mortuary cosmeticizing is not done for the same reason as make-up for living people; rather, it is designed to add depth and dimension to a person's features that lack of blood circulation has removed. Warm areas – where blood vessels in living people are superficial, such as the cheeks, chin, and knuckles – have subtle reds added to recreate this effect, while browns are added to the palpebrae (eyelids) to add depth, especially important as viewing in a coffin creates an unusual perspective rarely seen in everyday life. During the viewing, pink-colored lighting is sometimes used near the body to lend a warmer tone to the deceased's complexion.
A photograph of the deceased in good health is often sought to guide the embalmer's hand in restoring the body to a more lifelike appearance. Blemishes and discolorations (such as bruises, in which the discoloration is not in the circulatory system, and cannot be removed by arterial injection) occasioned by the last illness, the settling of blood, or the embalming process itself are also dealt with at this time (although some embalmers utilize hypodermic bleaching agents, such as phenol-based cauterants, during injection to lighten discoloration and allow easier cosmeticizing). It is also common for the embalmer to perform minor restoration of the deceased's appearance with tissue building chemicals and a hypodermic syringe. Tissue building chemicals (Tissue Builders) become solid with the introduction of liquids such as water or interstitial fluids. Commonly the area where the sphenoid and temporal bones meet; this can also be referred to the temples. In the event of trauma or natural depressions on the face or hands, tissue builder can also be utilised to return those regions of the face to the expectations of the family.
Clothing
As with all funeral practises local custom, culture, religion and family request are the key determiners of clothing for the deceased. In the Western world, men are usually buried in business attire, such as a suit or coat and tie, and women in semi-formal dresses or pant suits. In recent years, a change has occurred, and many individuals are now buried in less formal clothing, such as what they would have worn on a daily basis, or other favorite attire. The clothing used can also reflect the deceased person's profession or vocation: priests and ministers are often dressed in their liturgical vestments, and military and law enforcement personnel often wear their uniform. Underwear, singlets, bras, briefs, and hosiery are all used if the family so desires, and the deceased is dressed in them as they would be in life.
In certain instances a funeral director will request a specific style of clothing, such as a collared shirt or blouse, to cover traumatic marks or autopsy incisions. In other cases clothing may be cut down the back and placed on the deceased from the front to ensure a proper fit. In many areas of Asia and Europe, the custom of dressing the body in a specially designed shroud or burial cloth, rather than in clothing used by the living, is preferred.
After the deceased has been dressed, they are generally placed in their coffin or casket. In American English, the word coffin is used to refer to an anthropoid (stretched hexagonal) form, whereas casket refers specifically to a rectangular coffin. It is common for photographs, notes, cards, and favourite personal items to be placed in the coffin with the deceased. Bulky and expensive items, such as electric guitars, are occasionally interred with a body. In some ways this mirrors the ancient practice of placing grave goods with a person for their use or enjoyment in the afterlife. In traditional Chinese culture, paper substitutes of the goods are buried or cremated with the deceased instead, as well as paper money specifically purchased for the occasion.
Chemicals
Embalming chemicals are a variety of preservatives, sanitizers, disinfectant agents, and additives used in modern embalming to temporarily delay decomposition and restore a natural appearance for viewing a body after death. A mixture of these chemicals is known as embalming fluid, and is used to preserve deceased individuals, sometimes only until the funeral, other times indefinitely.
Typical embalming fluid contains a mixture of formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, methanol, humectants and wetting agents, and other solvents that can be used. The formaldehyde content generally ranges from 5-35%, and the methanol content may range from 9-56%.
Environmentalists sometimes have concerns about embalming because of the harmful chemicals involved and their potential interactions with the environment. Recently, more eco-friendly embalming methods have become available, including formaldehyde-free mixtures of chemicals.
Specialist embalming
Badly decomposing bodies, trauma cases, frozen, or drowned bodies, and those to be transported over long distances also require special treatment beyond that for the "normal" case. The restoration of bodies and features damaged by accident or disease is commonly called restorative art or demisurgery, and all qualified embalmers have some degree of training and practice in it. For such cases, the benefit of embalming is startlingly apparent. In contrast, many people have unrealistic expectations of what a dead body should look like, due to the near-universal portrayal of dead bodies by live actors in movies and television shows. Ironically, the work of a skilled embalmer often results in the deceased appearing natural enough that the embalmer appears to have done nothing at all. Normally, a better result can be achieved when a photograph and the decedent's regular make-up (if worn) are available to help make the deceased appear more as they did when alive.
Embalming autopsy cases differs from standard embalming because the nature of the post mortem examination irrevocably disrupts the circulatory system, due to the removal of the organs and viscera. In these cases, a six-point injection is made through the two iliac or femoral arteries, subclavian or axillary vessels, and common carotids, with the viscera treated separately with cavity fluid or a special embalming powder in a viscera bag.
Long-term preservation requires different techniques, such as using stronger preservatives and multiple injection sites to ensure thorough saturation of body tissues.
For anatomy education
A rather different process is used for cadavers embalmed for dissection by medical professionals, students, and researchers. Here, the first priority is for long-term preservation, not presentation. As such, medical embalmers use anatomical wetting fluids that contain concentrated formaldehyde (37–40%, known as formalin) or glutaraldehyde and phenol, and are made without dyes or perfumes. Many embalming chemical companies make specialized anatomical embalming fluids.
Anatomical embalming is performed into a closed circulatory system. The fluid is usually injected with an embalming machine into an artery under high pressure and flow, and allowed to swell and saturate the tissues. After the deceased is left to sit for a number of hours, the venous system is generally opened and the fluid allowed to drain out, although many anatomical embalmers do not use any drainage technique.
Anatomical embalmers may choose to use gravity-feed embalming, where the container dispensing the embalming fluid is elevated above the body's level, and fluid is slowly introduced over an extended time, sometimes as long as several days. Unlike standard arterial embalming, no drainage occurs, and the body distends extensively with fluid. The distension eventually reduces, often under extended (up to six months) refrigeration, leaving a fairly normal appearance. No separate cavity treatment of the internal organs is given. Anatomically embalmed cadavers have a typically uniform grey colouration, due both to the high formaldehyde concentration mixed with the blood and the lack of red colouration agents commonly added to standard, nonmedical, embalming fluids. Formaldehyde mixed with blood causes the grey discoloration also known as "formaldehyde grey" or "embalmer's grey".
Religious practices
Opinions differ among different faiths as to the permissibility of embalming. A brief overview of some of the larger faiths positions are:
Most branches and denominations of the Christian faith allow embalming. Some bodies within Eastern Orthodoxy profess an absolute ban on embalming except when required by law or other necessity, while others may discourage but do not prohibit it. In most Christian denominations, the decision on embalming is the preference of the deceased's family rather than for church policy or theological viewpoint.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints does not discourage or prohibit embalming. Often, due to the custom of church members dressing the deceased, embalming is given preference.
Some Neopagans discourage embalming, believing it unnatural to disrupt the physical recycling of the body to the Earth.
Members of the Baháʼí Faith are not embalmed. Instead, the body is washed and then placed in a cotton, linen, or silk shroud.
Zoroastrians traditionally hold a type of sky burial within a structure known as a Tower of Silence in which the body is exposed to weathering and predation to dispose of the remains, thus embalming the body is contrary to their funeral designs.
Traditional Jewish law forbids embalming and burial is to be done as soon as possible – preferably within 24 hours.
Embalming of the dead is not practiced by Muslims. Muslims are urged to bury their deceased as soon as possible, to honour them.
Notable embalmings
Lord Nelson (1758–1805) was preserved for two months in brandy and spirits of wine mixed with camphor and myrrh after which time the body was found to be in excellent condition and completely plastic.
Various communist leaders have been embalmed and put on public display. Perhaps the most famous embalmed body of the 20th century is that of Vladimir Lenin, which continues to draw crowds decades after his death in 1924, and is seen in his Moscow mausoleum. Joseph Stalin was also embalmed and placed next to Lenin, but his body was buried in 1961 during de-Stalinization. Klement Gottwald of Czechoslovakia, who died just five days after attending Stalin's funeral, was embalmed and displayed in a mausoleum at National Monument in Vitkov in Prague. However, in 1962 due to political reasons, the body was removed and cremated. Bulgarian Georgi Dimitrov was embalmed and placed on display in the Sofia Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum. After the fall of Communism in Bulgaria, his body was buried in 1990 in the Central cemetery of Sofia. Mongolia's Khorloogiin Choibalsan, Angola's Agostinho Neto, Romania's Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej and Guyana's Forbes Burnham were also embalmed by the same Russian team. Currently, embalmed communist leaders can also be found in the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, the Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum, and the Kumsusan Palace of the Sun for Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il.
The botched embalming of Pope Pius XII (1876–1958; pope 1939–1958) by a charlatan doctor—which only sped up the rate of decomposition—led to his body turning black and his nose falling off while lying in state, and the body disintegrated in the coffin. The Swiss Guards stationed around Pius XII's body were forced to change shifts every 10 to 15 minutes, since the body's odor caused some guards to pass out. The doctor who performed the embalming had also taken photos of the pontiff in his death throes, intending to sell them to tabloids. The Italian tabloids refused to buy the photos, and the doctor was banned from entering the Vatican City-State by John XXIII, who furthermore prohibited any photography of a deceased pope until the body is properly vested and laid out.
Charles XII (1682–1718) is one of several Swedish kings to have been embalmed. When Charles XII's sarcophagus was opened in 1917, his features were still recognizable, almost 200 years after his death. Photographs of his remains clearly show the gunshot wound to his head leading to his death.
The body of Pope John XXIII (1881–1963; pope 1958–1963) is on display on an altar on the main floor of the Basilica of Saint Peter after having been exhumed from the grottoes beneath the main altar and has retained an extremely well-preserved state. If a body's remains do not decompose, contrary to expectations, it is often treated as a miracle. However, the case of John XXIII's body did not enjoy the same acclamation, as it was held to have been due to embalming and adipocere formation.
The body of Pope Pius X (1835–1914; pope 1903–1914) lies in a crystal coffin, in the Chapel of the Presentation of the Virgin Mary. On 17 February 1952, Pius X's body was transferred from the crypt of the Vatican grotto. The body is dressed in pontifical robes, while the face and hands are covered with silver. He lies within a glass and bronze-work sarcophagus for the faithful to see. Papal physicians had been in the habit of removing organs to aid the embalming process. Pius X expressly prohibited this, however, and none of his successors has allowed the practice to be reinstituted.
Murdered civil rights activist Medgar Evers was so well embalmed that a valid autopsy was able to be performed on his corpse decades after his death, and this helped secure the conviction of his killer.
Famous Russian surgeon and scientist N. I. Pirogov was embalmed after his death in 1881. He was embalmed using the technique he himself developed. His body rests in a church in Vinnitsa, Ukraine. In contrast to the corpse of Lenin, which undergoes thorough maintenance in a special underground clinic twice a week, the body of Pirogov rests untouched and unchanging – reportedly only dust has to be brushed off of it. It rests at room temperature in a glass-lid coffin (while Lenin's body is preserved at a constant low temperature).
Abraham Lincoln was embalmed after his assassination in 1865. To prevent anyone stealing Lincoln's body, Lincoln's eldest son Robert called for Lincoln's exhumation in 1901 to be buried in a concrete vault in the burial room of his tomb in Springfield, Illinois. Fearing that his body would have been stolen in the interim, Lincoln's coffin was opened, and his features were still recognizable, 36 years after his death.
Rosalia Lombardo, who died at age one on 6 December 1920, was one of the last corpses to be interred in the Capuchin catacombs of Palermo, Sicily before the local authorities banned the practice. Nicknamed the 'Sleeping Beauty', Rosalia's body is still perfectly intact. Embalmed by Alfredo Salafia, she is in a glass case, looking very much like a surreal doll.
Eva Perón was embalmed by Dr. Pedro Ara ordered by her husband Juan Perón. The body was preserved to look like it was in a sleep-like state. The procedure worked and the body showed no signs of decomposition when Eva was interred at her final resting place many years after the initial procedure.
Kemal Atatürk was embalmed. His remains were originally laid to rest in the Ethnography Museum of Ankara from 10 November 1938 to 10 November 1953. He was subsequently moved to Anıtkabir in Ankara, Turkey, buried in a 42-ton sarcophagus.
Chiang Kai-shek and Chiang Ching-kuo were embalmed and rest at Cihu Mausoleum and Touliao Mausoleum in Daxi District, Taoyuan City, Taiwan.
Francisco Franco was embalmed. His remains were originally laid to rest in the Valley of the Fallen from 1975 to 2019. He was subsequently moved to Mingorrubio Cemetery, El Pardo, Madrid, Spain.
Ferdinand Marcos was embalmed in Hawaii upon his death. His body was flown home and is on display at Marcos Museum and Mausoleum in Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines from 1993 to 18 November 2016.
Diana, Princess of Wales was embalmed shortly after her death in France in August 1997. The decision to embalm her provoked conspiracy theories that she was pregnant; conspiracists claimed, incorrectly, that the embalming fluid would have destroyed any evidence of fetal presence in her womb. The official explanation for the embalming was that the warm conditions in the chapel of rest where her body was laid out would have sped up the decomposition of the remains.
When, on 1793, the Basilica of Saint-Denis was desecrated by revolutionaries, the mummy of Henry IV was so well conserved it was displayed two days before being thrown in a mass grave, and a new death mask was able to be remade. Likewise, Louis XIII was still recognisable thanks to his well-conserved moustache. Turenne was so well conserved looters first thought he was still alive.
See also
Cryonics
Freeze drying
Mortuary science
Plastination
Premature burial
References
Further reading
Abrams, J.L. Embalming. 2008.
Frederick, L.G.; Strub, Clarence G. [1959] (1989). The Principles and Practice of Embalming, 5th ed., Dallas, TX: Professional Training Schools Inc & Robertine Frederick. OCLC 20723376.
Mayer, Robert G. (2000-01-27). Embalming: History, Theory and Practice, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill/Appleton & Lange. .
External links
BBC article on Salisbury's School of Embalming
Infection risks and embalming by KS Creely. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/04/01
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
Anatomical preservation
Death customs
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|
213978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Henry%20Lewes | George Henry Lewes | George Henry Lewes (; 18 April 1817 – 30 November 1878) was an English philosopher and critic of literature and theatre. He was also an amateur physiologist. American feminist Margaret Fuller called Lewes a "witty, French, flippant sort of man". He became part of the mid-Victorian ferment of ideas which encouraged discussion of Darwinism, positivism, and religious skepticism. However, he is perhaps best known today for having openly lived with Mary Ann Evans, who wrote under the pen name George Eliot, as soulmates whose lives and writings were enriched by their relationship, though they never married each other.
Biography
Lewes, born in London, was the illegitimate son of the minor poet John Lee Lewes and Elizabeth Ashweek, and the grandson of comic actor Charles Lee Lewes. His mother married a retired sea captain when he was six. Frequent changes of home meant he was educated in London, Jersey, Brittany, and finally at Dr Charles Burney's school in Greenwich. Having abandoned successively a commercial and a medical career, he seriously thought of becoming an actor and appeared several times on stage between 1841 and 1850. Finally he devoted himself to literature, science and philosophy.
As early as 1836, he belonged to a club formed for the study of philosophy, and had sketched out a physiological treatment of the philosophy of the Scottish school. Two years later he went to Germany, probably with the intention of studying philosophy.
Lewes undertook studies on nutrition and physiology; he explored the question whether sugar was injurious to teeth. He conducted experiments on the reflexes and the nervous system of living animals, especially frogs, using ether and chloroform out of consideration for their pain.
He became friends with Leigh Hunt, and through him he entered London literary society and met John Stuart Mill, Thomas Carlyle and Charles Dickens.
In 1841, he married Agnes Jervis, daughter of Swynfen Stevens Jervis.
Relationship with George Eliot
Lewes met writer Mary Ann Evans, later to be famous as George Eliot, in 1851, and by 1854 they had decided to live together. Lewes and Agnes Jervis had agreed to have an open marriage, and in addition to the three children they had together, Agnes also had four children by Thornton Hunt, the son of Leigh Hunt. Because Lewes was named on the birth certificate as the father of one of these children despite knowing this to be false, he was considered complicit in adultery and was not able to divorce Agnes. In July 1854, Lewes and Evans travelled to Weimar and Berlin together for research related to Lewes's study of Goethe. The trip to Germany also served as a honeymoon as Evans and Lewes now considered themselves married, with Evans calling herself Mary Ann Evans Lewes and referring to Lewes as her husband.
Of his three sons only one, Charles Lewes, survived him; he became a London County Councillor and married Gertrude Hill, granddaughter of Thomas Southwood Smith and sister of the social reformers Miranda Hill and Octavia Hill, the latter of whom jointly founded the National Trust.
Lewes and literature
During the next ten years Lewes supported himself by contributing to quarterly and other reviews, articles discussing a wide range of subjects, often imperfect but revealing acute critical judgment enlightened by philosophic study. The most valuable are those on drama, afterwards republished under the title Actors and Acting (1875), and The Spanish Drama (1846). As a youngster, he witnessed a performance by Edmund Kean which stayed with him as an unforgettable experience. He also witnessed and wrote of his impressions of performances by William Charles Macready and other famous stars of the 19th century London stage. He is considered to be the first practitioner of modern theatre criticism and the realistic approach to acting.
In 1845–46, Lewes published The Biographical History of Philosophy, an attempt to depict the life of philosophers as an ever-renewed fruitless labour to attain the unattainable. In 1847–48, he published two novels – Ranthorpe, and Rose, Blanche and Violet – which, though displaying considerable skill in plot, construction, and characterisation, have taken no permanent place in literature. The same is to be said of an ingenious attempt to rehabilitate Robespierre (1849). In 1850 he collaborated with Thornton Leigh Hunt in the foundation of The Leader, of which he was the literary editor. In 1853 he republished under the title of Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences a series of papers which had appeared in that journal.
The culmination of Lewes's work in prose literature is the Life of Goethe (1855), probably the best known of his writings. Lewes's versatility, and his combination of scientific with literary tastes, eminently fitted him to appreciate the wide-ranging activity of the German poet. The work became well known in Germany itself, despite the boldness of its criticism and the unpopularity of some of its views (e.g. on the relation of the second to the first part of Faust).
Science
From about 1853 Lewes's writings show that he was occupying himself with scientific and more particularly biological work. He always showed a distinctly scientific bent in his writings, though he had not had technical training. More than popular expositions of accepted scientific truths, they contain able criticisms of conventionally accepted ideas and embody the results of individual research and individual reflection. He made several suggestions, some of which have since been accepted by physiologists, of which the most valuable is that now known as the doctrine of the functional indifference of the nerves – that what were known as the specific energies of the optic, auditory and other nerves are simply differences in their mode of action due to the differences of the peripheral structures or sense-organs with which they are connected. This idea was subsequently proposed independently by Wundt.
Philosophy
In 1865, when The Fortnightly Review began publication, Lewes became its editor, but he retained the post for less than two years, when he was succeeded by John Morley.
This marks the transition from more strictly scientific to philosophic work. Lewes had been interested in philosophy from early youth; one of his earliest essays was an appreciative account of Hegel's Aesthetics. Under the influence of the positivism of Auguste Comte and John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic, he abandoned all faith in the possibility of metaphysics, and recorded this abandonment in his History of Philosophy. Yet he did not at any time give unqualified assent to Comte's teachings, and with wider reading and reflection his mind moved further away from the positivist stance. In the preface to the third edition of his History of Philosophy he avowed a change in this direction, and this movement is even more plainly discernible in subsequent editions of the work.
The outcome of his intellectual progress is The Problems of Life and Mind. His sudden death cut short the work, yet it is complete enough to allow a judgment on the author's matured conceptions on biological, psychological and metaphysical problems.
The first two volumes on The Foundations of a Creed laid down Lewes' foundation – a rapprochement between metaphysics and science. He was still positivist enough to pronounce all inquiry into the ultimate nature of things fruitless: what matter, form, and spirit are in themselves is a futile question that belongs to the sterile region of "metempirics". But philosophical questions may be susceptible to a precise solution through scientific method. Thus, since the relation of subject to object falls within our experience, it is a proper matter for philosophic investigation.
His treatment of the question of the relation of subject to object confused the scientific truth that mind and body coexist in the living organism and the philosophic truth that all knowledge of objects implies a knowing subject. In Shadworth Hodgson's phrase, he mixed up the genesis of mental forms with their nature (see Philosophy of Reflexion, ii. 40–58). Thus he reached a monistic doctrine that mind and matter are two aspects of the same existence by attending simply to the parallelism between psychical and physical processes as a given fact (or probable fact) of our experience, leaving out of account their relation as subject and object in the cognitive act.
His identification of the two as phases of one existence is open to criticism not only from the point of view of philosophy but from that of science. In his treatment of such ideas as "sensibility", "sentience" and the like, he does not always make it clear whether he is speaking of physical or of psychical phenomena. Among other philosophic questions discussed in these two volumes the nature of causal relation is perhaps the one which is handled with most freshness and suggestiveness.
The third volume, The Physical Basis of Mind, further develops the writer's views on organic activities as a whole. He insists on the radical distinction between organic and inorganic processes and the impossibility of explaining the former by purely mechanical principles. All parts of the nervous system have the same elementary property; sensibility. Thus sensibility belongs as much to the lower centres of the spinal cord as to the brain, the former, more elementary, form contributing to the subconscious region of mental life, while the higher functions of the nervous system, which make up our conscious mental life, are more complex modifications of this fundamental property of nerve substance.
The nervous organism acts as a whole, particular mental operations cannot be referred to definite regions of the brain, and the hypothesis of nervous activity by an isolated pathway from one nerve cell to another is altogether illusory. By insisting on the complete coincidence between the regions of nerve action and sentience, that these are but different aspects of one thing, he was able to attack the doctrine of animal and human automatism which affirms that feeling or consciousness is merely an incidental concomitant of nerve action in no way essential to the chain of physical events.
Lewes's views on psychology, partly explained in the earlier volumes of the Problems, are more fully worked out in the last two (3rd series). He discussed the method of psychology with much insight. Against Comte and his followers he claimed a place for introspection in psychological research. As well as this subjective method there must be an objective one, a reference to nervous conditions and socio-historical data. Biology would help explain mental functions such as feeling and thinking, it would not help us to understand differences of mental faculty in different races and stages of human development. The organic conditions of these differences will probably for ever escape detection, hence they can be explained only as the products of the social environment. The relationship of mental phenomena to social and historical conditions is probably Lewes's most important contribution to psychology.
He also emphasised the complexity of mental phenomena. Every mental state is regarded as compounded of three factors in different proportions – sensible affection, logical grouping and motor impulse. But Lewes's work in psychology consists less in discoveries than in method. His biological experience prepared him to view mind as a complex unity of which the highest processes are identical with and evolved out of the lower. Thus the operation of thought, or "the logic of signs", is a more complicated form of the elementary operations of sensation and instinct or "the logic of feeling".
The last volume of the Problems illustrates this position. It is a valuable repository of psychological facts, many of them drawn from obscure regions of mental life and from abnormal experience. To suggest and to stimulate the mind, rather than to supply it with any complete system of knowledge, may be said to be Lewes's service to philosophy. The exceptional rapidity and versatility of his intelligence seems to account at once for the freshness in his way of envisaging the subject matter of philosophy and psychology, and for the want of satisfactory elaboration and of systematic co-ordination.
Death
Lewes died on the 30th November, 1878 and is buried on the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery, immediately behind the grave of George Eliot.
Publications
The Biographical History of Philosophy (1846). Adamant Media 2002:
The Spanish Drama (1846)
Ranthorpe (1847). Adamant Media 2005:
Rose, Blanche and Violet (1848)
Robespierre (1849)
Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences (1853). Adamant Media 2000:
Life of Goethe (1855). Adamant Media 2000:
Seaside Studies (1858)
Physiology of Common Life (1859)
Studies in Animal Life (1862)
Aristotle, A Chapter from the History of Science (1864). Adamant Media 2001:
Actors and Acting (1875)
The Problems of Life and Mind (five volumes)
First Series: The Foundations of a Creed, Volume 1 (1875). Kessinger Publishing 2004:
First Series: The Foundations of a Creed, Volume 2 (1875). University of Michigan Library:
Second Series: The Physical Basis of Mind (1877)
Third Series, Volume 1: The Study of Psychology: Its Object, Scope, and Method (1879)
Third Series, Volume 2 (1879)
New Quarterly (London, October 1879)
J. W. Cross, George Eliot's Life as Related in Her Letters and Journals (three volumes, New York, 1885)
See also
Emergence
G. E. Moore
Notes
References
External links
1817 births
1878 deaths
Writers from London
English philosophers
British theatre critics
Victorian novelists
19th-century English writers
19th-century British philosophers
English physiologists
19th-century British journalists
British male journalists
Burials at Highgate Cemetery | [
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|
213982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Boehm | Henry Boehm | Henry Boehm (June 8, 1775 – December 28, 1875) was an American clergyman and pastor. The son of noted clergyman Martin Boehm, Henry preferred to be a traveling preacher, going to different churches and lecturing about various religious topics.
Boehm established many Methodist churches and ministerial services throughout the United States, but the first Methodist church was located in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. This is where Henry Boehm preached for over seventy years. His centennial was held in high regard throughout the small villages and cities where Boehm had visited.
Boehm preached his last sermon a few days before his death at age 100 in 1875.
References
1775 births
1875 deaths
19th-century Methodist ministers
American centenarians
Men centenarians
American Methodist clergy
19th-century American clergy
People from Woodrow, Staten Island
People from Lancaster County, Pennsylvania | [
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|
213983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucosmodontidae | Eucosmodontidae | Eucosmodontidae is a poorly preserved family of fossil mammals within the extinct order Multituberculata. Representatives are known from strata dating from the Upper Cretaceous through the Lower Eocene of North America, as well as the Paleocene to Eocene of Europe. The family is part of the suborder of Cimolodonta. They might be related with the Djadochtatherioidea but without further finds, this remains unclear. Other than a partial snout, fossil evidence is limited to teeth.
The taxonomic name Eucosmodontidae was given by Jepsen in 1940. Some authors interpret this version of Eucosmodontidae and Microcosmodontidae as being subfamilies rather than families.
References
Most of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Eucosmodontidae, Microcosmodontidae and Taeniolabidoidea, an Internet directory.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Hurum J.H. (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Cimolodonts
Late Cretaceous first appearances
Eocene extinctions
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|
213989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques%20Lefranc%2C%20Marquis%20de%20Pompignan | Jean-Jacques Lefranc, Marquis de Pompignan | Jean-Jacques Lefranc (also Le Franc), Marquis de Pompignan (10 August 1709 – 1 November 1784) was a French man of letters and erudition, who published a considerable output of theatrical work, poems, literary criticism, and polemics; treatises on archeology, nature, travel and many other subjects; and a wide selection of highly regarded translations of the classics and other works from several European languages including English.
His life and career, as well as his literary and other works are noteworthy today because of their location at the very center of the French Enlightenment; and although some of the positions he took are also considered to have been formative contributions to the counter-Enlightenment tendencies that were being articulated in parallel, he remains, in many respects, the typical Enlightenment man.
The prolific volumes of literary works are now of academic interest only, mainly to flesh out aspects of the culture of the time, which embraced a period in which tensions that were to explode in the French Revolution five years after his death were still held in check. Lefranc is remembered today, if he is at all, as a consequence of the maiden speech he gave at the Académie française in 1760, which led to him becoming forever known and defined as "the enemy of Voltaire".
His library of some 25,000 volumes was sold after his death by his son, and became founding collections for no less than three learned institution in Toulouse. He built a neo-classical chateau at Pompignan, and over a period of thirty-five years created one of the earliest and most extensive parcs à fabriques (or French landscape garden).
The chateau stands in good order today, and although the park and its follies have been neglected, the extensive hydrological system still functions. In May 2011 the decision was taken to route the planned Bordeaux-Toulouse TGV and high-speed freight rail lines through the center of the Lefranc's landscape park.
Biography
The Lefranc family were originally landlords of the Château de Cayx (or see Château de Caïx on French Wiki, which gives more detail), overlooking a bend on the Lot some 12 km northwest of Cahors. Successive Lefrancs had served since 1640 as hereditary presidents of the regional Cours des Aides, which was located in Cahors. When Louis XIV ordered the court to be moved to Montauban (some 60 km south of Cahors over difficult roads), during the presidency of Jacques Lefranc in the early years of the 18th century, the family built a town house in Montauban as their local residence. It still stands impressively today at 10 rue Armand Cambon (there is a Place Lefranc de Pompignan nearby). At the same time, lands were purchased at Pompignan (some 20 km to the southwest of Montauban) to provide a convenient rural retreat.
Jean-Jacques' father, Jacques Lefranc, was the third of the name to become president of the Cour des Aides, and he was to be followed by his eldest son and grandson. The family retained the seat at Cayx, and the beautifully sited old chateau was where Jean-Jacques and his brother were reared; as a young man he styled himself Lefranc de Caix. His mother, born Mademoiselle de Caulet, was of the same millieu, her father serving as a "president of the morter" - a judicial rank - at the Parlement de Toulouse, where Jean-Jacques was also to have a brief tenure.
His education was entrusted to " ... the most skillful masters at the Capital, where he found himself among the disciples of the celebrated Pere Poré. The student made rapid progress, and was not slow in showing proof of a talent as rare as it was precocious. After successfully completing his classical studies [at the Collège de Louis-le-Grand], he remained in Paris to attend the School of Law." Voltaire, fifteen years older than Lefranc, attended this school from 1704 to 1711, and was also influenced by Pere Poré.
He joined the staff of the Cours des Aides in 1730, during the presidency of his uncle, the abbé Louis Lefranc, who had succeeded his brother, Jean-Jacques' father Jacques, on the death of the latter in 1719. When Louis died in 1745, Jean-Jacques, who had by then served for fifteen years as a general advocate at the court, although expected to succeed him in turn, was not yet old enough to be awarded the position, and had to wait until early 1747 to take over its presidency.
The same year he was also appointed conseiller d'honneur of the Toulouse parlement, but his opposition to the abuses of the royal power, especially in the matter of taxation, brought him so much trouble that he resigned almost immediately.
Early works
His first play, Didon (1734), which owed much to Metastasio's opera on the same subject, was a great success, and gave rise to expectations not fulfilled by the Adieux de Mars (1735) and some light operas that followed.
His reputation was made by Poésies sacrées et philosophiques (1734), later mocked by Voltaire, who punned on the title: "Sacrés ils sont, car personne n'y touche" ("They are sacred all right, because no one will touch them"). Lefranc's odes on profane (or worldly) subjects hardly reach the same level of quality, with the exception of his ode on the death of JB Rousseau, which achieved considerable renown.
The Academie and the war with Voltaire
His marriage with a wealthy widow enabled him to devote himself fully to literature, and also funded his campaign for a seat in the Académie française, which was achieved in 1759.
However, on his formal induction into the Academie in 1760, he made an ill-considered speech violently attacking the Encyclopaedists, many of whom were in his audience and had voted for him.
Lefranc soon had reason to repent of his action, for the epigrams and stories circulated by those he had attacked made it difficult for him to remain in Paris, and he returned to his native town, where he spent the rest of his life gardening, writing poetry and translating from the classics.
Jean-François de la Harpe, who is severe enough on Lefranc in his correspondence, does his abilities full justice in his Cours littéraire, and ranks him next to JB Rousseau among French lyric poets. With those of other 18th-century poets his works may be studied in the Petits poètes français (1838) of Prosper Poitevin. His Œuvres complètes (5 vols.) were published in 1781, selections (2 vols.) in 1800, 1813, 1822.
The chateau and its "parc a fabriques"
Beginning in 1745, Lefranc rebuilt the manor house at Pompignan as the present neoclassical Chateau de Pompignan, and over a period of thirty-five years created a very extensive landscape garden, containing many follies, or architectural constructions to enhance the natural and created landscape. These included ruined temples, a gothic bridge, pleasure houses, and an extensive hydraulic and reservoir system which managed a lake and fishpond, streams, fountains and the water for the house.
Family
Jean-Jaques' younger brother, Jean Georges Lefranc de Pompignan, rose through the hierarchy to become Archbishop of Vienne and a favourite of the king, whose eulogy he delivered.
Pompignan was also the alleged biological father of the French suffragist and playwright Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793).
Works
1734: Didon (1734), tragedy created at the Comédie-Française 21 June
1735: Les Adieux de Mars (1735), comedy in free verse created at the Comédie Italiennne by the comédiens ordinaires du roi 30 June
1737: Le Triomphe de l’harmonie, ballet héroïque created at the Académie royale de musique 9 May
1740: La Prière universelle, translated from the English of M. Pope
1745: Voyage de Languedoc et de Provence
1746: De Antiquitatibus Cadurcorum ad Academiam Cortonensem epistola
1748: Amphion (1748), acte de ballet created at the Académie royale de musique 26 December
1759: Léandre et Héro, tragédie lyrique created at the Académie royale de musique le 21 April
1751–1754: Poésies sacrées
1758: Dissertation sur les biens nobles
1760: Réponses aux ″quand″, aux ″si″, et aux ″pourquoi″
1761: Éloge historique de Mgr le duc de Bourgogne
1770: Tragédies d’Eschyle
1771: Discours philosophiques tirés des livres saints, avec des odes chrétiennes et philosophiques
1779: Mélange de traductions de différents ouvrages grecs, latins et anglois sur des matières de politique, de littérature et d’histoire
Œuvres, édition de 1784
References
External links
Jean-Jacques Lefranc de Pompignan on data.bnf.fr
1709 births
1784 deaths
People from Montauban
Members of the Académie Française
French translators
English–French translators
Latin–French translators
Marquesses of Pompignan
18th-century French male writers
18th-century French poets
18th-century French dramatists and playwrights
18th-century French translators | [
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|
213991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godalming | Godalming | Godalming is a historic market town, civil parish and administrative centre of the Borough of Waverley in Surrey, England, south-south-west of Guildford and south-west of London. It traverses the River Wey in the Greensand Ridge – a hilly, wooded part of London's Metropolitan Green Belt. In 1881, it was the world's first place to have public electricity supplies and electric street lighting.
It is an affluent residential town due to its visual appeal, favourable transport links and high proportion of private housing. In 2007 it was voted fourth-best UK area in which to live. Waverley borough, which includes Godalming, was judged in 2013 to have the highest quality of life in Britain, and in 2016 to be the most prosperous.
Godalming shares a three-way twinning with Joigny in France and Mayen in Germany. There are friendship links with the US state of Georgia (James Oglethorpe of Godalming founded the colony of Georgia) and with Moscow.
History
Pre-1300
The town has existed since Saxon times (see also Godalming (hundred)), and probably earlier. It is mentioned in the will of King Alfred the Great in 899, where it and Guildford are gifted to Alfred's nephew, Æthelwold. The name itself has Saxon origins: "Godhelms Ingus", roughly translated as "the family of Godhelm", and probably referring to an early lord of the manor.
Godalming grew in size partly due to its location halfway between Portsmouth and London, which encouraged traders to set up stalls and inns for travellers.
Godalming appears in 1086 Domesday Book as Godelminge, and held by William the Conqueror. Its Domesday assets were two churches (both held by Ranulf Flambard) worth 12s, three mills worth £2 1s 8d, 25 ploughs, of meadow, and woodland worth 103 hogs – totalling £34. Its population was roughly 400. The manor belonged to the King, but a few centuries later it was in the hands of the Bishop of Salisbury under a charter from King Edward I of England.
1300–1800
In 1300, the town gained the right to hold a weekly market and an annual fair. Its major industry at the time was woollen cloth, which fed Godalming's prosperity over the next few centuries, until a sudden decline in the 17th century. Then people applied their skills instead to the latest knitting and weaving technology and began producing stockings in a variety of materials, and later to leatherwork.
A willingness to shift industries meant that Godalming continued to thrive. For example, papermaking was adopted in the 17th century and paper was still made there in the 20th century. The quarrying of Bargate stone also provided important income, as did passing trade: Godalming was a popular stopping point for stagecoaches and the Mail coach between Portsmouth and London. In 1764, trade received another additional boost from early canalisation of the river, linking the town to Guildford and from there to the River Thames and London on the Wey and Godalming Navigations.
In 1726 a Godalming maidservant called Mary Toft hoaxed the town into believing she had given birth to rabbits. The foremost physicians of the day came to witness the freak event and for a brief time the story caused a national sensation. Eventually Toft was found out after a porter was caught smuggling a dead rabbit into her chamber; she confessed to inserting at least 16 rabbits into herself and faking their birth. Toft died and was buried in Godalming in 1763.
Court testimony of 1764 attests to how purchasing one of the mills in Godalming and dealing in corn and flour brought a substantial income.
From 1800
So successful was Godalming that in the early 19th century it was much larger than Guildford, and by 1851 the population had passed 6,500. Already it was becoming a popular residence for commuters,, as it had been connected to London by rail in 1849 and to Portsmouth in 1859. Today Godalming railway station stands on the Portsmouth Direct Line. The first mayor of Godalming was Henry Marshall.
When James John Hissey, the English topographer and travel writer, passed through the town at the turn of the twentieth century, he was not very complimentary about the town, saying:We reached the town of Godalming. I had an ideahow I came about it I cannot saythat Godalming was a pleasant and picturesque town; my drive through it effectually got rid of that idea. I saw nothing pleasant or picturesque about it, even allowing for the determined and depressing drizzle that dulled the outlook. Perhaps I saw things crookedy on that day, but to me, certainly, Godalming looked a one-streeted affair of commonplace houses and shops, with not even a feature amongst the lot worth noticing, not even its old market-house.
Public electricity supply
Godalming claimed world attention in September 1881 as the first town in the world to install a public electricity supply. It was Calder and Barrett who installed a Siemens AC Alternator and dynamo, powered by a waterwheel at Westbrook Mill, on the River Wey. There were several supply cables, some laid in gutters, which fed seven arc lights and 34 Swan incandescent lights. Floods in late 1881 caused problems and later Calder and Barrett withdrew from the contract. It was taken over by Siemens, under which the supply system grew and several technical problems were solved. But in 1884, the whole town reverted to gas lighting as Siemens failed to tender for a contract to light the town. This followed a survey they undertook that failed to show adequate support for the business to be viable. Siemens had also lost money on the scheme in the early years, but was prepared to stay on in order to gain experience. Electricity returned to the town on January 1, 1903.
Geography
Guildford is north-north-east and London north-east of Godalming. The Weald, a remnant forest of small wooded settlements, adjoins the town to the south-west. The North Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty is north of the town centre.
The next railway stations up and down the line are at Farncombe, which has a single residential street connection to Godalming across a strip of Lammas lands, but remains part of the town, and Milford, separated by a green buffer and less dependent in shopping and education.
Elevations, geology and soil
Elevations vary between 36 m (118 ft) AOD by the Guildford Road Rugby Union ground and Broadwater lake at the River Wey's exit from Godalming into Peasmarsh, Shalford, and 106 m (347.76 ft) AOD where Quarter Mile meets Hambledon Road (both residential) in the south-east. Hurtmore Road is also residential: Upper Green/Hurtmore is at 102 m (334.64 ft) AOD. Immediately north and south of the town centre, steep hills reach 95 m (311.67 ft) AOD from 40-45m (131.23-147.63 ft) AOD in the town centre itself.
In rock and mineral structure, the soil is Gault Clay superimposed by Upper Greensand, Claygate Beds and Bagshot Sands. Throughout the narrow east–west middle valley of Godalming and its wide north-east suburbs (Farncombe and Catteshall), the rocky head geological deposit is also found: angular rocks and soil derived locally from extensive frost-shattering and subsequent movement of the material down valley slopes.
There is mainly slightly acid, free-draining soil, for instance on the upper slopes of Godalming, while the lower parts have slowly permeable loamy/clayey, slightly acid, but base-rich soil. This includes the town centre.
Local government
Surrey County Council
Surrey County Council, headquartered in Reigate, is elected every four years. Godalming is represented by two councillors.
Waverley Borough Council
The town is divided into five wards; Binscombe, Central and Ockford, Charterhouse, Farncombe and Catteshall, and Holloway. Godalming has 10 representatives governing the Borough of Waverley, headquartered in Godalming:
Godalming Town Council
See Godalming Town Council website
Landmarks
Godalming Town Council's area has 138 listed buildings, of which 82 are within the town centre itself, and 18 of which are monuments. These include Tudor timber framed buildings, 17th-century brickwork buildings and a wide selection of other buildings. One of its most famous landmarks is 'The Pepperpot' which is Godalming's old town hall.
Significant buildings in the town include Edwin Lutyens's Grade II* listed Red House, and an English public school, Charterhouse, which stands from the town centre, on Charterhouse Hill, which is half-separated from Frith Hill by a steep ravine. Its main building is Grade II listed and the chapel, built by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott, is Grade II* listed.
Winkworth Arboretum, a few miles to the south, has a collection of rare trees and shrubs.
Town halls
The 19th-century town hall, nicknamed The Pepperpot due to its cupola, is a distinctive octagonal building in the High Street. Its uniqueness has made it emblematic of the town. Built in 1814, it took over from the medieval Old Market House, which had held the site since the early Middle Ages. It was in this Market House and its predecessors that the local Hundred Court met and discussed local matters for over a thousand years. The upstairs rooms continued to be used for civic gatherings until 1908. The Pepperpot later housed the town museum and continues to be used as a public function room. The arched area at street level has been used as a market place. Its successor, Godalming Borough Hall, fronts onto Bridge Street.
Jack Phillips memorial cloister and gardens
The radio operator of RMS Titanic, Jack Phillips, was born and lived in Farncombe, worked in Godalming and was then at sea. He is famed for remaining at his post, sending repeated distress calls, until the ship sank. Phillips is remembered in several ways around the town, including a section of Godalming Museum, a memorial fountain, a cloister and garden walk near the church, and a public house named in his honour.
Transport
Rail
Godalming railway station is on the Portsmouth Direct Line between London Waterloo and Portsmouth, served by South Western Railway.
Road
Roads running through or close to Godalming are:
A3, a major trunk road between London and Portsmouth that bypasses Godalming
A281, a main road between Guildford and Pyecombe, north of Brighton, runs east of Godalming.
A283, a main road between Milford and Petworth continues with interruptions to Shoreham-by-Sea.
A286, a main road between Milford and Birdham just beyond Chichester
A3100, a local main road between Guildford and Milford, running through Godalming
B2130, a local road between Godalming and Cranleigh
B3000, a local road between Farncombe and Compton, crossing the A3 and then to the A31 just beyond Puttenham
B3001, a local road between Milford and Farnham
The town is served by buses between the town centre and the main residential areas provided by Arriva Southern Counties and Stagecoach South. A community transport service is provided by "Hoppa". Chaired through difficult early days by Brian Richards, Waverley Hoppa has burgeoned into a low-price provider of minibus and MPV personalised transport for the elderly, the disabled, the young and other travellers with problems.
Air
Godalming lies almost equidistant, , between Heathrow and Gatwick, the two main international airports in South East England. Fairoaks and Farnborough are the closest airfields, but no scheduled services are available from them.
Waterways
The Godalming Navigation terminates at the Bridge Road bridge by the United Church.
Localities
There is residential accommodation in the town centre and adjoining neighbourhoods: east Catteshall to the east, Aaron's Hill and Ockford Ridge to the west, Farncombe, Charterhouse and Frith Hill to the north, and Holloway Hill, Busbridge and Crownpits to the south. Sometimes Milford is classed as a suburb of Godalming.
In general the southern roads towards Busbridge and western ones towards Hurtmore, by Charterhouse School, are the neighbourhoods with the highest average housing prices.
Catteshall
Catteshall is a directly attached neighbourhood and commercial estate in the east of Godalming civil parish, formerly a hamlet between Godalming and the villages of Unstead and Thorncombe Street. Catteshall Manor is at the top of the hill and the former Ram Cider House at the bottom. The name is thought to come from Gattes Hill – a gate to the hill. Two buildings are listed: Ram Cider House and Catteshall Grange, as the manor house is on the higher land now in Busbridge Civil Parish.
Catteshall houses high-tech firms such as Cloud Computing Provider MTI Technology, the business data specialists The Content Group, and the new Surrey Data Park, home to Aegis Data Centre.
Frith Hill
Immediately north of the Lammas lands, Frith Hill is a hillside and hilltop residential neighbourhood that includes seven listed residential buildings: a converted water tower liked by the architectural expert Nicholas Pevsner, two small cemetery chapels, railings and gates form three separate Grade II listings on the town-side hill slope.
The Red House, Frith Hill
The Grade II* Red House was built in 1899 by architect Edwin Lutyens, using Flemish bond brickwork, for a retired clergyman and school housemaster for nearby Charterhouse School. It has been described as "an early seminal work by Lutyens".
Binscombe
Formerly a hamlet distinct from Farncombe and with closer links to Compton, Binscombe expanded from the 1930s onwards with the addition of the Binscombe Housing Estate. It predates both Godalming and Farncombe as a settlement, originating in the Iron Age if not earlier, and continuing into the Roman era as a likely villa site with an associated cemetery. As such it may have had links with the Compton Roman villa and the Roman temple at Wanborough, and so have constituted a comparative local hub within sparsely settled Roman Surrey. Continuity between this and later Saxon settlement is not clear. There is possible evidence of the villa dwelling coming to a violent end.
The name Binscombe, deriving from 'Budenscumbe' or Bȳda's/Bȳden's valley, is first attested in 1227. A notable manorial lord of Binscombe, traditionally linked with the Westbrook estate in Godalming, was Theophilus Oglethorpe (1650–1702), soldier, MP and Jacobite.
Binscombe Farm is of medieval origin. There is a nearby Quaker burial ground in use from 1660 to 1790, where the Quaker leader George Fox preached. A number of other houses date from the 16th century or earlier. Binscombe's centre is designated a conservation area of special architectural or historic interest.
A casualty of the First World War, Charles Wheatley of the Royal Field Artillery, who died aged 28 in a training exercise accident in the field below Binscombe Ridge on 15 March 1915, is buried in Eashing Cemetery.
Binscombe has a church which opened in 1965, a school, a doctors' surgery and adjacent pharmacy, and a parade of shops, including a dentist's and barber's. It appears never to have had a public house, although an "off-sales beerhouse" opened in the late 19th century, gradually evolving into a village shop, which closed in 1964. However, the White Hart in Bourne Road can be said to be within Binscombe's boundaries.
Binscombe is adjacent to the Charterhouse area and its famous public school, but separated from it by a steep offshoot of the North Downs.
Binscombe features as a location in The Hog's Back Mystery (1933) by the detective-fiction writer Freeman Wills Croft. Binscombe is also the main location in John Whitbourn's Binscombe Tales (1998), a Twilight Zone style collection of stories.
Education
Educational establishments in Godalming include:
Independent schools
Charterhouse School is one of England's foremost historic schools. Along with Eton College and Harrow School, it was one of nine schools investigated for poor conditions and financial mismanagement under the terms of the Clarendon Commission established in 1861. The subsequent Public Schools Act passed in 1868 gave rise to the common term of reference and to an improved governance framework for seven independent schools. The school was founded in 1611 in a former Carthusian monastery near Smithfield in London and relocated to Godalming in 1872. School buildings in the 200-acre estate include sporting and academic facilities and a chapel designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott. The Sixth Form is mixed (2:1 boys/girls) and most pupils board.
Prior's Field School is an independent girls' boarding school founded at the beginning of the 20th century by Julia Huxley. There are 450 pupils of which about a quarter are boarders (weekly or termly). The main entry points to the school are at ages 11, 13 and 16. Its most recent ISI inspection in March 2011 awarded the school the top rating, excellent, in all nine categories.
St Hilary's School is an independent preparatory school for boys 2½–7 (around 90) and girls 2½–11 (around 200).
College
Godalming College is in the Holloway Hill area of Godalming. Founded in 1975 on the campus of Godalming Grammar School, it caters for 16–19-year-olds and is state maintained. Awarded Beacon status in 2006, it was the best performing state school for AS/A levels in the Surrey area in 2004; its Ofsted report for 2005 graded the college as "outstanding" in six of the seven key areas and "good" in the 7th.
State secondary schools
Numbers in brackets show the percentage of pupils achieving 5 A–C GCSEs in total, including the key subjects of maths and English.
Broadwater School in the Farncombe area of Godalming, caters for young people from 11 to 16 and has no sixth form (42, 29).
Rodborough Technology College in the village of Milford on the outskirts of Godalming, caters for young people from 11 to 16 and has no sixth form (64, 59).
State primary schools (including grant-aided)
All primary schools in Godalming are coeducational. Infant schools cover the age range 4–7, junior schools cover 8–11.
The figures shown in brackets are value-added (VA) measures of how pupils' performance has improved and aggregate score (AGG), the summed percentages of pupils achieving expected levels in English, maths and science (maximum possible 300).
Loseley Fields Primary School (VA 98.9, AGG 195) is in Binscombe.
Busbridge C of E Aided Junior School, built over 100 years ago by members of nearby Busbridge Church, with which it retains close links. It admits 60 children a year, with preference for Christians, in particular children of Busbridge/Hambledon parish members (VA 100.9, AGG 279).
Busbridge County Infants School in Hambledon Road, Godalming, caters for some 150 children (2007).
Chandler C of E Junior School in Witley civil parish caters for some 330 children.
Godalming Junior School in the Farncombe area of Godalming has 230 children in eight classes (four per year, VA 100.6, AGG 275).
Milford School is an infants school.
Moss Lane School is an infants school.
St Edmunds Catholic Primary School is a voluntary-aided parish school covering primary and junior ranges (4–11). It has links with St Edmund's Church in Godalming and St Joseph's Church in Milford. A 2005 Ofsted report called it as "a good school with a well deserved reputation of providing a good standard of education".(VA 100.1, AGG 282)
Witley C of E Infant School is an infants school.
Earlier schools
Godalming Grammar School 1930–1978
Green Oak C of E Primary School, formerly St Mark's 2008-2019
Community
Places of worship
The Parish Church of St Peter and St Paul's meets in a Grade I listed building. It has an early Saxon chancel and a Norman tower. The Roman Catholic, Quaker, and Unitarian places of worship, the former Congregational chapel, and former Salvation Army hall are all Grade II listed buildings. Godalming currently contains places of worship belonging to five denominations:
Busbridge Church is an evangelical Anglican Church in Busbridge on the southern hill of Godalming.
Godalming Baptist Church is a Baptist church in the centre of Godalming.
St Edmund's is the Roman Catholic parish church, on a hillside off Flambard Way, near the town centre.
Godalming Friends Meeting House is a Quaker place of worship.
Meadrow Unitarian Chapel is on the outskirts of the town in Meadrow.
Sport
Godalming Angling Society was founded in 1881 and has fishing rights to six lakes and the River Wey from Lower Eashing to Guildford.
Godalming Town F. C. currently plays in the Ryman Division One South, level 8, of English football. It was formed in 1950 and plays home games at Wey Court, Meadrow.
Old Carthusians F.C. of Charterhouse won the FA Cup in 1881 and later several FA amateur cups. It was formed in 1876 and plays home games at Charterhouse School Playing Fields.
Cricket has been played in Godalming since at least 1767.
Godalming Cricket Club plays at the Holloway Hill Recreation Ground.
Farncombe Cricket Club
Guildford Rugby Club (formed in 2002 by the merger of Guildford & Godalming RFC and Old Guildfordians RFC) plays in the London 2 South West league at the Broadwater Sports Club in Godalming.
Guildford Hockey Club is based at Broadwater School. The men's 1XI compete in the England Hockey League.
Flat Green Lawn Bowls: Godalming and Farncomb Bowls Club plays at the Burys in central Godalming, Holloway Hill Bowls Club at Holloway Recreation Ground, and Milford Bowls Club at Chapel Lane, Milford.
Several Contract Bridge clubs play at various venues in the town.
Music and theatre
Godalming Band has been active in its current form since 1937, there having been a previous town band established in 1844. The main band and Youth Band play at various community events and concerts throughout the year, some at the town's bandstand, in aid of the band and other local charities.
The amateur Godalming Theatre Group puts on three shows a year at the Ben Travers Theatre, Charterhouse School, Godalming: a spring musical, an autumn drama or comedy, and a Christmas pantomime or show. It also runs a youth theatre group.
Community centres
The Denningberg Centre for the Elderly is named after Danny Denningberg (1923−2011), a local politician granted the Honorary Freedom of the Borough of Waverley in 2007. Denningberg was a community activist and fund-raiser who served on Godalming Borough Council in 1954 and then again from 1963 continuously through the formation of Waverley until 2003, when he retired. Denningberg was also Mayor of Godalming and Mayor of Waverley at times during his public career.
The Wilfrid Noyce Community Centre in Godalming is named after Wilfrid Noyce (1917–1962), a master at Charterhouse and a mountaineer, who was on the expedition that made the first ascent of Mount Everest in 1953.
The Clockhouse, or Milford and Villages Day Centre, is a day centre for people over 50. The money to build it in 1997 was raised from charitable donations and local fundraising.
Godalming is home to The National Autistic Society (NAS) resource centre for the south east and the NAS horizons day centre.
Town lottery
The Godalming Town Lottery "GOLO" was launched in Godalming on 1 November 2008, by the Go-Godalming Association, a member of the Lotteries Council. Tickets are sold at local shops and pubs and the draw takes place on the last Saturday of the month. The first was on Godalming Town Day, 29 November 2008, at the Pepperpot. It is considered to be the first town lottery of its kind. Profits are donated to local causes, the first being the bandstand roof fund.
Shopping
In a charter dated 7 June 1300, King Edward I granted the Bishop of Salisbury the right to hold a weekly market and an annual fair in the town. Godalming remains a typical market town, with a market every Friday and a selection of independent and national retailers selling a wide variety of goods. There are several pubs, restaurants and cafes, occasional visiting French and Italian markets, and an annual Godalming Food Festival.
In popular culture
In Charles Dickens's novel Nicholas Nickleby, Nicholas and Smike walk to Godalming from London on their way to Portsmouth, and stay the night: "To Godalming they came at last, and here they bargained for two humble beds, and slept soundly."
The comic novel The Return of Reginald Perrin, by David Nobbs, contains the following: "Note: It is believed that this book mentions Godalming more than any other book ever written, including A Social, Artistic and Economic History of Godalming by E. Phipps-Blythburgh." The novel was the second in a trilogy, all of which were adapted for television.
James Bond's visit to Shrublands health farm in the ninth James Bond novel Thunderball was inspired by its author Ian Fleming's own 1956 stay at the Enton Hall health farm in Witley near Godalming (the health farm's advertisements had its location as Godalming). Ian Fleming's Bond short story Quantum of Solace referred to Godalming as a venue for retired colonial civil servants with memories of postings to places "that no one at the local golf club would have heard about or would care about."
In the novel Dracula by Bram Stoker, the character Arthur Holmwood is the only son and heir of Lord Godalming and later succeeds to the title.
Much of the action in Bulldog Drummond by Sapper takes place in Godalming.
In The Rose of Tibet (1962) by thriller writer, Lionel Davidson, two characters are described as talking "for hours" of a shared link with Godalming. In a somewhat "backhanded compliment", their exotic (and perilous) Tibetan location is held to be "All a long, long way from damp, soft Godalming with its mushy autumnal leaves underfoot and its dark green trains commuting to Waterloo."
The 2016 album Refresh! by Euros Childs features a song titled "Godalming".
The town's typically English appearance, attractive shop fronts and streets have led to its use as a shooting location for films and television. In February 2006, High Street and Church Street, which runs from the Pepperpot to the parish church, appeared in the production of The Holiday.
Demography and housing
The average level of accommodation in the region composed of detached houses was 28%, the average that was apartments was 22.6%.
The proportion of households in the civil parish who owned their home outright compares to the regional average of 35.1%. The proportion who owned their home with a loan compares to the regional average of 32.5%. The remaining percentage is made up of rented dwellings (plus a negligible percentage of households living rent-free).
Notable people
See also alumni of Godalming Grammar School and List of notable Old Carthusians
Those born here include: James Oglethorpe (born 1696), founder of the colony of Georgia; Julius Caesar (born 1830), cricketer; Aldous Huxley (born 1894), writer; Nick Clarke (born 1948), radio journalist and presenter; Stephen Milligan (born 1948), journalist and politician; and Mick Mills (born 1949), footballer.
The architect Sir Edwin Lutyens began work in 1896 on a house at Munstead Wood, Godalming, for the garden designer Gertrude Jekyll. She died in 1932 and is buried in the churchyard of Busbridge Church, Godalming, next to her brother.
In the 19th century, judge James Wilde, 1st Baron Penzance, lived at Eashing Park, Godalming. Major Cyril Raikes MC lived here. Vere Monckton-Arundell, Viscountess Galway, was born here in 1859.
In the 20th century, George Mallory, who later made a fatal attempt to scale Mount Everest, taught at Charterhouse School, and then lived in the town after marrying Ruth Turner. He died during the 1924 attempt, but Ruth and their three children remained in the area.
W. H. C. Romanis (1889–1972) eminent surgeon and medical author.
Sir William Babtie, recipient of the Victoria Cross, lived at Ockford House, Godalming.
The composer and music critic Peter Warlock (d. 1930) is buried in Godalming.
In the late 20th century, actor Terry-Thomas, comedic actor Terry Scott, actor Christopher Timothy and the singer Alvin Stardust resided in the town.
The band Genesis was formed in 1967 by Peter Gabriel and Tony Banks while they were pupils at Charterhouse School.
Actor Sam Worthington was born in Godalming in 1976, before moving to Australia at a young age.
Billy Dainty a British comedian, dancer, physical comedian and pantomime and television star lived in Godalming. He died on 19 November 1986, aged 59, of prostate cancer at his home, Cobblers, in Godalming.
Significant people currently living in the town include the actress Rachel Hurd-Wood, Great Britain field hockey player Dan Fox, Scottish international footballer John Hansen, mathematics author Matt Parker and his wife, the physics professor Lucie Green, chess grandmaster and author Simon Williams, and sociologist Sara Arber. Architect Elspeth Beard, who lives in the renovated town water tower, was the first English woman to motorcycle around the world.
Paul Merrett, a chef who has appeared several times on British TV, was a pupil at Rodborough.
Jean-Jacques Burnel, bass player of The Stranglers, grew up in Godalming.
Freedom of Godalming
The following have received the Freedom of the Town of Godalming.
John Young: 3 May 2012
Zadie Caudle: 15 March 2019
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
Godalming Town Council
Godalming Museum
Godalming Town Webcams
Photographs of Godalming
Godalming aerial photographs
www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Godalming and surrounding area
Lammas Lands, Godalming
Godalming Electricity
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0.10516795516014099,
0.4477255642414093,
0.2514324486255646,
0.3050408661365509,
-0.5946579575538635,
-0.3378928303718567,
-0.03303855285048485
]
|
213996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygonal%20number | Polygonal number | In mathematics, a polygonal number is a number represented as dots or pebbles arranged in the shape of a regular polygon. The dots are thought of as alphas (units). These are one type of 2-dimensional figurate numbers.
Definition and examples
The number 10 for example, can be arranged as a triangle (see triangular number):
{|
| align="center" style="line-height: 0;" |
|}
But 10 cannot be arranged as a square. The number 9, on the other hand, can be (see square number):
{|
| align="center" style="line-height: 0;" |
|}
Some numbers, like 36, can be arranged both as a square and as a triangle (see square triangular number):
{| cellpadding="5"
|- align="center" valign="bottom"
| style="line-height: 0; display: inline-block;"|
| style="line-height: 0; display: inline-block"|
|}
By convention, 1 is the first polygonal number for any number of sides. The rule for enlarging the polygon to the next size is to extend two adjacent arms by one point and to then add the required extra sides between those points. In the following diagrams, each extra layer is shown as in red.
Triangular numbers
Square numbers
Polygons with higher numbers of sides, such as pentagons and hexagons, can also be constructed according to this rule, although the dots will no longer form a perfectly regular lattice like above.
Pentagonal numbers
Hexagonal numbers
Formula
If is the number of sides in a polygon, the formula for the th -gonal number is
or
The th -gonal number is also related to the triangular numbers as follows:
Thus:
For a given -gonal number , one can find by
and one can find by
.
Every hexagonal number is also a triangular number
Applying the formula above:
to the case of 6 sides gives:
but since:
it follows that:
This shows that the th hexagonal number is also the th triangular number . We can find every hexagonal number by simply taking the odd-numbered triangular numbers:
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, 66, ...
Table of values
The first 6 values in the column "sum of reciprocals", for triangular to octagonal numbers, come from a published solution to the general problem, which also gives a general formula for any number of sides, in terms of the digamma function.
The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences eschews terms using Greek prefixes (e.g., "octagonal") in favor of terms using numerals (i.e., "8-gonal").
A property of this table can be expressed by the following identity (see ):
with
Combinations
Some numbers, such as 36 which is both square and triangular, fall into two polygonal sets. The problem of determining, given two such sets, all numbers that belong to both can be solved by reducing the problem to Pell's equation. The simplest example of this is the sequence of square triangular numbers.
The following table summarizes the set of -gonal -gonal numbers for small values of and .
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
!
!
! Sequence
! OEIS number
|-
|4
|3
|1, 36, 1225, 41616, 1413721, 48024900, 1631432881, 55420693056, 1882672131025, 63955431761796, 2172602007770041, 73804512832419600, 2507180834294496361, 85170343853180456676, 2893284510173841030625, 98286503002057414584576, 3338847817559778254844961, ...
|
|-
|5
|3
|1, 210, 40755, 7906276, 1533776805, 297544793910, 57722156241751, 11197800766105800, 2172315626468283465, …
|
|-
|5
|4
|1, 9801, 94109401, 903638458801, 8676736387298001, 83314021887196947001, 799981229484128697805801, ...
|
|-
|6
|3
|All hexagonal numbers are also triangular.
|
|-
|6
|4
|1, 1225, 1413721, 1631432881, 1882672131025, 2172602007770041, 2507180834294496361, 2893284510173841030625, 3338847817559778254844961, 3853027488179473932250054441, ...
|
|-
|6
|5
|1, 40755, 1533776805, …
|
|-
|7
|3
|1, 55, 121771, 5720653, 12625478965, 593128762435, 1309034909945503, 61496776341083161, 135723357520344181225, 6376108764003055554511, 14072069153115290487843091, …
|
|-
|7
|4
|1, 81, 5929, 2307361, 168662169, 12328771225, 4797839017609, 350709705290025, 25635978392186449, 9976444135331412025, …
|
|-
|7
|5
|1, 4347, 16701685, 64167869935, …
|
|-
|7
|6
|1, 121771, 12625478965, …
|
|-
|8
|3
|1, 21, 11781, 203841, …
|
|-
|8
|4
|1, 225, 43681, 8473921, 1643897025, 318907548961, 61866420601441, 12001766689130625, 2328280871270739841, 451674487259834398561, 87622522247536602581025, 16998317641534841066320321, …
|
|-
|8
|5
|1, 176, 1575425, 234631320, …
|
|-
|8
|6
|1, 11781, 113123361, …
|
|-
|8
|7
|1, 297045, 69010153345, …
|
|-
|9
|3
|1, 325, 82621, 20985481, …
|
|-
|9
|4
|1, 9, 1089, 8281, 978121, 7436529, 878351769, 6677994961, 788758910641, 5996832038649, 708304623404049, 5385148492712041, 636056763057925561, ...
|
|-
|9
|5
|1, 651, 180868051, …
|
|-
|9
|6
|1, 325, 5330229625, …
|
|-
|9
|7
|1, 26884, 542041975, …
|
|-
|9
|8
|1, 631125, 286703855361, …
|
|-
|}
In some cases, such as and , there are no numbers in both sets other than 1.
The problem of finding numbers that belong to three polygonal sets is more difficult. A computer search for pentagonal square triangular numbers has yielded only the trivial value of 1, though a proof that there are no other such numbers has yet to be found.
The number 1225 is hecatonicositetragonal (), hexacontagonal (), icosienneagonal (), hexagonal, square, and triangular.
The only polygonal set that is contained entirely in another polygonal set is the set of hexagonal numbers, which is contained in the set of triangular numbers.
See also
Centered polygonal number
Polyhedral number
Fermat polygonal number theorem
Notes
References
The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers, David Wells (Penguin Books, 1997) [].
Polygonal numbers at PlanetMath
External links
Polygonal Numbers: Every s-polygonal number between 1 and 1000 clickable for 2<=s<=337
Polygonal Number Counting Function: http://www.mathisfunforum.com/viewtopic.php?id=17853
Figurate numbers | [
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|
214004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard%20bop | Hard bop | Hard bop is a subgenre of jazz that is an extension of bebop (or "bop") music. Journalists and record companies began using the term in the mid-1950s to describe a new current within jazz that incorporated influences from rhythm and blues, gospel music, and blues, especially in saxophone and piano playing.
David H. Rosenthal contends in his book Hard Bop that the genre is, to a large degree, the natural creation of a generation of African-American musicians who grew up at a time when bop and rhythm and blues were the dominant forms of black American music. Prominent hard bop musicians included Horace Silver, Clifford Brown, Charles Mingus, Art Blakey, Cannonball Adderley, Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Hank Mobley, Thelonious Monk and Lee Morgan.
Hard bop is sometimes referred to as "funky hard bop". The "funky" label refers to the rollicking, rhythmic feeling associated with the style. The descriptor is also used to describe soul jazz, which is commonly associated with hard bop. According to Mark C. Gridley, soul jazz more specifically refers to music with "an earthy, bluesy melodic concept and... repetitive, dance-like rhythms. Some listeners make no distinction between 'soul-jazz' and 'funky hard bop,' and many musicians don't consider 'soul-jazz' to be continuous with 'hard bop.'" The term "soul" suggests the church, and traditional gospel music elements such as "amen chords" (the plagal cadence) and triadic harmonies that seemed to suddenly appear in jazz during the era.
History
According to Nat Hentoff in his 1957 liner notes for the Art Blakey Columbia LP entitled Hard Bop, the phrase was originated by music critic and pianist John Mehegan, jazz reviewer of the New York Herald Tribune at that time. Hard bop first developed in the mid-1950s, and is generally seen as originating with the Jazz Messengers, a quartet led by pianist Horace Silver and drummer Art Blakey. Some saw hard bop as a response to cool jazz and West Coast jazz. As Paul Tanner, Maurice Gerow, and David Megill explain, "the hard bop school... saw the new instrumentation and compositional devices used by cool musicians as gimmicks rather than valid developments of the jazz tradition." However, Shelly Manne suggested that cool jazz and hard bop simply reflected their respective geographic environments: the relaxed cool jazz style reflected a more relaxed lifestyle in California, while driving bop typified the New York scene. Some writers, such as James Lincoln Collier, suggest that the style was an attempt to recapture jazz as a form of African American expression. Whether or not this was the intent, many musicians quickly adopted the style, regardless of race.
Michael Cuscuna maintains that Silver and Blakey's efforts were in response to the New York bebop scene:
Both Art and Horace were very, very aware of what they wanted to do. They wanted to get away from the jazz scene of the early '50s, which was the Birdland scene—you hire Phil Woods or Charlie Parker or J. J. Johnson, they come and sit in with the house rhythm section, and they only play blues and standards that everybody knows. There's no rehearsal, there's no thought given to the audience. Both Horace and Art knew that the only way to get the jazz audience back and make it bigger than ever was to really make music that was memorable and planned, where you consider the audience and keep everything short. They really liked digging into blues and gospel, things with universal appeal. So they put together what was to be called the Jazz Messengers.
David Rosenthal sees the development of hard bop as a response to both a decline in bebop and the rise of rhythm and blues:
The early fifties saw an extremely dynamic Rhythm and Blues scene take shape.... This music, and not cool jazz, was what chronologically separated bebop and hard bop in ghettos. Young jazz musicians, of course, enjoyed and listened to these R & B sounds which, among other things, began the amalgam of blues and gospel that would later be dubbed 'soul music.' And it is in this vigorously creative black pop music, at a time when bebop seemed to have lost both its direction and its audience, that some of hard bop's roots may be found.
A key recording in the early development of hard bop was Silver's composition "The Preacher", which was considered "old-timey" or "corny", such that Blue Note head Alfred Lion was hesitant to record the song. However, the song became a successful hit.
Miles Davis, who had performed the title track of his album Walkin' at the inaugural Newport Jazz Festival in 1954, would form the Miles Davis Quintet with John Coltrane in 1955, becoming prominent in hard bop before moving on to other styles. Other early documents were the two volumes of the Blue Note albums A Night at Birdland, also from 1954, recorded by the Jazz Messengers at Birdland months before the Davis set at Newport. Clifford Brown, the trumpeter on the Birdland albums, formed the Brown-Roach Quintet with drummer Max Roach. Other musicians who contributed prominently to the hard bop style include Donald Byrd, Tina Brooks, Sonny Clark, Lou Donaldson, Kenny Drew, Benny Golson, Dexter Gordon, Johnny Griffin, Joe Henderson, Freddie Hubbard, Jackie McLean, Blue Mitchell, Hank Mobley, Thelonious Monk, Lee Morgan, Carl Perkins, Bud Powell, Sonny Rollins, and Sonny Stitt.
The hard bop style enjoyed its greatest popularity in the 1950s and 1960s. Even now, hard bop performers and elements of the music remain popular in jazz.
See also
List of hard bop musicians
References
Jazz terminology
Jazz genres | [
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|
214006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro%20Metastasio | Pietro Metastasio | Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi, better known by his pseudonym of Pietro Metastasio (; 3 January 1698 – 12 April 1782), was an Italian poet and librettist, considered the most important writer of opera seria libretti.
Early life
Metastasio was born in Rome, where his father, Felice Trapassi, a native of Assisi, had taken service in the Corsican regiment of the papal forces. Felice married a Bolognese woman, Francesca Galasti, and became a grocer in the Via dei Cappellari. The couple had two sons and two daughters; Pietro was the younger son.
Pietro, while still a child, is said to have attracted crowds by reciting impromptu verses on a given subject. On one such occasion in 1709, two men of distinction stopped to listen: Giovanni Vincenzo Gravina, famous for legal and literary erudition as well as his directorship of the Arcadian Academy, and Lorenzini, a critic of some note. Gravina was attracted by the boy's poetic talent and personal charm, and made Pietro his protégé; in the course of a few weeks he adopted him. Felice Trapassi was glad to give his son the chance of a good education and introduction into society.
Gravina hellenized the boy's name Trapassi into Metastasio, and intended his adopted son to be a jurist like himself. He therefore made the boy learn Latin and law. At the same time he cultivated his literary gifts, and displayed the youthful prodigy both at his own house and in the Roman coteries. Metastasio soon found himself competing with the most celebrated improvvisatori of his time in Italy. However, his days full of study and evenings devoted to improvising poetry took a toll on Pietro's health.
Gravina, making a business trip to Calabria, exhibited Metastasio in the literary circles of Naples, then placed him in the care of his kinsman Gregorio Caroprese at Scaléa. In country air and the quiet of the southern seashore Metastasio's health revived. Gravina decided that he should never improvise again, but should be reserved for nobler efforts, when, having completed his education, he might enter into competition with the greatest poets.
Metastasio responded to his patron's wishes. At the age of twelve he translated the Iliad into octave stanzas; and two years later he composed a Senecan tragedy on a subject from Gian Giorgio Trissino's Italia liberata – Gravina's favourite epic. It was called Giustino, and was printed in 1713; forty-two years later, Metastasio told his publisher that he would willingly suppress this juvenilia.
Caroprese died in 1714, leaving Gravina his heir; and in 1718 Gravina also died. Metastasio inherited a fortune of 15,000 scudi. At a meeting of the Arcadian Academy, he recited an elegy to his patron, and then settled down to enjoy his wealth.
Roman fame
Metastasio was now twenty. During the last four years he had worn the costume of abbé, having taken the minor orders without which it was then useless to expect advancement in Rome. His romantic history, personal beauty, charming manners and distinguished talents made him fashionable. Within two years he had spent his money and increased his reputation. He decided to apply himself seriously to the work of his profession. He migrated to Naples, and entered the office of an eminent lawyer named Castagnola, who exercised severe control over his time and energies.
While slaving at the law, Metastasio in 1721 composed an epithalamium, and probably also his first musical serenade, Endimione (Endymion), on the occasion of the marriage of his patroness Donna Anna Francesca Ravaschieri Pinelli di Sangro (later 6th Principessa di Belmonte) to the Marchese Don Antonio Pignatelli (later His Serene Highness Prince of Belmonte). In 1722, while Naples was under Austrian rule, the birthday of Empress Elisabeth Christine had to be celebrated with more than ordinary honours, and the viceroy asked Metastasio to compose a serenata for the occasion. Metastasio accepted, but kept his authorship secret. He wrote "Gli orti esperidi", which was set to music by Nicola Porpora, and sung by Porpora's pupil, the castrato Farinelli, making a spectacular début, it won the most enthusiastic applause. The Roman prima donna, Marianna Bulgarelli, who played Venus in this opera, spared no pains until she had discovered its author.
Bulgarelli persuaded the poet to give up the law, and promised to secure for him fame and independence if he would devote his talents to the musical drama. In her house Metastasio became acquainted with the greatest composers of the day: Johann Adolph Hasse, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Alessandro Scarlatti, Leonardo Vinci, Leonardo Leo, Francesco Durante, and Benedetto Marcello, all of whom would later set his plays to melody. Here too he studied the art of singing, and learned to appreciate the style of such men as Farinelli. Metastasio wrote quickly and his plays were enhanced by being set to music and sung by the greatest singers of the day..
Metastasio lived with Bulgarelli and her husband in Rome. Moved by an affection half maternal, half romantic, and by admiration for his talent, she adopted him more passionately even than Gravina had done. She took the whole Trapassi family – father, mother, brother, sisters – into her own house. She fostered the poet's genius and pampered his caprices. Under her influence he wrote in rapid succession Didone abbandonata, Catone in Utica, Ezio, Alessandro nell' Indie, Semiramide riconosciuta, Siroe and Artaserse. These dramas were set to music by the chief composers of the day, and performed in the chief towns of Italy.
But meanwhile Bulgarelli was growing older; she had ceased to sing in public; and the poet increasingly felt his dependence upon her kindness irksome. He gained 300 scudi for each opera; this pay, though good, was precarious and he longed for some fixed engagement. In September 1729 he received the offer of the post of court poet to the theatre at Vienna, succeeding Pietro Pariati, with a stipend of 3000 florins. This he at once accepted. Bulgarelli unselfishly sped him on his way to glory. She took charge of his family in Rome and he set off for Austria.
Vienna
In the early summer of 1730, Metastasio settled at Vienna in an apartment in the so-called 'Michaelerhaus'. This date marks a new period in his artistic activity. Between the years 1730 and 1740 his finest dramas, Adriano in Siria, Demetrio, Issipile, Demofoonte, Olimpiade, Clemenza di Tito, Achille in Sciro, Temistocle and Attilio Regolo, were produced for the imperial theatre. Some of them had to be composed for special occasions, with almost incredible rapidity: Achille in eighteen days, Ipermestra in nine. Poet, composer, musical copyist and singer did their work together in frantic haste. Metastasio understood the technique of his peculiar art in its minutest details. The experience gained at Naples and Rome, quickened by the excitement of his new career at Vienna, enabled him almost instinctively, and as it were by inspiration, to hit the exact mark aimed at in the opera.
The libretto Adriano in Siria was used by more than 60 other composers in the 18th and early 19th century: Antonio Caldara (1732), Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1734), Francesco Maria Veracini (1735), Baldassare Galuppi (1740), Carl Heinrich Graun (1746), Johann Adolph Hasse (1752), Johann Christian Bach (1765), Luigi Cherubini (1782) and in Adriano in Siria (Mysliveček) from (1776).
In Vienna Metastasio met with no marked social success. His plebeian birth excluded him from aristocratic circles. To make up in some measure for this comparative failure, he enjoyed the intimacy of the , sister-in-law of his old patroness the Princess Belmonte Pignatelli. She had lost her husband, and had some while occupied the post of chief favourite to the emperor. Metastasio's liaison with her became so close that it was believed they had been privately married.
Bulgarelli tired of his absence, and asked Metastasio to get her an engagement at the court theatre. He was ashamed of her and tired of her, and wrote dissuading her from the projected visit. The tone of his letters alarmed and irritated her. She seems to have set out from Rome, but died suddenly upon the road. All we know is that she left him her fortune after her husband's life interest in it had expired, and that Metastasio, overwhelmed with grief and remorse, immediately renounced the legacy. This disinterested act plunged the Bulgarelli-Metastasio household at Rome into confusion. Bulgarelli's widower married again. Metastasio's brother, Leopoldo Trapassi, and his father and sister, were thrown upon their own resources.
As time advanced, the life which Metastasio led at Vienna, together with the climate, told on his health and spirits. From about the year 1745 onward he wrote little, though the cantatas which belong to this period, and the canzonetta Ecco quel fiero istante, which he sent to his friend Farinelli, rank among the most popular of his productions. It was clear, as Vernon Lee has phrased it, that "what ailed him was mental and moral ennui". In 1755 the Countess Althann died, and Metastasio's social contacts were reduced to the gatherings round him in the bourgeois house of his friend Nicolo Martinez, the secretary to the papal Nuncio in Vienna. He sank rapidly into the habits of old age; and, though he lived till the year 1782, he was very inactive. He died on 12 April, bequeathing his whole fortune of some 130,000 florins to the six children of Nicolo Martinez. He had survived all his Italian relatives.
Throughout the forty years of his career in Vienna, in the course of which Metastasio eventually outlived his own originality and creative powers, his fame went on increasing. In his library he counted as many as forty editions of his own works. They had been translated into French, English, German, Spanish, and modern Greek. They had been set to music over and over again by every composer of distinction. They had been sung by the best virtuosi in every capital, and there was not a literary academy of note which had not conferred on him the honour of membership. Strangers of distinction passing through Vienna made a point of paying their respects to the old poet at his lodgings in the Kohlmarkt Gasse.
But his poetry was intended for a certain style of music – for the music of omnipotent vocalists, of exceedingly skilled sopranos and castrati. When the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart—focusing more on psychology and less on virtuoso singing—came into vogue, a new style of libretto was needed. (Mozart did use an old Metastasio libretto for his renowned opera La clemenza di Tito, but, it was substantially re-written for the purpose.) The demise of castrato singing meant that Metastasio's operas dropped out of the repertory.
Metastasio's poetry is emotional, lyrical, and romantic. His chief dramatic situations are expressed by lyrics for two or three voices, embodying the several contending passions of the agents brought into conflict by the circumstances of the plot. The total result is not pure literature, but literature fit for musical effect. Language in Metastasio's hands is musical, lucid, and songlike, perhaps due to his experience as an improvisatory poet. He was an admirer of Torquato Tasso, Giambattista Marino, Giovanni Battista Guarini, and Ovid.
Works
Operas
The names of the first composers to set the respective texts to music is indicated next to the title
Siface, re di Numidia (1723) – Francesco Feo
Didone abbandonata (1724) – Domenico Sarro
L'impresario delle Isole Canarie (1724) – Domenico Sarro
Siroe rè di Persia (1726) – Leonardo Vinci
Catone in Utica (1728) – Leonardo Vinci
Ezio (1728) – Pietro Auletta
Alessandro nell'Indie (1729) – Leonardo Vinci
Semiramide riconosciuta (1729) – Leonardo Vinci
Artaserse (1730) – Leonardo Vinci
Demetrio (1731) – Antonio Caldara
Adriano in Siria (1732) – Antonio Caldara
Issipile (1732) – Francesco Conti
Demofoonte (1733) – Antonio Caldara
L'Olimpiade (1733) – Antonio Caldara
La clemenza di Tito (1734) – Antonio Caldara
Achille in Sciro (1736) – Antonio Caldara
Ciro riconosciuto (1736) – Antonio Caldara
Temistocle (1736) – Antonio Caldara
Zenobia (1740) – Luca Antonio Predieri
Antigono (1743) – Johann Adolph Hasse
Ipermestra (1744) – Johann Adolph Hasse
Attilio Regolo (1750) – Johann Adolph Hasse
Il re pastore (1751) – Giuseppe Bonno
L'eroe cinese (1752) – Giuseppe Bonno
Nitteti (1756) – Nicola Conforto
Il trionfo di Clelia (1762) – Johann Adolph Hasse
Romolo ed Ersilia (1765) – Johann Adolph Hasse
Ruggiero (1771) – Johann Adolph Hasse
Other stage works
Giustino (1712)
Angelica (1720)
Endimione (1721)
Gli orti esperdi (1721)
La Galatea (1722)
La contesa de' numi (1729)
Il tempio dell'Eternità (1731)
Amor prigioniero (1732)
L'asilo d'Amore (1732)
Il palladio conservato (1735)
Il sogno di Scipione (1735)
Le cinesi (1735)
Le grazie vendicate (1735)
Il Parnaso accusato e difeso (1738)
La pace fra la virtù e la bellezza (1738)
Astrea placata (1739)
Il natale di Giove (1740)
Il vero omaggio (1743)
Augurio di felicità (1749)
La rispettosa tenerezza (1750)
L'isola disabitata (1753)
Tributo di rispetto e d'amore (1754)
La gara (1755)
Il sogno (1756)
La ritrosia disarmata (1759)
Alcide al bivio (1760)
L'Atenaide (Gli affetti generosi) (1762)
Egeria (1764)
Il Parnaso confuso (1765)
Il trionfo d'Amore (1765)
La corona (1765)
La pace fra le tre dee (1765)
Partenope (1767)
L'ape (n.d.)
Oratorios
Per la festività del santo natale (1727)
La passione di Gesù Cristo (1730)
Sant'Elena al Calvario (1731)
La morte d'Abel (1732)
Giuseppe riconosciuto (1733)
Betulia liberata (1734)
Gioas re di Giuda (1735)
Isacco figura del Redentore (1740)
Cantatas
Canzonettas
A Nice Canzonetta La libertà La partenza La primavera L'estate Palinodia Other works
9 complimenti
33 strofe per musica
32 sonetti
4 poemi sacri
Numerosi testi per arie
References
Notes
Sources
Aluigi, Metastasio's Life, (Assisi, 1783), London: Charles Burney, 1796, and others.
Kirkpatrick, David A. (2009), The Role of Metastasio's Libretti in the Eighteenth Century: Opera as Propaganda, VDM Verlag Dr. Müller and Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations. Paper 2883 Florida State University, 2005.
Metastasio: His works were published in numerous editions, but his personal favourites were those published under his own supervision by Calzabigi (Paris, 1755, 5 vols.). The posthumous works were printed in Vienna in 1795.
Neville, Don (1990). Frontier Research in Opera and Multimedia Preservation: a Project Involving the Documentation and Full Text Retrieval of the Libretti of Pietro Metastasio. London (Ontario): Faculty of Music, University of Western Ontario. Without ISBN
Stendhal, Vie de Haydn, Mozart et Métastase, 1817.
Further reading
Burden, Michael, "Reading Henry Tresham’s theatre curtain: Metastasio’s apotheosis, and the Idea of Opera at London’s Pantheon", in Cambridge Opera Journal, 31/1 (2019), pp. 26-62.
Robert Torre, "Operatic Twins & Musical Rivals: Two Settings of Artaserse (1730)", Discourses in Music, vol. 6 no. 1, (Summer 2006).
External links
Drammi of Metastasio
Pietro Metastasio: Drammi per musica
Handbook for Metastasio Research
Pietro Metastasio: Poeta dell'Unità culturale europea
Metastasio's works: text, concordances and frequency list
"Biography: Pietre Metastasio", The Every-day Book and Table Book; or, Everlasting Calendar of Popular Amusements, Sports, Pastimes, Ceremonies, Manners, Customs, and Events, Each of the Three Hundred and Sixty-Five Days, in Past and Present Times; Forming a Complete History of the Year, Months, and Seasons, and a Perpetual Key to the Almanac, Including Accounts of the Weather, Rules for Health and Conduct, Remarkable and Important Anecdotes, Facts, and Notices, in Chronology, Antiquities, Topography, Biography, Natural History, Art, Science, and General Literature; Derived from the Most Authentic Sources, and Valuable Original Communication, with Poetical Elucidations, for Daily Use and Diversion. Vol III.'', ed. William Hone, (London: 1838) pp. 421–24.
Article: Torre, Robert. "Operatic Twins and Musical Rivals: Two Settings of Artaserse (1730)" Discourses in Music: Volume 6 Number 1 (Summer 2006)
1698 births
1782 deaths
18th-century Italian poets
Italian male poets
Writers from Rome
Italian opera librettists
Members of the Academy of Arcadians
Italian expatriates in Austria
Italian male dramatists and playwrights
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's librettists
18th-century Italian dramatists and playwrights
18th-century Italian male writers | [
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|
214010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo%20Vinci | Leonardo Vinci | Leonardo Vinci (1690 – 27 May 1730) was an Italian composer known chiefly for his 40 or so operas; comparatively little of his work in other genres survives. A central proponent of the Neapolitan School of opera, his influence on subsequent opera composers such as Johann Adolph Hasse and Giovanni Battista Pergolesi was considerable.
Life and career
He was born at Strongoli and educated at Naples under Gaetano Greco in the Conservatorio dei Poveri di Gesù Cristo. He first became known for his opere buffe (comic operas) in Neapolitan dialect in 1719; he also composed many opere serie (dramatic operas). He was received into the Congregation of the Rosary, a lay religious and burial fraternity, at Formiello in 1728. He died in May 1730. Vinci is rumoured to have been poisoned by a jealous husband in the wake of an ill-advised affair, a story which is given by several reliable authorities without evident contradictions.
Music
Vinci's opere buffe, of which Li zite 'ngalera (1722) is generally regarded as the best, are full of life and spirit; his opere serie, of which Didone Abbandonata (Rome, 1726) and Artaserse (Rome, 1730) are the most notable, have an incisive vigour and directness of dramatic expression praised by music historian Charles Burney. According to Burney,
The well-known aria "Vo solcando," from Artaserse, is a good example of his style.
Works
Operas
Le doje lettere (1719)
Lo cecato fauzo (1719)
Lo scagno (1720)
Lo scassone (1720)
Lo Barone di Trocchia (1721)
Don Ciccio (1721)
Li zite 'ngalera (1722)
La festa di Bacco (1722)
Publio Cornelio Scipione (1722)
Lo castiello sacchiato (1722)
Lo labberinto (1723)
Semiramide (1723)
Silla dittatore (1723)
Farnace (1724)
La mogliera fedele (1724)
Turno Aricino (1724)
Ifigenia in Tauride (1725)
La Rosmira fedele (1725) also known as Partenope (1725)
Il trionfo di Camilla (1725)
Elpidia (1725)
L'Astianatte (1725)
Didone abbandonata (1726)
Siroe, Re di Persia (1726)
L'asteria (1726)
Ernelinda (1726)
Gismondo, Re di Polonia (1727)
La caduta dei Decemviri (1727)
Il Medo (1728)
Catone in Utica (1728)
Flavio Anicio Olibrio (1728)
Alessandro nell'Indie (1729)
Farnace (1729)
La Contesa dei Numi (1729)
Massimiano (1729)
Artaserse (1730)
Other works
In addition to operas, Vinci wrote a few cantatas, sonatas, a serenata, and two oratorios (Oratorio di Maria dolorata ca. 1723 and Oratorio per la Santissima Vergine del Rosario ca. 1730). His sonata in D major for flute and basso continuo is still played today. He composed two sonatas for the recorder in addition to a recorder concerto in A minor.
Selected recordings
Fileno – Soprano Cantatas Mesta Oh Dio, tra queste selve. Mi costa tante lacrime. Amor di Citerea. Parto, ma con qual core. Emanuela Galli & Francesca Cassinari, Stile Galante, Stefano Aresi. With work wrongly attributed to Vinci by Alessandro Scarlatti Fille, tu parti? Oh Dio! Pan Classics 2011.
In 2015 Decca released a Parnassus Arts Productions recording of his 3-act opera seria, Catone in Utica (Rome, 1728).
Notes
References
Sources
External links
1690 births
1730 deaths
18th-century Italian male musicians
Neapolitan school composers
18th-century Italian composers
Italian Baroque composers
Italian male classical composers
Italian opera composers
Male opera composers
People from the Province of Crotone | [
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|
214011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hy%C5%8Dgo%20Prefecture | Hyōgo Prefecture | is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region of Honshu. Hyōgo Prefecture has a population of 5,469,762 () and has a geographic area of . Hyōgo Prefecture borders Kyoto Prefecture to the east, Osaka Prefecture to the southeast, and Okayama Prefecture and Tottori Prefecture to the west.
Kōbe is the capital and largest city of Hyōgo Prefecture, and the seventh-largest city in Japan, with other major cities including Himeji, Nishinomiya, and Amagasaki. Hyōgo Prefecture's mainland stretches from the Sea of Japan to the Seto Inland Sea, where Awaji Island and a small archipelago of islands belonging to the prefecture are located. Hyōgo Prefecture is a major economic center, transportation hub, and tourist destination in western Japan, with 20% of the prefecture's land area designated as Natural Parks. Hyōgo Prefecture forms part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area, the second-most-populated urban region in Japan after the Greater Tokyo area and one of the world's most productive regions by GDP.
History
Present-day Hyōgo Prefecture includes the former provinces of Harima, Tajima, Awaji, and parts of Tanba and Settsu.
In 1180, near the end of the Heian period, Emperor Antoku, Taira no Kiyomori, and the Imperial court moved briefly to Fukuhara, in what is now the city of Kobe. There the capital remained for five months.
Himeji Castle, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is in the city of Himeji.
Southern Hyōgo Prefecture was severely devastated by the 6.9 Mw Great Hanshin earthquake of 1995, which destroyed major parts of Kobe and Awaji, as well as Takarazuka and neighboring Osaka Prefecture, killing nearly 6,500 people.
Geography
Hyōgo has coastlines on two seas: to the north, the Sea of Japan, to the south, the Seto Inland Sea. On Awaji Island, Hyōgo borders the Pacific Ocean coastline in the Kii Channel. The northern portion is sparsely populated, except for the city of Toyooka, and the central highlands are only populated by tiny villages. Most of Hyōgo's population lives on the southern coast, which is part of the Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto metropolitan area. Awaji is an island that separates the Inland Sea and Osaka Bay, lying between Honshu and Shikoku.
Summertime weather throughout Hyōgo is hot and humid. As for winter conditions in Hyōgo, the north of Hyōgo tends to receive abundant snow, whilst the south receives only the occasional flurry.
Hyōgo borders on Osaka Prefecture, Kyoto Prefecture, Tottori Prefecture and Okayama Prefecture.
20% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely the Sanin Kaigan and Setonaikai National Parks; Hyōnosen-Ushiroyama-Nagisan Quasi-National Park; and Asago Gunzan, Harima Chūbu Kyūryō, Inagawa Keikoku, Izushi-Itoi, Kasagatayama-Sengamine, Kiyomizu-Tōjōko-Tachikui, Onzui-Chikusa, Seiban Kyūryō, Seppiko-Mineyama, Tajima Sangaku, and Taki Renzan Prefectural Natural Parks.
Current municipalities
Islands
Awaji Island
Ieshima Islands
Two major artificial islands are located Hyōgo Prefecture:
Rokkō Island
Port Island
National parks
Sanin Kaigan National Park
Setonaikai National Park
Hyōnosen-Ushiroyama-Nagisan Quasi-National Park
Mergers
Future mergers
The city of Akō and the only town in Akō District (Kamigōri), were scheduled to merge and the city would still retain the name Akō. Akō District would be defunct if the merger was successful. However, the merger hasn't taken place.
Economy
As in all prefectures nationwide, agriculture, forestry, and fisheries play a big role in the economy of Hyogo Prefecture.
Hyōgo Prefecture also has an IT industry, many heavy industries, metal and medical, Kobe Port being one of the largest ports in Japan. Kobe Port also hosts one of the world's fastest supercomputers, and Hyogo Prefecture passed laws to keep Kobe Port free of nuclear weapons (a nuclear-free zone) since the year 1975.
Hyōgo is a part of the Hanshin Industrial Region. There are two research institutes of Riken, natural sciences research institute in Japan, in Kobe and Harima. "SPring-8", a synchrotron radiation facility, is in Harima.
Culture
National Treasures of Japan
Himeji Castle in Himeji (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
Jōdo-ji in Ono
Ichijō-ji in Kasai
Kakurin-ji in Kakogawa
Taisan-ji in Kobe
Chōkō-ji in Katō
Chorakuji in Kami, Hyōgo (Mikata)
Important Preservation Districts for Groups of Historic Buildings in Japan
Kitano-chō Yamamoto-dōri
Izushi
Sasayama
Museums
Hyōgo Prefectural Museum of Art in Nada Ward, Kobe.
Kobe City Museum in Chuo Ward, Kobe.
Kobe Maritime Museum in Chuo Ward, Kobe.
KOSETSU Museum of Art in Higashinada Ward, Kobe.
Hakutsuru Fine Art Museum in Higashinada Ward, Kobe.
Himeji City Museum of Art in Himeji.
Asago Art Village in Asago.
Ashiya City Museum of Art & History in Ashiya.
TEKISUI MUSEUM OF ART in Ashiya.
Osamu Tezuka Manga Museum in Takarazuka.
Education
Universities
Amagasaki
Sonoda Women's University
St. Thomas University (ex-Eichi University) – closed in 2015
Takarazuka
Takarazuka University
Koshien University
Sanda
Kwansei Gakuin University (Sanda Campus)
Nishinomiya
Kobe College
Kwansei Gakuin University
Otemae University
Mukogawa Women's University
Ashiya
Ashiya University
Kobe
Kobe University
Kobe University of Commerce
Kobe Gakuin University
Kobe City University of Foreign Studies
Kobe Women's University
Kobe Shukugawa Gakuin University
Kobe Institute of Computing
Konan University
University of Marketing and Distribution Sciences
University of Hyogo
Kato
Hyogo University of Teacher Education
Akashi
University of Hyogo
Kakogawa
Hyogo University
Himeji
Himeji Institute of Technology
Himeji Dokkyo University
Himeji Kinki University
University of Hyogo
Akō
University of Hyogo
High schools
There are 163 public and 52 private high schools within Hyogo prefecture. Of the public high schools, some are administered by the Hyogo prefectural government, whilst the others are administered by local municipalities.
Ashiya International Secondary School, founded 2003
Sports
The sports teams listed below are based in Hyōgo.
Football (soccer)
Vissel Kobe (Kobe)
INAC Kobe Leonessa (Women's) (Kobe)
Baseball
Orix Buffaloes (Kobe)
Hanshin Tigers (Nishinomiya)
Volleyball
Hisamitsu Springs (Kobe)
JT Marvelous (Nishinomiya)
Rugby
Kobelco Steelers (Kobe)
World Fighting Bull (Kobe)
Basketball
Nishinomiya Storks (Nishinomiya)
Tourism
A popular troupe of Takarazuka Revue plays in Takarazuka.
Arima Onsen in the south of the province in Kita-ku, Kobe is one of the Three Ancient Springs in Japan. The north of Hyogo Prefecture has sightseeing spots such as Kinosaki Onsen, Izushi, and Yumura Onsen. Takeda Castle in Asago is often referred to locally as the "Machu Picchu of Japan". The matsuba crab and Tajima beef are both national delicacies.
Festival and events
Miyuki Street New Year's midnight traditional sale, Himeji
Nishinomiya Shrine's Ebisu Festival in January
Yanagihara Ebisu Festival in January, Kobe
Tada Shrine's Genji Festival in April, Kawanishi
Kobe Festival and Parade in May
Aioi Peron Festival in May
Himeji Yukata Festival in June
Dekansho Bon Dancing Festival in August, Sasayama
Nada Fighting Festival, Himeji
Kobe Luminarie in December
Ako Chushingura Parade
Transportation
Rail
JR West
San'yō Shinkansen
JR Kobe Line
Wadamisaki Line
San'yō Main Line
San'in Line
Fukuchiyama Line (JR Takarazuka Line)
Kakogawa Line
Bantan Line
Kishin Line
Akō Line
Hankyu Railway
Kobe Line
Kobe Kosoku Line
Itami Line
Imazu Line
Koyo Line
Takarazuka Line
Nose Railway
Myoken Line
Nissei Line
Shintetsu
Arima Line
Kobe Kosoku Line
Sanda Line
Kōen-Toshi Line
Ao Line
Hokushin Kyūkō Electric Railway
Kobe Municipal Subway
Seishin-Yamate Line
Kaigan Line
Hojo Railway (Ao-Hojo)
Hanshin Railway
Main Line
Kobe Kosoku Line
Mukogawa Line
Hanshin Nanba Line
Sanyo Railway
Main Line
Aboshi Line
Chizu Express
Kitakinki Tango Railway
Miyazu Line
People movers
Kobe New Transit
Port Liner
Rokkō Liner
Road
Expressways
Chūgoku Expressway
San'yō Expressway
Kobe-Awaji-Naruto Expressway
Meishin Expressway
Maizuru-Wakasa Expressway
Bantan Expressway
Second Shinmei road
Hanshin Expressway
National highways
Route 2
Route 9
Route 28
Route 29
Route 43
Route 171
Route 173
Route 174 (Sannomiya-Kobe Port)
Route 175
Route 176
Route 178
Route 179
Route 250
Route 312
Route 372
Route 373
Route 426
Route 427
Route 428
Route 429
Route 436
Route 477
Route 482
Route 483
Ports
Kobe Port – Mainly international container hub port
Akashi Port
Shikama Port – Mainly Shōdo Island route ferry
Airport
Kobe Airport
Konotori Tajima Airport
Notable people
Ume Aoki, manga artist
Mana Ashida, child actress from Nishinomiya
Koichi Domoto, singer of KinKi Kids
Heath, musician, singer-songwriter and bassist of X Japan is from Amagasaki
Hiro Fujiwara, manga artist
Miracle Hikaru, comedian and impersonator is from Toyooka
Kanō Jigorō, founder of the martial art Judo
Jun, musician, singer-songwriter and guitarist of Phantasmagoria is from Kobe
Shinji Kagawa, footballer from Kobe
Tomoya Kanki, drummer of One Ok Rock
Takumi Kawanishi (J-pop idol singer and dancer, member of JO1)
Tomomi Ogawa, bassist of Scandal
Itzuki Yamazaki, professional wrestler from Ieshima
Kaoru, guitarist of Dir En Grey
Ayaka Kimura, actress, former singer of Coconuts Musume is from Kobe
Keiko Kitagawa, actress from Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon and Buzzer Beat was born in Kobe
Miho Komatsu, singer and songwriter from Kobe
Yūji Kuroiwa, politician from Kobe, current governor of Kanagawa Prefecture
Kamui Kobayashi, former Sauber and Toyota Racing driver from Amagasaki
Chisa Maekawa, singer of Girl Next Door
Kiyomatsu Matsubara, ichthyologist, herpetologist and marine biologist
Aya Matsuura, singer is from Himeji
Ryuto Kazuhara, vocalist of Generations from Exile Tribe is from Amagasaki
Mina Myoui – American-born Japanese singer of South Korean group Twice. Raised in Nishinomiya
Hiro Matsushita – Businessman, former driver in Champ Car series. Chairman of Swift Engineering & Swift Xi
Miyavi, musician, although born in Konohana-ku, Osaka grew up in Kawanishi
Minako Nishiyama, contemporary artist
Masamune Shirow, manga artist was born in Kobe
So Taguchi, outfielder for the Chicago Cubs
Masahiro Tanaka, pitcher for the New York Yankees
Nagaru Tanigawa, creator of the Haruhi Suzumiya series was born in Kinki
Tsuneko Taniuchi, contemporary performance artist
Fumito Ueda, video game creator of Ico, Shadow of the Colossus, and The Last Guardian
Juri Ueno, Japanese Academy Award-winning actress best known for her performances in Swing Girls and the live-action adaptation of Nodame Cantabile, is from Kakogawa
Shota Yasuda, guitarist of Kanjani Eight is from Amagasaki
Piko, musician, Vocaloid singer born in Kobe, Hyōgo
Sister regions
Hyogo entered a sister state relationship with Washington state in the United States on October 22, 1963, the first such arrangement between Japan and the United States.
In 1981, a sister state agreement was drawn up between Hyogo and the state of Western Australia in Australia. To commemorate the 10th anniversary of this agreement in 1992, the Hyogo Prefectural Government Cultural Centre was established in Perth.
See also
Banshu Yamasaki Iris Garden
Fastest Computer in the world
Citations
General references
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. . .
External links
Official Hyōgo prefecture homepage
Hyōgo prefecture tourist guide
Hyōgo Business & Cultural Center
Medical Services in Hyōgo prefecture
Kansai region
Prefectures of Japan | [
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|
214012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Salemi | Joseph Salemi | Joseph "Pete" Salemi (September 15, 1902 – January 17, 2003) was an Italian American jazz trombonist.
Salemi was born in Corleone in Sicily on September 15, 1902. Salemi was the youngest of three sons and a daughter. He came to the United States in 1914 with his father. As a trombonist, Salemi played with Frank Sinatra and Judy Garland, but is best known for his recording work with the Gene Kardos Orchestra from 1931. He also played with various other big bands.
Salemi played at the inaugurations of both Presidents Harry Truman and Dwight Eisenhower.
References
1902 births
2003 deaths
American centenarians
Italian centenarians
American people of Italian descent
American jazz trombonists
Male trombonists
People from Corleone
20th-century American musicians
20th-century trombonists
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
Musicians from the Province of Palermo
Men centenarians | [
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|
214016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Burney | Charles Burney | Charles Burney (7 April 1726 – 12 April 1814) was an English music historian, composer and musician. He was the father of the writers Frances Burney and Sarah Burney, of the explorer James Burney, and of Charles Burney, a classicist and book donor to the British Museum.
Early life and career
Charles Burney was born at Raven Street, Shrewsbury, the fourth of six children of James Macburney (1678–1749), a musician, dancer and portrait painter, and his second wife Ann (née Cooper, c. 1690–1775). In childhood he and a brother Richard (1723–1792) were for unknown reasons sent to the care of a "Nurse Ball" at nearby Condover, where they lived until 1739. He began formal education at Shrewsbury School in 1737 and was later sent in 1739 to The King's School, Chester, where his father then lived and worked. His first music master was a Mr Baker, the cathedral organist, and a pupil of Dr John Blow. Returning to Shrewsbury at the age of 15, Burney continued his musical studies for three years under his half-brother, James Burney, organist of St Mary's Church, and was then sent to London as a pupil of Dr Thomas Arne for three years.
Burney wrote some music for Thomson's Alfred, which was produced at Drury Lane Theatre on 30 March 1745. In 1749 he was appointed organist of St Dionis Backchurch, Fenchurch Street, with a salary of £30 a year. According to the voting book, he secured the post against six other candidates with votes 50 to 4. He was also engaged to take the harpsichord in the "New Concerts" then recently established at the King's Arms, Cornhill. It was for his health that he went in 1751 to Lynn Regis in Norfolk, where he was elected organist, with an annual salary of £100. He lived there for nine years. During that time he began to entertain the idea of writing a general history of music. His Ode for St Cecilia's Day was performed at Ranelagh Gardens in 1759. In 1760 he returned to London in good health and with a young family. His eldest child, Esther, a girl of eight, surprised the public with her achievements as a harpsichord player. The concertos for harpsichord which Burney published soon after his return to London were much admired. In 1766 he produced, at Drury Lane, a translation and adaptation of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's opera Le Devin du village, under the title of The Cunning Man.
Family and social life
In 1749, while working as an organist and harpsichordist in London, Charles married Esther Sleepe. The couple had six children: Esther or Hetty, who later became Mrs Burney on marrying her cousin Charles Rousseau Burney, the explorer James Burney, the celebrated writer Frances Burney (often called Fanny), Susan (Susy), Charlotte (later Mrs Francis), and Charles Burney, a classicist and school headmaster.
As vividly recorded by Fanny, the family moved in a lively cultural circle in London, which included the portrait painter Sir Joshua Reynolds, the lexicographer Samuel Johnson, the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan, the composer Harriet Wainwright, the essayist Edmund Burke and the MP for Southwark Henry Thrale, whose wife Hester Thrale was a close friend of Fanny's.
Charles's first wife Esther died in 1761. In 1767 he was married a second time, to Elizabeth Allen (Mrs Stephen Allen) of Lynn. From this union he had a son, Richard Thomas, and a daughter, Sarah Harriet Burney, who became a novelist.
Later career
The University of Oxford honoured Burney, on 23 June 1769, with the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Music, and his own work was performed. This consisted of an anthem, with an overture, solos, recitatives and choruses, accompanied by instruments, besides a vocal anthem in eight parts, which was not performed. In 1769 he published An essay towards a history of the principal comets that have appeared since 1742. Amidst his various professional avocations, Burney never lost sight of his main project, his History of Music. He decided to travel abroad and collect materials that could not be found in Britain. He left London in June 1770, carrying numerous letters of introduction, and travelled to Paris, Geneva, Turin, Milan, Padua, Venice, Bologna (where he met Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart), Florence, Rome and Naples. The results of his observations were published in a well-received book, The Present State of Music in France and Italy (1771). In July 1772 Burney again visited the continent to do further research, and on his return to London published an account of his tour under the title The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands and United Provinces (1773). In 1773 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.
In 1776 appeared the first volume (in quarto) of Burney's long-projected History of Music. In 1782 Burney published his second volume; and in 1789 the third and fourth. The History of Music was generally well received, although criticized by Forkel in Germany and by the Spanish ex-Jesuit, Requeno, who in his Saggj sul Ristabilimento dell' Arte Armonica de' Greci e Romani Canton (Parma, 1798) attacked Burney's account of ancient Greek music and called him lo scompigliato Burney (the confused Burney). The fourth volume covers the birth and development of opera and the musical scene in England in Burney's time. Burney's first tour was translated into German by Christoph Daniel Ebeling, and printed at Hamburg in 1772. His second tour, translated into German by Johann Joachim Christoph Bode, was published at Hamburg in 1773. A Dutch translation of his second tour, with notes by J. W. Lustig, organist at Groningen, was published there in 1786. The Dissertation on the Music of the Ancients, in the first volume of Burney's History, was translated into German by Johann Joachim Eschenburg, and printed at Leipzig, 1781. Burney derived much aid from the first two volumes of Padre Martini's very learned Storia della Musica (Bologna, 1757–1770).
In 1774 he had written A Plan for a Music School. In 1779 he wrote for the Royal Society an account of the young William Crotch, whose remarkable musical talent excited so much attention at that time. In 1784 he published, with an Italian title page, the music annually performed in the Pope's chapel at Rome during Passion Week. In 1785 he published, for the benefit of the Musical Fund, an account of the first commemoration of George Friedrich Handel in Westminster Abbey in the preceding year, with a life of Handel. In 1796 he published Memoirs and Letters of Metastasio.
Towards the close of his life Burney was paid £1000 for contributing to Rees's Cyclopædia all the musical articles not belonging to the department of natural philosophy and mathematics. The latter were written by John Farey, Sr and Jr. Burney's contribution to Rees included much new material which had not appeared in his earlier writings, particularly about the London music scene then. In 1783, through the treasury influence of his friend Edmund Burke, he was appointed organist to the chapel of Chelsea Hospital. He moved there from St Martin's Street, Leicester Square and remained there for the rest of his life. In 1810, he was made a member of the Institute of France and nominated a correspondent in the class of the fine arts. From 1806 until his death he enjoyed a pension of £300 granted by Charles James Fox. He died at Chelsea College on 12 April 1814, and was interred in the burial ground of the college. A tablet was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey.
Burney's library was sold at auction by John White of Westminster beginning on 8 August 1814.
Likenesses and accounts
Burney's portrait was painted by Reynolds in 1781 for Henry Thrale's library. His bust was cut by Nollekens in 1805. He also appears in James Barry's The Thames (also known as Triumph of Navigation), which was painted in 1791 for the Royal Society of Arts. He had a wide circle of acquaintance among the distinguished artists and literary men of his day. At one time he thought of writing a life of his friend Dr Samuel Johnson, but retired before the crowd of biographers who rushed into that field.
Burney's eldest son, James Burney, was a distinguished officer in the Royal Navy, who died a rear-admiral in 1821, having accompanied Captain Cook on his last two voyages. His second son was the Rev. Charles Burney, a major donor of books to the British Museum, and his second daughter was Frances or Fanny, the novelist, later Madame D'Arblay. Her published diary and letters contain many minute and interesting particulars of her father's public and private life, and of his friends and contemporaries, including his initial opposition to her marriage to the French refugee Alexandre D'Arblay in 1793 and to her sister Charlotte's remarriage to the pamphleteer and stock jobber Ralph Broome in 1798. A life of Burney was compiled by Madame D'Arblay and appeared in 1832, but it has been criticized consistently for being eulogistic. His daughter by his second marriage, Sarah Burney, was likewise a novelist. Her letters provide interesting, less adulatory information about her father. Although Sarah looked after him in his old age, their personal relations remained poor.
Cultural references
Dr Johnson drew inspiration from The Present State of Music in France and Italy (1771), according to later writers: "Dr. Burney published an account of his tour... which was extremely well received, and deemed by the best judges so good a model for travellers who were inclined to give a description of what they had seen or observed, that Dr. Johnson professedly imitated it in his own Tour of the Hebrides, saying, 'I had that clever dog Burney's Musical Tour in my eye.'"
Burney appears in a story by Lillian de la Torre (Lillian Bueno McCue, 1902–1993), a US writer of historical mysteries, entitled "The Viotti Stradivarius", part of her series featuring Samuel Johnson as a "detector" (detective). The story features a fictitious meeting between Burney, his daughter Fanny, Giovanni Battista Viotti and his Stradivarius, and Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov, along with Johnson and James Boswell, in connection with the theft and recovery of the Orlov diamond.
Compositions
The Cunning Man, an adaptation of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's opera Le Devin du village (1766–67)
Six Sonatas for the harpsichord (1761)
Two Sonatas for the harpsichord or piano, with accompaniments for violin and violoncello; 2 sets (1769 and 1772)
Sonatas for two violins and a bass, op. 4 (1759)
Six Lessons for the harpsichord
Six Duets for two German flutes
Three Concertos for the harpsichord
Six Cornet Pieces with an introduction and fugue for the organ
Six Concertos for the violin, etc., in eight parts, op. 5 (c. 1760)
Two Sonatas for pianoforte, violin and violoncello
Four Sonatas or Duets for two Performers on One Piano Forte or Harpsichord (1777)
Anthems, etc.
6 Songs composed for the Temple of Apollo, book 1, op. 2 (c. 1750)
I will love thee, O Lord my strength (Psalm xviii), solo, chorus, orchestra, DMus exercise (1769)
XII. Canzonetti a due voci in Canone, poesia deli' Abate Metastasio (c. 1790)
Preludes, Fugues, and Interludes; for the Organ. Alphabetically arranged in all the keys that are most perfectly in tune upon that Instrument & printed in a Pocket size for the convenience of Young Organists, for whose use this book is particularly calculated & Published by Chas. Burney, Mus:D.
See also
Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser – a verse translation by Burney
References
Chronological list of sources
Many of the following refer to Burney's music articles in Rees's Cyclopaedia, (1802–1819).
P. A. Scholes, The Puritans and Early Music in England and New England, OUP, 1934. Makes occasional references to Burney's articles in Rees.
P. A. Scholes, The Oxford Companion to Music, 1938 (and later eds), makes frequent citations from Burney's Rees articles and includes some illustrations from the work.
P. A. Scholes, "A New Enquiry into the Life and Work of Dr Burney", Proceedings of the Musical Association 67th Session, 1940–1941, pp. 1–30. pp. 24–25 has a section entitled "Burney an Encyclopaedist".
P. A. Scholes, The Great Dr Burney, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 184–201, Chapter LVIII, "Virtues and vagaries of a septuagenarian encyclopædist" References to and quotes from Burney's articles in Rees
P. A. Scholes, Dr Burney's Musical Tours in Europe, 2 vols, OUP, 1959. References to and quotes from Burney's articles in Rees
C. B. Oldman, "Dr Burney and Mozart", Mozart Jahrbuch 1962/63. (1964), pp. 73–81, includes extracts from Burney's Rees articles about Mozart.
Roger Lonsdale, Dr Charles Burney: a Literary Biography, OUP 1965, pp. 407–431, Chapter X, "Burney and Rees's Cyclopædia"
Roger Lonsdale, "Dr Burney's 'Dictionary of Music", Musicology Australia, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 159–171, 1979. Account of Burney's Rees articles with criticism of Scholes's discussion of them
Jamie Croy Kassler, The Science of Music in Britain: A Catalogue of writings, Lectures and Inventions, 2 vols, Garland, 1979. Both Burney and Farey Sr appear often in the Index. Rees's Cyclopaedia and music are discussed on pp. 1200–1204.
Kerry S. Grant, Dr Burney as Critic and Historian of Music. UMI Research Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1983. Frequent references to and some quotes from Burney's articles in Rees
Slava Klima, Gary Bowers and Kerry S. Grant, Memoirs of Dr Charles Burney, 1726–1769, University of Nebraska Press. Lincoln and London, 1988. Frequent references to and quotes from Burney's articles in Rees
A. P. Woolrich, Dr Burney and Rees's Cyclopaedia, Burney Letter, Vol. 23, No. 1, Spring, 2017, pp. 1–2 and 10–11. Discusses Burney's music contribution to Cyclopaedia. Burney Letter published by the Burney Society. ISSN 1703-9835.
A. P. Woolrich, "Consolidated edition of the Music Biographies from Rees's Cyclopaedia, (1802–1819)", Burney Letter, Vol. 23, No. 2, Fall, 2017, pp. 6–7. Edited version of fuller introduction to biographies
A. P. Woolrich, The General music articles in Rees's Cyclopaedia by Dr Charles Burney, John Farey, Sr. & John Farey, Jr., Burney Letter, Vol. 25, No. 2, Spring. 2019. pp. 1, 6–7 and 12
A. P. Woolrich, Dr Charles Burney and Hymn Tunes, Burney Letter, Vol. 27, No. 1, Spring. 2021. p. 5
Own publications
An Essay towards a History of Comets that have appeared since the year 1742..., London, 1769
The Present State of Music in France and Italy..., London, London, 1771
The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Provinces..., London, 1773
Modern editions:
Dr Burney's Continental Travels, 1770–1772, ed. C. H. Glover, 1927
Dr Burney's Musical Tours in Europe, ed. P. A. Scholes, Oxford, 2 vols, 1959
Music, Men, And Manners in France and Italy, 1770, ed., from the original manuscript by H. Edmund Poole, London, 1969
A General History of Music, London, Vol. 1, 1776; Vol. 2, 1782; Vols 3/4, 1789
Modern edition:
A General History of Music... by Charles Burney, ed. Frank Mercer, 2 vols, London, 1935, reprint New York, 1957
Account of an Infant Musician [William Crotch] London, 1779
Account of Mademoiselle Theresa Paradis, of Vienna... London, 1785
An account of the Musical Performances in Westminster Abbey... In Commemoration of Handel, London, 1785
Numerous book reviews in the Monthly Review, London, 1785–1802
Verses on the Arrival in England of the Great Musician Haydn, London, 1791
Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Abate Metastasio... London, 3 vols, 1796
Hymn for the Emperor. Composed by Doctor Haydn, translated by Burney, London, 1799
Numerous musical articles for Rees's Cyclopaedia c. 1801–1808, published 1802–1819. These may be found online at the Burney Centre: https://www.mcgill.ca/burneycentre/resources/online-texts (scroll down).
Burney's papers
After his death in 1814, Burney's daughter Frances destroyed many manuscripts, including his journals, and obliterated passages in others. Surviving papers are widely scattered: in the Osborn Collection at Yale University, the Berg Collection at New York Public Library, the British Library and the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and in smaller public and private collections. (See Roger Lonsdale, Dr Charles Burney, a Literary Biography, Oxford 1965 pp 495–497.) The Burney Centre at McGill University, Toronto, Canada, has long been publishing the papers of the Burney family, including those of Charles and his daughter, Francis (Fanny Burney).
The Letters of Dr Charles Burney (1751–1814) General Editor: Peter Sabor
A scholarly edition of the Letters of Dr Charles Burney is being published in six volumes by Oxford University Press:
Vol 1 1751–1784 edited by Alvaro Ribeiro, SJ,
Vol 2 1785–1793 (forthcoming) edited by Lorna Clark
Vol 3 1794–1800 (forthcoming) edited by Stewart Cooke
Vol 4 1801–1806 (forthcoming) edited by Stewart Cooke
Vol 5 1807–1809 (forthcoming) edited by Nancy Johnson
Vol 5 1810–1814 (forthcoming) edited by Peter Sabor
External links
Burney Centre at McGill University
Hester Thrale's account of Charles Burney
Charles Burney at the National Portrait Gallery, London
Free Books by Charles Burney(IMSLP)
1726 births
1814 deaths
People from Shrewsbury
Fellows of the Royal Society
English composers
English historians
English music historians
Charles
Streathamites
People educated at Shrewsbury School
People educated at The King's School, Chester | [
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|
214019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Nikolaus%20Forkel | Johann Nikolaus Forkel | Johann Nikolaus Forkel (22 February 1749 – 20 March 1818) was a German musicologist and music theorist, generally regarded as among the founders of modern musicology. His publications include Johann Sebastian Bach: His Life, Art, and Work, the first substantial survey on the life and works of Johann Sebastian Bach.
Biography
He was born at Meeder in Coburg. He was the son of a cobbler, and received early musical training, especially in keyboard playing, from Johann Heinrich Schulthesius, who was the local Kantor. In other aspects of his music education he was self-taught, especially in regards to theory. As a teenager he served as a singer in Lüneburg, and studied law for two years at the University of Göttingen; he remained associated with the University for more than fifty years, where he held varied positions, including instructor of music theory, organist, keyboard teacher, and eventually director of all music at the university. In 1787 he received an honorary doctorate of philosophy from the institution.
Forkel is often regarded as the founder of Historical Musicology, for it is with him that the study of music history and theory became an academic discipline with rigorous standards of scholarship.
He was an enthusiastic admirer of Johann Sebastian Bach, whose music he did much to popularize. He also wrote the first biography of Bach (in 1802), one which is of particular value today, as he was still able to correspond directly with Bach's sons Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, and thereby obtained much valuable information that would otherwise have been lost.
His library, which was accumulated with care and discrimination at a time when rare books were cheap, forms a valuable portion of the Berlin State Library and also of the library of the Königliche Institut für Kirchenmusik.
He died at Göttingen.
Selected works
Forkel's writings include:
Über die Theorie der Musik (Göttingen, 1777)
Musikalisch kritische Bibliothek (Gotha, 1778)
Allgemeine Geschichte der Musik (Leipzig, 1788, 1801)
Allgemeine Litteratur der Musik: oder, Anleitung zur Kenntniss musikalischer Bücher, welche von den ältesten bis auf die neusten Zeiten bey den Griechen, Römern und den meisten neuern europäischen Nationen sind geschrieben worden; systematisch geordnet, und nach Veranlassung mit Anmerkungen und Urtheilen begleitet (Leipzig 1792), known in English as Dictionary of Musical Literature
Ueber Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke. Für patriotische Verehrer echter musikalischer Kunst (Leipzig, 1802)
To his musical compositions, which are numerous, little interest is to be attached today. However it is worth noting that he wrote variations on "God Save the King" for the clavichord, and that Georg Joseph Vogler wrote a sharp criticism on them, which appeared at Frankfurt in 1793 together with a set of variations as he conceived they ought to be written.
References
Sources
, translation by Charles Sanford Terry of Ueber Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke by Johann Nikolaus Forkel (1802). New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe. 1920 (e-version: 2011).
External links
1749 births
1818 deaths
19th-century German male musicians
Classical-period composers
German classical composers
German male classical composers
German music historians
German musicologists
German music theorists
German biographers
Male biographers
Bach scholars
People from Coburg (district) | [
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|
214022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dink%20Johnson | Dink Johnson | Ollie "Dink" Johnson (October 28, 1892 – November 29, 1954) was a Dixieland jazz pianist, clarinetist, and drummer.
Background
Johnson was born in Biloxi, Mississippi. He was the younger brother of double bassist William Manuel "Bill" Johnson. He worked around Mississippi and New Orleans before moving to the western United States in the early 1910s. He played around Nevada and California, often with his brother Bill. He played with the Original Creole Orchestra, mostly on drums.
Johnson made his first recordings in 1922 on clarinet with Kid Ory's Band. He made more recordings in the 1940s and 1950s, mostly on piano, although also doing some one-man band recordings, playing all three of his instruments through over dubbing.
Johnson's piano style was influenced by Jelly Roll Morton (his brother-in-law) and his clarinet playing by Larry Shields. Johnson wrote tunes, including "The Krooked Blues" (recorded by King Oliver) and "So Different Blues".
Johnson died in Portland, Oregon.
References
1892 births
1954 deaths
African-American pianists
American blues pianists
American male pianists
American jazz clarinetists
American jazz drummers
American jazz pianists
Dixieland clarinetists
Dixieland drummers
Dixieland pianists
20th-century American drummers
American male drummers
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
20th-century American pianists
20th-century African-American musicians | [
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|
214023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippino%20Lippi | Filippino Lippi | Filippino Lippi (April 1457 – 18 April 1504) was an Italian painter working in Florence, Italy during the later years of the Early Renaissance and first few years of the High Renaissance.
Biography
Filippino Lippi was born in Prato, Tuscany, the illegitimate son of the painter Fra Filippo Lippi and Lucrezia Buti. Filippino first trained under his father. They moved to Spoleto, where Filippino served as workshop adjuvant in the construction of the Cathedral. When his father died in 1469, he completed the frescoes with Storie della Vergine (Histories of the Virgin) in the cathedral. Filippino Lippi completed his apprenticeship in the workshop of Botticelli, who had been a pupil of Filippino's father. In 1472 the records of the painters' guild record that Botticelli had only Filippino Lippi as an assistant.
His first works greatly resemble those of Botticelli, but with less sensitivity and subtlety. The very first ones (dating from 1475 onwards) were initially attributed to an anonymous "Amico di Sandro" ("Friend of Botticelli"). Eventually Lippi's style evolved into a more personal and effective one over the years 1480–1485. Works of the early period include: the Madonnas of Berlin, London and Washington, the Journeys of Tobia of the Galleria Sabauda, Turin, the Madonna of the Sea of Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence, and the Histories of Ester.
Together with Perugino, Ghirlandaio and Botticelli, Lippi worked on the frescoed decoration of Lorenzo de' Medici's villa at Spedaletto. On 31 December, 1482, he was commissioned to decorate a wall of the Sala dell'Udienza of Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, a work never begun. Soon after, probably in 1483–84, he was called to complete Masaccio's decoration of the Brancacci Chapel in the church of the Carmine, that had been left unfinished at the artist's death in 1428. Here he painted Stories of Saint Peter, in the following frescoes: Quarrel with Simon Magus in face of Nero, Resurrection of the Son of Teophilus, Saint Peter Jailed, Liberation and Crucifixion of Saint Peter.
Lippi's work on the Sala degli Otto di Pratica, in the Palazzo Vecchio, was completed on 20 February, 1486. It is now in the Uffizi Gallery. At about this time, Piero di Francesco del Pugliese asked him to paint the altarpiece with the Apparition of the Virgin to St. Bernard, which is now in the Badia Fiorentina, Florence. This is Lippi's most popular picture: a composition of unreal items, with its very particular elongated figures, backed by a phantasmagorical scenario of rocks and almost anthropomorphic trunks. The work is dated to 1485–1487.
Later, he worked for Tanai de' Nerli in Florence's Santo Spirito church.
On 21 April, 1487, Filippo Strozzi asked him to decorate the Strozzi family chapel in Santa Maria Novella with Stories of St. John Evangelist and St. Philip. He worked on this commission intermittently, over a long time. He only completed it in 1503, after Strozzi's death. The windows with musical themes, in the same chapel, also designed by Filippino, were completed between June and July 1503. These paintings can be seen as a mirror of the political and religious crisis in Florence at the time: the theme of the fresco, the clash between Christianity and Paganism, was hotly debated in the Florence of Girolamo Savonarola.
Filippino depicted his characters in a landscape which recreated the ancient world in its finest details, showing the influence of the Grottesco style he had seen on his time in Rome. In this way he created an "animated", mysterious, fantastic but disquieting style, showing the unreality of nightmare. Thus, Filippino portrayed ruthless executioners with the grimmest of faces, who raged against the Saints. In the scene of St. Philip expelling a monster from the temple, the statue of the pagan god is represented as a living figure which seems to dare the Christian saint.
In 1488, Lippi went to Rome, where Lorenzo de' Medici had advised Cardinal Oliviero Carafa to entrust him with the decoration of the family chapel in Santa Maria sopra Minerva. These frescoes show a new kind of inspiration, quite different from his earlier works, but confirm Lippi's continued research on the themes of the Ancient era. He finished the cycle by 1493.
Lippi's return to Florence took place—the date is disputed—at some time between 1491 and 1494. Works of this period include: Apparition of Christ to the Virgin (c. 1493, now in Munich), Adoration of the Magi (1496, for the church of San Donato in Scopeto, now in the Uffizi), Sacrifice of Laocoön (end of the century, for the villa of Lorenzo de' Medici at Poggio a Caiano), St. John Baptist and Maddalena (Valori Chapel in San Procolo, Florence, inspired to some way extent by Luca Signorelli's art).
He also worked outside the area of his home city, on the Certosa, or Chapterhouse, in Pavia and in Prato, where in 1503 he completed the Tabernacle of the Christmas Song, now in the City Museum; in 1501 Lippi painted the Mystic Wedding of St. Catherine for the Basilica of San Domenico in Bologna.
Lippi's final work was the Deposition for the Santissima Annunziata church, Florence, which at his death in April 1504 was unfinished.
Because of Lippi's fame and reputation, on the day of his burial all the workshops of the city closed for him. Noted art critic Paul George Konody wrote of Lippi that "some of his qualities show him to be the most subtle psychologist of his time, the most modern in spirit of all the artists of the Renaissance".
Major works
The Coronation of the Virgin (c. 1480)—Tempera on panel, 90.2 × 223 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Madonna with Child, St Anthony of Padua and a Friar (before 1480)—Tempera on wood, 57 × 41.5 cm, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest
Tobias and the Angel (c. 1480)—Tempera on panel, 33 × 23 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Portrait of an Old Man (1485)—Detached fresco, 47 × 38 cm, Uffizi, Florence
Three Angels with Young Tobias (1485)—Oil on panel, 100 × 127 cm, Galleria Sabauda, Turin
Self-Portrait—Detached fresco on flat tile, 50 × 31 cm, Uffizi, Florence
Portrait of a Youth (c. 1485)—Wood, 51 × 35.5 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Signoria Altarpiece (Pala degli Otto) (1486)—Tempera on wood, 355 × 255 cm, Uffizi, Florence
Annunciation with St. Thomas and Cardinal Carafa (1488–1493)—Fresco, Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome
Apparition of the Virgin to St. Bernard (1486)—Oil on panel, 210 × 195 cm, Church of Badia, Florence
Madonna with Child and Saints (c. 1488)—Oil on wood, Santo Spirito, Florence
St. Jerome (1490s)—Oil on wood, 136 × 71 cm, Uffizi, Florence
Apparition of Christ to the Virgin (c. 1493)—Oil on panel, 156.1 × 146.7 cm, Alte Pinakothek, Munich
Madonna and Child with Saints (1498)—affresco, 239 × 141 × 71 cm, Museo Civico, Prato
Adoration of the Magi (1496)—Oil on wood, Uffizi, Florence
Allegory (c. 1498)—Oil on wood, 29 × 22 cm, Uffizi, Florence
Allegory of Music (Erato) (c. 1500)—Tempera on panel, 61 × 51 cm, Staatliche Museen, Berlin
Crucifixion, c. 1501— tempera on panel, 31.2 × 23.4 cm, Museo Civico, Prato
Mystic Marriage of St Catherine (c. 1501–1503)—Panel, Basilica di San Domenico, Bologna
Madonna and Child, St. Stefan and St. John the Baptist (1502–1503)—tempera on panel, 132 × 118 cm, Museo Civico, Prato
Deposition (1504, finished by Perugino in 1507)—Oil on panel, 333 × 218 cm, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Florence
School works
Following works are permitted to be cited as Filippino's school works.
the Madonna, Child and St. John—tondo, Keglevich collection, Budapest,
Cenacolo di S. Apollonia—Florence
the Virgin giving her girdle to St. Thomas—Florence
St. Anthony Abbot—Florence
Gallery
See also
Brancacci Chapel
Carafa Chapel
Strozzi Chapel
Notes
References
The Development of the Italian Schools of Painting, Volume 12, p. 371ff., Raimond van Marle, Hacker Art Books, New York 1970.
Further reading
Paul George Konody, Filippino Lippi (George Newnes, Ltd., 1905).
Historical novels
Linda Proud, A Tabernacle for the Sun (Godstow Press, 2005), a literary novel set in Florence during the Pazzi Conspiracy, adheres closely to known facts. Filippino features as the closest friend of the narrator, Tommaso dei Maffei, here and in the following two novels of The Botticelli Trilogy.
Linda Proud, Pallas and the Centaur (Godstow Press, 2004), deals with the aftermath of the Pazzi Conspiracy and Lorenzo de' Medici's strained relations with his wife and with Poliziano.
Linda Proud, The Rebirth of Venus (Godstow Press, 2008), the final volume of The Botticelli Trilogy, covers the 1490s and the death of Lorenzo.
Linda Proud, A Gift for the Magus (Godstow Press, 2012), a novel about Fra Filippo Lippi and Cosimo de' Medici. Features Filippino's birth and childhood.
External links
Exhibition Da Donatello a Lippi. Officina Pratese at Museo Civico di Palazzo Pretorio in Prato (September 2013 - January 2014)
Works of Filippino Lippi at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence
Filippino Lippi at the National Gallery of Art
15th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
16th-century Italian painters
Italian Renaissance painters
Painters from Tuscany
People from Prato
1450s births
1504 deaths
Catholic painters | [
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]
|
214025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20jazz%20pianists | List of jazz pianists | This is an alphabetized list of notable musicians who play or played jazz piano. The piano has been an integral part of the jazz idiom since its inception, in both solo and ensemble settings. Its role is multifaceted due largely to the instrument's combined melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic capabilities.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
Andy Quin (born 1960)
Morten Qvenild (born 1978)
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z
References
Pianists
Jazz Pianists | [
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|
214027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Jacobi | Carl Jacobi | Carl Jacobi may refer to:
Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (1804–1851) – Prussian mathematician and teacher
Carl Richard Jacobi (1908–1997) – American author
Carl Jacobi (architect) – German architect | [
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|
214028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaletto | Canaletto | Giovanni Antonio Canal (18 October 1697 – 19 April 1768), commonly known as Canaletto (), was an Italian painter from the Republic of Venice, considered an important member of the 18th-century Venetian school.
Painter of city views or vedute, of Venice, Rome, and London, he also painted imaginary views (referred to as capricci), although the demarcation in his works between the real and the imaginary is never quite clearcut. He was further an important printmaker using the etching technique. In the period from 1746 to 1756 he worked in England where he painted many views of London and other sites including Warwick Castle and Alnwick Castle. He was highly successful in England, thanks to the British merchant and connoisseur Joseph "Consul" Smith, whose large collection of Canaletto's works was sold to King George III in 1762.
Early career
He was born in Venice as the son of the painter Bernardo Canal, hence his mononym Canaletto ("little Canal"), and Artemisia Barbieri. Canaletto served an apprenticeship with his father and his brother of a theatrical scene painter. During his time in Rome he worked with his father producing the scenery for two operas by the composer Alessandro Scarlatti, Tito Sempronio Greco and Turno Aricino which were performed at the Teatro Catranica during the carnival season of 1720.
Canaletto was inspired by the Roman vedutista Giovanni Paolo Pannini, and started painting the daily life of the city and its people.
After returning from Rome in 1719, he began painting in his topographical style. His first known signed and dated work is Architectural Capriccio (1723, Milan, in a private collection). Studying with the older Luca Carlevarijs, a well-regarded painter of urban cityscapes, he rapidly became his master's equal.
In 1725, the painter Alessandro Marchesini, who was also the buyer for the Lucchese art collector Stefano Conti, had inquired about buying two more 'views of Venice', when the agent urged him to consider instead the work of "Antonio Canale... it is like Carlevaris, but you can see the sun shining in it."
Outdoor painting
Much of Canaletto's early artwork was painted "from nature", differing from the then customary practice of completing paintings in the studio. Some of his later works do revert to this custom, as suggested by the tendency for distant figures to be painted as blobs of colour – an effect possibly produced by using a camera obscura, which blurs farther-away objects – although research by art historians working for the Royal Collection in the United Kingdom has shown Canaletto almost never used a camera obscura.
However, his paintings are always notable for their accuracy: he recorded the seasonal submerging of Venice in water and ice.
Early and late work
Canaletto's early works remain his most coveted and, according to many authorities, his best. One of his early pieces is The Stonemason's Yard (, the National Gallery, London) which depicts a humble working area of the city. It is regarded one of his finest works and was presented by Sir George Beaumont in 1823 and 1828.
Later Canaletto painted grand scenes of the canals of Venice and the Doge's Palace. His large-scale landscapes portrayed the city's pageantry and waning traditions, making innovative use of atmospheric effects and strong local colours. For these qualities, his works may be said to have anticipated Impressionism.
His graphic print S. A. Giustina in Prà della Vale was found in the 2012 Munich Art Hoard.
Work in England
Many of his pictures were sold to Englishmen on their Grand Tour, first through the agency of Owen Swiny and later the banker Joseph Smith. It was Swiny in the late 1720s who encouraged the artist to paint small topographical views of Venice with a commercial appeal for tourists and foreign visitors to the city. Sometime before 1728, Canaletto began his association with Smith, an English businessman and collector living in Venice who was appointed British Consul in Venice in 1744. Smith later became the artist's principal agent and patron, acquiring nearly fifty paintings, one hundred fifty drawings, and fifteen rare etchings from Canaletto, the largest and finest single group of the artist's works, which he sold to King George III in 1763.
In the 1740s Canaletto's market was disrupted when the War of the Austrian Succession led to a reduction in the number of British visitors to Venice. Smith also arranged for the publication of a series of etchings of "capricci" (or architectural phantasies) (capriccio Italian for fancy) in his vedute ideali, but the returns were not high enough, and in 1746 Canaletto moved to London, to be closer to his market.
Whilst in England, between 1749 and 1752 Canaletto lived at number 41 Beak Street in London's Soho district.
He remained in England until 1755, producing views of London (including several of the new Westminster Bridge, which was completed during his stay) and of his patrons' houses and castles. These included Northumberland House for Sir Hugh Smithson, Bt., who by marriage later became the 2nd Earl of Northumberland; and Warwick Castle for Lord Brooke, later 1st Earl of Warwick. Smithson was one of the commissioners of Westminster Bridge, and it is "not impossible" that he had encouraged Canaletto to come to England and record the beginning of the bridge's life. His 1754 painting of Old Walton Bridge includes an image of Canaletto himself.
He was often expected to paint England in the fashion with which he had painted his native city. Canaletto's painting began to suffer from repetitiveness, losing its fluidity, and becoming mechanical to the point that the English art critic George Vertue suggested that the man painting under the name 'Canaletto' was an impostor. This may have been because Canaletto's nephew, Bernardo Bellotto, was also using his uncle's nickname; or more likely because the story had been spread by unscrupulous art dealers who had been passing off copies of Canaletto's own work and were anxious to see him return to Venice. Historian Michael Levey described his work from this period as "inhibited".
In order to refute this claim the artist, through an advertisement in a newspaper, invited "any Gentleman" to inspect his latest painting of St. James's Park at his studio in Silver Street (now Beak Street) off Golden Square; however, his reputation never fully recovered in his lifetime.
After his return to Venice, Canaletto was elected to the Venetian Academy in 1763 and appointed prior of the Collegio dei Pittori. He continued to paint until his death in 1768. In his later years he often worked from old sketches, but he sometimes produced surprising new compositions. He was willing to make subtle alterations to topography for artistic effect.
Market
His students included his nephew Bernardo Bellotto, Francesco Guardi, Michele Marieschi, Gabriele Bella, and Giuseppe Moretti. The painter, Giuseppe Bernardino Bison was a follower of his style.
Joseph Smith sold much of his collection to George III, creating the bulk of the large collection of works by Canaletto owned by the Royal Collection. In 1762, George III paid £20,000 for Consul Smith's collection of 50 paintings and 142 drawings. There are many examples of his work in other British collections, including several (19) at the Wallace Collection and a set of 24 in the dining room at Woburn Abbey. A large set of Canaletto works was also part of the collection of the Earls of Carlisle, however many were lost at the 1940 fire of Castle Howard and others were sold over the last century. Among those formerly at the Carlisle collection are The Bacino di San Marco: looking East, now at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (sold in 1939) and the pair Entrance to the Grand Canal from the Molo, Venice and The Square of Saint Mark's, Venice, now at the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC (sold in 1938). The last important venetian veduta at Castle Howard was by Bernardo Bellotto, A View of the Grand Canal Looking South from the Palazzo Foscari, which was sold at Sotheby's in July 2015 for £2.6 million.
Canaletto's views always fetched high prices, and as early as the 18th century Catherine the Great and other European monarchs vied for his grandest paintings. The record price paid at auction for a Canaletto is £18.6 million for View of the Grand Canal from Palazzo Balbi to the Rialto, set at Sotheby's in London in July 2005.
Works
See also
Bernardo Bellotto, also known as "Canaletto" in Germany and Poland, was Canaletto's nephew and pupil
References
External links
Web Gallery of Art
The Canaletto Foundation More than 335 images of Canaletto's paintings.
Canaletto and the history of vedute
Canaletto, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Italian landscape painters
Italian etchers
Painters from Venice
1697 births
1768 deaths
Italian male painters
Italian vedutisti
Cityscape artists
Republic of Venice artists
18th-century Venetian people
18th-century Italian painters
Catholic etchers
Catholic painters | [
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|
214031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo%20Leo | Leonardo Leo | Leonardo Leo (5 August 1694 – 31 October 1744), more correctly Lionardo Oronzo Salvatore de Leo, was a Baroque composer.
Biography
Leo was born in San Vito degli Schiavoni (current San Vito dei Normanni, province of Brindisi) in the Apulia region, then part of the Kingdom of Naples.
He became a student at the Conservatorio della Pietà dei Turchini at Naples in 1703, and was a pupil first of Francesco Provenzale and later of Nicola Fago. It has been supposed that he was a pupil of Pitoni and Alessandro Scarlatti, but he could not possibly have studied with either of these composers, although he was undoubtedly influenced by their compositions. His earliest known work was a sacred drama, L'infedelta abbattuta, performed by his fellow-students in 1712.
In 1714 he produced, at the court theatre, an opera, Pisistrato, which was much admired. He held various posts at the royal chapel, and continued to write for the stage, besides teaching at the conservatory. After adding comic scenes to Francesco Gasparini's Bajazette in 1722 for performance at Naples, he composed comic operas in Neapolitan such as La'mpeca scoperta in 1723, and L'Alidoro in 1740.
His most famous comic opera was Amor vuol sofferenza (1739), better known as La Finta Frascatana, highly praised by De Brosses. He was equally distinguished as a composer of serious opera, Demofoonte (1735), Farnace (1737) and L'Olimpiade (1737) being his most famous works in this branch, and is still better known as a composer of sacred music. He died of a stroke while engaged in the composition of new arias for a revival of La Finta Frascatana.
Leo was the first of the Neapolitan school to obtain a complete mastery over modern harmonic counterpoint. His sacred music is masterly and dignified, logical rather than passionate, and free from the sentimentality which is present in the work of Francesco Durante and Giovanni Battista Pergolesi. His serious operas suffer from a coldness and severity of style, but in his comic operas he shows a keen sense of humour. His ensemble movements are spirited, but never worked up to a strong climax.
A fine and characteristic example of his sacred music is the Dixit Dominus in C, edited by CV Stanford and published by Novello. A number of songs from operas are accessible in modern editions.
Operas
Drammi per musica
Sofonisba (Naples, Teatro San Bartolomeo, 1719)
Cajo Gracco (Teatro San Bartolomeo, 1720)
Bajazette (1722)
Tamerlano (Rome, 1722)
Timocrate (Venice, 1723)
Zenobia in Palmira (Naples, Teatro San Bartolomeo, 1725)
Astianatte (1725)
La somiglianza (Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini, 1726)
L'Orismene, overo dagli sdegni gli amori (Naples, Teatro Nuovo, 1726)
Ciro riconosciuto (1727)
Argene (1728)
La zingara (intermezzo, 1731)
Intermezzi per l'Argene (1731)
Catone (Venice, 1732)
Demetrio (Maples, Teatro San Bartolomeo, 1732)
Amore dà senno (Naples, Teatro Nuovo, 1733)
Emira (with intermezzi by Ignazio Prota, 1735)
La clemenza di Tito (1735)
Onore vince amore (Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini, 1736)
La simpatia del sangue (1737)
Siface (1737)
Amor vuol sofferenza 1739
Festa teatrale (1739)
La contesa dell'Amore e della virtù (1740)
Scipione nelle Spagne (1740)
L'Alidoro (1740)
Alessandro (1741)
Demoofonte (1741)
L'impresario delle Isole Canarie (1741)
Andromaca (1742)
L'ambizione delusa (Leo) 1742 (opera seria)
Decebalo (Leo) 1743
Vologeso (1744)
La finta Frascatana (1744)
Undated operas:
Artaserse
Lucio Papirio
Arianna e Teseo (cantata teatrale)
L'Olimpiade
Evergete
Il matrimonio anascoso
Alessandro nell'Indie
Il Medo
Nitocri, regina di egitto
Il Pisistrate
Il trionfo di Camillo
Le nozze di Psiche
Achille in Sciro
Selected recordings
2002 Concerto for 4 Violins and Strings in D -Conductor: Reinhard Goebel, Orchestra: Cologne Musica Antiqua
Label: Archiv Masters (Disc Title: Italian Violin Concertos)
2001 Concerto 4 violins and Strings in D - Performers: Elizabeth Wallfisch, Nicholas Kraemer
Orchestra: The Raglan Baroque Players
Label: Hyperion (Disc Title: The Neapolitans - Pergolesi, Durante, Leo)
2001: 6 Cello Concertos-Performer: Hidemi Suzuki, Makoto Akatsu Orchestra: Orchestra Van Wassenaer
Label: BIS (Disc Title: Leo-Six Cello Concertos)
2000: Così del vostro suono (Il Tionfo della Gloria), cantata Sorge Lidia la notte, cantata with violins,
più dell'usato, cantata for solo voice & strings- Conductor: Cosimo Prontera Performer: Cristina Miatello, Emanuele Bianchi
Orchestra: La Confraternita de' Musici
Label: Tactus (Disc Title: Leonardo Leo: Serenate e Cantate)
For a more complete discography of Leo, see http://www.leonardoleo.com/discography.htm
See also
References
Peter van Tour: Counterpoint and Partimento: Methods of Teaching Composition in Late Eighteenth-Century Naples. 2015. 318p. (Studia musicologica Upsaliensia, 0081-6744 ; 25) .
Sources
External links
Istituto Internazionale per lo studio del '700 musicale napoletano
from Pula, Croatia chant Libera me
1694 births
1744 deaths
18th-century Italian male musicians
18th-century Italian composers
Neapolitan school composers
Italian Baroque composers
Italian opera composers
Italian male classical composers
Male opera composers
People from the Province of Brindisi | [
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|
214035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20of%20obligations | Law of obligations | The law of obligations is one branch of private law under the civil law legal system and so-called "mixed" legal systems. It is the body of rules that organizes and regulates the rights and duties arising between individuals. The specific rights and duties are referred to as obligations, and this area of law deals with their creation, effects and extinction.
An obligation is a legal bond (vinculum iuris) by which one or more parties (obligants) are bound to act or refrain from acting. An obligation thus imposes on the obligor a duty to perform, and simultaneously creates a corresponding right to demand performance by the obligee to whom performance is to be tendered.
History
The word originally derives from the Latin "obligare" which comes from the root "lig" which suggests being bound, as one is to God for instance in "re-ligio". This term first appears in Plautus' play Truculentus at line 214.
Obligations did not originally form part of Roman Law, which mostly concerned issues of succession, property, and family relationships. It developed as a solution to a gap in the system, when one party committed a wrong against another party. These situations were originally governed by a basic customary law of revenge. This undesirable situation eventually developed into a system of liability where people were at first encouraged and then essentially forced to accept monetary compensation from the wrongdoer or their family instead of seeking vengeance. This signaled an important shift in the law away from vengeance and towards compensation. The state supported this effort by standardizing amounts for certain wrongs. Thus the earliest form of Obligation law derives out of what we would today call Delict.
However, it is important to note that liability in this form did not yet include the idea that the debtor "owed" monetary compensation to the creditor, it was merely a means of avoiding punishment. If the debtor or his family didn't have the means to pay then the old rules still applied as outlined in the twelve tables, specifically table 3. This section, despite how harsh it may appear to us, was originally developed as a means to protect debtors from the excessive abuses of creditors.
Definition
Justinian first defines an obligation (obligatio) in his Institutiones, Book 3, section 13 as "a legal bond, with which we are bound by necessity of performing some act according to the laws of our State." He further separates the law of obligations into contracts, delicts, quasi-contracts, and quasi-delicts.
Nowadays, obligation, as applied under civilian law, means a legal tie (vinculum iuris) by which one or more parties (obligants) are bound to perform or refrain from performing specified conduct (prestation). Thus an obligation encompasses both sides of the equation, both the obligor's duty to render prestation and the obligee's right to receive prestation. It differs from the common-law concept of obligation which only encompasses the duty aspect.
Every obligation has four essential requisites otherwise known as the elements of obligation. They are:
the obligor: obligant duty-bound to fulfill the obligation; he who has a duty.
the obligee: obligant entitled to demand the fulfillment of the obligation; he who has a right.
the subject matter, the prestation: the performance to be tendered.
a legal bond, the vinculum juris: the cause that binds or connects the obligants to the prestation.
Classification in Roman Law
Sources
Obligations arising out of the will of the parties are called voluntary, and those imposed by operation of law are called involuntary. Sometimes these are called conventional and obediential. The events giving rise to obligations may be further distinguished into specified categories.
voluntary:
unilateral promise (pollicitatio) - undertaking by promisor only to perform, not requiring the agreement of the beneficiary
contract
quasi-contract
negotiorum gestio - duty to repay an intervenor (gestor) who has managed the affairs or property of another (dominus negotii) who was unable to so
solutio indebiti - undue payment or delivery of a thing to another (accipiens), who is then obligated to return the thing to the payer (solvens)
involuntary:
delicts and quasi-delicts (equivalent to the common-law tort).
unjust enrichment (condictio indebiti)
One of the first known classifications was made by Gaius in his Institutions, who divided obligations into obligations ex contractu (obligations arising from legal actions) and obligations ex delicto (obligations arising from illegal, unlawful actions). However, since this classification was obviously too vague, in his work Res cottidinanae Gaius classified all obligations into the aforementioned obligations ex contractu and obligations ex delicto, as well as obligations ex variis causarum figuris, which was a heterogeneous category that was supposed to include all the cases of obligations not arising from delicts or contracts.
The most precise Roman classification of obligations was featured in Justinian's Institutions (not to be confused by Gaius's Institutions), which classified them as obligations arising from contracts (ex contractu), those arising from delicts (ex maleficio), those arising from quasi-contracts (quasi ex contractu), and those arising from quasi-delicts (quasi ex maleficio).
Contracts
A contract can be broadly defined as an agreement that is enforceable at law. Gaius classified contracts into four categories which are: contracts consensu, verbal contracts, contracts re, and contracts litteris. But this classification cannot cover all the contracts, such as pacts and innominate contracts; thus, it is no longer used. According to many modern legal scholars, the most important classification of contracts is that of contracts consensu, which only require the consent of wills to create obligations, and formal contracts, which have to be concluded in a specific form in order to be valid (for example, in many European countries a contract regulating the purchase of real estate must be concluded in a special written form that is validated by a public notary).
Delicts
Quasi-contracts
Quasi-contracts are supposed to be sources of obligations very similar to contracts, but the main difference is that they are not created by an agreement of wills. The main cases are negotiorum gestio (conducting of another person's affairs without their authorization), unjust enrichment, and solutio indebiti. This Roman classification is quite controversial for today's standards, since many of these cases would be considered as completely different from contracts (most notably unjust enrichment), and would instead be classified as delicts or special sources of obligations.
Quasi-delicts
The designation comprised a group of actions that are very similar to delicts, but lacking one of key elements of delicts. It includes res suspensae, responsibility for things poured or thrown out of buildings, responsibility of shippers/innkeepers/stablekeepers, and erring judges. For example, the responsibility of innkeepers creates obligations when certain things left by guests in the lodging are destroyed, damaged or lost by the innkeeper's assistants or employees . In this case, the innkeeper is responsible for the damages to the guest's property, even though he did not cause them personally.
Subject matter
Obligations are classified according to the nature of the performance (prestation):
real obligation - related somehow to immovable property
obligation to give - obligations to give or possession, or enjoyment
specific obligation - delivery of a determinate thing when it is particularly designated or physically separated from all others of the same class
generic obligation - delivery of a generic thing
personal obligations - undertakings either to do or not do all kinds of work or service
positive personal obligation - undertaking or obligation to do
negative personal obligation - forbearance or obligation to not do
See also
Right
Solidary obligations
Swiss Code of Obligations
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|
214037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe%20Ottavio%20Pitoni | Giuseppe Ottavio Pitoni | Giuseppe Ottavio Pitoni (Rieti, 18 March 1657 – Rome, 1 February 1743) was an Italian organist and composer. He became one of the leading musicians in Rome during the late Baroque era, the first half of the 18th century.
Life
Taken to Rome as an infant, he began vocal study with Pompeo Natali at the age of five and sang in the choir of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini from age eight. At Santi Apostoli he sang and studied counterpoint with Francesco Foggia, where his early compositions were performed. By age sixteen he was maestro di cappella at Santa Maria Maggiore, Monterotondo, a historic church near Rome. In 1673 as maestro for the cathedral at Assisi he began intensive study of the works of Palestrina, and in 1676 moved to the cathedral at Rieti.
In 1677 he returned to Rome for a lifelong appointment as maestro di cappella at the Basilica of San Marco. In addition he held a series of prestigious positions as maestro for Basilica dei Santi Apostoli, Rome (from 1686), at St. John Lateran (from 1708, where Palestrina had served from 1555 to 1560), and for the Cappella Giulia at St. Peter’s (from 1719, immediately following Domenico Scarlatti), and maestro di cappella at the Collegium Germanicum in Rome. For the chapter of San Lorenzo in Damaso, he produced major performances over thirty-five years for the music-loving Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, whose extensive circle of artists included Arcangelo Corelli, George Frideric Handel, both Alessandro and Domenico Scarlatti, Bernardo Pasquini, and Filippo Amadei.
Works
His contributions to liturgical music in Rome were profound as composer, organist, maestro di capella, writer on music theory and history, and as esaminatori dei maestri for the Academy of St. Cecilia. He was extremely prolific, with some 325 masses, 800 Psalm settings and 235 motets among the 3500 compositions listed by his pupil and biographer, Girolamo Chiti. He prepared a complete year of music for St. Peter’s, with settings for the masses and offices of every Sunday and holy day.
Pitoni’s early works are brilliant examples of his genius in the Roman contrapuntal style of Palestrina. In later years he moved toward more homophonic textures with polychoral elements. His use of stile concertato also included solo sections and concertante instrumental parts. It is said that his immense facility allowed him to compose the parts of a 16-voice mass separately, without use of a score. To modern ears and eyes these compositions may seem dull and even repetitious. However, given typical performance practices in the early 18th century – vocal ornamentation (“divisions”), instrumental participation, antiphonal location for polychoral elements, just intonation, and varied vocal colors – even the homophonic works must have made a strong impression in the highly reverberative church interiors of Rome. At the end of his life he was preparing a mass for twelve choirs, left incomplete at his death. He was buried in the Pitoni family vault in the Basilica of San Marco, where he had served for some 66 years.
His best known work is the Dixit Dominus a 16 in 4 choirs.
Music theory
Guida armonica … libro primo (Rome, c1690); ed. F. Luisi (Bologna, 1989)
Notitia de contrapuntisti e de compositori di musica (c1725); ed. C. Ruini (Florence, 1988)
Regole di contrappunto (Mss Rome, Conservatorio di Musica S Cecilia)
Aggiunte alle Regole di contrappunto di Giulio Belli (Mss Bologna, Civico Museo Bibliografico Musicale)
Works, editions and recordings
Several volumes of his unpublished autograph compositions are in the library of the Cappella Giulia, Rome, and the Bibliotheca Santini at Münster.
Cantate Domino
Laudate Dominum
Dixit Dominus Tölzer Knabenchor Gerhard Schmidt-Gaden
References
Sources
Oxford Music Online
External links
Italian Baroque composers
1657 births
1743 deaths
Italian male classical composers
Italian Roman Catholics
People from Rieti
17th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian male musicians
17th-century male musicians | [
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|
214040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrocinium | Latrocinium | Latrocinium (from Latin latro, "bandit", ultimately from Greek latron, "pay" or "hire") was a war not preceded by a formal declaration of war as understood in Roman law; thus guerrilla warfare conducted against Rome was a form of latrocinium. It is typically translated into English as "banditry" or "brigandage", but in antiquity encompassed a wider range of subversive or anti-authoritarian actions, especially slave rebellions organized under charismatic leaders. In designating acts of violence that have ideological motives instead of or in addition to material gain, the modern distinction between terrorism and war may be a more illuminating comparison for the 21st century. The Greek term was leisteia; Plato and Aristotle regarded banditry as a way of life, like fishing or hunting.
Ecclesiastical councils as latrocinia
In ecclesiastical Latin, latrocinium is a term of abuse for ecumenical councils regarded as renegade or subversive of canon law, especially the second Council of Ephesus – dubbed the "Robber Council". (Latrocinium Ephesinum) in 449. The Third Council of Sirmium in 357, the Council of Hieria in 754, and the Synod of Pistoia in 1786, were also each described by their opponents as a latrocinium. Some also regarded the fourth Council of Constantinople (879–880) as a latrocinium.
Medieval usage
In the Middle Ages, latrocinium was a war without just cause, or piracy.
See also
Bagaudae
References
External links
Catholic Encyclopedia: Robber Council of Ephesus (Latrocinium)
Catholic Church councils
Crime and punishment in ancient Rome
Latin words and phrases | [
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|
214042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Villiers%20Stanford | Charles Villiers Stanford | Sir Charles Villiers Stanford (30 September 1852 – 29 March 1924) was an Irish composer, music teacher, and conductor of the late Romantic era. Born to a well-off and highly musical family in Dublin, Stanford was educated at the University of Cambridge before studying music in Leipzig and Berlin. He was instrumental in raising the status of the Cambridge University Musical Society, attracting international stars to perform with it.
While still an undergraduate, Stanford was appointed organist of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1882, aged 29, he was one of the founding professors of the Royal College of Music, where he taught composition for the rest of his life. From 1887 he was also Professor of Music at Cambridge. As a teacher, Stanford was sceptical about modernism, and based his instruction chiefly on classical principles as exemplified in the music of Brahms. Among his pupils were rising composers whose fame went on to surpass his own, such as Gustav Holst and Ralph Vaughan Williams. As a conductor, Stanford held posts with the Bach Choir and the Leeds triennial music festival.
Stanford composed a substantial number of concert works, including seven symphonies, but his best-remembered pieces are his choral works for church performance, chiefly composed in the Anglican tradition. He was a dedicated composer of opera, but none of his nine completed operas has endured in the general repertory. Some critics regarded Stanford, together with Hubert Parry and Alexander Mackenzie, as responsible for a renaissance in music from the British Isles. However, after his conspicuous success as a composer in the last two decades of the 19th century, his music was eclipsed in the 20th century by that of Edward Elgar as well as former pupils.
Life
Early years
Stanford was born in Dublin, the only son of John James Stanford and his second wife, Mary, née Henn. John Stanford was a prominent Dublin lawyer, Examiner to the Court of Chancery in Ireland and Clerk of the Crown for County Meath. His wife was the third daughter of William Henn, Master of the Court of Chancery in Ireland and his wife Susanna Lovett of Liscombe House, Buckinghamshire, and granddaughter of the judge William Henn. Both parents were accomplished amateur musicians; John Stanford was a cellist and a noted bass singer who was chosen to perform the title role in Mendelssohn's Elijah at the Irish premiere in 1847. Mary Stanford, "a lady
of great charm", was an amateur pianist, capable of playing the solo parts in concertos at Dublin concerts.
The young Stanford was given a conventional education at a private day school in Dublin run by Henry Tilney Bassett, who concentrated on the classics to the exclusion of other subjects. Stanford's parents encouraged the boy's precocious musical talent, employing a succession of teachers in violin, piano, organ and composition. Three of his teachers were former pupils of Ignaz Moscheles, including his godmother Elizabeth Meeke, of whom Stanford recalled, "She taught me, before I was twelve years old, to read at sight. ... She made me play every day at the end of my lesson a Mazurka of Chopin: never letting me stop for a mistake. ... By the time I had played through the whole fifty-two Mazurkas, I could read most music of the calibre my fingers could tackle with comparative ease." One of the young Stanford's earliest compositions, a march in D major, written when he was eight years old, was performed in the pantomime at the Theatre Royal, Dublin three years later. At the age of seven, Stanford gave a piano recital for an invited audience, playing works by Beethoven, Handel, Mendelssohn, Moscheles, Mozart and Bach. One of his songs was taken up by the University of Dublin Choral Society and was well received.
In the 1860s Dublin received occasional visits from international stars, and Stanford was able to hear famous performers such as Joseph Joachim, Henri Vieuxtemps and Adelina Patti. The annual visit of the Italian Opera Company from London, led by Giulia Grisi, Giovanni Matteo Mario and later Thérèse Tietjens, gave Stanford a taste for opera that remained with him all his life. When he was ten, his parents took him to London for the summer, where he stayed with his mother's uncle in Mayfair. While there he took composition lessons from the composer and teacher Arthur O'Leary, and piano lessons from Ernst Pauer, professor of piano at the Royal Academy of Music (RAM). On his return to Dublin, his godmother having left Ireland, he took lessons from Henrietta Flynn, another former Leipzig Conservatory pupil of Moscheles, and later from Robert Stewart, organist of St Patrick's Cathedral, as well as from a third Moscheles pupil, Michael Quarry. During his second spell in London two years later, he met the composer Arthur Sullivan and the musical administrator and writer George Grove, who later played important parts in his career.
John Stanford hoped that his son would follow him into the legal profession but accepted his decision to pursue music as a career. However, he stipulated that Stanford should have a conventional university education before going on to musical studies abroad. Stanford tried unsuccessfully for a classics scholarship at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, but gained an organ scholarship, and later a classics scholarship, at Queens' College. By the time he went up to Cambridge in 1870 he had written a substantial number of compositions, including vocal music, both sacred and secular, and orchestral works (a rondo for cello and orchestra and a concert overture).
Cambridge
Stanford immersed himself in the musical life of the university to the detriment of his Latin and Greek studies. He composed religious and secular vocal works, a piano concerto, and incidental music for Longfellow's play A Spanish Student. In November 1870 he appeared as piano soloist with the Cambridge University Musical Society (CUMS), and quickly became its assistant conductor and a committee member. The society had declined in excellence since its foundation in 1843. Its choir consisted solely of men and boys; the lack of women singers severely limited the works that the society could present. Stanford was unable to persuade the members to admit women, and so he staged what The Musical Times called "a bloodless revolution." In February 1872 he co-founded a mixed choir, the Amateur Vocal Guild, whose performances immediately put those of the CUMS singers in the shade. The members of CUMS rapidly changed their minds, and agreed to a merger of the two choirs, with women given associate membership of the society.
The conductor of the combined choir was John Larkin Hopkins, who was also organist of Trinity College. He became ill, and handed over the conductorship to Stanford in 1873. Stanford was also appointed Hopkins's deputy organist at Trinity, and moved from Queens' to Trinity in April 1873. In the summer of that year Stanford made his first trip to continental Europe. He went to Bonn for the Schumann Festival held there, where he met Joachim and Brahms. His growing love of the music of Schumann and Brahms marked him as a classicist at a time when many music-lovers were divided into the classical or the modernist camps, the latter represented by the music of Liszt and Wagner. Stanford was not constrained by the fashion for belonging to one camp or the other; he immensely admired Die Meistersinger though he was unenthusiastic about some of Wagner's other works. After leaving Bonn he returned home by way of Switzerland and then Paris, where he saw Meyerbeer's Le prophète.
Hopkins's illness proved fatal, and after his death the Trinity authorities invited Stanford to take over as organist of the college. He accepted with the proviso that he was to be released each year for a spell of musical study in Germany. The fellows of the college resolved on 21 February 1874:
Two days after his appointment, Stanford took the final examinations for his classics degree. He ranked 65th of 66, and was awarded a third-class degree.
Leipzig
On the recommendation of Sir William Sterndale Bennett, former professor of music at Cambridge and now director of the Royal Academy of Music, Stanford went to Leipzig in the summer of 1874 for lessons with Carl Reinecke, professor of composition and piano at the Leipzig Conservatory. The composer Thomas Dunhill commented that by 1874 it was "the tail-end of the Leipzig ascendancy, when the great traditions of Mendelssohn had already begun
to fade."
Nevertheless, Stanford did not seriously consider studying anywhere else. Neither Dublin nor London offered any comparable musical training; the most prestigious British music school, the Royal Academy of Music (RAM), was at that time hidebound and reactionary. He was dismayed to find in Leipzig that Bennett had recommended him to a German pedant no more progressive than the teachers at the RAM. Stanford said of Reinecke, "Of all the dry musicians I have ever known he was the most desiccated. He had not a good word for any contemporary composer... He loathed Wagner ... sneered at Brahms and had no enthusiasm of any sort." Stanford's biographer Paul Rodmell suggests that Reinecke's ultra-conservatism may have been unexpectedly good for his pupil "as it may have encouraged Stanford to kick against the traces." During his time in Leipzig Stanford took piano lessons from Robert Papperitz (1826–1903), organist of the city's Nikolaikirche, whom he found more helpful.
Among Stanford's compositions in 1874 was a setting of part one of Longfellow's poem The Golden Legend. He intended to set the entire poem, but gave up, defeated by Longfellow's "numerous but unconnected characters." Stanford ignored this and other early works when assigning opus numbers in his mature years. The earliest compositions in his official list of works are a four-movement Suite for piano and a Toccata for piano, which both date from 1875.
After a second spell in Leipzig with Reinecke in 1875, which was no more productive than the first, Stanford was recommended by Joachim to study in Berlin the following year with Friedrich Kiel, whom Stanford found "a master at once sympathetic and able ... I learnt more from him in three months, than from all the others in three years."
Rising composer
Returning to Cambridge in the intervals of his studies in Germany, Stanford had resumed his work as conductor of CUMS. He found the society in good shape under his deputy, Eaton Faning, and able to tackle demanding new works. In 1876 the society presented one of the first performances in Britain of the Brahms Requiem. In 1877 CUMS came to national attention when it presented the first British performance of Brahms's First Symphony.
During the same period, Stanford was becoming known as a composer. He was composing prolifically, though he later withdrew some of his works from these years, including a violin concerto which, according to Rodmell, suffered from "undistinguished thematic material." In 1875 his First Symphony won the second prize in a competition held at the Alexandra Palace for symphonies by British composers, although he had to wait a further two years to hear the work performed. In the same year Stanford directed the first performance of his oratorio The Resurrection, given by CUMS. At the request of Alfred Tennyson, he wrote incidental music for Tennyson's drama Queen Mary, performed at the Lyceum Theatre, London in April 1876.
In April 1878, despite the disapproval of his father, Stanford married Jane Anna Maria Wetton, known as Jennie, a singer whom he had met when she was studying in Leipzig. She was the daughter of Henry Champion Wetton of Joldwynds in Surrey, who had died in 1870. They had a daughter, Geraldine Mary, born in 1883, and a son, Guy Desmond, born in 1885.
In 1878 and 1879 Stanford worked on his first opera, The Veiled Prophet, to a libretto by his friend William Barclay Squire. It was based on a poem by Thomas Moore with characters including a virgin priestess and a mystic prophet, and a plot that culminates in poisoning and stabbing. Stanford offered the work to the opera impresario Carl Rosa, who refused it and suggested that the composer should try to have it staged in Germany: "Its success will (unfortunately) have much greater chances here if accepted abroad." Referring to the enormous popularity of Sullivan's comic operas, Rosa added, "If the work was of the Pinafore style it would be quite another matter." Stanford had greatly enjoyed Sullivan's Cox and Box, but The Veiled Prophet was intended to be a serious work of high drama and romance.
Stanford had made many useful contacts during his months in Germany, and his friend the conductor Ernst Frank got the piece staged at the Königliches Schauspiel in Hanover in 1881. Reviewing the premiere for The Musical Times, Stanford's friend J A Fuller Maitland wrote, "Mr. Stanford's style of instrumentation ... is built more or less on that of Schumann; while his style of dramatic treatment bears more resemblance to Meyerbeer than to that of any other master." Other reviews were mixed, and the opera had to wait until 1893 for its English premiere. Stanford nevertheless continued to seek operatic success throughout his career. In his lifelong enthusiasm for opera he differed strikingly from his contemporary Hubert Parry, who made one attempt at composing opera and then renounced the genre.
By the early 1880s, Stanford was becoming a major figure in the British musical scene. His only major rivals were seen as Sullivan, Frederic Hymen Cowen, Parry, Alexander Mackenzie and Arthur Goring Thomas. Sullivan was by this time viewed with suspicion in high-minded musical circles for composing comic rather than grand operas; Cowen was regarded more as a conductor than as a composer; and the other three, though seen as promising, had not so far made a clear mark as Stanford had done. Stanford helped Parry in particular to gain recognition, commissioning incidental music from him for a Cambridge production of Aristophanes' The Birds and a symphony (the "Cambridge") for the musical society. At Cambridge Stanford continued to raise the profile of CUMS, as well as his own, by securing appearances by leading international musicians including Joachim, Hans Richter, Alfredo Piatti and Edward Dannreuther. The society attracted further attention by premiering works by Cowen, Parry, Mackenzie, Goring Thomas and others. Stanford was also making an impression in his capacity as organist of Trinity, raising musical standards and composing what his biographer Jeremy Dibble calls "some highly distinctive church music" including a Service in B (1879), the anthem "The Lord is my shepherd" (1886) and three Latin motets including Beati quorum via (1888).
In the first half of the 1880s, Stanford collaborated with the author Gilbert à Beckett on two operas, Savonarola, and The Canterbury Pilgrims. The former was well received at its premiere in Hamburg in April 1884, but received a critical savaging when staged at Covent Garden in July of the same year. Parry commented privately, "It seems very badly constructed for the stage, poorly conceived and the music, though clean and well-managed, is not striking or dramatic." The most severe public criticism was in The Theatre, whose reviewer wrote, "The book of Savonarola is dull, stilted, and, from a dramatic point of view, weak. It is not, however, so crushingly tiresome as the music fitted to it. Savonarola has gone far to convince me that opera is quite out of [Stanford's] line and that the sooner he abandons the stage for the cathedral, the better for his musical reputation." The Canterbury Pilgrims had been premiered in London in April 1884, three months before Savonarola was presented at Covent Garden. It had a better reception than the latter, though reviews pointed out Stanford's debt to Die Meistersinger, and complained of a lack of emotion in the love music. George Grove agreed with the critics, writing to Parry, "Charlie's music contains everything but sentiment. Love not at all – that I heard not a grain of. ... And I do think that there might be more tune. Melody is not a thing to be avoided surely." In 1896 a critic wrote that the opera had "just such a 'book' as would have suited the late Alfred Cellier. He would probably have made of it a charming light English opera. But Dr. Stanford has chosen to use it for the exemplification of those advanced theories which we know him to hold, and he has given us music which would incline us to think that Die Meistersinger had been his model. The effect of the combination is not happy."
Professor
In 1883, the Royal College of Music was set up to replace the short-lived and unsuccessful National Training School for Music (NTSM). Neither the NTSM nor the longer-established Royal Academy of Music had provided adequate musical training for professional orchestral players, and the founder-director of the college, George Grove, was determined that the new institution should succeed in doing so. His two principal allies in this undertaking were the violinist Henry Holmes and Stanford. In a study of the founding of the college, David Wright notes that Stanford had two main reasons for supporting Grove's aim. The first was his belief that a capable college orchestra was essential to give students of composition the chance to experience the sound of their music. His second reason was the severe contrast between the competence of German orchestras and the performance of their British counterparts. He accepted Grove's offer of the posts of professor of composition and (with Holmes) conductor of the college orchestra. He held the professorship for the rest of his life; among the best known of his many pupils were Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams, John Ireland, Rebecca Clarke, Frank Bridge and Arthur Bliss.
Stanford was never an easy-going teacher. He insisted on one-to-one tutorials, and worked his pupils hard. One of them, Herbert Howells, recalled, "Corner any Stanford pupil you like, and ask him to confess the sins he most hated being discovered in by his master. He will tell you 'slovenliness' and 'vulgarity.' When these went into the teacher's room they came out, badly damaged. Against compromise with dubious material or workmanship Stanford stubbornly set his face." Another pupil, Edgar Bainton, recalled:
To Stanford's regret, many of his pupils who achieved eminence as composers broke away from his classical, Brahmsian precepts, as he had himself rebelled against Reinecke's conservatism. The composer George Dyson wrote, "In a certain sense the very rebellion he fought was the most obvious fruit of his methods. And in view of what some of these rebels have since achieved, one is tempted to wonder whether there is really anything better a teacher can do for his pupils than drive them into various forms of revolution." The works of some of Stanford's pupils, including Holst and Vaughan Williams, entered the general repertory in Britain, and to some extent elsewhere, as Stanford's never did. For many years after his death it seemed that Stanford's greatest fame would be as a teacher. Among his achievements at the RCM was the establishment of an opera class, with at least one operatic production every year. From 1885 to 1915 there were 32 productions, all of them conducted by Stanford.
In 1887 Stanford was appointed professor of music at Cambridge in succession to Sir George Macfarren who died in October of that year. Up to this time, the university had awarded music degrees to candidates who had not been undergraduates at Cambridge; all that was required was to pass the university's music examinations. Stanford was determined to end the practice, and after six years he persuaded the university authorities to agree. Three years' study at the university became a prerequisite for sitting the bachelor of music examinations.
Conductor and composer
During the last decades of the 19th century, Stanford's academic duties did not prevent him from composing or performing. He was appointed conductor of the Bach Choir, London, in 1885, succeeding its founding conductor Otto Goldschmidt. He held the post until 1902. Hans von Bülow conducted the German premiere of Stanford's Irish Symphony in Hamburg in January 1888, and was sufficiently impressed by the work to programme it in Berlin shortly afterwards. Richter conducted it in Vienna, and Mahler later conducted it in New York. For the Theatre Royal, Cambridge, Stanford composed incidental music for productions of Aeschylus's The Eumenides (1885), and Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannos (1887). The Times said of the former, "Mr. Stanford's music is dramatically significant, as well as beautiful in itself. It has, moreover, that quality so rare among modern composers – style." In both sets of music Stanford made extensive use of leitmotifs, in the manner of Wagner; the critic of The Times noted the Wagnerian character of the prelude to Oedipus.
In the 1890s, Bernard Shaw writing as music critic of The World, voiced mixed feelings about Stanford. In Shaw's view, the best of Stanford's works displayed an uninhibited, Irish, character. The critic was dismissive of the composer's solemn Victorian choral music. In July 1891, Shaw's column was full of praise for Stanford's capacity for spirited tunes, declaring that Richard D'Oyly Carte should engage him to succeed Sullivan as the composer of Savoy operas. In October of the same year, Shaw attacked Stanford's oratorio Eden, bracketing the composer with Parry and Mackenzie as a mutual admiration society, purveying "sham classics":
To Fuller Maitland, the trio of composers lampooned by Shaw were the leaders of an English musical renaissance (although neither Stanford nor Mackenzie was English). This view persisted in some academic circles for many years.
Stanford returned to opera in 1893, with an extensively revised and shortened version of The Veiled Prophet. It had its British premiere at Covent Garden in July. His friend Fuller Maitland was by this time the chief music critic of The Times, and the paper's review of the opera was laudatory. According to Fuller Maitland The Veiled Prophet was the best novelty of an opera season that had also included Leoncavallo's Pagliacci, Bizet's Djamileh and Mascagni's I Rantzau. Stanford's next opera was Shamus O'Brien (1896), a comic opera to a libretto by George H. Jessop. The conductor was the young Henry Wood, who recalled in his memoirs that the producer, Sir Augustus Harris, managed to quell the dictatorial composer and prevent him from interfering with the staging. Stanford attempted to give Wood lessons in conducting, but the young man was unimpressed. The opera was successful, running for 82 consecutive performances. The work was given in German translation in Breslau in 1907; Thomas Beecham thought it "a colourful, racy work", and revived it in his 1910 opéra comique season at His Majesty's Theatre, London.
At the end of 1894, Grove retired from the Royal College of Music. Parry was chosen to succeed him, and although Stanford wholeheartedly congratulated his friend on his appointment, their relations soon deteriorated. Stanford was known as a hot-tempered and quarrelsome man. Grove had written of a board meeting at the Royal College "where somehow the spirit of the d----l himself had been working in Stanford all the time – as it sometimes does, making him so nasty and quarrelsome and contradictious as no one but he can be! He is a most remarkably clever and able fellow, full of resource and power – no doubt of that – but one has to purchase it often at a very dear price." Parry suffered worse at Stanford's hands with frequent rows, deeply upsetting to the highly strung Parry. Some of their rows were caused by Stanford's reluctance to accept the authority of his old friend and protégé, but on other occasions Parry seriously provoked Stanford, notably in 1895 when he reduced the funding for Stanford's orchestral classes.
In 1898, Sullivan, ageing and unwell, resigned as conductor of the Leeds triennial music festival, a post which he had held since 1880. He believed that Stanford's motive for accepting the conductorship of the Leeds Philharmonic Society the previous year was to position himself to take over the festival. Stanford later felt obliged to write to The Times, denying that he had been party to a conspiracy to oust Sullivan. Sullivan was by then thought to be a dull conductor of other composers' music, and although Stanford's work as a conductor was not without its critics, he was appointed in Sullivan's place. He remained in charge until 1910. His compositions for the festival included Songs of the Sea (1904), Stabat Mater (1907) and Songs of the Fleet (1910). New works by other composers presented at Leeds during Stanford's years in charge included pieces by Parry, Mackenzie, and seven of Stanford's former pupils. The best-known new work from Stanford's time is probably Vaughan Williams's A Sea Symphony, premiered in 1910.
20th century
In 1901 Stanford returned once again to opera, with Much Ado About Nothing, to a libretto by Julian Sturgis that was exceptionally faithful to Shakespeare's original. The Manchester Guardian commented, "Not even in the Falstaff of Arrigo Boito and Giuseppe Verdi have the characteristic charm, the ripe and pungent individuality of the original comedy been more sedulously preserved."
Despite good notices for the opera, Stanford's star was waning. In the first decade of the century, his music became eclipsed by that of a younger composer, Edward Elgar. In the words of the music scholar Robert Anderson, Stanford "had his innings with continental reputation in the latter decades of the nineteenth century, but then Elgar bowled him out." When Elgar was struggling for recognition in the 1890s, Stanford had been supportive of his younger colleague, conducting his music, putting him forward for a Cambridge doctorate, and proposing him for membership of the exclusive London club, the Athenaeum. He was, however, put out when Elgar's success at home and abroad eclipsed his own, with Richard Strauss (whom Stanford detested) praising Elgar as the first progressive English composer. When Elgar was appointed professor of music at Birmingham University in 1904, Stanford wrote him a letter that the recipient found "odious". Elgar retaliated in his inaugural lecture with remarks about composers of rhapsodies, widely seen as denigrating Stanford. Stanford later counter-attacked in his book A History of Music, writing of Elgar, "Cut off from his contemporaries by his religion and his want of regular academic training, he was lucky enough to enter the field and find the preliminary ploughing done."
Though bitter about being sidelined, Stanford continued to compose. Between the turn of the century and the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 his new works included a violin concerto (1901), a clarinet concerto (1902), a sixth and a seventh (and last) symphony (1906 and 1911), and his second piano concerto (1911). In 1916 he wrote his penultimate opera, The Critic. It was a setting of Sheridan's comedy of the same name, with the original text left mostly intact by the librettist, Lewis Cairns James. The work was well received at the premiere at the Shaftesbury Theatre, London, and was taken up later in the year by Beecham, who staged it in Manchester and London.
Last years
The First World War had a severe effect on Stanford. He was frightened by air-raids, and had to move from London to Windsor to avoid them. Many of his former pupils were casualties of the fighting, including Arthur Bliss, wounded, Ivor Gurney, gassed, and George Butterworth, killed. The annual RCM operatic production, which Stanford had supervised and conducted every year since 1885, had to be cancelled. His income declined, as the fall in student numbers at the college reduced the demand for his services. After a serious disagreement at the end of 1916, his relationship with Parry deteriorated to the point of hostility. Stanford's magnanimity, however, came to the fore when Parry died two years later and Stanford successfully lobbied for him to be buried in St Paul's Cathedral.
After the war, Stanford handed over much of the direction of the RCM's orchestra to Adrian Boult, but continued to teach at the college. He gave occasional public lectures, including one on "Some Recent Tendencies in Composition", in January 1921 which was belligerently hostile to most of the music of the generation after his own. His last public appearance was on 5 March 1921 conducting Frederick Ranalow and the Royal Choral Society in his new cantata, At the Abbey Gate. Reviews were polite but unenthusiastic. The Times said, "we could not feel that the music had enough emotion behind it", The Observer thought it "quite appealing even though one feels it to be more facile than powerful."
In September 1922, Stanford completed the sixth Irish Rhapsody, his final work. Two weeks later he celebrated his 70th birthday; thereafter his health declined. On 17 March 1924 he suffered a stroke and on 29 March he died at his home in London, survived by his wife and children. He was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 2 April and his ashes were buried in Westminster Abbey the following day. The orchestra of the Royal College of Music, conducted by Boult, played music by Stanford, ending the service with a funeral march that he had written for Tennyson's Becket in 1893. The grave is in the north choir aisle of the Abbey, near the graves of Henry Purcell, John Blow and William Sterndale Bennett. The Times said, "the conjunction of the music of Stanford with that of his great predecessors showed how thoroughly as composer he belonged to their line."
Stanford's last opera, The Travelling Companion, composed during the war, was premiered by amateur performers at the David Lewis Theatre, Liverpool in 1925 with a reduced orchestra. The work was given complete at Bristol in 1928 and at Sadler's Wells Theatre, London, in 1935.
Honours
Stanford received many honours, including honorary doctorates from Oxford (1883), Cambridge (1888), Durham (1894), Leeds (1904), and Trinity College, Dublin (1921). He was knighted in the 1902 Coronation Honours, receiving the accolade from King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 24 October that year. In 1904 he was elected a member of the Prussian Academy of Arts, Berlin.
Works
Stanford composed about 200 works, including seven symphonies, about 40 choral works, nine operas, 11 concertos and 28 chamber works, as well as songs, piano pieces, incidental music, and organ works. He suppressed most of his earliest compositions; the earliest of works that he chose to include in his catalogue date from 1875.
Throughout his career as a composer, Stanford's technical mastery was rarely in doubt. The composer Edgar Bainton said of him, "Whatever opinions may be held upon Stanford's music, and they are many and various, it is, I think, always recognised that he was a master of means. Everything he turned his hand to always 'comes off. On the day of Stanford's death, one former pupil, Gustav Holst, said to another, Herbert Howells, "The one man who could get any one of us out of a technical mess is now gone from us."
After Stanford's death most of his music was quickly forgotten, with the exception of his works for church performance. His Stabat Mater and Requiem held their place in the choral repertoire, the latter championed by Sir Thomas Beecham. Stanford's two sets of sea songs and the partsong The Blue Bird were still performed from time to time, but even his most popular opera, Shamus O'Brien came to seem old fashioned with its "stage-Irish" vocabulary. However, in his 2002 study of Stanford, Dibble writes that the music, increasingly available on disc if not in live performance, still has the power to surprise. In Dibble's view, the frequent charge that Stanford is "Brahms and water" was disproved once the symphonies, concertos, much of the chamber music and many of the songs became available for reappraisal when recorded for compact disc. In 2002, Rodmell's study of Stanford included a discography running to 16 pages.
The criticism most often made of Stanford's music by writers from Shaw onwards is that his music lacks passion. Shaw praised "Stanford the Celt" and abominated "Stanford the Professor", who reined in the emotions of the Celt. In Stanford's church music, the critic Nicholas Temperley finds "a thoroughly satisfying artistic experience, but one that is perhaps lacking in deeply felt religious impulse." In his operas and elsewhere, Grove, Parry and later commentators found music that ought to convey love and romance failing to do so. Like Parry, Stanford strove for seriousness, and his competitive streak led him to emulate Sullivan not in comic opera, for which Stanford had a real gift, but in oratorio in what Rodmell calls grand statements that "only occasionally matched worthiness with power or profundity."
Orchestral
The commentator Richard Whitehouse writes that Stanford's seven symphonies embody both the strengths and limitations of his music, displaying "a compositional rigour and expertise matched only by his older contemporary ... Parry, while seeming content to remain well within the stylistic ambit of Mendelssohn, Schumann and Brahms." Whitehouse comments that although Stanford's symphonic construction is conventional, "an often subtle approach to movement forms and resourceful orchestration make his symphonies worth exploring."
Stanford's first two symphonies (1876 and 1879) were not published and were excluded from his catalogue of works. His Symphony No. 1 was written for a competition offered by the proprietors of the Alexandra Palace. It received second prize but was only performed once in his lifetime.
The Third Symphony in F minor, known as the Irish, was first performed in 1887. It was conducted by Mahler in 1911 in New York (Stanford however did not reciprocate, disliking most 'modern' music, especially Ravel, Debussy and Stravinsky), and the Third remained the most popular of Stanford's symphonies during his lifetime. In his study of Stanford's works, John Porte refers to it as "full of the spirit and tunes of his country ... with its contrasting expressions of jollity and sad beauty." In this, as in many of his works, Stanford incorporated genuine Irish folk tunes. Like Parry and Mackenzie, but unlike Sullivan and Elgar, Stanford liked and respected folk songs.
He generally avoided programmatic music, but his Sixth Symphony, composed in memoriam G. F. Watts, was, Stanford acknowledged, inspired by Watts's sculptures and paintings.
Of Stanford's other orchestral works, his six Irish Rhapsodies all date from the 20th century, the first from 1901 and the last from the year before his death. Two of the set feature solo instruments along with the orchestra: the third (cello) and the sixth (violin). In Dibble's view some of the concertante works such as the First Piano Concerto (1894) and the Violin Concerto of 1899 are in their orchestration and their lyricism as much in the tradition of Mendelssohn as of Brahms, with whom Stanford's music is often compared.
Chamber works
Stanford's chamber music, which as Dibble notes even Shaw praised, has not entered the general repertoire, but is well crafted. Dibble singles out the Three Intermezzi for clarinet and piano (1879), the Serenade (Nonet) of 1905, and the Clarinet Sonata (1911) with its touching lament. Dibble writes that while his Violin Sonata No. 1 was still influenced by Beethoven and Schumann, his Violin Sonata No. 2, composed c. 1898 after studies in Germany including works by Brahms, in "seamless sonata construction gives the impression of a free form". Writing of the First String Quintet, Porte calls it a sonorous and warm-hearted sort of work, constructed on fairly classical lines, and notes that the character and construction are typical of the composer. Porte comments similarly on other chamber works, including the Second Piano Trio: "This is a typical Stanfordian work. It is sonorously scored, classical in outlook, and contains many passages of an expressive and somewhat poetical freshness. There are no very special features to note, but the work is one that makes a useful and interesting item."
Church music
The general neglect of Stanford's music in the years after his death did not extend to his ecclesiastical works. In Music in Britain, one of the few books to deal with Stanford's music in detail, Nicholas Temperley writes that it is due to Stanford that settings of the Anglican church services regained their "full place beside the anthem as a worthy object of artistic invention." Vaughan Williams ranked the Stabat Mater as one of Stanford's works of "imperishable beauty". In Temperley's view, Stanford's services in A (1880), F (1889) and C (1909) are the most important and enduring additions from those years to the cathedral repertory. As with his concert works, Stanford's music is dominated by melody. The bass line, in Rodmell's view, is always important yet secondary and anything in between was regarded as "filling."
Operas
In a 1981 survey of Stanford's operas, the critic Nigel Burton writes that Shamus O'Brien lacks good tunes, and that the only memorable melody in it is not by Stanford but is an English folk song, "The Glory of the West." Burton is more dismissive of The Critic, which he describes as "a poor man's Ariadne auf Naxos." Dibble rates The Critic much higher, considering it to be one of Stanford's two best operas. In 1921, Porte wrote that it contains music that is "remarkably fresh, melodious and thoroughly individual in character and outlook. The vocal and instrumental writing is done with consummate skill." Burton praises Much Ado About Nothing, judging it to contain some of Stanford's best operatic music. He rates the last of the composer's operas, The Travelling Companion as his finest operatic achievement, though Burton credits much of its power to the brilliant story adapted by Henry Newbolt from Hans Andersen. Porte writes that the music is often solemn and romantic, and curiously impressive. Christopher Webber writes that it has "an atmosphere not quite like any other: The Travelling Companion has timeless qualities ... [which] could go far to enhance Stanford's reputation as an opera composer".
Recordings
Although much of Stanford's music is neglected in the concert hall, a considerable amount has been recorded. Complete cycles of the symphonies have been issued by the Chandos and Naxos labels, under the conductors Vernon Handley and David Lloyd-Jones. Other orchestral works recorded for CD include the six Irish Rhapsodies, the Clarinet Concerto, the Second Piano Concerto and the Second Violin Concerto. Of the nine operas, only The Travelling Companion is available in a complete performance.
Stanford's church music is well represented on disc. In his 2002 discography, Rodmell lists 14 versions of the Service in B, alongside multiple recordings of the Services in A, F and C, the Three Latin Motets Op. 38, and the composer's setting of "The Lord is my Shepherd." A 1926 disc of his Magnificat in G by Choir of St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle was the first recording of a boy soprano soloist using an electrical microphone. His Mass in G Major received its world première recording in 2014, featuring the Choir of Exeter College Oxford and the Stapeldon Sinfonia, with Tim Muggeridge (organ) and directed by George de Voil: EMR CD021.
English mixed-voice choir the Cambridge Singers (conducted by John Rutter) released the album Stanford and Howells Remembered in 1992, including both sacred and secular works. It was remastered and re-released in 2020. The first CD dedicated to Stanford's partsongs (including the Op. 119 set to poems by Mary Coleridge) appeared in 2013, sung by the Birmingham Conservatoire Chamber Choice, conductor Paul Spicer. He wrote around 60 partsongs in total.
Stanford also wrote some 200 art songs and around 300 folksongs intended for the concert hall. Songs recorded by several artists include "La Belle Dame Sans Merci", performed by Janet Baker among others, "An Irish Idyll", whose interpreters have included Kathleen Ferrier, and Songs of the Sea in recordings by such singers as Thomas Allen. Two more recent recordings dedicated to the songs have been issued: Love’s White Flame, with Elisabetta Paglia (mezzo-soprano) and Christopher Howell (piano) in 2020; and Songs of Faith, Love and Nonsense, with James Way (tenor), Roderick Williams (baritone) and Andrew West (piano) in 2021.
Among the chamber works that have received several recordings are the Three Intermezzi for Clarinet and Piano and the Clarinet Sonata. All eight of the previously neglected string quartets have now been recorded, as have the two string quintets. The first significant recording of piano works included the Three Rhapsodies (alongside Parry's Shulbrede Tunes) in 1978 by John Parry. Peter Jacobs recorded both sets of 24 Preludes, the Characteristic Pieces and the Dante Rhapsodies in the late 1990s. Christopher Howell has since recorded the complete piano music.
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
Howell, Christopher. Stanford String Quartets – review, Music Web International, 1997
Introductory notes by Edition Silvertrust:
3 Intermezzi for Clarinet & Piano, Op. 13
Cello Sonata No.2 in D minor, Op. 39
Piano Quartet No.1 in F Major, Op. 15
Piano Quintet in D minor, Op. 25
Piano Trio No.1 in E Flat Major, Op. 35
Piano Trio No.2 in g minor, Op. 73
Piano Trio No.3 in A Major, Op. 158
String Quartet No.1 in G Major, Op. 44
String Quartet No.2 in a minor, Op. 45
String Quintet in F Major, Op. 85
Stanford Family Tree
Moore's Irish Melodies, arranged by C. V. Stanford
The Stanford Society
1852 births
1924 deaths
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String quartet composers | [
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|
214043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima%20Peace%20Memorial | Hiroshima Peace Memorial | The , originally the Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall, and now commonly called the Genbaku Dome, , is part of the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park in Hiroshima, Japan and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996. The ruin of the hall serves as a memorial to the over 140,000 people who were killed in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima at the end of World War II. It is permanently kept in a state of arrested ruin as a reminder of the destructive effects of nuclear warfare.
History
The Product Exhibition Hall building was originally designed by the Czech architect Jan Letzel. The design included a distinctive dome at the highest part of the building. It was completed in April 1915 and was named the Hiroshima Prefectural Commercial Exhibition (HMI). It was formally opened to the public in August that year. In 1921, the name was changed to the Hiroshima Prefectural Products Exhibition Hall, and again, in 1933, to the Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall (広島県産業奨励館 Hiroshima-ken Sangyo Shourei-kan). The building was located in the large business district next to the Aioi Bridge and was primarily used for art and educational exhibitions.
Atomic bombing
At 8:15 a.m. on 6 August 1945, the first atomic bomb to be used in war was dropped by the United States Army Air Forces from the Enola Gay, a B-29 bomber. The force of the atomic bomb effectively obliterated the city of Hiroshima, Japan.
Earlier, on 25 July, General Carl Spaatz, commander of the United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific, received orders to deliver a "special bomb" attack on selected cities in Japan. The first target city chosen was Hiroshima, which had an important port on southern Honshu and was headquarters of the Japanese Second General Army with 40,000 military personnel in the city. The bomb was assembled in secret and loaded on the Enola Gay. The bomb, code named "Little Boy", possessed a force equivalent to 15,000 tons of TNT. The plane dropped Little Boy over the city at 8:15:17 a.m. local time on 6 August 1945. About 43 seconds after being dropped, it detonated over the city, missing its target by . Intended for the Aioi Bridge, the bomb instead exploded directly over the Shima Hospital, which was very near to the Genbaku Dome. Because the explosion was almost directly overhead, the building was able to retain its shape. The building's vertical columns were able to resist the nearly vertical downward force of the blast, and parts of the concrete and brick outer walls remained intact. The center of the blast occurred horizontally and vertically from the Dome. Everyone inside the building was killed instantly. The building's durability can also be attributed to its earthquake-resistant design; it has held up to earthquakes before and since the bombing.
Post-Atomic Bombing
Preservation
Due to its stone and steel construction, the building was one of the few structures left standing near the bomb's hypocenter. Soon commonly called the Genbaku ("A-Bomb") Dome, due to the exposed metal dome framework at its apex, the structure was scheduled to be demolished with the rest of the ruins, but the majority of the building was intact, delaying the demolition plans. The Dome became a subject of controversy, with some locals wanting it torn down, while others wanted to preserve it as a memorial of the bombing and a symbol of peace. Ultimately, when the reconstruction of Hiroshima began, the skeletal remains of the building were preserved.
From 1950 through 1964, the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park was established around the Dome. The Hiroshima City Council adopted a resolution in 1966 on the permanent preservation of the Genbaku Dome, officially named the Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome). The Dome continues to be the park's primary landmark.
Weathering and deterioration of the Genbaku Dome continued in the post-war period. The Hiroshima City Council declared in 1966 that it intended to indefinitely preserve the structure, now termed "Genbaku Dome". The first popularly elected mayor of Hiroshima, Shinzo Hamai (1905–1968) sought funds for the preservation effort domestically and internationally. During one trip to Tokyo, Hamai resorted to collecting funds directly on the streets of the capital. Preservation work on the Genbaku Dome was completed in 1967. The Genbaku Dome has undergone two minor preservation projects to stabilize the ruin, notably between October 1989 and March 1990.
The Genbaku Dome stands almost exactly as it did after the bombing on 6 August 1945. Changes to the ruins, meant to ensure the stability of the structure, have been minimal.
UNESCO World Heritage Site
In December 1996, the Genbaku Dome was registered on the UNESCO World Heritage List based on the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Its inclusion into the UNESCO list was based on its survival from a destructive force (atomic bomb), the first use of nuclear weapons on a human population, and its representation as a symbol of peace.
Delegates to the World Heritage Committee from China and the United States had reservations regarding the confirmation of the memorial as a World Heritage Site. China cited the possibility that the monument could be used to downplay the fact that the victim countries of Japan's aggression suffered the greatest losses of life during the war, and the United States stated that having a memorial to a war site would omit the necessary historical context. The United States dissociated itself from the decision.
Gallery
See also
Hiroshima Witness
Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church
Tourism in Japan
List of World Heritage Sites in Japan
The Ribbon International
References
External links
Official page
Entry on UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) website
U.S. Attending 2010 Hiroshima Memorial – video report by Democracy Now!
Cultural infrastructure completed in 1915
War monuments and memorials
Domes
Monuments and memorials in Japan
Monuments and memorials concerning the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Peace monuments and memorials
Tourist attractions in Hiroshima
World Heritage Sites in Japan
Buildings and structures in Hiroshima
Buildings and structures in Japan destroyed during World War II
Historic Sites of Japan
World War II memorials in Japan | [
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|
214046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco%20Durante | Francesco Durante | Francesco Durante (31 March 1684 – 30 September 1755) was a Neapolitan composer.
He was born at Frattamaggiore, in the Kingdom of Naples, and at an early age he entered the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesù Cristo, in Naples, where he received lessons from Gaetano Greco. Later he became a pupil of Alessandro Scarlatti at the Conservatorio di Sant'Onofrio. He is also supposed to have studied under Bernardo Pasquini and Giuseppe Ottavio Pitoni in Rome, but there is no documentary evidence. He is said to have succeeded Scarlatti in 1725 at Sant' Onofrio, and to have remained there until 1742, when he succeeded Porpora as head of the Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto, also in Naples. This post he held for thirteen years, till his death in Naples. He was married three times.
His fame as a teacher was considerable, and Niccolò Jommelli, Giovanni Paisiello, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Niccolò Piccinni and Leonardo Vinci were amongst his pupils. As a teacher, he insisted on the unreasoning observance of rules, differing thus from Scarlatti, who treated all his pupils as individuals.
A complete collection of Durante's works, consisting almost exclusively of sacred music, was presented by Gaspare Selvaggi, a Neapolitan art collector and music theorist, to the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. A catalogue may be found in Fétis's Biographie universelle. The imperial library of Vienna also preserves a valuable collection of Durante's manuscripts. Two requiems, several masses (one of which, a most original work, is the Pastoral Mass for four voices) and the Lamentations of the prophet Jeremiah are amongst his most important settings. His Magnificat achieved popularity partly because of its misattribution to Pergolesi.
The fact that Durante never composed for the stage brought him an exaggerated reputation as a composer of sacred music. Considered one of the best church composers of his style and period, he seems to have founded the sentimental school of Italian church music. Nevertheless, Hasse protested against Durante's being described as the greatest harmonist of Italy, a title which he ascribed to Alessandro Scarlatti.
Discography
Solfèges d'Italie, No. 137: "Danza, danza, fanciulla gentile", with Frederica von Stade (mezzo-soprano) and Martin Katz (piano), CBS, 1982
Media
References
Sources
Sadie, S. (ed.) (1980) The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, [vol #5].
Peter van Tour: Counterpoint and Partimento: Methods of Teaching Composition in Late Eighteenth-Century Naples. 2015. 318p. (Studia musicologica Upsaliensia, 0081-6744 ; 25) .
External links
Istituto Internazionale per lo studio del '700 musicale napoletano
1684 births
1755 deaths
18th-century Italian male musicians
18th-century Italian composers
Italian Baroque composers
Italian male classical composers
Neapolitan school composers
People from the Province of Naples
Pupils of Bernardo Pasquini
Pupils of Alessandro Scarlatti
17th-century male musicians | [
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|
214049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagel | Bagel | A bagel (; ; also historically spelled beigel) is a bread product originating in the Jewish communities of Poland.
It is traditionally shaped by hand into the form of a ring from yeasted wheat dough, roughly hand-sized, that is first boiled for a short time in water and then baked. The result is a dense, chewy, doughy interior with a browned and sometimes crisp exterior. Bagels are often topped with seeds baked on the outer crust, with the traditional ones being poppy and sesame seeds. Some may have salt sprinkled on their surface, and there are different dough types, such as whole-grain and rye.
The earliest known mention of a boiled-then-baked ring-shaped bread can be found in a 13th-century Arabic cookbook, where they are referred to as ka'ak. Today, bagels are widely associated with Ashkenazi Jews from the 17th century; it was first mentioned in 1610 in Jewish community ordinances in Kraków, Poland. Bagel-like bread known as obwarzanek was common earlier in Poland as seen in royal family accounts from 1394.
Bagels are now a popular bread product in North America and Poland, especially in cities with a large Jewish population, many with alternative ways of making them. Bagels are also sold (fresh or frozen, often in many flavors) in supermarkets.
The basic roll-with-a-hole design is hundreds of years old and has other practical advantages besides providing more even cooking and baking of the dough: The hole could be used to thread string or dowels through groups of bagels, allowing easier handling and transportation and more appealing seller displays.
History
Linguist Leo Rosten wrote in The Joys of Yiddish about the first known mention of the Polish word bajgiel derived from the Yiddish word bagel in the "Community Regulations" of the city of Kraków in 1610, which stated that the food was given as a gift to women in childbirth. There is some evidence that the bagel may have been made in Germany before being made in Poland.
In the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries, the bajgiel became a staple of Polish cuisine. Its name derives from the Yiddish word beygal from the German dialect word beugel, meaning "ring" or "bracelet".
Variants of the word beugal are used in Yiddish and in Austrian German to refer to a similar form of sweet-filled pastry (Mohnbeugel (with poppy seeds) and Nussbeugel (with ground nuts), or in southern German dialects (where beuge refers to a pile, e.g., holzbeuge "woodpile"). According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, 'bagel' derives from the transliteration of the Yiddish 'beygl', which came from the Middle High German 'böugel' or ring, which itself came from 'bouc' (ring) in Old High German, similar to the Old English bēag "ring" and būgan "to bend, bow". Similarly, another etymology in the Webster's New World College Dictionary says that the Middle High German form was derived from the Austrian German beugel, a kind of croissant, and was similar to the German bügel, a stirrup or ring.
In the Brick Lane district and surrounding area of London, England, bagels (locally spelled "beigels") have been sold since the middle of the 19th century. They were often displayed in the windows of bakeries on vertical wooden dowels, up to a metre in length, on racks.
Bagels were brought to the United States by immigrant Polish Jews, with a thriving business developing in New York City that was controlled for decades by Bagel Bakers Local 338. They had contracts with nearly all bagel bakeries in and around the city for its workers, who prepared all their bagels by hand.
The bagel came into more general use throughout North America in the last quarter of the 20th century with automation. Daniel Thompson started work on the first commercially viable bagel machine in 1958; bagel baker Harry Lender, his son, Murray Lender, and Florence Sender leased this technology and pioneered automated production and distribution of frozen bagels in the 1960s. Murray also invented pre-slicing the bagel.
Around 1900, the "bagel brunch" became popular in New York City. The bagel brunch consists of a bagel topped with lox, cream cheese, capers, tomato, and red onion. This and similar combinations of toppings have remained associated with bagels into the 21st century in the US.
In Japan, the first kosher bagels were brought by from New York in 1989. BagelK created green tea, chocolate, maple-nut, and banana-nut flavors for the market in Japan. Some Japanese bagels, such as those sold by , are soft and sweet; others, such as Einstein Bro. bagels sold by Costco in Japan, are the same as in the U.S.
Size change over time
Bagels in the US have increased in size over time, starting at around two ounces (around 55 grams). In 1915, the average bagel weighed three ounces. In the 1960s, the size began to increase. By 2003, the average bagel sold on a Manhattan coffee cart was six ounces (around 170 grams).
Preparation and preservation
At its most basic, traditional bagel dough contains wheat flour (without germ or bran), salt, water, and yeast leavening. Bread flour or other high gluten flours are preferred to create the firm, dense but spongy bagel shape and chewy texture. Most bagel recipes call for the addition of a sweetener to the dough, often barley malt (syrup or crystals), honey, high fructose corn syrup, or sugar, with or without eggs, milk or butter. Leavening can be accomplished using a sourdough technique or a commercially produced yeast.
Bagels are traditionally made by:
mixing and kneading the ingredients to form the dough
shaping the dough into the traditional bagel shape, round with a hole in the middle, from a long thin piece of dough
proofing the bagels for at least 12 hours at low temperature (40–50 °F = 4.5–10 °C)
boiling each bagel in water for 60–90 seconds that may contain additives such as lye, baking soda, barley malt syrup, or honey
baking at between 175 °C and 315 °C (about 350–600 °F)
This production method gives bagels their distinctive taste, chewy texture, and shiny appearance.
In recent years, a variant has emerged, producing what is sometimes called the steam bagel. To make a steam bagel, the boiling is skipped, and the bagels are instead baked in an oven equipped with a steam injection system. In commercial bagel production, the steam bagel process requires less labor, since bagels need only be directly handled once, at the shaping stage. Thereafter, the bagels need never be removed from their pans as they are refrigerated and then steam-baked. The steam bagel results in a fluffier, softer, less chewy product more akin to a finger roll that happens to be shaped like a bagel. The dough used is intentionally more alkaline to aid browning, because the steam injection process uses neutral water steam instead of an alkaline solution bath.
Bagels can be frozen for up to six months.
Quality
According to a 2012 Consumer Reports article, the ideal bagel should have a slightly crispy crust, a distinct "pull" when a piece is separated from the whole by biting or pinching, a chewy inside, and the flavor of bread freshly baked. The taste may be complemented by additions cooked on the bagel, such as onion, garlic, sesame seeds, or poppy seeds. The appeal of a bagel may change upon being toasted. Toasting can have the effect of bringing or removing desirable chewiness, softening the crust, and moderating off-flavors.
A typical bagel has 260–350 calories, 1.0–4.5 grams of fat, 330–660 milligrams of sodium, and 2–5 grams of fiber. Gluten-free bagels have much more fat, often 9 grams, because of ingredients in the dough to supplant the wheat flour of the original.
Varieties
New York style
The New York bagel contains malt, is cold-fermented for several days to develop the flavors and enhance the crust, and is boiled in salted water before baking in a standard oven. The resulting bagel has a fluffy interior and a chewy crust. According to CNN, Brooklynites believe New York bagels are the best due to the quality of the local water. According to Brooklyn Water Bagels CEO Steven Fassberg, the characteristics of a New York bagel are the result of the recipe formula and preparation method.
Montreal style
Different from the New York style, the Montreal-style bagel contains malt and sugar with no salt; it is boiled in honey-sweetened water before baking in a wood-fired oven. It is predominantly of the sesame "white" seeds variety (bagels in Toronto are similar to those made in New York in that they are less sweet, generally are coated with poppy seeds and are baked in a standard oven).
St. Louis style
The St. Louis style bagel refers not to composition, but to a particular method of slicing the bagel. The St. Louis style bagels are sliced vertically multiple times, instead of the traditional single horizontal slice. The slices range from 3 mm to 6 mm [1/4 to 1/8 inches] thick. This style of bagel was popularized by the St. Louis Bread Company, now known as Panera Bread. Generally, the bagels are sliced into eight pieces using a bread slicer, which produces characteristically precise cuts (the bagel is not torn or crushed while slicing). This particular method of preparation increases the surface area available for spreads (e.g., cream cheese, butter). However, it decreases the portability of the bagel and prevents formation of sandwiches.
Asiago bagel
Asiago bagels are a type of bagel baked with an asiago cheese topping, and are offered by many independent bagel bakeries as well as large bagel shop chains such as Einstein Bros. and Noah's Bagels. The name does not refer to any fillings. They are said to have been invented in the mid-1990s, and are the most popular bagel sold at Panera Bread The most-prominent claim to the origin of the asiago bagel comes from Panera.
Other bagel styles
As suggested above, other bagel styles can be found elsewhere, akin to the way in which families in a given culture employ a variety of methods when cooking an indigenous dish. Thus, Chicago-style bagels are baked or baked with steam. The traditional London bagel (or beigel as it is spelled) is chewier and has a denser texture. A bakery in Halifax, Nova Scotia bakes a sourdough bagel with locally sourced wild yeast that incorporates qualities of both the New York-style bagel and Montreal-style bagel, calling it the "East Coast-style".
Poppy seeds are sometimes referred to by their Yiddish name, spelled either mun or mon (written מאָן), which comes from the German word for poppy, Mohn, as used in Mohnbrötchen. American chef John Mitzewich suggests a recipe for what he calls “San Francisco-Style Bagels". His recipe yields bagels flatter than New York-style bagels, characterized by a rough-textured crust. An everything bagel may include such toppings as poppy seeds, sesame seeds, onion flakes, caraway seeds, garlic flakes, pretzel salt, cinnamon raisin and pepper.
In Austria, Beigl (often also spelled Beigerl or Beugerl in its diminutive form) are a traditional Lent food. The rings are made from a yeasted dough, rolled out very thin and briefly boiled in salted water before topped with salt and caraway seeds and then baked. Depending on the region, they are sometimes baked to a very hard consistency, making them relatively brittle. Connected with it is the tradition of Beiglreißen (lit. ripping/tearing the Beigl) at Easter where two people pull on opposite ends of a Beigl until it breaks into two pieces. Tearing off the larger piece is meant to bring good luck. In Vienna, Eastern Lower Austria and Burgenland, Beugerl has taken on the meaning of certain types of Kipferl.
Non-traditional doughs and types
While normally and traditionally made of yeasted wheat, in the late 20th century variations on the bagel flourished. Non-traditional versions that change the dough recipe include pumpernickel, rye, sourdough, bran, whole wheat, and multigrain. Other variations change the flavor of the dough, often using blueberry, salt, onion, garlic, egg, cinnamon, raisin, chocolate chip, cheese, or some combination of the above. Green bagels are sometimes created for St. Patrick's Day.
Many corporate chains now offer bagels in such flavors as chocolate chip and French toast.
Sandwich bagels have been popularized since the late 1990s by specialty shops such as Bruegger's and Einstein Brothers, and fast food restaurants such as McDonald's.
Breakfast bagels, a softer, sweeter variety usually sold in fruity or sweet flavors (e.g., cherry, strawberry, cheese, blueberry, cinnamon-raisin, chocolate chip, maple syrup, banana and nuts) are common at large supermarket chains. These are usually sold sliced and are intended to be prepared in a toaster.
A flat bagel, known as a 'flagel', can be found in a few locations in and around New York City, Long Island, and Toronto. According to a review attributed to New York's Village Voice food critic Robert Seitsema, the flagel was first created by Brooklyn's 'Tasty Bagels' deli in the early 1990s.
The New York Style Snacks brand has developed the baked snacks referred to as Bagel Crisps and Bagel Chips, which are marketed as a representation of the "authentic taste" of New York City bakery bagels.
Though the original bagel has a fairly well-defined recipe and method of production, there is no legal standard of identity for bagels in the United States. Bakers are free to call any bread torus a bagel, even those that deviate wildly from the original formulation.
Large scale commercial sales
United States supermarket sales
2008
According to the American Institute of Baking (AIB), 2008 supermarket sales (52-week period ending January 27, 2009) of the top eight leading commercial fresh (not frozen) bagel brands in the United States:
totaled to US$430,185,378 based on 142,669,901 package unit sales.
the top eight leading brand names for the above were (by order of sales): Thomas', Sara Lee, (private label brands) Pepperidge Farm, Thomas Mini Squares, Lender's Bagels (Pinnacle Foods), Weight Watchers and The Alternative Bagel (Western Bagel).
Further, AIB-provided statistics for the 52-week period ending May 18, 2008, for refrigerated/frozen supermarket bagel sales for the top 10 brand names totaled US$50,737,860, based on 36,719,977 unit package sales.<ref name="AIB2">Baking Management (2008) AIB website data: Bagels 2008, from Redbook, July 2008, p. 20, Statistics from Information Resources. retrieved 2009-03-23 from American Institute of Baking website: Bagels 2008 updated to March 10, 2009</ref>
2012
The AIB reported US$626.9 million fresh bagel US supermarket sales (excluding Wal-Mart) for the 52 weeks ending 11 April 2012. Fresh/frozen supermarket sales (excluding Wal-Mart) for the 52 weeks ending 13 May 2012 was US$592.7 million. The average price for a bag of fresh bagels was $3.27; for frozen it was $1.23.
Similar breads
Many cultures developed similar breads and preparations. The bublik in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, and the obwarzanek (in particular obwarzanek krakowski) in Poland. Somewhat similar in appearance to bagels, these breads are usually topped with sesame and poppy seeds. The ingredients in these breads and bagels somewhat differ, as these breads are made with a different dough using butter and sometimes also with milk.
In Turkey, a salty and fattier form is called açma. The ring-shaped simit is sometimes marketed today as a Turkish bagel. Archival sources show that the simit has been produced in Istanbul since 1525. Based on Üsküdar court records (Şer’iyye Sicili) dated 1593, the weight and price of simit was standardized for the first time. Noted 17th-century traveler Evliya Çelebi wrote that there were 70 simit bakeries in Istanbul during the 1630s.
Jean Brindesi's early 19th-century oil paintings about Istanbul daily life show simit sellers on the streets. Warwick Goble made an illustration of the simit sellers of Istanbul in 1906. Simit is very similar to the twisted sesame-sprinkled bagels pictured being sold in early 20th century Poland. Simit are also sold on the street in baskets or carts, as bagels were then.
The Uyghurs of Xinjiang, China enjoy girdeh nan (from Persian, meaning round bread), a type of nan, the local bread.
Another bagel-like type of bread is the traditional German Dortmunder Salzkuchen from the 19th century.
Ka'ak al-Quds (better known in English as the Jerusalem bagel) is an oblong ring bread, usually topped with sesame seeds, with its origins in Jerusalem. Unlike the bagel, it is not boiled prior to baking.
Cultural references
"Bagel" is also a Yeshivish term for sleeping 12 hours straight—e.g., "I slept a bagel last night." There are various opinions as to the origins of this term. It may be a reference to the fact that bagel dough has to "rest" for at least 12 hours between mixing and baking or simply to the fact that the hour hand on a clock traces a bagel shape over the course of 12 hours.
In tennis, a "bagel" refers to a player winning a set 6–0; winning a match 6–0, 6–0, 6–0 is called a "triple bagel".
"Bublichki or "Bagelach'' is a title of a famous Russian and Yiddish song written in Odessa in the 1920s. The Barry Sisters together with the Ziggy Elman Orchestra made it popular in the US in 1939. Today it belongs to the repertoire of klezmer, jazz and pop musicians.
In Quizbowl, a "bagel" refers to failing to correctly answer any part of a multi-part bonus question (i.e. "We bageled that bonus on the Franco-Mongol alliance in the first finals match."). This is because a bagel looks like the number zero, which is the points gained by incorrectly answering all of the questions.
In the United States, February 9 is often celebrated as National Bagel Day, in which people celebrate the rich history of getting together and eating bagels.
The term "bageling" refers to when a Jew uses a Jewish word or phrase in a conversation, or in the vicinity of a stranger who is also clearly Jewish, in order to inform them that they are also Jewish.
See also
Appetizing store
Bagel and cream cheese
Bialy
Doughnut
Jewish cuisine
Pizza bagel
Pletzel
References
Jewish cuisine
Polish cuisine
Seeded breads
Snack foods
Street food
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214050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaenau%20Ffestiniog | Blaenau Ffestiniog | Blaenau Ffestiniog is a town in Gwynedd, Wales. Once a slate mining centre in historic Merionethshire, it now relies much on tourists, drawn for instance to the Ffestiniog Railway and Llechwedd Slate Caverns. Having been the second largest town in North Wales after Wrexham, it reached a population of 12,000 at the peak development of the slate industry, but fell with the decline in demand for slate. The population of the community, including the nearby village Llan Ffestiniog, was 4,875 in the 2011 census: the fourth most populous in Gwynedd after Bangor, Caernarfon and Llandeiniolen. The population is now only about 4,000.
Etymology and pronunciation
The meaning of Blaenau Ffestiniog is "uplands of Ffestiniog". The Welsh word is the plural of "upland, remote region". Ffestiniog here is probably "territory of Ffestin" (Ffestin being a personal name) or could possibly mean "defensive place". The English pronunciation of Blaenau Ffestiniog suggested by the BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names is , but the first word is pronounced in the area, reflecting features of the local Welsh dialect.
History
Farming (before 1750)
Before the slate industry grew, present-day Blaenau Ffestiniog was a farming region, with scattered farms working the uplands below the cliffs of Dolgaregddu and Nyth-y-Gigfran. A few of the historic farmhouses survive at Cwm Bowydd, Neuadd Ddu, Gelli, Pen y Bryn and Cefn Bychan. Much of the land was owned by large estates.
Slate (1750–1850)
Blaenau Ffestiniog town arose to support workers in the local slate mines. At its peak, it was the largest in Merioneth. In 1765, two men from the long-established Cilgwyn quarry near Nantlle began quarrying in Ceunant y Diphwys to the north-east of the present town. The valley had long been known for slate beds worked on a small scale. The original quarry has been wiped out by subsequent mining, but it was probably at or near Diphwys Casson Quarry. Led by Methusalem Jones, eight Cilgwyn partners took a lease on Gelli Farm for their quarry. In 1800, William Turner and William Casson from the Lake District bought the lease and expanded production. Turner also owned Dorothea quarry in the Nantlle Valley, adjacent to Cilgwyn.
In 1819, quarrying began on slopes at Allt-fawr near Rhiwbryfdir Farm, on land owned by the Oakeley family from Tan y Bwlch. Within a decade, three slate quarries were operating on Allt-fawr. These amalgamated to form Oakeley Quarry, which became the largest underground slate mine in the world.
Quarrying grew fast in the earlier 19th century. Notable quarries opened at Llechwedd, Maenofferen and Votty & Bowydd, while Turner and Casson's Diphwys Casson flourished. Further off, Cwmorthin and Wrysgan quarries were dug to the south of the town, while at the head of Cwm Penmachno to the north-east, a series of quarries started at Rhiwbach, Cwt y Bugail and Blaen y Cwm. To the south-east another cluster worked the slopes of Manod Mawr. The workforce for these was drawn initially from nearby towns and villages such as Ffestiniog and Maentwrog. Before the arrival of railways, travel to the quarries was difficult and workers' houses were built nearby. These typically grew up round existing farms and roads between them. An early settlement was at Rhiwbryfdir, for the Oakeley and Llechwedd quarries. As early as 1801, new roads were built specifically for the quarries. By 1851, there were 3,460 people living in the new town of Blaenau Ffestiniog.
Urbanization (1851–1900)
During the 1860s and 1870s the boom in the slate industry fed the nascent town of Blaenau Ffestiniog. It gained its first church and first school and saw much ribbon development along its roads. By 1881, its population had reached 11,274. The slate boom gave way to a sharp decline. The 1890s saw several quarries lose money for the first time, and several fail entirely, including Cwmorthin and Nyth-y-Gigfran.
Blaenau Ffestiniog hosted the National Eisteddfod in 1898.
Slate decline (1901–1950)
The slate industry recovered only partly from the recession of the 1890s. The First World War sent many quarrymen into the armed forces and production fell. There was a short post-war boom, but the long-term trend was towards mass-produced tiles and cheaper slate sourced from Spain. Oakeley Quarry took over Cwmorthin, Votty & Bowydd and Diphwys Casson, while Llechwedd acquired Maenofferen. Despite this consolidation, the decline continued. The Second World War brought a further loss of workforce. In 1946, the Ffestiniog Railway closed.
Since 1945
In August 1945 the secluded farmhouse of Bwlch Ocyn at Manod, belonging to Clough Williams-Ellis, became the home for three years of the writer Arthur Koestler and his wife Mamaine. While there, Koestler became a close friend of his fellow writer George Orwell.
The remaining quarries served by the Rhiwbach Tramway closed in the 1950s and 1960s. Oakeley closed in 1970, with the loss of many local jobs. It re-opened in 1974 on a much smaller scale and was reworked until 2010. Maenofferen and Llechwedd continued, but Maenofferen finally closed in 1998. Llechwedd is still a working quarry, working the David Jones part of Maenofferen (level two-and-a-half).
As the slate industry shrank, so did the population of Blaenau Ffestiniog, which fell to 4,875 in 2011. Tourism became the town's largest employer, with the development of Gloddfa Ganol in the Oakeley quarry and the Slate Caverns at Llechwedd quarry. The revived Ffestiniog Railway and Llechwedd remain popular attractions, as does the Antur Stiniog downhill mountain-biking centre, and more recently the Zip World Titan zip-line site, which includes the Bounce Below slate-mine activity centre.
Geography
Blaenau Ffestiniog consists of distinct areas, several taking their names from settlements that predate the town, including Rhiwbryfdir, Glanypwll and Cwmbowydd.. Other local villages, notably Tanygrisiau and Manod, are sometimes taken to be parts of Blaenau Ffestiniog.
Although the town is in the centre of the Snowdonia National Park, the boundaries exclude it and its substantial slate-waste heaps. Blaenau Ffestiniog has one of the highest rainfalls in Wales. It has several reservoirs, one of which supplies the Ffestiniog Hydro Power Station. Stwlan Dam lies between two of the mountains in the area, Moelwyn Bach and Moelwyn Mawr. The mountains round the town form a watershed between the River Lledr flowing north as a tributary of the River Conwy and the River Dwyryd flowing west.
Education
Ysgol y Moelwyn is the main secondary school, covering Blaenau, Manod, Tanygrisiau, Llan Ffestiniog, Trawsfynydd, Gellilydan, Maentwrog and stretching into the Vale of Ffestiniog and Dolwyddelan. It came third in Britain's best county school list in 2006 and had 309 pupils in 2016. Some pupils travel to neighbouring towns.
There are five primary schools in the area.
Welsh language
Most Blaenau Ffestiniog people habitually speak Welsh. At the 2011 census, 78.6 per cent over the age of three said they could speak it, as against 80.9 per cent at the 2001 census. The latest inspection reports of the town's primary schools, Ysgol Maenofferen and Ysgol Y Manod, both in 2016, put the proportion of pupils speaking Welsh at home at 87 and 85 per cent. At the town's secondary school, Ysgol y Moelwyn, 82 per cent of pupils came from Welsh-speaking homes in 2014, making its Welsh-speaking intake the highest among secondary schools in the former county of Meirionnydd and fourth highest among those in Gwynedd.
Transport
The main access to Blaenau Ffestiniog is the A470 road north to Llandudno and south to Dolgellau and beyond. The A496 runs south to the coastal resorts of Harlech and Barmouth and connects with the A487 towards Porthmadog and the Llŷn Peninsula. Just north of the town, the A470 climbs steeply to the Crimea Pass and meets the A5 at Betws-y-Coed, giving access to Llangollen, Wrexham and Shrewsbury in the east and Bangor and Holyhead in the west.
Town bus services are mainly provided by Arriva Buses Wales and Llew Jones, with routes to Porthmadog, Dolgellau and to Llandudno via Betws-y-Coed and Llanrwst. Town circular services via Tanygrisiau are operated hourly on weekdays by John's Coaches.
Blaenau Ffestiniog railway station, on the site of the former Great Western station, is used by the Ffestiniog Railway and the Conwy Valley Line, their previous stations being no longer in use. The Conwy Valley line runs to the North Wales coast at Llandudno Junction, with links to Chester, Holyhead and Manchester.
At various times the town has been the terminus for four independent railway lines, each with its own station or stations:
The Ffestiniog Railway
The Festiniog & Blaenau Railway
The Conwy Valley line of the London & North Western Railway
The Bala Ffestiniog Line of the Great Western Railway
Tourism
Blaenau Ffestiniog's tourist attractions include the Ffestiniog Railway and the Llechwedd Slate Caverns, a former slate mine open to visitors. Llechwedd is often placed among Wales's top five visitor attractions. Near Blaenau Ffestiniog there are miles of mountain landscape with derelict quarries, rivers, various lakes and walking routes.
Several mountain biking trails have been created, some suitable for competitions. Bikes are available for hire.
The town centre has several cafes and pubs. Other features include child-friendly potholing, poetry walks, art centres, and views of the area.
Regeneration
The town centre has recently been regenerated, as funding from organisations, grants and the Welsh Government of £4.5 million are spent. A new bus station has been built along with new viewing areas for neighbouring mountain ranges. Several slate structures have been built with poetry engraved on them. These are about 40 ft tall and intended to respond visually to the slate hills and mountains. Poetry and local sayings have also been engraved on slate bands set in pavements in the town centre.
Various walkways have been installed, and a series of downhill mountain biking trails by Antur Stiniog. A kilometre-long zip-wire has been erected at Llechwedd Slate Caverns, which is popular with thrill-seekers.
If plans go ahead, Blaenau Ffestiniog will have the UK's first vélo-rail, which is popular in France.
Arts
Many artists come to Blaenau Ffestiniog for the landscape around it, perhaps inspired by the harshness of the slate tips. They include Kyffin Williams and David Nash.
During the Second World War, the National Gallery stored art treasures in one of the mines in the town, to protect them from damage or destruction. The large steel gates are still standing and the for preserving the paintings remains in the caverns.
Music
Blaenau Ffestiniog has a strong musical tradition from quarrying days, ranging from the Caban, male voice choirs and brass bands, to Jazz/Dance bands like "The New Majestics", popular rock bands of the 1980s and 1990s, such as Llwybr Llaethog and Anweledig, and more recent bands such as Gai Toms, Frizbee and Gwibdaith Hen Frân. The local alternative-music training school Gwallgofiaid has over a dozen bands at its centre at the Old Police Station in Park Square, served by five rehearsal rooms, a 24-track studio and Cwrt performance space.
Notable people
In birth order:
Llywelyn the Great (c. 1173–1240), King of Gwynedd, was born at nearby Dolwyddelan Castle, according to some accounts.
John Cowper Powys (1872–1963), novelist, lived in Blaenau Ffestiniog from May 1955 until his death.
Richard Roberts (1874–1945), theologian and pacifist, was born at Blaenau Ffestiniog.
Margarette Golding (1881–1939), founder of International Inner Wheel, a women's voluntary service association, was born in Blaenau Ffestiniog.
Gwyn Thomas (1936–2016), Welsh poet, academic and National Poet for Wales in 2006–2008, was brought up in the town.
David Nash (born 1945), artist, spent childhood holidays in Ffestiniog.
Dave Felgate (born 1960), association footballer, was born in Blaenau Ffestiniog.
Gai Toms (born 1976), music artist, was raised in the adjacent Merionethshire hamlet of Tanygrisiau.
Llwybr Llaethog (founded 1985), musical group
Anweledig (founded 1992), musical group
Twinning
Rawson, Patagonia
See also
Llan Ffestiniog
Tanygrisiau
Llechwedd quarry
Oakeley Quarry
Maenofferen Quarry
Ffestiniog Memorial Hospital
References
External links
Photos of Blaenau Ffestiniog and surrounding area
Towns in Gwynedd
Tourism in Gwynedd
Slate industry in Wales
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214051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Adolf%20Hasse | Johann Adolf Hasse | Johann Adolf (Adolph) Hasse (baptised 25 March 1699 – 16 December 1783) was an 18th-century German composer, singer and teacher of music. Immensely popular in his time, Hasse was best known for his prolific operatic output, though he also composed a considerable quantity of sacred music. Married to soprano Faustina Bordoni and a great friend of librettist Pietro Metastasio, whose libretti he frequently set, Hasse was a pivotal figure in the development of opera seria and 18th-century music.
Early career
Hasse was baptised in Bergedorf near Hamburg where his family had been church organists for three generations. His career began in singing when he joined the Hamburg Oper am Gänsemarkt in 1718 as a tenor. In 1719 he obtained a singing post at the court of Brunswick, where in 1721 his first opera, Antioco, was performed; Hasse himself sang in the production.
He is thought to have left Germany during 1722. During the 1720s he lived mostly in Naples, dwelling there for six or seven years. In 1725 his serenata Antonio e Cleopatra, was performed at Naples; the principal roles were sung by Carlo Broschi, better known as Farinelli, and Vittoria Tesi. The success of this work not only earned Hasse many commissions from Naples's opera houses, but also, according to Johann Joachim Quantz, brought him into contact with Alessandro Scarlatti, who became his teacher and friend; Hasse also altered his style in several respects to reflect that of Scarlatti.
Hasse's popularity in Naples increased dramatically and for several years his workload kept him extremely busy. In this period he composed his only full opera buffa, La sorella amante, in addition to several intermezzi and serenatas. He visited the Venetian Carnival of 1730, where his opera Artaserse was performed at S Giovanni Grisostomo. Metastasio's libretto was heavily reworked for the occasion, and Farinelli took a leading role. Two of his arias from this opera he later performed every night for a decade for Philip V of Spain.
Dresden and Venice
In 1730 Hasse married Faustina Bordoni, and was also appointed Kapellmeister at the Dresden court, though he did not arrive at Dresden until July 1731; earlier in the year he had been active at Vienna, supervising a performance of his oratorio Daniello at the court of the Habsburgs. Soon after the couple's arrival in Dresden, Faustina performed before the court. In September Hasse's Cleofide (set to a highly adapted Metastasio text) was given its premiere; it seems possible that J. S. Bach attended the performance; certainly C. P. E. Bach claimed that Hasse and his father had become good friends around this time. King Augustus II the Strong of Poland and Saxony granted him the title of the Royal-Polish and Electoral-Saxon Kapellmeister.
In October Hasse left Dresden to direct premieres of his next operas at Turin and Rome, and he also wrote music for the Venetian theatres at this time. Come the autumn of 1732 and Hasse was at Naples again, though he spent the winter at Venice where his Siroe was first performed in particularly lavish style. In February 1733 Augustus II the Strong, Hasse's early royal patron at Dresden, died. As the court went into a year of mourning, Hasse was permitted to remain abroad. Many of his sacred works, composed for Venice's churches, date to this time.
For much of 1734 Hasse was at Dresden, but from 1735 until 1737 he was in Italy, largely at Naples. Faustina performed in the September 1735 premiere of Tito Vespasiano (another adapted Metastsio libretto) at Pesaro. Returning to the royal court in Dresden during 1737 Hasse composed five new operas, but when the court moved to Poland in the autumn of 1738 he and Faustina came back to Venice, where both of them were extremely popular. His next stay in Dresden was also his longest, between the first months of 1740 and January 1744. In this time he revised Artaserse, composing new arias for Faustina, and also wrote a couple of original intermezzi. His general avoidance of comic opera seems to have been due to Faustina, who feared that the style of singing demanded by opera buffa would damage her voice.
Dresden: 1744–63
Between the winter of 1744 and late summer 1745, Hasse was in Italy, but then returned to Dresden for a year. Frederick the Great, a keen flute player, visited the court in December 1745, and it is likely that many of Hasse's flute sonatas and concertos that date to this time were written for Frederick. The King of Prussia was also present at a performance of one of Hasse's Te Deums, and himself ordered a performance of the composer's opera Arminio. Soon after Hasse visited Venice and Munich, returning to Dresden in June 1747 to stage his opera La spartana generosa, performed to celebrate multiple royal weddings at this time. Also at this time the hierarchy at Dresden was restructured; Nicola Porpora was named Kapellmeister, while Hasse himself was promoted to Oberkapellmeister.
In 1748 Hasse performed two of his operas, Ezio and Artaserse, in Bayreuth in the half finished Markgräfliches Opernhaus, because of the marriage of Elisabeth Fredericka Sophie of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, the daughter of Wilhelmine of Bayreuth. The marriage of princess Maria Josepha of Saxony to the French Dauphin gave Hasse the opportunity to journey to Paris in the summer of 1750, where his Didone abbandonata was performed.
On 28 March 1750 Hasse presented his last oratorio La conversione di Sant' Agostino in the chapel of the royal palace in Dresden. The libretto, penned by the Dresden Electress Maria Antonia Walpurgis (1724–1780), concerns the conversion of a sinner to sainthood and was modeled after and edited by Metastasio. The Dresden premiere was followed by numerous performances of the work in Leipzig, Hamburg, Mannheim, Padua, Rome, Riga, Prague, Potsdam and Berlin which is a testament to the work's popularity in the latter half of the 18th century.
The 1751 Carnival in Dresden saw the retirement of Faustina from operatic performance. Hasse continued to produce new operas throughout the decade, including a setting of Metastasio's Il re pastore, a text later used by Mozart. In 1756 the Seven Years' War compelled the court at Dresden to move to Warsaw, though Hasse himself lived mostly in Italy, travelling to Poland solely to supervise productions of his operas, if at all. In the autumn of 1760 he moved to Vienna, where he stayed for the next two years, returning to Dresden in 1763 to find much of his home destroyed and the musical apparatus of the court opera wrecked. Hasse's main patron at Dresden, king Augustus III of Poland and Saxony died soon after and his successor, who also died quickly, deemed elaborate musical events at the court superfluous. Hasse and Faustina were paid two years' salary but given no pension.
Vienna and Venice: last years
In 1764 Hasse travelled to Vienna, where the coronation of Joseph II was marked by a performance of his festa teatrale Egeria, again set to a libretto by Metastasio. For the most part, he remained at Vienna until 1773. Mozart was present at a performance of his Partenope in September 1767. Most of his operas composed during this period were also successfully produced at Naples. He was the favourite of Maria Theresa, and it can be argued that he took up the job of de facto court Kapellmeister. With the premiere of Piramo e Tisbe (September 1768) Hasse had intended to retire from opera but was compelled by Maria Theresa to compose a further work, Ruggiero (1771), again set to a Metastasian libretto. In 1771, when hearing 15-year-old Mozart's opera Ascanio in Alba, Hasse is reported to have made the prophetic remark: "This boy will cause us all to be forgotten."
At this time operatic style was undergoing significant change, and the model of opera seria that Hasse and Metastasio had settled found itself assailed by the threat of the reforms of Christoph Willibald Gluck and Ranieri de' Calzabigi, as laid down in the music and libretto for Gluck's opera Orfeo ed Euridice. Charles Burney, visiting Vienna in 1773, reported on the debate.
Finding his music under siege from an avant-garde surge in a new direction, Hasse left Vienna in 1773 and spent the final ten years of his life in Venice, teaching and composing sacred works. Faustina died in November 1781, and Hasse himself, after a long period of suffering from arthritis, just over two years later. He was almost completely ignored after his death, until F. S. Kandler paid for his gravestone in Venice, where he is buried in San Marcuola, and authored a biography of Hasse in 1820.
Relationship with Metastasio
Hasse's friendship with Metastasio, and his appreciation of the art form the librettist had created, increased over the years. The early Metastasio texts he set were all greatly altered for the purpose, but Frederick the Great and Francesco Algarotti both exerted influence in order to make Hasse pay greater respect to Metastasio's works. In the early 1740s he began setting new Metastasian libretti unadapted, and his personal relations with the librettist also improved significantly at around this time. In one of his letters, dated to March 1744, Metastasio made the following comments:
In the following years Hasse reset his earlier works based on Metastasio's texts, this time paying great attention to the poet's original intention, and during the 1760s, as Metastasio wrote new texts, Hasse was, as a general rule, the first composer to set them. Burney left the following note:
Style and reputation
Despite Giovanni Battista Mancini's claim that Hasse was the padre della musica, and despite the composer's massive popularity as a figure at the very forefront of 18th-century serious Italian opera, after his death Hasse's reputation vastly declined and his music lay mostly unperformed (with the exception of some of his sacred works, which were revived now and again in Germany). In particular, his operas sank without trace and revival only began as the 20th century approached its end: Gluck's reforms took opera away from Hasse's style and Metastasio's Arcadian ideals to a new direction from which it would not return.
In his day, Hasse's style was noted primarily for his lyricism and sense of melody. Burney put it this way:
Careful choice of key was also a crucial factor in Hasse's style, with certain emotions usually marked out by certain key choices. Amorous feelings were expressed by A, for instance, while for expressions of aristocratic nobility Hasse used C and B flat; on the other hand, his supernatural and fear-inducing music usually went into the keys of C and F minor. Most of his arias begin in the major, switching only to minor for the B section before returning to major for the da capo. As his career developed his arias grew much longer but a lyrical sense was still his overriding target.
In Hamburg, the Johann Adolph Hasse Museum is dedicated to his life and work.
Works
References
Sources
Further reading
Francesco Degrada: "Aspetti gluckiani nell'ultimo Hasse", Chigiana, xxix–xxx (1975), 309–329
S. Hansell: "Sacred Music at the Incurabili in Venice at the Time of J. A. Hasse", Journal of the American Musicological Society, xxiii (1970), 282–301, 505–521
D. Heartz: "Hasse, Galuppi and Metastasio", Venezia e il melodramma nel settecento: Venice 1973–5, i, 309–339
F. L. Millner: "Hasse and London's Opera of the Nobility", Music Records, xxxv (1974), 240–246
Frederick L. Millner: The Operas of Johann Adolf Hasse. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1979 (Studies in Musicology, 2).
Smither, Howard E.: A History of the Oratorio. University of North Carolina Press, 1977
Reinhard Strohm: Essays on Handel and Italian Opera (Cambridge, 1985)
Imme Tempke: "Mozart und der 'Musick-Vatter' Hasse". In: Nr. 71. Verlag HB-Werbung, Hamburg-Bergedorf, (2006). .
Imme Tempke: "Hasses Musikausbildung in Hamburg". In: Lichtwark-Heft Nr. 67. Verlag HB-Werbung, Hamburg-Bergedorf, (2002). .
Robert Torre: "Operatic Twins & Musical Rivals: Two Settings of Artaserse (1730)", Discourses in Music, vol. 6, no. 1, (Summer 2006).
Alan Yorke-Long: Music at Court: Four Eighteenth-century Studies, (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1954)
External links
Article: "Dresden in the time of Zelenka and Hasse" by Brian Robins
Article: Torre, Robert. "Operatic Twins and Musical Rivals: Two Settings of Artaserse (1730)" Discourses in Music: Volume 6 Number 1 (Summer 2006)
More modern assessment of Hasse, David Charlton, classical.net
The Hasse Project
Free scores at the Mutopia Project
1699 births
1783 deaths
Musicians from Hamburg
18th-century Italian composers
Italian Baroque composers
Classical-period composers
German opera composers
Male opera composers
Pupils of Nicola Porpora
Pupils of Alessandro Scarlatti
German male classical composers
18th-century German composers
18th-century German male musicians
People from Bergedorf
17th-century male musicians | [
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214052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr%20Stolypin | Pyotr Stolypin | Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin (; – ) was a Russian politician and statesman. He was the third Prime Minister of Russia, and Minister of Internal Affairs of the Russian Empire from 1906 to his assassination in 1911.
Born in Dresden, Germany, to a prominent Russian aristocratic family, Stolypin became involved in government from his early 20s. His successes in public service led to rapid promotions, culminating in his appointment as Interior Minister under Ivan Goremykin in April 1906. In July, Stolypin succeeded as Prime Minister following Goremykin's resignation.
As Prime Minister, Stolypin initiated major agrarian reforms, known as the Stolypin reform, that granted the right of private land ownership to the peasantry. His tenure was also marked by increased revolutionary unrest, to which he responded with a new system of martial law that allowed for the arrest, speedy trial and execution of accused offenders. Subject to numerous assassination attempts, Stolypin was fatally shot in September 1911 by revolutionary Dmitry Bogrov in Kiev.
Stolypin was a monarchist and hoped to strengthen the throne by modernizing the rural Russian economy. Modernity and efficiency, rather than democracy, were his goals. He argued that the land question could only be resolved, and revolution averted, when the peasants communal system was abolished and a stable landowning class of peasants created, the kulaks, who would have a stake in the status quo. His successes and failures have been subject of heated controversies among scholars, who agree he was one of the last major statesmen of Imperial Russia with clearly defined public policies and with the determination to undertake major reforms.
Family and background
Stolypin was born at Dresden in the Kingdom of Saxony, on 14 April 1862, and was baptized on 24 May in the Russian Orthodox Church in that city. His father, Arkady Dmitrievich Stolypin (1821–99), was at the time a Russian envoy.
Stolypin's family was prominent in the Russian aristocracy, his forebears having served the tsars since the 16th century, and as a reward for their service had accumulated huge estates in several provinces. His father Arkady Dmitrievich Stolypin (1821–99), was a general in the Russian artillery, the governor of Eastern Rumelia and commandant of the Kremlin Palace guard. He was married twice. His second wife, Natalia Mikhailovna Stolypina (née Gorchakova; 1827–89), was the daughter of Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov, the Commanding general of the Russian infantry during the Crimean War and later the governor general of Warsaw.
Pyotr grew up on the family estate Serednikovo () in Solnechnogorsky District, once inhabited by Mikhail Lermontov, and near Moscow Governorate. From 1869, Stolypin spent his childhood years in Kalnaberžė manor (now Kėdainiai district of Lithuania), built by his father, a place that remained his favorite residence for the rest of life. In 1876, the Stolypin family moved to Vilna (now Vilnius), where he attended grammar school. In 1879 the family moved to Oryol. Stolypin and his brother Aleksandr studied at the Oryol Boys College where he was described by his teacher, B. Fedorova, as 'standing out among his peers for his rationalism and character.'
In 1881 Stolypin studied agriculture at St. Petersburg University where one of his teachers was Dmitri Mendeleev. He entered government service upon graduating in 1885, writing his thesis on tobacco growing in the south of Russia. It is unclear if he joined the Ministry of State Property or Internal Affairs.
Stolypin served as marshal of the Kovno (now Kaunas, Lithuania) Governorate between 1889 and 1902. This public service gave him an inside view of local needs and allowed him to develop administrative skills. His thinking was influenced by the single-family farmstead system of the Northwestern Krai, and he later sought to introduce the land reform based on private ownership throughout the Russian Empire.
Stolypin's service in Kovno was deemed a success by the Russian government. He was promoted seven times, culminating in his promotion to the rank of state councilor in 1901. Four of his daughters were also born during this period; his daughter Maria recalled: "this was the most calm period [of] his life".
In 1884, Stolypin married Olga Borisovna Neidhart whose family was of a similar standing to Stolypin's. They married whilst Stolypin was still a student, an uncommon occurrence at the time. The marriage began in tragic circumstances: Olga had been engaged to Stolypin's brother, Mikhail, who died in a duel. The marriage was a happy one, devoid of scandal. The couple had five daughters and one son.
Governor and interior minister
In May 1902 Stolypin was appointed governor in Grodno, where he was the youngest person ever appointed to this position. In February 1903 he became governor of Saratov. Stolypin is known for suppressing strikers and peasant unrest in January 1905. According to Orlando Figes, its peasants were among the poorest and most rebellious in the whole of the country. It seems he cooperated with the zemstvos, the local government. He gained a reputation as the only governor able to keep a firm hold on his province during the Revolution of 1905, a period of widespread revolt. The roots of unrest lay partly in the Emancipation Reform of 1861, which had given land to the Obshchina, instead of individually to the newly freed serfs. Stolypin was the first governor to use effective police methods. Some sources suggest that he had a police record on every adult male in his province. His successes as provincial governor led to Stolypin being appointed interior minister under Ivan Goremykin in April 1906. He instigated a new track of the Trans-Siberian Railway along the Amur River within Russian borders.
Prime Minister
After two months, Dmitri Feodorovich Trepov suggested the absent-minded Goremykin ought to step down and promoted a cabinet with only Kadets, which in his opinion would soon enter into a violent conflict with Tsar Nicholas II and fail. He secretly met with Pavel Milyukov. Trepov opposed Stolypin, who promoted a coalition cabinet. Georgy Lvov and Alexander Guchkov tried to convince the tsar to accept liberals in the new government.
When Goremykin, described by his predecessor Sergei Witte as a bureaucratic nonentity, resigned on , Nicholas II appointed Stolypin to serve as Prime Minister, while continuing on as Minister of the Interior, an unusual concentration of power in Imperial Russia. He dissolved the Duma, despite the reluctance of some of its more radical members, in order to facilitate government cooperation. In response, 120 Kadet and 80 Trudovik and Social Democrat deputies went to Vyborg (then a part of the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland and thus beyond the reach of Russian police) and responded with the Vyborg Manifesto (or the "Vyborg Appeal"), written by Pavel Milyukov. Stolypin allowed the signers to return to the capital unmolested.
On 25 August 1906, three assassins from the Union of Socialists Revolutionaries Maximalists, wearing military uniforms, bombed a public reception Stolypin was holding at his dacha on Aptekarsky Island. Stolypin was only slightly injured by flying splinters, but 28 others were killed. Stolypin's 15-year-old daughter was heavily wounded; his 3-year-old son was slightly wounded, standing with his sister on the balcony. Stolypin moved into the Winter Palace. In October 1906, at the request of the Tsar, Grigori Rasputin paid a visit to the wounded child. On 9 November by an imperial decree far reaching changes in land tenure law were put in operation which attacked in one sweep the communal and the household (family) property system.
Stolypin changed the nature of the First Duma to attempt to make it more willing to pass legislation proposed by the government. On 8 June 1907, Stolypin dissolved the Second Duma, and 15 Kadets, who had been in contact with terrorists, were arrested; he also changed the weight of votes in favor of the nobility and wealthy, reducing the value of lower-class votes. The leading Kadets were ineligible. This affected the elections to the Third Duma, which returned much more conservative members, more willing to cooperate with the government. It changed Georgy Lvov from a moderate liberal into a radical.
In Saratov, Stolypin had come to the conviction that the open field system had to be abolished; communal land tenure had to go. The chief obstacle appeared to be the Mir (commune). Its dissolution and the individualization of peasant land ownership became the leading objectives of agrarian policy. Like in Denmark, he introduced land reforms in order to resolve peasant grievances and quell dissent. Stolypin proposed his own landlord-sided reform in opposition to those democratic proposals which led to the dissolution of the first two Russian parliaments. Stolypin's reforms aimed to stem peasant unrest by creating a class of market-oriented smallholding landowners, who would thus support societal order. (See article "Stolypin's Reform"). He was assisted by Alexander Krivoshein, who in 1908 became the Minister of Agriculture. In June 1908 Stolypin lived in a wing of the Yelagin Palace; where the Council of Ministers also convened.
Supported by the Peasants' Land Bank, the amount of credit cooperatives increased from 1908. Russian industry was booming. Stolypin tried to improve the lives of urban laborers and worked towards increasing the power of local governments, but the zemstvos adopted an attitude hostile to the government.
Stolypin attempted to improve the acrimonious relations between the Russian Orthodox and Jewish citizens at the level of nationalities policy. Sergey Sazonov was the brother-in-law of Stolypin and did his best to further his career; in 1910 he became Minister of Foreign Affairs, following Count Alexander Izvolsky. Around 1910 the press started a campaign against Rasputin, who was accused of paying too much attention to young girls and women. Stolypin wanted to ban him from the capital and threatened to prosecute him as a sectarian. Rasputin went on a trip to Jerusalem and came back to St. Petersburg only after Stolypin's death.
On 14 June 1910, Stolypin's land reform measures became a full-fledged law. He also proposed spreading the system of zemstvo to the southwestern provinces of Asian Russia. It was originally slated to pass with a narrow majority, but Stolypin's political opponents stopped it. "Stolypin resigned in March of 1911 from the fractious and chaotic Duma after the failure of his land-reform bill". Tsar Nicholas II decided to look for a successor to Stolypin and considered Sergei Witte, Vladimir Kokovtsov and Alexei Khvostov.
Assassination
Stolypin traveled to Kiev despite police warnings that an assassination plot was afoot as there had already been 10 attempts to kill him. On , there was a performance of Rimsky-Korsakov's The Tale of Tsar Saltan at the Kiev Opera House in the presence of the Tsar and his two oldest daughters, the Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatiana. The theater was occupied by 90 men posted as interior guards. According to Alexander Spiridovich, after the second act "Stolypin was standing in front of the ramp separating the parterre from the orchestra, his back to the stage. On his right were Baron Freedericks and Gen. Sukhomlinov." His personal bodyguard had stepped out to smoke. Stolypin was shot twice, once in the arm and once in the chest, by Dmitry Bogrov, a leftist revolutionary. Bogrov ran to one of the entrances and was caught. Stolypin rose from his chair, removed his gloves and unbuttoned his jacket, exposing a blood-soaked waistcoat. He gave a gesture to tell the Tsar to go back and made the sign of the cross. He never lost consciousness, but his condition deteriorated. He died four days later.
Bogrov was hanged 10 days after the assassination. The judicial investigation was halted by order of the Tsar, giving rise to suggestions that the assassination was planned not by leftists, but by conservative monarchists who were afraid of Stolypin's reforms and his influence on the Tsar. However, this has never been proven. On his request, Stolypin was buried in the city where he was murdered.
Legacy
Since 1905 Russia had been plagued by revolutionary unrest and discontent was widespread among the population. With broad support, leftist organizations waged a violent campaign against the autocracy; throughout Russia, many police officials and bureaucrats were assassinated. "Stolypin inspected rebellious areas unarmed and without bodyguards. During one of these trips, somebody dropped a bomb under his feet. There were casualties, but Stolypin survived." To respond to these attacks, Stolypin introduced a new court system of martial law, that allowed for the arrest and speedy trial of accused offenders. Over 3,000 (possibly 5,500) suspects were convicted and executed by these special courts between 1906 and 1909. In a Duma session on 17 November 1907, Kadet party member referred to the gallows as "Stolypin's efficient black Monday necktie". As a result, Stolypin challenged Rodichev to a duel, but the Kadet party member decided to apologize for the phrase in order to avoid the duel. Nevertheless, the expression remained, as did the phrase "Stolypin car".
The opinions on Stolypin's work are divided. Some hold that, in the unruly atmosphere after the Russian Revolution of 1905, he had to suppress violent revolt and anarchy. However, historians disagree over how realistic Stolypin's policies were. Others, however, have argued that, while it is true that the conservatism of most peasants prevented them from embracing progressive change, Stolypin was correct in thinking that he could "wager on the strong" since there was indeed a layer of strong peasant farmers. This argument is based on evidence drawn from tax returns data, which shows that a significant minority of peasants were paying increasingly higher taxes from the 1890s, a sign that their farming was producing higher profits.
There remains doubt whether, even without the interruption of Stolypin's murder and the First World War, his agricultural policy would have succeeded. The deep conservatism from the mass of peasants made them slow to respond. In 1914 the strip system was still widespread, with only around 10% of the land having been consolidated into farms. Most peasants were unwilling to leave the security of the commune for the uncertainty of individual farming. Furthermore, by 1913, the government's own Ministry of Agriculture had itself begun to lose confidence in the policy. Nevertheless, Krivoshein became the most powerful figure in the Imperial government.
Lenin in 1911 thought his policies might have succeeded, saying:
″Stolypin tried to pour new wine into old bottles, to reshape the old autocracy into a bourgeois monarchy; and the failure of Stolypin's policy is the failure of tsarism on this last, the last conceivable, road for tsarism."
In "Name of Russia", a 2008 television poll to select "the greatest Russian", Stolypin placed second, behind Alexander Nevsky and followed by Joseph Stalin. He is seen by his admirers as the greatest statesman Russia ever had, the one who could have saved the country from revolution and the civil war.
On 27 December 2012, a monument to Pyotr Stolypin was unveiled in Moscow to mark the 150th anniversary of his birth. The monument is situated near the Russian White House where the Russian Cabinet is situated. At the foot of the pedestal, a bronze plaque has written on it a well-known expression of Stolypin: "We must all unite in defense of Russia, coordinate our efforts, our duties and our rights in order to maintain one of Russia's historic supreme rights - to be strong."
Screen portrayals
Stolypin is portrayed in the opening scenes of the 1971 British film Nicholas and Alexandra, anachronistically taking part in the Romanov dynasty tercentenary celebrations of 1913 before being assassinated later in the film, two years after the date of his actual assassination.
See also
Coup of June 1907
Stolypin reform
References
Further reading
Conroy, M.S. (1976), Peter Arkadʹevich Stolypin: Practical Politics in Late Tsarist Russia, Westview Press, (Boulder), 1976.
Fuhrmann, Joseph T. (2013). Rasputin, the untold story (illustrated ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 314. .
Lieven, Dominic, ed. The Cambridge History of Russia: Volume 2, Imperial Russia, 1689-1917 (2015)
Pallot, Judith. Land reform in Russia, 1906-1917: peasant responses to Stolypin's project of rural transformation (1999). online
Pares, Bernard. A History of Russia (1926) pp 495–506. Online
Pares, Bernard. The Fall of the Russian Monarchy (1939) pp 94–143. Online
External links
Stolypin and the Russian Agrarian Miracle
The ancestors of Pyotr Stolypin
Stolypin: Reformist ahead of his time
1862 births
1911 deaths
1911 murders in Europe
20th-century murders in Russia
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Heads of government of the Russian Empire
Interior ministers of Russia
Assassinated politicians of the Russian Empire
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Assassinated heads of government
Burials at the Refectory Church, Kiev Pechersk Lavra
People from Dresden
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Male murder victims
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Russian untitled nobility | [
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214053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host%20%28biology%29 | Host (biology) | In biology and medicine, a host is a larger organism that harbours a smaller organism; whether a parasitic, a mutualistic, or a commensalist guest (symbiont). The guest is typically provided with nourishment and shelter. Examples include animals playing host to parasitic worms (e.g. nematodes), cells harbouring pathogenic (disease-causing) viruses, a bean plant hosting mutualistic (helpful) nitrogen-fixing bacteria. More specifically in botany, a host plant supplies food resources to micropredators, which have an evolutionarily stable relationship with their hosts similar to ectoparasitism. The host range is the collection of hosts that an organism can use as a partner.
Symbiosis
Symbiosis spans a wide variety of possible relationships between organisms, differing in their permanence and their effects on the two parties. If one of the partners in an association is much larger than the other, it is generally known as the host. In parasitism, the parasite benefits at the host's expense. In commensalism, the two live together without harming each other, while in mutualism, both parties benefit.
Most parasites are only parasitic for part of their life cycle. By comparing parasites with their closest free-living relatives, parasitism has been shown to have evolved on at least 233 separate occasions. Some organisms live in close association with a host and only become parasitic when environmental conditions deteriorate.
A parasite may have a long-term relationship with its host, as is the case with all endoparasites. The guest seeks out the host and obtains food or another service from it, but does not usually kill it. In contrast, a parasitoid spends a large part of its life within or on a single host, ultimately causing the host's death, with some of the strategies involved verging on predation. Generally, the host is kept alive until the parasitoid is fully grown and ready to pass on to its next life stage. A guest's relationship with its host may be intermittent or temporary, perhaps associated with multiple hosts, making the relationship equivalent to the herbivory of a wild-living animal. Another possibility is that the host–guest relationship may have no permanent physical contact, as in the brood parasitism of the cuckoo.
Hosts to parasites
Parasites follow a wide variety of evolutionary strategies, placing their hosts in an equally wide range of relationships. Parasitism implies host–parasite coevolution, including the maintenance of gene polymorphisms in the host, where there is a trade-off between the advantage of resistance to a parasite and a cost such as disease caused by the gene.
Types of hosts
Definitive or primary host - an organism in which the parasite reaches the adult stage and reproduces sexually, if possible. This is the final host.
Secondary or intermediate host - an organism that harbors the sexually immature parasite and is required by the parasite to undergo development and complete its life cycle. It often acts as a vector of the parasite to reach its definitive host. For example, Dirofilaria immitis, the heartworm of dogs, uses the mosquito as its intermediate host until it matures into the infective L3 larval stage.
It is not always easy or even possible to identify which host is definitive and which secondary. As the life cycles of many parasites are not well understood, sometimes the subjectively more important organism is arbitrarily labelled as definitive, and this designation may continue even after it is found to be incorrect. For example, sludge worms are sometimes considered "intermediate hosts" for salmonid whirling disease, even though the myxosporean parasite reproduces sexually inside them. In trichinosis, a disease caused by roundworms, the host has reproductive adults in its digestive tract and immature juveniles in its muscles, and is therefore both an intermediate and a definitive host.
Paratenic host - an organism that harbors the sexually immature parasite but is not necessary for the parasite's development cycle to progress. Paratenic hosts serve as "dumps" for non-mature stages of a parasite in which they can accumulate in high numbers. The trematode Alaria americana may serve as an example: the so-called mesocercarial stages of this parasite reside in tadpoles, which are rarely eaten by the definitive canine host. The tadpoles are more frequently preyed on by snakes, in which the mesocercariae may not undergo further development. However, the parasites may accumulate in the snake paratenic host and infect the definitive host once the snake is consumed by a canid. The nematode Skrjabingylus nasicola is another example, with slugs as the intermediate hosts, shrews and rodents as the paratenic hosts, and mustelids as the definitive hosts.
Dead-end, incidental, or accidental host - an organism that generally does not allow transmission to the definitive host, thereby preventing the parasite from completing its development. For example, humans and horses are dead-end hosts for West Nile virus, whose life cycle is normally between culicine mosquitoes and birds. People and horses can become infected, but the level of virus in their blood does not become high enough to pass on the infection to mosquitoes that bite them.
Reservoir host - an organism that harbors a pathogen but suffers no ill effects. However, it serves as a source of infection to other species that are susceptible, with important implications for disease control. A single reservoir host may be reinfected several times.
Plant hosts of micropredators
Micropredation is an evolutionarily stable strategy within parasitism, in which a small predator lives parasitically on a much larger host plant, eating parts of it.
The range of plants on which a herbivorous insect feeds is known as its host range. This can be wide or narrow, but it never includes all plants. A small number of insects are monophagous, feeding on a single plant. The silkworm larva is one of these, with mulberry leaves being the only food consumed. More often, an insect with a limited host range is oligophagous, being restricted to a few closely related species, usually in the same plant family. The diamondback moth is an example of this, feeding exclusively on brassicas, and the larva of the potato tuber moth feeds on potatoes, tomatoes and tobacco, all members of the same plant family, Solanaceae. Herbivorous insects with a wide range of hosts in various different plant families are known as polyphagous. One example is the buff ermine moth whose larvae feed on alder, mint, plantain, oak, rhubarb, currant, blackberry, dock, ragwort, nettle and honeysuckle.
Plants often produce toxic or unpalatable secondary metabolites to deter herbivores from feeding on them. Monophagous insects have developed specific adaptations to overcome those in their specialist hosts, giving them an advantage over polyphagous species. However, this puts them at greater risk of extinction if their chosen hosts suffer setbacks. Monophagous species are able to feed on the tender young foliage with high concentrations of damaging chemicals on which polyphagous species cannot feed, having to make do with older leaves. There is a trade off between offspring quality and quantity; the specialist maximises the chances of its young thriving by paying great attention to the choice of host, while the generalist produces larger numbers of eggs in sub-optimal conditions.
Some insect micropredators migrate regularly from one host to another. The hawthorn-carrot aphid overwinters on its primary host, a hawthorn tree, and migrates during the summer to its secondary host, a plant in the carrot family.
Host range
The host range is the set of hosts that a parasite can use as a partner. In the case of human parasites, the host range influences the epidemiology of the parasitism or disease.
Host range of viruses
For instance, the production of antigenic shifts in Influenza A virus can result from pigs being infected with the virus from several different hosts (such as human and bird). This co-infection provides an opportunity for mixing of the viral genes between existing strains, thereby producing a new viral strain. An influenza vaccine produced against an existing viral strain might not be effective against this new strain, which then requires a new influenza vaccine to be prepared for the protection of the human population.
Non-parasitic associations
Mutualistic hosts
Some hosts participate in fully mutualistic interactions with both organisms being completely dependent on the other. For example, termites are hosts to the protozoa that live in their gut and which digest cellulose, and the human gut flora is essential for efficient digestion. Many corals and other marine invertebrates house zooxanthellae, single-celled algae, in their tissues. The host provides a protected environment in a well-lit position for the algae, while benefiting itself from the nutrients produced by photosynthesis which supplement its diet. Lamellibrachia luymesi, a deep sea giant tubeworm, has an obligate mutualistic association with internal, sulfide-oxidizing, bacterial symbionts. The tubeworm extracts the chemicals that the bacteria need from the sediment, and the bacteria supply the tubeworm, which has no mouth, with nutrients. Some hermit crabs place pieces of sponge on the shell in which they are living. These grow over and eventually dissolve away the mollusc shell; the crab may not ever need to replace its abode again and is well-camouflaged by the overgrowth of sponge.
An important hosting relationship is mycorrhiza, a symbiotic association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular host plant. The fungus receives carbohydrates, the products of photosynthesis, while the plant receives phosphates and nitrogenous compounds acquired by the fungus from the soil. Over 95% of plant families have been shown to have mycorrhizal associations. Another such relationship is between leguminous plants and certain nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia that form nodules on the roots of the plant. The host supplies the bacteria with the energy needed for nitrogen fixation and the bacteria provide much of the nitrogen needed by the host. Such crops as beans, peas, chickpeas and alfalfa are able to fix nitrogen in this way, and mixing clover with grasses increases the yield of pastures.
Neurotransmitter tyramine produced by commensal Providencia bacteria, which colonize the gut of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, bypasses the requirement for its host to biosynthesise tyramine. This product is then probably converted to octopamine by the host enzyme tyramine β-hydroxylase and manipulates a host sensory decision.
Hosts in cleaning symbiosis
Hosts of many species are involved in cleaning symbiosis, both in the sea and on land, making use of smaller animals to clean them of parasites. Cleaners include fish, shrimps and birds; hosts or clients include a much wider range of fish, marine reptiles including turtles and iguanas, octopus, whales, and terrestrial mammals. The host appears to benefit from the interaction, but biologists have disputed whether this is a truly mutualistic relationship or something closer to parasitism by the cleaner.
Commensal hosts
Remoras (also called suckerfish) can swim freely but have evolved suckers that enable them to adhere to smooth surfaces, gaining a free ride (phoresis), and they spend most of their lives clinging to a host animal such as a whale, turtle or shark. However, the relationship may be mutualistic, as remoras, though not generally considered to be cleaner fish, often consume parasitic copepods: for example, these are found in the stomach contents of 70% of the common remora. Many molluscs, barnacles and polychaete worms attach themselves to the carapace of the Atlantic horseshoe crab; for some this is a convenient arrangement, but for others it is an obligate form of commensalism and they live nowhere else.
History
The first host to be noticed in ancient times was human: human parasites such as hookworm are recorded from ancient Egypt from 3000 BC onwards, while in ancient Greece, the Hippocratic Corpus describes human bladder worm. The medieval Persian physician Avicenna recorded human and animal parasites including roundworms, threadworms, the Guinea worm and tapeworms. In Early Modern times, Francesco Redi recorded animal parasites, while the microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek observed and illustrated the protozoan Giardia lamblia from "his own loose stools".
Hosts to mutualistic symbionts were recognised more recently, when in 1877 Albert Bernhard Frank described the mutualistic relationship between a fungus and an alga in lichens.
See also
PHI-base (Pathogen-Host Interaction database)
Generalist and specialist species
Host cell protein
References
Biological interactions
Parasitology
Disease ecology | [
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|
214055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host%20%28psychology%29 | Host (psychology) | In psychology and mental health, the host is the most prominent Alter, state, or identity in someone who has dissociative identity disorder (DID) (formerly known as multiple personality disorder). The other personalities, besides the host, are known as alter personalities, or just "alters". The host may or may not be the original personality, which is the personality a person is born with. Additionally, the host may or may not be the personality that coincides with the official legal name of the person. Often this is thought to be the root of the person's psyche, or at least a key figure for completion of therapy, whether or not it has integration of the host and alters as a goal.
There are arguments that a person can have multiple hosts.
Prevalence
In some very mild forms of DID, the host can be present for extended periods of time, up to years without ever allowing an alter to take the forefront. In these cases, the host is very resilient to stress and other factors that often cause switches.
In severe cases, there is often large amounts of switching and the person may not spend that much time in any state, including the host. In cases where the host is often present, there are a few triggers that can cause the host to retreat.
Treatment
The host is often the personality that seeks treatment. Therefore, the psychotherapists often deal primarily with the host personality. Part of the therapeutic process for DID involves helping the host recognize the alters and become aware when the alters are present. In some cases, the host is unaware of any alters or even that they have DID. In other cases, the host is aware of their condition, but they may not be aware of what the alters are or what they do while in those states. There are situations where the host wants therapy; however, one or more of the alters does not and can try to end the therapeutic process. While the host is aware of the person's body, the alters are not always aware that they share the same body as the host, which can lead to belief that suicide would have no effect on the host.
Brain Scans
Brain scans can be used to distinguish between Host and Alter personalities. The host often shows higher EEG coherence than alter personalities. This difference provides objective evidence that there is different neuronal activity between host and alter personalities. There has been brain scan evidence to show that stressful or traumatic memories are often much more present in the alter personalities than the host.
Legal impact
There are mixed views on how to treat people with DID in legal situations. Arguments have been made that each alter should be treated as an independent person. Other arguments have been made that a person should only be responsible if it is the host personality that committed the crime. Since the host may not use the official name of the person, there can be disputes on which identities are responsible for an action.
References
Dissociative disorders | [
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|
214059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphelocoma | Aphelocoma | The passerine birds of the genus Aphelocoma include the scrub jays and their relatives. They are New World jays found in Mexico, western Central America and the western United States, with an outlying population in Florida. This genus belongs to the group of New World (or "blue") jays–possibly a distinct subfamily–which is not closely related to other jays, magpies or treepies. They live in open pine-oak forests, chaparral, and mixed evergreen forests.
Systematics
Seven species of Aphelocoma are generally recognized at the present time. They are believed to have evolved in the Pleistocene, and the Florida scrub jay is known to have been recognizably distinct and present in its current range for at least two million years. The inland, coastal, and Santa Cruz island populations of the (former) western scrub-jay are now considered three separate species: Woodhouse's, the California and the island scrub jays. Two different populations of the Mexican jay might similarly represent two separate species.
mtDNA NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 sequence data is unable to properly resolve the relationships of the species. Judging from New World jay biogeography, the unicolored or Mexican jays might represent the most basal lineage; morphology would tentatively lean towards the latter which retains more of the group's color patterns, while the available molecular data allows no robust conclusions whatsoever. In any case, the data of Rice et al. (2003) suggests – albeit also with very low confidence – that the Mexican jay comprises two clades which might constitute two separate species. However, far too few individuals have been sampled to say anything definite on that matter, except that the lineages – if they indeed exist – do not correspond to the geographical pattern of intraspecific variation (see species article for more).
The western scrub-jay is now made up of three species. These would be separated by the Great Basin, with the Pacific coastal lineage (California scrub-jay) and the island scrub-jay, as well as the inland lineage (Woodhouse's scrub-jay), with the Florida scrub-jay being a sister species. This treatment fails to address the problem of birds from inland southern Mexico. Nonetheless, it is actually because the molecular diversity pattern is so badly resolved that it supports the view that rapid Late Pliocene radiation of the North American scrub-jays led to the present diversity. Studies on the evolutionary history of Aphelocoma jays suggests that all New World jays originated in North America or Mesoamerica.
Description
Aphelocoma jays are slightly larger than the Blue Jay and differ in having a longer tail, slightly shorter, more rounded wings, and no crest on the head. The top of the head, nape, and sides of the head are a rich deep blue. Some species have a white stripe above the eye and dark ear coverts. The breast is also white or grey-white and the back is a grey-brown contrasting with the bright blue tail and wings in most species. One species, the Unicolored Jay, is blue all over, superficially similar to the Pinyon Jay from much further north. The bill, legs, and feet are black.
Behavior
The diet consists mainly of acorns and pine nuts. However, grain, berries, and other fruits are often eaten as well. These birds can also be omnivorous; their diet can include insects, eggs and nestlings, small frogs, mice, and reptiles. As food-storing birds, the scrub jays demonstrate a unique episodic memory. They can find their food hiding places with great precision, even several days after the initial cache.
Wild Aphelocoma jays are frequent visitors at campsites and picnics and have frequently learned to eat from the hands of people where they have become accustomed to being fed.
The nest is in a tree or a bush, sometimes quite low down. The nests are compact and lined with hair and fine roots with an outer diameter of about 30 cm to 60 cm. Usually 2 to 4 eggs are laid and incubated over 14 to 16 days. There are two main variations of egg shell color: green with olive markings or a paler background of grayish-white to green with red-brown markings. The Florida scrub jay and the Mexican jay both have cooperative breeding systems involving several 'helpers' at each nest, usually relatives of the breeding pair.
Increased prolactin in the breeding pair leads to the expression of parental behavior and physiology. The source of the alloparental behavior found in helper birds has been the focus of many studies. A positive correlation was found between increased prolactin levels during the breeding period and helping behavior in non-breeding Aphelocoma jays. This suggests that helper birds do not simply respond to the calls of the young, but begin to show parental behavior even before the chicks hatch. These data suggest that natural selection may be acting on cooperative breeding in Aphelocoma jays and New World jays in general because the birds are reacting to more than just an environmental stimulus. Studies have also been done on Florida scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens) and results have confirmed the hypothesis that increased prolactin levels are correlated with an increase in parental behavior in helper birds. Scrub jays are members of the family Corvidae, which are considered the most intelligent of the birds and among the most intelligent of all animals.
Aphelocoma jays are quite vocal and have a huge range of sounds and calls; common calls include a cheek, cheek, cheek and a guttural churring krr'r'r'r'r. Aphelocoma jays are also, like all other jays, often quite aggressive, antagonistic at feeding areas and sometimes regarded as a nuisance.
Notes
References
External links
Bird genera
Jays
Taxa named by Jean Cabanis | [
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|
214067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgo%20Cluster | Virgo Cluster | The Virgo Cluster is a large cluster of galaxies whose center is 53.8 ± 0.3 Mly (16.5 ± 0.1 Mpc) away in the constellation Virgo. Comprising approximately 1,300 (and possibly up to 2,000) member galaxies, the cluster forms the heart of the larger Virgo Supercluster, of which the Local Group (containing our Milky Way galaxy) is a member. The Local Group actually experiences the mass of the Virgo Supercluster as the Virgocentric flow. It is estimated that the Virgo Cluster's mass is 1.2 out to 8 degrees of the cluster's center or a radius of about 2.2 Mpc.
Many of the brighter galaxies in this cluster, including the giant elliptical galaxy Messier 87, were discovered in the late 1770s and early 1780s and subsequently included in Charles Messier's catalogue of non-cometary fuzzy objects. Described by Messier as nebulae without stars, their true nature was not recognized until the 1920s.
The cluster subtends a maximum arc of approximately 8 degrees centered in the constellation Virgo. Although some of the cluster's most prominent members can be seen with smaller instruments, a 6-inch telescope will reveal about 160 of the cluster's galaxies on a clear night. Its brightest member is the elliptical galaxy Messier 49; however its most famous member is the elliptical galaxy Messier 87, which is located in the center of the cluster.
Characteristics
The cluster is a fairly heterogeneous mixture of spiral and elliptical galaxies. , it is believed that the spiral galaxies of the cluster are distributed in an oblong prolate filament, approximately four times as long as it is wide, stretching along the line of sight from the Milky Way. The elliptical galaxies are more centrally concentrated than the spiral galaxies.
The cluster is an aggregate of at least three separate subclumps: Virgo A, centered on M87, a second centered on the galaxy M86, and Virgo B, centered on M49, with some authors including a Virgo C subcluster, centered on the galaxy M60 as well as a LVC (Low Velocity Cloud) subclump, centered on the large spiral galaxy NGC 4216. Notably, the giant elliptical galaxy M87 contains a supermassive black hole, whose event horizon was observed by the Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration in 2019.
Of all of the subclumps, Virgo A, formed by a mixture of elliptical, lenticular, and (usually) gas-poor spiral galaxies, is the dominant one, with a mass of approximately 1014 , which is approximately an order of magnitude larger than the other two subclumps.
The three subgroups are in the process of merging to form a larger single cluster and are surrounded by other smaller galaxy clouds, mostly composed of spiral galaxies, known as N Cloud, S Cloud, and Virgo E that are in the process of infalling to merge with them, plus other farther isolated galaxies and galaxy groups (like the galaxy cloud Coma I) that are also attracted by the gravity of Virgo to merge with it in the future. This strongly suggests the Virgo cluster is a dynamically young cluster that is still forming.
Other two nearby aggregations known as M Cloud, W Cloud, and W' Cloud seem to be background systems independent of the main cluster.
The large mass of the cluster is indicated by the high peculiar velocities of many of its galaxies, sometimes as high as 1,600 km/s with respect to the cluster's center.
The Virgo cluster lies within the Virgo Supercluster, and its gravitational effect slows down the nearby galaxies. The large mass of the cluster has the effect of slowing down the recession of the Local Group from the cluster by approximately ten percent.
Molecular gasses in Virgo Cluster has been swept away by a huge cosmic broom that is preventing nearby galaxies from birthing new stars. The actual cause of it has been a long standing mystery in astrophysics. According to scientists, it occurs because of the extreme environment of the Virgo Cluster.
Intracluster medium
As with many other rich galaxy clusters, Virgo's intracluster medium is filled with a hot, rarefied plasma at temperatures of 30 million kelvins that emits X-Rays. Within the intracluster medium (ICM) are found a large number of intergalactic stars (up to 10% of the stars in the cluster), including some planetary nebulae. It is theorized that these were expelled from their home galaxies by interactions with other galaxies. The ICM also contains some globular clusters, possibly stripped off dwarf galaxies, and even at least one star formation region.
Galaxies
Below is a table of bright or notable objects in the cluster and their subunit (subcluster). Note that in some cases a galaxy may be considered in a different subunit by other researchers (sources:)
Column 1: The name of the galaxy.
Column 2: The right ascension for epoch 2000.
Column 3: The declination for epoch 2000.
Column 4: The blue apparent magnitude of the galaxy.
Column 5: The galaxy type: E=Elliptical, S0=Lenticular, Sa,Sb,Sc,Sd=Spiral, SBa,SBb,SBc,SBd=Barred spiral, Sm,SBm,Irr=Irregular.
Column 6: The angular diameter of the galaxy (arcminutes).
Column 7: The diameter of the galaxy (thousands of light years).
Column 8: The recessional velocity (km/s) of the galaxy relative to the cosmic microwave background.
Column 9: Subcluster where the galaxy is located.
Fainter galaxies within the cluster are usually known by their numbers in the Virgo Cluster Catalog, particularly members of the numerous dwarf galaxy population.
See also
Coma Cluster – another large, nearby cluster of galaxies
Eridanus Cluster
Fornax Cluster – a smaller nearby cluster of galaxies
Norma Cluster
List of galaxy clusters
Virgocentric flow
Notes
References
External links
The Virgo Cluster at An Atlas of the Universe, map (and table) of the 160 largest galaxies
California Institute of Technology site on Virgo cluster.
The Virgo Cluster of Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages
Partial Virgo cluster centered on M87 (Dark Atmospheres)
The Virgo Cluster Catalog
Virgo Supercluster
Virgo (constellation)
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|
214069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20Gobi%20desert%20steppe | Eastern Gobi desert steppe | The Eastern Gobi desert steppe is a deserts and xeric shrublands ecoregion in Mongolia and northern China. It is the easternmost of the ecoregions that make up the larger Gobi Desert. It lies between the more humid Mongolian–Manchurian grassland on the north, east, and southeast, and the drier Alashan Plateau semi-desert to the west.
Geography
The ecoregion lies on a plateau, mostly between 1000 and 1500 meters elevation. The ecoregion extends southwest along the Yin Mountains, which rise between 1,500 to 2,200 meters elevation.
There are no large rivers in the ecoregion. Most of the ecoregion lies in closed basins, with intermittent streams that drain into salt pans and small ponds.
Climate
The climate is arid and continental. Winters are intensely cold, with January mean temperatures of -20 to -28ºC. Summers are warm to hot, depending on elevation. The mean annual temperature ranges from -2 to -6ºC,. Annual rainfall ranges from 100 to 150 mm, falling mostly in the summer, and varies considerably from year to year.
Flora
The predominant vegetation is a steppe of drought-tolerant shrubs and low grasses. The legumes Caragana bungei and Caragana leucocephala are characteristic shrubs. Other shrubs include gray sparrow’s saltwort (Salsola passerina), gray sagebrush (Artemisia xerophytica), Potaninia mongolica, and Nitraria sibirica. Common grasses include the needle grasses Stipa gobica and Stipa glareosa and bridlegrass (Cleistogenes soongorica). The taana wild onion (Allium polyrhizum) is the main browse eaten by many herd animals, and Mongolians claim that this is essential in producing the proper, hazelnut-like notes of camel airag (fermented milk).
Fauna
Large mammals in the ecoregion include the Mongolian wild ass (Equus hemionus hemionus), Mongolian saiga antelope (Saiga tartarica mongolica), Yarkand gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), and marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna). Several species of jerboas (family Dipodidae) are found in sandy areas. Jerboas are small mammals with long hindlegs and tails, adapted to burrowing and able to jump up to three meters. Native jerboa species include the long-eared jerboa (Euchoreutus naso), Kozlov's pygmy jerboa (Salpingotus kozlovi), Mongolian jerboa (Stylodipus andewsi), and Gobi jerboa (Allactaga bullata).
Native birds include the lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus), cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus), MacQueen's bustard (Chlamydotis macqueenii), chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar), Pallas's sandgrouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus), Mongolian ground jay (Podoces hendersoni), greater sand plover (Charadrius leschenaultii), and Mongolian finch (Bucanetes mongolicus).
Human use
The vast desert is crisscrossed by several trade routes, some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the most important are those from Kalgan (at the Great Wall) to Ulaanbaatar (); from Jiuquan (in Gansu) to Hami ; from Hami to Beijing (); from Hohhot to Hami and Barkul; and from Lanzhou (in Gansu) to Hami.
Protected areas
3.34% of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Protected areas include Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park, Wuliangsuhainiaolei Protected Area, Ergeliin Zoo Nature Reserve, Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve, Zagiin us Nature Reserve, Gobiin baga Strictly Protected Area, Ongon Tavan bulag Nature Reserve, Delgerkhangai mountain Nature Reserve, and Burdene bulag Nature Reserve.
References
External links
Ecoregions of China
Ecoregions of Mongolia
Palearctic ecoregions
Deserts and xeric shrublands
Gobi Desert | [
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214070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brest%20Region | Brest Region | Brest Region or Brest Oblast or Brest Voblasts ( (Bresckaja vobłasć); (Brestskaya Oblast)) is one of the regions of Belarus. Its administrative center is Brest.
Important cities within the region include: Brest, Baranavichy, and Pinsk.
Geography
It is located in the southwestern part of Belarus, bordering the Podlasie and Lublin voivodeships of Poland on the west, the Volyn Oblast and Rivne Oblast of Ukraine on the south, the Grodno Region and Minsk Region on the north, and Gomel Region on the east. The region covers a total area of 32,800 km², about 15,7% of the national total.
Kamenets District of Brest Region in few kilometers to the South-West from Vysokaye town on the Bug River the western extreme point of Belarus is situated. 2,7% of the territory are covered with Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park, 9,8% are covered with 17 wildlife preserves of national importance.
It is often dubbed the Western gateway to Belarus. Geographically, the Brest Region belongs to the area known as Polesia. The area of the region was part of the Second Polish Republic from 1921 until 1939 largely as the Polesie Voivodeship, when it was joined to the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Northeastern part of it was administrated as part of Nowogrodek Voivodeship.
Demographics
The Brest Region has a population of 1,380,391, about 14,7% of the national total. About 47.2% of the region's population are men, and the remaining 52.8% are women. Number of inhabitants per 1 km2 is 43. Share of urban population is increasing continuously since the 1950s (17.1% in 1950, 70.5% in 2017).
Of the major nationalities living in the Brest Region, 1,262,600 are Belarusians (85%), 128,700 (8.6%) are Russians, 57,100 (3.8%) are Ukrainians, and 27,100 (1.8%) are Poles. 53.7% of the population speak Belarusian and 42.6% speak Russian as their native language.
Brest is the province with the highest birth rate in all of Belarus. As of 2008, the birth rate was 12.0 per 1000 and death rate was 13.4 per 1000. In 2017, 12.4% of live births were to unmarried women (average in Belarus — 18.1%).
As of 2018, share of the population under working age was 19.3% (average in Belarus — 17.9%), of working age — 55.7% (average in Belarus — 57.2%), over working age — 25% (average in Belarus — 25.1%).
In 2015—2017, the region had a positive net migration rate for international migration (+3,209 in 2015, +1,771 in 2016, +1,357 in 2017) and negative — for internal migration (-6,294 in 2015, -3,659 in 2016, -1,836 in 2017). In 2017, 6,944 people which departed from the Brest Region arrived in Minsk, 2,219 — in the Minsk Region, 2,118 — in the Hrodna Region, less than 1,000 — in every other region.
Administrative territorial entities
The region was formed in 1939 after reunification of Western Belarus and the Byelorussian SSR. Today it comprises 16 districts (raions), 225 rural councils (selsoviets), 20 cities, 5 city municipalities, 9 urban-type settlements, and 2178 villages.
Districts of Brest Region
The sixteen raions (districts) of the Brest Region are:
Cities and towns
Tourism
There are about 70 travel agencies in Brest Region, most of them provide both agent and operator activities. Main tourist attractions in the region are Belovezhskaya Puscha and Brest Fortress.
Economy
As of 2017, the industrial output of the region amounted to BYN 10,578 million (USD ~5,300 million), or 11.2% of the Belarusian industrial output.
Food industry is the leading economy sphere in the region (47.6% of the region's industrial output). The biggest industrial plants in the region are "Savushkin produkt" (dairy products), "Santa Bremor" (fish products), Brestgazoapparat (gas equipment, including "Gefest" cookers; all three are situated in Brest), "Pinskdrev" in Pinsk (furniture, matches and other wood products), "Polesie" in Kobryn (toys and plastic products). Other major factories are machine tool plant "Atlant", cotton factory, military jet fighters repair plant (all three are situated in Baranavichy (Baranovichi)), sugar plant in Zhabinka, "Polesie" textile and garment factory in Pinsk, "Ivacevichidrev" wood products plant in Ivacevichi, "Granite" quarry in Mikashevichi, "Belsolod" malt factory in Ivanava (the only such plant in Belarus).
Food factories in the region produced 153.9 thousand tons of meat and offal in 2017, 90 thousand tons of sausage products, 29.7 thousand tons of meat semi-finished products, 71.8 tons of fish and semi-finished products (including canned fish), 551.9 thousand tons of whole milk products, 47.2 thousand tons of cottage cheese, 66.1 thousand tons of cheese, 21.3 thousand tons of butter, 108.2 thousand tons of flour, 2.5 million decalitres of beer and 4.3 million decalitres of distilled alcoholic beverages. Textile and garment factories produced 56,361 thousand m2 of fabrics in 2017, 994 thousand m2 of carpets, 5.9 million pieces of all types of knitwear, 1.9 million pieces of outerwear (except knitwear), 28.4 million pairs of socks and similar hosiery, 623 thousand shoes. Electrical plants in the region produced 242.2 thousand electric engines (alternating current), 4800 transformers, 899 thousand lamps. Brest lamp factory is producing incandescent light bulbs, 2 factories are engaged in production of diodes and printed circuit boards.
Byarozaŭskaja (Berezovskaya) thermal power plant in Byaroza District is one of the biggest power plants in Belarus (1095 MW, 4.8 GW·h annually). As of 2018, it had 4 power generating units with combined cycle gas turbines.
As of 2017, total cultivated area in the region was 930,000 hectares, including 844,400 hectares of land used by agricultural organizations (mainly state-owned), 17,900 hectares — by the registered farmers, and 67,700 hectares — by personal farms of the population. 383,800 hectares of fields were used to grow cereals, 52,800 — rapeseeds, 21,800 — sugar beets, 5,700 — flax, 56,300 — potatoes, 12,700 — vegetables, 392,800 — feed crops. Big agricultural organizations harvest almost all cereals, flax, sugar beets, rapeseeds and feed crops, while farmers (both registered and not) harvest more than 90% of potatoes (1,144,400 tons of 1,266,200 in the region) and vegetables (409,400 tons of 439,200 in the region). Average cereal yield in the region in 2017 was 3,480 kg per hectare (average in Belarus — 3,330), sugar beet yield — 43,900 kg per hectare (average in Belarus — 49,900), flax fiber yield — 1,160 kg per hectare (average in Belarus — 920). Due to warm mild climate and personal activity, the region leads in the production of many fruits, vegetables and berries in Belarus. Several villages are widely known as a "cucumber capital", "strawberry capital", "carrot capital", etc.
As of 2018, agricultural organizations and farmers kept 861,600 cattle (including 301,100 cows), 491,100 pigs, 10,000 horses, 19,500 sheep, 7,605,000 poultry. In 2017, all types of farms in the region produced 218,700 tons of livestock and poultry meat (in slaughter weight), 1,605,000 tons of milk (second place among the regions of Belarus) and 606.8 million eggs (second place).
See also
Subdivisions of Belarus
Poland’s Polesie Voivodeship (1921–1939)
Poland’s Nowogrodek Voivodeship (1919-1939)
References
External links
Brest Regional Executive Committee
Regions of Belarus
States and territories established in 1939 | [
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214077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier%2087 | Messier 87 | Messier 87 (also known as Virgo A or NGC 4486, generally abbreviated to M87) is a supergiant elliptical galaxy with several trillion stars in the constellation Virgo. One of the most massive galaxies in the local universe, it has a large population of globular clusters—about 15,000 compared with the 150–200 orbiting the Milky Way—and a jet of energetic plasma that originates at the core and extends at least , traveling at a relativistic speed. It is one of the brightest radio sources in the sky and a popular target for both amateur and professional astronomers.
The French astronomer Charles Messier discovered M87 in 1781, and cataloged it as a nebula. M87 is about from Earth and is the second-brightest galaxy within the northern Virgo Cluster, having many satellite galaxies. Unlike a disk-shaped spiral galaxy, M87 has no distinctive dust lanes. Instead, it has an almost featureless, ellipsoidal shape typical of most giant elliptical galaxies, diminishing in luminosity with distance from the center. Forming around one-sixth of its mass, M87's stars have a nearly spherically symmetric distribution. Their population density decreases with increasing distance from the core. It has an active supermassive black hole at its core, which forms the primary component of an active galactic nucleus. The black hole was imaged using data collected in 2017 by the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT), with a final, processed image released on 10 April 2019. In March 2021, the EHT Collaboration presented, for the first time, a polarized-based image of the black hole which may help better reveal the forces giving rise to quasars.
The galaxy is a strong source of multiwavelength radiation, particularly radio waves. Its galactic envelope extends to a radius of about , where it is truncated—possibly by an encounter with another galaxy. Its interstellar medium consists of diffuse gas enriched by elements emitted from evolved stars.
Observation history
In 1781, the French astronomer Charles Messier published a catalogue of 103 objects that had a nebulous appearance as part of a list intended to identify objects that might otherwise be confused with comets. In subsequent use, each catalogue entry was prefixed with an "M". Thus, M87 was the eighty-seventh object listed in Messier's catalogue. During the 1880s, the object was included as NGC 4486 in the New General Catalogue of nebulae and star clusters assembled by the Danish-Irish astronomer John Dreyer, which he based primarily on the observations of the English astronomer John Herschel.
In 1918, the American astronomer Heber Curtis of Lick Observatory noted M87's lack of a spiral structure and observed a "curious straight ray ... apparently connected with the nucleus by a thin line of matter." The ray appeared brightest near the galactic center. The following year, a supernova within M87 reached a peak photographic magnitude of 21.5, although this event was not reported until photographic plates were examined by the Russian astronomer Innokentii A. Balanowski in 1922.
Identification as a galaxy
In 1922, the American astronomer Edwin Hubble categorized M87 as one of the brighter globular nebulae, as it lacked any spiral structure, but like spiral nebulae, appeared to belong to the family of non-galactic nebulae. In 1926 he produced a new categorization, distinguishing extragalactic from galactic nebulae, the former being independent star systems. M87 was classified as a type of elliptical extragalactic nebula with no apparent elongation (class E0).
In 1931, Hubble described M87 as a member of the Virgo Cluster, and gave a provisional estimate of from Earth. It was then the only known elliptical nebula for which individual stars could be resolved, although it was pointed out that globular clusters would be indistinguishable from individual stars at such distances. In his 1936 The Realm of the Nebulae, Hubble examines the terminology of the day; some astronomers labeled extragalactic nebulae as external galaxies on the basis that they were stellar systems at far distances from our own galaxy, while others preferred the conventional term extragalactic nebulae, as galaxy then was synonym for the Milky Way. M87 continued to be labelled as an extragalactic nebula at least until 1954.
Modern research
In 1947, a prominent radio source, Virgo A, was identified overlapping the location of M87. The source was confirmed to be M87 by 1953, and the linear relativistic jet emerging from the core of the galaxy was suggested as the cause. This jet extended from the core at a position angle of 260° to an angular distance of 20″ with an angular width of 2″. In 1969–70, a strong component of the radio emission was found to closely align with the optical source of the jet.
In 1966, the United States Naval Research Laboratory's Aerobee 150 rocket identified Virgo X-1, the first X-ray source in Virgo. The Aerobee rocket launched from White Sands Missile Range on 7 July 1967 yielded further evidence that the source of Virgo X-1 was the radio galaxy M87. Subsequent X-ray observations by the HEAO 1 and Einstein Observatory showed a complex source that included the active galactic nucleus of M87. However, there is little central concentration of the X-ray emission.
M87 has been an important testing ground for techniques that measure the masses of central supermassive black holes in galaxies. In 1978, stellar-dynamical modeling of the mass distribution in M87 gave evidence for a central mass of five billion solar masses. After the installation of the COSTAR corrective-optics module in the Hubble Space Telescope in 1993, the Hubble Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) was used to measure the rotation velocity of the ionized gas disk at the center of M87, as an "early release observation" designed to test the scientific performance of the post-repair Hubble instruments. The FOS data indicated a central black hole mass of 2.4 billion solar masses, with 30% uncertainty. Globular clusters within M87 have been used to calibrate metallicity relations as well.
M87 was observed by the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) during much of 2017. The 10 April 2019 issue of Astrophysical Journal Letters (vol. 875, No. 1) was dedicated to the results, publishing six open-access papers. The event horizon of the black hole at the center was directly imaged by the EHT, then revealed in a press conference on the issue date stated, filtering out from this the first image of a black hole's shadow.
Visibility
M87 is near a high declination limit of the Virgo constellation, abutting Coma Berenices. It lies along the line between the stars Epsilon Virginis and Denebola (Beta Leonis). The galaxy can be observed using a small telescope with a aperture, extending across an angular area of 7.2 × 6.8 arcminutes at a surface brightness of 12.9, with a very bright, 45-arcsecond core. Viewing the jet is a challenge without the aid of photography. Before 1991, the Russian-American astronomer Otto Struve was the only person known to have seen the jet visually, using the Hooker telescope. In more recent years it has been observed in larger amateur telescopes under excellent conditions.
Properties
In the modified Hubble sequence galaxy morphological classification scheme of the French astronomer Gérard de Vaucouleurs, M87 is categorized as an E0p galaxy. "E0" designates an elliptical galaxy that displays no flattening—that is, it appears spherical. A "p" suffix indicates a peculiar galaxy that does not fit cleanly into the classification scheme; in this case, the peculiarity is the presence of the jet emerging from the core. In the Yerkes (Morgan) scheme, M87 is classified as a type-cD galaxy. A D galaxy has an elliptical-like nucleus surrounded by an extensive, dustless, diffuse envelope. A D type supergiant is called a cD galaxy.
The distance to M87 has been estimated using several independent techniques. These include measurement of the luminosity of planetary nebulae, comparison with nearby galaxies whose distance is estimated using standard candles such as cepheid variables, the linear size distribution of globular clusters, and the tip of the red-giant branch method using individually resolved red giant stars. These measurements are consistent with each other, and their weighted average yields a distance estimate of .
M87 is one of the most massive galaxies in the local Universe. Its diameter is estimated at 240,000 light-years, which is slightly larger than that of the Milky Way. As an elliptical galaxy, the galaxy is a spheroid rather than a flattened disc, accounting for the substantially larger mass of M87. Within a radius of , the mass is times the mass of the Sun, which is double the mass of the Milky Way galaxy. As with other galaxies, only a fraction of this mass is in the form of stars: M87 has an estimated mass to luminosity ratio of ; that is, only about one part in six of the galaxy's mass is in the form of stars that radiate energy. This ratio varies from 5 to 30, approximately in proportion to r1.7 in the region of from the core. The total mass of M87 may be 200 times that of the Milky Way.
The galaxy experiences an infall of gas at the rate of two to three solar masses per year, most of which may be accreted onto the core region. The extended stellar envelope of this galaxy reaches a radius of about , compared with about for the Milky Way. Beyond that distance the outer edge of the galaxy has been truncated by some means; possibly by an earlier encounter with another galaxy. There is evidence of linear streams of stars to the northwest of the galaxy, which may have been created by tidal stripping of orbiting galaxies or by small satellite galaxies falling in toward M87. Moreover, a filament of hot, ionized gas in the northeastern outer part of the galaxy may be the remnant of a small, gas-rich galaxy that was disrupted by M87 and could be feeding its active nucleus. M87 is estimated to have at least 50 satellite galaxies, including NGC 4486B and NGC 4478.
The spectrum of the nuclear region of M87 shows the emission lines of various ions, including hydrogen (HI, HII), helium (HeI), oxygen (OI, OII, OIII), nitrogen (NI), magnesium (MgII) and sulfur (SII). The line intensities for weakly ionized atoms (such as neutral atomic oxygen, OI) are stronger than those of strongly ionized atoms (such as doubly ionized oxygen, OIII). A galactic nucleus with such spectral properties is termed a LINER, for "low-ionization nuclear emission-line region". The mechanism and source of weak-line-dominated ionization in LINERs and M87 are under debate. Possible causes include shock-induced excitation in the outer parts of the disk or photoionization in the inner region powered by the jet.
Elliptical galaxies such as M87 are believed to form as the result of one or more mergers of smaller galaxies. They generally contain relatively little cold interstellar gas (in comparison with spiral galaxies) and they are populated mostly by old stars, with little or no ongoing star formation. M87's elliptical shape is maintained by the random orbital motions of its constituent stars, in contrast to the more orderly rotational motions found in a spiral galaxy such as the Milky Way. Using the Very Large Telescope to study the motions of about 300 planetary nebulae, astronomers have determined that M87 absorbed a medium-sized star-forming spiral galaxy over the last billion years. This has resulted in the addition of some younger, bluer stars to M87. The distinctive spectral properties of the planetary nebulae allowed astronomers to discover a chevron-like structure in M87's halo which was produced by the incomplete phase-space mixing of a disrupted galaxy.
Components
Supermassive black hole M87*
The core of the galaxy contains a supermassive black hole (SMBH), designated M87*, whose mass is billions of times that of the Earth's Sun; estimates had ranged from to , surpassed by in 2016. In April 2019, the Event Horizon Telescope collaboration released measurements of the black hole's mass as . This is one of the highest-known masses for such an object. A rotating disk of ionized gas surrounds the black hole, and is roughly perpendicular to the relativistic jet. The disk rotates at velocities of up to roughly 1,000 km/s, and spans a maximum diameter of . By comparison, Pluto averages from the Sun. Gas accretes onto the black hole at an estimated rate of one solar mass every ten years (about 90 Earth masses per day). The Schwarzschild radius of the black hole is , which is around 120 times the Earth–Sun distance (120 AU).
A 2010 paper suggested that the black hole may be displaced from the galactic center by about . This was claimed to be in the opposite direction of the known jet, indicating acceleration of the black hole by it. Another suggestion was that the offset occurred during the merger of two supermassive black holes. However, a 2011 study did not find any statistically significant displacement, and a 2018 study of high-resolution images of M87 concluded that the apparent spatial offset was caused by temporal variations in the jet's brightness rather than a physical displacement of the black hole from the galaxy's center.
This black hole is the first and, to date, the only one to be imaged. Data to produce the image were taken in April 2017, the image was produced during 2018 and was published on 10 April 2019. The image shows the shadow of the black hole, surrounded by an asymmetric emission ring with a diameter of . The shadow radius is 2.6 times that of the black hole's Schwarzschild radius. The rotation parameter was estimated at a = 0.9 ± 0.1, corresponding to a rotation speed of ~0.4c.
After the black hole had been imaged, it was named Pōwehi, a Hawai'ian word meaning "the adorned fathomless dark creation", taken from the ancient creation chant Kumulipo.
On 24 March 2021, the Event Horizon Telescope collaboration revealed a unprecedented unique view of the M87 black hole shadow: how it looks in polarized light. Polarization is a powerful tool which allows astronomers to probe physics behind the image in more detail. Light polarization informs us about the strength and orientation of magnetic fields in the ring of light around the black hole shadow. Knowing those is essential to understand how M87 supermassive black hole is launching jets of magnetized plasma which expand at relativistic speed beyond the M87 galaxy.
On 14 April 2021, astronomers further reported that the M87 black hole and its surrounding was studied during Event Horizon Telescope 2017 observing run also by many multi-wavelength observatories from around the world.
Jet
The relativistic jet of matter emerging from the core extends at least from the nucleus and consists of matter ejected from a supermassive black hole. The jet is highly collimated, appearing constrained to an angle of 60° within of the core, to about 16° at , and to 6–7° at . Its base has the diameter of Schwarzschild radii, and is probably powered by a prograde accretion disk around the spinning supermassive black hole. The German-American astronomer Walter Baade found that light from the jet was plane polarized, which suggests that the energy is generated by the acceleration of electrons moving at relativistic velocities in a magnetic field. The total energy of these electrons is estimated at 5.1 × 1056 ergs (5.1 × 1049 joules or 3.2 × 1068 eV). This is roughly 1013 times the energy produced by the Milky Way in one second, which is estimated at 5 × 1036 joules. The jet is surrounded by a lower-velocity non-relativistic component. There is evidence of a counter jet, but it remains unseen from the Earth due to relativistic beaming. The jet is precessing, causing the outflow to form a helical pattern out to . Lobes of expelled matter extend out to .
In pictures taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in 1999, the motion of M87's jet was measured at four to six times the speed of light. This phenomenon, called superluminal motion, is an illusion caused by the relativistic velocity of the jet. The time interval between any two light pulses emitted by the jet is, as registered by the observer, less than the actual interval due to the relativistic speed of the jet moving in the direction of the observer. This results in perceived faster-than-light speeds. Detection of such motion is used to support the theory that quasars, BL Lacertae objects and radio galaxies may all be the same phenomenon, known as active galaxies, viewed from different perspectives. It is proposed that the nucleus of M87 is a BL Lacertae object (of lower luminosity than its surrounds) seen from a relatively large angle. Flux variations, characteristic of the BL Lacertae objects, have been observed in M87.
Observations indicate that the rate at which material is ejected from the supermassive black hole is variable. These variations produce pressure waves in the hot gas surrounding M87. The Chandra X-ray Observatory has detected loops and rings in the gas. Their distribution suggests that minor eruptions occur every few million years. One of the rings, caused by a major eruption, is a shock wave in diameter around the black hole. Other features observed include narrow X-ray-emitting filaments up to long, and a large cavity in the hot gas caused by a major eruption 70 million years ago. The regular eruptions prevent a huge reservoir of gas from cooling and forming stars, implying that M87's evolution may have been seriously affected, preventing it from becoming a large spiral galaxy.
M87 is a very strong source of gamma rays, the most energetic rays of the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays emitted by M87 have been observed since the late 1990s. In 2006, using the High Energy Stereoscopic System Cherenkov telescopes, scientists measured the variations of the gamma ray flux coming from M87, and found that the flux changes over a matter of days. This short period indicates that the most likely source of the gamma rays is a supermassive black hole. In general, the smaller the diameter of the emission source, the faster the variation in flux.
A knot of matter in the jet (designated HST-1), about from the core, has been tracked by the Hubble Space Telescope and the Chandra X-ray Observatory. By 2006, the X-ray intensity of this knot had increased by a factor of 50 over a four-year period, while the X-ray emission has since been decaying in a variable manner.
The interaction of relativistic jets of plasma emanating from the core with the surrounding medium gives rise to radio lobes in active galaxies. The lobes occur in pairs and are often symmetrical. The two radio lobes of M87 together span about 80 kiloparsecs; the inner parts, extending up to two kiloparsecs, emit strongly at radio wavelengths. Two flows of material emerge from this region, one aligned with the jet itself and the other in the opposite direction. The flows are asymmetrical and deformed, implying that they encounter a dense intracluster medium. At greater distances, both flows diffuse into two lobes. The lobes are surrounded by a fainter halo of radio-emitting gas.
Interstellar medium
The space between the stars in M87 is filled with a diffuse interstellar medium of gas that has been chemically enriched by the elements ejected from stars as they passed beyond their main sequence lifetime. Carbon and nitrogen are continuously supplied by stars of intermediate mass as they pass through the asymptotic giant branch. The heavier elements from oxygen to iron are produced largely by supernova explosions within the galaxy. Of the heavy elements, about 60% were produced by core-collapse supernovae, while the remainder came from type Ia supernovae. The distribution of oxygen is roughly uniform throughout, at about half of the solar value (i.e., oxygen abundance in the Sun), while iron distribution peaks near the center where it approaches the solar iron value. Since oxygen is produced mainly by core-collapse supernovae, which occur during the early stages of galaxies and mostly in outer star-forming regions, the distribution of these elements suggests an early enrichment of the interstellar medium from core-collapse supernovae and a continuous contribution from Type Ia supernovae throughout the history of M87. The contribution of elements from these sources was much lower than in the Milky Way.
Examination of M87 at far infrared wavelengths shows an excess emission at wavelengths longer than 25 μm. Normally, this may be an indication of thermal emission by warm dust. In the case of M87, the emission can be fully explained by synchrotron radiation from the jet; within the galaxy, silicate grains are expected to survive for no more than 46 million years because of the X-ray emission from the core. This dust may be destroyed by the hostile environment or expelled from the galaxy. The combined mass of dust in M87 is no more than 70,000 times the mass of the Sun. By comparison, the Milky Way's dust equals about a hundred million (108) solar masses.
Although M87 is an elliptical galaxy and therefore lacks the dust lanes of a spiral galaxy, optical filaments have been observed in it, which arise from gas falling towards the core. Emission probably comes from shock-induced excitation as the falling gas streams encounter X-rays from the core region. These filaments have an estimated mass of about 10,000 solar masses. Surrounding the galaxy is an extended corona with hot, low-density gas.
Globular clusters
M87 has an abnormally large population of globular clusters. A 2006 survey out to an angular distance of 25′ from the core estimates that there are globular clusters in orbit around M87, compared with 150–200 in and around the Milky Way. The clusters are similar in size distribution to those of the Milky Way, most having an effective radius of 1 to 6 parsecs. The size of the M87 clusters gradually increases with distance from the galactic center. Within a radius of the core, the cluster metallicity—the abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium—is about half the abundance in the Sun. Outside this radius, metallicity steadily declines as the cluster distance from the core increases. Clusters with low metallicity are somewhat larger than metal-rich clusters. In 2014, HVGC-1, the first hypervelocity globular cluster, was discovered escaping from M87 at 2,300 km/s. The escape of the cluster with such a high velocity was speculated to have been the result of a close encounter with, and subsequent gravitational kick from, a supermassive black hole binary.
Almost a hundred ultra-compact dwarfs have been identified in M87. They resemble globular clusters but have a diameter of or more, much larger than the maximum of globular clusters. It is unclear whether they are dwarf galaxies captured by M87 or a new class of massive globular cluster.
Environment
M87 is near (or at) the center of the Virgo Cluster, a closely compacted structure of about 2,000 galaxies. This forms the core of the larger Virgo Supercluster, of which the Local Group (including the Milky Way) is an outlying member. It is organized into at least three distinct subsystems associated with the three large galaxies—M87, M49 and M86—with the core subgroup including M87 (Virgo A) and M49 (Virgo B). There is a preponderance of elliptical and S0 galaxies around M87. A chain of elliptical galaxies roughly aligns with the jet. In terms of mass, M87 is likely to be the largest, and coupled with centrality appears to be moving very little relative to the cluster as a whole. It is defined in one study as the cluster center. The cluster has a sparse gaseous medium that emits X-rays, lower in temperature toward the middle. The combined mass of the cluster is estimated to be 0.15 to 1.5 × 1015 solar masses.
Measurements of the motion of those intracluster starburst ("planetary") nebulae between M87 and M86 suggest that the two galaxies are moving toward each other and that this may be their first encounter. M87 may have interacted with M84, as evidenced by the truncation of M87's outer halo by tidal interactions. The truncated halo may also have been caused by contraction due to an unseen mass falling into M87 from the rest of the cluster, which may be the hypothesized dark matter. A third possibility is that the halo's formation was truncated by early feedback from the active galactic nucleus.
See also
List of Messier objects
List of largest galaxies
Notes
References
External links
Messier 87, SEDS Messier pages
ESA/Hubble images of M87
Solar elemental abundances
Messier 087
Messier 087
Messier 087
Messier 087
Messier 087
087
Messier 087
07654
41316
152
274
Astronomical objects discovered in 1781
Discoveries by Charles Messier | [
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|
214078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabella%20Churchill%20%28royal%20mistress%29 | Arabella Churchill (royal mistress) | Arabella Churchill (23 February 1648 – 30 May 1730) was the mistress of King James II, and the mother of four of his children (surnamed FitzJames, that is, "son of James").
Life
She was a daughter of Sir Winston Churchill and sister of the first Duke of Marlborough; her other brothers were George and Charles. The Churchills' loyalty to the royal household was ardent; their only feeling about Arabella's seduction by King James II "seems to have been a joyful surprise that so plain a girl had attained such high preferment."
James, then Duke of York, began his adulterous affair with Arabella Churchill, around 1665, while he was still married to Anne Hyde. Churchill became the duchess's lady-in-waiting in that year, and gave birth to two children during Anne's lifetime. Churchill was described as a "tall creature, pale-faced, and nothing but skin and bone." Charles II, who was baffled by his brother's predilection for plain women, joked that his confessor must impose them as a penance. She often displayed the quick wit and lively intelligence which bound James to her through ten years and four children.
On 1 June 1680 at the Church of Holy Trinity, Minories, London, she married Charles Godfrey and had three more children. They lived happily together for 40 years.
Godfrey died in 1714, at the age of 67. She survived him by 16 years, dying in 1730 aged 82.
Children
Children with James II of England
Henrietta FitzJames (1667 – 3 April 1730)
James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick (1670–1734)
Henry FitzJames, 1st Duke of Albemarle (1673–1702)
Arabella FitzJames (1674 – 7 November 1704); became a nun
From her children Henrietta, Countess of Newcastle, and James, Duke of Berwick, she is an ancestor of the Earls Spencer and Diana, Princess of Wales as well as of the Dukes of Berwick, the later Dukes of Alba and of Cayetana Fitz-James Stuart, 18th Duchess of Alba, the person with the most noble titles in the world.
Children with Charles Godfrey
Francis Godfrey
Charlotte Godfrey, born before 1685, married Hugh Boscawen, 1st Viscount Falmouth
Elizabeth Godfrey, married Edmund Dunch, son of Hungerford Dunch
References
External links
WorldRoots Royalty Pages
1648 births
1730 deaths
Mistresses of James II of England
Arabella Churchill
Arabella | [
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214079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20FitzJames%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Berwick | James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick | James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, 1st Duke of Liria and Jérica, 1st Duke of Fitz-James (21 August 1670 – 12 June 1734) was an Anglo-French military leader, illegitimate son of King James II of England by Arabella Churchill, sister of the 1st Duke of Marlborough. Berwick was a successful general in the pay of Louis XIV of France.
Early life
FitzJames was born at Moulins in France before his father's accession to the throne, and was brought up in France as a Catholic. He was the son of James and his mistress Arabella Churchill, sister of the English captain general and statesman John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. He was educated at the Stuarts' expense in the College of Juilly, the Collège du Plessis, and the Jesuit College of La Flèche. He went into the service of Charles V, Duke of Lorraine, and was present at the siege of Buda. FitzJames was created Duke of Berwick, Earl of Tinmouth and Baron Bosworth by his father in 1687. He then returned to Hungary and participated at the Battle of Mohács.
Berwick returned to England and was made Governor of Portsmouth. King James made him a Knight of the Order of the Garter and appointed him Colonel of The Blues to replace the Protestant Earl of Oxford. The post had been coveted by his maternal uncle the Earl of Marlborough, but FitzJames was earmarked for command, as Catholics replaced Anglicans. However, due to the invasion of The Prince of Orange and the subsequent Glorious Revolution, the installation never took place. Berwick in all conscience could not remain with the Colonel of The Blues' Troop he had served since 1682; he refused to betray his old patronne. Officers were required to answer 'three questions' designed by the King to test their loyalty. Berwick was with his father at Salisbury, when key units deserted to the Prince of Orange. King James II was overthrown in December 1688 and Berwick went into exile with him.
In 1689 Berwick accompanied his father to Ireland and fought in the Irish campaign at the Siege of Derry, the Battle of Cavan and the Battle of the Boyne during which he led a charge, was unhorsed and almost killed in the melee. When his father departed for France after the Boyne, Berwick remained with the Jacobite Irish Army during the retreat to Limerick.
On 2 August he was one of the Generals, with Patrick Sarsfield and Boisselau who shored up the defences at Limerick awaiting the Williamite assault; thereafter they rode north across the Shannon with a few Guards. On 22 June 1691, Berwick was with the French general the Marquis de St Ruth, at Aughrim, a site of his choosing when General Ginckel appeared over the hill with a superior force of 18,000 Williamites. The defenders were surrounded on one side by peat bog, and on the other Kilcommodon Hill. Berwick was with Sarsfield's corps on the Irish right, who had an uncommitted reserve, when The Blues smashed through the Irish lines on the left, broke the Irish Dragoons, and caused a general panic to ensue. General St Ruth was decapitated by a stray cannonball, but Sarsfield was too late to rescue the situation. He retired with Berwick to the relative safety of Limerick, which Ginckel besieged on 25 August. Under the terms of Treaty of Limerick, signed on 3 October, all Irish contingents were banished to the continent forever. These soldiers became known as the Wild Geese. James II created Berwick Colonel of the 1st Troop, Wild Geese. Berwick arrived too late at the siege of Cork with 4,000 French troops, but unable to effect a result, he withdrew; Marlborough marched west to Kinsale to deal with 18,000 Frenchmen. It was at this time that he undertook a number of secret visits to England on behalf of the Jacobite cause.
In the service of Louis XIV
After his father's final exile, Berwick served in the French army under Marshal Luxemburg. He fought at the battles of Steenkerque. Luxemburg fell into William's trap set against superior numbers, but reinforcements failed the English, and the French rallied to send the Maison Militaire du Roi infantry downhill. Berwick was in the charge of the division that broke the English lines. They were driven from the field with heavy losses. Berwick was one of Luxemburg's principal officers, and in 1694 commanded the centre of a large French army. After several forced marches to entrap William, they crossed the Meuse again before stopping them near Neerwinden. Berwick struggled against the Foot Guards, who forced his men to retreat in the Landen. He was taken prisoner by his uncle, Charles Churchill, and ransomed for 30,000 florins; and later was exchanged for a wounded Duke of Ormonde. The Irish peer was accused of allowing himself to fall into enemy hands. The scandal swept Whitehall Palace causing angry questions in Parliament.
At the same time a huge number of 400 ships bound for the Smyrna Convoy were taken by the French. Because of his support for his father and service in the French army against England, he was attainted in 1695 by Act of Parliament rendering his British peerages forfeit.
As a soldier, Berwick was highly esteemed for his courage, abilities and integrity. But when Marlborough challenged the French to fight at Liege, Boufflers retreated. In June 1704, Berwick commanded a combined Franco-Spanish army but they did not seriously challenge the enemy, only taking a few of the Barrier Fortresses. By July 1706 Berwick had established increasing dominance in the north of Spain as the Bourbons' premier general. In August partizans forced the Earl of Galway to evacuate Madrid allowing Berwick into winter quarters. As a result of distinguished service in the War of the Spanish Succession, he became a French subject and was appointed a Marshal of France after his successful expedition against Nice in 1706.
Louis XIV was in the habit of sending his marshals lengthy orders. In 1707 he wrote the duc de Vendome: "...it will be absolutely necessary for the Duke of Berwick to detach a similar proportion and to send a sufficient number of troops to the Elector of Bavaria..." The French allocated 75 battalions and 140 squadrons to the Rhine front, giving Berwick a comfortable numerical superiority. On 25 April 1707, Berwick won a great and decisive victory at the Almanza, where an Englishman at the head of a Franco-Spanish army defeated Ruvigny, a Frenchman at the head of an Anglo-Portuguese-Dutch army. Five English, six Dutch, and three Portuguese regiments were captured with all the cannon and regimental colours. The defeat ended Allied hopes of putting the Habsburg candidate on the Spanish throne. Berwick was "the brave English general who had defeated the French" to confused Tories. After Almanza, Berwick was created Duque de Liria y Xérica (English: Duke of Liria and Jérica) and Lieutenant of Aragon by Philip V of Spain in 1707, and Duc de Fitz-James (English: Duke of Fitz-James) in the Peerage of France by Louis XIV in 1710. But in the meantime in July 1707, Berwick heard the Allies had left Maastricht and sent 34 battalions and 75 squadrons north to meet Prince Eugene's army. In the spring of 1708, a Dutch force raided Berwick's camp at Cenco, killing all the men in their tents, with Berwick expressing shock at the "barbarous" action. By July Berwick had caught up with Vendome's army at Oudenarde, but was yet to arrive, anticipating Vendome would retreat to join up his force at Gavre six miles away. But Berwick was at Givet on River Meuse when he heard of Vendome's heavy defeat. Berwick rescued 9,000 stragglers using them to garrison Douai, and then moved Lille, where he prepared to be besieged. However, the English arrived there first and managed to dismantle the defensive ramparts before he could reach them. Nonetheless on 3 August, Berwick reckoned a siege was afoot reinforcing the garrison with 20 battalions and 7 squadrons of dragoons with horses. Lille was a heavily defended and fortified town, important to King Louis. Astutely, Berwick realized Marlborough was trying to bring his battered army to battle, despite constant missives from Versailles ordering an immediate attack. On 22 October Marshal Boufflers finally gave up and marched out to Douai. But crucially, Berwick's army remained intact.
Berwick was Marlborough's nephew. Long before he had become a Marshall of France, he had remained in contact with his uncle's family when they were in exile, when the siege at Lille began. Berwick sent an equerry to purchase some horses off the Allies. Furthermore, his widowed mother married Colonel Godfrey of the English army. In 1710, the Tories won the election, sweeping away Protestant opposition to a peace with France. Berwick encouraged by Louis XIV planned an army to invade England. With Marlborough out of favour, France was saved the indignity of defeat.
Foreign mercenary in exile
The last great event of the War of the Spanish Succession was the Duke of Berwick's storming of Barcelona, after a long siege, on 11 September 1714. In that year, he was appointed a Knight of the Golden Fleece. Trying to explain the failure of the Jacobite Risings, the Old Pretender "never forgave his half-brother, The Blues ex-colonel, Berwick, now an experienced and competent commander, for declining to lead his forces". Soon afterwards, Berwick was appointed military governor of the province of Guienne, where he became friendly with Montesquieu. In December 1718 he led an army to Spain, against Philip V, in the War of the Quadruple Alliance, bombarding San Sebastián and occupying the districts of Gipuzkoa and Biscay. Many years of peace followed this campaign that ended the following March. The King of Spain sued for peace in January 1720 and Berwick was not called to serve again in the field until 1733. In that year he was chosen to lead the Army of the Rhine in the War of the Polish Succession, successfully besieging Kehl in 1733. A year later he was decapitated by a cannonball at the Siege of Philippsburg, on 12 June 1734.
Marriages and children
Berwick had children by both his marriages. His descendants were the French Ducs de Fitz-James and the Spanish Duques de Liria and later the Dukes of Alba.
Berwick fell in love with General Patrick Sarsfield's 19-year-old pregnant widow. They married in Saint-Germain-en-Laye (Yvelines) on 26 March 1695, two years after Sarsfield's death in the Battle of Landen on 29 July 1693. This was Honora, Countess of Lucan (formerly known as Lady Honora Burke or Lady Honora de Burgh; b. Portumna Castle, Co. Galway, 1674 – d. Pézenas, 16 January 1698), the daughter of John Burke, 9th Earl of Clanricarde, an Anglo-Irish peer. Berwick raised Sarsfield's son, James Sarsfield, 2nd Earl of Lucan, who died childless in 1718, as his own. Berwick and the Countess had a son:
James Francis Fitz-James Stuart, who inherited the title Duke of Berwick on his father's death, or Jacobo Francisco Fitz-James Stuart, 2nd Duke of Berwick, 2nd Duke of Liria and Xerica (Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Yvelines, 21 October 1696 – Naples, Italy, 2 June 1738). He married Catalina Ventura Colón de Portugal, Duchess of Veragua and Duchess of La Vega, a descendant of Christopher Columbus.
After Honora Burke's death just three years later in 1698, Berwick married Anne Bulkeley (d. 12 June 1751), daughter of Henry Bulkeley (Master of the Household to James II), in Paris on 18 April 1700. They had eight sons and five daughters:
Ancestry
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Honora De Burgo page
James, 1st Duke of Berwick
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1670 births
1734 deaths
17th-century English nobility
18th-century English people
People from Moulins, Allier
French army commanders in the War of the Spanish Succession
French military personnel of the War of the Quadruple Alliance
French military personnel of the War of the Polish Succession
British Life Guards officers
Dukes of Fitz-James
James
Illegitimate branches of the House of Stuart
Illegitimate children of James II of England
King's Regiment (Liverpool) officers
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Royal Horse Guards officers
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FitzJames
Dukes of Berwick
Peers of England created by James II
Peers created by Louis XIV
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Montesquieu | [
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214083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Fesch | Joseph Fesch | Joseph Fesch, Prince of France (3 January 1763 – 13 May 1839) was a French priest and diplomat, who was the maternal half-uncle of Napoleon Bonaparte (half-brother of Napoleon's mother Laetitia). In the wake of his nephew, he became Archbishop of Lyon and Cardinal. He was also one of the most famous art collectors of his period, remembered for having established the Musée Fesch in Ajaccio, which remains one of the most important Napoleonic collections of art.
Born in Corsica, he was the son of Swiss-born Franz Faesch and Angela Maria Pietrasanta, and belonged on his father's side to the Faesch family, one of the most prominent patrician families of Basel. He rose to great prominence in France following Napoleon's coup d'état of 1799. Fesch became Archbishop of Lyon in 1802, a Cardinal in 1803, Ambassador to the Holy See in 1804, a French senator and count in 1805, Grand Almoner of France in 1805, a sovereign prince in 1806, Prince of France in 1807 (a dignity he shared only with Napoleon's siblings, brother-in-law Joachim Murat, and adopted son Eugène de Beauharnais), and Peer of France in 1815, and was named a Prince of the Papal States by the Pope. He was a member of the Imperial House, and was included in the order of succession to the French imperial throne in accordance with the French constitution of 1804 (Title III, Article 9, "The Imperial Family").
He was Napoleon's most important diplomat in regard to Pope Pius VII, but Napoleon's relationship with his uncle deteriorated as his relationship with the Pope soured. Nevertheless, Napoleon remained loyal to his uncle. Fesch wed his nephew to Joséphine de Beauharnais in Paris in 1804, the day before Bonaparte was crowned as Emperor of the French, in 1810 he wed Napoleon to Marie Louise of Austria, and in 1811 baptized the Emperor's son Napoleon II.
After the end of the French Empire in 1815, he was banished from France in 1815, like the rest of the Imperial House. He relocated to Rome with his half-sister Laetitia, and took up residence at the Palazzo Falconieri, dedicating himself to art and to beneficence.
Biography
Fesch was born at Ajaccio in Corsica. His father was Franz Faesch, a Swiss officer in the service of the Republic of Genoa, whose family belonged to the Basel patriciate and had been ennobled in the Holy Roman Empire in 1562. Holy Roman Empire, and his mother was Nobile Angela Maria Pietrasanta. His mother had previously been married to Captain Giovanni Geronimo Ramolino, and he had an elder half-sister, Letizia Ramolino, later the mpother of Napoleon. With support of Luciano Buonaparte (1718–1791), archdeacon of Ajaccio, he entered the seminary at Aix-en-Provence in 1781. He was ordained as a priest in 1785, and 24 years old, he became himself the archdeacon of Ajaccio. After the 1791 death of Luciano Buonaparte, he became for a time the protector and patron of his sister's family. In 1789, when the French Revolution broke out, he felt, like the majority of the Corsicans, repugnance for many of the acts of the French government during that period; in particular he protested against the application to Corsica of the act known as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 1790). As provost of the "chapter" in that city he directly felt the pressure of events; for on the suppression of religious orders and corporations, he was constrained to retire into private life.
Thereafter he shared the fortunes of the Bonaparte family in the intrigues and strifes which ensued. Drawn gradually into espousing the French cause against Pasquale Paoli and the Anglophiles, he was forced to leave Corsica and to proceed with Laetitia and her son to Toulon, in early autumn, 1793. Failing to find clerical duties at that time (the Reign of Terror), he took several posts in civil life, until on the appointment of Napoleon Bonaparte to the command of the French "Army of Italy" he became a commissary attached to that army. This part of his career is obscure, but his fortunes rose rapidly when Napoleon became First Consul, after the coup d'état of 18 Brumaire (November 1799). When the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion was in the mind of the First Consul, Fesch resumed his clerical vocation and took an active part in the complex negotiations which led to the signing of the Concordat with the Holy See on 15 July 1801. His reward came in being made Archbishop of Lyon in August 1802. Six months later he received a further reward for his past services, being raised to the dignity of cardinal.
Appointed by Napoleon on 4 April 1803 to succeed François Cacault on the latter's retirement from the position of French ambassador at Rome, Fesch was assisted by Chateaubriand, but soon sharply differed with him on many questions. Towards the close of 1804, Napoleon entrusted to Fesch the difficult task of securing the presence of Pope Pius VII at the forthcoming coronation of the emperor at Notre Dame, Paris (2 December 1804). His tact in overcoming the reluctance of the pope (it was only eight months after the execution of the duc d'Enghien) received further recognition. He received the grand cordon of the Legion d'Honneur, became grand-almoner of the empire and had a seat in the French senate. He was to receive further honours. In 1806 one of the most influential of the German clerics, Karl von Dalberg, then prince-bishop of Regensburg, chose him to be his coadjutor and designated him as his successor.
Subsequent events damaged his prospects. In the course of the years 1806-1807 Napoleon came into sharp collision with the pope on various matters both political and religious. Fesch sought in vain to reconcile them. Napoleon was inexorable in his demands, and Pius VII refused to give way where the discipline and vital interests of the church seemed to be threatened. The emperor several times rebuked Fesch for what he thought to be weakness and ingratitude. It is clear, however, that the cardinal went as far as possible in counselling the submission of the spiritual to the civil power. For a time he was not on speaking terms with the pope; and Napoleon recalled him from Rome.
Affairs came to a crisis in the year 1809, when Napoleon issued at Vienna the decree of 17 May, ordering the annexation of the Papal States to the French empire. In that year Napoleon conferred on Fesch the archbishopric of Paris, but he refused the honour. Fesch did however consent to take part in an ecclesiastical commission formed by the emperor from among the dignitaries of the Gallican Church, but in 1810 the commission was dissolved. The hopes of Fesch with respect to Regensburg were also damped by an arrangement of the year 1810 whereby Regensburg was absorbed in Bavaria.
In the year 1811 the emperor convoked a national council of Gallican clerics for the discussion of church affairs, and Fesch was appointed to preside over their deliberations. Here again, however, he failed to satisfy the inflexible emperor and was dismissed to his diocese. The friction between uncle and nephew became more acute in the following year. In June 1812 Pius VII was brought from his first place of detention, Savona, to Fontainebleau, where he was kept under surveillance in the hope that he would give way in certain matters relating to the Concordat and in other clerical affairs. Fesch ventured to write to the aged pontiff a letter which came into the hands of the emperor. His anger against Fesch was such that he stopped the sum of 150,000 florins which had been accorded to him.
The disasters of the years 1812-1813 brought Napoleon to treat Pius VII with more lenity and the position of Fesch thus became for a time less difficult. However, on the first abdication of Napoleon (11 April 1814) and the restoration of the Bourbons, he retired to Rome where he received a welcome. The events of the Hundred Days (March–June 1815) brought him back to France; he resumed his archiepiscopal duties at Lyon and was further named a member of the senate and a peer of France. On the second abdication of the emperor (22 June 1815), Fesch retired to Rome along with his older sister Letizia. There he spent the rest of his days in dignified ease, surrounded by numerous masterpieces of art, many of which he bequeathed to the cities of Lyon and Ajaccio. He died in Rome in 1839.
Coat of arms
As a member of the imperial family of France, he was given a new coat of arms based on the imperial coat of arms of France (cf. House of Bonaparte). The Faesch family traditionally used a different coat of arms.
Paintings owned by Fesch
The Fesch collection included almost 16,000 paintings (not all at the same time). The core was Italian works of the Renaissance to the 18th century, but Fesch also had a number of Dutch Golden Age paintings and contemporary French works, as well as a number of classical sculptures. Fesch was a fairly early collector of Quattrocento paintings, or "Italian Primitives". The Musée Fesch, Ajaccio contains much of Fesch's collection, including works by Botticelli, Giovanni Bellini, Titian and others. Another part, including the works considered most important, was sold by auction in 1845. Paintings not in Lyons or Ajaccio include:
The Entombment, Michelangelo, National Gallery, London
Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, Leonardo da Vinci, Vatican Museums
Adoration of the Shepherds, Giorgione, NGA, Washington, who also have a Nativity by Perino del Vaga, Saint Martin Dividing His Cloak by Jan Boeckhorst and The Larder by Antonio Maria Vassallo.
Mond Crucifixion, Raphael, National Gallery, London
Portrait of a Seated Woman with a Handkerchief, now attributed to Carel Fabritius rather than Rembrandt, Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto.
Adoration of the Magi, Bramantino, National Gallery, London, who have other works including a Philippe de Champaigne Vision of St Joseph, a Vincenzo Foppa & a Botticelli.
Last Judgement Fra Angelico, in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin.
The Broken Mirror, Greuze, Wallace Collection, London, who have another Greuze, an Anthony van Dyck Virgin and Child, a Philippe de Champaigne Annunciation, and a Hobbema.
Hunting in the Lagoon, Vittore Carpaccio, Getty Museum, originally part of the same composition as his Two Venetian Ladies
Saints George and Dominic, side panels from an altarpiece, Carlo Crivelli, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Lamentation of Christ, Scipione Pulzone, MMA.
The Visitation, Sebastiano del Piombo, Duke of Northumberland's collection at Alnwick Castle.
Honours
Great Eagle (Grand Cross) of the Legion of Honour.
Knight of the Order of the Golden Spur (1802)
Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece (1805)
See also
François Carlo Antommarchi
Napoleon and the Catholic Church
Notes
References
The following references are given for the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article on Joseph Fesch:
Jean Baptiste Lyonnet, Le Cardinal Fesch (2 vols., Lyon, 1841)
Louis Gustave Ricard, Le Cardinal Fesch (Paris, 1893)
Henri Welschinger, Le Pape et l'empereur, 1804-1815 (Paris, 1905)
Frédéric Masson, Napoleon et sa famille (4 vols., Paris, 1897–1900)
External links
The Age of Napoleon, which includes an entire chapter on Fesch
Spencer Napoleonica Collection at Newberry Library
1763 births
1839 deaths
French princes
Princes of the Papal States
Members of the Sénat conservateur
Ambassadors of France to Italy
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the Hundred Days
19th-century French cardinals
Joseph
First French Empire
Archbishops of Lyon
People from Ajaccio
French people of Swiss descent
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
House of Bonaparte
French art collectors
Museum founders | [
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|
214087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernardo%20Pasquini | Bernardo Pasquini | Bernardo Pasquini (Massa e Cozzile, 7 December 1637Rome, 21 November 1710) was an Italian composer of operas, oratorios, cantatas and keyboard music. A renowned virtuoso keyboard player in his day, he was one of the most important Italian composers for harpsichord between Girolamo Frescobaldi and Domenico Scarlatti, having also made substantial contributions to the opera and oratorio.
Biography
Pasquini was born in Massa in Val di Nievole (today Massa e Cozzile, in the province of Pistoia, Tuscany). He was a pupil of Mariotto Bocciantini in Uzzano (Pistoia). When he was 13, he moved to Ferrara with his uncle Giovanni Pasquini, where, at the age of 16, he would become the organist of Accademia della Morte and serve from 1653–55, a prestigious post that would later serve as a launching pad for his successors.
He was quickly drawn to Rome, and, in 1657, he was appointed as the organist of Santa Maria in Vallicella (Chiesa nuova). In February 1664 he was appointed organist of the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore and Santa Maria in Aracoeli. Finally, after ten years in Rome, in November 1667 he entered into a long period of service of the Borghese family, enjoying the patronage of Prince Giovanni Battista Borghese, and, from May 1693, his son and successor, Prince Marcantonio Borghese.
As a composer and keyboard player, Pasquini collaborated on music performances for a host of famous patrons in Rome, such as cardinals Flavio Chigi, Benedetto Pamphilj, and the politically savvy Pietro Ottoboni.
Queen Christina of Sweden played an important role in his career, and it was in her honour that his operas L'Alcasta (libretto by Giovanni Filippo Apolloni), and Il Lisimaco (libretto by Giacomo Sinibaldi) were performed respectively in 1673 and 1681. His first opera for Queen Christina focused on the theme of just feminine revenge, and included an incredibly ornate dedication which compared the Queen to Alexander the Great.
From 1671 until 1692, Pasquini wrote "no fewer than 16 operas, 15 oratorios and about 70 cantatas." He composed numerous operas, all staged in Rome between 1672 and 1692, and which were performed again or excerpted in shows at several Italian theatres (Florence, Pisa, Naples, Ferrara, Perugia, Genoa, Rimini etc.).
Pasquini was a renowned teacher of harpsichord. Among his pupils were Tommaso Bernardo Gaffi and his nephew Felice Bernardo Ricordati. Many important musicians of the late 1600s and early 1700s had lessons from him including Georg Muffat, who praised Pasquini for having taught him "the Italian way of playing the organ and harpsichord." Pasquini taught many other notable musicians of the era, including Johann Philipp Krieger, Giuseppe Fabbrini, Floriano Arresti, Johann Georg Christian Störl, and Franz Jakob Horneck, and probably also Ferdinand Tobias Richter and Carlo Domenico Draghi.
Together with Arcangelo Corelli and Alessandro Scarlatti, in 1706 Pasquini became a member of the Academy of Arcadia. He is frequently paired with Scarlatti in discussions of keyboard technique and compositional style.
Pasquini died in Rome on 21 November 1710, and was buried in his parish church of San Lorenzo in Lucina. A sepulchral monument, still existing in the church, was erected by the nephew Felice Bernardo Ricordati and the pupil Tommaso Bernardo Gaffi.
His keyboard music is almost entirely preserved in four manuscript volumes (partially autographs), which were compiled between circa 1691 and 1708, by the composer and other collaborators, now preserved in Berlin (Staatsbibliothek – Preußische Kulturbesitz, Landsberg 215), and London (British Library, Add. 31501/I-II-III).
One of his harpsichord pieces was transcribed for orchestra by Ottorino Respighi for his suite Gli uccelli.
Works
Operas
La sincerità con la sincerità ovvero il Tirinto (1672)
L'amor per vendetta ovvero l'Alcasta (1673)
La donna ancora è fedele (1676)
Trespolo tutore (1677)
La forza d'amore (before 1679)
Dov'è amore è pietà (Ipermestra) (1679)
Idalma ovvero chi la dura la vince (1680)
Il Sidonio ovvero il raro esempio di costanza e fede (1680)
Il Lisimaco (1681)
La Tessalonica (1683)
Arianna (1685)
Il silentio d'Arpocrate (1686)
Santa Dimna figlia del re d'Irlanda (1687; only act 2. Act 1 Alessandro Melani; Act 3 Alessandro Scarlatti)
I giochi troiani (1688)
La caduta del regno delle Amazzoni (1690)
Alessio (1690)
Il Colombo overo l'India scoperta (1690)
Eudossia (1692)
Oratorios
Caino e Abele (1671)
Agar (1675)
Assuero (1675)
Sant'Alessio (1675)
Santa Agnese (1678)
Divae Clarae triumphus (1682)
L'idolatria di Salomone (1686)
I fatti di Mosè nel deserto (1687)
Il martirio dei santi Vito, Modesto e Crescenzia (1687)
La purità trionfante overo Martiniano il santo (1688 in collaboration with G.L. Lulier, T.B. Gaffi, G. Ercole, L. Amadori)
La sete di Cristo (1689)
La caduta di Salomone (1693)
Davide trionfante contro Goliath (1694)
S. Maria di Soria (1694)
S. Filippo Neri (cantata)
Pasquini composed around sixty cantatas, mainly for one voice and continuo, but also for two or three voices, with or without instruments, and continuo.
He celebrated the ubiquitous cuckoo in Toccata con lo Scherzo del Cucco, written in florid style in 1702. It is perhaps the best keyboard cuckoo piece in existence for it imitates the cuckoo's notes, which seems to have been a favourite device in early baroque music.
In 2016, Arnoldo Morelli, a scholar from the University of L’Aquila, lamented the tendency among musicologists and music histories to label Pasquini merely as an exponent of keyboard music, without attention to his substantial output of oratorios and opera.
Selected recordings
Mottetti a voce sola e composizioni per organo, Alea Musica, Alexandra Nigito. Tactus (TC.631802)
Oratorio Caino e Abele, conductor Alessandro De Marchi. Symphonia 1990
Oratorio Santa Agnese Consortium Carissimi. 2 CD Arion
2 passion cantatas – Hor ch'il Ciel fra densi horrori; Padre, Signore e Dio. Sharon Rostorf-Zamir, Furio Zanasi, Capella Tiberina, conductor Giovanni Caruso. Brilliant Classics, DDD, 2010
Bernardo Pasquini – Suites and Variations, Lydia Maria Blank, harpsichord, 2015, Etcetera (KTC 1532)
La sete di Christo, oratorio, Concerto romano, conductor Alessandro Quarta, 2015, Christophorus 77398
Pasquini: Sonate Per Gravecembalo, Manuscript S.B.P.K. Landsberg 215, . Brilliant Classics, 2019.
Pasquini: Sonate per Gravicembalo, Roberto Loreggian. Chandos, 2004 (CHAN 0704).
Notes
References
Arnaldo Morelli, La virtù in corte. Bernardo Pasquini (1637–1710), Lucca, Libreria Musicale Italiana, 2016.
External links
Catalogue of the works of Bernardo Pasquini, Indiana University
1637 births
1710 deaths
People from the Province of Pistoia
Italian male classical composers
Italian Baroque composers
Italian organists
Male organists
Italian harpsichordists
Italian opera composers
Male opera composers
18th-century keyboardists
18th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian male musicians | [
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|
214094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco%20Geminiani | Francesco Geminiani | Francesco Saverio Geminiani (baptised 5 December 1687 – 17 September 1762) was an Italian violinist, composer, and music theorist. BBC Radio 3 once described him as "now largely forgotten, but in his time considered almost a musical god, deemed to be the equal of Handel and Corelli."
Life
Born at Lucca, he received lessons in music from Alessandro Scarlatti, and studied the violin under Carlo Ambrogio Lonati in Milan and afterwards under Arcangelo Corelli. From 1707 he took the place of his father in the Cappella Palatina of Lucca. From 1711, he led the opera orchestra at Naples, as Leader of the Opera Orchestra and concertmaster, which gave him many opportunities for contact with Alessandro Scarlatti. After a brief return to Lucca, in 1714, he set off for London in the company of Francesco Barsanti, where he arrived with the reputation of a virtuoso violinist, and soon attracted attention and patrons, including William Capel, 3rd Earl of Essex, who remained a consistent patron. In 1715 Geminiani played his violin concerti for the court of George I, with Handel at the keyboard. In the mid-1720s he became a freemason in London, notably as a leading member of the short-lived lodge Philo-Musicae et Architecturae Societas (1725–27) at the Queen's Head Tavern on Fleet Street. He seems to have retained his masonic connections thereafter. On 1 February 1725, he joined the Queen's Head lodge in London, becoming the first Italian to be in initiated in the Freemasonry. On 12 May 1725, he became Fellowcraft and Master Mason in the same day. On 11 May 1728, the Grand Master of the Premier Grand Lodge of England James King 4th Baron of Kingstone designated the brothers Geminiani for constituting in Naples the first Italian regular masonic Lodge, directly affiliated to the English Freemasonry.
Geminiani made a living by teaching and writing music, and tried to keep pace with his passion for collecting by dealing in art, not always successfully. Many of his students went on to have successful careers, such as Charles Avison, Matthew Dubourg, Michael Christian Festing, Bernhard Joachim Hagen and Cecilia Young.
After visiting Paris and living there for some time, he returned to England in 1755. In 1761, on one of his sojourns in Dublin, a servant robbed him of a musical manuscript on which he had bestowed much time and labour. His vexation at this loss is said to have hastened his death. He died and was buried in Dublin, but his remains were later reburied in the city of his birth, in the church of San Francesco, Lucca.
He appears to have been a first-rate violinist. Tartini reportedly called him Il Furibondo, the Madman, because of his expressive rhythms.
Works
Geminiani's best-known compositions are three sets of concerti grossi; his Opus 2 (1732), Opus 3 (1733) and Opus 7 (1746) (there are 42 concerti in all) which introduce the viola as a member of the concertino group of soloists, making them essentially concerti for string quartet. These works are deeply contrapuntal to please a London audience still in love with Corelli, compared to the galant work that was fashionable on the Continent at the time of their composition. Geminiani also reworked his teacher Corelli's Opp. 1, 3 and 5 into concerti grossi.
Geminiani's significance today is largely due to his 1751 treatise Art of Playing on the Violin Op. 9, published in London, which is the best known summation of the 18th-century Italian method of violin playing and is an invaluable source for the study of late Baroque performance practice. The book is in the form of 24 exercises accompanied by a relatively short but extremely informative section of text, giving detailed instructions on articulation, trills and other ornaments, shifting between positions, and other aspects of left- and right-hand violin technique. The instructions in this treatise are famously opposed to those expressed by Leopold Mozart in his Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing (1756) on several issues, including on bow hold, use of vibrato, and the so-called "rule of the down-bow", which states that the first beat of every bar must be played with a down-stroke.
His Guida harmonica (c. 1752, with an addendum in 1756) is one of the most unusual harmony treatises of the late Baroque, serving as a sort of encyclopedia of basso continuo patterns and realizations. There are 2,236 patterns in all, and at the end of each pattern is a page number reference for a potential next pattern; thus a student composer studying the book would have an idea of all the subsequent possibilities available after any given short bass line.
Geminiani also published a number of solos for the violin, three sets of violin concerti, twelve violin trios, the Art of Accompaniment on the Harpsichord, Organ, etc. (1754), Lessons for the Harpsichord, Art of Playing on the Guitar or Cittra (1760) and some other works.
Criticism
Geminiani's compositions are noted for their imagination, expression, and warmth, but also for their lack of discipline and for under-development. Charles Burney took Geminiani to task for irregular melodic structure. Hawkins, on the other hand, was of the opinion that Geminiani's approach represented an important advance in composition. "That we are at this time in a state of emancipation from the bondage of laws imposed without authority, is owing to a new investigation of the principles of harmony, and the studies of a class of musicians, of whom Geminiani seems to have been the chief.... It is observable upon the works of Geminiani, that his modulations are not only original, but that his harmonies consist of such combinations as were never introduced into music till his time. The rules of transition from one key to another, which are laid down by those who have written on the composition of music, he not only disregarded, but objected to as an unnecessary restraint on the powers of invention. He has been frequently heard to say, that the cadences in the fifth, the third, and the sixth of the key which occur in the works of Corelli, were rendered too familiar to the ear by the frequent repetition of them. And it seems to have been the study of his life, by a liberal use of the semitonic intervals, to increase the number of harmonic combinations; and into melody to introduce a greater variety than it was otherwise capable of."
References
This entry incorporates corrected and expanded material originally from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.
External links
Francesco Geminiani 1687-1762 at
1687 births
1762 deaths
18th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian male musicians
Freemasons of the Premier Grand Lodge of England
Italian Baroque composers
Italian classical violinists
Italian male classical composers
Italian music theorists
Male classical violinists
Members of the Academy of Ancient Music
Musicians from Lucca | [
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214096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active%20optics | Active optics | Active optics is a technology used with reflecting telescopes developed in the 1980s, which actively shapes a telescope's mirrors to prevent deformation due to external influences such as wind, temperature, mechanical stress. Without active optics, the construction of 8 metre class telescopes is not possible, nor would telescopes with segmented mirrors be feasible.
This method is used by, among others, the Nordic Optical Telescope, the New Technology Telescope, the Telescopio Nazionale Galileo and the Keck telescopes, as well as all of the largest telescopes built since the mid-1990s.
Active optics is not to be confused with adaptive optics, which operates at a shorter timescale and corrects atmospheric distortions.
In astronomy
Most modern telescopes are reflectors, with the primary element being a very large mirror. Historically, primary mirrors were quite thick in order to maintain the correct surface figure in spite of forces tending to deform it, like wind and the mirror's own weight. This limited their maximum diameter to 5 or 6 metres (200 or 230 inches), such as Palomar Observatory's Hale telescope.
A new generation of telescopes built since the 1980s uses thin, lighter weight mirrors instead. They are too thin to maintain themselves rigidly in the correct shape, so an array of actuators is attached to the rear side of the mirror. The actuators apply variable forces to the mirror body to keep the reflecting surface in the correct shape over repositioning. The telescope may also be segmented into multiple smaller mirrors, which reduce the sagging due to weight that occurs for large, monolithic mirrors.
The combination of actuators, an image quality detector, and a computer to control the actuators to obtain the best possible image, is called active optics.
The name active optics means that the system keeps a mirror (usually the primary) in its optimal shape against environmental forces such as wind, sag, thermal expansion, and telescope axis deformation. Active optics compensate for distorting forces that change relatively slowly, roughly on timescales of seconds. The telescope is therefore actively still, in its optimal shape.
Comparison with adaptive optics
Active optics should not be confused with adaptive optics, which operates on a much shorter timescale to compensate for atmospheric effects, rather than for mirror deformation. The influences that active optics compensate (temperature, gravity) are intrinsically slower (1 Hz) and have a larger amplitude in aberration. Adaptive optics on the other hand corrects for atmospheric distortions that affect the image at 100–1000 Hz (the Greenwood frequency,
depending on wavelength and weather conditions). These corrections need to be much faster, but also have smaller amplitude. Because of this, adaptive optics uses smaller corrective mirrors. This used to be a separate mirror not integrated in the telescope's light path, but nowadays this can be the second, third or fourth mirror in a telescope.
Other applications
Complicated laser set-ups and interferometers can also be actively stabilized.
A small part of the beam leaks through beam steering mirrors and a four-quadrant-diode is used to measure the position of a laser beam and another in the focal plane behind a lens is used to measure the direction. The system can be sped up or made more noise-immune by using a PID controller. For pulsed lasers the controller should be locked to the repetition rate. A continuous (non-pulsed) pilot beam can be used to allow for up to 10 kHz bandwidth of stabilization (against vibrations, air turbulence, and acoustic noise) for low repetition rate lasers.
Sometimes Fabry–Pérot interferometers have to be adjusted in length to pass a given wavelength. Therefore, the reflected light is extracted by means of a Faraday rotator and a polarizer. Small changes of the incident wavelength generated by an acousto-optic modulator or interference with a fraction of the incoming radiation delivers the information whether the Fabry Perot is too long or too short.
Long optical cavities are very sensitive to the mirror alignment. A control circuit can be used to peak power. One possibility is to perform small rotations with one end mirror. If this rotation is about the optimum position, no power oscillation occurs. Any beam pointing oscillation can be removed using the beam steering mechanism mentioned above.
X-ray active optics, using actively deformable grazing incidence mirrors, are also being investigated.
See also
Adaptive optics – faster technology for smaller aberrations.
Telescope
Active surface – similar technology for radio telescopes.
List of telescope parts and construction
References
External links
An introduction to active & adaptive optics (European Southern Observatory web-site)
Active optics on ESO's NTT.
Active optics at the Gran Telescopio Canarias.
Telescopes
Astronomical imaging
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|
214102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical%20aberration | Spherical aberration | In optics, spherical aberration (SA) is a type of aberration found in optical systems that have elements with spherical surfaces. Lenses and curved mirrors are prime examples, because this shape is easier to manufacture. Light rays that strike a spherical surface off-centre are refracted or reflected more or less than those that strike close to the centre. This deviation reduces the quality of images produced by optical systems.
Overview
A spherical lens has an aplanatic point (i.e., no spherical aberration) only at a radius that equals the radius of the sphere divided by the index of refraction of the lens material. A typical value of refractive index for crown glass is 1.5 (see list), which indicates that only about 43% of the area (67% of diameter) of a spherical lens is useful. It is often considered to be an imperfection of telescopes and other instruments which makes their focusing less than ideal due to the spherical shape of lenses and mirrors. This is an important effect, because spherical shapes are much easier to produce than aspherical ones. In many cases, it is cheaper to use multiple spherical elements to compensate for spherical aberration than it is to use a single aspheric lens.
"Positive" spherical aberration means peripheral rays are bent too much. "Negative" spherical aberration means peripheral rays are not bent enough.
The effect is proportional to the fourth power of the diameter and inversely proportional to the third power of the focal length, so it is much more pronounced at short focal ratios, i.e., "fast" lenses.
Correction
In lens systems, aberrations can be minimized using combinations of convex and concave lenses, or by using aspheric lenses or aplanatic lenses.
Lens systems with aberration correction are usually designed by numerical ray tracing. For simple designs one can sometimes analytically calculate parameters that minimize spherical aberration. For example, in a design consisting of a single lens with spherical surfaces and a given object distance o, image distance i, and refractive index n, one can minimize spherical aberration by adjusting the radii of curvature and of the front and back surfaces of the lens such that
The signs of the radii follow the Cartesian sign convention.
For small telescopes using spherical mirrors with focal ratios shorter than , light from a distant point source (such as a star) is not all focused at the same point. Particularly, light striking the inner part of the mirror focuses farther from the mirror than light striking the outer part. As a result, the image cannot be focused as sharply as if the aberration were not present. Because of spherical aberration, telescopes with focal ratio less than are usually made with non-spherical mirrors or with correcting lenses.
Spherical aberration can be eliminated by making lenses with an aspheric surface. Descartes showed that lenses whose surfaces are well-chosen Cartesian ovals (revolved around the central symmetry axis) can perfectly image light from a point on the axis or from infinity in the direction of the axis. Such a design yields completely aberration-free focusing of light from a distant source.
In 2018, Rafael G. González-Acuña and Héctor A. Chaparro-Romo, graduate students at the National Autonomous University of Mexico and the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education in Mexico, found a closed formula for a lens surface that eliminates spherical aberration. Their equation can be applied to specify a shape for one surface of a lens, where the other surface has any given shape.
Estimation of the aberrated spot diameter
Many ways to estimate the diameter of the focused spot due to spherical aberration are based on ray optics. Ray optics, however, does not consider that light is an electromagnetic wave. Therefore, the results can be wrong due to interference effects.
Coddington notation
A rather simple formalism based on ray optics, which holds for thin lenses only, is the Coddington notation. In the following, n is the lens' refractive index, o is the object distance, i is the image distance, h is the distance from the optical axis at which the outermost ray enters the lens, is the first lens radius, is the second lens radius, and f is the lens' focal length. The distance h can be understood as half of the clear aperture.
By using the Coddington factors for shape, s, and position, p,
one can write the longitudinal spherical aberration as
If the focal length, f, is very much larger than the longitudinal spherical aberration, LSA, then the transverse spherical aberration, TSA, which corresponds to the diameter of the focal spot is given by
See also
Achromatic lens
Hubble Space Telescope
Maksutov telescope
Parabolic reflector
Ritchey–Chrétien telescope
Schmidt corrector plate
Soft focus
References
External links
Spherical aberration at vanwalree.com, PA van Walree, viewed 28 January 2007.
http://www.telescope-optics.net/spherical1.htm
Non-English articles on the Acuña-Romo equation: Spanish, German, Italian, Russian
Geometrical optics
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214105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2%20Jommelli | Niccolò Jommelli | Niccolò Jommelli (; 10 September 1714 – 25 August 1774) was an Italian composer of the Neapolitan School. Along with other composers mainly in the Holy Roman Empire and France, he was responsible for certain operatic reforms including reducing ornateness of style and the primacy of star singers somewhat.
Biographical information
Early life
Jommelli was born to Francesco Antonio Jommelli and Margarita Cristiano in Aversa, a town some 20 kilometres north of Naples. He had one brother, Ignazio, who became a Dominican friar and was of some help to him in his elder years, and three sisters. His father was a prosperous linen merchant, who entrusted him to Canon Muzzillo, the director of the Aversa cathedral choir, for musical instruction.
When this proved successful, he was enrolled in 1725 at the Conservatorio di Santo Onofrio a Capuana in Naples, where he studied under Ignazio Prota alongside Tomaso Prota and Francesco Feo. Three years later he was transferred to the Conservatorio della Pietà dei Turchini, where he was trained under Niccolò Fago, with Don Giacomo Sarcuni and Andrea Basso, as second maestri (maestri di canto), or singing teachers. He was greatly influenced by Johann Adolf Hasse, who was in Naples during this period. After completing his studies he began work, and wrote two opere buffe, L'errore amoroso in early 1737 and Odoardo in late 1738. His first opera seria, Ricimero re di Goti, was such a success in Rome in 1740 that he immediately received a commission from Henry Benedict Stuart, the Cardinal-Duke of York.
When still studying at the conservatory, Jommelli was impressed with Hasse's use of obbligato recitative to increase the tension at certain dramatic moments in his operas. Speaking of obbligato recitative for Ricimero, Charles de Brosses says that Jommelli's use of obbligato recitative was better than anything he had heard in France.
First operas
His first opera, the comedy L'errore amoroso, was presented, with great success, under the protection of the Marquis del Vasto, Giovanni Battista d'Avalos, in the winter of 1737 at the Teatro Nuovo of Naples. It was followed the next year by a second comic opera, Odoardo, in the Teatro dei Fiorentini. His first serious opera Ricimero rè de' Goti, presented in the Roman Teatro Argentina in January 1740, brought him to the attention and then the protection of the Duke of York, Henry Benedict. The duke would later be raised to the rank of cardinal and procure Jommelli an appointment at the Vatican. During the 1740s, Jommelli wrote operas for many Italian cities: Bologna, Venice, Turin, Padua, Ferrara, Lucca, Parma, Naples and Rome.
Studies with Padre Martini
When in Bologna in 1741 for the production of his Ezio, Jommelli (in a situation blurred by anecdotes) met Padre Martini. Saverio Mattei said that Jommelli studied with Martini, and claimed to have learned with him "the art of escaping any anguish or aridity". Nonetheless, his constant travelling to produce his many operas seems to have prevented him from ever taking composition lessons on a regular basis. Moreover, his relationship with Martini was not without mutual criticism. The main result of his stay in Bologna and his association with Martini was to present to the Accademia Filarmonica of that city, as application for admission, his first known sacred composition, a five-voice fugue a cappella on the final words of the small doxology, "Sicut erat". Musicologist Karl Gustav Fellerer, who examined several such works, testifies that Jommelli's piece, though being just "a rigid school work", could well rank among the best admission pieces now stored in the Bolognese Accademia Filarmonica. During the early 1740s he wrote an increasing amount of religious music, mainly oratorios, and his first liturgical piece still extant, a very simple "Lætatus sum" in F major dated 1743, is part of the Santini collection in Münster.
Shortly after his time in Bologna, Jommelli moved to Venice and composed Merope, which was the forerunner for French operatic style later in the century. In the years immediately after this, he wrote operas for Venice, Turin, Bologna, Ferrara and Padua, and two popular oratorios, Isacco figura del Redentore and Betulia liberata.
Venice
Some time around 1745, Hasse recommended Jommelli for a position as the Director of Music at the Ospedale degli Incurabili in Venice, one of that city's colleges for female musicians. This full-time employment required him to compose sacred music (mostly settings of the Mass and the Divine Office), but the financial security it gave him also allowed him to compose several other dramatic works.
Hasse's recommended appointment of Jommelli as maestro di cappella to the Ospedale degl' Incurabili in Venice is not definitively documented. But in 1745, he did start writing religious works for the women's choir of the church of the Incurabili, San Salvatore, as part of his obligations as chapel master along with teaching the more advanced students of the institution. There are no manuscripts of Jommelli's music composed for the Incurabili, but there are many copies of different versions of several of his works that may, with some certainty, be attributed to his period as maestro there. Among the music Helmut Hochstein lists as being composed for Venice are to be found four oratorios: "Isacco figura del Redentore", "La Betulia liberata", "Joas" and "Juda proditor"; some numbers in a collection of solo motets called "Modulamina Sacra"; one Missa breve in F major with a Credo in D major, probably a second Mass in G major, one Te Deum and five psalms.
Although two of his earliest biographers, Mattei and Villarosa, give 1748 as the year when Jommelli gave up his employment in Venice, his last compositions for the Incurabili are from 1746. He must have left Venice at the very end of 1746 or at the beginning of the following year, because on 28 January 1747 Jommelli was staging at the Argentina theatre in Rome his first version of "Didone abbandonata", and in May at San Carlo in Naples a second version of "Eumene".
Rome
It was the need of an active chapel master for the basilica of St. Peter's in preparing for the Jubilee festival year that brought both Jommelli and Davide Perez to Rome in 1749, a year-long commemoration celebrated by the Roman Catholic Church every fifty years, so this was an important occasion for the Roman aristocracy to show off. Jommelli was summoned by the Cardinal Duke of York, Henry Benedict, to compose for him a setting of Metastasio's oratorio La passione di Gesù Cristo still played annually in Rome, and who presented him to Cardinal Alessandro Albani, an intimate of Pope Benedict XIV.
Stuttgart and last years
He subsequently visited Vienna before taking a post as Kapellmeister to Duke Karl Eugen of Württemberg in Stuttgart in 1753. This period saw some of his greatest successes, including the composition of what are regarded as some of his best works. Many were staged at the Duke's private theatres in the Palace of Ludwigsburg, outside Stuttgart. Mozart and his father Leopold passed through Ludwigsburg in 1763 on their "grand tour" and met the composer. Jommelli returned to Naples in 1768, by which time opera buffa was more popular than Jommelli's opera seria, and his last works were not so well received. He suffered a stroke in 1771 which partially paralyzed him, but continued to work until his death three years later, in Naples.
Works
Jommelli wrote cantatas, oratorios and other sacred works, but by far the most important part of his output were his operas, particularly his opere serie of which he composed around sixty, several with libretti by Metastasio. These tended to concentrate more on the story and drama of the opera than on flashy technical displays by the singers, as was the norm in Italian opera at that time. He wrote more ensemble numbers and choruses, and, influenced by French opera composers such as Jean-Philippe Rameau, introduced ballets into his work. He used the orchestra (particularly the wind instruments) in a much more prominent way to depict what was going on in the story, including passages for orchestra alone, rather than consigning it to merely support for the singers. From Hasse, he learned to write orchestrally accompanied recitatives rather than just "secco" recitatives for voice and continuo (mainly harpsichord). His reforms are sometimes regarded as equal in importance to Christoph Willibald Gluck's.
Chamber music
Sonata in C for Organ 4-Hands (c. 1750)
Trio Sonata in D for 2 Flutes and Cello (c. 1750)
Instrumental music
Ciaccona in Eb for Organ, Op. 5/13 (c. 1764)
Masses
Missa pro defunctis (Requiem) in Eb (1756)
Missa solemnis in D for Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass, Choir and Orchestra (1766)
Psalms
Beatus vir (c. 1750)
Laetatus sum (Psalm 122) in F (1743)
Miserere (Psalm 51) in G a 4 concertato (1749)
Miserere in G minor for 5 voices (SSATB), choir and continuo, HC1.23 (1750)
Miserere in D for 2 sopranos, alto and tenor (1751, for Rome)
Miserere in E minor for 8 voices (1753, for Stuttgart)
Pietà, pietà, Signore (Miserere) in G minor for 2 sopranos, strings and continuo (1774)
Oratorios
Isacco, figura del Redentore (1742)
Betulia liberata per 4 voci, coro e strumenti (Rome, 1743) – libretto by Metastasio
Gioas re di Giuda (Venice, 1745) – libretto by Metastasio
La Passione di Gesù Cristo per 4 voci (Venice, 1749) – libretto by Metastasio
Operas
L'errore amoroso (Naples, 1737) – libretto by Antonio Palomba
Odoardo (Naples, 1738)
Ricimero re de' Goti (Rome, 1740)
Astianatte (Rome, 1741) – libretto by Antonio Salvi
Ezio (Bologna, 1741) – libretto by Metastasio
Semiramide riconosciuta (Turin, 1741) – libretto by Metastasio
Merope (Venice, 1741) – libretto by Apostolo Zeno
Don Chichibio (Rome, 1742)
Eumene (Bologna, 1742) – libretto by Apostolo Zeno
Semiramide (Venice, 1742) – libretto by Francesco Silvani
Tito Manlio (Turin, 1743) – libretto by Gaetano Roccaforte
Demofoonte (Padua, 1743) – libretto by Metastasio
Alessandro nell'Indie (Ferrara, 1744) – libretto by Metastasio
Ciro riconosciuto (Ferrara, 1744; later in Bologna and Venice) – libretto by Metastasio
Sofonisba (Venice, 1746) – libretto by Antonio Zanetti e Girolamo Zanetti
Cajo Mario (Rome, 1746) – libretto by Gaetano Roccaforte
Antigono (Lucca, 1746) – libretto by Metastasio
Tito Manlio (Venice, 1746) – libretto by Jacopo Antonio Sanvitale
Didone abbandonata (Rome, 1747; later in Stuttgart) – libretto by Metastasio
L'amore in maschera (Naples, 1748) – libretto by Antonio Palomba
Achille in Sciro (Vienna, 1749; much later in Rome) – libretto by Metastasio
Artaserse (Rome, 1749) – libretto by Metastasio
Demetrio (Parma, 1749) – libretto by Metastasio
Intermezzo Don Trastullo (Rome, 1749)
Intermezzo L’uccelatrice e il Don Narciso (Venice, 1751) – libretto by Carlo Goldoni
Cesare in Egitto (Rome, 1751) – libretto by Giacomo Francesco Bussani
Ifigenia in Aulide (Rome, 1751) – libretto by Mattia Verazi
La villana nobile (Palermo, 1751) – libretto by Antonio Palomba
Ipermestra (Spoleto, 1751) – libretto by Metastasio
Talestri (Rome, 1751) – libretto by Gaetano Roccaforte
I rivali delusi (Rome, 1752)
Attilio Regolo (Rome, 1753)
Bajazette (Turin, 1753) – libretto by Agostino Piovene
Fetonte (Stuttgart, 1753) – libretto by Leopoldo de Villati
La clemenza di Tito (Stuttgart, 1753) – libretto by Metastasio
Il paratajo (Paris, 1753) – revision of L’uccelatrice e il Don Narciso
Don Falcone (Bologna, 1754)
Catone in Utica (Stuttgart, 1754) – libretto by Metastasio
Lucio Vero (Milan, 1754)
Il giardino incantato (Stuttgart, 1755)
Enea nel Lazio (Stuttgart, 1755) – libretto by Mattia Verazi
Penelope (Stuttgart, 1755) – libretto by Mattia Verazi
Il Creso (Rome, 1757) – libretto by Giovacchino Pizzi
Temistocle (Naples, 1757) – libretto by Metastasio
Tito Manlio (Stuttgart, 1758)
Ezio (Stuttgart, 1758)
L'asilo d'amore (Stuttgart, 1758)
Endimione (Stuttgart, 1759)
Nitteti (Stuttgart, 1759) – libretto by Metastasio
Alessandro nell'Indie (Stuttgart, 1760)
Cajo Fabrizio (Mannheim, 1760) – libretto by Mattia Verazi
L'Olimpiade (Stuttgart, 1761) – libretto by Metastasio
L'isola disabitata (Ludwigsburg, 1761) – libretto by Metastasio
Semiramide riconosciuta (Stuttgart, 1762)
Il trionfo d'amore (Ludwigsburg, 1763) – libretto by Giampiero Tagliazucchi
Demofoonte (Stuttgart, 1764)
Il re pastore (Ludwigsburg, 1764) – libretto by Metastasio
La pastorella illustre (Stuttgart, 1764) – libretto by Giampiero Tagliazucchi
Temistocle (Ludwigsburg, 1765)
Imeneo in Atene (Ludwigsburg, 1765)
Il matrimonio per concorso (Ludwigsburg, 1766) – libretto by Gaetano Martinelli
La critica (Ludwigsburg, 1766)
Il Vologeso (Ludwigsburg, 1766) – libretto by Mattia Verazi
Il matrimonio per concorso (Ludwigsburg, 1766)
Il cacciatore deluso (Tübingen, 1767) – libretto by Gaetano Martinelli
Fetonte (Ludwigsburg, 1768)
L'unione coronata (Solitude, 1768)
La schiava liberata (Ludwigsburg, 1768) – libretto by Gaetano Martinelli
Armida abbandonata (Naples, 1770) – libretto by Francesco Saverio de' Rogati
Demofoonte (Naples, 1770)
Ifigenia in Tauride (Naples, 1771) – libretto by Mattia Verazi
L'amante cacciatore (Rome, 1771)
Le avventure di Cleomede (1771) – libretto by Gaetano Martinelli
Cerere placata (Naples, 1772)
Il trionfo di Clelia (Naples, 1774) – libretto by Metastasio
Recordings
One concerto in Neapolitan Flute Concertos, Auser Musici, Carlo Ipata (2010), Hyperion CDA 67784
Six trio sonatas, played by the Accademia Farnese (Oct. 20, 1997), Mondo Musica label
Armida abbandonata, conducted by Rousset (Maison de la Radio, Paris, July 24 to Aug. 2, 1994), FNAC label
Didone abbandonata, conducted by Bernius (1994), Orfeo label
Il Vologeso, conducted by Bernius (1997), Orfeo label
L'uccelatrice e il Don Narciso, conducted by Fracassi (live in Piacenza, 2000), Bongiovanni label
L'uccelatrice e il Don Narciso, conducted by Moretto (live in Milan, 2003), Dynamic label
Requiem, Coro e Orchestra Ghislieri conducted by Giulio Prandi (studio recording, 2019), Arcana Label
Il Vologeso, The Mozartists, conducted by Ian Page (2021), Signum Records
References
Citations
Sources
Maurício Dottori. The Church Music of Davide Perez and Niccolò Jommelli. Curitiba: DeArtes-UFPR, 2008. (via Google Books)
External links
Don Trastullo
Istituto Internazionale per lo studio del '700 musicale napoletano
1714 births
1774 deaths
18th-century Italian male musicians
18th-century Italian composers
Italian Classical-period composers
Italian male classical composers
Italian opera composers
Male opera composers
Neapolitan school composers
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214106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni%20Battista%20Martini | Giovanni Battista Martini | Giovanni Battista or Giambattista Martini, O.F.M. Conv. (24 April 1706 – 3 August 1784), also known as Padre Martini, was an Italian Conventual Franciscan friar, who was a leading musician, composer, and music historian of the period.
Biography
Giovanni Battista Martini was born in Bologna, in that era part of the Papal States. His father, Antonio Maria Martini, a violinist, taught him the elements of music and the violin and later learned singing and harpsichord playing from Padre Pradieri, and counterpoint from Antonio Riccieri and Giacomo Antonio Perti. Having received his education in classics from the priests of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri, he afterwards entered the novitiate of the Conventual Franciscans at their friary in Lago, at the close of which he professed religious vows and received the religious habit of the Order on 11 September 1722.
In 1725, though only nineteen years old, he received the appointment of chapel-master at the Basilica of San Francesco in Bologna, where his compositions attracted attention. At the invitation of amateurs and professional friends he opened a school of composition at which several celebrated musicians were trained; as a teacher he consistently declared his preference for the traditions of the old Roman school of composition. Martini was a zealous collector of musical literature, and possessed an extensive musical library. Burney estimated it at 17,000 volumes; after Martini's death a portion of it passed to the Imperial library at Vienna, the rest remaining in Bologna, now in the Museo Internazionale della Musica (ex Civico Museo Bibliografico Musicale).
Most contemporary musicians speak of Martini with admiration, and Leopold Mozart consulted him with regard to the talents of his son, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The latter went on to write the friar in very effusive terms after a visit to the city. The Abbé Vogler, however, makes reservations in his praise, condemning his philosophical principles as too much in sympathy with those of Fux, which had already been expressed by P. Vallotti. His Elogio was published by Pietro della Valle at Bologna in the same year.
In 1758 Martini was invited to teach at the Accademia Filarmonica di Bologna. He died in Bologna.
Among Martini's pupils: the Belgian André Ernest Modeste Grétry, the Bohemian Josef Mysliveček, the Ukrainian Maksym Berezovsky, his fellow Conventual Franciscan friar, Stanislao Mattei, who succeeded him as conductor of the girls choir, as well as the young Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Johann Christian Bach and the famous Italian cellist Giovanni Battista Cirri.
The greater number of Martini's mostly sacred compositions remain unprinted. The Liceo of Bologna possesses the manuscripts of two oratorios as well as three intermezzos, including L'impresario delle Isole Canarie; and a requiem, with some other pieces of church music, are now in Vienna. were published at Bologna in 1734, as also twelve Sonate d'intavolalura; six Sonate per l'organo ed il cembalo in 1747; and Duetti da camera in 1763. Martini's most important works are his Storia della musica (Bologna, 1757–1781) and his Esemplare di contrappunto (Bologna, 1774–1775). The former, of which the three published volumes relate wholly to ancient music, and thus represent a mere fragment of the author's vast plan, exhibits immense reading and industry, but is written in a dry and unattractive style, and is overloaded with matter which cannot be regarded as historical. At the beginning and end of each chapter occur puzzle-canons, wherein the primary part or parts alone are given, and the reader has to discover the canon that fixes the period and the interval at which the response is to enter. Some of these are exceedingly difficult, but all were solved by Luigi Cherubini.
The Esemplare is a learned and valuable work, containing an important collection of examples from the best masters of the old Italian and Spanish schools, with excellent explanatory notes. It treats chiefly of the tonalities of the plain chant, and of counterpoints constructed upon them. Besides being the author of several controversial works, Martini drew up a Dictionary of Ancient Musical Terms, which appeared in the second volume of GB Doni's Works; he also published a treatise on The Theory of Numbers as Applied to Music. His celebrated canons, published in London, about 1800, edited by Pio Cianchettini, show him to have had a strong sense of musical humour.
References
Sources
Sadie, S. (ed.) (1980) The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, [vol. # 11].
Elisabetta Pasquini, Gimbattista Martini. Palermo, L'Epos, 2007.
External links
More information, including full text, of Martini's Storia della musica in the University of North Texas Music Library's Virtual Rare Book Room
Classical-period composers
01
1706 births
1784 deaths
Italian Baroque composers
Italian music theorists
Italian male classical composers
Conventual Friars Minor
18th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests
Musicians from Bologna
18th-century Italian composers
18th-century male musicians | [
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|
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