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214354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avvakum | Avvakum | Avvakum Petrov (; 20 November 1620/21 – 14 April 1682) (also spelled Awakum) was a Russian protopope of the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square who led the opposition to Patriarch Nikon's reforms of the Russian Orthodox Church. His autobiography and letters to the tsar, Boyarynya Morozova, and other Old Believers are considered masterpieces of 17th-century Russian literature.
Life and writings
He was born in Grigorovo, in present-day Nizhny Novgorod. Starting in 1652 Nikon, as Patriarch of the Russian Church, initiated a wide range of reforms in Russian liturgy and theology. These reforms were intended mostly to bring the Russian Church into line with the other Eastern Orthodox Churches of Eastern Europe and the Middle East.
Avvakum and others strongly rejected these changes. They saw them as a corruption of the Russian Church, which they considered to be the true Church of God. The other Churches were more closely related to Constantinople in their liturgies. Avvakum argued that Constantinople fell to the Turks because of these heretical beliefs and practices.
For his opposition to the reforms, Avvakum was repeatedly imprisoned. First, he was exiled to Siberia, to the city of Tobolsk, and partook in an exploration expedition under Afanasii Pashkov to the Chinese border. In 1664, after Nikon was no longer patriarch he was allowed to return to Moscow, then exiled again to Mezen, then allowed to return to Moscow again for the Church Council of 1666–67, but due to continued opposition to the reforms, he was exiled to Pustozyorsk in 1667. For the last fourteen years of his life, he was imprisoned in a pit or dugout (a sunken, log-framed hut) at Pustozyorsk above the Arctic Circle. He was finally executed by being burned at the stake. The spot where he was burned has been commemorated by an ornate wooden cross.
Avvakum's autobiography recounts hardships of his imprisonment and exile to the Russian Far East, the story of his friendship and fallout with the Tsar Alexis, his practice of exorcising demons and devils, and his boundless admiration for nature and other works of God. Numerous manuscript copies of the text circulated for nearly two centuries before it was first printed in 1861.
Legacy
Despite his persecution and death, groups rejecting the liturgical changes persisted. They came to be referred to as Old Believers.
English translations
The Life Written by Himself, Columbia University Press, 2021 (The Russian Library). Translated by Kenneth N. Brostrom.
References
External links
Life of Avvakum, academic edition with commentary (in Russian)
Avvakum's letters to the Tzar and Old Believers (pub. Paris, 1951, in Russian)
Parallel text version of Life of Avvakum
English and Russian Articles on Avvakum by P. Hunt
1621 births
1682 deaths
People from Bolshemurashkinsky District
Old Believer saints
Tsardom of Russia people
17th-century Christian saints | [
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|
214366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegithalidae | Aegithalidae | The bushtits or long-tailed tits, are a family, Aegithalidae, of small, drab passerine birds with moderately long tails. The family contains 13 species in three genera, all but one of which are found in Eurasia. Bushtits are active birds, moving almost constantly while they forage for insects in shrubs and trees. During non-breeding season, birds live in flocks of up to 50 individuals. Several bushtit species display cooperative breeding behavior, also called helpers at the nest.
Distribution and habitat
All the Aegithalidae are forest birds, particularly forest edge and understory habitats. The species in the genus Aegithalos prefer deciduous or mixed deciduous forests, while the Indonesian pygmy bushtit is found mostly in montane coniferous forest. Bushtits are found in a wide range of habitats, including on occasion sagebrush steppe and other arid shrublands, but are most common in mixed woodland. Most species in this family live in mountainous habitats in and around the Himalayas, and all are found in Eurasia except the American bushtit, which is native to western North America. The long-tailed tit has the most widespread distribution of any species of Aegithalidae, occurring across Eurasia from Britain to Japan. Two species, in contrast, have tiny distributions, the Burmese bushtit, which is entirely restricted to two mountains in Burma, and the pygmy bushtit, which is restricted to the mountains of western Java. The species in this family are generally not migratory, although the long-tailed tit is prone to dispersing in the northern edges of its range (particularly in Siberia). Many mountainous species move to lower ground during the winter.
Description
They are small birds, measuring in length, including the relatively long tail, and weighing just . Their plumage is typically dull grey or brown, although some species have white markings and the long-tailed tit has some pinkish colour. In contrast to the rest of the family the two Leptopoecile tit-warblers are quite brightly coloured, having violet and blue plumage. The crested tit-warbler is the only member of the family to have a crest. The bills in this family are tiny, short and conical in shape. The wings are short and rounded and the legs are relatively long.
Behaviour
Birds in this family live in flocks ranging from 4 to over 50 individuals. Flocks form as soon as one breeding season finishes and last until the next one begins. They maintain contact with contact calls that vary among species; their songs are quiet or nonexistent.Other species of birds, such as tits or warblers, will occasionally join the flock to forage.
Diet and feeding
Bushtits are insectivorous, primarily eating insects and other invertebrates such as leafhoppers, treehoppers, aphids, scale insects, and caterpillars. Plant material, such as berries or seeds, is taken occasionally during the winter. The family generally forages arboreally, usually in the shrub layer or canopy, and seldom visits the ground. Prey is generally gleaned from branches, leaves and buds. Less frequently, prey is taken in the air. While foraging, this agile family may hang upside down on branches (although this behaviour is not thought to occur in the tit-warblers) and even manipulate branches and leaves in order to locate hidden food.
Breeding
The family generally has a monogamous breeding system, however there is some evidence that the American bushtit may be frequently polyandrous and occasionally polygynandrous or polygynous. Pairs may be aided by helpers, where a related or unrelated individual (or more than one) helps the established pair raise the young. This has been recorded in at least four of the species; further research is required to see if the behavior carries over to other members of the family. Aegithalids make domed or hanging, bag-like nests of woven cobwebs and lichen, which they line with feathers. Many nests are constructed in trees with thick foliage, making them difficult for predators to find. However, the American bushtit often places nests such that it is entirely exposed. The clutch comprises 5 to 10 white eggs, which in many of the species have red speckles. Adults incubate the eggs for 13 to 14 days; young stay in the nest for 16 to 18 days. In at least four of the species (the long-tailed tit, the black-throated bushtit, and silver-throated bushtit), only the female incubates. Young chicks are fed exclusively on insects and spiders.
Taxonomy
The family Aegithalidae (as a subfamily Aegithalinae) was introduced by the German naturalist Ludwig Reichenbach in 1850. The name comes from the Ancient Greek word aigithalos for a tit. Aristotle recognised three species: the long-tailed tit, the great tit, and the Eurasian blue tit.
The pygmy bushtit is placed in this family because it moves around in flocks and its nests resemble the long-tailed tits', but information about it is so scanty that the placement is only provisional. The Burmese bushtit is sometimes treated as conspecific with the black-browed bushtit. The American bushtit was once thought to belong to the chickadee family, but it has distinctive behavioral habits, especially when it comes to nesting.
There are 13 species in 3 genera.
References
Harrap and Quinn, Tits, Nuthatches and Treecreepers
External links
Long-tailed Tits videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Bird families
Taxa named by Ludwig Reichenbach | [
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|
214369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penduline%20tit | Penduline tit | The penduline tits constitute the family, Remizidae, of small passerine birds, related to the true tits. All but the verdin make elaborate bag nests hanging from trees (whence "penduline", hanging), usually over water.
Characteristics
Penduline tits are tiny passerines, ranging from 7.5 to 11 cm in length, that resemble the true tits (Paridae) but have finer bills with more needle-like points. Their wings are short and rounded and their short tails are notched (except the stub-tailed tit). The penduline tits' typical plumage colors are pale grays and yellows and white, though the European penduline tit has black and chestnut markings and some species have bright yellow or red.
Distribution and habitat
The penduline tits live in Eurasia and Africa and North America. The genus Remiz is almost exclusively Palearctic, ranging discontinuously from Portugal and the tip of northern Morocco through to Siberia and Japan. The largest genus, Anthoscopus, is found in sub-Saharan Africa from the Sahel through to South Africa. The verdin lives in arid parts of the southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico.
Several species of penduline tit are migratory, although this behaviour is only shown in species found in Asia and Europe; African species and the verdin are apparently sedentary. The Eurasian penduline tit is migratory over parts of its range, with birds in northern Europe moving south in the winter but birds in southern Europe remaining close to their breeding areas. In contrast the Chinese penduline tit is fully migratory and undertakes long-distance migrations.
Most live in open country with trees or bushes, ranging from desert to marsh to woodland, but the forest penduline tit lives in rain forest. They spend most of the year in small flocks.
Behaviour
Insects form the larger part of the diet of the penduline tits, and they are active foragers. Their long conical bill is used to probe into cracks and prise open holes in order to obtain prey. Nectar, seeds and fruits may also be taken seasonally. Their foraging behaviour is reminiscent of the true tits (Paridae), foraging upside-down on small branches, manoeuvring branches and leaves with their feet in order to insect them, and clasping large prey items with one foot while dismembering them.
The common name of the family reflects the tendency of most species to construct elaborate pear-shaped nests. These nests are woven from spiderweb, wool and animal hair and soft plant materials, which are suspended from twigs and branches in trees. The nests of the African genus Anthoscopus are even more elaborate than the Eurasian Remiz, incorporating a false entrance above the true entrance which leads to a false chamber. The true nesting chamber is accessed by the parent opening a hidden flap, entering and then closing the flap shut again, the two sides sealing with sticky spider webs.
The verdin builds a domed nest out of thorny twigs. In some penduline tit species the eggs are white, sometimes with red spots. The verdin lays blue-green eggs with red spots. Incubation lasts about 13 or 14 days, and the nestlings fledge at about 18 days. In penduline tits, higher incidences of extra-pair paternity results in lower rates of male care, suggesting that extra-pair offspring devalues parental care.
Systematics
The family Remizidae was introduced in 1891 (as Remizeae) by the French ornithologist Léon Olphe-Galliard. Sometimes, these birds are included as subfamily Remizinae in the tit family Paridae. Which taxonomic lineup scientists prefers is primarily a matter of taste; that these families are close relatives is well established by now. If they are considered a separate family, the sultan tit and the yellow-browed tit would possibly need to be excluded from the Paridae. The placement of the tit-hylia within this family is particularly controversial, it having variously been placed with the sunbirds, waxbills, honeyeaters and most recently close to the green hylia. It is placed in the family Cettiidae.
The family contains 11 species in 3 genera:
References
Further reading
Harrap, Simon & Quinn, David (1996): Tits, Nuthatches & Treecreepers. Christopher Helm, London.
External links
Penduline tits photos & videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Taxa named by Léon Olphe-Galliard | [
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|
214374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua%20Waitzkin | Joshua Waitzkin | Joshua Waitzkin (born December 4, 1976) is an American chess player, martial arts competitor, and author. As a child, he was recognized as a prodigy, and won the U.S. Junior Chess championship in 1993 and 1994. The film Searching for Bobby Fischer is based on his early life.
Early life and education
Waitzkin first noticed the game of chess being played while walking with his mother in New York City's Washington Square Park at the age of six. At age seven, Waitzkin began studying the game with his first formal teacher Bruce Pandolfini. During his years as a student at Dalton he led the school to win seven national team championships between the third and ninth grades, in addition to his eight individual titles. In 1999, Waitzkin enrolled at Columbia University, where he studied philosophy.
The first master Waitzkin defeated was Edward Frumkin, in a game featuring a sacrifice of Waitzkin's queen and rook in exchange for a checkmate six moves later. Waitzkin was ten years old at the time. At the age of 11, he and fellow prodigy K. K. Karanja were the only two children to draw with World Champion Garry Kasparov in an exhibition event where Kasparov played simultaneously against 59 youngsters. Five years later, he earned the title of National Master, and at age 16 became an International Master.
Waitzkin has not played in a US Chess Federation tournament since 1999, and his last FIDE tournament was before 2000. Waitzkin has also stated in an interview his reasoning for leaving chessWhen people ask me why I stopped playing chess … I tend to say that I lost the love. And I guess if I were to be a little bit more true, I would say that I became separated from my love; I became alienated from chess somewhat … The need that I felt to win, to win, to win all the time, as opposed to the freedom to explore the art more and more deeply, and I think that started to move me away from the game and also chess for me was so intimate. It was something that I loved so deeply that when I started to become alienated from it, I couldn't do it in an impure way.
Film portrayal
The script for Paramount Pictures' 1993 film Searching for Bobby Fischer (released in the United Kingdom as Innocent Moves) was based on a 1988 book by Waitzkin's father, Fred Waitzkin: Searching for Bobby Fischer: The Father of a Prodigy Observes the World of Chess. Waitzkin makes a cameo in the film, in a scene in the last quarter of the movie (at 1:21:52) where his father is watching a young Josh play Vinnie (Laurence Fishburne) from a bench. The real Waitzkin (around 17 years old) can be seen wearing a black jacket/white hoodie playing chess right next to the film's version of Waitzkin and is sitting across from Josh's father (Joe Mantegna).
Author
Waitzkin is the author of two books: Attacking Chess: Aggressive Strategies, Inside Moves from the U.S. Junior Chess Champion (1995) and The Art of Learning: An Inner Journey to Optimal Performance (2008), an autobiographical discussion of the learning process and performance psychology drawn from Waitzkin's experiences in both chess and the martial arts. He is also the spokesperson for the Chessmaster video game series, and is featured in the game giving advice and game analysis.
Waitzkin has a chapter giving advice in Tim Ferriss' book Tools of Titans.
Martial arts
As a young adult, Waitzkin's focus shifted to the martial art Taiji. He holds several US national medals and a 2004 world champion title in the competitive sport of Taiji Push Hands (Taiji Tui Shou). Waitzkin also became a championship coach, leading Grandmaster William C. C. Chen's US Push Hands Team to several titles at the Tai Chi World Cup in Taiwan, guiding teammates Jan Lucanus and Jan C. Childress to their world titles. Waitzkin is also a black belt in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu under world champion and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu phenomenon Marcelo Garcia. Waitzkin is the co-founder of MGInAction.com and The Marcelo Garcia Academy, a Brazilian jiu-jitsu school located in New York City.
Personal life
On April 23, 2010, Waitzkin married Desiree Cifre, a screenwriter and former contestant on The Amazing Race. The couple have a son.
See also
List of Jewish chess players
References
External links
"Chess Champion Offers Success Strategies for Life" audio interview by NPR on May 14, 2007 about the book The Art of Learning
The Art of Learning Project
Interviews with Josh Waitzkin
Edward Winter, Searching for Bobby Fischer (Joshua Waitzkin)
1976 births
American chess players
20th-century American Jews
American chess writers
American male non-fiction writers
American non-fiction writers
American martial artists
Jewish martial artists
Chess International Masters
Dalton School alumni
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Living people
Jewish chess players
21st-century American Jews | [
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|
214375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20bushtit | American bushtit | The American bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus) is the only species placed in the genus Psaltriparus and the only species in the family Aegithalidae that is found in the New World. In North America, it is referred to simply as "bushtit".
Taxonomy
The American bushtit was formally described by the American naturalist John Kirk Townsend in 1837 and given the binomial name Parus minimus. Townsend noted that the species inhabited the forests of the Columbia River. It is now the only species placed in the genus Psaltriparus that was introduced in 1850 by the French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte. The genus name Psaltriparus combines the genus Psaltria that was introduced by Coenraad Temminck in 1836 for the pygmy bushtit with Parus that was introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for the tits.
Ten subspecies are recognised:
P. m. saturatus Ridgway, 1903 – southwest Canada and northwest USA
P. m. minimus (Townsend, JK, 1837) – coastal west USA
P. m. melanurus Grinnell & Swarth, 1926 – southwest USA and north Baja California
P. m. grindae Ridgway, 1883 – south Baja California
P. m. californicus Ridgway, 1884 – south-central Oregon to south-central California
P. m. plumbeus (Baird, SF, 1854) – west-central, south USA and northcentral Mexico
P. m. dimorphicus Van Rossem & Hachisuka, 1938 – south-central USA and north-central Mexico
P. m. iulus Jouy, 1894 – west, central Mexico
P. m. personatus Bonaparte, 1850 – south-central Mexico
P. m. melanotis (Hartlaub, 1844) – south Mexico and Guatemala
The subspecies P. m. melanotis was formerly considered a separate species, the "black-eared bushtit".
Description and behavior
The American bushtit inhabits mixed open woodlands, often containing oaks and a scrubby chaparral understory; it also inhabits parks and gardens. It is a year-round resident of the western United States and highland parts of Mexico, ranging from Vancouver through the Great Basin and the lowlands and foothills of California to southern Mexico and Guatemala.
The American bushtit is one of the smallest passerines in North America, at in length and in weight. It is gray-brown overall, with a large head, a short neck, a long tail, and a short stubby bill. The male has dark eyes and the adult female, yellow. Coastal forms have a brown "cap" while those in the interior have brown "mask."
The subspecies (P. m. melanotis) can be identified by its dark ear patch (the auricular). This polymorphism does not occur in the northern part of the American bushtits' range, but is first noted near the Mexican border, primarily in Texas. Most individuals with the black ear patch in that area are juvenile males, and none are adult females – some have only one or two dark lines on the face instead of a complete patch. The black-eared form becomes more common southward in the northeastern (but not the northwestern) highlands of Mexico until from central Mexico south, all males have a complete black ear patch and even adult females have a black arc over the eye and usually a black line through the eye.
The American bushtit is active and gregarious, foraging for small insects and spiders in mixed-species feeding flocks containing species such as chickadees and warblers, of 10 to over 40 individuals. Members of the group constantly make contact calls to each other that can be described as a short spit.
This species produces an elaborate pendant nest of moss and lichen assembled with spider silk and lined with feathers.
Gallery
References
Further reading
Sloane, S.A. (2001). Bushtit. In Birds of North America, A. Poole, P. Stettenheim, F. Gill, Eds. Philadelphia: American Ornithologists Union.
External links
Bushtit species account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
American bushtit
Native birds of the Western United States
Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands
Birds of the Great Basin
Birds of Mexico
Birds of Guatemala
American bushtit
American bushtit
Birds of the Sierra Madre Occidental
Birds of the Sierra Madre Oriental
Birds of the Sierra Madre del Sur
Birds of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt | [
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|
214380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate%20Crime%20Statistics%20Act | Hate Crime Statistics Act | The Hate Crime Statistics Act, 28 U.S.C. § 534 (HCSA), passed in 1990 and modified in 2009 by the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, requires the Attorney General to collect data on crimes committed because of the victim's race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity. The bill was signed into law by George H. W. Bush, and was the first federal statute to "recognize and name gay, lesbian and bisexual people." Since 1992, the Department of Justice through one of its agencies, the FBI, has jointly published an annual report on hate crime statistics.
On November 16, 2020, the FBI released its 2019 Hate Crime Statistics Act (HCSA) report with the total number of reported hate crime incidents rising 2.7% to 7,317 (2019) from 7,120 (2018).
References
1991 in law
United States federal criminal legislation | [
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|
214385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder%20of%20James%20Byrd%20Jr. | Murder of James Byrd Jr. | James Byrd Jr. (May 2, 1949 – June 7, 1998) was an African-American man who was murdered by three white supremacists in Jasper, Texas, on June 7, 1998. Shawn Berry, Lawrence Brewer, and John King dragged him for behind a pickup truck along an asphalt road. Byrd, who remained conscious for much of his ordeal, was killed about halfway through the dragging when his body hit the edge of a culvert, severing his right arm and head. The murderers drove on for another before dumping his torso in front of a black church.
Brewer and King were the first white men to be sentenced to death for killing a black person in the history of modern Texas. Byrd's lynching-by-dragging gave impetus to passage of a Texan hate crimes law, which later led to passage by Congress of the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, commonly known as the Matthew Shepard Act, in 2009. Brewer was executed by lethal injection for his part in the murder on September 21, 2011. King was executed by lethal injection at the state penitentiary in Huntsville, Texas, on April 24, 2019. Berry was sentenced to life imprisonment and will be eligible for parole in 2038.
Victim
James Byrd Jr. was born on May 2, 1949, in Jasper County, Texas, the third of nine children, to Stella Mae Sharp (1925–2010) and James Byrd Sr. (1925–2020). His mother was a Sunday School teacher and his father was a deacon at the Greater New Bethel Church. Byrd graduated from Jasper Rowe High School in 1967, the last segregated class. After graduating from high school, he married and had three children: Renee, Ross, and Jamie. He worked as a vacuum salesman.
Ross Byrd, the only son of James Byrd Jr., has been involved with "Murder Victims' Families for Reconciliation", an organization that opposes capital punishment. He campaigned to spare the lives of those who murdered his father and appeared briefly in the documentary Deadline.
Murder
On June 7, 1998, Byrd, age 49, accepted a ride from Shawn Berry (age 23), Lawrence Brewer (age 31), and John King (age 23). Berry, who was driving, was acquainted with Byrd from around town. Instead of taking Byrd home, the three men took Byrd to a remote county road out of town, beat him severely, spray-painted his face, urinated and defecated on him, and chained him by his ankles to their pickup truck before dragging him for about . Brewer later claimed that Byrd's throat had been slashed by Berry before he was dragged. However, forensic evidence suggests that Byrd had been attempting to keep his head up while being dragged, and an autopsy suggested that Byrd was alive during much of the dragging. Byrd died about halfway along the route of his dragging, when his right arm and head were severed as his body hit a culvert. While almost all of Byrd's ribs were fractured, his brain and skull were found intact, further suggesting that he maintained consciousness while he was being dragged.
Berry, Brewer, and King dumped the mutilated remains of Byrd's body in front of an African-American church on Huff Creek Road, then drove off to a barbecue. A motorist found Byrd's decapitated remains the following morning. Along the area where Byrd was dragged, police found a wrench with "Berry" written on it. They also found a lighter that was inscribed with "Possum", which was King's prison nickname. The police found 81 places that included portions of Byrd's remains. Since Brewer and King were well-known white supremacists, it was determined by state law enforcement officials that the murder was a hate crime. They called upon the Federal Bureau of Investigation less than 24 hours after the discovery of Byrd's remains. The special agent in charge of the FBI's Houston office said that they were assisting because of the case's "extreme circumstances".
King had several racist tattoos: a black man hanging from a tree, Nazi symbols, the words "Aryan Pride", and the patch for a gang of white supremacist inmates known as the Confederate Knights of America. In a jailhouse letter to Brewer that was intercepted by jail officials, King expressed pride in the crime and said that he realized while committing the murder that he might have to die. "Regardless of the outcome of this, we have made history. Death before dishonor. Sieg Heil!" King wrote. An officer investigating the case also testified that witnesses said that King had referenced The Turner Diaries after beating Byrd.
Berry, Brewer, and King were tried and convicted for Byrd's murder. Brewer and King received the death penalty, while Berry was sentenced to life in prison. Brewer was executed by lethal injection on September 21, 2011, and King was executed on April 24, 2019.
Perpetrators
Shawn Berry
Shawn Allen Berry (born February 12, 1975) claimed that Brewer and King were almost entirely responsible for the crime. Brewer, however, testified that Berry had cut Byrd's throat before he was tied to the truck. The jury decided that little evidence supported this claim. As a result, Berry was spared the death penalty and was sentenced to life in prison. , Berry was living in protective custody at the Texas Department of Criminal Justice's Ramsey Unit, and will be first eligible for parole when he is 63 years old in June 2038. He spends 23 hours per day in an cell, with one hour for exercise. Berry married Christie Marcontell by proxy.
Lawrence Brewer
Lawrence Russell Brewer (March 13, 1967 – September 21, 2011) was a white supremacist, who prior to Byrd's murder had served a prison sentence for drug possession and burglary. He was paroled in 1991. After violating his parole conditions in 1994, Brewer was returned to prison. According to his court testimony, he joined a white supremacist prison gang with King in order to safeguard himself from other inmates. Brewer and King became friends in the Beto Unit prison. A psychiatrist testified that Brewer did not appear repentant for his crimes. Brewer was ultimately convicted and sentenced to death. Brewer, TDCJ#999327, was on death row at the Polunsky Unit, but he was executed in the Huntsville Unit on September 21, 2011. The day before his execution, Brewer expressed no remorse for his crime, as he told KHOU 11 News in Houston: "As far as any regrets, no, I have no regrets. No, I'd do it all over again, to tell you the truth."
Before his execution, Brewer ordered a last meal that prompted the end of last meal requests in Texas. The meal included two chicken fried steaks with gravy and sliced onions; a triple-patty bacon cheeseburger; a cheese omelet with ground beef, tomatoes, onions, bell peppers and jalapeños; a bowl of fried okra with ketchup; one pound of barbecued meat with half a loaf of white bread; three fully loaded fajitas; a meat-lover's pizza; one pint of Blue Bell vanilla ice cream; a slab of peanut-butter fudge with crushed peanuts on top; and three root beers. When the meal was presented, he told officials that he was not hungry and as a result he did not eat any of it. The meal was discarded, prompting State Senator John Whitmire to ask Texas prison officials to end the 87-year-old tradition of giving last meals to condemned inmates. The prison agency's executive director responded by stating that the practice had been terminated effective immediately.
John King
John William "Bill" King (November 3, 1974 – April 24, 2019) was Berry's longtime friend. He was accused of beating Byrd with a bat and then dragging him behind a pickup truck until he died. King, who prior to the murder had recently been released from a Texas prison, said that he had been repeatedly gang raped in prison by black inmates. He was found guilty and sentenced to death for his role in Byrd's kidnapping and murder, and was on death row at the Polunsky Unit.
On December 21, 2018, King's execution by lethal injection was scheduled for April 24, 2019. On April 22, 2019, his appeals to both the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals and the Texas Board of Pardons and Paroles were denied. He was executed at the Huntsville Unit on April 24, 2019.
Reactions
Numerous aspects of the Byrd murder echo lynching traditions that were common in the post-Civil War south. These include mutilation or decapitation and revelry, such as a barbecue or a picnic, either during or after a lynching. Byrd's murder was strongly condemned by Jesse Jackson and the Martin Luther King Center as an act of vicious racism and it also focused national attention on the prevalence of white supremacist prison gangs.
Three sisters of James Byrd are Jehovah's Witnesses, and in a joint statement said: "Having a loved one tortured and lynched produced an unimaginable sense of loss and pain. How does one respond to such a brutal act? Retaliation, hateful speech, or promotion of hate-ridden propaganda never entered our mind. We thought: 'What would Jesus have done? How would he have responded?' The answer was crystal clear. His message would have been one of peace and hope."
The victim's family created the James Byrd Foundation for Racial Healing after his death. Basketball star Dennis Rodman paid their funeral expenses and gave Byrd's family $25,000. Fight promoter Don King gave Byrd's children $100,000 to be put towards their educational expenses.
On October 7, 1998, an episode of Law & Order titled "DWB" (driving while black) referenced the murder within the plot. Instead of three white supremacists, however, the killers were three white New York City police officers. As the plot goes, the officers stop and arrest a black man for no reason, and then proceed to drag him to his death, after tying him to the car.
In 1999, the documentary, "Journey to a Hate Free Millennium" was created, showcasing three of the United States hate crimes including the shootings at Columbine High School, the death of gay student, Matthew Shepard and the execution of James Byrd Jr. The documentary won over 100 film and educational awards and has been used in schools all over the world as a means to stop hate.
In 2003, a movie about the crime, titled Jasper, Texas, was produced and aired on Showtime. The same year, a documentary titled Two Towns of Jasper, made by filmmakers Marco Williams and Whitney Dow, premiered on PBS's P.O.V. series.
While employed as a radio DJ at station WARW in Washington, DC, Doug Tracht (also known as the "Greaseman") made a derogatory comment referring to James Byrd after playing Lauryn Hill's song "Doo Wop (That Thing)". The February 1999 incident proved catastrophic to Tracht's radio career, igniting protests from black and white listeners alike. He was quickly fired from WARW and lost his position as a volunteer deputy sheriff in Falls Church, Virginia.
In May 2004, two white teens, Joshua Lee Talley and John Matthew Fowler, were arrested and charged with criminal mischief for desecrating James Byrd Jr.'s grave with racial slurs and profanities.
Impact on US politics
Some advocacy groups, such as the NAACP National Voter Fund, made an issue of this case during George W. Bush's presidential campaign in 2000. They accused Bush of implicit racism, since as governor of Texas, he opposed hate-crime legislation. Also, citing a prior commitment, Bush did not appear at Byrd's funeral. Because two of the three murderers were sentenced to death and the third murderer was sentenced to life in prison (all three of them were charged with and convicted of capital murder, the highest felony level in Texas), Governor Bush maintained, "we don't need tougher laws". The 77th Texas Legislature passed the James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Act. With the signature of Governor Rick Perry, who inherited the balance of Bush's unexpired term, the act became Texas state law in 2001. In 2009, the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act expanded the 1969 United States federal hate-crime law to include crimes which are motivated by a victim's actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability.
Musical and poetry tributes
On the 2001 album Pieces of Me by singer-songwriter Lori McKenna, the song "Pink Sweater" is dedicated to Byrd; it condemns his murderers and references their death-penalty convictions with the raucous refrain, "I'll be the one in the pink sweater, dancing around when you're gone." In 2010, Alabama musician Matthew Mayfield wrote, recorded, and released a song in Byrd's honor. The tune, titled "Still Alive", is the fourth track on Mayfield's EP You're Not Home. "Still Alive" clearly related a stark bitterness towards racism and equated such hate crimes with genocide. "Tell Me Why", featuring Mary J. Blige, mentions Byrd on Will Smith's fourth album, Lost and Found. Byrd's son Ross recorded the rap album Undeniable Resurrection and dedicated it to his father.
"Jasper", by Confrontation Camp, is the fifth track on the album Objects in the Mirror Are Closer Than They Appear (2000). "Guitar Drag" by sound artist Christian Marclay is a video- and sound-installation about the murder of James Byrd (2000). "I Heard 'Em Say" by Ryan Bingham is about Byrd's murder and the racially charged climate around Jasper following the crime (2012).
Byrd's murder is the subject of Maryland poet laureate Lucille Clifton's piece "jasper texas 1998" as well as Jeffrey Thomson's piece "Achilles in Jasper, Texas".
The tale of Byrd's murder, and that of Matthew Shepard, are told in a verse of the song "Trouble the waters" by Big Country on their album Driving to Damascus (named John Wayne's Dream in its US release).
Byrd's murder is depicted in Nia DaCosta's 2021 film Candyman, featuring him resurrected as one of the souls trapped in the Candyman "hive": in his Candyman form, with his skull exposed, Byrd uses the hook and cables involved in his murder to kill his murderers, ascending into legend. Depicted in the film's mid-credits scene in the form of shadow puppetry, Byrd's murder was previously featured in DaCosta's 2020 promotional short film of the same name.
See also
List of people executed in the United States in 2011
List of people executed in the United States in 2019
List of people executed in Texas, 2010–2019
References
Further reading
Ainslie, Ricardo. Long Dark Road: Bill King and Murder in Jasper, Texas. University of Texas Press, 2004.
King, Joyce. Hate Crime: The Story of a Dragging in Jasper, Texas. Pantheon, 2002.
Temple-Raston, Dina. A Death in Texas: A Story of Race, Murder, and Small Town's Struggle for Redemption. Henry Holt and Co., January 6, 2002.
External links
Remember His Name – From Hate To Healing: The Long Road Home documentary in production by Lizard Productions
– television movie
NAACP National Voter Fund – Campaign ads 2000
1998 in Texas
1998 murders in the United States
African-American history of Texas
Capital murder cases
Deaths by person in the United States
June 1998 crimes
June 1998 events in the United States
Lynching deaths in Texas
Murders by motor vehicle
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
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|
214388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Leyte | USS Leyte | USS Leyte may refer to:
, was a Spanish gunboat built in 1887 and captured during the Spanish–American War
, was a repair ship commissioned August 1944 and renamed Maui in May 1945
, was an aircraft carrier commissioned in 1946 and decommissioned in 1959
See also
, is a guided missile cruiser launched in 1986 and currently in active service
United States Navy ship names
United States Navy Philippines-related ships | [
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214393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Stephen%27s%20Cathedral%2C%20Vienna | St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna | St. Stephen's Cathedral (more commonly known by its German title: Stephansdom) is the mother church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vienna and the seat of the Archbishop of Vienna, Christoph Cardinal Schönborn, OP. The current Romanesque and Gothic form of the cathedral, seen today in the Stephansplatz, was largely initiated by Duke Rudolf IV (1339–1365) and stands on the ruins of two earlier churches, the first a parish church consecrated in 1147. The most important religious building in Vienna, St. Stephen's Cathedral has borne witness to many important events in Habsburg and Austrian history and has, with its multi-coloured tile roof, become one of the city's most recognizable symbols.
History
By the middle of the 12th century, Vienna had become an important centre of German civilization, and the four existing churches, including only one parish church, no longer met the town's religious needs. In 1137, Bishop of Passau Reginmar and Margrave Leopold IV signed the Treaty of Mautern, which referred to Vienna as a civitas for the first time and transferred St. Peter's Church to the Diocese of Passau. Under the treaty, Margrave Leopold IV also received from the bishop extended stretches of land beyond the city walls, with the notable exception of the territory allocated for the new parish church, which would eventually become St. Stephen's Cathedral. Although previously believed built in an open field outside the city walls, the new parish church was in actuality likely built on an ancient cemetery dating to Ancient Roman times; excavations for a heating system in 2000 revealed graves below the surface, which were carbon-dated to the 4th century. This discovery suggests that an even older religious building on this site predated the St. Rupert's Church, which is considered the oldest church in Vienna.
Founded in 1137 following the Treaty of Mautern, the partially constructed Romanesque church was solemnly dedicated in 1147 to Saint Stephen in the presence of Conrad III of Germany, Bishop Otto of Freising, and other German nobles who were about to embark on the Second Crusade. Although the first structure was completed in 1160, major reconstruction and expansion lasted until 1511, and repair and restoration projects continue to the present day. From 1230 to 1245, the initial Romanesque structure was extended westward; the present-day west wall and Romanesque towers date from this period. In 1258, however, a great fire destroyed much of the original building, and a larger replacement structure, also Romanesque in style and reusing the two towers, was constructed over the ruins of the old church and consecrated 23 April 1263. The anniversary of this second consecration is commemorated each year by a rare ringing of the Pummerin bell for three minutes in the evening.
In 1304, King Albert I ordered a Gothic three-nave choir to be constructed east of the church, wide enough to meet the tips of the old transepts. Under his son Duke Albert II, work continued on the Albertine choir, which was consecrated in 1340 on the 77th anniversary of the previous consecration. The middle nave is largely dedicated to St. Stephen and All Saints, while the north and south nave, are dedicated to St. Mary and the Apostles respectively. Duke Rudolf IV, the Founder, Albert II's son, expanded the choir again to increase the religious clout of Vienna. On 7 April 1359, Rudolf IV laid the cornerstone for a westward Gothic extension of the Albertine choir in the vicinity of the present south tower. This expansion would eventually encapsulate the entirety of the old church, and in 1430, the edifice of the old church was removed from within as work progressed on the new cathedral. The south tower was completed in 1433, and vaulting of the nave took place from 1446 to 1474. The foundation for a north tower was laid in 1450, and construction began under master Lorenz Spenning, but its construction was abandoned when major work on the cathedral ceased in 1511.
In 1365, just six years after beginning the Gothic extension of the Albertine choir, Rudolf IV disregarded St. Stephen's status as a mere parish church and presumptuously established a chapter of canons befitting a large cathedral. This move was only the first step in fulfilling Vienna's long-held desire to obtain its own diocese; in 1469, Emperor Frederick III prevailed upon Pope Paul II to grant Vienna its own bishop, to be appointed by the emperor. Despite long-standing resistance by the Bishops of Passau, who did not wish to lose control of the area, the Diocese of Vienna was canonically established on 18 January 1469, with St. Stephen's Cathedral as its mother church. In 1722 during the reign of Karl VI, Pope Innocent XIII elevated the see to an archbishopric.
During World War II, the cathedral was saved from intentional destruction at the hands of retreating German forces when Wehrmacht Captain Gerhard Klinkicht disregarded orders from the city commandant, "Sepp" Dietrich, to "fire a hundred shells and reduce it to rubble". On 12 April 1945, civilian looters lit fires in nearby shops as Soviet Army troops entered the city. The winds carried the fire to the cathedral, where it severely damaged the roof, causing it to collapse. Fortunately, protective brick shells built around the pulpit, Frederick III's tomb, and other treasures, minimized damage to the most valuable artworks. However, the Rollinger choir stalls, carved in 1487, could not be saved. Reconstruction began immediately after the war, with a limited reopening 12 December 1948 and a full reopening 23 April 1952.
Exterior
The church was dedicated to St. Stephen, also the patron of the bishop's cathedral in Passau, and so was oriented toward the sunrise on his feast day of 26 December, as the position stood in the year that construction began. Built of limestone, the cathedral is long, wide, and tall at its highest point. Over the centuries, soot and other forms of air pollution accumulating on the church have given it a black colour, but recent restoration projects have again returned some portions of the building to their original white.
Towers
Standing at tall and affectionately referred to by the city's inhabitants as "Steffl" (a diminutive form of "Stephen"), St. Stephen's Cathedral's massive south tower is its highest point and a dominant feature of the Vienna skyline. Its construction lasted 65 years, from 1368 to 1433. During the Siege of Vienna in 1529 and again during the Battle of Vienna in 1683, it served as the main observation and command post for the defence of the walled city, and it even contains an apartment for the watchmen who, until 1955, manned the tower at night and rang the bells if a fire was spotted in the city. At the tip of the tower stands the double-eagle imperial emblem with the Habsburg-Lorraine coat of arms on its chest, surmounted by a double-armed apostolic cross, which refers to Apostolic Majesty, the imperial style of kings of Hungary. This emblem replaced earlier crescent and the six-pointed star emblem. The original emblem, as well as a couple of later ones, today can be seen at the Vienna City Museum.
The north tower was originally intended to mirror the south tower, but the design proved too ambitious, considering the era of Gothic cathedrals was nearing its end, and construction was halted in 1511. In 1578, the tower-stump was augmented with a Renaissance cap, nicknamed the "water tower top" by the Viennese. The tower now stands at tall, roughly half the height of the south tower.
The main entrance to the church is named the Giant's Door, or Riesentor, possibly referring to the thighbone of a mammoth that hung over it for decades after being unearthed in 1443 while digging the foundations for the north tower, or else to the funnel shape of the door, from the Middle High German word risen, meaning 'sink or 'fall'. The tympanum above the Giant's Door depicts Christ Pantocrator flanked by two winged angels, while on the left and right are the two Roman Towers, or Heidentürme, that each stand at approximately tall. The name for the towers derives from the fact that they were constructed from the rubble of old structures built by the Romans (German Heiden meaning heathens or pagans) during their occupation of the area. Square at the base and octagonal above the roofline, the Heidentürme originally housed bells; those in the south tower were lost during World War II, but the north tower remains an operational bell tower. The Roman Towers, together with the Giant's Door, are the oldest parts of the church.
Roof
The glory of St. Stephen's Cathedral is its ornately patterned, richly coloured roof, long, and covered by 230,000 glazed tiles. Above the choir on the south side of the building the tiles form a mosaic of the double-headed eagle that is symbolic of the empire ruled from Vienna by the Habsburg dynasty. On the north side, the coats of arms of the City of Vienna and of the Republic of Austria are depicted. In 1945, fire caused by World War II damage to nearby buildings leapt to the north tower of the cathedral and destroyed the wooden framework of the roof. Replicating the original bracing for so large a roof (it rises 38 metres above the floor) would have been cost-prohibitive, so over 600 metric tons of steel bracing were used instead. The roof is so steep that it is sufficiently cleaned by the rain alone and is seldom covered by snow.
Bells
Composer Ludwig van Beethoven discovered the totality of his deafness when he saw birds flying out of the bell tower as a result of the bells' tolling but could not hear the bells. St. Stephen's Cathedral has 22 bells in total. The largest is officially named for St. Mary, but usually called Pummerin ("Boomer") and hangs in the north tower. At , it is the largest in Austria and the second-largest swinging bell in Europe after the Peter in Cologne Cathedral).
Originally cast in 1711 from cannons captured from the Muslim invaders, it was recast (partly from its original metal) in 1951 after crashing onto the floor when its wooden cradle burned during the 1945 fire. The new bell has a diameter of and was a gift from the province of Upper Austria. It sounds on only a few special occasions each year, including the arrival of the new year. Also in this tower are two (formerly three) older bells that are no longer used:
Kleine Glocke ("small bell") () cast around 1280;
Speisglocke ("dinner bell") () cast in 1746;
and Zügenglocke ("processions bell") () cast in 1830. However, the Kleine Glocke was restored at the Grassmayr foundry in Innsbruck in 2017 and rehung in the North Roman Tower.
A peal of eleven electrically operated bells, cast in 1960, hangs in the soaring south tower. Replacements for other ancient bells also lost in the 1945 fire, they are used during Masses at the cathedral: four are used for an ordinary Mass; the quantity increases to as many as ten for a major holiday Mass; and the eleventh and largest is added when the Cardinal Archbishop of Vienna himself is present. From the largest to the smallest, they are named the St. Stephen (); St. Leopold (); St. Christopher (); St. Leonhard (); St. Josef (); St. Peter Canisius (); St. Pius X (280 kg); All Saints (); St. Clement Maria Hofbauer (); St. Michael (); and St. Tarsicius (). Also in this tallest tower are the Primglocke (recast in 1772), which rings on the quarter hour, and the Uhrschälle (cast in 1449), which rings on the hour.
The north Roman Tower contains six bells, four of which were cast in 1772, that ring for evening prayers and toll for funerals. They are working bells of the cathedral and their names usually recall their original uses: Feuerin ("fire alarm" but now used as a call to evening prayers) cast in 1879; Kantnerin (calling the cantors (musicians) to Mass); Feringerin (used for High Mass on Sundays); Bieringerin ("beer ringer" for last call at taverns); Poor Souls (the funeral bell); Churpötsch (donated by the local curia in honour of the Maria Pötsch icon in the cathedral), and Kleine Glocke(cast in 1280 and is the oldest bell in the cathedral).
The 1945 fire destroyed the bells that hung in the south Roman Tower.
Fixtures on the outside walls
During the Middle Ages, major cities had their own set of measures and the public availability of these standards allowed visiting merchants to comply with local regulations. The official Viennese ell length standards for verifying the measure of different types of cloth sold are embedded in the cathedral wall, to the left of the main entrance. The linen ell, also called Viennese yard, () and the drapery ell () length standards consist of two iron bars. According to Franz Twaroch, the ratio between the linen ell and the drapery ell is exactly . The Viennese ells are mentioned for the first time in 1685 by the Canon Testarello della Massa in his book Beschreibung der ansehnlichen und berühmten St. Stephans-Domkirchen.
A memorial tablet (near location SJC on the Plan below) gives a detailed account of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's relationship with the cathedral, including the fact that he had been appointed an adjunct music director here shortly before his death. This was his parish church when he lived at the "Figaro House" and he was married here, two of his children were baptised here, and his funeral was held in the Chapel of the Cross (at location PES) inside.
Adjacent to the catacomb entrance is the Capistran Chancel, the pulpit (now outdoors at location SJC) from which St. John Capistrano and Hungarian general John Hunyadi preached a crusade in 1456 to repel Muslim invasions of Christian Europe. (See: Siege of Belgrade). The 18th century Baroque statue shows the Franciscan friar under an extravagant sunburst, trampling on a beaten Turk. This was the original cathedral's main pulpit inside until it was replaced by Niclaes Gerhaert van Leyden's pulpit in 1515.
A figure of Christ (at location CT) is known affectionately to the Viennese as "Christ with a toothache" (de:Zahnwehherrgott). At the southwest corner (location S) are various memorials from when the area outside the cathedral was a cemetery, as well as a recently restored 15th-century sundial on a flying buttress.
Interior
Altars
The main part of the church contains 18 altars, with more in the various chapels. The High Altar (HA) and the Wiener Neustadt Altar () (WNA) are the most famous.
The first focal point of any visitor is the distant High Altar, built over seven years from 1641 to 1647 as part of the first refurbishment of the cathedral in the baroque style. The altar was built by Tobias Pock at the direction of Vienna's Bishop Philipp Friedrich Graf Breuner with marble from Poland, Styria and Tyrol. The High Altar represents the stoning of the church's patron St. Stephen. It is framed by figures of patron saints from the surrounding areas – Saints Leopold, Florian, Sebastian and Rochus – and surmounted with a statue of St. Mary which draws the beholder's eye to a glimpse of heaven where Christ waits for Stephen (the first martyr) to ascend from below.
The Wiener Neustädter Altar at the head of the north nave was ordered in 1447 by Emperor Frederick III, whose tomb is located in the opposite direction. On the predella is his famous A.E.I.O.U. device. Frederick ordered it for the Cistercian Viktring Abbey (near Klagenfurt) where it remained until the abbey was closed in 1786 as part of Emperor Joseph II's anti-clerical reforms. It was then sent to the Cistercian monastery of St. Bernard of Clairvaux (founded by Emperor Frederick III) in the city of Wiener Neustadt, and finally sold in 1885 to St. Stephen's Cathedral when the Wiener Neustadt monastery was closed after merging with Heiligenkreuz Abbey.
The Wiener Neustädter Altar is composed of two triptychs, the upper being four times taller than the lower one. When the lower panels are opened, the Gothic grate of the former reliquary depot above the altar is revealed. On weekdays, the four panels are closed and display a drab painted scene involving 72 saints. On Sundays, the panels are opened showing gilded wooden figures depicting events in the life of the Virgin Mary. Restoration began on its 100th anniversary, in 1985 and took 20 years, 10 art restorers, 40,000 man-hours, and €1.3 million to complete, primarily because its large surface area of .
Máriapócs Icon
The Maria Pötsch Icon (MP) is a Byzantine style icon of St. Mary with the child Jesus. The icon takes its name from the Hungarian Byzantine Catholic shrine of Máriapócs (pronounced Poach), from where it was transferred to Vienna. The picture shows the Virgin Mary pointing to the child (signifying "He is the way") and the child holding a three-stemmed rose (symbolizing the Holy Trinity) and wearing a prescient cross from his neck. The 50 x 70 cm icon was commissioned in 1676 from painter István Papp by László Csigri upon his release as a prisoner of war from the Turks who were invading Hungary at the time. As Csigri was unable to pay the 6-forint fee the icon was bought by Lőrinc Hurta who donated it to the church of Pócs.
After claims of two miraculous incidents in 1696 with the mother in the picture allegedly shedding real tears, Emperor Leopold I ordered it brought to St. Stephen's Cathedral, where it would be safe from the Muslim armies that still controlled much of Hungary. Upon its arrival after a triumphal five-month journey in 1697, Empress Eleonora Magdalena commissioned the splendid Rosa Mystica oklad and framework (now one of several) for it, and the Emperor personally ordered the icon placed near the High Altar in the front of the church, where it stood prominently from 1697 until 1945. Since then, it has been in a different framework, above an altar under a medieval stone baldachin near the southwest corner of the nave – where the many burning candles indicate the extent of its veneration, especially by Hungarians. Since its arrival the picture has not been seen weeping again but other miracles and answered prayers have been attributed to it, including Prince Eugene of Savoy's victory over the Turks at Zenta few weeks after the icon's installation in the Stephansdom.
The residents of Pócs wanted their holy miracle-working painting returned, but the emperor sent them a copy instead. Since then, the copy has been reported to weep real tears and work miracles, so the village changed its name from merely Pócs to Máriapócs and has become an important pilgrimage site.
Pulpit
The stone pulpit is a masterwork of late Gothic sculpture. Long attributed to Anton Pilgram, today Niclaes Gerhaert van Leyden is thought more likely to be the carver. So that the local language sermon could be better heard by the worshipers in the days before microphones and loudspeakers, the pulpit stands against a pillar out in the nave, instead of in the chancel at the front of the church.
The sides of the pulpit erupt like stylized petals from the stem supporting it. On those Gothic petals are relief portraits of the four original Doctors of the Church (St. Augustine of Hippo, St. Ambrose, St. Gregory the Great and St. Jerome), each of them in one of four different temperaments and in one of four different stages of life. The handrail of the stairway curving its way around the pillar from ground level to the pulpit has fantastic decorations of toads and lizards biting each other, symbolizing the fight of good against evil. At the top of the stairs, a stone puppy protects the preacher from intruders.
Beneath the stairs is one of the most beloved symbols of the cathedral: a stone self-portrait of the unknown sculptor gawking (German: gucken) out of a window (German: fenster) and thus famously known as the Fenstergucker. The chisel in the subject's hand, and the stonemason's signature mark on the shield above the window led to the speculation that it could be a self-portrait of the sculptor.
Chapels
There are several formal chapels in St. Stephen's Cathedral:
St. Katherine's Chapel, in the base of the south tower, is the baptismal chapel. The 14-sided baptismal font was completed in 1481, and its cover was formerly the soundboard above the famed pulpit in the main church. Its marble base shows the four Evangelists, while the niches of the basin feature the twelve apostles, Christ and St. Stephan.
St. Barbara's Chapel, in the base of the north tower, is used for meditation and prayer.
St. Eligius's Chapel, in the southeast corner, is open for prayer. The altar is dedicated to St. Valentine whose body (one of three, held by various churches) is in another chapel, upstairs.
St. Bartholomew's Chapel, above St. Eligius' Chapel, has recently been restored.
The Chapel of the Cross (PES), in the northeast corner, holds the burial place of Prince Eugene of Savoy in the vault containing 3 coffins and a heart urn, under a massive stone slab with iron rings. The funeral of Mozart occurred here on 6 December 1791. The beard on the crucified Christ above the altar is of real hair. The chapel is not open to the public.
St. Valentine's Chapel, above the Chapel of the Cross, is the current depository of the hundreds of relics belonging to the Stephansdom, including a piece of the tablecloth from the Last Supper. A large chest holds the bones of St. Valentine that were moved here about a century ago, from what is now the Chapter House to the south of the High Altar.
Tombs, catacombs, and crypts
Since its earliest days, the cathedral has been surrounded by cemeteries dating back to Roman times, and has sheltered the bodies of notables and commoners. It has always been an honour to be buried inside a church, close to the physical presence of the saints whose relics are preserved there. Those less honoured were buried near, but outside, the church.
Inside the cathedral are the tombs of Prince Eugene of Savoy (PES), commander of the Imperial forces during the War of the Spanish Succession in the Chapel of The Cross (northwest corner of the cathedral) and of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (Fr3), under whose reign the Diocese of Vienna was canonically erected on 18 January 1469, in the Apostles' Choir (southeast corner of the cathedral).
The construction of Emperor Frederick's tomb spanned over 45 years, starting 25 years before his death. The impressive sarcophagus is made of the unusually dense red marble-like stone found at the Adnet quarry. Carved by Niclaes Gerhaert van Leyden, the tomb lid shows Emperor Frederick in his coronation regalia surrounded by the coats of arms of all of his dominions. The body of the tomb has 240 statues and is a glory of medieval sculptural art.
When the charnel house and eight cemeteries abutting the cathedral's side and back walls closed due to an outbreak of bubonic plague in 1735, the bones within them were moved to the catacombs below the church. Burials directly in the catacombs occurred until 1783 when a new law forbade most burials within the city. The remains of over 11,000 persons are in the catacombs (which may be toured).
The basement of the cathedral also hosts the Bishops, Provosts and Ducal crypts. The most recent interment in the Bishop's crypt completed in 1952 under the south choir was that of 98-year-old Cardinal Franz König in 2004. Provosts of the cathedral are buried in another chamber. Other members of the cathedral chapter are now buried in a special section at the Zentralfriedhof.
The Ducal Crypt located under the chancel holds 78 bronze containers with the bodies, hearts, or viscera of 72 members of the Habsburg dynasty. Before his death in 1365, Duke Rudolf IV ordered the crypt built for his remains in the new cathedral he commissioned. By 1754, the small rectangular chamber was overcrowded with 12 sarcophagi and 39 urns, so the area was expanded with an oval chamber added to the east end of the rectangular one. In 1956, the two chambers were renovated and their contents rearranged. The sarcophagi of Duke Rudolf IV and his wife were placed upon a pedestal and the 62 urns containing organs were moved from the two rows of shelves around the new chamber to cabinets in the original one.
Organs
St Stephen's Cathedral has an old organ tradition. The first organ is mentioned in 1334. After the 1945 fire, Michael Kauffmann finished a large electric action pipe organ in 1960 with 125 voices and 4 manuals, financed with public donations. In 1991, the Austrian firm of Rieger rebuilt the choir organ. It is a mechanical organ, with 56 voices and 4 manuals.
Conservation and restoration
Preservation and repair of the fabric of the medieval cathedral has been a continuous process at St. Stephen's Cathedral since its original construction in 1147.
The porous limestone is subject to weathering, but coating it with a sealer like silicone would simply trap moisture inside the stone and cause it to crack faster when the water freezes.
The permanent Dombauhütte (Construction Department) uses the latest scientific techniques (including laser cleaning of delicate features on stonework), and is investigating a process that would impregnate the cavities within the stone with something that would keep water from having a place to infiltrate.
The most visible current repair project is a multi-year renovation of the tall south tower, for which scaffolding has been installed. Fees from advertising on the netting around the scaffolding were defraying some of the costs of the work, but the concept of such advertising was controversial and has been discontinued. As of December 2008, the majority of the restoration on the south tower has been finished, and most scaffolding removed.
Systematic cleaning of the interior is gradually proceeding around the walls, and an outdoor relief of Christ in Gethsemane is being restored.
A major project has been recently completed for which visitors and worshippers in St. Stephen's Cathedral had been waiting since 1147: better heating of the church during the winter. Previous systems, including fireplaces, just deposited soot and grease on the artwork, but the new system uses apparatus in many different locations so that there is little moving airflow to carry damaging particles. The church is now heated to around .
Some of the architectural drawings date from the Middle Ages and are on paper 15 ft long and too fragile to handle. Laser measurements of the ancient cathedral have now been made so that a digital 3-dimensional virtual model of the cathedral now exists in its computers, and detailed modern plans can be output at will. When weathered stonework needs to be repaired or replaced, the computerized system can create life-sized models to guide the nine full-time stonemasons on staff in the on-site workshops against the north wall of the cathedral.
On 29 March 2014, a 37-year-old man vandalized the interior of the cathedral by pushing the statue of St. Jude Thaddeus from its marble base.
In January 2020, art historians discovered a mural under layers of dirt on the wall of what is now the cathedral's gift shop. It is believed to be the work of the Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer.
Notable people, events and burials
Notable musicians who have been Kapellmeister at St. Stephen's include:
Johann Joseph Fux 1701–1712
Georg Reutter 1715–1728
Johann Georg Reinhardt 1728–1738
Johann Georg Reutter 1738–1772 – kapellmeister when Joseph Haydn and his brothers were choirboys
Leopold Hoffmann 1772–1793
Johann Georg Albrechtsberger 1793–1809
Joseph Preindl 1809–1823
Johann Baptist Gänsbacher 1823–1844
Johann Baptist Krall
The cathedral has hosted the weddings and funerals of many notable figures in Austrian and European history.
Weddings of royalty: Louis II of Hungary and Mary of Austria (1515); Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and Anne of Bohemia and Hungary (1515)
Weddings of musicians: Teresa Cornelys and Angelo Pompeati (1745); Joseph Haydn and Maria Anna Theresia Keller (1760); Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Constanze Weber (1782) – Mozart's funeral in 1791 took place in the Chapel of the Holy Cross
Funeral of Antonio Vivaldi (1741)
Wedding of Antonie Brentano (1798), a patroness of the arts who is speculated to be Beethoven's "Immortal Beloved"
Funerals of members of the House of Habsburg: Franz Joseph I of Austria (1916), Emperor of Austria during World War I and Kaiser for 68 years; Zita of Bourbon-Parma (1989), last Empress of Austria; Otto von Habsburg (2011), last Crown-Prince of Austria-Hungary
Funerals of European royalty: Matthias Corvinus (also Matthias I), King of Hungary and Croatia
Funerals of politicians: Thomas Klestil (2004), former president of Austria; Kurt Waldheim (2007), former president of Austria and Secretary-General of the United Nations
Funeral of Niki Lauda (2019), former Formula One world champion and entrepreneur.
Notable figures buried in the crypt: (For a list of nobility buried in the crypt, see Ducal Crypt, Vienna)
Johannes Cuspinian (born Johan Spießhaymer) – Austrian humanist, historian, scientist, and diplomat
Elisabeth of Austria, Queen of France – wife of Charles IX of France, remains transferred to crypt after death
Jan van Hoogstraten – Dutch Golden Age painter
Neidhart von Reuental – minnesinger
Former Archbishops of Vienna: Christoph Anton Migazzi, Johann Rudolf Kutschker, Joseph Othmar Rauscher
Stephansdom in popular culture
As Vienna's landmark, the St. Stephen's Cathedral is featured in media including films, video games, and television shows. These include The Third Man and Burnout 3. The cathedral is also depicted on the Austrian 10 cent euro coins and on the packaging of the Manner-Schnitten wafer treat. The Archdiocese of Vienna allowed the Manner company to use the cathedral as its logo in return for funding the wages of one stonemason doing repair work on the cathedral. In 2008, Sarah Brightman performed a concert promoting her latest album, Symphony, which was recorded for a TV broadcast and a further DVD release in late September.
Balassi Mass
Since 2008, the two sabres of the Balint Balassi Memorial Sword Award, founded by Pal Molnar, have been blessed during a Balassi Mass held a few days before the award ceremony. On 25 January 2013, in the presence of some three hundred Hungarians, Bishop Laszlo Kiss-Rigo blessed the two swords during a Mass celebrated in the cathedral.
Gallery
See also
List of tallest churches
Stephansplatz, Vienna
List of Gothic Cathedrals in Europe
References
Citations
Sources
External links
St. Stephen's Cathedral official website
St. Stephen's Cathedral tours
St. Stephen's Cathedral concerts
St. Stephen's Cathedral museum
St. Stephen's Cathedral guided tour
St. Stephen's Cathedral permanent construction office
St. Stephen's Cathedral parish
Archdiocese of Vienna | [
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214404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Assembly%20%28Republic%20of%20China%29 | National Assembly (Republic of China) | The National Assembly was the authoritative legislative body of the Republic of China, commonly referred to as Taiwan after 1949, from 1947 to 2005. Along with the Control Yuan (upper house) and the Legislative Yuan (lower house), the National Assembly formed the tricameral parliament of China.
Similar to other electoral colleges, the National Assembly had elected the President and Vice President under the 1947 Constitution of the Republic of China with the role of the constituent assembly that aimed to amend the country's constitution.
The first National Assembly was elected in November 1947 and met in Nanking in March 1948. However, in the next year, the Kuomintang-led government of the Republic of China lost mainland China in the Chinese Civil War and retreated to Taiwan. The National Assembly resumed its meeting in Taipei in 1954. In the 1990s, its parliamentary powers were gradually transferred to the Legislative Yuan and direct democracy exercised by the Taiwanese people before constitutional amendments made it a dormant body in 2000 and de facto dissolved in 2005.
History
Early Republican period
Calls for a National Assembly were part of the platform of the revolutionaries who ultimately overthrew the Qing dynasty. In response, the Qing dynasty formed the first assembly in 1910, but it was virtually powerless and intended only as an advisory body. In the early Republican Era, the bicameral National Assembly was established by the Beiyang government. The design referred to the structure of the United States Congress as Senate () and House of Representatives (). However, the Warlord Era with the interference of military power toward the constitution suppressed the authority and the reputation of the National Assembly.
1947 Constitution
In 1946, the promulgated a new constitution and the first National Assembly met in 1948 in Nanjing, the Chinese capital. Shortly afterwards in 1949, mainland China fell to the Communists in the Chinese Civil War, and the National Assembly (along with the entire ROC government) was relocated to Taipei. Apart from the KMT, the only legal parties were the Democratic Socialist Party and the Youth Party. At that time the NA served as a counterpart to the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, with a Presidum of the National Assembly governing over its activities.
Under the constitution, the main duty of the National Assembly was to elect the President and Vice President for terms of six years. It also had the right to recall or impeach the President and Vice President if they failed to fulfill their political responsibilities. According to "National Assembly Duties Act," the National Assembly could amend the constitution with a two-thirds majority, with at least three-quarters membership present, as well as to ratify constitutional amendedments proposed by deputies of the Legislative Yuan. It could also change territorial boundaries. After the KMT moved to Taiwan, the Assembly's right to legislate was put into moratorium until at least half of all counties in the nation were again able to elect representatives via their County Assemblies. The responsibilities of the deputies of the Assembly, as well as of the Assembly as a whole, were derived from the directions of Sun Yat-sen.
In accordance with the 76th interpretation of the 1947 Constitution by the Judicial Yuan in 1957, the NA formed part of a three-chamber tricameral parliament together with the Legislative and Control Yuans and was the seniormost chamber of parliament, with the latter two performing regular legislative work in the absence of the Assembly. During the years when it elected or recalled the president and vice president, it acted as a electoral college with all its county representatives serving as electors.
The first National Assembly was to serve for a period of only six years. However, according to the Kuomintang (KMT) leadership, the fall of the Mainland made it impossible to hold new elections there, as all Mainland provinces were under "Communist rebellion". As a result, the Judicial Yuan decided that the original members of the National Assembly representing Communist-controlled constituencies must continue to hold office until new elections could be held. National Assembly elections were still held in territories under ROC control.
Constitutional reforms in the 1990s
As a result of this decision, the same National Assembly, elected in 1947, remained for 44 years until 1991, when as part of a constitutional ruling a Second National Assembly was elected. There was strong objection to the Assembly, which was derisively called the "" by critics.
Shortly after passing constitutional reforms in 1991, the National Assembly held direct elections in December. Following a 1994 constitutional amendment, the Assembly essentially became a permanent constituent assembly, as the Assembly's other major role, to elect the President and Vice President of the Republic of China, was abolished. Direct elections for the president, vice president, and Assembly were held simultaneously in March 1996. However, these reforms granted it new functions, such as hearing the president's State of the Nation Address and approving the president's nominations of the grand justices and the heads of the Examination and Control Yuans. Following the assembly's abolition, these functions are now in the hands of the Legislative Yuan.
In 1999, the Assembly passed constitutional amendments which would link its election and term with the Legislative Yuan. Part of these amendments' effect was to extend the term of both bodies, which was strongly criticized by the public. The People First Party was founded shortly after the 2000 presidential election. The two larger parties, the Kuomintang and Democratic Progressive Party, wished to bar the People First Party (PFP) from the National Assembly. As a result, the 2000 National Assembly elections were canceled, and delegates were to be selected ad hoc on the basis of proportional representation via special election within six months of the Legislative Yuan proposing constitutional amendments, calling for the impeachment of the president or vice president, or declaring a vote on changes to national borders. However, no such situation arose from 2000 to 2004, and the National Assembly never met during this period.
Dissolution
On 23 August 2004, the Legislative Yuan proposed a series of amendments that included dissolution of the National Assembly. The purpose of this proposal is to transfer power to ratify constitutional amendments and territorial amendments from the National Assembly to the people. Under the amendments, subsequent proposed amendments are to be approved by three-fourths of the present members in the Legislative Yuan, with at least three-fourths of all members present. It would then be promulgated for a period of 180 days and then submitted to a referendum, in which a simple majority of all eligible voters shall be sufficient to ratify the amendments. A Democratic Progressive Party proposal authorizing citizens' initiative rights to propose constitutional amendments was withdrawn after it became clear that such a proposal would not pass the Legislative Yuan. Opponents of such constitutional reforms argued that by eliminating the 3/4 legislative vote requirement, a relatively small number of voters could force a referendum on Taiwan independence which would trigger a crisis with the People's Republic of China. By contrast, keeping the 3/4 legislative vote requirement would mean that any constitutional amendment would require a consensus among both the pan-green coalition and pan-blue coalition to be considered. The requirement that a majority of all voters approve the amendment allows for a party to block an amendment by boycotting the vote as was done with the referendums voted on alongside the March 2004 presidential elections.
Under the Constitution at the time, the National Assembly must then be elected to consider these amendments. Such consideration and eventual ratification of the constitutional amendments was originally considered to be a formality, but a number of unexpected complications occurred in 2005. The first was the poor showing of the People First Party (PFP) in the 2004 Legislative Yuan election. The PFP was widely expected to merge with the KMT, but PFP Chairman James Soong became disenchanted by the idea. The second was the reluctance of the Taiwan Solidarity Union to pass the amendments. These amendments were seen by some Taiwan independence supporters as a prelude to a later declaration of independence, but the results of the 2004 election made this very unlikely. Faced with this outcome, the TSU became very reluctant to support a reform that would make elections by small parties such as itself harder.
Another unexpected event occurred which gave the National Assembly elections on 14 May 2005 more significance than had been intended: the election was lined up immediately after trips to mainland China by KMT Chairman Lien Chan and PFP Chairman James Soong. This had the effect of turning the May 14 elections into an opinion poll on relations with mainland China which was undesired by the Democratic Progressive Party, though the DPP subsequently gained a plurality in the elections.
On 7 June 2005, the 300 delegates voted (by a majority of 249 to 48) the constitutional amendments into effect, and so dissolved the National Assembly until the "unification of the country" as stated in the preamble.
Functions
The National Assembly held the most important constitutional powers within the national organs under the 1947 Constitution of the Republic of China. All of its powers were transferred to the Legislative Yuan and direct democracy exercised by the citizens of the free area after a series of constitutional amendments in the 1990s and early 2000s.
Procedure for ratification of national territory alteration was changed to be proposed by Legislative Yuan and ratified by National Assembly elected after the proposal has been made in the 2000 amendment (6th), and then the final ratification power was transferred to the citizens of the free area in the 2005 amendment (7th).
Power to elect President and the Vice President was transferred to the citizens of the free area in the 1992 amendment (2nd), and then further clarified to be in form of "direct election" in the 1994 amendment (3rd). See Presidential elections in Taiwan.
Procedure to recall the President and the Vice President was changed to be proposed by the National Assembly and voted by the citizens of the free area in the 1994 amendment (3rd), and changed to be proposed by the Legislative Yuan and voted by the citizens of the free area in the 2000 amendment (6th).
Procedure for ratification of constitutional amendment was changed to be proposed by Legislative Yuan and ratified by National Assembly elected after the proposal has been made in the 2000 amendment (6th), and then the final ratification power was transferred to the citizens of the free area in the 2005 amendment (7th).
Procedure to impeach the President and the Vice President was changed to be proposed by the Legislative Yuan and voted by the National Assembly in the 1997 amendment (4th), and the final decision power was moved to be judged by the Justices of the Judicial Yuan in Constitutional Court in the 2005 amendment (7th).
The series of constitutional amendments coined the Additional Articles of the Constitution as the current basic law of Taiwan. During the evolution of the Additional Articles, the National Assembly also held the power to confirm some important governmental officers to maintain the separation of powers during the government reorganization.
Elections and terms
The Kuomintang-led government of the Republic of China retreated to Taiwan in 1949, two years after the first election was held in China. As Kuomintang insists to claim the sovereignty over the whole China, the term of the members were extended until "re-election is possible in their original electoral district." In response to the increasing democracy movement in Taiwan, limited supplementary elections were held in Taiwan starting from 1969 and parts of Fujian from 1972. Members elected in these supplementary elections served together with the members who were elected in 1948. This situation remained until a Constitutional Court (Judicial Yuan) ruling on June 21, 1991 that ordered the retirement of all members with extended terms by the end of year 1991.
Timeline of National Assembly elections and terms
National Assembly sessions
Leaders of the National Assembly
Secretary-general
When the Assembly is not in session, the secretary-general () is the de facto highest-ranking official, in charge of the overall affairs of the Assembly and supervising its staff. Note that the secretary-general is entitled acting secretary-general when the National Assembly is not in session.
Presidium and Speaker
The 1st and 2nd National Assemblies elected a presidium () as the leader of the body.
The 3rd National Assembly elected a speaker () and a deputy speaker () to lead the assembly.
The 2005 ad hoc National Assembly reverted to electing a presidium () as the leader of the body.
The 2005 ad hoc National Assembly elected a presidium with 11 members as follows:
See also
Nanjing Great Hall of the People
Zhongshan Hall
Chung-Shan Building
United States Electoral College
Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
National People's Congress
Legislative Yuan
Notes
References
External links
National Assembly meeting records
Government of Taiwan
Historical legislatures in China
Defunct organizations based in Taiwan
1947 establishments in China
1947 establishments in Taiwan
1949 disestablishments in China
2005 disestablishments in Taiwan | [
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|
214407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Leyte%20%28CV-32%29 | USS Leyte (CV-32) | USS Leyte (CV/CVA/CVS-32, AVT-10) was one of 24 s built during and shortly after World War II for the United States Navy. The ship was the third US Navy ship to bear the name. Leyte was commissioned in April 1946, too late to serve in World War II. She spent most of her career in the Atlantic, Caribbean, and Mediterranean, but also saw service in the Korean War, in which she earned two battle stars. She was reclassified in the early 1950s as an attack carrier (CVA), then as an Antisubmarine Aircraft Carrier (CVS), and finally (after inactivation) as an aircraft transport (AVT).
Unlike most of her sister ships, Leyte received no major modernizations, and thus throughout her career retained the classic appearance of a World War II Essex-class ship. She was decommissioned in 1959 and sold for scrap in 1970.
Construction and commissioning
Leyte was one of the "long-hull" ships. She was laid down as Crown Point on 21 February 1944 at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co., Newport News, Virginia, and renamed Leyte on 8 May 1945 to commemorate the recent Battle of Leyte Gulf. She was launched on 23 August, sponsored by Mrs. James M. Mead, and commissioned on 11 April 1946, with Captain Henry F. MacComsey in command.
Service history
Leyte joined battleship on a good will cruise along the western seaboard of South America in the fall of 1946 before returning to the Caribbean on 18 November to resume shakedown operations. In 1948, the carrier was equipped with its first helicopter detachment of HO3S-1 utility helicopters, and participated in a fleet exercise, Operation Frigid, in the North Atlantic. In the years preceding the Korean War, the Leyte participated in numerous other fleet exercises in the Atlantic and Caribbean, trained naval reservists, and deployed three times to the Mediterranean: April–June 1947, July–November 1947, September 1949 – January 1950, and May–August 1950. The latter included a demonstration of airpower over Beirut, Lebanon on 13 August, supporting the Middle East against Communist pressure. Leyte returned to Norfolk on 24 August, and after 2 weeks of preparation, departed on 6 September to join Task Force 77 (TF 77) in the Far East to support United Nations Forces in Korea.
Leyte arrived at the Sasebo base for U.S. Fleet Activities in Sasebo, Japan, on 8 October 1950 and made final preparations for combat operations. From 9 October – 19 January 1951, the ship and her aircraft spent 92 days at sea and flew 3,933 sorties against North Korean forces. Her pilots accumulated 11,000 hours in the air while inflicting massive damage upon enemy positions, supplies, transportation, and communications. Among the squadrons based on Leyte were the VF-32 Swordsmen, flying the F4U Corsair. This squadron included the first African-American naval aviator, Ensign Jesse LeRoy Brown who was killed in action on 4 December 1950. Leyte returned to Norfolk for overhaul 25 February 1951.
After fleet training exercises in the Caribbean terminated on 21 August, the carrier departed for her fifth tour of duty with the United States Sixth Fleet on 3 September. She returned to Norfolk on 21 December for operations out of Hampton Roads, and again steamed for the Mediterranean on 29 August 1952. Reclassified CVA-32 on 1 October, she returned to Boston on 16 February 1953 for deactivation. On 8 August, however, she was ordered to be retained in the active fleet, and, redesignated CVS-32 on the same day, work was begun converting her to an ASW carrier.
At 15:15 on 16 October 1953, while still under conversion to an antisubmarine carrier, Leyte suffered an explosion in her port catapult machinery room. Within minutes, naval base and city fire trucks were on the scene. After a hard and gallant fight, the fire was extinguished at 19:57. As a result of the fire, 37 men died and 28 were injured.
Conversion completed on 4 January 1954, Leyte departed Boston for Quonset Point, Rhode Island, as flagship of Carrier Division 18 (CarDiv 18). She remained there for the next five years conducting ASW tactical operations along the eastern seaboard and in the Caribbean.
Leyte departed Quonset Point in January 1959 for the New York Navy Yard where she commenced preinactivation overhaul. She was redesignated AVT-10 and decommissioned both on 15 May 1959, and was assigned to the Philadelphia group of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, where she remained until sold for scrap in September 1970 and completed in Chesapeake, Virginia.
Awards
Navy Unit Commendation
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Service Medal (Europe clasp)
National Defense Service Medal
Korean Service Medal (2 battle stars)
United Nations Korean Medal
Republic of Korea War Service Medal (retroactive)
Gallery
External links
Navy photographs of Leyte (CV-32)
Leyte Association Website
Photos of Leyte – NavSource Online
References
Essex-class aircraft carriers
Ships built in Newport News, Virginia
1945 ships
World War II aircraft carriers of the United States
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States
Korean War aircraft carriers of the United States
Ship fires
Maritime incidents in 1953
United States Navy Philippines-related ships | [
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214412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution%20of%20the%20Republic%20of%20China | Constitution of the Republic of China | The Constitution of the Republic of China () is the fifth and current constitution of the Republic of China (ROC), ratified by the Kuomintang during the session on December 25, 1946, in Nanjing, and adopted on December 25, 1947. The constitution, along with its Additional Articles, remains effective in ROC-controlled territories.
Intended for the entire territory of the Republic of China as it was then constituted, it was never extensively nor effectively implemented due to the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War in mainland China at the time of the constitution's promulgation. The newly elected National Assembly soon ratified the Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion on May 10, 1948. The Temporary Provisions symbolises the country's entering into the state of emergency and granted the Kuomintang-led government of the Republic of China extra-constitutional powers.
Following the ROC government's retreat to Taiwan on December 7, 1949, the Temporary Provisions together with martial law made the country an authoritarian one-party state despite the constitution. Democratization began in the 1980s. Martial law was lifted in 1987, and in 1991 the Temporary Provisions were repealed. The Additional Articles of the Constitution was passed to reflect the government's actual jurisdiction and realization of cross-Strait relations. The Additional Articles also significantly changed the structure of the government to a semi-presidential system with a unicameral parliament, which formed the basis of a multi-party democracy in Taiwan.
During the 1990s and early 2000s, the Constitution's origins in mainland China led to supporters of Taiwan independence to push for a new Taiwanese constitution. However, attempts by the Democratic Progressive Party administration to create a new Constitution during the second term of DPP President Chen Shui-bian failed, because the then opposition Kuomintang controlled the Legislative Yuan. It was only agreed to reform the Constitution of the Republic of China, not to create a new one. It was last amended in 2005, with the consent of both the KMT and the DPP. The most recent revision to the constitution took place in 2004.
History
Colonial history
As a result of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Treaty of Shimonoseki granted Japan full sovereignty of Taiwan. Chinese cession of the Taiwanese Prefecture would facilitate the island's introduction to constitutional regimes: Japan had promulgated the Meiji Constitution six years prior. Thereafter, Japanese colonization stoked fierce debates surrounding the applicability of the Meiji Constitution towards colonial governments. Although the Meiji oligarchy declared that their constitution would not be applied to colonial possessions, Taiwanese people asserted that their naturalization as Japanese citizens guaranteed rights enumerated in the Meiji Constitution. These legal debates culminated in granting Taiwan special legal status—Taiwan nominally became governed by constitutional rule. However, constitutional rights were continuously violated by the Japanese military and state police. Representative institutions were not constitutionally installed. Likewise, Emperor Meiji granted the majority of executive and legislative powers to the Governor-General of Taiwan, an appointed military leader.
The 1920s saw the rise of indigenous political movements as Taiwanese activists sought local autonomy and greater political freedoms. From 1921 to 1934, political activists attempted to petition the Imperial Japanese government to establish Taiwanese parliamentary assembly, which was met with little success. Conversely, the formation of the Taiwan Local Autonomy Alliance (臺灣地方自治聯盟) in 1930 eventually contributed the limited city and township council elections in 1935. Caving to these political movements, the Japanese colonial government established councils to integrate public opinion with the state. Half of the council members were to be directly elected by voters while the remaining half of council members were to be appointed by the government. November 22, 1935 marked the landmark day where Taiwan's autonomous regional bodies held elections. Only adult males of higher socio-economic status were eligible to participate.
The Meiji Constitution would not be Taiwan's last constitutional imposition: Taiwan would face another constitutional crisis when China's KMT government fled to Taiwan during the Chinese Civil War. According to Taiwanese legal scholar Yeh Jiunn-rong, these constitutions would impart a lasting legacy on Taiwan's constitutionalism: they inspired constitutional indigenization with their disparate frameworks, serving as a foundation for Taiwan's eventual constitutional identity. Even today, remnants of Japanese colonialism exist within Taiwan's political systems. Up until 2005, Taiwan retained its single non-transferable voting (SNTV) system, a testament to the Meiji Constitution. Originating in Japan, the SNTV system grants voters one vote in multi-member districts. Unlike single transferable voting (STV), votes are non-transferable. Thus, surplus votes from one candidate cannot be transferred to other candidates. This electoral system lasted in Japan until 1994, yet persists in a limited form in Taiwan.
Early attempts of Chinese constitution
The Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China was drawn up in March 1912 and formed the basic government document of the Republic of China until 1928. It provided a Western-style parliamentary system headed by a weak president. However, the system was quickly usurped when Song Jiaoren was assassinated by the orders of President Yuan Shikai. Song was the leader of the KMT who was to become prime minister following the party's victory in the 1912 elections. Yuan regularly flouted the elected assembly and assumed dictatorial powers. Upon his death in 1916, China disintegrated into warlordism and the Beiyang Government operating under the Constitution remained in the hands of various military leaders.
The Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek established control over much of China by 1928. The Nationalist Government promulgated the Provisional Constitution of the Political Tutelage Period on May 5, 1931. Under this document, the government operated under a one-party system with supreme power held by the National Congress of the Kuomintang and effective power held by the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang. In Leninist fashion, it permitted a system of dual party-state committees to form the basis of government. The KMT intended this Constitution to remain in effect until the country had been pacified and the people sufficiently "educated" to participate in democratic government.
Drafting process
The constitution was first drafted by the Kuomintang (KMT) as part of its third stage of national development (i.e., representative democracy), it established a centralized republic with five branches of government. The constitution traces its origins to the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The impending outbreak of the Chinese Civil War pressured Chiang Kai-shek into enacting a democratic Constitution that would end KMT one-party rule. The Communists sought a coalition of one-third Nationalists, one-third Communists, and one-third other parties, to form a government that would draft the new Constitution. However, while rejecting this idea, the KMT and the CCP jointly held a convention at which both parties presented views. Amidst heated debate, many of the demands from the Communist Party were met, including the popular election of the Legislative Yuan. Together, these drafts are called the Constitutional Draft of the Political Convention (). Professor John Ching Hsiung Wu, Vice-chairman of the Constitution Drafting Commission, was the principle author of the text.
The Constitution, with minor revisions from the latest draft, was adopted by the National Constituent Assembly session on December 25, 1946, in Nanjing, promulgated by the National Government on January 1, 1947, and the fifth and current Chinese constitution officially went into effect on December 25, 1947. The Constitution was seen as the third and final stage of Kuomintang reconstruction of China. The Communists, though they attended the convention, and participated in drafting the constitution, boycotted the National Assembly and declared after the ratification that not only would they not recognize the ROC constitution, but all bills passed by the Nationalist administration would be disregarded as well. However, due to their showing in the election (approx. 800 out of 3045 seats,) their boycott did not prevent the Assembly from reaching quorum and thus electing Chiang Kai-shek and Lee Tsung-jen as president and vice president respectively. Zhou Enlai challenged the legitimacy of the National Assembly in 1947 by asserting that the KMT hand-picked its members 10 years earlier, and thus the Assembly could not be the legal representatives of the Chinese people.
Content
Three Principles of the People
In Article 1, Taiwan is founded upon the Three Principles of the People (Chinese: 三民主義; pinyin: Sān Mín Zhǔyì), Minzu (民族), Minquan (民權), and Minsheng (民生), roughly defined as nationalism, democracy, and the livelihood of the people. It establishes Taiwan as a "democratic republic of the People, by the people, and for the people." Article 2 affirms that national sovereignty is derived from the citizenry. According to Article 3, people of ROC nationality are citizens of the Republic of China. Finally, Article 5 guarantees equality among Taiwan's ethnic groups.
Civil and political rights of people
The basic civil rights and duties of the people are specified in Chapter 2 of the Constitution. Chapter 12 specifies four political rights of the people: election of public officials, recall of public officials, legislative initiative, and referendum.
Separation of Five Powers (Yuan)
Unlike the typical division of governmental branches, the ROC constitution establishes a five-power, semi-parliamentary mode of constitutional governance. The five branches of government or Yuan (院) include: the Executive Yuan (行政院), the Legislative Yuan (立法院), the Judicial Yuan (司法院), the Examination Yuan (考試院), and the Control Yuan (監察院). The separation of five powers is predicated on revolutionary Sun Yat-sen's political theory. In 1906, Sun Yat-sen proposed the five-power system for China, adding the Executive Yuan and the Control Yuan to improve governmental efficiency and preclude corruption. Under this system, the Examination Yuan administers the selection of bureaucratic candidates whereas the Control Yuan monitors governmental integrity. Chapters 5-9 of the Constitution stipulates the authorities of the five Yuan. Should constitutional disputes arise between the Yuan, Article 44 authorizes the President to intervene with mediation sessions. This power, however, can be checked by the Yuan, who retain the ability to reject presidential calls for mediation.
Racial groups in frontier regions
The ideology of the Chinese Nationalist Party during the Xinhai Revolution was to create unity between the five traditional ethnic groups in China (Han, Manchus, Mongols, Hui (Muslims), and Tibetans) in order to stand up to European and Japanese imperialism as one, strong nation. The constitution has articles to protect the equality of different races and the political rights of racial groups in frontier regions. However, since some provinces similar to China proper have been created on Manchuria and Xinjiang. Only the protection of local autonomy in Inner and Outer Mongolia, and Tibet were regulated explicitly.
Divisions of State Authority
The National Assembly
Based on Sun Yat-sen's political theory, the ROC Constitution distinguishes political powers from governing powers, creating another dimension for checks and balances. The Constitution introduced a powerful authoritative legislative body—the National Assembly (Chinese: 國民大會; pinyin: Guómín Dàhuì), which exercised political powers derived from the people (Article 25). Thus, the National Assembly served to check national institutions with governing powers: the Presidency and the Five Yuan. Members of the National Assembly were directly elected by the people for six-year terms in open elections (Article 28). Under Article 27, the National Assembly had the right to amend the Constitution, exercise initiatives and referenda on the behalf of citizens, and elect or recall the President and the Vice President. Along with the Legislative Yuan and Control Yuan, the National Assembly featured parliamentary functions, sparking confusion around which institution served as the nation's parliament. The Legislative Yuan, National Assembly, and Control Yuan were all citizen-elected bodies; similarly, the National Assembly and Control Yuan exercised constitutional powers similar to powers granted to the legislative branch of Western constitutional governments. In 1957, the Constitutional Court ruled that the National Assembly, Legislative Yuan, and Control Yuan were all "equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations," creating a tripartite parliamentary system. Constitutional reforms of the1990s later sought to condense the powers and functions of the three parliaments into one body. After gradually transferring powers to the Legislative Yuan, the National Assembly abolished itself in 2005.
The Presidency
The President of the Republic of China (Chinese: 總統; pinyin: Zǒngtǒng) is the head of state and the Commander-in-Chief of the Republic of China Armed Forces. Until 1996, the President and Vice President were elected by the National Assembly. After several rounds of constitutional revisions in the 1990s, the President became elected through universal free elections in 1996. Both the President and Vice President serve terms of four years and may be re-elected for an additional term. Originally, the ROC constitution drafted the president as a ceremonial figurehead presiding over a parliamentary republic: the President could grant amnesty and pardons (Article 40), confer honors and decorations (Article 42), issue emergency decrees (Article 43), and issue arbitration during disputes between multiple Yuan (Article 44). Other articles enumerated pertinent powers, permitting the President to declare war and make peace (Article 38), declare martial law with the approval of the Legislative Yuan (Article 39), and appoint or remove military officials (Article 41). However, a combination of the Chinese civil war and President Chiang Kai-shek's strong authoritarian impulses led to a dramatic expansion of presidential powers, shifting the ROC to a semi-presidential constitutional regime. In 1948, the National Assembly ratified the Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion, which superseded the Constitution by granting the President enhanced administrative and executive capabilities. Under the Temporary Provisions, the President was no longer obligated to gain the Legislative Yuan's approval when declaring martial law as stipulated in Article 39. Additionally, the President and the Vice President could disregard the two-term limit for re-election as described in Article 47. As a result, Chiang Kai-shek served five six-year terms (twenty-seven years) as president before his death in 1975. The Temporary Provisions would persist in Taiwan for forty-three years until it was repealed in 1991. Nonetheless, the role of the President remains constitutionally ambiguous even today.
The Executive Yuan
The Executive Yuan (Chinese: 行政院; pinyin: Xíngzhèngyuàn) is the executive branch of the ROC government and is the "highest administrative organ of the State." The President of the Executive Yuan is the Premier, who is appointed by the President of the Republic of China, and no longer requires consent from the Legislative Yuan. The Premier may be removed by a vote of no-confidence by a majority of the Legislative Yuan, after which the President may either remove the Premier or dissolve the Legislative Yuan and initiate a new election for legislators. Given the semi-presidential mode of constitutional governance, the Premier is the head of government while the President of the Republic is the head of state. Although the Premier is held accountable to the Legislative Yuan—a common feature of parliamentary systems—the presidential expansion of power has altered checks and balances between the branches of government; functionally, the Premier has become subordinate to the President.
The Executive Yuan Council, referred to as "The Cabinet" (Chinese: 內閣; pinyin: Nèigé), is composed of a Premier, a Vice Premier, a certain number of Ministers and Chairmen of Commissions, and a certain number of Ministers without Portfolio (MWPs). Under Article 56, these cabinet members are appointed by the President upon the recommendation of the Premier. The Cabinet serves as the primary policy-making body of the executive branch, convening over administrative matters in weekly Cabinet meetings. Article 58 authorizes the Cabinet to assess statutory or budgetary bills concerning martial law or amnesty, declaration of war, conclusion of peace or treaties, and other affairs; the Cabinet subsequently submit bills to the Legislative Yuan. The Cabinet conducts decision-making through a single majority vote, which may be vetoed by the Premier. Additionally, the Cabinet presides over "matters that are of common concern to the various Ministries and Commissions."
The Legislative Yuan
The Legislative Yuan (Chinese: 立法院; pinyin: Lìfǎyuàn) is the unicameral legislature of the ROC government and is the "highest legislative organ of the State." The Legislative Yuan is comprised of 113 legislators, who are directly elected by voters through a parallel voting system for 4-year terms. Like parliaments in other countries, the Legislative Yuan passes legislation, which is later sent to the President for signing. The Legislative Yuan is led by a President and Vice President, who are elected by all members of the Yuan. The President of the Legislative Yuan then presides over Yuan sittings, periodic meetings of the Yuan.
According to Chapter IV, the Executive Yuan is accountable to the Legislative Yuan. Article 63 empowers the Legislative Yuan to approve statutory or budgetary bills or bills sent by the Executive Yuan. Under Article 57, should the Legislative Yuan not concur with major policies of the Executive Yuan, "it may, by resolution, request the Executive Yuan to alter such a policy." Then, the Executive Yuan must respond to this resolution and can request alterations to the bill. The Executive Yuan may also request the Legislative Yuan reconsider its resolution after gaining approval from the President of the Republic. If two-thirds of the Legislative Yuan uphold the original resolution after reconsideration, the Premier shall abide the resolution or resign from office.
Suspension of the constitution and martial law
Implementation of this constitution made China, then with a population of 450 million, the most populous "paper democracy". Though the Constitution was intended for the whole China, it was neither extensively nor effectively implemented as the KMT was already fully embroiled in a civil war with the Communist Party of China by the time of its promulgation.
On January 10, 1947, Governor Chen Yi announced that the new ROC Constitution would not apply to Taiwan after it went into effect in mainland China on December 25, 1947, as Taiwan was still under military occupation and also that Taiwanese were politically naive and were not capable of self-governing. Later that year, Chen Yi was dismissed and the Taiwan Provincial Government was established.
On April 18, 1948, the National Assembly added to the Constitution the "Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion". The Temporary Provisions came into force on May 10, 1948, ten days before the inauguration of the first President of the Republic of China. These articles greatly enhanced the power of the president and abolished the two term limit for the president and the vice president. Since December 7, 1949, the ROC only controls the "free area of the Republic of China", which is essentially Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, Pratas and Taiping Island, the only territories not lost to the Chinese Communists in the Chinese Civil War.
From March 1947 until 1987, Taiwan was in a state of martial law. Although the constitution provided for regular democratic elections, these were not held in Taiwan until the 1990s. In 1954, the Judicial Yuan ruled that the delegates elected to the National Assembly and Legislative Yuan in 1947 would remain in office until new elections could be held in Mainland China which had come under the control of the Communist Party of China in 1949. This judicial ruling allowed the Kuomintang to rule unchallenged in Taiwan until the 1990s. In the 1970s, supplemental elections began to be held for the Legislative Yuan. Although these were for a limited number of seats, they did allow for the transition to a more open political system. In 1991, these members were ordered to resign by a subsequent Judicial Yuan ruling.
Democratization
In the late 1980s, the Constitution faced the growing democratization on Taiwan combined with the mortality of the delegates that were elected in 1947. Faced with these pressures, on April 22, 1991, the first National Assembly voted itself out of office, abolished the Temporary Provisions passed in 1948, and adopted major amendments (known as the "First Revision") permitting free elections.
On May 27, 1992, several other amendments were passed (known as the "Second Revision"), most notably that allowing the direct election of the President of the Republic of China, Governor of Taiwan Province, and municipal mayors. Ten new amendments to replace the eighteen amendments of the First and Second Revisions were passed on July 28, 1994. The amendments passed on July 18, 1997, streamlined the Taiwan Provincial Government and granted the Legislative Yuan powers of impeachment. The constitution was subsequently revised in 1999 and 2000, with the former revision being declared void the same year by the Council of Grand Justices. A further revision of the constitution happened in 2005 which disbanded the National Assembly, reformed the Legislative Yuan, and provided for future constitutional change to be ratified by referendum.
Passing an amendment to the ROC constitution now requires an unusually broad political consensus, which includes approval from three-fourths of the quorum of members of the Legislative Yuan. This quorum requires at least three-fourths of all members of the Legislature. After passing the Legislature, the amendments need ratification by at least fifty percent of all eligible voters of the ROC irrespective of voter turnout.
Because the ROC constitution is, at least nominally, the constitution of all China, the amendments avoided any specific reference to the Taiwan area and instead used the geographically neutral term "Free Area of the Republic of China" to refer to all areas under ROC control. In addition, as the preamble of the amendments stated they are [t]o meet the requisites of the nation prior to national unification, these amendments would automatically be voided in the case of Chinese reunification. As a result, all post-1991 amendments have been maintained as a separate part of the Constitution, consolidated into a single text of twelve articles.
Issues
Challenge of legitimacy
A number of criticisms have been leveled at the constitution by supporters of Taiwan independence.
Until the 1990s when the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) joined the Kuomintang (KMT) in amending the constitution, the document was considered illegitimate by pro-independence advocates because it was not drafted in Taiwan; moreover, they deemed Taiwan to be sovereign Japanese territory until ceded in the San Francisco Peace Treaty effective April 28, 1952. Pro-independence advocates have argued that the Constitution was never legally applied to Taiwan because Taiwan was not formally incorporated into the ROC's territory through the National Assembly as per the specifications of Article 4. Though the constitution promulgated in 1946 did not define the territory of the Republic of China, while the draft of the constitution of 1925 individually listed the provinces of the Republic of China and Taiwan was not among them, since Taiwan was part of Japan as the result of the Treaty of Shimonoseki of 1895. The constitution also stipulated in the Article I.4, that "the territory of the ROC is the original territory governed by it, unless authorized by the National Assembly, can not be altered." In 1946, Sun Fo, the minister of the Executive Yuan of ROC reported to the National Assembly that "there are two types of territory changes: 1. renouncing territory and 2. annexing new territory. The first example would be the Independence of Mongolia, and the second example would be the reclamation of Taiwan. Both would be examples of territory changes. No such formal annexation of Taiwan islands by the ROC National Assembly conforming with the ROC constitution ever occurred since 1946, even though Article 9 of the Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China says, "The modifications of the functions, operations, and organization of the Taiwan Provincial Government may be specified by law." The Republic of China argues that sovereignty of the Republic of China over Taiwan was established by the Instrument of Surrender of Japan which implemented the Potsdam Declaration and the Cairo Declaration. The Allies have not agreed or disagreed to this rationale. In addition, the ROC argues that the Article 4 of Treaty of Taipei nullifies the Treaty of Shimonoseki and the original transfer of sovereignty of Taiwan from China to Japan. Since this transfer of sovereignty occurred in 1945 before the promulgation of the 1947 constitution, the ROC government is of the view that a resolution by the National Assembly was unnecessary.
While both symbolic and legal arguments have been used to discredit the application of the Constitution in Taiwan, the document gained more legitimacy among independence supporters throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s due to democratization and it is now accepted as the basic law of the ROC by all major parties, and considered the Constitution representing the sovereignty of Taiwan. However, there are proposals, particularly by supporters of Taiwan independence and the supporters of Taiwan localization movement, to replace the current Constitution with a document drafted by the Taiwanese constituencies in Taiwan.
Referendums and constitutional reform
One recent controversy involving the constitution is the right to referendum which is mentioned in the Constitution. The constitution states that "The exercise of the rights of initiative and referendum shall be prescribed by law", but legislation prescribing the practices had been blocked by the pan-blue coalition largely out of suspicions that proponents of a referendum law would be used to overturn the ROC Constitution and provide a means to declare Taiwan independence. A referendum law was passed on November 27, 2003 and signed by President Chen Shui-bian on 31 December 2003, but the law sets high standards for referendums such as the requirement that they can only be called by the President in times of imminent attack.
In 2003, President Chen Shui-bian proposed holding a referendum in 2006 for implementing an entirely new constitution on May 20, 2008, to coincide with the inauguration of the 12th-term president of the ROC. Proponents of such a move, namely the Pan-Green Coalition, argue that the current Constitution endorses a specific ideology (i.e., the Three Principles of the People), which is only appropriate for Communist states; in addition, they argue that a more "efficient" government is needed to cope with changing realities. Some proponents support replacing the five-branch structure outlined by the Three Principles of the People with a three-branch government. Others cite the current deadlock between the executive and legislative branches and support replacing the presidential system with a parliamentary system. Furthermore, the current Constitution explicitly states before the amendments implemented on Taiwan, "To meet the requisites of the nation prior to national unification...", in direct opposition to the pan-green position that Taiwan must remain separated from China. In response, the pan-blue coalition dropped its opposition to non-constitutional referendums and offered to consider through going constitutional reforms.
The proposal to implement an entirely new constitution met with strong opposition from the People's Republic of China and great unease from the United States, both of which feared the proposal to rewrite the constitution to be a veiled effort to achieve Taiwan independence, as it would sever a legal link to mainland China, and to circumvent Chen's original Four Noes and One Without pledge. In December 2003, the United States announced its opposition to any referendum that would tend to move Taiwan toward formal "independence", a statement that was widely seen as being directed at Chen's constitutional proposals.
In response, the Pan-Blue Coalition attempted to argue that a new constitution and constitutional referendums were unnecessary and that the inefficiencies in the ROC Constitution could be approved through the normal legislative process.
In his May 20, 2004 inaugural address, Chen called for a "Constitutional Reform Committee" to be formed by "members of the ruling party and the opposition parties, as well as legal experts, academic scholars and representatives from all fields and spanning all social classes" to decide on the proper reforms. He promised that the new Constitution would not change the issue of sovereignty and territory. This proposal went nowhere due to lack of cooperation from the opposition Pan-Blue.
Former President Ma Ying-jeou stated that constitutional reform was not a priority for his government.
See also
Qinding Xianfa Dagang
Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China
Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China
Constitution of the People's Republic of China
History of the Republic of China
Politics of the Republic of China
Kuomintang
Democratic Progressive Party
History of Taiwan
Referendums in Taiwan
References
External links
1947 in law
Chinese law
Constitution of China
Government of the Republic of China
Territorial disputes of the Republic of China
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|
214413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian%20diaspora | Armenian diaspora | The Armenian diaspora refers to the communities of Armenians outside Armenia and other locations where Armenians are considered an indigenous population. Since antiquity, Armenians have established communities in many regions throughout the world. However, the modern Armenian diaspora was largely formed as a result of World War I, when the Armenian genocide committed by the Ottoman Empire forced Armenians living in their homeland to flee or risk being killed. Another wave of emigration started with the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Terminology
In Armenian, the diaspora is referred to as spyurk (), spelled սփիւռք in classical orthography and սփյուռք in reformed orthography. In the past, the word gaghut (գաղութ ) was used mostly to refer to the Armenian communities outside the Armenian homeland. It is borrowed from the Aramaic (Classical Syriac) cognate of Hebrew galut (גלות).
History
The Armenian diaspora has been present for over 1,700 years. The modern Armenian diaspora was formed largely after World War I as a result of the Armenian genocide. According to Randall Hansen, "Both in the past and today, the Armenian communities around the world have developed in significantly different ways within the constraints and opportunities found in varied host cultures and countries."
In the fourth century, Armenian communities already existed outside of Greater Armenia. Diasporic Armenian communities emerged in the Achaemenid and Sassanid empires, and also to defend the eastern and northern borders of the Byzantine Empire. In order to populate the less populated areas of Byzantium, Armenians were relocated to those regions. Some Armenians converted to Greek Orthodoxy while retaining Armenian as their primary language, whereas others remained in the Armenian Apostolic Church despite pressure from official authorities. A growing number of Armenians migrated to Cilicia during the course of the eleventh and twelfth centuries as a result of the Seljuk Turk invasions. After the fall of the kingdom to the Mamelukes and loss of Armenian statehood in 1375, up to 150,000 went to Cyprus, the Balkans, and Italy. Although an Armenian diaspora existed during Antiquity and the Middle Ages, it grew in size due to emigration from the Ottoman Empire, Iran, Russia, and the Caucasus.
The Armenian diaspora is divided into two communities – those from Ottoman Armenia (or Western Armenia) and those who are from the former Soviet Union, the independent Armenia and Iran (or Eastern Armenia).
Armenians of the modern Republic of Turkey do not consider themselves as part of the Armenian Diaspora, since they believe that they continue residing in their historical homeland.
Before 1870, there were 60 Armenian immigrants settled in New England. Armenian immigration rose to 1,500 by the end of the 1880s, and rose to 2,500 in the mid-1890s due to massacres caused by the Ottoman Empire. Armenians who immigrated to the United States before WWI were primarily from Asia Minor and settled on the East Coast.
The Armenian diaspora grew considerably during and after the First World War due to the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. In the year 1910, over 5,500 Armenians immigrated to the United States, and by 1913, 9,355 more Armenians entered the North American borders. As World War I approached, the rate of Armenian immigration rose to about 60,000. In 1920 and until the Immigration Act of 1924, 30,771 Armenians came to the United States; the immigrants were predominantly widowed women, children, and orphans. Although many Armenians perished during the Armenian genocide, some of the Armenians who managed to escape, established themselves in various parts of the world.
By 1966, around 40 years after the start of the Armenian genocide, 2 million Armenians still lived in Armenia, while 330,000 lived in Russia, and 450,000 lived in the United States and Canada.
The immigration rate increased after the Immigration Act was liberated in 1965. Civil War in Lebanon in 1975 and the Islamic Revolution in Iran during 1978 were push factors for Armenians to immigrate. The 1980 U.S. Census reported 90 percent of immigration to the United States by Iranian-Armenians occurred during the years 1975 and 1980.
Distribution
Less than one third of the world's Armenian population lives in Armenia. Their pre-World War I population area was six times larger than that of present-day Armenia, including the eastern regions of Turkey, northern part of Iran, and the southern part of Georgia.
By the year 2000, there were 7,580,000 Armenians living abroad in total.
See also
Armenia–European Union relations
Foreign relations of Armenia
Largest Armenian diaspora communities
List of diasporas
Visa requirements for Armenian citizens
References
Bibliography
External links
Ovenk.com
Armenian Ministry of Diaspora official website
Hayern Aysor (Armenians Today) Official site of the Armenian Ministry of the Diaspora
ArmDiasporaMuseum.com
The Armenian Diaspora Today: Anthropological Perspectives. Articles in the Caucasus Anallytical Digest No. 29
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|
214417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Moorer | Michael Moorer | Michael Lee Moorer (born November 12, 1967) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1988 to 2008. He won a world championship on four separate occasions in two weight classes, having held the WBO light heavyweight title from 1988 to 1991; compiling 22 straight KOs in 22 fights and the WBO heavyweight title from 1992 to 1993; the unified WBA, IBF and lineal heavyweight titles in 1994; and regained the IBF heavyweight title again from 1996 to 1997 becoming a three-time heavyweight world champion.
Michael Moorer was an undefeated southpaw in his first 35 professional bouts. He captured the WBO light heavyweight title in 1988 which he defended 9 times. In 1991, Moorer moved up to Heavyweight winning the vacant WBO heavyweight title from Bert Cooper via TKO in 1992. He went on to defeat Evander Holyfield for the unified WBA, IBF and lineal heavyweight titles in 1994. He remains the only southpaw to win the lineal world championship at heavyweight and the only light heavyweight world champion to win a heavyweight world title on more than one occasion.
Moorer is only one of four boxers over the last century that has ever won a version of a world title at both light heavyweight and heavyweight along with Roy Jones Jr., Michael Spinks, and James Toney.
Since retiring from the sport, Moorer has worked as a boxing trainer. In 2009, he worked alongside Freddie Roach at the Wild Card gym in Los Angeles.
Amateur career
Moorer was born in Brooklyn and raised in the small town of Monessen, Pennsylvania. From an early age, Moorer began playing football and was raised by a single mother, who noticed Moorer's unusual hyperactivity. At age 10, Moorer's grandfather, a former New York Golden Gloves Champion who sparred with greats such as Archie Moore, encouraged Moorer to begin training at age 11. Moorer is naturally right-handed, but fought the entirety of his career as a southpaw. Moorer graduated from Monessen High School in 1987, where he starred in football as a linebacker and tight end.
As his amateur career developed, Moorer moved to Detroit, Michigan to train with the legendary Emanuel Steward. In 1986, Moorer was a National Champion for the 156 lb (light middleweight) weight class. At Steward's Kronk Gym, Moorer was known for beating professionals while still an amateur. Moorer also won a bronze medal at the Goodwill Games, and finished his amateur career with a record of 48–16.
Professional career
Light heavyweight
Moorer had a fast rise through the professional boxing ranks. He debuted on March 4, 1988, knocking out Adrian Riggs in the first round. Before the year's end, he was undefeated in eleven bouts (winning all by way of early round knockouts) and fighting for the world title for the first time. He acquired the newly created WBO light heavyweight title with a five-round knockout of Ramzi Hassan.
In 1989, he retained the title six times, beating Freddie Delgado, Frankie Swindell, Mike Sedillo and former WBA champion Leslie Stewart, among others.
In 1990, he retained the title three times before the end of the year, beating Mario Melo and former Michael Spinks challenger Jim McDonald, among others.
Heavyweight
1991 saw Moorer move up to the heavyweight division. He rolled through the competition en route to securing an opportunity to fight for the vacant WBO heavyweight championship the following year against Bert Cooper. Moorer stopped Cooper in the fifth round after both fighters were down and hurt during the bout.
He did not defend the lesser regarded WBO heavyweight belt. Moorer and trainer Emanuel Steward parted ways after the Cooper fight. Moorer eventually joined Lou Duva's team, and was trained by Georgie Benton for three fights in 1993, including a 10-round decision win over former champion James "Bonecrusher" Smith.
Moorer then parted ways with the Duvas and Benton, and hired New York-based trainer Teddy Atlas in late 1993. Moorer closed the year with a ten-round decision over Mike Evans.
Unified heavyweight champion
On April 22, 1994, Moorer challenged Evander Holyfield for the lineal, IBF, and WBA title belts. In round 2 Holyfield sent Moorer down on the canvas, but Moorer overcame and went on to win a majority decision. As a result, he became the first-ever southpaw heavyweight champion.
In his first defense of those belts, on November 5, 1994, Moorer faced 45-year-old George Foreman, who lost his last fight for the vacant WBO heavyweight title to Tommy Morrison. For nine rounds, Moorer easily outboxed him, hitting and moving away, while Foreman moving forward, seemingly unable to "pull the trigger" on his punches. Moorer was ahead on all three judges' scorecards entering the 10th round, when Foreman hit him with a number of long-range jabs. Then, suddenly, a short right hand caught Moorer square on his chin, gashing open his bottom lip, and he collapsed to the canvas. Moorer was knocked out and lost the world championship. He also lost his undefeated record. Foreman, at age 45, became the oldest fighter ever to win the world heavyweight title.
The following year, Moorer re-grouped by winning against fringe contender Melvin Foster. Meanwhile, Foreman retained the title with a close and controversial decision against German fighter Axel Schulz.
Because of the controversial nature of the Foreman-Schulz bout, the IBF ordered Foreman to travel to Germany for a rematch, but Foreman refused, choosing to leave the IBF belt vacant instead. South African Francois Botha travelled to Germany instead and beat Schulz with another close decision to claim the title, but he was stripped of it when he tested positive for illegal substances shortly after.
Third heavyweight title reign
Moorer was then given the opportunity to fight Schulz for the vacant crown in Berlin. On June 22, 1996, Moorer won the IBF heavyweight crown once again, beating Schulz by a 12-round split decision.
He became a three-time heavyweight champion; WBO (1992), WBA/IBF (1994) and IBF (1996–1997). When Moorer held the WBO heavyweight title, it wasn't considered an authentic heavyweight title. Ironically, Moorer has always been recognized as a former light heavyweight champion despite only ever holding the WBO title at that weight.
Moorer's first defense came against Botha on November 9, 1996. In a brutal one-sided bout, Moorer, leading on the cards going into the 12th, ended with a flourish, knocking Botha out with 18 seconds left in the bout.
In March 1997, Moorer retained his belt with a 12-round decision over previously undefeated Vaughn Bean before parting ways with trainer Teddy Atlas, with whom he'd been experiencing increasing tension since the beginning of their professional relationship. He replaced him with Freddie Roach.
Holyfield vs. Moorer II
On November 8, Moorer lost his IBF title in a unification match with WBA champion Evander Holyfield. Moorer was knocked down five times before ringside doctor Flip Homansky advised referee Mitch Halpern to stop the bout in round eight.
Comeback
After this, he retired from boxing for three years before returning with a knockout of journeyman Lorenzo Boyd. Moorer had begun drinking heavily and weighed 270 pounds. During his comeback, he won three more fights, then seemingly retired again when he was knocked out only 30 seconds into round one by David Tua on August 17, 2002. However, he returned to the ring once again on March 29, 2003, beating Otis Tisdale on points over ten rounds. On August 23, 2003, he beat Brazil's Rodolfo Lobo by knockout in only 64 seconds.
After a layoff of almost a year, he returned on July 3, 2004, losing a ten-round unanimous decision to Eliseo Castillo in Miami, Florida. In December of that year, Moorer rallied from a severe deficit on the scorecards to hand former cruiserweight champion Vassiliy Jirov his first knockout loss. He continued fighting, winning all of his bouts against limited opposition. His last fight was a KO win over Shelby Gross in 2008. Following the fight, Moorer retired from professional boxing.
Personal life
Moorer was arrested in 1989 for taking part in a brawl in Charleroi, Pennsylvania.
In 1991, just days after his win over Alex Stewart, Moorer was arrested for assaulting a police officer. Moorer had reportedly been intoxicated at the time of his arrest. The officer he punched suffered a broken jaw. Moorer later was placed on probation and settled the case out of court.
Professional boxing record
See also
List of WBA world champions
List of IBF world champions
List of WBO world champions
List of light heavyweight boxing champions
List of heavyweight boxing champions
References
External links
CBZ Profile
ESPN.com
Michael Moorer: Then and now at Pittsburgh Tribune-Review
African-American boxers
World Boxing Association champions
World Boxing Organization champions
International Boxing Federation champions
People from Monessen, Pennsylvania
1967 births
Living people
American male boxers
World light-heavyweight boxing champions
World heavyweight boxing champions
American boxing trainers
Light-middleweight boxers
Boxers from New York (state)
Competitors at the 1986 Goodwill Games
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople | [
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|
214424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagtail | Wagtail | Wagtails are a group of passerine birds that form the genus Motacilla in the family Motacillidae. The forest wagtail belongs to the monotypic genus Dendronanthus which is closely related to Motacilla and sometimes included therein. The common name and genus names are derived from their characteristic tail pumping behaviour. Together with the pipits and longclaws they form the family Motacillidae.
The willie wagtail (Rhipidura leucophrys) of Australia is an unrelated bird similar in coloration and shape to the Japanese wagtail. It belongs to the fantails.
Taxonomy
The genus Motacilla was introduced by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. The type species is the white wagtail. Motacilla is the Latin name for the pied wagtail; although actually a diminutive of motare, "to move about", from medieval times it led to the misunderstanding of cilla as "tail".
At first glance, the wagtails appear to be divided into a yellow-bellied group and a white-bellied one, or one where the upper head is black and another where it is usually grey, but may be olive, yellow, or other colours. However, these are not evolutionary lineages; change of belly colour and increase of melanin have occurred independently several times in the wagtails, and the colour patterns which actually indicate relationships are more subtle.
mtDNA cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 sequence data (Voelker, 2002) is of limited use: the suspicion that there is a superspecies of probably 3 white-bellied, black-throated wagtails is confirmed. Also, there is another superspecies in sub-Saharan Africa, three white-throated species with a black breast-band. The remaining five species are highly variable morphologically and their relationships with each other and with the two clades have not yet been satisfactorily explained.
The origin of the genus appears to be in the general area of Eastern Siberia/Mongolia. Wagtails spread rapidly across Eurasia and dispersed to Africa in the Zanclean (Early Pliocene)
where the sub-Saharan lineage was later isolated. The African pied wagtail (and possibly the Mekong wagtail) diverged prior to the massive radiation of the white-bellied black-throated and most yellow-bellied forms, all of which took place during the late Piacenzian (early Late Pliocene), c. 3 mya.
Three species are poly- or paraphyletic in the present taxonomical arrangement and either subspecies need to be reassigned and/or species split up. The blue-headed wagtail (AKA yellow wagtail and many other names), especially, has always been a taxonomical nightmare with over a dozen currently accepted subspecies and many more invalid ones. The two remaining "monochrome" species, Mekong and African pied wagtail may be closely related, or a most striking example of convergent evolution.
Prehistoric wagtails known from fossils are Motacilla humata and Motacilla major.
Characteristics
Wagtails are slender, often colourful, ground-feeding insectivores of open country in the Old World. Species of wagtail breed in Africa, Europe and Asia, some of which are fully or partially migratory. Two species also breed in Alaska, and wintering birds may reach Australia.
They are ground nesters, laying up to six speckled eggs at a time. Among their most conspicuous behaviours is a near constant tail wagging, a trait that has given the birds their common name. In spite of the ubiquity of the behaviour and observations of it, the reasons for it are poorly understood. It has been suggested that it may flush up prey, or that it may signal submissiveness to other wagtails. Recent studies have suggested instead that it is a signal of vigilance that may aid to deter potential predators.
Species list
The genus contains 13 species.
Former species in this genus
Formerly, some authorities also considered the following species (or subspecies) as species within the genus Motacilla:
Superb fairywren (as Motacilla cyanea)
Red-whiskered bulbul (emeria) (as Motacilla emeria)
References
Sources
Voelker, Gary (2002): "Systematics and historical biogeography of wagtails: Dispersal versus vicariance revisited". Condor 104(4): 725–739. [English with Spanish abstract] DOI: 10.1650/0010-5422(2002)104[0725:SAHBOW]2.0.CO;2 . HTML abstract
External links
Wagtail videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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|
214431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20and%20towns%20in%20Albania | List of cities and towns in Albania | This is a list of cities and towns in the Republic of Albania in alphabetical order categorised by municipality or county, according to the criteria used by the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT). The institute classifies settlements in Albania into urban and rural areas. As of 2014, there are 74 cities classed as urban areas and 2,972 villages as rural areas.
The country's legislation provides no classification on the criteria of how to define a city or an urban area in Albania. Nevertheless, according to the methodology for cities conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), five areas, including Tirana, Durrës, Elbasan, Shkodër and Vlorë, can be classified as urban audit cities.
The cities and towns in Albania belong to the following size ranges in terms of the number of inhabitants:
1 city larger than 250,000: Tirana
7 cities from 50,000 to 250,000: Durrës, Fier, Elbasan, Kamëz, Korçë, Shkodër and Vlorë
4 cities from 20,000 to 50,000: Berat, Lushnjë, Pogradec and Kavajë
List
Map
Gallery
References
Cities
Albania
Albania
Albania | [
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|
214432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20Australia | List of cities in Australia | The definition of a city in Australia varies between the states. State capital cities may include multiple local government areas (LGAs) within their boundaries and these LGAs may be cities in their own right.
Cities listed below are those as defined by the states in which they are located. Also included are former cities that have lost city status due to LGA amalgamations or other factors.
Australian Capital Territory
Canberra (national and territory capital city)
New South Wales
Since 1993, only local government areas in New South Wales can be declared as "cities" by the Government, under the Local Government Act 1993. Although the present version of the Act specifies no criteria for city status, a previous version of the Act specified that to be a city, a Council area must:
(a) have a population of at least 25,000 persons and be an independent centre of population; not being a suburb, whether residential, industrial, commercial or maritime, of any other council area or centre of population; or
(b) have a population of at least 150,000, and have a distinct character and entity as a centre of population beyond what would normally be regarded as being of local or suburban significance only; or
(c) satisfy the criteria specified in paragraphs (a) or (b) apart from the population criteria, and be a homogenous centre of importance as a focus of regional commercial, governmental or cultural activity beyond that which would normally be regarded as local, suburban, or subsidiary to another nearby centre.
New South Wales, therefore, has two types of "city": cities that are acknowledged on the register of the Geographical Names Board of New South Wales, and local government areas that have been proclaimed as cities but are not acknowledged on the Geographical Names Register.
Cities acknowledged on the NSW Geographical Names Register
Cities not acknowledged on the NSW Geographical Names Register
This list includes local government areas inside the Sydney metropolitan area but excludes cities also acknowledged on the Geographical Names Register.
Former local government areas that were accorded city status (however since amalgamated) include:
Northern Territory
Darwin (Territory capital)
Palmerston
Queensland
Other towns or suburban areas whose local government was accorded city status (including those since amalgamated) include:
Charters Towers
Redcliffe City
Redland City
Thuringowa
Warwick
South Australia
Tasmania
Hobart (state capital), the metropolitan area of which consists of the City of Clarence, City of Hobart, and the City of Glenorchy
Burnie
Devonport
Launceston
Victoria
Western Australia
Local government areas with city status not listed above, all of which lie within Perth's metropolitan area, include:
See also
List of cities in Australia by population
Lists of cities by country
Lists of cities in Oceania
List of cities in Oceania by population
Notes
References
External links
A Gazetteer of Australian Cities, Towns and Suburbs (Monash University)
Detailed map of cities of Australia
Demographics of Australia | [
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|
214433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20most%20populous%20municipalities%20in%20Belgium | List of most populous municipalities in Belgium | This is a list of most populous municipalities in Belgium. Out of the 581 Belgian municipalities (as of 1st of January 2019) the list contains all those with a population over 30,000.
A Belgian municipality may or may not have an additional, Royally-decreed city status in Belgium. Brussels, for example, is a singular urban unit consisting of 19 municipalities, only one of which is the city of Brussels.
List
See also
City status in Belgium
Metropolitan areas in Belgium
Municipalities of Belgium
List of cities in Flanders
List of cities in Wallonia
List of cities in Europe
Lists of cities
References
Population Statistics (French)
Population Statistics (Dutch)
External links
Population data on Belgium
Tourist guide to major cities in Belgium
Populous, most | [
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|
214434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Bolivia%20cities%20and%20largest%20towns | List of Bolivia cities and largest towns | According to the National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia (INE), a city is classified as an area where the city limits are identifiable, and its local government is recognized. Bolivia has 1,384 cities. As of 21 November 2012, the date of the most-recent national census, 53 cities have a population of at least 10,000 in Bolivia, as enumerated by the INE. These 53 cities have a population of 6,162,346, accounting for 61.4% of the country's population. The largest city is Santa Cruz de la Sierra, with a population of 1,441,406, a 29.4% increase from the last census date of 5 September 2001. La Guardia had the highest percentage increase, 801.5%, from 2001 to 2012.
From 2001 to 2012, Bolivia had a population increase of 21.1%. Of the 53 cities, 42 had a higher increase than 21.1%, 8 had lower increase and 3 had a small decrease. The three cities that had a negative population growth from 2001 to 2012 are La Paz (–4.1%), Yacuíba (–4.2%), and Santa Ana del Yacuma (–5.4%). With the exception of the Department of La Paz, each department's capital city is the largest city in its respective department. The Department of Santa Cruz has the most cities (18), and Pando and Chuquisaca have the least (1).
List
Notes
A In 2001, Yapacaní did not exist. The INE consolidated 19 cities, which had a 2001 population of 16,572, for the 2012 census to form Yapacaní.
References
Bolivia, List of cities in
Bolivia
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|
214435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20Bosnia%20and%20Herzegovina | List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina | This is a list of cities and towns with over 10,000 inhabitants (or lower if the municipality has over 20,000 inhabitants) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. For the full list of populated places, see List of populated places in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Organization
Apart from entities, cantons and municipalities, Bosnia and Herzegovina also has officially designated cities. Official cities have their own mayor and city council, which is a big difference to the municipalities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a municipal council and mayor. Powers of city councils of official cities are between the government of municipalities and government cantons in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina or a government entity in Republika Srpska. There are thirty one official cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina (as of 2022):
Sarajevo
Banja Luka
Mostar
Bijeljina
Prijedor
Doboj
Trebinje
Istočno Sarajevo
Zvornik
Bihać
Široki Brijeg
Tuzla
Zenica
Livno
Cazin
Goražde
Gradiška
Živinice
Gračanica
Gradačac
Srebrenik
Visoko
Ljubuški
Čapljina
Derventa
Lukavac
Zavidovići
Konjic
Bosanska Krupa
Orašje
Stolac
List
The list includes only the 55 cities / towns and municipalities whose administrative area has a population greater than 20,000. Istočno Sarajevo, with a population of 61,516 in its administrative area, is not included, since it is a city only in administrative sense and doesn't have a city proper.
"¤" indicates an official city.
See also
List of populated places in Bosnia and Herzegovina
List of settlements in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Municipalities of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Municipalities of Republika Srpska
References
External links
Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2013 final results, map
2013 Census final results
Bosnia and Herzegovina, List of cities
Cities
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|
214436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order%20of%20precedence | Order of precedence | An order of precedence is a sequential hierarchy of nominal importance and can be applied to individuals, groups, or organizations. Most often it is used in the context of people by many organizations and governments, for very formal and state occasions, especially where diplomats are present. It can also be used in the context of decorations, medals and awards. Historically, the order of precedence had a more widespread use, especially in court and aristocratic life.
A person's position in an order of precedence is not necessarily an indication of functional importance, but rather an indication of ceremonial or historical relevance; for instance, it may dictate where dignitaries are seated at formal dinners. The term is occasionally used to mean the order of succession—to determine who replaces the head of state in the event they are removed from office or incapacitated—as they are often identical, at least near the top.
What follows are the general orders of precedence for different countries for state purposes, such as diplomatic dinners, and are made under the assumption that such functions are held in the capital. When they are held in another city or region, local officials such as governors would be much higher up the order. There may also be more specific and local orders of precedence, for particular occasions or within particular institutions. Universities and the professions often have their own rules of precedence applying locally, based (for example) on university or professional rank, each rank then being ordered within itself on the basis of seniority (i.e. date of attaining that rank). Within an institution, the officials of that institution are likely to rank much higher in the order than in a general order of precedence—the chancellor or president of a university may well precede anyone except a head of state, for example. The same might be true for a mayor in their own city.
Lists (people)
Argentine order of precedence
Australian order of precedence
Barbadian order of precedence
Belgian order of precedence
Bengali order of precedence
Brazilian order of precedence
Canadian order of precedence
Catholic Church order of precedence
Chilean order of precedence
Chinese order of precedence
Danish order of precedence
French order of precedence
German order of precedence
Greek order of precedence
Hong Kong order of precedence
Indian order of precedence
Order of precedence in the Republic of Ireland
Order of precedence in the Isle of Man
Israeli order of precedence
Italian order of precedence
Jamaican order of precedence
Order of precedence in Japan
Malaysian order of precedence
New Zealand order of precedence
Nepali order of precedence
Norwegian order of precedence
Warrant of Precedence for Pakistan
Philippine order of precedence
Polish order of precedence
Portuguese order of precedence
Order of precedence in Romania
Order of precedence in Russia
Order of precedence in Scotland
Singapore Order of Precedence
Spanish order of precedence
South Korean order of precedence
Sri Lankan order of precedence
Swedish order of precedence
Swiss order of precedence
Thai order of precedence
Turkish order of precedence
United Kingdom order of precedence
Order of precedence in England and Wales
Order of precedence in Scotland
Order of precedence in Northern Ireland
United States order of precedence
Lists (decorations and medals)
Australian Honours Order of Precedence
Canadian order of precedence (decorations and medals)
German order of precedence (decorations and medals)
Polish order of precedence (decorations and medals)
South African military decorations order of precedence
United States military order of precedence (decorations and medals)
Texas Military order of precedence (ribbons and medals)
See also
Order of precedence in the Catholic Church
List of heads of state by diplomatic precedence
Order of succession
Precedence of Livery Companies in the City of London (U.K.)
Protocol
Style
Precedence among European monarchies
Etiquette | [
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|
214437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalities%20of%20Brazil | Municipalities of Brazil | The municipalities of Brazil () are administrative divisions of the Brazilian states. Brazil currently has 5,570 municipalities, which, given the 2019 population estimate of 210,147,125, makes an average municipality population of 37,728 inhabitants. The average state in Brazil has 214 municipalities. Roraima is the least subdivided state, with 15 municipalities, while Minas Gerais is the most subdivided state, with 853.
The Federal District cannot be divided into municipalities, which is why its territory is composed of several administrative regions. These regions are directly managed by the government of the Federal District, which exercises constitutional and legal powers that are equivalent to those of the states, as well as those of the municipalities, thus simultaneously assuming all the obligations arising from them.
The 1988 Brazilian Constitution treats the municipalities as parts of the Federation and not simply dependent subdivisions of the states. Each municipality has an autonomous local government, comprising a mayor (prefeito) and a legislative body called municipal chamber (câmara municipal). Both the local government and the legislative body are directly elected by the population every four years. These elections take place at the same time all over the country; the last municipal elections were held on 15 November 2020. Each municipality has the constitutional power to approve its own laws, as well as collecting taxes and receiving funds from the state and federal governments. However, municipal governments have no judicial power per se, and courts are only organised at the state or federal level. A subdivision of the state judiciary, or comarca, can either correspond to an individual municipality or encompass several municipalities.
The seat of the municipal administration is a nominated city (cidade), with no specification in the law about the minimum population, area or facilities. The city always has the same name as the municipality, as they are not treated as distinct entities. Municipalities can be subdivided, only for administrative purposes, into districts (normally, new municipalities are formed from these districts). Other populated sites are villages, but with no legal effect or regulation. Almost all municipalities are subdivided into neighbourhoods (bairros), although most municipalities do not officially define their neighbourhood limits (usually small cities in the countryside).
Municipalities can be split or merged to form new municipalities within the borders of the state, if the population of the involved municipalities expresses a desire to do so in a plebiscite. However, these must abide by the Brazilian Constitution, and forming exclaves or seceding from the state or union is expressly forbidden.
A
Municipalities of Acre (AC)
Municipalities of Alagoas (AL)
Municipalities of Amapá (AP)
Municipalities of Amazonas (AM)
B
Municipalities of Bahia (BA)
C
Municipalities of Ceará (CE)
E
Municipalities of Espírito Santo (ES)
G
Municipalities of Goiás (GO)
M
Municipalities of Maranhão (MA)
Municipalities of Mato Grosso (MT)
Municipalities of Mato Grosso do Sul (MS)
Municipalities of Minas Gerais (MG)
P
Municipalities of Pará (PA)
Municipalities of Paraíba (PB)
Municipalities of Paraná (PR)
Municipalities of Pernambuco (PE)
Municipalities of Piauí (PI)
R
Municipalities of Rio de Janeiro (RJ)
Municipalities of Rio Grande do Norte (RN)
Municipalities of Rio Grande do Sul (RS)
Municipalities of Rondônia (RO)
Municipalities of Roraima (RR)
S
Municipalities of Santa Catarina (SC)
Municipalities of São Paulo (SP)
Municipalities of Sergipe (SE)
T
Municipalities of Tocantins (TO)
See also
Lists of cities
List of largest cities in Brazil
List of municipalities of Brazil
References
External links
Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics
Subdivisions of Brazil
Municipalities, Brazil | [
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214438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aachen%20Cathedral | Aachen Cathedral | Aachen Cathedral () is a Roman Catholic church in Aachen, Germany and the see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Aachen.
One of the oldest cathedrals in Europe, it was constructed by order of Emperor Charlemagne, who was buried there in 814. From 936 to 1531, the Palatine Chapel saw the coronation of thirty-one German kings and twelve queens. The church has been the mother church of the Diocese of Aachen since 1930.
History
Charlemagne began the construction of the Palatine Chapel around 796, along with the rest of the palace structures. The construction is credited to Odo of Metz. The exact date of completion is unclear; however, a letter from Alcuin, in 798, states that it was nearing completion, and in 805, Pope Leo III consecrated the finished chapel. A foundry was brought to Aachen near the end of the 8th century and was utilized to cast multiple bronze pieces, from doors and the railings, to the horse and bear statues. Charlemagne was buried in the chapel in 814. It suffered a large amount of damage in a Viking raid in 881, and was restored in 983.
Following Charlemagne's canonization by Frederick Barbarossa in 1165, the chapel became a draw for pilgrims. Due to the enormous flow of pilgrims, in 1355 a Gothic choir hall was added, and a two-part Capella vitrea (glass chapel) which was consecrated on the 600th anniversary of Charlemagne's death. A cupola, several other chapels, and a steeple were also constructed at later dates. It was restored again in 1881, when the Baroque stucco was removed.
During World War II, Aachen, including its famed cathedral, was heavily damaged by Allied bombing attacks and artillery fire, but the cathedral's basic structure survived. Many of the cathedral's artistic objects had been removed to secure storage during the war, and some which could not be moved were protected within the church itself. However, the glazing of the 14th-century choir hall, the Neo-Gothic altar, a large part of the cloister, and the Holiness Chapel (Heiligtumskapelle) were irretrievably destroyed. Reconstruction and restoration took place intermittently over more than 30 years, and cost an estimated €40 Million.
In 1978, Aachen Cathedral was one of the first 12 items to be listed on the UNESCO list of World Heritage sites.
Structure
The cathedral uses two distinct architectural styles, with small portions of a third. First, the core of the cathedral is the Carolingian-Romanesque Palatine Chapel, which was modeled after San Vitale at Ravenna and is notably small in comparison to the later additions. Secondly, the choir was constructed in the Gothic style. Finally, there are portions that show Ottonian style, such as the area around the throne.
Carolingian Octagon (Palatine chapel)
The octagon in the centre of the cathedral was erected as the chapel of the Palace of Aachen between 796 and 805 on the model of other contemporary Byzantine buildings (e.g. the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna and the Little Hagia Sophia in Constantinople). The architect was Odo of Metz, and the original design was of a domed octagonal inner room enveloped by a 16 sided outer wall. The span and height of Charlemagne's Palatine chapel was unsurpassed north of the Alps for over two hundred years.
The Palatine chapel consisted of a high octagonal room with a two-story circuit below. The inner octagon, with a diameter of , is made up of strong piers, on which an octagonal cloister vault lies, covering the central room. Around this inner octagon is a sixteen sided circuit of low groin vaults, supporting a high gallery above. This upper story was known as the Hochmünster (high church). The arched openings of the lower story are only about half as high as those of the Hochmünster, as a result of which the lower story looks stocky and bulky. The two floors are separated from each other by an expansive cornice. The high altar and Imperial throne are located on the upper circuit of the Palatine chapel in an octagonal side room, covered by a barrel vault lying on an angle. This area was connected with the palace by a passage. Above the arches of the gallery, an octagonal drum with window openings rises, on top of which is the cupola. On the east end was a small apse that protruded and was, in later years, replaced by the choir. Opposite of this, was the tiered entrance to the rest of the now defunct palace, Westwork. Light is brought in by a three tiered system of circular arched windows. The corners of the octagonal dome are joined with the walls with a system of paired pilasters with corinthian capitals.
The upper gallery openings are divided by a grid of columns. These columns are ancient and come from St. Gereon in Cologne. Charlemagne allowed further spolia to be brought to Aachen from Rome and Ravenna at the end of the 8th century. In 1794, during the French occupation of the Rheinland, they were removed to Paris, but in 1815 up to half the pieces remaining in the Louvre were brought back to Aachen. In the 1840s they were restored to their original places once more and new columns of Odenberg granite were substituted for the missing columns. The interior walls were initially lined with a marble facade. The round arched openings in the upper floor in the side walls of the octagon, between the columns, in front of a mezzanine, are decorated with a metre-high railing of Carolingian bronze rails. These bronze rails were cast 1200 years ago in a single piece according to Roman models. The original cupola mosaic was probably executed around 800 and known from Medieval sources depicted Christ as the triumphant lord of the world, surrounded by the symbols of the Four Evangelists, with the twenty-four elders from the Apocalypse of John offering their crowns to him. In 1880-81 it was recreated by the Venetian workshop of Antonio Salviati, according to the plans of the Belgian architect Jean-Baptiste de Béthune. The dome was intricately decorated with a mosaic tile.
The exterior walls of the Carolingian octagon, made of quarry stone, is largely unjointed and lacks further ornamentation. The only exception is that the projections of the pillars of the cupola are crowned by antique capitals. Above the Carolingian masonry, there is a Romanesque series of arches above a late Roman gable. The Octagon is crowned by unusual baroque vents.
Aachen Cathedral was plastered red in the time of Charlemagne, according to the most recent findings of the Rheinish Office for Monuments. This plaster was made longer-lasting through the addition of crushed red brick. The colour was probably also a reference to the imperial associations of the work.
Geometry
The question of which geometric concepts and basic dimensions lie at the basis of the chapel's construction is not entirely clear even today. Works of earlier cathedral architects mostly followed either the Drusian foot (334 mm) or the Roman foot (295.7 mm). However, these measurements require complex theories to explain the church's actual dimensions. In 2012, the architectural historian Ulrike Heckner proposed a theory of a new, hitherto unknown unit of measure of 322.4 mm, the so-called Carolingian foot, to which all other measurements in the Palatine chapel can be traced back. This measurement is referred to as the Aachener Königsfuß (Aachen royal foot), after the similarly sized Parisian royal foot (324.8 mm).
Beyond this, there is a symbolic layer to the octagon. Eight was a symbol of the eighth day (Sunday as the sabbath) and therefore symbolised the Resurrection of Jesus Christ and the promise of eternal life. Likewise, ten, the number of perfection in Medieval architectural symbolism, is frequent in the Palatine Chapel: Its diameter (including the circuit surrounding the dome) measures a hundred Carolingian feet (i. e. ten by ten) – equivalent to the height of the dome.
Westwork
The westwork (western facade) of the cathedral is of Carolingian origin, flanked by two stair-towers. It is a two-story building, completed by a porch from the 18th century at the west end.
The bronze leaves attached to this porch, the Wolfstür (Wolf's Door), weigh 43 hundredweight altogether (cf. with this the Lousberg saga). The main entrance to the cathedral, the door was cast in Aachen around 800 and was located between the westwork and the octagon in the so-called hexadecagon up to 1788. The portal was restored in 1924. Each leaf is divided into eight rectangles – a number which had religious symbolism in Christianity, as a symbol of Sunday, the day of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ and also of perfection (as did twelve, also) and can be found in the measurements of the Palatine Chapel over and over again. These boxes were framed by decorative strips, which are made of egg-shaped decorations. The egg was considered a symbol of life and fertility from antiquity. In Christian belief it was imbued with the even wider symbolism of Eternal Life. The door-rings in the shape of lions' heads are wreathed by 24 (i.e. two times twelve or three times eight) acanthus scrolls – again to be understood at the deepest level through numerology. The Wolfstür's imitation of the shape of the ancient Roman temple door signifies Charlemagne's claim, to have established a New Rome in Aachen with the Palatine Chapel as the distinctive monumental building.
There were multiple sculptures, made of bronze, including an equestrian piece probably meant as a parallel of a statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. In the forehall, there is a bronze sculpture of a bear, which was probably made in the 10th century, i.e. in Ottonian times. Opposite it is a bronze pine cone with 129 perforated scales, which stands 91 cm high (including its base); its date is controversial and ranges from the 3rd to the 10th century. Its base is clearly Ottonian and includes an inscription written in Leonine hexameter, which refers to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers of Mesopotamia. According to one view, the pine cone would originally have served as a waterspout on a fountain and would have been placed in the atrium of the Palatine chapel in Carolingian times.
The upper level is characterised by an exceptionally fine brick western wall. Inside, it bulges outward, while the outside bulges inwards, so that the Carolingian west wall can be seen as a convex-concave bulge. Before the construction of the porch in the 18th century, the Carolingian west facade, when seen from the Narthex, was particularly evocative: a large niche, topped by a semicircular arch in the western upper level corresponded to the semicircle of the barrel vault of the lower level.
Today, the western wall is broken up by the large western window. The large window frame dates from the Gothic period and replaced a smaller window from Carolingian times, which was probably structured as a mullion (a double arch with a column in the centre). The modern window was designed by Ewald Mataré in 1956. Mataré's design imitates, however abstractly, the structure of the Carolingian bronze gate inside the dome. Bronze and unprocessed quartz form the window itself.
The function of the upstairs part of the west facade is not entirely clear. The right of baptism (long reserved for the Collegiate Church of Mary) was at a baptismal font, which was behind the marble throne, until the end of the Ancien Régime. Possibly the space was involved in these ceremonies. Furthermore, in the western wall, under the great west window, there is a Fensetella (small window) even today, through which there is line of sight to the court below, the former atrium. It is certain that the so-called Carolingian Passage entered this room on its northern wall, connecting the Aula Regia (King's Hall) in the north of the palace with the church.
The lower, barrel-vaulted room in the west probably served as Charlemagne's sepulchre after his death on 28 January 814 and his burial in the Persephone sarcophagus.
The floors of the western facade lying above this room were remodelled in the first half of the 14th century and in the 17th century; the tower was completed between 1879 and 1884.
Choir
Between 1355 and 1414, on the initiative of the Marienstift and the mayor of Aachen Gerhard Chorus (1285–1367), a Gothic Choir was built to the east of the Octagon. Before this there must have been a rectangular Carolingian choir.
The Gothic choir measures 25m in length, 13m wide and 32m high. Its external wall is broken, as much as possible, by windows – the surface area of the glass is more than 1,000m² and led to the name Glashaus (glass house). This was conceived as a glass reliquary for the holy relics of Aachen and for the body of Charlemagne. The design is arranged on the model of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, likewise a space for important relics and a royal palace chapel. For protection of the vault of the choir, iron rods were built in at the time of construction, to counter the lateral force on the narrow stone supports and to allow as much space as possible between them for window space.
Side chapels
Gathered around the octagon are several side chapels. Clockwise from the southeast, they are:
In the southeast, the Matthiaskapelle (Chapel of St Matthew), which was built in the late 14th century, at the same time as the choir which is next to it.
Adjoining the Chapel of St Matthew to the south is the gothic Annakapelle (Chapel of St Anne). The lower level of this was originally the narthex to one of the cathedral gates, but later the doors were sealed and the room turned into a chapel.
South of the western facade is the Chapel of Hungary. Originally a gothic side chapel as well, it was remodelled in the baroque style in the 18th century, following the plans of the Italian architect Joseph Moretti.
Adjoining the western facade to the north is the Chapel of St Nicholas & St Michael, of the 15th century with a neo-baroque altarpiece in the chancel, created in the 20th century by Joseph Buchkremer. It was formerly the burial place of the canons of Aachen cathedral.
Northeast, the Chapel of St Charles & Hubert was built into the octagon.
Further chapels associated with the cathedral complex are found in the cloisters (All Saints and All Souls Chapel) and in the cathedral forecourt (Baptismal Chapel).
Notable items
Aachen Cathedral houses a collection of medieval art objects from the late Classical, Carolingian, Ottonian and Staufian periods which are exceptional in their artistic and religious meaning.
Throne of Charlemagne
In the western gallery on the lower floor, opposite the choir, the Throne of Charlemagne is to be found, which has been the object of new investigations in the past decades. The original Carolingian throne came from the spolia of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The appearance of the throne and its location in the Palatine Chapel did not change with the passage of centuries. Between 936 and 1531, thirty one German kings ascended to this throne after their anointment and coronation at the Marienaltar (Altar of Mary).
Marienschrein
The Marienschrein (Shrine of St. Mary) rests in the choir of the church and dates from 1220 to 1239. Adorned with the figures of Christ, Mary, Charlemagne, Pope Leo III and the Twelve Apostles, the shrine contains the four great Aachen relics: St. Mary's cloak, Christ's swaddling clothes, St. John the Baptist's beheading cloth and Christ's loincloth. Following a custom begun in 1349, every seven years the relics are taken out of the shrine and put on display during the Great Aachen Pilgrimage. This pilgrimage most recently took place during June 2014.
Barbarossa chandelier
From the vault of the dome, which is made up of eight curved faces, a wheel chandelier hangs on a long chain, about four metres above the ground, with a diameter of over four metres, which is known as the Barbarossa Chandelier (1165/1170). This artwork was a donation of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and his wife Beatrice. The forty-eight candles of the chandelier are lit for solemnities of the Church.
Ambon of Henry II. (Heinrichskanzel)
Between 1002 and 1014, Henry II had a pulpit erected as an ambon in the east passage, which is among the most magnificent artistic treasures of the Ottonian Renaissance. Its inscription on the upper and lower edges clearly identifies its donor as Henry II, referring to him as REX PIVS HEINRICVS. The pulpit is made of an oak base and is decorated all over with filigree and precious stones, with many precious artefacts from antiquity, such as four repoussé copper reliefs with depictions of the Evangelists, as well as six ivory panels of the 6th century. The wooden staircase dates to 1782. The Ambon was thoroughly restored in 1816/1817 and again between 1926 and 1937. To this day, the pulpit is still in liturgical use for solemnities of the Church.
Pala d'Oro
A golden altarpiece, the Pala d'Oro which today forms the Antependium of the high altar was probably created around 1020 in Fulda. It consists of seventeen individual gold panels with reliefs in repoussé. In the centre, Christ is enthroned as Redeemer in a Mandorla, flanked by Mary and the Archangel Michael. Four round medallions with images of the Evangelists' symbols show the connection to the other twelve relief panels with depictions from the life of Jesus Christ. They begin with the entry into Jerusalem and end with the encounter of the women with the risen Christ in front of the open grave on Easter morning. The depictions are read from left to right, like a book.
Stylistically, the Pala d'Oro is not uniform. The first five reliefs probably come from a goldsmith taught in the Rheinland and is distinguished by a strikingly joyful narration. It probably derives from a donation of Emperor Otto III. The other panels, together with the central group of Christ, Mary, and Michael, draws from Byzantine and late Carolingian predecessors and was likely first added under Otto's successor, Henry II, who also donated the Ambo of Henry II.
Presumably, in the late 15th century, the golden altarpiece formed a massive altar system together with the twelve reliefs of apostles in the cathedral treasury, along with altarpieces with scenes from the life of Mary, which would have been dismantled in 1794 as the French Revolutionary troops approached Aachen.
Treasury
The Aachen cathedral treasury includes highly important objects including the Cross of Lothair, Bust of Charlemagne and the Persephone sarcophagus. The Cathedral Treasury in Aachen is regarded as one of the most important ecclesiastical treasuries in northern Europe. Pilgrims are able to see some of the relics every seven years when they are displayed.
Organs
The organ system of Aachen Cathedral was installed in 1939. It consists in part of the earlier organ, installed 1845–1847, which was built by the organ builder Wilhelm Korfmacher of Linnich. This Korfmacher organ had 60 stops, distributed in three works.
The current instrument was installed in 1939 by Johannes Klais (Bonn) and expanded to 65 stops, which were distributed thereafter in five works. To achieve a balanced sound throughout the cathedral, the parts were distributed through the cathedral: in the northwest and southwest niches of the choir are the works of the High organ, while a swallow's nest organ was hung on the east pillar of the octagon.
In 1991–1993, the organ was restored by the Klais organ company and increased to a total of 89 stops. At this time the swallow's nest organ was turned into a new, independent instrument, which now stands in the upper church, between the octagon and the choir.
As well as a chamber organ, the cathedral also has a small organ, called the Zoboli Organ. This was built by the north Italian organ builder, Cesare Zomboli, probably some time around 1850. The pipeworks, windbox, and keyboard survive. The historic housing no longer exists, but the current housing was built later on the model of a north Italian cabinet organ in classicist style. The instrument is arranged in the classic Italian style, with the typical stops of the Roman style as well.
Bells
In the belfry of the tower, eight bells hang on wooden yokes in a wooden bell frame. The bells were cast three years after the city fire of 1656 by Franz Von Trier and his son Jakob. This disposition, altered from that of Medieval times, has been maintained to this day, except that the Marybell has had to be replaced twice. The modern Marybell was made in 1958 and was cast by Petit & Gebr. Edelbrock.
Historical and religious significance
Final resting place of Charlemagne
The core of Aachen Cathedral, the Carolingian octagon, was originally erected as Charlemagne's palace chapel and was also his grave. After his death, on 28 January 814, he was buried in his church; the exact spot is unknown, because of the lack of documentation and the ambiguity of the physical evidence. However, it is probable that he was buried in the Persephone sarcophagus under the west tower at the entrance to the octagon.
In 1000, Otto III had Charlemagne's vault opened. Otto of Lomello, one of the courtiers who accompanied him, recorded the event, which is reported in the Chronicle of Novalesia, written about 1026. The account reads:
A large picture representing Otto and his nobles gazing on the dead Emperor was painted on the wall of the great room in Aachen Town Hall.
In 1165, on the occasion of Charlemagne's canonisation, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa again opened the vault and reinterred his remains. In 1215, at his coronation, Frederick II had the remains reinterred for the last time, placing them in a casket of gold and silver, known as the Karlsschrein, where they remain to this day.
Emperor Otto III was buried in the cathedral as well.
Coronation church of German kings
On the explicit instructions of Charlemagne, his son Louis the Pious crowned himself king in the chapel. Between the coronation of Otto I in 936 and 1531, thirty German kings (out of ~40) were crowned in the chapel. The coronation itself occurred at the High Altar, followed by the enthronement on the Aachen Throne of Charlemagne (which can still be seen today). It is also notable that in this period, all German rulers, regardless of whether they were crowned in Aachen or not, took their position on Charlemagne's throne.
Aachen pilgrimage
The Aachen pilgrimage (Aachener Heiligtumsfahrt), a pilgrimage during which the four most important religious relics of the cathedral can be seen by believers, is attested from 1238. Since 1349, these relics have been displayed once every seven years. The last pilgrimage was in 2014, and had the motto "Geh in das Land, das ich dir zeigen werde" ("Go to the land I will show you"; cf. ).
Influence
As early as the Middle Ages, Aachen Cathedral was admired and imitated, as in the case of Essen Minster, the Old Tower in Mettlach and in the Alsatian Abbey Church of Ottmarsheim. Construction elements of the octagon and choir were nominated as Historic landmarks of German civil engineering in 2007.
Chronology
768–800: Aachen was the residence of Charlemagne. Construction of the palace (in the location of the modern Rathaus and Aachen Cathedral) on the site of a Roman bath. The Octagon was built with columns and marble from ancient buildings of Rome, Ravenna, Trier & Cologne). The exterior was covered with red plaster. This central core was begun in 793 at the earliest and finished by 813 at the latest. This dating was reached in 2009 by means of dendrochronology on wood in the structure, which was found during repairs to the cathedral.
805: Consecration by Pope Leo III.
814: Funeral of Charlemagne in the Palatine chapel, exact location unknown.
936: Coronation of Otto I in the Palatine Chapel.
997: Otto III ordered the walls of the Palatine chapel painted.
1002: Otto III buried in the Octagon.
1002–1014: Henry II donates the Ambon of Henry II.
1152–1190: Frederick I donates the Barbarossa chandelier.
1165: Canonization of Charlemagne
1187–1193: Erection of the romanesque cloister, expansion of the octagon around the blind arcade.
c.1240/1250: Erection of the gable of the Octagon, collapse of the window in the west niche, the building received a white replacement (perhaps earlier, in 1187–1193), the gable was painted colorfully.
c.1350: Addition of the west towen, in the Gothic style, with a tall pyramidal roof spire and two flanking towers, bridge to the Octagon for the display of relics.
1367: Gothic predecessor to the modern Chapel of Hungary.
1355–1414: Erection of the choir, simultaneous with the erection of the Chapel of St Matthew, whose date of consecration is not preserved (possible dates range between 1379 (completion of the foundations) and 1420).
c.1420: Statues on pillars in the choir made from Baumberg limestone.
1429: Double door of the narthex (broken 1811, remains in the cathedral court, on the south wall with gothic graffiti in red chalk).
1449: Chapel of St Anne added, initially as an open hall on the lower floor, rebuilt in the baroque style in 1772, renewed in 1862 with gothic masonry.
1456–1474: The two-level Chapel of St Charles and St Hubert.
before 1487: Nikolauskapelle (Chapel of St Nicholas). Further gothic chapel buildings were planned, but were never built.
1656: Fire of Aachen, extensive destruction to the city. The cathedral's entire roof was destroyed.
1664: New roof on the octagon and choir. Octagon reaches modern form ("Lemon squeezer").
1719–1733: Baroquification with the application of stucco to the inner rooms by Johann Baptist Atari, painting of the vault, baroque reworking of the main window, expansion of the choir window tracery.
1748–1767: Construction of the Chapel of Hungary.
1755: Destruction of the shell of the previous chapel by Johann Joseph Couven due to structural defects.
1756–1767: Construction of new building according to the plans of Joseph Moretti.
1788: Entrance porch in front of the west facade, resulting in the internalisation of the Carolingian bronze door (Wolfstür).
1794: Occupation of the city by French revolutionary troops, removal of the columns to Paris (some of which are still in the Louvre), dismantling of the lead roof (replaced with slate in 1803), temporary use of the cathedral as a stable.
1814: Aachen becomes part of Kingdom of Prussia.
1832: Beginning of restoration works.
1843: Reinstallation of some of the columns (28 pieces returned from France) in the Octagon, several columns replaced with new ones, the old bronze bases replaced with marble, almost all of the ten capitals returned from France replaced in marble.
1847: Foundation of the Karlsverein (Charlemagne Society).
1849–1861: Repair of the choir and its fittings, restoration of the tracery at the instigation of the glassworker with five webs (the gothic tracery has six webs).
1857–1862: Restoration of the Chapel of St Anne.
1864–1866: Restoration of the Chapel of St Matthew.
1868: Restoration of the Chapel of St Charles & St Hubert.
1866–1873: Statues added to the Chapel of St Matthew in Uldfangen limestone and to the Chapel of St Charles & St Hubert, Chapel of St Anne & the choir in Savonnières limestone by Gottfried Götting.
1869–1873: Removal of baroque decoration and exterior plaster, producing the modern bare stone. By 1871, the complete renovation of the Staufen gable, Medieval material being retained only in the roof of the choir.
1879–1884: Neogothic addition to the west tower, in pursuit of the tower's gothic form.
1879–1881: Decoration of the cupola with mosaic, according to the plans of the Belgian Béthune, carried out by the Venetian mosaicist Antonio Salviatis.
1896–1902: Marble cladding and mosaic decoration of the passages according to the plans of Hermann Schaper from Hannover, carried out by Puhl & Wagner of Rixdorf (Berlin).
1913: Marble floors in the Octagon and the passages.
1949–1951: Restoration of the choir windows which had been destroyed in the Second World War, by Walter Benner and Anton Wendling.
1986–2011: Massive programme of restorations to Aachen Cathedral. Exterior renovations were completed in 2006, interior & basement renovations were completed in 2011, with the cleaning and conservation of the mosaics in the Octagon. According to the cathedral's architect, Maintz, around €35 million were spent in the course of the programme.
Legend
According to legend, the people of Aachen ran out of funding to finish the construction of the cathedral. It is said that they made a deal with the devil to obtain the remaining funds, in exchange for the soul of the first to enter the cathedral. Upon completion, the locals sent a wolf into the cathedral and the devil quickly took the animal's soul. Upon realizing the trick, the devil stormed from the cathedral, severing his thumb in the lion head door handles. A wolf statue sits in the entrance to the cathedral, and the "devil's thumb" can be felt inside the lion's mouth.
Miscellaneous
The German impressionist painter August von Brandis painted Aachen Cathedral in several works. Act III of Giuseppe Verdi's Ernani is set at the tomb of Charlemagne.
The Domwache (Cathedral watch), a youth self-help group, has been operated since 1957 by the Catholic students association of K.D.St.V. Franconia Aachen.
Since November 15th 2012, the Geological Service of North Rhine-Westphalia operates a station monitoring seismic activity in the Lower Rhine Basin. It is located in the foundations of the hexadecagon near the entry to the St Ann's Chapel.
Gallery
Notes
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
Aachen Cathedral – Official UNESCO website
Aachen Cathedral – World Heritage Site
Cathedral Music
Aachen Cathedral Photos
Photos of Aachen cathedral on sekulada.com
Carolingian architecture
Imperial cathedrals
Roman Catholic cathedrals in North Rhine-Westphalia
Church buildings with domes
Burial sites of the Carolingian dynasty
Coronation church buildings
Buildings and structures in Aachen
World Heritage Sites in Germany
Landmarks in Germany
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|
214439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20and%20towns%20in%20Bulgaria | List of cities and towns in Bulgaria | This is a complete list of all cities and towns in Bulgaria sorted by population. Province capitals are shown in bold. Primary sources are the National Statistical Institute (NSI) and the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
The largest city is Sofia with about 1.3 million inhabitants and the smallest is Melnik with about 300. Smallest towns are not necessarily larger than all villages as many villages are more populous than many towns, compare Lozen, a large village with more than 6,000 inhabitants.
List
See also
List of villages in Bulgaria
Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) of Bulgaria
List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits
List of European cities by population within city limits
References
External links
Map main cities in Bulgaria at Visitmybulgaria.com
Map of Bulgarian towns at BGMaps.com
Maps of Bulgarian towns at Domino.bg
Veliko Tarnovo of Bulgaria
Cities
Bulgaria, List of cities in
Bulgaria, List of cities in | [
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|
214440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20and%20towns%20in%20Colombia | List of cities and towns in Colombia | This article lists cities and towns in Colombia by population, according to the 2005 census. A city is displayed in bold if it is a capital city of a department.
List
See also
List of cities
List of cities in Colombia by population, a list that only includes cities with no less than 100,000 residents in order of population size (instead of alphabetical order).
Departments of Colombia
References
External links
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Cities | [
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|
214444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20Chile | List of cities in Chile | This is a list of cities in Chile.
A city is defined by Chile's National Statistics Institute (INE) as an "urban entity" with more than 5,000 inhabitants. This list is based on a June 2005 report by the INE based on the 2002 census which registered 239 cities across the country.
Complete list of cities by region
Largest urban agglomerations
This list includes conurbations, "absorptions" and cities with over 100,000 inhabitants, according to the 2017 census.
See also
List of towns in Chile
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
National Statistics Institute (INE)
Cities
Chile, cities in
Chile
Chile
Cities | [
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|
214445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20China | List of cities in China | According to the administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China including Hong Kong and Macau, there are three levels of cities, namely provincial-level (consists of municipalities and SARs), prefecture-level cities, and county-level cities. As of June 2020 the PRC has a total of 687 cities: 4 municipalities, 2 SARs, 293 prefectural-level cities (including the 15 sub-provincial cities) and 388 county-level cities (including the 38 sub-prefectural cities and 10 XXPC cities). This list does not include any cities in the disputed Taiwan Province and portions of Fujian Province (see the List of cities in Taiwan), as these are controlled by the Republic of China and claimed by the PRC under the One-China policy.
Four cities are centrally administered municipalities, which include dense urban areas, suburbs, and large rural areas: Chongqing (28.84 million), Shanghai (23.01 million), Beijing (19.61 million), and Tianjin (12.93 million).
According to 2017 research from the Demographia research group, there are 102 cities governed by the People's Republic of China with an "urban area" population of over 1 million.
List of cities
Contemporary cities
Types of cities
Renamed cities
Dissolved cities
Tier system
The Chinese central government introduced a ranking system in the 1980s to facilitate the staged rollout of infrastructure and urban development throughout the country. Cities were ranked by tier according to the government's development priorities. The tier system began as a bureaucratic classification, but has since the later 1990s acquired new salience from the perspectives of real estate development, commercial vitality and cosmopolitanness, besides the old notions of population, economic size, and political ranking. It has now become a proxy for demographic and social segmentation in China, especially relevant to those college-educated seeking non-governmental employment.
It is the general consensus that four cities, namely Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, belong to the first tier, while tier II includes other major cities. Small and medium cities are grouped into tier III or IV.
Republic of China (1912–1949)
Note: All names are transliterated in pinyin.
Fu (府) cities
Shi () cities
See also
List of capitals in China
List of Chinese prefecture-level cities by GDP
List of Chinese prefecture-level cities by GDP per capita
List of cities in China by population
List of cities in the Republic of China (Taiwan)
List of fu prefectures of China
List of villages in China
References
External links
China City Forum
China City Development Institute - academic organization
China Historical Geographic Information System (and Placename Search Engine)
01
China
city
China
.C
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|
214447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20order%20of%20precedence | Canadian order of precedence | The Canadian order of precedence is a nominal and symbolic hierarchy of important positions within the governing institutions of Canada. It has no legal standing but is used to dictate ceremonial protocol.
The Department of Canadian Heritage issues a Table of Precedence for Canada, which does not include members of the Royal Family, save for the sovereign, mentioned in a note as preceding the governor general. The Department of National Defence issues near identical guidelines, with the primary difference being the inclusion of members of the Canadian Royal Family, specifying that they take precedence after the governor general. The provinces and territories of Canada also have their own orders of precedence for events of a provincial or territorial nature. They serve the same purpose and are structured similarly, but place an emphasis on provincial or territorial offices.
All units of the Canadian Armed Forces also have an order of precedence that determines seniority; it often decides such matters as which unit forms up to the right (senior side) of other units on a ceremonial parade, or the order in which marches or calls are played at a mess dinner.
Queen of Canada ()
Governor General of Canada (Mary Simon)
Prime Minister of Canada ()
Chief Justice of Canada ()
Former Governors General of Canada in order of their departure from office:
Ed Schreyer (1979–1984)
Adrienne Clarkson (1999–2005)
Michaëlle Jean (2005–2010)
David Johnston (2010–2017)
Julie Payette (2017–2021)
Widows of Governors General of Canada (as former Viceregal Consorts of Canada):
Gerda Hnatyshyn, widow of Ray Hnatyshyn
Diana Fowler LeBlanc, widow of Roméo LeBlanc
Former Prime Ministers of Canada in order of their first assumption of office:
Joe Clark (1979–1980)
Brian Mulroney (1984–1993)
Kim Campbell (1993)
Jean Chrétien (1993–2003)
Paul Martin (2003–2006)
Stephen Harper (2006–2015)
Former Chief Justices of Canada, in order of their appointment
Beverly McLachlin (2000–2017)
Speaker of the Senate of Canada ()
Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada ()
Representatives to Canada of foreign governments
Ambassadors and High Commissioners come first, in order of the presentation of their credentials; then come Ministers Plenipotentiary, and then Chargés d'affaires.
Members of the Canadian Ministry
Members of the Cabinet:
The Table of Precedence for Canada prescribes that order of precedence within this group be determined in order of appointment to the Queen's Privy Council for Canada with ties broken by order of election to the House or appointment to the Senate. However, the current Canadian Ministry opted to used an alternative order that is determined by the Prime Minister.
Ministers of State
In order of appointment to the Queen's Privy Council for Canada with ties broken by order of election to the House or appointment to the Senate.
Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition ()
Lieutenant Governors of the provinces, in the order their province joined Confederation and by population at joining to break ties
Lieutenant Governor of Ontario ()
Lieutenant Governor of Quebec ()
Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia ()
Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick ()
Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba ()
Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia ()
Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island ()
Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan ()
Lieutenant Governor of Alberta ()
Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland and Labrador ()
All other Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada in order with the date of their appointment to the Privy Council, but with precedence given to those who bear the title "Right Honourable" in accordance with the date of receiving the honorary title.
List of current members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Premiers of the Provinces, in the order their province joined confederation and by population at joining to break ties
Premier of Ontario ()
Premier of Quebec ()
Premier of Nova Scotia (Tim Houston)
Premier of New Brunswick ()
Premier of Manitoba (Heather Stefanson)
Premier of British Columbia ()
Premier of Prince Edward Island ()
Premier of Saskatchewan ()
Premier of Alberta ()
Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador ()
Commissioners of the Territories
Commissioner of the Northwest Territories ()
Commissioner of Yukon ()
Commissioner of Nunavut (Eva Aariak)
Premiers of the Territories
Premier of the Northwest Territories ()
Premier of Yukon ()
Premier of Nunavut (P.J. Akeeagok)
Religious leaders, equally, by seniority
Limited to "senior Canadian representatives of faith communities having a significant presence in a relevant jurisdiction".
Puisne Judges of the Supreme Court
Superior court justices
Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Canada
Associate Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Canada
Chief Justices of the highest court of each province and territory in order of date of appointment as chief justice
Chief Justice of Ontario
Chief Justice of Quebec
Chief Justice of Nova Scotia
Chief Justice of New Brunswick
Chief Justice of Manitoba
Chief Justice of British Columbia and Yukon
Chief Justice of Prince Edward Island
Chief Justice of Saskatchewan
Chief Justice of Alberta, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut
Chief Justice of Newfoundland and Labrador
Chief Justices and Associate Chief Justices of other superior courts, in order of appointment as chief justice
Associate Chief Justice of Ontario
Chief Justice of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice
Associate Chief Justice of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice
Chief Justice of the Superior Court of Quebec
Senior Associate Chief Justice of the Superior Court of Quebec
Associate Chief Justice of the Superior Court of Quebec
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia
Associate Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia
Associate Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, Family Division
Chief Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench of New Brunswick
Chief Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench of Manitoba
Associate Chief Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench of Manitoba
Associate Chief Justice, Family Division, of the Court of Queen's Bench of Manitoba
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of British Columbia
Associate Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of British Columbia
Chief Justice of the Trial Division, Supreme Court of Prince Edward Island
Chief Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench for Saskatchewan
Chief Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench of Alberta
Associate Chief Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench of Alberta
Chief Justice of the Trial Division of the Supreme Court of Newfoundland
Senior Judge of the Supreme Court of the Northwest Territories
Senior Judge of the Supreme Court of the Yukon Territory
Senior Judge of the Nunavut Court of Justice
Federal and provincial superior court puisne justices
Senators
See List of current Canadian senators
Members of the House of Commons
See List of House members of the 43rd Parliament of Canada
Consuls General of Countries Without Diplomatic Representation
Clerk of the Privy Council and Secretary to Cabinet ()
Chief of the Defence Staff (Wayne Eyre)
Commissioner of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (Brenda Lucki)
Speakers of the Legislative Assemblies of the Provinces and Territories
Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario ()
President of the National Assembly of Quebec ()
Speaker of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly (Keith Bain)
Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick ()
Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba ()
Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia ()
Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island ()
Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan ()
Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta ()
Speaker of the Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly ()
Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories ()
Speaker of the Yukon Legislative Assembly ()
Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut ()
Members of the Executive Councils of the Provinces and Territories
Judges of Provincial and Territorial Courts
Members of the Legislative Assemblies of the Provinces and Territories
Chairperson of the Canadian Association of Former Parliamentarians
See also
Canadian order of precedence (decorations and medals)
Canadian Forces order of precedence
Politics of Canada
Removal from the Order of Canada
Footnotes
External links
Department of Canadian Heritage: Table of Precedence for Canada
The Honours, Flags and Heritage Structure of the Canadian Forces
Order of precedence, Canadian | [
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]
|
214449 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20and%20towns%20in%20Egypt | List of cities and towns in Egypt |
0-9
10th of Ramadan
15th of May
6th of October
A
Abu El Matamir
Abu Hummus
Abu Tesht
Akhmim
Al Khankah
Alexandria
Arish
Ashmoun
Aswan
Asyut
Awsim
B
Badr
Baltim
Banha
Basyoun
Biyala
Belqas
Beni Mazar
Beni Suef
Beni Ebeid
Biba
Bilbeis
Birket El Sab
Borg El Arab
Borg El Burullus
Bush
C
Cairo
D
Dahab
Dairut
Damanhur
Damietta
Dar El Salam
Daraw
Deir Mawas
Dekernes
Dendera
Desouk
Dishna
E
Edfu
Edku
El Alamein
El Arish
El Ayyat
El Badari
El Badrashein
El Bagour
El Balyana
El Basaliya
El Bayadiya
El Dabaa
El Delengath
El Fashn
El Gamaliya
El Ghanayem
El Hamool
El Hamam
El Hawamdeya
El Husseiniya
El Idwa
El Ibrahimiya
El Kanayat
El Kareen
El Mahalla El Kubra
El Mahmoudiyah
El Mansha
El Manzala
El Maragha
El Matareya
El Qantara
El Qanater El Khayreya
El Qoseir
El Qusiya
El Rahmaniya
El Reyad
El Rhoda
El Saff
El Santa
El Sarw
El Sebaiya
El Senbellawein
El Shohada
El Shorouk
El Tor
El Waqf
El Wasta
El Zarqa
Esna
Ezbet El Borg
F
Faqous
Faraskur
Farshut
Fayed
Faiyum
Fuka
G
Girga
Giza
H
Hihya
Hosh Essa
Hurghada
I
Ibsheway
Ihnasiya
Ismailia
Itay El Barud
Itsa
J
Juhayna
K
Kafr El Sheikh
Kafr El Zayat
Kafr El Batikh
Kafr El Dawwar
Kafr Saad
Kafr Saqr
Kafr Shukr
Kafr Zarqan
Kerdasa
Khanka
Kharga
Khusus
Kom Hamada
Kom Ombo
Kotoor
L
Luxor
M
Maghagha
Mallawi
Manfalut
Mansoura
Mashtool El Souk
Matai
Menouf
Marsa Alam
Mersa Matruh
Metoubes
Minya
Minyet El Nasr
Mit Abu El Kom
Mit Abu Ghaleb
Mit Adlan
Mit Bera
Mit El Korama
Mit Elwan
Mit Fadala
Mit Ghamr
Mit Kenana
Mit Rahina
Mit Salsil
Mit Sudan
Mit Yazid
Monsha'at El-Qanater
Mut
N
Nabaroh
Nag Hammadi
Naqada
New Administrative Capital (NAC)
New Alamein
New Aswan
New Akhmim
New Asyut
New Beni Suef
New Borg El Arab
New Cairo
New Damietta
New Faiyum
New Minya
New Nubariya
New Salhia
New Sohag
New Tiba
New Qena
O
Obour
P
Port Said
Q
Qaha
Qallin
Qalyub
Qena
Qift
Quesna
Qus
R
Rafah
Ras Burqa
Ras El Bar
Ras Gharib
Ras Sedr
Ras Shokeir
Rosetta
S
Sadat
Safaga
Sahel Selim
Saint Catherine
Samalut
Samanoud
Saqultah
Shubra Khit
Sers El Lyan
Sharm El Sheikh
Sherbin
Sheikh Zuweid
Shibin El Qanater
Shibin El Kom
Shubra El Kheima
Sidi Barrani
Sidi Salem
Sinnuris
Siwa Oasis
Sodfa
Sohag
Suez
Sumusta El Waqf
T
Tahta
Tala
Talkha
Tamiya
Tanta
Tell El Kebir
Tima
Tukh
W
Wadi El Natrun
Z
Zagazig
Zefta
Largest cities
* Cities that are part of Greater Cairo metropolitan area.
See also
List of towns and villages in Egypt
Geography of Egypt
Climate of Egypt
List of historical capitals of Egypt
List of metropolitan areas in Africa
List of largest cities in the Arab world
List of cities in Asia
Further reading
References
External links
Egypt's New Urban Communities
New Urban Communities Authority - Contact Page
Egypt, List of cities in
Cities in Egypt, List of
Egypt
Egypt
Egypt | [
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|
214452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20and%20towns%20in%20Greece | List of cities and towns in Greece | Two-thirds of the Greek people live in urban areas. Greece's largest metropolitan centers and most influential urban areas, are those of Athens and Thessaloniki with metropolitan populations of approximately four million and one million inhabitants respectively. The third largest city is Patras, with a metropolitan area of 273,984 inhabitants. The table below, using the Publication of Revised 2011 Census Tables about the final population, lists the largest cities in Greece, by population size and staff of 750.
Census-designated places
The lowest level of census-designated places in Greece are called oikismoi (settlements) and are the smallest continuous built-up areas with a toponym designated for the census. Although some urban CDPs form individual cities and towns (labeled in bold) the majority of them do not. They are either what make up the central districts, or suburbs (italicized), contained within the wider urban and metropolitan areas of Athens and Thessaloniki.
The list below presents every settlement (CDP) that is urban, with a population of more than 10,000 de jure (permanent) residents, using data collected from the 2011 census.
Explanation of the superscript numbers:
1 a suburb of the Athens urban area, in Athens’ agglomeration/conurbation
2 a suburb of the Thessaloniki urban area, in Thessaloniki’s agglomeration/conurbation
3 a suburb that belongs to Piraeus regional unit (Greater Piraeus), which is part of the Athens urban area.
4 a suburb of Athens' metropolitan area
5 a suburb of Thessaloniki's metropolitan area
6 a municipal unit of the Volos urban area, in Volos' agglomeration/conurbation
7 a municipal unit of the Heraklion urban area, in Heraklion's agglomeration/conurbation.
8 the core unit of Patras agglomeration/conurbation with population of 273,984
* The settlement (CDP) of Athens is the central district of the Athens urban area.
* The settlement (CDP) of Thessaloniki is the central district of the Thessaloniki urban area.
See also
Alphabetical list of municipalities and communities in Greece
List of ancient Greek cities
List of cities
List of cities in Europe
References
External links
Greek city guides
Greece
Cities
Greece
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|
214454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20towns%20in%20India%20by%20population | List of towns in India by population | The entire work of this article is based on Census of India, 2011, conducted by the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, under Ministry of Home Affairs (India), Government of India.
Categorization
Census of India (2011) states the following criteria in defining towns. They are:
Statutory Town (ST): All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee etc.
Census Town (CT): A Town according to Indian census is defined as
Abbreviations
Sources:
Abbreviation reference
A
See also
List of cities in India by population
Place names in India
Thakurnagar CT
References
External links
Indian Census
es:Localidades de la India
mk:Список на градови во Индија | [
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|
214460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20and%20towns%20in%20Jamaica | List of cities and towns in Jamaica | The following is a list of the most populous settlements in Jamaica.
Definitions
The following definitions have been used:
City: Official city status on a settlement is only conferred by Act of Parliament. Only three areas have the designation; Kingston when first incorporated in 1803 reflecting its early importance over the then capital Spanish Town, Montego Bay being granted the status in 1980, and Portmore, whose municipal council was given the city title in 2018. It is not necessarily based on population counts, and while a honorific title, can confer some increased autonomy.
Town/Village: The Statistical Institute of Jamaica considers an urban area to be any area with 2,000 or more residents. A town would generally be considered to be ranked as a higher populated urban area, and a village as a minor urban area.
Neighbourhood: Geographically obvious subdivisions of any of the above.
Cities and towns
Villages
Accompong (Saint Elizabeth)
Aeolus Valley (Saint Thomas)
Airy Castle (Saint Thomas)
Barking Lodge (Saint Thomas)
Berry Hill (Manchester)
Bog (Westmoreland)
Big Woods (Westmoreland)
Boscobel (Saint Mary)
Bull Bay (Saint Andrew)
Carmel (Westmoreland)
Cattawood Springs (Portland)
Clarendon Park (Clarendon)
Cotterwood (Saint Elizabeth)
Duckenfield (Saint Thomas)
Four Paths (Clarendon)
Haddersfield (Saint Mary)
Hagley Gap (Saint Thomas)
Hodges (Saint Elizabeth)
Hopewell Hall (Saint Thomas)
Hopewell (Clarendon)
Hopewell (Manchester)
Hopewell (Saint Andrew)
Hopewell (Saint Ann)
Hopewell (Saint Elizabeth)
Hopewell (Westmoreland)
Hopeton (Westmoreland)
Knockpatrick (Manchester)
Lloyds (Saint Thomas)
Long Wood (Saint Elizabeth)
Mavis Bank (Saint Andrew)
Meadsfield (Manchester)
Middle Quarters (Saint Elizabeth)
Mount Rosser (Saint Catherine)
Nanny Town (Portland)
New Holland (Saint Elizabeth)
New Market (Saint Elizabeth)
New Roads (Saint Elizabeth)
Newcastle (Saint Andrew)
Nine Mile (Saint Ann)
Old Pera (Saint Thomas)
Paynes Town (Saint Elizabeth)
Port Esquivel (Saint Catherine)
Port Morant (Saint Thomas)
Roxborough (Manchester)
San San (Portland)
Sheckles Pen (Clarendon)
Stonehenge (Saint James)
Walderston
White Hall (Saint Elizabeth)
Wood Hall (Saint Catherine)
Neighbourhoods
Kingston & St. Andrew
Barbican
Allerdyce
Cherry Gardens
Belgrade Mews
Smokey Vale
Constant Spring
Denham Town
Tivoli Gardens
Jones Town
Kencot
Allman Town
Rae Town
Downtown Kingston
Red Hills
Stony Hill
Mountain View
Forest Gardens
Forest Hills
Forest Hills Gardens
Duhaney Park
Patrick City
Patrick Gardens
Washington Gardens
Norbrook
Queen Hill
Meadowbrook
Meadowbrook Estates
Pembroke Hall
Half Way Tree
Eastwood Park Gardens
Harbour View
Port Royal
Liguanea
Mona
Ithaca
Papine
Kintyre
Beverley Hills
Long Mountain
New Kingston
Trafalgar Park
Hope Pastures
Jack's Hill
Riva Ridge
Cross Roads
Norbrook
Trenchtown
Riverton Meadows
Seaview Gardens
Callaloo Bed
New Haven
Waterhouse
Backto
Payne Land
Olympic Garden
Cockburn Gardens
Greenwich Town
Whitfield Town
Marverley
Pembrook Hall
Zaidie Gardens
Hughenden
Havendale
Molynes Gardens
Vineyard Town
Woodford Park
Franklyn Town
Eden Gardens
Bournemouth Gardens
Norman Gardens
August Town
College Common
Elletson Flats
See also
Demographics of Jamaica
References
External links
Origin of Jamaican Place names
Jamaica
Cities
City status | [
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|
214461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities%20of%20Japan | Cities of Japan | A is a local administrative unit in Japan. Cities are ranked on the same level as and , with the difference that they are not a component of . Like other contemporary administrative units ,they are defined by the Local Autonomy Law of 1947.
City status
Article 8 of the Local Autonomy Law sets the following conditions for a municipality to be designated as a city:
Population must generally be 50,000 or greater (原則として人口5万人以上)
At least 60% of households must be established in a central urban area (中心市街地の戸数が全戸数の6割以上)
At least 60% of households must be employed in commerce, industry or other urban occupations (商工業等の都市的業態に従事する世帯人口が全人口の6割以上)
Any other conditions set by prefectural ordinance must be satisfied (他に当該都道府県の条例で定める要件を満たしていること)
The designation is approved by the prefectural governor and the Minister for Internal Affairs and Communications.
A city can theoretically be demoted to a town or village when it fails to meet any of these conditions, but such a demotion has not happened to date. The least populous city, Utashinai, Hokkaido, has a population of three thousand, while a town in the same prefecture, Otofuke, Hokkaido, has over forty thousand.
Under the , the standard of 50,000 inhabitants for the city status has been eased to 30,000 if such population is gained as a result of a merger of towns and/or villages, in order to facilitate such mergers to reduce administrative costs. Many municipalities gained city status under this eased standard. On the other hand, the municipalities recently gained the city status purely as a result of increase of population without expansion of area are limited to those listed in List of former towns or villages gained city status alone in Japan.
Classifications for large cities
The Cabinet of Japan can designate cities of at least 200,000 inhabitants to have the status of core city, or designated city. These statuses expand the scope of administrative authority delegated from the prefectural government to the city government.
Status of Tokyo
Tokyo, Japan's capital, existed as a city until 1943, but is now legally classified as a special type of prefecture called a . The 23 special wards of Tokyo, which constitute the core of the Tokyo metropolitan area, each have an administrative status analogous to that of cities. Tokyo also has several other incorporated cities, towns and villages within its jurisdiction.
History
Cities were introduced under the "city code" (shisei, 市制) of 1888 during the "Great Meiji mergers" (Meiji no daigappei, 明治の大合併) of 1889. The -shi replaced the previous urban districts/"wards/cities" (-ku) that had existed as primary subdivisions of prefectures besides rural districts (-gun) since 1878. Initially, there were 39 cities in 1889: only one in most prefectures, two in a few (Yamagata, Toyama, Osaka, Hyōgo, Fukuoka), and none in some – Miyazaki became the last prefecture to contain its first city in 1924. In Okinawa-ken and Hokkai-dō which were not yet fully equal prefectures in the Empire, major urban settlements remained organized as urban districts until the 1920s: Naha-ku and Shuri-ku, the two urban districts of Okinawa were only turned into Naha-shi and Shuri-shi in May 1921, and six -ku of Hokkaidō were converted into district-independent cities in August 1922.
By 1945, the number of cities countrywide had increased to 205. After WWII, their number almost doubled during the "great Shōwa mergers" of the 1950s and continued to grow so that it surpassed the number of towns in the early 21st century (see the List of mergers and dissolutions of municipalities in Japan). As of October 1 2018, there are 792 cities of Japan.
See also
Administrative division
Urban area
List of cities in Japan
References
External links
Directory of current Japanese city leaders and outline of system (2012)
"Japan's Evolving Nested Municipal Hierarchy: The Race for Local Power in the 2000s," by A.J. Jacobs at Urban Studies Research, Vol. 2011 (2011); doi:10.1155/2011/692764
"Large City System of Japan"; graphic shows Japanese city types at p. 1 [PDF 7 of 40] | [
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|
214462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20Kenya | List of cities in Kenya | This is a list of cities and towns in Kenya.
Cities and towns in Kenya
Baragoi
Bungoma
Busia
Butere
Dadaab
Diani Beach
Eldoret
Emali
Embu
Garissa
Gede
Hola
Homa Bay
Isiolo
Kitui
Kibwezi
Kajiado
Kakamega
Kakuma
Kapenguria
Kericho
Keroka
Kiambu
Kilifi
Kisii
Kisumu
Kitale
Lamu
Langata
Litein
Lodwar
Lokichoggio
Londiani
Loyangalani
Machakos
Makindu
Malindi
Mandera
Maralal
Marsabit
Meru
Mombasa
Moyale
Mumias
Muranga
Mutomo
Nairobi
Naivasha
Nakuru
Namanga
Nanyuki
Naro Moru
Narok
Nyahururu
Nyeri
Ruiru
Shimoni
Takaungu
Thika
Vihiga
Voi
Wajir
Watamu
Webuye
Wote
Wundanyi
See also
List of cities and towns in Kenya by population
Local authorities of Kenya
History of Kenya
List of cities in East Africa
References
Cities
Kenya
Kenya | [
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|
214463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20Mexico | List of cities in Mexico | This is a list of the Top 100 cities in Mexico by fixed population, according to the 2020 Mexican National Census.
According to Mexico's National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI), a locality is "any place settled with one or more dwellings, which may or may not be inhabited, and which is known by a name given by law or tradition". Urban localities are those with more than 2,500 residents, which can be designated as cities, villages or towns according to the laws of each state. The National Urban System, compiled by the National Population Council (CONAPO) in 2018, identifies 401 urban localities in Mexico with more than 15,000 residents as "cities".
This list does not consider the entire population of metropolitan areas and is limited by political boundaries within each municipality or state. To see the full cities of Mexico go to Metropolitan areas of Mexico.
Top 100 cities by population
Only one state (Tlaxcala) has no cities in the Top 100. Mexico City contains all of the federal entity's area, including rural areas with relatively small populations. All of the map links are of the same scale.
‡ These cities extend beyond the borders of a single municipality.
Distribution
For the Top 100 cities, the following distributions hold as of the 2020 Census.
The total population is 57,930,969, 45.97% of Mexico's total.
The mean city population is 579,310. The median city in population is Villahermosa.
The mean city growth from 2010 to 2020 is 20.77%, compared to a national growth of 12.17%. The median city in population growth is Ixtapaluca.
See also
List of most populous cities in Mexico by decade
List of municipalities in Mexico by population
Metropolitan areas of Mexico
Demographics of Mexico
References
External links
National Population Council (CONAPO) — official website.
National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) — official website.
Main Cities to Visit in Mexico —
Towns of Mexico — List with all the small villages, towns and cities in Mexico
Mexico
Mexico
Cities
Mexico
Subdivisions of Mexico | [
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|
214467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20and%20towns%20in%20Romania | List of cities and towns in Romania | This is a list of cities and towns in Romania, ordered by population (largest to smallest) according to the 2002 and 2011 censuses. For the major cities, average altitude is also given. Cities in bold are county capitals. The list includes major cities with the status of municipiu (103 in total), as well as towns with the status of oraș (217 in total).
Romania has 1 city with more than 1 million residents (Bucharest with 1,883,425 people), 19 cities with more than 100,000 residents, and 178 towns with more than 10,000 residents.
Complete list
See also
List of cities in Europe
List of city listings by country
References
Cities in Romania
Towns in Romania
Romania 2
Romania
Romania
Cities | [
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|
214468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20Serbia | List of cities in Serbia | This is the list of cities and towns in Serbia, according to the criteria used by Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, which classifies the settlements into urban and rural, depending not only on size, but also on other administrative and legal criteria. Also villages with the municipal rights have been added to the list.
Organization
Cities
Cities in administrative sense are defined by the Law on Territorial Organization. The territory with the city status usually has more than 100,000 inhabitants, but is otherwise very similar to municipality. They enjoy a special status of autonomy and self-government, as they have their own civic parliaments and executive branches, as well as mayor (, plural: ) is elected through popular vote, elected by their citizens in local elections. Also, the presidents of the municipalities are often referred to as "mayors" in everyday usage. There are 29 cities (, singular: ), each having an assembly and budget of its own.
As with a municipality, the territory of a city is composed of a city proper and surrounding villages (e.g. the territory of the City of Subotica is composed of the Subotica town and surrounding villages). The capital Belgrade is the only city on the level of a district. All other cities are on the municipality level and are part of a district.
City municipalities
The city may or may not be divided into city municipalities. Five cities (Belgrade, Niš, Požarevac, Vranje and Užice) comprise several city municipalities. Competences of cities and city municipalities are divided. The city municipalities of these six cities also have their assemblies and other prerogatives. The largest city municipality by number of residents is New Belgrade (214,506 inhabitants).
The city of Kragujevac had its own city municipalities from 2002 until 2008, when they were abolished. Novi Sad used to be formally divided into city municipalities of Novi Sad and Petrovaradin, but in March 2019 a new city statute was adopted, abolishing any separate municipalities. In 2013, the city municipality of Sevojno within the city of Užice was established.
List of the cities
The following cities have official administrative city rights:
Belgrade
Bor
Čačak
Jagodina
Kikinda
Kraljevo
Kragujevac
Kruševac
Leskovac
Loznica
Novi Pazar
Novi Sad
Niš
Pančevo
Pirot
Požarevac
Prokuplje
Smederevo
Sombor
Sremska Mitrovica
Subotica
Šabac
Užice
Valjevo
Vranje
Vršac
Zaječar
Zrenjanin
List of cities and municipalities
This is a list of cities and municipalities (excluding city municipalities) in Serbia, as defined by the Law on territorial organisation The data on population is taken from the 2011 census.
It does not include municipalities in Kosovo created by the UNMIK after 1999. The census was not conducted in Kosovo, which was under administration of UNMIK, so the population numbers are not given for the municipalities in Kosovo.
According to the statistic criteria, the settlements in the table are classified as "urban" (i.e. cities and towns), as opposed to "rural" (villages). These criteria are not limited to the settlement size, but also include the percentage of residents engaged in agriculture, population density etc. Thus, not all towns in statistical sense are greater than villages, and they are not always municipality centers. Note that the population of the city municipalities of some cities were not presented as unique, but united in the city population.
Cities and municipalities
Bold: Cities in administrative sense
Cities and municipalities in Kosovo
See also
Administrative divisions of Serbia
Districts of Serbia
Municipalities and cities of Serbia
Cities, towns and villages in Vojvodina
Populated places in Serbia
Notes and references
Notes
The city of Belgrade consists of 17 city municipalities.
The city of Novi Sad consists of two city municipalities: Novi Sad and Petrovaradin.
The city of Niš consists of five city municipalities: Medijana, Palilula, Pantelej, Crveni Krst and Niška Banja.
The city of Vranje consists of two city municipalities: City municipality of Vranje and Vranjska Banja.
The city of Užice consists of two city municipalities: City municipality of Užice and Sevojno
The city of Požarevac consists of two city municipalities: City municipality of Požarevac and Kostolac.
References
External links
Populated places in Serbia
Serbia
Cities
Serbia | [
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|
214469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication | Replication | Replication may refer to:
Science
Replication (scientific method), one of the main principles of the scientific method, a.k.a. reproducibility
Replication (statistics), the repetition of a test or complete experiment
Replication crisis
Self-replication, the process in which an entity (a cell, virus, program, etc.) makes a copy of itself
DNA replication or DNA synthesis, the process of copying a double-stranded DNA molecule
Semiconservative replication, mechanism of DNA replication
Viral replication, the process by which viruses produce copies of themselves
Replication (metallography), the use of thin plastic films to duplicate the microstructure of a component
Self-replicating machines
Computing
Replication (computing), the use of redundant resources to improve reliability, fault-tolerance, or performance
Replication (optical media), the manufacture of CDs and DVDs by means other than burning writable discs
See also
Replicator (disambiguation) | [
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|
214471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20and%20towns%20in%20Slovenia | List of cities and towns in Slovenia | There are 69 towns in Slovenia. According to the Local Self-Government Act of the Republic of Slovenia, a town is a larger urban settlement with more than 3,000 residents and differing from other settlements in its size, economical structure, population, population density and historical development. A settlement acquires the status of town through a decision of the Government of Slovenia. Until 2005, the decision was made by the National Assembly of Slovenia.
List of all towns in Slovenia
Numbers are based on the statistics from the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia.
References
External links
Slovenia
Slovenia
Cities and towns
Slovenia | [
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|
214472 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20Uruguay | List of cities in Uruguay | The list of cities in Uruguay is a list of all populated centres of Uruguay that have received the status of "Ciudad" (City). There are several populated places that have not received this status, with a population below 10,000 but as big as that of many cities. The ranks shown are only among cities and not including their wider metropolitan areas.
List
The year given is not the year of foundation but that of the acquisition of "City" status. If this status was obtained on an unknown date before the Independence of Uruguay, the foundation year is given in parentheses, or the date it was declared a "Villa" (Town) followed by an asterisk*.
* According to the INE, during the 2011 census, the population Paso de Carrasco and some barrios not belonging to the municipality of Ciudad de la Costa were counted as part of the city. This would bring its population to 112,447. However, Wikipedia takes the number 95,178 as the one reflecting the population of what is officially defined as "Ciudad de la Costa" and which coincides with the limits of the municipality of the same name.
Source: National Institute of Statistics of Uruguay
See also
List of populated places in Uruguay
Municipalities of Uruguay
References
External links
Uruguay, List of cities in
Uruguay
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|
214473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20order%20of%20precedence | United States order of precedence | The United States order of precedence is an advisory document maintained by the Ceremonials Division of the Office of the Chief of Protocol of the United States which lists the ceremonial order, or relative preeminence, for domestic and foreign government officials (military and civilian) at diplomatic, ceremonial, and social events within the United States and abroad. The list is used to mitigate miscommunication and embarrassment in diplomacy, and offer a distinct and concrete spectrum of preeminence for ceremonies. Often the document is used to advise diplomatic and ceremonial event planners on seating charts and order of introduction. Former presidents, vice presidents, first ladies, second ladies, and secretaries of state and retired Supreme Court justices are also included in the list.
The order is established by the president, through the Office of the Chief of Staff, and is maintained by the State Department's Office of the Chief of Protocol. It is only used to indicate ceremonial protocol and has no legal standing; it does not reflect the presidential line of succession or the co-equal status of the branches of government under the Constitution. The Office of the Chief of Protocol posted an updated order of precedence on October 30, 2020.
Details as of February 18, 2022
Except as otherwise noted, positions in the list are from the following source.
President of the United States (Joe Biden)
Vice President of the United States (Kamala Harris)
Governor of a state – when in own state
Speaker of the House of Representatives (Nancy Pelosi)
Chief Justice of the United States (John Roberts)
Former presidents of the United States or their widows/widowers (by seniority of assuming office):
Jimmy Carter (January 20, 1977 – January 20, 1981)
Bill Clinton (January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001)
George W. Bush (January 20, 2001 – January 20, 2009)
Barack Obama (January 20, 2009 – January 20, 2017)
Donald Trump (January 20, 2017 – January 20, 2021)
Former vice presidents of the United States or their widows/widowers (by seniority of assuming office):
Dan Quayle (January 20, 1989 – January 20, 1993)
Al Gore (January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001)
Dick Cheney (January 20, 2001 – January 20, 2009)
Mike Pence (January 20, 2017 – January 20, 2021)
American Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to foreign governments – when at post
American Ambassadors, Permanent Representatives or Representatives to International Organizations who hold Chief of Mission authority – when at post
American Chargé d’Affaires ad interim – when at post
Secretary of State (Antony Blinken)
President, United Nations General Assembly – when in session (Abdulla Shahid)
Secretary-General of the United Nations – when at the United Nations (António Guterres)
President, United Nations General Assembly – when not in session
Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of foreign diplomatic missions to the United States (in order of presentation of credentials to the President of the United States)
Associate Justices of the Supreme Court (ranked by date of appointment):
Clarence Thomas (October 18, 1991)
Stephen Breyer (August 3, 1994)
Samuel Alito (January 31, 2006)
Sonia Sotomayor (August 8, 2009)
Elena Kagan (August 7, 2010)
Neil Gorsuch (April 8, 2017)
Brett Kavanaugh (October 6, 2018)
Amy Coney Barrett (October 27, 2020)
Retired Chief Justices of the United States (ranked by date of appointment; currently none)
Retired Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, unless they resigned (ranked by date of appointment):
Sandra Day O'Connor (September 25, 1981 – January 31, 2006)
Anthony Kennedy (February 18, 1988 – July 31, 2018)
David Souter (October 9, 1990 – June 29, 2009)
The Cabinet (other than Secretary of State), ranked according to the date of establishment of the department, as added by the president, as follows:
Secretary of the Treasury (Janet Yellen)
Secretary of Defense (Lloyd Austin)
Attorney General (Merrick Garland)
Secretary of the Interior (Deb Haaland)
Secretary of Agriculture (Tom Vilsack)
Secretary of Commerce (Gina Raimondo)
Secretary of Labor (Marty Walsh)
Secretary of Health and Human Services (Xavier Becerra)
Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (Marcia Fudge)
Secretary of Transportation (Pete Buttigieg)
Secretary of Energy (Jennifer Granholm)
Secretary of Education (Miguel Cardona)
Secretary of Veterans Affairs (Denis McDonough)
Secretary of Homeland Security (Alejandro Mayorkas)
Administrator, Environmental Protection Agency (Michael S. Regan)
Director, Office of Management and Budget (Shalanda Young) (Acting)
Director of National Intelligence (Avril Haines)
United States Trade Representative (Katherine Tai)
Ambassador to the United Nations (Linda Thomas-Greenfield)
Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers (Cecilia Rouse)
Administrator, Small Business Administration (Isabel Guzman)
Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy (Vacant)
White House Chief of Staff (Ron Klain)
President pro tempore of the U.S. Senate (Patrick Leahy)
Senate Majority Leader (Chuck Schumer)
Senate Minority Leader (Mitch McConnell)
Senate Majority Whip (Dick Durbin)
Senate Minority Whip (John Thune)
Senators (by length of service; if the same, by the state's date of admission into the Union or alphabetically by state)
Governors of states – when outside their own states (Relative precedence among governors, all of whom are outside their own state, is determined by each states's date of admission into the Union or alphabetically by state)
Governor of Delaware (John Carney)
Governor of Pennsylvania (Tom Wolf)
Governor of New Jersey (Phil Murphy)
Governor of Georgia (Brian Kemp)
Governor of Connecticut (Ned Lamont)
Governor of Massachusetts (Charlie Baker)
Governor of Maryland (Larry Hogan)
Governor of South Carolina (Henry McMaster)
Governor of New Hampshire (Chris Sununu)
Governor of Virginia (Glenn Youngkin)
Governor of New York (Kathy Hochul)
Governor of North Carolina (Roy Cooper)
Governor of Rhode Island (Daniel McKee)
Governor of Vermont (Phil Scott)
Governor of Kentucky (Andy Beshear)
Governor of Tennessee (Bill Lee)
Governor of Ohio (Mike DeWine)
Governor of Louisiana (John Bel Edwards)
Governor of Indiana (Eric Holcomb)
Governor of Mississippi (Tate Reeves)
Governor of Illinois (J. B. Pritzker)
Governor of Alabama (Kay Ivey)
Governor of Maine (Janet Mills)
Governor of Missouri (Mike Parson)
Governor of Arkansas (Asa Hutchinson)
Governor of Michigan (Gretchen Whitmer)
Governor of Florida (Ron DeSantis)
Governor of Texas (Greg Abbott)
Governor of Iowa (Kim Reynolds)
Governor of Wisconsin (Tony Evers)
Governor of California (Gavin Newsom)
Governor of Minnesota (Tim Walz)
Governor of Oregon (Kate Brown)
Governor of Kansas (Laura Kelly)
Governor of West Virginia (Jim Justice)
Governor of Nevada (Steve Sisolak)
Governor of Nebraska (Pete Ricketts)
Governor of Colorado (Jared Polis)
Governor of North Dakota (Doug Burgum)
Governor of South Dakota (Kristi Noem)
Governor of Montana (Greg Gianforte)
Governor of Washington (Jay Inslee)
Governor of Idaho (Brad Little)
Governor of Wyoming (Mark Gordon)
Governor of Utah (Spencer Cox)
Governor of Oklahoma (Kevin Stitt)
Governor of New Mexico (Michelle Lujan Grisham)
Governor of Arizona (Doug Ducey)
Governor of Alaska (Mike Dunleavy)
Governor of Hawaii (David Ige)
House Majority Leader (Steny Hoyer)
House Minority Leader (Kevin McCarthy)
House Majority Whip (Jim Clyburn)
House Minority Whip (Steve Scalise)
Members of the House of Representatives (by length of service; if the same, by the states's date of admission into the Union or alphabetically by state)
Delegates or Resident Commissioners to the House of Representatives (non-voting members) from Territory of American Samoa, District of Columbia, Territory of Guam, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and United States Virgin Islands (by length of service)
Eleanor Holmes Norton of the District of Columbia (January 3, 1991)
Amata Coleman Radewagen of American Samoa (January 3, 2015)
Stacey Plaskett of the US Virgin Islands (January 3, 2015)
Jenniffer González of Puerto Rico (January 3, 2017)
Michael San Nicolas of Guam (January 3, 2019)
Governors of Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Territory of Guam, Territory of American Samoa, United States Virgin Islands, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (ordered by territory's date of entering U.S. jurisdiction or alphabetically by territory):
Governor of Puerto Rico (Pedro Pierluisi)
Governor of Guam (Lou Leon Guerrero)
Governor of American Samoa (Lemanu Peleti Mauga)
Governor of the US Virgin Islands (Albert Bryan)
Governor of the Northern Mariana Islands (Ralph Torres)
White House deputy chiefs of staff (ranked by date of appointment):
Jen O'Malley Dillon (January 20, 2021)
Bruce Reed (January 20, 2021)
National Security Advisor (Jake Sullivan)
Senior advisors to the President (ordered by appointment):
Mike Donilon (January 20, 2021)
Cedric Richmond (January 20, 2021)
Gene Sperling (March 15, 2021)
Neera Tanden (May 17, 2021)
Mitch Landrieu (November 15, 2021)
Chief of Staff to the Spouse of the President (Vacant)
Chief of Staff to the Vice President (Hartina Flournoy)
Assistants to the President (ordered by appointment; excluding those already listed above)
Kate Bedingfield (January 20, 2021)
Anthony Bernal (January 20, 2021)
Brian Deese (January 20, 2021)
Anne Filipic (January 20, 2021)
Jonathan Finer (January 20, 2021)
Gina McCarthy (January 20, 2021)
Jen Psaki (January 20, 2021)
Dana Remus (January 20, 2021)
Steve Ricchetti (January 20, 2021)
Susan Rice (January 20, 2021)
Elizabeth Sherwood-Randall (January 20, 2021)
Louisa Terrell (January 20, 2021)
Annie Tomasini (January 20, 2021)
Jeffrey Zients (January 20, 2021)
Gautam Raghavan (January 31, 2022)
Chair of the Council on Environmental Quality (Brenda Mallory)
Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy (Rahul Gupta)
Chief of Protocol (Rufus Gifford) - when with the president or for a White House event
Ambassadors from the United States to international organizations who do not hold Chief of Mission authority (when at post)
Chargés d'affaires to the United States (ordered by assumption of office)
Former secretaries of state (ordered by term):
Henry Kissinger (September 22, 1973 – January 20, 1977)
James Baker (January 20, 1989 – August 23, 1992)
Madeleine Albright (January 23, 1997 – January 20, 2001)
Condoleezza Rice (January 26, 2005 – January 20, 2009)
Hillary Clinton (January 21, 2009 – February 1, 2013) (note that Hillary Clinton would appear above when in attendance with her husband, former president Bill Clinton)
John Kerry (February 1, 2013 – January 20, 2017)
Rex Tillerson (February 1, 2017 – March 31, 2018)
Mike Pompeo (April 26, 2018 – January 20, 2021)
Former members of the U.S. Cabinet (ordered by term, who don't already rank higher)
Former U.S. senators (ordered by leadership position, then by term; if same, then by date of statehood or ratification of the Constitution, who don't already rank higher)
Former governors of the state or territory in which the event is held (ordered by term, who don't already rank higher)
Former governors (of states other than the state in which the event is held, by date of statehood or ratification of the Constitution, who don't already rank higher)
Former U.S. representatives (ordered by leadership position, then by term; if same, then by date of statehood or ratification of the Constitution, who don't already rank higher)
Deputy secretaries of executive departments (in the order of the creation of the respective departments or presidential appointment as for Cabinet above):
Deputy Secretary of State (Wendy Sherman)
Deputy Secretary of State for Management and Resources (Brian P. McKeon)
Deputy Secretary of the Treasury (Wally Adeyemo)
Deputy Secretary of Defense (Kathleen Hicks)
Deputy Attorney General (Lisa Monaco)
Deputy Secretary of the Interior (Tommy Beaudreau)
Deputy Secretary of Agriculture (Jewel H. Bronaugh)
Deputy Secretary of Commerce (Don Graves)
Deputy Secretary of Labor (Julie Su)
Deputy Secretary of Health and Human Services (Andrea Palm)
Deputy Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (Adrianne Todman)
Deputy Secretary of Transportation (Polly Trottenberg)
Deputy Secretary of Energy (David Turk)
Deputy Secretary of Education (Cindy Marten)
Deputy Secretary of Veterans Affairs (Donald Remy)
Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security (John Tien)
Deputy Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (Janet McCabe)
Deputy Director of the Office of Management and Budget (Shalanda Young)
Deputy Ambassador to the United Nations (Rich Mills)
Deputy trade representatives:
Jayme White
Sarah Bianchi
Deputy Administrator of the Small Business Administration (Vacant)
Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence (Stacey Dixon)
Secretaries of the military departments (by creation order of branch):
Secretary of the Army (Christine Wormuth)
Secretary of the Navy (Carlos Del Toro)
Secretary of the Air Force (Frank Kendall III)
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (Mark A. Milley)
Chairman of the Federal Reserve (Jerome Powell)
Commissioner of the Social Security Administration (Kilolo Kijakazi) (Acting)
Heads of independent federal agencies at Level II of the Executive Schedule (ordered by creation date, if same, then by term)
Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (William Joseph Burns)
Director of the National Science Foundation (Sethuraman Panchanathan)
Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Bill Nelson) (also a former U.S. Senator, which ranks higher in precedence)
Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development (Samantha Power)
Chairman of the Administrative Conference of the United States (Matthew L. Wiener) (Acting)
Chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (Christopher T. Hanson)
Director of the United States Office of Personnel Management (Kiran Ahuja)
Chief Executive Officer of the Millennium Challenge Corporation (Sean Cairncross)
Director of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (Dave Uejio) (Acting)
CEO of the U.S. International Development Finance Corporation (Dev Jagadesan) (Acting)
Vice-chair and governors of the Federal Reserve (by length of service)
Lael Brainard
Michelle Bowman
Christopher Waller
3 seats vacant
Deputy Commissioner of the Social Security Administration (David Black)
Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (David S. Cohen)
Principal Deputy Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy (Vacant)
Director of the National Counterterrorism Center (Christine Abizaid)
Deputy heads of independent federal agencies at Level II of the Executive Schedule (ordered by creation date, if same, then by term)
Under secretaries of state and departmental positions of equivalent rank (ordered by departmental line of succession)
Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Victoria Nuland)
Under Secretary of State for Management (John R. Bass)
Remaining under secretaries of state, ordered by date of appointment:
Counselor of the United States Department of State (Derek Chollet) (January 20, 2021)
Under Secretary of State for Civilian Security, Democracy, and Human Rights (Uzra Zeya) (July 13, 2021)
Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security Affairs (Bonnie Jenkins) (July 21, 2021)
Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment (Jose W. Fernandez) (August 6, 2021)
Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs (Jennifer Hall Godfrey) (January 20, 2021) (Acting)
Under secretaries of executive departments and departmental positions of equivalent rank, Treasurer of the United States, associate attorneys general, and Solicitor General (ordered as Cabinet above and then by departmental line of succession)
Heads of federal departmental agencies (ordered as Cabinet above and then as by departmental line of succession). This includes the directors of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the U.S. Secret Service, the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, Customs and Border Protection, and Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Former chairs of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (ordered by term)
Hugh Shelton (October 1, 1997 – October 1, 2001)
Richard Myers (October 1, 2001 – October 1, 2005)
Peter Pace (October 1, 2005 – October 1, 2007)
Michael Mullen (October 1, 2007 – October 1, 2011)
Martin Dempsey (October 1, 2011 – October 1, 2015)
Joseph Dunford (October 1, 2015 – October 1, 2019)
Vice Chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (Christopher W. Grady)
Joint chiefs of staff (ordered by appointment):
Commandant of the Marine Corps (David H. Berger) (July 11, 2019)
Chief of Staff of the Army (James C. McConville) (August 9, 2019)
Chief of Naval Operations (Michael M. Gilday) (August 22, 2019)
Chief of Space Operations (John W. Raymond) (December 20, 2019)
Chief of Staff of the Air Force (Charles Q. Brown) (August 6, 2020)
Chief of the National Guard Bureau (Daniel R. Hokanson)
Commandant of the Coast Guard (Karl L. Schultz)
Combatant commanders of the Unified Combatant Commands of four-star grade (ordered by appointment):
Cyber Command (Paul M. Nakasone) (May 4, 2018)
Central Command (Kenneth F. McKenzie, Jr.) (March 28, 2019)
Special Operations Command (Richard D. Clarke) (March 29, 2019)
European Command (Tod D. Wolters) (May 2, 2019)
Africa Command (Stephen J. Townsend) (July 26, 2019)
Strategic Command (Charles A. Richard) (November 18, 2019)
Northern Command (Glen D. VanHerck) (August 20, 2020)
Space Command (James H. Dickinson) (August 20, 2020)
Indo-Pacific Command (John C. Aquilino) (April 30, 2021)
Transportation Command (Jacqueline Van Ovost) (October 15, 2021)
Southern Command (Laura J. Richardson) (October 29, 2021)
Heads of independent federal agencies at Level III of the Executive Schedule (ordered by creation date, if same, then by term)
Deputy heads of independent federal agencies at Level III of the Executive Schedule (ordered by creation date, if same, then by term)
Postmaster General (Louis DeJoy)
Lieutenant governor (of the state in which the event is held)
Mayor (of the city in which the event is held)
Heads of international organizations when not at post (ranked by date of establishment)
Ambassadors or permanent representatives of foreign governments accredited to international organizations headquartered in the United States
Ambassadors from the United States to foreign governments (on official business in the United States or another country)
Chief of Protocol (when at the Department of State or at events outside the White House, otherwise appears above)
Ambassadors from the United States to international organizations who hold Chief of Mission authority (on official business in the United States or another country)
Ambassadors from the United States to international organizations who do not hold Chief of Mission authority (on official business in the United States or another country)
Career ambassadors
Deputy Assistants to the President (ordered by appointment)
Chief judges and circuit judges of the United States Courts of Appeals (by length of service)
Chief judges and district judges of the United States District Courts (by length of service)
Chief Judge and judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces (by length of service)
Kevin A. Ohlson (November 1, 2013)
John E. Sparks (April 19, 2016)
Gregory E. Maggs (January 29, 2018)
Liam P. Hardy (December 8, 2020)
1 seat vacant
Chief Judge and judges of the United States Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims (by length of service)
Coral Wong Pietsch (June 28, 2012)
Margaret Bartley (June 28, 2012)
William S. Greenberg (December 28, 2012)
Michael P. Allen (August 3, 2017)
Amanda Meredith (August 3, 2017)
Joseph Toth (August 3, 2017)
Joseph L. Falvey Jr. (May 2018)
Scott J. Laurer (August 2020)
Grant C. Jaquith (September 3, 2020)
Chief Judge and judges of the United States Tax Court (by length of service)
Chargés d'affaires from the United States (ordered by assumption of office)
Under secretaries of the Army, Navy, and Air Force (ordered by date of appointment)
Under Secretary of the Air Force (Gina Ortiz Jones) (July 26, 2021)
Under Secretary of the Navy (Meredith Berger) (August 25, 2021) (Acting)
Under Secretary of the Army (Gabe Camarillo) (February 8, 2022)
Assistant secretaries (ordered as Cabinet above and then as by departmental line of succession)
Chiefs of staff to heads of executive departments (ordered as Cabinet above and then as by departmental line of succession)
Ambassadors-at-large (ordered as Cabinet above and then as by departmental line of succession)
Special envoys/representatives (ordered as Cabinet above and then as by departmental line of succession)
Assistant Attorneys General (ordered by departmental line of succession)
Legal advisers of executive departments (ordered as Cabinet above and then as by departmental line of succession)
Special Assistants to the President, including senior directors of the National Security Council (ranked by date of appointment)
White House Social Secretary (Carlos Elizondo)
Heads of independent federal agencies at Level IV of the Executive Schedule (ordered by creation date, if same, then by term)
Director of the Selective Service System (Vacant)
Chairman of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (Jelena McWilliams)
Chairman of the United States Commission on Civil Rights (Catherine E. Lhamon)
Chairman of the Postal Regulatory Commission (Michael M. Kubayanda)
President of the Inter-American Foundation (Paloma Adams-Allen)
Commissioner of the Office of Navajo and Hopi Indian Relocation (Christopher J. Bavasi)
Chairman of the Federal Election Commission (Shana M. Broussard)
Chairman of the Federal Labor Relations Authority (Ernest W. DuBester)
Special Counsel of the Office of Special Counsel (Henry Kerner)
Director of the Court Services and Offender Supervision Agency (Richard S. Tischner)
Chairperson of the Chemical Safety Board (Katherine A. Lemos)
CEO of the Broadcasting Board of Governors and Director of the International Broadcasting Bureau (Kelu Chao) (Acting)
Chairman of the Election Assistance Commission (Donald L. Palmer)
Deputy Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (Paul Abbate)
Deputy heads of independent federal agencies at Level IV of the Executive Schedule (ordered by creation date, if same, then by term)
Assistant administrators of the Environmental Protection Agency
Assistant administrators of the United States Agency for International Development
Assistant trade representatives
Associate administrators of the Small Business Administration
Comptroller General of the United States (Gene Dodaro)
Members of the Council of Economic Advisers (ranked alphabetically)
Members of the Council on Environmental Quality (ranked alphabetically)
American ambassadors-designate (in the United States)
Mayors of U.S. cities (when not in own city; if multiple mayors present, rank by length of service)
Mayor of the District of Columbia (Muriel Bowser) (when not in own city)
Mayors of U.S. territories (when not in own city)
Vice chiefs of staff (ordered by appointment):
Vice Chief of Staff of the Army (Joseph M. Martin) (July 26, 2019)
Vice Chief of Naval Operations (William K. Lescher) (May 29, 2020)
Vice Chief of Space Operations (David D. Thompson) (October 2, 2020)
Vice Chief of Staff of the Air Force (David W. Allvin) (November 16, 2020)
Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps (Eric M. Smith) (October 8, 2021)
Vice Chief of the National Guard Bureau (Marc H. Sasseville)
Vice Commandant of the Coast Guard (Linda L. Fagan)
Assistant secretaries and general counsels of the Department of the Army, Navy, and Air Force (by date of appointment)
General Counsel of the Army (James E. McPherson) (January 2, 2018) (Acting)
Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Manpower & Reserve Affairs) (John A. Fedrigo) (Acting) (December 27, 2019)
General Counsel of the Navy (Garrett L. Ressing) (Acting) (January 20, 2021)
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research, Development and Acquisition) (Frederick Stefany) (January 20, 2021) (Acting)
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Financial Management and Comptroller) (Alaleh Jenkins) (January 20, 2021) (Acting)
Assistant Secretary of the Army for Acquisition, Logistics, and Technology (Douglas R. Bush) (January 21, 2021) (Acting)
Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Financial Management & Comptroller) (Stephen Herrera) (January 20, 2021) (Acting)
General Counsel of the Air Force (Craig Smith) (January 20, 2021) (Acting)
Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Installations, Environment & Energy) (Jennifer Miller) (January 14, 2021) (Acting)
Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Acquisition) (Darlene Costello) (January 20, 2021) (Acting)
Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works) (Jaime A. Pinkham) (February 24, 2021) (Acting)
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Manpower and Reserve Affairs) (Catherine L. Kessmeier) (January 20, 2021) (Acting)
Assistant Secretary of the Army (Installations, Energy and Environment) (J. E. Surash) (January 20, 2021) (Acting)
Assistant Secretary of the Army (Manpower and Reserve Affairs) (Mark R. Lewis) (January 20, 2021) (Acting)
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Energy, Installations and Environment) Meredith Berger (August 5, 2021)
Assistant Secretary of the Army (Financial Management and Comptroller) (Caral Spangler) (August 17, 2021)
Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Space Acquisition and Integration (Steven P. Whitney) (Acting) (August 24, 2021)
Four-star military officers (in order of seniority: retired officers rank with but after active-duty officers)
Executive Secretary of the National Security Council (Joan Virginia O'Hara)
Officers of the U.S. Senate:
Chaplain (Barry Black)
Secretary for the Majority (Gary B. Myrick)
Secretary for the Minority (Robert M. Duncan)
Secretary of the Senate (Sonceria Berry)
Sergeant at Arms (Karen Gibson)
Parliamentarian (Elizabeth MacDonough)
Officers of the U.S. House of Representatives:
Chaplain (Margaret G. Kibben)
Chief Administrative Officer (Catherine Szpindor)
Clerk of the House (Cheryl L. Johnson)
Sergeant at Arms (William J. Walker)
Three-star military officers (in order of seniority: retired officers rank with but after active-duty officers)
State senators (when in own state; ranked by length of service, when the same, by alphabetical order by surname)
State representatives (when in own state; ranked by length of service, when the same, by alphabetical order by surname)
Former American ambassadors/chiefs of diplomatic missions (in order of presentation of credentials at first post, who don't already rank higher)
Chairmen or heads of other federal boards, councils and commissions not previously listed
Librarian of Congress (Carla Hayden)
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution (Lonnie Bunch)
Chairman of the American Red Cross (Bonnie McElveen-Hunter)
Deputy chiefs of Protocol (ranked by date of appointment)
Minister-rank officials assigned to foreign bilateral diplomatic missions in Washington, D.C.
Deputy under secretaries of executive departments (according to date of establishment of the Department; if more than one from a department, then as ranked within the department)
Principal deputy assistant secretaries of executive departments (according to date of establishment of the department; if more than one from a department, then as ranked within the department)
Deputy counsels of executive departments (according to date of establishment of the department; if more than one from a department, then as ranked within the department)
Two-star military officers (in order of seniority: retired officers rank with but after active-duty officers)
Deputy assistant secretaries of executive departments (according to date of establishment of the department; if more than one from a Department, then as ranked within the department)
Deputy assistant secretaries and deputy general counsels of the Army, Navy and Air Force (by date of appointment)
Directors of the National Security Council
American consuls general to foreign governments (at post)
American deputy chiefs of mission (at post)
Deputy ambassadors or permanent representatives of foreign governments accredited to international organizations headquartered in the United States
Assistant chiefs of protocol
Minister-Counselor-rank officials assigned to foreign diplomatic missions
Chief Judge and judges, United States Court of International Trade (by seniority)
Mark A. Barnett (May 28, 2013) (Chief Judge)
Claire R. Kelly (May 28, 2013)
Jennifer Choe-Groves (June 8, 2016)
Gary Stephen Katzmann (September 15, 2016)
Timothy M. Reif (August 8, 2019)
M. Miller Baker (December 18, 2019)
Stephen Vaden (December 21, 2020)
2 seats vacant
Chief Judge and associate judges, United States Court of Federal Claims (by seniority)
Elaine D. Kaplan (November 6, 2013) (Chief Judge)
Patricia E. Campbell-Smith (September 19, 2013)
Richard Hertling (June 12, 2019)
Ryan T. Holte (July 11, 2019)
David A. Tapp (November 19, 2019)
Matthew H. Solomson (February 3, 2020)
Eleni M. Roumel (February 24, 2020)
Edward H. Meyers (October 20, 2020)
Kathryn C. Davis (December 16, 2020)
Zachary Somers (December 22, 2020)
Thompson Michael Dietz (December 22, 2020)
Stephen S. Schwartz (December 22, 2020)
Armando Bonilla (February 17, 2022)
Carolyn N. Lerner (February 17, 2022)
2 seats vacant
One-star military officers (in order of seniority: retired officers rank with but after active-duty officers)
Directors of offices of executive departments
Consuls general of foreign governments accredited to the United States
Counselor-rank officials assigned to foreign bilateral diplomatic missions in Washington, D.C.
Members of the Senior Executive Service not holding previously listed positions (by date of appointment, unless ranked differently as determined by the respective executive department)
Members of other federal boards, councils, and commissions not previously listed
Desk officers of executive departments
First Secretary-rank officials assigned to foreign bilateral diplomatic missions in Washington, D.C.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Order of Precedence of the United States (PDF; 655 KB) from the U.S. State Department website
Diplomatic List: Order of Precedence and Date of Presentation of Credentials (for foreign diplomats) from the U.S. State Department website
United States
Politics of the United States
Diplomatic protocol | [
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|
214474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20Argentina | List of cities in Argentina | This is a list of cities in Argentina. For a more extensive list of cities in a particular province, see the main article, linked to in each applicable section.
Largest cities
List of Argentine cities of 45,000 to 150,000 inhabitants
This is a list of the localities of Argentina of 45,000 to 150,000 inhabitants ordered by amount of population according to the data of the 2001 INDEC Census.
San Nicolás de los Arroyos (Buenos Aires) 133,602
San Rafael (Mendoza) 104,782
Rafael Castillo (Buenos Aires) 103,992
Trelew (Chubut) 103,305
Santa Rosa (La Pampa) 101,987
Tandil (Buenos Aires) 101,010
Villa Mercedes (San Luis) 97,000
Puerto Madryn (Chubut) 93,995
Morón (Buenos Aires) 92,725
Virrey del Pino (Buenos Aires) 90,382
Caseros (Buenos Aires) 90,313
San Carlos de Bariloche (Río Negro) 90,000
Maipú (Mendoza) 89,433
Zárate (Buenos Aires) 86,686
Burzaco (Buenos Aires) 86,113
Pergamino (Buenos Aires) 85,487
Grand Bourg (Buenos Aires) 85,159
Monte Chingolo (Buenos Aires) 85,060
Olavarría (Buenos Aires) 83,738
Rawson (San Juan) 83,605
Rafaela (Santa Fe) 82,530
Junín (Buenos Aires) 82,427
Remedios de Escalada (Buenos Aires) 81,465
La Tablada (Buenos Aires) 80,389
Río Gallegos (Santa Cruz) 79,072
Campana (Buenos Aires) 77,838
Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña (Chaco) 76,377
Rivadavia (San Juan) 75,950
Florida (Buenos Aires) 75,891
Villa Madero (Buenos Aires) 75,582
Olivos (Buenos Aires) 75,527
Gualeguaychú (Entre Ríos) 74,681
Villa Gobernador Gálvez (Santa Fe) 74,658
Villa Luzuriaga (Buenos Aires) 73,952
Boulogne Sur Mer (Buenos Aires) 73,496
Chimbas (San Juan) 73,210
Ciudadela (Buenos Aires) 73,155
Luján de Cuyo (Mendoza) 73,058
Ezpeleta (Buenos Aires) 72,557
Villa María (Córdoba) 72,162
General Roca (Río Negro) 69,602
San Fernando (Buenos Aires) 69,110
Ciudad Evita (Buenos Aires) 68,650
Venado Tuerto (Santa Fe) 68,508
Bella Vista (Buenos Aires) 67,936
Luján (Buenos Aires) 67,266
San Ramón de la Nueva Orán (Salta) 66,579
Cipolletti (Río Negro) 66,472
Goya (Corrientes) 66,462
Reconquista (Santa Fe) 66,187
Wilde (Buenos Aires) 65,881
Martínez (Buenos Aires) 65,859
Necochea (Buenos Aires) 65,459
Don Torcuato (Buenos Aires) 64,867
Banda del Río Salí (Tucumán) 64,591
Concepción del Uruguay (Entre Ríos) 64,538
General Rodríguez (Buenos Aires) 63,317
Villa Tesei (Buenos Aires) 63,164
Ciudad Jardín El Libertador (Buenos Aires) 61,780
Villa Carlos Paz (Córdoba) 60,900
Sarandí (Buenos Aires) 60,725
Villa Elvira (Buenos Aires) 59,476
Villa Domínico (Buenos Aires) 58,824
Béccar (Buenos Aires) 58,811
San Francisco (Córdoba) 58,588
Glew (Buenos Aires) 57,878
Punta Alta (Buenos Aires) 57,296
El Palomar (Buenos Aires) 57,146
Rafael Calzada (Buenos Aires) 56,419
Tartagal (Salta) 55,508
San Pedro de Jujuy (Jujuy) 55,084
Belén de Escobar (Buenos Aires) 55,054
Mariano Acosta (Buenos Aires) 54,081
San Francisco Solano (Buenos Aires) 53,363
Los Polvorines (Buenos Aires) 53,354
Azul (Buenos Aires) 53,054
Chivilcoy (Buenos Aires) 52,938
Lomas del Mirador (Buenos Aires) 52,971
Río Grande (Tierra del Fuego) 52,786
Guernica (Buenos Aires) 52,529
General Pico (La Pampa) 52,414
Mercedes (Buenos Aires) 51,967
Bosques (Buenos Aires) 51,663
Oberá (Misiones) 51,681
Barranqueras (Chaco) 50,738
Yerba Buena 50,057
Villa Centenario (Buenos Aires) 49,737
San Martín (Mendoza) 49,491
Gobernador Julio A. Costa (Buenos Aires) 49,291
William Morris (Buenos Aires) 48,916
El Jagüel (Buenos Aires) 48,781
Villa Mariano Moreno (Tucumán) 48,655
Eldorado (Misiones) 47,794
Longchamps (Buenos Aires) 47,622
Clorinda (Formosa) 46,884
Viedma (Río Negro) 46,767
Concepcion (Tucumán) 46,194
Tres Arroyos (Buenos Aires) 45,986
Ushuaia (Tierra del Fuego) 45,205
San Isidro (Buenos Aires) 45,190
Palpala (Jujuy) 45,077
Alphabetical order by province
Buenos Aires Province
Adolfo Gonzales Chaves, Buenos Aires
Alejandro Korn
América
Arrecifes
Avellaneda
Azul
Bahía Blanca
Balcarce
Banfield
Béccar
Benito Juárez
Berazategui
Berisso
Bragado
Buenos Aires
Burzaco
Campana
Cariló
Carmen de Areco
Carmen de Patagones
Chacabuco
Chivilcoy
Ciudadela
Ciudad Jardín Lomas del Palomar
Colonia Lapin
Coronel Martínez de Hoz
Coronel Pringles
Dolores
El Palomar
Ensenada
Ezeiza
Florida Este
General Alvear
General Las Heras
General Lavalle
General Rodríguez
General Villegas
Guaminí
Hurlingham
Ingeniero Maschwitz
Ituzaingó
José C. Paz
Junín
La Lucila
Lanús
La Plata
Las Flores
Leandro N. Alem
Lobos
Lomas de Zamora
Luján
Mar del Plata
Martínez
Merlo
Miramar
Monte Grande
Morón
Munro
Necochea
Nueve de Julio
Olavarría
Olivos
Parque San Martín
Pehuajó
Pergamino
Pigüé
Pilar
Pinamar
Rafael Calzada
Quilmes
San Antonio de Padua
San Fernando
San Isidro
San Justo
San Miguel del Monte
San Nicolás de los Arroyos
Santos Lugares
Sarandí
Tandil
Tigre
Trenque Lauquen
Tres Arroyos
Tres de Febrero
Valentín Alsina
Villa Gesell
Villa Fiorito
Villa Martelli
Villa Mercedes
Zárate
Catamarca
San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca
Andalgalá
Belén
San Isidro
Santa María
Saujil
Tinogasta
Chaco
Resistencia
Barranqueras
Castelli
Charata
General José de San Martín
General Pinedo
Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña
Villa Ángela
Chubut
Rawson
Comodoro Rivadavia
Dolavon
Esquel
Gaiman
Puerto Madryn
Puerto Pirámides
Rada Tilly
Sarmiento
Trelew
Trevelin
Córdoba
Córdoba
Alta Gracia
Arias
Arroyito
Bell Ville
Canals
Capilla del Monte
Colonia Caroya
Cosquín
Cruz del Eje
Ischilín
James Craik
Jesús María
La Carlota
La Cumbre
La Cumbrecita
La Falda
Laboulaye
Laguna Larga
Las Varillas
Leones
Levalle
Mina Clavero
Miramar
Morteros
Oncativo
Quilino
Río Cuarto
Río Segundo
Río Tercero
San Francisco del Chañar
San Francisco
Santa Rosa de Calamuchita
Tanti
Unquillo
Valle Hermoso
Vicuña Mackenna
Villa Carlos Paz (or just Carlos Paz)
Villa Cura Brochero
Villa del Totoral
Villa General Belgrano
Villa María
Corrientes
Corrientes (Capital)
Alvear
Bella Vista
Curuzú Cuatiá
Empedrado
Esquina
Gobernador Virasoro
Goya
Itatí
Ituzaingó
Paso de los Libres
Santo Tomé
Saladas
Santa Lucía
Sauce
Entre Ríos
Paraná
Basavilbaso
Chajarí
Colón
Concepción del Uruguay
Concordia
Crespo
Diamante
Federación
Gualeguay
Gualeguaychú
La Paz
Larroque
Libertador San Martín
Puiggari
San José
Urdinarrain
Victoria
Villa Elisa
Villa Paranacito
Villaguay
Formosa
Formosa
Clorinda
Ibarreta
Las Lomitas
Puerto Pilcomayo
Jujuy
San Salvador de Jujuy
General San Martín
Humahuaca
León
La Quiaca
San Pedro
Tilcara
La Pampa
Santa Rosa
Eduardo Castex
General Pico
Guatraché
Macachín
Realicó
Santa Isabel
La Rioja
La Rioja
Aimogasta
Anillaco
Chepes
Chilecito
El Chamical
Famatina
Patquía
Villa Unión
Mendoza
Mendoza
General Alvear
Godoy Cruz
La Paz
Luján de Cuyo
Malargüe
Palmira
Puente del Inca
Punta de Vacas
Rivadavia
San Martín
San Rafael
Tunuyán
Tupungato
Uspallata
Misiones
Posadas
Andresito
Apóstoles
Bernardo de Irigoyen
Candelaria
Eldorado
Montecarlo
Oberá
Puerto Iguazú
Neuquén
Neuquén
Aluminé
Centenario
Chos Malal
Cutral Có
Junín de los Andes
Loncopué
Piedra del Águila
Plottier
San Martín de los Andes
Villa La Angostura
Zapala
Río Negro
Viedma
Choele Choel
Cipolletti
El Bolsón
General Roca
Ingeniero Jacobacci
San Antonio Oeste
San Carlos de Bariloche
Sierra Grande
Villa Regina
Salta
Salta
Cachi
Cafayate
General Güemes
Salvador Mazza
San Antonio de los Cobres
San Ramón de la Nueva Orán
Tartagal
San Juan
San Juan
Calingasta
Caucete
San José de Jáchal
Villa Media Agua
Zonda
Albardón
9 de Julio
Villa Krawse
Villa Paula Albarracín de Sarmiento
Aberastain
San Luis
San Luis
Merlo
La Punta
San Francisco del Monte de Oro
El Trapiche
Villa Mercedes
Santa Cruz
Comandante Luis Piedrabuena
Puerto Santa Cruz
Caleta Olivia
El Calafate
El Chaltén
Gobernador Gregores
Los Antiguos
Pico Truncado
Puerto Deseado
Puerto San Julián
Río Gallegos
Río Turbio
Santa Fe
Santa Fe
Cañada de Gómez
Carlos Pellegrini
Coronda
Esperanza
Funes
Frontera
Rafaela
Reconquista
Rosario
Rufino
San Carlos Centro
San Lorenzo
Santo Tomé
Sauce Viejo
Sunchales
Venado Tuerto
Villa Cañás
Villa Constitución
Santiago del Estero
Santiago del Estero
Añatuya
Frías
Isca Yacu
La Banda
Loreto
Río Hondo
Tierra del Fuego
Ushuaia
Río Grande
Tolhuin
Tucumán
San Miguel de Tucumán
Aguilares
Banda del Río Salí
Concepción
Famaillá
Lules
Monteros
Simoca
Tafí del Valle
Tafí Viejo
Yerba Buena
See also
List of cities in Argentina by population
List of cities
List of cities in South America
References
Further reading
External links
Argentina, List of cities in
Argentina
Argentina
Cities
Cities in Argentina | [
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|
214475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20and%20towns%20in%20Ethiopia | List of cities and towns in Ethiopia | This is a list of cities and town in Ethiopia ordered by size and alphabetically.
Cities / Towns (Size)
The table below shows cities and towns with more than 40,000 inhabitants (from the projection for 2016 by using the 2007 census data). The population numbers are referring to the inhabitants of the cities themselves, suburbs and the metropolitan area outside the city area are not taken into account. Given the suburbs and the metropolitan area, the number of inhabitants might be much larger in several cases. Addis Ababa, for example, might have a total population of 4.5 to 5 million if also taking the metropolitan area into account.
Some towns which should be beyond a number of 40,000 inhabitants (like Holeta) are not shown as the last census happened in 2007. At that time, the area of some towns was different which makes it hard to provide numbers. Also, the last census happened in 2007, which results in major uncertainties. The next major census to account for these issues is foreseen to happen in February 2018.
Cities / Towns (Alphabetical)
The listings do not have a threshold for the size of the towns and cities.
A
Abiy Addi
Abomsa
Adama
Adaba
Addis Ababa
Addis Alem (Ejersa)
Addis Zemen
Adet
Adigrat
Adwa
Agaro
Akaki
Alaba (Kulito, Quliito)
AlETA WONDO
Amaro
Gojjam
Amba Mariam
Ambo
Angacha
Ankober
ArbaMinch
Arboye
Areka
Asaita
Asella
Assosa
Awasa
Awash
Axum
Azezo
Alamata
Alem Ketema
Aykel
Awbarre
B
Babille
Baco
Badme
Bahir Dar
Bati
Batu
Bedele
Bedessa
Beica
Bekoji
Bele
Bichena
Bishoftu
Bitena
Boditi
Bonga
Burie Damot
Butajira
C
Chiro
Chimdesa
Chelenko
Chencha
Chuahit
D
Dabat
Dangila
Debarq
Debre Berhan
Debre Marqos
Debre Tabor
Debre Werq
Debre Zebit
Dejen
Delgi
Dembecha
Dembidolo
Deneba
Dessie (Dese)
Dila
DilYibza (Beyeda)
Dimtu (Wolaita)
Dire Dawa
Dagax buur
Dirree Incinnii
Dodola
Dolo Bay
Dolo Odo
Durame
Dalocha
Dukem
Danan
E
Ejaji
Elidar
Enewari
Estie
F
Finicha'a
Fiche
Finote Selam
Freweyni
G
Gambela
Gesuba
Gelemso
Ghimbi
Ginir
Goba
Gobiyere
Gode
Gololcha
Gondar
Gongoma
Gore
Gorgora
Gununo
H
Harar
Hafatissa
Harorisa
Hawassa
Hayq
Holeta
Hosaena
Humera
Huruta
Hadero
I
Imi
J
Jijiga
Jimma
Jinka
Jaragedo
K
Kabri Dar
Kebri Mangest
Kercheche
Kobo
Kombolcha
Konso
Kulubi
Kurmuk
L
Lalibela
Limmu Inariya
Lante (Ocholo)
Lante (Ommo)
M
Maji
Maqora
Maychew
Mek'ele
Mersa
Mandi
Metemma
Metu
Mizan Teferi
Mojo
Mota
Moyale
N
Negash
Negele Boran
Nejo
Nekemte
R
Robe, Bale
S
Sawla (Gofa Sawla)
Seka
Shashamane
Shaamboo
Sheraro
Shire
Shilavo
Sodo (Wolaita Sodo)
Sodore
Sekota
T
Tebela
Tefki
Tenta
Teppi
Tiya
Tullu Milki
Turmi
Togo-Wochale
Tulu bolo
W
Wacca
Waliso
Walwal
Werder
Wereta
Woldia
Wolleka
Worabe
Wuchale
Wukro
washera
Y
Yabelo
Yeha
Yirga Alem
Z
See also
List of cities in East Africa
List of metropolitan areas in Africa
MENA
References
External links
GIS-based search engine for Ethiopian towns
Cities in Ethiopia
Ethiopia, List of cities in
Ethiopia
Ethiopia | [
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|
214476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20largest%20cities%20and%20towns%20in%20Turkey | List of largest cities and towns in Turkey | This is a list of cities and towns in Turkey by population, which includes cities and towns that are provincial capitals or have a population of at least 7,000. The total population of Turkey is 83,614,362 according to the 2020 estimate, making it the 18th most populated country in the world.
Cities and towns with more than 7,000 inhabitants
Cities and Towns with a population of over 7,000 inhabitants according to the Turkish Statistical Institute are listed in the following table, along with the results of the censuses from 21 October 1990 and 22 October 2000, as well as the provinces in which the cities are located. The numbers of inhabitants refer to the actual city, not including urban areas.
See also
List of regions in Turkey
List of provinces in Turkey
List of districts in Turkey
List of villages in Turkey
Metropolitan centers in Turkey
References
External links
State Institute of Statistics
Turkey
Turkey
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|
214477 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20Uzbekistan | List of cities in Uzbekistan | This is a list of cities in Uzbekistan. , Uzbekistan has 120 cities (shahar) and 1,067 urban-type settlements (shaharcha).
Most populous cities of Uzbekistan
List of cities with population more than 100,000 in 2021.
See also
List of renamed cities in Uzbekistan
List of geographic names of Iranian origin
Lists of cities
References
Cities
Uzbekistan, List of cities in | [
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214478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel%20Platini | Michel Platini | Michel François Platini (born 21 June 1955) is a French football administrator and former player and manager. As the president of UEFA in 2015 he was banned from involvement in football under FIFA's organisation, over ethics violations. The ban will last until 2023. Regarded as one of the greatest footballers of all time, Platini won the Ballon d'Or three times, in 1983, 1984 and 1985, and came seventh in the FIFA Player of the Century vote. In recognition of his achievements, he was named a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur in 1985 and became an Officier in 1998.
During his career, Platini played for the clubs Nancy, Saint-Étienne, and Juventus. Nicknamed Le Roi (The King) for his ability and leadership, he was a prolific goalscorer; he won the Serie A capocannoniere award three consecutive times between 1983 and 1985, and was the top scorer of Juventus's victorious 1984–85 European Cup campaign. Platini was a key player of the France national team that won the 1984 European Championship, a tournament in which he was the top scorer and best player, and reached the semi-finals of the 1982 and 1986 World Cups. Together with midfielders Alain Giresse, Luis Fernández and Jean Tigana, he formed the carré magique (magic square) of the French team in the 1980s. Platini was his country's record goalscorer until 2007, and held the record for most goals (9) scored in the European Championship until being surpassed by Cristiano Ronaldo in 2021, despite only appearing in the victorious 1984 edition.
Following his retirement as a player, Platini was the France national team coach for four years, and was the co-organizer of the 1998 World Cup in France. In 2007, he became the first former player to be elected as the president of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). He also held the positions of chairman of FIFA's Technical and Development Committee and vice-president of the French Football Federation. In 2015, however, he was banned from football administration for conflict of interest by the FIFA Ethics Committee.
Early career
Born in Jœuf, in the Lorraine region, Platini is the son of Aldo and Anna (née Piccinelli), both of Italian ancestry. Anna's family has its roots in the province of Belluno, while Aldo's father, Francesco Platini, was an immigrant from Agrate Conturbia, in the province of Novara, and settled in France shortly after the end of the First World War. Aldo was a professional footballer and a long-time director for AS Nancy, the club where Michel started his professional career.
After performing poorly in the final of a 1969 young footballers' competition, Michel Platini attracted attention at 16 years of age in a Coupe Gambardella tournament match with an impressive display for Jœuf juniors against a Metz junior side. Platini was called up for a trial with Metz, but missed out on the opportunity due to injury, and was not immediately invited back after the Metz coach moved to another club. He returned to regional league football with Jœuf. Another trial at Metz went horribly wrong when a breathing test on a spirometer caused Platini to faint. The doctor's verdict on Platini's breathing difficulties and weak heart ended any hopes Platini had of playing for his boyhood favorites. He then joined the reserve side of his father's club Nancy in September 1972, and became friends with team goalkeeper Jean-Michel Moutier.
Club career
Nancy (1972–1979)
Platini was quick to make a big impression at his new club, scoring a hat-trick in a reserve team match against Wittelsheim. Further outstanding displays put him in contention for a place in the Nancy first team. His introduction to the first-team squad was inauspicious. On the substitutes' bench for a match against Valenciennes, Platini was spat on and hit by various objects thrown from the crowd when a fight broke out in the stands. Playing for the reserves a few days later, a hefty challenge from an opponent left Platini with a bad ankle injury. His season would finish on a more positive note, and he would go on to make his league debut against Nîmes on 3 May 1973.
In March 1974, he suffered a setback when he sustained a double fracture of his left arm in a match at OGC Nice. Platini missed the remainder of the season as a result, unable to assist Nancy in an unsuccessful bid to avoid relegation from Ligue 1. The following season saw Nancy win promotion back to the French first division with ease. Platini became the team's most important player, scoring 17 goals, a number of which were scored from free-kicks, as was becoming Platini's specialty. Saint-Étienne, the then reigning French league champions, were knocked out of the French Cup with two goals from Platini free-kicks. Platini practised his free-kicks with the help of his friend, goalkeeper Moutier, and using a row of dummies to form a defensive wall of sorts.
With Nancy back in Ligue 1, Platini's military service reduced his availability for matches, but he continued to make himself available to play when possible. In a match away to Laval, Platini, angered by the taunts of the home supporters, scored a hat-trick, but unluckily sustained another injury. Press reports claimed that Platini's season was over and that he would require a knee operation, but neither claim proved to be correct. Instead, Platini returned to first-team football two weeks later for Nancy's French Cup semi-final against Marseille at the Parc des Princes. Platini headed the only Nancy goal in their 4–1 loss and was forced to leave the field injured. Following his participation in the 1976 Montreal Olympics, Platini signed a two-year contract with Nancy, his first professional contract.
Before travelling to Argentina for the World Cup, Platini won the first major trophy of his playing career, captaining Nancy to victory in the 1978 French Cup final against Nice and scoring the only goal of the game. President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing presented him with the trophy. However, with the World Cup scheduled to start two weeks after the cup final, there was little time left for preparation.
Although Platini was not disgraced by his performances at his first World Cup, fans held him responsible for the French team's failure to progress in the tournament, and in the season that followed he was a target of jeering crowds. The situation came to a head in a match away to Saint-Étienne. Spurred on by booing fans, Platini competed for every ball, and he picked up a bad ankle injury in a tackle. As a result, he was ruled out of Nancy's Cup Winners' Cup campaign. His contract with the club expired in June 1979, and Internazionale, Paris Saint-Germain, and Saint-Étienne emerged as the clubs most likely to sign him, although the Nancy club president had been unwilling to let Platini leave the club. Having set his mind on a transfer to Saint-Étienne, he signed a three-year contract with les Verts.
In spite of his injuries and the boos that would greet him, Platini maintained his pranksterish sense of humour. On away trips, he would set off firecrackers in public places and then pretend to be dead, inevitably drawing a crowd. While in Argentina for the World Cup, he would squeeze tubes of toothpaste into his teammates' beds.
Saint-Étienne (1979–1982)
Platini's three years at Saint-Étienne were a mixed success. The club had signed him with a view to success in the European Cup, but despite some excellent results (including a 6–0 win over PSV in the 1979–80 UEFA Cup and a 5–0 win at Hamburger SV in the UEFA Cup the following season), the club were unable to surpass the feats of the Saint-Étienne side that had reached the final of the 1976 European Cup.
Platini won the French league title in 1981 with Les Verts, but was on a losing Saint-Étienne side in two French Cup finals, against Bastia in 1981 and against Paris Saint-Germain in 1982, in what was his last match for the club before joining Juventus. He left for a nominal transfer fee (under UEFA regulations) despite being out of contract and no fee being necessary under French regulations at the time.
Juventus (1982–1987)
At Juventus, Platini inherited the number 10 shirt from the recently departed Liam Brady. In a team featuring numerous members of Italy's victorious World Cup squad, Platini had a difficult introduction to Italian football. He was a target in the demanding Italian sports media, and even came close to leaving Italy in the winter of his first season. Platini and teammate Zbigniew Boniek successfully called for a change in tactics, and in the second half of the season Juventus saw an upturn in their fortunes. They reached the European Cup final, losing to Hamburger SV, but won the Italian Cup, the first of many club honours to follow for Platini in the coming seasons.
He won the Serie A title with Juventus in 1984 and 1986, the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1984 (setting up Vignola's opening goal in the Turin club's 2–1 victory over Porto in the final of the competition), the 1984 European Super Cup, the European Cup in 1985 and the 1985 Intercontinental Cup. He finished top scorer in Serie A for three consecutive seasons (1982–83, 1983–84, and 1984–85), and won a hat-trick of European Footballer of the Year awards (1983 through 1985). He was also voted Player of the Year by World Soccer magazine in 1984 and 1985.
The 1985 European Cup final against Liverpool at the Heysel Stadium in Brussels should have been the crowning moment of Platini's Juventus career, but was instead overshadowed by the Heysel Stadium disaster in which 39 people died, and 600 more were injured. It was decided to proceed with the match in order to avoid inciting any further trouble, and after both captains had appealed for calm, the match began just under an hour and a half beyond schedule, with riot police still engaged in a pitched battle with Juventus fans. Platini scored the only goal of the match from a penalty kick, which had been controversially awarded for a foul just outside the area on Zbigniew Boniek, after the Frenchman had met his run behind the defence towards goal with a long ball. In the days following the final, Platini was criticised in some quarters for his lack of restraint in celebrating Juventus' win. In his own defence, Platini maintained that he had not been made fully aware of the scale of the disaster. In the 1985 Intercontinental Cup final against Argentinos Juniors, Platini scored from a penalty during regulation time, also having another goal disallowed, and later assisted Michael Laudrup's equaliser; he subsequently netted the match-winning penalty in the resulting shoot-out, and was named Man of the Match. Following the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, Platini spent another season at Juventus before retiring from football in June 1987.
International career
Having first attracted the attention of national team selectors in the Coupe Gambardella tournament, Platini was selected for the French junior team, but injuries prevented him from playing. He made his first appearance for a French national selection playing for the French amateur side on 26 September 1973.
Platini began his military service in summer 1975. He was assigned to the Joinville battalion, as were all talented French sportspeople fulfilling their military obligations. His colleagues in the battalion included his Nancy teammates Olivier Rouyer and Jean-Michel Moutier, as well as Maxime Bossis, soon to become a regular in the French national team along with Platini. Platini would turn out for the French military team, in addition to representing the French under-23s and the French Olympic team. He impressed in the Olympic team's 4–0 win over Romania in Brest, a result made even more impressive by the fact that Romania had fielded a full international side for the Olympic qualifier. Platini's performance made him a star in France. The away leg of the qualifying tie was a mere formality, France coming away with a 1–1 draw. Three days after the draw in Bucharest, Platini received his first call-up to the national team for what was coach Michel Hidalgo's first game in charge, a friendly against Czechoslovakia in Paris (27 March 1976, 2–2), and scored his first goal with a trademark free kick.
1976 Olympics
Platini was a member of the French football team at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal. Their tournament began on 19 July with a 4–0 win over Mexico. They registered another 4–0 win in their next match against Guatemala, with two goals from Platini. The French team completed the group stage with a draw against Israel, Platini scoring from a penalty. France progressed to the quarter-final stage, where they would face a full-strength East German team. France lost 4–0 and finished the match with nine men.
Prior to 1978 World Cup
With a 3–1 win over Bulgaria at the Parc des Princes on 16 November 1977, a match in which Platini excelled in the role of playmaker and scored with a strike from 30 yards, France secured qualification for the 1978 World Cup in Argentina for their first appearance in the World Cup finals since 1966. In the month following the decisive qualifying match, Platini finished third in the voting for the 1977 European Footballer of the Year.
Among the international friendlies France played in preparation for the World Cup, their match against Italy in Naples on 8 February 1978 (2–2) was particularly significant for Platini. With a number of scouts from Italian clubs in attendance, he was in excellent form. He beat Italian goalkeeper Dino Zoff from two direct free-kicks, the first being ruled out because the referee had not blown his whistle. The re-taken free-kick was blocked by the defensive wall, but minutes later Platini had the ball in the Italian net from another free-kick. Zoff attempted to anticipate the flight of the ball by positioning himself on the left side of the goal, only for Platini to find the unguarded area of the net with his free-kick, leaving Zoff rooted to the spot. Platini's duels with Zoff and his performance in a match that was broadcast on Italian television made him a name in Italy. A number of clubs both in France (Paris Saint-Germain and Saint-Étienne) and across Europe (Juventus, Internazionale, Napoli, Barcelona, Valencia, and Arsenal, to name a few) began the clamour for his services.
1978 World Cup
In retrospect, this match may have been a Pyrrhic victory because Platini's brilliance drew the attention of Italy coach Enzo Bearzot, who devised a successful plan to contain him in a match-up that really mattered—the first round of the 1978 World Cup four months later. Platini was kept in check by Marco Tardelli's implacable marking and Italy won 2–1. Drawn in a difficult group with Italy as well as hosts (and eventual winners) Argentina, France's loss to the hosts in Buenos Aires effectively ensured their elimination; France did not survive the first round.
Road to Spain '82 and the World Cup
Platini was nonetheless made captain of the French national side after the World Cup and made the number 10 jersey his own. One of his trademark free-kicks helped France defeat the Netherlands 2–0 in Paris (18 November 1981) in a crucial qualifying match for the 1982 World Cup in Spain.
France unexpectedly reached the semifinals of the 1982 World Cup where they met West Germany in Seville for what proved to be one of the greatest matches in World Cup history. German goalkeeper Harald Schumacher had collided with Patrick Battiston, leaving the Frenchman knocked-out cold, and the referee did not call a penalty, much to the anger of the French. With both sides level at 3–3 after extra time had been played (Platini having scored France's first goal of the game from a penalty) the match went to a penalty shoot-out which West Germany won 5–4.
Euro '84
In 1984, Platini captained France to success in the European Championship on home soil. His individual impact on the tournament was huge with nine of France's 14 goals in just five games (the top goal scorer in Euro '84).
He scored the winner in France's opening match against Denmark, and scored one "perfect" hat-trick against Belgium as France topped their first-round group with three wins out of three. In the dramatic semi-final in Marseille against Portugal, Platini scored the final goal of the match for a memorable 3–2 win in the last minute of extra time.
In the final against Spain at the Princes Stadium in Paris, he opened the scoring with a free kick-goal, helped by a monumental blunder from Spain goalkeeper Luis Arconada. A second goal from Bruno Bellone in injury time at the end of the match secured France's first major title in international football.
Mexico '86
Suffering from groin pain and playing under injection, Platini was not in peak physical condition for the 1986 World Cup in Mexico. Nonetheless, he contributed two important goals. The first contributed to their 2–0 defeat of defending champions Italy at the Olimpico Stadium in Mexico City. The second came during the quarter-final match against Brazil in Guadalajara. After Careca scored for Brazil, Platini scored the equalizer, his 41st on his 31st birthday, which sent the game into a penalty shoot-out. France won 4–3, with Platini infamously sending his over the bar. This goal was to be the last of his international career. After losing a second World Cup semi-final in a row to West Germany in Guadalajara, France had to settle for third place. Platini did not take part in the 1982 or 1986 World Cup third-place matches.
Retirement
Platini made his last appearance for France on 29 April 1987, in a European Championship qualifier at home to Iceland, a few weeks before announcing his retirement from all football. In 72 appearances for France from 1976 to 1987, including 49 appearances as captain, Platini scored 41 times, a record for the French national team, which has since only been surpassed by Thierry Henry after scoring his 42nd and 43rd national team goals against Lithuania in a Euro 2008 qualifying match on 17 October 2007.
Kuwait
Platini's last match came on 27 November 1988, when he came out of retirement for one day to play in an international friendly match representing Kuwait against the Soviet Union, at the request of the Kuwaiti Emir. Platini played a total of 21 minutes in the 2–0 loss to the Soviets. In doing so, Platini completed the rare feat of appearing for more than one country at full international level.
Style of play
Platini is considered to be one of the greatest players of all time, and is regarded as one of the finest passers in football history, as well as one of the best ever penalty kick and free kick specialists to have played the game. A quick, versatile, elegant, and intelligent offensive midfield playmaker, with a unique ability to read the game and bend the ball from set pieces, he was renowned in particular for his ball control, technical ability, dribbling skills, creativity, range of passing, and vision, despite his lack of notable physical or athletic attributes.
Although he primarily served as a creative midfielder, who operated in a more withdrawn playing role behind the strikers, and who mainly orchestrated attacking plays, provided assists, or created chances for teammates, Platini was also a prolific goalscorer. Due to his footballing intelligence, movement, and composure in front of goal, as well as his accurate finishing ability with either foot, as well as his head, despite being naturally right-footed, he was known for his ability to create attacking opportunities for himself by playing exchanges with his teammates until he was in a position from which he could receive the ball and score; indeed, he won several top-scoring awards throughout his career, both at club and international level, and is considered by pundits to be one of the best finishers of all time.
When taking free kicks, Platini usually preferred to strike the ball from a distance of around 20 metres from the goal, with a direct kick which had not been touched by a teammate first; his unique free kick technique, which often involved him hitting the ball over the wall, influenced many other specialists, such as Alessandro Del Piero, and Andrea Pirlo. Despite his talent, skill, and outstanding playing ability, Platini also drew criticism from his managers at times, due to his lack of stamina and poor defensive work-rate. Due to his leadership, dominance, and his technical, offensive, and creative attributes, as well as his ability to be a decisive player for his teams, he was given the nickname "Le Roi" ("The King", in French). Moreover, Platini was known for his discipline on the pitch; indeed, in his extensive career, he was never sent off.
Coaching career
Platini was named coach of the French national side on 1 November 1988, replacing Henri Michel, who had been forced out after France infamously drew with Cyprus (1–1) in a 1990 World Cup qualifier. France's qualifying campaign was ultimately unsuccessful.
The focus of the team shifted to qualifying for the 1992 European Championship in Sweden. France excelled in the qualifying stages, winning all eight of their group matches, including notable victories away to Spain and Czechoslovakia. After a record 19-match unbeaten run, they were among the favourites to win the competition and Platini was named Manager of the Year by the World Soccer Awards. But a string of uninspiring performances in warm-up matches, followed by France's first-round elimination from the tournament, led Platini to step down as coach.
Administrative roles
Platini was, along with Fernand Sastre, head of the organizing committee for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, held in France. He served on the UEFA Technical Development Committee from 1988 to 1990. He has been a member of the UEFA Executive Committee and European member of the FIFA Executive Committee since 2002. He continued to climb the ranks of UEFA and FIFA football administration and in 2006, became a chairman of the FIFA Technical and Development Committee, while also being vice-president of the French Football Federation.
UEFA presidency
Platini confirmed that he would run for the UEFA presidency in July 2006. In the election in Düsseldorf on 26 January 2007, he defeated Lennart Johansson, who held the post for the previous 16 years, by 27 votes to 23. Platini based his speech on virtues of solidarity and universality.
Platini has recently backed the 6+5 idea, six home-grown players and five foreign players to be introduced in top-flight teams in Europe. Platini has also backed caps on wages, transfer spending – both absolute and as a fraction of club turnover – and foreign ownership of clubs. He has stated that he wants to reduce the number of Italian, Spanish, and English teams that participate in the UEFA Champions League to a maximum of three instead of four. This hasn't happened yet, but instead for the 2009–10 season, different routes were created for champions of smaller countries and non-champions of bigger countries. He has also talked about banning clubs from the competition based on the debts of the clubs. Among his more contentious claims is that international transfer of players under 18 is in fact a form of illegal "child trafficking" and should be prohibited by the EU. "Paying a child to kick a ball is not that different from paying a child to work [...] in a factory," said Platini to members of the EU on 18 February 2009.
FIFA presidential campaign
Following Sepp Blatter's announcement in June 2015 that he would resign from the post of FIFA president amid the ongoing corruption scandal, Platini announced in July that he would run for FIFA president in the 2016 special election. However, on 7 January 2016, Platini announced that he would not be standing in the Fifa presidential election, saying: "The timing is not good for me. I don't have the means to fight on equal terms with the other candidates. […] Bye bye Fifa, bye bye Fifa presidency."
Corruption
Following the ongoing corruption case, and after his announcement that in July he would run for FIFA president, Platini was also involved himself in the case. Swiss prosecutors accused FIFA president Sepp Blatter of making a "disloyal payment" of $2m (£1.6m) to Platini. Swiss attorney general, Michael Lauber, stated: "We didn't interview Mr Platini as a witness, that's not true. We investigated against him in between as a witness and an accused person." Both Platini and Blatter were placed under formal investigation by FIFA's independent ethics committee in late September 2015.
On 8 October 2015, Platini was provisionally suspended until 6 January 2016 from any football-related activity. On 21 December, Platini and Blatter were both found guilty of ethics violations and barred from the sport until 2023. The committee said Platini "did not show commitment to an ethical attitude" and lacked respect for laws and regulations of the organization. Platini boycotted the hearing, and said he planned to appeal the decision, declaring himself "at peace with my conscience." He appealed to Swiss courts, and to the European Court of Human Rights, but the courts rejected his appeals.
Platini was also involved in the Greek public polemica regarding the 2015 Greek football scandal.
In April 2016, Platini has been named in the Panama Papers.
On 18 May 2018, Platini said that the 1998 FIFA World Cup draw was fixed to ensure France and Brazil could not face each other until the final if both teams won their groups.
In June 2019, Platini was questioned over the awarding of the 2022 World Cup to Qatar.
Health
On 9 July 2010, the day before the third place play-off of the 2010 World Cup in South Africa, Platini collapsed at a restaurant in the Michaelangelo Hotel in Sandton, Johannesburg. He was rushed to the Morningside Medi-Clinic with a suspected heart attack after having received first aid care by a Brazilian radio director who was sitting at a table next to him. He was attended to and discharged by cardiologist and former President of the South African Heart Association – Dr Leonard Steingo. The official statement released by FIFA confirmed that Platini was discharged, stating that the UEFA President was "fine, and merely suffering from a bout of flu."
Platini was confirmed in attendance two days later at the final between Spain and Netherlands on the evening of 11 July.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list France's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Platini goal.
Honours
Player
Nancy
Coupe de France: 1977–78
Division 2: 1974–75
Saint-Étienne
Division 1: 1980–81
Coupe de France runner-up: 1980–81, 1981–82
Juventus
Serie A: 1983–84, 1985–86
Coppa Italia: 1982–83
European Cup: 1984–85; runner-up: 1982–83
European Cup Winners' Cup: 1983–84
European Super Cup: 1984
Intercontinental Cup: 1985
France
UEFA European Championship: 1984
Artemio Franchi Trophy: 1985
FIFA World Cup third place: 1986
1976 Pre-Olympic Zone European
Individual
French Player of the Year: 1976, 1977
Onze d'Argent: 1977
L'Équipe French Champion of Champions: 1977, 1984
Onze de Onze: 1977, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986
FIFA XI: 1979
FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1982, 1986
Capocannoniere (Serie A Top Scorer): 1982–83, 1983–84, 1984–85
Ballon d'Or: 1983, 1984, 1985
Onze d'Or: 1983, 1984, 1985
Guerin d'Oro: 1983–84
IOC European Footballer of the Season: 1983–84, 1984–85
UEFA European Championship Player of the Tournament: 1984
UEFA European Championship Top Scorer: 1984
UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament: 1984
European Cup Top Scorer: 1984–85
World Soccer Player of the Year: 1984, 1985
Intercontinental Cup Most Valuable Player of the Match Award: 1985
FIFA World Cup All-Time Team: 1994
Super Onze d'Or: 1995
Planète Foot Magazine Team of All Time: 1996
Planète Foot's 50 Best Player of All Time: 1996
Venerdì's 100 Magnificent: 1997
World Team of the 20th Century: 1998
French Player of the Century: 1999
RSSSF French National Team of All Time: 1999
Placar's 100 Players of the Century: 1999 (#8)
Guerin' Sportivo's 50 Greatest Players of the Century by Adalberto Bortolotti: 1999 (#9)
France Football Player of the Century: 1999 (#5)
World Soccer's 100 Greatest Footballers of All Time: 1999 (#5)
FIFA World Cup Dream Team: 2002
Golden Foot: 2004, as football legend
FIFA 100: 2004
UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll: 2004 (#9)
Placar's 100 World Cup Stars: 2005 (#19)
AFS Top-100 Players of All-Time: 2007 (#13)
English Football Hall of Fame: 2008 (voted All-Time Greatest European Footballer. He is only the second person outside the English game to be honoured by the Museum.)
Premio internazionale Giacinto Facchetti: 2011
Italian Football Hall of Fame: 2011
World Hall of Fame of Soccer: 2011
Globe Soccer Awards Player Career Award: 2012
Juventus Greatest XI of All Time: 2017
Ballon d'Or Dream Team (Bronze): 2020
IFFHS All-time Men's B Dream Team: 2021
IFFHS All-time Europe Men's Dream Team: 2021
Artemio Franchi Prize
IFFHS Legends
Voetball International's World Stars by Raf Willems
Manager
Individual
El País European Coach of the Year: 1991
World Soccer Manager of the Year: 1991
Orders
Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur: 1985
Officier of the Ordre national du Mérite: 1994
Officier of the Légion d'honneur: 1998
Bibliography
Michel Platini, "Ma vie comme un match", 1987
References and notes
Further reading
Tournon Philippe, Platini, le football en fête, Paris, Alta Sport, 1977
Collectif, Michel Platini : l'album photos, Paris, PAC, December 1982
External links
FIFA "Classic Players" biography – fifaworldcup.yahoo.com, FIFA – Retrieved November 2006.
Michel Platini – Goals in International Matches – www.rsssf.com – by José Luis Pierrend, RSSSF.
Platini Calls for Bigger World Cup
1955 births
Living people
French people of Italian descent
People of Piedmontese descent
Sportspeople from Meurthe-et-Moselle
French footballers
Association football midfielders
AS Nancy Lorraine players
AS Saint-Étienne players
Juventus F.C. players
Ligue 1 players
Ligue 2 players
Serie A players
UEFA Champions League winning players
Ballon d'Or winners
World Soccer Magazine World Player of the Year winners
France under-21 international footballers
Olympic footballers of France
France international footballers
Kuwait international footballers
Footballers at the 1976 Summer Olympics
1978 FIFA World Cup players
1982 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 1984 players
1986 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA European Championship-winning players
UEFA European Championship-winning captains
FIFA 100
Dual internationalists (football)
English Football Hall of Fame inductees
French expatriate footballers
French expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Expatriate footballers in Italy
French football managers
France national football team managers
UEFA Euro 1992 managers
French sports executives and administrators
Presidents of UEFA
Olympic cauldron lighters
People named in the Panama Papers
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Officers of the National Order of Merit (France)
Recipients of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin
Recipients of the Order of Honour (Moldova) | [
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|
214479 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date%20of%20Easter | Date of Easter | As a moveable feast, the date of Easter is determined in each year through a calculation known as computus (Latin for 'computation'). Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday after the Paschal full moon, which is the first full moon on or after 21 March (a fixed approximation of the March equinox). Determining this date in advance requires a correlation between the lunar months and the solar year, while also accounting for the month, date, and weekday of the Julian or Gregorian calendar. The complexity of the algorithm arises because of the desire to associate the date of Easter with the date of the Jewish feast of Passover which, Christians believe, is when Jesus was crucified.
It was originally feasible for the entire Christian church to receive the date of Easter each year through an annual announcement by the Pope. By the early third century, however, communications in the Roman empire had deteriorated to the point that the church put great value in a system that would allow the clergy to determine the date for themselves, independently and consistently. Additionally, the church wished to eliminate dependencies on the Hebrew calendar, by deriving the date for Easter directly from the March equinox.
In The Reckoning of Time (725), Bede uses computus as a general term for any sort of calculation, although he refers to the Easter cycles of Theophilus as a "Paschal computus." By the end of the 8th century, computus came to refer specifically to the calculation of time.
The calculations produce different results depending on whether the Julian calendar or the Gregorian calendar is used. For this reason, the Catholic Church and Protestant churches (which follow the Gregorian calendar) celebrate Easter on a different date to the Eastern Orthodox Churches (which follow the Julian calendar). It was the drift of 21 March from the observed equinox that led to the Gregorian reform of the calendar, to bring them back into line.
Background
Easter commemorates the resurrection of Jesus, which is believed to have occurred on the third day (inclusive) after Passover. In the Hebrew calendar, Passover occurs on the 14th of Nisan. Nisan is the first month of spring in the northern hemisphere, with the 14th corresponding to a full moon. Additionally, by the 2nd century, many Christians had chosen to observe Easter only on a Sunday. The Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar one and does not have a simple relationship with the Christian calendars: it resynchronises with the solar year by intercalating a leap month every two or three years, before the lunar new year on 1 Nisan. Later the Jews adopted the Metonic cycle to predict future intercalations.
A possible consequence of this intercalation is that 14 Nisan may occur before the equinox, which some third-century Christians considered unacceptable, although this cannot happen in the fixed calendar currently in use. Consequently, they decided to separate the dating of Easter from the Hebrew calendar. To do so, it was necessary to identify the first full moon following the March equinox. By the time of the First Council of Nicaea, the Church of Alexandria had designated 21 March as an ecclesiastical date for the equinox, irrespective of actual astronomical observation. In 395, Theophilus published a table of future dates for Easter, validating the Alexandrian criteria. Thereafter, the computus would be the procedure of determining the first Sunday after the first ecclesiastical full moon falling on or after 21 March.
History
The earliest known Roman tables were devised in 222 by Hippolytus of Rome based on eight-year cycles. Then 84-year tables were introduced in Rome by Augustalis near the end of the 3rd century.
Although a process based on the 19-year Metonic cycle was first proposed by Bishop Anatolius of Laodicea around 277, the concept did not fully take hold until the Alexandrian method became authoritative in the late 4th century.
The Alexandrian computus was converted from the Alexandrian calendar into the Julian calendar in Alexandria around AD 440, which resulted in a Paschal table (attributed to pope Cyril of Alexandria) covering the years AD 437–531. This Paschal table was the source which inspired Dionysius Exiguus, who worked in Rome from about AD 500 to about AD 540, to construct a continuation of it in the form of his famous Paschal table covering the years AD 532–616. Dionysius introduced the Christian Era (counting years from the Incarnation of Christ) by publishing this new Easter table in AD 525.
A modified 84-year cycle was adopted in Rome during the first half of the 4th century. Victorius of Aquitaine tried to adapt the Alexandrian method to Roman rules in 457 in the form of a 532-year table, but he introduced serious errors. These Victorian tables were used in Gaul (now France) and Spain until they were displaced by Dionysian tables at the end of the 8th century.
The tables of Dionysius and Victorius conflicted with those traditionally used in the British Isles. The British tables used an 84-year cycle, but an error made the full moons fall progressively too early. The discrepancy led to a report that Queen Eanfled, on the Dionysian system fasted on her Palm Sunday while her husband Oswy, king of Northumbria, feasted on his Easter Sunday.
As a result of the Irish Synod of Magh-Lene in 630, the southern Irish began to use the Dionysian tables, and the northern English followed suit after the Synod of Whitby in 664.
The Dionysian reckoning was fully described by Bede in 725. It may have been adopted by Charlemagne for the Frankish Church as early as 782 from Alcuin, a follower of Bede. The Dionysian/Bedan computus remained in use in western Europe until the Gregorian calendar reform, and remains in use in most Eastern Churches, including the vast majority of Eastern Orthodox Churches and Non-Chalcedonian Churches. The only Eastern Orthodox church which does not follow the system is the Finnish Orthodox Church, which uses the Gregorian.
Having deviated from the Alexandrians during the 6th century, churches beyond the eastern frontier of the former Byzantine Empire, including the Assyrian Church of the East, now celebrate Easter on different dates from Eastern Orthodox Churches four times every 532 years.
Apart from these churches on the eastern fringes of the Roman empire, by the tenth century all had adopted the Alexandrian Easter, which still placed the vernal equinox on 21 March, although Bede had already noted its drift in 725 it had drifted even further by the 16th century. Worse, the reckoned Moon that was used to compute Easter was fixed to the Julian year by the 19-year cycle. That approximation built up an error of one day every 310 years, so by the 16th century the lunar calendar was out of phase with the real Moon by four days. The Gregorian Easter has been used since 1583 by the Roman Catholic Church and was adopted by most Protestant churches between 1753 and 1845.
German Protestant states used an astronomical Easter between 1700 and 1776, based on the Rudolphine Tables of Johannes Kepler, which were in turn based on astronomical positions of the Sun and Moon observed by Tycho Brahe at his Uraniborg observatory on the island of Ven, while Sweden used it from 1739 to 1844. This astronomical Easter was the Sunday after the full moon instant that was after the vernal equinox instant using Uraniborg time . However, it was delayed one week if that Sunday was the Jewish date Nisan15, the first day of Passover week, calculated according to modern Jewish methods. This Nisan15 rule affected two Swedish years, 1778 and 1798, that instead of being one week before the Gregorian Easter were delayed one week so they were on the same Sunday as the Gregorian Easter. Germany's astronomical Easter was one week before the Gregorian Easter in 1724 and 1744. Sweden's astronomical Easter was one week before the Gregorian Easter in 1744, but one week after it in 1805, 1811, 1818, 1825, and 1829.
Two modern astronomical Easters were proposed but never used by any Church. The first was proposed as part of the Revised Julian calendar at a Synod in Constantinople in 1923 and the second was proposed by a 1997 World Council of Churches Consultation in Aleppo in 1997. Both used the same rule as the German and Swedish versions but used modern astronomical calculations and Jerusalem time without the Nisan15 rule. The 1923 version would have placed the astronomical Easter one month before the Gregorian Easter in 1924, 1943, and 1962, but one week after it in 1927, 1954, and 1967. The 1997 version would have placed the astronomical Easter on the same Sunday as the Gregorian Easter for 2000–2025 except for 2019, when it would have been one month earlier.
Theory
The Easter cycle groups days into lunar months, which are either 29 or 30 days long. There is an exception. The month ending in March normally has thirty days, but if 29 February of a leap year falls within it, it contains 31. As these groups are based on the lunar cycle, over the long term the average month in the lunar calendar is a very good approximation of the synodic month, which is days long. There are 12 synodic months in a lunar year, totaling either 354 or 355 days. The lunar year is about 11 days shorter than the calendar year, which is either 365 or 366 days long. These days by which the solar year exceeds the lunar year are called epacts (). It is necessary to add them to the day of the solar year to obtain the correct day in the lunar year. Whenever the epact reaches or exceeds 30, an extra intercalary month (or embolismic month) of 30 days must be inserted into the lunar calendar: then 30 must be subtracted from the epact. Charles Wheatly provides the detail:
Thus the lunar month took the name of the Julian month in which it ended. The nineteen-year Metonic cycle assumes that 19 tropical years are as long as 235 synodic months. So after 19 years the lunations should fall the same way in the solar years, and the epacts should repeat. However, , not ; that is, 209 divided by 30 leaves a remainder of 29 instead of being a multiple of 30. So after 19 years, the epact must be corrected by one day for the cycle to repeat. This is the so-called saltus lunae ("leap of the moon"). The Julian calendar handles it by reducing the length of the lunar month that begins on 1 July in the last year of the cycle to 29 days. This makes three successive 29-day months. The saltus and the seven extra 30-day months were largely hidden by being located at the points where the Julian and lunar months begin at about the same time. The extra months commenced on 1 January (year 3), 2 September (year 5), 6 March (year 8), 3 January (year 11), 31 December (year 13), 1 September (year 16), and 5 March (year 19). The sequence number of the year in the 19-year cycle is called the "golden number", and is given by the formula
GN = (Y + 1) mod 19
That is, one is added to year number Y in the Christian era, the sum is divided by 19; the remainder is the golden number, with a remainder of 0 indicating the golden number is 19.
The paschal or Easter-month is the first one in the year to have its fourteenth day (its formal full moon) on or after 21 March. Easter is the Sunday after its 14th day (or, saying the same thing, the Sunday within its third week). The paschal lunar month always begins on a date in the 29-day period from 8 March to 5 April inclusive. Its fourteenth day, therefore, always falls on a date between 21 March and 18 April inclusive, and the following Sunday then necessarily falls on a date in the range 22 March to 25 April inclusive. In the solar calendar Easter is called a moveable feast since its date varies within a 35-day range. But in the lunar calendar, Easter is always the third Sunday in the paschal lunar month, and is no more "moveable" than any holiday that is fixed to a particular day of the week and week within a month.
Tabular methods
Gregorian reform of the computus
As reforming the computus was the primary motivation for the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582, a corresponding computus methodology was introduced alongside the new calendar. The general method of working was given by Clavius in the Six Canons (1582), and a full explanation followed in his Explicatio (1603).
Easter Sunday is the Sunday following the paschal full moon date. The paschal full moon date is the ecclesiastical full moon date on or after 21 March. The Gregorian method derives paschal full moon dates by determining the epact for each year. The epact can have a value from * (0 or 30) to 29 days. It is the age of the moon (in days), i.e. the lunar date, on 1 January reduced by one day. In his book The Easter computus and the origins of the Christian era Alden A Mosshammer incorrectly states "Theoretically, the epact 30 = 0 represents the new moon at its conjunction with the sun. The epact of 1 represents the theoretical first visibility of the first crescent of the moon. It is from that point as day one that the fourteenth day of the moon is counted." The 14th day of the lunar month is considered the day of the full moon. It is the day of the lunar month on which the moment of opposition ("full moon") is most likely to fall. The "new moon" is most likely to become visible (as a slender crescent in the western sky after sunset) on the first day of the lunar month. The conjunction of sun and moon ("new moon") is most likely to fall on the preceding day, which is day 29 of a "hollow" (29-day) month and day 30 of a "full" (30-day) month.
Historically the paschal full moon date for a year was found from its sequence number in the Metonic cycle, called the golden number, which cycle repeats the lunar phase 1 January every 19 years. This method was abandoned in the Gregorian reform because the tabular dates go out of sync with reality after about two centuries, but from the epact method, a simplified table can be constructed that has a validity of one to three centuries.
The epacts for the current Metonic cycle, which began in 2014, are:
The epacts are used to find the dates of the new moon in the following way: Write down a table of all 365 days of the year (the leap day is ignored). Then label all dates with a Roman numeral counting downwards, from "*" (0 or 30), "xxix" (29), down to "i" (1), starting from 1 January, and repeat this to the end of the year. However, in every second such period count only 29 days and label the date with xxv (25) also with xxiv (24). Treat the 13th period (last eleven days) as long, therefore, and assign the labels "xxv" and "xxiv" to sequential dates (26 and 27 December respectively). Finally, in addition, add the label "25" to the dates that have "xxv" in the 30-day periods; but in 29-day periods (which have "xxiv" together with "xxv") add the label "25" to the date with "xxvi". The distribution of the lengths of the months and the length of the epact cycles is such that each civil calendar month starts and ends with the same epact label, except for February and for the epact labels "xxv" and "25" in July and August. This table is called the calendarium. The ecclesiastical new moons for any year are those dates when the epact for the year is entered. If the epact for the year is for instance 27, then there is an ecclesiastical new moon on every date in that year that has the epact label "xxvii" (27).
Also label all the dates in the table with letters "A" to "G", starting from 1 January, and repeat to the end of the year. If, for instance, the first Sunday of the year is on 5 January, which has letter "E", then every date with the letter "E" is a Sunday that year. Then "E" is called the dominical letter for that year (from Latin: dies domini, day of the Lord). The dominical letter cycles backward one position every year. However, in leap years after 24 February the Sundays fall on the previous letter of the cycle, so leap years have two dominical letters: the first for before, the second for after the leap day.
In practice, for the purpose of calculating Easter, this need not be done for all 365 days of the year. For the epacts, March comes out exactly the same as January, so one need not calculate January or February. To also avoid the need to calculate the Dominical Letters for January and February, start with D for 1 March. You need the epacts only from 8 March to 5 April. This gives rise to the following table:
Example: If the epact is 27 (xxvii), an ecclesiastical new moon falls on every date labeled xxvii. The ecclesiastical full moon falls 13 days later. From the table above, this gives a new moon on 4 March and 3 April, and so a full moon on 17 March and 16 April.
Then Easter Day is the first Sunday after the first ecclesiastical full moon on or after 21 March. This definition uses "on or after 21 March" to avoid ambiguity with historic meaning of the word "after". In modern language, this phrase simply means "after 20 March". The definition of "on or after 21 March" is frequently incorrectly abbreviated to "after 21 March" in published and web-based articles, resulting in incorrect Easter dates.
In the example, this paschal full moon is on 16 April. If the dominical letter is E, then Easter day is on 20 April.
The label "25" (as distinct from "xxv") is used as follows: Within a Metonic cycle, years that are 11 years apart have epacts that differ by one day. A month beginning on a date having labels xxiv and xxv written side by side has either 29 or 30 days. If the epacts 24 and 25 both occur within one Metonic cycle, then the new (and full) moons would fall on the same dates for these two years. This is possible for the real moon but is inelegant in a schematic lunar calendar; the dates should repeat only after 19 years. To avoid this, in years that have epacts 25 and with a Golden Number larger than 11, the reckoned new moon falls on the date with the label 25 rather than xxv. Where the labels 25 and xxv are together, there is no problem since they are the same. This does not move the problem to the pair "25" and "xxvi", because the earliest epact 26 could appear would be in year 23 of the cycle, which lasts only 19 years: there is a saltus lunae in between that makes the new moons fall on separate dates.
The Gregorian calendar has a correction to the tropical year by dropping three leap days in 400 years (always in a century year). This is a correction to the length of the tropical year, but should have no effect on the Metonic relation between years and lunations. Therefore, the epact is compensated for this (partially see epact) by subtracting one in these century years. This is the so-called solar correction or "solar equation" ("equation" being used in its medieval sense of "correction").
However, 19 uncorrected Julian years are a little longer than 235 lunations. The difference accumulates to one day in about 310 years. Therefore, in the Gregorian calendar, the epact gets corrected by adding 1 eight times in 2,500 (Gregorian) years, always in a century year: this is the so-called lunar correction (historically called "lunar equation"). The first one was applied in 1800, the next is in 2100, and will be applied every 300 years except for an interval of 400 years between 3900 and 4300, which starts a new cycle.
The solar and lunar corrections work in opposite directions, and in some century years (for example, 1800 and 2100) they cancel each other. The result is that the Gregorian lunar calendar uses an epact table that is valid for a period of from 100 to 300 years. The epact table listed above is valid for the period 1900 to 2199.
Details
This method of computation has several subtleties:
Every other lunar month has only 29 days, so one day must have two (of the 30) epact labels assigned to it. The reason for moving around the epact label "xxv/25" rather than any other seems to be the following: According to Dionysius (in his introductory letter to Petronius), the Nicene council, on the authority of Eusebius, established that the first month of the ecclesiastical lunar year (the paschal month) should start between 8 March and 5 April inclusive, and the 14th day fall between 21 March and 18 April inclusive, thus spanning a period of (only) 29 days. A new moon on 7 March, which has epact label "xxiv", has its 14th day (full moon) on 20 March, which is too early (not following 20 March). So years with an epact of "xxiv", if the lunar month beginning on 7 March had 30 days, would have their paschal new moon on 6 April, which is too late: The full moon would fall on 19 April, and Easter could be as late as 26 April. In the Julian calendar the latest date of Easter was 25 April, and the Gregorian reform maintained that limit. So the paschal full moon must fall no later than 18 April and the new moon on 5 April, which has epact label "xxv". 5 April must therefore have its double epact labels "xxiv" and "xxv". Then epact "xxv" must be treated differently, as explained in the paragraph above.
As a consequence, 19 April is the date on which Easter falls most frequently in the Gregorian calendar: In about 3.87% of the years. 22 March is the least frequent, with 0.48%.
The relation between lunar and solar calendar dates is made independent of the leap day scheme for the solar year. Basically the Gregorian calendar still uses the Julian calendar with a leap day every four years, so a Metonic cycle of 19 years has 6,940 or 6,939 days with five or four leap days. Now the lunar cycle counts only . By not labeling and counting the leap day with an epact number, but having the next new moon fall on the same calendar date as without the leap day, the current lunation gets extended by a day, and the 235 lunations cover as many days as the 19 years. So the burden of synchronizing the calendar with the moon (intermediate-term accuracy) is shifted to the solar calendar, which may use any suitable intercalation scheme, all under the assumption that 19 solar years = 235 lunations (creating a long-term inaccuracy). A consequence is that the reckoned age of the moon may be off by a day, and also that the lunations that contain the leap day may be 31 days long, which would never happen if the real moon were followed (short-term inaccuracies). This is the price of a regular fit to the solar calendar.
From the perspective of those who might wish to use the Gregorian Easter cycle as a calendar for the entire year, there are some flaws in the Gregorian lunar calendar (although they have no effect on the paschal month and the date of Easter):
Lunations of 31 (and sometimes 28) days occur.
If a year with Golden Number 19 happens to have epact 19, then the last ecclesiastical new moon falls on 2 December; the next would be due on 1 January. However, at the start of the new year, a increases the epact by another unit, and the new moon should have occurred on the previous day. So a new moon is missed. The of the Missale Romanum takes account of this by assigning epact label "19" instead of "xx" to 31 December of such a year, making that date the new moon. It happened every 19 years when the original Gregorian epact table was in effect (for the last time in 1690), and next happens in 8511.
If the epact of a year is 20, an ecclesiastical new moon falls on 31 December. If that year falls before a century year, then in most cases, a solar correction reduces the epact for the new year by one: The resulting epact "*" means that another ecclesiastical new moon is counted on 1 January. So, formally, a lunation of one day has passed. This next happens in 4199–4200.
Other borderline cases occur (much) later, and if the rules are followed strictly and these cases are not specially treated, they generate successive new moon dates that are 1, 28, 59, or (very rarely) 58 days apart.
A careful analysis shows that through the way they are used and corrected in the Gregorian calendar, the epacts are actually fractions of a lunation (, also known as a tithi) and not full days. See epact for a discussion.
The solar and lunar corrections repeat after centuries. In that period, the epact has changed by a total of . This is prime to the 30 possible epacts, so it takes before the epacts repeat; and centuries before the epacts repeat at the same golden number. This period has . So the Gregorian Easter dates repeat in exactly the same order only after 5,700,000 years, 70,499,183 lunations, or 2,081,882,250 days; the mean lunation length is then 29.53058690 days. However, the calendar must already have been adjusted after some millennia because of changes in the length of the tropical year, the synodic month, and the day.
This raises the question why the Gregorian lunar calendar has separate solar and lunar corrections, which sometimes cancel each other. Lilius's original work has not been preserved, but his proposal was described in the circulated in 1577, in which it is explained that the correction system he devised was to be a perfectly flexible tool in the hands of future calendar reformers, since the solar and lunar calendar could henceforth be corrected without mutual interference. An example of this flexibility was provided through an alternative intercalation sequence derived from Copernicus's theories, along with its corresponding epact corrections.
The "solar corrections" approximately undo the effect of the Gregorian modifications to the leap days of the solar calendar on the lunar calendar: they (partially) bring the epact cycle back to the original Metonic relation between the Julian year and lunar month. The inherent mismatch between sun and moon in this basic 19-year cycle is then corrected every three or four centuries by the "lunar correction" to the epacts. However, the epact corrections occur at the beginning of Gregorian centuries, not Julian centuries, and therefore the original Julian Metonic cycle is not fully restored.
While the net subtractions could be distributed evenly over 10,000 years (as has been proposed for example by ) if the corrections are combined, then the inaccuracies of the two cycles are also added and cannot be corrected separately.
The ratios of (mean solar) days per year and days per lunation change both because of intrinsic long-term variations in the orbits, and because the rotation of the Earth is slowing down due to tidal deceleration, so the Gregorian parameters become increasingly obsolete.
This does affect the date of the equinox, but it so happens that the interval between northward (northern hemisphere spring) equinoxes has been fairly stable over historical times, especially if measured in mean solar time (see, esp.)
Also the drift in ecclesiastical full moons calculated by the Gregorian method compared to the true full moons is affected less than one would expect, because the increase in the length of the day is almost exactly compensated for by the increase in the length of the month, as tidal braking transfers angular momentum of the rotation of the Earth to orbital angular momentum of the Moon.
The Ptolemaic value of the length of the mean synodic month, established around the 4th century BCE by the Babylonians, is (see Kidinnu); the current value is 0.46 s less (see New moon). In the same historic stretch of time the length of the mean tropical year has diminished by about 10 s (all values mean solar time).
British Calendar Act and Book of Common Prayer
The portion of the Tabular methods section above describes the historical arguments and methods by which the present dates of Easter Sunday were decided in the late 16th century by the Catholic Church. In Britain, where the Julian calendar was then still in use, Easter Sunday was defined, from 1662 to 1752 (in accordance with previous practice), by a simple table of dates in the Anglican Prayer Book (decreed by the Act of Uniformity 1662). The table was indexed directly by the golden number and the Sunday letter, which (in the Easter section of the book) were presumed to be already known.
For the British Empire and colonies, the new determination of the Date of Easter Sunday was defined by what is now called the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 with its Annexe. The method was chosen to give dates agreeing with the Gregorian rule already in use elsewhere. The Act required that it be put in the Book of Common Prayer, and therefore it is the general Anglican rule. The original Act can be seen in the British Statutes at Large 1765. The Annexe to the Act includes the definition: "Easter-day (on which the rest depend) is always the first Sunday after the Full Moon, which happens upon, or next after the Twenty-first Day of March. And if the Full Moon happens upon a Sunday, Easter-day is the Sunday after." The Annexe subsequently uses the terms "Paschal Full Moon" and "Ecclesiastical Full Moon", making it clear that they approximate to the real full moon.
The method is quite distinct from that described above in Gregorian reform of the Computus. For a general year, one first determines the golden number, then one uses three tables to determine the Sunday letter, a "cypher", and the date of the paschal full moon, from which the date of Easter Sunday follows. The epact does not explicitly appear. Simpler tables can be used for limited periods (such as 1900–2199) during which the cypher (which represents the effect of the solar and lunar corrections) does not change. Clavius's details were employed in the construction of the method, but they play no subsequent part in its use.
J. R. Stockton shows his derivation of an efficient computer algorithm traceable to the tables in the Prayer Book and the Calendar Act (assuming that a description of how to use the Tables is at hand), and verifies its processes by computing matching Tables.
Julian calendar
The method for computing the date of the ecclesiastical full moon that was standard for the western Church before the Gregorian calendar reform, and is still used today by most eastern Christians, made use of an uncorrected repetition of the 19-year Metonic cycle in combination with the Julian calendar. In terms of the method of the epacts discussed above, it effectively used a single epact table starting with an epact of 0, which was never corrected. In this case, the epact was counted on 22 March, the earliest acceptable date for Easter. This repeats every 19 years, so there are only 19 possible dates for the paschal full moon from 21 March to 18 April inclusive.
Because there are no corrections as there are for the Gregorian calendar, the ecclesiastical full moon drifts away from the true full moon by more than three days every millennium. It is already a few days later. As a result, the eastern churches celebrate Easter one week later than the western churches about 50% of the time. (The eastern Easter is occasionally four or five weeks later because the Julian calendar is 13 days behind the Gregorian in 1900–2099, and so the Gregorian paschal full moon is sometimes before Julian 21 March.)
The sequence number of a year in the 19-year cycle is called its golden number. This term was first used in the computistic poem Massa Compoti by Alexander de Villa Dei in 1200. A later scribe added the golden number to tables originally composed by Abbo of Fleury in 988.
The claim by the Catholic Church in the 1582 papal bull Inter gravissimas, which promulgated the Gregorian calendar, that it restored "the celebration of Easter according to the rules fixed by ... the great ecumenical council of Nicaea" was based on a false claim by Dionysius Exiguus (525) that "we determine the date of Easter Day ... in accordance with the proposal agreed upon by the 318 Fathers of the Church at the Council in Nicaea." The First Council of Nicaea (325) did not, however, provide any explicit rules to determine that date, but only wrote “all our brethren in the East who formerly followed the custom of the Jews are henceforth to celebrate the said most sacred feast of Easter at the same time with the Romans and yourselves [the Church of Alexandria] and all those who have observed Easter from the beginning.” The medieval computus was based on the Alexandrian computus, which was developed by the Church of Alexandria during the first decade of the 4th century using the Alexandrian calendar. The eastern Roman Empire accepted it shortly after 380 after converting the computus to the Julian calendar. Rome accepted it sometime between the sixth and ninth centuries. The British Isles accepted it during the eighth century except for a few monasteries. Francia (all of western Europe except Scandinavia (pagan), the British Isles, the Iberian peninsula, and southern Italy) accepted it during the last quarter of the eighth century. The last Celtic monastery to accept it, Iona, did so in 716, whereas the last English monastery to accept it did so in 931. Before these dates, other methods produced Easter Sunday dates that could differ by up to five weeks.
This is the table of paschal full moon dates for all Julian years since 931:
Example calculation using this table:
The golden number for 1573 is 16 (; ). From the table, the paschal full moon for golden number 16 is 21 March. From the week table 21 March is Saturday. Easter Sunday is the following Sunday, 22 March.
So for a given date of the ecclesiastical full moon, there are seven possible Easter dates. The cycle of Sunday letters, however, does not repeat in seven years: because of the interruptions of the leap day every four years, the full cycle in which weekdays recur in the calendar in the same way, is years, the so-called solar cycle. So the Easter dates repeated in the same order after years. This paschal cycle is also called the Victorian cycle, after Victorius of Aquitaine, who introduced it in Rome in 457. It is first known to have been used by Annianus of Alexandria at the beginning of the 5th century. It has also sometimes erroneously been called the Dionysian cycle, after Dionysius Exiguus, who prepared Easter tables that started in 532; but he apparently did not realize that the Alexandrian computus he described had a 532-year cycle, although he did realize that his 95-year table was not a true cycle. Venerable Bede (7th century) seems to have been the first to identify the solar cycle and explain the paschal cycle from the Metonic cycle and the solar cycle.
In medieval western Europe, the dates of the paschal full moon (14 Nisan) given above could be memorized with the help of a 19-line alliterative poem in Latin:
The first half-line of each line gives the date of the paschal full moon from the table above for each year in the 19-year cycle. The second half-line gives the ferial regular, or weekday displacement, of the day of that year's paschal full moon from the concurrent, or the weekday of 24 March. The ferial regular is repeated in Roman numerals in the third column.
"Paradoxical" Easter dates
Due to the discrepancies between the approximations of Computistical calculations of the time of the mean (northern hemisphere) vernal equinox and the lunar phases, and the true values computed according to astronomical principles, differences occasionally arise between the date of Easter according to computistical reckoning and the hypothetical date of Easter calculated by astronomical methods using the principles attributed to the Church fathers. These discrepancies are called "paradoxical" Easter dates. In his Kalendarium of 1474, Regiomontanus computed the exact time of all conjunctions of the Sun and Moon for the longitude of Nuremberg according to the Alfonsine Tables for the period from 1475 to 1531. In his work he tabulated 30 instances where the Easter of the Julian computus disagreed with Easter computed using astronomical New Moon. In eighteen cases the date differed by a week, in seven cases by 35 days, and in five cases by 28 days.
Ludwig Lange investigated and classified different types of paradoxical Easter dates using the Gregorian computus. In cases where the first vernal full moon according to astronomical calculation occurs on a Sunday and the Computus gives the same Sunday as Easter, the celebrated Easter occurs one week in advance compared to the hypothetical "astronomically" correct Easter. Lange called this case a negative weekly (hebdomadal) paraodox (H− paradox). If the astronomical calculation gives a Saturday for the first vernal full moon and Easter is not celebrated on the directly following Sunday but one week later, Easter is celebrated according to the computus one week too late in comparison to the astronomical result. He classified such cases a positive weekly (hebdomadal) paradox (H+ paradox). The discrepancies are even larger if there is a difference according to the vernal equinox with respect to astronomical theory and the approximation of the Computus. If the astronomical equinoctial full moon falls before the computistical equinoctial full moon, Easter will be celebrated four or even five weeks too late. Such cases are called a positive equinoctial paradox (A+ paradox) according to Lange. In the reverse case when the Computistical equinoctial full moon falls a month before the astronomical equinoctial full moon, Easter is celebrated four or five weeks too early. Such cases are called a negative equinoctial paradox (A− paradox). Equinoctial paradoxes are always valid globally for the whole earth, because the sequence of equinox and full moon does not depend on the geographical longitude. In contrast, weekly paradoxes are local in most cases and are valid only for part of the earth, because the change of day between Saturday and Sunday is dependent on the geographical longitude. The computistical calculations are based on astronomical tables valid for the longitude of Venice, which Lange called the Gregorian longitude.
In the 21st and 22nd centuries negative weekly paradoxical Easter dates occur in 2049, 2076, 2106, 2119 (global), 2133, 2147, 2150, 2170, and 2174; positive weekly paradoxical dates occur in 2045, 2069, 2089, and 2096; positive equinoctial paradoxical dates in 2019, 2038, 2057, 2076, 2095, 2114, 2133, 2152, 2171, and 2190. In 2076 and 2133, 'double paradoxes (positive equinoctial and negative weekly) occur. Negative equinoctial paradoxes are extremely rare; they occur only twice until the year 4000 in 2353, when Easter is five weeks too early and in 2372, when Easter is four weeks too early.
Algorithms
Note on operations
When expressing Easter algorithms without using tables, it has been customary to employ only the integer operations addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, modulo, and assignment as it is compatible with the use of simple mechanical or electronic calculators. That restriction is undesirable for computer programming, where conditional operators and statements, as well as look-up tables, are available. One can easily see how conversion from day-of-March (22 to 56) to day-and-month (22 March to 25 April) can be done as . More importantly, using such conditionals also simplifies the core of the Gregorian calculation.
Gauss's Easter algorithm
In 1800, the mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss presented this algorithm for calculating the date of the Julian or Gregorian Easter. He corrected the expression for calculating the variable p in 1816. In 1800, he incorrectly stated . In 1807, he replaced the condition with the simpler . In 1811, he limited his algorithm to the 18th and 19th centuries only, and stated that 26 April is always replaced with 19 and 25 April by 18 April in the circumstances stated. In 1816, he thanked his student Peter Paul Tittel for pointing out that p was wrong in the original version.
An analysis of the Gauss's Easter algorithm is divided into two parts. The first part is the approximate tracking of the lunar orbiting and the second part is the exact deterministic offsetting to obtain a Sunday following the full moon.
The first part consists of determining the variable d, the number of days (counting from 22 March) to the day after the full moon. The formula for d contains the terms 19a and the constant M. a is the year's position in the 19-year lunar phase cycle, in which by assumption the moon's movement relative to earth repeats every 19 calendar years. In older times, 19 calendar years were equated to 235 lunar months (the Metonic cycle), which is remarkably close since 235 lunar months are approximately 6939.6813 days and 19 years are on average 6939.6075 days. The expression (19a + M) mod 30 repeats every 19 years within each century as M is determined per century. The 19-year cycle has nothing to do with the '19' in 19a, it is just a coincidence that another '19' appears. The '19' in 19a comes from correcting the mismatch between a calendar year and an integer number of lunar months. A calendar year (non-leap year) has 365 days and the closest one can come with an integer number of lunar months is days. The difference is 11 days, which must be corrected for by moving the following year's occurrence of a full moon 11 days back. But in modulo 30 arithmetic, subtracting 11 is the same as adding 19, hence the addition of 19 for each year added, i.e. 19a.
The M in serves to have a correct starting point at the start of each century. It is determined by a calculation taking the number of leap years up until that century where k inhibits a leap day every 100 years and q reinstalls it every 400 years, yielding as the total number of inhibitions to the pattern of a leap day every four years. Thus we add to correct for leap days that never occurred. p corrects for the lunar orbit not being fully describable in integer terms.
The range of days considered for the full moon to determine Easter are 21 March (the day of the ecclesiastical equinox of spring) to 18 April—a 29-day range. However, in the mod 30 arithmetic of variable d and constant M, both of which can have integer values in the range 0 to 29, the range is 30. Therefore, adjustments are made in critical cases. Once d is determined, this is the number of days to add to 22 March (the day after the earliest possible full moon allowed, which is coincident with the ecclesiastical equinox of spring) to obtain the date of the day after the full moon.
So the first allowable date of Easter is March 22 + d + 0, as Easter is to celebrate the Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon, that is if the full moon falls on Sunday 21 March Easter is to be celebrated 7 days after, while if the full moon falls on Saturday 21 March Easter is the following 22 March.
The second part is finding e, the additional offset days that must be added to the date offset d to make it arrive at a Sunday. Since the week has 7 days, the offset must be in the range 0 to 6 and determined by modulo 7 arithmetic. e is determined by calculating . These constants may seem strange at first, but are quite easily explainable if we remember that we operate under mod 7 arithmetic. To begin with, ensures that we take care of the fact that weekdays slide for each year. A normal year has 365 days, but , so 52 full weeks make up one day too little. Hence, each consecutive year, the weekday "slides one day forward", meaning if 6 May was a Wednesday one year, it is a Thursday the following year (disregarding leap years). Both b and c increase by one for an advancement of one year (disregarding modulo effects). The expression thus increases by 6 – but remember that this is the same as subtracting 1 mod 7. To subtract by 1 is exactly what is required for a normal year – since the weekday slips one day forward we should compensate one day less to arrive at the correct weekday (i.e. Sunday). For a leap year, b becomes 0 and 2b thus is 0 instead of 8 – which under mod 7, is another subtraction by 1 – i.e., a total subtraction by 2, as the weekdays after the leap day that year slide forward by two days.
The expression 6d works the same way. Increasing d by some number y indicates that the full moon occurs y days later this year, and hence we should compensate y days less. Adding 6d is mod 7 the same as subtracting d, which is the desired operation. Thus, again, we do subtraction by adding under modulo arithmetic. In total, the variable e contains the step from the day after the day of the full moon to the nearest following Sunday, between 0 and 6 days ahead. The constant N provides the starting point for the calculations for each century and depends on where 1 January, year 1 was implicitly located when the Gregorian calendar was constructed.
The expression can yield offsets in the range 0 to 35 pointing to possible Easter Sundays on 22 March to 26 April. For reasons of historical compatibility, all offsets of 35 and some of 34 are subtracted by 7, jumping one Sunday back to the day of the full moon (in effect using a negative e of −1). This means that 26 April is never Easter Sunday and that 19 April is overrepresented. These latter corrections are for historical reasons only and have nothing to do with the mathematical algorithm. The offset of 34 is adjusted if (and only if) d = 28 and d = 29 elsewhere in the 19-year cycle.
Using the Gauss's Easter algorithm for years prior to 1583 is historically pointless since the Gregorian calendar was not utilised for determining Easter before that year. Using the algorithm far into the future is questionable, since we know nothing about how different churches will define Easter far ahead. Easter calculations are based on agreements and conventions, not on the actual celestial movements nor on indisputable facts of history.
Anonymous Gregorian algorithm
"A New York correspondent" submitted this algorithm for determining the Gregorian Easter to the journal Nature in 1876.
It has been reprinted many times, e.g.,
in 1877 by Samuel Butcher in The Ecclesiastical Calendar,
in 1916 by Arthur Downing in The Observatory,
in 1922 by H. Spencer Jones in General Astronomy,
in 1977 by the Journal of the British Astronomical Association,
in 1977 by The Old Farmer's Almanac,
in 1988 by Peter Duffett-Smith in Practical Astronomy with your Calculator,
and in 1991 by Jean Meeus in Astronomical Algorithms.
Because of the Meeus book citation, this is also called "Meeus/Jones/Butcher" algorithm:
In 1961 the New Scientist published a version of the Nature algorithm incorporating a few changes. The variable g was calculated using Gauss's 1816 correction, resulting in the elimination of variable f. Some tidying results in the replacement of variable o (to which one must be added to obtain the date of Easter) with variable p, which gives the date directly.
Meeus's Julian algorithm
Jean Meeus, in his book Astronomical Algorithms (1991, p. 69), presents the following algorithm for calculating the Julian Easter on the Julian Calendar, which is not the Gregorian Calendar used as the civil calendar throughout most of the contemporary world. To obtain the date of Eastern Orthodox Easter on the latter calendar, 13 days (as of 1900 through 2099) must be added to the Julian dates, producing the dates below, in the last row.
See also
Christian Zeller
Crucifixion darkness
Reform of the date of Easter
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
.
In the fifth volume of Opera Mathematica, Mainz, 1612. Opera Mathematica of Christoph Clavius includes page images of the Six Canons and the Explicatio (Go to page: Roman Calendar of Gregory XIII).
Constantine the Great, Emperor (325): Letter to the bishops who did not attend the first Nicaean Council; from Eusebius' Vita Constantini. English translations: Documents from the First Council of Nicea, "On the keeping of Easter" (near end) and Eusebius, Life of Constantine, Book III, Chapters XVIII–XIX
Dionysius Exiguus (525): Liber de Paschate. On-line: (full Latin text) and (table with Argumenta in Latin, with English translation)
Eusebius of Caesarea, The History of the Church, Translated by G. A. Williamson. Revised and edited with a new introduction by Andrew Louth. Penguin Books, London, 1989.
Gregory XIII (Pope) and the calendar reform committee (1581): the Papal Bull Inter Gravissimas and the Six Canons. On-line under: "Les textes fondateurs du calendrier grégorien" , with some parts of Clavius's Explicatio.
Further reading
Borst, Arno (1993). The Ordering of Time: From the Ancient Computus to the Modern Computer Trans. by Andrew Winnard. Cambridge: Polity Press; Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Coyne, G. V., M. A. Hoskin, M. A., and Pedersen, O. (ed.) Gregorian reform of the calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican conference to commemorate its 400th anniversary, 1582–1982, (Vatican City: Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Specolo Vaticano, 1983).
Gibson, Margaret Dunlop, The Didascalia Apostolorum in Syriac, Cambridge University Press, London, 1903.
Schwartz, E., Christliche und jüdische Ostertafeln, (Abhandlungen der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. Pilologisch-historische Klasse. Neue Folge, Band viii.) Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, Berlin, 1905.
Philip Schaff (ed.) Theodoret, Jerome, Gennadius, and Rufinius: historical writings
Stern, Sacha, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE – Tenth Century CE, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001.
.
Walker, George W, Easter Intervals, Popular Astronomy, April 1945, Vol. 53, pp. 162–178.
Walker, George W, Easter Intervals (Continued), Popular Astronomy, May 1945, Vol. 53, pp. 218–232.
Weisstein, Eric. (c. 2006) "Paschal Full Moon" in World of Astronomy.
External links
Excel spreadsheet formulae and functions to calculate Easter
The Complete Works of Venerable Bede Vol. 6 (Contains De Temporibus and De Temporum Ratione.)
The entry on epacts in the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1911
The original texts of the Gregorian calendar reform (in Latin), with translations into French by Rodolphe Audette
An Easter calculator with an extensive bibliography, and with useful links
Ephemeris site of the Bureau des Longitudes with an Easter calculator (valid between 325 and 2500)
A calendar page and calculator by Holger Oertel
A page from Clive Feather with a brief explanation, some more tables, and another algorithm
An extensive calendar site and calendar and Easter calculator by Nikolaus A. Bär
Explanation of the Gregorian solar and lunar calendar, with improved procedures over the tabular method, by David Madore
Dionysius Exiguus' Easter table
Mnemonic Computus Diagrams of Hands from manuscript in The British Library
St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Codex Sangallensis 378 (11th century) p. 28. Contains the poem Nonae Aprilis norunt quinos.
A simplified method for determining the date of Easter for all years 326 to 4099 A.D. by Ronald W. Mallen
Text of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, British Act of Parliament introducing the Gregorian Calendar as amended to date. Contains tables for calculating Easter up until the year 8599. Contrast with the Act as passed.
Computuslat A database of medieval manuscripts containing Latin computistical algorithms, texts, tables, diagrams and calendars.
Perpetual Easter and Passover Calculator
Calendar algorithms
Easter date
Christian terminology | [
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214482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-%C3%89tienne | Saint-Étienne | Saint-Étienne (; ; , ; ) is a city in eastern central France, in the Massif Central, southwest of Lyon in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, on the trunk road that connects Toulouse with Lyon. Saint-Étienne is the prefecture of the Loire department.
Saint-Étienne is the 13th most populated commune in France and the 2nd most populated commune in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. Saint-Étienne Métropole is the 3rd most populous regional metropolis after Grenoble Alpes and Lyon. The municipality is also at the heart of a vast urban area with more than 519,834 inhabitants in 2016, the seventeenth largest in France by population, comprising 117 municipalities.
Long known as the French city of the "weapon, cycle and ribbon" and a major coal mining centre, Saint-Etienne is currently engaged in a vast urban renewal program aimed at leading the transition from the industrial city inherited from the 19th century to the "design capital" of the 21st century. This approach was recognized with the entry of Saint-Etienne into the UNESCO Creative Cities network in 2010. The city is currently undergoing renewal, with the installation of the Châteaucreux business district, the Steel shopping centre and the Manufacturing creative district.
The city is known for its football club AS Saint-Étienne who has won the Ligue 1 title a record ten times.
History
Named after Saint Stephen, the city first appears in the historical record in the Middle Ages as (after the River Furan, a tributary of the Loire). In the 13th century, it was a small borough around the church dedicated to Saint Etienne. On the upper reaches of the Furan, near the Way of St. James, the Abbey of Valbenoîte had been founded by the Cistercians in 1222. In the late 15th century, it was a fortified village defended by walls built around the original nucleus.
From the 16th century, Saint-Étienne developed an arms manufacturing industry and became a market town. It was this which accounted for the town's importance, although it also became a centre for the manufacture of ribbons and passementerie starting in the 17th century.
Later, it became a mining centre of the Loire coal mining basin, and more recently, has become known for its bicycle industry.
In the first half of the 19th century, it was only a chief town of an arrondissement in the of the Loire, with a population of 33,064 in 1832. The concentration of industry prompted these numbers to rise rapidly to 110,000 by about 1880. It was this growing importance of Saint-Étienne that led to its being made seat of the prefecture and the departmental administration on 25 July 1855, when it became the chief town in the and seat of the prefect, replacing Montbrison, which was reduced to the status of chief town of an . Saint-Étienne absorbed the commune of Valbenoîte and several other neighbouring localities on 31 March 1855.
Population
The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Saint-Étienne proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Saint-Étienne absorbed the former communes of Beaubrun, Montaud, Outre-Furent and Valbenoîte in 1855, ceded Planfoy in 1863, merged with the exclave Saint-Victor-sur-Loire and with Terrenoire in 1969 and Rochetaillée in 1973.
Culture
Saint-Étienne became a popular stop for automobile travelers in the early 20th century.
In 1998, Saint-Étienne set up a design biennale, the largest of its kind in France. It lasts around two weeks. A landmark in the history of the importance ascribed to design in Saint-Étienne was the inauguration of La Cité du design on the site of the former arms factory in 2009.
The city also launched the Massenet Festivals, (the composer Jules Massenet hailed from the area) devoted mainly to perform Massenet's operas. In 2000, the city was named one of the French Towns and Lands of Art and History. On 22 November 2010, it was nominated as "City of Design" as part of UNESCO's Creative Cities Network.
Saint-Étienne has four museums:
the Musée d'Art Moderne has one of the largest collections of modern and contemporary art in France
Musée de la Mine
Musée d'Art et d'Industrie (fr)
Musée du vieux Saint-Etienne (fr)
Climate
The climate is temperate at the weather station due to its low altitude, but Saint-Étienne itself is much higher, above 530 m (1739 ft) in downtown, and even above 700 m (2297 ft) in the southern parts of the city. Actually, Saint-Étienne is very close from a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen : Dfb), and is generally the snowiest city of France, with an average of 85 cm (2.79 ft) of snow accumulation per year.
Sport
The city's football club AS Saint-Étienne has won the Ligue 1 title a record ten times, achieving most of their success in the 1970s. The British indie-dance band Saint Etienne named themselves after the club.
St. Étienne has many sports stadiums, the largest being Stade Geoffroy-Guichard used for football and Stade Henri-Lux for athletics. St. Étienne was the capital of the French bicycle industry. The bicycle wheel manufacturer Mavic is based in the city and frame manufacturers Motobécane and Vitus are also based here. The city often hosts a stage of the Tour de France.
St. Étienne resident Thierry Gueorgiou is a world champion in orienteering. The local rugby union team is CA Saint-Étienne Loire Sud Rugby.
Transport
The nearest airport is Saint-Étienne - Bouthéon Airport which is located in Andrézieux-Bouthéon, north-northwest of Saint-Étienne. The main railway station is Gare de Saint-Étienne-Châteaucreux, which offers high speed services to Paris, Lyon (Saint-Étienne–Lyon railway), and several regional lines.
Saint-Étienne is also notable for its tramway (Saint-Étienne tramway) – which uniquely with Lille, it kept throughout the 20th century – and its trolleybus system (Saint-Étienne trolleybus system) – which is one of only three such systems currently operating in France.
Bus and tram transport is regulated and provided by the Société de Transports de l'Agglomération Stéphanoise (STAS), a public transport executive organisation.
The bicycle sharing system Vélivert with 280 short term renting bicycles has been available since June 2010.
Colleges and universities
Jean Monnet University
École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Saint-Étienne (EMSE or ENSMSE)
École nationale d'ingénieurs de Saint-Étienne (ENISE)
Telecom Saint Etienne (TSE)
EMLYON Business School
ENSASE (Ecole National Supérieure d'Architecture de Saint-Étienne)
Notable people
Saint-Étienne was the birthplace of
René Diaz, French journalist and illustrator
Augustin Dupré (1748–1833), engraver of French coins and medals, France's 14th graveur général des monnaies
Claude Fauriel (1772–1844), historian, philologist and critic
Saint Marcellin Champagnat (1789–1840), Catholic priest and founding members of the Society of Mary (Marist Fathers) who founded the Marist Brothers and was canonised in 1999
Antonin Moine (1796–1849), sculptor
Jules Janin (1804–1874), writer and critic
Francis Garnier (1839–1873), officer and explorer who explored the Mekong River, much to the surprise of the inhabitants
Lucie Grange (1839-1908), medium, feminist prophet, newspaper founder
Jules Massenet (1842–1912), composer best known for his operas
Paul de Vivie, aka Velocio (1853–1930), publisher of Le Cycliste, early champion of the dérailleur and father of French cycle touring
Claudine Chomat (1915–1995), member of the French Resistance during World War II, feminist, communist activist
Jean Bonfils (1921–2007), classical organist and composer
André Bourgey (1936), geographer
Jean-Michel Othoniel (1963), contemporary artist
Bernard Lavilliers (b. 1946), (Bernard Ouillon), singer
Orlan (1947–), contemporary artist
Willy Sagnol (b. 1977), French International football player
Jean Guitton (1901–1999), Catholic philosopher and theologian
Thierry Gueorgiou (b. 1979), Orienteering world champion
Norma Ray, singer
Alexis Ajinca, basketball player
Sylvain Armand, footballer
Sliimy, singer
Aravane Rezai, tennis player
Loïc Perrin, footballer
It was also the place where Andrei Kivilev died.
International relations
Saint-Étienne is twinned with:
See also
Manufacture d'armes de Saint-Étienne
Stade Geoffroy-Guichard
Saint-Étienne Cathedral
Saint-Étienne – Gorges de la Loire Nature Reserve
André César Vermare Sculptor of Franco-Prussian war memorial.
Creative Cities Network
References
INSEE commune file
Notes
Bibliography
External links
City council website
Tourist board official website
Local events website
Biennale Internationale Design Saint-Etienne
École nationale supérieure des mines de Saint-Étienne
Massif Central
Communes of Loire (department)
Prefectures in France
Forez
Loire communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia | [
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|
214483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Etienne | Saint Etienne | Saint Étienne is French for Saint Stephen.
Saint Etienne may also refer to:
Places
Jerusalem
St. Stephen's Basilica, Jerusalem, in French Saint-Étienne, traditional place of St Stephen's martyrdom; modern church over ruins of Byzantine 5th-century predecessor
Canada
Saint-Étienne-de-Beauharnois, Quebec
Saint-Étienne-de-Bolton, Quebec
Saint-Étienne-des-Grès, Quebec
Saint-Étienne-de-Lauzon, Quebec
See: Saint-Étienne, Quebec (disambiguation)
France
St Étienne Cathedral (), the cathedral of Toulouse
St Étienne of the Mountain (), a church in Paris
St Étienne Church, Troyes, a former collegiate church
St Étienne Church, Vignory
St Étienne Temple (), the main Protestant church of Mulhouse
The Men's Abbey (), also known as St Étienne of Caen (), a former abbey in Caen
Communes
Saint-Étienne, in the Loire department
Saint-Étienne-à-Arnes, in the Ardennes department
Saint-Étienne-au-Mont, in the Pas-de-Calais department
Saint-Étienne-au-Temple, in the Marne department
Saint-Étienne-aux-Clos, in the Corrèze department
Saint-Étienne-Cantalès, in the Cantal department
Saint-Étienne-d'Albagnan, in the Hérault department
Saint-Étienne-de-Baïgorry, in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department
Saint-Étienne-de-Boulogne, in the Ardèche department
Saint-Étienne-de-Brillouet, in the Vendée department
Saint-Étienne-de-Carlat, in the Cantal department
Saint-Étienne-de-Chigny, in the Indre-et-Loire department
Saint-Étienne-de-Chomeil, in the Cantal department
Saint-Étienne-de-Crossey, in the Isère department
Saint-Étienne-de-Cuines, in the Savoie department
Saint-Étienne-de-Fontbellon, in the Ardèche department
Saint-Étienne-de-Fougères, in the Lot-et-Garonne department
Saint-Étienne-de-Fursac, in the Creuse department
Saint-Étienne-de-Gourgas, in the Hérault department
Saint-Étienne-de-Lisse, in the Gironde department
Saint-Étienne-de-l'Olm, in the Gard department
Saint-Étienne-de-Lugdarès, in the Ardèche department
Saint-Étienne-de-Maurs, in the Cantal department
Saint-Étienne-de-Mer-Morte, in the Loire-Atlantique department
Saint-Étienne-de-Montluc, in the Loire-Atlantique department
Saint-Étienne-de-Puycorbier, in the Dordogne department
Saint-Étienne-de-Saint-Geoirs, in the Isère department
Saint-Étienne-des-Champs, in the Puy-de-Dôme department
Saint-Étienne-de-Serre, in the Ardèche department
Saint-Étienne-des-Guérets, in the Loir-et-Cher department
Saint-Étienne-des-Oullières, in the Rhône department
Saint-Étienne-des-Sorts, in the Gard department
Saint-Étienne-de-Tinée, in the Alpes-Maritimes department
Saint-Étienne-de-Tulmont, in the Tarn-et-Garonne department
Saint-Étienne-de-Valoux, in the Ardèche department
Saint-Étienne-de-Vicq, in the Allier department
Saint-Étienne-de-Villeréal, in the Lot-et-Garonne department
Saint-Étienne-d'Orthe, in the Landes department
Saint-Étienne-du-Bois, Ain, in the Ain department
Saint-Étienne-du-Bois, Vendée, in the Vendée department
Saint-Étienne-du-Grès, in the Bouches-du-Rhône department
Saint-Étienne-du-Gué-de-l'Isle, in the Côtes-d'Armor department
Saint-Étienne-du-Rouvray, in the Seine-Maritime department
Saint-Étienne-du-Valdonnez, in the Lozère department
Saint-Étienne-du-Vauvray, in the Eure department
Saint-Étienne-du-Vigan, in the Haute-Loire department
Saint-Étienne-en-Bresse, in the Saône-et-Loire department
Saint-Étienne-en-Coglès, in the Ille-et-Vilaine department
Saint-Étienne-en-Dévoluy, in the Hautes-Alpes department
Saint-Étienne-Estréchoux, in the Hérault department
Saint-Étienne-la-Cigogne, in the Deux-Sèvres department
Saint-Étienne-la-Geneste, in the Corrèze department
Saint-Étienne-l'Allier, in the Eure department
Saint-Étienne-Lardeyrol, in the Haute-Loire department
Saint-Étienne-la-Thillaye, in the Calvados department
Saint-Étienne-la-Varenne, in the Rhône department
Saint-Étienne-le-Laus, in the Hautes-Alpes department
Saint-Étienne-le-Molard, in the Loire department
Saint-Étienne-les-Orgues, in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department
Saint-Étienne-lès-Remiremont, in the Vosges department
Saint-Étienne-Roilaye, in the Oise department
Saint-Étienne-sous-Bailleul, in the Eure department
Saint-Étienne-sous-Barbuise, in the Aube department
Saint-Étienne-sur-Blesle, in the Haute-Loire department
Saint-Étienne-sur-Chalaronne, in the Ain department
Saint-Étienne-sur-Reyssouze, in the Ain department
Saint-Étienne-sur-Suippe, in the Marne department
Saint-Étienne-sur-Usson, in the Puy-de-Dôme department
Saint-Étienne-Vallée-Française, in the Lozère department
Rivers
Rivière du Mont Saint-Étienne, tributary of the Sainte-Anne river, flowing on the north bank of the Saint Lawrence
Saint-Étienne River (Saguenay River tributary), Quebec, Canada
Rivière Saint-Étienne (Réunion)
Other
Saint Etienne (band), an English indie dance band
AS Saint-Étienne, a French association football team from the eponymous commune
Jean-Paul Rabaut Saint-Étienne, French revolutionary
"St. Etienne", a song on the album Jazz from Hell by Frank Zappa
"Fields of St Etienne", a song performed by Mary Hopkin, written by Gallagher and Lyle
St. Étienne Mle 1907, a French machine gun used in World War I
See also
Étienne (disambiguation) | [
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214484 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20wagtail | White wagtail | The white wagtail (Motacilla alba) is a small passerine bird in the family Motacillidae, which also includes pipits and longclaws. The species breeds in much of Europe and the Asian Palearctic and parts of North Africa. It has a toehold in Alaska as a scarce breeder. It is resident in the mildest parts of its range, but otherwise migrates to Africa. In Ireland and Great Britain, the darker subspecies, the pied wagtail or water wagtail (M. a. yarrellii) predominates. In total, there are between 9 and 11 subspecies.
The white wagtail is an insectivorous bird of open country, often near habitation and water. It prefers bare areas for feeding, where it can see and pursue its prey. In urban areas it has adapted to foraging on paved areas such as car parks. It nests in crevices in stone walls and similar natural and man-made structures.
It is the national bird of Latvia and has featured on the stamps of several countries. Though it is 'of least concern', there are several threats against it, like being kept as pets and being used as food.
Taxonomy and systematics
The white wagtail was one of the many species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae, and it still bears its original name Motacilla alba. The Latin genus name originally meant "little mover", but certain medieval writers thought it meant "wag-tail", giving rise to a new Latin word cilla for "tail". The specific epithet alba is Latin for "white".
Within the wagtail genus Motacilla, the white wagtail's closest genetic relatives appear to be other black-and-white wagtails such as the Japanese wagtail, Motacilla grandis, and the white-browed wagtail, Motacilla madaraspatensis (and possibly the Mekong wagtail, Motacilla samveasnae, the phylogenetic position of which is mysterious), with which it appears to form a superspecies. However, mtDNA cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 sequence data suggests that the white wagtail is itself polyphyletic or paraphyletic (i.e. the species is not itself a single coherent grouping). Other phylogenetic studies using mtDNA still suggest that there is considerable gene flow within the races and the resulting closeness makes Motacilla alba a single species. A study has suggested the existence of only two groups: the alboides group, with M. a. alboides, M. a. leucopsis and M. a. personata; and the alba group, with M. a. alba, M. a. yarrellii, M. a. baicalensis, M. a. ocularis, M. a. lugens, and M. a. subpersonata.
Description
The white wagtail is a slender bird, in length (East Asian subspecies are longer, measuring up to ), with the characteristic long, constantly wagging tail of its genus. Its average weight is and the maximum lifespan in the wild is about 12 years.
There are a number of other subspecies, some of which may have arisen because of partial geographical isolation, such as the resident British and Irish form, the pied wagtail M. a. yarrellii, which now also breeds in adjacent areas of the neighbouring European mainland. The pied wagtail, named for naturalist William Yarrell, exchanges the grey colour of the nominate form with black (or very dark grey in females), but is otherwise identical in its behaviour. Other subspecies, the validity of some of which is questionable, differ in the colour of the wings, back, and head, or other features. Some races show sexual dimorphism during the breeding season. As many as six subspecies may be present in the wintering ground in India or Southeast Asia and here they can be difficult to distinguish. Phylogenetic studies using mtDNA suggest that some morphological features have evolved more than once, including the back and chin colour. Breeding M. a. yarrellii look much like the nominate race except for the black back, and M. a. alboides of the Himalayas differs from the Central Asian M. a. personata only by its black back. M. a. personata has been recorded breeding in the Siddar Valley of Kashmir of the Western Himalayas. It has also been noted that both back and chin change colour during the pre-basic moult; all black-throated subspecies develop white chins and throats in winter and some black-backed birds are grey-backed in winter.
The call of the white wagtail is a sharp chisick, slightly softer than the version given by the pied wagtail. The song is more regular in white than pied, but with little territorial significance, since the male uses a series of contact calls to attract the female.
Subspecies
Nine or eleven subspecies are currently recognised. This is because the black backed wagtail may be a separate species and M. a. dukhunensis may be part of M. a. alba. Information on the plumage differences and distribution of the subspecies of the white wagtail is shown below.
The British subspecies Motacilla alba yarellii was named after William Yarrell (1784-1856), the writer of the History of British Birds (first ed. 1843).
Distribution and habitat
This species breeds throughout Eurasia up to latitudes 75°N, only being absent in the Arctic from areas where the July isotherm is less than 4 °C. It also breeds in the mountains of Morocco and western Alaska. It occupies a wide range of habitats, but is absent from deserts. White wagtails are residents in the milder parts of its range such as western Europe and the Mediterranean, but migratory in much of the rest of its range. Northern European breeders winter around the Mediterranean and in tropical and subtropical Africa, and Asiatic birds move to the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia. Birds from the North American population also winter in tropical Asia.
Behaviour and ecology
The most conspicuous habit of this species is a near-constant tail wagging, a trait that has given the species, and indeed the genus, its common name. In spite of the ubiquity of this behaviour, the reasons for it are poorly understood. It has been suggested that it may flush prey, or signal submissiveness to other wagtails. A study in 2004 has suggested instead that it is a signal of vigilance to potential predators.
Diet and feeding
The exact composition of the diet of white wagtails varies by location, but terrestrial and aquatic insects and other small invertebrates form the major part of the diet. These range from beetles, dragonflies, small snails, spiders, worms, crustaceans, to maggots found in carcasses and, most importantly, flies. Small fish fry have also been recorded in the diet. The white wagtail is somewhat unusual in the parts of its range where it is non-migratory as it is an insectivorous bird that continues to feed on insects during the winter (most other insectivorous birds in temperate climates migrate or switch to more vegetable matter).
Breeding
White wagtails are monogamous and defend breeding territories. The breeding season for most is from April to August, with the season starting later further north. Both sexes are responsible for building the nest, with the male responsible for initiating the nest building and the female for finishing the process. For second broods in the subspecies personata the female alone builds the nest, which is a rough cup assembled from twigs, grass, leaves and other plant matter, as the male is still provisioning the young. It is lined with soft materials, including animal hair. The nest is set into a crevice or hole—traditionally in a bank next to a river or ditch—but the species has also adapted to nesting in walls, bridges and buildings. One nest was found in the skull of a walrus. White wagtails will nest in association with other animals: particularly, where available, the dams of beavers and also inside the nests of golden eagles. Around three to eight eggs are laid, with the usual number being four to six. The eggs are cream-coloured, often with a faint bluish-green or turquoise tint, and heavily spotted with reddish brown; they measure, on average, . Both parents incubate the eggs, although the female generally does so for longer and incubates at night. The eggs begin to hatch after 12 days (sometimes as late as 16 days). Both parents feed the chicks until they fledge after between 12 and 15 days, and the chicks are fed for another week after fledging.
Though it is known to be a host species for the common cuckoo, the white wagtail typically deserts its nest if it has been parasitised. Moksnes et al. theorised that this occurs because the wagtail is too small to push the intruding egg out of the nest, and too short-billed to destroy the egg by puncturing it.
Status
This species has a large range, with an estimated extent of more than . The population size is between 130 and 230 million.
Population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated to be of least concern. The population in Europe appears to be stable. The species has adapted well to human changes to the environment and has exploited human changes such as man-made structures that are used for nesting sites and increased open areas that are used for foraging. In a number of cities, notably Dublin, large flocks gather in winter to roost. They are therefore rated as of least concern. However, they are caught for sport and often then placed into collections. They are also kept as pets and eaten as food. Climate change may be affecting the time of their migration.
In culture
They have featured on stamps from Bahrain, Belarus, Belgium, Finland, Georgia, United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, Iran, Ireland, Israel, Jersey, Kuwait, Latvia, Norway, Vietnam and Poland. The white wagtail is the national bird of Latvia, and has been often mentioned in Latvian folk songs.
References
External links
Videos, photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Masked, pied and white wagtail photos - Norwegian Cyberbirding
"Pied Wagtail... The Gipsy Bird" Pied wagtails in Welsh Romani culture - Romani Rise
Identification article with pictures (PDF)
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.9 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
white wagtail
Holarctic birds
Birds of Japan
National symbols of Latvia
white wagtail
Articles containing video clips
white wagtail
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|
214486 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States%20of%20Austria | States of Austria | Austria is a federal republic made up of nine states (German: Länder). Since Land is also the German word for "country", the term Bundesländer (literally federal states) is often used instead to avoid ambiguity. The Constitution of Austria uses both terms. Austrian states can pass laws that stay within the limits of the constitution, and each state has representatives in the main Austrian parliament.
Geography
The majority of the land area in the states of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Vienna, and Burgenland is situated in the Danube valley and thus consists almost completely of accessible and easily arable terrain. The other five states, in contrast, are located in the Alps and thus are comparatively unsuitable for agriculture. Their terrain is also relatively unfavourable to heavy industry and long-distance trade. Accordingly, the population of what now is the Republic of Austria has been concentrated in the former four states since prehistoric times. Austria's most densely populated state is the city-state of Vienna, the heart of what is Austria's only metropolitan area. Lower Austria ranks only fourth in population density even though it contains Vienna's suburbs; this is due to large areas of land being predominantly agricultural. The alpine state of Tyrol, the less alpine but geographically more remote state of Carinthia, and the non-alpine but near-exclusively agricultural state of Burgenland are Austria's least densely populated states. The wealthy alpine state of Vorarlberg is something of an anomaly due to its small size, isolated location and distinct Alemannic culture.
The following ranked list of Austrian states cites official Statistik Austria population on 1 January 2015. Areas are given in square kilometres, population density is expressed in inhabitants per square kilometre. For the purpose of the above list, a city is a community defined to be a city by Austrian law; a town is a community not defined to be a city. Many of Austria's cities have population figures on the order of ten thousand inhabitants; some are even smaller.
Politics
The nine states (Bundesländer) of Austria in alphabetical order are:
Federalism and state powers
Each Austrian state has an elected legislature, the Landtag, and a state government (Landesregierung) headed by a governor (Landeshauptmann or Landeshauptfrau). Elections are held every five years (six years in Upper Austria). The state constitution, among other things, determines how the seats in the state government are assigned to political parties, with most states having a system of proportional representation based on the number of delegates in the Landtag in place. The Landeshauptmann is elected by the Landtag, though in practice the governor is the leader of the majority party or coalition in the Landtag.
Vienna, the capital of Austria, plays a double role as city and "Bundesland." The mayor has the rank of a state governor, while the city council also functions as a Landtag. Under the municipal constitution, however, city and state business must be kept separate. Hence, while the city council and Landtag have identical memberships, they hold separate meetings, and each body has separate presiding officers. When meeting as a city council, the deputies can only deal with city affairs; when meeting as a Landtag, they can only deal with state affairs.
Austrian federalism is largely theoretical as the states are granted few legislative powers. The federal constitution initially granted all legislative powers to the states, but many powers have been subsequently taken away, and only a few remain, such as planning and zoning codes, nature protection, hunting, fishing, farming, youth protection, certain issues of public health and welfare and the right to levy certain taxes.
All other matters, including but not limited to criminal law, civil law, corporate law, most aspects of economic law, defense, most educational matters and academia, telecommunications, and much of the healthcare system are regulated by federal laws. There is also no judiciary of the Länder, since the federal constitution defines the judiciary as an exclusively federal matter. This centralisation follows a historic model where central power during the time of the empire was largely concentrated in Vienna.
However, the state governor (Landeshauptmann) is in charge of the administration of much of federal administrative law within the respective state, which makes this post an important political position. Furthermore, state competences include zoning laws, planning issues and public procurement on the regional level, which adds considerable weight to state politics. As a practical matter, there have been cases where states have been able to block projects endorsed by the federal government, as in the case of a railway tunnel that was to be built below the Semmering.
Austrian Länder are endowed formally and practically with a much smaller degree of autonomy than American or German states. Even so, Austrians tend to identify passionately with their respective Land and often defend what little independent governance their states have. It is not unheard of for Austrians to consider themselves, for instance, Tyrolean first, Austrian second.
Historical development
In terms of boundaries, the present-day states arose from the crown lands of Austria-Hungary, an extensive multiethnic realm whose German-speaking nucleus emerged as the Republic of Austria after the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy in the end of World War I.
The states of Upper Austria and Lower Austria are essentially equivalent to what were since 1783/84 the two autonomous halves of the Archduchy of Austria, a principality which formed the empire's historic heartland. Salzburg is coterminous with the former Austro-Hungarian Duchy of Salzburg (the former Archbishopric). Similarly, the state of Carinthia descends from the Duchy of Carinthia, the state of Styria descends from the Duchy of Styria, and the state of Tyrol descends from the Princely County of Tyrol; these states had to cede territories to Italy and Yugoslavia when Austria emerged in its present form. Also, the state of Vorarlberg had been a semi-autonomous part of the County of Tyrol since 1861.
The city-state of Vienna was a part of Lower Austria up until 1921. The state of Burgenland is made up of the predominantly German-speaking area that the Kingdom of Hungary until 1921 had to cede to the First Austrian Republic after World War I as a result of the Treaties of Trianon and Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
See also
Distribution of seats in the Austrian Landtage
Districts of Austria
Flags of Austrian states
Coats of arms of the Austrian states
ISO 3166-2:AT
List of Austrian states by GDP
List of Austrian states by Human Development Index
References
Subdivisions of Austria
Austria, States
Austria 1
States, Austria
Austria geography-related lists | [
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|
214490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political%20theatre | Political theatre | Political theatre may refer to:
Political drama, a theatrical genre
Guerrilla theatre, a type of political protest with a theatrical quality
Political posturing or Kabuki, political acts made only for the sake of appearance
Political stunt, a type of publicity stunt intended to sway public opinion on a political issue | [
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214491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational%20corporation | Multinational corporation | A multinational company (MNC) is a corporate organization that owns and controls the production of goods or services in at least one country other than its home country. Control is considered an important aspect of an MNC, to distinguish it from international portfolio investment organizations, such as some international mutual funds that invest in corporations abroad simply to diversify financial risks. Black's Law Dictionary suggests that a company or group should be considered a multinational corporation if it derives 25% or more of its revenue from out-of-home-country operations. A multinational corporation can also be referred to as a multinational enterprise (MNE), a transnational enterprise (TNE), a transnational corporation (TNC), an international corporation, or a stateless corporation. There are subtle but real differences between these terms.
Most of the largest and most influential companies of the modern age are publicly traded multinational corporations, including Forbes Global 2000 companies. Multinational corporations are subject to for lacking ethical standards They have also become associated with tax and base erosion and profit shifting tax avoidance activities.
History
Colonialism
The history of multinational corporations began with the history of colonialism. The first multinational corporations were founded to build set up colonial "factories" or port cities. In addition to carrying on trade between the mother country and the colonies, the British East India Company became a quasi-government in its own right, with local government officials and its own army in India . The two main examples were the British East India Company, and the Dutch East India Company. Others included the Swedish Africa Company, and the Hudson's Bay Company. These early corporations engaged in international trade and exploration, and set up trading posts.
The Dutch government took over the VOC in 1799 and during the 19th century, other governments increasingly took over the private companies, most notable in British India. During the process of decolonization, the European colonial charter companies were disbanded,with the final colonial corporation, the Mozambique Company, dissolving in 1972.
Mining
Mining of gold, silver, copper and especially oil major activities early on and remain so today. International mining companies became prominent in Britain in the 19th century, such as the Rio Tinto company founded in 1873, which started with the purchase of sulfur and copper mines from the Spanish government. Rio Tinto, now based in London and Melbourne Australia, has made many acquisitions and expanded globally to mine aluminium, iron ore, copper, uranium, and diamonds. European mines in South Africa began opening in the late 19th century, producing gold and other minerals for the world market, jobs for the locals, and business and profits for the companies. Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902) was one of the few businessmen in the era who became Prime Minister (of South Africa 1890-1896 ). His mining enterprises included the British South Africa Company and De Beers. The latter company practically controlled the global diamond market from his base in southern Africa.
Oil
The "Seven Sisters" was a common term for the seven multinational companies which dominated the global petroleum industry from the mid-1940s to the mid-1970s.
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (originally Anglo-Persian; now BP)
Royal Dutch Shell
Standard Oil Company of California (SoCal, later Chevron)
Gulf Oil (now merged into Chevron)
Texaco (now merged into Chevron)
Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (Esso, later Exxon, now part of ExxonMobil)
Standard Oil Company of New York (Socony, later Mobil, now part of ExxonMobil)
Preceding the 1973 oil crisis, the Seven Sisters controlled around 85 per cent of the world's petroleum reserves. In the 1970s most countries with large reserves nationalized their reserves that had been owned by major oil companies. Since then, industry dominance has shifted to the OPEC cartel and state-owned oil and gas companies, such as Saudi Aramco, Gazprom (Russia), China National Petroleum Corporation, National Iranian Oil Company, PDVSA (Venezuela), Petrobras (Brazil), and Petronas (Malaysia). By 2012 only 7% of the world's known oil reserves were in countries that allowed private international companies free rein. Fully 65% were in the hands of state-owned companies that operated in one country and sold oil to multinationals such as BP, Shell, ExxonMobil and Chevron.
Manufacturing
Down through the 1930s about 4/5 of the international investments by the multinational corporations was concentrated in the primary sector, especially mining (especially oil) and agriculture (rubber, tobacco, sugar, palm oil, coffee, cocoa, tropical fruits). Most went to the Third World colonies. That change dramatically after 1945 as the investors turn to industrialized countries, and invested in manufacturing (especially high tech electronics, chemicals, drugs and vehicles) as well as trade.
Sweden's leading manufacturing concern was SKF, a leading maker of bearings for machinery. In order to expand its international business, it decided in 1966 it needed to use the English language. Senior officials, although mostly still Swedish, all learned English in all major internal documents were in English, the lingua franca of multinational corporations.
it ordered all its senior officials an English language Is it expanded its international business it decided to become
Unilever
A prominent multinational manufacturer is Unilever, a consumer goods company headquartered in London. Its products include many foods, as well as vitamins, supplements, tea, coffee, cleaning agents, water and air purifiers, pet food, and cosmetics. Unilever is the largest producer of soap in the world. Its Unilever's products are sold in 190 countries.
Unilever owns over 400 brands, with a turnover in 2020 of 51 billion euros. The company is organised into three main divisions: Foods and Refreshments; Home Care; and Beauty & Personal Care. It has research and development facilities in China, India, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Unilever was founded in 1929 by the merger of a Dutch margarine producer Margarine Unie and the British soapmaker Lever Brothers. After 1950, it increasingly diversified its products and expanded its operations worldwide. Its numerous acquisitions included Lipton (1971), Brooke Bond (1984), Chesebrough-Ponds (1987), Best Foods (2000), Ben & Jerry's (2000), Alberto-Culver (2010), Dollar Shave Club (2016) and Pukka Herbs (2017).
Current status
A multinational corporation (MNC) is usually a large corporation incorporated in one country which produces or sells goods or services in various countries. Two common characteristics shared by MNCs are their large size and the fact that their worldwide activities are centrally controlled by the parent companies.
Importing and exporting goods and services
Making significant investments in a foreign country
Buying and selling licenses in foreign markets
Engaging in contract manufacturing — permitting a local manufacturer in a foreign country to produce its products
Opening manufacturing facilities or assembly operations in foreign countries
MNCs may gain from their global presence in a variety of ways. First of all, MNCs can benefit from the economy of scale by spreading R&D expenditures and advertising costs over their global sales, pooling global purchasing power over suppliers, and utilizing their technological and managerial know-how globally with minimal additional costs. Furthermore, MNCs can use their global presence to take advantage of underpriced labor services available in certain developing countries, and gain access to special R&D capabilities residing in advanced foreign countries.
The problem of moral and legal constraints upon the behavior of multinational corporations, given that they are effectively "stateless" actors, is one of several urgent global socioeconomic problems that emerged during the late twentieth century.
Potentially, the best concept for analyzing society's governance limitations over modern corporations is the concept of "stateless corporations". Coined at least as early as 1991 in Business Week, the conception was theoretically clarified in 1993: that an empirical strategy for defining a stateless corporation is with analytical tools at the intersection between demographic analysis and transportation research. This intersection is known as logistics management, and it describes the importance of rapidly increasing global mobility of resources. In a long history of analysis of multinational corporations we are some quarter century into an era of stateless corporations - corporations which meet the realities of the needs of source materials on a worldwide basis and to produce and customize products for individual countries.
One of the first multinational business organizations, the East India Company, was established in 1601. After the East India Company, came the Dutch East India Company, founded March 20, 1603, which would become the largest company in the world for nearly 200 years.
The main characteristics of multinational companies are:
In general, there is a national strength of large companies as the main body, in the way of foreign direct investment or acquire local enterprises, established subsidiaries or branches in many countries;
It usually has a complete decision-making system and the highest decision-making centre, each subsidiary or branch has its own decision-making body, according to their different features and operations to make decisions, but its decision must be subordinated to the highest decision-making centre;
MNCs seek markets in worldwide and rational production layout, professional fixed-point production, fixed-point sales products, in order to achieve maximum profit;
Due to strong economic and technical strength, with fast information transmission, as well as funding for rapid cross-border transfers, the multinational has stronger competitiveness in the world;
Many large multinational companies have varying degrees of monopoly in some area, due to economic and technical strength or production advantages.
Foreign direct investment
When a corporation invests in the country which it is not domiciled, it is called foreign direct investment (FDI). Countries may place restrictions on direct investment; for example, China has historically required partnerships with local firms or special approval for certain types of investments by foreigners, although some of these restrictions were eased in 2019. Similarly, the United States Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States scrutinizes foreign investments.
In addition, corporations may be prohibited from various business transactions by international sanctions or domestic laws. For example, Chinese domestic corporations or citizens have limitations on their ability to make foreign investments outside of China, in part to reduce capital outflow. Countries can impose extraterritorial sanctions on foreign corporations even for doing business with other foreign corporations, which occurred in 2019 with the United States sanctions against Iran; European companies faced with the possibility of losing access to the US market by trading with Iran.
International investment agreements also facilitate direct investment between two countries, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and most favored nation status.
Legal domicile
Raymond Vernon reported in 1977 that of the largest multinationals focused on manufacturing, 250 were headquartered in the United States, 115 in Western Europe, 70 in Japan, and 20 in the rest of the world . The multinationals in banking numbered 20 headquartered in the United States, 13 in Europe, nine in Japan and three in Canada. Today multinationals can select from a variety of jurisdictions for various subsidiaries, but the ultimate parent company can select a single legal domicile; The Economist suggests that the Netherlands has become a popular choice, as its company laws have fewer requirements for meetings, compensation, and audit committees, and Great Britain had advantages due to laws on withholding dividends and a double-taxation treaty with the United States.
Corporations can legally engage in tax avoidance through their choice of jurisdiction, but must be careful to avoid illegal tax evasion.
Stateless or transnational
Corporations that are broadly active across the world without a concentration in one area have been called stateless or "transnational" (although "transnational corporation" is also used synonymously with "multinational corporation"), but as of 1992, a corporation must be legally domiciled in a particular country and engage in other countries through foreign direct investment and the creation of foreign subsidiaries. Geographic diversification can be measured across various domains, including ownership and control, workforce, sales, and regulation and taxation.
Regulation and taxation
Multinational corporations may be subject to the laws and regulations of both their domicile and the additional jurisdictions where they are engaged in business. In some cases, the jurisdiction can help to avoid burdensome laws, but regulatory statutes often target the "enterprise" with statutory language around "control".
, the United States and most OECD countries have legal authority to tax a domiciled parent corporation on its worldwide revenue, including subsidiaries; , the US applies its corporate taxation "extraterritorially", which has motivated tax inversions to change the home state. By 2019, most OECD nations, with the notable exception of the US, had moved to territorial tax in which only revenue inside the border was taxed; however, these nations typically scrutinize foreign income with controlled foreign corporation (CFC) rules to avoid base erosion and profit shifting.
In practice, even under an extraterritorial system taxes may be deferred until remittance, with possible repatriation tax holidays, and subject to foreign tax credits. Countries generally cannot tax the worldwide revenue of a foreign subsidiary, and taxation is complicated by transfer pricing arrangements with parent corporations.
Alternatives and arrangements
For small corporations, registering a foreign subsidiary can be expensive and complex, involving fees, signatures, and forms; a professional employer organization (PEO) is sometimes advertised as a cheaper and simpler alternative, but not all jurisdictions have laws accepting these types of arrangements.
Dispute resolution and arbitration
Disputes between corporations in different nations is often handled through international arbitration.
Theoretical background
The actions of multinational corporations are strongly supported by economic liberalism and free market system in a globalized international society. According to the economic realist view, individuals act in rational ways to maximize their self-interest and therefore, when individuals act rationally, markets are created and they function best in free market system where there is little government interference. As a result, international wealth is maximized with free exchange of goods and services.
To many economic liberals, multinational corporations are the vanguard of the liberal order. They are the embodiment par excellence of the liberal ideal of an interdependent world economy. They have taken the integration of national economies beyond trade and money to the internationalization of production. For the first time in history, production, marketing, and investment are being organized on a global scale rather than in terms of isolated national economies.
International business is also a specialist field of academic research. Economic theories of the multinational corporation include internalization theory and the eclectic paradigm. The latter is also known as the OLI framework.
The other theoretical dimension of the role of multinational corporations concerns the relationship between the globalization of economic engagement and the culture of national and local responses. This has a history of self-conscious cultural management going back at least to the 60s. For example:
Multinational enterprise
"Multinational enterprise" (MNE) is the term used by international economist and similarly defined with the multinational corporation (MNC) as an enterprise that controls and manages production establishments, known as plants located in at least two countries. The multinational enterprise (MNE) will engage in foreign direct investment (FDI) as the firm makes direct investments in host country plants for equity ownership and managerial control to avoid some transaction costs.
Criticism
Sanjaya Lall in 1974 proposed a spectrum of scholarly analysis of multinational corporations, from the political right to the left. He put the business school how-to-do-it writers at the extreme right, followed by the liberal laissez-faire economists, and the neoliberals (they remain right of center but do allow for occasional mistakes of the marketplace such as externalities). Moving to the left side of the line are nationalists, who prioritize national interests over corporate profits, then the "dependencia" school in Latin America that focuses on the evils of imperialism, and on the far left the Marxists. The range is so broad that scholarly consensus is hard to discern.
Anti-corporate advocates criticize multinational corporations for being without a basis in a national ethos, being ultimately without a specific nationhood, and that this lack of an ethos appears in their ways of operating as they enter into contracts with countries that have low human rights or environmental standards. In the world economy facilitated by multinational corporations, capital will increasingly be able to play workers, communities, and nations off against one another as they demand tax, regulation and wage concessions while threatening to move. In other words, increased mobility of multinational corporations benefit capital while workers and communities lose. Some negative outcomes generated by multinational corporations include increased inequality, unemployment, and wage stagnation. For the debate from a neo-liberal perspective see Raymond Vernon, Storm over the Multinationals (1977).</ref>
The aggressive use of tax avoidance schemes, and multinational tax havens, allows multinational corporations to gain competitive advantages over small and medium-sized enterprises. Organizations such as the Tax Justice Network criticize governments for allowing multinational organizations to escape tax, particularly by using base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) tax tools, since less money can be spent for public services.
See also
Globalization
Global workforce
List of multinational corporations
Transnational Corporations Observatory
World economy
Multinational tax haven
Notes
References
Further reading
Cameron, Rondo, V. I. Bovykin, et al. eds. International banking, 1870-1914 (1991)
Chandler, Alfred D. and Bruce Mazlish, eds. Leviathans: Multinational Corporations and the New Global History (2005). online
Chandler, Alfred D. et al. eds. Big Business and the Wealth of Nations (Cambridge University Press, 1999) excerpt
Chernow, Ron. The House of Morgan: An American Banking Dynasty and the Rise of Modern Finance (2010) excerpt
Davenport-Hines, R. P. T., and Geoffrey Jones, eds. British Business in Asia since 1860 (2003) excerpt
Dunning. John H. and Sarianna M. Lundan. Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (2nd ed. 2008), major textbook 1993 edition online
Habib-Mintz, Nazia. "Multinational corporations’ role in improving labour standards in developing countries." Journal of International Business and Economy 10.2 (2009): 1-20. online
Hunt, Michael H. "Americans in the China Market: Economic Opportunities and Economic Nationalism, 1890s-1931." Business History Review 51.3 (1977): 277–307. online
Jones, Geoffrey. Multinationals and Global Capitalism: From the Nineteenth to the Twenty-first Century (2005)
Jones, Geoffrey. Merchants to multinationals : British trading companies in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (2000) online
Jones, Geoffrey, and Jonathan Zeitlin, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Business History (2008)
Jones, Geoffrey, et al. The History of the British Bank of the Middle East: Vol. 2, Banking and Oil (1987)
Jones, Geoffrey. The Evolution of International Business (1995) online
Lumby, Anthony. "Economic history and theories of the multinational corporation." South African journal of economic history 3.2 (1988): 104–124.
Martin, Lisa, ed. The Oxford Handbook of the Political Economy of International Trade (2015) excerpt
Munjal, Surender, Pawan Budhwar, and Vijay Pereira. "A perspective on multinational enterprise’s national identity dilemma." Social Identities 24.5 (2018): 548–563. online
Stopford, John M. "The origins of British-based multinational manufacturing enterprises." Business History Review 48.3 (1974): 303–335.
Tugendhat, Christopher. The multinationals (Penguin, 1973) online.
Vernon, Raymond. Storm over the Multinationals: The Real Issues (Harvard UP, 1977). online
Wells, Louis T. Third world multinationals: The rise of foreign investments from developing countries (MIT Press, 1983) on companies based in Third World
Wilkins, Mira. "The history of multinational enterprise." in The Oxford handbook of international business vol 2 (2009). online
Wilkins, Mira. The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from the Colonial Era to 1914 (1970)
Wilkins, Mira. Maturing of Multinational Enterprise : American Business Abroad from 1914 to 1970 (1974)
Wilkins, Mira. American business abroad: Ford on six continents (1964) online
Corporate histories
Ciafone, Amanda. Counter-Cola: A Multinational History of the Global Corporation (U of California Press, 2019) on Coca-Cola.
Fritz, Martin and Karlsson, Birgit. SKF: A Global Story, 1907-2007 (2006). ISBN 978-91-7736-576-1
Scheiber, Harry N. "World War I as Entrepreneurial Opportunity: Willard Straight and the American International Corporation." Political Science Quarterly 84.3 (1969): 486–511. online
Historiography
Hernes, Helga. The Multinational Corporation: A Guide to Information Sources (Gale, 1977). online
External links
Data on transnational corporations
UNCTAD publications on multinational corporations
International business
Transnationalism
Economic globalization | [
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|
214495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mevlevi%20Order | Mevlevi Order | The Mevlevi Order or Mawlawiyya (; ) is a Sufi order that originated in Konya (a city now in Turkey; formerly capital of the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate) and which was founded by the followers of Jalaluddin Muhammad Balkhi Rumi, a 13th-century Persian poet, Sufi mystic, and Islamic theologian. The Mevlevis are also known as the "whirling dervishes" due to their famous practice of whirling as a form of dhikr (remembrance of God). Dervish is a common term for an initiate of the Sufi path; whirling is part of the formal sema ceremony and the participants are properly known as semazens.
In 2008, UNESCO confirmed "The Mevlevi Sema Ceremony" as amongst the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
Principles and practices
Approximately 750 years old, the Mevlevi Order is a living tradition based on the teachings of Rumi, also known as Mevlana, who is perhaps Turkey's most celebrated poet and in Iran, second only to Hafiz. He is also venerated as a divine mystic within Sufi Islam. Rumi's friend and spiritual mentor, Shams of Tabriz, is also revered within the order and within Sufism more widely.
Rumi said, "As long as I have life, I am the slave of the Quran. I am dust at the door of Muhammad the Chosen", and the Mevlevi path is based firmly on Islamic principles. Kabir Helminski, a Mevlevi shaikh, writes 'It is a rigorous path of initiation and service continually adapting itself to changing circumstances and times.... Mevlevis have always been progressive and liberal in spirit while at the same time conserving the best of tradition.'
The Mevlevis insist that love is at the centre of Islam. Mevlevi shaikh Şefik Can writes, 'Rumi tells us to take the love of God to the forefront, to abstain from being attached to the letter of the law rather than the spirit of it, to find the essence of the faith, and to raise our faith from the level of imitation to the level of realization.'
In addition to obligatory Islamic worship, some of the main spiritual practices within the Mevlevi Order are as follows:
Dhikr: invocation of the Divine Names which is believed to purify the heart
Sema (sama): the whirling ceremony
Study of the Quran and Rumi's works (especially his poetic masterpiece the Mathnavi)
Spiritual conversation led by the shaikh (sohbet)
Meditation (known as muraqabah in Islam)
Adab (developing courtesy and mindfulness)
Sema
The Sema with the greatest significance to the Mevlevi order is the annual celebration of Mevlana's marriage to god (death), also called Seb-i Arus, meaning Nuptial Night or Night of Union. It is observed for one week, with the final night occurring on the anniversary of his death. Pilgrims from all over the world travel to Konya for the official celebration. The event is so popular that a ticketing system is in place for those who wish to attend.
Rumi mentions whirling in a number of his poems. In one ghazal in the Divani Shamsi Tabriz he says:
Those who turn in the direction of prayer,
whirl in both this world and the next.
Pay heed when a circle of friends whirl,
circling round and round, the Kaaba is the center.
If you wish a mine of sugar, it is there;
and if you wish a fingertip of sugar, it is gratis.
Origins of Sema
According to a popular story, Rumi was first inspired to whirl when he heard the hammering of the goldsmiths in Konya's bazaar, however, Mevlevi historian Abdülbâki Gölpınarlı believed that Rumi must have learnt whirling from Shams of Tabriz. Şefik Can claimed that whirling was practiced among Sufis at least as early as Abu Sa’id Abu’l-Khayr (d. 1049). Though they have cultivated it to the highest degree, Mevlevis are not the only Sufis who practice whirling, and Kabir Helminski suggests primordial origins: "The practice of whirling may have its origins in the timeless shadows of Central Asian spirituality where shamans used it to induce altered states of consciousness."
Method and symbolism
Sema (or sama) is traditionally practised in a semahane (ritual hall) according to a precisely prescribed symbolic ritual with the semazens whirling in a circle around their shaikh. Semazens whirl using their right foot to propel themselves in a counter-clockwise circle, whilst their left foot remains rooted to the floor acting as an axis about which the semazen turns. Both arms are extended and raised to the level of the head, with the right palm pointing upward (believed to be receiving Divine grace) and the left palm pointing downward (believed to channel that grace to the world). With each 360° turn, the semazen is inwardly chanting "Allah" – a form of dhikr.
The semazens enter wearing a black cloak (hırka) symbolizing death and the grave, which they remove before whirling. On their heads they wear a tall, brown hat known as a sikke, which symbolizes the tombstone and the death of the ego (a version of the sikke is also worn by the Bektashi). Once their cloaks are removed, their long white robes (tennûre) and white jackets (destegül – meaning 'bouquet of roses') become visible. Both are symbols of resurrection.
Structure of the ceremony
Naat-i Sharif – The naat marks the beginning of the ceremony in which a solo singer offers a eulogy to the Prophet Muhammad. It is concluded with a taksim (improvisation) on the reed flute (ney), which symbolises the Divine breath that gives life to everything.
Devr-i Veled – The Sultan Veled walk involves the semazens walking slowly and rhythmically to the peshrev music. After slapping the ground forcefully (representing the Divine act of creation when God said 'Be!' according to the Quran), they make a circuit in single file around the hall three times, bowing first to the semazen in front of them, and then to the semazen behind them as they begin each circuit. The bow is said to represent the acknowledgement of the Divine breath which has been breathed into all of us and is a salutation from soul to soul. The dervishes then remove their black cloaks.
The Four Salams – The Four Salams (Selams) form the main part of the ceremony and are distinct musical movements. According to Celalettin Celebi and Shaikh Kabir Helminski, "The first selam represents the human being's birth to Truth through knowledge, and through his awareness and submission to God. The second selam represents the rapture of the human being while witnessing the splendour of creation and the omnipotence of God. The third selam is the transformation of rapture into love, the sacrifice of mind to love. It is annihilation of the self within the Loved One. It is complete submission. It is unity.... The fourth selam is the semazen's coming to terms with his destiny. With the semazen's whole self, with all his mind and heart, he is a servant of God, of God's books and His prophets – of all Creation."
Quranic recitation – The ceremony concludes with a recitation from the Quran, which normally includes the following verse: God is in the East and West. And wherever you turn, there is the face of God. (Quran 2:115)
History
Early expansion
The order was established after Rumi's death in 1273 by his son Sultan Veled and Husameddin Chelebi (who inspired Rumi to write the Mathnavi). Like his father, Sultan Veled is celebrated for his poetry. Lyrics he wrote are often sung during the sema ceremony itself, and both he and Husameddin Chelebi are honoured within the order as accomplished Sufi mystics in their own right. It was they who had Rumi's mausoleum built in Konya, which to this day is a place of pilgrimage for many Muslims (and non-Muslims). A number of Rumi's successors, including both Sultan Veled and Husameddin Chelebi themselves, are also buried there. Their personal efforts to establish the order were continued by Sultan Veled's son Ulu Arif Chelebi.
During the Ottoman period, the Mevlevi order spread into the Balkans, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, and Palestine, especially in Jerusalem. The Bosnian writer Meša Selimović wrote the book The Dervish and Death about a Mevlevi dergah in Sarajevo. Eventually, there were as many as 114 Sufi lodges, the order becoming well established within the Ottoman Empire when Devlet Hatun, a descendant of Sultan Veled, married Bayezid I. Their son Mehmed I Çelebi became the next sultan, endowing the order, as did his successors, with many advantages. Many of the members of the order served in various official positions within the empire.
The Çelebis
To this day, responsibility for overseeing the Mevlevi Order is passed down through the generations of Rumi's male descendants. The head of the order is referred to as Çelebi (Chelebi) which means ‘man of God' or ‘noble, courteous' according to Mevlevi historian Abdülbâki Gölpınarlı. The current Çelebi is Faruk Hemdem Çelebi. He is also president of the International Mevlana Foundation (UluslararasI Mevlânâ Vakfi), a Turkish cultural and educational foundation managed by his sister and vice-president Esin Çelebi Bayru. Shaikhs, who have the authority to teach Mevlevi practices and philosophy, are appointed by the Çelebi.
Artistic heritage
Rumi's Mathnavi and Diwan-e Shams-e Tabrizi are considered masterpieces of Persian literature, and throughout the centuries the Mevlevi Order has continued its long-standing association with the arts in Turkey. Apart from the works of Rumi and Sultan Veled, other famous literary works by Mevlevis include influential commentaries on Rumi's Mathnavi by Ismāʿil Rusūhī Ankarawi (d. 1631) and Ismāʿil Ḥaqqı Burṣalı (d. 1724), the latter also being 'a fine mystical poet' in his own right. The most celebrated Mevlevi poet, after Rumi and Sultan Veled, is Shaykh Ghalib Dede (d. 1799), the author of Hüsn ü Aşk and ‘perhaps the last true master of Turkish classical poetry' according to scholar Annemarie Schimmel. Both Ghālib Dede and Ankarawī are buried at the Galata Mevlevihanesi.
A significant number of the most celebrated Turkish musicians have been Mevlevis, and during the Ottoman era the Mevlevi Order produced a great deal of vocal and instrumental music. Mustafa Itri (1640–1712), an Ottoman-Turkish musician, composer, singer and poet, is regarded as the master of Turkish classical music Ismail Dede (1778-1846) is also considered one of Turkey's greatest classical composers and wrote the music for the ceremonial songs (ayins) played during the sema ceremony. Celebrated female musicians and composers include Dilhayat Khalifa (early 1700s) and Layla Saz (late 1800s – also buried at Galata Mevlevihanesi).
The Mevlevi Regiment
During World War I, the Mevlevi Regiment served in Syria and Palestine under the command of 4th Army. A battalion of some 800 dervishes was formed December 1914 in Konya (the Mucahidin-i Mevleviyye) and was sent to Damascus. Another battalion of regular recruits was added at the end of August 1916, and together they formed the Mevlevi Regiment. This unit did not fight until the end of the Palestine campaign and was disbanded at the end of September 1918.
During the 1915 Armenian genocide, members of the Mevlevi Order in velayat of Konya were saving peaceful Armenian civilians (zimmi) by providing shelter and hiding them from the Special Organization.
Mustafa Kemal met with members of the Mevlevi Order in 1923 before its institutional expression became illegal.
1925 ban on Sufism in the Turkish Republic
Sufism was outlawed in Turkey in September 1925 by the new Turkish Republic under Atatürk. As a result, the Dervish lodge in Konya eventually became the Mevlana Museum. According to the International Mevlana Foundation, preceding the ban 'Atatürk uttered the following words about the Mevlevi Order to Abdulhalim Chalabi, “Makam Chalabi” of Konya, and furthermore the Vice President of the First House of Representatives: “You, the Mevlevis have made a great difference by combating ignorance and religious fundamentalism for centuries, as well as making contributions to science and the arts. However we are obliged not to make any exceptions and must include Mevlevi tekkes. Nonetheless, the ideas and teaching of Mevlana will not only exist forever, but they will emerge even more powerfully in the future.”'
Though the Sufi lodges were forced to close down, Mevlevi practice continues within Turkey but in a more restricted and private mode. Sufism is still officially illegal in Turkey, and sema ceremonies are therefore officially presented as cultural events of historical interest rather than as worship.
Outside the Mevlevi Order, a number of groups and individuals who have no connection to the order claim to present ‘Mevlevi whirling' – often for the entertainment of tourists.
Mevlevi Order comes to the West
In the latter half of the twentieth century, the Mevlevi Order began to make its presence felt in the West. This was due to the great popularity of English translations of Rumi's poetry (especially by Coleman Barks), but was also due to the influence of Mevlevi shaikh Suleyman Hayati Loras (known as Suleyman Dede) who made a number of trips to the USA in the 1970s. Suleyman Loras appointed several Westerners as Mevlevi teachers for the first time, including David Bellak and Kabir Helminski, and sent his son Jelaleddin Loras to live and teach in America. David Bellak took Suleyman Loras' teaching to Edinburgh in Scotland where he settled in 1980 and established Mevlevi practice.
Around about this time, Mevlevi dervishes also began to present the whirling ceremony to audiences in the West. In 1971, they performed in London with Kâni Karaca (known as the 'Voice of Turkey') as lead singer. In 1972, they toured North America for the first time with Kâni Karaca, Ulvi Erguner, and Akagündüz Kutbay among the musicians. Since the 1990s there have been several tours of the United States, including those led by the first Westerner to be officially initiated as a shaikh in the Mevlevi Order, Kabir Helminski. Since the 1980s, the Helminskis (Kabir and Camille) have presented Mevlevi principles and practice to Western audiences through books, seminars, retreats, and their organisation Threshold Society. Practising Mevlevis under the tutelage of a recognised shaikh can now be found across the globe.
Women in the Mevlevi Order
Camille Helminski explains in her book, Women of Sufism, A Hidden Treasure, how Rumi had a number of noteworthy female students, and how in the early days of the order there were instances of female shaikhs and semazens, such as Destina Khatun (who was appointed shaykha of the Kara Hisar Mevlevi lodge). "In the early days of the Mevlevi order, women and men were known to pray, share sohbet (spiritual conversation), and whirl within each other's company, though more often as the centuries unfolded, women held their own semas and men also whirled in zhikr separate from women. However, in the time of Mevlana [Rumi], spontaneous semas would occur including both men and women". In the same book, Camille Helminski presents a 1991 letter from Celaleddin Bakir Çelebi, the Çelebi heading the order, which granted permission for men and women to once more whirl together in mixed Mevlevi ceremonies.
Notes
External links
Galata Mevlevi Ensemble
Mevlevi Order of America
Video of Ensemble Al-Kindi & The Whirling Dervishes of Damascus
Pictures of Mevlevi museum in Istanbul
Pictures of Mevlevi museum in Konya
Religious organizations established in the 1270s
Rumi
Dervish movements | [
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|
214496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu%20Zetian%20%28disambiguation%29 | Wu Zetian (disambiguation) | Wu Zetian (624–705), also romanized as Wu Ze Tian or Wu Tse-Tien, was a Chinese empress of the Zhou dynasty (690–705).
Wu Zetian may also refer to:
Wu Zetian (1995 TV series), 1995 Chinese television series
The Empress Wu Tse-tien (1939 film), 1939 Chinese film starring Violet Koo
Empress Wu Tse-Tien (1963 film), 1963 Hong Kong film starring Li Li-hua
Empress Wu (TV series) or Wu Zetian, 1984 Hong Kong television series
Wu Zi Bei Ge: Wu Zetian Zhuan, 2006 Chinese television series starring Siqin Gaowa
See also
Empress Wu (disambiguation)
The Empress of the Dynasty, 1985 Taiwanese television series starring Angela Pan
The Shadow of Empress Wu, also known as Riyue Lingkong, 2007 Chinese television series starring Liu Xiaoqing
Secret History of Empress Wu, 2011 Chinese television series
The Empress of China, 2016 Chinese television series
:Category: Works about Wu Zetian | [
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|
214497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cata%C3%B1o%2C%20Puerto%20Rico | Cataño, Puerto Rico | Cataño () is a town and municipality located on the northern coast of Puerto Rico, bordering the San Juan Bay and the Atlantic Ocean, and adjacent to the north and east by San Juan; north of Bayamón and Guaynabo; east of Toa Baja and west of Guaynabo and is part of the San Juan Metropolitan Area. Cataño is spread over 7 barrios and Cataño Pueblo (the downtown area and the administrative center of the city). It is part of the San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo Metropolitan Statistical Area.
History
Hernando de Cataño was chosen to offer his medical services in Puerto Rico during Francisco Bahamonde de Lugo's tenure as Governor of Puerto Rico (1564–1568). He was one of the first physicians who arrived in Puerto Rico during its colonization and, upon accepting his position, received as payment a piece of land across the San Juan islet. From that time, the region started to be recognized by the name of its original owner. As people started establishing in the area, Cataño was declared as a barrio of Bayamón. However, there wasn't much success in the town's development during these years due to its swamp-like terrain. Still, around 1690, a hermitage was established to allow residents to receive religious services without having to travel to Bayamón.
In the middle of the 19th century, a ferry company was founded to facilitate the transportation of merchandise and passengers through the San Juan Bay. This spurred a growth in the population of Cataño, transforming it into one of the most prosperous barrios of Bayamón. Still, attempts to separate themselves from Bayamón in 1839 were unsuccessful. On June 26, 1893, Bishop Antonio Puig y Montserrat separated the barrios of Cataño, Palo Seco, and Palmas from Bayamón's parish and established an independent parish for the residents of these sectors. In 1927, Cataño was officially declared a municipality with the name Hato de Palmas de Cataño, which overtime was simply shortened to Cataño.
Politics played a crucial part in the foundation of the town, since Bayamón was controlled by an administration with opposing ideologies to those of the island's Legislature. The separation of Cataño from Bayamón was a strategy to weaken that opposition.
With only five square miles of territory (12.5 km2), Cataño is the smallest municipality in Puerto Rico. It is less than half the size of Hormigueros, the next-smallest in area.
The people of Cataño were left in despair when Hurricane María struck on September 20, 2017 destroying their infrastructure and homes. With winds of 150 miles per hour the hurricane destroyed and flooded an estimated 650 homes and the roads became rivers. An estimated 80% of homes in the Juana Matas area of Cataño were destroyed.
Geography
Cataño consists mostly of flat plains that belong to the Northern region of Puerto Rico. Its northern shore falls on the San Juan Bay of the Atlantic Ocean.
Bodies of water
Located in Cataño are a number of rivers, streams, named and unnamed creeks, and channels including:
Caño La Malaria (Malaria Channel)
Río de Bayamón
Río Hondo
Barrios
Cataño is divided into only two barrios: Cataño barrio-pueblo, and Palmas.
Sectors
Barrios (which are like minor civil divisions) in turn are further subdivided into smaller local populated place areas/units called sectores (sectors in English). The types of sectores may vary, from normally sector to urbanización to reparto to barriada to residencial, among others.
Special Communities
(Special Communities of Puerto Rico) are marginalized communities whose citizens are experiencing a certain amount of social exclusion. A map shows these communities occur in nearly every municipality of the commonwealth. Of the 742 places that were on the list in 2014, the following barrios, communities, sectors, or neighborhoods were in Cataño: Cucharillas, Juana Matos, Puente Blanco, and Puntilla.
Culture
Festivals and events
Cataño celebrates its patron saint festival in July. The is a religious and cultural celebration that generally features parades, games, artisans, amusement rides, regional food, and live entertainment.
Tourism
There are 4 beaches in Cataño, including .
One of the main tourist attractions in Cataño is the boardwalk or that commands a view of the San Juan Bay, including views of Fort San Felipe del Morro on the opposing side. There are several monuments and sculptures along the boardwalk, including a monument to Taíno culture called "India Taína".
The Bacardi Distillery also offers tours of its facilities to visitors who want to learn about the rum manufacturing industry in the island and the Caribbean.
Christopher Columbus statue
The town gained notoriety in 1998, when Mayor Edwin Rivera Sierra traveled to Russia and acquired a huge statue of Christopher Columbus called "Birth of the New World". The statue Columbus by Tsereteli was designed by artist Zurab Tsereteli and would measure when erected. Tsereteli had offered the statue to the United States as a gift in 1992 with the intention to use it for the celebrations of the 500th year of its voyage. However, it was rejected. The transportation of the statue from Russia to Cataño cost $2.4 million. After arriving on the island, the 2,700 bronze pieces of the statue were scattered in a terrain awaiting for funds for the project, but Rivera Sierra was unable to garner enough public support or funding for it. The statue was installed in Arecibo.
Sports
Cataño has a number of professional sports teams, and there are several important sports facilities located in the town, including the Perucho Cepeda Stadium, the Pedro Rodríguez Gaya Boxing Coliseum, and the Cosme Beitía Salamo Coliseum.
Economy
Due to its location, Cataño has always played an important role as a port to the island. Fishing has also been a main source of economy for centuries. Bacardi, one of the largest rum manufacturers of the world, has a distillery in Cataño.
Other industries established in the town are refineries, commerce companies, transport and logistics, among others.
Demographics
Despite its small size, Cataño has a large population when compared to municipalities of similar areas. This is perhaps due to its location near the capital of San Juan. The population, according to the 2000 census, was 30,071 with a population density of 6,014.2 people per square mile (2,313.1/km2). Although the current population is almost the double of what it was in the 1950 census, the current census reflects a small decrease of inhabitants.
As a whole, Puerto Rico is populated mainly by people from a Mulatto (Of African and European descent) and European descent, with small groups of African and Asian people. Statistics taken from the 2000 census shows that 66.9% of Catañenses have Spanish or White ancestry, 8.6% are black, 0.8% are Amerindian etc.
Government
After its initial establishment, Cataño belonged to the Bayamón region. From 1839 to 1845, there were some attempts to separate the barrio from Bayamón, but these were unsuccessful. However, on late 19th century, Bishop Antonio Puig y Montserrat managed to separate Cataño establishing their own parish. Cataño was finally declared a municipality on April 25, 1927 being its first mayor Alberto Dávila.
In 1987, Edwin Rivera Sierra was elected as Mayor of Cataño. He remained in the position for 16 years, quitting in 2003. He was replaced by Wilson Soto, who was then officially elected at the 2004 elections in Puerto Rico. After losing a reelection bid in 2008 against José Rosario, Soto was indicted on nine charges.
The city belongs to the Puerto Rico Senatorial district II, which is represented by two Senators. Migdalia Padilla and Carmelo Ríos Santiago have served as District Senators since 2005.
Symbols
The has an official flag and coat of arms.
Flag
The flag consists of nine horizontal stripes: four blue stripes and five white stripes (substituting for the silver color on the coat of arms). A white and green band traverses diagonally the drape in all its extension, from the upper hoist to the lower fly.
The green color represents the palm trees that are also present in the coat of arms. The flag was officially adopted during José Alvarez Brunet tenure as mayor on September 5, 1974.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms of Cataño consists of nine horizontal stripes of same the width: four blue and five silver. The colors of the coat and the flag represent the coat of arms of the family of Don Hernando de Cataño, an Hidalgo to whom the town owes its name. The color silver represents nobility and the color blue was used by hidalgos on their armories. It symbolizes royalty and serenity.
On top of the coat of arms, there's a crown with three towers distinct of others coat of arms. The coat itself is surrounded by two green palm trees, an allusion to one of the original names of the town: Hato de las Palmas de Cataño.
Name
Aside of its name, derived from its original owner, Cataño has several nicknames. The city is known as "La Antesala de la Capital" (the Foyer of the Capital) because of its location across the bay from the capital-city of San Juan. In the 1960s, the residents of Cataño jokingly called it "Fanguito Town" because of its
many muddy streets.
Education
Cataño has several public and private schools managed by the Puerto Rico Department of Education.
Transportation
Puerto Rico Highway 22 provides access to Cataño from San Juan or from other adjacent towns. Like most other towns in the island, it has a public transportation system consisting of public cars. Taxis are also available around the town.
Cataño also has a ferry service known as La Lancha de Cataño, or the Ferry of Cataño. The ferry service, which has been working since 1853, operates a five-minute harbor route between Cataño and Old San Juan, and vice versa daily. There is a large ferry terminal at Cataño, and tourists can enjoy the view of the Castillo del Morro and the large cruise ships docked at the old San Juan terminal during this journey.
There are 16 bridges in Cataño.
Gallery
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
History of Puerto Rico
References
External links
Cataño and its barrios, United States Census Bureau
Cataño Municipality on Facebook
Municipalities of Puerto Rico
Populated coastal places in Puerto Rico
Populated places established in 1927
San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area
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|
214499 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanne%20de%20Salzmann | Jeanne de Salzmann | Jeanne de Salzmann (born Jeanne-Marie Allemand) often addressed as Madame de Salzmann (January 26, 1889, Reims – May 24, 1990, Paris) was the daughter of the famous Swiss architect Jules Louis Allemand and of Marie Louise Matignon. She was a French-Swiss dance teacher and a close pupil of the spiritual teacher G. I. Gurdjieff, recognized as his deputy by many of Gurdjieff's other pupils. She was responsible for transmitting the movements and his teaching through the Gurdjieff Institute of Paris, the Gurdjieff Foundation of New York City, the Gurdjieff Society in London and the Fundación Gurdjieff of Caracas, which she founded or helped founding, as well as other formal and informal groups throughout the world.
Madame de Salzmann began her career at the Conservatory of Geneva, studying piano. Later a student of Émile Jaques-Dalcroze in Germany from 1912, she taught dance and rhythmic movements. She met her husband Alexandre de Salzmann in Hellerau at Dalcroze's Institute. They married on September 6 in Geneva. With him she had a daughter, Nathalie de Salzmann (1919-2007). The First World War caused the closure of Dalcroze's Institute and Jeanne and her husband Alexandre moved to Tiflis, Georgia where she continued to teach.
In 1919, Thomas de Hartmann introduced the de Salzmanns to George Gurdjieff, a relationship that would last until Gurdjieff's death in 1949. She worked with Gurdjieff for nearly 30 years.
She led the Gurdjieff Institute of Paris and continued Gurdjieff's teachings, emphasizing work with the movements, until she died, 101 years old, in 1990.
Jeanne de Salzmann played a major role in realizing the 1977 movie "Meetings with Remarkable Men" by Peter Brook.
She was buried at Cimetière de Plainpalais in Geneva.
After her death, her son Michel de Salzmann (1923-2001) took over the leadership of the organization and a book, The Reality of Being, was made, faithful to the notebooks she kept for 40 years, witnessing her work and teaching after Gurdjieff died
References
1889 births
1990 deaths
Fourth Way
French female dancers
People from Reims
Swiss Christian mystics | [
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|
214502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beautiful | Beautiful | Beautiful, an adjective used to describe things as possessing beauty, may refer to:
Films
Beautiful (2000 film), an American film starring Minnie Driver and Kathleen Turner
Beautiful (2008 film), a South Korean film
Beautiful (2009 film), an Australian film starring Deborra-Lee Furness and Aaron Jeffery
Beautiful (2011 film), an Indian film starring Jayasurya and Anoop Menon
Music
The Beautiful (band), an American hard rock band from 1988 to 1993
Albums
Beautiful (Candido Camero album), 1970
Beautiful! (Charles McPherson album), 1975
Beautiful (David Tao album), 2006
Beautiful. (Fantastic Plastic Machine album), 2001
Beautiful (Fish Leong album), 2003
Beautiful (Jessica Mauboy album), 2013
Beautiful (Meg album), 2009
Beautiful (The Reels album), 1982
Beautiful (Teena Marie album), 2013
Beautiful (Vivian Green album), 2010
Beautiful (EP), by Amber, 2015
The Beautiful (album), by Triptych Myth, 2005
Songs
"Beautiful" (10 Years song), 2008
"Beautiful" (2PM song), 2012
"Beautiful" (Akon song), 2009
"Beautiful" (Bazzi song), 2018
"Beautiful" (Beast song), 2020
"Beautiful" (Carly Rae Jepsen and Justin Bieber song), 2012
"Beautiful" (Carole King song), covered by Barbra Streisand and Richard Marx, 1971
"Beautiful" (Christina Aguilera song), 2002
"Beautiful" (Disco Montego song), 2002
"Beautiful" (Eminem song), 2009
"Beautiful" (Enrique Iglesias song), 2014
"Beautiful" (Gordon Lightfoot song), 1972
"Beautiful" (Ivy song), 1995
"Beautiful" (Jessica Mauboy song), 2013
"Beautiful" (Joydrop song), 1998
"Beautiful" (Lynsey de Paul song), 1977
"Beautiful" (Mai Kuraki song), 2009
"Beautiful" (Mandalay song), 1998
"Beautiful" (Mariah Carey song), 2013
"Beautiful" (MercyMe song), 2010
"Beautiful" (Moby song), 2005
"Beautiful" (Park Jung-min song), 2012
"Beautiful" (Sarah De Bono song), 2012
"Beautiful" (Snoop Dogg song), 2003
"Beautiful" (Taylor Dayne song), 2007
"Beautiful" (Wanna One song), 2017
"Beautiful", by Aerosmith from Music from Another Dimension!
"Beautiful", by Athlete from Vehicles & Animals
"Beautiful", by Audio Adrenaline from Lift
"Beautiful", by Barenaked Ladies from Barenaked Ladies Are Men
"Beautiful", by Bethany Dillon from Bethany Dillon
"Beautiful", by Bombay Rockers from Crash and Burn
"Beautiful", by Cherrybelle from Love Is You
"Beautiful", by Creed from Human Clay
"Beautiful", by Damian Marley from Welcome to Jamrock
"Beautiful", by Dan Bremnes from Where the Light Is
"Beautiful", by Don Omar from Mas Flow: Los Benjamins
"Beautiful", by Goldfrapp from Supernature
"Beautiful", by Gustavo Cerati from Bocanada
"Beautiful", by HIM from Deep Shadows and Brilliant Highlights
"Beautiful", by Julian Lennon from Everything Changes
"Beautiful", by Kygo from Golden Hour
"Beautiful", by Marillion from Afraid of Sunlight
"Beautiful", by NCT 2021
"Beautiful", by Paul Simon from Surprise
"Beautiful", by Pop Evil from Onyx
"Beautiful", by Sevendust from Animosity
"Beautiful", by Shinee from Dream Girl – The Misconceptions of You
"Beautiful", by Social Code from A Year at the Movies
"Beautiful", by Sook-Yin Lee from the soundtrack of the 2006 film Shortbus
"Beautiful", by The Smashing Pumpkins from Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness
"Beautiful", by Vivian Green from Beautiful
"Beautiful", by Verona from Summer Consequence
Theater
Beautiful: The Carole King Musical, 2014 Broadway musical
See also
Beautiful Garbage, a 2001 album by Garbage
Biutiful, a 2010 Mexican-Spanish drama film
Beauty (disambiguation)
Beautiful Girl (disambiguation) | [
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|
214505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower | Tower | A tower is a tall structure, taller than it is wide, often by a significant factor. Towers are distinguished from masts by their lack of guy-wires and are therefore, along with tall buildings, self-supporting structures.
Towers are specifically distinguished from buildings in that they are built not to be habitable but to serve other functions using the height of the tower. For example, the height of a clock tower improves the visibility of the clock, and the height of a tower in a fortified building such as a castle increases the visibility of the surroundings for defensive purposes. Towers may also be built for observation, leisure, or telecommunication purposes. A tower can stand alone or be supported by adjacent buildings, or it may be a feature on top of a larger structure or building.
Etymology
Old English torr is from Latin turris via Old French tor. The Latin term together with Greek τύρσις was loaned from a pre-Indo-European Mediterranean language, connected with the Illyrian toponym
Βου-δοργίς. With the Lydian toponyms Τύρρα, Τύρσα, it has been connected with the ethnonym Τυρρήνιοι as well as with Tusci (from *Turs-ci), the Greek and Latin names for the Etruscans (Kretschmer Glotta 22, 110ff.)
History
Towers have been used by mankind since prehistoric times. The oldest known may be the circular stone tower in walls of Neolithic Jericho (8000 BC). Some of the earliest towers were ziggurats, which existed in Sumerian architecture since the 4th millennium BC. The most famous ziggurats include the Sumerian Ziggurat of Ur, built the 3rd millennium BC, and the Etemenanki, one of the most famous examples of Babylonian architecture. The latter was built in Babylon during the 2nd millennium BC and was considered the tallest tower of the ancient world.
Some of the earliest surviving examples are the broch structures in northern Scotland, which are conical towerhouses. These and other examples from Phoenician and Roman cultures emphasised the use of a tower in fortification and sentinel roles. For example, the name of the Moroccan city of Mogador, founded in the first millennium BC, is derived from the Phoenician word for watchtower ('migdol'). The Romans utilised octagonal towers as elements of Diocletian's Palace in Croatia, which monument dates to approximately 300 AD, while the Servian Walls (4th century BC) and the Aurelian Walls (3rd century AD) featured square ones. The Chinese used towers as integrated elements of the Great Wall of China in 210 BC during the Qin Dynasty. Towers were also an important element of castles.
Other well known towers include the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Pisa, Italy built from 1173 until 1372 and the Two Towers in Bologna, Italy built from 1109 until 1119. The Himalayan Towers are stone towers located chiefly in Tibet built approximately 14th to 15th century.
Mechanics
Up to a certain height, a tower can be made with the supporting structure with parallel sides. However, above a certain height, the compressive load of the material is exceeded and the tower will fail. This can be avoided if the tower's support structure tapers up the building.
A second limit is that of buckling—the structure requires sufficient stiffness to avoid breaking under the loads it faces, especially those due to winds. Many very tall towers have their support structures at the periphery of the building, which greatly increases the overall stiffness.
A third limit is dynamic; a tower is subject to varying winds, vortex shedding, seismic disturbances etc. These are often dealt with through a combination of simple strength and stiffness, as well as in some cases tuned mass dampers to damp out movements. Varying or tapering the outer aspect of the tower with height avoids vibrations due to vortex shedding occurring along the entire building simultaneously.
Functions
Although not correctly defined as towers, many modern high-rise buildings (in particular skyscraper) have 'tower' in their name or are colloquially called 'towers'. Skyscrapers are more properly classified as 'buildings'. In the United Kingdom, tall domestic buildings are referred to as tower blocks. In the United States, the original World Trade Center had the nickname the Twin Towers, a name shared with the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur. In addition some of the structures listed below do not follow the strict criteria used at List of tallest towers.
Strategic advantages
The tower throughout history has provided its users with an advantage in surveying defensive positions and obtaining a better view of the surrounding areas, including battlefields. They were constructed on defensive walls, or rolled near a target (see siege tower). Today, strategic-use towers are still used at prisons, military camps, and defensive perimeters.
Potential energy
By using gravity to move objects or substances downward, a tower can be used to store items or liquids like a storage silo or a water tower, or aim an object into the earth such as a drilling tower. Ski-jump ramps use the same idea, and in the absence of a natural mountain slope or hill, can be human-made.
Communication enhancement
In history, simple towers like lighthouses, bell towers, clock towers, signal towers and minarets were used to communicate information over greater distances. In more recent years, radio masts and cell phone towers facilitate communication by expanding the range of the transmitter. The CN Tower in Toronto, Ontario, Canada was built as a communications tower, with the capability to act as both a transmitter and repeater. Its design also incorporated features to make it a tourist attraction, including the world's highest observation deck at 147 storeys.
Transportation support
Towers can also be used to support bridges, and can reach heights that rival some of the tallest buildings above-water. Their use is most prevalent in suspension bridges and cable-stayed bridges. The use of the pylon, a simple tower structure, has also helped to build railroad bridges, mass-transit systems, and harbors.
Control towers are used to give visibility to help direct aviation traffic.
Other
To access tall or high objects: launch tower, service tower, service structure, scaffold, tower crane.
To access atmospheric conditions aloft: wind turbine, meteorological measurement tower, tower telescope, solar power station
To lift high tension cables for electrical power distribution transmission tower
To take advantage of the temperature gradient inherent in a height differential: cooling tower
To expel and disperse potentially harmful gases and particulates into the atmosphere: chimney
To protect from exposure: BREN Tower, lightning rod tower
For industrial production: shot tower
For surveying: Survey tower
To drop objects: Drop tube (drop tower), bomb tower, diving platform
To test height-intensive applications: elevator test tower
To improve structural integrity: thyristor tower
To mimic towers or provide height for training purposes: fire tower, parachute tower
As art: Shukhov Tower
For recreation: rock climbing tower
As a symbol: Tower of Babel, The Tower (Tarot card), church tower
The term "tower" is also sometimes used to refer to firefighting equipment with an extremely tall ladder designed for use in firefighting/rescue operations involving high-rise buildings.
Gallery
See also
General
Additionally guyed tower
Bell tower
Inclined towers
Observation tower
Partially guyed tower
World's tallest structures
Spire
Tower house
List of tallest towers in the world
Warfare
Battery tower
Bergfried
Breaching tower
Butter-churn tower
Flanking tower
Fortified tower
Gate tower
Turret
Watchtower
Wall tower
References
Further reading
Fritz Leonhardt (1989), Towers: a historical survey, Butterworth Architecture, 343 pages.
External links
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214513 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission%20electron%20microscopy | Transmission electron microscopy | Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a microscopy technique in which a beam of electrons is transmitted through a specimen to form an image. The specimen is most often an ultrathin section less than 100 nm thick or a suspension on a grid. An image is formed from the interaction of the electrons with the sample as the beam is transmitted through the specimen. The image is then magnified and focused onto an imaging device, such as a fluorescent screen, a layer of photographic film, or a sensor such as a scintillator attached to a charge-coupled device.
Transmission electron microscopes are capable of imaging at a significantly higher resolution than light microscopes, owing to the smaller de Broglie wavelength of electrons. This enables the instrument to capture fine detail—even as small as a single column of atoms, which is thousands of times smaller than a resolvable object seen in a light microscope. Transmission electron microscopy is a major analytical method in the physical, chemical and biological sciences. TEMs find application in cancer research, virology, and materials science as well as pollution, nanotechnology and semiconductor research, but also in other fields such as paleontology and palynology.
TEM instruments have multiple operating modes including conventional imaging, scanning TEM imaging (STEM), diffraction, spectroscopy, and combinations of these. Even within conventional imaging, there are many fundamentally different ways that contrast is produced, called "image contrast mechanisms". Contrast can arise from position-to-position differences in the thickness or density ("mass-thickness contrast"), atomic number ("Z contrast", referring to the common abbreviation Z for atomic number), crystal structure or orientation ("crystallographic contrast" or "diffraction contrast"), the slight quantum-mechanical phase shifts that individual atoms produce in electrons that pass through them ("phase contrast"), the energy lost by electrons on passing through the sample ("spectrum imaging") and more. Each mechanism tells the user a different kind of information, depending not only on the contrast mechanism but on how the microscope is used—the settings of lenses, apertures, and detectors. What this means is that a TEM is capable of returning an extraordinary variety of nanometer- and atomic-resolution information, in ideal cases revealing not only where all the atoms are but what kinds of atoms they are and how they are bonded to each other. For this reason TEM is regarded as an essential tool for nanoscience in both biological and materials fields.
The first TEM was demonstrated by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska in 1931, with this group developing the first TEM with resolution greater than that of light in 1933 and the first commercial TEM in 1939. In 1986, Ruska was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for the development of transmission electron microscopy.
History
Initial development
In 1873, Ernst Abbe proposed that the ability to resolve detail in an object was limited approximately by the wavelength of the light used in imaging or a few hundred nanometers for visible light microscopes. Developments in ultraviolet (UV) microscopes, led by Köhler and Rohr, increased resolving power by a factor of two. However this required expensive quartz optics, due to the absorption of UV by glass. It was believed that obtaining an image with sub-micrometer information was not possible due to this wavelength constraint.
In 1858, Plücker observed the deflection of "cathode rays" (electrons) by magnetic fields. This effect was used by Ferdinand Braun in 1897 to build simple cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) measuring devices. In 1891, Riecke noticed that the cathode rays could be focused by magnetic fields, allowing for simple electromagnetic lens designs. In 1926, Hans Busch published work extending this theory and showed that the lens maker's equation could, with appropriate assumptions, be applied to electrons.
In 1928, at the Technical University of Berlin, Adolf Matthias, Professor of High Voltage Technology and Electrical Installations, appointed Max Knoll to lead a team of researchers to advance the CRO design. The team consisted of several PhD students including Ernst Ruska and Bodo von Borries. The research team worked on lens design and CRO column placement, to optimize parameters to construct better CROs, and make electron optical components to generate low magnification (nearly 1:1) images. In 1931, the group successfully generated magnified images of mesh grids placed over the anode aperture. The device used two magnetic lenses to achieve higher magnifications, arguably creating the first electron microscope. In that same year, Reinhold Rudenberg, the scientific director of the Siemens company, patented an electrostatic lens electron microscope.
Improving resolution
At the time, electrons were understood to be charged particles of matter; the wave nature of electrons was not fully realized until the publication of the De Broglie hypothesis in 1927. Knoll's research group was unaware of this publication until 1932, when they quickly realized that the De Broglie wavelength of electrons was many orders of magnitude smaller than that for light, theoretically allowing for imaging at atomic scales. (Even for electrons with a kinetic energy of just 1 volt the wavelength is already as short as 1.23 nm.) In April 1932, Ruska suggested the construction of a new electron microscope for direct imaging of specimens inserted into the microscope, rather than simple mesh grids or images of apertures. With this device successful diffraction and normal imaging of an aluminium sheet was achieved. However the magnification achievable was lower than with light microscopy. Magnifications higher than those available with a light microscope were achieved in September 1933 with images of cotton fibers quickly acquired before being damaged by the electron beam.
At this time, interest in the electron microscope had increased, with other groups, such as that of Paul Anderson and Kenneth Fitzsimmons of Washington State University and that of Albert Prebus and James Hillier at the University of Toronto, who constructed the first TEMs in North America in 1935 and 1938, respectively, continually advancing TEM design.
Research continued on the electron microscope at Siemens in 1936, where the aim of the research was the development and improvement of TEM imaging properties, particularly with regard to biological specimens. At this time electron microscopes were being fabricated for specific groups, such as the "EM1" device used at the UK National Physical Laboratory. In 1939, the first commercial electron microscope, pictured, was installed in the Physics department of IG Farben-Werke. Further work on the electron microscope was hampered by the destruction of a new laboratory constructed at Siemens by an air raid, as well as the death of two of the researchers, Heinz Müller and Friedrick Krause during World War II.
Further research
After World War II, Ruska resumed work at Siemens, where he continued to develop the electron microscope, producing the first microscope with 100k magnification. The fundamental structure of this microscope design, with multi-stage beam preparation optics, is still used in modern microscopes. The worldwide electron microscopy community advanced with electron microscopes being manufactured in Manchester UK, the USA (RCA), Germany (Siemens) and Japan (JEOL). The first international conference in electron microscopy was in Delft in 1949, with more than one hundred attendees. Later conferences included the "First" international conference in Paris, 1950 and then in London in 1954.
With the development of TEM, the associated technique of scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) was re-investigated and remained undeveloped until the 1970s, with Albert Crewe at the University of Chicago developing the field emission gun and adding a high quality objective lens to create the modern STEM. Using this design, Crewe demonstrated the ability to image atoms using annular dark-field imaging. Crewe and coworkers at the University of Chicago developed the cold field electron emission source and built a STEM able to visualize single heavy atoms on thin carbon substrates. In 2008, Jannick Meyer et al. described the direct visualization of light atoms such as carbon and even hydrogen using TEM and a clean single-layer graphene substrate.
Background
Electrons
Theoretically, the maximum resolution, d, that one can obtain with a light microscope has been limited by the wavelength of the photons (λ) that are being used to probe the sample and the numerical aperture NA of the system.
where n is the index of refraction of the medium in which the lens is working and α is the maximum half-angle of the cone of light that can enter the lens (see numerical aperture). Early twentieth century scientists theorized ways of getting around the limitations of the relatively large wavelength of visible light (wavelengths of 400–700 nanometers) by using electrons. Like all matter, electrons have both wave and particle properties (as theorized by Louis-Victor de Broglie), and their wave-like properties mean that a beam of electrons can be focused and diffracted much like light can. The wavelength of electrons is related to their kinetic energy via the de Broglie equation, which says that the wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum. Taking into account relativistic effects (as in a TEM an electron's velocity is a substantial fraction of the speed of light, c) the wavelength is
where, h is Planck's constant, m0 is the rest mass of an electron and E is the kinetic energy of the accelerated electron. Electrons are usually generated in an electron microscope by a process known as thermionic emission from a filament, usually tungsten, in the same manner as a light bulb, or alternatively by field electron emission. The electrons are then accelerated by an electric potential (measured in volts) and focused by electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses onto the sample. The transmitted beam contains information about electron density, phase and periodicity; this beam is used to form an image.
Electron source
From the top down, the TEM consists of an emission source or cathode, which may be a tungsten filament or needle, or a lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6) single crystal source. The gun is connected to a high voltage source (typically ~100–300 kV) and, given sufficient current, the gun will begin to emit electrons either by thermionic or field electron emission into the vacuum. In the case of a thermionic source, the electron source is typically mounted in a Wehnelt cylinder to provide preliminary focus of the emitted electrons into a beam while also stabilizing the current using a passive feedback circuit. A field emission source uses instead electrostatic electrodes called an extractor, a suppressor, and a gun lens, with different voltages on each, to control the electric field shape and intensity near the sharp tip. The combination of the cathode and these first electrostatic lens elements is often collectively called the "electron gun". After it leaves the gun, the beam is typically accelerated by a series of electrostatic plates until it reaches its final voltage and enters the next part of the microscope: The condenser lens system. These upper lenses of the TEM then further focus the electron beam to the desired size and location on the sample.
Manipulation of the electron beam is performed using two physical effects. The interaction of electrons with a magnetic field will cause electrons to move according to the left hand rule, thus allowing for electromagnets to manipulate the electron beam. The use of magnetic fields allows for the formation of a magnetic lens of variable focusing power, the lens shape originating due to the distribution of magnetic flux. Additionally, electrostatic fields can cause the electrons to be deflected through a constant angle. Coupling of two deflections in opposing directions with a small intermediate gap allows for the formation of a shift in the beam path, allowing for beam shifting in TEM, which is important for STEM. From these two effects, as well as the use of an electron imaging system, sufficient control over the beam path is possible for TEM operation. The optical configuration of a TEM can be rapidly changed, unlike that for an optical microscope, as lenses in the beam path can be enabled, have their strength changed, or be disabled entirely simply via rapid electrical switching, the speed of which is limited by effects such as the magnetic hysteresis of the lenses.
Optics
The lenses of a TEM are what gives it its flexibility of operating modes and ability to focus beams down to the atomic scale and magnify them back up to get an image on a camera. A lens is usually made of a solenoid coil nearly surrounded by ferromagnetic materials designed to concentrate the coil's magnetic field into a precise, confined shape. When an electron enters and leaves this magnetic field, it spirals around the curved magnetic field lines in a way that acts very much as an ordinary glass lens does for light—it is a converging lens. But, unlike a glass lens, a magnetic lens can very easily change its focusing power simply by adjusting the current passing through the coils. This provides a flexibility of operation that gets further multiplied when the lenses are assembled into stacks of independent lenses, each of which can focus, defocus, magnify, and/or collimate the beam coming from the previous lens. This allows a single lens system, between the source and the sample (the "condenser lens" system) to produce a parallel beam over 1 millimeter in diameter, a tightly focused beam smaller than an atom, or anything in between. An additional lens stack, the "intermediate/projector" lens system, is after the sample. It can be adjusted to produce a focused diffraction pattern or image of the sample with a magnification varying over a huge range. Many single microscopes can cover the magnification range from roughly 100X to more than 1,000,000X.
Equally important to the lenses are the apertures. These are circular holes in thin strips of heavy metal, placed at well-chosen points in the column of lenses. Some are fixed in size and position and play important roles in limiting x-ray generation and improving the vacuum performance. They also prevent electrons from passing through the outermost parts of the magnetic lenses which, due to large lens aberrations, focus the electron beams extremely poorly. Others can be freely switched among several different sizes and have their positions adjusted. These "variable apertures" are used to determine the beam current reaching the sample and also to improve the ability to focus the beam. Variable apertures after the sample position further allow the user to select the range of spatial positions or electron scattering angles to be used in the formation of an image or a diffraction pattern. Skillfully used, these apertures allow remarkably precise and detailed study of the defects in crystals.
The electron-optical system also includes deflectors and stigmators, usually made of small electromagnets. Unlike the lenses, the magnetic fields produced by the deflectors are oriented primarily to deflect the beam and not to focus it. The deflectors allow the position and angle of the beam at the sample position to be independently controlled (as is essential for STEM) and also ensure that the beams remain near the low-aberration centers of every lens in the lens stacks. The stigmators provide an auxiliary fine focusing, compensating for slight imperfections and aberrations that cause astigmatism—a lens having a different focal strength in different directions.
Typically a TEM consists of three stages of lensing. The stages are the condenser lenses, the objective lenses, and the projector lenses. The condenser lenses are responsible for primary beam formation, while the objective lenses focus the beam that comes through the sample itself (in STEM scanning mode, there are also objective lenses above the sample to make the incident electron beam convergent). The projector lenses are used to expand the beam onto the phosphor screen or other imaging device, such as film. The magnification of the TEM is due to the ratio of the distances between the specimen and the objective lens' image plane. Additional stigmators allow for the correction of asymmetrical beam distortions, known as astigmatism. It is noted that TEM optical configurations differ significantly with implementation, with manufacturers using custom lens configurations, such as in spherical aberration corrected instruments, or TEMs using energy filtering to correct electron chromatic aberration.
Reciprocity
The optical reciprocity theorem, or principle of Helmholtz reciprocity, generally holds true for elastically scattered electrons in an absorbing medium, as is often the case under standard TEM operating conditions. The theorem states that the wave amplitude at some point B as a result of electron point source A would be the same as the amplitude at A due to an equivalent point source placed at B. Simply stated, the wave function for electrons focused through any series of optical components that includes only scalar (i.e. not magnetic) fields will be exactly equivalent if the electron source and observation point are reversed.
In a TEM, electromagnetic lenses have been shown not to interfere noticeably with observations of reciprocity, provided that elastic scattering processes dominate in the sample and the sample is not strongly magnetic. Careful application of the reciprocity theorem in cases where it is valid give a TEM user considerable flexibility in taking and interpreting images and electron diffraction patterns. Reciprocity may also be used to understand scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) in the familiar context of TEM, and to obtain and interpret images using STEM.
Display and detectors
The key factors when considering electron detection include detective quantum efficiency (DQE), point spread function (PSF), modulation transfer function (MTF), pixel size and array size, noise, data readout speed, and radiation hardness.
Imaging systems in a TEM consist of a phosphor screen, which may be made of fine (10–100 μm) particulate zinc sulfide, for direct observation by the operator, and, optionally, an image recording system such as photographic film, doped YAG screen coupled CCDs, or other digital detector. Typically these devices can be removed or inserted into the beam path by the operator as required. While photograph film can record high resolution information, it is not simple to automate and the results cannot be viewed in real time. The first report of using a Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) detector for TEM was in 1982, but the technology didn't find widespread use until the late 1990s/early 2000s. Monolithic active-pixel sensors (MAPSs) were also used in TEM. CMOS detectors, which are faster and more resistant to radiation damage than CCDs, have been used for TEM since 2005. In the early 2010s, further development of CMOS technology allowed for the detection of single electron counts ("counting mode"). These Direct Electron Detectors are available from Gatan, FEI, Quantum Detectors and Direct Electron.
Components
A TEM is composed of several components, which include a vacuum system in which the electrons travel, an electron emission source for generation of the electron stream, a series of electromagnetic lenses, as well as electrostatic plates. The latter two allow the operator to guide and manipulate the beam as required. Also required is a device to allow the insertion into, motion within, and removal of specimens from the beam path. Imaging devices are subsequently used to create an image from the electrons that exit the system.
Vacuum system
To increase the mean free path of the electron gas interaction, a standard TEM is evacuated to low pressures, typically on the order of 10−4 Pa. The need for this is twofold: first the allowance for the voltage difference between the cathode and the ground without generating an arc, and secondly to reduce the collision frequency of electrons with gas atoms to negligible levels—this effect is characterized by the mean free path. TEM components such as specimen holders and film cartridges must be routinely inserted or replaced requiring a system with the ability to re-evacuate on a regular basis. As such, TEMs are equipped with multiple pumping systems and airlocks and are not permanently vacuum sealed.
The vacuum system for evacuating a TEM to an operating pressure level consists of several stages. Initially, a low or roughing vacuum is achieved with either a rotary vane pump or diaphragm pumps setting a sufficiently low pressure to allow the operation of a turbo-molecular or diffusion pump establishing high vacuum level necessary for operations. To allow for the low vacuum pump to not require continuous operation, while continually operating the turbo-molecular pumps, the vacuum side of a low-pressure pump may be connected to chambers which accommodate the exhaust gases from the turbo-molecular pump. Sections of the TEM may be isolated by the use of pressure-limiting apertures to allow for different vacuum levels in specific areas such as a higher vacuum of 10−4 to 10−7 Pa or higher in the electron gun in high-resolution or field-emission TEMs.
High-voltage TEMs require ultra-high vacuums on the range of 10−7 to 10−9 Pa to prevent the generation of an electrical arc, particularly at the TEM cathode. As such for higher voltage TEMs a third vacuum system may operate, with the gun isolated from the main chamber either by gate valves or a differential pumping aperture – a small hole that prevents the diffusion of gas molecules into the higher vacuum gun area faster than they can be pumped out. For these very low pressures, either an ion pump or a getter material is used.
Poor vacuum in a TEM can cause several problems ranging from the deposition of gas inside the TEM onto the specimen while viewed in a process known as electron beam induced deposition to more severe cathode damages caused by electrical discharge. The use of a cold trap to adsorb sublimated gases in the vicinity of the specimen largely eliminates vacuum problems that are caused by specimen sublimation.
Specimen stage
TEM specimen stage designs include airlocks to allow for insertion of the specimen holder into the vacuum with minimal loss of vacuum in other areas of the microscope. The specimen holders hold a standard size of sample grid or self-supporting specimen. Standard TEM grid sizes are 3.05 mm diameter, with a thickness and mesh size ranging from a few to 100 μm. The sample is placed onto the meshed area having a diameter of approximately 2.5 mm. Usual grid materials are copper, molybdenum, gold or platinum. This grid is placed into the sample holder, which is paired with the specimen stage. A wide variety of designs of stages and holders exist, depending upon the type of experiment being performed. In addition to 3.05 mm grids, 2.3 mm grids are sometimes, if rarely, used. These grids were particularly used in the mineral sciences where a large degree of tilt can be required and where specimen material may be extremely rare. Electron transparent specimens have a thickness usually less than 100 nm, but this value depends on the accelerating voltage.
Once inserted into a TEM, the sample has to be manipulated to locate the region of interest to the beam, such as in single grain diffraction, in a specific orientation. To accommodate this, the TEM stage allows movement of the sample in the XY plane, Z height adjustment, and commonly a single tilt direction parallel to the axis of side entry holders. Sample rotation may be available on specialized diffraction holders and stages. Some modern TEMs provide the ability for two orthogonal tilt angles of movement with specialized holder designs called double-tilt sample holders. Some stage designs, such as top-entry or vertical insertion stages once common for high resolution TEM studies, may simply only have X-Y translation available. The design criteria of TEM stages are complex, owing to the simultaneous requirements of mechanical and electron-optical constraints and specialized models are available for different methods.
A TEM stage is required to have the ability to hold a specimen and be manipulated to bring the region of interest into the path of the electron beam. As the TEM can operate over a wide range of magnifications, the stage must simultaneously be highly resistant to mechanical drift, with drift requirements as low as a few nm/minute while being able to move several μm/minute, with repositioning accuracy on the order of nanometers. Earlier designs of TEM accomplished this with a complex set of mechanical downgearing devices, allowing the operator to finely control the motion of the stage by several rotating rods. Modern devices may use electrical stage designs, using screw gearing in concert with stepper motors, providing the operator with a computer-based stage input, such as a joystick or trackball.
Two main designs for stages in a TEM exist, the side-entry and top entry version. Each design must accommodate the matching holder to allow for specimen insertion without either damaging delicate TEM optics or allowing gas into TEM systems under vacuum.
The most common is the side entry holder, where the specimen is placed near the tip of a long metal (brass or stainless steel) rod, with the specimen placed flat in a small bore. Along the rod are several polymer vacuum rings to allow for the formation of a vacuum seal of sufficient quality, when inserted into the stage. The stage is thus designed to accommodate the rod, placing the sample either in between or near the objective lens, dependent upon the objective design. When inserted into the stage, the side entry holder has its tip contained within the TEM vacuum, and the base is presented to atmosphere, the airlock formed by the vacuum rings.
Insertion procedures for side-entry TEM holders typically involve the rotation of the sample to trigger micro switches that initiate evacuation of the airlock before the sample is inserted into the TEM column.
The second design is the top-entry holder consists of a cartridge that is several cm long with a bore drilled down the cartridge axis. The specimen is loaded into the bore, possibly using a small screw ring to hold the sample in place. This cartridge is inserted into an airlock with the bore perpendicular to the TEM optic axis. When sealed, the airlock is manipulated to push the cartridge such that the cartridge falls into place, where the bore hole becomes aligned with the beam axis, such that the beam travels down the cartridge bore and into the specimen. Such designs are typically unable to be tilted without blocking the beam path or interfering with the objective lens.
Electron gun
The electron gun is formed from several components: the filament, a biasing circuit, a Wehnelt cap, and an extraction anode. By connecting the filament to the negative component power supply, electrons can be "pumped" from the electron gun to the anode plate and the TEM column, thus completing the circuit. The gun is designed to create a beam of electrons exiting from the assembly at some given angle, known as the gun divergence semi-angle, α. By constructing the Wehnelt cylinder such that it has a higher negative charge than the filament itself, electrons that exit the filament in a diverging manner are, under proper operation, forced into a converging pattern the minimum size of which is the gun crossover diameter.
The thermionic emission current density, J, can be related to the work function of the emitting material via Richardson's law
where A is the Richardson's constant, Φ is the work function and T is the temperature of the material.
This equation shows that in order to achieve sufficient current density it is necessary to heat the emitter, taking care not to cause damage by application of excessive heat. For this reason materials with either a high melting point, such as tungsten, or those with a low work function (LaB6) are required for the gun filament. Furthermore, both lanthanum hexaboride and tungsten thermionic sources must be heated in order to achieve thermionic emission, this can be achieved by the use of a small resistive strip. To prevent thermal shock, there is often a delay enforced in the application of current to the tip, to prevent thermal gradients from damaging the filament, the delay is usually a few seconds for LaB6, and significantly lower for tungsten.
Electron lens
Electron lenses are designed to act in a manner emulating that of an optical lens, by focusing parallel electrons at some constant focal distance. Electron lenses may operate electrostatically or magnetically. The majority of electron lenses for TEM use electromagnetic coils to generate a convex lens. The field produced for the lens must be radially symmetrical, as deviation from the radial symmetry of the magnetic lens causes aberrations such as astigmatism, and worsens spherical and chromatic aberration. Electron lenses are manufactured from iron, iron-cobalt or nickel cobalt alloys, such as permalloy. These are selected for their magnetic properties, such as magnetic saturation, hysteresis and permeability.
The components include the yoke, the magnetic coil, the poles, the polepiece, and the external control circuitry. The pole piece must be manufactured in a very symmetrical manner, as this provides the boundary conditions for the magnetic field that forms the lens. Imperfections in the manufacture of the pole piece can induce severe distortions in the magnetic field symmetry, which induce distortions that will ultimately limit the lenses' ability to reproduce the object plane. The exact dimensions of the gap, pole piece internal diameter and taper, as well as the overall design of the lens is often performed by finite element analysis of the magnetic field, whilst considering the thermal and electrical constraints of the design.
The coils which produce the magnetic field are located within the lens yoke. The coils can contain a variable current, but typically use high voltages, and therefore require significant insulation in order to prevent short-circuiting the lens components. Thermal distributors are placed to ensure the extraction of the heat generated by the energy lost to resistance of the coil windings. The windings may be water-cooled, using a chilled water supply in order to facilitate the removal of the high thermal duty.
Apertures
Apertures are annular metallic plates, through which electrons that are further than a fixed distance from the optic axis may be excluded. These consist of a small metallic disc that is sufficiently thick to prevent electrons from passing through the disc, whilst permitting axial electrons. This permission of central electrons in a TEM causes two effects simultaneously: firstly, apertures decrease the beam intensity as electrons are filtered from the beam, which may be desired in the case of beam sensitive samples. Secondly, this filtering removes electrons that are scattered to high angles, which may be due to unwanted processes such as spherical or chromatic aberration, or due to diffraction from interaction within the sample.
Apertures are either a fixed aperture within the column, such as at the condenser lens, or are a movable aperture, which can be inserted or withdrawn from the beam path, or moved in the plane perpendicular to the beam path. Aperture assemblies are mechanical devices which allow for the selection of different aperture sizes, which may be used by the operator to trade off intensity and the filtering effect of the aperture. Aperture assemblies are often equipped with micrometers to move the aperture, required during optical calibration.
Imaging methods
Imaging methods in TEM use the information contained in the electron waves exiting from the sample to form an image. The projector lenses allow for the correct positioning of this electron wave distribution onto the viewing system. The observed intensity, I, of the image, assuming sufficiently high quality of imaging device, can be approximated as proportional to the time-averaged squared absolute value of the amplitude of the electron wavefunctions, where the wave that forms the exit beam is denoted by Ψ.
Different imaging methods therefore attempt to modify the electron waves exiting the sample in a way that provides information about the sample, or the beam itself. From the previous equation, it can be deduced that the observed image depends not only on the amplitude of beam, but also on the phase of the electrons, although phase effects may often be ignored at lower magnifications. Higher resolution imaging requires thinner samples and higher energies of incident electrons, which means that the sample can no longer be considered to be absorbing electrons (i.e., via a Beer's law effect). Instead, the sample can be modeled as an object that does not change the amplitude of the incoming electron wave function, but instead modifies the phase of the incoming wave; in this model, the sample is known as a pure phase object. For sufficiently thin specimens, phase effects dominate the image, complicating analysis of the observed intensities. To improve the contrast in the image, the TEM may be operated at a slight defocus to enhance contrast, owing to convolution by the contrast transfer function of the TEM, which would normally decrease contrast if the sample was not a weak phase object.
The figure on the right shows the two basic operation modes of TEM – imaging and diffraction modes. In both cases the specimen is illuminated with the parallel beam, formed by electron beam shaping with the system of Condenser lenses and Condenser aperture. After interaction with the sample, on the exit surface of the specimen two types of electrons exist – unscattered (which will correspond to the bright central beam on the diffraction pattern) and scattered electrons (which change their trajectories due to interaction with the material).
In Imaging mode, the objective aperture is inserted in a back focal plane (BFP) of the objective lens (where diffraction spots are formed). If using the objective aperture to select only the central beam, the transmitted electrons are passed through the aperture while all others are blocked, and a bright field image (BF image) is obtained. If we allow the signal from a diffracted beam, a dark field image (DF image) is received. The selected signal is magnified and projected on a screen (or on a camera) with the help of Intermediate and Projector lenses. An image of the sample is thus obtained.
In Diffraction mode, a selected area aperture may be used to determine more precisely the specimen area from which the signal will be displayed. By changing the strength of current to the intermediate lens, the diffraction pattern is projected on a screen. Diffraction is a very powerful tool for doing a cell reconstruction and crystal orientation determination.
Contrast formation
The contrast between two adjacent areas in a TEM image can be defined as the difference in the electron densities in image plane. Due to the scattering of the incident beam by the sample, the amplitude and phase of the electron wave change, which results in amplitude contrast and phase contrast, correspondingly. Most images have both contrast components.
Amplitude–contrast is obtained due to removal of some electrons before the image plane. During their interaction with the specimen some of electrons will be lost due to absorption, or due to scattering at very high angles beyond the physical limitation of microscope or are blocked by the objective aperture. While the first two losses are due to the specimen and microscope construction, the objective aperture can be used by operator to enhance the contrast.
Figure on the right shows a TEM image (a) and the corresponding diffraction pattern (b) of Pt polycrystalline film taken without an objective aperture. In order to enhance the contrast in the TEM image the number of scattered beams as visible in the diffraction pattern should be reduced. This can be done by selecting a certain area in the back focal plane such as only the central beam or a specific diffracted beam (angle), or combinations of such beams. By intentionally selecting an objective aperture which only permits the non-diffracted beam to pass beyond the back focal plane (and onto the image plane): one creates a Bright-Field (BF) image (c), whereas if the central, non-diffracted beam is blocked: one may obtain Dark-Field (DF) images such as those shown in (d-e). The DF images (d-e) were obtained by selecting the diffracted beams indicated in diffraction pattern with circles (b) using an aperture at the back focal plane. Grains from which electrons are scattered into these diffraction spots appear brighter. More details about diffraction contrast formation are given further.
There are two types of amplitude contrast – mass–thickness and diffraction contrast. First, let's consider mass–thickness contrast. When the beam illuminates two neighbouring areas with low mass (or thickness) and high mass (or thickness), the heavier region scatters electrons at bigger angles. These strongly scattered electrons are blocked in BF TEM mode by objective aperture. As a result, heavier regions appear darker in BF images (have low intensity). Mass–thickness contrast is most important for non–crystalline, amorphous materials.
Diffraction contrast occurs due to a specific crystallographic orientation of a grain. In such a case the crystal is in a so-called Bragg condition, whereby atomic planes are oriented in a way that there is a high probability of scattering. Thus diffraction contrast provides information on the orientation of the crystals in a polycrystalline sample. Note that in case diffraction contrast exists, the contrast cannot be interpreted as due to mass or thickness variations.
Diffraction contrast
Samples can exhibit diffraction contrast, whereby the electron beam undergoes Bragg scattering, which in the case of a crystalline sample, disperses electrons into discrete locations in the back focal plane. By the placement of apertures in the back focal plane, i.e. the objective aperture, the desired Bragg reflections can be selected (or excluded), thus only parts of the sample that are causing the electrons to scatter to the selected reflections will end up projected onto the imaging apparatus.
If the reflections that are selected do not include the unscattered beam (which will appear up at the focal point of the lens), then the image will appear dark wherever no sample scattering to the selected peak is present, as such a region without a specimen will appear dark. This is known as a dark-field image.
Modern TEMs are often equipped with specimen holders that allow the user to tilt the specimen to a range of angles in order to obtain specific diffraction conditions, and apertures placed above the specimen allow the user to select electrons that would otherwise be diffracted in a particular direction from entering the specimen.
Applications for this method include the identification of lattice defects in crystals. By carefully selecting the orientation of the sample, it is possible not just to determine the position of defects but also to determine the type of defect present. If the sample is oriented so that one particular plane is only slightly tilted away from the strongest diffracting angle (known as the Bragg Angle), any distortion of the crystal plane that locally tilts the plane to the Bragg angle will produce particularly strong contrast variations. However, defects that produce only displacement of atoms that do not tilt the crystal to the Bragg angle (i. e. displacements parallel to the crystal plane) will not produce strong contrast.
Phase contrast
Crystal structure can also be investigated by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), also known as phase contrast. When using a field emission source and a specimen of uniform thickness, the images are formed due to differences in phase of electron waves, which is caused by specimen interaction. Image formation is given by the complex modulus of the incoming electron beams. As such, the image is not only dependent on the number of electrons hitting the screen, making direct interpretation of phase contrast images more complex. However this effect can be used to an advantage, as it can be manipulated to provide more information about the sample, such as in complex phase retrieval techniques.
Diffraction
As previously stated, by adjusting the magnetic lenses such that the back focal plane of the lens rather than the imaging plane is placed on the imaging apparatus a diffraction pattern can be generated. For thin crystalline samples, this produces an image that consists of a pattern of dots in the case of a single crystal, or a series of rings in the case of a polycrystalline or amorphous solid material. For the single crystal case the diffraction pattern is dependent upon the orientation of the specimen and the structure of the sample illuminated by the electron beam. This image provides the investigator with information about the space group symmetries in the crystal and the crystal's orientation to the beam path. This is typically done without using any information but the position at which the diffraction spots appear and the observed image symmetries.
Diffraction patterns can have a large dynamic range, and for crystalline samples, may have intensities greater than those recordable by CCD. As such, TEMs may still be equipped with film cartridges for the purpose of obtaining these images, as the film is a single use detector.
Analysis of diffraction patterns beyond point-position can be complex, as the image is sensitive to a number of factors such as specimen thickness and orientation, objective lens defocus, and spherical and chromatic aberration. Although quantitative interpretation of the contrast shown in lattice images is possible, it is inherently complicated and can require extensive computer simulation and analysis, such as electron multislice analysis.
More complex behaviour in the diffraction plane is also possible, with phenomena such as Kikuchi lines arising from multiple diffraction within the crystalline lattice. In convergent beam electron diffraction (CBED) where a non-parallel, i.e. converging, electron wavefront is produced by concentrating the electron beam into a fine probe at the sample surface, the interaction of the convergent beam can provide information beyond structural data such as sample thickness.
Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)
Using the advanced technique of electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), for TEMs appropriately equipped, electrons can be separated into a spectrum based upon their velocity (which is closely related to their kinetic energy, and thus energy loss from the beam energy), using magnetic sector based devices known as EEL spectrometers. These devices allow for the selection of particular energy values, which can be associated with the way the electron has interacted with the sample. For example, different elements in a sample result in different electron energies in the beam after the sample. This normally results in chromatic aberration – however this effect can, for example, be used to generate an image which provides information on elemental composition, based upon the atomic transition during electron-electron interaction.
EELS spectrometers can often be operated in both spectroscopic and imaging modes, allowing for isolation or rejection of elastically scattered beams. As for many images inelastic scattering will include information that may not be of interest to the investigator thus reducing observable signals of interest, EELS imaging can be used to enhance contrast in observed images, including both bright field and diffraction, by rejecting unwanted components.
Three-dimensional imaging
As TEM specimen holders typically allow for the rotation of a sample by a desired angle, multiple views of the same specimen can be obtained by rotating the angle of the sample along an axis perpendicular to the beam. By taking multiple images of a single TEM sample at differing angles, typically in 1° increments, a set of images known as a "tilt series" can be collected. This methodology was proposed in the 1970s by Walter Hoppe. Under purely absorption contrast conditions, this set of images can be used to construct a three-dimensional representation of the sample.
The reconstruction is accomplished by a two-step process, first images are aligned to account for errors in the positioning of a sample; such errors can occur due to vibration or mechanical drift. Alignment methods use image registration algorithms, such as autocorrelation methods to correct these errors. Secondly, using a reconstruction algorithm, such as filtered back projection, the aligned image slices can be transformed from a set of two-dimensional images, Ij(x, y), to a single three-dimensional image, I'j(x, y, z). This three-dimensional image is of particular interest when morphological information is required, further study can be undertaken using computer algorithms, such as isosurfaces and data slicing to analyse the data.
As TEM samples cannot typically be viewed at a full 180° rotation, the observed images typically suffer from a "missing wedge" of data, which when using Fourier-based back projection methods decreases the range of resolvable frequencies in the three-dimensional reconstruction. Mechanical refinements, such as multi-axis tilting (two tilt series of the same specimen made at orthogonal directions) and conical tomography (where the specimen is first tilted to a given fixed angle and then imaged at equal angular rotational increments through one complete rotation in the plane of the specimen grid) can be used to limit the impact of the missing data on the observed specimen morphology. Using focused ion beam milling, a new technique has been proposed which uses pillar-shaped specimen and a dedicated on-axis tomography holder to perform 180° rotation of the sample inside the pole piece of the objective lens in TEM. Using such arrangements, quantitative electron tomography without the missing wedge is possible. In addition, numerical techniques exist which can improve the collected data.
All the above-mentioned methods involve recording tilt series of a given specimen field. This inevitably results in the summation of a high dose of reactive electrons through the sample and the accompanying destruction of fine detail during recording. The technique of low-dose (minimal-dose) imaging is therefore regularly applied to mitigate this effect. Low-dose imaging is performed by deflecting illumination and imaging regions simultaneously away from the optical axis to image an adjacent region to the area to be recorded (the high-dose region). This area is maintained centered during tilting and refocused before recording. During recording the deflections are removed so that the area of interest is exposed to the electron beam only for the duration required for imaging. An improvement of this technique (for objects resting on a sloping substrate film) is to have two symmetrical off-axis regions for focusing followed by setting focus to the average of the two high-dose focus values before recording the low-dose area of interest.
Non-tomographic variants on this method, referred to as single particle analysis, use images of multiple (hopefully) identical objects at different orientations to produce the image data required for three-dimensional reconstruction. If the objects do not have significant preferred orientations, this method does not suffer from the missing data wedge (or cone) which accompany tomographic methods nor does it incur excessive radiation dosage, however it assumes that the different objects imaged can be treated as if the 3D data generated from them arose from a single stable object.
Sample preparation
Sample preparation in TEM can be a complex procedure. TEM specimens should be less than 100 nanometers thick for a conventional TEM. Unlike neutron or X-Ray radiation the electrons in the beam interact readily with the sample, an effect that increases roughly with atomic number squared (Z2). High quality samples will have a thickness that is comparable to the mean free path of the electrons that travel through the samples, which may be only a few tens of nanometers. Preparation of TEM specimens is specific to the material under analysis and the type of information to be obtained from the specimen.
Materials that have dimensions small enough to be electron transparent, such as powdered substances, small organisms, viruses, or nanotubes, can be quickly prepared by the deposition of a dilute sample containing the specimen onto films on support grids. Biological specimens may be embedded in resin to withstand the high vacuum in the sample chamber and to enable cutting tissue into electron transparent thin sections. The biological sample can be stained using either a negative staining material such as uranyl acetate for bacteria and viruses, or, in the case of embedded sections, the specimen may be stained with heavy metals, including osmium tetroxide. Alternately samples may be held at liquid nitrogen temperatures after embedding in vitreous ice. In material science and metallurgy the specimens can usually withstand the high vacuum, but still must be prepared as a thin foil, or etched so some portion of the specimen is thin enough for the beam to penetrate. Constraints on the thickness of the material may be limited by the scattering cross-section of the atoms from which the material is comprised.
Tissue sectioning
Biological tissue is often embedded in a resin block then thinned to less than 100 nm on an ultramicrotome. The resin block is fractured as it passes over a glass or diamond knife edge. This method is used to obtain thin, minimally deformed samples that allow for the observation of tissue ultrastructure. Inorganic samples, such as aluminium, may also be embedded in resins and ultrathin sectioned in this way, using either coated glass, sapphire or larger angle diamond knives. To prevent charge build-up at the sample surface when viewing in the TEM, tissue samples need to be coated with a thin layer of conducting material, such as carbon.
Sample staining
TEM samples of biological tissues need high atomic number stains to enhance contrast. The stain absorbs the beam electrons or scatters part of the electron beam which otherwise is projected onto the imaging system. Compounds of heavy metals such as osmium, lead, uranium or gold (in immunogold labelling) may be used prior to TEM observation to selectively deposit electron dense atoms in or on the sample in desired cellular or protein region. This process requires an understanding of how heavy metals bind to specific biological tissues and cellular structures.
Mechanical milling
Mechanical polishing is also used to prepare samples for imaging on the TEM. Polishing needs to be done to a high quality, to ensure constant sample thickness across the region of interest. A diamond, or cubic boron nitride polishing compound may be used in the final stages of polishing to remove any scratches that may cause contrast fluctuations due to varying sample thickness. Even after careful mechanical milling, additional fine methods such as ion etching may be required to perform final stage thinning.
Chemical etching
Certain samples may be prepared by chemical etching, particularly metallic specimens. These samples are thinned using a chemical etchant, such as an acid, to prepare the sample for TEM observation. Devices to control the thinning process may allow the operator to control either the voltage or current passing through the specimen, and may include systems to detect when the sample has been thinned to a sufficient level of optical transparency.
Ion etching
Ion etching is a sputtering process that can remove very fine quantities of material. This is used to perform a finishing polish of specimens polished by other means. Ion etching uses an inert gas passed through an electric field to generate a plasma stream that is directed to the sample surface. Acceleration energies for gases such as argon are typically a few kilovolts. The sample may be rotated to promote even polishing of the sample surface. The sputtering rate of such methods is on the order of tens of micrometers per hour, limiting the method to only extremely fine polishing.
Ion etching by argon gas has been recently shown to be able to file down MTJ stack structures to a specific layer which has then been atomically resolved. The TEM images taken in plan view rather than cross-section reveal that the MgO layer within MTJs contains a large number of grain boundaries that may be diminishing the properties of devices.
Ion milling
More recently focused ion beam methods have been used to prepare samples. FIB is a relatively new technique to prepare thin samples for TEM examination from larger specimens. Because FIB can be used to micro-machine samples very precisely, it is possible to mill very thin membranes from a specific area of interest in a sample, such as a semiconductor or metal. Unlike inert gas ion sputtering, FIB makes use of significantly more energetic gallium ions and may alter the composition or structure of the material through gallium implantation.
Nanowire assisted transfer
For a minimal introduction of stress and bending to transmission electron microscopy (TEM) samples (lamellae, thin films, and other mechanically and beam sensitive samples), when transferring inside a focused ion beam (FIB), flexible metallic nanowires can be attached to a typically rigid micromanipulator.
The main advantages of this method include a significant reduction of sample preparation time (quick welding and cutting of nanowire at low beam current), and minimization of stress-induced bending, Pt contamination, and ion beam damage.
This technique is particularly suitable for in situ electron microscopy sample preparation.
Replication
Samples may also be replicated using cellulose acetate film, the film subsequently coated with a heavy metal such as platinum, the original film dissolved away, and the replica imaged on the TEM. Variations of the replica technique are used for both materials and biological samples. In materials science a common use is for examining the fresh fracture surface of metal alloys.
Modifications
The capabilities of the TEM can be further extended by additional stages and detectors, sometimes incorporated on the same microscope.
Scanning TEM
A TEM can be modified into a scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) by the addition of a system that rasters a convergent beam across the sample to form the image, when combined with suitable detectors. Scanning coils are used to deflect the beam, such as by an electrostatic shift of the beam, where the beam is then collected using a current detector such as a Faraday cup, which acts as a direct electron counter. By correlating the electron count to the position of the scanning beam (known as the "probe"), the transmitted component of the beam may be measured. The non-transmitted components may be obtained either by beam tilting or by the use of annular dark field detectors.
Fundamentally, TEM and STEM are linked via Helmholtz reciprocity. A STEM is a TEM in which the electron source and observation point have been switched relative to the direction of travel of the electron beam. See the ray diagrams in the figure on the right. The STEM instrument effectively relies on the same optical set-up as a TEM, but operates by flipping the direction of travel of the electrons (or reversing time) during operation of a TEM. Rather than using an aperture to control detected electrons, as in TEM, a STEM uses various detectors with collection angles that may be adjusted depending on which electrons the user wants to capture.
Low-voltage electron microscope
A low-voltage electron microscope (LVEM) is operated at relatively low electron accelerating voltage between 5–25 kV. Some of these can be a combination of SEM, TEM and STEM in a single compact instrument. Low voltage increases image contrast which is especially important for biological specimens. This increase in contrast significantly reduces, or even eliminates the need to stain. Resolutions of a few nm are possible in TEM, SEM and STEM modes. The low energy of the electron beam means that permanent magnets can be used as lenses and thus a miniature column that does not require cooling can be used.
Cryo-TEM
Main article: Transmission electron cryomicroscopy
Cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (Cryo-TEM) uses a TEM with a specimen holder capable of maintaining the specimen at liquid nitrogen or liquid helium temperatures. This allows imaging specimens prepared in vitreous ice, the preferred preparation technique for imaging individual molecules or macromolecular assemblies, imaging of vitrified solid-electrolye interfaces, and imaging of materials that are volatile in high vacuum at room temperature, such as sulfur.
Environmental/In-situ TEM
In-situ experiments may also be conducted in TEM using differentially pumped sample chambers, or specialized holders. Types of in-situ experiments include studying nanomaterials, biological specimens, and chemical reactions using liquid-phase electron microscopy, and material deformation testing.
Aberration corrected TEM
Modern research TEMs may include aberration correctors, to reduce the amount of distortion in the image. Incident beam monochromators may also be used which reduce the energy spread of the incident electron beam to less than 0.15 eV. Major aberration corrected TEM manufacturers include JEOL, Hitachi High-technologies, FEI Company, and NION.
Ultrafast and dynamic TEM
It is possible to reach temporal resolution far beyond that of the readout rate of electron detectors with the use of pulsed electrons. Pulses can be produced by either modifying the electron source to enable laser-triggered photoemission or by installation of an ultrafast beam blanker. This approach is termed ultrafast transmission electron microscopy when stroboscopic pump-probe illumination is used: an image is formed by the accumulation of many electron pulses with a fixed time delay between the arrival of the electron pulse and the sample excitation. On the other hand, the use of single or a short sequence of electron pulses with a sufficient number of electrons to form an image from each pulse is called dynamic transmission electron microscopy. Temporal resolution down to hundreds of femtoseconds and spatial resolution comparable to that available with a Schottky field emission source is possible in ultrafast TEM, but the technique can only image reversible processes that can be reproducibly triggered millions of times. Dynamic TEM can resolve irreversible processes down to tens of nanoseconds and tens of nanometers.
Limitations
There are a number of drawbacks to the TEM technique. Many materials require extensive sample preparation to produce a sample thin enough to be electron transparent, which makes TEM analysis a relatively time-consuming process with a low throughput of samples. The structure of the sample may also be changed during the preparation process. Also the field of view is relatively small, raising the possibility that the region analyzed may not be characteristic of the whole sample. There is potential that the sample may be damaged by the electron beam, particularly in the case of biological materials.
Resolution limits
The limit of resolution obtainable in a TEM may be described in several ways, and is typically referred to as the information limit of the microscope. One commonly used value is a cut-off value of the contrast transfer function, a function that is usually quoted in the frequency domain to define the reproduction of spatial frequencies of objects in the object plane by the microscope optics. A cut-off frequency, qmax, for the transfer function may be approximated with the following equation, where Cs is the spherical aberration coefficient and λ is the electron wavelength:
For a 200 kV microscope, with partly corrected spherical aberrations ("to the third order") and a Cs value of 1 µm, a theoretical cut-off value might be 1/qmax = 42 pm. The same microscope without a corrector would have Cs = 0.5 mm and thus a 200-pm cut-off. The spherical aberrations are suppressed to the third or fifth order in the "aberration-corrected" microscopes. Their resolution is however limited by electron source geometry and brightness and chromatic aberrations in the objective lens system.
The frequency domain representation of the contrast transfer function may often have an oscillatory nature, which can be tuned by adjusting the focal value of the objective lens. This oscillatory nature implies that some spatial frequencies are faithfully imaged by the microscope, whilst others are suppressed. By combining multiple images with different spatial frequencies, the use of techniques such as focal series reconstruction can be used to improve the resolution of the TEM in a limited manner. The contrast transfer function can, to some extent, be experimentally approximated through techniques such as Fourier transforming images of amorphous material, such as amorphous carbon.
More recently, advances in aberration corrector design have been able to reduce spherical aberrations and to achieve resolution below 0.5 Ångströms (50 pm) at magnifications above 50 million times. Improved resolution allows for the imaging of lighter atoms that scatter electrons less efficiently, such as lithium atoms in lithium battery materials. The ability to determine the position of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM an indispensable tool for nanotechnology research and development in many fields, including heterogeneous catalysis and the development of semiconductor devices for electronics and photonics.
See also
Cryo-electron microscopy
Electron diffraction
Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)
Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy (EFTEM)
High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM)
Low-voltage electron microscopy (LVEM)
Precession electron diffraction
Scanning confocal electron microscopy
References
External links
The National Center for Electron Microscopy, Berkeley California USA
The National Center for Macromolecular Imaging, Houston Texas USA
The National Resource for Automated Molecular Microscopy, New York USA
Tutorial courses in Transmission Electron Microscopy
Cambridge University Teaching and Learning Package on TEM
Online course on Transmission Electron Microscopy and Crystalline Imperfections Eric Stach (2008).
Transmission electron microscope simulator (Teaching tool).
animations and explanations on various types of microscopes including electron microscopes (Université Paris Sud)
Electron beam
Electron microscopy techniques
Scientific techniques
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214525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamle%20Stavanger | Gamle Stavanger | Gamle Stavanger is a historic area of the city of Stavanger in Rogaland, Norway. The area consists largely of restored wooden buildings which were built in the 18th century and at the beginning of the 19th century.
In the aftermath of World War II, a new city plan was created for Stavanger. It included razing most of the old wooden buildings in the city centre and replacing them with new modern structures in concrete. One single voice spoke up against this plan, and today it is recognized that Gamle Stavanger owes its existence to Einar Hedén (1916-2001), then City Architect of Stavanger. In 1956 the city council voted to conserve part of the old city centre.
The area selected for conservation was the one considered the least desirable, consisting of small rundown wooden buildings located on the western side of Vågen, the inner harbor area of Stavanger. This area has a selection of preserved wood houses dating from both the 19th and 20th century. Some of the houses are owned by the municipality, but most are privately owned. Over the years the area has changed from seedy to trendy, and today is considered a choice location for the urban-minded with a sense of history. Gamle Stavanger has grown such that it now covers more than 250 buildings most of which are small, white wooden cottages. The area also includes the Norwegian Canning Museum which displays a typical factory from the 1920s.
The Municipality of Stavanger has received several awards for the preservation of Gamle Stavanger. During the Council of Europe's 1975 European Architectural Year, Gamle Stavanger, together with the historic fishing village of Nusfjord in Nordland and the former mining town of Røros in Sør-Trøndelag, were identified as examples of how conservation of old buildings may well coincide with use, and how rehabilitation can be done without loss of character.
References
Other sources
Næss, Hans Eyvind (1998) Gamle Stavanger (Foreningen gamle Stavanger)
External links
Stavanger Museum
Boroughs and neighbourhoods of Stavanger
Tourist attractions in Stavanger | [
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214529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent%20territory | Dependent territory | A dependent territory, dependent area, or dependency (sometimes referred as an external territory) is a territory that does not possess full political independence or sovereignty as a sovereign state, yet remains politically outside the controlling state's integral area.
A dependent territory is commonly distinguished from a country subdivision by being considered not to be a constituent part of a sovereign state. An administrative subdivision, instead, is understood to be a division of a state proper. A dependent territory, conversely, often maintains a great degree of autonomy from its controlling state. Historically, most colonies were considered to be dependent territories. The dependent territories that currently remain in the world today generally maintain a very high degree of political autonomy. Not all autonomous entities, though, are considered to be dependent territories, and not all dependent territories are autonomous. Most inhabited dependent territories have their own ISO 3166 country codes.
Some political entities inhabit a special position guaranteed by an international treaty or another agreement, thereby creating a certain level of autonomy (e.g., a difference in immigration rules). Those entities are sometimes considered to be, or are at least grouped with, dependent territories, but are officially considered by their governing states to be an integral part of those states. Examples are Åland (a part of Finland) and Jersey Island (a part of United Kingdom).
Summary
The lists below include the following:
Dependent territories
Two states in free association, one territory and one Antarctic claim in the listing for New Zealand;
One uninhabited territory and two Antarctic claims in the listing for Norway;
13 overseas territories (10 autonomous, two used primarily as military bases, and one uninhabited), three Crown dependencies, and one Antarctic claim in the listing for the United Kingdom;
13 unincorporated territories (five inhabited, eight uninhabited) and two claimed but uncontrolled territories in the listing for the United States.
Similar entities
Six external territories (three inhabited, three uninhabited) and one Antarctic claim in the listing for Australia;
Two special administrative regions in the listing for China;
Two self-governing territories with autonomy in internal affairs in the listing for Denmark;
One autonomous territory governed according to an act and international treaties in the listing for Finland;
Six autonomous collectivities and two uninhabited territories (one of which includes an Antarctic claim) in the listing for France;
Three constituent countries with autonomy in internal affairs in the listing for the Netherlands;
One internal territory with limited sovereignty in the Arctic listing for Norway.
Lists of dependent territories
This list includes all territories that have not been legally incorporated into their governing state, including several territories that are not on the list of non-self-governing territories of the General Assembly of the United Nations. All claims in Antarctica are listed in italics.
New Zealand
Summary: New Zealand has two self-governing associated states, one dependent territory, and a territorial claim in Antarctica.
Norway
Summary: Norway has one dependent territory and two Antarctic claims. Norway also possesses the inhabited islands of Svalbard where Norwegian sovereignty is limited (see below).
United Kingdom
Summary: The United Kingdom has three "Crown Dependencies", thirteen "Overseas Territories" (ten autonomous, two used primarily as military bases, and one uninhabited), and one Antarctic claim.
United States
Summary: the United States has 13 "unincorporated" dependent territories under its control and two claimed territories outside its control. The uninhabited Palmyra Atoll is administered similarly to some of these territories, and is usually included on lists of U.S. overseas territories, but it is excluded from this list because it is classified in U.S. law as an incorporated territory. The US Constitution does not apply in full to the insular areas.
Lists of similar entities
The following entities are, according to the law of their state, integral parts of the state but exhibit many characteristics of dependent territories. This list is generally limited to entities that are either subject to an international treaty on their status, uninhabited, or have a unique level of autonomy and are largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs. It generally does not include entities with no unique autonomy, such as the overseas regions of France, the BES islands of the Netherlands, Jan Mayen of Norway, and Palmyra Atoll of the United States. However, the Australian external territories are included as they are often found in lists of dependent territories, despite having no autonomy. Entities with only limited unique autonomy, such as the autonomous regions of Portugal, the Canary Islands and the autonomous cities of Spain, and Zanzibar of Tanzania are also not included. All claims in Antarctica are listed in italics.
Australia
Summary: Australia has six external territories in its administration and one Antarctic claim.
Although all territories of Australia are considered to be fully integrated in its federal system, and the official status of an external territory does not differ largely from that of a mainland territory (except in regards to immigration law), debate remains as to whether the external territories are integral parts of Australia, due to their not being part of Australia in 1901, when its constituent states federated (with the exception of the Coral Sea Islands, which was a part of Queensland). Norfolk Island was self-governing from 1979 to 2016. The external territories are often grouped separately from Australia proper for statistical purposes.
China
Summary: China has two special administrative regions (SARs) that are governed according to the constitution and respective basic laws. The SARs greatly differ from mainland China in administrative, economic, legislative and judicial terms, including by currency, left-hand versus right-hand traffic, official languages and immigration control. Although China does claim sovereignty over Taiwan, it is important to know that Taiwan is not listed here as the Chinese government does not have control of the territory.
Denmark
The Kingdom of Denmark contains two autonomous territories with their own governments and legislatures, and input into foreign affairs.
Finland
Summary: Finland has one autonomous region that is also subject to international treaties.
France
Summary: France has overseas six autonomous collectivities and two uninhabited territories (one of which includes an Antarctic claim). This does not include its "standard" overseas regions (which are also overseas departments) of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Réunion. Although also located overseas, they have the same status as the regions of metropolitan France. Nonetheless, all of France's overseas territory is considered an integral part of the French Republic.
Netherlands
Summary: The Kingdom of the Netherlands comprises three autonomous "constituent countries" in the Caribbean (listed below) and one constituent country, the Netherlands, with most of its area in Europe but also encompassing three overseas Caribbean municipalities—Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba. (Those three Caribbean municipalities are excluded here because they are directly administered by the Government of the Netherlands.) All Kingdom citizens share the same nationality and are thus citizens of the European Union, but only the European portion of the Netherlands is part of the territory of the Union, the Customs Union and the Eurozone (overseas countries and territory status).
Norway
Summary: Norway has, in the Arctic, one inhabited archipelago with restrictions placed on Norwegian sovereignty — Svalbard. Unlike the country's dependent territory (Bouvet Island) and Antarctic claims (see above), Svalbard is a part of the Kingdom of Norway.
Description
Three Crown Dependencies are in a form of association with the United Kingdom. They are independently administrated jurisdictions, although the British Government is solely responsible for defense and international representation and has ultimate responsibility for ensuring good government. They do not have diplomatic recognition as independent states, but neither are they integrated into the U.K. (nor the European Union). The U.K. Parliament retains the ability to legislate for the crown dependencies even without the agreement of their legislatures. No crown dependency has representation in the U.K. Parliament.
Although they are British Overseas Territories, Bermuda and Gibraltar have similar relationships to the U.K. as do the Crown dependencies. While Britain is officially responsible for their defense and international representation, these jurisdictions maintain their own militaries and have been granted limited diplomatic powers, in addition to having internal self-government.
New Zealand and its dependencies share the same governor-general and constitute one monarchic realm. The Cook Islands and Niue are officially termed associated states.
Puerto Rico (since 1952) and the Northern Mariana Islands (since 1986) are non-independent states freely associated with the United States. The mutually negotiated Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) in Political Union with the United States was approved in 1976. The covenant was fully implemented on November 3, 1986, under Presidential Proclamation no. 5564, which conferred United States citizenship on legally qualified CNMI residents. Under the Constitution of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico is described as a Commonwealth and Puerto Ricans have a degree of administrative autonomy similar to that of a citizen of a U.S. state. Puerto Ricans "were collectively made U.S. citizens" in 1917, as a result of the Jones-Shafroth Act. The commonly used name in Spanish of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, literally "Associated Free State of Puerto Rico", which sounds similar to "free association" particularly when loosely used in Spanish, is sometimes erroneously interpreted to mean that Puerto Rico's relationship with United States is based on a Compact of Free Association and at other times is erroneously held to mean that Puerto Rico's relationship with United States is based on an Interstate compact. This is a constant source of ambiguity and confusion when trying to define, understand, and explain Puerto Rico's political relationship with the United States. For various reasons Puerto Rico's political status differs from that of the Pacific Islands that entered into Compacts of Free Association with the United States. As sovereign states, these islands have the full right to conduct their foreign relations, while the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has territorial status subject to United States congressional authority under the Constitution's Territory Clause, "to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory… belonging to the United States." Puerto Rico does not have the right to unilaterally declare independence, and at the last referendum (1998), the narrow majority voted for "none of the above", which was a formally undefined alternative used by commonwealth supporters to express their desire for an "enhanced commonwealth" option.
This kind of relationship can also be found in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which is termed a federacy. The European continental part is organized like a unitary state. However, the status of its "constituent countries" in the Caribbean (Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten) can be considered akin to dependencies or "associated non-independent states."
The Kingdom of Denmark also operates similarly, akin to another federacy. The Faroe Islands and Greenland are two self-governing territories or regions within the Kingdom. The relationship between Denmark proper and these two territories is semi-officially termed the Rigsfællesskabet ("Unity of the Realm").
Overview of inhabited dependent territories
See also
Associated state
Colonization
Colony
Condominium
Federacy
List of administrative divisions by country
List of autonomous areas by country
List of countries by United Nations geoscheme
List of former colonies, possessions, protectorates, and territories
List of leaders of dependent territories
List of sovereign states
List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent
Minister of the Colonies
Ministry of the Colonies
Suzerainty
Territorial claims in Antarctica
United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Bibliography
George Drower, Britain's Dependent Territories, Dartmouth, 1992
George Drower, Overseas Territories Handbook, TSO, 1998
Lists of countries
Territories
Self-governance
Sovereignty
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|
214532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible%20translations | Bible translations | The Bible has been translated into many languages from the biblical languages of Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. the full Bible has been translated into 704 languages, the New Testament has been translated into an additional 1,551 languages and Bible portions or stories into 1,160 other languages. Thus at least some portions of the Bible have been translated into 3,415 languages.
Early translators rendered Biblical texts into (for example) Syriac, Latin, Geez, Gothic and Slavonic languages. Jerome's 4th-century Latin Vulgate version became dominant in Western Christianity through the Middle Ages. Since then, the Bible has been translated into many more languages.
English Bible translations have a rich and varied history of more than a millennium. The English Bible Translation is known as "the most accurate Bible version due to many excellent translations". (See also List of English Bible translations.)
Textual variants in the New Testament include errors, omissions, additions, changes, and alternate translations. In some cases, different translations have been used as evidence for or have been motivated by doctrinal differences.
Original text
Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in Daniel and Ezra) in Biblical Aramaic. From the 6th century to the 10th century AD, Jewish scholars, today known as Masoretes, compared the text of all known biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified, standardized text. A series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added vowel points (called niqqud) to the text, since the original text contained only consonants. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation; since some words differ only in their vowels their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages.
New Testament
The New Testament was written in Koine Greek. The autographs, the Greek manuscripts written by the original authors, have not survived. Scholars surmise the original Greek text from the manuscripts that do survive. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type, the Byzantine text-type, and the Western text-type.
Most variants among the manuscripts are minor, such as alternative spelling, alternative word order, the presence or absence of an optional definite article ("the"), and so on. Occasionally, a major variant happens when a portion of a text was missing or for other reasons. Examples of major variants are the endings of Mark, the Pericope Adulteræ, the Comma Johanneum, and the Western version of Acts.
The discovery of older manuscripts which belong to the Alexandrian text-type, including the 4th-century Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, led scholars to revise their view about the original Greek text. Karl Lachmann based his critical edition of 1831 on manuscripts dating from the 4th century and earlier, to argue that the Textus Receptus must be corrected according to these earlier texts.
Early manuscripts of the Pauline epistles and other New Testament writings show no punctuation whatsoever. The punctuation was added later by other editors, according to their own understanding of the text.
History
Ancient translations
Aramaic Targums
Some of the first translations of the Torah began during the Babylonian exile, when Aramaic became the lingua franca of the Jews. With most people speaking only Aramaic and not understanding Hebrew, the Targums were created to allow the common person to understand the Torah as it was read in ancient synagogues.
Greek Septuagint
By the 3rd century BC, Alexandria had become the center of Hellenistic Judaism, and during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC translators compiled in Egypt a Koine Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures in several stages (completing the task by 132 BC). The Talmud ascribes the translation effort to Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 285–246 BC), who allegedly hired 72 Jewish scholars for the purpose, for which reason the translation is commonly known as the Septuagint (from the Latin septuaginta, "seventy"), a name which it gained in "the time of Augustine of Hippo" (354–430 AD). The Septuagint (LXX), the very first translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, later became the accepted text of the Old Testament in the Christian church and the basis of its canon. Jerome based his Latin Vulgate translation on the Hebrew for those books of the Bible preserved in the Jewish canon (as reflected in the Masoretic text), and on the Greek text for the deuterocanonical books.
The translation now known as the Septuagint was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews, and later by Christians. It differs somewhat from the later standardized Hebrew (Masoretic Text). This translation was promoted by way of a legend (primarily recorded as the Letter of Aristeas) that seventy (or in some sources, seventy-two) separate translators all produced identical texts; supposedly proving its accuracy.
Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books not included in the Masoretic texts of the Tanakh. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or of Hebrew variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than previously thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition ("Vorlage") from the one that became the basis for the Masoretic texts.
Late Antiquity
Origen's Hexapla placed side by side six versions of the Old Testament: the Hebrew consonantal text, the Hebrew text transliterated into Greek letters (the Secunda), the Greek translations of Aquila of Sinope and Symmachus the Ebionite, one recension of the Septuagint, and the Greek translation of Theodotion. In addition, he included three anonymous translations of the Psalms (the Quinta, Sexta and Septima). His eclectic recension of the Septuagint had a significant influence on the Old Testament text in several important manuscripts. The canonical Christian Bible was formally established by Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem in 350 (although it had been generally accepted by the church previously), confirmed by the Council of Laodicea in 363 (both lacked the Book of Revelation), and later established by Athanasius of Alexandria in 367 (with Revelation added), and Jerome's Vulgate Latin translation dates to between AD 382 and 405. Latin translations predating Jerome are collectively known as Vetus Latina texts.
Christian translations also tend to be based upon the Hebrew, though some denominations prefer the Septuagint (or may cite variant readings from both). Bible translations incorporating modern textual criticism usually begin with the masoretic text, but also take into account possible variants from all available ancient versions. The received text of the Christian New Testament is in Koine Greek, and nearly all translations are based upon the Greek text.
Jerome began by revising the earlier Latin translations, but ended by going back to the original Greek, bypassing all translations, and going back to the original Hebrew wherever he could instead of the Septuagint.
The Bible was translated into Gothic in the 4th century by a group of scholars, possibly under the supervision of Ulfilas. In the 5th century, Saint Mesrob translated the Bible using the Armenian alphabet invented by him. Also dating from the same period are the Syriac, Coptic, Old Nubian, Ethiopic and Georgian translations.
There are also several ancient translations, most important of which are in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), in the Ethiopian language of Ge'ez, and in Latin (both the Vetus Latina and the Vulgate).
In 331, the Emperor Constantine commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.
Middle Ages
When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text—especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line—and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. See textual criticism. Over time, different regions evolved different versions, each with its own assemblage of omissions, additions, and variants (mostly in orthography).
The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Bible in Latin is the Codex Amiatinus, a Latin Vulgate edition produced in 8th-century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow.
During the Middle Ages, translation, particularly of the Old Testament was discouraged. Nevertheless, there are some fragmentary Old English Bible translations, notably a lost translation of the Gospel of John into Old English by the Venerable Bede, which is said to have been prepared shortly before his death around the year 735. An Old High German version of the gospel of Matthew dates to 748. Charlemagne in c. 800 charged Alcuin with a revision of the Latin Vulgate. The translation into Old Church Slavonic was started in 863 by Cyril and Methodius.
Alfred the Great, a ruler in England, had a number of passages of the Bible circulated in the vernacular in around 900. These included passages from the Ten Commandments and the Pentateuch, which he prefixed to a code of laws he promulgated around this time. In approximately 990, a full and freestanding version of the four Gospels in idiomatic Old English appeared, in the West Saxon dialect; these are called the Wessex Gospels. Around the same time, a compilation now called the Old English Hexateuch appeared with the first six (or, in one version, seven) books of the Old Testament.
Pope Innocent III in 1199 banned unauthorized versions of the Bible as a reaction to the Cathar and Waldensian heresies. The synods of Toulouse and Tarragona (1234) outlawed possession of such renderings. There is evidence of some vernacular translations being permitted while others were being scrutinized.
The complete Bible was translated into Old French in the late 13th century. Parts of this translation were included in editions of the popular Bible historiale, and there is no evidence of this translation being suppressed by the Church. The entire Bible was translated into Czech around 1360.
The most notable Middle English Bible translation, Wycliffe's Bible (1383), based on the Vulgate, was banned by the Oxford Synod in 1408. The Hungarian Hussite Bible appeared in 1416. In 1478, a Catalan translation was made in the dialect of Valencia. Many parts of the Bible were printed by William Caxton in his translation of the Golden Legend, and in Speculum Vitae Christi (The Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ).
Reformation and Early Modern period
The earliest printed edition of the Greek New Testament appeared in 1516 from the Froben press, by Desiderius Erasmus, who reconstructed its Greek text from several recent manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. He occasionally added a Greek translation of the Latin Vulgate for parts that did not exist in the Greek manuscripts. He produced four later editions of this text. Erasmus was Roman Catholic, but his preference for the Byzantine Greek manuscripts rather than the Latin Vulgate led some church authorities to view him with suspicion.
During 1517 and 1519 Francysk Skaryna printed a translation of the Bible in Old Belarusian language in twenty-two books.
In 1521, Martin Luther was placed under the Ban of the Empire, and he retired to the Wartburg Castle. During his time there, he translated the New Testament from Greek into German. It was printed in September 1522. The first complete Dutch Bible, partly based on the existing portions of Luther's translation, was printed in Antwerp in 1526 by Jacob van Liesvelt.
The first printed edition with critical apparatus (noting variant readings among the manuscripts) was produced by the printer Robert Estienne of Paris in 1550. The Greek text of this edition and of those of Erasmus became known as the Textus Receptus (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the Elzevier edition of 1633, which termed it as the text nunc ab omnibus receptum ("now received by all").
The use of numbered chapters and verses was not introduced until the Middle Ages and later. The system used in English was developed by Stephanus (Robert Estienne of Paris) (see Chapters and verses of the Bible)
Later critical editions incorporate ongoing scholarly research, including discoveries of Greek papyrus fragments from near Alexandria, Egypt, that date in some cases within a few decades of the original New Testament writings. Today, most critical editions of the Greek New Testament, such as UBS4 and NA27, consider the Alexandrian text-type corrected by papyri, to be the Greek text that is closest to the original autographs. Their apparatus includes the result of votes among scholars, ranging from certain {A} to doubtful {E}, on which variants best preserve the original Greek text of the New Testament.
Critical editions that rely primarily on the Alexandrian text-type inform nearly all modern translations (and revisions of older translations). For reasons of tradition, however, some translators prefer to use the Textus Receptus for the Greek text, or use the Majority Text which is similar to it but is a critical edition that relies on earlier manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. Among these, some argue that the Byzantine tradition contains scribal additions, but these later interpolations preserve the orthodox interpretations of the biblical text—as part of the ongoing Christian experience—and in this sense are authoritative. Distrust of the textual basis of modern translations has contributed to the King-James-Only Movement.
The churches of the Protestant Reformation translated the Greek of the Textus Receptus to produce vernacular Bibles, such as the German Luther Bible (1522), the Polish Brest Bible (1563), the Spanish "Biblia del Oso" (in English: Bible of the Bear, 1569) which later became the Reina-Valera Bible upon its first revision in 1602, the Czech Melantrich Bible (1549) and Bible of Kralice (1579-1593) and numerous English translations of the Bible. Tyndale's New Testament translation (1526, revised in 1534, 1535 and 1536) and his translation of the Pentateuch (1530, 1534) and the Book of Jonah were met with heavy sanctions given the widespread belief that Tyndale changed the Bible as he attempted to translate it. Tyndale's unfinished work, cut short by his execution, was supplemented by Myles Coverdale and published under a pseudonym to create the Matthew Bible, the first complete English translation of the Bible. Attempts at an "authoritative" English Bible for the Church of England would include the Great Bible of 1538 (also relying on Coverdale's work), the Bishops' Bible of 1568, and the Authorized Version (the King James Version) of 1611, the last of which would become a standard for English speaking Christians for several centuries.
The first complete French Bible was a translation by Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, published in 1530 in Antwerp. The Froschauer Bible of 1531 and the Luther Bible of 1534 (both appearing in portions throughout the 1520s) were an important part of the Reformation.
The first English translations of Psalms (1530), Isaiah (1531), Proverbs (1533), Ecclesiastes (1533), Jeremiah (1534) and Lamentations (1534), were executed by the Protestant Bible translator George Joye in Antwerp. In 1535 Myles Coverdale published the first complete English Bible also in Antwerp.
By 1578 both Old and New Testaments were translated to Slovene by the Protestant writer and theologian Jurij Dalmatin. The work was not printed until 1583. The Slovenes thus became the 12th nation in the world with a complete Bible in their language. The translation of the New Testament was based on the work by Dalmatin's mentor, the Protestant Primož Trubar, who published the translation of the Gospel of Matthew already in 1555 and the entire testament by parts until 1577.
Following the distribution of a Welsh New Testament and Prayer Book to every parish Church in Wales in 1567, translated by William Salesbury, Welsh became the 13th language into which the whole Bible had been translated in 1588, through a translation by William Morgan, the bishop of Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant.
Samuel Bogusław Chyliński (1631–1668) translated and published the first Bible translation into Lithuanian.
Modern translation efforts
The Bible is the most translated book in the world. The United Bible Societies announced that as of 31 December 2007 the complete Bible was available in 438 languages, 123 of which included the deuterocanonical material as well as the Tanakh and New Testament. Either the Tanakh or the New Testament was available in an additional 1,168 languages, in some kind of translations, like the interlinear morpheme-by-morpheme translation (e.g. some Parallel Bible, with interlinear morphemic glossing).
In 1999, Wycliffe Bible Translators announced Vision 2025—a project that intends to commence Bible translation in every remaining language community by 2025. It was realised that, at the rates of Bible translation at that point, it would take until at least 2150 until Bible translation began in every language that was needing a translation. Since the launch of Vision 2025, Bible translation efforts have increased dramatically, in large part due to the technology that is now available. Due to the increase, at current rates, Bible translation will begin in every language by 2038, thus being 112 years faster.
As of October 2019, they estimated that around 171 million people spoke those 2,115 languages where translation work still needs to begin. In total, there are 3,969 languages without any bible translation at all, but many of these are likely to never need a Bible because they are very similar to other languages, or spoken by very few speakers.
Differences in Bible translations
Dynamic or formal translation policy
A variety of linguistic, philological and ideological approaches to translation have been used. Inside the Bible-translation community, these are commonly categorized as:
Dynamic equivalence translation
Formal equivalence translation (similar to literal translation)
Idiomatic, or paraphrastic translation, as used by the late Kenneth N. Taylor
though modern linguists, such as Bible scholar Dr. Joel Hoffman, disagree with this classification.
As Hebrew and Greek, the original languages of the Bible, like all languages, have some idioms and concepts not easily translated, there is in some cases an ongoing critical tension about whether it is better to give a word for word translation or to give a translation that gives a parallel idiom in the target language. For instance, in the Douay Rheims Bible, Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition, New American Bible Revised Edition, which are the English language Catholic translations, as well as Protestant translations like the King James Bible, the Darby Bible, the Recovery Version, the Literal Standard Version, the New Revised Standard Version, the Modern Literal Version, and the New American Standard Bible are seen as more literal translations (or "word for word"), whereas translations like the New International Version and New Living Translation sometimes attempt to give relevant parallel idioms. The Living Bible and The Message are two paraphrases of the Bible that try to convey the original meaning in contemporary language. The further away one gets from word for word translation, the easier the text becomes to read while relying more on the theological, linguistic or cultural understanding of the translator, which one would not normally expect a lay reader to require. On the other hand, as one gets closer to a word for word translation, the text becomes more literal but still relies on similar problems of meaningful translation at the word level and makes it difficult for lay readers to interpret due to their unfamiliarity with ancient idioms and other historical and cultural contexts.
Doctrinal differences and translation policy
In addition to linguistic concerns, theological issues also drive Bible translations. Some translations of the Bible, produced by single churches or groups of churches, may be seen as subject to a point of view by the translation committee.
For example, the New World Translation, produced by Jehovah's Witnesses, provides different renderings where verses in other Bible translations support the deity of Christ. The NWT also translates kurios as "Jehovah" rather than "Lord" when quoting Hebrew passages that used YHWH. The authors believe that Jesus would have used God's name and not the customary kurios. On this basis, the anonymous New World Bible Translation Committee inserted Jehovah into the New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures (New Testament) a total of 237 times while the New World Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) uses Jehovah a total of 6,979 times to a grand total of 7,216 in the entire 2013 Revision New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures while previous revisions such as the 1984 revision were a total of 7,210 times while the 1961 revision were a total of 7,199 times.
A number of Sacred Name Bibles (e.g., the Sacred Scriptures Bethel Edition) have been published that are even more rigorous in transliterating the tetragrammaton using Semitic forms to translate it in the Old Testament and also using the same Semitic forms to translate the Greek word Theos (God) in the New Testament—usually Yahweh, Elohim or some other variation.
Other translations are distinguished by smaller but distinctive doctrinal differences. For example, the Purified Translation of the Bible, by translation and explanatory footnotes, promoting the position that Christians should not drink alcohol, that New Testament references to "wine" are translated as "grape juice".
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Wills, Garry, "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of David Bentley Hart, The New Testament: A Translation, Yale University Press, 577 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the New Testament.
External links
Repackaging the Bible by Eric Marrapodi, CNN, December 24, 2008
Bible Versions and Translations on BibleStudyTools.com
Huge selection of Bibles in Foreign Languages – bibleinmylanguage.com
BibleGateway.com (has many translations to select)
Translations
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|
214536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionist%20Occupation%20Government%20conspiracy%20theory | Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy theory | The Zionist occupation government, Zionist occupational government or Zionist-occupied government (ZOG), sometimes also referred to as the Jewish occupational government (JOG), is an antisemitic conspiracy theory claiming Jews secretly control the governments of Western states. According to believers, a secret Zionist organization controls international banks, and through them the governments, in order to collude against white, Christian, or Islamic interests.
The expression is used by white supremacist, white nationalist, far-right, nativist, or antisemitic groups in Europe and the United States as well as by ultra-nationalists such as Pamyat in Russia and various far-right groups including the Freemen, Identity Christians and the Ku Klux Klan.
The word Zionist in "Zionist occupation government" should not be confused with the ideology of Zionism, the movement for support of a Jewish state in the Land of Israel. As the conspiracy theorists chiefly name countries outside that area, the usage of Zionist in this context is misleading because it is intended to portray Jews as conspirators who aim to control the world as depicted in the forged Protocols of the Elders of Zion.
Origins
The association of Jews to the control of economic forces is the modern resurgence of an old stereotype, that of the "greedy Jewish merchant" which has been present in the Christian world since the Middle Ages. The conspiracy theory illustrates a specifically American far-right agrarian preoccupation, namely the vital possibility of extinction allegedly faced by the rural world, seen as the backbone of America, a danger caused by a remote, centralized and power-hungry metropolitan elite corrupted by "alien" influences.
History
The British fascist Arnold Leese already had the habit of referring to the "Jewish government" of his own nation in the interwar and postwar decades, while Nazis under the Weimar Republic dismissed a so-called "Jewish" hand behind that regime. In late 19th-century France, the insinuation that the French government was in the power of the Jews was a commonplace claim in nationalist discourse.
An early appearance of the term was in a 1976 article, "Welcome to ZOG-World", attributed to an American neo-Nazi named Eric Thomson, although Canadian white nationalists used the term "ZOG" as well. It also features as the main theme in the 1978 book The Turner Diaries written by William Luther Pierce, founder of the National Alliance, a white nationalist organization. The term came to the attention of a larger audience in a 27 December 1984 article in The New York Times about robberies committed in California and Washington by a white supremacist group called The Order. According to the newspaper, the crimes "were conducted to raise money for a war upon the United States Government, which the group calls 'ZOG', or Zionist Occupation Government". In 1985, the Oregon-based far-right group Posse Comitatus claimed: "Our nation is now completely under the control of the International Invisible government of World Jewry."
The Order of the Silent Brotherhood was an offshoot of the Aryan Nations, an organization founded in the early 1970s by Richard Girnt Butler; the latter had since the 1950s been associated with another antisemitic group, the Church of Jesus Christ Christian. Both of these groups trace their origins to antisemitic activists such as Gerald L.K. Smith and have interacted with the Ku Klux Klan. The term appeared extensively in Aryan Nations literature. In December 1984, Newsweek magazine reported that the Aryan Nations had set up an electronic bulletin board system called "Aryan Nation Liberty Net" to offer information for the locations of Communist Party USA offices and "ZOG informers".
In 1996, the Aryan Nations posted on its website an "Aryan Declaration of Independence", stating that "the history of the present Zionist Occupied Government of the United States of America is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations [...] [all] having a direct object—the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states." Claiming that "the eradication of the White race and its culture" is "one of its foremost purposes", the "ZOG" is accused of relinquishing powers of government to private corporations, white traitors and ruling class Jewish families. It accused "ZOG" Jews of subverting the constitutional rule of law; responsibility for post-Civil War Reconstruction; subverting the monetary system with the Federal Reserve System, confiscating land and property; limiting freedoms of speech, religion and gun ownership; murdering, kidnapping and imprisoning patriots; abdicating national sovereignty to the United Nations; political repression; wasteful bureaucracy; loosening restrictions on immigration and drug trafficking; raising taxes; polluting the environment; commandeering the military, mercenaries and police; denying Aryan cultural heritage; and inciting immigrant insurrections.
Since 1996, the term has spread in usage and is now popular with many other antisemitic organizations. Swedish Neo-Nazis say that Jews—in what they call the Swedish Zionist occupied government—are importing immigrants to "dilute the blood of the white race". The antisemitic website Jew Watch claims that the entire spectrum of Western nations and other countries are being ruled by "Zionist Occupation Governments".
Slovak politician Marian Kotleba, whose party (People's Party Our Slovakia) won two seats in the European Parliament in the 2019 election, claims that the "Z. O. G." controls Slovak politics.
Conspiracy theories
A variety of plots gravitating around the original conspiracy theory were imagined by activists, one stating for instance that as many as 4,000 Jews were warned of the September 11 attacks before they happened. Believers also claim that ZOG-like forces control the American foreign policy. Despite their own singularities, most ZOG theories involve the idea of a Jewish power over the finance or banking, including one imagining a Jewish control on the Federal Reserve.
Neo-Nazi David Lane developed his version of the white genocide conspiracy theory in his White Genocide Manifesto, the origin of the later use of the term. Lane claimed that the government policies of many Western countries had the intent of destroying white European culture and making white people an "extinct species". Lane—a founding member of the organization The Order—criticized miscegenation, abortion, homosexuality, Jewish control of the media, "multi-racial sports" and the legal repercussions against those who "resist genocide" and the ZOG that he said controls the United States and the other majority-white countries and which encourages "white genocide".
See also
Andinia Plan
Antisemitic canard
Blood libel
Cultural Bolshevism
Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory
Doctors' plot
Dreyfus affair
The Eternal Jew (art exhibition)
The Eternal Jew (book)
The Eternal Jew (film)
The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
Franklin Prophecy
The International Jew
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
Jewish Bolshevism
Jewish question
Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory
Kosher tax conspiracy theory
New World Order (conspiracy theory)
QAnon
Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda
Rootless cosmopolitan
Stab-in-the-back myth
Żydokomuna
References
Bibliography
External links
.
.
.
Conspiracy theories involving Jews
Neo-Nazi concepts
Patriot movement
White nationalism
White supremacy | [
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|
214538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sie | Sie | Sie or SIE may refer to:
People
Donald-Olivier Sié (born 1970), footballer
James Sie (born 1962), voice actor
John J. Sie, businessman
Trish Sie, choreographer and director
Other uses
SIE (file format), for accounting data
Army Intelligence Service (Spanish: ), Argentina
Foreign Intelligence Service (Romania) (Romanian: )
Sherburn-in-Elmet railway station, in England
Sie Kensou, a character in The King of Fighters
Sie language, spoken in Vanuatu
Simaa language, spoken in Zambia
Society of Industrial Engineering, a student society
Sony Interactive Entertainment, multinational video game and digital entertainment company
Special Intervention Squadron (Dutch ), now the Belgian Federal Police Special Units
Specific ion electrode
Staten Island Expressway, in Staten Island, New York City, US | [
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|
214542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Patriot%20Party | White Patriot Party | The White Patriot Party (WPP) was an American anti-Semitic, anti-Zionist, homophobic, white supremacist paramilitary political party associated with Christian Identity and the Ku Klux Klan. It was led by its founder, Frazier Glenn Miller Jr., through various organizational incarnations. The organization began in the mid-1970s as the Carolina Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. It was involved in the 1979 Greensboro massacre, when a confrontation between Klansmen, Nazis and communists left five people dead. The organization became the Confederate Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in the early 1980s and the White Patriot Party in 1985.
At a time of a poor farming economy in North Carolina, the group built support by blaming economic problems on Jewish bankers. Estimates were that its numbers might have been as high as 3000. On April 6, 1987, the group declared war against the federal government, which they called "Zionist Occupation Government" (ZOG).
The WPP collapsed after Miller violated an injunction against paramilitary activity and was convicted of threatening the civil rights activist Morris Dees. He was imprisoned from 1987 to 1990. In a 1988 sedition trial in Arkansas, Miller testified for the prosecution that he had received $200,000 in stolen money from The Order to finance operations of the White Patriot Party. The Order was also called the "Brüder Schweigen" ("Silent Brotherhood").
References
External links
Glenn Miller's website, with information on the White Patriot party.
Antisemitism in the United States
Political parties established in 1980
1980 establishments in the United States
Neo-Nazi political parties in the United States
Anti-Zionist organizations
Anti-Zionist political parties
Anti-Zionism in the United States
White supremacist groups in the United States
Ku Klux Klan
Defunct far-right political parties in the United States
Christian Identity
Paramilitary organizations based in the United States
Right-wing militia organizations in the United States
White nationalist parties
Organizations that oppose LGBT rights in the United States
Discrimination against LGBT people in the United States
Anti-communism in the United States
Anti-communist organizations in the United States
Political parties in the United States
1987 disestablishments in the United States | [
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|
214547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilateral%20polygon | Equilateral polygon | In geometry, an equilateral polygon is a polygon which has all sides of the same length. Except in the triangle case, it doesn’t need to be equiangular (doesn’t need to have all angles equal), but if it does then it is a regular polygon. If the number of sides is at least five, an equilateral polygon doesn’t need to be a convex polygon: it could be concave or even self-intersecting.
Examples
All regular polygons and edge-transitive polygons are equilateral. When an equilateral polygon is non-crossing and cyclic (its vertices are on a circle) it must be regular. An equilateral quadrilateral must be convex; this polygon is a rhombus (possibly a square).
A convex equilateral pentagon can be described by two consecutive angles, which together determine the other angles. However, equilateral pentagons, and equilateral polygons with more than five sides, can also be concave, and if concave pentagons are allowed then two angles are no longer sufficient to determine the shape of the pentagon.
A tangential polygon (one that has an incircle tangent to all its sides) is equilateral if and only if the alternate angles are equal (that is, angles 1, 3, 5, ... are equal and angles 2, 4, ... are equal). Thus if the number of sides n is odd, a tangential polygon is equilateral if and only if it is regular.
Measurement
Viviani's theorem generalizes to equilateral polygons: The sum of the perpendicular distances from an interior point to the sides of an equilateral polygon is independent of the location of the interior point.
The principal diagonals of a hexagon each divide the hexagon into quadrilaterals. In any convex equilateral hexagon with common side a, there exists a principal diagonal d1 such that
and a principal diagonal d2 such that
.
Optimality
When an equilateral polygon is inscribed in a Reuleaux polygon, it forms a Reinhardt polygon. Among all convex polygons with the same number of sides, these polygons have the largest possible perimeter for their diameter, the largest possible width for their diameter, and the largest possible width for their perimeter.
References
External links
Equilateral triangle With interactive animation
A Property of Equiangular Polygons: What Is It About? a discussion of Viviani's theorem at Cut-the-knot.
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|
214548 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Crime%20Victimization%20Survey | National Crime Victimization Survey | The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), administered by the US Census Bureau under the Department of Commerce, is a national survey of approximately 49,000 to 77,400 households twice a year in the United States, on the frequency of crime victimization, as well as characteristics and consequences of victimization. The survey focuses on gathering information on the following crimes: assault, burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, rape, and robbery. The survey results are used for the purposes of building a crime index. It has been used in comparison with the Uniform Crime Reports and the National Incident-Based Reporting System to assess the dark figure of crime. The NCVS survey is comparable to the British Crime Survey conducted in the United Kingdom.
The NCVS began in 1972 and was developed from work done by the National Opinion Research Center and the
President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice. A key finding of the survey was the realization that many crimes were not reported to the police.
Methodology
NCVS surveys households randomly selected from a stratified multistage cluster sample, with the interviews administered by the United States Census Bureau. This methodology has some disadvantages for surveying domestic violence crimes, since the entire selected household (above age 12) is interviewed instead of just one member selected. The selected household remains in the survey sample for three years, with interviews conducted every six months. Critics also argue that there is no way to verify much of the information gathered.
NCVS also includes supplemental questions, which allow periodic questions to be asked regarding such topics as school violence or attitudes toward crime or police.
In response to criticism of the survey design, the NCVS was redesigned in the late 1980s. The survey redesign also incorporated improved survey methodology and asks more direct questions. The redesign went through testing and evaluation before being fully implemented in the 1992–1993 survey.
See also
Uniform Crime Reports
Defensive gun use
List of household surveys in the United States
References
Further reading
Lynch, J. P., & Addington, L. A. (2007). Understanding crime statistics: revisiting the divergence of the NCVS and UCR. Cambridge studies in criminology. Cambridge University Press.
External links
Crime Statistics - Bureau of Justice Statistics
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Series - ICPSR (data distributor)
United States Department of Justice
Crime statistics
United States Census Bureau
Surveys (human research) | [
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|
214550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr%20virus | Epstein–Barr virus | The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), formally called Human gammaherpesvirus 4, is one of the nine known human herpesvirus types in the herpes family, and is one of the most common viruses in humans. EBV is a double-stranded DNA virus.
It is best known as the cause of infectious mononucleosis ("mono" or "glandular fever"). It is also associated with various non-malignant, premalignant, and malignant Epstein–Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases such as Burkitt lymphoma, hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, and Hodgkin's lymphoma; non-lymphoid malignancies such as gastric cancer and nasopharyngeal carcinoma; and conditions associated with human immunodeficiency virus such as hairy leukoplakia and central nervous system lymphomas. The virus is also associated with the childhood disorders of Alice in Wonderland syndrome and acute cerebellar ataxia and, based on some evidence, higher risks of developing certain autoimmune diseases, especially dermatomyositis, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, Sjögren's syndrome, and multiple sclerosis. About 200,000 cancer cases globally per year are thought to be attributable to EBV.
Infection with EBV occurs by the oral transfer of saliva and genital secretions.
Most people become infected with EBV and gain adaptive immunity. In the United States, about half of all five-year-old children and about 90% of adults have evidence of previous infection. Infants become susceptible to EBV as soon as maternal antibody protection disappears. Many children become infected with EBV, and these infections usually cause no symptoms or are indistinguishable from the other mild, brief illnesses of childhood. In the United States and other developed countries, many people are not infected with EBV in their childhood years. When infection with EBV occurs during adolescence, it causes infectious mononucleosis 35 to 50% of the time.
In 2022, it was shown that recent EBV infection causes a 32-fold increase in the risk of developing multiple sclerosis.
EBV infects B cells of the immune system and epithelial cells. Once EBV's initial lytic infection is brought under control, EBV latency persists in the individual's B cells for the rest of their life.
Virology
Structure and genome
The virus is about 122–180 nm in diameter and is composed of a double helix of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which contains about 172,000 base pairs and 85 genes. The DNA is surrounded by a protein nucleocapsid, which is surrounded by a tegument made of protein, which in turn is surrounded by an envelope containing both lipids and surface projections of glycoproteins, which are essential to infection of the host cell. In July 2020, a team of researchers reported the first complete atomic model of the nucleocapsid of the virus. This "first complete atomic model [includes] the icosahedral capsid, the capsid-associated tegument complex (CATC) and the dodecameric portal--the viral genome translocation apparatus."
Tropism
The term viral tropism refers to which cell types that EBV infects. EBV can infect different cell types, including B cells and epithelial cells.
The viral three-part glycoprotein complexes of gHgL gp42 mediate B cell membrane fusion; although the two-part complexes of gHgL mediate epithelial cell membrane fusion. EBV that are made in the B cells have low numbers of gHgLgp42 complexes, because these three-part complexes interact with Human-leukocyte-antigen class II molecules present in B cells in the endoplasmic reticulum and are degraded. In contrast, EBV from epithelial cells are rich in the three-part complexes because these cells do not normally contain HLA class II molecules. As a consequence, EBV made from B cells are more infectious to epithelial cells, and EBV made from epithelial cells are more infectious to B cells. Viruses lacking the gp42 portion are able to bind to human B cells, but unable to infect.
Replication cycle
Entry to the cell
EBV can infect both B cells and epithelial cells. The mechanisms for entering these two cells are different.
To enter B cells, viral glycoprotein gp350 binds to cellular receptor CD21 (also known as CR2). Then, viral glycoprotein gp42 interacts with cellular MHC class II molecules. This triggers fusion of the viral envelope with the cell membrane, allowing EBV to enter the B cell. Human CD35, also known as complement receptor 1 (CR1), is an additional attachment factor for gp350/220, and can provide a route for entry of EBV into CD21-negative cells, including immature B-cells. EBV infection downregulates expression of CD35.
To enter epithelial cells, viral protein BMRF-2 interacts with cellular β1 integrins. Then, viral protein gH/gL interacts with cellular αvβ6/αvβ8 integrins. This triggers fusion of the viral envelope with the epithelial cell membrane, allowing EBV to enter the epithelial cell. Unlike B-cell entry, epithelial-cell entry is actually impeded by viral glycoprotein gp42.
Once EBV enters the cell, the viral capsid dissolves and the viral genome is transported to the cell nucleus.
Lytic replication
The lytic cycle, or productive infection, results in the production of infectious virions. EBV can undergo lytic replication in both B cells and epithelial cells. In B cells, lytic replication normally only takes place after reactivation from latency. In epithelial cells, lytic replication often directly follows viral entry.
For lytic replication to occur, the viral genome must be linear. The latent EBV genome is circular, so it must linearize in the process of lytic reactivation. During lytic replication, viral DNA polymerase is responsible for copying the viral genome. This contrasts with latency, in which host-cell DNA polymerase copies the viral genome.
Lytic gene products are produced in three consecutive stages: immediate-early, early, and late.
Immediate-early lytic gene products act as transactivators, enhancing the expression of later lytic genes. Immediate-early lytic gene products include BZLF1 (also known as Zta, EB1, associated with its product gene ZEBRA) and BRLF1 (associated with its product gene Rta).
Early lytic gene products have many more functions, such as replication, metabolism, and blockade of antigen processing. Early lytic gene products include BNLF2.
Finally, late lytic gene products tend to be proteins with structural roles, such as VCA, which forms the viral capsid. Other late lytic gene products, such as BCRF1, help EBV evade the immune system.
EGCG, a polyphenol in green tea, has shown in a study to inhibit EBV spontaneous lytic infection at the DNA, gene transcription, and protein levels in a time- and dose-dependent manner; the expression of EBV lytic genes Zta, Rta, and early antigen complex EA-D (induced by Rta), however, the highly stable EBNA-1 gene found across all stages of EBV infection is unaffected. Specific inhibitors (to the pathways) suggest that Ras/MEK/MAPK pathway contributes to EBV lytic infection though BZLF1 and PI3-K pathway through BRLF1, the latter completely abrogating the ability of a BRLF1 adenovirus vector to induce the lytic form of EBV infection. Additionally, the activation of some genes but not others is being studied to determine just how to induce immune destruction of latently infected B-cells by use of either TPA or sodium butyrate.
Latency
Unlike lytic replication, latency does not result in production of virions.
Instead, the EBV genome circular DNA resides in the cell nucleus as an episome and is copied by cellular DNA polymerase.
In latency, only a portion of EBV's genes are expressed.
Latent EBV expresses its genes in one of three patterns, known as latency programs. EBV can latently persist within B cells and epithelial cells, but different latency programs are possible in the two types of cell.
EBV can exhibit one of three latency programs: Latency I, Latency II, or Latency III. Each latency program leads to the production of a limited, distinct set of viral proteins and viral RNAs.
Also, a program is postulated in which all viral protein expression is shut off (Latency 0).
Within B cells, all three latency programs are possible.
EBV latency within B cells usually progresses from Latency III to Latency II to Latency I. Each stage of latency uniquely influences B cell behavior. Upon infecting a resting naive B cell, EBV enters Latency III. The set of proteins and RNAs produced in Latency III transforms the B cell into a proliferating blast (also known as B cell activation).
Later, the virus restricts its gene expression and enters Latency II. The more limited set of proteins and RNAs produced in Latency II induces the B cell to differentiate into a memory B cell.
Finally, EBV restricts gene expression even further and enters Latency I. Expression of EBNA-1 allows the EBV genome to replicate when the memory B cell divides.
Within epithelial cells, only Latency II is possible.
In primary infection, EBV replicates in oropharyngeal epithelial cells and establishes Latency III, II, and I infections in B-lymphocytes. EBV latent infection of B-lymphocytes is necessary for virus persistence, subsequent replication in epithelial cells, and release of infectious virus into saliva. EBV Latency III and II infections of B-lymphocytes, Latency II infection of oral epithelial cells, and Latency II infection of NK- or T-cell can result in malignancies, marked by uniform EBV genome presence and gene expression.
Reactivation
Latent EBV in B cells can be reactivated to switch to lytic replication. This is known to happen in vivo, but what triggers it is not known precisely. In vitro, latent EBV in B cells can be reactivated by stimulating the B cell receptor, so reactivation in vivo probably takes place when latently infected B cells respond to unrelated infections.
Transformation of B-lymphocytes
When EBV infects B cells in vitro, lymphoblastoid cell lines eventually emerge that are capable of indefinite growth. The growth transformation of these cell lines is the consequence of viral protein expression.
EBNA-2, EBNA-3C, and LMP-1 are essential for transformation, whereas EBNA-LP and the EBERs are not.
Following natural infection with EBV, the virus is thought to execute some or all of its repertoire of gene expression programs to establish a persistent infection. Given the initial absence of host immunity, the lytic cycle produces large numbers of virions to infect other (presumably) B-lymphocytes within the host.
The latent programs reprogram and subvert infected B-lymphocytes to proliferate and bring infected cells to the sites at which the virus presumably persists. Eventually, when host immunity develops, the virus persists by turning off most (or possibly all) of its genes, only occasionally reactivating to produce fresh virions. A balance is eventually struck between occasional viral reactivation and host immune surveillance removing cells that activate viral gene expression.
The site of persistence of EBV may be bone marrow. EBV-positive patients who have had their own bone marrow replaced with bone marrow from an EBV-negative donor are found to be EBV-negative after transplantation.
Latent antigens
All EBV nuclear proteins are produced by alternative splicing of a transcript starting at either the Cp or Wp promoters at the left end of the genome (in the conventional nomenclature). The genes are ordered EBNA-LP/EBNA-2/EBNA-3A/EBNA-3B/EBNA-3C/EBNA-1 within the genome.
The initiation codon of the EBNA-LP coding region is created by an alternate splice of the nuclear protein transcript. In the absence of this initiation codon, EBNA-2/EBNA-3A/EBNA-3B/EBNA-3C/EBNA-1 will be expressed depending on which of these genes is alternatively spliced into the transcript.
Protein/genes
Subtypes of EBV
EBV can be divided into two major types, EBV type 1 and EBV type 2. These two subtypes have different EBNA-3 genes. As a result, the two subtypes differ in their transforming capabilities and reactivation ability. Type 1 is dominant throughout most of the world, but the two types are equally prevalent in Africa. One can distinguish EBV type 1 from EBV type 2 by cutting the viral genome with a restriction enzyme and comparing the resulting digestion patterns by gel electrophoresis.
Role in disease
EBV causes infectious mononucleosis. Children infected with EBV have few symptoms or can appear asymptomatic, but when infection is delayed to adolescence or adulthood, it can cause fatigue, fever, inflamed throat, swollen lymph nodes in the neck, enlarged spleen, swollen liver, or rash. Post-infectious chronic fatigue syndrome has also been associated with EBV infection.
EBV has also been implicated in several other diseases, including Burkitt's lymphoma, hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, Hodgkin's lymphoma, stomach cancer, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, multiple sclerosis, and lymphomatoid granulomatosis. Specifically, EBV infected B-cells have been shown to reside within the brain lesions of multiple sclerosis patients. Additional diseases that have been linked to EBV include Gianotti–Crosti syndrome, erythema multiforme, acute genital ulcers, oral hairy leukoplakia. The viral infection is also associated with, and often contributes to the development of, a wide range of non-malignant lymphoproliferative diseases such as severe hypersensitivity mosquito bite allergy reactions, Epstein-Barr virus-positive mucocutaneous ulcers, and hydroa vacciniforme as well as malignant lymphoproliferative diseases such as Epstein–Barr virus-positive Burkitt lymphoma, Epstein–Barr virus-positive Hodgkin lymphoma, and primary effusion lymphoma.
The Epstein–Barr virus has been implicated in disorders related to alpha-synuclein aggregation (e.g. Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and multiple system atrophy).
History
The Epstein–Barr virus was named after Michael Anthony Epstein and Yvonne Barr, who discovered the virus together with Bert Achong. In 1961, Epstein, a pathologist and expert electron microscopist, attended a lecture on "The Commonest Children's Cancer in Tropical Africa—A Hitherto Unrecognised Syndrome" by Denis Parsons Burkitt, a surgeon practicing in Uganda, in which Burkitt described the "endemic variant" (pediatric form) of the disease that bears his name. In 1963, a specimen was sent from Uganda to Middlesex Hospital to be cultured. Virus particles were identified in the cultured cells, and the results were published in The Lancet in 1964 by Epstein, Achong, and Barr. Cell lines were sent to Werner and Gertrude Henle at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia who developed serological markers. In 1967, a technician in their laboratory developed mononucleosis and they were able to compare a stored serum sample, showing that antibodies to the virus developed. In 1968, they discovered that EBV can directly immortalize B cells after infection, mimicking some forms of EBV-related infections, and confirmed the link between the virus and infectious mononucleosis.
Research
As a relatively complex virus, EBV is not yet fully understood. Laboratories around the world continue to study the virus and develop new ways to treat the diseases it causes. One popular way of studying EBV in vitro is to use bacterial artificial chromosomes. Epstein–Barr virus can be maintained and manipulated in the laboratory in continual latency (a property shared with Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, another of the eight human herpesviruses). Although many viruses are assumed to have this property during infection of their natural hosts, there is not an easily managed system for studying this part of the viral lifecycle. Genomic studies of EBV have been able to explore lytic reactivation and regulation of the latent viral episome.
Although under active research, an Epstein–Barr virus vaccine is not yet available. The development of an effective vaccine could prevent up to 200,000 cancers globally per year. Like other human herpesviruses Epstein-Barr might allow eradication via a course of the pro-drug valaciclovir, but further research is needed to determine if eradication is actually achievable. Antiviral agents act by inhibiting viral DNA replication, but there is little evidence that they are effective against Epstein–Barr virus. Moreover, they are expensive, risk causing resistance to antiviral agents, and (in 1% to 10% of cases) can cause unpleasant side effects.
See also
Epstein–Barr virus infection
Epstein–Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases
James Corson Niederman, the physician who proved how the Epstein–Barr virus is transmitted in infectious mononucleosis
References
External links
Transcriptome and epigenome of EBV
IARC Group 1 carcinogens
Infectious causes of cancer | [
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|
214552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write%20protection | Write protection | Write protection is any physical mechanism that prevents writing, modifying, or erasing data on a device. Most commercial software, audio and video on writeable media is write-protected when distributed.
Examples
IBM inch magnetic tape reels, introduced in the 1950s, had a circular groove on one side of the reel, into which a soft plastic ring had to be placed in order to write on the tape. (“No ring, no write.”)
Audio cassettes and VHS videocassettes have tabs on the top/rear edge that can be broken off (uncovered = protected).
8 and inch floppies can have, respectively, write-protect and write-enable notches on the right side (8″: punched = protected; ″: covered/notch not present = protected). A common practice with single-sided floppies was to punch a second notch on the opposite side of the disk to enable use of both sides of the media, creating a flippy disk, so called because one originally had to flip the disk over to use the other side.
inch floppy disks have a sliding tab in a window on the right side (open = protected).
Iomega Zip disks were write-protected using the IomegaWare software.
Syquest EZ-drive (135 & 250MB) disks were write-protected using a small metal switch on the rear of the disk at the bottom.
VHS-C, Video8, Hi8, and DV videocassettes have a sliding tab on the rear edge.
Iomega ditto tape cartridges had a small sliding tab on the top left hand corner on the front face of the cartridge.
USB flash drives sometimes have a small switch, though this has become uncommon. An example of a USB flash drive that supported write protection via a switch is the Transcend JetFlash series.
Secure Digital (SD) cards have a write-protect tab on the left side.
Extensively, media that, by means of design, can't operate outside from this mode: CD-R, DVD-R, Vinyl records, etc.
These mechanisms are intended to prevent only accidental data loss or attacks by computer viruses. A determined user can easily circumvent them either by covering a notch with adhesive tape or by creating one with a punch as appropriate, or sometimes by physically altering the media transport to ignore the write-protect mechanism.
Write-protection is typically enforced by the hardware. In the case of computer devices, attempting to violate it will return an error to the operating system while some tape recorders physically lock the record button when a write-protected cassette is present.
Write blocking
Write blocking, a subset of write protection, is a technique used in computer forensics in order to maintain the integrity of data storage devices. By preventing all write operations to the device, e.g. a hard drive, it can be ensured that the device remains unaltered by data recovery methods.
Hardware write blocking was invented by Mark Menz and Steve Bress (US patent 6,813,682 and EU patent EP1,342,145)
Both hardware and software write-blocking methods are used; however, software blocking is generally not as reliable, due to human error.
References
http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6813682.html (US patent 6,813,682)
See also
Copyright infringement
Bootleg recording
Computer storage media | [
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|
214554 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%20testing | Stress testing | Stress testing (sometimes called torture testing) is a form of deliberately intense or thorough testing used to determine the stability of a given system, critical infrastructure or entity. It involves testing beyond normal operational capacity, often to a breaking point, in order to observe the results. Reasons can include:
to determine breaking points or safe usage limits
to confirm mathematical model is accurate enough in predicting breaking points or safe usage limits
to confirm intended specifications are being met
to determine modes of failure (how exactly a system fails)
to test stable operation of a part or system outside standard usage
Reliability engineers often test items under expected stress or even under accelerated stress in order to determine the operating life of the item or to determine modes of failure.
The term "stress" may have a more specific meaning in certain industries, such as material sciences, and therefore stress testing may sometimes have a technical meaning – one example is in fatigue testing for materials.
Computing
Hardware
Stress testing, in general, should put computer hardware under exaggerated levels of stress in order to ensure stability when used in a normal environment. These can include extremes of workload, type of task, memory use, thermal load (heat), clock speed, or voltages. Memory and CPU are two components that are commonly stress tested in this way.
There is considerable overlap between stress testing software and benchmarking software, since both seek to assess and measure maximum performance. Of the two, stress testing software aims to test stability by trying to force a system to fail; benchmarking aims to measure and assess the maximum performance possible at a given task or function.
When modifying the operating parameters of a CPU, such as temperature, overclocking, underclocking, overvolting, and undervolting, it may be necessary to verify if the new parameters (usually CPU core voltage and frequency) are suitable for heavy CPU loads. This is done by running a CPU-intensive program for extended periods of time (usually 24 hours for home PC), to test whether the computer hangs or crashes. CPU stress testing is also referred to as torture testing. Software that is suitable for torture testing should typically run instructions that utilise the entire chip rather than only a few of its units. Stress testing a CPU over the course of 24 hours at 100% load is, in most cases, sufficient to determine that the CPU will function correctly in normal usage scenarios such as in a desktop computer, where CPU usage typically fluctuates at low levels (50% and under).
Hardware stress testing and stability are subjective and may vary according to how the system will be used. A stress test for a system running 24/7 or that will perform error sensitive tasks such as distributed computing or "folding" projects may differ from one that needs to be able to run a single game with reasonably reliability. For example, a comprehensive guide on overclocking Sandy Bridge found that:
{{quote|text=
Even though in the past IntelBurnTest was just as good, it seems that something in the SB uArch [Sandy Bridge microarchitecture] is more heavily stressed with Prime95 ... IBT really does pull more power [make greater thermal demands]. But ... Prime95 failed first every time, and it failed when IBT would pass. So same as Sandy Bridge, Prime95 is a better stability tester for Sandy Bridge-E than IBT/LinX.}}
An engineer at ASUS advised in a 2012 article on overclocking an Intel X79 system, that it is important to choose testing software carefully in order to obtain useful results:
Software commonly used in stress testing
Aida
IBM Teleprocessing Network Simulator
IBM Workload Simulator
Intel processor diagnostic test
Intel Burn Test
LinX (AVX)
Memtest86+ – memory
OCCT
Passmark Burn-in
Prime95, and derivatives such as HyperPi – CPU/heat
Siege
S&M
Tsung - free software tool
Software
In software testing, a system stress test refers to tests that put a greater emphasis on robustness, availability, and error handling under a heavy load, rather than on what would be considered correct behavior under normal circumstances. In particular, the goals of such tests may be to ensure the software does not crash in conditions of insufficient computational resources (such as memory or disk space), unusually high concurrency, or denial of service attacks.
Examples:
A web server may be stress tested using scripts, bots, and various denial of service tools to observe the performance of a web site during peak loads. These attacks generally are under an hour long, or until a limit in the amount of data that the web server can tolerate is found.
Stress testing may be contrasted with load testing:
Load testing examines the entire environment and database, while measuring the response time, whereas stress testing focuses on identified transactions, pushing to a level so as to break transactions or systems.
During stress testing, if transactions are selectively stressed, the database may not experience much load, but the transactions are heavily stressed. On the other hand, during load testing the database experiences a heavy load, while some transactions may not be stressed.
System stress testing, also known as stress testing, is loading the concurrent users over and beyond the level that the system can handle, so it breaks at the weakest link within the entire system.
Critical Infrastructure
Critical infrastructure (CI) such as highways, railways, electric power networks, dams, port facilities, major gas pipelines or oil refineries are exposed to multiple natural and human-induced hazards and stressors, including earthquakes, landslides, floods, tsunami, wildfires, climate change effects or explosions. These stressors and abrupt events can cause failures and losses, and hence, can interrupt essential services for the society and the economy. Therefore, CI owners and operators need to identify and quantify the risks posed by the CIs due to different stressors, in order to define mitigation strategies and improve the resilience of the CIs. Stress tests are advanced and standardised tools for hazard and risk assessment of CIs, that include both low-probability high-consequence (LP-HC) events and so-called extreme or rare events, as well as the systematic application of these new tools to classes of CI.
Stress testing is the process of assessing the ability of a CI to maintain a certain level of functionality under unfavourable conditions, while stress tests consider LP-HC events, which are not always accounted for in the design and risk assessment procedures, commonly adopted by public authorities or industrial stakeholders. A multilevel stress test methodology for CI has been developed in the framework of the European research project STREST, consisting of four phases:
Phase 1: Preassessment, during which the data available on the CI (risk context) and on the phenomena of interest (hazard context) are collected. The goal and objectives, the time frame, the stress test level and the total costs of the stress test are defined.
Phase 2: Assessment, during which the stress test at the component and the system scope is performed, including fragility and risk analysis of the CIs for the stressors defined in Phase 1. The stress test can result in three outcomes: Pass, Partly Pass and Fail, based on the comparison of the quantified risks to acceptable risk exposure levels and a penalty system.
Phase 3: Decision, during which the results of the stress test are analyzed according to the goal and objectives defined in Phase 1. Critical events (events that most likely cause the exceedance of a given level of loss) and risk mitigation strategies are identified.
Phase 4: Report'', during which the stress test outcome and risk mitigation guidelines based on the findings established in Phase 3 are formulated and presented to the stakeholders.
This stress-testing methodology has been demonstrated to six CIs in Europe at component and system level: an oil refinery and petrochemical plant in Milazzo, Italy; a conceptual alpine earth-fill dam in Switzerland; the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline in Turkey; part of the Gasunie national gas storage and distribution network in the Netherlands; the port infrastructure of Thessaloniki, Greece; and an industrial district in the region of Tuscany, Italy. The outcome of the stress testing included the definition of critical components and events and risk mitigation strategies, which are formulated and reported to stakeholders.
See also
Burn-in
Destructive testing
Load and performance test tools
Black box testing
Load testing
Software performance testing
Scenario analysis
Simulation
Software testing
White box testing
Technischer Überwachungsverein (TÜV) – product testing and certification
Concurrency testing using the CHESS model checker
Jinx automates stress testing by automatically exploring unlikely execution scenarios.
Highly accelerated life test
References
Software testing
Product testing | [
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214556 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-denying%20Ordinance | Self-denying Ordinance | The Self-denying Ordinance was passed by the English Parliament on 3 April 1645. All members of the House of Commons or Lords who were also officers in the Parliamentary army or navy were required to resign one or the other, within 40 days from 3 April 1645.
It was part of a set of reforms designed to ensure victory, another being the establishment of a professional, centrally-controlled New Model Army, which replaced the existing system of regional armies. It was also linked to an internal political struggle between a Peace Party, who wanted a negotiated settlement with Charles, and a War Party which wanted to dictate terms.
First introduced in December 1644, the bill passed at the second attempt. As members of the Lords could not resign their titles, it effectively removed aristocratic commanders like the Earls of Manchester and Essex. Under the amended version, they were still required to resign their commissions, but could be re-appointed.
Political motivation
At the outset of the First English Civil War, Parliament gave command of its main armies to members of the aristocracy. This was in accordance with well-established practices of the day, and generalships were accorded to the earls of Manchester and Essex among others. Edward Montagu, Earl of Manchester, was given charge of the Eastern Association, where Cromwell served under him as a cavalry officer.
Parliament was soon hindered by dissension within this military leadership. These officers were not professional soldiers; their experience and skill at warfare varied. More significantly, a faction of them avoided engagements with the Cavalier forces, hoping that reconciliation with King Charles I was still possible. The Earl of Manchester, perhaps the most prominent of these, expressed his pessimism for the war as follows: "If we beat the King ninety and nine times yet he is king still, and so will his posterity be after him; but if the King beat us once, we shall be all hanged, and our posterity be made slaves".
As the war proceeded, it was clear that Essex and Manchester were at best half-hearted in pursuing the fight against the royalists, an attitude that became ever more apparent as the struggle became more radical. The growing rift between the Lords and the Commons finally came to a point of crisis when the fruits of the great victory at the Battle of Marston Moor were allowed to slip away at the disappointing Second Battle of Newbury. It was after this that the political tensions between Cromwell and Manchester could no longer be contained by the established forms of command.
Members of Parliament, notably Oliver Cromwell and Sir William Waller, saw the need for radical reform of the army. For Cromwell, this attack on Manchester's conduct ultimately became an attack on the Lords, most of whom held the same views as Manchester, and on the Scots, who attempted to bring Cromwell to trial as an "incendiary". At the height of this bitter controversy, Cromwell suddenly proposed to stifle all animosities by the resignation of all officers who were members of either House. This proposal, in theory, affected himself no less than the Earls of Essex and Manchester.
Terms of the ordinance
The first Self-denying Bill was put before Parliament on 9 December 1644. It provided that "no member of either house shall have or execute any office or command", etc. in the armed forces. One of the exceptions was Oliver Cromwell. It passed the House of Commons on 19 December but was thrown out by the Lords on 13 January 1645. The Lords, naturally, were reluctant to approve an ordinance that would automatically exclude nobles from military command. It also "weeded out" the "half measures men" such as Lords Essex and Manchester.
A second version of the bill was prepared, which required resignations as above, but did not forbid re-appointment of the officers. This bill was agreed to on 3 April 1645.
Historic significance
The Self-denying Ordinance improved military unity by separating the quarrels in Parliament from the immediate operations of command. Leaders from the Presbyterian "peace party" faction in Parliament resigned their military positions to retain their political powers; Lords Manchester and Essex forfeited their generalships, as Lord Warwick did his command of the navy. Leadership of Parliament's troops fell to Sir Thomas Fairfax, then a lieutenant general, who was among the few officers still eligible for the post.
In practical terms, the ordinance solidified the power of Cromwell and his "war party" faction. Cromwell was a member of the House of Commons, so he was obliged to resign his post as well. However, the Committee of Both Kingdoms, which oversaw the war, found his talents as a soldier indispensable. His term in command was extended several times, in forty-day increments, until it was finally made permanent. While this appointment was officially as Fairfax's lieutenant general, Cromwell wielded influence well beyond his rank.
More broadly, this reform helped usher in the New Model Army. This reorganized force, designed for unity and efficiency, incorporated several practices recognizable in modern armies. In addition to a professional officer corps promoted on merit, it replaced the sometimes bulky local units with nationally controlled regiments, standardized training protocols, and ensured regular salary payments to the troops. This army soon turned the war in favour of Parliament, decisively beating the Royalist forces at the battle of Naseby on 14 June 1645.
Notes
References
Sources
.
1644 in law
1645 in law
1644 in England
1645 in England
English Civil War
History of the Royal Navy
History of the British Army
Parliament of England | [
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|
214558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20Solomon%27s%20Carpet | King Solomon's Carpet | King Solomon's Carpet (1991) is a novel by Barbara Vine, pseudonym of Ruth Rendell. It is about the London Underground and the people frequenting it. Vine's novel is inhabited by ordinary passengers, tube aficionados, pickpockets, buskers, vigilantes, and children who go "sledging" on the roofs of cars as an initiation rite. The title of the book refers to the legend of King Solomon's magic carpet of green silk which, as it could fly and brought everyone to their destination, is likened to the underground. King Solomon's Carpet is one of the few novels set in London which should be read with the help of a tube map. It won the CWA Gold Dagger for best crime novel of the year in 1991.
Plot summary
Jarvis Stringer is a student of the London Tube and its history and of underground trains worldwide. In order to finance his hobby and be able to travel to distant lands to inspect the underground systems in other parts of the world, he lets rooms in an old disused school building he has inherited which is close to the London Underground tracks in West Hampstead. There gather a group of misfits and weirdos, including a squatter, whose dreams of the good life have time and again been shattered as they are constantly victimized by society. There is 24-year-old Alice, an aspiring musician who leaves her husband and new-born baby only to end up busking in various stations in central London. There is Tom, who, after an accident, drops out of music school and is reduced to busking as well but who dreams of one day starting his own business. There is unemployed Tina, whose promiscuity landed her with two children whom she does not take care of in the way her mother thinks she ought to. There is Jed, who volunteers as a vigilante and who, disappointed by humans, lavishes all his love on the hawk he has acquired and which he keeps in the house. And there is Axel, an enigmatic man who regularly travels on the tube in the company of a man disguised as a bear and who is planning something illegal.
Cecilia and Daphne, two old ladies living in the neighbourhood, serve as a foil to this ill-assorted group. It is Cecilia in particular who does not understand how young people such as her daughter Tina can be utterly devoid of morals. She is shocked to learn that her 10-year-old grandson enjoys riding on the roof of cars as they go through deep-level tunnels. While travelling on the tube herself, her handbag containing her credit cards is stolen, and she suffers a stroke in one of the packed cars.
The novel is interspersed with extracts from Jarvis Stringer's (fictional) book on the London Underground.
References
1991 British novels
Novels by Ruth Rendell
Works published under a pseudonym
Novels set on the London Underground
Viking Press books | [
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|
214559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel%20Smyth | Ethel Smyth | Dame Ethel Mary Smyth (, to rhyme with Forsyth; 22 April 18588 May 1944) was an English composer and a member of the women's suffrage movement. Her compositions include songs, works for piano, chamber music, orchestral works, choral works and operas.
Smyth tended to be marginalised as a ‘woman composer’, as though her work could not be accepted as mainstream. Yet when she produced more delicate compositions, they were criticised for not measuring up to the standard of her male competitors. Nevertheless, she was granted a damehood, the first female composer to be so honoured.
Family background
Ethel Smyth was the fourth of eight children. The youngest was Robert ("Bob") Napier Smyth (1868–1947), who rose to become a Brigadier in the British Army. She was the aunt of Lieutenant General Sir Ralph Eastwood.
She was born in Sidcup, Kent, which is now in the London Borough of Bexley. While 22 April is the actual day of her birth, Smyth habitually stated it was 23 April, the day that was celebrated by her family, as they enjoyed the coincidence with William Shakespeare's. Her father, John Hall Smyth, who was a major general in the Royal Artillery, was very much opposed to her making a career in music. She lived at Frimhurst, near Frimley Green for many years, before moving to Hook Heath on the outskirts of Woking.
Musical career
She first studied privately with Alexander Ewing when she was seventeen. He introduced her to the music of Wagner and Berlioz. After a major battle with her father about her plans to devote her life to music, Smyth was allowed to advance her musical education at the Leipzig Conservatory, where she studied composition with Carl Reinecke. She left after a year, however, disillusioned with the low standard of teaching, and continued her music studies privately with Heinrich von Herzogenberg. While she was at the Leipzig Conservatory, she met Dvořák, Grieg and Tchaikovsky. Through Herzogenberg, she also met Clara Schumann and Brahms. Upon her return to England, she formed a supportive friendship with Arthur Sullivan in the last years of his life, who respected her and encouraged her work.
Smyth's extensive body of work includes the Concerto for Violin, Horn and Orchestra and the Mass in D. Her opera The Wreckers is considered by some critics to be the "most important English opera composed during the period between Purcell and Britten." Another of her operas, Der Wald, mounted in 1903, was for more than a century the only opera by a woman composer ever produced at New York's Metropolitan Opera (until Kaija Saariaho's L'Amour de loin in December 2016).
On 28 May 1928 the nascent BBC broadcast two concerts of Smyth's music, marking her "musical jubilee", The first comprised chamber music, the second, conducted by Smyth herself, choral works. Otherwise, recognition in England came somewhat late for Ethel Smyth, wrote the conductor Leon Botstein at the time he conducted the American Symphony Orchestra's US premiere of The Wreckers in New York on 30 September 2007:
Her final major work was the hour long vocal symphony The Prison, setting a text by Henry Bennett Brewster. It was first performed in 1931. The first recording was issued by Chandos in 2020. However, she found a new interest in literature and, between 1919 and 1940, she published ten highly successful, mostly autobiographical, books.
Critical reception
Overall, critical reaction to her work was mixed. She was alternately praised and panned for writing music that was considered too masculine for a "lady composer", as critics called her. Eugene Gates writes that
Smyth's music was seldom evaluated as simply the work of a composer among composers, but as that of a "woman composer." This worked to keep her on the margins of the profession, and, coupled with the double standard of sexual aesthetics, also placed her in a double bind. On the one hand, when she composed powerful, rhythmically vital music, it was said that her work lacked feminine charm; on the other, when she produced delicate, melodious compositions, she was accused of not measuring up to the artistic standards of her male colleagues.
Other critics were more favourable: "The composer is a learned musician: it is learning which gives her the power to express her natural inborn sense of humour... Dr. Smyth knows her Mozart and her Sullivan: she has learned how to write conversations in music... [The Boatswain's Mate] is one of the merriest, most tuneful, and most delightful comic operas ever put on the stage."
Involvement with the suffrage movement
In 1910, Smyth joined the Women's Social and Political Union (WPSU), which agitated for women's suffrage, giving up music for two years to devote herself to the cause. She accompanied the charismatic leader of the WSPU, Emmeline Pankhurst, on many occasions, and her "The March of the Women" (1911) became the anthem of the suffragette movement.
In 1912, after practising aiming stones at trees near the home of fellow suffragette, Zelie Emerson, Pankhurst called on WPSU members to break a window of the house of any politician who opposed votes for women. Smyth was one of the 109 members who responded to Pankhurst's call, asking to be sent to attack the home of Colonial Secretary Lewis Harcourt, who had remarked that if his wife's beauty and wisdom was present in all women, they would have already won the vote.
Smyth stood half the bail for Helen Craggs, who had been caught on the way to carry out the arson of the leading politician's home. During the stone throwing, Pankhurst and 100 other women were arrested, and Smyth served two months in Holloway Prison. When Thomas Beecham, her proponent-friend, went to visit her there, he found suffragettes marching in the quadrangle and singing, as Smyth leaned out of a window conducting the song with a toothbrush.
In her book, Female Pipings in Eden, Smyth said her prison experience was of being "in good company" of united women "old, young, rich, poor, strong, delicate", putting the cause they were imprisoned for before their personal needs. Smyth revealed that the prison was infested with cockroaches, even in the hospital ward. She was released early, due to a medical assessment that she was mentally unstable and hysterical. Smyth gave written evidence in the November trial of Pankhurst and others for inciting violence, stating that she (Smyth) had freely engaged in activism. She continued to correspond with Pankhurst, and heard of her getting lost trying to find the safe house provided for her to avoid re-arrest in Scotland.
Smyth strongly disagreed with the support Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughter Christabel gave to the war effort in 1914, but she did train as a radiographer in Paris. Her fractious friendship with Christabel ended in 1925, and Smyth conducted the Metropolitan Police Band at the unveiling of the statue to Emmeline in London in 1930.
Personal life
Smyth had several passionate affairs in her life, most of them with women. Her philosopher-friend and the librettist of some of her operas, Henry Bennet Brewster, may have been her only male lover. She wrote to him in 1892: "I wonder why it is so much easier for me to love my own sex more passionately than yours. I can't make it out, for I am a very healthy-minded person." Smyth was at one time in love with the married suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst. At age 71, she fell in love with writer Virginia Woolf – herself having worked in the women's suffrage movement – who, both alarmed and amused, said it was "like being caught by a giant crab", but the two became friends. Smyth's relationship with Violet Gordon-Woodhouse is depicted satirically in Roger Scruton's 2005 opera, Violet.
Smyth was actively involved in sport throughout her life. In her youth, she was a keen horse-rider and tennis player. She was a passionate golfer and a member of the ladies' section of Woking Golf Club, near where she lived. After she died and was cremated, her ashes were, as she had requested, scattered in the woods neighbouring the club by her brother Bob.
In recognition of her work as a composer and writer, Smyth was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in 1922, becoming the first female composer to be awarded a damehood. Smyth received honorary doctorates in music from the Universities of Durham and Oxford. She died in Woking in 1944 at the age of 86.
She met Willie Wilde, the brother of Oscar Wilde, during a railway journey.
Representations
Ethel Smyth featured, under the name of Edith Staines, in E. F. Benson's Dodo books (1893–1921), decades before the quaint musical characters of his more famous Mapp and Lucia series. She "gleefully acknowledged" the portrait, according to Prunella Scales.
She was later a model for the fictional Dame Hilda Tablet in the 1950s radio plays of Henry Reed.
She was portrayed by Maureen Pryor in the 1974 BBC television film Shoulder to Shoulder.
Judy Chicago's monumental work of feminist art, The Dinner Party, features a place setting for Ethel Smyth.
Since 2018, the actress and singer, Lucy Stevens, has portrayed Ethel Smyth on stage at various venues in Britain.
Works
Writings
Impressions That Remained: Memoirs (1919) Vol. 1 · Vol. 2
Streaks Of Life (1921)
(1927)
(1928)
Female Pipings in Eden (1933)
Beecham and Pharaoh (1935)
(1936)
(1936)
Maurice Baring (1938), a memoir of Maurice Baring
What Happened Next (1940)
The Memoirs of Ethel Smyth (1987), abridged and edited by Ronald Crichton. Available on 14-day loan at Archive.org (free registration required)
Recordings
The Prison Winner, 2021 Grammy® Award Best Solo Vocal Classical (First Grammy awarded for Smyth's Music) Sarah Brailey, Dashon Burton, soloists; Experiential Orchestra and Chorus; James Blachly, Conductor. Steven Fox, Chorus Master, Blanton Alspaugh and Soundmirror, producer. Chandos Records, released August 2020
The Boatswain's Mate. Nadine Benjamin, Rebecca Louise Dale, Edward Lee, Ted Schmitz, Jeremy Huw Williams, Simon Wilding, Mark Nathan, Lontano Ensemble, c. Odaline de la Martinez. Retrospect Opera RO001 (two CDs).
Cello Sonata in C minor (1880): Friedemann Kupsa cello, Anna Silova piano; Lieder und Balladen, Opp. 3 & 4, Three Moods of the Sea (1913): Maarten Koningsberger baritone, Kelvin Grout piano. TRO-CD 01417.
Complete Piano Works. Liana Șerbescu. CPO 999 327-2.
Concerto for Violin, Horn and Orchestra. BBC Philharmonic, c. Odaline de la Martinez. Chandos Chan 9449.
Double Concerto in A for violin, horn and piano (1926): Renate Eggebrecht violin, Franz Draxinger horn, Céline Dutilly piano; Four Songs for mezzo-soprano and chamber ensemble (1907): Melinda Paulsen mezzo, Ethel Smyth ensemble; Three songs for mezzo-soprano and piano (1913): Melinda Paulsen mezzo, Angela Gassenhuber piano. TRO-CD 01405.
Fete Galante: A Dance Dream Charmian Bedford (soprano), Carolyn Dobbin (mezzo soprano), Mark Milhofer (tenor), Alessandro Fisher (tenor), Felix Kemp (baritone), Simon Wallfisch (baritone), Lontano Ensemble/Odaline de la Martinez. Retrospect Opera RO007
Mass in D, March of the Women, Scene from The Boatswain's Mate. Eiddwen Harrhy, The Plymouth Music Series, Philip Brunelle. Virgin Classics VC 7 91188-2.
String Quartet in C minor. Maier Quartet. DB Productions, DBCD197
String Quartet in E minor and String Quintet op. 1 in E Major. Mannheimer Streichquartett and Joachim Griesheimer. CPO 999 352-2.
Violin Sonata in A minor, Op. 7, Cello Sonata in A minor, Op. 5, String Quintet in E major, Op. 1, String Quartet in E minor (1912): Renate Eggebrecht, violin, Friedemann Kupsa cello, Céline Dutilly piano, Fanny Mendelssohn Quartet. TRO-CD 01403 (two CDs).
Violin Sonata in A minor, Op. 7: Annette-Barbara Vogel, violin, Durval Cesetti, piano. Toccata TOCN0013 (2021)
The Wreckers. Anne-Marie Owens, Justin Lavender, Peter Sidhom, David Wilson-Johnson, Judith Howarth, Anthony Roden, Brian Bannatyne-Scott, Annemarie Sand. Huddersfield Choral Society, BBC Philharmonic, c. Odaline de la Martinez. Conifer Classics. (Re-released by Retrospect Opera, RO004.)
See also
Norah Smyth – Ethel Smyth's niece and also a notable suffragette
List of suffragists and suffragettes
List of Bloomsbury Group people
References
Notes
Cited sources
Benson, E.F. (1986), Dodo: An Omnibus. London: Hogarth Press, 1986
Collis, Louise. Impetuous Heart: The Story of Ethel Smyth. London: William Kimber, 1984.
Gates, Eugene (2006), "Damned If You Do and Damned If You Don't: Sexual Aesthetics and the Music of Dame Ethel Smyth", Kapralova Society Journal 4, no. 1, 2006: 1–5.
Gates, Eugene (2013), "Dame Ethel Smyth: Pioneer of English Opera." Kapralova Society Journal 11, no. 1 (2013): 1–9.
Jebens, Dieter and R. Cansdale (2004), Guide to the Basingstoke Canal. Basingstoke Canal Authority and the Surrey and Hampshire Canal Society, 2004. (2nd Edition)
St. John, Christopher (1959), Ethel Smyth: A Biography. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1959.
Further reading
Anderson, Gwen, Ethel Smyth, London: Cecil Woolf, 1997.
Bartsch, Cornelia, Rebecca Grotjahn, and Melanie Unseld. Felsensprengerin, Brückenbauerin, Wegbereiterin: Die Komponistin Ethel Smyth. Rock Blaster, Bridge Builder, Road Paver: The Composer Ethel Smyth. Allitera (2010)
Crichton, Ronald. The Memoirs of Ethel Smyth. London: Viking Press, 1987.
Kertesz, Elizabeth Jane, Issues in the critical reception of Ethel Smyth’s Mass and first four operas in England and Germany, PhD Dissertation, Melbourne: University of Melbourne on unimelb.edu.au
Rieger, Eva (editor). A Stormy Winter: Memories of a Pugnacious English Composer. (Autobiography of Ethel Smyth) (Published in German as Ein stürmischer Winter. Erinnerungen einer streitbaren englischen Komponistin.) Kassel: Bärenreiter-Verlag, 1988.
Stone, Caroline E.M. Another Side of Ethel Smyth: Letters to her Great-Niece, Elizabeth Mary Williamson. Kennedy & Boyd, 2018.
External links
LiederNet Archive
Dame Ethel Smyth: Pioneer of English Opera – by Eugene Gates, Kapralova Society Journal.
Ethel Smyth – by Valarie Morris, Sandscape Publications.
Ethel Mary Smyth letter from the Special Collections and University Archives Department at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Ethel Mary Smyth letter 2 from the Special Collections and University Archives Department at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Dame Ethel Mary Smyth (1858–1944), Composer and writer (National Portrait Gallery)
Dame Ethel Smyth: Composer, suffragette, sportswoman and resident of Woking
Retrospect Opera
1858 births
1944 deaths
British women classical composers
19th-century classical composers
20th-century classical composers
Composers awarded knighthoods
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
English classical composers
English expatriates in Germany
Feminist musicians
English feminist writers
Lesbian musicians
LGBT classical composers
LGBT musicians from England
Musicians from Kent
Musicians from London
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People from Sidcup
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University of Music and Theatre Leipzig alumni
Women of the Victorian era
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Women opera composers
20th-century English women musicians
20th-century British composers
19th-century British composers
Women's Social and Political Union
20th-century women composers
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20th-century LGBT people | [
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|
214562 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Age%20%28disambiguation%29 | New Age (disambiguation) | New Age is a term applied to a range of spiritual or religious beliefs and practices that developed in Western nations during the 1970s.
New Age or The New Age may also refer to:
Music
New-age music, a genre of music intended to create artistic inspiration, relaxation, and optimism
The New Age (album), a 1973 album by Canned Heat
New Age (Eddy Lover album) (2011)
New Age (KSI and Randolph album), a 2019 album by KSI and Randolph, or the title song
"New Age" (Marlon Roudette song) (2011)
"New Age" (The Velvet Underground song) (1969)
The New Age, a music group featuring Pat Kilroy
Publications
The New Age, a British literary magazine 1894–1938
New Age (Bangladesh), an English-language daily newspaper
The New Age (Chicago), an American Norwegian–Danish-language newspaper formerly known as Social-Demokraten
New Age (South African newspaper), a leftist newspaper (1953–1962)
The New Age (South African newspaper), a daily newspaper (2010–2018)
New Age Journal, a health and lifestyle magazine renamed Body & Soul
Other uses
The New Age (film), a 1994 film by Michael Tolkin
See also
New Age communities, places with significant numbers of people with New Age beliefs
New Age travellers, New Age and hippie believers who travel between music festivals and fairs
New Wave (disambiguation) | [
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|
214563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosody | Prosody | Prosody may refer to:
Prosody (Sanskrit), the study of poetic meters and verse in Sanskrit and one of the six Vedangas, or limbs of Vedic studies
Prosody (Greek), the theory and practice of Greek versification
Prosody (Latin), the study of Latin versification and its laws of meter
Prosody (linguistics), the suprasegmental characteristics of speech
Prosody (music), the manner of setting words to music
Prosody (software), a cross-platform XMPP server written in Lua
Metre (poetry), the rhythmic structure of versed text
See also
Arabic prosody, study of poetic meters in Arabic; sometimes called the Science of Poetry
Semantic prosody, the way neutral words can be perceived as positive or negative
Emotional prosody, perception of emotion in speech | [
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|
214564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLM | MLM | MLM or mlm may refer to:
Organizations
Multi-level marketing, or pyramid selling
The NYSE stock symbol of Martin Marietta Materials
Military liaison missions of the victors of World War II
Missouri Lumber and Mining Company
Science and technology
Medical logic module, of a healthcare knowledge base
Millilumen (mlm), a unit of luminous flux
Multi-layer mask, in multi-project wafer service in semiconductor fabrication
Multipurpose Laboratory Module or Nauka, a Russian module of the International Space Station.
Transportation
Morelia International Airport's IATA airport code
Millom railway station, England (station code)
Other uses
Marxism–Leninism–Maoism | [
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|
214570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%20catabolism | Protein catabolism | In molecular biology, protein catabolism is the breakdown of proteins into smaller peptides and ultimately into amino acids. Protein catabolism is a key function of digestion process. Protein catabolism often begins with pepsin, which converts proteins into polypeptides. These polypeptides are then further degraded. In humans, the pancreatic proteases include trypsin, chymotrypsin, and other enzymes. In the intestine, the small peptides are broken down into amino acids that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. These absorbed amino acids can then undergo amino acid catabolism, where they are utilized as an energy source or as precursors to new proteins.
The amino acids produced by catabolism may be directly recycled to form new proteins, converted into different amino acids, or can undergo amino acid catabolism to be converted to other compounds via the Krebs cycle.
Interface with other cycles
Protein catabolism produces amino acids that are used to form bacterial proteins or oxidized for to meet the energy needs of the cell. Among the several degrading processes for amino acids are Deamination (removal of an amino group), transamination (transfer of amino group), decarboxylation (removal of carboxyl group), and dehydrogenation (removal of hydrogen). The degraded amino acid that they can be processed as fuel for the Krebs/Citric Acid (TCA) Cycle.
Protein degradation
Protein degradation differs from protein catabolism. Proteins are produced and destroyed routinely as part of the normal operations of the cell. Transcription factors, proteins that help regulate protein synthesis, are targets of such degradations. Their degradation is not a significant contributor to the energy needs of the cell. The addition of ubiquitin (ubiquitylation) marks a protein for degradation via the proteasome.
Amino acid degradation
Oxidative deamination is the first step to breaking down the amino acids so that they can be converted to sugars. The process begins by removing the amino group of the amino acids. The amino group becomes ammonium as it is lost and later undergoes the urea cycle to become urea, in the liver. It is then released into the blood stream, where it is transferred to the kidneys, which will secrete the urea as urine. The remaining portion of the amino acid becomes oxidized, resulting in an alpha-keto acid. The alpha-keto acid will then proceed into the TCA cycle, in order to produce energy. The acid can also enter glycolysis, where it will be eventually converted into pyruvate. The pyruvate is then converted into acetyl-CoA so that it can enter the TCA cycle and convert the original pyruvate molecules into ATP, or usable energy for the organism.
Transamination leads to the same result as deamination: the remaining acid will undergo either glycolysis or the TCA cycle to produce energy that the organism's body will use for various purposes. This process transfers the amino group instead of losing the amino group to be converted into ammonium. The amino group is transferred to alpha-ketoglutarate, so that it can be converted to glutamate. Then glutamate transfers the amino group to oxaloacetate. This transfer is so that the oxaloacetate can be converted to aspartate or other amino acids. Eventually, this product will also proceed into oxidative deamination to once again produce alpha-ketoglutarate, an alpha-keto acid that will undergo the TCA cycle, and ammonium, which will eventually undergo the urea cycle.
Transaminases are enzymes that help catalyze the reactions that take place in transamination. They help catalyze the reaction at the point when the amino group is transferred from the original amino acid, like glutamate to alpha-ketoglutarate, and hold onto it to transfer it to another alpha-ketoacid.
Factors determining protein half-life
Some key factors that determine overall rate include protein half-life, pH, and temperature.
Protein half-life helps determine the overall rate as this designates the first step in protein catabolism. Depending on whether this step is short or long will influence the rest of the metabolic process. One key component in determining the protein half-life is based on the N-end rule. This states that the amino acid present at the N-terminus of a protein helps determine the protein's half-life.
Further reading
See also
Amino acid synthesis
Anabolism
Metabolism
Proteolysis
References
Metabolism
Proteins as nutrients | [
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|
214571 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catabolism | Catabolism | Catabolism () is the set of metabolic pathways that breaks down molecules into smaller units that are either oxidized to release energy or used in other anabolic reactions. Catabolism breaks down large molecules (such as polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins) into smaller units (such as monosaccharides, fatty acids, nucleotides, and amino acids, respectively). Catabolism is the breaking-down aspect of metabolism, whereas anabolism is the building-up aspect.
Cells use the monomers released from breaking down polymers to either construct new polymer molecules or degrade the monomers further to simple waste products, releasing energy. Cellular wastes include lactic acid, acetic acid, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and urea. The formation of these wastes is usually an oxidation process involving a release of chemical free energy, some of which is lost as heat, but the rest of which is used to drive the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This molecule acts as a way for the cell to transfer the energy released by catabolism to the energy-requiring reactions that make up anabolism. (Catabolism is seen as destructive metabolism and anabolism as constructive metabolism). Catabolism, therefore, provides the chemical energy necessary for the maintenance and growth of cells. Examples of catabolic processes include glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, the breakdown of muscle protein in order to use amino acids as substrates for gluconeogenesis, the breakdown of fat in adipose tissue to fatty acids, and oxidative deamination of neurotransmitters by monoamine oxidase.
Catabolic hormones
There are many signals that control catabolism. Most of the known signals are hormones and the molecules involved in metabolism itself. Endocrinologists have traditionally classified many of the hormones as anabolic or catabolic, depending on which part of metabolism they stimulate. The so-called classic catabolic hormones known since the early 20th century are cortisol, glucagon, and adrenaline (and other catecholamines). In recent decades, many more hormones with at least some catabolic effects have been discovered, including cytokines, orexin (known as hypocretin), and melatonin.
Etymology
The word catabolism is from New Latin, which got the roots from Greek: κάτω kato, "downward" and βάλλειν ballein, "to throw".
See also
Autophagy
Dehydration synthesis
Hydrolysis
Nocturnal post absorptive catabolism
Psilacetin § Pharmacology
Sarcopenia
References
External links
Metabolism | [
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214572 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabolism | Anabolism | Anabolism () is the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units. These reactions require energy, known also as an endergonic process. Anabolism is the building-up aspect of metabolism, whereas catabolism is the breaking-down aspect. Anabolism is usually synonymous with biosynthesis.
Pathway
Polymerization, an anabolic pathway used to build macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides, uses condensation reactions to join monomers. Macromolecules are created from smaller molecules using enzymes and cofactors.
Energy source
Anabolism is powered by catabolism, where large molecules are broken down into smaller parts and then used up in cellular respiration. Many anabolic processes are powered by the cleavage of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Anabolism usually involves reduction and decreases entropy, making it unfavorable without energy input. The starting materials, called the precursor molecules, are joined using the chemical energy made available from hydrolyzing ATP, reducing the cofactors NAD+, NADP+, and FAD, or performing other favorable side reactions. Occasionally it can also be driven by entropy without energy input, in cases like the formation of the phospholipid bilayer of a cell, where hydrophobic interactions aggregate the molecules.
Cofactors
The reducing agents NADH, NADPH, and FADH2, as well as metal ions, act as cofactors at various steps in anabolic pathways. NADH, NADPH, and FADH2 act as electron carriers, while charged metal ions within enzymes stabilize charged functional groups on substrates.
Substrates
Substrates for anabolism are mostly intermediates taken from catabolic pathways during periods of high energy charge in the cell.
Functions
Anabolic processes build organs and tissues. These processes produce growth and differentiation of cells and increase in body size, a process that involves synthesis of complex molecules. Examples of anabolic processes include the growth and mineralization of bone and increases in muscle mass.
Anabolic hormones
Endocrinologists have traditionally classified hormones as anabolic or catabolic, depending on which part of metabolism they stimulate. The classic anabolic hormones are the anabolic steroids, which stimulate protein synthesis and muscle growth, and insulin.
Photosynthetic carbohydrate synthesis
Photosynthetic carbohydrate synthesis in plants and certain bacteria is an anabolic process that produces glucose, cellulose, starch, lipids, and proteins from CO2. It uses the energy produced from the light-driven reactions of photosynthesis, and creates the precursors to these large molecules via carbon assimilation in the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle, a.k.a. the Calvin cycle.
Amino acid biosynthesis
All amino acids are formed from intermediates in the catabolic processes of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. From glycolysis, glucose 6-phosphate is a precursor for histidine; 3-phosphoglycerate is a precursor for glycine and cysteine; phosphoenol pyruvate, combined with the 3-phosphoglycerate-derivative erythrose 4-phosphate, forms tryptophan, phenylalanine, and tyrosine; and pyruvate is a precursor for alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine. From the citric acid cycle, α-ketoglutarate is converted into glutamate and subsequently glutamine, proline, and arginine; and oxaloacetate is converted into aspartate and subsequently asparagine, methionine, threonine, and lysine.
Glycogen storage
During periods of high blood sugar, glucose 6-phosphate from glycolysis is diverted to the glycogen-storing pathway. It is changed to glucose-1-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase and then to UDP-glucose by UTP--glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase. Glycogen synthase adds this UDP-glucose to a glycogen chain.
Gluconeogenesis
Glucagon is traditionally a catabolic hormone, but also stimulates the anabolic process of gluconeogenesis by the liver, and to a lesser extent the kidney cortex and intestines, during starvation to prevent low blood sugar. It is the process of converting pyruvate into glucose. Pyruvate can come from the breakdown of glucose, lactate, amino acids, or glycerol. The gluconeogenesis pathway has many reversible enzymatic processes in common with glycolysis, but it is not the process of glycolysis in reverse. It uses different irreversible enzymes to ensure the overall pathway runs in one direction only.
Regulation
Anabolism operates with separate enzymes from catalysis, which undergo irreversible steps at some point in their pathways. This allows the cell to regulate the rate of production and prevent an infinite loop, also known as a futile cycle, from forming with catabolism.
The balance between anabolism and catabolism is sensitive to ADP and ATP, otherwise known as the energy charge of the cell. High amounts of ATP cause cells to favor the anabolic pathway and slow catabolic activity, while excess ADP slows anabolism and favors catabolism. These pathways are also regulated by circadian rhythms, with processes such as glycolysis fluctuating to match an animal's normal periods of activity throughout the day.
Etymology
The word anabolism is from New Latin, with roots from , "upward" and , "to throw".
References
Metabolism | [
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|
214573 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate%20catabolism | Carbohydrate catabolism | Digestion is the breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy rich compound called ATP. The production of ATP is achieved through the oxidation of glucose molecules. In oxidation, the electrons are stripped from a glucose molecule to reduce NAD+ and FAD. NAD+ and FAD possess a high energy potential to drive the production of ATP in the electron transport chain. ATP production occurs in the mitochondria of the cell. There are two methods of producing ATP: aerobic and anaerobic.
In aerobic respiration, oxygen is required. Oxygen as a high-energy molecule increases ATP production from 4 ATP molecules to about 30 ATP molecules.
In anaerobic respiration, oxygen is not required. When oxygen is absent, the generation of ATP continues through fermentation. There are two types of fermentation: alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation.
There are several different types of carbohydrates: polysaccharides (e.g., starch, amylopectin, glycogen, cellulose), monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, galactose, fructose, ribose) and the disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, maltose, lactose).
Glucose reacts with oxygen in the following reaction, C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O. Carbon dioxide and water are waste products, and the overall reaction is exothermic because of the relative weak, high-energy double bond of O2.
The reaction of glucose with oxygen releasing energy in the form of molecules of ATP is therefore one of the most important biochemical pathways found in living organisms.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis, which means “sugar splitting,” is the initial process in the cellular respiration pathway. Glycolysis can be either an aerobic or anaerobic process. When oxygen is present, glycolysis continues along the aerobic respiration pathway. If oxygen is not present, then ATP production is restricted to anaerobic respiration. The location where glycolysis, aerobic or anaerobic, occurs is in the cytosol of the cell. In glycolysis, a six-carbon glucose molecule is split into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvate. These carbon molecules are oxidized into NADH and ATP. For the glucose molecule to oxidize into pyruvate, an input of ATP molecules is required. This is known as the investment phase, in which a total of two ATP molecules are consumed. At the end of glycolysis, the total yield of ATP is four molecules, but the net gain is two ATP molecules. Even though ATP is synthesized, the two ATP molecules produced are few compared to the second and third pathways, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
Fermentation
Even if there is no oxygen present, glycolysis can continue to generate ATP. However, for glycolysis to continue to produce ATP, there must be NAD+ present, which is responsible for oxidizing glucose. This is achieved by recycling NADH back to NAD+. When NAD+ is reduced to NADH, the electrons from NADH are eventually transferred to a separate organic molecule, transforming NADH back to NAD+. This process of renewing the supply of NAD+ is called fermentation, which falls into two categories.
Alcohol Fermentation
In alcohol fermentation, when a glucose molecule is oxidized, ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and carbon dioxide are byproducts. The organic molecule that is responsible for renewing the NAD+ supply in this type of fermentation is the pyruvate from glycolysis. Each pyruvate releases a carbon dioxide molecule, turning into acetaldehyde. The acetaldehyde is then reduced by the NADH produced from glycolysis, forming the alcohol waste product, ethanol, and forming NAD+, thereby replenishing its supply for glycolysis to continue producing ATP.
Lactic Acid Fermentation
In lactic acid fermentation, each pyruvate molecule is directly reduced by NADH. The only byproduct from this type of fermentation is lactate. Lactic acid fermentation is used by human muscle cells as a means of generating ATP during strenuous exercise where oxygen consumption is higher than the supplied oxygen. As this process progresses, the surplus of lactate is brought to the liver, which converts it back to pyruvate.
Respiration
The Citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle)
If oxygen is present, then following glycolysis, the two pyruvate molecules are brought into the mitochondrion itself to go through the Krebs cycle. In this cycle, the pyruvate molecules from glycolysis are further broken down to harness the remaining energy. Each pyruvate goes through a series of reactions that converts it to acetyl coenzyme A. From here, only the acetyl group participates in the Krebs cycle—in which it goes through a series of redox reactions, catalyzed by enzymes, to further harness the energy from the acetyl group. The energy from the acetyl group, in the form of electrons, is used to reduce NAD+ and FAD to NADH and FADH2, respectively. NADH and FADH2 contain the stored energy harnessed from the initial glucose molecule and is used in the electron transport chain where the bulk of the ATP is produced.
Oxidative phosphorylation
The last process in aerobic respiration is oxidative phosphorylation, also known as the electron transport chain. Here NADH and FADH2 deliver their electrons to oxygen and protons at the inner membranes of the mitochondrion, facilitating the production of ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation contributes the majority of the ATP produced, compared to glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. While the ATP count is glycolysis and the Krebs cycle is two ATP molecules, the electron transport chain contributes, at most, twenty-eight ATP molecules. A contributing factor is due to the energy potentials of NADH and FADH2. As they are brought from the initial process, glycolysis, to the electron transport chain, they unlock the energy stored in the relatively weak double bonds of O2. A second contributing factor is that cristae, the inner membranes of mitochondria, increase the surface area and therefore the amount of proteins in the membrane that assist in the synthesis of ATP. Along the electron transport chain, there are separate compartments, each with their own concentration gradient of H + ions, which are the power source of ATP synthesis. To convert ADP to ATP, energy must be provided. That energy is provided by the H+ gradient. On one side of the membrane compartment, there is a high concentration of H+ ions compared to the other. The shuttling of H+ to one side of the membrane is driven by the exergonic flow of electrons throughout the membrane. These electrons are supplied by NADH and FADH2 as they transfer their potential energy. Once the H+ concentration gradient is established, a proton-motive force is established, which provides the energy to convert ADP to ATP. The H+ ions that were initially forced to one side of the mitochondrion membrane now naturally flow through a membrane protein called ATP synthase, a protein that converts ADP to ATP with the help of H+ ions.
See also
cellular respiration
References
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|
214574 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FTC | FTC | FTC may refer to:
Commerce
Fair Trade Commission (disambiguation)
Federal Trade Commission, an American antitrust and consumer protection agency
FTC Kaplan, or Financial Training Company, a former name of Kaplan Financial Ltd, a financial training institution in the United Kingdom
Entertainment
Fashion Television Channel, a Canadian television channel
Science, mathematics, and technology
Emtricitabine, an antiretroviral drug used to treat HIV, coded FTC in medical journals
Fault-tolerant computer system
FIRST Tech Challenge, a robotics competition for students
Follicular thyroid cancer, a type of cancer
Fundamental theorem of calculus, a mathematical theorem
Fusion Technology Center, a research organisation in South Korea
Other uses
Fairfield Transportation Center
Federal Transfer Center, part of the United States Federal Bureau of Prisons
Ferencvárosi TC, a Hungarian sports club
Free the Children, an international children's rights and development organization
Free Tibet Campaign, a British human rights organizations
RAF Flying Training Command, within the United Kingdom Royal Air Force | [
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|
214576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie%20wagtail | Willie wagtail | The willy (or willie) wagtail (Rhipidura leucophrys) is a passerine bird native to Australia, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, and Eastern Indonesia. It is a common and familiar bird throughout much of its range, living in most habitats apart from thick forest. Measuring in length, the willie wagtail is contrastingly coloured with almost entirely black upperparts and white underparts; the male and female have similar plumage.
Three subspecies are recognised; Rhipidura leucophrys leucophrys from central and southern Australia, the smaller R. l. picata from northern Australia, and the larger R. l. melaleuca from New Guinea and islands in its vicinity. It is unrelated to the true wagtails of the genus Motacilla; it is a member of the fantail genus Rhipidura and is a part of a "core corvine" group that includes true crows and ravens, drongos and birds of paradise. Within this group, fantails are placed either in the family Dicruridae, alongside drongos, or in their own small family, Rhipiduridae.
The willie wagtail is insectivorous and spends much time chasing prey in open habitat. Its common name is derived from its habit of wagging its tail horizontally when foraging on the ground. Aggressive and territorial, the willie wagtail will often harass much larger birds such as the laughing kookaburra and wedge-tailed eagle. It has responded well to human alteration of the landscape and is a common sight in urban lawns, parks, and gardens. It is widely featured in Aboriginal folklore around Australia and New Guinea in a variety of roles, from stealer of secrets and liar to a good omen for successful crops.
Taxonomy and etymology
The willie wagtail was first described by the English ornithologist John Latham in 1801 as Turdus leucophrys. Its specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek words leukos "white" and ǒphrys "eyebrow". Other early scientific names include Muscicapa tricolor by Vieillot, and Rhipidura motacilloides by naturalists Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827, who erected the genus Rhipidura. The generic term is derived from the Ancient Greek rhipis "fan" and oura "tail".
John Gould and other early writers referred to the species as the black-and-white fantail, although did note the current name. However, willie wagtail rapidly became widely accepted sometime after 1916. Wagtail is derived from its active behaviour, while the origins of willie are obscure. The name had been in use colloquially for the pied subspecies of the white wagtail (Motacilla alba) on the Isle of Man, and Northern Ireland.
Other vernacular names applied include shepherd's companion (because it accompanied livestock), frogbird, morning bird, and Australian nightingale. Many Aboriginal names are onomatopoeic, based on the sound of its scolding call. Djididjidi is a name from the Kimberley, and is used by the Kunwinjku of western Arnhem Land. In Central Australia, southwest of Alice Springs, the Pitjantjatjara word is . Among the Kamilaroi, it is . In Bougainville Island, it is called in the Banoni language from the west coast, and in Awaipa of Kieta district it is . In the Solomon Islands Pijin it is sometimes called the (police) or (priest) bird, because of its black-and-white colouring.
The willie wagtail is unrelated to the Eurasian wagtails of the family Motacillidae. It is one of 47 members of the fantail genus Rhipidura; some authorities classify this group of birds as a subfamily Rhipidurinae within the drongo family Dicruridae, together with the monarch flycatchers, while others consider them distinct enough to warrant their own family Rhipiduridae. Early molecular research in the late 1980s and early 1990s revealed that the fantails belong to a large group of mainly Australasian birds known as the parvorder Corvida comprising many tropical and Australian passerines. More recently, the grouping has been refined somewhat and the fantails have been classified in a "core corvine" group with the crows and ravens, shrikes, birds of paradise, monarch flycatchers, drongos and mudnest builders.
Subspecies
The following three subspecies are widely recognised:
R. leucophrys leucophrys, the nominate subspecies, is the most widely distributed form found in Australia. The description below refers to it. There is negligible variation within this form, and little between the three; all have very similar plumage.
R. leucophrys picata was described by John Gould in 1848. It is found across northern Australia, from northern Western Australia to Queensland. It has shorter wings, and it has a gradient in wing length between latitudes 18–22°S across the Australian continent where this subspecies intergrades with leucophrys. The subspecific epithet is Latin pǐcata "smeared with pitch".
R. leucophrys melaleuca was described by French naturalists Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard in 1830. It occurs in eastern Indonesia, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and the Bismarck Archipelago. It is significantly larger, with longer bristles and larger bill. Its subspecific name is derived from the Ancient Greek melas "black", and leukos "white".
Description
An adult willie wagtail is between in length and weighs 17–24 g (0.6–0.85 oz), with a tail 10–11 cm (approx 4 in) long. The short, slender bill measures 1.64–1.93 cm (around 0.75 in), and is tipped with a small hook. This species has longer legs than other fantails, which may be an adaptation to foraging on the ground. The male and female have similar plumage; the head, throat, upper breast, wings, upperparts, and tail are all black, with a white eyebrow, "whiskers" and underparts. The bill and legs are black and the iris dark brown. Immature birds in their first year after moulting from juvenile plumage may have pale tips in their wings, while juvenile birds themselves have duller plumage, their upperparts brown-tinged with some pale brown scallops on the head and breast.
Vocalisation
The wagtail is very "chatty" and has a number of distinct vocalisations. Its most-recognised sound is its alarm call which is a rapid chit-chit-chit-chit, although it has more melodious sounds in its repertoire. The alarm call is sounded to warn off potential rivals and threats from its territory and also seems to serve as a signal to its mate when a potential threat is in the area. John Gould reported that it sounded like a child's rattle or "small cog-wheels of a steam mill". In his book What Bird is That? (1935), Neville Cayley writes that it has "a pleasant call resembling sweet pretty little creature, frequently uttered during the day or night, especially on moonlight nights".
Distribution and habitat
Widespread and abundant, the willie wagtail is found across most of Australia and New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, and eastern Indonesia. It is sedentary across most of Australia, though some areas have recorded seasonal movements; it is an autumn and winter visitor to northeastern New South Wales and southeast Queensland, as well as the Gulf Country and parts of Cape York Peninsula in the far north. It is a vagrant to Tasmania, and on occasion reaches Lord Howe Island. There is one record from Mangere Island in the Chatham Islands archipelago east of New Zealand in 2002. The willie wagtail was released in Hawaii around 1922 to control insects on livestock, but the introduction was unsuccessful and the last sighting was at Koko Head in 1937.
The willie wagtail is at home in a wide variety of habitats, but avoids densely forested areas such as rainforest. It prefers semi-open woodland or grassland with scattered trees, often near wetlands or bodies of water. In New Guinea, it inhabits man-made clearings and grasslands, as well as open forest and mangroves. On Guadalcanal, it was reported from open areas and coconut groves. It has responded well to human alteration of the landscape and can often be seen hunting in open, grassed areas such as lawns, gardens, parkland, and sporting grounds. The species spread into the Western Australian Wheatbelt after the original vegetation had been cleared for agriculture.
Behaviour
The willie wagtail is almost always on the move and rarely still for more than a few moments during daylight hours. Even while perching it will flick its tail from side to side, twisting about looking for prey. Birds are mostly encountered singly or in pairs, although they may gather in small flocks. Unlike other fantails, much of its time is spent on the ground. It beats its wings deeply in flight, interspersed with a swift flying dip. It characteristically wags its tail upon landing after a short dipping flight.
The willie wagtail is highly territorial and can be quite fearless in defence of its territory; it will harass not only small birds but also much larger species such as the Australian magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen), raven (Corvus coronoides), laughing kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae), and wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax). It may even attack domestic dogs, cats and humans which approach its nest too closely. It has also been observed harassing snake-neck turtles and tiger snakes in Western Australia. When harassing an opponent, the willie wagtail avoids the head and aims for the rear. Both the male and female may engage in this behaviour, and generally more intensely in the breeding season. Territories range from in area. A pair of birds will declare and defend their territory against other pairs in a diving display. One bird remains still while the other loops and dives repeatedly before the roles are reversed; both sing all the while.
The bird's white eyebrows become flared and more prominent in an aggressive display, and settled and more hidden when in a submissive or appeasement display.
Breeding
Willie wagtails usually pair for life. The breeding season lasts from July to December, more often occurring after rain in drier regions. Anywhere up to four broods may be raised during this time. It builds a cup-like nest on a tree branch away from leaves or cover, less than above the ground. Rafters and eaves may also be used. It has been observed to build its nest in the vicinity of those of the magpie-lark (Grallina cyanoleuca), possibly taking advantage of the latter bird's territoriality and aggression toward intruders. Similarly, it is not afraid to build near human habitation.
The nest consists of grass stems, strips of bark, and other fibrous material which is bound and woven together with spider web. Even hair from pet dogs and cats may be used. It has also been observed attempting to take hair from a pet goat. An alpaca breeder in the Mudgee District of New South Wales has observed alpaca fleece in the nests of willy wagtails (the results of scraps of fleece not picked up at shearing time). The female lays two to four small cream-white eggs with brownish markings measuring , and incubates them for 14 days. Like all passerines, the chicks are altricial and nidicolous; they are born naked and helpless with closed eyes, and remain in the nest. Both parents take part in feeding the young, and may continue to do so while embarking on another brood. Nestlings remain in the nest for around 14 days before fledging. Upon leaving, the fledglings will remain hidden in cover nearby for one or two days before venturing further afield, up to away by the third day. Parents will stop feeding their fledglings near the end of the second week, as the young birds increasingly forage for themselves, and soon afterwards drive them out of the territory.
The female pallid cuckoo (Cuculus pallidus) will lay eggs in a willie wagtail nest, although the hosts often recognise and eject the foreign eggs, so successful brood parasitism is rare. Parasitism by the fan-tailed (Cacomantis flabelliformis), brush, (C. variolosus), Horsfield's bronze (Chrysococcyx basalis), and shining bronze cuckoo (C. lucidus) has also been reported.
Although the willie wagtail is an aggressive defender of its nest, predators do account for many eggs and young. About two thirds of eggs hatch successfully, and a third leave the nest as fledglings. Nestlings may be preyed upon by both pied butcherbirds, (Cracticus nigrogularis) black butcherbirds (C. quoyi), the spangled drongo (Dicrurus bracteatus), and the pied currawong (Strepera graculina), as well as the feral cat (Felis catus), and rat species. The proximity of nesting to human habitation has also left nests open to destruction by children. Mostly male willie wagtails sing at night only during breeding season. The song rate increases with lunar illumination.
Feeding
The willie wagtail perches on low branches, fences, posts, and the like, watching for insects and other small invertebrates in the air or on the ground. It usually hunts by hawking flying insects such as gnats, flies, and small moths, but will occasionally glean from the ground. It will often hop along the ground and flit behind people and animals, such as cattle, sheep or horses, as they walk over grassed areas, to catch any creatures disturbed by their passing. It wags its tail in a horizontal fashion while foraging in this manner; the exact purpose of this behaviour is unknown but is thought to help flush out insects hidden in vegetation and hence make them easier to catch. The willie wagtail takes ticks from the skin of grazing animals such as cattle or pigs, even from lions asleep in a zoo. It kills its prey by bashing it against a hard surface, or holding it and pulling off the wings before extracting the edible insides.
The adaptability and opportunistic diet of the willie wagtail have probably assisted it in adapting to human habitation; it eats a wide variety of arthropods, including butterflies, moths, flies, beetles, dragonflies, bugs, spiders, centipedes, and millipedes, and has been recorded killing small lizards such as skinks and geckos in a study in Madang on Papua New Guinea's north coast. The tailbones of these lizards have been found in their faeces although it is unclear whether the whole animal was eaten or merely the tail. Either way, lizards are only a very occasional prey item forming between 1 and 3% of the total diet. Evidence from the study in Madang suggested that the willie wagtail selectively fed nestlings larger prey.
Cultural depictions
The willie wagtail was a feature in Australian Aboriginal folklore. Aboriginal tribes in parts of southeastern Australia, such as the Ngarrindjeri of the Lower Murray River, and the Narrunga People of the Yorke Peninsula, regard the willie wagtail as the bearer of bad news. It was thought that the willie wagtail could steal a person's secrets while lingering around camps eavesdropping, so women would be tight-lipped in the presence of the bird. The people of the Kimberley held a similar belief that it would inform the spirit of the recently departed if living relatives spoke badly of them. They also venerated the willie wagtail as the most intelligent of all animals. Its cleverness is also seen in a Tinputz tale of Bougainville Island, where Singsing Tongereng (Willie Wagtail) wins a contest among all birds to see who can fly the highest, by riding on the back of the eagle. However, the Kunwinjku in western Arnhem Land took a dimmer view and regarded it as a liar and a tattletale. The willie wagtail was held to have stolen fire and tried to extinguish it in the sea in a dreaming story of the Yindjibarndi people of the central and western Pilbara, and was able to send a strong wind if frightened. In the Noongar language dialects, the willie wagtail is known as the Djiti-Djiti (pronounced Chitti-chitti) and the Willaring in the Perth region.
The Kalam people of New Guinea highlands called it konmayd, and deemed it a good bird; if it came and chattered when a new garden was tilled, then there would be good crops. It is said to be taking care of pigs if it is darting and calling around them. It may also be the manifestation of the ghost of paternal relatives to the Kalam. Called the kuritoro bird in New Guinea's eastern highlands, its appearance was significant in the mourning ceremony by a widow for her dead husband. She would offer him banana flowers; the presence of the bird singing nearby would confirm that the dead man's soul had taken the offering.
A tale from the Kieta district of Bougainville Island relates that a maneka, the willie wagtail, darting along a river bank echoes a legendary daughter looking for her mother who drowned trying to cross a flooding river in a storm. The bird has been depicted on postage stamps in Palau and the Solomon Islands, and has also appeared as a character in Australian children's literature, such as Dot and the Kangaroo (1899), Blinky Bill Grows Up (1935), and Willie Wagtail and Other Tales (1929).
See also
Birds of Australia
Fauna of Australia
References
Cited texts
External links
Species information on Avibase
Videos, photos & sounds – Internet Bird Collection
willie wagtail
Birds of Australia
Birds of Victoria (Australia)
Birds of the Maluku Islands
Birds of New Guinea
Birds of the Solomon Islands
willie wagtail
willie wagtail
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214577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tian%20Shan | Tian Shan | The Tian Shan, also known as the Tengri Tagh or Tengir-Too, (; ; ; ) meaning the Mountains of Heaven or the Heavenly Mountain, is a large system of mountain ranges located in Central Asia. The highest peak in the Tian Shan is Jengish Chokusu, at high. Its lowest point is the Turpan Depression, which is below sea level.
One of the earliest historical references to these mountains may be related to the Xiongnu word Qilian () – according to Tang commentator Yan Shigu, Qilian is the Xiongnu word for sky or heaven. Sima Qian in the Records of the Grand Historian mentioned Qilian in relation to the homeland of the Yuezhi and the term is believed to refer to the Tian Shan rather than the Qilian Mountains further east now known by this name. The Tannu-Ola mountains in Tuva has the same meaning in its name ("heaven/celestial mountains" or "god/spirit mountains"). The name in Chinese, Tian Shan, is most likely a direct translation of the traditional Kyrgyz name for the mountains, Teñir Too. The Tian Shan is sacred in Tengrism, and its second-highest peak is known as Khan Tengri which may be translated as "Lord of the Spirits". At the 2013 Conference on World Heritage, the eastern portion of Tian Shan in western China's Xinjiang Region was listed as a World Heritage Site. The western portion in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan was then listed in 2016.
Geography
Tian Shan is north and west of the Taklamakan Desert and directly north of the Tarim Basin in the border region of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Xinjiang in Northwest China. In the south it links up with the Pamir Mountains and to north and east it meets the Altai Mountains of Mongolia.
In Western cartography as noted by the National Geographic Society, the eastern end of the Tian Shan is usually understood to be east of Ürümqi, with the range to the east of that city known as the Bogda Shan as part of the Tian Shan. Chinese cartography from the Han Dynasty to the present agrees, with the Tian Shan including the Bogda Shan and Barkol ranges.
The Tian Shan are a part of the Himalayan orogenic belt, which was formed by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates in the Cenozoic era. They are one of the longest mountain ranges in Central Asia and stretch some eastward from Tashkent in Uzbekistan.
The highest peak in the Tian Shan is Jengish Chokusu (also called Victory Peak) on the border of China. At high, it is the highest point in Kyrgyzstan. The Tian Shan's second highest peak, Khan Tengri (King Heaven), straddles the Kazakhstan-Kyrgyzstan-China tripoint and at is the highest point of Kazakhstan. Mountaineers class these as the two most northerly peaks over in the world.
The Torugart Pass, at , is located at the border between Kyrgyzstan and China's Xinjiang province. The forested Alatau ranges, which are at a lower altitude in the northern part of the Tian Shan, are inhabited by pastoral tribes that speak Turkic languages.
The Tian Shan are separated from the Tibetan Plateau by the Taklimakan Desert and the Tarim Basin to the south.
The major rivers rising in the Tian Shan are the Syr Darya, the Ili River and the Tarim River. The Aksu Canyon is a notable feature in the northwestern Tian Shan.
Continuous permafrost is typically found in the Tian Shan starting at the elevation of about 3,500-3,700 m above the sea level. Discontinuous alpine permafrost usually occurs down to 2,700-3,300 m, but in certain locations, due to the peculiarity of the aspect and the microclimate, it can be found at elevations as low as 2,000 m.
One of the first Europeans to visit and the first to describe the Tian Shan in detail was the Russian explorer Peter Semenov, who did so in the 1850s.
Glaciers in the Tian Shan Mountains have been rapidly shrinking and have lost 27%, or 5.4 billion tons annually, of its ice mass since 1961 compared to an average of 7% worldwide. It is estimated that by 2050 half of the remaining glaciers will have melted.
Ranges
The Tian Shan have a number of named ranges which are often mentioned separately (all distances are approximate).
In China the Tian Shan starts north of Kumul City (Hami) with the U-shaped Barkol Mountains, from about east of Ürümqi. Then the Bogda Shan (god mountains) run from east of Ürümqi. Then there is a low area between Ürümqi and the Turfan Depression. The Borohoro Mountains start just south of Ürümqi and run west-northwest separating Dzungaria from the Ili River basin. Their north end abuts on the Dzungarian Alatau which runs east northeast along Sino-Kazakh border. They start east of Taldykorgan in Kazakhstan and end at the Dzungarian Gate. The Dzungarian Alatau in the north, the Borohoro Mountains in the middle and the Ketmen Ridge in the south make a reversed Z or S, the northeast enclosing part of Dzungaria and the southwest enclosing the upper Ili valley.
In Kyrgyzstan the mainline of the Tian Shan continues as Narat Range from the base of the Borohoros west to the point where China, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan meet. Here is the highest part of the range – the Central Tian Shan, with Peak Pobeda (Kakshaal Too range) and Khan Tengri. West of this, the Tian Shan split into an 'eye', with Issyk Kul Lake in its center. The south side of the lake is the Terskey Alatau and the north side the Kyungey Ala-Too (shady and sunny Ala-Too). North of the Kyungey Ala-Too and parallel to it is the Trans-Ili Alatau in Kazakhstan just south of Almaty. West of the eye, the range continues as the Kyrgyz Ala-Too, separating Chüy Region from Naryn Region and then Kazakhstan from the upper valley of the river Talas, the south side of which is the Talas Ala-Too Range ('Ala-too' is a Kyrgyz spelling of Alatau). At the east end of the Talas Alatau the Suusamyr Too range runs southeast enclosing the Suusamyr Valley or plateau.
As for the area south of the Fergana Valley there is a group of mountains that curves west-southwest from south of Issyk Kul Lake separating the Tarim Basin from the Fergana Valley. The Fergana Range runs northeast towards the Talas Ala-Too and separates the upper Naryn basin from Fergana proper. The southern side of these mountains merge into the Pamirs in Tajikistan (Alay Mountains and Trans-Alay Range). West of this is the Turkestan Range, which continues almost to Samarkand.
Ice Age
On the north margin of the Tarim basin between the mountain chain of the Kokshaal-Tau in the south and that one of the Terskey Alatau in the north there stretches the wide Tian Shan plateau with its set up mountain landscape. The Kokshaal-Tau continues with an overall length of from W of Pik Dankowa (Dankov, 5986 m) up to east-north-east to Pik Pobeda (Tumor Feng, 7439 m) and beyond it. This mountain chain as well as that of the 300 km long parallel mountain chain of the Terskey Alatau and the Tian Shan plateau situated in between, during glacial times were covered by connected ice-stream-networks and a plateau glacier. Currently, the interglacial remnant of this glaciation is formed by the only just 61 km long South Inylschek glacier. The outlet glacier tongues of the plateau glacier flowed to the north as far as down to Lake Issyk Kul (Lake) at 1605 (1609) m asl calving in this 160 km long lake.
In the same way, strong glaciation was in excess of 50 km wide in the high mountain area of the Kungey Alatau, connecting north of Issyk Kul and stretching as far as the mountain foreland near Alma Ata. The Kungey Alatau is 230 km long. Down from the Kungey Alatau the glacial glaciers also calved into the Issyk Kul lake. The Chon-Kemin valley was glaciated up to its inflow into the Chu valley. From the west-elongation of the Kungey Alatau—that is the Kirgizskiy Alatau range (42°25′N/74–75°E)—the glacial glaciers flowed down as far as into the mountain foreland down to 900 m asl (close to the town Bishkek). Among others the Ak-Sai valley glacier has developed there a mountain foreland glacier.
Altogether the glacial Tian Shan glaciation occupied an area of c. . The glacier snowline (ELA) between the glacier feeding area and melting zone was about 1200m lower during the last ice age than it is today.
Under the condition of a comparable precipitation ratio, there would result from this a depression of the average annual temperature of 7.2 to 8.4 °C for the Last Glacial Maximum compared with today.
Ecology
The Tian Shan holds important forests of Schrenk's Spruce (Picea schrenkiana) at altitudes of over ; the lower slopes have unique natural forests of wild walnuts and apples.
The Tian Shan in its immediate geological past was kept from glaciation due to the "protecting" warm influence of the Indian Ocean monsoon climate. This defined its ecological features which could sustain its distinctive ecosphere. The mountains were subjected to constant geological changes with constantly evolving drainage systems which affected the patterns of vegetation, as well as exposing fertile soil for newly emerging seedlings to thrive in.
Tulips originated in Tian Shan Mountains. The plant then made its way to Turkey via the Silk Road and became a symbol of the Ottoman Empire.
Ancestors of important crop vegetation were established and thrived in the area, among them: apricots (Prunus armeniaca), pears (Pyrus spp.), pomegranates (Punica granatum), figs (Ficus), cherries (Prunus avium) and mulberries (Morus). The Tian Shan region also included important animals like bear, deer and wild boar, which helped to spread seeds and expand the ecological diversity.
Among the vegetation colonizing the Tian Shan came, likely via birds from the east, the ancestors of what we know as the "sweet" apple. The fruit
probably then looked like a tiny, long-stalked, bitter apple something like Malus baccata, the Siberian crab. The pips may have been carried in a bird's crop or clotted onto feet or feathers.
Climate
Religion
Tengrism
In Tengrism, Khan Tengri is the lord of all spirits and the religion's supreme deity, and it is the name given to the second highest peak of Tian Shan.
See also
Tectonics of the Tian Shan
Pyotr Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
The Contemporary Atlas of China. 1988. London: Marshall Editions Ltd. Reprint 1989. Sydney, NSW: Collins Publishers Australia.
The Times Comprehensive Atlas of the World. Eleventh Edition. 2003. London, England: Times Books Group Ltd.
External links
Russian mountaineering site
Tien Shan
United Nations University (2009) digital video "Finding a place to feed: Kyrgyz shepherds & pasture loss": Shepherd shares family's observations and adaptation to the changing climate in highland pastures of Kyrgyzstan's Tian Shan mountains Accessed 1 December 2009
Mountain ranges of Kazakhstan
Mountain ranges of Kyrgyzstan
Mountain ranges of Xinjiang
Geography of Central Asia
Geography of East Asia
Sites along the Silk Road
World Heritage Sites in China | [
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|
214590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantail | Fantail | Fantails are small insectivorous birds of Australasia, Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent belonging to the genus Rhipidura in the family Rhipiduridae. Most of the species are about 15 to 18 cm long, specialist aerial feeders, and named as "fantails", but the Australian willie wagtail is a little larger, and, though still an expert hunter of insects on the wing, concentrates equally on terrestrial prey.
The true wagtails are part of the genus Motacilla in the family Motacillidae and are not close relatives of the fantails.
Description
The fantails are small bodied (11.5–21 cm long) birds with long tails; in some species the tail is longer than the body and in most the tail is longer than the wing. When the tail is folded it is rounded at the end, but when spread in display or aerial foraging it has a characteristic fan shape that gives the family its name.
Fantails adopt a hunched horizontal posture most of the time, with the wings drooped and held away from the body and the tail half cocked. There are some exceptions to this, particularly the northern fantail of New Guinea and the Cockerell's fantail of the Solomon Islands, which have a more upright posture reminiscent of the monarch flycatchers.
The wings of fantails are tapered and have sacrificed speed for agility, making fantails highly efficient at catching insect prey. Overall the fantails are strong fliers, and some species can undertake long migrations, but the thicket fantails (sooty thicket fantail, white-bellied thicket fantail and black thicket fantail) are very weak fliers, and need to alight regularly.
The bills of fantails are typical for aerial insect eating birds, being flat and triangular. The gape is surrounded by two rows of rictal bristles which are long, often as long as the bill. The bills of most species are fairly weak, limiting fantails to softer insects, although the more terrestrial willie wagtail has a stronger bill.
The plumage of most fantails shows some variation, most species are relatively uniform with some markings. A few species, such as the Rennell fantail, have uniform plumage, while others have striking if sombre patterns. The colours of most species are greys, blacks, whites and browns, although a few species have yellow or even striking blue feathers. In most species there is no sexual dimorphism in plumage; the notable exception being the black fantail of New Guinea where the male has all-over black plumage and the female is almost entirely rufous. In a few species, such as the New Zealand fantail, there exist two colour morphs, the common pied morph and the rarer black morph (which is most common in the South Island).
Distribution and habitat
Fantails are an Australasian family that has spread from as far as Samoa to northern India. In the south the grey fantail ranges as far as The Snares off New Zealand, in the eastern extent of the family has several endemic forms in western Polynesia. There are numerous species in Indonesia, the Philippines and in South East Asia, and the family ranges into southern China, India and the Himalayas. Some species have a widespread distribution, particularly the willie wagtail, grey fantail, white-throated fantail and northern fantail; others have a highly restricted range and in the case of some insular species may be restricted to a single island. The Mussau fantail is restricted to a single island in the Bismarck Archipelago, and the Kadavu fantail has a similarly restricted distribution in the Kadavu Group of Fiji.
Most fantails, particularly the tropical or insular forms, are sedentary and undertake no migration. Some northern and southern species undertake a variety of movements; the yellow-bellied fantail of the Himalayas is an altitudinal migrant, breeding between 1500 and 4000 metres, but moving to lower altitudes (as low as 180 m) in the winter. Some Australian fantails undertake seasonal migrations, although these show considerable variation even within individual species. Most populations of the rufous fantail exhibit little migratory behaviour, but the south-eastern population moves en masse to northern Queensland and New Guinea.
Fantails exhibit wide tastes in habitat; while the majority of species are found in rainforests fantails exist in most available habitats from deserts and mangrove forests to highly modified agricultural and urban environments. Most species are able to survive in a variety of habitats. Of all the species the mangrove fantail has the most restricted habitat requirements, being entirely restricted to mangrove forests over some of its range, although it can exist 3 km away in the absence of other fantails. Some of the more primitive species are generally more restricted to primary rainforest, but most other species can survive in more disturbed forest. The most adaptable species is the willie wagtail, which is abundant in every habitat type in Australia except for dense rainforest.
Behaviour and ecology
The behaviour of many species of fantail has not been studied, but overall the family is highly uniform in its habits. Anecdotal observations of less studied species suggest a high degree of similarity with the better studied species. Fantails are highly active birds, with several of the smaller species continuously on the move; even when perched they continue to rock back and forth, spin 180° on the spot, wag their tail from side to side or fan it. In flight they are highly agile and undertake highly aerobatic and intricate looping flights while using their fanned tail to catch insects in flight.
Diet and foraging
The majority of the diet of fantails composes of small insects and invertebrates. The larger willie wagtail is capable of tackling small skinks, but this is exceptional. Insect prey is generally small and easily handled, but larger items sometimes need to be subdued by being banged on branches, an action that also removes the wings of larger prey items like moths.
There are two general techniques used by the family in order to obtain prey. The first is known as "static searching", where the fantail will remain at a perch and watch for aerial prey which it will then sally towards and snatch from the air before returning to the perch in order to consume and resume searching. The second method used is known as "progressive searching", where the fantail moves through vegetation searching for insect prey which it gleans; the movement of the searching fantail also flushes out hidden prey which is also pursued and consumed. The willie wagtail performs a terrestrial version of this technique, pumping its tail from side to side and undertaking quick darting movements across open ground in order to flush out prey.
Fantails frequently form associations with other species in order obtain prey. Some species perch on the backs of cattle, which they use both as a vantage point and because the cattle flush up insects. This behaviour has given the willie wagtail the nickname "shepherd's companion". Fantails are often very bold around people and will approach them closely in order to capture insects flushed by them. Different species are also frequently found in mixed-species feeding flocks, travelling with other small insectivorous birds on the periphery of the flocks taking advantage of flushed prey.
Breeding
Fantails are territorial and aggressively defend their territories from conspecifics (other members of the same species) as well as other fantail species and other flycatchers. Within the territory the female selects the nesting site, these sites are often close to the previous year's nest. Breeding responsibilities, nest building, incubation and chick feeding, are shared between both sexes.
The nest, a small cup of grass stems neatly bound together in spider silk, takes around 10 days to construct. Many species incorporate a trailing tail into the base of the nest; this possibly breaks up the shape of the nest, although little other effort is made to conceal the nest. To compensate for the high visibility of the nest fantails will aggressively defend their chicks from potential predators.
Female fantails will also distract a potential predator by appearing to be injured and luring the predator away from the nest. While the female is pretending to be injured the male may continue to attack the predator. In spite of this fantails have a generally low nesting success.
Species
Based on the IOC's listing as of June 2021:
Mindanao blue fantail, Rhipidura superciliaris
Visayan blue fantail, Rhipidura samarensis
Blue-headed fantail, Rhipidura cyaniceps
Tablas fantail, Rhipidura sauli
Visayan fantail, Rhipidura albiventris
Chestnut-bellied fantail, Rhipidura hyperythra
Friendly fantail, Rhipidura albolimbata
Grey fantail, Rhipidura albiscapa
New Zealand fantail, Rhipidura fuliginosa
Lord Howe fantail, Rhipidura fuliginosa cervina - extinct (c.1925)
Mangrove fantail, Rhipidura phasiana
Brown fantail, Rhipidura drownei
Makira fantail, Rhipidura tenebrosa
Rennell fantail, Rhipidura rennelliana
Streaked fantail, Rhipidura verreauxi
Kadavu fantail, Rhipidura personata
Samoan fantail, Rhipidura nebulosa
Sulawesi fantail, Rhipidura teysmanni
Taliabu fantail, Rhipidura sulaensis
Tawny-backed fantail, Rhipidura superflua
Streak-breasted fantail, Rhipidura dedemi
Long-tailed fantail, Rhipidura opistherythra
Palau fantail, Rhipidura lepida
Rufous-backed fantail, Rhipidura rufidorsa
Bismarck fantail, Rhipidura dahli
Mussau fantail, Rhipidura matthiae
Malaita fantail, Rhipidura malaitae
Arafura fantail, Rhipidura dryas
Pohnpei fantail, Rhipidura kubaryi
Rufous fantail, Rhipidura rufifrons
Guam rufous fantail, Rhipidura rufifrons uraniae - extinct (1984)
Manus fantail, Rhipidura semirubra
Dimorphic fantail, Rhipidura brachyrhyncha
Black fantail, Rhipidura atra
Black-and-cinnamon fantail, Rhipidura nigrocinnamomea
Rufous-tailed fantail, Rhipidura phoenicura
White-bellied fantail, Rhipidura euryura
Spotted fantail, Rhipidura perlata
White-browed fantail, Rhipidura aureola
Malaysian pied fantail, Rhipidura javanica
Philippine pied fantail, Rhipidura nigritorquis
White-throated fantail, Rhipidura albicollis
White-spotted fantail, Rhipidura albogularis
Brown-capped fantail, Rhipidura diluta
Cinnamon-tailed fantail, Rhipidura fuscorufa
Northern fantail, Rhipidura rufiventris
Biak fantail, Rhipidura kordensis
Cockerell's fantail or white-winged fantail, Rhipidura cockerelli
Sooty thicket fantail, Rhipidura threnothorax
White-bellied thicket fantail, Rhipidura leucothorax
Black thicket fantail, Rhipidura maculipectus
Willie wagtail, Rhipidura leucophrys
Peleng fantail, Rhipidura habibiei
Former species
Formerly, some authorities also considered the following species (or subspecies) as species within the genus Rhipidura:
Slaty monarch (as Rhipidura Lessoni)
Yellow-bellied fantail (as Rhipidura hypoxantha) – recognized in 2009 as a fairy-flycatcher of family Stenostiridae and has been moved to its old genus Chelidorhynx.
Rhipidura fallax (as ''Rhipidura fallax)
References
External links
Videos, photos and sounds - Internet Bird Collection
Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors
Taxa named by Thomas Horsfield | [
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|
214591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tables%20of%20historical%20exchange%20rates%20to%20the%20United%20States%20dollar | Tables of historical exchange rates to the United States dollar | Listed below is a of historical exchange rates''' relative to the U.S. dollar, at present the most widely traded currency in the world. An exchange rate represents the value of one currency in another. An exchange rate between two currencies fluctuates over time. The value of a currency relative to a third currency may be obtained by dividing one U.S. dollar rate by another. For example, if there are ¥120 to the dollar and €1.2 to the dollar then the number of yen per euro is 120/1.2 = 100.
The magnitude of the numbers in the list does not indicate, by themselves, the strength or weakness of a particular currency. For example, the U.S. dollar could be rebased tomorrow so that 1 new dollar was worth 100 old dollars. Then all the numbers in the table would be multiplied by one hundred, but it does not mean all the world's currencies just got weaker. However, it is useful to look at the variation over time of a particular exchange rate. If the number consistently increases through time, then it is a strong indication that the economy of the country or countries using that currency are in a less robust state than that of the United States (see e.g., the Turkish lira). The exchange rates of advanced economies, such as those of Japan or Hong Kong, against the dollar tend to fluctuate up and down, representing much shorter-term relative economic strengths, rather than move consistently in a particular direction.
The data are taken at varying times of the year or maybe the average for the whole year. Some of the data for the years 1997-2002 refers to the rate on, or close to, January 1 of that year. Some of the data for 2003 refers to rates on May 28 for countries beginning with A-E, and June 2 for countries listed F-Z. Exchange rates can vary considerably even within a year and so current rates may differ markedly from those shown here. Caveat lector.
Table for 2008 to 2018
Table for recent years
2020 Exchange rate
USD exchange rate in May 2020 according to XE:
See also
Bretton Woods system for more exchange rates 1945 to 1971
Gold standard for exchange rates around 1900 for currencies using the gold standard
Fixed exchange rates to the euro
Currency pair
ISO 4217 currency codes
Historical exchange rates of Argentine currency
Footnotes
References
http://investintaiwan.nat.gov.tw/en/env/stats/exchange_rates.html
The 2003 data was taken from Pacific Exchange Rate Service
The graph back to 1969 was generated using data from the Reserve Bank of Australia
External links
Historical Exchange Rates (Chart and Table, 1971-present)
Foreign Currency Units per 1 U.S. Dollar, 1948 - 2007
Foreign exchange market
Currencies of the United States
Exchange rates, historical
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|
214597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate | Substrate | Substrate may refer to:
Physical layers
Substrate (biology), the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the surface or medium on which an organism grows or is attached
Substrate (locomotion), the surface over which an organism locomotes
Substrate (marine biology), the earthy material that exists in the bottom of a marine habitat, like dirt, rocks, sand, or gravel
Substrate (building), natural stone, masonry surface, ceramic and porcelain tiles
Substrate (chemistry), the reactant which is consumed during a catalytic or enzymatic reaction
Substrate (biochemistry), a molecule that is acted upon by an enzyme
Substrate (materials science), the material on which a process is conducted
Substrate (printing), the base material that images will be printed onto
Substrate (vivarium), the material used in the bottom of a vivarium or terrarium
Substrate (aquarium), the material used in the bottom of an aquarium
Printed circuit board (PCB), or more specifically, the electrically insulating portion of a PCB structure, such as fiberglass bound together with epoxy cement
Stratum on which another geologic stratum lies
Wafer (electronics), also called a substrate
Other uses
Substratum (linguistics), in linguistics, a language that influences but is supplanted by a second language
Neural substrate, in neuroscience, the set of brain structures that underlies a specific behavior or psychological state
See also
Substrata (disambiguation)
Monism, for the concept of the universal substrate in philosophy
Reagent
Reactant
Subjectile
Superstrate | [
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|
214618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic%20%28biology%29 | Somatic (biology) | The term somatic - etymologically from the French word "somatique", from Ancient Greek "σωματικός" (sōmatikós, “bodily”), from σῶμα (sôma, “body”) - is often used in biology to refer to the cells of the body in contrast to the reproductive (germline) cells, which usually give rise to the egg or sperm (or other gametes in other organisms). These somatic cells are diploid, containing two copies of each chromosome, whereas germ cells are haploid, as they only contain one copy of each chromosome (in preparation for fertilisation). Although under normal circumstances all somatic cells in an organism contain identical DNA, they develop a variety of tissue-specific characteristics. This process is called differentiation, through epigenetic and regulatory alterations. The grouping of similar cells and tissues creates the foundation for organs.
Somatic mutations are changes to the genetics of a multicellular organism that are not passed on to its offspring through the germline. Many cancers are somatic mutations.
Somatic is also defined as relating to the wall of the body cavity, particularly as distinguished from the head, limbs or viscera. It is also used in the term somatic nervous system, which is the portion of the vertebrate nervous system that regulates voluntary movements of the body.
Mutation frequency
The frequency of mutations in mouse somatic tissue (brain, liver, Sertoli cells) was compared to the mutation frequency in male germline cells at sequential stages of spermatogenesis. The spontaneous mutation frequency was found to be significantly higher (5 to 10-fold) in the somatic cell types than in the male germline cells. In female mice, somatic cells were also found to have a higher mutation frequency than germline cells. It was suggested that elevated levels of DNA repair enzymes play a prominent role in the lower mutation frequency of male and female germline cells, and that enhanced genetic integrity is a fundamental characteristic of germline cells. DNA repair processes can remove DNA damages that would, otherwise, upon DNA replication, cause mutation.
See also
Perikaryon (soma), the bulbous end of a neuron, containing the cell nucleus
References
Developmental biology | [
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214632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near%20East | Near East | The Near East (, , , , ) is a geographical term which roughly encompasses a transcontinental region in Western Asia, that was once the historical Fertile Crescent, and later the Levant section of the Roman and Byzantine empires. It comprises Turkey (both Anatolia and East Thrace), and Egypt (mostly located in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula being in Asia). Despite having varying definitions within different academic circles, the term was originally applied to the maximum extent of the Ottoman Empire.
According to the National Geographic Society, the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories and are "generally accepted as comprising the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian territories, Syria, and Turkey". In 1997, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations defined the region similarly, but also included Afghanistan. According to the New York Times, the region is "now commonly referred to as West Asia."
Eastern Question
At the beginning of the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire included all of the Balkans, north to the southern edge of the Great Hungarian Plain. But by 1914, the empire had lost all of its territories except Constantinople and Eastern Thrace to the rise of nationalist Balkan states, which saw the independence of the Kingdom of Greece, Kingdom of Serbia, the Danubian Principalities, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria. Up until 1912, the Ottomans retained a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and the Adrianople Vilayet, which were lost in the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13.
The Ottoman Empire, believed to be about to collapse, was portrayed in the press as the "sick man of Europe". The Balkan states, with the partial exception of Bosnia and Albania, were primarily Christian, as was the majority of Lebanon. Starting in 1894, the Ottomans struck at the Armenians on the explicit grounds that they were a non-Muslim people and as such were a potential threat to the Muslim empire within which they lived. The Hamidian Massacres aroused the indignation of the entire Christian world. In the United States the now aging Julia Ward Howe, author of the Battle Hymn of the Republic, leaped into the war of words and joined the Red Cross. Relations of minorities within the Ottoman Empire and the disposition of former Ottoman lands became known as the "Eastern Question", as the Ottomans were on the east of Europe.
It now became relevant to define the east of the eastern question. In about the middle of the nineteenth century, Near East came into use to describe that part of the east closest to Europe. The term Far East appeared contemporaneously meaning Japan, China, Korea, Indonesia and Vietnam. Near East applied to what had been mainly known as the Levant, which was in the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Porte, or government. Europeans could not set foot on most of the shores of the southern and central Mediterranean from the Gulf of Sidra to Albania without permits from the Ottoman Empire.
Some regions beyond the Ottoman Porte were included. One was North Africa west of Egypt. It was occupied by piratical kingdoms of the Barbary Coast, de facto-independent since the eighteenth century, formerly part of the empire at its apogee. Iran was included because it could not easily be reached except through the Ottoman Empire or neighboring Russia. In the 1890s the term tended to focus on the conflicts in the Balkan states and Armenia. The demise of "the sick man of Europe" left considerable confusion as to what was to be meant by "Near East". It is now generally used only in historical contexts, to describe the countries of Western Asia from the Mediterranean to (or including) Iran. There is, in short, no universally-understood fixed inventory of nations, languages or historical assets defined to be in it.
Background
The geographical terms Near East and Far East referring to areas of the globe in or contiguous to the former British Empire and the neighboring colonies of the Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish and Germans, fit together as a pair based on the opposites of far and near, suggesting that they were innovated together. They appear together in the journals of the mid-19th century. Both terms were used before then with local British and American meanings: the near or far east of a field, village or shire.
Ideas of the east up to the Crimean War
There was a linguistic predisposition to use such terms. The Romans had used them in near Gaul / far Gaul, near Spain / far Spain and others. Before them the Greeks had the habit, which appears in Linear B, the oldest known script of Europe, referring to the near province and the far province of the kingdom of Pylos. Usually these terms were given with reference to a geographic feature, such as a mountain range or a river.
Ptolemy's Geography divided Asia on a similar basis. In the north is "Scythia this side of the Himalayas" and "Scythia beyond the Himalayas". To the south is "India on this side of the Ganges" and "India beyond the Ganges". Asia began on the coast of Anatolia ("land of the rising Sun"). Beyond the Ganges and Himalayas (including the Tien Shan) were Serica and Serae (sections of China) and some other identifiable far eastern locations known to the voyagers and geographers but not to the general European public.
By the time of John Seller's Atlas Maritima of 1670, "India Beyond the Ganges" had become "the East Indies" including China, Korea, southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific in a map that was every bit as distorted as Ptolemy's, despite the lapse of approximately 1,500 years. That "east" in turn was only an English translation of Latin Oriens and Orientalis, "the land of the rising Sun", used since Roman times for "east". The world map of Jodocus Hondius of 1590 labels all of Asia from the Caspian to the Pacific as India Orientalis, shortly to appear in translation as the East Indies.
Elizabeth I of England, primarily interested in trade with the east, collaborated with English merchants to form the first trading companies to the far-flung regions, using their own jargon. Their goals were to obtain trading concessions by treaty. The queen chartered the Company of Merchants of the Levant, shortened to Levant Company, and soon known also as The Turkey Company, in 1581. In 1582, the ship The Great Susan transported the first ambassador, William Harebone, to the Ottoman Porte (government of the Ottoman Empire) at Constantinople. Compared to Anatolia, Levant also means "land of the rising sun", but where Anatolia always only meant the projection of land currently occupied by the Republic of Turkey, Levant meant anywhere in the domain ruled by the Ottoman Porte. The East India Company (short for a much longer formal name) was chartered in 1600 for trade to the East Indies.
It has pleased western historians to write of a decline of the Ottoman Empire as though a stable and uncontested polity of that name once existed. The borders did expand and contract but they were always dynamic and always in "question" right from the beginning. The Ottoman Empire was created from the lands of the former eastern Roman Empire on the occasion of the latter's violent demise. The last Roman emperor died fighting hand-to-hand in the streets of his capital, Constantinople, overwhelmed by the Ottoman military, in May 1453. The victors inherited his remaining territory in the Balkans.
The populations of those lands did not accept Turkish rule. The Turks to them were foreigners with a completely different set of customs, way of life, and language. Intervals when there was no unrest were rare. The Hungarian lands under Turkish rule had become part of the Habsburg Monarchy by 1688. in the Great Turkish War. The Serbian Revolution, 1804–1833. created modern Serbia. The Greek War of Independence, 1821–1832, created modern Greece, which recovered most of the lands of ancient Greece, but could not gain Constantinople. The Ottoman Porte was continuously under attack from some quarter in its empire, primarily the Balkans. Also, on a number of occasions in the early 19th century, American and British warships had to attack the Barbary pirates to stop their piracy and recover thousands of enslaved Europeans and Americans.
In 1853 the Russian Empire on behalf of the Slavic Balkan states began to question the very existence of the Ottoman Empire. The result was the Crimean War, 1853–1856, in which the British Empire and the French Empire supported the Ottoman Empire in its struggle against the incursions of the Russian Empire. Eventually, the Ottoman Empire lost control of the Balkan region.
Original diplomatic concept of Near East
Until about 1855, the terms Near East and Far East did not refer to any particular region. The Far East, a phrase containing a noun, East, qualified by an adjective, far, could be at any location in the "far east" of the speaker's home territory. The Ottoman Empire, for example, was the far East as much as the East Indies. The Crimean War brought a change in vocabulary with the introduction of terms more familiar to the late 19th century. The Russian Empire had entered a more aggressive phase, becoming militarily active against the Ottoman Empire and also against China, with territorial aggrandizement explicitly in mind. Rethinking its policy the British government decided that the two polities under attack were necessary for the balance of power. It therefore undertook to oppose the Russians in both places, one result being the Crimean War. During that war the administration of the British Empire began promulgating a new vocabulary, giving specific regional meaning to "the Near East", the Ottoman Empire, and "the Far East", the East Indies. The two terms were now compound nouns often shown hyphenated.
In 1855, a reprint of a letter earlier sent to The Times appeared in Littell's Living Age. Its author, an "official Chinese interpreter of 10 years' active service" and a member of the Oriental Club, Thomas Taylor Meadows, was replying to the suggestion by another interpreter that the British Empire was wasting its resources on a false threat from Russia against China. Toward the end of the letter he said:
Much of the colonial administration belonged to this club, which had been formed by the Duke of Wellington. Meadows' terminology must represent usage by that administration. If not the first use of the terms, the letter to the Times was certainly one of the earliest presentations of this vocabulary to the general public. They became immediately popular, supplanting "Levant" and "East Indies", which gradually receded to minor usages and then began to change meaning.
Original archaeological concept of nearer east
Near East remained popular in diplomatic, trade and journalistic circles, but a variation soon developed among the scholars and the men of the cloth and their associates: the Nearer East, reverting to the classical and then more scholarly distinction of nearer and farther. They undoubtedly saw a need to separate the biblical lands from the terrain of the Ottoman Empire. The Christians saw the country as the land of the Old and New Testaments, where Christianity had developed. The scholars in the field of studies that eventually became biblical archaeology attempted to define it on the basis of archaeology.
For example, The London Review of 1861 (Telford and Barber, unsigned) in reviewing several works by Rawlinson, Layard and others, defined themselves as making: "... an imperfect conspectus of the arrow-headed writings of the nearer east; writings which cover nearly the whole period of the postdiluvian Old Testament history ..." By arrow-headed writings they meant cuneiform texts. In defense of the Bible as history they said: "The primeval nations, that piled their glorious homes on the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Nile, are among us again with their archives in their hands; ..." They further defined the nations as "... the countries lying between the Caspian, the Persian Gulf, and the Mediterranean ..." The regions in their inventory were Assyria, Chaldea, Mesopotamia, Persia, Armenia, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Ancient Israel, Ethiopia, Caucasus, Libya, Anatolia and Abyssinia. Explicitly excluded is India. No mention is made of the Balkans.
The British archaeologist D. G. Hogarth published The Nearer East in 1902, in which he stated his view of "The Near East":
Hogarth then proceeds to say where and why in some detail, but no more mention is made of the classics. His analysis is geopolitical. His map delineates the Nearer East with regular lines as though surveyed. They include Iran, the Balkans, but not the Danube lands, Egypt, but not the rest of North Africa. Except for the Balkans, the region matches the later Middle East. It differs from the Ottoman Empire of the times in including Greece and Iran. Hogarth gives no evidence of being familiar with the contemporaneous initial concept of the Middle East.
Balkan confusion
In the last years of the 19th century, the term Near East acquired considerable disrepute in eyes of the English-speaking public as did the Ottoman Empire itself. The cause of the onus was the religiously motivated Hamidian Massacres of Christian Armenians, but it seemed to spill over into the protracted conflicts of the Balkans. For a time, "Near East" meant primarily the Balkans. Robert Hichens' book The Near East (1913) is subtitled Dalmatia, Greece and Constantinople.
Sir Henry Norman and his first wife
The change is evident in the reports of influential British travelers to the Balkans. In 1894, Sir Henry Norman, 1st Baronet, a journalist, traveled to the Far East, afterwards writing a book called The Peoples and Politics of the Far East, which came out in 1895. By "Far East" he meant Siberia, China, Japan, Korea, Siam and Malaya. As the book was a big success, he was off to the Balkan states with his wife in 1896 to develop detail for a sequel, The People and Politics of the Near East, which Scribners planned to publish in 1897. Mrs. Norman, a writer herself, wrote glowing letters of the home and person of Mme. Zakki, "the wife of a Turkish cabinet minister," who, she said, was a cultivated woman living in a country home full of books. As for the natives of the Balkans, they were "a semi-civilized people".
The planned book was never published, however Norman published the gist of the book, mixed with vituperation against the Ottoman Empire, in an article in June, 1896, in Scribner's Magazine. The empire had descended from an enlightened civilization ruling over barbarians for their own good to something considerably less. The difference was the Hamidian Massacres, which were being conducted even as the couple traveled the Balkans. According to Norman now, the empire had been established by "the Moslem horde" from Asia, which was stopped by "intrepid Hungary." Furthermore, "Greece shook off the turbaned destroyer of her people" and so on. The Russians were suddenly liberators of oppressed Balkan states. Having portrayed the Armenians as revolutionaries in the name of freedom with the expectation of being rescued by the intervention of Christian Europe, he states "but her hope was vain." England had "turned her back." Norman concluded his exhortation with "In the Balkans, one learns to hate the Turk." Norman made sure that Gladstone read the article. Prince Nicolas of Montenegro wrote a letter thanking him for his article.
Throughout this article, Norman uses "Near East" to mean the countries where "the eastern question" applied; that is, to all of the Balkans. The countries and regions mentioned are Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina (which was Muslim and needed, in his view, to be suppressed), Macedonia, Montenegro, Albania, Romania. The rest of the Ottoman domain is demoted to just "the East".
William Miller
If Norman was apparently attempting to change British policy, it was perhaps William Miller (1864–1945), journalist and expert on the Near East, who did the most in that direction. In essence, he signed the death warrant, so to speak, of the Age of Empires. The fall of the Ottoman Empire ultimately enmeshed all the others as well. In the Travel and Politics in the Near East, 1898, Miller claimed to have made four trips to the Balkans, 1894, 1896, 1897 and 1898, and to be, in essence, an expert on "the Near East", by which he primarily meant the Balkans. Apart from the fact that he attended Oxford and played Rugby, not many biographical details have been promulgated. He was, in effect (whatever his formal associations if any), a point man of British Near Eastern intelligence.
In Miller's view, the Ottoman officials were unfit to rule:
These were fighting words to be coming from a country that once insisted Europe needed Turkey and was willing to spill blood over it. For his authority Miller invokes the people, citing the "collective wisdom" of Europe, and introducing a concept to arise many times in the decades to follow under chilling circumstances: "... no final solution of the difficulty has yet been found."
Miller's final pronouncements on the topic could not be ignored by either the British or the Ottoman governments:
If the British Empire was now going to side with the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire had no choice but to cultivate a relationship with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was supported by the German Empire. In a few years these alignments became the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance (already formed in 1882), which were in part a cause of World War I. By its end in 1918 three empires were gone, a fourth was about to fall to revolution, and two more, the British and French, were forced to yield in revolutions started under the aegis of their own ideologies.
Arnold Toynbee
By 1916, when millions of Europeans were becoming casualties of imperial war in the trenches of eastern and western Europe over "the eastern question", Arnold J. Toynbee, Hegelesque historian of civilization at large, was becoming metaphysical about the Near East. Geography alone was not a sufficient explanation of the terms, he believed. If the Ottoman Empire had been a sick man, then:There has been something pathological about the history of this Near Eastern World. It has had an undue share of political misfortunes, and had lain for centuries in a kind of spiritual paralysis between East and West—belonging to neither, partaking paradoxically of both, and wholly unable to rally itself decidedly to one or the other.
Having supposed that it was sick, he kills it off: "The Near East has never been more true to itself than in its lurid dissolution; past and present are fused together in the flare." To Toynbee the Near East was a spiritual being of a "Janus-character", connected to both east and west:The limits of the Near East are not easy to define. On the north-west, Vienna is the most conspicuous boundary-mark, but one might almost equally well single out Trieste or Lvov or even Prag. Towards the southeast, the boundaries are even more shadowy. It is perhaps best to equate them with the frontiers of the Arabic language, yet the genius of the Near East overrides linguistic barriers, and encroaches on the Arabicspeaking world on the one side as well as on the German-speaking world on the other. Syria is essentially a Near Eastern country, and a physical geographer would undoubtedly carry the Near Eastern frontiers up to the desert belt of the Sahara, Nefud and Kevir.
From the death of the Near East new nations were able to rise from the ashes, notably the Republic of Turkey. Paradoxically it now aligned itself with the west rather than with the east. Mustafa Kemal, its founder, a former Ottoman high-ranking officer, was insistent on this social revolution, which, among other changes, liberated women from the strait rules still in effect in most Arabic-speaking countries. The demise of the political Near East now left a gap where it had been, into which stepped the Middle East.
Rise of the Middle East
Origin of the concept of Middle East
The term middle east as a noun and adjective was common in the 19th century in nearly every context except diplomacy and archaeology. An uncountable number of places appear to have had their middle easts from gardens to regions, including the United States. The innovation of the term Near East to mean the holdings of the Ottoman Empire as early as the Crimean War had left a geographical gap. The East Indies, or "Far East", derived ultimately from Ptolemy's "India Beyond the Ganges." The Ottoman Empire ended at the eastern border of Iraq. "India This Side of the Ganges" and Iran had been omitted. The archaeologists counted Iran as "the Near East" because Old Persian cuneiform had been found there. This usage did not sit well with the diplomats; India was left in an equivocal state. They needed a regional term.
The use of the term Middle East as a region of international affairs apparently began in British and American diplomatic circles quite independently of each other over concern for the security of the same country: Iran, then known to the west as Persia. In 1900 Thomas Edward Gordon published an article, The Problem of the Middle East, which began:It may be assumed that the most sensitive part of our external policy in the Middle East is the preservation of the independence and integrity of Persia and Afghanistan. Our active interest in Persia began with the present century, and was due to the belief that the invasion of India by a European Power was a probable event.
The threat that caused Gordon, diplomat and military officer, to publish the article was resumption of work on a railway from Russia to the Persian Gulf. Gordon, a published author, had not used the term previously, but he was to use it from then on.
A second strategic personality from American diplomatic and military circles, Alfred Thayer Mahan, concerned about the naval vulnerability of the trade routes in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, commented in 1902:The middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar; it does not follow that either will be in the Gulf. Naval force has the quality of mobility which carries with it the privilege of temporary absences; but it needs to find on every scene of operation established bases of refit, of supply, and, in case of disaster, of security. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force, if occasion arise, about Aden, India, and the Gulf.
Apparently the sailor did not connect with the soldier, as Mahan believed he was innovating the term Middle East. It was, however, already there to be seen.
Single region concept
Until the interwar period following the First World War, the terms "Near East" and "Middle East" co-existed, but they were not always seen as distinct in the eyes of Western commentators. Bertram Lenox Simpson, a journalist who served for a period as an officer for the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, combined both terms in his 1910 work The Conflict of Colour: The Threatened Upheaval Throughout the World as "the Near and Middle East." According to Simpson, the combined region consisted of "India, Afghanistan, Persia, Arabistan, Asia Minor, and last, but not least, Egypt", explaining that the aforementioned regions were in actuality "politically one region – in spite of the divisions into which it is academically divided."
In The Conflict of Colour, Simpson argued that what united these regions was their skin color and the fact that they were all under European colonial rule. The work included a "color chart" of the world, dividing it into a spectrum of 'black', 'brown', 'yellow' and 'white' races. Simpson also modified the Eastern Question (a diplomatic issue concerning the waning of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century) to the "Problem of the Nearer East", which he rephrased around the issue of the future of European colonialism in the 'Near East', writing that in regards to "the white man",
...in India, in Central Asia, and in all the regions adjacent to the Near East, he still boldly remains a conqueror in possession of vast stretches of valuable territory; a conqueror who has no intention of lightly surrendering his conquests, and who indeed sees in every attempt to modify the old order of things a most hateful and unjustifiable revolt which must at all costs be repressed. This is so absolutely true that no candid person will be inclined to dispute it.
The spirit of the Crusaders may thus be said still to linger in those latitudes which, to give geographical and political cohesion, are here broadly named the Middle and Near East; and, to use a somewhat dangerous but illuminating figure of speech, it may be even be maintained that to-day, as of old, the white man and the Cross remain as blindly opposed to the brown man and Islamism, Hinduism and what these creeds postulate, as the most uncompromising bigot could desire.
According to Simpson, the reason why the "Problem of the Nearer East" remained so misunderstood in the Western world (compared to diplomatic and political issues in the Near East) was due to the fact that "there is no good work dealing with these problems as one whole, and much misunderstanding consequently exists."
One presumed region, one name
The term Near and Middle East, held the stage for a few years before World War I. It proved to be less acceptable to a colonial point of view that saw the entire region as one. In 1916 Captain T. C. Fowle, 40th Pathans (troops of British India), wrote of a trip he had taken from Karachi to Syria just before the war. The book does not contain a single instance of "Near East". Instead, the entire region is considered "the Middle East". The formerly Near Eastern sections of his trip are now "Turkish" and not Ottoman.
Subsequently, with the disgrace of Near East in diplomatic and military circles, Middle East prevailed. However, Near East continues in some circles at the discretion of the defining agency or academic department. They are not generally considered distinct regions as they were at their original definition.
Although racial and colonial definitions of the Middle East are no longer considered ideologically sound, the sentiment of unity persists. For much, but by no means all, of the Middle East, the predominance of Islam lends some unity, as does the transient accident of geographical continuity. Otherwise there is but little basis except for history and convention to lump together peoples of multiple, often unrelated languages, governments, loyalties and customs.
Current meaning
Diplomatic
In the 20th century, subsequent to major warfare and decades of intense political turmoil, the terms such as Near East, Far East, and Middle East continued to be used, but evolved in their meaning and scope. This increased confusion, the resolution of which became the study of experts in the new field of political science. The new wave of diplomats often came from those programmes.
Archaeology on the international scene, though very much of intellectual interest to major universities, was overshadowed by international relations. The archaeologists' domain became the Ancient Near East, which could no longer be relied upon to be the actual Near East. The Ottoman Empire was gone, along with all the other empires of the 19th century, replaced in the region with a number of republics with various affinities, regional and global.
The many and varied specialized agencies that were formed to handle specific aspects of complex international relations, evolved with the terms. Definitions from the present came to be not in concert with those of the past. Reconciling these terms and their definitions remains difficult due to ongoing territorial disputes and non-free nuclear powers' territorial ambitions, putting any reconciliation of definitions out of scope of diplomatic corps in the classical sense.
The ancient Near East is frozen in time. The living Near East is primarily what the agencies each define as a matter of practice; often guided by their political leadership. In most cases, this single term is inadequate to describe the geographical range in practical applications. This has resulted is multiple definitions used differently by each major region, power, or institution.
Influential agencies represented in the table
The United States is the chief remaining nation to assign official responsibilities to a region called the Near East. Within the government the State Department has been most influential in promulgating the Near Eastern regional system. The countries of the former empires of the 19th century have in general abandoned the term and the subdivision in favor of Middle East, North Africa, and various forms of Asia. In many cases, such as France, no distinct regional substructures have been employed. Each country has its own French diplomatic apparatus, although regional terms, including Proche-Orient and Moyen-Orient, can be used in a descriptive sense.
Some of the most influential agencies in the United States still use Near East as a working concept. For example, the Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, a division of the United States Department of State, is perhaps the most influential agency to still use the term Near East. Under the Secretary of State, it implements the official diplomacy of the United States, called also statecraft by Secretary Hillary Clinton. The name of the bureau is traditional and historic. There is, however, no distinct Middle East. All official Middle Eastern affairs are referred to this bureau.
Working closely in conjunction with the definition of the Near East provided by the State Department is the Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies (NESA), an educational institution of the United States Department of Defense. It teaches courses and holds seminars and workshops for government officials and military officers who will work or are working within its region. As the name indicates, that region is a combination of State Department regions; however, NESA is careful to identify the State Department region. As its Near East is not different from the State Department's it does not appear in the table. Its name, however, is not entirely accurate. For example, its region includes Mauritania, a member of the State Department's Africa (Sub-Sahara).
The Washington Institute for Near East Policy (WINEP) is a non-profit organization for research and advice on Middle Eastern policy. It regards its target countries as the Middle East but adopts the convention of calling them the Near East to be in conformance with the practices of the State Department. Its views are independent. The WINEP bundles the countries of Northwest Africa together under "North Africa". Details can be found in Policy Focus #65.
Table of near eastern countries recognized by various agencies
Legend: included; excluded
Other regional systems
The United Nations formulates multiple regional divisions as is convenient for its various operations. But few of them include a Near East, and that poorly defined. UNICEF recognizes the "Middle East and North Africa" region, where the Middle East is bounded by the Red Sea on the west and includes Iran on the east. UNESCO recognizes neither a Near East nor a Middle East, dividing the countries instead among three regions: Arab States, Asia and the Pacific, and Africa. Its division "does not forcibly reflect geography" but "refers to the execution of regional activities." The United Nations Statistics Division defines Western Asia to contain the countries included elsewhere in the Middle East. Its total area extends further into Central Asia than that of most agencies.
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a quasi-independent agency of the United States Government. It appears to have multiple leadership. Although its director is appointed by the president. It plays a significant role in providing the president with intelligence. However, Congress oversees its operations through a committee. The CIA was first formed under the National Security Act of 1947 from the army's Office of Strategic Services (OSS), which furnished both military intelligence and clandestine military operations to the army during the crisis of World War II. Many revisions and redefinitions have taken place since then. Although the name of the CIA reflects the original advised intent of Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman, the government's needs for strategic services have frustrated that intent from the beginning. The press received by the agency in countless articles, novels and other media have tended to create various popular myths; for example, that this agency replaced any intelligence effort other than that of the OSS, or that it contains the central intelligence capability of the United States. Strategic services are officially provided by some 17 agencies called the Intelligence Community. Army intelligence did not come to an end; in fact, all the branches of the Armed Forces retained their intelligence services. This community is currently under the leadership (in addition to all its other leadership) of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.
Under these complex circumstances regional names are less useful. They are more historical than an accurate gauge of operations. The Directorate of Intelligence, one of four directorates into which the CIA is divided, includes the Office of Near Eastern and South Asian Analysis (NESA). Its duties are defined as "support on Middle Eastern and North African countries, as well as on the South Asian nations of India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan." The total range of countries is in fact the same as the State Department's Near East, but the names do not correspond. The Near East of the NESA is the same as the Middle East defined in the CIA-published on-line resource, The World Factbook. Its list of countries is limited by the Red Sea, comprises the entire eastern coast of the Mediterranean, including Israel, Turkey, the small nations of the Caucasus, Iran and the states of the Arabian Peninsula.
The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), an independent agency under the Department of State established in place of the Marshall Plan for the purpose of determining and distributing foreign aid, does not use the term Near East. Its definition of Middle East corresponds to that of the State Department, which officially prefers the term Near East.
The Foreign and Commonwealth Office of United Kingdom recognises a Middle East and North Africa region, but not a Near East. Their original Middle East consumed the Near East as far as the Red Sea, ceded India to the Asia and Oceania region, and went into partnership with North Africa as far as the Atlantic.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Hellenic Republic conducts "bilateral relationships" with the countries of the "Mediterranean – Middle East Region" but has formulated no Near East Region. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Turkey also does not use the term Near East. Its regions include the Middle East, the Balkans and others.
Archaeological
The Ancient Near East is a term of the 20th century intended to stabilize the geographical application of Near East to ancient history. The Near East may acquire varying meanings, but the Ancient Near East always has the same meaning: the ancient nations, people and languages of the enhanced Fertile Crescent; a sweep of land from the Nile Valley through Anatolia and southward to the limits of Mesopotamia.
Resorting to this verbal device, however, did not protect the "Ancient Near East" from the inroads of "the Middle East". For example, a high point in the use of "Ancient Near East" was for Biblical scholars the Ancient Near Eastern Texts relating to the Old Testament by James Bennett Pritchard, a textbook of first edition dated 1950. The last great book written by Leonard Woolley, British archaeologist, excavator of ancient Ur and associate of T. E. Lawrence and Arthur Evans, was The Art of the Middle East, Including Persia, Mesopotamia and Palestine, published in 1961. Woolley had completed it in 1960 two weeks before his death. The geographical ranges in each case are identical.
Parallel with the growth of specialized agencies for conducting or supporting statescraft in the second half of the 20th century has been the collection of resources for scholarship and research typically in university settings. Most universities teaching the liberal arts have library and museum collections. These are not new; however, the erection of these into "centres" of national and international interest in the second half of the 20th century have created larger databases not available to the scholars of the past. Many of these focus on the Ancient Near East or Near East in the sense of Ancient Near East.
One such institution is the Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents (CSAD) founded by and located centrally at Oxford University, Great Britain. Among its many activities CSAD numbers "a long-term project to create a library of digitised images of Greek inscriptions." These it arranges by region. The Egypt and the Near East region besides Egypt includes Cyprus, Persia and Afghanistan but not Asia Minor (a separate region).
Academic
A large percentage of experts on the modern Middle East began their training in university departments named for the Near East. Similarly the journals associated with these fields of expertise include the words Near East or Near Eastern. The meaning of Near East in these numerous establishments and publications is Middle East. Expertise on the modern Middle East is almost never mixed or confused with studies of the Ancient Near East, although often "Ancient Near East" is abbreviated to "Near East" without any implication of modern times. For example, "Near Eastern Languages" in the ancient sense includes such languages as Sumerian and Akkadian. In the modern sense, it is likely to mean any or all of the Arabic languages.
See also
Ancient Near East
Genetic history of the Middle East
Intermediate Region
Eastern Mediterranean
Fertile Crescent
Syria (region)
Levant
Mashriq
Mesopotamia
Middle East
Near Eastern archaeology
Oriental studies
South Caucasus
Western Asia
References
Bibliography
External links
Geography of the Middle East
Geography of Western Asia
Regions of Eurasia
Eastern Mediterranean
.
Western Asia
Eurocentrism | [
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|
214644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pup%20Parade | Pup Parade | Pup Parade is a British comic strip that features in the comic magazine The Beano. It is a spin-off to The Bash Street Kids, following the lives of their dogs, and appeared in several issues for over two decades. The comic strip has been rebooted frequently, from the comic magazine it debuted in, to other comic magazines created and owned by DC Thomson.
Synopsis
The Bash Street Kids' anthropomorphic dogs live in an alleyway and have many misadventures. They look for food, play games with each other and their owners, and meet other animals.
Publication history
Original run
Pup Parade made its first appearance in issue 1326, illustrated by Gordon Bell. The original run finished in issue 2401. The strip returned with a new series from issue 3162 to 3204.
From June 2011, reprints appeared in The Beano, and then replaced by new stories, illustrated by Nigel Parkinson. Short strips featured in Funsize Funnies, but Lew Stringer became the new author and illustrator after 2014.
Subsequent appearances
The Beano
As of September 2021, the comic strip's last appearance in The Beano was issue 4030, but Pup Parade has appeared in other part of the Beano franchise.
The Pup Parade also made a return in the Bash Street Kids Annual 2008. They appeared again in a talent contest in the 2012 Beano Annual, which Sniffy won. This strip was titled as The Bash Street Dogs and was drawn by Nigel Parkinson.
DC Thomson
They then moved to The Topper in January 1989, still drawn by Bell which they stayed for the rest of the comic's life, surviving the merge with The Beezer and stayed on with the newly renamed comic Beezer and Topper until 1992.
Characters
The pups were:
Bones – Danny Morgan's dog. The leader.
Blotty – Spotty's dog. The one with many spots. This dog was originally called "Spotty", before its change in the mid-1970s. In the late 1980s he reverted to his original name, and his final name originated in 2003.
'Enry – 'Erbert's dog. The shortsighted one.
Manfrid – Wilfred's dog. The one with a collar up to his chin.
Peeps – Toots' dog. The girl (who wears a bow.)
Pug – Plug's dog. The ugly one.
Sniffy – Smiffy's dog. The stupid one. Got the most stories along with Bones.
Tubby – Fatty's dog. The fat one.
Wiggy – Sidney's dog. The one with strong hair.
Their sworn enemies are dubbed the Blob Street Dogs:
Fusso – Bones' rival. The leader and the fussy one.
Spots – Blotty's rival, and his cousin.
Lash – Peeps' rival. The girl.
Thiky – Sniffy's rival. The stupid one.
Piggy – Tubby's rival. The fat one.
Baldy – Wiggy's rival. The bald one.
Soffo – The soft one.
Proudon – The big-headed one.
Markus – Proudon's brother. Like his sibling, very big-headed.
Cuthbert Cringeworthy has a King Charles Spaniel called Cringley, but he rarely features in the strip.
Other sparring partners were the Bash Street Cats, who appeared in a summer special and in the Beano Book 1972. The Bash Street Kids also owned fish in the same issue.
Continuing the kids' anthropomorphosis into nature, the Bash Street Birds completed the set. They appeared in at least one annual and made fleeting appearances elsewhere.
References
Beano strips
1967 comics debuts
Comics about dogs
Comics about animals
Fictional dogs
Gag-a-day comics
British comics characters
Comics characters introduced in 1967
The Bash Street Kids
Comics spin-offs | [
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|
214645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varnish | Varnish | Varnish is a clear transparent hard protective coating or film. It is not a stain. It usually has a yellowish shade from the manufacturing process and materials used, but it may also be pigmented as desired, and is sold commercially in various shades.
Varnish is primarily used as a wood finish where, stained or not, the distinctive tones and grains in the wood are intended to be visible. Varnish finishes are naturally glossy, but satin/semi-gloss and flat sheens are available.
History
The word "varnish" comes from Mediaeval Latin vernix, meaning odorous resin, itself derived from Middle Greek berōnikón or beroníkē, meaning amber or amber-colored glass. A false etymology traces the word to the Greek Berenice, the ancient name of modern Benghazi in Libya, where the first varnishes in the Mediterranean area were supposedly used and where resins from the trees of now-vanished forests were sold.
Early varnishes were developed by mixing resin—pine sap, for example—with a solvent and applying them with a brush to get the golden and hardened effect one sees in today's varnishes. Varnishing was a technique well known in ancient Egypt.
Varnishing is also recorded in the history of East and South Asia; in India, China and Japan, where the practice of lacquer work, a species of varnish application, was known at a very early date. The Tang Chinese used medieval chemistry experiments to produce a varnish for clothes and weapons, employing complex chemical formulas applied to silk clothes of underwater divers, a cream designated for polishing bronze mirrors, and other formulas.
Safety
Because of flammability concerns, many product containers list safety precautions for storage and disposal for varnishes and drying oils as they are flammable, and materials used to apply the varnishes may spontaneously combust. Many varnishes contain plant-derived oils (e.g. linseed oil), synthetic oils (e.g. polyurethanes) or resins as their binder in combination with organic solvents. These are flammable in their liquid state. All drying oils, certain alkyds (including paints), and many polyurethanes produce heat (an exothermic reaction) during the curing process. Thus, oil-soaked rags and paper can smolder and ignite into flames, even several hours after use if proper precautions are not taken. Therefore, many manufacturers list proper disposal practices for rags and other items used to apply the finish, such as disposal in a water filled container.
Components of varnish
Varnish is traditionally a combination of a drying oil, a resin, and a thinner or solvent plus a metal drier to accelerate the drying. However, different types of varnish have different components. After being applied, the film-forming substances in varnishes either harden directly, as soon as the solvent has fully evaporated, or harden after evaporation of the solvent through curing processes, primarily chemical reaction between oils and oxygen from the air (autoxidation) and chemical reactions between components of the varnish.
Resin varnishes dry by evaporation of the solvent and harden quickly on drying. Acrylic and waterborne varnishes dry by evaporation of the water but will experience an extended curing period for evaporation of organic solvents absorbed on the latex particles, and possibly chemical curing of the particles. Oil, polyurethane, and epoxy varnishes remain liquid even after evaporation of the solvent but quickly begin to cure, undergoing successive stages from liquid or syrupy, to tacky or sticky, to dry gummy, to dry to the touch, to hard.
Environmental factors such as heat and humidity play a large role in the drying and curing times of varnishes. In classic varnish the cure rate depends on the type of oil used and, to some extent, on the ratio of oil to resin. The drying and curing time of all varnishes may be sped up by exposure to an energy source such as sunlight, ultraviolet light, or heat.
Drying oil
There are many different types of drying oils, including linseed oil, tung oil, and walnut oil. These contain high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Drying oils cure through an exothermic reaction between the polyunsaturated portion of the oil and oxygen from the air. Originally, the term "varnish" referred to finishes that were made entirely of resin dissolved in suitable solvents, either ethanol (alcohol) or turpentine. The advantage to finishes in previous centuries was that resin varnishes had a very rapid cure rate compared to oils; in most cases they are cured practically as soon as the solvent has fully evaporated. By contrast, untreated or "raw" oils may take weeks or months to cure, depending on ambient temperature and other environmental factors. In modern terms, boiled or partially polymerized drying oils with added siccatives or dryers (chemical catalysts) have cure times of less than 24 hours. However, certain non-toxic by-products of the curing process are emitted from the oil film even after it is dry to the touch and over a considerable period of time. It has long been a tradition to combine drying oils with resins to obtain favourable features of both substances.
Resin
Many different kinds of resins may be used to create a varnish. Natural resins used for varnish include amber, kauri gum, dammar, copal, rosin (colophony or pine resin), sandarac, balsam, elemi, mastic, and shellac. Varnish may also be created from synthetic resins such as acrylic, alkyd, or polyurethane. A varnish formula might not contain any added resins at all since drying oils can produce a varnish effect by themselves.
Solvent
Originally, turpentine or alcohol was used to dissolve the resin and thin the drying oils. The invention of petroleum distillates has led to turpentine substitutes such as white spirit, paint thinner, and mineral spirit. Modern synthetic varnishes may be formulated with water instead of hydrocarbon solvents.
Types
Violin
Violin varnishing is a multi-step process involving some or all of the following: primer, sealer, ground, color coats, and clear topcoat. Some systems use a drying oil varnish as described below, while others use spirit (or solvent) varnish. Touchup in repair or restoration is only done with spirit varnish.
Drying oil such as walnut oil or linseed oil may be used in combination with amber, copal, rosin or other resins. Traditionally the oil is prepared by cooking or exposure to air and sunlight, but modern stand oil is prepared by heating oil at high temperature without oxygen. The refined resin is sometimes available as a translucent solid and is then "run" by cooking or melting it in a pot over heat without solvents. The thickened oil and prepared resin are then cooked together and thinned with turpentine (away from open flame) into a brushable solution. The ingredients and processes of violin varnish are very diverse, with some highly regarded old examples showing defects (e.g. cracking, crazing) associated with incompatible varnish components.
Some violin finishing systems use vernice bianca (egg white and gum arabic) as a sealer or ground. There is also evidence that finely powdered minerals, possibly volcanic ash, were used in some grounds.
Some violins made in the late 18th century used ox blood to create a very deep-red coloration. Today this varnish would have faded and currently be a very warm, dark orange.
Resin
Most resin or gum varnishes consist of a natural, plant- or insect-derived substance dissolved in a solvent, called spirit varnish or solvent varnish. The solvent may be alcohol, turpentine, or petroleum-based. Some resins are soluble in both alcohol and turpentine. Generally, petroleum solvents, i.e. mineral spirits or paint thinner, can substitute for turpentine. The resins include amber, dammar, copal, rosin, sandarac, elemi, benzoin, mastic, balsam, shellac, and a multitude of lacquers.
Synthetic resins such as phenolic resin may be employed as a secondary component in certain varnishes and paints.
Over centuries, many recipes were developed which involved the combination of resins, oils, and other ingredients such as certain waxes. These were believed to impart special tonal qualities to musical instruments and thus were sometimes carefully guarded secrets. The interaction of different ingredients is difficult to predict or reproduce, so expert finishers were often prized professionals.
Shellac
Shellac is a very widely used single-component resin varnish that is alcohol-soluble. It is not used for outdoor surfaces or where it will come into repeated contact with water, such as around a sink or bathtub. The source of shellac resin is a brittle or flaky secretion of the female lac insect, Kerria lacca, found in the forests of Assam and Thailand and harvested from the bark of the trees where she deposits it to provide a sticky hold on the trunk. Shellac is the basis of French polish, which for centuries has been the preferred finish for fine furniture. Specified "dewaxed" shellac has been processed to remove the waxy substances from original shellac and can be used as a primer and sanding-sealer substrate for other finishes such as polyurethanes, alkyds, oils, and acrylics.
Prepared shellac is typically available in "clear" and "amber" (or "orange") varieties, generally as "three-pound cut" or three pounds dry shellac to one US gallon of alcohol. Other natural color shades such as ruby and yellow are available from specialty pigment or woodworker's supply outlets. Dry shellac is available as refined flakes, "sticklac," "button lac," or "seedlac." "White pigmented" shellac primer paint is widely available in retail outlets, billed as a fast-drying interior primer "problem solver", in that it adheres to a variety of surfaces and seals off odors and smoke stains. Shellac clean-up may be done either with pure alcohol or with ammonia cleansers.
Alkyd
Modern commercially produced varnishes employ some form of alkyd for producing a protective film. Alkyds have good solvent, moisture and UV light resistance. Alkyds are chemically modified vegetable oils which operate well in a wide range of conditions and can be engineered to speed up the cure rate and thus harden faster. Usually this is by the use of metal salt driers such as cobalt salts. Better (and more expensive) exterior varnishes employ alkyds made from high performance oils and contain UV-absorbers; this improves gloss-retention and extends the lifetime of the finish. Various resins may also be combined with alkyds as part of the formula for typical "oil" varnishes that are commercially available.
Spar varnish
Spar varnish (also called marine varnish) was originally intended for use on ship or boat spars, to protect the timber from the effects of sea and weather. Spars bend under the load of their sails. The primary requirements were water resistance and also elasticity, so as to remain adhering as the spars flexed. Elasticity was a pre-condition for weatherproofing too, as a finish that cracked would then allow water through, even if the remaining film was impermeable. Appearance and gloss was of relatively low value. Modified tung oil and phenolic resins are often used.
When first developed, no varnishes had good UV-resistance. Even after more modern synthetic resins did become resistant, a true spar varnish maintained its elasticity above other virtues, even if this required a compromise in its UV-resistance. Spar varnishes are thus not necessarily the best choice for outdoor woodwork that does not need to bend in service.
Despite this, the widespread perception of "marine products" as "tough" led to domestic outdoor varnishes being branded as "Spar varnish" and sold on the virtue of their weather- and UV-resistance. These claims may be more or less realistic, depending on individual products. Only relatively recently have spar varnishes been available that can offer both effective elasticity and UV-resistance.
Drying oils
Drying oils, such as linseed and tung oil, are not true varnishes though often in modern terms they accomplish the same thing.
Polyurethane
Polyurethane varnishes are typically hard, abrasion-resistant, and durable coatings. They are popular for hardwood floors but are considered by some wood finishers to be difficult or unsuitable for finishing furniture or other detailed pieces. Polyurethanes are comparable in hardness to certain alkyds but generally form a tougher film. Compared to simple oil or shellac varnishes, polyurethane varnish forms a harder, decidedly tougher and more waterproof film. However, a thick film of ordinary polyurethane may de-laminate if subjected to heat or shock, fracturing the film and leaving white patches. This tendency increases with long exposure to sunlight or when it is applied over soft woods like pine. This is also in part due to polyurethane's lesser penetration into the wood. Various priming techniques are employed to overcome this problem, including the use of certain oil varnishes, specified "dewaxed" shellac, clear penetrating epoxy sealer, or "oil-modified" polyurethane designed for the purpose. Polyurethane varnish may also lack the "hand-rubbed" lustre of drying oils such as linseed or tung oil; in contrast, however, it is capable of a much faster and higher "build" of film, accomplishing in two coats what may require multiple applications of oil. Polyurethane may also be applied over a straight oil finish, but because of the relatively slow curing time of oils, the emission of certain chemical byproducts, and the need for exposure to oxygen from the air, care must be taken that the oils are sufficiently cured to accept the polyurethane.
Unlike drying oils and alkyds which cure after evaporation of the solvent and upon reaction with oxygen from the air, true polyurethane coatings cure after evaporation of the solvent and then either by a variety of reactions of chemicals within the original mix, or by reaction with moisture from the air. Certain polyurethane products are "hybrids" and combine different aspects of their parent components. "Oil-modified" polyurethanes, whether water-borne or solvent-borne, are currently the most widely used wood floor finishes.
Exterior use of polyurethane varnish may be problematic due to its heightened susceptibility to deterioration through ultra-violet light exposure. All clear or translucent varnishes, and indeed all film-polymer coatings (e.g. paint, stain, epoxy, synthetic plastic, etc.) are susceptible to this damage in varying degrees. Pigments in paints and stains protect against UV damage. UV-absorbers are added to polyurethane and other varnishes (e.g. spar varnish) to work against UV damage but are decreasingly effective over the course of 2–4 years, depending on the quantity and quality of UV-absorbers added, as well as the severity and duration of sun exposure. Water exposure, humidity, temperature extremes, and other environmental factors affect all finishes. By contrast, wooden items retrieved from the Egyptian pyramids have a new and fresh appearance after 4000 years of storage. Even there, however, fungal colonies were present, and mildew and fungus are another category of entities which attack varnish. In other words, the only coat of varnish with near perfect durability is the one stored in a vacuum, in darkness, at a low and unvarying temperature. Otherwise, care and upkeep are required.
Lacquer
The word lacquer refers to quick-drying, solvent-based varnishes or paints. Although their names may be similarly derived, lacquer is not the same as shellac and is not dissolved in alcohol. Lacquer is dissolved in lacquer thinner, which is a highly flammable solvent typically containing butyl acetate and xylene or toluene. Lacquer is typically sprayed on, within a spray booth that evacuates overspray and minimizes the risk of combustion.
The rule of thumb is that a clear wood finish formulated to be sprayed is a lacquer, but if it is formulated to be brushed on then it is a varnish. Thus, by far most pieces of wooden furniture are lacquered.
Lacquer may be considered different from varnish because it can be re-dissolved later by a solvent (such as the one it was dissolved in when it was applied) and does not chemically change to a solid like other varnishes.
Acrylic
Acrylic resin varnishes are typically water-borne varnishes with the lowest refractive index of all finishes and high transparency. They resist yellowing. Acrylics have the advantage of water clean-up and lack of solvent fumes, but typically do not penetrate into wood as well as oils. They sometimes lack the brushability and self-leveling qualities of solvent-based varnishes. Generally they have good UV-resistance.
In the art world, varnishes offer dust-resistance and a harder surface than bare paint – they sometimes have the benefit of ultraviolet light resistors, which help protect artwork from fading in exposure to light. Acrylic varnish should be applied using an isolation coat (a permanent, protective barrier between the painting and the varnish, preferably a soft, glossy gel medium) to make varnish removal and overall conservation easier. Acrylic varnishes used for such a final removable art protection layer are typically mineral-spirit–based acrylic, rather than water-based.
Two-part epoxy
Various epoxy resin systems have been formulated as varnishes or floor finishes whereby two components are mixed directly before application. Sometimes, the two parts are of equal volume and referred to as 1:1 but not always, as 2:1, 3:1, 4:1 and even 5:1 mixing ratios are commercially available. The individual components are usually referred to as Part A and Part B. All two-part epoxies have a pot-life or working time during which the mixed material can be used. Usually the pot-life is a matter of a few hours or less but this is highly temperature dependent. Both water-borne and solvent-based epoxies are used.
Conversion
Used when a fast-curing, tough, hard finish is desired, such as for kitchen cabinets and office furniture. Comes in two parts: a resin and an acid catalyst. The first is a blend of an amino resin and an alkyd. The acid catalyst is added right before application in a set ratio determined by the manufacturer. Most produce minimal yellowing. There are, however, two downsides to this finish. The first is that as the finish cures, it gives off formaldehyde, which is toxic and carcinogenic. The second is that the finish can crack or craze if too many coats are applied.
See also
The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques
Brightwork
Desert varnish
Tack cloth
UV coating – print finishing
Alkyd
References
Bob Flexner (1993). Understanding Wood Finishing: How to Select and Apply the Right Finish. Rodale Press: Emmaus, PA.
External links
Tung and Linseed Oils by Steven D. Russel
Varnish for musical instruments
Varnish for Violins and similar instruments (archive.org)
Instructions for Making an Acoustically Proven Varnish Using only Five Ingredients by Keith Hill
Chinese inventions
Painting materials
Printing materials
Tang dynasty
Visual arts materials
Wood finishing materials | [
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|
214651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnasher | Gnasher | Gnasher () is a fictional comic strip character that appears in the British comic magazine The Beano. He is the pet dog of Dennis the Menace, who meets him in 1968's issue 1362, and is also the star of three spin-off comic strips. Gnasher is considered just as iconic as his owner as both have been the stars of many children's television programming and are the unofficial mascots of The Beano. Gnasher reached nationwide news in the 1980s after he disappeared from the magazine for seven weeks, returning with his six newborn puppies, but usually interacts with his son Gnipper.
Development
Although Dennis the Menace was shown with a terrier in his first story, he would not meet Gnasher for 17 years. Dennis' artist Davey Law decided to give his character a dog companion but struggled to give the dog a perfect design, inspired by DC Thomson writer Jim Fowler mentioning reading a newspaper story about pets looking like their owners. Ian Gray suggested Law should "draw Dennis the Menace's hair, put a leg on each corner and two eyeballs at that end." Gray was dog breeding hobbyist and would also assist with some of Gnasher's stories and for the stories Pup Parade.
Character background
Gnasher is a black-haired Abyssinian Wire-Haired Tripe Hound who often enjoys chewing and biting anyone and anything, grunting "gnash!" instead of barking. He was a bushy stray when Dennis found him just as Dennis grew interest in a local dog show. Dennis gives him the name "Gnasher" and encourages his misbehaviour. The two are inseparable, to the point the comic strip alternates between the titles Dennis the Menace, Dennis the Menace and Gnasher and Dennis and Gnasher.
Although the reader can read Gnasher's thoughts from the thought bubbles, other characters cannot understand him if he decides to talk in front of them (his dialogue usually represented with most words beginning with n having the (silent) letter g in front to represent his barks, e.g. "gnight"). Dennis can only understand him on Hallowe'en.
"Who's Gnicked Gnasher?" publicity stunt
The Beano sales ebbed throughout the 1980s, no longer selling millions of issues per week as it did thirty years ago. Aware of how audiences enjoyed watching Gnasher and Dennis' tight bond, sub-editor Alan Digby suggested a media prank that could cause a sales boost, leading to the seven-issue long "Where's Gnasher?" saga. It began in issue 2279, initially about Dennis outwitting a man with a giant bag of money from buying Gnasher, but Gnasher later disappeared without explanation and the story ended with Dennis standing alone in his back garden asking the reader if they would help him find Gnasher. The following issues would commonly begin with a panel of children holding Gnasher picket signs as Dennis and his family either joined the march or tried to cope with Gnasher's disappearance; Dennis also considers adopting a similar-looking replacement, and sets up traps to lure Gnasher back. Initially baffled by the town's search parties, Dennis' father starts to miss Gnasher when he realises Gnasher cannot pretend to spill his wife's terrible meals on the floor for Gnasher to eat when she is out of the room. Part 3 of the saga broke the fourth wall when Dennis decides to invite himself into DC Thomson's Beano offices and ask chief-editor Euan Kerr to help. Gnasher's departure would end in issue 2286 when Dennis and Walter find a pram full of puppies outside Dennis' front door, revealing he was caring for his son and five daughters. He reveals to the reader his children are named Gnorah, Gnatasha, Gnanette, Gnaomi, Gnancy and Gnipper.
Star of his own stories
Gnasher's Tale
After co-starring with his owner in Dennis the Menace and Gnasher for nine years, Gnasher would star in his own strip: Gnasher's Tale, a prequel series about Gnasher's life when he was a puppy. David Sutherland designed the series, encouraged to show off Gnasher's dynamic expressions, and his stories debuted in 1977's issue 1818.
Despite The Beano already establishing Dennis (and his family) met Gnasher when he was fully grown, Dennis is also portrayed as younger, and the first story showed his friend Curly wearing a bib and sucking a dummy. Each strip begins with a panel of Gnasher addressing the audience as he holds a book implied to contain the anecdote for the episode—its title initially Gnasher's Puphood, then changed to My Tale by Gnasher three strips later. The series changes the origin story to Dennis and his friends finding Gnasher in a bush, thinking Gnasher is a hairy worm because of his size. Dennis's father starts loathing Gnasher after Gnasher eats his dinner, and becomes determined to train the puppy, despite Gnasher's hyperactive behaviour provoking, humiliating and injuring him. A few stories imply he understands Gnasher, showing him react to Gnasher's anthropomorphic responses and the two violently arguing at times. Other cameos include Dennis' mum and a younger Walter, as Gnasher does not hold back from tormenting them as well for his amusement or to get his own way. Other stories are about "Gnasher's firsts", showing him at his first haircut and vet visit, and when he first learnt how strong his teeth are.
The series was eventually cancelled after issue 2278, in the wake of the "Where's Gnasher?" saga. Its section was replaced by Foo Foo's Fairy Story, also illustrated by Dave Sutherland, starring Walter's dog Foo-Foo. When Gnasher reunited with Dennis, Gnasher's Tale remained cancelled, but would feature in Beano annuals illustrated by Barry Glennard, and in Dandy and Beano: The Golden Years, Volume II.
Gnasher and Gnipper
In the same issue Gnasher returned, Gnasher and Gnipper debuted, replacing Gnasher's Tale. This series was set in the present day, showing Gnasher bonding with his only son, usually chasing cats and postmen, pestering Foo-Foo, and finding some sausages to eat. Dennis and his family sometimes featured. Around each other, Gnasher and Gnipper communicate through speech bubbles anthropomorphically, but the dialogue is placed back in thought bubbles around human characters, implying the humans cannot understand them. Occasionally, one of Gnipper's sisters make an appearance to help with a scheme, but most stories usually feature the protagonists irritating adults.
David Sutherland illustrated until 1993 and was succeeded by Barry Glennard. The series declined throughout the 2000s as The Beano prepped for the new Dennis the Menace cartoon and did not return until 2014. Its recent artist is Barrie Appleby, with scripts by Danny Pearson and JD Savage. Gnasher and Gnipper has featured in The Beano Annual, The Beano Summer Special and in issue 168 of the Beano Comic Library.
Gnasher's Bit(e)
Gnasher received a solo series again in 2011 with Gnasher's Bit(e), illustrated by Jimmy Hansen and then Barrie Appleby, authored by an uncredited Ryan C. Gavan. It ended in January 2014.
Funsize Funnies shorts
Gnipper
Gnasher's son received his own, eponymous three-panel gag-a-day in Beano Funsize Funnies section from January to July 2013, with artwork by Canadian artist Graham Howie.
Gnash Gnews
Gnash Gnews was a mini-strip which featured in Funsize Funnies from issues 3660 to 3681, illustrated by Barrie Appleby.
Reception and legacy
Although "Who's Gnicked Gnasher?" failed to resurrect The Beano sales in the long term, the saga received nationwide attention. Distraught readers telephoned and wrote to DC Thomson to both voice their worry for Gnasher's safety or help look for clues, and The Dennis the Menace club sold Gnasher badges to identify other readers also helping Dennis. Radio presenter Mike Read broadcast the news on his BBC Radio 1 show (which was dramatised in issue 2281), and newspapers like The Times reported the disappearance frequently. The series would be reprinted in the 1990 Dennis the Menace Annual as a 16-page story entitled Who's Gnicked Gnasher? The Beano re-created the saga in 2014, in which Dennis would ask Bear Grylls to help with the search.
Gnatasha had her own strip in The Beezer and Topper, and appeared in the 1994 Beezer Book.
Notes
References
External links
Gnasher bio on beano.com
beanotown.com
First introduction of Gnasher
Beano strips
Comics characters introduced in 1968
Fictional dogs
Comics about dogs
Male characters in comics
DC Thomson Comics characters
Dennis the Menace and Gnasher | [
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|
214654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucosmodon | Eucosmodon | Eucosmodon is a genus of extinct mammal from the Paleocene of North America. It is a member of the extinct order of Multituberculata within the suborder of Cimolodonta, and the family Eucosmodontidae. This genus has partly also been known as Neoplagiaulax. All known fossils of this small mammal are restricted to teeth.
Species
All known species of Eucosmodon have been found in the San Juan Basin of New Mexico (United States).
Eucosmodon americanus is a species of which Puercan (Paleocene)-age fossils have been found. Some, but not all, of this fossil material has been reclassified as E. primus. This animal, which probably weighed something like 750 g, has been cited as a possible descendant of that species.
Eucosmodon molestus is a species of Torrejonian (Paleocene) age. It has been cited as a possible descendant of E. americanus.
Eucosmodon primus, also from the Puercan part of the Paleocene, have been found in the Nacimiento Formation of the San Juan Basin. This species is based on fossils originally ascribed to E. americanus.
A possible fourth species, Eucosmodon kuszmauli, has also been named.
References
(Most of this information has been derived from this page)
Cimolodonts
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Extinct mammals of North America
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|
214656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clemensodon | Clemensodon | Clemensodon is a genus of extinct mammal from the Upper Cretaceous of North America. It lived during the end of the Mesozoic, also known as the "age of the dinosaurs". It was a member of the extinct order of Multituberculata within the suborder of Cimolodonta and family Eucosmodontidae. Fossil remains are restricted to teeth.
The main species of Clemensodon is Clemensodon megaloba, however, this species is also known as a part of Kimbetohia campi. Fossils have been found in the Lance Formation of Wyoming (United States). They age from the Maastrichtian division of the Upper Cretaceous. The species is based on a reassessment of a couple of Kimbetohia teeth, but not the entire species or genus. The assignment of this taxon to Eucosmodontidae is tentative.
Evidence from the size and number of serrations of certain teeth and its enamel microstructure indicates that Clemensodon is either a derived taeniolabdoid or a primitive ptilodontoid. Determination of which of these two alternatives is correct must await the recovery of teeth from other positions.
References
Most of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Eucosmodontidae, Microcosmodontidae and Taeniolabidoidea, an Internet directory.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Hurum J.H. (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Krause (1992), "Clemensodon megaloba, a new genus and species of Multituberculata (Mammalia) from the Upper Cretaceous Type Lance Formation, Powder River Basin, Wyoming". PaleoBios 14(2), p. 1-8.
Cimolodonts
Late Cretaceous mammals of North America
Extinct mammals of North America
Fossil taxa described in 1992
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214657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFmpeg | FFmpeg | FFmpeg is a free and open-source software project consisting of a suite of libraries and programs for handling video, audio, and other multimedia files and streams. At its core is the command-line ffmpeg tool itself, designed for processing of video and audio files. It is widely used for format transcoding, basic editing (trimming and concatenation), video scaling, video post-production effects and standards compliance (SMPTE, ITU).
FFmpeg also includes other tools: ffplay, a simple media player and ffprobe, a command-line tool to display media information. Among included libraries are libavcodec, an audio/video codec library used by many commercial and free software products, libavformat (Lavf), an audio/video container mux and demux library, and libavfilter, a library for enhancing and editing filters through a Gstreamer-like filtergraph.
FFmpeg is part of the workflow of many other software projects, and its libraries are a core part of software media players such as VLC, and has been included in core processing for YouTube and BiliBili. Encoders and decoders for many audio and video file formats are included, making it highly useful for the transcoding of common and uncommon media files.
FFmpeg is published under the LGPL-2.1-or-later or GPL-2.0-or-later, depending on which options are enabled.
History
The project was started by Fabrice Bellard (using the pseudonym "Gérard Lantau") in 2000, and was led by Michael Niedermayer from 2004 until 2015. Some FFmpeg developers were also part of the MPlayer project.
The name of the project is inspired by the MPEG video standards group, together with "FF" for "fast forward". The logo uses a zigzag pattern that shows how MPEG video codecs handle entropy encoding.
On March 13, 2011, a group of FFmpeg developers decided to fork the project under the name Libav. The event was related to an issue in project management, in which developers disagreed with the leadership of FFmpeg.
On January 10, 2014, two Google employees announced that over 1000 bugs had been fixed in FFmpeg during the previous two years by means of fuzz testing.
In January 2018, the ffserver command-line program – a long-time component of FFmpeg – was removed. The developers had previously deprecated the program citing high maintenance efforts due to its use of internal application programming interfaces.
The project publishes a new release every three months on average. While release versions are available from the website for download, FFmpeg developers recommend that users compile the software from source using the latest build from their source code Git version control system.
Codec history
Two video coding formats with corresponding codecs and one container format have been created within the FFmpeg project so far. The two video codecs are the lossless FFV1, and the lossless and lossy Snow codec. Development of Snow has stalled, while its bit-stream format has not been finalized yet, making it experimental since 2011. The multimedia container format called NUT is no longer being actively developed, but still maintained.
In summer 2010, FFmpeg developers Fiona Glaser, Ronald Bultje, and David Conrad, announced the ffvp8 decoder. Through testing, they determined that ffvp8 was faster than Google's own libvpx decoder. Starting with version 0.6, FFmpeg also supported WebM and VP8.
In October 2013, a native VP9 and the OpenHEVC decoder, an open source High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC) decoder, were added to FFmpeg. In 2016 the native AAC encoder was considered stable, removing support for the two external AAC encoders from VisualOn and FAAC. FFmpeg 3.0 (nicknamed "Einstein") retained build support for the Fraunhofer FDK AAC encoder. Since version 3.4 "Cantor" FFmpeg supported the FITS image format. Since November 2018 in version 4.1 "al-Khwarizmi" AV1 can be muxed in MP4 and Matroska incl. WebM.
Components
Command line tools
ffmpeg is a command-line tool that converts audio or video formats. It can also capture and encode in real-time from various hardware and software sources such as a TV capture card.
ffplay is a simple media player utilizing SDL and the FFmpeg libraries.
ffprobe is a command-line tool to display media information (text, CSV, XML, JSON), see also Mediainfo.
Libraries
libswresample is a library containing audio resampling routines.
libavresample is a library containing audio resampling routines from the Libav project, similar to libswresample from ffmpeg.
libavcodec is a library containing all of the native FFmpeg audio/video encoders and decoders. Most codecs were developed from scratch to ensure best performance and high code reusability.
libavformat (Lavf) is a library containing demuxers and muxers for audio/video container formats.
libavutil is a helper library containing routines common to different parts of FFmpeg. This library includes hash functions, ciphers, LZO decompressor and Base64 encoder/decoder.
libpostproc is a library containing older H.263 based video postprocessing routines.
libswscale is a library containing video image scaling and colorspace/pixelformat conversion routines.
libavfilter is the substitute for vhook which allows the video/audio to be modified or examined between the decoder and the encoder. Filters have been ported from many projects including MPlayer and avisynth.
libavdevice is a library containing audio/video io through internal and external devices.
Supported hardware
CPUs
FFmpeg encompasses software implementations of video and audio compressing and decompressing algorithms. These can be compiled and run on diverse instruction sets.
Many widespread instruction sets are supported by FFmpeg, including x86 (IA-32 and x86-64), PPC (PowerPC), ARM, DEC Alpha, SPARC, and MIPS.
Special purpose hardware
There are a variety of application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) for audio/video compression and decompression. These ASICs can partially or completely offload the computation from the host CPU. Instead of a complete implementation of an algorithm, only the API is required to use such an ASIC.
Use with the FFmpeg utility
Internal hardware acceleration decoding is enabled through the -hwaccel option. It starts decoding normally, but if a decodable stream is detected in hardware, then the decoder designates all significant processing to that hardware, thus accelerating the decoding process. Whereas if no decodable streams are detected (as happens on an unsupported codec or profile), hardware acceleration will be skipped and it will still be decoded in software. -hwaccel_device option is applied when the hardware requires a particular device to function especially when there are several graphic cards available.
Supported codecs and formats
Image formats
FFmpeg supports many common and some uncommon image formats.
The PGMYUV image format is a homebrewn variant of the binary (P5) PGM Netpbm format. FFmpeg also supports 16-bit depths of the PGM and PPM formats, and the binary (P7) PAM format with or without alpha channel, depth 8 bit or 16 bit for pix_fmts monob, gray, gray16be, rgb24, rgb48be, ya8, rgba, rgb64be.
Supported formats
In addition to FFV1 and Snow formats, which were created and developed from within FFmpeg, the project also supports the following formats:
Muxers
Output formats (container formats and other ways of creating output streams) in FFmpeg are called "muxers". FFmpeg supports, among others, the following:
AIFF
ASF
AVI and also input from AviSynth
BFI
CAF
FLV
GIF
GXF, General eXchange Format, SMPTE 360M
HLS, HTTP Live Streaming
IFF
ISO base media file format (including QuickTime, 3GP and MP4)
Matroska (including WebM)
Maxis XA
MPEG-DASH
MPEG program stream
MPEG transport stream (including AVCHD)
MXF, Material eXchange Format, SMPTE 377M
MSN Webcam stream
NUT
Ogg
OMA
RL2
Segment, for creating segmented video streams
Smooth Streaming
TXD
WTV
Pixel formats
FFmpeg supports many pixel formats. Some of these formats are only supported as input formats. The command ffmpeg -pix_fmts provides a list of supported pixel formats.
FFmpeg does not support IMC1-IMC4, AI44, CYMK, RGBE, Log RGB and other formats. It also does not yet support ARGB 1:5:5:5, 2:10:10:10, or other BMP bitfield formats that are not commonly used.
Supported protocols
Open standards
IETF RFCs:
FTP
Gopher
HLS
HTTP
HTTPS
RTP
RTSP
SCTP
SDP
SRTP
TCP
TLS
UDP
UDP-Lite
IETF I-Ds:
SFTP (via libssh)
Microsoft OSP:
CIFS/SMB (via libsmbclient)
MMS over TCP (MS-MMSP)
MMS over HTTP (MS-WMSP)
CENELEC
SAT>IP
OASIS standards:
AMQP 0-9-1 (via librabbitmq)
SRT Alliance standard:
SRT (via libsrt)
De facto standards
RTSP over TLS
Icecast protocol
Adobe RTMP, RTMPT, RTMPE, RTMPTE and RTMPS
RealMedia RTSP/RDT
ZeroMQ (via libzmq)
RIST (librist)
Supported filters
FFmpeg supports, among others, the following filters.
Audio
Resampling (aresample)
Pass/Stop filters
Low-pass filter (lowpass)
High-pass filter (highpass)
All-pass filter (allpass)
Butterworth Band-pass filter (bandpass)
Butterworth Band-stop filter (bandreject)
Arbitrary Finite Impulse Response Filter (afir)
Arbitrary Infinite Impulse Response Filter (aiir)
Equalizer
Peak Equalizer (equalizer)
Butterworth/Chebyshev Type I/Type II Multiband Equalizer (anequalizer)
Low Shelving filter (bass)
High Shelving filter (treble)
Xbox 360 rqulizer
FIR equalizer (firequalizer)
Biquad filter (biquad)
Remove/Add DC offset (dcshift)
Expression evaluation
Time domain expression evaluation (aeval)
Frequency domain expression evaluation (afftfilt)
Dynamics
Limiter (alimiter)
Compressor (acompressor)
Dynamic range expander ()
Side-chain Compressor (sidechaincompress)
Compander (compand)
Noise gate (agate)
Side-chain Noise gate(sidechaingate)
Distortion
Bitcrusher (acrusher)
Emphasis (aemphasis)
Amplify/Normalizer
Volume (volume)
Dynamic Audio Normalizer (dynaudnorm)
EBU R 128 loudness normalizer (loudnorm)
Modulation
Sinusoidal Amplitude Modulation (tremolo)
Sinusoidal Phase Modulation (vibrato)
Phaser (aphaser)
Chorus (chorus)
Flanger (flanger)
Pulsator (apulsator)
Echo/Reverb
Echo (aecho)
Routing/Panning
Stereo widening (stereowiden)
Increase channel differences (extrastereo)
M/S to L/R (stereotools)
Channel mapping (channelmap)
Channel splitting (channelsplit)
Channel panning (pan)
Channel merging (amerge)
Channel joining (join)
for Headphones
Stereo to Binaural (earwax, ported from SoX)
Bauer Stereo to Binaural (bs2b, via libbs2b)
Crossfeed (crossfeed)
Multi-channel to Binaural (sofalizer, requires libnetcdf)
Delay
Delay (adelay)
Delay by distance (compensationdelay)
Fade
Fader (afade)
Crossfader (acrossfade)
Audio time-scale/pitch modification
Time stretching (atempo)
Time-stretching and Pitch-shifting (rubberband, via librubberband)
Editing
Trim (atrim)
Silence-padding (apad)
Silence remover (silenceremove)
Show frame/channel information
Show frame information (ashowinfo)
Show channel information (astats)
Show silence ranges (silencedetect)
Show audio volumes (volumedetect)
ReplayGain scanner (replaygain)
Modify frame/channel information
Set output format (aformat)
Set number of sample (asetnsamples)
Set sampling rate (asetrate)
Mixer (amix)
Synchronization (asyncts)
HDCD data decoder (hdcd)
Plugins
LADSPA (ladspa)
LV2 (lv2)
Do nothing ()
Video
Transformations
Cropping (crop, cropdetect)
Fading (fade)
Scaling (scale)
Padding (pad)
Rotation (rotate)
Transposition (transpose)
Others:
Lens correction (lenscorrection)
OpenCV filtering (ocv)
Perspective correction (perspective)
Temporal editing
Framerate (fps, framerate)
Looping (loop)
Trimming (trim)
Deinterlacing (bwdif, idet, kerndeint, nnedi, yadif, w3fdif)
Inverse Telecine
Filtering
Blurring (boxblur, gblur, avgblur, sab, smartblur)
Convolution filters
Convolution (convolution)
Edge detection (edgedetect)
Sobel Filter (sobel)
Prewitt Filter (prewitt)
Unsharp masking (unsharp)
Denoising (atadenoise, bitplanenoise, dctdnoiz, owdenoise, removegrain)
Logo removal (delogo, removelogo)
Subtitles (ASS, subtitles)
Alpha channel editing (alphaextract, alphamerge)
Keying (chromakey, colorkey, lumakey)
Frame detection
Black frame detection (blackdetect, blackframe)
Thumbnail selection (thumbnail)
Frame Blending (blend, tblend, overlay)
Video stabilization (vidstabdetect, vidstabtransform)
Color and Level adjustments
Balance and levels (colorbalance, colorlevels)
Channel mixing (colorchannelmixer)
Color space (colorspace)
Parametric adjustments (curves, eq)
Histograms and visualization
CIE Scope (ciescope)
Vectorscope (vectorscope)
Waveform monitor (waveform)
Color histogram (histogram)
Drawing
OCR
Quality measures
SSIM (ssim)
PSNR (psnr)
Lookup Tables
lut, lutrgb, lutyuv, lut2, lut3d, haldclut
Supported test patterns
SMPTE color bars (smptebars and smptehdbars)
EBU color bars (pal75bars and pal100bars)
Supported LUT formats
cineSpace LUT format
Iridas Cube
Adobe After Effects 3dl
DaVinci Resolve dat
Pandora m3d
Supported media and interfaces
FFmpeg supports the following devices via external libraries.
Media
Compact disc (via libcdio; input only)
Physical interfaces
IEEE1394 (a.k.a. FireWire; via libdc1394 and libraw1394; input only)
IEC 61883 (via libiec61883; input only)
DeckLink
Brooktree video capture chip (via bktr driver; input only)
Audio IO
Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA)
Open Sound System (OSS)
PulseAudio
JACK Audio Connection Kit (JACK; input only)
OpenAL (input only)
sndio
Core Audio (for macOS)
AVFoundation (input only)
AudioToolbox (output only)
Video IO
Video4Linux2
Video for Windows (input only)
Windows DirectShow
Android Camera (input only)
Screen capture and output
Simple DirectMedia Layer 2 (output only)
OpenGL (output only)
Linux framebuffer (fbdev)
Graphics Device Interface (GDI; input only)
X Window System (X11; via XCB; input only)
X video extension (XV; via Xlib; output only)
Kernel Mode Setting (via libdrm; input only)
Others
ASCII art (via libcaca; output only)
Applications
Legal aspects
FFmpeg contains more than 100 codecs, most of which use compression techniques of one kind or another. Many such compression techniques may be subject to legal claims relating to software patents. Such claims may be enforceable in countries like the United States which have implemented software patents, but are considered unenforceable or void in member countries of the European Union, for example. Patents for many older codecs, including AC3 and all MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 codecs, have expired.
FFmpeg is licensed under the LGPL license, but if a particular build of FFmpeg is linked against any GPL libraries (notably x264), then the entire binary is licensed under the GPL.
Projects using FFmpeg
FFmpeg is used by software such as VLC media player, xine, Shotcut, Cinelerra-GG video editor, Plex, Kodi, Blender, HandBrake, YouTube, VirtualDub2, a VirtualDub fork, and MPC-HC; it handles video and audio playback in Google Chrome, and the Linux version of Firefox. Graphical user interface front-ends for FFmpeg have been developed, including XMedia Recode.
FFmpeg is used by ffdshow, LAV Filters, the GStreamer FFmpeg plug-in, Perian, OpenMAX IL, and FFmpegInterop to expand the encoding and decoding capabilities of their respective multimedia platform.
As part of NASA's Mars 2020 mission, FFmpeg is used by the Perseverance rover on Mars for image and video compression before being sent back to Earth.
See also
MEncoder, a similar project
List of open-source codecs
References
External links
C (programming language) libraries
Command-line software
Cross-platform free software
Free codecs
Free computer libraries
Free music software
Free software programmed in C
Free video conversion software
Multimedia frameworks
Software that uses FFmpeg
Assembly language software
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|
214658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie%20Fear | Freddie Fear | Freddie Fear is a fictional character who has his own comic strip in the UK comic The Beano, the tagline being Son of a Witch.
Freddie Fear is a normal boy, but he lives with his mother, a witch. Each week they show adventures, mainly Freddie trying to do something normal and then his mum comes along and makes it all magical. He has a couple of pet monsters. The strip first appeared in issue 3103, dated 5 January 2002, where Beano readers voted between it and two other comic strips (Phone-a-Fiend and Space Kidette) for which one they wanted to stay in the comic. Freddie's strip won. It is drawn by Dave Eastbury. Since his first appearance, he has grown less and less used to his mother's witchcraft and, if anything, he is frequently frustrated by the stupidity of his mother or the other spooks, such as getting annoyed with his mother for trying to bake cakes using spells (resulting in a lot of snakes being produced because his mother cannot spell).
At the end of 2009, the artwork on the strip was given a revamp to match Dave Eastbury's new style on Ball Boy. Since then, Freddie has appeared noticeably smaller, and his head is more stretched out. His mother's appearance also changed, albeit to a lesser extent, and she began to wear a shorter dress. His story in the 2011 Beano Annual was drawn by Tom Paterson. However, his appearances in the comic became increasingly less regular during 2011. In October 2011, the strip returned as reprints from 2004, however, only two of these strips have been printed so far. On the Freddie Fear Beano page in 2012, it was confirmed that Freddie's series has ended.
Beano strips | [
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214659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%20731 | Unit 731 | , short for Manshu Detachment 731 and also known as the Kamo Detachment and Ishii Unit, was a covert biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that engaged in lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) and World War II. It was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes committed by the armed forces of Imperial Japan. Unit 731 was based in the Pingfang district of Harbin, the largest city in the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo (now Northeast China), and had active branch offices throughout China and Southeast Asia.
It was officially known as the . Originally set up by the Kenpeitai military police of the Empire of Japan, Unit 731 was taken over and commanded until the end of the war by General Shirō Ishii, a combat medic officer in the Kwantung Army. The facility itself was built in 1935 as a replacement for the Zhongma Fortress, and Ishii and his team used it to expand their capabilities. The program received generous support from the Japanese government until the end of the war in 1945. Unit 731 and the other units of the Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department operated biological weapon production, testing, deployment, and storage facilities. They routinely conducted tests on human beings (who were internally referred to as "logs"). Additionally, biological weapons were tested in the field on cities and towns in China. Estimates of those killed by Unit 731 and its related programs range up to half a million people.
While Unit 731 researchers arrested by Soviet forces were tried at the December 1949 Khabarovsk war crime trials, those captured by the United States were secretly given immunity in exchange for the data gathered during their human experiments. The Americans coopted the researchers' bioweapons information and experience for use in their own biological warfare program, much as they had done with German researchers in Operation Paperclip. Chinese accounts were largely dismissed as communist propaganda.
Formation
In 1932, Surgeon General , chief medical officer of the Imperial Japanese Army and protégé of Army Minister Sadao Araki, was placed in command of the Army Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory (AEPRL). Ishii organized a secret research group, the "Tōgō Unit", for chemical and biological experimentation in Manchuria. Ishii had proposed the creation of a Japanese biological and chemical research unit in 1930, after a two-year study trip abroad, on the grounds that Western powers were developing their own programs.
One of Ishii's main supporters inside the army was Colonel Chikahiko Koizumi, who later served as Japan's Health Minister from 1941 to 1945. Koizumi had joined a secret poison gas research committee in 1915, during World War I, when he and other Imperial Japanese Army officers were impressed by the successful German use of chlorine gas at the Second Battle of Ypres, in which the Allies suffered 5,000 deaths and 15,000 wounded as a result of the chemical attack.
Zhongma Fortress
Unit Tōgō was set into motion in the Zhongma Fortress, a prison/experimentation camp in Beiyinhe, a village south of Harbin on the South Manchuria Railway. Prisoners were generally well fed on a diet of rice or wheat, meat, fish, and occasionally even alcohol in order to be in normal health at the beginning of experiments. Then, over several days, prisoners were eventually drained of blood and deprived of nutrients and water. Their deteriorating health was recorded. Some were also vivisected. Others were deliberately infected with plague bacteria and other microbes.
A prison break in the autumn of 1934, which jeopardized the facility's secrecy, and an explosion in 1935 (believed to be sabotage) led Ishii to shut down Zhongma Fortress. He then received authorization to move to Pingfang, approximately south of Harbin, to set up a new, much larger facility.
Unit 731
In 1936, Emperor Hirohito issued a decree authorizing the expansion of the unit and its integration into the Kwantung Army as the Epidemic Prevention Department. It was divided at that time into the "Ishii Unit" and "Wakamatsu Unit", with a base in Hsinking. From August 1940 on, the units were known collectively as the "Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army" (関東軍防疫給水部本部) or "Unit 731" (満州第731部隊) for short.
Other units
In addition to the establishment of Unit 731, the decree also called for the creation of an additional biological warfare development unit, called the Kwantung Army Military Horse Epidemic Prevention Workshop (later referred to as Manchuria Unit 100), and a chemical warfare development unit called the Kwantung Army Technical Testing Department (later referred to as Manchuria Unit 516). After the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, sister chemical and biological warfare units were founded in major Chinese cities and were referred to as Epidemic Prevention and Water Supply Units. Detachments included Unit 1855 in Beijing, Unit Ei 1644 in Nanjing, Unit 8604 in Guangzhou, and later Unit 9420 in Singapore. All of these units comprised Ishii's network, which, at its height in 1939, oversaw over 10,000 personnel. Medical doctors and professors from Japan were attracted to join Unit 731 both by the rare opportunity to conduct human experimentation and the Army's strong financial backing.
Experiments
A special project, codenamed Maruta, used human beings for experiments. Test subjects were gathered from the surrounding population and sometimes euphemistically referred to as , used in such contexts as "How many logs fell?". This term originated as a joke on the part of the staff because the official cover story for the facility given to local authorities was that it was a lumber mill. However, according to a junior uniformed civilian employee of the Imperial Japanese Army working in Unit 731, the project was internally called "Holzklotz", German for log. In a further parallel, the corpses of "sacrificed" subjects were disposed of by incineration. Researchers in Unit 731 also published some of their results in peer-reviewed journals, writing as though the research had been conducted on nonhuman primates called "Manchurian monkeys" or "long-tailed monkeys".
The test subjects were selected to gather a wide cross-section of the population and included common criminals, captured bandits, anti-Japanese partisans, political prisoners, homeless and mentally disabled people, as well as those rounded up by the Kenpeitai military police for alleged "suspicious activities". They included infants, men, the elderly, and pregnant women. Unit 731 staff included approximately 300 researchers, including doctors and bacteriologists. Many had been desensitized to performing cruel experiments from experience in animal research.
Nakagawa Yonezo, professor emeritus at Osaka University, studied at Kyoto University during the war. While he was there, he watched footage of human experiments and executions from Unit 731. He later testified about the playfulness of the experimenters:
Some of the experiments had nothing to do with advancing the capability of germ warfare, or of medicine. There is such a thing as professional curiosity: "What would happen if we did such and such?" What medical purpose was served by performing and studying beheadings? None at all. That was just playing around. Professional people, too, like to play.
Prisoners were injected with diseases, disguised as vaccinations, to study their effects. To study the effects of untreated venereal diseases, male and female prisoners were deliberately infected with syphilis and gonorrhea, then studied. Prisoners were also repeatedly subjected to rape by guards.
Vivisection
Thousands of men, women, children, and infants interned at prisoner of war camps were subjected to vivisection, often performed without anesthesia and usually lethal. In a video interview, former Unit 731 member Okawa Fukumatsu admitted to having vivisected a pregnant woman. Vivisections were performed on prisoners after infecting them with various diseases. Researchers performed invasive surgery on prisoners, removing organs to study the effects of disease on the human body.
Prisoners had limbs amputated in order to study blood loss. Limbs removed were sometimes reattached to the opposite side of victims' bodies. Some prisoners had their stomachs surgically removed and their esophagus reattached to the intestines. Parts of organs, such as the brain, lungs, and liver, were removed from others. Imperial Japanese Army surgeon Ken Yuasa suggests that practising vivisection on human subjects was widespread even outside Unit 731, estimating that at least 1,000 Japanese personnel were involved in the practice in mainland China.
Biological warfare
Unit 731 and its affiliated units (Unit 1644 and Unit 100, among others) were involved in research, development and experimental deployment of epidemic-creating biowarfare weapons in assaults against the Chinese populace (both military and civilian) throughout World War II. Plague-infected fleas, bred in the laboratories of Unit 731 and Unit 1644, were spread by low-flying airplanes over Chinese cities, including coastal Ningbo and Changde, Hunan Province, in 1940 and 1941. These operations killed tens of thousands with bubonic plague epidemics. An expedition to Nanjing involved spreading typhoid and paratyphoid germs into the wells, marshes, and houses of the city, as well as infusing them in snacks distributed to locals. Epidemics broke out shortly after, to the elation of many researchers, who concluded that paratyphoid fever was "the most effective" of the pathogens.
At least 12 large-scale bioweapon field trials were carried out, and at least 11 Chinese cities attacked with biological agents. An attack on Changde in 1941 reportedly led to approximately 10,000 biological casualties and 1,700 deaths among ill-prepared Japanese troops, in most cases due to cholera. Japanese researchers performed tests on prisoners with bubonic plague, cholera, smallpox, botulism, and other diseases. This research led to the development of the defoliation bacilli bomb and the flea bomb used to spread bubonic plague. Some of these bombs were designed with porcelain shells, an idea proposed by Ishii in 1938.
These bombs enabled Japanese soldiers to launch biological attacks, infecting agriculture, reservoirs, wells, as well as other areas, with anthrax- and plague-carrier fleas, typhoid, dysentery, cholera, or other deadly pathogens. During biological bomb experiments, researchers dressed in protective suits would examine the dying victims. Infected food supplies and clothing were dropped by airplane into areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces. In addition, poisoned food and candy were given to unsuspecting victims.
During the final months of World War II, Japan planned to use plague as a biological weapon against San Diego, California. The plan was scheduled to launch on 22 September 1945, but Japan surrendered five weeks earlier. Plague fleas, infected clothing, and infected supplies encased in bombs were dropped on various targets. The resulting cholera, anthrax, and plague were estimated to have killed at least 400,000 Chinese civilians. Tularemia was also tested on Chinese civilians.
Due to pressure from numerous accounts of the biowarfare attacks, Chiang Kai-shek sent a delegation of army and foreign medical personnel in November 1941 to document evidence and treat the afflicted. A report on the Japanese use of plague-infected fleas on Changde was made widely available the following year but was not addressed by the Allied Powers until Franklin D. Roosevelt issued a public warning in 1943 condemning the attacks.
Weapons testing
Human targets were used to test grenades positioned at various distances and in various positions. Flamethrowers were tested on people. Victims were also tied to stakes and used as targets to test pathogen-releasing bombs, chemical weapons, shrapnel bombs with varying amounts of fragments, and explosive bombs as well as bayonets and knives.
Other experiments
In other tests, subjects were deprived of food and water to determine the length of time until death; placed into low-pressure chambers until their eyes popped from the sockets; experimented upon to determine the relationship between temperature, burns, and human survival; pumped full of horse blood; hung upside down until death; crushed with heavy objects; electrocuted; dehydrated with hot fans; placed into centrifuges and spun until death; injected with animal blood; exposed to lethal doses of X-rays; subjected to various chemical weapons inside gas chambers; injected with seawater; and burned or buried alive. In addition to chemical agents, the properties of many different toxins were also investigated by the Unit. To name a few, prisoners were exposed to tetrodotoxin (pufferfish or fugu venom), heroin, Korean bindweed, bactal, and castor-oil seeds (ricin). Massive amounts of blood were drained from some prisoners in order to study the effects of blood loss according to former Unit 731 vivisectionist Okawa Fukumatsu. In one case, at least half a liter of blood was drawn at two-to-three-day intervals.
Unit 731 also performed transfusion experiments with different blood types. Unit member Naeo Ikeda wrote:
Unit 731 tested many different chemical agents on prisoners and had a building dedicated to gas experiments. Some of the agents tested were mustard gas, lewisite, cyanic acid gas, white phosphorus, adamsite, and phosgene gas. A former army major and technician gave the following testimony anonymously (at the time of the interview, this man was a professor emeritus at a national university):
Unit 100 also experimented with toxic gas. Phoneboothlike tanks were used as portable gas chambers for the prisoners. Some were forced to wear various types of gas masks; others wore military uniforms, and some wore no clothes at all.
Some of the tests have been described as "psychopathically sadistic, with no conceivable military application". For example, one experiment documented the time it took for three-day-old babies to freeze to death.
Unit 731 also tested chemical weapons on prisoners in field conditions. A report authored by unknown researcher in the Kamo Unit (Unit 731) describes a large human experiment of yperite gas (mustard gas) on 7–10 September 1940. Twenty subjects were divided into three groups and placed in combat emplacements, trenches, gazebos, and observatories. One group was clothed with Chinese underwear, no hat, and no mask and was subjected to as much as 1,800 field gun rounds of yperite gas over 25 minutes. Another group was clothed in summer military uniform and shoes; three had masks and another three had no mask. They also were exposed to as much as 1,800 rounds of yperite gas. A third group was clothed in summer military uniform, three with masks and two without masks, and were exposed to as much as 4,800 rounds. Then their general symptoms and damage to skin, eye, respiratory organs, and digestive organs were observed at 4 hours, 24 hours, and 2, 3, and 5 days after the shots. Injecting the blister fluid from one subject into another subject and analyses of blood and soil were also performed. Five subjects were forced to drink a solution of yperite and lewisite gas in water, with or without decontamination. The report describes conditions of every subject precisely without mentioning what happened to them in the long run. The following is an excerpt of one of these reports:
Frostbite testing
Army Engineer Hisato Yoshimura conducted experiments by taking captives outside, dipping various appendages into water of varying temperatures, and allowing the limb to freeze. Once frozen, Yoshimura would strike their affected limbs with a short stick, "emitting a sound resembling that which a board gives when it is struck". Ice was then chipped away, with the affected area being subjected to various treatments, such as being doused in water, exposed to the heat of fire, etc.
Members of the Unit referred to Yoshimura as a "scientific devil" and a "cold blooded animal" because he would conduct his work with strictness. Naoji Uezono, a member of Unit 731, described in a 1980s interview a grisly scene where Yoshimura had "two naked men put in an area 40–50 degrees below zero and researchers filmed the whole process until [the subjects] died. [The subjects] suffered such agony they were digging their nails into each other's flesh". Yoshimura's lack of remorse was evident in an article he wrote for the Journal Of Japanese Physiology in 1950 in which he admitted to using 20 children and a 3-day-old infant in experiments which exposed them to zero-degree-celsius ice and salt water. Although this article drew criticism, Yoshimura denied any guilt when contacted by a reporter from the Mainichi Shinbun (a Japanese newspaper). Yoshimura developed a "resistance index of frostbite" based on the mean temperature 5 to 30 minutes after immersion in freezing water, the temperature of the first rise after immersion, and the time until the temperature first rises after immersion. In a number of separate experiments it was then determined how these parameters depend on the time of day a victim's body part was immersed in freezing water, the surrounding temperature and humidity during immersion, how the victim had been treated before the immersion ("after keeping awake for a night", "after hunger for 24 hours", "after hunger for 48 hours", "immediately after heavy meal", "immediately after hot meal", "immediately after muscular exercise", "immediately after cold bath", "immediately after hot bath"), what type of food the victim had been fed over the five days preceding the immersions with regard to dietary nutrient intake ("high protein (of animal nature)", "high protein (of vegetable nature)", "low protein intake", and "standard diet"), and salt intake (45 g NaCl per day, 15 g NaCl per day, no salt). This original data is seen in the attached figure.
Syphilis
Unit members orchestrated forced sex acts between infected and noninfected prisoners to transmit the disease, as the testimony of a prison guard on the subject of devising a method for transmission of syphilis between patients shows:
Infection of venereal disease by injection was abandoned, and the researchers started forcing the prisoners into sexual acts with each other. Four or five unit members, dressed in white laboratory clothing completely covering the body with only eyes and mouth visible, rest covered, handled the tests. A male and female, one infected with syphilis, would be brought together in a cell and forced into sex with each other. It was made clear that anyone resisting would be shot.
After victims were infected, they were vivisected at different stages of infection, so that internal and external organs could be observed as the disease progressed. Testimony from multiple guards blames the female victims as being hosts of the diseases, even as they were forcibly infected. Genitals of female prisoners that were infected with syphilis were called "jam filled buns" by guards.
Some children grew up inside the walls of Unit 731, infected with syphilis. A Youth Corps member deployed to train at Unit 731 recalled viewing a batch of subjects that would undergo syphilis testing: "one was a Chinese woman holding an infant, one was a White Russian woman with a daughter of four or five years of age, and the last was a White Russian woman with a boy of about six or seven." The children of these women were tested in ways similar to their parents, with specific emphasis on determining how longer infection periods affected the effectiveness of treatments.
Rape and forced pregnancy
Female prisoners were forced to become pregnant for use in experiments. The hypothetical possibility of vertical transmission (from mother to child) of diseases, particularly syphilis, was the stated reason for the torture. Fetal survival and damage to mother's reproductive organs were objects of interest. Though "a large number of babies were born in captivity", there have been no accounts of any survivors of Unit 731, children included. It is suspected that the children of female prisoners were killed after birth or aborted.
While male prisoners were often used in single studies, so that the results of the experimentation on them would not be clouded by other variables, women were sometimes used in bacteriological or physiological experiments, sex experiments, and as the victims of sex crimes. The testimony of a unit member that served as a guard graphically demonstrated this reality:
One of the former researchers I located told me that one day he had a human experiment scheduled, but there was still time to kill. So he and another unit member took the keys to the cells and opened one that housed a Chinese woman. One of the unit members raped her; the other member took the keys and opened another cell. There was a Chinese woman in there who had been used in a frostbite experiment. She had several fingers missing and her bones were black, with gangrene set in. He was about to rape her anyway, then he saw that her sex organ was festering, with pus oozing to the surface. He gave up the idea, left and locked the door, then later went on to his experimental work.
Prisoners and victims
In 2002, Changde, China, site of the plague flea bombing, held an "International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare", which estimated that the number of people slaughtered by the Imperial Japanese Army germ warfare and other human experiments was around 580,000. The American historian Sheldon H. Harris states that over 200,000 died. In addition to Chinese casualties, 1,700 Japanese troops in Zhejiang during Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign were killed by their own biological weapons while attempting to unleash the biological agent, indicating serious issues with distribution.
At least 3,000 men, women, and children—from which at least 600 every year were provided by the Kenpeitai—were subjected to Unit 731 experimentation conducted at the Pingfang camp alone, not including victims from other medical experimentation sites such as Unit 100. Although 3,000 internal victims is the widely accepted figure in the literature, former Unit member Okawa Fukumatsu refuted it in a video interview. He stated that there were at least over 10,000 victims of internal experiments at the Unit and that he himself vivisected thousands.
According to A. S. Wells, the majority of victims were Chinese, with a lesser percentage being Russian, Mongolian, and Korean. They may also have included a small number of European, American, Indian, Australian, and New Zealander prisoners of war. A member of the Yokusan Sonendan paramilitary political youth branch, who worked for Unit 731, stated that not only were Chinese, Russians, and Koreans present, but also Americans, British, and French people. Sheldon H. Harris documented that the victims were generally political dissidents, communist sympathizers, ordinary criminals, impoverished civilians, and the mentally disabled. Author Seiichi Morimura estimates that almost 70 percent of the victims who died in the Pingfang camp were Chinese (both military and civilian), while close to 30 percent of the victims were Russian.
No one who entered Unit 731 came out alive. Prisoners were usually received into Unit 731 at night in motor vehicles painted black with a ventilation hole but no windows. The vehicle would pull up at the main gates and one of the drivers would go to the guardroom and report to the guard. That guard would then telephone to the "Special Team" in the inner-prison (Shiro Ishii's brother was head of this Special Team). Then, the prisoners would be transported through a secret tunnel dug under the facade of the central building to the inner-prisons. One of the prisons housed women and children (Building 8), while the other prison housed men (Building 7). Once at the inner-prison, technicians would take samples of the prisoners' blood and stool, test their kidney function, and collect other physical data. Once deemed healthy and fit for experimentation, prisoners lost their names and were given a three-digit number, which they retained until their death. Whenever prisoners died after the experiments they had been subjected to, a clerk of the 1st Division struck their numbers off an index card and took the deceased prisoner's manacles to be put on new arrivals to the prison.
There is at least one recorded instance of "friendly" social interaction between prisoners and Unit 731 staff. Technician Naokata Ishibashi interacted with two female prisoners. One prisoner was a 21-year-old Chinese woman, the other a Soviet girl who was 19 years of age. Ishibashi asked where she came from and learned that she was from Ukraine. The two prisoners told Ishibashi that they had not seen their faces in a mirror since being captured and begged him to get one. Ishibashi sneaked a mirror to them through a hole in the cell door. Prisoners were repeatedly reused for experiments as long as they were healthy enough. The average life expectancy of a prisoner once they had entered the Unit was two months. Some prisoners were alive in the Unit for over 12 months, and many female prisoners gave birth in the Unit.
The prison cells had wooden floors and a squat toilet in each. There was space between the outer walls of the cells and the outer walls of the prison, enabling the guards to walk behind the cells. Each cell door had a small window in it. Chief of the Personnel Division of the Kwantung Army Headquarters Tamura Tadashi testified that, when he was shown the inner-prison, he looked into the cells and saw living people in chains, some moved around, others were lying on the bare floor and were in a very sick and helpless condition. Former Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that the windows in these prison doors were so small that it was difficult to see in. The inner-prison was a highly secured building complete with castiron doors. No one could enter without special permits and an ID pass with a photograph, and the entry/exit times were recorded. The "special team" worked in these two inner-prison buildings. This team wore white overall suits, army hats, rubber boots, and pistols strapped to their sides.
A former member of the Special Team (who insisted on anonymity) recalled in 1995 his first vivisection conducted at the Unit:
Other sources suggest that it was the usual practice in the Unit for surgeons to stuff a rag (or medical gauze) into the mouth of prisoners before commencing vivisection in order to stifle any screaming.
Despite the prison's status as a highly secure building, at least one unsuccessful escape attempt did occur. Corporal Kikuchi Norimitsu testified that he was told by another unit member that a prisoner "had shown violence and had struck the experimenter with a door handle" and then "jumped out of the cell and ran down the corridor, seized the keys and opened the iron doors and some of the cells. Some of the prisoners managed to jump out but these were only the bold ones. These bold ones were shot". Seiichi Morimura in his book "The Devil's Feast" went into some greater detail regarding this escape attempt. Two Russian male prisoners were in a cell with handcuffs on, one of them lay flat on the floor pretending to be sick. This got the attention of a staff member who saw it as an unusual condition. That staff member decided to enter the cell. The Russian lying on the floor suddenly sprang up and knocked the guard down. The two Russians opened their handcuffs, took the keys, and opened some other cells while yelling. Some prisoners, including Russian and Chinese, were frantically roaming the corridors and kept yelling and shouting. One Russian shouted to the members of Unit 731, demanding to be shot rather than used as an experimental object. This Russian was shot to death. One staff member, who was an eyewitness at this escape attempt, recalled: "spiritually we were all lost in front of the 'marutas' who had no freedom and no weapons. At that time we understood in our hearts that justice was not on our side". Unfortunately for the prisoners of Unit 731, escape was an impossibility. Even if they had managed to escape the quadrangle (itself a heavily fortified building full of staff), they would have had to get over a brick wall surrounding the complex, and then across a dry moat filled with electrified wire running around the perimeter of the complex (able to be seen in aerial pictures of the Unit).
Interestingly, simply being Japanese was no protection from potentially becoming a victim of the Unit and subjected to vivisection just like the prisoners. Yoshio Tamura, an assistant in the Special Team, recalled that Yoshio Sudō, an employee of the first division at Unit 731, became infected with bubonic plague as a result of the production of plague bacteria. The Special Team was then ordered to vivisect Sudō. Tamura recalled:
Additionally, Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that his friend junior assistant Mitsuo Hirakawa was vivisected as a result of being accidentally infected with plague.
Known unit members
In April 2018, the National Archives of Japan disclosed a nearly complete list of 3,607 members of Unit 731 to Katsuo Nishiyama, a professor at Shiga University of Medical Science. Nishiyama reportedly intended to publish the list online to encourage further study into the unit.
Previously disclosed members include:
Lieutenant General Shirō Ishii
Lieutenant Colonel Ryoichi Naito, founder of the pharmaceutical company Green Cross
Professor, Major General Masaji Kitano, commander, 1942–1945
Yoshio Shinozuka
Yasuji Kaneko
Kazuhisa Kanazawa, chief of the 1st Division of Branch 673 of Unit 731
Ryoichiro Hotta, member of the Hailar Branch of Unit 731
Shigeo Ozeki, civilian employee
Kioyashi Mineoi, civilian employee
Masateru Saito, civilian employee
Major General Hitoshi Kikuchi, head of Research Division, 1942–1945
Lieutenant General [unknown first name] Yasazaka, doctor
Yoshio Furuichi, student at Sunyu Branch of Unit 731
There were also twelve members who were formally tried and sentenced in the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials.
Other suspected Japanese war criminals who were never indicted include three postwar prime ministers: Hatoyama Ichirō (1954–1956), Kishi Nobusuke (1957–1960), and Ikeda Hayato (1960–1964).
Divisions
Unit 731 was divided into eight divisions:
Division 1: research on bubonic plague, cholera, anthrax, typhoid, and tuberculosis using live human subjects; for this purpose, a prison was constructed to contain around three to four hundred people
Division 2: research for biological weapons used in the field, in particular the production of devices to spread germs and parasites
Division 3: production of shells containing biological agents; stationed in Harbin
Division 4: bacteria mass-production and storage
Division 5: training of personnel
Divisions 6–8: equipment, medical, and administrative units
Facilities
Unit 731 had other units underneath it in the chain of command; there were several other units under the auspice of Japan's biological weapons programs. Most or all Units had branch offices, which were also often referred to as "Units". The term Unit 731 can refer to the Harbin complex itself, or it can refer to the organization and its branches, sub-Units and their branches.
The Unit 731 complex covered and consisted of more than 150 buildings. The design of the facilities made them hard to destroy by bombing. The complex contained various factories. It had around 4,500 containers to be used to raise fleas, six cauldrons to produce various chemicals, and around 1,800 containers to produce biological agents. Approximately of bubonic plague bacteria could be produced in a few days.
Some of Unit 731's satellite (branch) facilities are still in use by various Chinese industrial companies. A portion has been preserved and is open to visitors as a War Crimes Museum.
Branches
Unit 731 had branches in Linkou (Branch 162), Mudanjiang, Hailin (Branch 643), Sunwu (Branch 673), Toan, and Hailar (Branch 543).
Tokyo
A medical school and research facility belonging to Unit 731 operated in the Shinjuku District of Tokyo during World War II. In 2006, Toyo Ishii—a nurse who worked at the school during the war—revealed that she had helped bury bodies and pieces of bodies on the school's grounds shortly after Japan's surrender in 1945. In response, in February 2011 the Ministry of Health began to excavate the site.
While Tokyo courts acknowledged in 2002 that Unit 731 had been involved in biological warfare research, , the Japanese government had made no official acknowledgment of the atrocities committed against test subjects and rejected the Chinese government's requests for DNA samples to identify human remains (including skulls and bones) found near an army medical school.
At Tokyo's Kyushu Imperial University in 1945 US POWs from a shot down B-29 were subjected to fatal medical experimentation.
Surrender and immunity
Operations and experiments continued until the end of the war. Ishii had wanted to use biological weapons in the Pacific War since May 1944, but his attempts were repeatedly snubbed.
Destruction of evidence
With the coming of the Red Army in August 1945, the unit had to abandon their work in haste. Ministries in Tokyo ordered the destruction of all incriminating materials, including those in Pingfang. Potential witnesses, such as the 300 remaining prisoners, were either gassed or fed poison while the 600 Chinese and Manchurian laborers were shot. Ishii ordered every member of the group to disappear and "take the secret to the grave". Potassium cyanide vials were issued for use in case the remaining personnel were captured.
Skeleton crews of Ishii's Japanese troops blew up the compound in the final days of the war to destroy evidence of their activities, but many were sturdy enough to remain somewhat intact.
American grant of immunity
Among the individuals in Japan after its 1945 surrender was Lieutenant Colonel Murray Sanders, who arrived in Yokohama via the American ship Sturgess in September 1945. Sanders was a highly regarded microbiologist and a member of America's military center for biological weapons. Sanders's duty was to investigate Japanese biological warfare activity. At the time of his arrival in Japan he had no knowledge of what Unit 731 was. Until Sanders finally threatened the Japanese with bringing the Soviets into the picture, little information about biological warfare was being shared with the Americans. The Japanese wanted to avoid prosecution under the Soviet legal system, so, the next morning after he made his threat, Sanders received a manuscript describing Japan's involvement in biological warfare. Sanders took this information to General Douglas MacArthur, who was the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers responsible for rebuilding Japan during the Allied occupations. MacArthur struck a deal with Japanese informants: He secretly granted immunity to the physicians of Unit 731, including their leader, in exchange for providing America, but not the other wartime allies, with their research on biological warfare and data from human experimentation. American occupation authorities monitored the activities of former unit members, including reading and censoring their mail. The Americans believed that the research data was valuable and did not want other nations, particularly the Soviet Union, to acquire data on biological weapons.
The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal heard only one reference to Japanese experiments with "poisonous serums" on Chinese civilians. This took place in August 1946 and was instigated by David Sutton, assistant to the Chinese prosecutor. The Japanese defense counsel argued that the claim was vague and uncorroborated and it was dismissed by the tribunal president, Sir William Webb, for lack of evidence. The subject was not pursued further by Sutton, who was probably unaware of Unit 731's activities. His reference to it at the trial is believed to have been accidental.
Separate Soviet trials
Although publicly silent on the issue at the Tokyo Trials, the Soviet Union pursued the case and prosecuted 12 top military leaders and scientists from Unit 731 and its affiliated biological-war prisons Unit 1644 in Nanjing and Unit 100 in Changchun in the Khabarovsk war crimes trials. Among those accused of war crimes, including germ warfare, was General Otozō Yamada, commander-in-chief of the million-man Kwantung Army occupying Manchuria.
The trial of the Japanese perpetrators was held in Khabarovsk in December 1949; a lengthy partial transcript of trial proceedings was published in different languages the following year by the Moscow foreign languages press, including an English-language edition. The lead prosecuting attorney at the Khabarovsk trial was Lev Smirnov, who had been one of the top Soviet prosecutors at the Nuremberg Trials. The Japanese doctors and army commanders who had perpetrated the Unit 731 experiments received sentences from the Khabarovsk court ranging from 2 to 25 years in a Siberian labor camp. The United States refused to acknowledge the trials, branding them communist propaganda. The sentences doled out to the Japanese perpetrators were unusually lenient by Soviet standards, and all but one of the defendants returned to Japan by the 1950s (with the remaining prisoner committing suicide inside his cell). In addition to the accusations of propaganda, the US also asserted that the trials were to only serve as a distraction from the Soviet treatment of several hundred thousand Japanese prisoners of war; meanwhile, the USSR asserted that the US had given the Japanese diplomatic leniency in exchange for information regarding their human experimentation. The accusations of both the US and the USSR were true, and it is believed that the Japanese had also given information to the Soviets regarding their biological experimentation for judicial leniency. This was evidenced by the Soviet Union building a biological weapons facility in Sverdlovsk using documentation captured from Unit 731 in Manchuria.
Official silence during the American occupation of Japan
As above, during the United States occupation of Japan, the members of Unit 731 and the members of other experimental units were allowed to go free. On 6 May 1947, Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces, wrote to Washington in order to inform it that "additional data, possibly some statements from Ishii, can probably be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in intelligence channels and will not be employed as 'war crimes' evidence".
One graduate of Unit 1644, Masami Kitaoka, continued to perform experiments on unwilling Japanese subjects from 1947 to 1956, he performed his experiments while he was working for Japan's National Institute of Health Sciences. He infected prisoners with rickettsia and infected mentally-ill patients with typhus. As the chief of the unit, Shiro Ishii was granted immunity from prosecution for war crimes by the American occupation authorities, because he had provided human experimentation research materials to them. From 1948 to 1958, less than five percent of the documents were transferred onto microfilm and stored in the US National Archives before they were shipped back to Japan.
Post-occupation Japanese media coverage and debate
Japanese discussions of Unit 731's activity began in the 1950s, after the end of the American occupation of Japan. In 1952, human experiments carried out in Nagoya City Pediatric Hospital, which resulted in one death, were publicly tied to former members of Unit 731. Later in that decade, journalists suspected that the murders attributed by the government to Sadamichi Hirasawa were actually carried out by members of Unit 731. In 1958, Japanese author Shūsaku Endō published the book The Sea and Poison about human experimentation in Fukuoka, which is thought to have been based on a real incident.
The author Seiichi Morimura published The Devil's Gluttony (悪魔の飽食) in 1981, followed by The Devil's Gluttony: A Sequel in 1983. These books purported to reveal the "true" operations of Unit 731, but falsely attributed unrelated photos to the Unit, which raised questions about their accuracy.
Also in 1981, the first direct testimony of human vivisection in China was given by Ken Yuasa. Since then, much more indepth testimony has been given in Japan. The 2001 documentary Japanese Devils largely consists of interviews with fourteen Unit 731 staff members taken prisoner by China and later released.
Significance in postwar research on bio-warfare and medicine
Among American researchers, there was a postwar consensus that Unit 731's human experimentation data was of little value to America's development of medical and biological weapons. Postwar reports generally stated that the data was "crude and ineffective", and one expert even deemed it "amateurish". Harris speculates that US scientists generally wanted to acquire it due to the concept of forbidden fruit, believing that lawful and ethical prohibitions could affect the outcomes of their research.
Official government response in Japan
Unit 731 presents a special problem since, unlike Nazi human experimentation, which the United States publicly condemned, the activities of Unit 731 are known to the general public only from the testimonies of willing former unit members, and testimony cannot be employed to determine indemnity in this way.
Japanese history textbooks usually contain references to Unit 731, but do not go into detail about allegations, in accordance with this principle. Saburō Ienaga's New History of Japan included a detailed description, based on officers' testimony. The Ministry for Education attempted to remove this passage from his textbook before it was taught in public schools, on the basis that the testimony was insufficient. The Supreme Court of Japan ruled in 1997 that the testimony was indeed sufficient and that requiring it to be removed was an illegal violation of freedom of speech.
In 1997, international lawyer Kōnen Tsuchiya filed a class action suit against the Japanese government, demanding reparations for the actions of Unit 731, using evidence filed by Professor Makoto Ueda of Rikkyo University. All levels of the Japanese court system found the suit baseless. No findings of fact were made about the existence of human experimentation, but the courts' ruling was that reparations are determined by international treaties, not national courts.
In August 2002, the Tokyo district court ruled for the first time that Japan had engaged in biological warfare. Presiding judge Koji Iwata ruled that Unit 731, on the orders of the Imperial Japanese Army headquarters, used bacteriological weapons on Chinese civilians between 1940 and 1942, spreading diseases, including plague and typhoid, in the cities of Quzhou, Ningbo, and Changde. However, he rejected victims' compensation claims on the grounds that they had already been settled by international peace treaties.
In October 2003, a member of Japan's House of Representatives filed an inquiry. Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi responded that the Japanese government did not then possess any records related to Unit 731, but recognized the gravity of the matter and would publicize any records located in the future. In April 2018, the National Archives of Japan released the names of 3,607 members of Unit 731, in response to a request by Professor Katsuo Nishiyama of the Shiga University of Medical Science.
Abroad
After World War II, the Office of Special Investigations created a watchlist of suspected Axis collaborators and persecutors who are banned from entering the United States. While they have added over 60,000 names to the watchlist, they have only been able to identify under 100 Japanese participants. In a 1998 correspondence letter between the DOJ and Rabbi Abraham Cooper, Eli Rosenbaum, director of OSI, stated that this was due to two factors. 1) While most documents captured by the US in Europe were microfilmed before being returned to their respective governments, the Department of Defense decided to not microfilm its vast collection of documents before returning them to the Japanese government. 2) The Japanese government has also failed to grant the OSI meaningful access to these and related records after the war, while European countries, on the other hand, have been largely cooperative, the cumulative effect of which is that information pertaining to identifying these individuals is, in effect, impossible to recover.
In popular culture
Print media
The Narrow Road to the Deep North, a Booker Prize-winning 2014 novel by Australian writer Richard Flanagan, refers extensively to the atrocities committed by a doctor who served in Unit 731.
Forest Sea (Pol. Leśne morze) (1960), a novel by a Polish writer and educator Igor Newerly. The first book published outside Asia which refers to atrocities committed in the unit.
The Man Who Ended History: A Documentary (2011), a novella published in The Paper Menagerie book by American writer and Chinese translator Ken Liu: A scientific discovery allows a victim's descendant to go back in time to witness and learn the truth about the atrocities committed in the unit.
Tricky Twenty-Two, a novel in the Stephanie Plum series by Janet Evanovich, features as its antagonist a deranged biology professor who is obsessed with Unit 731 and is attempting to recreate the unit's bubonic plague dispersals.
The Solomon Curse, a novel in the Fargo Adventures series by Clive Cussler and Russell Blake, involves this unit in its plot, around secret human experimentation on the island of Guadalcanal.
The Grimnoire Series, an alternative-history series of novels by Larry Correia, has Unit 731 conducting brutal magical experiments on prisoners of the Japanese Imperium.
Setting Sun story form Hellblazer #142 by DC Comics, written by Warren Ellis and illustrated by Javier Pulido, features a fictitious character who used to be a doctor in Unit 731 during the war and conducted experiments on humans.
In the manga My Hero Academia, a mad scientist who conducts experiments on humans to create a genetically-modified race was first introduced as Shiga Maruta. Because of the association with the Maruta project, it caused a major controversy, especially in China, where Tencent and Bilibili removed the manga from their platforms. Both Weekly Shonen Jump magazine and the author Kohei Horikoshi issued individual apologizing statements on Twitter, and the character name was changed in subsequent publications.
Films
There have been several films about the atrocities of Unit 731.
Through Gobi and Khingan (1981); Coproduction of USSR, Mongolia, Eastern Germany. Miniseries (two episodes).
The Sea and Poison (1986), Japan, directed by Kei Kumai
Men Behind the Sun (1988), China, directed by Tun Fei Mou
Unit 731: Laboratory of the Devil (1992), China, directed by Godfrey Ho
731: Two Versions of Hell (2007), produced by James T. Hong; documentary about Unit 731 told from the Chinese and Japanese sides
Philosophy of a Knife (2008), Russia, directed by Andrey Iskanov
Dead Mine (2012), Indonesia, directed by Steven Sheil and based in a fictionalized version of Unit 731
Dongju: The Portrait of a Poet (2016), South Korea, directed by Lee Junik, depicts dead poet Yoon Dong-ju
Wife of a Spy (2020), Japan, directed by Kiyoshi Kurosawa and won the Silver Lion Award for Best Director at the Venice Film Festival in 2020.
Music
"The Breeding House" (1994), Bruce Dickinson. Segment of the CD-single Tears of the Dragon, describing the atrocities committed by Unit 731 and the immunity granted by the Americans to the physicians of the Unit
"Unit 731" (2009), American thrash metal band Slayer. Song on the album World Painted Blood, describing the events and atrocities that occurred at Unit 731
"Unit 731" (2011), Power electronic band Brandkommando
"And You Will Beg for Our Secrets" (2016), from the Anaal Nathrakh album The Whole of the Law, refers to Unit 731's activities and the US amnesty given in exchange for information resulting from the experiments carried out.
"The New Eternity" (2018), from the Silent Planet album When the End Began refers to Unit 731's human experimentation and other crimes against humanity.
"Maruta" (2009), South Korean metal band Sad Legend.
Television
Unit 731 – Did the Emperor Know? Television South documentary made in 1985 and first broadcast on the 13 August.
The X-Files episode "731" (1995). Former members of Unit 731 secretly continue their experiments on humans under control of a covert US government agency.
ReGenesis episode "Let it burn" (2007). Outbreaks of anthrax and glanders are traced to World War II Japan.
Warehouse 13 episode "The 40th Floor" (2011). General Shirō Ishii's medal from Unit 731 simulated drowning when applied to a victim's skin.
Concrete Revolutio. The experimentation on superhumans by the Japanese and Americans is a parallel to Unit 731.
The Truth of Unit 731: Elite medical students and human experiments (2017). A NHK Documentary broadcast in 2017, including paper materials, recording tapes, and interviews to former members and doctors who have implemented experiments in Unit 731.
In The Blacklist, the episode "General Shiro" is a reference to Shirō Ishii.
Link to part of a recorded telephone interview with Yoshimura Hisato.
Video games
In Call of Duty: Black Ops III, the Zombies map included in the second DLC pack, "Zetsubou no Shima", is loosely inspired by Unit 731.
In the indie horror game Spooky's Jumpscare Mansion, the Unit 731 experiments are explicitly referenced multiple times in terms of Specimen 9 (specifically stated to be a survivor of the Unit 731 experiments), as well as the labeling of human bodies as "logs": "I'm taking all those 'logs' they keep throwing out, and I'm nailing them together". See also
American cover-up of Japanese war crimes
Comfort women
Human subject research
Japanese war crimes
Nobusuke Kishi
Ōkunoshima
Unethical human experimentation
Unit 100
War crime
War crimes in Manchukuo
Second Sino-Japanese War and Pacific War (World War II in the Pacific)
Changde chemical weapon attack
Kaimingjie germ weapon attack
Second Sino-Japanese War
Pacific War
Other human experimentation
Human experimentation in North Korea
Josef Mengele
Nazi human experimentation
Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services
Project Coast
Unethical human experimentation in the United States
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
Barenblatt, Daniel. A Plague Upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation, HarperCollins, 2004. .
Barnaby, Wendy. The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare, Frog Ltd, 1999. , , , .
Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F. Japan at war: an oral history, New York: New Press: Distributed by Norton, 1992. . Cf. Part 2, Chapter 6 on Unit 731 and Tamura Yoshio.
Endicott, Stephen and Hagerman, Edward. The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea, Indiana University Press, 1999. .
Felton, Mark. The devil's doctors: Japanese Human Experiments on Allied Prisoners of War, Pen & Sword, 2012.
Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony, Charles E Tuttle Co., 1996. .
Grunden, Walter E., Secret Weapons & World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science, University Press of Kansas, 2005. .
Handelman, Stephen and Alibek, Ken. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the WorldTold from Inside by the Man Who Ran It, Random House, 1999. , .
Harris, Robert and Paxman, Jeremy. A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Random House, 2002. .
Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932–45 and the American Cover-Up, Routledge, 1994. , .
Lupis, Marco. "Orrori e misteri dell'Unità 731: la 'fabbrica' dei batteri killer", La Repubblica, 14 aprile 2003,
Mangold, Tom; Goldberg, Jeff, Plague wars: a true story of biological warfare, Macmillan, 2000. Cf. Chapter 3, Unit 731.
Moreno, Jonathan D. Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans, Routledge, 2001. .
Nie, Jing Bao, et al. Japan's Wartime Medical Atrocities: Comparative Inquiries in Science, History, and Ethics (2011) excerpt and text search
Tsuneishi, Keiichi (November 24, 2005). "Unit 731 and the Japanese Imperial Army's Biological Warfare Program". The Asia-Pacific Journal. Volume 3, Issue 11. Article ID 2194.
Williams, Peter. Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II, Free Press, 1989. .
External links
The Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group (IWG) – The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).
History of the Unit 731 Unit 731 information site.
History of Japan's biological weapons program – The Federation of American Scientists (FAS).
History of United States' biological weapons program – The Federation of American Scientists (FAS).
Unit 731, Nightmare in Manchuria, a World Justice documentary.
– AII POW-MIA images.
Army Doctor – a firsthand account by Yuasa Ken.
Theodicy – Through the Case of "Unit 731" by Eun Park (2003).
"US paid for Japanese human germ warfare data", Australian Broadcasting Corporation News Online.
Japan's sins of the past by Justin McCurry (2004), The Guardian.
"The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731" by Shane Green (2002), The Age.
"War Crimes: Never Forget" – review of the book Unit 731'' by Peter Williams and David Wallace
, a documentary by NHK (2017)
The Unknown Victims of Japanese Unit 731 in WWII (1932–1945) and Known Experiments
Select Documents on Japanese WarCrimes and Japanese Biological Warfare, 1934–2006
Unit 731 in Polish literature
Biological warfare facilities
Imperial Japanese Army
Japanese human subject research
Military history of Japan during World War II
Second Sino-Japanese War
Second Sino-Japanese War crimes
1935 establishments in China
1945 disestablishments in China
Medical experimentation on prisoners
War crimes in Manchukuo
Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Heilongjiang
Japanese biological weapons program
Japanese war crimes | [
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|
214663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphosphate | Polyphosphate | Polyphosphates are salts or esters of polymeric oxyanions formed from tetrahedral PO4 (phosphate) structural units linked together by sharing oxygen atoms. Polyphosphates can adopt linear or a cyclic ring structures. In biology, the polyphosphate esters ADP and ATP are involved in energy storage. A variety of polyphosphates find application in mineral sequestration in municipal waters, generally being present at 1 to 5 ppm. GTP, CTP, and UTP are also nucleotides important in the protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, and carbohydrate metabolism, respectively.
Polyphosphates are also used as food additives, marked E452.
Structure
The structure of tripolyphosphoric acid illustrates the principles which define the structures of polyphosphates. It consists of three tetrahedral PO4 units linked together by sharing oxygen centres. For the linear chains, the end phosphorus groups share one oxide and the others phosphorus centres share two oxide centres. The corresponding phosphates are related to the acids by loss of the acidic protons. In the case of the cyclic trimer each tetrahedron shares two vertices with adjacent tetrahedra.
Sharing of three corners is possible. This motif represents crosslinking of the linear polymer. Crosslinked polyphosphates adopt the sheet-structure Phyllosilicates, but such structures occur only under extreme conditions.
Formation and synthesis
Polyphosphates arise by polymerization of phosphoric acid derivatives. The process begins with two phosphate units coming together in a condensation reaction.
2 H(PO4)2− (P2O7)4− + H2O
The condensation is shown as an equilibrium because the reverse reaction, hydrolysis, is also possible. The process may continue in steps; at each step another (PO3)− unit is added to the chain, as indicated by the part in brackets in the illustration of polyphosphoric acid. P4O10 can be seen as the end product of condensation reactions, where each tetrahedron shares three corners with the others. Conversely, a complex mix of polymers is produced when a small amount of water is added to phosphorus pentoxide.
Acid-base and complexation properties
Polyphosphates are weak bases. A lone pair of electrons on an oxygen atom can be donated to a hydrogen ion (proton) or a metal ion in a typical Lewis acid-Lewis base interaction. This has profound significance in biology. For instance, adenosine triphosphate is about 25% protonated in aqueous solution at pH 7.
ATP4− + H+ ATPH3−, pKa 6.6
Further protonation occurs at lower pH values.
The "high energy" phosphate bond
ATP forms chelate complexes with metal ions. The stability constant for the equilibrium
ATP4− + Mg2+ MgATP2−, log β 4
is particularly large. The formation of the magnesium complex is a critical element in the process of ATP hydrolysis, as it weakens the link between the terminal phosphate group and the rest of the molecule.
The energy released in ATP hydrolysis,
ATP4− + H2O → ADP3− + Pi−
at ΔG -36.8 kJ mol−1 is large by biological standards. Pi stands for inorganic phosphate, which is protonated at biological pH. However, it is not large by inorganic standards. The term "high energy" refers to the fact that it is high relative to the amount of energy released in the organic chemical reactions that can occur in living systems.
High-polymeric inorganic polyphosphates
High molecular weight polyphosphates are well known. One derivative is the glassy (i.e., amorphous) Graham's salt. Crystalline high molecular weight polyphosphates include Kurrol’s salt and Maddrell’s salt. These species have the formula [NaPO3]n[NaPO3(OH)]2 where n can be as great as 2000. In terms of their structures, these polymers consist of PO3− "monomers", with the chains are terminated by protonated phosphates.
In nature
High-polymeric inorganic polyphosphates were found in living organisms by L. Liberman in 1890. These compounds are linear polymers containing a few to several hundred residues of orthophosphate linked by energy-rich phosphoanhydride bonds.
Previously, it was considered either as “molecular fossil” or as only a phosphorus and energy source providing the survival of microorganisms under extreme conditions. These compounds are now known to also have regulatory roles, and to occur in representatives of all kingdoms of living organisms, participating in metabolic correction and control on both genetic and enzymatic levels. Polyphosphate is directly involved in the switching-over of the genetic program characteristic of the exponential growth stage of bacteria to the program of cell survival under stationary conditions, "a life in the slow lane". They participate in many regulatory mechanisms occurring in bacteria:
They participate in the induction of rpoS, an RNA-polymerase subunit which is responsible for the expression of a large group of genes involved in adjustments to the stationary growth phase and many stressful agents.
They are important for cell motility, biofilms formation and virulence.
Polyphosphates and exopolyphosphatases participate in the regulation of the levels of the stringent response factor, guanosine 5'-diphosphate 3'-diphosphate (ppGpp), a second messenger in bacterial cells.
Polyphosphates participate in the formation of channels across the living cell membranes. The above channels formed by polyphosphate and poly-b-hydroxybutyrate with Ca2+ are involved in the transport processes in a variety of organisms.
An important function of polyphosphate in microorganisms—prokaryotes and the lower eukaryotes—is to handle changing environmental conditions by providing phosphate and energy reserves. Polyphosphates are present in animal cells, and there are many data on its participation in the regulatory processes during development and cellular proliferation and differentiation—especially in bone tissues and brain.
In humans polyphosphates are shown to play a key role in blood coagulation. Produced and released by platelets they activate blood coagulation factor XII which is essential for blood clot formation. Factor XII, also called Hageman factor, initiates fibrin formation and the generation of a proinflammatory mediator, bradykinin, that contributes to leakage from the blood vessels and thrombosis.
Bacterial-derived polyphosphates impair the host immune response during infection and targeting polyphosphates with recombinant exopolyphosphatase improves sepsis survival in mice.
Inorganic polyphosphates play a crucial role in tolerance of yeast cells to toxic heavy metal cations.
Use as food additives
Sodium polyphosphate (E452(i)), potassium polyphosphate (E452(ii)), sodium calcium polyphosphate (E452(iii)) and calcium polyphosphate (E452(iv)) are used as food additives. They are not known to pose any potential health risk other than those generally attributed to other phosphate sources (including those naturally occurring in food). While concerns have been raised regarding detrimental effects on the bones and cardiovascular diseases, as well as hyperphosphatemia, these seem to be relevant only for exaggerated consumption of phosphate sources. In all, reasonable consumption (up to 40 mg phosphate per kg of body weight per day) seem to pose no health risk.
See also
Phosphoric acids
Sodium trimetaphosphate
Sodium hexametaphosphate
References
External links
Phosphates
Polymers
Food stabilizers
E-number additives
Concrete admixtures | [
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|
214666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20music%20genres%20and%20styles | List of music genres and styles | This is a list of music genres and styles. Music can be described in terms of many genres and styles. Classifications are often arbitrary, and may be disputed and closely related forms often overlap. Larger genres and styles comprise more specific sub-categories.
Art (classical)
Andalusian classical music
Indian classical music
Korean court music
Persian classical music
Western classical music
Early music
Medieval music (500–1400)
Ars antiqua (1170–1310)
Ars nova (1310–1377)
Ars subtilior (1360–1420)
Renaissance music (1400–1600)
Baroque music (1600–1750)
Galant music (1720–1770)
Classical period (1750–1820)
Romantic music (1780–1910)
20th and 21st-centuries classical music (1901–present):
Modernism (1890–1930)
Impressionism (1875 or 1890–1925)
Neoclassicism (1920–1950)
High modernism (1930–present)
Postmodern music (1930–present)
Experimental music (1950–present)
Contemporary classical music (1945 or 1975–present)
Minimal music
Avant-garde and experimental
Danger music
Electroacoustic
Lo-fi
Musique concrète
Noise
Outsider music
Industrial music
Progressive music
Popular
Blues
Country
Easy listening
Electronic
Contemporary folk
Hip hop
Jazz
Pop
R&B and soul
Rock
Metal
Punk
Regional
African
Asian
Middle Eastern
Arabic music
Arabic pop music
Fann at-Tanbura
Fijiri
Khaliji
Liwa
Sawt
Caribbean and Caribbean-influenced
Latin
Religious
Buddhist music
Christian music
Church music
Spirituals
Gregorian chant
Islamic music
Hymn
Liturgical music
Traditional folk
Latin folk
Fado
Huayno
Son mexicano
Música criolla
Other
Children's music
Dance music
Incidental music or music for stage and screen: music written for the score of a play, musicals, or other spheres, such as filmi, video game music, music hall songs and showtunes and others
Ballroom dance music: pasodoble, cha cha cha and others
Occasional music: military music, marches, national anthems and related compositions
Regional and national music with no significant commercial impact abroad, except when it is a version of an international genre, such as: traditional music, oral traditions, sea shanties, work songs, nursery rhymes, Arabesque and indigenous music. In North America and Western Europe, regional and national genres that are not from the Western world are sometimes classified as world music.
Yodeling
These categories are not exhaustive. A music platform, Gracenote, listed more than 2000 music genres (included by those created by ordinary music lovers, who are not involved within the music industry, these being said to be part of a 'folksonomy', i.e. a taxonomy created by non-experts). Most of these genres were created by music labels to target new audiences, however classification is useful to find music and distribute it.
See also
Genealogy of musical genres
This list is split into four separate pages:
List of styles of music: A–F
List of styles of music: G–M
List of styles of music: N–R
List of styles of music: S–Z
References
Bibliography
Borthwick, Stuart, & Moy, Ron (2004) Popular Music Genres: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Fabbri, Franco (1982) A Theory of Popular Music Genres: Two Applications. In Popular Music Perspectives, edited by David Horn and Philip Tagg, 52–81. Göteborg and Exeter: A. Wheaton & Co., Ltd.
Frith, Simon (1996) Performing Rites: On the Value of Popular Music. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Holt, Fabian (2007) Genre in Popular Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Negus, Keith (1999) Music Genres and Corporate Cultures. London and New York: Routledge.
External links
The genealogy and history of popular music genres
Genres of popular music - Interactive relationships diagram | [
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214669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Minnesota | List of governors of Minnesota | The following is a list of governors of the state of Minnesota and Minnesota Territory, United States. The officeholder, who serves as head of government of Minnesota, and is charged with ensuring the faithful execution of the state's laws, is empowered to name state commissioners and department heads and to approve or veto bills passed by the Minnesota Legislature. The Governor of Minnesota also serves as commander-in-chief of the Minnesota National Guard.
Henry H. Sibley was elected the first governor in a statewide election held on October 13, 1857, and took office following Minnesota's entry into the Union as the 32nd state on May 11, 1858. At the time, the governor and lieutenant governor were elected on separate ballots to terms lasting two years. Prior to 1886, statewide elections were held on odd years. Because of this change (the result of an 1883 state constitutional amendment), Lucius F. Hubbard's second term as governor lasted three years. With the passage of a 1958 state constitutional amendment, the terms of governor and lieutenant governor increased to four-years in 1963. A 1972 state constitutional amendment provided for the joint election of the governor and lieutenant governor starting in 1974.
The numerals indicate the consecutive time in office served by a single person. For example, William R. Marshall served two consecutive terms and is counted as the fifth state governor (not the fifth and sixth). Henry A. Swift assumed the governorship after the resignation of Alexander Ramsey, serving out the remainder of what would have been Ramsey's second term. The fact that Swift was not voted into office does not affect the numbering, which makes him the 3rd governor. Rudy Perpich served two non-consecutive terms and is counted chronologically as both the 34th and the 36th governor. Because of this, the list below contains 40 governorships, but only 39 people.
Prior to its organization as a territory, portions of Minnesota were part of the Northwest Territory, Indiana Territory, Louisiana Territory (later renamed Missouri Territory), Illinois Territory, Michigan Territory, Wisconsin Territory, and Iowa Territory; see the lists of governors of Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa for this period.
Four governors were born outside the United States: Knute Nelson was born in Norway, John Lind and Adolph Olson Eberhart were both born in Sweden, and Hjalmar Petersen was born in Denmark. 16 of the 41 governors to date were actually born in Minnesota. Five governors have resigned from office, and three have died in office.
Territorial governors
State governors
See also
List of Minnesota gubernatorial elections
List of Lieutenant Governors of Minnesota
Minnesota Governor's Residence
First Ladies and Gentlemen of Minnesota
U.S. Congressional Delegations from Minnesota
Notes
Notes on Minnesota political party names
Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party: On April 15, 1944, the state Democratic Party and the Minnesota Farmer-Labor Party merged and created the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party (DFL). It is affiliated with the national Democratic Party.
Republican Party of Minnesota: From November 15, 1975, to September 23, 1995, the name of the state Republican party was the Independent-Republican party (I-R). The party has always been affiliated with the national Republican Party.
Independence Party of Minnesota: The party was founded under this name in 1992. In 1995 the IPM affiliated with the national Reform Party and renamed itself the Reform Party of Minnesota. In 2000 the Reform Party of Minnesota disaffiliated with the national Reform Party and returned to the name Independence Party.
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional and other federal offices held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Minnesota except where noted. * denotes offices that the governor resigned to take.
Living former governors of Minnesota
Five former governors of Minnesota were living in 2019. The oldest was Al Quie (served 1979–1983, born 1923). The most recent U.S. governor of Minnesota to die was Wendell Anderson (served 1971–1976, born 1933), on July 17, 2016. The most recently serving governor of Minnesota to die was Rudy Perpich (served 1976–1979 and 1983–1991, born 1928), on September 21, 1995.
References
General
Specific
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors of Minnesota
Governors
Governors | [
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|
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