id
stringlengths 6
8
| url
stringlengths 31
167
| title
stringlengths 1
98
| text
stringlengths 26
185k
| embedding
list |
|---|---|---|---|---|
212950
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joey%20Skaggs
|
Joey Skaggs
|
Joey Skaggs (born 1945) is an American prankster who has organized numerous successful media pranks, hoaxes, and other presentations. Skaggs is one of the originators of the phenomenon known as culture jamming. Skaggs has used Kim Yung Soo, Joe Bones, Joseph Bonuso, Giuseppe Scaggioli, Dr. Joseph Gregor, and the Rev. Anthony Joseph as aliases.
Artistic career
In his youth, Skaggs studied at the High School of Art and Design and received a BFA from the School of Visual Arts in New York. Between 1966 and 1969, Skaggs organized crucifixion performances on Easter Sundays.
In 1968, Skaggs noticed that middle-class suburbanites were going on tours of the East Village to observe hippies. Skaggs subsequently organized a sightseeing tour for hippies to observe the suburbs of Queens. On Christmas Day, he created the Vietnamese Christmas Nativity Burning to protest against the Vietnam War.
In 1969, Skaggs tied a 50-foot bra to the front of the U.S. Treasury building on Wall Street in protest against Francine Gottfried's street harassment, organized a Hells Angels' wedding procession through the Lower East Side, and made a grotesque Statue of Liberty on July 4, again to protest against the Vietnam War.
In 1971, Skaggs bought Earlville Opera House, which is now a thriving performance and exhibition center. In the same year, he organized what he called a Fame Exchange during the New York Avant Garde Festival, where he hired a group of admirers to follow him around instead of John Lennon and Yoko Ono. It was a forerunner for his next pranks.
According to his web site, Skaggs does not care for "vicious" pranks such as letters containing fake anthrax; he also states that he is not doing anything illegal. He uses volunteer actors to play his customers, refusing to really scam anyone except the media. Often the prank is launched with nothing more than a press release with a phone number; in these press releases, Skaggs leaves hints or details that easily could be checked for accuracy. Eventually, he reveals the hoax to make his point.
On some occasions, Skaggs has sent a substitute to interviews with programs such as Entertainment Tonight and To Tell the Truth. Producers did not notice. Also, photographs in the National Enquirer and Playback have depicted the wrong man.
Many of Skaggs's pranks are originally reported as true in various news media. Sometimes the stories are retracted.
When not pranking the media, Skaggs earns his living by painting, making sculptures and lecturing.
In a 2015 interview, Skaggs revealed that he has a hoax that is "out there" that no one has discovered yet. After the interview, Chinese news agency SinoVision promptly fell for his then 30-year-old annual New York City April Fools' Day parade hoax and ran a four-minute segment in English on the non-event.
In 2017, "Art of the Prank", Andrea Marini's award-winning feature documentary about artist Joey Skaggs, was released internationally on television and streaming platforms.
Select pranks
Cathouse for Dogs (1976): Skaggs published an ad for a dog brothel in The Village Voice and hired actors to present their dogs for the benefit of an ABC news crew. The prank annoyed the ASPCA and the Bureau of Animal Affairs until Skaggs revealed the truth after a subpoena. ABC did not retract the story (the WABC TV producer insisted that Skaggs had said it was a hoax to avoid prosecution), possibly because the piece won an Emmy Award.
Celebrity Sperm Bank (1976): Skaggs organized a sperm bank auction in New York; the sperm bank was then robbed and semen was supposedly taken hostage.
Wall Street Shoeshine (1979): Skaggs played Joseph Bucks, a shoeshine man who had become rich on Wall Street and was working his last day—at $5 a shine.
Metamorphosis (1981): Skaggs played Dr. Gregor, inventor of the Cockroach Vitamin Pill, which was supposed to be a cure-all drug. It was a nod to Franz Kafka's story "The Metamorphosis".
Gypsies Against Stereotypical Propaganda (1982): Gypsy King JoJo (played by Skaggs) led a protest demanding that the Gypsy moth's name be changed because it was demeaning to his people.
Windsurfing from Hawaii to California (1983): Windsurfer J.J. Skaggs attempted the first crossing of the Pacific Ocean on a sailboard.
Fish Condos (1983): Skaggs created an aquarium depicting rooms with furniture. It was meant to satirize gentrification, but the aquariums sold very well.
Bad Guys Talent Management Agency (1984): In an attempt to get an acting job for a friend, Verne Williams, Skaggs founded a fictitious management agency for "bad-guy" actors. Eventually even real studios and wannabe actors contacted him.
WALK RIGHT! (1984): Skaggs put together a fictitious militant group that wanted to enforce proper street walking etiquette and make its rules into law.
The Fat Squad (1986): Skaggs played Joe Bones, the founder of a disciplinarian diet program where musclemen watched the customers 24 hours a day to make sure they stuck to their diets, at a cost of $300 a day.
1986 was also the first year of the Annual April Fools' Day Parade; it exists only as press release and is announced and promoted every year.
Save the Geoduck Campaign (1987): Skaggs played Dr. Richard J. Long who sought to save geoduck mollusks from extinction because they had become a popular aphrodisiac among the Japanese.
Comacocoon (1990): As Dr. Joseph Schlafer, Skaggs offered a literal dream vacation—customers were to sleep in a cocoon, enjoying programmed dreams about the vacation. The Department of Consumer Affairs was alerted.
Hair Today, Ltd. (1990): Joseph Chenango—another Skaggs character—marketed a new kind of hair implant: whole scalps from the dead. The prank began as an ad in the Village Voice soliciting scalp donors.
Geraldo Hoax (1991): Skaggs appeared on Geraldo Rivera's TV talk show and told a story about New York artists living in water towers—which he had not done.
Brooklyn Bridge Lottery (1992): Skaggs released a "leak" informing the public of a lottery where the first prize would be renaming rights to the Brooklyn Bridge.
Portofess (1992): Skaggs played Father Anthony Joseph, appearing with a portable confession booth at the Democratic National Convention.
Sex Tapes Saved Marriage (1993): Skaggs sent two actors to Faith Daniels' show to claim that sex tapes had saved their marriage.
SEXONIX (1993): Skaggs created a hoax about a sex machine, claiming that the prototype had been seized by Canada Customs at the Canada–US border on its way from the United States. He used his own name. Uproar ensued in various bulletin boards.
The Psychic Attorney (1994): On April 1, Skaggs appeared as Maqdananda, a combined New Age telephone psychic and lawyer. His voice mail box was flooded with calls.
Dog Meat Soup (1994): Skaggs portrayed Kim Yung Soo, an entrepreneur who wanted to purchase unwanted dogs for human consumption. His purpose was to bring to light issues of cultural bias, intolerance and racism, as well as to demonstrate the media's tendency to be reactionary, gullible and irresponsible.
Baba Wa Simba (1995): Skaggs appeared in London as Baba Wa Simba, a therapist who recommended that participants roar and behave like lions (reminiscent of primal scream therapy).
The Solomon Project (1995): Joseph Bonuso (Skaggs) claimed to have created a computer program that would work as both judge and jury and announce sentences. It pronounced O. J. Simpson guilty.
STOP BioPEEP (1998): Skaggs appeared as Dr. Joseph Howard, supposed employee of an Australian company, and revealed surreptitious genetic engineering with poultry to create addictive commercial products.
Doody Rudy (1999): Skaggs created a large satirical portrait of New York mayor Rudy Giuliani and let people throw fake elephant dung at it, in response to Giuliani's criticism of an artwork by Chris Ofili that incorporated real elephant dung.
The Final Curtain (2000): Skaggs' creation was a combined funeral company, virtual graveyard and theme park. It was meant to satirize showmanship in places like Forest Lawn cemeteries. Some investors were actually interested. Final Curtain's website is still functioning.
Art Attack (2002): Espai D'Art Contemporani (EACC) in Castellon, Spain asked Skaggs to organize a presentation; in response, Skaggs created a computer game where people could shoot passersby walking past the building in the outside corridor.
Bush! (2004): Dressed as Uncle Sam and flanked by cheerleaders, flag bearers, Cabinet members, the Saudi Royal Family and Secret Service operatives, Skaggs pedaled a large replica of the White House, with then-President George W. Bush inside on the toilet, into Washington Square Park on Independence Day.
Bullshit Detector Watch (2006): Skaggs created a satirical product, a watch that flashes, moos and poops. It also tells time.
Art of the Prank blog (2007): Skaggs launched a blog covering news, insights, and discussions on everything to do with unsanctioned art, pranks, hoaxes, culture jamming and reality hacking.
Mobile Homeless Homes (2012): Pedaling his Mobile Homeless Home, a shelter made from connected garbage cans, Skaggs led a group of angry muppets through the streets of New York to bring their outrage against greedy financial institutions and failed government oversight to the public.
Santa's Missile Tow (2012): Skaggs as Santa Claus, armed with a mobile rocket launcher mounted on the back of a tricycle, targeted the United Nations and Times Square with a sign proclaiming "World Peace or Else!". He was accompanied by an army of elves handing out toy soldiers to passersby.
Bigfoot & The Tiny Top Circus (2014): Bigfoot, the world's most illusive and terrifying creature, was captured and put on display by the Tiny Top Circus in New York City's Washington Square Park. The creature (Joey Skaggs dressed literally as a big foot) made a daring escape and disappeared into the West Fourth Street subway station.
Trump's Golden Throne (2017): For New York City's 32nd annual April Fools' Day Parade, after 31 years promoting a parade that didn't exist, Joey Skaggs orchestrated a real one. He held a Trumpathon, the world's largest gathering of Trump look-alikes, and together they paraded a golden outhouse, featuring President Donald Trump tweeting on his phone as he sat on his throne, to Trump Tower on 5th Avenue.
Trump's Military Parade (2018): Joey Skaggs' 33rd Annual April Fools' Day Parade featured a mockery of Trump's proposed Military Parade, with Donald Trump look-alikes carrying an arsenal of toy weapons. They were joined by North Korean "Rocket Man" Kim Jong Un and Russian President Vladimir Putin look-alikes as they marched down Fifth Avenue to Trump Tower.
See also
Alan Abel, another American performer of media hoaxes including the Society for Indecency to Naked Animals (SINA)
References
External links
The Art of the Prank
RE/Search Interview with Joey Skaggs
1945 births
20th-century American writers
21st-century American writers
Living people
Hoaxers]
Pranksters
Writers from New York (state)
High School of Art and Design alumni
School of Visual Arts alumni
20th-century American male writers
|
[
0.4839717745780945,
0.4280526638031006,
0.039959248155355453,
-0.11307075619697571,
0.13527601957321167,
-0.05576428025960922,
0.44745931029319763,
0.32768404483795166,
-0.9169085621833801,
0.18560586869716644,
0.09944706410169601,
0.2792949974536896,
-0.6706875562667847,
0.1879853755235672,
-0.46335774660110474,
0.3716924786567688,
0.11301533132791519,
-0.0069053079932928085,
-0.26786044239997864,
-0.2315533310174942,
-0.14837998151779175,
-0.1993253380060196,
0.23824259638786316,
-0.44631871581077576,
-0.3734113276004791,
0.34951263666152954,
0.014214448630809784,
-0.6570308208465576,
-0.06174290180206299,
0.8821433186531067,
0.27307194471359253,
0.48409557342529297,
1.0902529954910278,
-0.04750886559486389,
-0.5441680550575256,
0.035057999193668365,
-0.27796974778175354,
-0.2564575970172882,
0.12889115512371063,
0.44520118832588196,
0.22261568903923035,
-0.2294386625289917,
-0.32430168986320496,
0.024815380573272705,
-0.44594109058380127,
-0.4911503791809082,
-1.1783733367919922,
0.43884870409965515,
-0.13846105337142944,
-0.3689541220664978,
-0.4816771149635315,
0.5444751977920532,
-0.331402063369751,
0.6549948453903198,
0.1170831248164177,
0.2989800274372101,
-0.12210853397846222,
-0.0632937103509903,
0.28345397114753723,
-0.2840287685394287,
-0.10777627676725388,
0.3000165820121765,
0.20665845274925232,
-0.4223526418209076,
-0.6104269623756409,
-0.06893017143011093,
0.18975746631622314,
1.3785417079925537,
-0.5632972717285156,
-1.0597221851348877,
-0.3136895000934601,
0.0947265699505806,
0.009877479635179043,
-0.37523338198661804,
0.6648021936416626,
0.2426237016916275,
0.489488810300827,
-0.062230776995420456,
0.3182363212108612,
-0.3339662551879883,
-0.2613123655319214,
0.17396146059036255,
0.779801607131958,
0.7110021114349365,
-0.07555948942899704,
-0.051531556993722916,
-0.4272407293319702,
0.5893863439559937,
-0.33577585220336914,
0.1270548701286316,
-0.4210505783557892,
-0.08958420902490616,
0.5331124067306519,
0.16113436222076416,
-0.14030730724334717,
-0.1684955507516861,
-0.09155279397964478,
-0.07016970217227936,
0.45304086804389954,
-0.2101714313030243,
0.3319273591041565,
-0.4296322166919708,
0.10432891547679901,
0.3751148283481598,
-0.2173888087272644,
0.25522011518478394,
0.4838683605194092,
-0.7062957286834717,
-0.42116671800613403,
-0.3346177935600281,
-0.8991246223449707,
0.24583196640014648,
-0.08403164148330688,
-0.26122474670410156,
0.5970836281776428,
0.6753146648406982,
0.40137550234794617,
-0.6482368111610413,
-0.46618229150772095,
-0.08145514875650406,
-0.03195277228951454,
0.6475182175636292,
-0.017274564132094383,
-0.16900953650474548,
0.08473008871078491,
0.3762551248073578,
0.2805149555206299,
1.0919543504714966,
-0.4384758174419403,
-0.4486622214317322,
0.19527828693389893,
0.2282847762107849,
0.024147741496562958,
-0.3149149417877197,
-0.04053860530257225,
-0.5394002795219421,
0.3725658655166626,
0.33660295605659485,
-0.07082386314868927,
-0.03366189822554588,
-0.42117562890052795,
-0.08017140626907349,
-0.5149956941604614,
-0.18696549534797668,
0.1395195722579956,
0.12786369025707245,
-0.03972013294696808,
0.6883973479270935,
-0.22693361341953278,
0.46930474042892456,
-0.13595333695411682,
-0.2449067384004593,
0.6082090735435486,
-0.3811715543270111,
0.2342943400144577,
0.4040585160255432,
0.18003138899803162,
-0.2616577446460724,
0.20328782498836517,
0.07694824784994125,
0.5410052537918091,
-0.03872121125459671,
-0.7142554521560669,
0.3205666244029999,
-0.09416801482439041,
0.23407809436321259,
-0.14243687689304352,
0.014739490114152431,
-0.21737228333950043,
0.002068587811663747,
0.009559838101267815,
0.7618710994720459,
0.5942816138267517,
-0.06061636656522751,
0.11173529177904129,
0.7102346420288086,
0.3441058397293091,
-0.29568028450012207,
0.45427224040031433,
0.13651615381240845,
-0.6187205910682678,
-0.7868589162826538,
0.5911223292350769,
-0.21854771673679352,
0.3407241702079773,
0.03347121924161911,
0.5441185832023621,
-0.2060706913471222,
0.8656274676322937,
-0.29561561346054077,
-0.45086631178855896,
0.006040457636117935,
0.03990809991955757,
-0.31547072529792786,
0.9220418334007263,
0.5273728370666504,
-0.5160990953445435,
0.19495196640491486,
0.4732517600059509,
0.398314505815506,
0.005989889148622751,
0.024424711242318153,
0.006501900963485241,
-0.11967238038778305,
-0.49155721068382263,
0.19243818521499634,
0.24882516264915466,
0.043157655745744705,
-0.21964050829410553,
0.2747042179107666,
0.5940845608711243,
-0.770677387714386,
-0.20218698680400848,
0.07122624665498734,
-0.755727231502533,
0.2429235875606537,
-0.09631529450416565,
0.215818852186203,
0.1179417073726654,
-0.31597670912742615,
0.2605404257774353,
0.1704917997121811,
-0.3872183859348297,
-0.13386964797973633,
0.2872811555862427,
1.4036661386489868,
-0.7608616352081299,
-0.10738613456487656,
0.1468876302242279,
-0.37808188796043396,
-0.5851837396621704,
0.18832257390022278,
0.04535740613937378,
-0.41366466879844666,
0.1322026401758194,
-0.14727014303207397,
0.25613775849342346,
-0.5310014486312866,
-0.2674182951450348,
-0.28453510999679565,
0.9215826392173767,
-0.0024581451434642076,
-0.7219357490539551,
0.3763205409049988,
-0.17066025733947754,
0.3267858624458313,
-0.3642253577709198,
0.12368794530630112,
-0.2046956866979599,
0.363216370344162,
0.059488601982593536,
0.4875999987125397,
0.3362351655960083,
0.1438819169998169,
0.441439688205719,
0.4368964731693268,
-0.16337475180625916,
-0.07713312655687332,
0.16644272208213806,
0.16192582249641418,
-0.10587561130523682,
-0.06697630882263184,
-0.763464629650116,
0.3305313289165497,
-0.3075912594795227,
-0.6946995258331299,
0.09678683429956436,
-0.089167520403862,
0.11159487068653107,
-0.10862632095813751,
0.3103529214859009,
-0.2908158004283905,
-0.36870431900024414,
0.09388218820095062,
0.08243639767169952,
-0.22517389059066772,
0.17660117149353027,
0.3401452600955963,
-0.4572702646255493,
-0.79620361328125,
-0.19633445143699646,
0.7240902781486511,
0.09101751446723938,
-0.5284550786018372,
-0.17620165646076202,
-0.43955957889556885,
-0.324596107006073,
-0.3159477710723877,
-0.17913448810577393,
-0.2709697484970093,
-0.21748502552509308,
0.8761972188949585,
0.014256562106311321,
-0.14488841593265533,
-0.6373417377471924,
0.6603537797927856,
0.27484115958213806,
0.19678939878940582,
0.27971503138542175,
0.4947206377983093,
-0.07793445140123367,
0.022307908162474632,
-0.12722668051719666,
-0.40319404006004333,
0.6897452473640442,
0.03198856860399246,
-0.15255482494831085,
-0.13665762543678284,
-5.654294490814209,
0.2504342496395111,
0.012681006453931332,
-0.1436905562877655,
0.307375431060791,
0.5718213319778442,
0.6515430212020874,
-0.15620534121990204,
0.07857195287942886,
-0.5844311714172363,
-0.03993695229291916,
-0.15797089040279388,
-0.6211586594581604,
0.5023104548454285,
0.3361152410507202,
0.39508768916130066,
0.731526255607605,
-0.6576670408248901,
0.5891320705413818,
0.22745800018310547,
0.24365562200546265,
0.0423675961792469,
-0.38090798258781433,
0.3083958625793457,
-0.07268461585044861,
0.4684402346611023,
-0.9079775214195251,
-0.22052864730358124,
-0.3906097710132599,
0.04764328524470329,
0.10121309012174606,
0.023851638659834862,
-0.6745837926864624,
-0.28491899371147156,
-0.548317551612854,
0.09197787940502167,
0.7194684147834778,
-0.412983775138855,
-0.2884620130062103,
-0.40955930948257446,
-0.018421396613121033,
-0.15124408900737762,
-0.493569016456604,
0.13157814741134644,
1.005131483078003,
-0.09049800038337708,
-0.49096623063087463,
-0.7669539451599121,
-0.2838389575481415,
-0.12663283944129944,
0.29284536838531494,
0.11539033055305481,
0.14980880916118622,
0.03435515984892845,
0.36880460381507874,
-0.4876108169555664,
-0.24174265563488007,
0.44650641083717346,
-1.0003600120544434,
0.2613644003868103,
0.6058056354522705,
0.02882762812077999,
-0.13256743550300598,
-0.004100684076547623,
-0.19631874561309814,
-0.34225887060165405,
0.29828837513923645,
0.011886733584105968,
0.7659881114959717,
0.09921509027481079,
-0.15186205506324768,
1.1377640962600708,
-0.07695470750331879,
-0.9895998239517212,
0.738806962966919,
0.1657274067401886,
0.11990467458963394,
0.13164953887462616,
-0.21102207899093628,
-0.38183096051216125,
-0.6767799854278564,
-0.631242036819458,
-0.21391057968139648,
-0.24130049347877502,
-0.1802731156349182,
-0.29977694153785706,
-0.7787426114082336,
0.44907379150390625,
-0.3663124740123749,
0.17385165393352509,
0.3701653778553009,
0.05058899521827698,
-0.012476312927901745,
0.26888594031333923,
-0.05162418633699417,
0.7550989389419556,
0.1887771189212799,
0.9125968813896179,
-0.010962363332509995,
0.41371867060661316,
0.08667894452810287,
-0.6566101312637329,
0.23108360171318054,
-0.5896739363670349,
-0.3055899143218994,
0.03363928943872452,
0.021044064313173294,
-0.03253549709916115,
0.6340816617012024,
0.35692986845970154,
0.31622782349586487,
0.22281992435455322,
-0.6723580956459045,
0.004676935728639364,
0.44177165627479553,
-0.2654576003551483,
0.42718714475631714,
0.4769537150859833,
0.5105553269386292,
-0.22164756059646606,
0.2712888717651367,
0.5454329252243042,
0.14817962050437927,
-0.5884770750999451,
-0.2788974344730377,
-0.725714921951294,
0.24805855751037598,
0.10843873769044876,
0.17583738267421722,
0.11725277453660965,
-0.15548594295978546,
0.41311460733413696,
-0.3351750373840332,
-0.25674912333488464,
0.2864004075527191,
0.4898643493652344,
-0.33030080795288086,
-0.6420091986656189,
-0.3075939118862152,
-0.09037583321332932,
0.24912840127944946,
-0.39889657497406006,
0.05895552411675453,
0.3631742000579834,
0.14003898203372955,
-0.08857490867376328,
0.2586295008659363,
0.4912954270839691,
0.0392669253051281,
0.7387499213218689,
0.06536201387643814,
-0.0502367839217186,
0.2003939151763916,
-0.697184145450592,
-0.13146962225437164,
0.5114518404006958,
0.01770060881972313,
-0.5883893966674805,
0.02301962487399578,
0.10234411805868149,
0.31866878271102905,
-0.574843168258667,
-1.331563115119934,
0.1107158437371254,
-0.01201836671680212,
-0.014058581553399563,
-0.8041206002235413,
-0.14584754407405853,
0.10507389903068542,
0.5452377200126648,
0.007050289306789637,
-0.12731000781059265,
-0.3705665171146393,
0.10860484838485718,
0.66802978515625,
0.2934916913509369,
-0.07246614247560501,
-0.2946368455886841,
-0.2983715832233429,
0.022711768746376038,
-0.05728106200695038,
0.3381703794002533,
-0.6978831887245178,
-0.11913059651851654,
0.3143754005432129,
-0.5556491017341614,
-0.5415693521499634,
0.4360865652561188,
-0.031753506511449814,
0.3552102744579315,
-0.2799980342388153,
0.16527917981147766,
0.021611690521240234,
0.17656062543392181,
-0.1812480092048645,
-0.25896352529525757,
-0.5751027464866638,
0.3068453371524811,
0.21657273173332214,
-0.2350446879863739,
0.12829571962356567,
0.10572613775730133,
0.0000549846954527311,
-0.033224500715732574,
0.1568930745124817,
-0.7144898176193237,
0.0034934086725115776,
-0.3362998962402344,
-0.10916396975517273,
0.6332209706306458,
-0.057248156517744064,
-0.32895973324775696,
-0.5722799897193909,
0.05737956985831261,
-0.12697167694568634,
0.11061713844537735,
-0.022635793313384056,
-0.1326158344745636,
-0.45805537700653076,
-0.24406524002552032,
0.068459652364254,
-0.49963805079460144,
-0.539186954498291,
0.058141786605119705,
-0.35609254240989685,
-0.04266653582453728,
0.006479382980614901,
-0.3033682405948639,
0.9430102109909058,
-0.3884890079498291,
0.37835875153541565,
0.17753149569034576,
-0.1929313689470291,
0.9041560888290405,
-0.4408373236656189,
-0.3608662188053131,
0.4077952206134796,
0.9608119130134583,
0.10487205535173416,
0.2992548942565918,
0.6424051523208618,
0.596990168094635,
-0.5409801006317139,
-0.1846206933259964,
0.30824029445648193,
-0.22467194497585297,
0.8329150080680847,
0.1150023490190506,
0.12224020063877106,
-0.07648340612649918,
-0.015212099999189377,
-0.21549583971500397,
-0.34133240580558777,
0.02352224849164486,
0.8193566203117371,
-0.9802469611167908,
-0.08799219131469727,
-0.6480170488357544,
0.5137573480606079,
-0.7635277509689331,
0.0021282141096889973,
0.05407462269067764,
-0.7814779281616211,
-0.20819972455501556,
-0.44818833470344543,
-0.2249816656112671,
-0.11739416420459747,
0.03114159032702446,
0.22693520784378052,
-0.3994302451610565,
-0.2171894609928131,
-0.013100088573992252,
0.11691013723611832,
0.8974831700325012,
-0.8056988716125488,
0.20823043584823608,
0.5086349844932556,
-0.49765852093696594,
0.10883500427007675,
-0.07208031415939331,
-0.7098878026008606,
0.5182227492332458,
0.3070778250694275,
-0.1291077584028244,
-0.2760389745235443,
-0.5947308540344238,
-0.2905431389808655,
-0.09532207995653152,
-0.19656340777873993,
-0.21038614213466644,
-0.6900460720062256,
0.9451540112495422,
-0.35181427001953125,
-0.12809553742408752,
-0.37214627861976624,
0.2903231084346771,
0.5133851170539856,
0.2542016804218292,
0.03326484188437462,
0.12076877802610397,
-0.08722338080406189,
0.030459733679890633,
0.4409610331058502,
-0.6655946373939514,
0.1330481320619583,
-0.47644129395484924,
-0.2823508083820343,
-0.7085646986961365,
-0.1649331897497177,
0.15756434202194214,
0.12179429829120636,
-0.2621590197086334,
-0.03479348123073578,
0.04908394068479538,
-0.7759121060371399,
0.131941020488739,
0.4203311800956726,
0.05518094822764397,
-0.26744258403778076,
0.09548496454954147,
-0.04909022897481918,
0.3187784254550934,
0.46406543254852295,
-0.1912175714969635,
0.5209044814109802,
0.4962182641029358,
0.17720332741737366,
-0.25168368220329285,
0.1633903980255127,
-0.05631479248404503,
-0.040758512914180756,
0.07751245051622391,
-0.0331413671374321,
0.5828045010566711,
0.36742809414863586,
-0.5894010663032532,
0.0011799156200140715,
-0.13075873255729675,
-0.09028114378452301,
0.46816274523735046,
-0.41692429780960083,
0.02096608281135559,
0.09471351653337479,
0.2930472791194916,
-0.21013762056827545,
-0.15914399921894073,
-0.05676795169711113,
-0.09962844103574753,
-0.2232086956501007,
0.2739700973033905,
0.4276571571826935,
-0.1867666393518448,
-0.32656461000442505,
-0.9482496976852417,
0.5829914212226868,
-0.7097958326339722,
0.19775398075580597,
-0.4408666789531708,
-0.9940035939216614,
0.1664343625307083,
0.38574302196502686,
-0.23868319392204285,
0.3149980306625366,
0.060742683708667755,
-0.17202167212963104,
0.5677704215049744,
-0.12025492638349533,
-0.14336547255516052,
-0.1263854056596756,
0.26732999086380005,
0.5958442687988281,
-0.21523413062095642,
-0.15575285255908966,
1.373322606086731,
-0.5179446935653687,
0.16210252046585083,
0.33336493372917175,
0.15151958167552948,
-0.2713152766227722,
0.09889868646860123,
-0.6412110328674316,
-0.10691718757152557,
-0.4504145681858063,
0.10097352415323257,
0.2031591832637787,
0.027335019782185555,
0.01991046965122223,
0.4575284719467163,
-0.06667514145374298,
-0.23843541741371155,
0.5165441036224365,
-0.6414719820022583,
-0.09272503107786179,
0.5781205296516418,
0.12341832369565964,
-0.01206277310848236,
-0.2745431065559387,
0.8393476605415344,
-0.15180443227291107,
-0.019358081743121147,
0.1660768985748291,
-0.010907094925642014,
0.31904298067092896,
0.05016990005970001,
-0.37051478028297424,
0.0826696828007698,
-0.39071670174598694,
-0.6806431412696838,
-0.4014444351196289,
0.7266566753387451,
-0.13784611225128174,
-0.15946301817893982,
-0.2929289638996124,
-0.21217572689056396,
0.15998321771621704,
0.22813330590724945,
0.4452044367790222,
-0.24167682230472565,
-0.4521733522415161,
-0.10566636919975281,
-0.008907387033104897,
0.1909850835800171,
0.4439181387424469,
0.5161690711975098,
-0.17852722108364105,
0.03282463178038597,
0.2770072817802429,
-0.29653871059417725,
-0.20234467089176178,
0.48483332991600037,
-0.2604442536830902,
-0.8903588056564331,
-0.5970489978790283,
0.2232881337404251,
-0.31858551502227783,
-1.0063663721084595,
0.8204242587089539,
0.6949231028556824,
0.2817586362361908,
-0.7182532548904419,
0.14422909915447235,
-0.2362036556005478,
0.3158794045448303,
-0.02572699636220932,
-0.10618407279253006,
0.2552972137928009,
0.5949063897132874,
-0.15126696228981018,
0.2723802626132965,
0.3070298433303833,
-0.11273657530546188,
-0.05351919308304787,
-0.366306871175766,
-0.649549663066864,
0.4367823004722595,
0.20619714260101318,
0.3835154175758362,
0.07716549187898636,
0.36855849623680115,
-0.1800786554813385
] |
212952
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranters
|
Ranters
|
The Ranters were one of a number of dissenting groups that emerged around the time of the English Commonwealth (1649–1660). They were largely common people and the movement was widespread throughout England, though they were not organised and had no leader.
History
The chaos of the Second English Civil War, the execution of King Charles I and the animosity between the Presbyterians and Independents during the era of the Commonwealth gave rise to countless sectarian groups that were attempting to make sense of their society and place within that society. The Ranters were one such group. They were regarded as heretical by the established Church and seem to have been regarded by the government as a threat to social order. The quote "...the bishops, Charles and the Lords have had their turn, overturn, so your turn shall be next...", published in a Ranter pamphlet, no doubt caused some concern in the halls of power. The Ranters denied the authority of churches, of scripture, of the current ministry and of services, instead calling on men to listen to the divine within them. In many ways they resemble the 14th century Brethren of the Free Spirit. In fact, they were causing such controversy, that by the early 1650s multiple anti-Ranter pamphlets were circulating throughout Britain.
The origin for the term "Ranter" seems to come from an anonymous pamphlet titled "A Justification of the Mad Crew", where the word rant was used in reference to the enemies of those espousing this particular view, equating ranting with hypocrisy. The anonymous author calls those who would eventually be deemed Ranters "the Mad Crew" instead. There is also a confluence between the term "Ranter" with the verb rent, as in to be rent away from God. Most written evidence points to the use of "Ranter" as an insult by the enemies of the sect and not a self designated moniker. By the 1660s, the term became attached to any group that promoted theological deviance but since most of the literary evidence we have was created by those opposed to Ranters in general, it is difficult to determine their exact creed.
There are few primary sources actually written by Ranters, but those that do exist give us a clearer picture of what they believed. The most famous English member, Laurence Clarkson or Claxton, joined the Ranters after encountering them in 1649. Although he does not mention them directly, his 1650 tract called A Single Eye is widely believed to have been inspired by this dissenting group and directly reflects their views. Other less well known members of the Ranter cohort included Abiezer Coppe and Joseph Salmon.
Their central idea was pantheistic, that God is essentially in every creature, including themselves.
They embraced antinomianism and believed that Christians are freed by grace from the necessity of obeying Mosaic Law, rejecting the very notion of obedience. They held that believers are free from all traditional restraints and that sin is a product only of the imagination. The Ranters revived the Brethren of the Free Spirit's amoralism and "stressed the desire to surpass the human condition and become godlike".
They denied the authority of the church, of accepted religious practice and of scripture. In fact, they denied the power of any authority in general.
Gerrard Winstanley, a leader of another English dissenting group called the Diggers, commented on Ranter principles by denoting them as "a general lack of moral values or restraint in worldly pleasures". However another prominent Digger, William Everard was, some time after the failure of the Digger communes, imprisoned as a ranter, and later confined to Bethlem Hospital. John Bunyan, author of Pilgrim's Progress, wrote in his autobiography, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, that he had encountered Ranters prior to his Baptist conversion.
In the UK, they came into contact and even rivalry with the early Quakers, who were often falsely accused of direct association with them. In the American colonies, there is evidence that Ranters were actually breakaway Quakers who did not agree with the standardization of belief that occurred in the late 1670s. Although the Quakers retained their loose, sect-like character until the 1660s, they began to formalize their worship practices and set of beliefs in order to gain some stability in the New World; this in turn pushed out those who did not fall in line, creating a group of people referred to as Ranters. (Whether these people were directly inspired by the Ranters of the UK or if the moniker was simply imported via anti-Ranter pamphlets that were so popular during this era is debatable.)
The historian J. C. Davis has suggested that the Ranters were a myth created by conservatives in order to endorse traditional values by comparison with an unimaginably radical other. Richard L. Greaves, in a review of Davis' book, suggests that though a very radical fringe existed, it was probably never as organized as conservatives of the time suggested.
In the mid-19th century, the name was often applied to the Primitive Methodists, with reference to their crude and often noisy preaching.
See also
Jacob Bauthumley
Abiezer Coppe
John Robins
Seekers
17th-century denominations in England
Christian anarchism
References
Further reading
Grant, Linda. (1994). Sexing the Millennium: Women and the Sexual Revolution. Grove Press. pp. 19–25.
Hill, Christopher. The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution. London: Maurice Temple Smith, 1972. Reprinted by Penguin.
Morton, Arthur Leslie, The World of the Ranters: Religious Radicalism in the English Revolution, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1970.
Christian radicalism
|
[
-0.17128679156303406,
-0.07111941277980804,
-0.138274684548378,
-0.29568180441856384,
-0.5653790235519409,
0.6072447896003723,
0.989419162273407,
0.29141032695770264,
-0.2991037964820862,
0.06363889575004578,
-0.2409520000219345,
0.600648820400238,
-0.44954031705856323,
0.3527902364730835,
-0.3461989164352417,
0.1902676820755005,
0.34959375858306885,
-0.2267928421497345,
0.1893521547317505,
-0.5196939706802368,
-0.49403437972068787,
-0.4480101764202118,
0.43351316452026367,
0.07893192768096924,
0.35039645433425903,
-0.35457944869995117,
0.8019969463348389,
0.04357706755399704,
-0.15622949600219727,
-0.11120346933603287,
-0.020226990804076195,
0.8302929401397705,
0.542691707611084,
-0.5277099013328552,
-0.1423935890197754,
0.10844698548316956,
0.057897452265024185,
0.020660847425460815,
-0.35822197794914246,
-0.38657498359680176,
0.2040601223707199,
-0.48663032054901123,
0.15984965860843658,
0.3323073983192444,
0.03877220302820206,
-0.008784073404967785,
-1.5127527713775635,
0.3496779203414917,
-0.25033673644065857,
0.1647661030292511,
-0.03932071849703789,
0.5981494784355164,
0.2502855956554413,
0.3206711411476135,
-0.22205676138401031,
-0.05986443907022476,
-0.642054557800293,
-0.3694911003112793,
0.39937737584114075,
-0.28513896465301514,
0.45616063475608826,
0.18904858827590942,
0.1836552768945694,
-0.005595079157501459,
-0.48320016264915466,
0.16976523399353027,
-0.3357004225254059,
0.22497369349002838,
-0.30362316966056824,
-0.7442970275878906,
0.41754233837127686,
0.05513433739542961,
-0.2065240889787674,
0.2204284518957138,
0.24632208049297333,
-0.08526705950498581,
0.4001327157020569,
0.1720263957977295,
0.06373707205057144,
0.05541890114545822,
-0.05898324400186539,
0.2806440591812134,
0.5747971534729004,
0.19559770822525024,
0.26080840826034546,
-0.43950995802879333,
0.335103839635849,
0.2372758984565735,
0.1609945148229599,
0.017632117494940758,
0.05999098718166351,
-0.04937750846147537,
-0.019733749330043793,
0.24827459454536438,
-0.2533928155899048,
0.3524073660373688,
0.8463071584701538,
0.26657944917678833,
-0.30254268646240234,
-0.4324137270450592,
-0.007776048965752125,
0.7415307760238647,
0.3412785828113556,
-0.2577928900718689,
-0.3516702950000763,
-0.0003779001999646425,
0.29893139004707336,
-0.2835301160812378,
-0.006867238786071539,
-0.08477479219436646,
-0.04557446762919426,
0.3081517219543457,
0.11422012746334076,
0.010979989543557167,
-0.07905486971139908,
0.5491477847099304,
0.10878387838602066,
-0.8172547221183777,
0.1852271407842636,
0.2794364392757416,
-0.1238383874297142,
0.5053689479827881,
0.10194306820631027,
0.5745128393173218,
-0.3343172073364258,
-0.0783509910106659,
0.10127454251050949,
0.2769134044647217,
-0.6541181206703186,
0.09794104844331741,
0.460457980632782,
1.179068922996521,
-0.1741303652524948,
-0.24056553840637207,
-0.12279070913791656,
0.3980304002761841,
0.6238890290260315,
-0.28974074125289917,
0.872258722782135,
0.4404449164867401,
-0.5067980289459229,
-0.17846480011940002,
0.19483429193496704,
-0.11517232656478882,
0.2996429204940796,
-0.4952435791492462,
-0.2644115388393402,
-0.5566049218177795,
-0.4719330370426178,
-0.5780141353607178,
0.031641822308301926,
-0.4076128900051117,
0.573296308517456,
-0.1780003309249878,
0.1871255785226822,
0.15952709317207336,
0.2482730746269226,
-0.38148033618927,
0.0769609659910202,
0.37876176834106445,
-0.44800716638565063,
0.5431212186813354,
-0.02335515432059765,
-0.44368976354599,
0.3322432041168213,
0.00017212882812600583,
-0.40245410799980164,
-0.15245741605758667,
-0.0453123077750206,
-0.17268969118595123,
-0.4156772792339325,
0.19118230044841766,
0.39017295837402344,
-0.027083540335297585,
0.2552240788936615,
0.124008409678936,
0.34865835309028625,
0.4325268268585205,
0.20714819431304932,
-0.3810671865940094,
-0.511559784412384,
0.5141822695732117,
0.31154030561447144,
0.2074453979730606,
0.17994888126850128,
0.6734299659729004,
0.32908737659454346,
-0.14082857966423035,
-0.1618218719959259,
-0.09422054886817932,
-0.02180389314889908,
-0.5696502923965454,
0.1717866212129593,
-0.5530585050582886,
1.3602588176727295,
-0.4674172103404999,
-0.075454480946064,
0.25725874304771423,
0.49277839064598083,
0.6916397213935852,
0.0825938805937767,
-0.11291374266147614,
0.391337126493454,
-0.12060460448265076,
-0.14066721498966217,
0.045265164226293564,
-0.08911656588315964,
0.3185732066631317,
0.5806030035018921,
-0.18393993377685547,
0.19419755041599274,
-0.2297840267419815,
-0.186942920088768,
0.07075882703065872,
-0.21113747358322144,
-0.5195675492286682,
-0.2992752194404602,
0.12412973493337631,
0.40227460861206055,
-0.2980383336544037,
0.19332823157310486,
-0.747150182723999,
0.056846559047698975,
0.5617390275001526,
0.3502606153488159,
0.8665138483047485,
0.19202955067157745,
0.11846258491277695,
0.24868960678577423,
-0.660629391670227,
-0.5633769631385803,
0.39515095949172974,
-0.15127435326576233,
-0.29412493109703064,
-0.49503353238105774,
0.029170185327529907,
0.18567374348640442,
-0.1310519278049469,
0.2827316224575043,
-0.49584364891052246,
-0.017462322488427162,
-0.04259764775633812,
-0.09813201427459717,
0.030707664787769318,
-0.13043347001075745,
0.07652997970581055,
-0.29007378220558167,
-0.11162645369768143,
0.34715646505355835,
0.14191295206546783,
-0.09119606018066406,
0.2598225772380829,
-0.05137038230895996,
-0.280766099691391,
0.5867331624031067,
0.18278761208057404,
0.6198576092720032,
-0.2578601539134979,
0.2671844959259033,
0.44755423069000244,
-0.6903977990150452,
0.050436243414878845,
-0.31263744831085205,
0.38648584485054016,
0.28752100467681885,
-0.7482540011405945,
-0.41458067297935486,
0.2922094166278839,
0.17234429717063904,
0.030546408146619797,
0.16581016778945923,
-0.18568694591522217,
-0.295260488986969,
-0.21418268978595734,
-0.13084878027439117,
-0.6695221066474915,
0.24335846304893494,
-0.08171676844358444,
-0.07723867148160934,
-0.49517929553985596,
-0.3818398416042328,
0.22743822634220123,
0.31315192580223083,
-0.3090226948261261,
0.08459804952144623,
0.4048498570919037,
0.14062222838401794,
0.004496610723435879,
0.3652389347553253,
0.2563411593437195,
-0.30335715413093567,
0.08538853377103806,
0.006557558197528124,
-0.3764311969280243,
-0.25540637969970703,
0.24136212468147278,
-0.0997285321354866,
0.43483275175094604,
0.0002131394576281309,
0.30834710597991943,
-0.3292674720287323,
0.5314708352088928,
-0.7941065430641174,
-0.08795613795518875,
0.10268615186214447,
-0.0650143250823021,
-0.5094780921936035,
-0.15409867465496063,
-6.023955345153809,
-0.1171741783618927,
-0.435497909784317,
-0.36133071780204773,
0.20735689997673035,
0.24222788214683533,
0.3706585168838501,
-0.9342760443687439,
-0.2903205156326294,
-0.2304343581199646,
0.13562829792499542,
-0.3564685583114624,
-0.11270665377378464,
-0.11051739752292633,
0.14752066135406494,
-0.32063260674476624,
0.20661276578903198,
0.1788916438817978,
0.15649601817131042,
-0.11271592974662781,
0.2681494653224945,
-0.189441978931427,
-0.2559041678905487,
0.17587807774543762,
0.29730457067489624,
0.42172878980636597,
-0.017471542581915855,
0.11463724076747894,
-0.15902692079544067,
-0.024592485278844833,
-0.5124291777610779,
0.16860096156597137,
0.2574913799762726,
-0.2725469172000885,
0.17702250182628632,
-0.4027141034603119,
0.46919044852256775,
0.1868845522403717,
0.5021225810050964,
-0.23963519930839539,
-0.43315890431404114,
-0.10734274238348007,
0.12254399061203003,
-0.07208207994699478,
0.37605521082878113,
0.06899445503950119,
-0.3354775607585907,
0.169446662068367,
-0.39789021015167236,
0.624433159828186,
-0.1084519475698471,
0.030018331483006477,
0.31897902488708496,
0.22242797911167145,
0.2283732295036316,
-0.18341195583343506,
0.33375048637390137,
-0.27456197142601013,
-0.12314841896295547,
0.144947350025177,
0.5046828985214233,
-0.3562130331993103,
-0.06896434724330902,
-0.37733063101768494,
-0.2818394601345062,
-0.3829180598258972,
-0.21111062169075012,
0.15351924300193787,
0.9125322103500366,
0.039867524057626724,
-0.06495477259159088,
0.5427796840667725,
-0.09440700709819794,
-1.1287872791290283,
0.04944959655404091,
0.06549809873104095,
-0.17234033346176147,
-0.02050163596868515,
0.2957874834537506,
-0.12088660150766373,
-0.07053242623806,
0.0496530756354332,
0.2817377746105194,
0.08919953554868698,
0.21782836318016052,
-0.31527093052864075,
-0.4262697100639343,
0.22141891717910767,
-0.8988789916038513,
-0.25776907801628113,
0.5725656747817993,
-0.7030496001243591,
-0.17365264892578125,
-0.04234237223863602,
0.9536608457565308,
0.6344832181930542,
0.3367365002632141,
-0.24871253967285156,
0.32420220971107483,
0.25112709403038025,
-0.27235147356987,
-0.017016379162669182,
0.13690242171287537,
-0.25370490550994873,
-0.1178077831864357,
0.08119188249111176,
-0.7219467759132385,
0.3679969310760498,
0.2872532904148102,
0.07944506406784058,
0.18817339837551117,
-0.4623512923717499,
-0.21118764579296112,
-0.09489081799983978,
-0.29802894592285156,
-0.18004554510116577,
-0.027782786637544632,
0.09842527657747269,
0.36483335494995117,
0.36900922656059265,
-0.03331192210316658,
0.022363293915987015,
-0.5388824939727783,
0.40868017077445984,
0.17963722348213196,
0.26944223046302795,
0.2180570811033249,
0.23205432295799255,
-0.3671918213367462,
0.16736681759357452,
0.25141048431396484,
-0.6500295400619507,
0.2583693563938141,
-0.11720066517591476,
-0.025078902021050453,
-0.28992050886154175,
-0.37810006737709045,
-0.27363163232803345,
0.06002530828118324,
-0.03382027521729469,
-0.28895020484924316,
-0.2316288948059082,
0.592156708240509,
0.2681862413883209,
0.5488194227218628,
0.10829602926969528,
0.27529382705688477,
-0.3541179895401001,
-0.1604377180337906,
0.11535181105136871,
0.47602978348731995,
-0.10828281939029694,
1.271912693977356,
-0.31483957171440125,
0.18030591309070587,
-0.5786924362182617,
0.24855558574199677,
0.009138262830674648,
-0.3760450780391693,
-0.26944223046302795,
-0.36068814992904663,
-0.09763572365045547,
-0.9189581871032715,
-0.04109103977680206,
0.33563554286956787,
-0.3406222462654114,
0.10756219178438187,
-0.1185988262295723,
-0.08602949976921082,
0.11419770121574402,
-0.3900068700313568,
-0.08670308440923691,
-0.08458197116851807,
0.4818148612976074,
0.6411360502243042,
-0.06609226763248444,
0.051617976278066635,
0.34160730242729187,
-0.3568264842033386,
-0.12857124209403992,
-0.7094638347625732,
0.7817494869232178,
-0.20978087186813354,
0.3764936625957489,
0.8897678852081299,
-0.7018489837646484,
-0.18657450377941132,
-0.4797518849372864,
0.04095568507909775,
0.24783773720264435,
0.6072465777397156,
0.22706352174282074,
-0.003929333295673132,
0.00533080380409956,
-0.7178097367286682,
-0.2877488434314728,
0.11283853650093079,
0.25816839933395386,
0.09334991872310638,
0.08361605554819107,
0.4430389702320099,
0.23540905117988586,
-0.39510592818260193,
-0.6968144178390503,
0.1555805206298828,
-0.5605034828186035,
0.36769670248031616,
-0.28398892283439636,
-0.5746465921401978,
0.6662038564682007,
0.08630604296922684,
-0.6094123125076294,
-0.2477455586194992,
0.6392408013343811,
-0.3112561106681824,
-0.4961525797843933,
-0.07010264694690704,
-0.23430031538009644,
-0.359508752822876,
-0.3616917133331299,
-0.4677846431732178,
-0.38494303822517395,
-0.8452417850494385,
0.32737794518470764,
-0.6277937889099121,
0.025275465101003647,
-0.03514440357685089,
-0.1389797031879425,
0.3673512041568756,
0.05514540895819664,
-0.34397515654563904,
0.13422609865665436,
0.2132287472486496,
0.0009252116433344781,
-0.027075273916125298,
-0.3373584747314453,
0.3877928853034973,
-0.25031256675720215,
0.025220071896910667,
0.1903401017189026,
0.623329222202301,
0.8283042311668396,
0.40401825308799744,
-0.6944974660873413,
-0.21382734179496765,
-0.07129889726638794,
-0.2535952031612396,
-0.5554237961769104,
-0.025668028742074966,
0.23534010350704193,
0.009522165171802044,
0.18902583420276642,
-0.2259310781955719,
0.14562147855758667,
0.6361449956893921,
0.3243715167045593,
-0.07584243267774582,
0.1269979178905487,
0.4887440502643585,
-0.3097761869430542,
0.5020706653594971,
-0.08418411016464233,
-0.3345968723297119,
-0.2637028694152832,
-0.22713233530521393,
-0.07116726785898209,
-0.11422605812549591,
-0.614578127861023,
0.048473842442035675,
-0.42211613059043884,
-0.31696203351020813,
-0.35207727551460266,
0.10119783878326416,
0.15776604413986206,
0.2637593448162079,
0.10144415497779846,
-0.47892487049102783,
-0.5803948044776917,
0.45544934272766113,
-0.27526482939720154,
-0.3499526381492615,
-0.1290682554244995,
-0.08654701709747314,
0.15187472105026245,
0.32670825719833374,
-0.4622395932674408,
0.23570722341537476,
-0.43672841787338257,
-0.25123754143714905,
-0.2329830825328827,
-0.45536261796951294,
0.2180885374546051,
0.41765251755714417,
0.6061269044876099,
-0.43487870693206787,
-0.0689084380865097,
-0.11860699206590652,
0.07498147338628769,
-0.5181312561035156,
-0.0425151064991951,
-0.6956853270530701,
-0.08316066116094589,
0.4540438950061798,
-0.45836398005485535,
0.16252751648426056,
-0.08839820325374603,
-0.19167636334896088,
-0.11732295900583267,
-0.36768293380737305,
0.07255545258522034,
0.10443093627691269,
-0.13774624466896057,
-0.0463729090988636,
0.23694168031215668,
-0.6195612549781799,
-0.6078888773918152,
0.45760491490364075,
-0.3736363649368286,
0.23931734263896942,
0.09407803416252136,
0.880892813205719,
0.7472832202911377,
-0.2991945147514343,
0.09887488931417465,
0.41841036081314087,
0.36479321122169495,
0.000308020506054163,
0.04006960242986679,
-0.04320429265499115,
0.28148016333580017,
0.1634868085384369,
0.2519407868385315,
-0.5200984477996826,
0.08233709633350372,
-0.9517477750778198,
-0.836550772190094,
0.1967027187347412,
-0.4395117163658142,
-0.21727454662322998,
0.581063449382782,
0.4543009102344513,
0.07444431632757187,
-0.038378629833459854,
-0.236958846449852,
-0.17976738512516022,
0.48110052943229675,
0.5066738724708557,
-0.3118307292461395,
0.7188401222229004,
0.19784708321094513,
0.3105615973472595,
-0.25072282552719116,
0.3365398943424225,
-0.04674085974693298,
0.40700608491897583,
-0.28756996989250183,
-0.3239418864250183,
-0.002022613538429141,
-0.18993772566318512,
-0.3916676640510559,
-0.09209220856428146,
0.2693214416503906,
-0.07985398173332214,
-0.15683867037296295,
0.1836957484483719,
0.3174368143081665,
0.2568793296813965,
-0.34717458486557007,
-0.05351278558373451,
-0.044269029051065445,
0.5100180506706238,
-0.04483240097761154,
-0.02802480384707451,
-0.034987714141607285,
0.06454051285982132,
-0.36123430728912354,
1.1200947761535645,
0.38775208592414856,
0.13786841928958893,
-0.11749259382486343,
0.010630407370626926,
-0.056697819381952286,
0.4006481170654297,
-0.4925115406513214,
0.552583634853363,
-0.2089994102716446,
0.011347952298820019,
-0.10836484283208847,
-0.43950918316841125,
-0.7147510051727295,
-0.4666280448436737,
-0.17483115196228027,
0.09891567379236221,
-0.17836621403694153,
-0.6713087558746338,
0.3316366672515869,
-0.04446054995059967,
0.764759361743927,
0.2445981204509735,
0.521840512752533,
-0.09941671788692474,
0.35662710666656494,
-0.03629652410745621,
0.08980631828308105,
-0.6977328658103943,
0.024835772812366486,
-0.4172786772251129,
-0.6806268692016602,
-0.5237093567848206,
0.5682322382926941,
0.4718790650367737,
0.004129420034587383,
0.5833940505981445,
0.5498669147491455,
-0.3376242518424988,
0.1561766266822815,
0.9913070201873779,
0.057330816984176636,
-0.03033902682363987,
0.5167860984802246,
0.20457880198955536,
0.2566116750240326,
-0.2630896270275116,
-0.3284418284893036,
-0.27113449573516846,
-0.3007136881351471,
0.5719596147537231,
-0.3651709258556366,
-0.06253155320882797,
0.4473321735858917,
-0.12643299996852875,
-0.12770536541938782,
0.17414528131484985,
-0.03872736170887947,
0.17157679796218872,
-0.16473734378814697,
0.6355359554290771,
0.022661712020635605,
-0.07215947657823563,
-0.024716991931200027,
0.392050176858902,
-0.5512226223945618,
0.2218894213438034,
0.20813389122486115,
-0.14366139471530914,
0.25221195816993713,
0.430599182844162,
-0.5318101644515991,
-0.339097261428833,
0.3987639248371124,
0.15490484237670898,
-0.4557695686817169,
-0.4013676047325134,
-0.6483014822006226,
0.31206241250038147,
-0.6923574805259705,
-0.4120437502861023,
-0.4473704993724823,
-0.25022074580192566,
-0.13042744994163513
] |
212959
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Morris
|
Jim Morris
|
James Samuel Morris Jr. (born January 19, 1964) is an American former professional baseball pitcher who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for two seasons with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. Although brief, Morris' career is noted for making his MLB debut at the advanced age of 35 and after undergoing several arm surgeries. His story was dramatized in the 2002 film The Rookie.
Early life
Morris was born in Brownwood, Texas, but spent most of his childhood moving to different cities, as his father was in the United States Navy. Throughout his childhood, Morris lived in New Haven, Connecticut, Great Lakes, Illinois, and Jacksonville, Florida. He began playing baseball at the age of three. His father, Jim Sr., became a recruiter for the Navy. His father and mother, Olline Hale, settled in Brownwood, Texas. He attended Brownwood High School, but as Brownwood did not yet have a baseball program, he played football for the Lions from 1979–82 and won the state championship as a wingback, punter and kicker with Gordon Wood as a head coach.
Career
Morris was originally selected 466th overall in the January 1982 amateur baseball draft by the New York Yankees but did not sign. He was selected out of Ranger College fourth overall in the 1983 amateur draft (January Secondary) by the Milwaukee Brewers and signed with the organization. He suffered several arm injuries in the minor leagues, missing all of the 1986 season. After four pitching appearances in 1987, he was released, never having progressed past the single-A minor leagues.
After sitting out all of 1988, Morris signed with the Chicago White Sox organization for 1989. Arm injuries and ineffectiveness limited him to pitching in just two games, and he was again unable to rise past the single-A leagues before being released.
Unable to make anything of his career, Morris retired and moved to Big Lake, Texas, with his wife Lorri, his 9-year-old son and his five- and one-year-old daughters, where he became a physical science teacher and baseball coach at Reagan County High School. At this point, Morris had retired with a minor league record of 17 wins, 22 losses, and a 5.13 earned run average (ERA) in 270 innings pitched.
Morris remained a teacher for Reagan County High School for the next decade. While coaching baseball for the Reagan County Owls in the spring of 1999, Morris made a promise to his team that he would try out for Major League Baseball if his team won the District Championship, something the team had never accomplished before. His team won the title, and Morris kept his end of the bargain by attending a Tampa Bay Devil Rays tryout. The scout was not interested in Morris, but gave him a tryout solely to let Morris keep his promise to his players. Surprisingly, Morris discovered that in spite of his age, and having several surgeries on his arm, he was able to throw 12 consecutive 98-mph fastballs. After much debate with his family, Morris signed a professional contract with the Devil Rays organization at the age of 35. He started out with the AA Orlando Rays, and moved up quickly to a spot with the AAA Durham Bulls. Thanks to solid pitching performances with Durham, Tampa Bay gave him a chance to pitch with the Rays when rosters expanded in September. On September 18, 1999, against Royce Clayton of the Texas Rangers, the 35-year-old Morris made his debut, striking Clayton out on four pitches. He made four more appearances later that year.
Morris made 16 major league appearances in 2000, during which his arm problems recurred. His final appearance came on May 9, 2000, at Yankee Stadium. He entered a tie game in the bottom of the 10th inning with the bases loaded, and issued a game-ending RBI walk to his first batter, Paul O'Neill, after which the Rays released him. He was not the losing pitcher in the game as the runner who scored on the walk was actually put on base by the previous pitcher Rick White, who was tagged with the loss. Morris never recorded any wins or losses in any of his major league appearances.
Morris was signed in December 2000 to a minor-league contract by the Los Angeles Dodgers, but was released during spring training. At the end of his major league career he was 0–0 with an ERA of 4.80 and 13 strikeouts.
Morris has released an autobiography, The Oldest Rookie. He often appears as a motivational speaker. Morris released his second book, Dream Makers, in 2020. It deals with his life in the twenty years since his retirement from Major League Baseball.
A feature film made by Disney called The Rookie was released in 2002 about Morris's climb to playing in MLB. He is portrayed in the film by Dennis Quaid. Morris cameos in the movie as Orlando Umpire #2.
Personal life
Morris was married to Lorri Morris from 1988 until their divorce in 2001, and they have three children, Hunter, Jessica, and Jaimee. He later married Shawna Morris in 2002, and they have one daughter, Chelsey. Morris is also an accomplished motivational speaker, as he has traveled the world telling people about how he was able to fulfill his dream and that they will be able to fulfill their own.
References
External links
Retrosheet boxscore of his major league debut
1964 births
Living people
Angelo State Rams baseball players
Angelo State Rams football players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Baseball players from Texas
Tampa Bay Devil Rays players
Paintsville Brewers players
Paris Dragons baseball players
Ranger Rangers baseball players
Beloit Brewers players
Stockton Ports players
Sarasota White Sox players
Orlando Rays players
Durham Bulls players
People from Brownwood, Texas
People from Reagan County, Texas
|
[
-0.059928398579359055,
0.44570624828338623,
-0.3191376328468323,
-0.3205373287200928,
-0.015328834764659405,
0.1796218901872635,
0.5787206888198853,
0.7149127125740051,
-0.2852593660354614,
-0.18354006111621857,
-0.19679129123687744,
0.09431036561727524,
-0.09514416754245758,
0.6860924959182739,
-0.30514922738075256,
0.9079908728599548,
-0.5195189714431763,
0.4963809549808502,
0.11120249330997467,
-0.327058881521225,
0.09840358793735504,
-0.423641562461853,
0.08386890590190887,
-0.3024140000343323,
0.3398931324481964,
0.3150651454925537,
0.24189993739128113,
-0.0864843800663948,
0.0818052664399147,
0.36738190054893494,
-0.2395520657300949,
0.0679340586066246,
0.5024420619010925,
0.13138817250728607,
0.19231770932674408,
-0.19238519668579102,
0.06960851699113846,
-0.2653205096721649,
0.06456034630537033,
0.23314310610294342,
-0.7699992060661316,
0.25047704577445984,
0.37901636958122253,
-0.1031961590051651,
0.8253222107887268,
-0.37461960315704346,
-1.5648075342178345,
-0.35965490341186523,
-0.6575640439987183,
-0.10050969570875168,
0.017069140449166298,
0.04922999069094658,
-0.12734049558639526,
0.5043858289718628,
0.26221033930778503,
-0.1378728300333023,
-0.21053557097911835,
0.09267088770866394,
0.6614125370979309,
0.1916649341583252,
0.37437885999679565,
0.18434500694274902,
-0.22705090045928955,
0.0064023579470813274,
-0.05929277092218399,
0.11190148442983627,
-0.2177334725856781,
0.9255092740058899,
-0.1224856972694397,
0.213436558842659,
0.02085886150598526,
0.4505009055137634,
0.09648144990205765,
0.36386990547180176,
0.05571123957633972,
-0.2896365523338318,
0.006528641562908888,
-0.2947392761707306,
-0.22976869344711304,
-0.11753088980913162,
0.2868938744068146,
-0.2527447044849396,
0.46616384387016296,
0.7208961844444275,
0.3325214684009552,
0.9775115847587585,
-0.6423513293266296,
-0.07963138818740845,
0.24762709438800812,
0.36757558584213257,
-0.7434552311897278,
0.6521148085594177,
-0.5562315583229065,
-0.09088678658008575,
-0.2281767725944519,
0.2620072662830353,
0.13982410728931427,
0.477977991104126,
0.4405478835105896,
0.11529821902513504,
-0.13739697635173798,
0.48184025287628174,
0.3609600067138672,
-0.4122030735015869,
-0.3689190745353699,
0.09387807548046112,
-0.39161136746406555,
-0.30126529932022095,
0.2588067352771759,
-1.8918964862823486,
-0.37175723910331726,
0.2772741913795471,
0.1539054960012436,
-0.47051942348480225,
0.32019540667533875,
0.7851596474647522,
0.6234340071678162,
-0.3865475058555603,
-0.4059317409992218,
0.1945205181837082,
-0.2731342911720276,
0.9281524419784546,
-0.8626211881637573,
0.3704209327697754,
-0.4289349615573883,
0.3959333598613739,
0.33979201316833496,
0.15672333538532257,
0.5459014177322388,
0.6572519540786743,
0.14677372574806213,
0.6594456434249878,
-0.26467791199684143,
-0.03815309703350067,
-0.7128645777702332,
-0.2782217562198639,
0.687958300113678,
0.643884539604187,
0.04812997952103615,
0.10066608339548111,
-0.4118180274963379,
0.05097635090351105,
-2.3565852642059326,
0.25450989603996277,
0.5970627665519714,
0.1809193640947342,
-0.6964443922042847,
0.19223789870738983,
-0.009057356975972652,
0.25341784954071045,
0.24675938487052917,
-0.07774360477924347,
0.09761769324541092,
0.33191025257110596,
-0.4267955720424652,
0.2645239233970642,
0.12272001802921295,
-0.24035412073135376,
0.34750786423683167,
0.6999120712280273,
-0.4907434284687042,
0.1603705883026123,
0.24953196942806244,
0.30088678002357483,
0.35034120082855225,
0.34758326411247253,
0.3313888609409332,
-0.7672632336616516,
0.1636747568845749,
-0.17774918675422668,
-0.25127413868904114,
-0.11851835250854492,
0.0026957422960549593,
-0.8102129697799683,
0.08337440341711044,
0.21832884848117828,
0.7398715019226074,
0.6044610142707825,
0.01611775904893875,
-0.6325730085372925,
-0.35234057903289795,
-0.21820472180843353,
0.2193116694688797,
-0.23169410228729248,
0.11852628737688065,
-0.06662115454673767,
0.6683539748191833,
-0.360272616147995,
0.07354890555143356,
0.10085256397724152,
0.44549018144607544,
0.11450692266225815,
0.5351911783218384,
-0.09691318869590759,
0.7231116890907288,
0.4956700801849365,
-0.012298530898988247,
0.6965494751930237,
0.18318693339824677,
0.6118407249450684,
0.23580724000930786,
0.0057089803740382195,
0.29486891627311707,
-0.2462509125471115,
-0.11540813744068146,
2.3620498180389404,
0.24176755547523499,
-0.13127359747886658,
0.8570795059204102,
0.767168402671814,
0.20755839347839355,
-0.4003058075904846,
-0.7435610890388489,
0.10809836536645889,
-0.3693065345287323,
-0.45023202896118164,
0.2391550987958908,
-0.44615694880485535,
0.24947945773601532,
-0.5322018265724182,
0.12101765722036362,
-0.16707967221736908,
-0.35677027702331543,
0.0003047493810299784,
-0.6051134467124939,
1.162683367729187,
0.022771915420889854,
-0.08379118144512177,
-0.48870033025741577,
-0.1237281933426857,
-0.1681128293275833,
-0.14213964343070984,
-0.3489242494106293,
-0.09933739900588989,
0.1906374841928482,
-0.1665111780166626,
0.15747076272964478,
-0.6252353191375732,
-0.217667356133461,
0.20541083812713623,
0.7205711603164673,
-0.17788836359977722,
-0.13346317410469055,
0.20343397557735443,
-0.24091561138629913,
0.8206384778022766,
-0.034503381699323654,
0.2654927670955658,
-0.23985178768634796,
-0.2774243652820587,
0.567154586315155,
-0.18262918293476105,
1.061841368675232,
-0.5655478239059448,
0.3158712387084961,
0.2034222036600113,
-0.1701449602842331,
-0.3861634433269501,
-0.11823637783527374,
-0.01842237077653408,
-0.09719397872686386,
0.04551855847239494,
0.03807874396443367,
-0.03403506800532341,
-0.5324285626411438,
-0.6254640817642212,
0.02464696578681469,
-0.2460998147726059,
-0.17257697880268097,
0.037996817380189896,
0.6788439750671387,
-0.6521252393722534,
0.028800958767533302,
-3.258544445037842,
0.4783567786216736,
0.3443875312805176,
-0.028315402567386627,
0.13364608585834503,
-0.12546181678771973,
0.005907016806304455,
0.5371280908584595,
0.27115824818611145,
0.11022941023111343,
0.05236601084470749,
0.07092057168483734,
0.1819741129875183,
-0.14627474546432495,
-0.4980429410934448,
0.4093882143497467,
0.10599100589752197,
0.009151605889201164,
0.08916224539279938,
-0.5926836133003235,
0.155992329120636,
-0.07077404856681824,
0.23284153640270233,
-0.09347128123044968,
-0.7005098462104797,
0.46102043986320496,
0.011315801180899143,
-0.36857277154922485,
0.7872182726860046,
-0.28305718302726746,
0.4407321512699127,
0.48326683044433594,
-0.1975332647562027,
-0.30440443754196167,
-0.044052623212337494,
-3.980189561843872,
-0.24921654164791107,
-0.11857928335666656,
-0.2148912250995636,
0.7035971283912659,
-0.7237893342971802,
0.6935404539108276,
-0.5322933793067932,
0.011636235751211643,
0.030029674991965294,
0.32258498668670654,
0.4681757986545563,
0.07616639882326126,
0.21742188930511475,
0.30364954471588135,
0.3484366536140442,
0.6565811634063721,
-0.3851466476917267,
1.032177209854126,
-0.0057581569999456406,
0.18499118089675903,
0.021949149668216705,
-0.3862922489643097,
-0.5946986079216003,
0.15405195951461792,
0.6142203211784363,
-0.12530730664730072,
-0.2639620304107666,
-0.6595862507820129,
-0.31056731939315796,
-0.3088892996311188,
-0.11771682649850845,
0.05104596167802811,
-0.696340024471283,
-0.48107796907424927,
-0.846413791179657,
-0.2510744333267212,
0.16512805223464966,
0.6098316311836243,
-0.1742667704820633,
0.33550021052360535,
0.31005623936653137,
-0.38759687542915344,
0.6389196515083313,
0.20197713375091553,
-0.04608089104294777,
-0.6702830791473389,
0.31283852458000183,
-0.3007928431034088,
0.46753546595573425,
0.2774732708930969,
-0.3096180558204651,
1.202346920967102,
-0.19862613081932068,
0.38616877794265747,
-0.27144497632980347,
0.596506655216217,
-0.3697188198566437,
-0.357268363237381,
-0.07721670717000961,
0.24302183091640472,
-0.5899730920791626,
0.4191170334815979,
-0.41468772292137146,
-0.26992860436439514,
-0.6375666856765747,
0.12073267996311188,
-0.12194140255451202,
0.25150391459465027,
-0.34829244017601013,
-0.1609725058078766,
0.36963847279548645,
0.5779991149902344,
-0.5755986571311951,
0.5333008170127869,
0.5972276329994202,
-0.5697166323661804,
0.12424255907535553,
0.10470790416002274,
-0.21972031891345978,
0.24658222496509552,
-0.20365019142627716,
0.39944615960121155,
0.30149829387664795,
-0.0953964963555336,
-0.0642242431640625,
-0.16669410467147827,
0.36260029673576355,
-0.3846510648727417,
-0.6655480861663818,
-0.14761418104171753,
0.10479782521724701,
0.2799365520477295,
0.26812413334846497,
0.1340932697057724,
0.18183346092700958,
0.578546404838562,
-0.5625603199005127,
-0.3636666536331177,
-0.5239588618278503,
-0.6514526605606079,
-0.42753294110298157,
-0.6393006443977356,
-1.0362272262573242,
-0.18627797067165375,
-0.2980382740497589,
-0.38024434447288513,
0.17507033050060272,
-0.11925730109214783,
-0.12562403082847595,
0.05152264982461929,
0.13976626098155975,
-0.2852744460105896,
0.029499487951397896,
0.7254722714424133,
-0.3745993673801422,
-0.4534459114074707,
0.35310736298561096,
0.23940089344978333,
0.3918789029121399,
0.49680477380752563,
0.8426563143730164,
0.13172262907028198,
-0.10253281146287918,
0.38646194338798523,
-0.2261807918548584,
0.5671131014823914,
-0.14302438497543335,
-0.23628921806812286,
-0.16830378770828247,
0.010952390730381012,
0.8039807677268982,
-0.37764862179756165,
-0.4232863187789917,
-0.42001795768737793,
0.013940052129328251,
-0.570529043674469,
-0.4116153120994568,
0.14357014000415802,
0.1736850142478943,
0.19407771527767181,
-0.28125953674316406,
0.11617416888475418,
0.18114525079727173,
-0.32594218850135803,
0.7457373142242432,
0.1478903442621231,
-0.033863138407468796,
-0.4143942594528198,
-0.1266985684633255,
-0.34786057472229004,
-0.8453140258789062,
0.613567590713501,
-0.6819043755531311,
-0.10671524703502655,
-0.2197381556034088,
-0.4148998558521271,
0.18362551927566528,
-0.12379435449838638,
0.10958687961101532,
-0.36943724751472473,
-0.22234366834163666,
-1.0114887952804565,
0.22822807729244232,
0.2138335257768631,
-0.2882864475250244,
0.36756250262260437,
-0.0806824117898941,
-0.06541528552770615,
0.6701030135154724,
0.06689715385437012,
-0.21155469119548798,
-0.39973917603492737,
-0.4250604510307312,
0.0022136408369988203,
0.05153686925768852,
0.2883824110031128,
0.2060328871011734,
-0.01816970482468605,
-0.29443687200546265,
0.19508753716945648,
0.2911199629306793,
-0.38686758279800415,
0.21352720260620117,
0.5152496099472046,
-0.887300431728363,
-0.38762643933296204,
-0.4261273145675659,
0.08733086287975311,
0.5788389444351196,
-0.20973116159439087,
-0.10586976259946823,
1.0256719589233398,
0.30658218264579773,
-0.24596603214740753,
-0.15753842890262604,
0.29965680837631226,
0.15506260097026825,
0.29824402928352356,
-0.30901283025741577,
0.06343120336532593,
0.3199598789215088,
-0.14721332490444183,
0.5277891159057617,
-0.24428512156009674,
-0.4374581575393677,
-0.04992477223277092,
0.21966566145420074,
-0.633357584476471,
0.058529436588287354,
0.4328271448612213,
-0.6234101057052612,
0.04742474853992462,
0.7612166404724121,
-0.5356850624084473,
-0.32045939564704895,
0.5225164890289307,
0.24355566501617432,
0.04413944482803345,
-0.5927497744560242,
0.019419889897108078,
-0.6507618427276611,
-0.3200126886367798,
-0.09932667016983032,
-0.10815694183111191,
0.5815045237541199,
0.13787686824798584,
-0.33090564608573914,
1.1504093408584595,
-0.6257901787757874,
-0.2827892601490021,
-0.07408683001995087,
0.1121564581990242,
0.4473009705543518,
-0.1714126020669937,
0.1771712750196457,
-0.14936156570911407,
0.5495187044143677,
-0.2022116631269455,
0.37709394097328186,
0.21915672719478607,
0.5732109546661377,
0.28033027052879333,
-0.7130371332168579,
-0.30097490549087524,
0.027530889958143234,
-0.23801518976688385,
-0.45400163531303406,
0.029298899695277214,
0.31716588139533997,
0.20595186948776245,
-0.23438610136508942,
-0.4717748165130615,
-0.27577441930770874,
1.4760466814041138,
-0.014509949833154678,
-0.23783041536808014,
0.4650347828865051,
-0.11744647473096848,
-0.3940644860267639,
-0.1948571652173996,
0.2414243072271347,
-0.15349143743515015,
0.437627375125885,
0.08414429426193237,
0.08258552849292755,
0.006217810325324535,
-0.20071998238563538,
0.6748980283737183,
-0.5847517251968384,
-1.0131466388702393,
-0.6570754647254944,
0.09063680469989777,
0.8033730983734131,
-0.2981928288936615,
-0.3703869879245758,
0.15154945850372314,
-0.7666170597076416,
-0.4271417260169983,
0.19920288026332855,
1.089072346687317,
0.09286626428365707,
0.39523836970329285,
-0.24648357927799225,
0.3682193458080292,
-0.3926340639591217,
-0.18871207535266876,
-0.4077323377132416,
-0.16903331875801086,
0.42899438738822937,
-0.07968871295452118,
-0.011529261246323586,
0.10272961854934692,
-0.3538745045661926,
-0.7805573344230652,
0.35317304730415344,
-0.3578965365886688,
-0.2745622396469116,
-0.33462998270988464,
0.03462899848818779,
-0.4553028345108032,
0.6983267664909363,
0.3227621614933014,
0.06911744177341461,
0.5358594655990601,
0.059256263077259064,
-0.4884604513645172,
-0.7864224910736084,
0.060991719365119934,
-0.07347674667835236,
0.06238996610045433,
0.00859878771007061,
0.3392168879508972,
0.26970240473747253,
-0.41214579343795776,
-0.1019982397556305,
0.4752122163772583,
-0.656172513961792,
-0.10502169281244278,
-0.14641377329826355,
-0.04953494295477867,
-0.2706514298915863,
0.6580613255500793,
0.18638059496879578,
0.2230861335992813,
0.7008369565010071,
-0.10938643664121628,
-0.4548701047897339,
-0.15839783847332,
-0.7394405007362366,
-0.23461557924747467,
0.11419910192489624,
-1.0087032318115234,
0.5755848288536072,
-0.14038364589214325,
-0.1027681827545166,
-0.06470294296741486,
-0.5507025122642517,
-0.0877835601568222,
0.694908857345581,
0.019765539094805717,
0.7936353087425232,
0.148958221077919,
-0.06872803717851639,
0.5848513245582581,
-0.19508564472198486,
-0.5131592750549316,
0.22843338549137115,
0.09053292125463486,
-0.21609815955162048,
0.09756321460008621,
-0.2345169186592102,
-0.11523209512233734,
-0.36884045600891113,
-0.22626055777072906,
0.06594204902648926,
0.2446984052658081,
-0.819238543510437,
-0.2099992334842682,
-2.546311855316162,
0.04888787493109703,
-0.3475225269794464,
0.931614875793457,
0.22403395175933838,
0.31444215774536133,
-0.04717070981860161,
-0.10240645706653595,
-0.2847023010253906,
-0.10240315645933151,
0.9502440094947815,
0.28801199793815613,
-0.31069815158843994,
0.1629483848810196,
0.23324231803417206,
0.8128595352172852,
0.4858040511608124,
0.23782265186309814,
-0.2869930863380432,
-0.3065296411514282,
0.043540190905332565,
0.10321944952011108,
0.15169717371463776,
0.022760460153222084,
0.14727634191513062,
0.34723421931266785,
-0.15570609271526337,
-0.19900736212730408,
-0.04041816666722298,
-0.29584163427352905,
-0.07553410530090332,
0.18250222504138947,
0.19527879357337952,
0.7633646726608276,
0.18353955447673798,
-0.5168280005455017,
0.6779457330703735,
-0.20078788697719574,
0.3170405328273773,
0.1636955589056015,
0.18854284286499023,
0.07303273677825928,
0.8394994735717773,
-0.17640137672424316,
0.11009290814399719,
-0.2672822177410126,
0.43403059244155884,
-0.736420750617981,
0.2775990068912506,
-0.14201420545578003,
0.8722922205924988,
-0.1909598708152771,
0.3174339532852173,
-0.3290349245071411,
0.1961696594953537,
-0.32753390073776245,
0.21192125976085663,
0.3939529359340668,
-0.540655791759491,
-0.11097763478755951,
-0.02221457101404667,
-0.28250476717948914,
0.05663565173745155,
0.23725342750549316,
0.18020616471767426,
-0.27393874526023865,
-0.24285677075386047,
0.08664607256650925,
-0.03175903856754303,
0.3600156307220459,
-0.14543405175209045,
-0.022679021582007408,
-0.12965507805347443,
-0.03123331256210804,
-0.427666038274765,
0.12139806896448135,
-0.14085690677165985,
0.37171468138694763,
0.6590090394020081,
0.3281953036785126,
-0.1770130693912506,
-0.2131197601556778,
-0.1489204615354538,
0.10511099547147751,
-0.19295580685138702,
-5.583201885223389,
-0.7330365180969238,
0.11477023363113403,
-0.803253173828125,
0.5460344552993774,
0.028517674654722214,
0.004932096228003502,
-0.5300392508506775,
-0.30182555317878723,
-0.29407477378845215,
0.7850342392921448,
0.1619378924369812,
-0.07013027369976044,
-0.4042900502681732,
0.32610470056533813,
-0.07627394795417786
] |
212966
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seekers
|
Seekers
|
The Seekers, or Legatine-Arians as they were sometimes known, were an English dissenting group that emerged around the 1620s, probably inspired by the preaching of three brothers – Walter, Thomas, and Bartholomew Legate. Seekers considered all organised churches of their day corrupt and preferred to wait for God's revelation. Many of them subsequently joined the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers).
Origins
Long before the English Civil War there already existed what the English Marxist historian, Christopher Hill, calls a "lower-class heretical culture" in England. The cornerstones of this culture were anti-clericalism and a strong emphasis on Biblical study, but specific doctrines had "an uncanny persistence": rejection of Predestination, Millenarianism, mortalism, anti-Trinitarianism and Hermeticism. Such ideas became "commonplace to seventeenth-century Baptists, Seekers, early Quakers and other radical groupings which took part in the free-for-all discussions of the English Revolution."
Beliefs and practices
The Seekers were not an organised religious group in any way that would be recognised today (not a religious cult or denomination), but informal and localised. Membership in a local Seekers assembly did not preclude membership in another sect. Indeed, Seekers shunned creeds (see nondenominational Christianity) and each assembly tended to embrace a broad spectrum of ideas.
Seekers after the Legates were Puritan but not Calvinist. Some contemporary historians, though accepting their zeal in desiring a "godly society", doubt whether the English Puritans during the English Revolution were as committed to religious liberty and pluralism as traditional histories have suggested. However, historian John Coffey’s recent work has emphasised the contribution of a minority of radical Protestants who steadfastly sought toleration for so-called heresy, blasphemy, Catholicism, non-Christian religions, and even atheism. This minority included the Seekers, as well as the General Baptists. Their collective witness demanded the church to be an entirely voluntary, non-coercive community able to evangelise in a pluralistic society governed by a purely civil state. Such a demand was in sharp contrast to the ambitions of magisterial Protestantism held by the Calvinist majority. Nevertheless, in common with other Dissenters, the Seekers believed that the Roman Church corrupted itself and, through its common heritage, the Church of England as well. Only Christ himself could establish the "true" Church.
However, there were a number of beliefs and practices that made the Seekers distinctive from the large number of nonconformist dissenting groups that emerged around the time of the Commonwealth of England. Most significant was their form of collective worship; the Seekers held meetings free of all Church ritual and in silence, mindful of direct inspiration and guidance.
Seekers anticipated aspects of Quakerism and a significant number of them became Quakers and many remaining Seekers attended the funeral of George Fox. Richard Baxter, a contemporary and unsympathetic author, claimed that they had merged with the "Vanists" or followers of Henry Vane the Younger.
Often when "heretics" were faced with being burnt at the stake they retracted, retaining their beliefs in a less public way. The Legates were exceptional. Thomas died in Newgate Prison after being arrested for his preaching and Bartholomew was burnt for heresy in 1612.
Influential "Seekers"
Roger Williams (theologian) (speculated)
William Erbery (or "Erbury") (1604–1654) is credited with convincing Oliver Cromwell's daughter to become a Seeker.
John Saltmarsh's The Smoke in the Temple (1646) is an important statement of the Seekers' beliefs.
William Walwyn (see the Levellers)
See also
Religion in the United Kingdom
English Dissenters
17th century denominations in England
References
Further reading
Hill, Christopher (1972). "Seekers and Ranters". The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution. 148-175. London: Temple Smith. .
External links
ExLibris' page on The Seekers
History of Christianity in the United Kingdom
English Dissenters
Former Christian denominations
Christian denominations founded in Great Britain
|
[
0.026709502562880516,
-0.1355440467596054,
-0.10796527564525604,
-0.12257864326238632,
-0.1742887645959854,
0.618251621723175,
0.7137925624847412,
0.01854516565799713,
-0.23651327192783356,
0.08019820600748062,
-0.37937501072883606,
0.5940287113189697,
-0.1979925036430359,
0.2588893175125122,
-0.3099329471588135,
0.045939017087221146,
0.3490912914276123,
-0.5148475766181946,
-0.6494573354721069,
-0.09040955454111099,
-0.3831559419631958,
0.09087914228439331,
0.29049959778785706,
-0.1116638109087944,
0.5712808966636658,
-0.07847395539283752,
0.24838891625404358,
-0.755530059337616,
0.11317701637744904,
-0.2617340087890625,
0.6447819471359253,
0.6741389036178589,
0.04069508612155914,
-0.3897798955440521,
-0.4825688302516937,
0.24185186624526978,
0.1534930020570755,
0.11223691701889038,
-0.26859721541404724,
-0.3344613313674927,
0.24813640117645264,
-0.16687627136707306,
0.2908090353012085,
0.4675854444503784,
-0.1756182461977005,
0.05050469934940338,
-1.6239293813705444,
0.2687247693538666,
-0.7773481011390686,
0.09503863006830215,
0.22575166821479797,
0.09989884495735168,
-0.030259868130087852,
0.2929227650165558,
-0.07606961578130722,
0.017145980149507523,
-0.5747475624084473,
-0.5125626921653748,
0.5978216528892517,
-0.44824182987213135,
0.1273161917924881,
0.3251686096191406,
0.5536346435546875,
0.27948787808418274,
-0.46551626920700073,
0.25535035133361816,
-0.40450477600097656,
0.45445796847343445,
-0.3122692108154297,
-1.0744155645370483,
0.03189976513385773,
-0.19256465137004852,
-0.34189656376838684,
0.024762248620390892,
0.3602236807346344,
-0.24351626634597778,
0.032480694353580475,
0.3166511058807373,
0.41104021668434143,
0.09735319018363953,
-0.3752935230731964,
0.7123732566833496,
0.4056793749332428,
-0.10144802182912827,
0.2983115017414093,
-0.25678765773773193,
0.4659513831138611,
0.34830525517463684,
0.09310555458068848,
0.12464512884616852,
0.2315756231546402,
-0.40979939699172974,
0.3882427215576172,
0.1059873104095459,
-0.08339716494083405,
-0.20285677909851074,
0.9896551966667175,
-0.3133278787136078,
-0.15584954619407654,
-0.20270155370235443,
-0.1476353257894516,
0.667231023311615,
0.2364627569913864,
-0.40555334091186523,
-0.3155445158481598,
0.40702950954437256,
0.2578141987323761,
-0.3692637085914612,
-0.5957735180854797,
0.7591004967689514,
-0.16742241382598877,
0.24700678884983063,
0.03738030791282654,
-0.04508790746331215,
-0.29023969173431396,
-0.07246267050504684,
0.27704140543937683,
-1.1442774534225464,
-0.4047722816467285,
-0.1369631290435791,
0.22107470035552979,
0.4950115382671356,
-0.010875707492232323,
0.0034395884722471237,
-0.04729698225855827,
-0.23581208288669586,
0.11902771890163422,
0.2763434648513794,
-0.5660806894302368,
0.02141474559903145,
0.0951220765709877,
0.6693270802497864,
0.17796261608600616,
-0.407583087682724,
-0.49952203035354614,
0.7304608225822449,
0.3557480275630951,
-0.21568605303764343,
0.2479674071073532,
0.44467949867248535,
-0.364144891500473,
-0.3503153920173645,
-0.5801922678947449,
-0.1468605399131775,
0.6342149376869202,
-0.4544304609298706,
0.1185823306441307,
-0.31410735845565796,
-0.31939882040023804,
-0.5548756122589111,
-0.41558417677879333,
-0.24831852316856384,
0.4809001684188843,
-0.40462037920951843,
0.08921144902706146,
-0.14418579638004303,
0.24445666372776031,
-0.36988475918769836,
0.1954001784324646,
0.20295974612236023,
-0.4852166175842285,
0.05795497074723244,
0.0023479273077100515,
-0.15070846676826477,
0.14626507461071014,
0.15418922901153564,
-0.01815839670598507,
-0.08709485083818436,
0.23512695729732513,
0.06378009170293808,
-0.4373621344566345,
0.09177416563034058,
0.16606467962265015,
0.21318396925926208,
-0.13983826339244843,
-0.15105435252189636,
0.8345235586166382,
0.3136487305164337,
0.14954499900341034,
-0.36534151434898376,
-0.5441451072692871,
0.04362059012055397,
-0.03327319398522377,
0.08453536033630371,
-0.36888524889945984,
0.003675901098176837,
0.021040650084614754,
0.3715171813964844,
0.1118113249540329,
-0.032057199627161026,
-0.37337881326675415,
-0.31592509150505066,
0.13936886191368103,
-0.10673264414072037,
1.3999552726745605,
-0.16286738216876984,
-0.13505275547504425,
1.074296474456787,
0.118073970079422,
0.3346249461174011,
0.0627860277891159,
-0.006069974973797798,
0.12334853410720825,
0.5648232698440552,
-0.5331521034240723,
0.08846794068813324,
0.17508046329021454,
0.41273167729377747,
0.7886462807655334,
0.06440269201993942,
-0.17426718771457672,
-0.16872066259384155,
0.051483068615198135,
0.0651475116610527,
-0.3602098524570465,
-0.03303897753357887,
-0.3034103214740753,
0.3987811505794525,
0.316693514585495,
-0.45187172293663025,
0.4229339063167572,
-0.43507030606269836,
0.13103245198726654,
0.43284961581230164,
0.0512024350464344,
0.5872936844825745,
0.3022628724575043,
-0.12226107716560364,
0.2449754774570465,
-0.2061569094657898,
0.08250999450683594,
0.2561560571193695,
0.23734086751937866,
-0.36229750514030457,
-0.17805007100105286,
0.15179228782653809,
-0.12034106254577637,
-0.7766140103340149,
0.19371521472930908,
-0.3663707375526428,
0.19909343123435974,
-0.4046282470226288,
-0.3705971837043762,
0.13620103895664215,
-0.11898759007453918,
0.10764936357736588,
-0.45626696944236755,
-0.18832290172576904,
0.34515082836151123,
0.4540256857872009,
-0.0797724723815918,
0.4355020523071289,
0.04133862257003784,
0.21178902685642242,
0.6217772960662842,
0.21381725370883942,
0.45372146368026733,
0.08536756038665771,
0.6012488007545471,
0.24089013040065765,
-0.5615109801292419,
0.38629603385925293,
0.05637374147772789,
0.4180651307106018,
0.11775141954421997,
-0.6424083113670349,
-0.007932411506772041,
0.20847222208976746,
-0.1217702254652977,
0.12077424675226212,
0.2696651816368103,
-0.03556947410106659,
-0.4380060136318207,
0.34123802185058594,
-0.24264389276504517,
-0.38503220677375793,
0.4252215325832367,
0.007676052860915661,
0.2940707206726074,
-0.5347416400909424,
-0.6723987460136414,
0.03176884725689888,
0.22607170045375824,
-0.541841447353363,
0.11765801161527634,
-0.19183143973350525,
-0.24258629977703094,
-0.4611107409000397,
0.28996971249580383,
0.01728961430490017,
-0.13110876083374023,
0.37847471237182617,
-0.19731761515140533,
-0.008911963552236557,
0.04929768666625023,
0.13536247611045837,
0.2888268530368805,
0.21000558137893677,
-0.08098657429218292,
-0.05347994342446327,
-0.5966601371765137,
0.11939478665590286,
-0.477289617061615,
0.24340495467185974,
0.3290788233280182,
-0.06921921670436859,
-0.22442176938056946,
-0.18699586391448975,
-6.047587871551514,
0.16055284440517426,
-0.22537916898727417,
0.14598500728607178,
0.45025160908699036,
0.23673297464847565,
0.6693431735038757,
-0.6610091924667358,
-0.11076688021421432,
-0.1115439236164093,
-0.13578587770462036,
-0.1940648853778839,
-0.28308895230293274,
-0.17230381071567535,
-0.09452693164348602,
0.5853704810142517,
-0.1996002197265625,
0.5592882037162781,
-0.07719827443361282,
0.2902145981788635,
0.22030670940876007,
-0.157274067401886,
0.11779666692018509,
0.8648837804794312,
0.20188184082508087,
0.20345698297023773,
0.36122196912765503,
0.3063836097717285,
0.1266254484653473,
0.29519447684288025,
-0.1531471163034439,
-0.11035426706075668,
0.1253899186849594,
-0.3121611475944519,
0.07837981730699539,
-0.07918829470872879,
0.8419255018234253,
-0.28653332591056824,
0.38758543133735657,
-0.5465093851089478,
-0.8248445987701416,
-0.06682085245847702,
0.020794237032532692,
-0.15371987223625183,
-0.2107691615819931,
-0.11023077368736267,
-0.13469451665878296,
0.3999314308166504,
-0.40426012873649597,
0.5064793229103088,
0.08254370838403702,
0.07939311116933823,
-0.11798204481601715,
0.020809747278690338,
0.4305088520050049,
-0.30327266454696655,
0.3423490822315216,
-0.18723267316818237,
-0.32599735260009766,
0.4053058326244354,
0.7748105525970459,
-0.04339614510536194,
-0.35080522298812866,
-0.003731529926881194,
0.2870258092880249,
-0.20000436902046204,
-0.5417645573616028,
-0.06379559636116028,
0.6101345419883728,
-0.2897702157497406,
-0.2699801027774811,
0.26067692041397095,
0.18919095396995544,
-1.089051365852356,
-0.14847952127456665,
0.27399206161499023,
0.07501504570245743,
-0.21677231788635254,
-0.03485151752829552,
0.48289987444877625,
0.19028130173683167,
-0.06657105684280396,
0.12009978294372559,
0.1880553513765335,
0.24666151404380798,
-0.28609418869018555,
-0.4699893593788147,
0.031258855015039444,
-0.9849811792373657,
-0.1627165675163269,
0.4877869486808777,
-0.23925644159317017,
-0.06605671346187592,
-0.08739854395389557,
0.7063518762588501,
0.6948278546333313,
-0.13177694380283356,
0.25047409534454346,
0.37621039152145386,
0.5491536855697632,
0.22407525777816772,
0.16465869545936584,
0.12572479248046875,
-0.16425302624702454,
0.4674908518791199,
0.0797419622540474,
-0.7255405783653259,
0.08824947476387024,
0.8433226346969604,
-0.1353866457939148,
0.19536623358726501,
-0.0962117463350296,
-0.20387664437294006,
0.06944581866264343,
-0.364928662776947,
-0.07233472913503647,
-0.26722946763038635,
0.27129679918289185,
0.430921733379364,
0.3991169035434723,
0.2104894071817398,
-0.046573247760534286,
-0.512564480304718,
0.2626732885837555,
-0.25691595673561096,
0.28014349937438965,
-0.0691743940114975,
0.06909072399139404,
-0.11905926465988159,
0.017979351803660393,
0.6867930293083191,
-0.6184622049331665,
0.0509561188519001,
-0.3573242723941803,
-0.11120244115591049,
0.09909560531377792,
-0.21628022193908691,
-0.5705674886703491,
-0.36390039324760437,
0.1330578774213791,
-0.3203165829181671,
-0.6821702718734741,
0.44311293959617615,
0.3607032299041748,
0.6130979657173157,
-0.1270395815372467,
0.23817922174930573,
-0.3592735826969147,
-0.1946980506181717,
0.21874144673347473,
0.3554113507270813,
0.22957244515419006,
0.9237305521965027,
-0.012992830947041512,
0.1510782688856125,
-0.02449563704431057,
-0.08575959503650665,
-0.09671103954315186,
-0.18673717975616455,
-0.34086495637893677,
-0.39209869503974915,
-0.2011755406856537,
-0.6337339282035828,
-0.6062579154968262,
0.4329466223716736,
-0.11860751360654831,
-0.32077014446258545,
-0.274318128824234,
0.19234320521354675,
-0.12413529306650162,
0.012559927068650723,
-0.14623059332370758,
-0.31241679191589355,
0.12530401349067688,
0.3353654444217682,
0.18217350542545319,
-0.08884172886610031,
-0.22345012426376343,
-0.6387681365013123,
-0.127458855509758,
-0.48614296317100525,
0.011037437245249748,
-0.4689176678657532,
-0.15387651324272156,
0.8273648023605347,
-0.5946758985519409,
-0.46370601654052734,
-0.6283801198005676,
-0.07360250502824783,
-0.15341025590896606,
0.20141607522964478,
0.3199862539768219,
0.04915335401892662,
0.38526660203933716,
-0.6329842209815979,
-0.4535129964351654,
-0.018644075840711594,
0.2983737587928772,
-0.11061796545982361,
-0.07850245386362076,
0.10473397374153137,
-0.15621893107891083,
-0.14477723836898804,
-0.46598660945892334,
0.28205838799476624,
-0.7042941451072693,
0.3745841085910797,
-0.4098761975765228,
-0.2679714560508728,
0.6627690196037292,
0.036759115755558014,
-0.13265424966812134,
-0.3027583658695221,
0.6313764452934265,
0.07217107713222504,
-0.03768246993422508,
-0.36141467094421387,
-0.5701543688774109,
-0.550909161567688,
-0.6009054183959961,
-0.23691171407699585,
-0.02042735368013382,
-0.458200067281723,
-0.13982753455638885,
-0.3715323209762573,
-0.13035207986831665,
-0.2762749493122101,
-0.526746928691864,
-0.13959652185440063,
0.16299481689929962,
-0.10304537415504456,
-0.23634904623031616,
-0.18325626850128174,
0.22929315268993378,
-0.4447508752346039,
0.3117561340332031,
0.03477773442864418,
0.08459622412919998,
0.0014767193933948874,
0.26145708560943604,
0.047942329198122025,
0.5982266664505005,
0.22542662918567657,
-0.24903294444084167,
0.3731907308101654,
0.3707144260406494,
-0.2852199673652649,
0.01552885677665472,
-0.013199488632380962,
0.13473869860172272,
-0.008512742817401886,
0.23696722090244293,
-0.054632145911455154,
0.01089472509920597,
0.2920820713043213,
-0.21158035099506378,
-0.18611125648021698,
-0.23969830572605133,
-0.049590252339839935,
0.029084401205182076,
0.5379584431648254,
-0.07924608141183853,
-0.5038837790489197,
-0.26784950494766235,
-0.4402558505535126,
-0.04720690846443176,
-0.020911145955324173,
-0.4578250050544739,
0.21376189589500427,
-0.6793340444564819,
0.23698003590106964,
-0.07062987983226776,
0.1797754466533661,
0.05990242213010788,
-0.18748517334461212,
-0.2418263703584671,
-0.12411107867956161,
-0.6575570702552795,
0.24668529629707336,
-0.09732601791620255,
-0.6242210865020752,
0.22487567365169525,
-0.32061344385147095,
0.11312741786241531,
0.04123545438051224,
-0.5597572922706604,
0.1719360649585724,
-0.27562856674194336,
-0.0930924117565155,
0.038019441068172455,
-0.37123462557792664,
0.09419208765029907,
0.4224293828010559,
0.7431616187095642,
-0.42250940203666687,
-0.03257095813751221,
-0.17089061439037323,
-0.3371660113334656,
-0.6580618619918823,
0.0051399231888353825,
-0.4094184935092926,
0.008466200903058052,
0.4569118320941925,
-0.4658680856227875,
0.15875844657421112,
-0.07689887285232544,
0.020702939480543137,
0.02419182099401951,
-0.46634039282798767,
-0.11892199516296387,
0.29809048771858215,
0.13158150017261505,
-0.13306449353694916,
0.4335346519947052,
-0.557634174823761,
-0.21554812788963318,
0.5288015007972717,
-0.3274008631706238,
0.23848161101341248,
0.4074069857597351,
0.3925902545452118,
1.1985975503921509,
-0.1463460475206375,
-0.3482183516025543,
0.088730588555336,
0.005564287304878235,
-0.07810487598180771,
0.3864579200744629,
-0.21171480417251587,
0.5280579924583435,
0.5353531241416931,
0.13617494702339172,
-0.1645100712776184,
0.24057629704475403,
-0.35739457607269287,
-0.9155111312866211,
0.029455725103616714,
-0.3885779082775116,
-0.5504499673843384,
0.8777424693107605,
0.011955668218433857,
0.31845778226852417,
-0.028015706688165665,
-0.13784770667552948,
-0.7332723140716553,
0.5671370029449463,
0.5012584328651428,
0.22032445669174194,
0.39566293358802795,
0.31924813985824585,
0.4202510416507721,
0.0552862174808979,
0.6477797031402588,
-0.28435778617858887,
0.24156701564788818,
-0.017047980800271034,
0.024888718500733376,
0.049443066120147705,
-0.8134407997131348,
-0.5046719312667847,
-0.16089335083961487,
0.1621437668800354,
0.5916089415550232,
-0.40773841738700867,
0.25683528184890747,
0.5220504403114319,
-0.10577501356601715,
-0.5863702893257141,
0.05951846390962601,
-0.18809062242507935,
0.4444296956062317,
-0.024685785174369812,
0.02962493896484375,
0.031138520687818527,
0.2240734100341797,
0.15916942059993744,
0.9613540172576904,
0.08824485540390015,
-0.013860681094229221,
0.26254427433013916,
0.15423433482646942,
-0.5926181077957153,
0.26612046360969543,
-0.16190949082374573,
0.40470874309539795,
-0.2037523090839386,
0.1629467010498047,
0.03348362445831299,
-0.6952233910560608,
0.13668429851531982,
-0.5886470675468445,
-0.5848142504692078,
0.4303513467311859,
-0.08058676868677139,
-0.28068429231643677,
0.6537445187568665,
0.14654463529586792,
0.5818721055984497,
-0.09158962965011597,
0.31104347109794617,
-0.4926877021789551,
0.3488353192806244,
0.4173605144023895,
-0.17134957015514374,
-0.5134263038635254,
-0.08408379554748535,
-0.31220030784606934,
-0.19616569578647614,
-0.7497738599777222,
0.32948029041290283,
0.3968803286552429,
0.05344915762543678,
0.4185243546962738,
0.0805041715502739,
-0.16844382882118225,
0.28159284591674805,
0.8852865099906921,
0.5154204368591309,
-0.0956735908985138,
0.19320368766784668,
-0.039268553256988525,
0.15478020906448364,
-0.7904658913612366,
0.222315713763237,
-0.163251593708992,
-0.056891120970249176,
0.12828867137432098,
-0.3289875090122223,
-0.3803136944770813,
0.11482161283493042,
0.24954138696193695,
-0.4033653438091278,
-0.1975029557943344,
-0.1847190111875534,
-0.07062630355358124,
-0.08136670291423798,
0.684360921382904,
0.3962728977203369,
-0.1477154791355133,
0.007679371628910303,
0.600749135017395,
-0.418323814868927,
0.3076988160610199,
0.30084314942359924,
0.19153258204460144,
0.46244674921035767,
0.42908209562301636,
-0.24732284247875214,
-0.27439823746681213,
0.4650038778781891,
0.11801774054765701,
-0.7962415218353271,
-0.2621453106403351,
-0.6102012991905212,
0.19117149710655212,
-0.33012840151786804,
-0.17192788422107697,
0.16445891559123993,
0.06299575418233871,
0.16865132749080658
] |
212970
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Territory (disambiguation)
|
A territory is a subdivision of a country having a legal status different from other regions of that country.
Territory may also refer to:
Box office territory
Sales territory
Territoriality (nonverbal communication), how people use space to communicate ownership/occupancy of areas and possessions
Music
Territory (Ronnie Montrose album), 1986
"Territory" (song), a 1993 song by Sepultura
Territory (Two Hours Traffic album), 2009
Film
Territory (1978 film), a 1978 Soviet film
Territory (2015 film), a 2015 Russian film
The Territory (1981 film), a 1981 Portuguese film
The Territory (2022 film), a 2022 American film
Other uses
Ford Territory (Australia), a crossover SUV built by Ford Australia
Ford Territory (China), a crossover SUV built by JMC-Ford
Spraying (animal behavior) (territorial marking)
Territory (animal), a geographical area defended by an animal against others of the same species (and occasionally of other species)
Territory (novel), a 2007 novel by Emma Bull
See also
Territorial (Airline) was an official regulation era CAB designation of a class of airline inclusive of: AS, AQ, HA, RV, and WC, and whose unique geographical route structure and large aircraft operations, did not neatly fit into the CAB's standard; International, Interstate Trunk, or Local Service, designations.
Territorial Army (disambiguation), the name for the Army Reserve in the United Kingdom until 2013, and in some Commonwealth nations
Territorial tax systems (vs. residency based or hybrid)
|
[
0.2815699875354767,
-0.08835554122924805,
-0.35709506273269653,
0.19627885520458221,
-0.0783369168639183,
-0.5168881416320801,
0.5499486327171326,
0.19051097333431244,
-0.2791522145271301,
-0.41675424575805664,
-0.5865185260772705,
-0.3518856167793274,
-0.14793288707733154,
0.6487802267074585,
-0.0939892828464508,
1.0663831233978271,
0.1483796238899231,
0.39505407214164734,
-0.1717325896024704,
0.1453871876001358,
-0.5649957656860352,
0.05214506387710571,
-0.3042614758014679,
-0.5082016587257385,
0.5500307083129883,
-0.23262235522270203,
0.545020341873169,
0.3164525032043457,
-0.27147072553634644,
0.009754357859492302,
-0.0422380231320858,
0.06336425244808197,
-0.07093769311904907,
0.22318457067012787,
0.10313066095113754,
0.06460467725992203,
0.04187227785587311,
-0.7860918641090393,
-0.5080376863479614,
-1.0743088722229004,
0.05849652737379074,
-0.11141962558031082,
-0.2907278835773468,
0.1741991639137268,
-0.5470572113990784,
-0.20758910477161407,
-1.4267797470092773,
0.18871083855628967,
-0.5048425197601318,
0.03814055025577545,
-0.1495957374572754,
0.0017920245882123709,
-0.13269180059432983,
0.018988575786352158,
-0.07479971647262573,
-0.06017061695456505,
-0.36842718720436096,
-0.42336493730545044,
0.34995171427726746,
-0.47832968831062317,
0.39842531085014343,
0.2467156946659088,
-0.07574004679918289,
0.3524825870990753,
0.4004330039024353,
0.3488733768463135,
-0.2989620864391327,
-0.08243215084075928,
-0.43273258209228516,
-0.9411780834197998,
-0.7344006299972534,
-0.3997904360294342,
0.08822833001613617,
0.49179521203041077,
-0.7505667805671692,
0.058270543813705444,
0.22947202622890472,
-0.14912401139736176,
-0.1592857390642166,
0.34444358944892883,
-0.6591771245002747,
0.6227759718894958,
0.3373526930809021,
-1.1028835773468018,
0.40842562913894653,
-0.13722270727157593,
-0.5859234929084778,
0.10823018848896027,
-0.5043163895606995,
0.7275736331939697,
0.7527052164077759,
0.040474630892276764,
0.37591949105262756,
-0.11685103923082352,
0.05516484007239342,
-0.1984582543373108,
0.5499998331069946,
-0.31281575560569763,
-0.18223515152931213,
0.14540007710456848,
-0.4081532061100006,
-0.2123015820980072,
0.3435696065425873,
-0.048390887677669525,
-0.2266221046447754,
-0.7174647450447083,
0.10276277363300323,
0.04755055159330368,
0.11019100993871689,
-0.24946029484272003,
-0.16865481436252594,
0.2569838762283325,
0.23703350126743317,
0.08182927966117859,
-0.4662332236766815,
0.08332693576812744,
0.000032206615287577733,
0.5379980802536011,
0.22444523870944977,
-0.11991813033819199,
0.15347062051296234,
0.22153039276599884,
0.07614314556121826,
-0.2835523784160614,
0.07964789122343063,
-0.04978284239768982,
0.4450727701187134,
0.16379916667938232,
-0.7674669027328491,
0.2331811636686325,
-0.26733624935150146,
0.27757132053375244,
0.08812905848026276,
0.6074296236038208,
0.04793184623122215,
-0.10045414417982101,
0.2633160948753357,
0.12932878732681274,
0.8285307288169861,
-0.3310336172580719,
-0.922869861125946,
0.26567915081977844,
-0.9296081066131592,
-0.018339108675718307,
0.4662487804889679,
-0.3741123676300049,
0.1540958434343338,
-0.2869107723236084,
-0.23308151960372925,
0.0010909646516665816,
-0.014796581119298935,
0.41741588711738586,
-0.1581122875213623,
0.511284351348877,
-0.2744450271129608,
0.07111454755067825,
0.12118786573410034,
-0.032521314918994904,
-0.1009577214717865,
0.3512645661830902,
-0.07151001691818237,
0.29020512104034424,
0.1657690703868866,
-0.21621403098106384,
0.20456579327583313,
-0.47514569759368896,
0.02682497538626194,
0.5567477941513062,
0.2869873642921448,
0.20068903267383575,
-0.46570438146591187,
-0.3496713936328888,
0.18744739890098572,
0.1384611278772354,
-0.31616026163101196,
0.15401239693164825,
-0.21617333590984344,
-0.27923014760017395,
0.5769879817962646,
0.08650775253772736,
-0.4515272080898285,
0.4753170311450958,
0.198667511343956,
0.29738616943359375,
-0.35046225786209106,
0.03283146768808365,
0.28451651334762573,
0.18505573272705078,
-0.057985857129096985,
0.13842366635799408,
-0.08064264059066772,
-0.311956524848938,
-0.13646695017814636,
-0.8087400794029236,
0.625255286693573,
-0.07227037101984024,
-0.5591363310813904,
0.7211150527000427,
-0.09504064917564392,
0.444190114736557,
-0.38088467717170715,
0.0018338006921112537,
-0.028022751212120056,
0.10463013499975204,
0.07893668115139008,
0.94541996717453,
0.09718900918960571,
0.07597851753234863,
-0.025780363008379936,
0.31157824397087097,
0.26194867491722107,
-0.26176929473876953,
0.6236377358436584,
-0.2927128076553345,
0.19642066955566406,
0.267492413520813,
-0.4475691616535187,
0.060160230845212936,
0.353615403175354,
-0.3575896918773651,
0.3954834043979645,
-0.04483615979552269,
-0.039797600358724594,
0.5146991014480591,
-0.4301758408546448,
-0.003946509677916765,
0.063095323741436,
0.6045500636100769,
0.7145580649375916,
-1.0879210233688354,
-0.2812635004520416,
0.01276727020740509,
0.6039713621139526,
-0.4412759840488434,
-0.04547317326068878,
-0.011444296687841415,
0.24825316667556763,
-0.041915133595466614,
0.3812713325023651,
-0.05974196642637253,
-0.44072383642196655,
-0.06276766955852509,
0.3204006254673004,
-0.04278665781021118,
0.4534280002117157,
0.3478659987449646,
-0.05888654664158821,
0.18984559178352356,
-0.11783125251531601,
0.1753525733947754,
0.2941206693649292,
0.029668081551790237,
0.2050197571516037,
-0.29519394040107727,
0.11990663409233093,
-0.18081338703632355,
-0.24788706004619598,
-0.12830354273319244,
0.16182169318199158,
-0.06395334005355835,
-0.47034743428230286,
0.3051854968070984,
-0.5287283658981323,
-0.32047325372695923,
-0.10548725724220276,
-0.02845306694507599,
-0.4664433002471924,
0.1162399873137474,
0.18001893162727356,
0.5033283829689026,
-0.0054087331518530846,
-0.04815945029258728,
-0.2578616142272949,
-0.6627349853515625,
-0.48899146914482117,
0.046632084995508194,
0.6725330948829651,
0.015777884051203728,
-0.11992920935153961,
-0.12281951308250427,
-0.024171337485313416,
-0.19876784086227417,
0.2831653356552124,
-0.8129175305366516,
-0.16421382129192352,
-0.6373059153556824,
0.6967700123786926,
-0.4454205334186554,
-0.2765364944934845,
0.2564661502838135,
-0.1617463082075119,
0.49062976241111755,
-0.014532634057104588,
0.11632982641458511,
0.5349920988082886,
-0.11408883333206177,
-0.2512248456478119,
-0.34982144832611084,
0.29273664951324463,
-0.45684748888015747,
-0.8197715282440186,
-0.03847196325659752,
-0.5353320837020874,
-0.34720081090927124,
-0.0745457112789154,
0.11318245530128479,
-0.3676131069660187,
0.010915571823716164,
-5.928680419921875,
0.18125107884407043,
-0.22557920217514038,
-0.0056110164150595665,
-0.13550971448421478,
-0.07108204066753387,
0.4595346450805664,
0.21467284858226776,
-0.645989716053009,
-0.09418648481369019,
-0.007263757288455963,
-0.22000934183597565,
0.27929720282554626,
0.3774523138999939,
0.8011509776115417,
-0.04753272235393524,
0.5099900364875793,
0.3188348710536957,
-0.26349011063575745,
0.5803998708724976,
-0.4555340111255646,
0.09056252986192703,
0.4010183811187744,
0.10907915979623795,
0.2297394871711731,
0.0887005478143692,
-0.31865379214286804,
0.3700173795223236,
-0.6223054528236389,
-0.5575597286224365,
-0.09245695918798447,
0.27252891659736633,
0.0571589395403862,
-0.2662825882434845,
-0.21605244278907776,
0.30556413531303406,
0.24416294693946838,
0.1526155173778534,
-0.0009178997133858502,
-0.30213451385498047,
-0.2773158550262451,
0.422440767288208,
0.5568144917488098,
0.38415443897247314,
-0.13741719722747803,
-0.4714049696922302,
-0.4537595212459564,
-0.22211158275604248,
-0.32043659687042236,
0.5946219563484192,
-0.15035304427146912,
0.2358587384223938,
0.2932238280773163,
-0.11157278716564178,
-0.3020792305469513,
-0.11200407892465591,
0.8566792011260986,
-0.30117571353912354,
-1.2649619579315186,
0.3881104588508606,
0.8316769003868103,
-0.5952463150024414,
0.28327322006225586,
-0.5122341513633728,
0.1124093309044838,
-0.14315052330493927,
-0.7551941275596619,
-0.26247256994247437,
0.7656810283660889,
0.22999738156795502,
-0.4762115478515625,
0.08077888190746307,
0.34479567408561707,
-0.4368104338645935,
-0.34318774938583374,
-0.7504579424858093,
-0.27713343501091003,
-0.20620638132095337,
0.5709361433982849,
0.29832494258880615,
-0.2826051115989685,
0.4955326020717621,
-0.25555479526519775,
0.08071073889732361,
-0.11010407656431198,
-0.1097584143280983,
-0.16022993624210358,
0.48541954159736633,
-0.3572954833507538,
-0.18625445663928986,
0.657772958278656,
0.11649968475103378,
0.7178897857666016,
-0.17140741646289825,
-0.34986087679862976,
0.22419171035289764,
0.20558719336986542,
-0.41643965244293213,
0.15758034586906433,
-0.7239569425582886,
0.566321611404419,
-0.41746485233306885,
-0.040702588856220245,
0.2187691032886505,
-0.03153511509299278,
0.021790096536278725,
-0.3218214511871338,
0.6668536067008972,
0.7489244341850281,
0.12612342834472656,
0.22662344574928284,
0.6845797300338745,
-0.2312045693397522,
-0.30264410376548767,
0.1404685378074646,
0.35787349939346313,
-0.47793856263160706,
0.46188631653785706,
0.42044124007225037,
-0.14523878693580627,
0.13044922053813934,
0.04325493052601814,
0.27552512288093567,
-0.12283848226070404,
-0.5306229591369629,
-0.1839446872472763,
-0.02695198729634285,
0.12259751558303833,
0.23048734664916992,
-0.04543984308838844,
0.6970809102058411,
0.580570638179779,
0.2542402446269989,
-0.6699627041816711,
0.31274905800819397,
-0.2962491512298584,
0.16152971982955933,
0.30873194336891174,
-0.044345490634441376,
-0.770189642906189,
0.36761394143104553,
-0.5866537094116211,
0.3773622214794159,
0.3886847496032715,
0.7255450487136841,
-0.2684216797351837,
-0.1041482537984848,
-0.1836782544851303,
0.058697156608104706,
0.2606389820575714,
0.034260306507349014,
-0.2209128439426422,
0.40841713547706604,
-0.5473199486732483,
-0.0715157687664032,
-0.6041805744171143,
0.5690019726753235,
-0.1981610655784607,
0.29145023226737976,
-0.7361482381820679,
-0.14472843706607819,
-0.4426417052745819,
-0.5457728505134583,
0.006308592855930328,
0.24220877885818481,
-0.09550625830888748,
-0.41295546293258667,
0.015944551676511765,
-0.25059595704078674,
0.691969096660614,
-0.06571675091981888,
-0.7718288898468018,
-0.3495745360851288,
-0.32840967178344727,
-0.03889159858226776,
0.019495710730552673,
0.3776549696922302,
0.4166770875453949,
0.36883649230003357,
0.20672450959682465,
0.22386883199214935,
-0.3057997524738312,
-0.1889374554157257,
0.36223873496055603,
0.4909300208091736,
0.017637012526392937,
-0.3360362648963928,
0.6406276822090149,
-0.2758323848247528,
-0.581596851348877,
-0.026360251009464264,
0.07480113953351974,
0.07174825668334961,
0.439958781003952,
0.07562246173620224,
-0.09593398869037628,
0.058064430952072144,
0.14556966722011566,
-0.46918222308158875,
-0.4498889446258545,
0.271497905254364,
0.05851910635828972,
-0.08907411992549896,
0.4093545973300934,
0.3845702111721039,
-0.5388079285621643,
0.41912245750427246,
-0.12529441714286804,
-0.3935927450656891,
0.08021759241819382,
-0.3702898919582367,
-0.5263029336929321,
-0.5572433471679688,
0.21146833896636963,
0.037035997956991196,
-0.05307183787226677,
0.289087176322937,
-0.423072874546051,
-0.4392864406108856,
-0.30931973457336426,
1.057542324066162,
-0.08262589573860168,
0.2677481472492218,
0.002571947406977415,
-0.0009478959836997092,
0.27092796564102173,
0.3230382204055786,
-0.583132803440094,
0.7627085447311401,
0.16279339790344238,
0.1470557004213333,
-0.0543045736849308,
0.014466491527855396,
-0.3187718689441681,
-0.29685965180397034,
-0.10012087970972061,
0.2364470511674881,
-0.045879755169153214,
-0.24532705545425415,
-0.05978856235742569,
0.27557340264320374,
1.0629721879959106,
0.40358930826187134,
-0.6377208232879639,
0.3047860264778137,
0.05336298793554306,
-0.17281314730644226,
-0.5905473232269287,
-0.5471228361129761,
0.3226241171360016,
-0.1645052134990692,
-0.3302759826183319,
-0.6196768283843994,
-0.07830807566642761,
0.9545989036560059,
0.39271456003189087,
-0.3582272529602051,
-0.08979369699954987,
0.19815769791603088,
0.5578434467315674,
0.18548086285591125,
-0.5136624574661255,
0.24203161895275116,
-0.3143552243709564,
0.3842676281929016,
-0.7545327544212341,
-0.46614769101142883,
0.7233923673629761,
0.46468186378479004,
-0.868266761302948,
0.05783864110708237,
0.08795201778411865,
0.5030503869056702,
0.19105327129364014,
0.7949838042259216,
-0.40740853548049927,
0.24487845599651337,
-0.22562704980373383,
-0.08889685571193695,
-0.07881724834442139,
-0.29182806611061096,
-0.2680027484893799,
0.25436440110206604,
-0.5168025493621826,
0.21907128393650055,
-0.12312118709087372,
0.18926668167114258,
0.010590403340756893,
-0.716702401638031,
-0.46004459261894226,
-0.3319026231765747,
-0.21810123324394226,
0.023740442469716072,
0.2983347773551941,
-0.2909470200538635,
-0.15650872886180878,
0.06453567743301392,
0.21004869043827057,
0.4969927668571472,
-0.053067438304424286,
-0.6019913554191589,
0.49846789240837097,
-0.14317932724952698,
-0.8952564001083374,
0.34978070855140686,
-0.17798130214214325,
0.1526675969362259,
-0.4803881049156189,
0.4420870244503021,
-0.37097325921058655,
0.5700328350067139,
0.41718733310699463,
0.5022161602973938,
0.4468201994895935,
0.016362788155674934,
0.004583972506225109,
0.5600138902664185,
-0.292215496301651,
0.12843404710292816,
0.3090903162956238,
0.07003586739301682,
-0.2789641320705414,
0.08613473176956177,
0.23682637512683868,
0.3173782527446747,
0.4814739525318146,
-0.04880769923329353,
-0.2471681386232376,
0.025438552722334862,
0.21208332479000092,
0.5434447526931763,
0.29691383242607117,
0.09719987958669662,
-0.04353480041027069,
-0.4558311998844147,
-0.34000587463378906,
0.23290090262889862,
-0.10145770758390427,
-0.25929030776023865,
0.44792434573173523,
0.3047923147678375,
0.04075278341770172,
-0.16276876628398895,
0.2211049646139145,
-0.5669225454330444,
0.13431616127490997,
0.49216094613075256,
0.2825627624988556,
0.030310485512018204,
0.7497473955154419,
0.363070011138916,
0.1285237818956375,
0.47698479890823364,
0.22108405828475952,
-0.1201336532831192,
-0.22021813690662384,
0.32613950967788696,
-0.13913163542747498,
-0.45032039284706116,
-0.5059987306594849,
-0.4215551018714905,
0.4660106897354126,
-0.28278473019599915,
0.4111981987953186,
0.45910435914993286,
-0.31068870425224304,
0.4861893355846405,
-0.3130165636539459,
-0.17944511771202087,
-0.05325445160269737,
0.5295736789703369,
0.057113781571388245,
0.00464866915717721,
0.19458825886249542,
0.5082283020019531,
-0.3949715495109558,
0.445793479681015,
0.33348843455314636,
-0.09019159525632858,
-0.5152487754821777,
0.03998621553182602,
0.08723371475934982,
0.09403813630342484,
-0.7018126845359802,
-0.06301920115947723,
0.09055653214454651,
0.18939203023910522,
0.2558472156524658,
-0.15956677496433258,
0.7088813185691833,
0.14995072782039642,
-0.3944316804409027,
0.23963455855846405,
-0.2738408148288727,
-0.1539526879787445,
0.4232361912727356,
-0.45449185371398926,
0.6064968705177307,
0.5403172373771667,
-0.6607529520988464,
-0.10259151458740234,
0.30230623483657837,
0.19616232812404633,
-0.13200433552265167,
-0.17847870290279388,
0.06684213131666183,
-0.4112323820590973,
0.17267856001853943,
-0.5335438251495361,
0.22453974187374115,
0.44406530261039734,
-0.6245181560516357,
-0.1431771069765091,
0.5946115851402283,
0.14853690564632416,
0.023417746648192406,
0.2957193851470947,
0.17580601572990417,
0.2608051896095276,
-0.1860235631465912,
0.2239972949028015,
-0.09373088926076889,
-0.27910763025283813,
-0.1162404790520668,
-0.036456573754549026,
-0.20879410207271576,
0.25553250312805176,
0.4805196225643158,
-0.569251537322998,
0.6700521111488342,
0.09375505894422531,
0.0704166442155838,
-0.3646809756755829,
0.23888002336025238,
-0.16540488600730896,
-0.2040044367313385,
0.13621674478054047,
0.32234296202659607,
-0.007066443096846342,
-0.030674437060952187,
-0.42261573672294617,
-0.037272512912750244,
-0.15575465559959412,
-0.10207811743021011,
-1.180862545967102,
0.19300954043865204,
-0.032766155898571014,
0.10926362127065659,
-0.7356231808662415,
0.4052882194519043,
0.3834420442581177,
0.2888992428779602,
0.19623424112796783,
-0.30438920855522156,
-0.15936465561389923,
-0.21170111000537872,
0.5424438714981079,
-0.746487557888031,
-0.5409062504768372,
0.9675715565681458
] |
212980
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order%20of%20operations
|
Order of operations
|
In mathematics and computer programming, the order of operations (or operator precedence) is a collection of rules that reflect conventions about which procedures to perform first in order to evaluate a given mathematical expression.
For example, in mathematics and most computer languages, multiplication is granted a higher precedence than addition, and it has been this way since the introduction of modern algebraic notation. Thus, the expression is interpreted to have the value , and not . When exponents were introduced in the 16th and 17th centuries, they were given precedence over both addition and multiplication, and could be placed only as a superscript to the right of their base. Thus and .
These conventions exist to eliminate notational ambiguity, while allowing notation to be as brief as possible. Where it is desired to override the precedence conventions, or even simply to emphasize them, parentheses ( ) can be used. For example, forces addition to precede multiplication, while forces addition to precede exponentiation. If multiple pairs of parentheses are required in a mathematical expression (such as in the case of nested parentheses), the parentheses may be replaced by brackets or braces to avoid confusion, as in .
Definition
The order of operations, which is used throughout mathematics, science, technology and many computer programming languages, is expressed here:
exponentiation and root extraction
multiplication and division
addition and subtraction
This means that if, in a mathematical expression, a subexpression appears between two operators, the operator that is higher in the above list should be applied first.
The commutative and associative laws of addition and multiplication allow adding terms in any order, and multiplying factors in any order—but mixed operations must obey the standard order of operations.
In some contexts, it is helpful to replace a division with multiplication by the reciprocal (multiplicative inverse) and a subtraction by addition of the opposite (additive inverse). For example, in computer algebra, this allows one to handle fewer binary operations, and makes it easier to use commutativity and associativity when simplifying large expressions (for more, see ). Thus ; in other words, the quotient of 3 and 4 equals the product of 3 and . Also ; in other words the difference of 3 and 4 equals the sum of 3 and −4. Thus, can be thought of as the sum of , and the three summands may be added in any order, in all cases giving 5 as the result.
The root symbol √ is traditionally prolongated by a bar (called vinculum) over the radicand (this avoids the need for parentheses around the radicand). Other functions use parentheses around the input to avoid ambiguity. The parentheses can be omitted if the input is a single numerical variable or constant (as in the case of and . Another shortcut convention that is sometimes used is when the input is monomial; thus, rather than , but , because is not a monomial. This, however, is ambiguous and not universally understood outside of specific contexts.
Some calculators and programming languages require parentheses around function inputs, some do not.
Symbols of grouping can be used to override the usual order of operations. Grouped symbols can be treated as a single expression. Symbols of grouping can be removed using the associative and distributive laws, also they can be removed if the expression inside the symbol of grouping is sufficiently simplified so no ambiguity results from their removal.
Examples
A horizontal fractional line also acts as a symbol of grouping:
For ease in reading, other grouping symbols, such as curly braces } or square brackets , are often used along with parentheses . For example:
Mnemonics
Mnemonics are often used to help students remember the rules, involving the first letters of words representing various operations. Different mnemonics are in use in different countries.
In the United States and in France, the acronym PEMDAS is common. It stands for Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication/Division, Addition/Subtraction. PEMDAS is often expanded to the mnemonic "Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally" in schools.
Canada and New Zealand use BEDMAS, standing for Brackets, Exponents, Division/Multiplication, Addition/Subtraction.
Most common in the UK, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Australia and some other English-speaking countries is BODMAS meaning either Brackets, Order, Division/Multiplication, Addition/Subtraction or Brackets, Of/Division/Multiplication, Addition/Subtraction. Nigeria and some other West African countries also use BODMAS. Similarly in the UK, BIDMAS is also used, standing for Brackets, Indices, Division/Multiplication, Addition/Subtraction.
These mnemonics may be misleading when written this way. For example, misinterpreting any of the above rules to mean "addition first, subtraction afterward" would incorrectly evaluate the expression
The "Addition/Subtraction" in the mnemonics should be interpreted as that any additions and subtractions should be performed in order from left to right. Similarly, the expression might be read multiple ways, but the "Multiplication/Division" in the mnemnonic means the multiplications and divisions should be performed from left to right.
Additional ambiguities caused by the use of multiplication by juxtaposition and using the slash to represent division are discussed below. In general, the surest way to avoid ambiguity is to use parentheses.
Special cases
Serial exponentiation
If exponentiation is indicated by stacked symbols using superscript notation, the usual rule is to work from the top down:
which typically is not equal to (ab)c. This convention is useful because there is a property of exponentiation that (ab)c = abc, so it's unnecessary to use serial exponentiation for this.
However, when using operator notation with a caret (^) or arrow (↑), there is no common standard. For example, Microsoft Excel and computation programming language MATLAB evaluate a^b^c as (ab)c, but Google Search and Wolfram Alpha as a(bc). Thus 4^3^2 is evaluated to 4,096 in the first case and to 262,144 in the second case.
Unary minus sign
There are differing conventions concerning the unary operator − (usually read "minus"). In written or printed mathematics, the expression −32 is interpreted to mean .
In some applications and programming languages, notably Microsoft Excel, PlanMaker (and other spreadsheet applications) and the programming language bc, unary operators have a higher priority than binary operators, that is, the unary minus has higher precedence than exponentiation, so in those languages −32 will be interpreted as . This does not apply to the binary minus operator −; for example in Microsoft Excel while the formulas =−2^2, =-(2)^2 and =0+−2^2 return 4, the formula =0−2^2 and =−(2^2) return −4.
Mixed division and multiplication
In some of the academic literature, multiplication denoted by juxtaposition (also known as implied multiplication) is interpreted as having higher precedence than division, so that equals , not .
For example, the manuscript submission instructions for the Physical Review journals state that multiplication is of higher precedence than division, and this is also the convention observed in prominent physics textbooks such as the Course of Theoretical Physics by Landau and Lifshitz and the Feynman Lectures on Physics. This ambiguity is often exploited in internet memes such as "".
Ambiguity can also be caused by the use of the slash symbol, '/', for division. The Physical Review submission instructions suggest to avoid expressions of the form a/b/c; ambiguity can be avoided by instead writing (a/b)/c or a/(b/c).
Calculators
Different calculators follow different orders of operations. Many simple calculators without a stack implement chain input working left to right without any priority given to different operators, for example typing
1 + 2 × 3 yields 9,
while more sophisticated calculators will use a more standard priority, for example typing
1 + 2 × 3 yields 7.
The Microsoft Calculator program uses the former in its standard view and the latter in its scientific and programmer views.
Chain input expects two operands and an operator. When the next operator is pressed, the expression is immediately evaluated and the answer becomes the left hand of the next operator. Advanced calculators allow entry of the whole expression, grouped as necessary, and evaluates only when the user uses the equals sign.
Calculators may associate exponents to the left to the right. For example, the expression a^b^c is interpreted as a(bc) on the TI-92 and the TI-30XS MultiView in "Mathprint mode", whereas it is interpreted as (ab)c on the TI-30XII and the TI-30XS MultiView in "Classic mode".
An expression like 1/2x is interpreted as 1/(2x) by TI-82, as well as many modern Casio calculators, but as (1/2)x by TI-83 and every other TI calculator released since 1996, as well as by all Hewlett-Packard calculators with algebraic notation. While the first interpretation may be expected by some users due to the nature of implied multiplication, the latter is more in line with the standard rule that multiplication and division are of equal precedence, where 1/2x is read one divided by two and the answer multiplied by x.
When the user is unsure how a calculator will interpret an expression, parentheses can be used to remove the ambiguity.
Calculators that use reverse Polish notation (RPN), also known as postfix notation, use a stack to enter expressions in the correct order of precedence without a need for parentheses or any possibly model-specific order of execution.
Programming languages
Some programming languages use precedence levels that conform to the order commonly used in mathematics, though others, such as APL, Smalltalk, Occam and Mary, have no operator precedence rules (in APL, evaluation is strictly right to left; in Smalltalk, it is strictly left to right).
Furthermore, because many operators are not associative, the order within any single level is usually defined by grouping left to right so that 16/4/4 is interpreted as rather than ; such operators are perhaps misleadingly referred to as "left associative". Exceptions exist; for example, languages with operators corresponding to the cons operation on lists usually make them group right to left ("right associative"), e.g. in Haskell, 1:2:3:4:[] == 1:(2:(3:(4:[]))) == [1,2,3,4].
The creator of the C language has said of the precedence in C (shared by programming languages that borrow those rules from C, for example, C++, Perl and PHP) that it would have been preferable to move the bitwise operators above the comparison operators. However, many programmers have become accustomed to this order. The relative precedence levels of operators found in many C-style languages are as follows:
Examples:
(Note: in the examples below, '≡' is used to mean "is identical to", and not to be interpreted as an actual assignment operator used as part of the example expression.)
!A + !B ≡ (!A) + (!B)
++A + !B ≡ (++A) + (!B)
A + B * C ≡ A + (B * C)
A || B && C ≡ A || (B && C)
A && B == C ≡ A && (B == C)
A & B == C ≡ A & (B == C)
Source-to-source compilers that compile to multiple languages need to explicitly deal with the issue of different order of operations across languages. Haxe for example standardizes the order and enforces it by inserting brackets where it is appropriate.
The accuracy of software developer knowledge about binary operator precedence has been found to closely follow their frequency of occurrence in source code.
See also
Common operator notation (for a more formal description)
Hyperoperation
Operator associativity
Operator overloading
Operator precedence in C and C++
Polish notation
Reverse Polish notation
Notes
References
Further reading
Mnemonics
Operators (programming)
Algebra
|
[
-0.22700193524360657,
0.46645107865333557,
-0.23871855437755585,
0.03609776124358177,
0.18311956524848938,
0.07572536170482635,
0.09881547093391418,
-0.20159980654716492,
-0.3997391164302826,
-0.20802637934684753,
-0.593299388885498,
0.48430749773979187,
-0.3543417453765869,
0.004809794947504997,
-0.43577682971954346,
0.5771584510803223,
0.11608481407165527,
0.10977049171924591,
0.08006254583597183,
-0.29078951478004456,
-0.22296255826950073,
0.2904191017150879,
-0.13055071234703064,
-0.467936635017395,
0.30785220861434937,
-0.1543097048997879,
-0.3763962388038635,
-0.38760170340538025,
-0.6064009666442871,
0.19975510239601135,
0.08657191693782806,
0.047049522399902344,
0.08316046744585037,
0.23643100261688232,
-0.15845532715320587,
0.1838381588459015,
-0.16347159445285797,
-0.10080590099096298,
-0.21354341506958008,
-0.6343567967414856,
-0.008933118544518948,
-0.6964963674545288,
0.5620012283325195,
-0.148635596036911,
-0.493766725063324,
-0.22046983242034912,
-1.3241770267486572,
-0.1486794799566269,
-0.8015384078025818,
0.21794168651103973,
-0.5194525718688965,
0.15885357558727264,
0.37989342212677,
0.3111253082752228,
-0.3797232210636139,
0.4365774393081665,
-0.14468559622764587,
0.06588789075613022,
0.14920689165592194,
-0.5307220220565796,
0.6775804162025452,
0.24192966520786285,
0.4144517183303833,
0.07943044602870941,
0.5079028606414795,
0.13438329100608826,
-0.45469704270362854,
-0.16123270988464355,
-0.5958474278450012,
-0.6171603202819824,
-0.15378062427043915,
-0.09995041787624359,
-0.3302135765552521,
0.44414231181144714,
-0.4686197340488434,
-0.6177460551261902,
-0.10427885502576828,
-0.09091638028621674,
-0.7017530798912048,
-0.11240101605653763,
-0.3149261474609375,
0.8119130730628967,
0.5806106925010681,
-0.030128084123134613,
0.4547385275363922,
0.25708067417144775,
-1.0109200477600098,
0.14161211252212524,
-0.47528076171875,
0.4385364055633545,
0.017362650483846664,
-0.2860443890094757,
0.2809818387031555,
0.0759410709142685,
-0.6173494458198547,
-0.00857542548328638,
0.13647262752056122,
-0.4091585576534271,
0.336550235748291,
0.12928615510463715,
-0.41274213790893555,
-0.44871559739112854,
0.619653582572937,
-0.4095219671726227,
-0.34130245447158813,
-0.21721763908863068,
0.1830904185771942,
-0.25919675827026367,
0.15741032361984253,
0.0381341315805912,
-1.210344910621643,
0.1900600641965866,
0.05898107960820198,
-0.05298275128006935,
-0.6513819694519043,
-0.13633297383785248,
-0.27637556195259094,
0.16650760173797607,
-0.06073284149169922,
0.10880713164806366,
0.5009847283363342,
0.4532211124897003,
0.37490299344062805,
0.42487356066703796,
0.08802197128534317,
0.15295034646987915,
0.07276877760887146,
1.0526007413864136,
-0.4805474281311035,
-0.21056458353996277,
-0.2378690093755722,
0.8572811484336853,
0.02298244833946228,
0.06682177633047104,
-0.44186657667160034,
0.10611507296562195,
0.032501693814992905,
0.17725186049938202,
0.08790156990289688,
-0.05911815166473389,
-0.6026250720024109,
-0.43371090292930603,
0.25182008743286133,
-0.35445335507392883,
0.2791830003261566,
-0.6202582120895386,
0.5731343626976013,
-0.23352375626564026,
-0.13860046863555908,
0.33250877261161804,
-0.004980375524610281,
-0.12118091434240341,
-0.8828359246253967,
0.06309889256954193,
0.13369689881801605,
0.2961021661758423,
0.5536410808563232,
0.0017608955968171358,
-0.298260360956192,
0.3669111728668213,
-0.013172672130167484,
0.0651462972164154,
-0.3377464711666107,
-0.12680724263191223,
0.4789939820766449,
-0.5559517741203308,
0.7888523936271667,
0.7577183246612549,
-0.13995154201984406,
0.38110437989234924,
-0.6703190803527832,
-0.16489365696907043,
-0.1132977232336998,
0.058359406888484955,
-0.927825391292572,
0.2334713488817215,
-0.23263582587242126,
-0.017653081566095352,
1.0707148313522339,
-0.1469116061925888,
-0.7837890982627869,
0.4850616753101349,
0.3929907977581024,
-0.4018203616142273,
-0.01855131797492504,
-0.14985018968582153,
0.3479120433330536,
-0.7990379333496094,
-0.2010488659143448,
0.1629943549633026,
-0.402073472738266,
-0.08106216788291931,
0.01712028868496418,
-0.6067422032356262,
0.2525351643562317,
-0.103559210896492,
-0.8808886408805847,
0.7460507750511169,
-0.680290699005127,
0.6335151791572571,
0.18434368073940277,
0.058737535029649734,
0.4756001830101013,
-0.4259900450706482,
0.5533739924430847,
0.2618709206581116,
0.21728895604610443,
0.10418810695409775,
-0.6827628016471863,
0.5453760027885437,
-0.016929013654589653,
0.36321821808815,
0.3868032693862915,
-0.15806005895137787,
0.505194365978241,
-0.1511889100074768,
-0.7269181609153748,
-0.1692076474428177,
-0.08119791746139526,
-0.03818482160568237,
0.6841344833374023,
-0.10781523585319519,
-0.23002800345420837,
0.7737290859222412,
-0.4286844730377197,
-0.06642498821020126,
0.5534328818321228,
0.822329044342041,
0.6865768432617188,
-0.6176971197128296,
0.31493762135505676,
-0.4244040250778198,
0.2314787656068802,
0.01554113905876875,
-0.0065887789241969585,
0.29098275303840637,
-0.059628527611494064,
-0.180702343583107,
0.36330175399780273,
-0.427385151386261,
0.46252572536468506,
-0.05498919636011124,
-0.3221341669559479,
0.16559380292892456,
0.6156179308891296,
-0.16014958918094635,
-0.5970869064331055,
-0.06491363793611526,
-0.2790345251560211,
0.2874282896518707,
-0.2782578766345978,
-0.09773499518632889,
0.5041865110397339,
-0.1576397866010666,
-0.23497076332569122,
-0.1911182999610901,
0.04150748252868652,
0.22341936826705933,
-0.015100470744073391,
0.16509871184825897,
-0.19111594557762146,
-0.3928297460079193,
-0.18084944784641266,
-0.20957070589065552,
0.02186194621026516,
-0.28340408205986023,
-0.6873448491096497,
0.12882596254348755,
0.3724156320095062,
0.5704455971717834,
0.3364371061325073,
-0.11621417105197906,
-0.29687461256980896,
-0.29050326347351074,
-0.5853534936904907,
-1.2456415891647339,
0.18860988318920135,
0.0635727196931839,
-1.3029674291610718,
-0.5526758432388306,
-0.12006322294473648,
0.2738511562347412,
0.25329628586769104,
-0.23958222568035126,
-0.005426058545708656,
-0.44951385259628296,
0.21059276163578033,
-0.6660475134849548,
-0.14090894162654877,
-0.08924875408411026,
-0.09744326025247574,
0.045175060629844666,
-0.39750295877456665,
-0.22157669067382812,
0.6509844064712524,
0.13619889318943024,
0.168972447514534,
-0.13116347789764404,
-0.20335416495800018,
-0.49346819519996643,
-0.26578959822654724,
0.3044220805168152,
0.23543418943881989,
-0.24292245507240295,
-0.1998496651649475,
-0.06264441460371017,
0.042599115520715714,
0.9021291136741638,
-5.671412467956543,
-0.4669347405433655,
-0.23323610424995422,
0.0025514087174087763,
-0.23327547311782837,
0.36441072821617126,
0.16330796480178833,
0.5731484293937683,
-0.1472742259502411,
-0.2454734891653061,
0.010246268473565578,
-0.5995486378669739,
-0.45165184140205383,
0.8068062663078308,
0.21237309277057648,
0.24906392395496368,
0.4526560306549072,
-0.0915873721241951,
0.06573163717985153,
1.0399993658065796,
-0.036328982561826706,
-0.9762098789215088,
0.15329666435718536,
0.2726108431816101,
-0.31403106451034546,
0.038142409175634384,
-0.233893483877182,
0.4160769283771515,
-0.2582418918609619,
-0.41101327538490295,
-0.21248503029346466,
0.08500077575445175,
0.048484496772289276,
-0.7148253917694092,
0.07096711546182632,
0.12638942897319794,
0.6077049374580383,
-0.14310285449028015,
0.34935784339904785,
-0.548202395439148,
0.30004140734672546,
0.2964296042919159,
0.3708917796611786,
0.0042472411878407,
0.42916443943977356,
0.062881700694561,
-0.3873022496700287,
0.2954815626144409,
-0.32452818751335144,
0.5107426047325134,
-0.6347806453704834,
0.3472820222377777,
0.38884955644607544,
-0.5046957731246948,
0.29993757605552673,
0.03593695908784866,
-0.15258242189884186,
-0.023326057940721512,
-0.060139916837215424,
0.6920892000198364,
0.29696980118751526,
-0.7174319624900818,
0.6713193655014038,
-0.527805507183075,
-0.5087020397186279,
-0.07025580108165741,
-0.5516232848167419,
-0.15894058346748352,
0.47500982880592346,
0.27324336767196655,
-0.11468002200126648,
0.18917551636695862,
0.10048269480466843,
-0.8287290930747986,
-0.2324969321489334,
-0.45676571130752563,
0.7218466401100159,
0.28338298201560974,
0.8937439322471619,
0.17456047236919403,
-0.4771597981452942,
-0.18261069059371948,
-0.32894378900527954,
-0.15065273642539978,
0.08686474710702896,
0.35189464688301086,
-0.09396204352378845,
0.1276993453502655,
-0.28219932317733765,
0.3557082414627075,
0.4490709900856018,
0.5257022380828857,
0.32457342743873596,
0.6219043135643005,
0.3342350423336029,
-0.24373766779899597,
0.4922674298286438,
-0.28325265645980835,
0.31125935912132263,
-0.4315318465232849,
0.17406153678894043,
-0.08348717540502548,
0.5686711668968201,
-0.17361626029014587,
0.16231347620487213,
-0.0989941656589508,
-0.8216052651405334,
0.7516534924507141,
0.5051321387290955,
-0.10505855083465576,
-0.42296120524406433,
0.29706844687461853,
0.35877135396003723,
-0.5735399723052979,
0.04956855997443199,
0.5597525835037231,
-0.15773922204971313,
0.3419429063796997,
0.39973846077919006,
-0.24241454899311066,
-0.5391492247581482,
0.10591726750135422,
-0.3647966682910919,
-0.189126119017601,
-0.28659749031066895,
-0.6696886420249939,
0.07925835996866226,
0.36238330602645874,
0.3686170279979706,
-0.12196730822324753,
0.1802283674478531,
0.8838686943054199,
-0.11301485449075699,
0.2573697566986084,
0.10177605599164963,
-0.609284520149231,
0.0998406931757927,
0.49701663851737976,
-0.724149227142334,
-0.7101889252662659,
0.794487476348877,
-0.11843102425336838,
-0.2621595561504364,
-0.26423752307891846,
0.25817960500717163,
0.07204113900661469,
0.14427688717842102,
0.046850692480802536,
0.028616689145565033,
0.7148274183273315,
0.42763879895210266,
-0.42778804898262024,
0.29171043634414673,
-0.4643677771091461,
0.10370684415102005,
0.3312453031539917,
-0.18611836433410645,
0.05726880952715874,
0.4243942201137543,
-0.646277129650116,
0.42369315028190613,
0.20864631235599518,
-0.7301563620567322,
-0.6882296204566956,
-0.3395361602306366,
0.12597568333148956,
-0.8981566429138184,
-0.1516929268836975,
-0.3029148578643799,
0.19437316060066223,
-0.21289174258708954,
-0.11714131385087967,
0.07724643498659134,
-0.46428173780441284,
0.31437546014785767,
0.15582086145877838,
-0.1634708046913147,
0.14923827350139618,
0.30623289942741394,
-0.34485599398612976,
0.44834408164024353,
-0.5001979470252991,
-0.605665922164917,
0.8456535935401917,
0.317880779504776,
-0.5759010910987854,
0.3904983103275299,
0.5086508393287659,
-0.3866834342479706,
-0.6484984159469604,
0.5075320601463318,
-0.5565167665481567,
0.22253583371639252,
-0.0862676352262497,
-0.10778159648180008,
0.1768924742937088,
0.34945252537727356,
0.584932267665863,
-0.16367019712924957,
-0.6895873546600342,
0.12903687357902527,
0.36263516545295715,
-0.35724303126335144,
-0.1943095177412033,
0.28890734910964966,
-0.42368361353874207,
0.49701473116874695,
0.09790273755788803,
-0.045685965567827225,
0.490075021982193,
-0.34378108382225037,
-0.47209465503692627,
-0.33791759610176086,
-0.17687469720840454,
-0.38764888048171997,
0.5148823857307434,
0.3099260926246643,
-0.39532557129859924,
-0.13790041208267212,
-0.23111632466316223,
0.4894140362739563,
-0.15282991528511047,
0.17351274192333221,
0.5051472187042236,
0.17227883636951447,
-0.38065680861473083,
0.37551575899124146,
-0.29964515566825867,
0.7950206398963928,
0.03520797938108444,
-0.4162614941596985,
0.13417142629623413,
-0.16818320751190186,
0.09688031673431396,
0.15514430403709412,
-0.2018558382987976,
-0.19282682240009308,
0.5147775411605835,
-0.4590100347995758,
-0.515484631061554,
-0.0865326076745987,
1.007328987121582,
0.02771882154047489,
-0.5420741438865662,
0.5897436141967773,
0.015363084152340889,
0.47171252965927124,
-0.692855954170227,
0.15228794515132904,
0.2225739061832428,
0.45800596475601196,
0.49737250804901123,
-0.010482261888682842,
0.06083882972598076,
0.27412858605384827,
0.3176139295101166,
0.28954461216926575,
-0.4821510910987854,
-0.10070191323757172,
0.5935138463973999,
-0.02284371107816696,
-0.5276831984519958,
-0.22480331361293793,
-0.21300159394741058,
0.1859663426876068,
0.8605045676231384,
-0.5709900259971619,
0.36271023750305176,
0.5825303196907043,
-0.2788538932800293,
0.9002015590667725,
-0.5361915230751038,
0.3565620481967926,
0.28169944882392883,
0.628298282623291,
-0.13616588711738586,
0.6744968891143799,
-0.052122656255960464,
-0.12206025421619415,
0.1540439873933792,
-0.3727050721645355,
0.001859521958976984,
-0.07723728567361832,
-0.6343070268630981,
0.19896835088729858,
-0.8765507936477661,
0.4097996950149536,
0.42811280488967896,
-0.5882374048233032,
0.39791056513786316,
-0.5556455254554749,
0.5698275566101074,
0.05414783954620361,
0.008118544705212116,
-0.4376302659511566,
-0.15755945444107056,
0.5730410218238831,
0.4340124726295471,
-0.12106487900018692,
-0.008339691907167435,
-0.4292501211166382,
-0.015021918341517448,
0.20481257140636444,
-0.24987046420574188,
0.07439161092042923,
0.5644872784614563,
-0.16313348710536957,
-0.46440359950065613,
-0.48596078157424927,
0.013153537176549435,
0.12932910025119781,
-0.10667812824249268,
0.01997794210910797,
0.535106897354126,
-0.1400112360715866,
-0.1321897953748703,
0.2963488698005676,
-0.4718876779079437,
0.3739030957221985,
0.07131462544202805,
-0.2635420560836792,
-0.16993319988250732,
0.32817596197128296,
-0.42817556858062744,
-0.17130814492702484,
0.5313594937324524,
-0.1116345226764679,
0.1389922797679901,
-0.44828885793685913,
0.35265401005744934,
0.6310214400291443,
0.6373647451400757,
-0.07963058352470398,
0.2645239531993866,
-0.7220481038093567,
-0.3872549831867218,
0.09377317130565643,
-0.5674371123313904,
0.36781951785087585,
0.2845204174518585,
0.44662702083587646,
0.7066434025764465,
0.10975527763366699,
0.013798982836306095,
-0.15579946339130402,
0.13187238574028015,
0.3018242120742798,
0.38603103160858154,
-0.7759836316108704,
0.6175270676612854,
0.1117158830165863,
-0.15907686948776245,
0.7035813331604004,
-0.060959890484809875,
-0.095896877348423,
-0.200297549366951,
0.117195725440979,
0.1899034082889557,
0.5370550155639648,
0.22856280207633972,
-0.3728581368923187,
0.6657678484916687,
0.030115671455860138,
-0.18314895033836365,
-0.005719487555325031,
0.08235207945108414,
0.6727469563484192,
-0.4069695472717285,
0.27587592601776123,
0.02133350819349289,
-0.47684821486473083,
0.4955676794052124,
-0.35076943039894104,
0.2769179046154022,
-0.15668252110481262,
-0.585921585559845,
0.44744011759757996,
0.7045813798904419,
-0.2399074286222458,
0.0032128077000379562,
0.09147309511899948,
-0.10843472182750702,
-0.09657692909240723,
-0.9689726829528809,
-0.26623231172561646,
-0.11908125132322311,
0.007503527216613293,
-0.059123922139406204,
-0.008937218226492405,
0.7752271294593811,
-0.04703829064965248,
-0.20078745484352112,
-0.09196195751428604,
-0.20541922748088837,
0.3201625645160675,
0.5907557606697083,
-0.8413000106811523,
1.255627155303955,
0.5679135918617249,
-0.19577649235725403,
-0.5445439219474792,
-0.11205190420150757,
0.4902575612068176,
-0.560862123966217,
-0.37982478737831116,
0.18025833368301392,
-0.4495050013065338,
-0.1834711730480194,
0.026994027197360992,
0.0558948777616024,
0.06948284059762955,
-0.5677484273910522,
-0.08155456185340881,
0.7288681268692017,
-0.08750899136066437,
-0.13514907658100128,
0.624279260635376,
-0.41309529542922974,
0.4561830163002014,
0.022477757185697556,
-0.5249216556549072,
0.5111218094825745,
0.2462809532880783,
0.34948328137397766,
-0.3975352942943573,
0.04409341514110565,
0.13428747653961182,
0.45774945616722107,
-0.51261967420578,
0.38855648040771484,
-0.023556191474199295,
-0.042365990579128265,
-0.1667207032442093,
0.6473942995071411,
-0.4991014003753662,
-0.3529444634914398,
0.10137028247117996,
0.0014816012699157,
0.3404436409473419,
-0.37418103218078613,
-0.17928941547870636,
0.4194631576538086,
-0.4841459393501282,
0.31021860241889954,
0.03141794353723526,
0.37422117590904236,
-0.5598575472831726,
-0.25873520970344543,
-0.0475480891764164,
0.42790454626083374,
0.24709799885749817,
-0.46441900730133057,
0.36751818656921387,
0.24592512845993042,
-0.6724601984024048,
0.08149877935647964,
0.4283550977706909,
-0.6034781336784363,
-0.07740592211484909,
0.3355289101600647
] |
212981
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgy%20Girl
|
Georgy Girl
|
Georgy Girl is a 1966 British comedy-drama romance film based on the 1965 novel by Margaret Forster. The film was directed by Silvio Narizzano and starred Lynn Redgrave (as Georgy), Charlotte Rampling, Alan Bates, and James Mason. The film features the title song "Georgy Girl" as performed by the Seekers.
The plot follows the story of a virginal young woman in 1960s Swinging London who is faced with a dilemma when she is pursued by her father's older employer and the young lover of her promiscuous, pregnant flatmate.
Plot
The opening credits show the title character walking through the streets of London and being tempted into a hairdressers where she has her hair set in a far more contemporary style. She immediately changes her mind, and runs through the streets until she reaches a public lavatory. Once there, she submerges her hair in a sink-full of water, happy to return to her previously unkempt hairstyle.
Georgina ("Georgy") Parkin (Lynn Redgrave) is a 22-year-old Londoner who has considerable musical talent, is well-educated, and has an engaging, shameless manner. On the other hand, she believes herself to be plain and slightly overweight, she dresses haphazardly, and she is incredibly naïve on the subjects of love and flirtation. She has never had a boyfriend. She has an inventive imagination and loves children.
Her parents are live-in employees of successful businessman James Leamington (James Mason), who runs a children's home. Leamington is 49 and has a loveless, childless marriage with Ellen (Rachel Kempson). He has watched with affection as Georgy grew up, and has treated her as if he were her second father: He provided for her private education at a Swiss finishing school, and for a studio in his own home, in which she teaches dance to children. Leamington thinks Georgy "owes him" for all he has done.
As Georgy has become a young woman, his feelings for her have become more than fatherly: James offers Georgy a legal contract, proposing to supply her with the luxuries of life in return for her becoming his mistress. Georgy sidesteps his proposal by never giving him a direct response; Leamington's business-like language and manner (and awkward inability to express any affection for her) leave her cold.
Georgy's flatmate is the beautiful Meredith (Charlotte Rampling), who is a violinist in an orchestra, but is otherwise a shallow woman who lives for her own pleasures. She treats the meekly compliant Georgy like an unpaid servant. Georgy has a crush on Meredith's boyfriend Jos Jones (Alan Bates) and is happy to accommodate Meredith in order to spend time with Jos. She cooks for him and they play Scrabble together.
When Meredith discovers that she is pregnant by Jos, they get married. She tells him bluntly that she has aborted two of his children, but she wants to marry because she is "bored." Jos moves in with the two young women. He becomes disillusioned with Meredith and begins to find himself attracted to Georgy, who convinces Leamington to buy several expensive items for the baby's care.
While in the midst of an argument with Meredith over her cavalier attitude to her pregnancy, Jos suddenly kisses Georgy and tells her that he loves her. Georgy flees the apartment onto the streets of London, where Jos follows her, screaming over and over again that he loves her as he pursues her.
The two return to the flat, where they have sex, after which there is a knock at the door by Peggy, a friend of Meredith, who tells Jos that Meredith has gone to the hospital to give birth. Jos and Georgy go to the hospital, where Georgy tries to comfort Meredith while she is in labour. Jos and Georgy's secret love affair continues.
Meredith gives birth to a daughter they name Sara. Because she has no interest in the baby and has tired of Jos, she announces that she plans to put the child up for adoption and divorce him.
Georgy and Jos set up home together in the flat, caring for baby Sara and living as a common-law married couple. It becomes clear that Georgy cares more for the baby than for having an adult relationship with Jos. Their relationship ends when Jos tires of a father's responsibilities; he abandons her and his baby. Now that Georgy is the sole caregiver of a baby to whom she has no blood ties, Social Services wishes to remove baby Sara from her care.
In the recent past, Mr Leamington's wife suddenly died. Leamington, who was unable to express his true feelings for Georgy while his wife was alive, now finds himself free to express his love for her, so he proposes marriage. Georgy accepts because this will allow her to keep Sara. The two marry despite the difference in their backgrounds and ages. They officially adopt Sara, making Georgy a mother. As the newlyweds are chauffeured away from their wedding, Georgy ignores her new husband, devoting all her attention to baby Sara.
Cast
Lynn Redgrave as Georgina "Georgy" Parkin
James Mason as James Leamington
Alan Bates as Jos Jones
Charlotte Rampling as Meredith
Bill Owen as Ted Parkin
Clare Kelly as Doris Parkin
Rachel Kempson (Lynn Redgrave's mother) as Ellen Leamington
Denise Coffey as Peg
Peggy Thorpe-Bates as Hospital Sister
Dandy Nichols as Hospital Nurse
Dorothy Alison as Health Visitor
Terence Soall as Salesman
Ian Dunn as Baby Sara
Reception
The film was successful at the box office. By 1967, it had earned an estimated $7 million in the United States and $6 million in other countries. By the end of 1967, it had earned $7,330,000 in rentals in North America according to rentals accruing to the distributors.
Locations
Several scenes were filmed in north London, in Belsize Park and Little Venice, notably outside a canalside house on Maida Avenue.
Title song
The title song "Georgy Girl", written by Tom Springfield and Jim Dale, was recorded by Australian band The Seekers. A single release of the song (with somewhat different lyrics) topped the singles chart in Australia, and was a top 10 hit in both the UK and the U.S. (#2 for two weeks). It was the 56th biggest British hit of 1967, and the 57th biggest American hit of 1967. It became a gold record and was nominated for an Academy Award in the Best Original Song from a Motion Picture category.
Awards and nominations
Adaptation
In 1970, the film was the basis for an unsuccessful Broadway musical titled Georgy.
It was adapted for BBC Radio 4 in 2013 by Rhiannon Tise.
Notes
References
External links
1966 films
1960s romantic comedy-drama films
British black-and-white films
British romantic comedy-drama films
British films
English-language films
Columbia Pictures films
Films based on British novels
Films based on romance novels
Films directed by Silvio Narizzano
Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe winning performance
Films set in London
1966 drama films
|
[
-0.47629958391189575,
0.19455896317958832,
-0.06355638802051544,
-0.39847469329833984,
-0.16960923373699188,
0.4754798710346222,
0.6840500235557556,
-0.2908289432525635,
-0.5062065124511719,
0.47635161876678467,
-0.25697362422943115,
-0.088279590010643,
-0.3676108717918396,
0.28383636474609375,
0.08246536552906036,
0.12989115715026855,
0.5380029678344727,
0.5794683694839478,
-0.37084686756134033,
-0.7545680999755859,
-0.07205839455127716,
-0.22839941084384918,
0.413242906332016,
0.020500602200627327,
-0.24526433646678925,
-0.03304452449083328,
0.9090608954429626,
0.31951168179512024,
0.1888146847486496,
0.06985554844141006,
-0.17574788630008698,
-0.08918223530054092,
0.14839603006839752,
0.4196535646915436,
-0.24385739862918854,
0.41345053911209106,
-0.3993526101112366,
0.3113245666027069,
-0.6394803524017334,
-0.9227218627929688,
0.12696966528892517,
0.2631773352622986,
0.07243144512176514,
0.043951503932476044,
-0.19233417510986328,
-0.3743915855884552,
-1.5005762577056885,
-0.0020410344004631042,
-0.5161215662956238,
-0.8491336107254028,
0.0028943440411239862,
0.41854536533355713,
1.3860299587249756,
-0.15638691186904907,
0.11469028890132904,
0.5276697278022766,
-0.8115006685256958,
-0.06016799807548523,
-0.3119107484817505,
-0.18133199214935303,
0.25494298338890076,
0.508149266242981,
0.7383930087089539,
-0.11731194704771042,
0.7485734820365906,
0.35419538617134094,
0.10076376050710678,
-0.1097535490989685,
0.10495854914188385,
-0.6467766165733337,
-0.1965051293373108,
0.16621451079845428,
0.28579479455947876,
0.03616006299853325,
-0.1224772185087204,
-0.5397417545318604,
0.7040166258811951,
-0.06600552052259445,
0.25596556067466736,
0.0563645213842392,
-0.054828815162181854,
0.016604138538241386,
0.42947688698768616,
0.37050119042396545,
0.14502668380737305,
-0.38526344299316406,
-0.47308456897735596,
0.7548892498016357,
-0.3356168270111084,
0.22214297950267792,
-0.5400646328926086,
-0.4044934809207916,
0.07302290201187134,
0.12840159237384796,
0.14596931636333466,
0.2889675199985504,
-0.718681812286377,
0.39466971158981323,
0.12152141332626343,
-0.36151933670043945,
0.1258799284696579,
0.42272254824638367,
-0.29294082522392273,
-0.5573441982269287,
-0.9415275454521179,
-0.5054879784584045,
0.02060381881892681,
-0.06254129111766815,
0.19515444338321686,
0.5252326726913452,
-0.5427476763725281,
0.1695273518562317,
-0.2543986141681671,
0.04159899801015854,
0.39420074224472046,
0.43928077816963196,
-0.11691979318857193,
-0.7379875779151917,
-0.7576407194137573,
0.21997623145580292,
0.200175479054451,
-0.13379639387130737,
-0.07883244007825851,
0.3360271453857422,
-0.05651514604687691,
0.45597410202026367,
0.26879850029945374,
0.8126384019851685,
-0.7990615963935852,
0.3877112567424774,
0.3792329728603363,
0.9568387269973755,
-0.589586615562439,
-0.0008374782046303153,
-0.35967785120010376,
-0.028633037582039833,
0.6840578317642212,
-0.41963839530944824,
-0.3452123999595642,
0.050106290727853775,
-0.20515571534633636,
0.7838833332061768,
-0.49110177159309387,
0.3605106770992279,
0.6497136950492859,
-0.1763734221458435,
0.6043311357498169,
-0.25145435333251953,
-0.147737517952919,
-0.687532365322113,
0.05425560474395752,
0.21539685130119324,
-0.1041354313492775,
-0.41963282227516174,
-0.3946363925933838,
-0.06406932324171066,
0.4802343547344208,
-0.05990594998002052,
0.08183380961418152,
0.3141171932220459,
-0.05405835434794426,
0.16019423305988312,
-0.1929236799478531,
0.14812736213207245,
0.12346306443214417,
-0.433697372674942,
0.5673259496688843,
0.23871593177318573,
-0.008107009343802929,
0.47627606987953186,
0.06585556268692017,
0.6986923217773438,
-0.04888630658388138,
0.513576090335846,
-0.3745773434638977,
0.38393568992614746,
0.2099437415599823,
0.6469712257385254,
0.3252561092376709,
-0.4374239444732666,
-0.8145580291748047,
0.47466492652893066,
0.09978914260864258,
-0.188902348279953,
0.47181135416030884,
0.8335040211677551,
-0.13167805969715118,
0.18288575112819672,
0.06764095276594162,
-0.3237098455429077,
-0.16540229320526123,
-0.25188443064689636,
0.05308613181114197,
-0.054575562477111816,
1.2516531944274902,
0.04540732875466347,
-0.1152024120092392,
0.03600192815065384,
-0.16242417693138123,
0.5673192739486694,
-0.030589640140533447,
-0.3169343173503876,
0.18892602622509003,
0.5553178787231445,
0.28659963607788086,
-0.40116623044013977,
-0.11162714660167694,
0.35222354531288147,
0.3895551860332489,
0.9084340929985046,
-0.4231906831264496,
-0.7143416404724121,
1.2105778455734253,
0.23320108652114868,
-0.4726230204105377,
0.07051163911819458,
-0.7914925813674927,
0.6212806105613708,
0.18480327725410461,
0.1070794090628624,
0.4090723395347595,
-0.1116565614938736,
-0.8047719597816467,
0.04859969764947891,
0.2594030499458313,
0.45102113485336304,
0.2195008397102356,
-0.17212404310703278,
0.18328192830085754,
-0.4591098129749298,
-0.5464065670967102,
0.568936288356781,
-0.009914860129356384,
0.019559163600206375,
-0.15599775314331055,
0.16094458103179932,
0.32994845509529114,
-0.3642657399177551,
0.2506440281867981,
0.04069601744413376,
0.03848179802298546,
0.44412025809288025,
-0.21619285643100739,
0.5254697203636169,
-0.06353095918893814,
0.19097931683063507,
0.2762921154499054,
0.12630176544189453,
-0.41252654790878296,
-0.3671032786369324,
0.3473517596721649,
0.4060724079608917,
-0.05485980212688446,
0.08723604679107666,
0.03841017559170723,
-0.3007809817790985,
-0.17403334379196167,
-0.691301703453064,
0.7584375739097595,
0.22100889682769775,
0.6827172040939331,
0.15952277183532715,
0.37807393074035645,
0.36074602603912354,
-0.055713117122650146,
-0.05440144240856171,
-0.3007015883922577,
-0.3430238366127014,
0.24178121984004974,
0.4823576807975769,
0.003751323325559497,
-0.17759770154953003,
-0.8227540254592896,
0.5059322118759155,
-0.04048379510641098,
0.297091543674469,
-0.028522366657853127,
0.4276697039604187,
-0.5937845706939697,
-0.6850876212120056,
0.21212534606456757,
0.7354019284248352,
-0.30788516998291016,
-0.444406658411026,
0.0427088737487793,
-0.2936568856239319,
-0.2710880935192108,
-0.3139292001724243,
-0.3236188590526581,
-1.0360674858093262,
0.07295417040586472,
-0.006654011085629463,
-0.5272403955459595,
-0.3546331524848938,
-0.4718457758426666,
0.8950992226600647,
-0.5578002333641052,
0.68953537940979,
0.4741460978984833,
0.6277708411216736,
-0.04188348725438118,
0.9076941013336182,
0.2516578137874603,
0.2637508809566498,
0.25664275884628296,
-0.07728659361600876,
-0.3364843428134918,
-0.11928212642669678,
-5.401189804077148,
0.3848211467266083,
0.1556422859430313,
0.20080788433551788,
0.14443598687648773,
-0.009384519420564175,
0.20693054795265198,
0.24145841598510742,
-0.0047715590335428715,
0.1458362638950348,
-0.8515388369560242,
-0.18586841225624084,
-0.4666979908943176,
0.47356200218200684,
0.7982141375541687,
-0.01112121157348156,
0.16072751581668854,
-0.5509909987449646,
-0.11021235585212708,
0.18947462737560272,
-0.2987378239631653,
0.1657043993473053,
0.013973015360534191,
0.4229040741920471,
0.3136293292045593,
0.635184109210968,
0.13632696866989136,
-0.5659083724021912,
-1.060018539428711,
-0.39180800318717957,
-0.05341797322034836,
-0.1486356407403946,
0.02614010125398636,
-0.41273951530456543,
0.2721564769744873,
0.20764793455600739,
0.7013621926307678,
0.2306772768497467,
0.714073657989502,
-0.8517504334449768,
-0.10198764503002167,
0.19269804656505585,
-0.15512533485889435,
0.016066592186689377,
0.5064013004302979,
-0.5123075842857361,
-0.4886583983898163,
-0.08091273158788681,
-0.4689117968082428,
0.28537678718566895,
0.35444703698158264,
0.05244378373026848,
0.0071813310496509075,
-0.0352754183113575,
0.24451062083244324,
0.07625962048768997,
0.33290940523147583,
0.11362265795469284,
-0.41399863362312317,
-0.03211556002497673,
-0.03868643566966057,
0.17757275700569153,
0.03175019100308418,
-0.14957746863365173,
0.1176324337720871,
-0.35563114285469055,
-0.29786843061447144,
-0.330526739358902,
-0.420346736907959,
0.1984778195619583,
-0.053731344640254974,
0.2314242720603943,
0.030206099152565002,
-1.115559697151184,
0.24764953553676605,
-0.07931722700595856,
-0.3076104521751404,
0.06180325150489807,
-0.30719855427742004,
-0.03367234766483307,
0.06921254098415375,
-0.6465071439743042,
0.3152020573616028,
0.7726655602455139,
0.06414289772510529,
-0.42556115984916687,
0.05501594394445419,
0.16741392016410828,
-0.7090990543365479,
-0.20006489753723145,
0.4793814718723297,
-0.22989317774772644,
-0.2593628466129303,
0.9189585447311401,
0.38211870193481445,
-0.01482471078634262,
0.3551294803619385,
0.14068379998207092,
0.40255674719810486,
-0.07389047741889954,
-0.3147566616535187,
-0.25134792923927307,
0.09630408138036728,
-0.5182272791862488,
0.5041195750236511,
-0.6137781739234924,
-0.5770108699798584,
0.49163782596588135,
0.9223015904426575,
-0.07406812906265259,
-0.0796627551317215,
0.11220435798168182,
0.13795948028564453,
-0.5382668375968933,
0.5254518389701843,
-0.20923995971679688,
0.3551330864429474,
0.2697773277759552,
0.0034180101938545704,
0.2793789505958557,
-0.16922692954540253,
0.22122229635715485,
-0.38097459077835083,
-0.26655280590057373,
-0.5662356019020081,
0.032076455652713776,
0.33042046427726746,
-0.267621785402298,
-0.465908944606781,
0.15270930528640747,
-0.22603943943977356,
0.32133740186691284,
-0.4055497944355011,
-0.7366095781326294,
0.3059842586517334,
-0.2990179657936096,
-0.3312341868877411,
-0.40254801511764526,
-0.16169749200344086,
0.2626011371612549,
-0.24194832146167755,
-0.1958691030740738,
-0.3251264691352844,
0.3633119463920593,
-0.30241650342941284,
0.1455487459897995,
0.061327893286943436,
-0.35912248492240906,
0.38257676362991333,
0.06362632662057877,
-0.15238629281520844,
-0.14468200504779816,
0.37518510222435,
-0.6447856426239014,
0.013988669030368328,
-0.009656914509832859,
0.2623833119869232,
0.19021686911582947,
-0.03787896782159805,
0.028332127258181572,
-0.24111168086528778,
-0.5995213389396667,
-0.8530689477920532,
-0.18648813664913177,
-0.03221174702048302,
-0.07864700257778168,
-0.2818044424057007,
-0.7364956736564636,
0.45179492235183716,
0.9638785123825073,
0.5687207579612732,
0.1789930760860443,
-0.3691084086894989,
0.10811679065227509,
-0.07466667145490646,
0.6916279196739197,
-0.915988028049469,
0.03782645985484123,
-0.014137068763375282,
-0.10036630928516388,
-0.05109504237771034,
-0.6490862965583801,
-0.37872573733329773,
0.4279206395149231,
0.713747501373291,
0.13281434774398804,
-0.434702605009079,
-0.2149723768234253,
-0.3144025504589081,
-0.019330907613039017,
-0.4209698438644409,
0.8270554542541504,
0.5649128556251526,
0.32837483286857605,
-0.8829309940338135,
-0.7051218748092651,
-0.4318654239177704,
0.5113351345062256,
-0.04179690033197403,
-0.34885990619659424,
-0.1787007749080658,
0.770108163356781,
-0.4965703785419464,
-0.09509523957967758,
0.9299555420875549,
-0.844284176826477,
0.4455265402793884,
0.06173313781619072,
-0.4026493430137634,
0.5332759618759155,
-0.6217102408409119,
-0.5510352253913879,
-0.2449217438697815,
0.17086300253868103,
-0.3493112325668335,
0.5804702043533325,
-0.23289793729782104,
-0.5917370915412903,
-0.7027196288108826,
0.017096800729632378,
-0.792182445526123,
-0.11442463099956512,
-0.5129010081291199,
-0.5093669295310974,
-0.635164737701416,
-0.14735673367977142,
0.5995042324066162,
-0.17993301153182983,
-0.4841797649860382,
-0.24653230607509613,
-0.2173163741827011,
-0.13855020701885223,
-0.12897521257400513,
-0.6361066102981567,
-0.42639869451522827,
-0.529161274433136,
0.01503183413296938,
-0.31956225633621216,
0.35264942049980164,
0.5387557744979858,
0.7989441752433777,
1.0332502126693726,
-0.1996825486421585,
-0.3859235346317291,
0.4154941141605377,
0.7781427502632141,
-0.42661792039871216,
-0.7074062824249268,
-0.6102268099784851,
-0.025921743363142014,
-0.06482432782649994,
-0.023072348907589912,
-0.6383306980133057,
-0.47583892941474915,
0.2989400029182434,
-0.8425096869468689,
0.14975738525390625,
0.41048315167427063,
0.24756650626659393,
0.45889222621917725,
-0.057012736797332764,
0.6480443477630615,
-0.2991000711917877,
-0.13004489243030548,
0.04577615112066269,
0.684994101524353,
0.35357990860939026,
0.23536492884159088,
0.09591095894575119,
0.32570526003837585,
0.3106018304824829,
-0.16191554069519043,
0.6513867378234863,
-0.2991883158683777,
-0.15740349888801575,
-0.11751513928174973,
-0.3969479501247406,
-0.6163435578346252,
-0.0625222772359848,
-0.31766095757484436,
-0.9177435040473938,
0.5127641558647156,
-0.028175776824355125,
-0.48016124963760376,
-0.730628490447998,
-0.723052442073822,
0.13574418425559998,
-0.5787303447723389,
-0.3786086440086365,
-0.15192435681819916,
-0.35617831349372864,
0.03236941248178482,
-0.4575231075286865,
0.17403705418109894,
0.2625298500061035,
0.09859421104192734,
-0.4285348653793335,
0.10690990090370178,
-0.22843922674655914,
-0.21280597150325775,
-0.7337889075279236,
0.4588966965675354,
-0.28686466813087463,
-0.2028203010559082,
0.3446941077709198,
0.2989882528781891,
0.2659758925437927,
-0.7144858241081238,
-0.17107148468494415,
0.1949150711297989,
0.31465062499046326,
-0.6488687992095947,
-0.06560572236776352,
0.35786542296409607,
-0.22781901061534882,
0.02255600318312645,
0.6088013052940369,
0.3263372778892517,
-0.05056285485625267,
0.16375480592250824,
0.5546249747276306,
-0.056412581354379654,
0.7016251087188721,
-0.13029366731643677,
-0.5999194383621216,
0.28058868646621704,
-0.3417800962924957,
0.6638901233673096,
0.35102951526641846,
0.3495367765426636,
0.6702883839607239,
-0.09222656488418579,
0.26875463128089905,
0.8573542237281799,
0.3897501230239868,
-0.5285739898681641,
0.4228828549385071,
-0.6402439475059509,
0.07032430917024612,
0.70428466796875,
-0.24472813308238983,
0.09896517544984818,
-0.5015795826911926,
-0.04480971023440361,
0.4341526925563812,
0.24490141868591309,
0.21873538196086884,
0.141025573015213,
-0.1671501249074936,
0.05738884210586548,
0.32100632786750793,
0.8347266316413879,
-0.5353010296821594,
-0.6960987448692322,
0.19148431718349457,
-0.12026144564151764,
0.7900236248970032,
-0.7445134520530701,
0.013272138312458992,
0.13825376331806183,
-0.5837820768356323,
-0.43934717774391174,
0.078423872590065,
0.08819673955440521,
0.4158893823623657,
0.5894726514816284,
-0.15759862959384918,
-0.4641445577144623,
0.37427881360054016,
-0.053704626858234406,
0.5834016799926758,
-0.10149063915014267,
-0.038142140954732895,
0.15506447851657867,
0.5956963300704956,
1.1404861211776733,
-0.0026639574207365513,
0.1725330650806427,
-0.4955689311027527,
-0.4197254180908203,
-0.3578653335571289,
1.05829918384552,
-0.07785769551992416,
-0.2641204297542572,
-0.42848333716392517,
-0.8759150505065918,
0.01334561500698328,
0.020800603553652763,
0.9425215721130371,
-0.9674088358879089,
0.2663440406322479,
-0.7484424710273743,
-0.1004859134554863,
-0.0027457966934889555,
-0.7757834196090698,
-0.5582082271575928,
-0.3406386375427246,
1.0887161493301392,
0.28071147203445435,
0.45886608958244324,
-0.33090755343437195,
-0.11287982016801834,
-0.4999125301837921,
0.7214629650115967,
0.03738980367779732,
0.34317323565483093,
-0.8636038303375244,
0.20802246034145355,
-0.3210698664188385,
0.15793704986572266,
0.19661538302898407,
-0.023847801610827446,
-0.2331697791814804,
0.1356199085712433,
-0.24750107526779175,
0.3138141632080078,
0.5943217873573303,
0.09390106052160263,
0.2655135989189148,
-0.4578646421432495,
-0.1826474517583847,
-0.565803050994873,
0.33402907848358154,
-0.19760289788246155,
-0.5054433941841125,
0.05300537124276161,
0.008232619613409042,
-0.23986218869686127,
0.2787802517414093,
0.093462273478508,
-0.2929832637310028,
0.6440707445144653,
0.043474406003952026,
0.2472923994064331,
-0.2478233128786087,
0.5011096596717834,
0.6733003258705139,
0.5952129364013672,
0.4734993875026703,
-0.4613049030303955,
0.13158996403217316,
-0.4005468785762787,
0.46937692165374756,
0.18152032792568207,
0.24038071930408478,
-0.1902422457933426,
-0.054137881845235825,
0.1610833704471588,
-0.3114877939224243,
0.07711756974458694,
-0.22856900095939636,
-0.6995050311088562,
0.09031730145215988,
-0.4320085942745209,
-0.4201023578643799,
0.596690833568573,
-0.3052810728549957,
-1.0319420099258423,
0.19471822679042816,
0.7885691523551941
] |
212983
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artie%20Matthews
|
Artie Matthews
|
Artie Matthews (November 15, 1888 – October 25, 1958) was an American songwriter, pianist, and ragtime composer.
Artie Matthews was born in Braidwood, Illinois; his family moved to Springfield, Illinois in his youth. He learned to play piano, mostly popular songs and light classics, until he heard ragtime played by a pianist named Banty Morgan about 1905. Matthews was fascinated and immersed himself in ragtime and started playing and writing numbers in the style. In 1908 he moved to the ragtime center of St. Louis, Missouri, which would be one of his bases, frequently alternating with Chicago, Illinois. He worked as a pianist, arranger, and wrote music for local theater productions.
In early 1913 music publisher John Stark heard Matthews and offered him 50 dollars each for any original rags he submitted for publication. Matthews also worked as an arranger for Starks.
In 1916 Artie Matthews moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, where he first worked as a church organist. In 1921 Matthews and his wife Anna Howard founded the Cosmopolitan School of Music, a music school for African Americans, where Matthews taught until his death. Among Matthews students was Frank Foster, who would become the principal arranger for the Count Basie orchestra.
Some rank Artie Matthews with Scott Joplin, Joseph Lamb, and James Scott as one of the finest and most sophisticated ragtime composers. His most famous rags are the "Pastime Rags", numbered 1 to 5, the latter of which was performed at one point by Lu Watters, with the Yerba Buena Jazz Band. His 1912 Baby Seals Blues was one of the first published Blues. His Weary Blues remains a standard by Dixieland and New Orleans jazz bands.
See also
List of ragtime composers
External links
Dr. Artie Matthews biography with photos on the website of Matthews' son
1888 births
1958 deaths
African-American pianists
Ragtime composers
People from Braidwood, Illinois
People from Springfield, Illinois
American male pianists
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century American pianists
20th-century African-American musicians
|
[
-0.2742478549480438,
0.17288891971111298,
-0.6200240850448608,
-0.06527606397867203,
0.30058956146240234,
0.5097121000289917,
0.5065518021583557,
-0.402422159910202,
-0.43621399998664856,
-0.7759426832199097,
-0.1303655207157135,
0.38691264390945435,
-0.6349518895149231,
0.1497461050748825,
-0.4646139442920685,
0.5872280597686768,
-0.17819277942180634,
-0.5419068932533264,
-0.6234747767448425,
-0.39154189825057983,
-0.2555284798145294,
-0.5083706378936768,
0.45817628502845764,
-0.27127858996391296,
-0.1625007838010788,
-0.25878992676734924,
-0.4985530972480774,
-0.060308363288640976,
0.11419368535280228,
-0.15212151408195496,
-0.14187055826187134,
0.12303919345140457,
0.6461158394813538,
-0.3570454716682434,
-0.49762865900993347,
0.24833843111991882,
-0.5172369480133057,
-0.10578249394893646,
0.09140072762966156,
-0.18217207491397858,
-0.48339977860450745,
0.07722792029380798,
0.6565839052200317,
-0.02754071168601513,
-0.2159515768289566,
-0.045686352998018265,
-1.341721773147583,
0.5341187119483948,
-0.5894501805305481,
-0.7618709206581116,
-0.2838481664657593,
0.5689436793327332,
0.32739946246147156,
0.3235323429107666,
-0.46118277311325073,
-0.02456851862370968,
-0.052962832152843475,
0.1802644282579422,
-0.2788514196872711,
-0.39827588200569153,
-0.1932251751422882,
0.13716016709804535,
0.35090723633766174,
-0.4998359978199005,
-0.04076317325234413,
0.37790635228157043,
-0.12781070172786713,
-0.18983560800552368,
0.34329524636268616,
-0.4894874691963196,
0.4514058828353882,
0.5383437871932983,
-0.0024049715138971806,
-0.20661191642284393,
0.3238804340362549,
-0.035543836653232574,
0.31022515892982483,
-0.9108560085296631,
0.06032731011509895,
0.690560519695282,
-0.21634428203105927,
-0.5404719114303589,
0.5876372456550598,
0.38385260105133057,
-0.06309545785188675,
-0.15740114450454712,
-0.6239540576934814,
0.1516733318567276,
-0.8259689211845398,
-0.22329604625701904,
-0.08632391691207886,
-0.6166648268699646,
0.12257177382707596,
0.5840702056884766,
-0.4198959469795227,
-0.20614942908287048,
0.6019124984741211,
0.21239791810512543,
-0.49265897274017334,
-0.04059081897139549,
0.4150926470756531,
-0.06900891661643982,
0.188225656747818,
0.05814657360315323,
-0.27906909584999084,
0.1384676992893219,
-0.038036152720451355,
-0.329056978225708,
0.19848932325839996,
-0.0437057763338089,
-0.7981182336807251,
-0.28333890438079834,
0.033975884318351746,
-0.36995047330856323,
0.19470281898975372,
0.12792274355888367,
0.3262391686439514,
-0.3531399071216583,
-0.4289873242378235,
0.09327104687690735,
-0.04121799394488335,
0.10511158406734467,
0.3610798120498657,
-0.0838979110121727,
-1.3964945077896118,
0.0712466686964035,
0.27663764357566833,
0.34626397490501404,
-0.24281111359596252,
0.07119757682085037,
0.39339679479599,
0.5757392644882202,
0.2512568533420563,
-0.10348844528198242,
0.21474246680736542,
-0.14776402711868286,
0.023173436522483826,
-0.13476566970348358,
0.0644967257976532,
0.3800160586833954,
-0.0907028540968895,
-0.2006925344467163,
-0.7323195934295654,
-0.5335307717323303,
0.15467841923236847,
-0.755946159362793,
0.10126763582229614,
-0.13633893430233002,
0.267873078584671,
0.05342734605073929,
0.3029012680053711,
0.04980699345469475,
0.07010374963283539,
0.09254740178585052,
-0.4706799387931824,
-0.19501590728759766,
0.2498190551996231,
0.12025929987430573,
0.3592710793018341,
-0.018957987427711487,
0.3780690133571625,
0.37544798851013184,
-0.31785526871681213,
-0.02294847182929516,
-0.254858136177063,
0.0008637686842121184,
-0.06345635652542114,
0.22584885358810425,
-0.2875559329986572,
-0.2225707620382309,
-0.30232664942741394,
0.1480865329504013,
0.6078464388847351,
0.11914967000484467,
-0.3092869222164154,
0.6005160212516785,
0.5433207154273987,
0.21088968217372894,
0.18270903825759888,
-0.2675386965274811,
-0.6703624129295349,
-0.41206809878349304,
0.4630923271179199,
0.17113357782363892,
0.5082435011863708,
0.4692303538322449,
0.42199262976646423,
-0.09968454390764236,
0.6116529703140259,
-0.604301393032074,
-0.5813302397727966,
-0.8964537382125854,
0.06842081248760223,
0.017433270812034607,
0.39377060532569885,
0.1881774663925171,
-0.5591464638710022,
0.2589556574821472,
0.6112711429595947,
0.2824178636074066,
0.22692033648490906,
-0.25323957204818726,
-0.02666025608778,
0.1168946847319603,
0.3864048421382904,
-0.07988626509904861,
0.11207709461450577,
-0.20060612261295319,
-0.24759763479232788,
0.8408295512199402,
0.37509533762931824,
-1.0468641519546509,
-0.0803544893860817,
0.6535056233406067,
-0.3151301443576813,
-0.8801988363265991,
-0.7744640111923218,
-0.1352398544549942,
0.4779437482357025,
-0.31173643469810486,
0.5670027732849121,
0.291381299495697,
-0.528140127658844,
0.038705844432115555,
-0.2736850380897522,
1.089629054069519,
-0.6056901216506958,
0.2511306405067444,
0.108388252556324,
-0.06444013863801956,
0.18996234238147736,
0.06088325381278992,
0.19408990442752838,
-0.6885701417922974,
0.2298882156610489,
0.5675848126411438,
0.6216381192207336,
-0.13085398077964783,
0.11794909834861755,
-0.8289530277252197,
-0.1906014233827591,
0.31248989701271057,
-0.33231446146965027,
0.1995897740125656,
0.14377552270889282,
0.22336357831954956,
-0.15261104702949524,
-0.37668576836586,
-0.18553335964679718,
0.6351077556610107,
0.20483748614788055,
0.5038185715675354,
0.21266421675682068,
0.5995100140571594,
-0.4877372682094574,
0.46580246090888977,
0.08904976397752762,
-0.5656141042709351,
0.048214830458164215,
0.3670550286769867,
0.122665636241436,
0.02914348989725113,
0.4710793197154999,
-0.1280556619167328,
0.0827939361333847,
-1.1969444751739502,
-0.2349614053964615,
-0.15368644893169403,
0.6887052059173584,
0.0734720379114151,
0.5511236190795898,
0.04466341808438301,
-0.10983846336603165,
0.7854730486869812,
0.30984166264533997,
0.22503341734409332,
-0.05238446593284607,
-0.5782964825630188,
-0.6764252185821533,
-1.0328350067138672,
0.25245970487594604,
0.5365410447120667,
-0.257023423910141,
-0.5105859041213989,
-0.4264562427997589,
-0.1343415230512619,
0.4223964512348175,
-0.33973389863967896,
0.24823614954948425,
0.4985381066799164,
-0.3733181357383728,
1.0556049346923828,
-0.43871527910232544,
0.2668606638908386,
-0.043197352439165115,
0.9626849889755249,
0.020959770306944847,
-0.6540055274963379,
-0.47461211681365967,
-0.31952133774757385,
-0.5335298180580139,
-0.17412972450256348,
-0.12823572754859924,
-0.3204419016838074,
0.5267319083213806,
-0.05950799584388733,
-0.2745246887207031,
-0.24087272584438324,
-5.3409504890441895,
0.0635085254907608,
-0.2870999574661255,
-0.6995708346366882,
0.05922422558069229,
0.44901132583618164,
0.4061657786369324,
-0.3169938325881958,
-0.4464351534843445,
-0.8312160968780518,
-0.20392632484436035,
-0.16438862681388855,
0.12406793236732483,
0.8998283743858337,
0.3779515326023102,
0.11807884275913239,
0.3354591727256775,
-0.8202568292617798,
0.07167080044746399,
0.09206733107566833,
0.04610876739025116,
-0.7350127100944519,
-0.004550906363874674,
0.1754319667816162,
0.4069986939430237,
0.02749086730182171,
-0.48135632276535034,
0.08040863275527954,
-0.3961172103881836,
-0.03814518079161644,
0.05232003331184387,
0.17248059809207916,
-0.3691713213920593,
-0.30912402272224426,
-0.04822474345564842,
-0.2833821475505829,
-0.04216940328478813,
0.07954555004835129,
0.15484735369682312,
-0.2681998312473297,
0.07436443120241165,
0.05226285010576248,
-0.6647495627403259,
-0.09517010301351547,
-0.5485408306121826,
-0.29048576951026917,
-0.024908186867833138,
-0.11557451635599136,
-0.03831939026713371,
0.9145489931106567,
0.5065981149673462,
0.04821689799427986,
0.35429808497428894,
-0.34383049607276917,
-0.3952178955078125,
-0.17458589375019073,
0.010485498234629631,
-0.1977616399526596,
-0.4239113926887512,
0.13928385078907013,
1.1017370223999023,
-0.30044105648994446,
0.1813519150018692,
-0.22301463782787323,
-0.2479102611541748,
-0.05241093784570694,
0.28799086809158325,
-0.002983263460919261,
0.24011535942554474,
0.2397541105747223,
0.40814584493637085,
0.5180651545524597,
-0.20232999324798584,
-1.3294577598571777,
-0.0408112034201622,
0.24415971338748932,
0.4225071966648102,
-0.2057570070028305,
-0.30542418360710144,
-0.13745303452014923,
0.18426942825317383,
-0.9198068976402283,
0.5589408874511719,
0.5418741106987,
0.12344378978013992,
-0.064122274518013,
-0.6910206079483032,
0.8531553745269775,
-1.2049976587295532,
-0.5578886866569519,
0.05193432420492172,
-0.13708189129829407,
0.2240431159734726,
-0.2564530670642853,
0.4638005197048187,
-0.10475065559148788,
0.34150877594947815,
0.13416844606399536,
0.7066113352775574,
0.9722537398338318,
-0.6346604228019714,
-0.27169153094291687,
0.8616989254951477,
-0.26061034202575684,
0.15610508620738983,
-0.3215707540512085,
0.006217035930603743,
-0.2631756067276001,
1.5631858110427856,
-0.00519947474822402,
-0.3204348683357239,
0.609840452671051,
-0.13490533828735352,
-0.05295814201235771,
0.09341827034950256,
-1.2594202756881714,
0.9788541197776794,
-0.21043482422828674,
0.05910703167319298,
-0.11279424279928207,
-0.06357109546661377,
0.01627347618341446,
0.2726818323135376,
0.24981579184532166,
-0.20454581081867218,
-0.14344236254692078,
0.091122567653656,
0.14870604872703552,
0.09803788363933563,
-0.02453167550265789,
-0.4107421636581421,
0.6803874969482422,
0.09869543462991714,
0.2833380401134491,
-0.17484641075134277,
-0.15205827355384827,
-0.6264689564704895,
-0.0396343432366848,
-0.3893812596797943,
-0.5735276341438293,
0.2947692573070526,
-0.7731462717056274,
-0.24978050589561462,
0.30561187863349915,
0.640336275100708,
-0.03901779279112816,
0.2846015691757202,
-0.1185338944196701,
-0.5112228393554688,
0.12257184088230133,
-0.38573741912841797,
0.09256800264120102,
0.7976190447807312,
-0.6820973753929138,
-0.3305077850818634,
-0.16772650182247162,
-0.4294278919696808,
-0.21311332285404205,
0.09578336775302887,
0.2582351565361023,
-0.2286299616098404,
0.2673317492008209,
-1.5827763080596924,
-0.29022660851478577,
-0.17744559049606323,
0.46102434396743774,
0.08872704952955246,
-0.3318987488746643,
0.3867819309234619,
0.3357369601726532,
0.05069227144122124,
-0.6317137479782104,
0.39022478461265564,
-0.5976620316505432,
0.27303770184516907,
-0.03684810549020767,
-0.18685784935951233,
-0.3948236405849457,
-0.1928427368402481,
-0.2899925708770752,
-0.086256243288517,
0.0526823028922081,
-1.3242802619934082,
-0.39318346977233887,
-0.08342289924621582,
-0.16588537395000458,
-0.4242732524871826,
-1.0871511697769165,
-0.014160295017063618,
0.027891742065548897,
-0.446748822927475,
-0.2592045068740845,
0.055307354778051376,
0.3698877990245819,
-0.5150311589241028,
0.3050847053527832,
0.5074071884155273,
0.3254275321960449,
0.20581966638565063,
-0.3338489532470703,
0.7763585448265076,
-0.12976807355880737,
-0.19045329093933105,
0.07235423475503922,
0.054540153592824936,
-1.0951769351959229,
0.3055587708950043,
-0.2550767958164215,
-0.169263556599617,
0.7284932136535645,
0.33917951583862305,
-0.6130601167678833,
0.0532095693051815,
0.2534639835357666,
0.020616302266716957,
0.6520286202430725,
0.4135150611400604,
0.3695768415927887,
-0.5557155013084412,
-0.6717188358306885,
-0.4007415175437927,
0.6269509792327881,
-0.35933297872543335,
0.12653489410877228,
-0.5752174258232117,
-0.019119227305054665,
0.08316092193126678,
0.026721524074673653,
0.16835157573223114,
-0.08615352213382721,
0.22310946881771088,
0.14629128575325012,
-0.23276273906230927,
0.6268947720527649,
-0.41223883628845215,
-0.5484650135040283,
0.08535822480916977,
-0.08153519779443741,
0.3286471366882324,
-0.24820365011692047,
0.802458643913269,
1.0020909309387207,
0.18874801695346832,
0.5243270993232727,
0.1523141711950302,
-0.2372879534959793,
0.06481614708900452,
-0.3771354556083679,
0.10002456605434418,
0.3750096261501312,
0.778854250907898,
-0.07524649798870087,
-0.58075350522995,
-0.4020538330078125,
0.6824697852134705,
0.05878104642033577,
-0.20217826962471008,
0.4215289056301117,
0.40659770369529724,
0.4346659183502197,
0.40497666597366333,
0.2200709581375122,
0.22575196623802185,
0.00760162016376853,
-0.33965760469436646,
-0.2061464935541153,
0.44448208808898926,
0.2399733066558838,
0.34140869975090027,
-0.4777021110057831,
-0.6286795139312744,
0.1761128157377243,
0.16915178298950195,
-0.07686257362365723,
0.2034839540719986,
-0.09922703355550766,
0.22606799006462097,
-0.6361809968948364,
0.2278529554605484,
0.12491895258426666,
-0.7557036876678467,
0.09751207381486893,
-0.17811435461044312,
-0.1752995252609253,
-0.6179539561271667,
-0.2386985868215561,
-0.06742613017559052,
-0.21607977151870728,
-0.218668133020401,
-0.5230570435523987,
-0.2959626615047455,
0.5995528101921082,
0.40475526452064514,
0.4182429313659668,
-0.051893237978219986,
0.4281759262084961,
0.12410912662744522,
1.09625244140625,
0.2153044193983078,
-0.5085195899009705,
-0.17848972976207733,
0.7421448230743408,
0.5634651184082031,
-0.30502915382385254,
0.20834103226661682,
-0.4220793545246124,
0.16646896302700043,
-0.49848759174346924,
-0.8768103718757629,
0.6103588342666626,
0.5713520050048828,
0.06268436461687088,
0.13081859052181244,
0.9583790898323059,
-0.227833092212677,
-0.0118887759745121,
0.7693601846694946,
-0.2111988514661789,
0.00679251691326499,
0.2589034140110016,
-0.05826638638973236,
-0.25746598839759827,
0.290914386510849,
0.12362470477819443,
0.05490582436323166,
0.3386392295360565,
0.34822702407836914,
-0.06959676742553711,
0.1537552773952484,
0.6346074342727661,
0.07134079933166504,
-0.4894755780696869,
0.05853017419576645,
0.7114177346229553,
0.1439008116722107,
-0.24108508229255676,
0.26440125703811646,
-0.17014937102794647,
-0.4966847002506256,
0.3695167601108551,
-0.17382018268108368,
-0.16876155138015747,
0.5450699329376221,
0.13101421296596527,
0.20304252207279205,
-0.4170967936515808,
-0.10207037627696991,
0.6838082671165466,
-0.5574073195457458,
-0.6417245864868164,
0.653827965259552,
0.6928962469100952,
0.020204680040478706,
-0.6262931227684021,
0.5589513182640076,
-0.03481877222657204,
0.9083049297332764,
-0.13123729825019836,
-0.11926380544900894,
0.3838329315185547,
-0.26215943694114685,
-0.3566620349884033,
1.595801830291748,
-0.36624014377593994,
-0.3922567367553711,
-0.15510213375091553,
0.3995986878871918,
-0.08461003750562668,
-0.24747629463672638,
0.45006999373435974,
0.04839625954627991,
0.2828523516654968,
-0.42942994832992554,
1.0593440532684326,
-0.006361742038279772,
0.5645583868026733,
0.49685028195381165,
-0.08237724751234055,
0.06979579478502274,
0.09808968007564545,
-0.26082679629325867,
0.39795786142349243,
0.050229765474796295,
-0.2990255653858185,
-0.18758583068847656,
-0.4876213073730469,
0.29158058762550354,
-0.047219499945640564,
0.21086491644382477,
-0.388060063123703,
0.38532233238220215,
-0.2991487681865692,
-0.06856885552406311,
-0.16747401654720306,
-0.08360761404037476,
-0.01990334689617157,
-0.6109431982040405,
0.9653050303459167,
-0.04359038919210434,
0.26192358136177063,
0.22838212549686432,
0.40641412138938904,
0.24100829660892487,
-0.26620709896087646,
-0.39663630723953247,
-0.1514410525560379,
-0.10430175811052322,
-0.0018601850606501102,
-0.7915186882019043,
0.7439581751823425,
0.09392065554857254,
0.4572218358516693,
-0.45288676023483276,
0.1288442462682724,
-0.3469413220882416,
-0.19356319308280945,
0.419644296169281,
-0.4590860903263092,
-0.33276113867759705,
-0.27600112557411194,
0.8403860926628113,
0.3911929726600647,
0.3727663457393646,
-0.4516986608505249,
-0.4457395374774933,
0.12442578375339508,
0.19578169286251068,
0.028051771223545074,
0.30361753702163696,
0.6482696533203125,
0.24356016516685486,
-0.13524752855300903,
-0.42124485969543457,
-0.07959665358066559,
-0.541316568851471,
-0.3512594699859619,
0.20860044658184052,
0.6350289583206177,
0.2909579277038574,
-0.8663182854652405,
1.0145710706710815,
0.07735621184110641,
-0.23721423745155334,
-0.04538359493017197,
0.6343720555305481,
-0.054178543388843536,
0.14013223350048065,
0.026970840990543365,
-0.36552760004997253,
1.0636115074157715,
0.035456035286188126,
-0.6021015048027039,
0.28207069635391235,
-0.572115957736969,
0.4045948088169098,
-0.3386895954608917,
0.02194482646882534,
0.10661466419696808,
0.5097253918647766,
0.23430441319942474
] |
212984
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basehead
|
Basehead
|
Basehead, also known as dc Basehead and Basehead 2.0, is an American alternative rock band formed by Michael Ivey in 1992. Ivey serves as the group's songwriter and leader, performing vocals and various instruments. Basehead's 1992 debut album, Play with Toys, was recorded at Ivey's home with various studio musicians. Ivey formed a touring band for live performances, which contributed to Basehead's second album, Not in Kansas Anymore. The group's current lineup consists of Ivey, drummer Aaron Burroughs and bassist Brendan Ciotta.
Basehead has received praise for its distinctive sound and lyrics. The group's music incorporates elements of various genres, including blues, funk, hip hop and rock. The lyrics of Play with Toys and Not in Kansas Anymore focus on subjects such as alcohol and cannabis use, depression, philosophy, politics and relationships. Beginning with the 1996 release of Faith, the group's lyrics have focused primarily on Christian themes, which carried over to its albums In the Name of Jesus, dc Basehead and Rockalyptic Music.
History
Basehead released its debut album, Play with Toys in 1992 on the small independent label Emigre. Vocalist Michael Ivey recorded much of the album at his home on a four-track with various friends. The album received favorable reviews and frequent airplay on college radio. Rolling Stone reviewer Kevin Powell wrote that "Without being preachy, Basehead's unconventional style challenges listeners to get beyond their basic instincts and open their minds, search their souls." Assembling a five-member touring band, Ivey toured the United States and Europe, opening for the Beastie Boys, Stone Temple Pilots, and Ween. After College Music Journal featured Basehead on its cover, the group received attention from major labels, and signed with Imago Records, a former subsidiary of BMG the following year, releasing its second studio album, Not in Kansas Anymore. Rolling Stone reviewer Danyel Smith called the album "an alternative to the benign bullshit music that floods the chain stores and commercial radio waves." Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that "Although it retains many of the same qualities of their critically acclaimed debut [...] there's nothing that has the same sense of discovery that made Play with Toys an interesting record."
In April 1994, Basehead recorded its third studio album, Faith, which retained the musical elements of previous albums, but featured lyrics focusing on religious themes. During this period, Ivey also formed a side project, Bastard Youth of Basehead, also known as B.Y.O.B., and founded I3Records, an imprint of Rykodisc Records focusing on alternative music aimed at and produced by African American musicians. In December 1994, Imago separated from BMG, and Faith was not released until two years later. The album's release problems resulted in the cancellation of a planned tour between Basehead and B.Y.O.B. Although some band members felt that they had not been given proper financial compensation for their work, Ivey stated that he took a smaller percentage of the songwriting credits than he was legally entitled to, and that the group's underpaid work would have "laid the groundwork" for future success if Faith did not have release problems.
In 1998, Basehead released its fourth studio album, In the Name of Jesus on the label Union of Vineyard Workers. In 2002 the group changed its name to dc Basehead, releasing their self-titled fifth album on November 19. Hamlin wrote that "the mastermind's [...] effective use of subtly shifting patterns inside a repeating framework, and his talented co-conspirators lift DC into distinction." Reforming as Basehead 2.0, the group released its sixth studio album, Rockalyptic Music in 2007.
Music and lyrics
Basehead's musical style, which fuses elements of blues, funk, hip hop, pop, psychedelic, reggae, rock and rhythm and blues, is categorized as avant-rock, black rock, alternative funk, alternative dance, progressive rap, alternative hip hop and alternative rock. David Jeffries from Allmusic described Play with Toys as "slacker rap". According to Michael Ivey, "There are hip-hop elements in there, but if a hardcore hip-hop fan bought it, they might be disappointed". Ivey also stated that Basehead's music "doesn't have the expected samples and sounds." The lyrical themes of Play with Toys and Not in Kansas Anymore focus on diverse subjects, including alcohol and marijuana use, depression, philosophy, politics, racism, and relationship breakups. Francis Davis wrote that Ivey's lyrics "[subvert] both rock and gangsta-rap conventions." Basehead's albums and performances feature live instrumentation, which differentiates the group's sound from that of mainstream hip hop artists who rely solely on sampled instrumentation. On the group's albums, vocals and instruments are altered with studio techniques for effect. Ivey's vocals mix singing and rapping. According to Ivey, Basehead's former DJ, Citizen Cope, "doesn't play music. He makes sounds—[he's] an instrument in his own self. He might scratch certain words for a special effect."
In 1994, the group's lyrics shifted to Christian themes, starting with the album Faith. Andrew Hamlin describes the lyrics of Faith as having "caught Ivey mid-capitulation. He wanted Jesus in his life but he also wanted his beer, his pot, his television, and his lust." During the release of Faith, Ivey stated that Basehead's fourth studio album, In the Name of Jesus, would feature even more Christian-oriented lyrics than Faith. Regarding the lyrics of In the Name of Jesus, Hamlin writes that "chanting praises leaves the Basehead mastermind without his characteristic wit, and he lacks the energetic exhortations that often lift gospel performers above sameness in material." Regarding dc Basehead, Hamlin wrote that the album's lyrics were "miles in some direction or other from any stereotyped Christian rock bin."
During a performance in which the group received a request for early material, Ivey stated "I'm still trying to work it out—how to follow God and still give you the old shit" and introduced the group's Christian songs with self-deprecation, referring to the songs as "the new, reborn, love-God Basehead stuff." In a 1998 interview, Ivey stated "I'm kind of wary of the Church. I know there's this whole Christian music market, but I don't think, theology-wise, I'm in agreement with a whole lot of Christians. [...] In fact, I don't know whether I like even being called a Christian."
Pop culture
Two Basehead songs, "Play with Toys" and "2000," were featured in the Union Wheels skateboarding video titled "Right to Skate", during the Alphonzo Rawls segment.
Band members
Michael Ivey — guitar, vocals
Aaron Burroughs — drums
Brendan Ciotta — bass
Former
Bill Conway — bass
Keith "Lazy K" Lofton — guitar
Clarence "Citizen Cope" Greenwood — turntables, bass
Brian Hendrix — drums
Jay Nichols — drums
Discography
Play with Toys (1992)
Not in Kansas Anymore (1993)
Faith (1996)
In the Name of Jesus (1998)
dc Basehead (2002)
Rockalyptic Music (2007)
References
External links
African-American rock musical groups
Alternative rock groups from Washington, D.C.
American funk musical groups
American hip hop groups
American Christian rock groups
Christian hip hop groups
Musical groups established in 1992
|
[
-0.16642402112483978,
-0.05425337702035904,
0.06834026426076889,
0.030087510123848915,
-0.13786981999874115,
0.1131792962551117,
-0.0907929316163063,
0.2429356575012207,
-0.29416993260383606,
-0.22269152104854584,
-0.26101282238960266,
0.36276859045028687,
-0.36005309224128723,
-0.10029415786266327,
-0.035210322588682175,
0.8033347725868225,
0.20029911398887634,
0.07505568861961365,
-0.35276859998703003,
-0.13491098582744598,
-0.08686929196119308,
-0.32884690165519714,
0.05146658793091774,
-0.3276626169681549,
0.06214655563235283,
0.3768530488014221,
0.2230297029018402,
0.01936010643839836,
0.42602428793907166,
0.37560656666755676,
-0.3786652684211731,
-0.3466033935546875,
0.2520434558391571,
-0.5724116563796997,
-0.2314980924129486,
-0.03237098455429077,
-0.14206473529338837,
0.09248170256614685,
0.10462956130504608,
-0.9078060388565063,
-0.23993198573589325,
-0.634616494178772,
0.19109870493412018,
-0.3349321186542511,
-0.5796079635620117,
0.2841402590274811,
-1.227396845817566,
0.408493310213089,
-0.5030393004417419,
0.1231619119644165,
-0.18431022763252258,
0.5132718086242676,
-0.47244253754615784,
0.2801066040992737,
0.49188047647476196,
0.35159483551979065,
-0.5494077801704407,
-0.03557431325316429,
0.11321001499891281,
-0.42529264092445374,
-0.0573599673807621,
0.11048100888729095,
0.21173250675201416,
0.299123078584671,
-0.2420157939195633,
-0.2674287259578705,
-0.6541398167610168,
0.6407801508903503,
0.20203430950641632,
-0.49217936396598816,
-0.026657598093152046,
-0.08011244237422943,
0.48765477538108826,
0.36333760619163513,
-0.14038486778736115,
0.1399429589509964,
-0.2019781768321991,
0.2071933150291443,
0.19783300161361694,
0.13770225644111633,
-0.20939341187477112,
0.04018458351492882,
0.824040949344635,
-0.3058725595474243,
0.13916440308094025,
0.08828279376029968,
-0.12098408490419388,
-0.016216130927205086,
-0.3493865728378296,
0.5452080368995667,
-0.6372919678688049,
-0.20265065133571625,
0.05460263416171074,
0.47167956829071045,
-0.07218549400568008,
-0.3804379105567932,
0.006192786153405905,
0.13977709412574768,
0.40974029898643494,
0.09727606177330017,
-0.03465072065591812,
-0.2236277461051941,
0.20918108522891998,
0.09674230217933655,
-0.504306435585022,
-0.4476605951786041,
-0.13730517029762268,
-0.5276138782501221,
-0.5676822066307068,
-0.23126401007175446,
-0.8369709253311157,
0.023054862394928932,
0.19454431533813477,
0.22044193744659424,
-0.17258378863334656,
0.18331363797187805,
0.1711236834526062,
-0.2649051249027252,
-0.03840941563248634,
-0.3338598906993866,
0.29480186104774475,
0.8398422598838806,
-0.1053890809416771,
-0.45025503635406494,
-0.08919025957584381,
-0.2387317568063736,
0.2254181057214737,
0.675481379032135,
-0.6100240349769592,
0.13817434012889862,
-0.1873895227909088,
0.5151770114898682,
-0.015476428903639317,
0.29579854011535645,
0.12208054959774017,
-1.2484912872314453,
0.27299442887306213,
-0.019376907497644424,
0.11759283393621445,
0.042373377829790115,
-0.5819247364997864,
-0.04977241903543472,
-0.3146916925907135,
-0.6252935528755188,
0.31929370760917664,
-0.23815898597240448,
-0.10354959219694138,
0.2637163996696472,
-0.017939116805791855,
0.31687673926353455,
0.2252390831708908,
-0.024075958877801895,
0.04278651997447014,
-0.09569074213504791,
-0.36510515213012695,
0.18736068904399872,
0.5578826069831848,
-0.28093844652175903,
0.2984050214290619,
0.5849825143814087,
0.19625182449817657,
0.11898063868284225,
-0.23671655356884003,
0.12631432712078094,
0.22685953974723816,
-0.3467999994754791,
0.1873355656862259,
-0.5661606192588806,
0.22189342975616455,
0.6142672896385193,
-0.2699503004550934,
0.026850832626223564,
0.26660826802253723,
0.5833273530006409,
0.05433362349867821,
-0.11225093901157379,
0.5055679678916931,
0.4636979401111603,
0.11486674845218658,
-0.06691371649503708,
-0.4801410734653473,
-0.5446191430091858,
0.2797835171222687,
-0.155128613114357,
0.03274346888065338,
-0.5109731554985046,
1.12571120262146,
-0.3595671057701111,
0.2991958558559418,
0.2379283457994461,
-0.23200392723083496,
-0.5592805743217468,
-0.2089519500732422,
0.04301460459828377,
1.2119526863098145,
-0.3110805153846741,
-0.5254666209220886,
-0.00886500533670187,
0.15817761421203613,
0.7115086913108826,
0.21120396256446838,
-0.2942887544631958,
0.7655861377716064,
-0.25876477360725403,
-0.18606264889240265,
0.3964374363422394,
0.2603107690811157,
-0.07440443336963654,
0.3424869775772095,
0.38619497418403625,
0.3110212981700897,
-0.46928876638412476,
-0.13511230051517487,
-0.05730927735567093,
0.3377355933189392,
-0.35296356678009033,
-0.1790003776550293,
-0.6727529764175415,
0.13532738387584686,
-0.5010199546813965,
0.04376775026321411,
-0.00004697808617493138,
-0.3402049243450165,
0.5430123805999756,
-0.6099663376808167,
0.3692053258419037,
-0.6362330913543701,
0.21514219045639038,
0.07777290791273117,
-0.14242516458034515,
-0.024149155244231224,
0.4077228903770447,
-0.021268075332045555,
0.1015169769525528,
0.25981810688972473,
0.2334488183259964,
0.2821400761604309,
-0.22655825316905975,
0.0791461169719696,
0.009568667970597744,
0.28052353858947754,
0.18944446742534637,
-0.302716463804245,
-0.16231796145439148,
-0.4017506241798401,
-0.08782775700092316,
0.2889169156551361,
-0.008191428147256374,
-0.06526260077953339,
-0.2866927683353424,
0.22511400282382965,
0.2307942807674408,
0.34315016865730286,
-0.5435172319412231,
0.47905415296554565,
0.4790347218513489,
-0.08001310378313065,
0.08652684837579727,
-0.33919256925582886,
-0.15931953489780426,
-0.6779159903526306,
0.31973665952682495,
-0.23786339163780212,
0.11594231426715851,
0.35491743683815,
-0.42882663011550903,
-0.45888450741767883,
0.14340023696422577,
0.5742422938346863,
0.06583006680011749,
-0.07379023730754852,
0.29965072870254517,
-0.1846233606338501,
-0.15949603915214539,
-0.5905335545539856,
-0.7590839266777039,
0.17875565588474274,
0.11637812852859497,
-0.20102831721305847,
-1.1548658609390259,
0.504172146320343,
0.18749035894870758,
0.8737747669219971,
-0.3119165897369385,
0.040967922657728195,
-0.005400019697844982,
0.1126851886510849,
-0.11006145924329758,
-0.6684247851371765,
-0.5490982532501221,
-0.47635605931282043,
-0.6045647263526917,
-0.02834605798125267,
0.40352264046669006,
-0.21159851551055908,
0.3820340931415558,
-0.22200673818588257,
-0.49172458052635193,
0.32967260479927063,
-0.3002050817012787,
-0.6019529700279236,
0.19451698660850525,
0.12774311006069183,
-0.37890854477882385,
0.1274324357509613,
-0.5875821113586426,
-0.3713279962539673,
0.3367842733860016,
-6.075277805328369,
0.009626043029129505,
-0.07810205966234207,
-0.15542304515838623,
0.3275224268436432,
0.17872077226638794,
0.13283021748065948,
-0.04303072765469551,
0.0019809440709650517,
-0.1347249448299408,
-0.40246132016181946,
0.19005772471427917,
0.3536801338195801,
-0.45907485485076904,
0.32822325825691223,
0.5402219295501709,
0.7492916584014893,
-0.16957810521125793,
0.18569257855415344,
0.36294570565223694,
0.08564246445894241,
0.14982861280441284,
0.6506367921829224,
0.02779492922127247,
0.3440106213092804,
0.7888533473014832,
-0.886328935623169,
0.7905446290969849,
-0.32185569405555725,
-0.3040727376937866,
0.37808412313461304,
0.31740114092826843,
-0.10234036296606064,
0.22106045484542847,
-0.47324681282043457,
-0.011262582615017891,
0.3814995586872101,
-0.029504159465432167,
-0.026039907708764076,
-0.7114434838294983,
0.1052144467830658,
-0.047133080661296844,
0.09642437845468521,
-0.14036990702152252,
0.6405814290046692,
-0.619022011756897,
0.02245284616947174,
-0.3078499138355255,
-0.24674341082572937,
0.20261655747890472,
0.0022169214207679033,
-0.011488158255815506,
0.6161916255950928,
-0.09493819624185562,
0.09556606411933899,
-0.7950626015663147,
0.30672964453697205,
0.14574338495731354,
0.11240222305059433,
-0.006384750362485647,
0.25717970728874207,
-0.2355223000049591,
0.15476295351982117,
-0.11632535606622696,
0.07202159613370895,
-0.4919087290763855,
-0.04368309676647186,
0.4710998833179474,
0.4548274576663971,
0.358155220746994,
0.21300473809242249,
0.6021456122398376,
-0.0786757692694664,
-0.828926146030426,
0.06417950242757797,
-0.4321250021457672,
-0.1600673943758011,
-0.45052582025527954,
-0.1997596174478531,
0.17686820030212402,
-0.2617231607437134,
-0.09752653539180756,
0.24702337384223938,
0.766574501991272,
0.03189445286989212,
-0.06312781572341919,
-0.43192508816719055,
0.2291942983865738,
0.22930064797401428,
0.18703214824199677,
0.1744200438261032,
-0.12321749329566956,
0.45822179317474365,
-0.16356228291988373,
-0.14841723442077637,
-0.2367510050535202,
0.18936792016029358,
-0.10030345618724823,
0.22779583930969238,
-0.0906599909067154,
0.8357734680175781,
0.1451834738254547,
0.16882233321666718,
-0.8191068172454834,
-0.4394877851009369,
-0.8143981099128723,
0.17109332978725433,
0.6586065292358398,
0.36088889837265015,
-0.05032399669289589,
0.16704614460468292,
0.4624616801738739,
-0.32549557089805603,
-0.8075112700462341,
0.22192081809043884,
0.5702844858169556,
-0.4445142149925232,
-0.3010673522949219,
0.2537596523761749,
-0.21394941210746765,
-0.014414406381547451,
0.09338143467903137,
-0.2298060953617096,
0.013395044952630997,
-0.3443077504634857,
-0.33074232935905457,
-0.08509029448032379,
-0.01971876248717308,
-0.08891671895980835,
0.10742244869470596,
-0.050417594611644745,
0.39198553562164307,
0.3857942819595337,
-0.09290172159671783,
-0.4138246476650238,
-0.7532332539558411,
-0.15024146437644958,
-0.10270459204912186,
0.21056491136550903,
-0.2679612934589386,
-0.16672605276107788,
-0.032501883804798126,
-0.34784388542175293,
0.0958729237318039,
0.24071921408176422,
-0.08629303425550461,
-0.07172142714262009,
-0.16783899068832397,
-0.13378293812274933,
0.05945184826850891,
0.43773701786994934,
-0.5430529713630676,
0.7508420944213867,
-0.5336564779281616,
-0.20167213678359985,
-0.10182252526283264,
0.10111992061138153,
-0.02201395481824875,
-0.11944404989480972,
-0.12327274680137634,
0.38742563128471375,
-0.3678038716316223,
-0.9139721989631653,
0.2674383819103241,
0.3673870861530304,
0.2402285635471344,
-0.14940957725048065,
-0.846480667591095,
0.0801558569073677,
0.14363743364810944,
0.33306393027305603,
-0.9214093089103699,
-0.25495627522468567,
-0.0592147596180439,
0.45117202401161194,
-0.0724804550409317,
-0.35486912727355957,
-0.33335065841674805,
1.044829249382019,
-0.08161850273609161,
0.08483115583658218,
-0.16706544160842896,
-0.20588454604148865,
0.9732264280319214,
0.5444350838661194,
-0.19814227521419525,
-0.9120916724205017,
0.24179011583328247,
-0.19957999885082245,
0.19605550169944763,
0.23902064561843872,
-0.3885497748851776,
0.5013501048088074,
0.3898370563983917,
-0.25951966643333435,
0.17776598036289215,
-0.3718382716178894,
1.101806640625,
-0.2895950675010681,
-0.38766396045684814,
-0.3677833080291748,
0.6363816261291504,
-0.5152938961982727,
0.4483807682991028,
0.41112032532691956,
0.2495986968278885,
0.8043361306190491,
-0.03959618881344795,
-0.2167215496301651,
0.11974437534809113,
0.36163774132728577,
-0.47707098722457886,
0.0019230169709771872,
0.23942965269088745,
0.05337989330291748,
0.0021895861718803644,
-0.4118720293045044,
-0.3880826532840729,
-0.2934805154800415,
-0.5913794040679932,
-0.06226871907711029,
-0.13130034506320953,
-0.06562843918800354,
0.3208622336387634,
-0.3137497305870056,
0.16732963919639587,
0.38534459471702576,
-0.757908821105957,
-0.11789911985397339,
-0.037290237843990326,
0.19874952733516693,
0.42395442724227905,
0.010291813872754574,
0.1983325183391571,
-0.05463297665119171,
-0.13814665377140045,
-0.1184072196483612,
0.11248590797185898,
-0.24157199263572693,
-0.07929443567991257,
0.3138256072998047,
0.3928699791431427,
0.18138530850410461,
-0.5845751762390137,
-0.22408410906791687,
-0.1092187836766243,
0.652543842792511,
-0.8607937693595886,
-0.4734099805355072,
0.7220351696014404,
0.5788283944129944,
-0.41926977038383484,
-0.8481528162956238,
-0.13112856447696686,
0.7149119973182678,
-0.9346265196800232,
-0.24882905185222626,
-0.5198821425437927,
0.18465161323547363,
0.37818124890327454,
0.20582975447177887,
0.2690196633338928,
-0.5468794703483582,
0.38284844160079956,
-0.14780846238136292,
0.045680854469537735,
0.09861898422241211,
-0.10077286511659622,
0.47986742854118347,
-0.4230595529079437,
-0.44267037510871887,
0.33788803219795227,
0.6031882166862488,
0.5059307217597961,
0.15271084010601044,
-0.35970062017440796,
0.3965921401977539,
0.32370564341545105,
0.20601481199264526,
-0.08077941834926605,
-0.38193193078041077,
0.038008689880371094,
0.3875308334827423,
-0.33412888646125793,
-0.11026160418987274,
-0.4949585497379303,
-0.2454129308462143,
-0.02557847462594509,
-0.205997034907341,
0.5270759463310242,
-0.1612299680709839,
-0.09413345903158188,
-0.18085877597332,
-0.38101544976234436,
-0.21077370643615723,
0.5391099452972412,
-0.26843318343162537,
0.005861370824277401,
0.28605374693870544,
0.14961904287338257,
-0.39401063323020935,
0.9394411444664001,
-0.14985065162181854,
-0.39272260665893555,
0.23883920907974243,
-0.3791525363922119,
0.18392610549926758,
-0.6351504325866699,
-0.451152503490448,
-0.31237083673477173,
0.15422219038009644,
-0.09142442047595978,
0.17736972868442535,
0.4329974055290222,
-0.31993743777275085,
-0.20314231514930725,
0.7994356751441956,
0.641418993473053,
-0.6148145794868469,
0.15831269323825836,
0.11306270956993103,
0.4105165898799896,
0.3952009081840515,
0.32265588641166687,
-0.1391175091266632,
0.5762146711349487,
-0.5653218030929565,
-0.7722373008728027,
0.37963712215423584,
-0.16608192026615143,
0.3368434011936188,
-0.0621672198176384,
-0.03608252480626106,
0.7345650792121887,
-0.3090439736843109,
-0.40571004152297974,
0.3335883319377899,
0.1720380336046219,
0.3013821244239807,
0.33116352558135986,
-0.31325599551200867,
0.432669997215271,
0.06950899213552475,
-0.1088261604309082,
-0.22694116830825806,
0.07586024701595306,
0.026789655908942223,
-0.33085429668426514,
0.24903735518455505,
-0.006386992521584034,
0.11577102541923523,
-0.19256649911403656,
-0.14423544704914093,
0.0658128634095192,
-0.32331669330596924,
-0.05379863828420639,
0.1315234899520874,
-0.3103093206882477,
0.2813710570335388,
-0.2846725285053253,
-0.2387770414352417,
0.4658951759338379,
0.07387340068817139,
0.19040827453136444,
0.037620171904563904,
0.0022132243029773235,
0.2543497383594513,
-0.4936276078224182,
-0.02993503399193287,
0.5989503264427185,
0.2396567165851593,
0.8391526341438293,
-0.12517662346363068,
0.1515706479549408,
0.2590871751308441,
-0.19159896671772003,
0.5370825529098511,
0.6506952047348022,
-0.015054565854370594,
-0.2635244131088257,
-0.007795322220772505,
-0.20292635262012482,
-0.0660371258854866,
-0.44387316703796387,
-0.014479715377092361,
0.017105691134929657,
0.06115605682134628,
0.3939484655857086,
-0.13264264166355133,
0.07729345560073853,
0.4311404526233673,
-0.7485401034355164,
-0.29471537470817566,
-0.7309051752090454,
0.35286203026771545,
0.2415231466293335,
0.07072346657514572,
0.3859280049800873,
0.10957366973161697,
0.7680151462554932,
-0.25366103649139404,
0.5461215972900391,
0.49051007628440857,
0.09093941748142242,
-0.006030221935361624,
0.21520330011844635,
-0.17623181641101837,
-0.09819345921278,
-0.32200685143470764,
0.5035114288330078,
0.29864564538002014,
-0.020981956273317337,
-0.39305296540260315,
0.2260202169418335,
-0.5183040499687195,
0.03752769157290459,
0.16277556121349335,
-0.8452385067939758,
0.28783199191093445,
-0.22069241106510162,
0.12355630844831467,
-0.13535675406455994,
0.1411670297384262,
0.7056754231452942,
-0.4370115101337433,
-0.33278676867485046,
0.3512215316295624,
0.14186479151248932,
-0.23929955065250397,
0.6539071798324585,
0.04765636846423149,
-0.35629963874816895,
-0.33876633644104004,
-0.05352257564663887,
-0.09217219054698944,
-0.3605456054210663,
0.19150227308273315,
0.31445440649986267,
0.04379205405712128,
0.001885197008959949,
0.149748757481575,
0.08756399899721146,
-0.24085156619548798,
0.13008783757686615,
0.002064208732917905,
0.06875281035900116,
-0.13603946566581726,
-0.5257532596588135,
-0.20376013219356537,
0.5797449350357056,
0.5922120213508606,
0.023631367832422256,
0.11365333944559097,
-0.14200617372989655,
0.39415788650512695,
-0.031075792387127876,
-0.059728704392910004,
-0.10315456241369247,
0.23102892935276031,
0.4322914481163025
] |
212989
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20jackdaw
|
Western jackdaw
|
The western jackdaw (Coloeus monedula), also known as the Eurasian jackdaw, the European jackdaw, or simply the jackdaw, is a passerine bird in the crow family. Found across Europe, western Asia and North Africa; it is mostly resident, although northern and eastern populations migrate south in the winter. Four subspecies are recognised, which differ mainly in the colouration of the plumage on the head and nape. Linnaeus first described it formally, giving it the name Corvus monedula. The common name derives from the word jack, denoting "small", and daw, a less common synonym for "jackdaw", and the native English name for the bird.
Measuring in length, the western jackdaw is a black-plumaged bird with a grey nape and distinctive pale-grey irises. It is gregarious and vocal, living in small groups with a complex social structure in farmland, open woodland, on coastal cliffs, and in urban settings. Like its relatives, jackdaws are intelligent birds, and have been observed using tools. An omnivorous and opportunistic feeder, it eats a wide variety of plant material and invertebrates, as well as food waste from urban areas. Western jackdaws are monogamous and build simple nests of sticks in cavities in trees, cliffs, or buildings. About five pale blue or blue-green eggs with brown speckles are laid and incubated by the female. The young fledge in four to five weeks.
Systematics
Etymology
The western jackdaw was one of the many species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae. Owing to its supposed fondness for picking up coins, Linnaeus gave it the binomial name Corvus monedula, choosing the specific name mǒnēdŭla, which is derived from moneta, the Latin stem of the word "money". Jackdaws are sometimes placed in the genus Coloeus, from the Ancient Greek κολοιός (koloios) for jackdaw, though most subsequent works have retained the two jackdaw species in Corvus.
The original Old English word ċēo (pronounced with initial ch) gave modern English "chough"; Chaucer sometimes used this word to refer to the western jackdaw, as did Shakespeare in Hamlet although there has been debate about which species he was referring to. This onomatopoeic name, based on the western jackdaw's call, now refers to corvids of the genus Pyrrhocorax; the red-billed chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), formerly particularly common in Cornwall, became known initially as the "Cornish chough" and then just the "chough", the name transferring from one species to the other.
The common name jackdaw first appeared in the 16th century, and is thought to be a compound of the forename Jack, used in animal names to signify a small form (e.g. jack snipe), and the archaic native English word daw. Formerly, western jackdaws were simply called "daws". The metallic chyak call may be the origin of the jack part of the common name, but this is not supported by the Oxford English Dictionary. Daw, first used for the bird in the 15th century, is held by the Oxford English Dictionary to be derived from the postulated Old English dawe, citing the cognates in Old High German tāha, Middle High German tāhe or tāchele, and modern German Dahle or Dohle, and dialectal Tach, Dähi, Däche and Dacha.
Names in English dialects are numerous. Scottish and north English dialects have included ka or kae since the 14th century. The Midlands form of this word was co or coo. Caddow is potentially a compound of ka and dow, a variant of daw. Other dialectal or obsolete names include caddesse, cawdaw, caddy, chauk, college-bird, jackerdaw, jacko, ka-wattie, chimney-sweep bird (from their nesting propensities), and sea-crow (from the frequency with which they are found on coasts). It was also frequently known quasi-nominally as Jack.
An archaic collective noun for a group of jackdaws is a "clattering". Another name for a flock is a "train".
Taxonomy
A study in 2000 found that the genetic distance between western jackdaws and the other members of Corvus was greater than that within the rest of the genus. This led Pamela Rasmussen to reinstate the genus name Coloeus, created by Johann Kaup in 1829, in her Birds of South Asia (2005), a treatment also used in a 1982 systematic list in German by Hans Edmund Wolters. A study of corvid phylogeny undertaken in 2007 compared DNA sequences in the mitochondrial control region of several corvids. It found that the western jackdaw, and the closely related Daurian jackdaw (C. dauuricus) of eastern Russia and China, were basal to the core Corvus clade. The names Coloeus monedula and Coloeus dauuricus have since been adopted by the International Ornithological Congress in their official list. The two species of jackdaw have been reported to hybridise in the Altai Mountains, southern Siberia, and Mongolia. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of specimens of the two species from their core ranges show them to be genetically distinct.
Subspecies
There are four recognized subspecies of the western jackdaw. All European subspecies intergrade where their populations meet. C. m. monedula intergrades into C. m. soemmerringii in a transition zone running from Finland south across the Baltic and eastern Poland to Romania and Croatia.
The Nordic jackdaw (C. m. monedula) (Linnaeus, 1758), the nominate subspecies, is found in eastern Europe. Its range extends across Scandinavia, from southern Finland south to Esbjerg and Haderslev in Denmark, through eastern Germany and Poland, and south across eastern central Europe to the Carpathian Mountains and northwestern Romania, Vojvodina in northern Serbia, and Slovenia. It breeds in south-eastern Norway, southern Sweden, and northern and eastern Denmark, with occasional wintering in England and France. It has been recorded as a rare vagrant to Spain. It has a pale nape and sides of the neck, a dark throat, and a light grey partial collar of variable extent.
The Western Eurasian jackdaw (C. m. spermologus) (Vieillot, 1817) occurs in western, central and southern Europe and North Africa, from the British Isles, the Netherlands and the Rhineland in the north, through western Switzerland into Italy in the southeast, and the Iberian peninsula and Morocco in the south. It winters in the Canary Islands and Corsica. The name "spermologus" comes from the Greek σπερμολόγος, a picker of seeds. It is darker in colour than the other subspecies and lacks the whitish border at the base of the grey nape.
The Eastern Eurasian jackdaw (C. m. soemmerringii) (Fischer von Waldheim, 1811) is found in northeastern Europe and northern and central Asia from the former Soviet Union to Lake Baikal and northwestern Mongolia and south to Turkey, Israel and the eastern Himalayas. Its southwestern limits are Serbia and southern Romania. It winters in Iran and northern India (Kashmir). Johann Fischer von Waldheim described this taxon as Corvus soemmerringii in 1811, noting its differences from populations in western Europe. Its subspecific name was given in honour of the German anatomist Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring. It is distinguished by the nape and the sides of the neck being paler, creating a contrasting black crown and lighter grey part collar.
The Algerian jackdaw (C. m. cirtensis) (Rothschild and Hartert, 1912) is found in Morocco and Algeria in Northwest Africa. It was also formerly found in Tunisia. The name "cirtensis" refers to the ancient city of Cirta in Numidia. The plumage is duller and more uniformly dark grey than the other subspecies, with the paler nape less distinct.
Description
The western jackdaw measures in length and weighs around . Most of the plumage is a shiny black, with a purple (in subspecies monedula and spermologus) or blue (in subspecies cirtensis and soemmerringii) sheen on the crown, forehead, and secondaries, and a green-blue sheen on the throat, primaries, and tail. The cheeks, nape and neck are light grey to greyish-silver, and the underparts are slate-grey. The legs are black, as is the short stout bill, the length of which is about 75% of the length of the rest of the head. There are rictal bristles covering around 40% of the maxilla and 25% of the lower mandible. The irises of adults are greyish or silvery white while those of juveniles are light blue, becoming brownish before whitening at around one year of age. The sexes look alike, though the head and neck plumage of male birds fades more with age and wear, particularly just before moulting. Western jackdaws undergo a complete moult from June to September in the western parts of their range, and a month later in the east. The purplish sheen of the cap is most prominent just after moulting.
Immature birds have duller and less demarcated plumage. The head is a sooty black, sometimes with a faint greenish sheen and brown feather bases visible; the back and side of the neck are dark grey and the underparts greyish or sooty black. The tail has narrower feathers and a greenish sheen.
There is very little geographic variation in size. The main differences are the presence or absence of a whitish partial collar at the base of the nape, the variations in the shade of the nape and the tone of the underparts. Populations in central Asia have slightly larger wings and western populations have a slightly heavier bill. Body colour becomes darker further north, in mountain regions and humid climates, and paler elsewhere. However, individual variation, particularly in juveniles and also during the months before moulting, can often be greater than geographic differences.
A skilled flyer, the western jackdaw can manoeuvre tightly as well as tumble and glide. It has characteristic jerky wing beats when flying, though these are not evident when birds are migrating. Wind tunnel experiments show that the preferred gliding speed is between per second and that the wingspan decreases as the bird flies faster. On the ground, western jackdaws have an upright posture and strut briskly, their short legs giving them a rapid gait. They feed with their heads held down or horizontally.
Within its range, the western jackdaw is unmistakable; its short bill and grey nape are distinguishing features. From a distance, it can be confused with a rook (Corvus frugilegus), or when in flight, with a pigeon or chough. Flying western jackdaws are distinguishable from other corvids by their smaller size, faster and deeper wingbeats and proportionately narrower and less fingered wing tips. They also have shorter, thicker necks, much shorter bills and frequently fly in tighter flocks. They can be distinguished from choughs by their uniformly grey underwings and their black beaks and legs. The western jackdaw is very similar in morphology, behaviour, and calls to the Daurian jackdaw, with which its range overlaps in western Asia. Adults are readily distinguished, since the Daurian has a pied plumage, but immature birds are much more similar, both species having dark plumage and dark eyes. The Daurian tends to be darker, with a less contrasting nape than the Western.
Vocalisations
Western jackdaws are voluble birds. The main call, frequently given in flight, is a metallic and squeaky chyak-chyak or kak-kak. This is a contact or greeting call. A feeding call made by adults to call young, or males when offering food to their mates, has been transcribed as kiaw or kyow. Females in return give a more drawn out version when begging for food from males, written as kyaay, tchaayk or giaaaa. Perched birds often chatter together, and before settling for the night, large roosting flocks make a cackling noise. Western jackdaws also have a hoarse, drawn-out alarm call, arrrrr or kaaaarr, used when warning of predators or when mobbing them. Nestlings begin making a soft cheep at about a week of age. As they grow, their voice becomes louder until their call is a penetrating screech around day 18. After this, the voice deepens and softens. From day 25, the young cease calling and become silent if they hear an unfamiliar noise. The European jackdaw can be trained to imitate human speech.
Distribution and habitat
The western jackdaw is found from Northwest Africa through all of Europe, except for the subarctic north, and eastwards through central Asia to the eastern Himalayas and Lake Baikal. To the east, it occurs throughout Turkey, the Caucasus, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India. However, it is regionally extinct in Malta and Tunisia. The range is vast, with an estimated global extent between . It has a large global population, with an estimated 15.6 to 45 million individuals in Europe alone. Censuses of bird populations in marginal uplands in Great Britain show that western jackdaws greatly increased in numbers between the 1970s and 2010, although this increase may be related to recovery from previous periods when they were regarded as pests. The UK population was estimated at 2.5 million individuals in 1998, up from 780,000 in 1970.
Most populations are resident, but the northern and eastern populations are more migratory, relocating to wintering areas between September and November and returning between February and early May. Their range expands northwards into Russia to Siberia during summer and retracts in winter. They are vagrants to the Faroe Islands, particularly in the winter and spring, and occasionally to Iceland. Elsewhere, western jackdaws congregate over winter in the Ural Valley in northwestern Kazakhstan, the northern Caspian, and the Tian Shan region of western China. They are winter visitors to the Quetta Valley in western Pakistan, and are winter vagrants to Lebanon, where they were first recorded in 1962. In Syria, they are winter vagrants and rare residents with some confirmed breeding taking place. The subspecies soemmerringii occurs in south-central Siberia and extreme northwestern China and is accidental to Hokkaido, Japan. A small number of western jackdaws reached northeastern North America in the 1980s and have been found from Atlantic Canada to Pennsylvania. They have also occurred as vagrants in Gibraltar, Mauritania, and Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and one is reported to have been seen in Egypt.
Western jackdaws inhabit wooded steppes, pastures, cultivated land, coastal cliffs, and towns. They thrive when forested areas are cleared and converted to fields and open areas. Habitats with a mix of large trees, buildings, and open ground are preferred; open fields are left to the rook, and more wooded areas to the Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius). Along with other corvids such as the rook, common raven (Corvus corax), and hooded crow (C. cornix), some western jackdaws spend the winter in urban parks; populations measured in three urban parks in Warsaw show increases from October to December, possibly due to western jackdaws migrating there from areas further north. The same data from Warsaw, collected from 1977 to 2003, showed that the wintering western jackdaw population had increased four-fold. The cause of the increase is unknown, but a reduction in the number of rooks may have benefited the species locally, or rooks overwintering in Belarus may have caused western jackdaws to relocate to Warsaw.
Behaviour
Generally wary of people in the forest or countryside, western jackdaws are much tamer in urban areas.
Highly gregarious, western jackdaws are generally seen in flocks of varying sizes, though males and females pair-bond for life and pairs stay together within flocks. Flocks increase in size in autumn and birds congregate at dusk for communal roosting, with up to several thousand individuals gathering at one site. At Uppsala, Sweden, 40,000 birds have been recorded at a single winter roost with mated pairs often settling together for the night. Western jackdaws frequently congregate with hooded crows or rooks, the latter particularly when migrating or roosting. They have been recorded foraging with the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris), Northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), and common gull (Larus canus) in northwestern England. Flocks are targets of coordinated hunting by pairs of lanner falcons (Falco biarmicus), although larger groups are more able to elude the predators. Western jackdaws sometimes mob and drive off larger birds such as European magpies, common ravens, or Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus); one gives an alarm call which alerts its conspecifics to gather and attack as a group. Occasionally, a sick or injured western jackdaw is mobbed until it is killed.
In his book King Solomon's Ring, Konrad Lorenz described and analysed the complex social interactions in a western jackdaw flock that lived around his house in Altenberg, Austria. He ringed them for identification and caged them in the winter to prevent their annual migration. He found that the birds have a linear hierarchical group structure, with higher-ranked individuals dominating lower-ranked birds, and pair-bonded birds sharing the same rank. Young males establish their individual status before pairing with females. Upon pairing, the female assumes the same social position as her partner. Unmated females are the lowest members in the pecking order, and are the last to have access to food and shelter. Lorenz noted one case in which a male, absent during the dominance struggles and pair bondings, returned to the flock, became the dominant male, and chose one of two unpaired females for a mate. This female immediately assumed a dominant position in the social hierarchy and demonstrated this by pecking others. According to Lorenz, the most significant factor in social behaviour was the immediate and intuitive grasp of the new hierarchy by each of the western jackdaws in the flock.
Social displays
Social hierarchy in western jackdaw flocks is determined by supplanting, fighting, and threat displays—several of which have been described. In the bill-up posture, the western jackdaw tilts its bill and head upwards and sleeks its plumage. Indicating both appeasement and assertiveness, the posture is used by birds intending to enter feeding flocks. A bill-down posture is another commonly used agonistic behaviour. In this display, a bird lowers its bill and erects its nape and head feathers, and sometimes slightly lifts its wings. Western jackdaws often face off in this posture until one backs down or a fight ensues. In the forward-threat posture, a bird holds its body horizontally and thrusts its head forwards. In intense versions, the bird ruffles its feathers and spreads or raises its tail and wings. This extreme is seen when facing off over nests or females. In the defensive-threat posture, the bird lowers its head and bill, spreads its tail and ruffles its feathers. Supplanting is where one bird moves in and displaces another from a perch-site. The second bird usually retreats without resorting to a fight. Western jackdaws fight by launching themselves at each other feet-first and then wrestling with their feet intertwined and pecking at each other. Other individuals gather and call noisily.
Western jackdaws entreat their partners to preen them by showing their nape and ruffling their head feathers. Birds mainly preen each other's head and neck. Known as allopreening, this behaviour is almost always done between birds of a mated pair.
Breeding
Western jackdaws become sexually mature in their second year. Genetic analysis of pairs and offspring shows no evidence of extra-pair copulation and there is little evidence for couple separation even after multiple instances of reproductive failure. Some pairs do separate in the first few months, but almost all pairings of over six months' duration are lifelong, ending only when a partner dies. Widowed or separated birds fare badly, often being ousted from nests or territories and unable to rear broods alone.
Western jackdaws usually breed in colonies with pairs collaborating to find a nest site, which they then defend from other pairs and predators during most of the year. They nest in cavities in trees or cliffs, in ruined or occupied buildings and in chimneys, the common feature being a sheltered site for the nest. The availability of suitable sites influences their presence in a locale. They may also use church steeples for nesting, a fact reported in verse by 18th century English poet William Cowper:
Nest platforms can attain a great size. A mated pair usually constructs a nest by improving a crevice by dropping sticks into it; it is then built on top of the platform formed. This behaviour has led to the blocking of chimneys and even resulted in nests crashing down into fireplaces, sometimes with birds still on them.
In his The Natural History of Selborne, Gilbert White notes that western jackdaws used to nest in crevices beneath the lintels of Stonehenge, and describes an example of the bird using a rabbit burrow for nesting. The species has been recorded outcompeting the tawny owl (Strix aluco) for nest sites in the Netherlands. They can take over old nest sites of the black woodpecker (Dryocopus martius) and stock dove (Columba oenas). Breeding colonies may also edge out those of the red-billed chough, but in turn be ousted by larger corvids such as the carrion crow, rook or magpie.
Nests are lined with hair, wool, dead grass and many other materials. The eggs are a lighter colour than those of other corvids, being smooth, a glossy pale blue or blue-green with darker speckles ranging from dark brown to olive or grey-violet. Egg size and weight varies slightly between subspecies; those of subspecies monedula average and in weight, those of subspecies soemmerringii in size and in weight, and those of subspecies spermologus in size and in weight. Clutches usually contain 4 or 5 eggs, although a Slovakian study found clutch sizes ranging from 2 to 9 eggs. The eggs are incubated by the female for 17–18 days until hatching as naked altricial chicks, which are completely dependent on the adults for food. They fledge after 28–35 days, and the parents continue to feed them for another four weeks or so.
Western jackdaws hatch asynchronously and incubation begins before clutch completion, which often leads to the death of the last-hatched young. If the supply of food is low, parental investment in the brood is kept to a minimum as little energy is wasted on feeding a chick that is unlikely to survive. Replacement clutches are very rarely laid in the event of clutch failure.
The great spotted cuckoo (Clamator glandarius) has been recorded as a brood parasite of the western jackdaw, depositing its eggs in their nests in Spain and Israel. Nest robbers include the common raven in Spain, tawny owl, and least weasel (Mustela nivalis) in England, and brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) in Finland. The European pine marten (Martes martes) raids isolated nests in Sweden but is less successful when nests are part of a colony.
Feeding
Foraging takes place mostly on the ground in open areas and to some extent in trees. Landfill sites, bins, streets, and gardens are also visited, more often early in the morning when there are fewer people about. Various feeding methods are employed, such as jumping, pecking, clod-turning and scattering, probing the soil, and occasionally, digging. Flies around cow pats are caught by jumping from the ground or at times by dropping vertically from a few metres onto the cow pat. Earthworms are not usually extracted from the ground by western jackdaws but are eaten from freshly ploughed soil. Jackdaws will ride on the backs of sheep and other mammals, seeking ticks as well as actively gathering wool or hair for nests, and will catch flying ants in flight. Compared with other corvids, the western jackdaw spends more time exploring and turning over objects with its bill; it also has a straighter and less downturned bill and increased binocular vision which are advantageous for this foraging strategy.
The western jackdaw tends to feed on small invertebrates up to in length that are found above ground, including various species of beetle (particularly cockchafers of the genus Melolontha, and weevil larvae and pupae.), Diptera, and Lepidoptera species, as well as snails and spiders. Also eaten are small rodents, bats, the eggs and chicks of birds, and carrion such as roadkill. Vegetable items consumed include farm grains (barley, wheat and oats), weed seeds, elderberries, acorns, and various cultivated fruits. Examination of the gizzards of western jackdaws shot in Cyprus in spring and summer revealed a diet of cereals (predominantly wheat) and insects (notably cicadas and beetles). The diet averages 84% plant material except when breeding, when the main food source is insects. A study in southern Spain examining western jackdaw pellets found that they contained significant amounts of silicaceous and calcareous grit to aid digestion of vegetable food and supply dietary calcium.
Opportunistic and highly adaptable, the western jackdaw varies its diet markedly depending on available food sources. They have been recorded taking eggs and nestlings from the nests of the skylark (Alauda arvensis), Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus), razorbill (Alca torda), common murre (Uria aalge), grey heron (Ardea cinerea), rock pigeon (Columba livia), and Eurasian collared dove (Streptopelia decaocto). A field study of a large city dump on the outskirts of León in northwestern Spain showed that western jackdaws forage there in the early morning and at dusk, and engage in some degree of kleptoparasitism. The saker falcon (Falco cherrug) has been reported stealing food from western jackdaws on powerlines in Vojvodina in Serbia.
Western jackdaws practice active food sharing – where the initiative for the transfer lies with the donor – with a number of individuals, regardless of sex or kinship. They also share more of a preferred food than a less preferred food. The active giving of food by most birds is found mainly in the context of parental care and courtship. Western jackdaws show much higher levels of active giving than has been documented for other species, including chimpanzees. The function of this behaviour is not fully understood, though it has been found to be detached from nutrition and compatible with hypotheses of mutualism, reciprocity and harassment avoidance. It has also been proposed that food sharing may be motivated by prestige enhancement.
Parasites and diseases
Western jackdaws have learned to peck open the foil caps of milk bottles left on the doorsteps after delivery by the milkman. The bacterium Campylobacter jejuni has been isolated from their beaks and cloacae so milk can become contaminated as they drink. This activity was linked to cases of Campylobacter gastroenteritis in Gateshead in northeast England and led the Department of Health to suggest that milk from bottles which had been pecked open should be discarded. It was recommended that steps be taken to prevent birds from pecking open bottles in the future.
An outbreak of a gastrointestinal illness in Spain which was causing mortalities in humans has been linked to western jackdaws. During a post-mortem on an affected bird, a polyomavirus was isolated from the spleen. The illness appeared to be a co-infection of this with Salmonella and the virus has been provisionally named the crow polyomavirus (CPyV). Segmented filamentous bacteria have been isolated from the small intestine of a western jackdaw, although their pathogenicity or role is unknown.
Pest control
The western jackdaw has been hunted as vermin, though not as heavily culled as other species of corvid. After a series of poor harvests in the early 1500s, introduced a Vermin Act in 1532 "ordeyned to dystroye Choughes (i.e. jackdaws), Crowes and Rokes" to protect grain crops from their predations. Western jackdaws were notorious as they also favoured fruit, especially cherries. This act was taken up in a piecemeal fashion, but passed the Act for the Preservation of Grayne in 1566 that was taken up with more vigour. The species was hunted for its threat to grain crops and for propensity for nesting in belfries until the mid-20th century. Particularly large numbers were culled in the county of Norfolk. Western jackdaws were also culled on game estates as they raid nests of other birds for eggs. In a 2003 dissertation on public opinion of corvids, Antonia Hereth notes that the German naturalist Alfred Brehm considered the western jackdaw to be a lovable bird, and did not describe any negative impacts of this species on agriculture.
The western jackdaw is one of a very small number of birds that it is legal to use as a decoy or to trap in a cage in the United Kingdom. The other pest species that can be controlled by trapping are the crow, jay, magpie and rook. An authorised person must comply with the requirements of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and does not need to show that the birds were a nuisance before trapping them. As of 2003 the western jackdaw was listed as a potential species for targeted hunting in the European Union Birds Directive, and hunting has been encouraged by German hunting associations. Permission to shoot western jackdaws in spring and summer exists in Cyprus as they are thought (incorrectly) to prey on gamebirds.
Cultural depictions and folklore
An ancient Greek and Roman adage runs "The swans will sing when the jackdaws are silent", meaning that educated or wise people will speak only after the foolish have become quiet. In Ancient Greek folklore, a jackdaw can be caught with a dish of oil. A narcissistic creature, it falls in while looking at its own reflection. The mythical Princess Arne Sithonis was bribed with gold by King Minos of Crete, and was punished by the gods for her greed by being transformed into an equally avaricious jackdaw, who still seeks shiny things. The Roman poet Ovid described jackdaws as harbingers of rain in his poetic work Amores. Pliny notes how the Thessalians, Illyrians, and Lemnians cherished jackdaws for destroying grasshoppers' eggs. The Veneti are fabled to have bribed the jackdaws to spare their crops.
In some cultures, a jackdaw on the roof is said to predict a new arrival; alternatively, a jackdaw settling on the roof of a house or flying down a chimney is an omen of death, and coming across one is considered a bad omen. A jackdaw standing on the vanes of a cathedral tower is said to foretell rain. The 12th-century historian William of Malmesbury records the story of a woman who, upon hearing a jackdaw chattering "more loudly than usual," grew pale and became fearful of suffering a "dreadful calamity", and that "while yet speaking, the messenger of her misfortunes arrived". Czech superstition formerly held that if jackdaws are seen quarreling, war will follow, and that jackdaws will not build nests at Sázava after being banished by Saint Procopius.
The jackdaw was considered sacred in Welsh folklore as it nested in church steeples – it was shunned by the Devil because of its choice of residence. Nineteenth century belief in the Fens held that seeing a jackdaw on the way to a wedding was a good omen for a bride.
The jackdaw is featured on the Ukrainian town of Halych's ancient coat of arms, the town's name allegedly being derived from the East Slavic word for the bird. In The Book of Laughter and Forgetting (1979), Milan Kundera notes that Franz Kafka's father Hermann had a sign in front of his shop with a jackdaw painted next to his name, since "kavka" means jackdaw in Czech.
References
Works cited
External links
Jackdaw videos, photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
(PDF; 2.1 MB) Ageing and sexing by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Feathers of Eurasian jackdaw (Corvus monedula)
western jackdaw
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Europe
western jackdaw
western jackdaw
Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN
|
[
0.3435364365577698,
-0.13724984228610992,
-0.6706441640853882,
-0.20763517916202545,
0.46598947048187256,
0.6700901389122009,
0.3396386504173279,
0.5439786314964294,
-0.48406973481178284,
-0.2421429306268692,
-0.5351617932319641,
0.5005151629447937,
-0.41422274708747864,
0.1579986810684204,
-0.2475883960723877,
0.23629581928253174,
0.8748379349708557,
0.15546928346157074,
0.1942678838968277,
-0.5885013341903687,
-0.6660261154174805,
-0.4312497079372406,
0.06820201873779297,
-0.43814176321029663,
0.3192172646522522,
0.07539556920528412,
0.43855899572372437,
-0.11713394522666931,
0.11103756725788116,
0.4346035420894623,
-0.25256380438804626,
0.9413096308708191,
0.5457323789596558,
0.13440369069576263,
-0.06820470839738846,
0.0821312814950943,
-0.3569740653038025,
-0.16864076256752014,
-0.2526244521141052,
-0.5744195580482483,
0.11707355827093124,
-0.2396443635225296,
0.5421481728553772,
0.24023796617984772,
0.23445668816566467,
-0.49029186367988586,
-1.5347943305969238,
0.30142247676849365,
0.027101529762148857,
0.26111477613449097,
-0.3322991728782654,
0.4202839136123657,
-0.3321273922920227,
0.6781457662582397,
0.34591153264045715,
-0.02128938026726246,
-1.0309579372406006,
-0.5296138525009155,
0.28641581535339355,
-0.15817169845104218,
-0.4305262863636017,
0.3978785574436188,
0.11824799329042435,
0.6899837255477905,
0.3769538998603821,
0.2912486791610718,
0.3434320092201233,
0.09255419671535492,
-0.37945133447647095,
0.33961355686187744,
-0.021586300805211067,
-0.040614303201436996,
-0.21681435406208038,
0.10311189293861389,
-0.5734991431236267,
-0.5697652697563171,
0.06193295121192932,
0.5664950609207153,
0.018153879791498184,
-0.062738798558712,
0.15250790119171143,
0.7008920907974243,
1.029360055923462,
0.27639564871788025,
-0.0015150372637435794,
0.05716080963611603,
-0.7579823136329651,
0.0040214778855443,
-0.2767639458179474,
0.30791333317756653,
-0.6761062741279602,
0.4306381940841675,
-0.29388314485549927,
0.1438916027545929,
-0.3807080388069153,
0.032490480691194534,
-0.2692401111125946,
0.2807158827781677,
0.5564695000648499,
-0.17994222044944763,
-0.40627801418304443,
0.06433472037315369,
1.1229755878448486,
-0.11975664645433426,
-0.3386756181716919,
-0.41507425904273987,
-0.43263429403305054,
-0.07022962719202042,
-0.10836220532655716,
0.6544325351715088,
-0.5979040861129761,
0.06701263040304184,
0.7237136960029602,
-0.03316596895456314,
0.2081148773431778,
0.6556328535079956,
0.42264047265052795,
-0.1626584231853485,
-0.32957911491394043,
-0.46731287240982056,
0.20037247240543365,
0.6711251735687256,
-0.37185660004615784,
0.4596138596534729,
0.36650779843330383,
0.19758839905261993,
0.6091959476470947,
0.21543128788471222,
-0.4616377055644989,
-0.4844958186149597,
0.47371843457221985,
1.1286221742630005,
-0.19744236767292023,
-0.18864725530147552,
-0.6226889491081238,
0.33905717730522156,
0.29933658242225647,
-0.3219057023525238,
0.5416682958602905,
0.6111733913421631,
-1.1327673196792603,
-0.11473273485898972,
-0.17683950066566467,
0.10696709156036377,
0.2877037227153778,
0.965813398361206,
0.2706631124019623,
-0.4468599855899811,
-0.3957992196083069,
0.07452292740345001,
0.0026206050533801317,
-0.01908816769719124,
-0.018962126225233078,
-0.5871770977973938,
-0.6160870790481567,
-0.42275726795196533,
0.5547379851341248,
-0.2492721974849701,
0.36926618218421936,
-0.1737118810415268,
-0.13123461604118347,
-0.22587864100933075,
0.09764505177736282,
-0.32502907514572144,
-0.2752656936645508,
-0.5218068361282349,
0.23196758329868317,
-0.014551783911883831,
-0.7756698727607727,
0.41344109177589417,
0.11302781850099564,
0.2239970564842224,
0.4449384808540344,
0.5448625087738037,
-0.16207674145698547,
-0.7641171216964722,
-0.10675489902496338,
0.27353185415267944,
0.5484612584114075,
0.24446415901184082,
-0.7621845602989197,
0.5616096258163452,
0.4606086015701294,
-0.5685799717903137,
-0.25203558802604675,
0.1030726209282875,
0.2688003182411194,
-0.11602500826120377,
0.18033809959888458,
-0.2769792377948761,
-0.5577635765075684,
-0.5258803367614746,
-0.44803038239479065,
-0.17485938966274261,
0.3269902169704437,
-0.01789817400276661,
-0.38089215755462646,
0.7084688544273376,
-0.20850399136543274,
0.3820536434650421,
-0.23618926107883453,
-0.23922809958457947,
0.7002784013748169,
0.2796832323074341,
-1.132655143737793,
0.1683804988861084,
-0.18165887892246246,
0.5011148452758789,
0.7300321459770203,
0.011440880596637726,
-0.2256050556898117,
-0.2801293134689331,
-0.2570958137512207,
0.41282856464385986,
0.18529655039310455,
0.1890925168991089,
0.3695226311683655,
-0.07987070083618164,
-0.052602097392082214,
0.006984052713960409,
0.9743700623512268,
-0.40759891271591187,
-0.3106359839439392,
0.05594829097390175,
0.2095848023891449,
0.44396036863327026,
0.2706620693206787,
-0.11366257071495056,
0.04121014475822449,
-0.16570287942886353,
-0.44528600573539734,
-0.11146523803472519,
-0.0714380219578743,
0.09369231760501862,
-0.07025064527988434,
-0.22059231996536255,
0.003302473807707429,
-0.49775558710098267,
-0.09818875789642334,
-0.16919586062431335,
0.5580644011497498,
0.026623079553246498,
-0.06570355594158173,
0.2608364224433899,
0.3531140089035034,
-0.2087097018957138,
0.09569095075130463,
0.22683127224445343,
-0.08231133222579956,
0.029396826401352882,
0.48826345801353455,
0.5145386457443237,
0.37433671951293945,
-0.25476208329200745,
-0.36312398314476013,
-0.0312484223395586,
0.27441877126693726,
0.2389366626739502,
0.397072434425354,
-0.0289961788803339,
-0.004082679282873869,
0.5051605701446533,
0.03893935680389404,
0.06958291679620743,
-0.2591526508331299,
-0.6019951701164246,
-0.09496195614337921,
0.39565351605415344,
0.3681635558605194,
0.39896655082702637,
0.39044156670570374,
0.18223467469215393,
-0.07814767956733704,
0.01268969476222992,
-0.1940857470035553,
-0.8353397846221924,
0.06223166361451149,
-0.5858351588249207,
-0.4039415419101715,
-0.9068877696990967,
-0.1374977082014084,
0.20799770951271057,
0.12337508797645569,
-0.33209946751594543,
0.5090494155883789,
-0.4212205708026886,
0.07391298562288284,
-0.6595005989074707,
-0.2169339805841446,
-0.6088895201683044,
-0.24103690683841705,
0.18436190485954285,
0.07694286108016968,
0.18477989733219147,
-0.6699386239051819,
-0.32107484340667725,
-0.555716335773468,
0.9494812488555908,
0.10914015769958496,
-0.560640811920166,
-0.12944385409355164,
0.44006332755088806,
0.5346029996871948,
0.263095885515213,
0.7618698477745056,
0.09902665764093399,
0.13706837594509125,
0.44919443130493164,
-5.4464898109436035,
0.41569027304649353,
0.03578918054699898,
-0.47021710872650146,
0.14379090070724487,
0.3491930067539215,
-0.04588519036769867,
-0.3178347051143646,
0.44614532589912415,
0.21480511128902435,
0.6978223323822021,
0.3461591303348541,
-0.3817448019981384,
-0.20906969904899597,
0.3274921476840973,
-0.24550718069076538,
-0.6719965934753418,
-0.025632990524172783,
-0.13256795704364777,
-0.0064850072376430035,
0.38875651359558105,
0.07348465174436569,
0.1022871807217598,
0.9564298987388611,
-0.377669095993042,
-0.18390987813472748,
0.0326203778386116,
-0.7222651243209839,
-0.3147932291030884,
-0.8369722366333008,
-0.5962429642677307,
-0.14421804249286652,
0.0082752900198102,
0.05123114958405495,
-0.03539939224720001,
-0.48768696188926697,
0.5637814998626709,
0.44474631547927856,
0.16824860870838165,
-0.33846378326416016,
-0.18552835285663605,
-0.023801511153578758,
0.442351371049881,
0.15790928900241852,
0.36788758635520935,
0.43786191940307617,
0.17972826957702637,
-0.22968250513076782,
-0.16203777492046356,
0.6568936109542847,
-0.27698439359664917,
-0.16726700961589813,
0.06788353621959686,
0.30661046504974365,
0.3418983519077301,
-0.1089354008436203,
0.04299861565232277,
0.320677250623703,
-0.24931256473064423,
0.32435762882232666,
0.6587149500846863,
-0.45932361483573914,
-0.2806967496871948,
-0.5487850308418274,
-0.10221290588378906,
-0.46449440717697144,
-1.2712501287460327,
0.3391571640968323,
0.7244699001312256,
-0.05323589965701103,
-0.03947591409087181,
0.26683372259140015,
-0.28638362884521484,
-0.8755360245704651,
0.8378449082374573,
-0.5213571786880493,
-0.5041741132736206,
-0.22345766425132751,
-0.4928053915500641,
0.08906219154596329,
0.22826120257377625,
-0.367423415184021,
0.4880868196487427,
-0.15609286725521088,
0.07234080880880356,
-0.46469876170158386,
-0.7031028866767883,
-0.22079870104789734,
-0.2632289528846741,
-0.008626742288470268,
0.4177602231502533,
-0.48256903886795044,
-0.18952926993370056,
0.5272960662841797,
0.8078325390815735,
-0.10104978829622269,
0.3368963599205017,
0.07572214305400848,
0.2511804401874542,
0.18973925709724426,
0.4351741671562195,
-0.5027353763580322,
-0.3970966339111328,
-0.3330164849758148,
0.08761869370937347,
-0.2221667617559433,
0.11596227437257767,
0.8454201817512512,
1.1793221235275269,
-0.23013989627361298,
0.526458203792572,
-0.4813327491283417,
-0.20025105774402618,
-0.509269654750824,
-0.05449102818965912,
0.2592903673648834,
0.1912129819393158,
-0.16269977390766144,
0.10649805516004562,
0.12052638083696365,
-0.3152880370616913,
-0.0031409692019224167,
-0.6155359745025635,
0.43641164898872375,
0.38182559609413147,
-1.0498868227005005,
0.1752561330795288,
0.18082326650619507,
-0.8638131618499756,
-0.5732142925262451,
-0.019054768607020378,
-0.026705607771873474,
0.16387276351451874,
-0.017408210784196854,
0.11449769884347916,
0.06895919144153595,
-0.4004356265068054,
0.06625331193208694,
0.4778602421283722,
0.256807804107666,
-1.0916309356689453,
-0.3862699568271637,
-0.11906684190034866,
0.03589150309562683,
0.27562811970710754,
0.46876707673072815,
-0.7703198790550232,
-0.29933881759643555,
-0.4183138310909271,
0.9972656965255737,
0.17292365431785583,
0.08810897171497345,
0.08673594146966934,
0.07628892362117767,
-0.033299967646598816,
-0.5181825757026672,
0.14309436082839966,
0.3878706991672516,
0.21320536732673645,
-0.6126925945281982,
-0.03165986016392708,
-0.18068167567253113,
-0.26840245723724365,
-0.15510311722755432,
0.41361260414123535,
-0.15557555854320526,
-0.23760217428207397,
-0.3966584801673889,
0.26466333866119385,
0.6007580161094666,
0.5224091410636902,
-0.34363487362861633,
-0.3482159376144409,
0.24786923825740814,
0.075676828622818,
-0.0625993013381958,
-0.41472211480140686,
0.3347555696964264,
-0.15361034870147705,
0.080134816467762,
0.04870695248246193,
-0.04938863217830658,
-0.04558388516306877,
-0.0947117954492569,
0.03418150544166565,
-0.7864249348640442,
0.3387327790260315,
-0.11218827217817307,
0.06606852263212204,
0.0019792395178228617,
0.3972623646259308,
0.6014524698257446,
0.024608561769127846,
0.7245644330978394,
-0.6333875060081482,
0.48348531126976013,
0.011077203787863255,
0.6622865200042725,
0.1159050390124321,
-0.3316154181957245,
-0.23546448349952698,
-0.2547382712364197,
0.0761832743883133,
-0.03514175862073898,
0.19344784319400787,
-0.5418568253517151,
0.5546343922615051,
-0.22609993815422058,
-0.35551080107688904,
0.04899078980088234,
-0.6830810904502869,
-0.4926517903804779,
-0.1612110584974289,
0.8486144542694092,
-0.36131492257118225,
-0.08616963028907776,
0.16809432208538055,
-0.3987051248550415,
-0.5519636273384094,
-0.0753752663731575,
-0.28356117010116577,
-0.15139076113700867,
-0.03310193493962288,
-0.03341341391205788,
-0.6061699390411377,
0.7518086433410645,
0.13599373400211334,
-0.07772514224052429,
1.5725971460342407,
-0.6843968629837036,
-0.3038455843925476,
-0.3074224293231964,
-0.0845712423324585,
0.2384626418352127,
-0.14398293197155,
-0.03531038388609886,
-0.12234842777252197,
-0.33485954999923706,
0.17405785620212555,
1.0056527853012085,
0.6494283080101013,
1.1448372602462769,
0.4293534755706787,
-0.31680041551589966,
-0.37604275345802307,
-0.18095746636390686,
-0.10537298768758774,
-0.2299214005470276,
-0.7484737038612366,
-0.38701730966567993,
0.7530695199966431,
-0.17391006648540497,
0.17198121547698975,
0.25549420714378357,
0.40859562158584595,
-0.4515650272369385,
-0.39725977182388306,
0.12402649968862534,
-0.23329989612102509,
0.3333931863307953,
0.36715012788772583,
-0.4205339550971985,
-0.5003426671028137,
0.5655428171157837,
0.345187783241272,
-0.14016076922416687,
-0.8701262474060059,
0.14937689900398254,
0.010263321921229362,
-0.24023963510990143,
0.4789413809776306,
-0.10008036345243454,
0.09258794039487839,
0.13720214366912842,
0.4037278890609741,
0.24892616271972656,
-0.26378268003463745,
-0.8813334703445435,
-0.00994917657226324,
-0.1874682754278183,
-0.411545991897583,
-0.20915620028972626,
0.02280091866850853,
-0.7788693308830261,
-0.39585068821907043,
-0.10298821330070496,
0.1386069804430008,
-0.6127211451530457,
-0.01796238124370575,
-0.46855127811431885,
-0.5111064314842224,
-0.05756426230072975,
-0.2061527967453003,
0.4075081944465637,
-0.0907624140381813,
-0.035240236669778824,
0.31102681159973145,
0.3532295525074005,
0.13505496084690094,
0.1801195740699768,
-1.1478875875473022,
0.07587523758411407,
-0.03983832523226738,
-0.36259302496910095,
0.16824588179588318,
-0.13202829658985138,
-0.3025076389312744,
-0.037390343844890594,
-0.5642956495285034,
0.4660692512989044,
0.2848905324935913,
-0.4807908236980438,
0.25636354088783264,
0.27500081062316895,
0.05974418669939041,
0.4020712673664093,
-0.008281552232801914,
-0.5392797589302063,
0.7681003212928772,
0.5113082528114319,
0.48029232025146484,
0.03911513835191727,
0.7225443720817566,
0.5512449145317078,
-0.335464745759964,
0.508022129535675,
-0.4970698654651642,
0.09415949881076813,
0.6258350610733032,
0.10819500684738159,
0.4052298367023468,
-0.12054675817489624,
-0.3119915723800659,
-0.1997443288564682,
0.220397487282753,
-0.4150695204734802,
0.09354525059461594,
-0.45586496591567993,
-0.1681276261806488,
0.9119494557380676,
1.0354630947113037,
0.49324101209640503,
0.050132181495428085,
0.3532501757144928,
0.40868768095970154,
-0.0013035512529313564,
-0.06445394456386566,
-0.037839125841856,
-0.3032607138156891,
-0.5723303556442261,
0.5329140424728394,
-0.4375452995300293,
0.5818008780479431,
-0.9438676834106445,
1.0835243463516235,
0.42700812220573425,
-0.13401642441749573,
-0.12077852338552475,
-0.5171177387237549,
0.1593499779701233,
-0.04682444408535957,
0.34549185633659363,
0.2311575710773468,
-0.43706580996513367,
-0.3452494144439697,
0.30502569675445557,
-0.480216383934021,
-0.5564814805984497,
-0.7622257471084595,
-0.059613630175590515,
0.26663938164711,
0.1722026914358139,
-0.12310880422592163,
0.19881831109523773,
0.465512216091156,
0.5912697911262512,
-0.0498260036110878,
0.27825698256492615,
0.22089111804962158,
-0.3296709656715393,
-0.32652103900909424,
-0.5272969007492065,
0.45207712054252625,
-0.6930522918701172,
0.2895887494087219,
-0.08097077906131744,
-0.19051672518253326,
-0.35922443866729736,
-0.49048903584480286,
-0.07904575765132904,
-0.5795924663543701,
-0.6127378344535828,
-0.013592596165835857,
-0.17351290583610535,
-0.027294877916574478,
-0.6276459693908691,
0.35649314522743225,
1.2159191370010376,
-0.32197070121765137,
0.5592735409736633,
0.5062085390090942,
0.08752760291099548,
-0.3206181228160858,
-0.16848522424697876,
-0.037420496344566345,
-0.20990204811096191,
-0.5204139351844788,
0.03453687205910683,
-0.8036540150642395,
0.8623577952384949,
0.34810754656791687,
0.17619794607162476,
0.1700306385755539,
0.041983410716056824,
-0.14972040057182312,
0.21045714616775513,
1.1018409729003906,
-0.24479199945926666,
0.07723133265972137,
-0.7854028344154358,
-0.1273135542869568,
-0.8338528871536255,
0.2756783664226532,
0.22763592004776,
-0.39167866110801697,
-0.09244596213102341,
0.8291738033294678,
0.29353684186935425,
-1.1255009174346924,
0.484722763299942,
-0.5170653462409973,
0.4346163272857666,
-0.7264956831932068,
-0.059025149792432785,
-0.4496472179889679,
-0.5322620272636414,
0.4825558364391327,
0.5831961035728455,
0.26299378275871277,
-0.2667512893676758,
0.32837921380996704,
-0.18285426497459412,
0.10733920335769653,
-0.17447783052921295,
0.18970957398414612,
-0.2356419563293457,
0.15787485241889954,
-0.5631799101829529,
-0.6219124794006348,
0.5616545081138611,
0.2607477307319641,
-0.3627934753894806,
-0.1035107672214508,
-0.23513120412826538,
0.2873813211917877,
0.41534167528152466,
0.5509842038154602,
-0.5054281949996948,
0.44019821286201477,
-0.6702852845191956
] |
212991
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20New%20Seekers
|
The New Seekers
|
The New Seekers are a British pop group, formed in London in 1969 by Keith Potger after the break-up of his group, The Seekers. The idea was that the New Seekers would appeal to the same market as the original Seekers, but their music would have pop as well as folk influences. They achieved worldwide success in the early 1970s with hits including "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing", "You Won't Find Another Fool Like Me" and "Beg, Steal or Borrow".
Formation
The group was formed after the disbanding of the successful 1960s Australian group the Seekers. Keith Potger, a member of the Seekers, put together the New Seekers in 1969, featuring Laurie Heath, Chris Barrington, Marty Kristian, and Eve Graham and Sally Graham (no relation), the latter of whom was a member of The Young Generation. Potger himself also performed and recorded with the group. Despite only having released one album with no commercial success, ITV's Scottish Television gave the group their own TV series Finders, Seekers. The line up for this version of the group hosting the series was Keith Potger, Eve Graham, Sally Graham, Laurie Heath, Marty Kristian and Chris Barrington. Produced in colour the show was given a prime-time slot, starting on March 27, 1970 (Good Friday) and continuing for seven shows. The public did not take to the show, with several complaints seemingly targeted at the band. Despite the complaints, the series was shown on several ITV channels, sold to Canada, Australia and Sweden with interest from other countries as a result of being shown at the international television market in Cannes. Following the series failure, later in 1970, after one album release, the line-up was reworked to comprise Eve Graham, Lyn Paul, Marty Kristian, Peter Doyle, and Paul Layton. This line-up found instant success with their debut release, a cover of Melanie Safka's "What Have They Done to My Song, Ma" (titled in the U.S. as "Look What They've Done to My Song, Ma"), which became a top 20 hit in the US, No. 3 in Canada, and a minor one in the UK.
Mainstream success
Over the next year, the group released a number of singles to little recognition, but it was in June 1971 that they released their breakthrough hit, "Never Ending Song of Love" (the first of many hit songs to be produced by David Mackay, and a cover of the American hit by Delaney & Bonnie). The song became a big hit in the UK, spending five weeks at No. 2 in the singles chart and was one of the biggest selling singles of the year. This was their last single released on the Philips Records label. The huge success of this single was mildly ironic in that prior to the single's release, the group were dropped by Philips and had signed with Polydor Records. Their first single for Polydor was Good Old Fashioned Music, which they promoted on television (including an appearance on Top Of The Pops), but it failed to chart. Towards the end of 1971, the group recorded an adaptation of the Coca-Cola jingle, "I'd Like to Buy the World a Coke", which had gained much interest. Reworked as I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing, the song became a worldwide success. It made No. 1 in the UK for four weeks and sold just under a million copies. In the US, the song was also a hit, reaching No. 7, and in Canada it reached No. 3. It became a No. 1 hit in many other countries and is the most recognised song by the group.
The group were chosen to represent the United Kingdom in the 1972 Eurovision Song Contest. They entered with the song "Beg, Steal or Borrow", which was chosen by viewers of BBC1's It's Cliff Richard! show from six shortlisted songs performed by the group on a weekly basis. They went on to finish in second place at the Eurovision final in Edinburgh, where the group received the biggest cheer of the night from the partisan audience. The song was a No. 2 hit in the UK and sold well in Europe. Around this time, they also charted highly with their most successful album, We'd Like to Teach the World to Sing, which reached No. 2. Another top five hit came with the next single, "Circles" in mid 1972. At the end of the year, the group took part in the BBC's anniversary TV show Fifty Years Of Music.
The following year the group saw a slight dip, although they did score a top 20 hit with an adaptation of "Pinball Wizard". Member Peter Doyle left the group this year and was replaced by Peter Oliver. The New Seekers had enjoyed a number of hits in the US by this time and toured there with Liza Minnelli in 1973. While there, they recorded the title track to the American Marlo Thomas television special, Free to Be... You and Me, a landmark programme designed to teach children how to express themselves and be independent through a series of vignettes. Since the special was first broadcast in 1974 the song has become a cult classic.
Up to now, the group's biggest success had been as a five-piece harmony, but it was around this time that they began to favour lead singers for their songs with title credits given to Marty Kristian for "Come Softly to Me" and Eve Graham for "Nevertheless", but it was in late 1973 that this formula found its biggest success when Lyn Paul took the lead on the new single, "You Won't Find Another Fool Like Me". The song became a big hit over Christmas and eventually peaked at No. 1 in January 1974, becoming their second biggest hit. This formula continued with the next single, "I Get a Little Sentimental Over You", which also became a big hit, peaking at No. 5. However, despite this revival, the group announced their split amid much publicity. With allegations that the members were receiving little financial reward for their success, The New Seekers officially disbanded in May 1974.
The group's two UK number one singles are listed as being in the top 30 best selling singles for the 1970s, with I'd Like To Teach The World To sing at No. 17 and You Won't Find Another Fool Like Me at No. 27.
Reformation
In 1976, the New Seekers reformed with Kathy Ann Rae and Danny Finn replacing Lyn Paul and Peter Oliver. Although they never replicated their earlier success, signed to CBS (Columbia in the US) the group did manage to score a few hits with It's So Nice (To Have You Home) (1976), I Wanna Go Back (1977) and Anthem (One Day in Every Week) (1978). This line up remained intact until 1978, when Danny Finn and Eve Graham left the group to marry. Their final single for CBS was Don't Stop The Music in 1979, with Kathy Ann Rae on lead vocal, but after it failed to chart, she left the band and the group signed their final contract with EMI. In 1980, the group attempted to represent the UK again in the Eurovision Song Contest with the song Tell Me, but it was disqualified shortly before the British heats were televised due to the fact the group had already performed the song on TV a year earlier. Had they appeared in the 1980 UK contest, the group would have been up against former member Danny Finn, who was the lead singer of the winning group Prima Donna. In addition, Mick Flinn and Donna Jones of the final New Seekers line-up (2010) were also in the contest, placing fourth under the group name Pussyfoot. Marty Kristian entered a song in the 1983 UK Eurovision finals, performed by a trio called 'Audio', which included Kathy Ann Rae in the line up. Since then, there have been personnel changes which included Caitriona Walsh, Nicola Kerr and Vikki James (Grammy Winner Victoria Horn). Paul Layton remained with the band throughout this time. The final tour was 2010.
Recent career
Today's New Seekers toured from 2006 with the latest line up of Paul Layton, Donna Jones, Francine Rees, Mick Flinn and Mark Hankins. A CD of the 2006 tour was released which includes all of the group's hits along with some cover versions. With a Royal Variety performance at St James's Palace, London for the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall and an appearance on ITV's This Morning, they completed 2006. The New Seekers helped host a garden party in 2007 at Buckingham Palace. This was repeated the following year along with a special show at The Tower of London and a return batch of concerts in British theatres. The 40th anniversary of the group in 2009 was celebrated by a 35-date UK concert tour, which began at London's Shaw Theatre on 31 January and continued throughout the year. In July 2009, an album was released; It's Been Too Long – Greatest Hits and More, comprising the group's hits and some new recordings. It became a success by entering the UK album charts at No. 17 – their first album to enter the chart for 35 years.
In 2011 and 2012 Marty Kristian released two albums of demo recordings from the 1970s and 1980s.
Peter Doyle died on 13 October 2001, from throat cancer, aged 52. Kathy Ann Rae died on 11 January 2011, from cancer, aged 53. Danny (Kevin) Finn died on 24 February 2016 of pulmonary embolism at the age of 71.
Timeline
Discography
Albums
NOTES
1 Re-released version of Beautiful People
NR – Not released
In September 1973, an album, Peter, Paul and Marty was released by members Peter Oliver, Paul Layton and Marty Kristian. This included the New Seekers' single "Come Softly to Me".
Singles
NOTES
Not released in the UK
Charted in January 1977
Final single release in the US
Single "Tonight" was released in the US in 1971
"For You We Sing" was released as a single in many European countries in 1972
"All the Way" was released as a single in Australia in 1983
References
External links
Official MySpace Entry
Lyn Paul Official web site.
Official Facebook page https://www.facebook.com/groups/12185866012/
English pop music groups
Musical groups established in 1969
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for the United Kingdom
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1972
Elektra Records artists
|
[
-0.20562195777893066,
-0.1024695336818695,
-0.028866061940789223,
-0.24604055285453796,
-0.19454599916934967,
0.4493388831615448,
0.2818084955215454,
-0.1524537205696106,
-0.07949929684400558,
-0.009376070462167263,
-0.4082648754119873,
0.837836503982544,
-0.30927857756614685,
0.31981611251831055,
-0.29157090187072754,
-0.1858919858932495,
-0.0631365105509758,
-0.49778616428375244,
-0.3984057903289795,
-0.022491872310638428,
0.24368511140346527,
-0.0022854027338325977,
0.19152450561523438,
-0.1808231920003891,
0.36766502261161804,
-0.16372841596603394,
0.1853848099708557,
-0.19192823767662048,
0.031884633004665375,
-0.24341605603694916,
0.184339240193367,
0.3753960430622101,
0.28498563170433044,
-0.5805187225341797,
-0.0246919933706522,
0.5717433094978333,
0.13738922774791718,
0.08441249281167984,
-0.2996530830860138,
-0.4317130446434021,
0.20840193331241608,
-0.3134741485118866,
0.5910438299179077,
0.5330424308776855,
-0.15884169936180115,
-0.3975096642971039,
-1.5350217819213867,
-0.040490202605724335,
-1.012855052947998,
-0.23328320682048798,
0.26962223649024963,
0.23722438514232635,
0.39750856161117554,
-0.18822883069515228,
0.10549889504909515,
-0.3772781789302826,
-0.1410863697528839,
-0.19031637907028198,
-0.2724575102329254,
-0.12559877336025238,
0.12452162802219391,
0.03598424792289734,
0.494251012802124,
-0.19871610403060913,
0.21040846407413483,
0.11649870872497559,
0.16359403729438782,
0.45205697417259216,
0.455921471118927,
-0.29472440481185913,
0.006586430594325066,
0.1841149926185608,
-0.5562179088592529,
-0.22933387756347656,
0.06315483897924423,
-0.21336646378040314,
0.28937828540802,
0.01395474560558796,
0.360502690076828,
0.576490044593811,
-0.09391461312770844,
0.3150412142276764,
0.43613800406455994,
0.28923889994621277,
0.14629022777080536,
-0.590184211730957,
-0.2073158323764801,
0.6111770272254944,
-0.3790716528892517,
0.45057782530784607,
-0.36881956458091736,
-0.7662975192070007,
0.41388243436813354,
0.37287166714668274,
0.14765386283397675,
-0.5224562287330627,
0.19438521564006805,
-0.2582238018512726,
0.08903281390666962,
-0.21119602024555206,
0.6057807803153992,
0.1875075399875641,
-0.39228782057762146,
-0.6487399339675903,
-0.5153197646141052,
-0.3898572623729706,
0.03028453327715397,
-0.6280557513237,
-0.024905946105718613,
0.060327522456645966,
0.08370733261108398,
0.7230044007301331,
0.3382417559623718,
0.18888702988624573,
0.46722882986068726,
0.12791204452514648,
-0.13861477375030518,
-1.0700558423995972,
-0.9180974364280701,
0.29503023624420166,
0.314098060131073,
0.3154994249343872,
0.07083657383918762,
0.21615050733089447,
-0.37709853053092957,
0.08556723594665527,
0.20681032538414001,
0.5841692090034485,
-0.6899378895759583,
0.1433427780866623,
-0.3732410669326782,
0.7843108773231506,
0.052885957062244415,
-0.40684041380882263,
-0.012505235150456429,
0.35017383098602295,
0.26156386733055115,
0.0596357062458992,
0.0587015338242054,
0.4830993413925171,
-0.03324706107378006,
0.5986632108688354,
-0.37719598412513733,
-0.28762465715408325,
0.7200351357460022,
-0.4481537640094757,
-0.03553524240851402,
-0.13010931015014648,
-0.49058568477630615,
-0.6884775161743164,
0.32766959071159363,
-0.5379462242126465,
-0.09927842766046524,
0.033403221517801285,
-0.15504366159439087,
-0.1793600171804428,
0.18325911462306976,
-0.028364308178424835,
0.26685449481010437,
0.17124509811401367,
-0.37156516313552856,
0.30224961042404175,
0.18075966835021973,
0.429995596408844,
0.00015689332212787122,
0.0047275833785533905,
-0.06756050139665604,
0.04538758471608162,
0.6411407589912415,
0.2834581732749939,
-0.1277478188276291,
-0.04578801989555359,
0.13805823028087616,
0.2893581688404083,
-0.19563767313957214,
-0.3308887779712677,
1.38369882106781,
0.5400952100753784,
-0.007948045618832111,
-0.12412898987531662,
-0.18211694061756134,
0.1987309753894806,
-0.08776401728391647,
0.3667549192905426,
0.1917019635438919,
0.3073297441005707,
-0.05187952145934105,
0.6623433232307434,
0.3228539526462555,
0.08222395181655884,
0.06882885098457336,
-0.2657671868801117,
0.11970975995063782,
-0.5278370976448059,
0.4072561264038086,
0.3116077482700348,
0.10742898285388947,
0.7960472106933594,
0.04371738061308861,
0.573820948600769,
0.5588452219963074,
0.1120527908205986,
0.19064803421497345,
0.1646919995546341,
-0.128901869058609,
-0.08796387910842896,
0.4953671097755432,
-0.06947271525859833,
0.46042129397392273,
0.30876532196998596,
-0.4415249526500702,
-0.4543667733669281,
0.24257148802280426,
0.20701032876968384,
-0.34643369913101196,
-0.11178211122751236,
-0.2043677270412445,
0.3635205924510956,
-0.12510503828525543,
-0.6267549991607666,
0.8190785050392151,
0.7339010238647461,
0.13506676256656647,
-0.5970740914344788,
0.24626114964485168,
1.244009017944336,
-0.07377394288778305,
-0.7649251222610474,
0.24438267946243286,
-0.1984279453754425,
0.4911334216594696,
0.826163649559021,
0.4043425917625427,
-0.04076409712433815,
0.07646309584379196,
0.35230353474617004,
0.2469439059495926,
-0.5113723278045654,
0.08023315668106079,
-0.2736756205558777,
0.3663347065448761,
-0.5329928994178772,
-0.6722889542579651,
0.6562074422836304,
0.17531108856201172,
0.09145628660917282,
-0.48509475588798523,
0.20374669134616852,
-0.012756453827023506,
0.37166041135787964,
-0.07078412175178528,
0.4242783486843109,
0.18196021020412445,
0.7729600667953491,
0.263566792011261,
0.19749514758586884,
-0.32562708854675293,
-0.0976020097732544,
1.2259228229522705,
0.5097665190696716,
-0.1416541039943695,
-0.12938292324543,
0.3654775321483612,
0.1552196890115738,
-0.2041088491678238,
-0.4146679639816284,
-0.1891729086637497,
0.06308255344629288,
0.2990535795688629,
-0.32015129923820496,
-0.14453618228435516,
0.3691348433494568,
-0.3546563684940338,
0.7858877182006836,
-0.3265518844127655,
-0.09493213891983032,
-0.1412474811077118,
-0.10577638447284698,
0.5662105679512024,
-1.00200617313385,
0.009859890677034855,
0.6532763242721558,
-0.0583333782851696,
-0.8068009614944458,
-0.34374815225601196,
0.5117446184158325,
0.15887801349163055,
-0.46364879608154297,
0.5065446496009827,
-0.328299880027771,
-0.2093881368637085,
0.24518057703971863,
-0.7471187114715576,
0.08057641237974167,
0.1571258306503296,
0.33882176876068115,
0.3406729996204376,
0.06517244875431061,
-0.3045293688774109,
0.585185170173645,
-0.11749935150146484,
0.07860735803842545,
-0.407071977853775,
-0.06113831326365471,
0.4184553623199463,
-0.44765588641166687,
0.02524537965655327,
-0.49300462007522583,
-5.800432205200195,
-0.06475979089736938,
0.018266426399350166,
0.04298550263047218,
0.31432077288627625,
-0.01076548919081688,
0.5812780261039734,
-0.5807148218154907,
-0.1279815137386322,
-0.052410196512937546,
-1.0135633945465088,
-0.028634002432227135,
-0.6338001489639282,
0.3217041492462158,
0.2667127847671509,
0.2998083829879761,
-0.206077441573143,
0.06069919839501381,
0.15591250360012054,
0.028497496619820595,
0.11049577593803406,
-0.40456321835517883,
-0.03342170640826225,
0.3175089657306671,
-0.17382243275642395,
0.4474186301231384,
0.4973767399787903,
-0.16188275814056396,
-0.4998790919780731,
0.138949453830719,
0.11023494601249695,
-0.02205592580139637,
-0.08793026208877563,
-0.5897734761238098,
-0.08385784178972244,
0.20188885927200317,
0.6299094557762146,
-0.5031097531318665,
0.49682629108428955,
-0.7529256939888,
-0.2937714457511902,
0.46745145320892334,
0.3287028670310974,
-0.12892182171344757,
-0.1641266793012619,
0.0924205407500267,
-0.2095412015914917,
0.01389253232628107,
-0.522603452205658,
1.066985011100769,
0.2943250834941864,
-0.24483361840248108,
0.24322569370269775,
-0.6664977669715881,
-0.20125049352645874,
-0.18688230216503143,
-0.026424594223499298,
-0.22846649587154388,
-0.037365254014730453,
0.2840536832809448,
0.7646519541740417,
-0.16263458132743835,
-0.2014530897140503,
-0.4080025255680084,
-0.19387294352054596,
-0.448504775762558,
-0.37854230403900146,
0.20618343353271484,
0.8542643785476685,
-0.12030015885829926,
-0.010206799022853374,
-0.1633477658033371,
0.06872516125440598,
-1.3121142387390137,
-0.7262586951255798,
-0.08918460458517075,
0.24565856158733368,
-0.21327176690101624,
-0.24407997727394104,
0.36711281538009644,
0.4238467514514923,
-0.11299590766429901,
-0.44422903656959534,
0.5632209777832031,
-0.24621382355690002,
-0.7923278212547302,
-0.4401131570339203,
0.26705652475357056,
-1.0205152034759521,
-0.15830324590206146,
0.4943138360977173,
-0.439037948846817,
-0.2926552891731262,
-0.2017173022031784,
0.6957532167434692,
0.5196102857589722,
-0.20514462888240814,
0.29488199949264526,
0.27921414375305176,
0.3696928024291992,
-0.21078447997570038,
-0.1885562539100647,
0.08313655853271484,
-0.1421569287776947,
0.11787840723991394,
-0.3039959669113159,
-0.21024642884731293,
-0.36036011576652527,
0.14446227252483368,
-0.22017556428909302,
0.1313265562057495,
-0.16889077425003052,
-0.5088213682174683,
-0.35327091813087463,
0.06784306466579437,
-0.42507657408714294,
0.01772252842783928,
0.19314013421535492,
0.14257213473320007,
0.6746973991394043,
0.1819354146718979,
0.2607777714729309,
0.08067779242992401,
0.2030545175075531,
-0.833519697189331,
0.24476629495620728,
0.03872884437441826,
0.1712048500776291,
-0.15681640803813934,
0.26910844445228577,
0.3048735558986664,
-0.6119572520256042,
-0.2513028383255005,
-0.5845710635185242,
0.0179966539144516,
0.15357165038585663,
-0.6573673486709595,
-0.16919159889221191,
-0.07896994799375534,
0.311493456363678,
-0.11000673472881317,
-0.44946324825286865,
0.31132301688194275,
0.4133579432964325,
0.5401472449302673,
0.19998548924922943,
0.2730940878391266,
-0.3251553773880005,
-0.31501343846321106,
0.017955241724848747,
0.4307779371738434,
0.005469709634780884,
1.2053837776184082,
-0.8489384055137634,
0.20814484357833862,
0.016043387353420258,
-0.13717572391033173,
-0.4754693806171417,
-0.07104111462831497,
-0.25381186604499817,
-0.1396426260471344,
-0.35973867774009705,
-0.5051472783088684,
-0.21662671864032745,
0.3870447278022766,
0.13524653017520905,
0.11914527416229248,
-0.4849311411380768,
0.09231530129909515,
0.34585991501808167,
-0.2735050320625305,
-0.2317706048488617,
-0.11573414504528046,
-0.30267706513404846,
0.4378264546394348,
0.5622807145118713,
-0.005249082576483488,
-0.4223513901233673,
0.056346628814935684,
-0.3508029878139496,
-0.2275104969739914,
0.2531966269016266,
-0.715795636177063,
0.12117931991815567,
0.5667252540588379,
-0.8005638122558594,
-1.2003952264785767,
-0.8189061284065247,
-0.3005087077617645,
-0.24807009100914001,
-0.06486434489488602,
0.15086549520492554,
0.6598579287528992,
0.11158854514360428,
-0.6947728395462036,
-0.8314323425292969,
-0.22543929517269135,
0.387190043926239,
-0.3176425099372864,
-0.38111433386802673,
-0.04407646134495735,
-0.10302673280239105,
0.09984879195690155,
-0.03932974115014076,
0.7745516896247864,
-0.9981309771537781,
0.1834360659122467,
-0.3517698049545288,
-0.8814669847488403,
0.7472527027130127,
-0.03981726989150047,
-0.14807221293449402,
0.01627180352807045,
0.019998669624328613,
-0.36981621384620667,
-0.03826426342129707,
-0.3426703214645386,
-0.46091145277023315,
-0.4903744161128998,
-0.3044567406177521,
-0.38780680298805237,
0.6473603844642639,
-0.40063443779945374,
-0.02226959355175495,
-0.5829786062240601,
-0.17217925190925598,
0.041565630584955215,
0.07312200963497162,
-0.42139732837677,
-0.20576925575733185,
0.12191461771726608,
-0.04709582030773163,
0.06500117480754852,
-0.3103441298007965,
-0.5320800542831421,
0.9805453419685364,
-0.036047108471393585,
0.023899158462882042,
0.44609466195106506,
0.4719739854335785,
-0.0033651136327534914,
0.36324599385261536,
0.21097074449062347,
-0.5914824604988098,
0.02841578982770443,
0.3832404315471649,
0.36496424674987793,
0.1815953552722931,
-0.3121322989463806,
0.36948731541633606,
0.15020687878131866,
0.21853186190128326,
-0.40916869044303894,
-0.27660414576530457,
0.23994749784469604,
-0.2331078052520752,
-0.08848993480205536,
-0.47843417525291443,
-0.01916969195008278,
-0.43453413248062134,
0.8759205937385559,
0.4635023772716522,
-0.5835367441177368,
0.003169372910633683,
0.22529281675815582,
0.2953520119190216,
-0.16152246296405792,
-0.2648659646511078,
0.033072322607040405,
-0.6451960802078247,
-0.28721266984939575,
0.2894248962402344,
-0.23418350517749786,
0.27040761709213257,
0.18054787814617157,
-0.10558240860700607,
0.016157805919647217,
-0.8920320868492126,
0.15688052773475647,
-0.24686405062675476,
-0.19219405949115753,
0.6833394765853882,
0.046950165182352066,
0.054261546581983566,
-0.07277699559926987,
-0.22495248913764954,
-0.5081859230995178,
-0.6212950348854065,
0.03565429523587227,
-0.07698775082826614,
0.05230199918150902,
-0.17176580429077148,
0.06853034347295761,
0.8075791001319885,
0.07987053692340851,
0.20691633224487305,
-0.25443217158317566,
-0.07814793288707733,
-0.5090447664260864,
-0.290528267621994,
-0.02025694213807583,
0.2707838714122772,
0.37742918729782104,
-0.6156402826309204,
0.15066243708133698,
0.28039807081222534,
0.2765098810195923,
-0.15945446491241455,
-0.1330341398715973,
0.3984883427619934,
0.023102516308426857,
-0.11964615434408188,
-0.21626415848731995,
0.8779940605163574,
-0.8832471966743469,
0.2208595722913742,
1.0870553255081177,
-0.462176650762558,
0.5136297941207886,
0.4508729577064514,
0.32234033942222595,
0.5103588104248047,
-0.0003886722552124411,
0.3206590712070465,
0.13760685920715332,
0.12842795252799988,
-0.06851033866405487,
0.004644578322768211,
0.3049931824207306,
0.23757623136043549,
0.3899226188659668,
-0.1116153821349144,
0.13807447254657745,
0.17212460935115814,
-0.40140241384506226,
-0.6404691338539124,
0.1595912128686905,
-0.03932970017194748,
-0.6635229587554932,
0.8434525728225708,
-0.013709611259400845,
0.04217427596449852,
0.08770478516817093,
-0.23535822331905365,
-0.07898504287004471,
0.21142275631427765,
0.2045976221561432,
0.14140284061431885,
0.4413226842880249,
0.17264018952846527,
0.4113968014717102,
0.10938918590545654,
-0.07446449995040894,
-0.6297947764396667,
0.4656635820865631,
-0.2998373210430145,
0.6082804799079895,
-0.30596214532852173,
-0.1441335827112198,
-0.30450963973999023,
-0.4134499728679657,
0.3832733631134033,
0.4420680105686188,
-0.04378924146294594,
0.03190378472208977,
0.13545049726963043,
0.0801439881324768,
-0.5485072731971741,
0.19382688403129578,
0.6896889209747314,
0.27026858925819397,
0.15526284277439117,
-0.13749626278877258,
0.03206085413694382,
-0.05696387216448784,
-0.08614844083786011,
0.6493961811065674,
0.27156051993370056,
-0.45128199458122253,
0.5077430605888367,
0.29790207743644714,
0.05253659933805466,
-0.4615750312805176,
-0.08955579996109009,
0.17830801010131836,
-0.37675541639328003,
-0.16097141802310944,
0.08549895882606506,
-0.7936290502548218,
0.05423769727349281,
0.1375894397497177,
-0.8168510794639587,
0.0296467375010252,
-0.16272296011447906,
-0.29843369126319885,
0.1162930577993393,
0.2952643930912018,
0.6753662824630737,
-0.04439803212881088,
0.18171904981136322,
-0.053195275366306305,
0.629584014415741,
-0.03545014560222626,
0.2957589626312256,
-0.22733472287654877,
0.2181452512741089,
-0.7304589748382568,
-0.23450292646884918,
-0.45714858174324036,
0.5675219297409058,
0.10673248767852783,
0.10270732641220093,
0.2151937335729599,
0.3929275572299957,
-0.45679762959480286,
-0.17525452375411987,
0.4975703954696655,
0.48776158690452576,
-0.16356609761714935,
0.39433860778808594,
-0.3029816746711731,
0.19387105107307434,
-0.401998370885849,
0.35761743783950806,
-0.2332594245672226,
-0.374563068151474,
-0.02718466706573963,
-0.2238769382238388,
-0.38658133149147034,
0.6489728093147278,
0.4568279981613159,
-0.03641211614012718,
-0.37728551030158997,
-0.36203768849372864,
-0.36621928215026855,
-0.20681531727313995,
0.4182926416397095,
0.20319907367229462,
0.2656005024909973,
0.23922955989837646,
0.48809632658958435,
-0.30888134241104126,
0.4330488443374634,
0.2849784195423126,
-0.11660352349281311,
0.12700232863426208,
0.4504040479660034,
-0.44857436418533325,
-1.2938106060028076,
0.22809718549251556,
0.3426271975040436,
-0.8299667239189148,
0.12184633314609528,
-0.44506436586380005,
-0.08910296112298965,
-0.39866238832473755,
-0.09017148613929749,
-0.027465149760246277,
-0.2708883285522461,
-0.22617079317569733
] |
213003
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packing%20problems
|
Packing problems
|
Packing problems are a class of optimization problems in mathematics that involve attempting to pack objects together into containers. The goal is to either pack a single container as densely as possible or pack all objects using as few containers as possible. Many of these problems can be related to real life packaging, storage and transportation issues. Each packing problem has a dual covering problem, which asks how many of the same objects are required to completely cover every region of the container, where objects are allowed to overlap.
In a bin packing problem, you are given:
'containers' (usually a single two- or three-dimensional convex region, or an infinite space)
A set of 'objects' some or all of which must be packed into one or more containers. The set may contain different objects with their sizes specified, or a single object of a fixed dimension that can be used repeatedly.
Usually the packing must be without overlaps between goods and other goods or the container walls. In some variants, the aim is to find the configuration that packs a single container with the maximal density. More commonly, the aim is to pack all the objects into as few containers as possible. In some variants the overlapping (of objects with each other and/or with the boundary of the container) is allowed but should be minimized.
Packing in infinite space
Many of these problems, when the container size is increased in all directions, become equivalent to the problem of packing objects as densely as possible in infinite Euclidean space. This problem is relevant to a number of scientific disciplines, and has received significant attention. The Kepler conjecture postulated an optimal solution for packing spheres hundreds of years before it was proven correct by Thomas Callister Hales. Many other shapes have received attention, including ellipsoids, Platonic and Archimedean solids including tetrahedra, tripods (unions of cubes along three positive axis-parallel rays), and unequal-sphere dimers.
Hexagonal packing of circles
These problems are mathematically distinct from the ideas in the circle packing theorem. The related circle packing problem deals with packing circles, possibly of different sizes, on a surface, for instance the plane or a sphere.
The counterparts of a circle in other dimensions can never be packed with complete efficiency in dimensions larger than one (in a one-dimensional universe, the circle analogue is just two points). That is, there will always be unused space if you are only packing circles. The most efficient way of packing circles, hexagonal packing, produces approximately 91% efficiency.
Sphere packings in higher dimensions
In three dimensions, close-packed structures offer the best lattice packing of spheres, and is believed to be the optimal of all packings. With 'simple' sphere packings in three dimensions ('simple' being carefully defined) there are nine possible definable packings. The 8-dimensional E8 lattice and 24-dimensional Leech lattice have also been proven to be optimal in their respective real dimensional space.
Packings of Platonic solids in three dimensions
Cubes can easily be arranged to fill three-dimensional space completely, the most natural packing being the cubic honeycomb. No other Platonic solid can tile space on its own, but some preliminary results are known. Tetrahedra can achieve a packing of at least 85%. One of the best packings of regular dodecahedra is based on the aforementioned face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice.
Tetrahedra and octahedra together can fill all of space in an arrangement known as the tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb.
Simulations combining local improvement methods with random packings suggest that the lattice packings for icosahedra, dodecahedra, and octahedra are optimal in the broader class of all packings.
Packing in 3-dimensional containers
Different cuboids into a cuboid
Determine the minimum number of cuboid containers (bins) that are required to pack a given set of item cuboids (3 Dimensional rectangles). The rectangular cuboids to be packed can be rotated by 90 degrees on each axis.
Spheres into a Euclidean ball
The problem of finding the smallest ball such that disjoint open unit balls may be packed inside it has a simple and complete answer in -dimensional Euclidean space if , and in an infinite dimensional Hilbert space with no restrictions. It is worth describing in detail here, to give a flavor of the general problem. In this case, a configuration of pairwise tangent unit balls is available. Place the centers at the vertices of a regular dimensional simplex with edge 2; this is easily realized starting from an orthonormal basis. A small computation shows that the distance of each vertex from the barycenter is . Moreover, any other point of the space necessarily has a larger distance from at least one of the vertices. In terms of inclusions of balls, the open unit balls centered at are included in a ball of radius , which is minimal for this configuration.
To show that this configuration is optimal, let be the centers of disjoint open unit balls contained in a ball of radius centered at a point . Consider the map from the finite set into taking in the corresponding for each . Since for all , this map is 1-Lipschitz and by the Kirszbraun theorem it extends to a 1-Lipschitz map that is globally defined; in particular, there exists a point such that for all one has , so that also . This shows that there are disjoint unit open balls in a ball of radius if and only if . Notice that in an infinite dimensional Hilbert space this implies that there are infinitely many disjoint open unit balls inside a ball of radius if and only if . For instance, the unit balls centered at , where is an orthonormal basis, are disjoint and included in a ball of radius centered at the origin. Moreover, for , the maximum number of disjoint open unit balls inside a ball of radius r is .
Spheres in a cuboid
Determine the number of spherical objects of given diameter d that can be packed into a cuboid of .
Identical spheres in a cylinder
Determine the minimum height h of a cylinder with given radius R that will pack n identical spheres of radius r (< R). For a small radius R the spheres arrange to ordered structures, called columnar structures.
Polyhedra in spheres
Determine the minimum radius R that will pack n identical, unit volume polyhedra of a given shape.
Packing in 2-dimensional containers
Many variants of 2-dimensional packing problems have been studied. See the linked pages for more information.
Packing of circles
You are given n unit circles, and have to pack them in the smallest possible container. Several kinds of containers have been studied:
Packing circles in a circle - closely related to spreading points in a unit circle with the objective of finding the greatest minimal separation, dn, between points. Optimal solutions have been proven for n ≤ 13, and n = 19.
Packing circles in a square - closely related to spreading points in a unit square with the objective of finding the greatest minimal separation, dn, between points. To convert between these two formulations of the problem, the square side for unit circles will be L = 2 + 2/dn. Optimal solutions have been proven for n ≤ 30.
Packing circles in an isosceles right triangle - good estimates are known for n<300.
Packing circles in an equilateral triangle - Optimal solutions are known for n<13, and conjectures are available for n < 28.
Packing of squares
You are given n unit squares and have to pack them into the smallest possible container, where the container type varies:
Packing squares in a square: Optimal solutions have been proven for n = 1–10, 14–16, 22–25, 33–36, 62–64, 79–81, 98–100, and any square integer. The wasted space is asymptotically O(a7/11).
Packing squares in a circle: Good solutions are known for n up to 35.
Packing of rectangles
Packing identical rectangles in a rectangle: The problem of packing multiple instances of a single rectangle of size (l,w), allowing for 90° rotation, in a bigger rectangle of size (L,W) has some applications such as loading of boxes on pallets and, specifically, woodpulp stowage. For example, it is possible to pack 147 rectangles of size (137,95) in a rectangle of size (1600,1230).
Packing different rectangles in a rectangle: The problem of packing multiple rectangles of varying widths and heights in an enclosing rectangle of minimum area (but with no boundaries on the enclosing rectangle's width or height) has an important application in combining images into a single larger image. A web page that loads a single larger image often renders faster in the browser than the same page loading multiple small images, due to the overhead involved in requesting each image from the web server. The problem is NP-complete in general, but there are fast algorithms for solving small instances.
Related fields
In tiling or tessellation problems, there are to be no gaps, nor overlaps. Many of the puzzles of this type involve packing rectangles or polyominoes into a larger rectangle or other square-like shape.
There are significant theorems on tiling rectangles (and cuboids) in rectangles (cuboids) with no gaps or overlaps:
An a × b rectangle can be packed with 1 × n strips iff n divides a or n divides b.
de Bruijn's theorem: A box can be packed with a harmonic brick a × a b × a b c if the box has dimensions a p × a b q × a b c r for some natural numbers p, q, r (i.e., the box is a multiple of the brick.)
The study of polyomino tilings largely concerns two classes of problems: to tile a rectangle with congruent tiles, and to pack one of each n-omino into a rectangle.
A classic puzzle of the second kind is to arrange all twelve pentominoes into rectangles sized 3×20, 4×15, 5×12 or 6×10.
Packing of irregular objects
Packing of irregular objects is a problem not lending itself well to closed form solutions; however, the applicability to practical environmental science is quite important. For example, irregularly shaped soil particles pack differently as the sizes and shapes vary, leading to important outcomes for plant species to adapt root formations and to allow water movement in the soil.
The problem of deciding whether a given set of polygons can fit in a given square container has been shown to be complete for the existential theory of the reals.
See also
Set packing
Bin packing problem
Slothouber–Graatsma puzzle
Conway puzzle
Tetris
Covering problem
Knapsack problem
Tetrahedron packing
Ellipsoid packing
Cutting stock problem
Kissing number problem
Close-packing of equal spheres
Random close pack
Strip packing problem
Notes
References
External links
Optimizing Three-Dimensional Bin Packing
API for 3D bin packing
3D Boxes and Cylinders packing with telescoping
Many puzzle books as well as mathematical journals contain articles on packing problems.
Links to various MathWorld articles on packing
MathWorld notes on packing squares.
Erich's Packing Center
www.packomania.com A site with tables, graphs, calculators, references, etc.
"Box Packing" by Ed Pegg, Jr., the Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.
Best known packings of equal circles in a circle, up to 1100
Circle packing challenge problem in Python
|
[
-0.32494115829467773,
0.30558890104293823,
-0.664409875869751,
0.02908599004149437,
-0.07249761372804642,
0.3866231441497803,
-0.13724872469902039,
-0.053804244846105576,
-0.5393078327178955,
-0.38750332593917847,
-0.5770307779312134,
0.03621051087975502,
-0.8738590478897095,
0.23821009695529938,
0.045359399169683456,
0.329130619764328,
0.45587384700775146,
0.37730544805526733,
-0.4088827073574066,
-0.6138688325881958,
0.11071974039077759,
-0.08491550385951996,
-0.21122579276561737,
-0.2419254332780838,
0.10595894604921341,
-0.19920875132083893,
-0.4081907868385315,
0.4845808744430542,
0.004210552200675011,
0.2655697166919708,
-0.1965840607881546,
0.966020941734314,
0.09333743900060654,
-0.14812420308589935,
0.29690155386924744,
-0.17878945171833038,
0.12494927644729614,
-0.14648377895355225,
-0.0004697715339716524,
-0.20314271748065948,
0.46170055866241455,
0.5031981468200684,
0.16789834201335907,
-0.0232558473944664,
0.06979711353778839,
-0.6023138761520386,
-1.5582072734832764,
-0.7267181277275085,
-0.4427928030490875,
-0.7611885070800781,
-0.329866886138916,
0.3668200373649597,
0.44245645403862,
0.23555268347263336,
-0.13498447835445404,
0.4797220230102539,
-0.4901482164859772,
-0.02889269031584263,
0.17713533341884613,
-0.4939574897289276,
-0.22373759746551514,
-0.044167280197143555,
-0.21421629190444946,
-0.13510119915008545,
0.22697646915912628,
0.6171072125434875,
-0.11742108315229416,
0.41671833395957947,
-0.1566499024629593,
-0.5170733332633972,
-0.3693259358406067,
-0.7232130765914917,
0.26506170630455017,
0.12945158779621124,
0.2170407623052597,
0.16263340413570404,
-0.03830242529511452,
-0.39028823375701904,
-0.21355397999286652,
0.33185866475105286,
-0.42246362566947937,
0.9512556195259094,
0.27179911732673645,
-0.2805258631706238,
0.9321556687355042,
-0.02490767277777195,
-0.6609190702438354,
0.976905107498169,
-0.4465581774711609,
0.6830272674560547,
0.19781701266765594,
0.050107456743717194,
0.5667858123779297,
-0.025342371314764023,
0.09206271171569824,
0.19285733997821808,
-0.10132784396409988,
0.4486578404903412,
0.6852959990501404,
0.7140230536460876,
-0.6052422523498535,
0.01893693581223488,
0.5794433355331421,
0.035450100898742676,
-0.10432085394859314,
-1.0514215230941772,
-0.6200317740440369,
-0.5208057761192322,
-0.00695802690461278,
-0.549001932144165,
-0.4937399923801422,
0.18691347539424896,
0.13212358951568604,
-0.10210396349430084,
-0.30585452914237976,
0.178216814994812,
0.05253613367676735,
0.20957051217556,
-0.34992650151252747,
0.25977322459220886,
-0.22885486483573914,
0.7830266356468201,
-0.12924659252166748,
0.3980693817138672,
-0.39263659715652466,
-0.17774982750415802,
0.3776933252811432,
0.7102699279785156,
-0.33631154894828796,
0.05705628544092178,
-0.10921753942966461,
0.8515323400497437,
0.01848357915878296,
0.21385328471660614,
-0.3289414644241333,
0.08691931515932083,
-0.34082260727882385,
0.24967175722122192,
-0.023010853677988052,
-0.11838968098163605,
-0.3929206430912018,
0.14856970310211182,
-0.37851768732070923,
0.1779516041278839,
0.44950148463249207,
0.028379380702972412,
-0.22843903303146362,
-0.5308653116226196,
-0.41537562012672424,
-0.010025052353739738,
0.16431179642677307,
0.4346523880958557,
-0.3359406292438507,
0.46415600180625916,
-0.5656286478042603,
0.3972509801387787,
0.31378769874572754,
-0.18283864855766296,
-0.273409903049469,
-0.1734929382801056,
-0.3610760569572449,
0.19567693769931793,
-0.7541818022727966,
-0.37880977988243103,
-0.1311163306236267,
-0.46366676688194275,
0.4582749009132385,
0.3240163028240204,
0.09023763239383698,
0.4350872039794922,
-0.3459410071372986,
-0.16900771856307983,
0.08294346928596497,
0.16312046349048615,
0.36824294924736023,
-0.3147588074207306,
1.007165551185608,
0.132208913564682,
0.8161677718162537,
0.18514087796211243,
-0.6307929754257202,
0.13577555119991302,
0.34261101484298706,
-0.635597825050354,
0.40239211916923523,
0.3149612843990326,
0.3704373240470886,
-0.1934812068939209,
-0.014509783126413822,
-0.3234424889087677,
-0.2755861282348633,
0.05174396187067032,
0.17650099098682404,
-0.07856522500514984,
1.3461798429489136,
0.43299004435539246,
-0.39668136835098267,
0.625922679901123,
0.21540214121341705,
0.1502898633480072,
-0.12292353808879852,
-0.03352455794811249,
0.07105091959238052,
-0.04454118013381958,
-0.48797255754470825,
0.968146800994873,
0.16337087750434875,
0.25304949283599854,
-0.5280430912971497,
0.7702152729034424,
0.24376806616783142,
0.17985671758651733,
0.4555385112762451,
0.04196649044752121,
0.32438361644744873,
-0.0620860755443573,
-0.546202540397644,
0.6179323196411133,
0.09720733016729355,
-0.3465350270271301,
1.1760485172271729,
-0.09628342092037201,
-0.16619357466697693,
0.5841292142868042,
-0.3229326009750366,
0.8704854846000671,
1.002374291419983,
0.191427543759346,
0.7645379304885864,
-0.6481404304504395,
0.31767481565475464,
-0.09610872715711594,
0.12341659516096115,
-0.27151936292648315,
-0.5197016596794128,
0.4234817922115326,
0.462462842464447,
-0.2744125723838806,
-0.29155007004737854,
-0.30690523982048035,
-0.17122067511081696,
0.623794674873352,
-0.5034898519515991,
0.17400521039962769,
0.1822643131017685,
-0.4073595404624939,
-0.533191442489624,
0.009760510176420212,
-0.08036721497774124,
-0.041026871651411057,
-0.0853080153465271,
0.6949272751808167,
-0.19504624605178833,
-0.7196624875068665,
0.07166409492492676,
-0.038255106657743454,
-0.0927530825138092,
-0.01665278524160385,
0.40827158093452454,
0.48811328411102295,
-0.03646824508905411,
0.23713746666908264,
-0.14313393831253052,
-0.6171808242797852,
-0.3737429976463318,
-0.10227461904287338,
-0.3724496066570282,
-0.016663508489727974,
0.5588457584381104,
0.6089438199996948,
0.5027540326118469,
-0.9362578392028809,
-0.6618786454200745,
-0.4505611062049866,
-0.8376510739326477,
-0.8018120527267456,
-0.11172386258840561,
0.30027341842651367,
-0.84675532579422,
-0.1938958764076233,
0.1567712277173996,
0.5950489640235901,
0.24871724843978882,
0.2041335254907608,
-0.12354061007499695,
-0.3565172553062439,
0.059231918305158615,
-0.294041246175766,
0.0522729866206646,
-0.46333810687065125,
-0.23813766241073608,
0.23598384857177734,
-0.05248669534921646,
-0.22382277250289917,
0.20281846821308136,
0.7681743502616882,
-0.43498390913009644,
0.3593077063560486,
0.4841957092285156,
-0.02982480265200138,
-0.46224620938301086,
-0.21557480096817017,
-0.09468898922204971,
-0.04044424742460251,
-0.2805703580379486,
0.00351432291790843,
0.082492895424366,
-0.12387295067310333,
-5.4991536140441895,
0.14326027035713196,
0.17779630422592163,
0.6103348731994629,
-0.46121519804000854,
0.15674729645252228,
0.6051557064056396,
-0.5556005835533142,
-0.24551960825920105,
0.027948478236794472,
-0.4452696144580841,
0.15658849477767944,
-0.6167191863059998,
0.5881519913673401,
0.5247395038604736,
0.18942227959632874,
0.6040869355201721,
0.3090016543865204,
0.285587340593338,
0.022327352315187454,
-0.17396266758441925,
0.02836577408015728,
-0.26530924439430237,
0.2420128583908081,
-0.34473100304603577,
0.3871699869632721,
-0.2199273556470871,
0.4924564063549042,
-0.7293791174888611,
0.17887575924396515,
-0.361163854598999,
-0.40599676966667175,
-0.23960179090499878,
-0.32102611660957336,
-0.4640178382396698,
0.39398014545440674,
0.3821095824241638,
0.10505606979131699,
0.0016805775230750442,
-0.2980366349220276,
0.2047615498304367,
0.7423520684242249,
0.11448812484741211,
0.1711205542087555,
0.7231192588806152,
-0.6134899258613586,
-0.28804779052734375,
-0.8113057613372803,
-0.1646360605955124,
0.7779382467269897,
0.36638712882995605,
0.01161238644272089,
0.5329055190086365,
0.2604566216468811,
0.19845430552959442,
0.2228947877883911,
0.19550251960754395,
-0.06328170001506805,
-0.3109216094017029,
0.5811430215835571,
0.8576947450637817,
-0.45766961574554443,
0.19043037295341492,
-0.4425453543663025,
-0.6215285658836365,
-0.46512338519096375,
-0.5468161702156067,
-0.2984398603439331,
0.2534891963005066,
0.04043687880039215,
-0.5590927600860596,
0.33604317903518677,
0.1759636402130127,
-0.48076891899108887,
0.32599687576293945,
-0.4521642327308655,
-0.043018050491809845,
-0.19298966228961945,
0.24031151831150055,
0.5840869545936584,
-0.272725909948349,
-0.342258095741272,
0.03633298724889755,
0.1884034126996994,
-0.2053477168083191,
-0.3642922639846802,
-0.46752145886421204,
0.4099678695201874,
-0.7006946802139282,
-0.3620550334453583,
0.34746482968330383,
0.24133352935314178,
0.39394742250442505,
0.29062601923942566,
0.6766607165336609,
0.6510368585586548,
0.4390048682689667,
-0.055854469537734985,
0.08489005267620087,
-0.02243538200855255,
-0.20845025777816772,
-0.45435279607772827,
-0.1572486311197281,
-0.053721338510513306,
-0.011318487115204334,
-0.07990367710590363,
-0.308910995721817,
0.8374177813529968,
0.7839029431343079,
0.5451008677482605,
0.20008598268032074,
0.5122592449188232,
0.005717844236642122,
-0.5229055881500244,
0.12313101440668106,
0.3833152651786804,
-0.5768448710441589,
0.47357621788978577,
0.35441330075263977,
-0.2192593365907669,
0.18438461422920227,
0.017324263229966164,
-0.3965146243572235,
0.021735336631536484,
0.052483487874269485,
-0.41769737005233765,
0.48891425132751465,
-0.4577890634536743,
-0.11265735328197479,
-0.07134959846735,
-0.13310642540454865,
0.3928448557853699,
0.22038723528385162,
-0.056359678506851196,
0.3757033944129944,
-0.9048349261283875,
-0.19080133736133575,
0.2032538652420044,
-0.11040683835744858,
-0.6924620866775513,
0.7887253761291504,
-0.14806003868579865,
-0.13982978463172913,
-0.5009239315986633,
0.2442183643579483,
0.27697619795799255,
-0.3724935054779053,
-0.0704735815525055,
-0.07457775622606277,
0.4167511463165283,
-0.7419171929359436,
-1.0712000131607056,
0.15193071961402893,
-0.11899770051240921,
0.47056159377098083,
0.02593233250081539,
0.04454651474952698,
0.4096527695655823,
0.8879736065864563,
-0.47175362706184387,
0.5230122804641724,
-0.27073487639427185,
-1.1757887601852417,
-0.697512686252594,
-0.2627328634262085,
0.0476534441113472,
-0.050293002277612686,
-0.5231708288192749,
-0.3436419665813446,
0.5226877927780151,
-0.5791831016540527,
-0.07437954097986221,
-0.21374160051345825,
-0.6154984831809998,
0.17325012385845184,
-0.20483072102069855,
0.8861203789710999,
-0.10249214619398117,
-0.35814374685287476,
-0.41981276869773865,
-0.2295304387807846,
-0.7486934661865234,
0.059967540204524994,
0.38339942693710327,
0.6156342625617981,
-0.14582987129688263,
0.206173375248909,
0.5034641623497009,
-0.7507156729698181,
-0.5773516297340393,
-0.5005913972854614,
0.24898876249790192,
0.5084497928619385,
-0.09223222732543945,
-0.25910139083862305,
-0.3738704323768616,
0.008596815168857574,
0.27298200130462646,
-0.6380078792572021,
-0.41791433095932007,
-0.04661865904927254,
0.38618648052215576,
-0.6252202391624451,
0.6125491261482239,
0.38579511642456055,
-0.5239903926849365,
0.026504259556531906,
-0.2709793746471405,
0.3792935013771057,
0.0832756906747818,
-0.26344308257102966,
-0.18183095753192902,
-0.6777706146240234,
-0.05274953320622444,
-0.25021833181381226,
-0.06630971282720566,
0.16656431555747986,
-0.22086717188358307,
0.2551598846912384,
-0.20836800336837769,
-0.543022871017456,
-0.15437857806682587,
-0.8070874214172363,
-0.29555076360702515,
-0.13585127890110016,
0.7073172926902771,
-0.01316593587398529,
-0.7020877599716187,
0.45459291338920593,
0.1667618453502655,
-0.2707148492336273,
-0.6144939064979553,
-0.49393635988235474,
0.3533468246459961,
-0.1531411111354828,
-0.510566234588623,
0.09694932401180267,
0.44611838459968567,
0.06570886075496674,
-0.41439828276634216,
0.07677610963582993,
0.6793797016143799,
0.2328328937292099,
-0.5113458633422852,
-0.28635483980178833,
0.31956854462623596,
0.31993618607521057,
-0.5933540463447571,
-0.32158616185188293,
-0.17615027725696564,
0.3927513360977173,
-0.3535781502723694,
-0.111075259745121,
-0.33623796701431274,
0.6176226735115051,
0.5485533475875854,
-0.3620154559612274,
-0.4766187071800232,
0.4462820589542389,
0.4340496361255646,
0.05395429953932762,
-0.18748579919338226,
-0.435589998960495,
-0.1206110492348671,
0.17525549232959747,
0.28509292006492615,
-0.13939988613128662,
-0.039822276681661606,
-0.10547663271427155,
-0.12203747034072876,
0.2722160816192627,
0.13182899355888367,
0.19583472609519958,
0.2242611199617386,
0.4515911340713501,
0.11619922518730164,
0.3467343747615814,
-0.7804542779922485,
-0.04345301166176796,
0.31929895281791687,
-0.37624818086624146,
-0.5236474871635437,
-0.07149110734462738,
-0.02602887526154518,
0.3356991112232208,
-0.3690648674964905,
-0.09933888912200928,
0.38380271196365356,
-0.5858986377716064,
0.2731453776359558,
-0.7631044983863831,
0.2768201529979706,
-0.5200806260108948,
-0.37695568799972534,
0.02819991298019886,
0.41080236434936523,
0.23107893764972687,
0.31716251373291016,
-0.15395520627498627,
-0.42651891708374023,
-0.8074580430984497,
0.6186574697494507,
-0.4517907202243805,
-1.0970736742019653,
0.7317578196525574,
0.3836672902107239,
-0.09698450565338135,
-0.5387721061706543,
-0.21907655894756317,
0.03285079076886177,
0.11501572281122208,
0.055792808532714844,
0.2566470503807068,
0.42171022295951843,
-0.06654532253742218,
-0.0014615148538723588,
0.7442103028297424,
-1.0097589492797852,
0.622063159942627,
0.26334676146507263,
-0.04984269663691521,
-0.531240701675415,
-0.013096567243337631,
-0.5278071761131287,
-0.9735490679740906,
0.39981895685195923,
-0.48382580280303955,
0.25819337368011475,
0.30378255248069763,
0.4320761561393738,
0.4118286669254303,
0.3635893762111664,
-0.09877028316259384,
0.05973228067159653,
-0.0872657373547554,
0.011675759218633175,
-0.07215486466884613,
-1.1116206645965576,
-0.06111064925789833,
0.15482589602470398,
0.44133028388023376,
0.8313298225402832,
-0.13209956884384155,
0.09761431068181992,
-0.510191798210144,
0.1240590512752533,
0.1390928477048874,
0.1296137422323227,
-0.15155445039272308,
0.562936544418335,
0.10877717286348343,
0.7027314305305481,
-0.0633755549788475,
0.19146913290023804,
0.15425144135951996,
0.002928774571046233,
0.6638075113296509,
0.07441893965005875,
0.14942267537117004,
0.006325497757643461,
0.5435754656791687,
0.4093010127544403,
-0.5347538590431213,
0.23910249769687653,
0.42059871554374695,
-0.05975788086652756,
0.5118431448936462,
-0.38347575068473816,
0.19096222519874573,
0.04167042300105095,
-0.33408984541893005,
0.44938787817955017,
0.20410297811031342,
0.5556612610816956,
0.22140862047672272,
-0.051107943058013916,
-0.08430536091327667,
0.561630129814148,
-0.05168478190898895,
0.02528533898293972,
0.5625513195991516,
0.24342581629753113,
0.007983306422829628,
-0.17270183563232422,
0.20316456258296967,
0.05341507866978645,
0.02616453915834427,
0.5310045480728149,
0.38986736536026,
-0.013799545355141163,
-0.17655505239963531,
-0.037483688443899155,
-0.09458930045366287,
0.3251957595348358,
0.8326858282089233,
0.3566896915435791,
-0.5536578893661499,
1.5929803848266602,
0.6339702010154724,
-0.28002452850341797,
-0.3126457631587982,
-0.5083299875259399,
0.1075124442577362,
0.362460196018219,
-0.2790333926677704,
0.12151839584112167,
-0.3017953634262085,
0.5809581279754639,
-0.8199019432067871,
0.44550538063049316,
0.4768676161766052,
-0.14519932866096497,
-0.36632436513900757,
0.23656190931797028,
0.18714553117752075,
0.0136338472366333,
0.71646648645401,
-0.3991391360759735,
-0.10862269252538681,
-0.42007285356521606,
-0.13110919296741486,
-0.5805321931838989,
0.4197944700717926,
0.19082868099212646,
0.04543764516711235,
-0.06914938986301422,
0.39541250467300415,
-0.47696688771247864,
-0.5392113924026489,
0.10546907037496567,
0.12776364386081696,
0.1448400318622589,
-0.9719964265823364,
0.5950414538383484,
0.2674311399459839,
-0.0020519106183201075,
0.15621595084667206,
0.5013369917869568,
0.9555444717407227,
-0.4078693091869354,
0.03171113505959511,
-0.37064918875694275,
-0.261484295129776,
0.09565205127000809,
-1.3700264692306519,
0.5855485796928406,
-0.49609893560409546,
-0.24095790088176727,
-0.28236716985702515,
0.5536679625511169,
0.04351726174354553,
-0.5978506207466125,
-0.0374419167637825,
-0.3902527987957001,
-0.5846049189567566,
0.4729057848453522,
0.1784473955631256,
-0.3955553472042084,
-0.7571483254432678,
0.23292772471904755
] |
213004
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence%20Alma-Tadema
|
Laurence Alma-Tadema
|
Laurence Alma-Tadema (August 1865 – 1940), born Laurense Tadema, was an English writer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries who worked in many genres.
Early life
Alma-Tadema was born in Brussels in 1865. She was the eldest daughter of the Dutch painter Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1836–1912) and his first wife Marie-Pauline Gressin-Dumoulin de Boisgirard.
Laurence lived in "The Fair Haven", Wittersham, Kent, and she involved herself with music and plays with the villagers and their children, going on to construct a building to seat a hundred people, used for musical concerts and plays, which she named "Hall of Happy Hours". She never married, and died in a nursing home in London in 1940. Her stepmother, Lady Laura Theresa Alma-Tadema (1852–1909) and sister Anna Alma-Tadema (1867–1943) were noted visual artists.
Literary work
Alma-Tadema's first novel, Love's Martyr, was published in 1886. In addition to her own collections of stories and poems, which she often published herself, Alma-Tadema wrote two novels, songs and works on drama; she also made translations. The Orlando Project says about Alma-Tadema's writing that the "characteristic tone is one of intense emotion, but in prose and verse she has the gift of compression". She contributed widely to periodicals, notably The Yellow Book, and also edited one herself. Some of Alma-Tadema's plays were successfully produced in Germany.
Alma-Tadema's poem "If No One Ever Marries Me", written in 1897 and published in Realms of Unknown Kings, saw performances as a song in the 21st century by Natalie Merchant on her double album Leave Your Sleep. In 1900 it had been included in the musical score, The daisy chain, cycle of twelve songs of childhood by Liza Lehmann, and in 1922 in the musical score Little girls composed by Louise Sington.
Political activities
Alma-Tadema had a close association with Poland. She was secretary of the "Poland and the Polish Victims Relief Fund" from 1915 to 1939. She was an admirer and long-term associate of Ignacy Jan Paderewski both as far as his music and political activities were concerned, notably on Polish independence. Alma-Tadema maintained a correspondence with him from 1915 to the end of her life. Some of her papers are deposited with the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford.
American tour
Alma-Tadema, who had socialist leanings, travelled to America in 1907 to tour the country widely. She gave a series of readings on the "Meaning of Happiness", which proved exceedingly popular. She also spoke on the plight of the divided Poland and asked her audience to express their feelings for this cause.
Bibliography
Love's Martyr, Longmans, London, Green, and Co., (1886), hardcover, 208 pages; New York, D. Appleton (1886)
One Way of Love: A Play (1893), Edinburgh : R. & R. Clark, 54 pages
The wings of Icarus: being the life of one Emilia Fletcher, revealed by herself in I. Thirty-five letters, written to Constance Norris between July 18th, 188–, and March 26th of the following year; II. A fragmentary journal; III. A postscript, MacMillan New York and London, 1894
The Crucifix, A Venetian Phantasy, and Other Tales, London, Osgood, McIlvaine & Co. (1895), 172 pages
Realms of unknown kings, London, G. Richards, 1897
The fate-spinner, London, E.B. Mortlock, 1900
The Daisy-Chain (Liza Lehmann, L. Alma-Tadema, R.L. Stevenson and others) (1900)
Songs of childhood, Wrotham, Kent, Herb O'Grace, 1902.
Songs of womanhood, London: Grant Richards, 1903, hardcover, 117 pages
Four plays, London, Green Sheaf, 1905
Tales from my garden: three fairy tales, coauthored with Pamela Colman Smith, London, The Green Sheaf, 1906
The meaning of happiness : a discourse, London, Elkin Mathews, 1909
A few lyrics, London, E. Mathews, 1909
Mother Goose Nursery Rhymes : Proverbs and Rhyme Games, illustrated by Charles Robinson, foreword by Laurence Alma-Tadema, Collins Clear-Type Press, London, c. 1910, hardcover, 208 pages
Chopin. A discourse ... Translated from the Polish by Laurence Alma Tadema, Ignace Jan Paderewski, London, W. Adlington, 1911
Pelleas and Melisanda and the Sightless Two Plays By Maurice Maeterlinck, translation by Laurence Alma-Tadema, Walter Scott Ltd., London, hardcover and G. Allen and Unwin, London {1914}
Poland, Russia and the war, St. Catherine press (1915)
A Child's Garden of Verses ... With an introduction by Laurence Alma Tadema. Illustrated by . by Robert Louis Stevenson; Kate Elizabeth Olver; Laura Theresa Alma-Tadema, London & Glasgow, : Collins' Clear-Type Press, [1927]
Little bo Peep's Story Book, Laurence Alma-Tadema, John Lea, and others, Children's Press, London, hardcover
A Gleaner's Sheaf. Verses., London: St. Martin's Press (1927)
The divine orbit : seventeen sonnets, Wittersham [Kent], s.n., London, Printed by Finden Brown & Co., 1933
Playgrounds (single poem)
Notes
External links
"If No One Ever Marries Me" at ArtMagick Illustrated Poetry Collection (artmagick.com/poetry)
Date of birth missing
Date of death missing
British people of Frisian descent
English women poets
English women dramatists and playwrights
English children's writers
1865 births
1940 deaths
Writers from Brussels
People from Wittersham
|
[
-0.08159779012203217,
1.07150399684906,
-1.05916428565979,
-0.23752643167972565,
-0.3856631815433502,
0.6222505569458008,
0.6316587924957275,
-0.09368559718132019,
-0.10526282340288162,
-0.45754003524780273,
-0.5879586935043335,
0.22899368405342102,
-0.11627205461263657,
0.5020972490310669,
0.004855050239712,
0.052422042936086655,
-0.38704630732536316,
0.11762097477912903,
-0.48765328526496887,
-0.4377198815345764,
-0.5934808254241943,
0.1387362778186798,
0.2243688851594925,
-0.11444170773029327,
0.09769569337368011,
-0.312135249376297,
0.6427862644195557,
-0.2039157748222351,
-0.19752733409404755,
0.002233615145087242,
0.15284943580627441,
0.42908528447151184,
0.008806087076663971,
-0.3499840199947357,
-0.7585552930831909,
-0.15187563002109528,
-0.46891528367996216,
-0.2509233057498932,
0.0019686403684318066,
-0.15064141154289246,
-0.2853420376777649,
0.04324498400092125,
0.3682914674282074,
-0.13861314952373505,
0.20889993011951447,
-0.383899986743927,
-1.6999757289886475,
0.363216757774353,
-0.9185897707939148,
-0.7634874582290649,
0.22531035542488098,
0.5507020354270935,
1.2068753242492676,
0.07692889124155045,
-0.22037264704704285,
1.104978084564209,
-1.0974870920181274,
-0.1497134119272232,
-0.04829645901918411,
-0.44864651560783386,
0.6511862277984619,
0.10057752579450607,
0.3916568160057068,
0.07176525890827179,
0.20128017663955688,
0.2886196970939636,
-0.3664528429508209,
-0.3573407530784607,
0.08197867125272751,
0.27376729249954224,
-0.2596780061721802,
0.14657865464687347,
0.07613333314657211,
0.19622743129730225,
0.13730552792549133,
-0.6249862313270569,
0.5343729853630066,
0.04182490333914757,
0.08316276967525482,
0.21041542291641235,
-0.23292148113250732,
-0.28040334582328796,
1.028289556503296,
0.39327502250671387,
-0.28743624687194824,
0.005816915072500706,
-0.014753824099898338,
0.0520743653178215,
-0.3350183069705963,
-0.22621552646160126,
-0.49016833305358887,
-0.5068408846855164,
-0.26220208406448364,
0.08531647175550461,
0.2934538424015045,
-0.005871460307389498,
-0.1586328148841858,
0.9962015748023987,
-0.906936764717102,
0.2755989134311676,
-0.05261749029159546,
0.5983440279960632,
0.5012372732162476,
0.12856395542621613,
-0.6806617975234985,
-0.20833423733711243,
-0.2948119342327118,
-0.409823477268219,
0.8435229659080505,
0.2821514308452606,
-0.049185916781425476,
0.4667544662952423,
-0.18984822928905487,
-0.052070554345846176,
-0.03460133820772171,
-0.09429631382226944,
-0.2705606520175934,
-0.5914605855941772,
-0.6332204341888428,
-0.007413176354020834,
-0.39045417308807373,
-0.04769154265522957,
0.02735896408557892,
-0.07717957347631454,
-0.7735773921012878,
-0.20246511697769165,
-0.06749558448791504,
-0.09577626734972,
-0.09948669373989105,
0.3324216902256012,
0.6494569182395935,
0.7657162547111511,
-0.442940890789032,
-0.6299934983253479,
-0.07240070402622223,
-0.23171021044254303,
0.2732493281364441,
0.13343659043312073,
-0.29868367314338684,
0.4442771077156067,
-0.5090656280517578,
-0.2613355815410614,
-0.9425226449966431,
-0.13449405133724213,
0.4697282016277313,
-0.047972869127988815,
0.2626764178276062,
0.5795588493347168,
-0.3040046989917755,
-0.40036672353744507,
-0.4531460404396057,
-0.2638832628726959,
-0.19472594559192657,
-0.27451515197753906,
0.08269396424293518,
0.43929243087768555,
0.16955339908599854,
0.47995275259017944,
0.7219398021697998,
-0.14512582123279572,
0.5620728731155396,
0.43347543478012085,
-0.11551228165626526,
0.023523731157183647,
-0.2698802053928375,
-0.3059070110321045,
0.4758125841617584,
0.4174841642379761,
-0.2173672765493393,
-0.01341171097010374,
-0.16980120539665222,
0.2108040750026703,
0.16460256278514862,
-0.42309167981147766,
-0.3608394265174866,
0.25643429160118103,
1.2073338031768799,
0.41270744800567627,
0.17407669126987457,
0.05556781589984894,
-0.8395174741744995,
0.22299449145793915,
-0.21488581597805023,
-0.3116550147533417,
0.46574339270591736,
0.46831631660461426,
0.6863008141517639,
-0.023203333839774132,
-0.07688580453395844,
-0.27929162979125977,
-0.6021974682807922,
-0.9065057635307312,
-0.08961842209100723,
-0.3848155438899994,
0.8542925715446472,
0.38839834928512573,
-0.2979668378829956,
1.2215393781661987,
-0.04576670378446579,
0.9935854077339172,
0.041474565863609314,
-0.15669845044612885,
-0.10015567392110825,
-0.22040729224681854,
-0.3724033534526825,
0.49163463711738586,
0.018045557662844658,
0.5779166221618652,
0.2014751136302948,
0.5385059714317322,
0.9503485560417175,
-0.4834904968738556,
0.3338968753814697,
0.6220553517341614,
-0.6925704479217529,
-0.5911656022071838,
-0.28977733850479126,
0.0988980233669281,
0.07906235754489899,
-0.11871342360973358,
0.29177194833755493,
0.180435910820961,
0.09940043836832047,
0.3190440535545349,
0.15042714774608612,
0.24182502925395966,
-0.008997464552521706,
-0.15822401642799377,
-0.06772340834140778,
-0.5599509477615356,
-0.2131844311952591,
0.5930242538452148,
0.4549389183521271,
-0.4162849485874176,
0.1498280167579651,
-0.1869969666004181,
0.5338777899742126,
-0.21575400233268738,
0.45128804445266724,
0.23119519650936127,
0.2557966411113739,
0.2619498074054718,
-0.07338036596775055,
0.1097252145409584,
0.3336116671562195,
-0.06833851337432861,
-0.09000781178474426,
-0.0006751862238161266,
0.08393910527229309,
0.05127761885523796,
0.4345991313457489,
0.8375946283340454,
0.46807563304901123,
0.1397857964038849,
-0.3240174353122711,
0.04426587373018265,
-0.31805264949798584,
-0.18267318606376648,
0.5417331457138062,
0.02346698008477688,
0.05991576239466667,
0.27082589268684387,
0.059278663247823715,
-0.02285970374941826,
0.2512666881084442,
-0.6354369521141052,
0.2658388316631317,
-0.8414056897163391,
0.07661615312099457,
0.19099126756191254,
0.4114396870136261,
-0.02855495922267437,
-0.22590865194797516,
0.26611438393592834,
0.32081055641174316,
0.09638338536024094,
0.23428787291049957,
0.28848057985305786,
-0.68961501121521,
-0.8150709271430969,
0.3435192108154297,
1.042099952697754,
0.1581757366657257,
-0.08388280868530273,
-0.37791433930397034,
-0.6540050506591797,
-0.16669940948486328,
-0.5041384100914001,
0.002348271431401372,
0.11549312621355057,
-0.21216954290866852,
0.6936407685279846,
-0.2917768657207489,
-0.453355073928833,
-0.20842161774635315,
0.5481611490249634,
-0.27988094091415405,
-0.7850950360298157,
-0.4105249047279358,
-0.21100656688213348,
-0.4570172429084778,
0.19344206154346466,
-0.3017834722995758,
0.7095608115196228,
1.1240885257720947,
0.8072431683540344,
-0.03973862901329994,
0.2352151870727539,
-5.565710544586182,
0.005101716611534357,
-0.3081355690956116,
-0.2672821283340454,
-0.04236902296543121,
0.07816223800182343,
0.7070183157920837,
-0.13678312301635742,
-0.23048467934131622,
-0.5626135468482971,
-0.4170321524143219,
-0.01222019363194704,
-0.25809812545776367,
1.0435638427734375,
0.49915802478790283,
0.37503287196159363,
-0.00521977199241519,
-0.04156031087040901,
0.039912428706884384,
0.2213568389415741,
0.3045904338359833,
-0.12729141116142273,
-0.024017810821533203,
0.7673365473747253,
0.7980509996414185,
-0.198379784822464,
-0.019735679030418396,
0.31009140610694885,
-0.787287175655365,
0.19969679415225983,
0.5324640274047852,
-0.07026591897010803,
0.09171752631664276,
-0.3969169855117798,
0.1540469527244568,
-0.13412657380104065,
0.5436587333679199,
0.917617917060852,
0.6130900979042053,
0.5332331657409668,
-0.1963125765323639,
-0.061156049370765686,
-0.2956247627735138,
-0.03749933838844299,
-0.33740168809890747,
0.19066692888736725,
-0.5810115337371826,
0.001847151666879654,
0.08901576697826385,
0.2926698625087738,
0.1729719042778015,
-0.006496497895568609,
0.0606175921857357,
0.3374292254447937,
0.28982627391815186,
0.24105192720890045,
0.5128414630889893,
-0.7025988101959229,
-0.7716231942176819,
-0.1643252968788147,
0.4850465953350067,
-0.34359312057495117,
0.5201855301856995,
-0.5010871291160583,
-0.04121769219636917,
-0.3029046654701233,
0.024938197806477547,
-0.11525262892246246,
-0.264632910490036,
0.2505631446838379,
-0.3749658465385437,
0.32521364092826843,
-0.15008854866027832,
-1.2681126594543457,
-0.6501212120056152,
-0.10864534229040146,
-0.46979933977127075,
-0.028198231011629105,
-0.12986022233963013,
-0.10452321171760559,
-0.2188633680343628,
-0.9261152148246765,
-0.5112759470939636,
0.7055782675743103,
0.732515811920166,
-0.27800190448760986,
-0.3783482015132904,
0.23006707429885864,
-0.6323904395103455,
-0.06652433425188065,
-0.12372554838657379,
-0.4657295048236847,
-0.26894524693489075,
0.02151799201965332,
0.36265724897384644,
-0.03544425964355469,
-0.15560071170330048,
0.43547189235687256,
0.8038182854652405,
-0.14208976924419403,
-1.0395461320877075,
-0.29389694333076477,
0.37371090054512024,
0.128292977809906,
0.559010922908783,
-0.24996009469032288,
-0.3970896005630493,
-0.008352147415280342,
0.8876103758811951,
0.0920691043138504,
-0.24347856640815735,
-0.06536729633808136,
-0.6654801368713379,
-0.16434483230113983,
0.009727423079311848,
-0.25546059012413025,
0.875957190990448,
0.19110281765460968,
0.01418997161090374,
0.4471818506717682,
-0.3823983669281006,
0.5717166066169739,
-0.5071360468864441,
0.29626452922821045,
0.27183997631073,
-0.030956633388996124,
-0.38770225644111633,
-0.541067898273468,
0.121906578540802,
0.0020283577032387257,
-0.00023609382333233953,
0.0820012167096138,
0.03270348906517029,
-0.1987152099609375,
-0.1339927613735199,
-0.9083502292633057,
-0.6883546113967896,
-0.3429030179977417,
-0.2687176764011383,
-0.42377015948295593,
-0.4363403022289276,
-0.2000511884689331,
0.14853829145431519,
0.17775888741016388,
0.4411424696445465,
-0.16294854879379272,
-0.21619342267513275,
0.10121956467628479,
-0.4744674861431122,
-0.060878101736307144,
-0.062309592962265015,
0.5566179752349854,
0.44243910908699036,
0.00293945474550128,
-0.5009756088256836,
0.1207575649023056,
-0.4946296215057373,
0.6441885232925415,
-0.5290343165397644,
-0.00803981814533472,
0.13102637231349945,
-0.6141471862792969,
-0.6440830826759338,
0.16961483657360077,
0.018655480816960335,
0.19708013534545898,
0.038670722395181656,
-0.2379312515258789,
-0.30267173051834106,
0.5712147951126099,
0.329055517911911,
-0.6080428957939148,
-0.23797354102134705,
-0.2932732105255127,
0.5348919034004211,
0.1565946638584137,
-0.05538247153162956,
-0.005830603651702404,
0.0948256403207779,
-0.1988641321659088,
-0.5347616076469421,
-0.02487608976662159,
-0.27134233713150024,
-0.06189948320388794,
0.3548618257045746,
-0.0678926333785057,
-0.36840301752090454,
-0.30190762877464294,
-0.939765453338623,
-0.393897145986557,
0.1436534970998764,
0.33745139837265015,
0.3914748728275299,
0.22988329827785492,
-0.3520497679710388,
-0.19368988275527954,
0.18447096645832062,
0.34601423144340515,
-0.05458209291100502,
-0.44979238510131836,
0.07636746019124985,
0.41492924094200134,
0.1503608077764511,
0.09557425230741501,
-0.07659497857093811,
-1.5919301509857178,
0.24841327965259552,
-0.4645981192588806,
-0.5205078721046448,
1.0752060413360596,
-0.3770333230495453,
-0.5503882765769958,
0.22908003628253937,
0.21636436879634857,
-0.031588539481163025,
0.1683245450258255,
0.6341733336448669,
0.4358091354370117,
-0.14460381865501404,
-0.4827204644680023,
-0.030012058094143867,
-0.44001907110214233,
-0.7111638188362122,
-0.019805436953902245,
-0.6318534016609192,
0.20378029346466064,
0.41185492277145386,
-0.13420486450195312,
0.623083770275116,
-0.33507040143013,
0.19108447432518005,
0.03272164240479469,
-0.09039568156003952,
0.37474194169044495,
-0.46883460879325867,
-0.36773738265037537,
0.20605173707008362,
-0.19638773798942566,
-0.32113564014434814,
0.06149470806121826,
0.6398449540138245,
0.7902910709381104,
0.6247758269309998,
0.11802113801240921,
0.078334279358387,
0.40883299708366394,
-0.3902413547039032,
-0.32295137643814087,
-0.44831252098083496,
0.4233476519584656,
0.05251890793442726,
-0.009653103537857533,
-0.6176168322563171,
-0.3475494682788849,
0.7541216611862183,
-0.3645166754722595,
-0.7191099524497986,
0.40261709690093994,
-0.19922833144664764,
0.5678292512893677,
0.3338833153247833,
0.4643494188785553,
0.15465810894966125,
0.2969372570514679,
-0.0455402210354805,
0.39133507013320923,
0.2806142270565033,
0.38610726594924927,
0.11123335361480713,
0.05978105217218399,
-0.20803484320640564,
-0.1950589120388031,
-0.04971658065915108,
0.68771892786026,
0.1460789293050766,
-0.21109560132026672,
0.002302374690771103,
-0.2574329674243927,
0.14929480850696564,
-0.5578340888023376,
-0.2021401971578598,
-0.035170700401067734,
-0.14068566262722015,
-0.5391502976417542,
-0.6152119040489197,
-0.43284323811531067,
-0.07336894422769547,
-0.31758901476860046,
-0.19227762520313263,
0.027901168912649155,
-0.597306489944458,
0.2651103138923645,
-0.020248403772711754,
0.35891225934028625,
-0.03751281276345253,
0.3243091106414795,
-0.36121129989624023,
0.39722269773483276,
-0.3896605968475342,
-0.49635374546051025,
-0.13032546639442444,
0.2772248387336731,
0.35047009587287903,
-0.18494544923305511,
0.41524621844291687,
-0.15639245510101318,
0.08191730082035065,
-0.19405996799468994,
-0.4823124408721924,
0.890185534954071,
0.325058251619339,
0.05251103267073631,
0.4712606966495514,
0.750737190246582,
-0.005294987931847572,
0.21028266847133636,
0.3051038384437561,
-0.15864385664463043,
0.22389648854732513,
0.1130637526512146,
0.2859114408493042,
0.19851499795913696,
0.38003841042518616,
-0.475956529378891,
-0.2650839686393738,
0.047010038048028946,
0.027622515335679054,
-0.27681970596313477,
-0.5879312753677368,
0.35398370027542114,
0.07182721048593521,
-0.23323330283164978,
-0.3893893361091614,
0.417980432510376,
0.11901003122329712,
-0.4013527035713196,
-0.3953559100627899,
-0.34740692377090454,
-0.12170248478651047,
-0.0465129055082798,
0.299577534198761,
-0.04476035386323929,
-0.20935674011707306,
0.3102681636810303,
0.356074720621109,
-0.3230191469192505,
-0.010586384683847427,
0.8980278372764587,
-0.059658247977495193,
0.0370354950428009,
0.7526099681854248,
0.9452404379844666,
0.4142732620239258,
-0.48604416847229004,
0.563880443572998,
-0.21812570095062256,
0.1287229210138321,
-0.3042905926704407,
-0.10598165541887283,
0.41317763924598694,
-0.648913562297821,
0.2607850134372711,
0.5439807176589966,
-0.48369482159614563,
0.46208620071411133,
-0.30952557921409607,
0.43385833501815796,
-0.5023437142372131,
0.0423000268638134,
0.2713821828365326,
0.5070791840553284,
-0.40571606159210205,
-0.12026842683553696,
0.4819619059562683,
0.3301286995410919,
0.41744258999824524,
0.491043359041214,
-0.131001815199852,
0.4716795086860657,
-0.14583931863307953,
0.0073622954078018665,
0.0032622090075165033,
-0.08226963132619858,
0.04059072583913803,
0.2225523144006729,
-0.36128976941108704,
0.1799805909395218,
0.150129035115242,
-0.3164677917957306,
-0.46898049116134644,
-0.14562709629535675,
-0.8128071427345276,
-0.28386038541793823,
-0.07010114938020706,
-0.5511297583580017,
0.016693510115146637,
-0.39581742882728577,
1.1353765726089478,
-0.35063010454177856,
-0.5240615010261536,
-0.11556694656610489,
0.14088188111782074,
0.2561599016189575,
-0.249881774187088,
-0.1682656705379486,
0.4255158007144928,
-0.17557942867279053,
0.2438107281923294,
-1.1417574882507324,
0.3357183337211609,
-0.31077027320861816,
0.1525416076183319,
-0.44934096932411194,
0.3005574643611908,
-0.25061172246932983,
-0.02493377774953842,
0.20786288380622864,
-0.2571187913417816,
0.3152737021446228,
-0.4361721873283386,
0.48991042375564575,
0.2149515300989151,
0.09019403904676437,
0.05094887316226959,
-0.15417516231536865,
0.31343021988868713,
-0.0907992497086525,
0.18322736024856567,
-0.03955785185098648,
0.6041133999824524,
-0.0939018502831459,
-0.05642753839492798,
-0.09647448360919952,
-0.3967292010784149,
-0.1863819658756256,
0.0643845871090889,
0.6718586087226868,
0.7295058369636536,
0.11493334919214249,
-0.8629301190376282,
0.3727211356163025,
-0.2618640959262848,
0.33467936515808105,
0.27839988470077515,
-0.5932081341743469,
-0.4230351746082306,
-0.4373466372489929,
-0.051095619797706604,
-0.11373203992843628,
0.7794189453125,
0.24267615377902985,
0.2880813777446747,
-0.24807636439800262,
-0.16461198031902313,
0.3351436257362366,
-0.5179759860038757,
-0.08512984216213226,
-0.5155612826347351,
0.7088179588317871,
-0.401123970746994
] |
213008
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrion
|
Carrion
|
Carrion (from Latin caro, meaning "meat") is the decaying flesh of dead animals, including human flesh.
Overview
Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters (or scavengers) include crows, vultures, condors, hawks, eagles, hyenas, Virginia opossum, Tasmanian devils, coyotes and Komodo dragons. Many invertebrates, such as the carrion and burying beetles, as well as maggots of calliphorid flies (such as one of the most important species in Calliphora vomitoria) and flesh-flies, also eat carrion, playing an important role in recycling nitrogen and carbon in animal remains.
Carrion begins to decay at the moment of the animal's death, and it will increasingly attract insects and breed bacteria. Not long after the animal has died, its body will begin to exude a foul odor caused by the presence of bacteria and the emission of cadaverine and putrescine.
Some plants and fungi smell like decomposing carrion and attract insects that aid in reproduction. Plants that exhibit this behavior are known as carrion flowers. Stinkhorn mushrooms are examples of fungi with this characteristic.
Sometimes carrion is used to describe an infected carcass that is diseased and should not be touched. An example of carrion being used to describe dead and rotting bodies in literature may be found in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (III.i):
Cry 'Havoc,' and let slip the dogs of war;
That this foul deed shall smell above the earth
With carrion men, groaning for burial.
Another example can be found in Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe when the title character kills an unknown bird for food but finds "its flesh was carrion, and fit for nothing".
Consumption by humans
In Noahide law
The thirty-count laws of Ulla (Talmudist) include the prohibition of humans consuming carrion. This count is in addition to the standard seven law count and has been recently published from the Judeo-Arabic writing of Shmuel ben Hophni Gaon after having been lost for centuries.
References
Zoology
Ecology
Animal death
Articles containing video clips
|
[
0.013418084941804409,
-0.02746981382369995,
-0.7813233137130737,
0.31825605034828186,
0.3918585777282715,
0.8062201738357544,
-0.34152859449386597,
1.269885540008545,
-0.4128017723560333,
-0.5485640168190002,
-0.20891007781028748,
0.4076046645641327,
0.06429606676101685,
0.45000743865966797,
-0.18089333176612854,
0.046340834349393845,
0.24506399035453796,
0.3146306574344635,
0.3216599225997925,
0.043121594935655594,
-0.3565366864204407,
-0.2121734768152237,
-0.3156866133213043,
0.05668115243315697,
0.5870987772941589,
-0.3554594814777374,
-0.2088731974363327,
0.26137176156044006,
0.0009065471240319312,
-0.5420588850975037,
-0.16978974640369415,
0.18763107061386108,
0.32490694522857666,
-0.5291594862937927,
-0.3201097249984741,
-0.7459531426429749,
-0.36462149024009705,
-0.7759618759155273,
-0.4546467363834381,
-0.04127619042992592,
-0.05155487731099129,
0.5330777168273926,
0.17299002408981323,
0.7868839502334595,
0.004847981035709381,
-0.1391054391860962,
-0.5831146240234375,
1.2606933116912842,
-0.8003638386726379,
0.5571480393409729,
-0.14063660800457,
-0.09703978896141052,
-0.21395717561244965,
-0.1112707108259201,
-0.2865167260169983,
0.7911440134048462,
-0.5364617109298706,
0.12194759398698807,
0.13285081088542938,
-0.5148122906684875,
0.016124257817864418,
0.22149330377578735,
0.4645671844482422,
0.42444849014282227,
0.23372919857501984,
0.0768275037407875,
0.31251898407936096,
0.6709561944007874,
-0.3696191608905792,
-0.29669368267059326,
-0.42220452427864075,
-0.5272508263587952,
-0.42737919092178345,
0.7714951634407043,
-0.12489477545022964,
-1.3759381771087646,
-0.11453016102313995,
-0.0950937569141388,
-0.014891955070197582,
0.758510410785675,
-0.010657737031579018,
0.7465032935142517,
0.1832943707704544,
0.0007414859719574451,
0.4713040292263031,
0.5950437188148499,
-0.7661548256874084,
0.40397024154663086,
-0.5787156820297241,
0.03163981810212135,
0.30584895610809326,
0.3193756341934204,
0.5495195388793945,
-0.16074466705322266,
-0.4293120801448822,
-0.2963310778141022,
0.7112264633178711,
-0.018788032233715057,
0.3865388035774231,
0.0876060202717781,
-0.6725378036499023,
0.17245258390903473,
0.5063637495040894,
-0.24430613219738007,
0.07539255917072296,
0.2798752188682556,
0.0076844035647809505,
0.20798103511333466,
0.23350246250629425,
-0.06690890341997147,
0.36263149976730347,
0.2784669101238251,
-0.13848285377025604,
0.2763911783695221,
-0.7130250334739685,
0.11505384743213654,
-0.024701761081814766,
-0.1953611820936203,
-0.7025260329246521,
-0.6606332659721375,
-0.41668128967285156,
0.35103556513786316,
0.14022241532802582,
0.18430402874946594,
-0.37747082114219666,
-0.7527612447738647,
0.1777060329914093,
0.3898991346359253,
-0.4105140268802643,
0.13886475563049316,
0.8687679171562195,
0.9774815440177917,
-0.628839910030365,
-0.03466184809803963,
-0.2678387761116028,
-0.12382638454437256,
-0.05419766157865524,
0.37032943964004517,
0.7218702435493469,
-0.23705126345157623,
-1.3903300762176514,
-0.7686078548431396,
-0.19960367679595947,
0.3582266867160797,
-0.04243860021233559,
-0.17577482759952545,
-0.27867504954338074,
-0.3005080819129944,
-0.21804679930210114,
-0.3260039985179901,
0.3395117223262787,
-0.24702198803424835,
-0.02542092464864254,
-0.05708778649568558,
-0.26895561814308167,
0.5600588917732239,
0.25106218457221985,
-0.39402642846107483,
-0.2421160787343979,
-0.02472461760044098,
-0.002900575054809451,
0.06877318024635315,
-0.16053444147109985,
-0.6977644562721252,
-0.2560323476791382,
-0.13355694711208344,
0.17927689850330353,
0.3884179890155792,
-0.1365540772676468,
0.30347102880477905,
-0.32041266560554504,
-0.1053096204996109,
0.8655933737754822,
-0.5724852681159973,
-0.238217294216156,
-0.11179784685373306,
0.03976421430706978,
-0.11016125231981277,
0.4428052306175232,
0.4769943952560425,
-0.5538591146469116,
0.35884931683540344,
0.10260625928640366,
-0.36279019713401794,
-0.35193711519241333,
-0.6560612916946411,
0.3074156939983368,
-0.4860822558403015,
-0.21290892362594604,
0.38775259256362915,
-1.3924319744110107,
-0.2332531213760376,
-0.4428713023662567,
-0.3137052059173584,
1.081924319267273,
-0.6731662750244141,
-0.5286383628845215,
0.4691633880138397,
0.18585805594921112,
-0.14032097160816193,
-0.6803979277610779,
0.22673259675502777,
0.31769949197769165,
-1.0161902904510498,
-1.1599342823028564,
0.6058879494667053,
0.3330498933792114,
0.04279499873518944,
0.960282564163208,
0.161825492978096,
-0.09454484283924103,
0.0602441169321537,
0.8198332786560059,
-0.6262639760971069,
0.34009233117103577,
0.17584823071956635,
-0.2035127580165863,
0.31176871061325073,
0.43995654582977295,
-0.6615357398986816,
0.6621294021606445,
-0.36179324984550476,
0.01720944419503212,
0.2682080864906311,
-0.22198045253753662,
0.7809568643569946,
-0.14734230935573578,
-0.04279223084449768,
0.5047898888587952,
-0.4573914408683777,
0.5491694211959839,
0.18365104496479034,
0.40371865034103394,
-0.5488251447677612,
-1.082548975944519,
0.007685615681111813,
0.06588444113731384,
-0.19623924791812897,
-0.059351447969675064,
-0.1513274908065796,
0.5292952656745911,
-0.034646544605493546,
0.02038845233619213,
-0.5871856808662415,
0.35281693935394287,
-0.38316163420677185,
-0.006407584063708782,
0.04747090861201286,
0.05477942153811455,
-0.33103781938552856,
0.17242039740085602,
0.6624921560287476,
0.5725618004798889,
-0.1721753627061844,
0.034630630165338516,
-0.7532880306243896,
0.2255164086818695,
0.4887266755104065,
0.5079822540283203,
0.3086850941181183,
-0.3399653136730194,
0.1707247942686081,
0.15554524958133698,
0.26676037907600403,
0.033917441964149475,
-0.2693297266960144,
-0.11698970943689346,
-0.3466295897960663,
0.2905890941619873,
0.6331035494804382,
0.8423518538475037,
0.15223364531993866,
-0.814737856388092,
0.045245010405778885,
-0.11849712580442429,
-0.7361123561859131,
0.5553129315376282,
-0.0713086947798729,
-0.02247115597128868,
-0.48311853408813477,
-0.24341946840286255,
-0.10532571375370026,
0.3733748197555542,
-0.8667147755622864,
-0.07274635881185532,
-0.26570022106170654,
-0.1514141708612442,
-0.16338315606117249,
0.046230703592300415,
-0.06477724760770798,
-0.33383411169052124,
0.30245569348335266,
-0.4016191363334656,
0.5543299913406372,
0.4728831350803375,
-0.40618136525154114,
-0.3142518699169159,
0.10675515234470367,
0.601813018321991,
-0.9509400129318237,
0.3103574514389038,
0.05002211034297943,
0.09174274653196335,
0.15929487347602844,
0.03032170981168747,
0.3091376721858978,
0.34159815311431885,
0.008035174570977688,
-5.43731689453125,
-0.3166493773460388,
-0.06396761536598206,
0.09911757707595825,
0.7556430101394653,
0.33381280303001404,
0.2744288444519043,
-0.2673354148864746,
0.2595333158969879,
0.1660979986190796,
-0.05660133808851242,
0.2174103707075119,
0.4978460371494293,
0.025036917999386787,
0.06820560991764069,
0.17059071362018585,
-0.31911319494247437,
0.15544021129608154,
-0.4829440712928772,
0.35394302010536194,
-0.5065565705299377,
0.016008438542485237,
-0.378884494304657,
0.9900866746902466,
-0.6141529083251953,
0.014992435462772846,
-0.35882729291915894,
0.14654241502285004,
-0.3655605912208557,
0.3603927791118622,
0.09231356531381607,
-0.5489755868911743,
0.512515127658844,
-0.5623447895050049,
-0.2630811035633087,
0.1503494381904602,
-0.12821514904499054,
-0.12101136893033981,
-0.3582751154899597,
0.26116666197776794,
-0.6382335424423218,
0.19365106523036957,
0.44683998823165894,
-0.5278359055519104,
0.828726589679718,
-0.2038624882698059,
-0.10726743936538696,
-0.23566316068172455,
-0.11819326877593994,
0.5898097157478333,
0.39341703057289124,
0.2370220422744751,
0.1973218470811844,
0.11292794346809387,
0.5309187769889832,
0.2255489081144333,
0.8299949169158936,
0.2199120968580246,
-0.1778404712677002,
-0.027415910735726357,
0.9521729946136475,
-0.18043723702430725,
-0.08549173176288605,
0.24343787133693695,
-0.30692043900489807,
0.08484765887260437,
0.11901672184467316,
-0.01785866543650627,
0.29299741983413696,
0.003049996215850115,
-0.27518951892852783,
0.35855165123939514,
0.3318604528903961,
-0.963010311126709,
0.1836170107126236,
-0.022407865151762962,
-0.6498783230781555,
0.06937287002801895,
0.008800741285085678,
0.3543141782283783,
0.05881137028336525,
-0.4086577892303467,
-0.1411130726337433,
-0.4380643367767334,
0.013893823139369488,
-0.610312819480896,
-0.24460797011852264,
-0.2680462896823883,
-0.6476207375526428,
-0.3589472770690918,
0.8979040384292603,
-0.4090772569179535,
0.3095029294490814,
0.07971537113189697,
0.08116243779659271,
0.9097014665603638,
-0.07237178087234497,
0.30081430077552795,
0.2837434411048889,
0.38232868909835815,
0.8066155314445496,
-0.01082331407815218,
0.1031167134642601,
-0.11591526865959167,
-0.16980628669261932,
-0.60225510597229,
0.010942128486931324,
0.7170252203941345,
0.7136014699935913,
-0.15836910903453827,
0.5581945776939392,
0.6095446348190308,
-0.21692362427711487,
-0.5582937002182007,
0.278264582157135,
0.7295111417770386,
0.021523360162973404,
0.29756098985671997,
0.6410814523696899,
-0.3971431255340576,
0.28906920552253723,
-0.11922405660152435,
-0.4017024338245392,
0.0882728174328804,
0.11935452371835709,
-0.6391960978507996,
0.5448985695838928,
-0.20790250599384308,
0.10725298523902893,
0.08963815122842789,
-0.20421306788921356,
0.46277403831481934,
0.17036622762680054,
-0.1772574931383133,
0.1117887869477272,
0.07934870570898056,
-0.24190430343151093,
-0.3184904158115387,
-0.18906988203525543,
-0.7562292218208313,
-0.29540592432022095,
-0.3888104557991028,
0.15901124477386475,
-0.17561180889606476,
-0.10418979823589325,
0.7791448831558228,
-0.6947868466377258,
-0.22259242832660675,
-0.3025091886520386,
0.45116570591926575,
-0.22873544692993164,
0.29599469900131226,
0.028362354263663292,
0.3925379514694214,
-0.18816491961479187,
-0.9727482199668884,
0.35514071583747864,
0.3845382034778595,
-0.7013657093048096,
-0.6315837502479553,
0.002400211291387677,
-0.36097124218940735,
-0.8513012528419495,
-0.24616795778274536,
-0.6100000739097595,
-0.3033633828163147,
0.3271384537220001,
-0.9059452414512634,
-0.39407777786254883,
0.5509950518608093,
-0.7087380886077881,
-0.4092603623867035,
-0.2419668734073639,
0.10302160680294037,
0.20762833952903748,
-0.710345983505249,
-0.13346460461616516,
-0.21640770137310028,
-0.4636518955230713,
0.22943252325057983,
-0.159529909491539,
-0.1319144070148468,
0.39053571224212646,
-0.24892273545265198,
0.31375375390052795,
-0.9313962459564209,
-0.3394063711166382,
-0.15766945481300354,
-0.5582841038703918,
-0.0929536372423172,
-0.5274211764335632,
-0.2464352697134018,
0.4429672062397003,
0.8394901156425476,
-0.16265784204006195,
0.2913297712802887,
-0.30467551946640015,
-0.21502931416034698,
-0.2199859917163849,
-0.4073824882507324,
-0.015476763248443604,
0.2119591385126114,
-0.6405416131019592,
-0.0007015856099314988,
0.34735414385795593,
-0.4360520541667938,
0.37359461188316345,
0.22050443291664124,
0.11438870429992676,
0.15569257736206055,
-0.5596691966056824,
-0.45560207962989807,
-0.2591100037097931,
1.0296674966812134,
-0.18494436144828796,
0.5017747282981873,
0.2953948378562927,
-0.44674447178840637,
-0.2373988926410675,
-0.220318004488945,
0.4123336374759674,
-0.034220434725284576,
-0.3144453763961792,
0.16449977457523346,
-0.33121511340141296,
1.1420894861221313,
0.2629314661026001,
-0.8132242560386658,
0.48558589816093445,
0.2741984724998474,
0.6288531422615051,
-0.3465818762779236,
0.35788917541503906,
0.23771727085113525,
0.4791889488697052,
0.18591457605361938,
0.2638285756111145,
-0.04326682910323143,
0.12583991885185242,
0.3689488470554352,
0.6388441920280457,
0.713472306728363,
0.006566707044839859,
0.4686271846294403,
-0.19702574610710144,
0.33958661556243896,
0.12296360731124878,
-0.20676906406879425,
-0.1972082406282425,
-0.2474796026945114,
0.1404046267271042,
-0.61240553855896,
-0.039494097232818604,
-0.347930371761322,
-0.05367137864232063,
-0.5111323595046997,
-0.02749018371105194,
0.30241385102272034,
-0.11477325856685638,
-0.1291404366493225,
0.07582515478134155,
0.117806077003479,
0.21601887047290802,
0.6655027270317078,
0.41911396384239197,
-0.5581480860710144,
-0.3239220678806305,
0.49898743629455566,
0.1725119948387146,
-0.2652053236961365,
0.4669211208820343,
0.2656644284725189,
0.5819291472434998,
0.5038244128227234,
0.24649204313755035,
0.4586319923400879,
-0.036305271089076996,
-0.9036203026771545,
0.1382496953010559,
-0.621542751789093,
-0.423098087310791,
0.3034282326698303,
-0.2707394063472748,
-0.13042208552360535,
-0.10315956175327301,
-0.042772646993398666,
0.37042561173439026,
-0.49789997935295105,
-0.25683873891830444,
0.11652614176273346,
0.2156781256198883,
0.12597641348838806,
0.21335114538669586,
0.4001404047012329,
0.34192076325416565,
0.31332334876060486,
-0.3241567313671112,
0.34344998002052307,
0.08576183021068573,
0.23523734509944916,
-1.1710364818572998,
0.4641888439655304,
-0.16014358401298523,
-0.6512212157249451,
0.29436278343200684,
0.27865535020828247,
-0.4249127507209778,
0.20116502046585083,
-0.5298783779144287,
-0.020924801006913185,
0.35269472002983093,
-0.110654816031456,
-0.2730223834514618,
0.18678216636180878,
-0.14030519127845764,
-0.21901807188987732,
0.013789549469947815,
-1.0596084594726562,
-0.02709362469613552,
0.7068604230880737,
0.5692774653434753,
-0.17718373239040375,
-0.12234026938676834,
-0.16265685856342316,
0.16059741377830505,
0.4898170530796051,
-0.5462307929992676,
0.17535123229026794,
-0.10202385485172272,
0.2839135229587555,
0.5397231578826904,
0.18507631123065948,
-0.3066178858280182,
0.25008854269981384,
-0.20924238860607147,
-0.13600368797779083,
0.0033545924816280603,
-1.0089640617370605,
0.23618489503860474,
1.0049585103988647,
0.5978337526321411,
0.030423421412706375,
-0.5138511061668396,
0.20653389394283295,
-0.03337865322828293,
0.7169615626335144,
-0.059565819799900055,
-0.5581907629966736,
-0.14269068837165833,
0.4344050884246826,
0.3281884789466858,
-0.3690888583660126,
0.6448320150375366,
-0.10829780995845795,
0.4999915659427643,
0.06491280347108841,
-0.2730334997177124,
-0.08051051199436188,
-0.9949535727500916,
-0.2203538417816162,
-0.024550218135118484,
0.8320626020431519,
0.6806315183639526,
0.105197012424469,
0.08224260807037354,
-0.22681377828121185,
-0.6092830300331116,
-0.7701457142829895,
-0.2515821158885956,
-0.060920875519514084,
0.3761019706726074,
0.11340148001909256,
-0.7211068272590637,
-0.21663346886634827,
0.2885132431983948,
0.3458802103996277,
0.5014421343803406,
0.7483580112457275,
0.09772786498069763,
0.10294634848833084,
-0.6717662811279297,
-0.5259388089179993,
-0.0935421958565712,
-0.526582658290863,
-0.3669681251049042,
-0.10039898753166199,
-0.19728705286979675,
0.3428681790828705,
-0.31528499722480774,
0.005967314820736647,
0.07153908908367157,
-0.10955508053302765,
0.8638625144958496,
0.22044266760349274,
-0.11758913844823837,
-0.3420811593532562,
0.5151795148849487,
0.4262324571609497,
0.059426307678222656,
-0.03639261797070503,
-0.07877781242132187,
0.5519204139709473,
-0.48554807901382446,
0.5050347447395325,
-0.6979886293411255,
0.4943867027759552,
-0.38749226927757263,
-0.06078413501381874,
-0.6370190978050232,
0.48607969284057617,
0.6190400123596191,
-0.42397433519363403,
0.2366030514240265,
0.04074268415570259,
-0.2656802535057068,
-0.07916972041130066,
0.13834719359874725,
-0.2719084918498993,
0.47440341114997864,
-0.4047398865222931,
0.3974006175994873,
-0.23435360193252563,
-0.28407686948776245,
0.41091758012771606,
-0.27054914832115173,
0.17301806807518005,
0.40363481640815735,
0.22942420840263367,
-0.787169873714447,
0.21286574006080627,
-0.47890350222587585,
0.8702892661094666,
-0.8128539323806763,
0.12237081676721573,
0.3272598087787628,
-0.13854674994945526,
0.47968417406082153,
0.18328888714313507,
0.2573930025100708,
-0.1701814830303192,
0.5016065835952759,
0.20727579295635223,
0.005277217365801334,
-0.8654245734214783,
-0.10924818366765976,
0.11191090941429138,
0.2402731329202652,
-0.3103015124797821,
-0.915756344795227,
0.21498115360736847,
0.28061386942863464,
-0.49766165018081665,
0.3349820375442505,
0.29690423607826233,
-0.28881052136421204,
-0.09764397889375687,
0.10378363728523254,
-0.12623266875743866,
0.18397796154022217,
0.1636384278535843
] |
213009
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Roses%20of%20Heliogabalus
|
The Roses of Heliogabalus
|
The Roses of Heliogabalus is an 1888 painting by the Anglo-Dutch artist Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicting the young Roman emperor Elagabalus (203–222 AD) hosting a banquet.
Subject
The painting measures . It shows a group of Roman diners at a banquet, being swamped by drifts of pink rose petals falling from a false ceiling above. The youthful Roman emperor Elagabalus, wearing a golden silk robe and tiara, watches the spectacle from a platform behind them, with other garlanded guests. A woman plays the double pipes beside a marble pillar in the background, wearing the leopard skin of a maenad, with a bronze statue of Dionysus, based on the Ludovisi Dionysus, in front of a view of distant hills.
The painting depicts a (probably invented) episode in the life of the Roman emperor Elagabalus, also known as Heliogabalus (204–222), taken from the Augustan History. Although the Latin refers to "violets and other flowers", Alma-Tadema depicts Elagabalus smothering his unsuspecting guests with rose petals released from a false ceiling. The original reference is this:
In his notes to the Augustan History, Thayer notes that "Nero did this also (Suetonius, Nero, xxxi), and a similar ceiling in the house of Trimalchio is described in Petronius, Sat., lx." (Satyricon).
History
The painting was commissioned by Sir John Aird, 1st Baronet for £4,000 in 1888. As roses were out of season in the United Kingdom, Alma-Tadema is reputed to have had rose petals sent from the south of France each week during the four months in which it was painted.
The painting was exhibited at the Royal Academy summer exhibition in 1888. Aird died in 1911, and the painting was inherited by his son Sir John Richard Aird, 2nd Baronet. After Alma-Tadema died in 1912, the painting was exhibited at a memorial exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1913, the last time it was seen at a public exhibition in the UK until 2014.
Alma-Tadema's reputation declined markedly in the decades after his death. Following the death of the 2nd Baronet in 1934, the painting was sold by his son, the 3rd Baronet, in 1935 for 483 guineas. It failed to sell at Christie's in 1960, and was "bought in" by the auction house for 100 guineas. Next it was acquired by Allen Funt: he was the producer of Candid Camera, and a collector of Alma-Tadema's at a time when the artist remained very unfashionable. After Funt experienced financial troubles, he sold the painting along with the rest of his collection at Sotheby's in London in November 1973, achieving a price of £28,000. The painting was sold again by American collector Frederick Koch at Christie's in London in June 1993 for £1,500,000. It is currently owned by the Spanish-Mexican billionaire businessman and art collector Juan Antonio Pérez Simón.
Exhibitions
The painting was included in an exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York in March and April 1973 (when the owner was Allen Funt).
The painting is part of a private collection but was on display from 14 November 2014 to 29 March 2015 at the Leighton House Museum in London as part of the exhibition A Victorian Obsession: The Pérez Simón collection at Leighton House Museum, the first time, since Alma-Tadema's memorial exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1913, that it has been exhibited in London. It returned to the Leighton House Museum from 7 July to 29 October 2017 for the exhibition "Alma-Tadema: At Home in Antiquity."
The painting was a part of an exhibition of Lawrence Alma-Tadema's paintings in Belvedere, Vienna, Austria from 24 February 2017 to 18 June 2017.
References
1888 paintings
Cultural depictions of Elagabalus
Paintings by Lawrence Alma-Tadema
Paintings of people
Musical instruments in art
Fiction set in the Roman Empire
Works set in the 3rd century
Food and drink paintings
Paintings of Dionysus
Flower paintings
|
[
-0.20970523357391357,
0.20897290110588074,
-0.5296370983123779,
0.017567889764904976,
-0.07542821019887924,
0.6516891717910767,
0.2726326584815979,
0.15732817351818085,
-0.560914158821106,
-0.345241904258728,
-0.4371563196182251,
-0.012104742228984833,
-0.19864821434020996,
0.3196829855442047,
-0.06313899904489517,
0.23480673134326935,
-0.04041505232453346,
0.2688960134983063,
0.3098692297935486,
-0.13819441199302673,
0.4172043204307556,
-0.6025301814079285,
0.0659496858716011,
-0.35026052594184875,
0.47098976373672485,
-0.31876930594444275,
0.36933454871177673,
-0.25812527537345886,
1.0965032577514648,
0.3244839608669281,
-0.06321147829294205,
0.3410145938396454,
0.20550450682640076,
-0.7943268418312073,
-0.24042528867721558,
-0.4711196720600128,
-0.1418657749891281,
-0.4129919111728668,
0.12180663645267487,
-0.13872720301151276,
-0.16389043629169464,
-0.08220677077770233,
0.35086992383003235,
0.02053365670144558,
-0.04082658514380455,
-0.4357461631298065,
-1.51930832862854,
0.7615284323692322,
-0.20601928234100342,
-0.15910117328166962,
0.0610136054456234,
0.20091940462589264,
0.14407603442668915,
0.5699103474617004,
-0.15511780977249146,
1.1922296285629272,
-1.114544153213501,
0.1170353963971138,
0.2613677382469177,
-0.4011874794960022,
0.19692568480968475,
0.1098528802394867,
0.4708896577358246,
0.059267718344926834,
0.13077934086322784,
0.37925970554351807,
-0.11964480578899384,
0.48578834533691406,
0.14978903532028198,
-0.2667168080806732,
0.3015235662460327,
0.317874938249588,
0.15545529127120972,
0.587413489818573,
-0.24497342109680176,
-0.6508685350418091,
-0.049180034548044205,
-0.16512860357761383,
0.14327594637870789,
0.181207537651062,
0.01614673063158989,
-0.6547805070877075,
0.8400425314903259,
0.47818252444267273,
0.15939916670322418,
0.6487520337104797,
-0.024466712027788162,
0.35692304372787476,
-0.11342471092939377,
-0.14739753305912018,
-0.7142396569252014,
-0.5024769306182861,
0.3293376863002777,
0.023260628804564476,
0.07635460048913956,
-0.4632592797279358,
-0.0894562229514122,
0.27801716327667236,
-0.4147948622703552,
-0.2629193067550659,
-0.6039435863494873,
0.8288752436637878,
-0.2652435600757599,
-0.47937700152397156,
-0.6617461442947388,
-0.3622531294822693,
0.010779674164950848,
-0.247829869389534,
0.2774381935596466,
0.3372495174407959,
0.0022710387129336596,
-0.18461725115776062,
-0.2244846373796463,
-0.335234671831131,
-0.08765535056591034,
0.35543346405029297,
0.3008776009082794,
-0.6908528804779053,
-0.7693443894386292,
0.18579383194446564,
0.3974210023880005,
0.4008224606513977,
0.29648342728614807,
0.2174735963344574,
-0.46002933382987976,
-0.3916996717453003,
0.11259458214044571,
0.3340805768966675,
-0.2816088795661926,
0.5966769456863403,
0.5683361887931824,
0.18118342757225037,
-0.1414945125579834,
-0.4935682713985443,
-0.3757389187812805,
-0.2680734395980835,
0.4433196187019348,
-0.0710492953658104,
0.2798773944377899,
0.7340262532234192,
-0.6892766952514648,
-0.3982974588871002,
0.10078887641429901,
0.014402364380657673,
0.12373393028974533,
-0.19886983931064606,
0.7179899215698242,
-0.3350110948085785,
-0.28004443645477295,
-0.7501983046531677,
0.14610174298286438,
-0.5420488119125366,
0.04696708917617798,
0.1421651691198349,
0.12171515822410583,
1.1335114240646362,
0.5720609426498413,
-0.21894778311252594,
0.363299697637558,
0.0681881532073021,
0.13530346751213074,
0.3512285053730011,
0.08509670197963715,
0.24931655824184418,
0.25375908613204956,
-0.19078567624092102,
0.31353631615638733,
0.8494578003883362,
-0.44283348321914673,
0.10612199455499649,
-0.6069416403770447,
-0.01739862933754921,
0.24445541203022003,
-0.5247952938079834,
0.18874721229076385,
0.30656713247299194,
0.5935584902763367,
0.03898034989833832,
0.7440523505210876,
-0.4199673533439636,
-0.6282588839530945,
0.22683055698871613,
0.00298489211127162,
-0.1057950109243393,
0.43464651703834534,
-0.22033649682998657,
0.17574478685855865,
0.25242432951927185,
0.13054010272026062,
-0.2024659812450409,
-1.195086121559143,
-0.6401457786560059,
-0.13477672636508942,
0.1346173733472824,
0.6652722954750061,
0.6115748286247253,
-0.8217939138412476,
0.40605542063713074,
0.04421062394976616,
0.4005008637905121,
-0.21977753937244415,
0.35204195976257324,
0.10337173938751221,
-0.26956912875175476,
-0.2536766231060028,
-0.3691040575504303,
-0.36419352889060974,
-0.03212340921163559,
0.7326788306236267,
0.7221991419792175,
0.16582097113132477,
-0.386269211769104,
0.7283137440681458,
0.683383047580719,
-0.2499331682920456,
0.23560300469398499,
-0.2939358055591583,
0.2420485019683838,
0.07335501164197922,
-0.35716235637664795,
0.24213898181915283,
0.424003005027771,
-0.694892406463623,
0.5888275504112244,
-0.16226732730865479,
0.6485787630081177,
0.5143620371818542,
-0.24140895903110504,
-0.40190544724464417,
-0.33220988512039185,
-0.30040243268013,
0.3677370548248291,
0.1863207072019577,
-0.45937442779541016,
-0.3606218099594116,
0.006514539010822773,
0.16957411170005798,
-0.7722709774971008,
0.6488863825798035,
-0.4782760739326477,
0.4468163847923279,
-0.043292004615068436,
0.11918803304433823,
0.12049336731433868,
0.20448747277259827,
0.021388761699199677,
0.3843633830547333,
0.3310725688934326,
0.08229045569896698,
-0.3006204664707184,
-0.08972253650426865,
1.1209065914154053,
-0.5006176829338074,
0.09530102461576462,
-0.18523569405078888,
-0.09651302546262741,
-0.04634852334856987,
0.01454126089811325,
0.2513635456562042,
-0.0416523776948452,
-0.3564341068267822,
0.16191883385181427,
0.003971521742641926,
0.466706246137619,
0.6343883872032166,
-0.22325077652931213,
-0.3507930636405945,
-0.2782101333141327,
0.44879141449928284,
0.18795709311962128,
0.5413678884506226,
0.21949546039104462,
-0.737293004989624,
0.39179956912994385,
-0.12967030704021454,
-0.6926887035369873,
-0.07257074862718582,
0.06169078126549721,
0.012750809080898762,
-0.732846736907959,
-0.11643204838037491,
1.001032829284668,
-0.12646447122097015,
-0.22854232788085938,
-0.4387931525707245,
-0.23767521977424622,
0.231126606464386,
-0.33194562792778015,
0.37701064348220825,
-0.36991268396377563,
0.20316846668720245,
0.6881344318389893,
-0.23074130713939667,
0.19210676848888397,
-0.4997539520263672,
0.03442060202360153,
-0.4782472550868988,
-0.23806942999362946,
0.20638537406921387,
0.23162074387073517,
-0.27715951204299927,
0.014007794670760632,
0.0023105319123715162,
0.13065843284130096,
0.4852522015571594,
0.40069010853767395,
0.5575212836265564,
0.3644593358039856,
-5.596480846405029,
0.14440739154815674,
0.03524121269583702,
0.07378404587507248,
0.06466083973646164,
0.10437941551208496,
0.3364194333553314,
-0.027752822265028954,
0.49773892760276794,
-0.5856757164001465,
-0.00640630628913641,
-0.20803052186965942,
-0.17293596267700195,
0.5275751352310181,
0.2593836486339569,
0.48247411847114563,
0.0061502764001488686,
-0.7022431492805481,
-0.08680122345685959,
0.3870498538017273,
-0.5036243200302124,
0.17944498360157013,
-0.08605655282735825,
0.7172867059707642,
-0.15088078379631042,
0.4994233548641205,
0.06309700012207031,
-0.36595630645751953,
-0.48561128973960876,
0.4910622537136078,
0.42947739362716675,
-0.026871411129832268,
0.30875420570373535,
0.3349892795085907,
-0.5260540843009949,
0.05798123776912689,
0.39743998646736145,
-0.2401389181613922,
0.35955458879470825,
0.32459455728530884,
0.23393793404102325,
-0.22933466732501984,
-0.16847261786460876,
0.21596722304821014,
-0.1509215235710144,
-0.14659470319747925,
-0.524519145488739,
-0.027929507195949554,
-0.0328730084002018,
0.6916489005088806,
0.46584755182266235,
0.24195103347301483,
0.1258016675710678,
0.3582645654678345,
-0.15203970670700073,
0.4576304852962494,
0.06595858186483383,
0.32922837138175964,
-0.1379987746477127,
-0.4651481509208679,
0.2730831503868103,
-0.6242426633834839,
-0.05542773753404617,
0.03315503150224686,
0.41412419080734253,
-0.3220241069793701,
-0.13148067891597748,
-0.010637965053319931,
-0.6857994198799133,
0.5221551656723022,
0.1528707891702652,
0.37285947799682617,
-0.5162900686264038,
-1.110606074333191,
-0.05516056716442108,
-0.42550867795944214,
-0.46529361605644226,
-0.6789144277572632,
0.249573215842247,
-0.013822754845023155,
0.1756633222103119,
-0.9487589001655579,
-0.00010850430408027023,
0.16033035516738892,
0.40678930282592773,
-0.44164326786994934,
0.21799692511558533,
-0.15342868864536285,
-0.3215634524822235,
-0.18716062605381012,
0.5985998511314392,
-0.09302052855491638,
-0.6839223504066467,
0.1581411510705948,
0.08397036790847778,
0.6744053363800049,
0.22881819307804108,
0.3022753894329071,
0.5289156436920166,
0.45320606231689453,
0.0006884283502586186,
-0.2585003077983856,
-0.2005436271429062,
0.35248249769210815,
0.02289038896560669,
-0.28054916858673096,
-0.3941079378128052,
0.1601056605577469,
0.5704501867294312,
-0.3591834604740143,
0.2509167492389679,
-0.5482478737831116,
-0.04590112343430519,
-0.1280953586101532,
0.42312830686569214,
0.21487490832805634,
0.831055223941803,
0.5738274455070496,
0.4753762483596802,
0.4999042749404907,
0.11966332793235779,
0.1337832361459732,
-0.7349571585655212,
-0.11173602938652039,
0.2793745994567871,
-0.0051498571410775185,
-0.11670396476984024,
-0.3026699423789978,
-0.22329306602478027,
-0.11565503478050232,
0.4902409315109253,
-0.5717540383338928,
-0.4285612106323242,
-0.16128209233283997,
0.42778995633125305,
-0.5358307361602783,
-0.6696460843086243,
-0.827839195728302,
-0.31741780042648315,
0.03667046129703522,
-0.5912569761276245,
-0.45063528418540955,
-0.8682795166969299,
0.46627235412597656,
0.20010823011398315,
0.45048511028289795,
-0.180707648396492,
-0.6208263039588928,
-0.20728793740272522,
0.4728059768676758,
-0.5208772420883179,
0.7413420677185059,
0.03272593766450882,
-0.3779887557029724,
-0.32803022861480713,
0.17856235802173615,
-0.2681954801082611,
0.23868095874786377,
-0.5103166699409485,
-0.014053729362785816,
-0.33357807993888855,
-0.30229005217552185,
-1.1438571214675903,
-0.3809676766395569,
-1.0082480907440186,
-0.09954456239938736,
0.19881881773471832,
-1.2165918350219727,
-0.16660939157009125,
-0.015008335933089256,
0.23295624554157257,
0.030048903077840805,
-0.035721391439437866,
0.024866333231329918,
0.08326428383588791,
0.18921242654323578,
0.013035688549280167,
-0.5342891812324524,
0.5293368697166443,
-0.19663652777671814,
-0.5756920576095581,
-0.08336697518825531,
-0.43810638785362244,
0.04427216574549675,
0.31857162714004517,
0.14504879713058472,
-0.8494163155555725,
-0.4421413540840149,
-0.6715874075889587,
0.08003880828619003,
-0.39812546968460083,
0.356381356716156,
0.37035852670669556,
0.1354680061340332,
-0.7141777276992798,
-0.3121640980243683,
-0.13931874930858612,
0.027565021067857742,
0.03607162833213806,
-0.5970233678817749,
-0.4681869447231293,
-0.11490155756473541,
-0.7791067361831665,
0.1680213063955307,
-0.22947697341442108,
-1.2231694459915161,
0.6575571894645691,
0.1386202871799469,
-0.35987600684165955,
0.3713020980358124,
-0.15510140359401703,
-0.5543746948242188,
-0.12440194189548492,
0.095462866127491,
-0.16432663798332214,
0.6882289052009583,
-0.7742570638656616,
-0.3563321828842163,
-0.1030934676527977,
0.14559705555438995,
-0.29116371273994446,
-0.23880738019943237,
-0.6035074591636658,
-0.22904382646083832,
-0.4657791256904602,
0.19675453007221222,
0.24268630146980286,
-0.8097629547119141,
0.3384969234466553,
-0.25305965542793274,
0.5999363660812378,
-0.30089718103408813,
0.046548690646886826,
0.2876237630844116,
-0.10123556852340698,
0.37555262446403503,
-0.18134373426437378,
0.04623963311314583,
-0.21739190816879272,
0.7252447605133057,
0.4614887833595276,
0.6264150142669678,
-0.020229235291481018,
-0.12598779797554016,
0.002866267692297697,
0.33485737442970276,
-0.28186294436454773,
-0.332821786403656,
-0.3370516896247864,
-0.1795564889907837,
0.2562873065471649,
-0.20247143507003784,
0.17973940074443817,
-0.4911010265350342,
0.6746777296066284,
-0.6330021023750305,
0.5483421683311462,
0.062277715653181076,
-0.23732636868953705,
0.34930354356765747,
-0.10313022136688232,
0.7218193411827087,
-0.1899079829454422,
0.06520077586174011,
0.12933821976184845,
-0.1649034321308136,
0.7138749957084656,
0.10520217567682266,
0.49295154213905334,
-0.13944151997566223,
-0.040328919887542725,
0.19919617474079132,
0.060038238763809204,
0.33853161334991455,
-0.053480517119169235,
-0.021587306633591652,
-0.11573614180088043,
-1.0761276483535767,
0.3514197766780853,
-0.6507242321968079,
-0.8026272058486938,
0.21069969236850739,
-0.15821488201618195,
0.10121239721775055,
-0.1949697732925415,
-0.9240912795066833,
-0.5103608965873718,
-0.5317615866661072,
0.2039308249950409,
0.03963666036725044,
-0.2838633060455322,
0.48533573746681213,
0.12131550908088684,
-0.3548182249069214,
0.2904775142669678,
1.0895527601242065,
-0.2533336579799652,
-0.04545047879219055,
-0.7140212655067444,
-0.42873871326446533,
-0.5247833132743835,
0.9393496513366699,
0.2820368707180023,
-0.08263414353132248,
0.09884976595640182,
0.6461973190307617,
0.08159026503562927,
-0.09711281210184097,
-0.7076832056045532,
0.4611213505268097,
0.27043449878692627,
-0.09841693937778473,
0.07812785357236862,
-0.23232051730155945,
-0.718009352684021,
0.08820763230323792,
0.40956586599349976,
-0.2900354564189911,
-0.10080064833164215,
0.5569825768470764,
0.37664347887039185,
0.5215473771095276,
0.8016318082809448,
-0.2047758400440216,
0.017595915123820305,
0.3357461988925934,
-0.2899179458618164,
0.3964807689189911,
0.6148780584335327,
0.5911794304847717,
0.1623607575893402,
-0.12625665962696075,
-0.564714789390564,
0.7954902052879333,
-0.04292760416865349,
-0.23746784031391144,
0.15448495745658875,
-0.8120258450508118,
-0.10391023010015488,
0.11896361410617828,
0.014831019565463066,
0.4811670184135437,
0.1738317906856537,
0.0845676138997078,
-0.01939089223742485,
0.3540811538696289,
-0.20215927064418793,
0.21654106676578522,
-0.30516692996025085,
-0.14859385788440704,
-0.08923357725143433,
0.618003249168396,
0.45895248651504517,
-0.9189059138298035,
0.7060450911521912,
0.2197992354631424,
0.12040802836418152,
-0.09141764789819717,
-0.5776544213294983,
0.03931013494729996,
0.05891650542616844,
-0.008320600725710392,
0.550470769405365,
-0.2726193070411682,
-0.17244116961956024,
0.22667129337787628,
-0.7852225303649902,
0.2090659886598587,
-0.4193069636821747,
0.13565802574157715,
0.33982494473457336,
-0.3846476376056671,
0.10198774933815002,
0.29693442583084106,
0.41199082136154175,
0.5658782124519348,
0.03321654722094536,
0.3321777284145355,
-0.05116821452975273,
0.9591667056083679,
-0.6114732027053833,
-0.277751088142395,
-0.19176000356674194,
0.38632458448410034,
-0.32964783906936646,
-0.27286654710769653,
-0.0242550540715456,
0.09528698772192001,
-0.3304651081562042,
-0.6761413216590881,
0.2283405065536499,
0.010996281169354916,
0.07495987415313721,
0.3187153935432434,
0.009849186055362225,
0.22987374663352966,
0.328309029340744,
0.7973261475563049,
-0.55433189868927,
-0.21455751359462738,
0.6143116354942322,
-0.12062840163707733,
0.36567139625549316,
-0.06740311533212662,
-0.2662462890148163,
-0.04252541810274124,
0.014772453345358372,
0.2640171945095062,
-0.6176480054855347,
0.4386366903781891,
-0.36881130933761597,
-0.3840804994106293,
0.15902844071388245,
-0.21788090467453003,
-0.6162204146385193,
0.03825928270816803,
0.12785747647285461,
0.07473719865083694,
0.32806581258773804,
-0.8620486855506897,
0.008379249833524227,
-0.2546754479408264,
0.12688082456588745,
0.6595920920372009,
-0.37088561058044434,
0.2516512870788574,
0.34108418226242065,
0.41485270857810974,
-0.16415634751319885,
0.5017251372337341,
0.7741597294807434,
0.20692995190620422,
-0.38683366775512695,
-0.34319958090782166,
-0.25196921825408936,
0.05820997431874275,
0.710935652256012,
0.9503433108329773,
0.10295414924621582,
-0.6632863879203796,
0.35164907574653625,
-0.15876361727714539,
0.5192135572433472,
-0.28500545024871826,
0.47230470180511475,
-0.1987779587507248,
-0.3127598166465759,
-0.2922903299331665,
-0.2297879457473755,
0.003953872248530388,
0.5928453207015991,
0.06053189933300018,
0.19897346198558807,
-0.4219517409801483,
-0.09684132039546967,
0.06680387258529663,
-0.05704162269830704,
-0.4798697531223297,
0.00480014318600297,
0.13626477122306824
] |
213015
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragtime%20%28film%29
|
Ragtime (film)
|
Ragtime is a 1981 American drama film directed by Miloš Forman, based on the 1975 historical novel Ragtime by E.L. Doctorow. The film is set in and around turn-of-the-century New York City, New Rochelle, and Atlantic City, and includes fictionalized references to actual people and events of the time. The film stars James Olson, Mary Steenburgen, Howard Rollins, Brad Dourif, and Elizabeth McGovern, features the final film appearances of James Cagney and Pat O'Brien, and features early appearances, in small parts, by Jeff Daniels, Fran Drescher, Samuel L. Jackson, Ethan Phillips, and John Ratzenberger.
Plot
A newsreel montage depicts turn-of-the-20th-century celebrities including Harry Houdini, Theodore Roosevelt, architect Stanford White (Norman Mailer), and life in New York City, accompanied by ragtime pianist Coalhouse Walker, Jr. (Howard Rollins). Millionaire industrialist Harry Kendall Thaw (Robert Joy) makes a scene when White unveils a nude statue atop Madison Square Garden, modeled after former chorus girl Evelyn Nesbit (Elizabeth McGovern), Thaw's wife. Convinced White has corrupted Evelyn, Thaw publicly shoots him dead.
An upper-class family resides in New Rochelle, New York, where Father (James Olson) owns a factory where his wife's Younger Brother (Brad Dourif) makes fireworks. An African American baby is abandoned in their garden, and upon learning the police intend to charge the child's mother, Sarah (Debbie Allen), with child abandonment and attempted murder, Mother (Mary Steenburgen) takes Sarah and her child into the home despite Father's objections. Coalhouse arrives in search of Sarah, driving a new Ford Model T, and realizing he is the baby's father, announces his intention to marry Sarah.
Younger Brother witnesses White's murder and becomes obsessed with Evelyn. Thaw's lawyer Delmas (Pat O'Brien) bribes Evelyn with a million-dollar divorce settlement to keep silent about Thaw's mental instability and to testify that White abused her. Passing through the Lower East Side, Evelyn encounters street artist Tateh (Mandy Patinkin), who throws out his unfaithful wife (Fran Drescher). He leaves New York with their daughter and sells the flip book he created. Evelyn and Younger Brother begin an affair as she prepares her return to the stage, while he assumes they will eventually marry. After Thaw is found not guilty by reason of temporary insanity, his lawyers inform Evelyn that Thaw will sue her for divorce on the grounds of infidelity and she accepts a smaller settlement. The affair ends, leaving Younger Brother adrift.
In New Rochelle, Coalhouse is targeted by bigoted volunteer firemen led by Willie Conklin (Kenneth McMillan), who refuse to allow his automobile to pass by. Coalhouse finds a policeman (Jeff Daniels) and returns to find his car soiled with horse manure. Coalhouse attempts to force the policeman to intervene, but the policeman insists that Colehouse should clean the manure off his car and move on, giving him the choice to do so or be arrested. Colehouse refuses, and is hauled in to the local precinct. After Father arranges for Coalhouse's release, they discover his car has been further vandalized. Coalhouse pursues legal action, but can find no lawyer willing to represent him. Father and Younger Brother argue over Coalhouse's legal recourse. At a presidential rally, Sarah attempts to tell President Roosevelt about Coalhouse's case but is beaten by guards and dies.
After Sarah's funeral, Coalhouse and his supporters kill several firemen. He threatens to attack other firehouses, demanding his car be restored and Conklin be turned over to him. Father is disgusted at the violence but Younger Brother joins Coalhouse's gang with his knowledge of explosives. Ostracized by their own white community and hounded by reporters, Father and Mother leave for Atlantic City. They encounter Tateh, now a film director on a photoplay with Evelyn. Mother is attracted to Tateh and she and Father quarrel. Coalhouse's gang hold the Pierpont Morgan Library's collection hostage. Police Commissioner Rhinelander Waldo (James Cagney) sends for Walker's child as a bargaining chip but Mother refuses to give him up. Father demands she turn the child over and returns to New York to assist Waldo and Mother leaves.
Booker T. Washington (Moses Gunn) fails to persuade Walker to surrender, as does Father. Conklin is captured by police and forced to apologize to Coalhouse. Waldo is disgusted by Conklin's bigotry but cannot submit to terrorist demands and has him arrested. Coalhouse agrees to surrender if Waldo permits his supporters to depart in his restored car and Waldo agrees after Father volunteers to stay as a hostage. Coalhouse's supporters escape and he drives Father out of the library. Ready to blow himself up, Coalhouse instead surrenders but is shot dead on Waldo's orders. The film ends with another newsreel: Evelyn dances in vaudeville and Thaw is released from an asylum. Houdini escapes from a straitjacket several stories above the ground, while newspapers announce that the First World War has begun. Younger Brother returns to his fireworks job and Father watches from the house in New Rochelle as Mother departs with Tateh and Coalhouse's son.
Cast
The film is notable for introducing numerous actors for whom this was one of their first appearances in an American film: Samuel L. Jackson, Debbie Allen, Jeff Daniels, Andreas Katsulas, Ethan Phillips, Stuart Milligan, and Mandy Patinkin. Additionally, it was the final film of James Cagney and Pat O'Brien. Cagney had not acted in a film for 20 years before his appearance in Ragtime.
Production
The film was shot on location in New York City; Mount Kisco, New York; New Jersey; and at Shepperton Studios, UK. Robert Altman initially signed to direct the film, but was replaced by Forman.
Reception
The film holds an aggregated score of 83% from Rotten Tomatoes from 18 reviews, but a 57/100 from Metacritic indicating mixed or average reviews. Roger Ebert gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars, writing that "'Ragtime' is a loving, beautifully mounted, graceful film that creates its characters with great clarity. We understand where everyone stands, and most of the time we even know why." Vincent Canby gave the film a more mixed review, praising the performances and cinematography but criticizing Forman's narrative choices that created an unclear sense of time and prioritized certain storylines at the cost of others: "[Ragtime] is sorrowful, funny and beautiful. It is also, finally, very unsatisfactory." Christopher Null gave the film a negative review, calling it "a jumbled and largely uninteresting mess."
Awards and honors
Others
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:
Coalhouse Walker, Jr. – Nominated
2005: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated
See also
Ragtime – the Tony-winning musical adaptation
References
External links
1981 films
1981 drama films
American drama films
American films
English-language films
Films scored by Randy Newman
Films based on American novels
Films directed by Miloš Forman
Films set in the 1900s
Films set in New York City
Films set in New Jersey
Films set in Westchester County, New York
Films shot in New York (state)
Films shot in New Jersey
Paramount Pictures films
Films produced by Dino De Laurentiis
Cultural depictions of Booker T. Washington
Cultural depictions of Harry Houdini
Cultural depictions of Theodore Roosevelt
Films about racism
Films set in the 1910s
Ragtime films
|
[
-0.3603842854499817,
0.02452968619763851,
-0.38617950677871704,
-0.0877414345741272,
0.7361538410186768,
-0.3139970004558563,
0.21355561912059784,
-0.5817734599113464,
-0.47498834133148193,
0.26690447330474854,
-0.19675371050834656,
0.5875199437141418,
-0.6281567215919495,
0.3383384048938751,
0.062159352004528046,
0.08646398037672043,
0.7752388715744019,
-0.18127372860908508,
0.32386064529418945,
-0.9452752470970154,
-0.9035160541534424,
-0.1915562003850937,
0.6649020314216614,
-0.10050752758979797,
-0.756264865398407,
0.023143654689192772,
-0.16525058448314667,
0.45062440633773804,
-0.039140183478593826,
0.5081112384796143,
0.15518829226493835,
0.12378619611263275,
-0.2165554165840149,
-0.07785104960203171,
0.1527954488992691,
0.22716546058654785,
-0.4493623971939087,
0.17126081883907318,
-0.2898649275302887,
-0.9957234263420105,
0.28962114453315735,
0.028939861804246902,
0.18137651681900024,
-0.06718660145998001,
-0.566448986530304,
0.026041779667139053,
-1.180505633354187,
0.02459823153913021,
-0.6187765002250671,
-0.35852473974227905,
0.30532845854759216,
0.720471203327179,
0.5448252558708191,
-0.15637876093387604,
0.33929023146629333,
0.7076804637908936,
-0.5104430317878723,
0.1570248156785965,
-0.40145817399024963,
-0.12074916064739227,
-0.040708549320697784,
0.12040781229734421,
0.34571531414985657,
-0.36715638637542725,
-0.171478271484375,
0.43274858593940735,
-0.11377964913845062,
0.14416849613189697,
0.39925387501716614,
-0.4100140929222107,
0.48906129598617554,
0.19989712536334991,
-0.09549298882484436,
0.27435168623924255,
0.33617404103279114,
-0.41210031509399414,
0.728899359703064,
-0.07049641758203506,
-0.5078852772712708,
0.4018378257751465,
-0.10977562516927719,
-0.005427610594779253,
1.2720396518707275,
0.6299997568130493,
-0.1543472409248352,
-0.2676427960395813,
-0.14724399149417877,
0.38272663950920105,
-0.4220002591609955,
0.36110371351242065,
-0.23186646401882172,
-0.23735247552394867,
0.016064800322055817,
0.543090283870697,
-0.27273163199424744,
-0.0868331640958786,
-0.010153125040233135,
-0.1145106852054596,
0.38729509711265564,
0.31797802448272705,
0.49758195877075195,
-0.18077822029590607,
0.19949975609779358,
-0.4009784758090973,
-0.737045168876648,
0.40904197096824646,
0.17783963680267334,
-0.28191372752189636,
-0.18174141645431519,
0.1723923683166504,
-0.4608176648616791,
-0.14758452773094177,
0.0052689616568386555,
-0.1493796557188034,
0.1678907573223114,
0.17694103717803955,
0.04604126140475273,
-0.35704052448272705,
-0.6702480316162109,
0.2970157265663147,
0.19918997585773468,
0.23265765607357025,
0.046372152864933014,
0.5713664889335632,
-0.23382548987865448,
1.0849714279174805,
0.4504743218421936,
0.7427030205726624,
-0.26733389496803284,
-0.2649155855178833,
0.5488017797470093,
0.16444118320941925,
-0.36534053087234497,
0.03855931758880615,
-0.22417324781417847,
-0.08581145852804184,
0.6517932415008545,
-0.22791559994220734,
-0.1284226030111313,
0.24657724797725677,
-0.19199104607105255,
-0.1247246116399765,
-0.6752892732620239,
-0.2700886130332947,
0.24886418879032135,
-0.8536538481712341,
0.5062228441238403,
0.08148988336324692,
0.1487015187740326,
0.05456947162747383,
0.4489463269710541,
0.44119152426719666,
-0.11203285306692123,
-0.09069278836250305,
-0.7619982957839966,
0.12072774767875671,
0.16634853184223175,
-0.003766594687476754,
0.17330048978328705,
-0.21491464972496033,
0.018725179135799408,
-0.08906272798776627,
0.04685015603899956,
-0.23826906085014343,
0.05938742309808731,
-0.3950469195842743,
0.20371265709400177,
0.03465880826115608,
-0.1314675360918045,
0.23276612162590027,
0.23112237453460693,
0.580961287021637,
-0.012939898297190666,
0.036705780774354935,
-0.7585378289222717,
0.04882887378334999,
0.010294896550476551,
0.8518663048744202,
0.23677711188793182,
-0.2742622494697571,
-0.626432478427887,
-0.07338187098503113,
0.5069325566291809,
-0.09975439310073853,
0.2326941192150116,
0.22956857085227966,
-0.07049170136451721,
-0.10425733029842377,
0.03713608160614967,
-0.41562074422836304,
-0.3307659924030304,
-0.3551611304283142,
0.5212751626968384,
-0.5721144676208496,
0.9509868025779724,
0.1722777634859085,
-0.4899197816848755,
-0.015671055763959885,
-0.15362143516540527,
0.09391319751739502,
0.06911028176546097,
-0.22589018940925598,
0.3192559480667114,
0.21131186187267303,
-0.18043549358844757,
-0.5184763669967651,
-0.16708901524543762,
0.2815464735031128,
0.5578089952468872,
0.3622606098651886,
0.10935346782207489,
-0.3608609437942505,
0.12131203711032867,
0.5154762864112854,
0.2201126515865326,
-0.18114709854125977,
-0.6288657784461975,
0.11958657205104828,
0.5176359415054321,
0.011041284538805485,
0.4487634301185608,
0.01793735660612583,
-0.31331825256347656,
0.005975078791379929,
0.07225904613733292,
0.8853664994239807,
-0.1803981065750122,
0.20115002989768982,
0.054198257625103,
-0.13338541984558105,
-0.15076254308223724,
0.1147162914276123,
-0.4600982666015625,
-0.8618719577789307,
0.12653112411499023,
0.42600440979003906,
0.4224385917186737,
-0.10089212656021118,
-0.2692476212978363,
-0.1060151532292366,
0.4373578429222107,
0.30160263180732727,
-1.1652439832687378,
0.22176684439182281,
0.36104297637939453,
-0.19482582807540894,
0.22632908821105957,
-0.17093141376972198,
-0.2623971402645111,
-0.09768643975257874,
0.053979791700839996,
0.5609048008918762,
0.005796478129923344,
0.13582991063594818,
-0.18083766102790833,
0.30386218428611755,
-0.6464274525642395,
-0.4874011278152466,
0.15044037997722626,
-0.05739835649728775,
0.38022705912590027,
0.07486936450004578,
0.5593723654747009,
0.10853009670972824,
-0.7795029282569885,
-0.24804966151714325,
-0.63750159740448,
-0.46943017840385437,
-0.36314982175827026,
0.15167251229286194,
-0.00822972971946001,
-0.033470269292593,
-0.08373071998357773,
0.35335269570350647,
-0.038315299898386,
-0.03769480437040329,
-0.11360995471477509,
-0.2455555945634842,
-0.5268076062202454,
-0.4670606553554535,
0.6375496983528137,
0.397117018699646,
0.25799983739852905,
-0.18242274224758148,
-0.7825169563293457,
0.007424767129123211,
0.29400306940078735,
-0.11605304479598999,
0.3518519997596741,
-0.2105380743741989,
-0.04084603115916252,
0.4421907663345337,
-0.7575228214263916,
-0.19138509035110474,
-0.5134446024894714,
0.42134711146354675,
-0.08509563654661179,
0.6430425047874451,
-0.0912664532661438,
0.09438188374042511,
-0.5324620008468628,
0.31459856033325195,
-0.15849417448043823,
-0.2619816064834595,
0.5009189248085022,
-0.11274981498718262,
0.029199521988630295,
-0.8926768898963928,
-5.823461532592773,
0.3102131485939026,
-0.07521704584360123,
0.10029400140047073,
0.23690886795520782,
0.0903991162776947,
0.38256967067718506,
-0.4617910087108612,
0.34987443685531616,
-0.026211043819785118,
-0.42155057191848755,
-0.14971397817134857,
-0.4949895739555359,
0.34992310404777527,
0.39133384823799133,
-0.20205950736999512,
-0.23379848897457123,
-0.2410460114479065,
-0.2888670861721039,
0.0520491823554039,
0.26294833421707153,
-0.22626473009586334,
-0.0043425848707556725,
0.48767712712287903,
0.18376702070236206,
0.7168351411819458,
-0.3483459949493408,
-0.08005117624998093,
-0.734381914138794,
-0.41004252433776855,
-0.5929306149482727,
0.2369118481874466,
0.24574890732765198,
-0.6397814750671387,
-0.04155778884887695,
0.03758755698800087,
-0.0031612899620085955,
0.10407388210296631,
0.132594496011734,
-0.31311261653900146,
-0.22756357491016388,
0.34619981050491333,
-0.2977231442928314,
-0.12131930142641068,
0.5574072599411011,
-0.1677597463130951,
-0.02035357616841793,
-0.9865416884422302,
0.0766923651099205,
0.7004002928733826,
-0.01129875611513853,
0.20689953863620758,
0.3423888087272644,
0.11644904315471649,
0.19481220841407776,
-0.048508960753679276,
-0.08437328040599823,
-0.06462099403142929,
0.27726584672927856,
0.12699654698371887,
0.39432254433631897,
-0.28822481632232666,
-0.24253621697425842,
-0.36233964562416077,
-0.35149049758911133,
0.02047022432088852,
-0.23638030886650085,
-0.30685627460479736,
0.07565242797136307,
0.794278621673584,
0.2985094487667084,
-0.011757894419133663,
0.1938968449831009,
-0.9879605174064636,
-0.03706095367670059,
-0.2862122058868408,
-0.3850509226322174,
-0.4076220691204071,
-0.25351351499557495,
-0.0861596167087555,
0.09310303628444672,
-0.16327376663684845,
0.2355332225561142,
0.2609391510486603,
0.2278107851743698,
-0.3522845506668091,
-0.5342170596122742,
-0.3097461760044098,
-0.4847387969493866,
-0.10818871110677719,
0.5516377687454224,
-0.29645341634750366,
-0.27699995040893555,
0.5121474266052246,
-0.1323017179965973,
0.04297161102294922,
-0.2317904531955719,
0.22875264286994934,
0.3484097719192505,
-0.009035867638885975,
-0.16913287341594696,
-0.40388891100883484,
0.652760922908783,
-0.21559873223304749,
0.2123117595911026,
-0.44426390528678894,
-0.13005372881889343,
0.4151609241962433,
0.22070950269699097,
-0.0543355792760849,
0.12134566903114319,
-0.5247604846954346,
0.014429605565965176,
-0.26990509033203125,
0.32661545276641846,
-0.5284455418586731,
0.11714300513267517,
0.27016356587409973,
0.2887660562992096,
-0.12918055057525635,
0.1501864492893219,
0.32507163286209106,
0.2709776759147644,
-0.2447652816772461,
-0.2929091155529022,
-0.31452131271362305,
0.6239198446273804,
0.35304298996925354,
0.030698789283633232,
0.07188605517148972,
-0.6207422018051147,
0.3239159882068634,
0.26043885946273804,
0.10238569974899292,
0.3518320918083191,
-0.3338612914085388,
-0.37020260095596313,
0.172477588057518,
0.25375276803970337,
-0.1434078961610794,
0.12030001729726791,
-0.7399725317955017,
0.20435787737369537,
0.30415865778923035,
0.12393317371606827,
-0.09857526421546936,
0.7085959911346436,
-0.3803347051143646,
-0.22131428122520447,
0.2563362717628479,
0.29480576515197754,
0.3946050703525543,
0.9172232747077942,
-0.5146422982215881,
-0.8312320709228516,
-0.21897204220294952,
0.42160412669181824,
-0.1609352082014084,
0.150453120470047,
-0.22549861669540405,
0.5302196741104126,
0.5073344707489014,
-0.9838586449623108,
0.22715361416339874,
-0.13570894300937653,
-0.31772831082344055,
-0.36939266324043274,
-0.43545934557914734,
0.0345158651471138,
0.49577099084854126,
0.18977513909339905,
-0.2785091996192932,
0.19681455194950104,
0.044093869626522064,
-0.29819032549858093,
-0.13688838481903076,
-0.23707672953605652,
0.014477070420980453,
-0.4356163740158081,
0.11493858695030212,
0.1941402554512024,
-0.2625209391117096,
-0.8101890087127686,
0.22554634511470795,
0.1376379430294037,
-0.5318217873573303,
-0.4664289653301239,
-0.17085683345794678,
-0.32995855808258057,
0.214678555727005,
0.4921874701976776,
0.42284345626831055,
0.5740553140640259,
-0.22829610109329224,
-0.6152312159538269,
-0.22675520181655884,
-0.05413016304373741,
0.9219035506248474,
0.1484694629907608,
-0.45612698793411255,
0.38240179419517517,
0.5982221961021423,
-0.6144320964813232,
0.3756631910800934,
0.2676113247871399,
-0.6464162468910217,
0.3042353093624115,
0.41715550422668457,
-0.466518759727478,
0.49109357595443726,
-0.4054422378540039,
-0.8062497973442078,
0.27052778005599976,
-0.4464554488658905,
-0.4067424237728119,
0.27666279673576355,
0.35852575302124023,
-0.45942652225494385,
-0.19623780250549316,
-0.3057765066623688,
-0.22099071741104126,
-0.17005223035812378,
-0.6612644195556641,
-0.14917968213558197,
-1.1195719242095947,
0.038880087435245514,
0.15010365843772888,
-0.30017638206481934,
0.007109648082405329,
-0.38553860783576965,
0.017256557941436768,
-0.16412636637687683,
-0.1309569627046585,
-0.20105965435504913,
-0.7728043794631958,
-0.31961312890052795,
0.02324680984020233,
-0.04750655218958855,
0.7716203927993774,
0.4061901271343231,
0.5163009166717529,
0.9969238638877869,
0.07500820606946945,
0.4705537259578705,
0.43840354681015015,
0.12645921111106873,
0.2256384938955307,
-0.5524728298187256,
-0.27910315990448,
0.5802613496780396,
0.3197508454322815,
0.09175360947847366,
-0.3998446762561798,
-0.5240659117698669,
0.7096757888793945,
-0.4812554717063904,
0.1650753915309906,
0.2522875964641571,
0.08092549443244934,
0.257203072309494,
-0.020518066361546516,
0.7123883366584778,
-1.0338033437728882,
-0.32140231132507324,
-0.28776994347572327,
0.34204354882240295,
0.19475489854812622,
-0.12419220805168152,
0.4943041205406189,
-0.129598930478096,
0.05332280322909355,
0.29763370752334595,
0.18742628395557404,
0.32934877276420593,
0.07844439893960953,
0.14708399772644043,
-0.31037354469299316,
-0.4706653952598572,
0.35912957787513733,
0.189323291182518,
-0.6254456639289856,
0.6183843612670898,
-0.29814547300338745,
-0.5617511868476868,
-0.25383031368255615,
-0.1274440884590149,
0.07038451731204987,
-0.4332757592201233,
-0.28571322560310364,
-0.38737475872039795,
-0.4937331974506378,
0.17129230499267578,
0.2902275323867798,
-0.06593192368745804,
-0.15379033982753754,
-0.06507991254329681,
0.37485140562057495,
0.2998568117618561,
-0.5916308164596558,
-0.2982806861400604,
-0.42749738693237305,
0.24539631605148315,
-0.0925387516617775,
-0.2152228057384491,
0.16263197362422943,
-0.4641294479370117,
0.6296447515487671,
-0.3834323585033417,
-0.7231468558311462,
0.38492223620414734,
-0.01664409413933754,
-0.6593060493469238,
0.26854413747787476,
0.8340784311294556,
-0.3552704155445099,
0.45884448289871216,
0.6201351284980774,
0.15507514774799347,
0.06005443260073662,
0.17106500267982483,
0.26789548993110657,
-0.3455091118812561,
0.3368425965309143,
-0.32805994153022766,
0.24678349494934082,
0.2698323130607605,
-0.06337139755487442,
0.4884568452835083,
0.46472442150115967,
-0.028859639540314674,
0.3855455219745636,
-0.3747125267982483,
0.0662861168384552,
0.38123103976249695,
0.11047891527414322,
0.09695205092430115,
0.25442570447921753,
0.08100242167711258,
-0.6620714664459229,
0.5401850938796997,
0.4453788697719574,
-0.23720353841781616,
-0.1455307900905609,
-0.029831325635313988,
0.4308362305164337,
-0.6595292687416077,
0.30199331045150757,
0.018531782552599907,
0.29930973052978516,
-0.7558745741844177,
0.4842761754989624,
0.6515995264053345,
0.04460939019918442,
-0.5743743181228638,
1.2969717979431152,
0.22635065019130707,
0.38388872146606445,
-0.0059328749775886536,
0.5433979630470276,
0.2624363303184509,
-0.3451146185398102,
0.19859953224658966,
0.7020689845085144,
0.3844586908817291,
0.14573679864406586,
0.27601325511932373,
-0.4067353308200836,
-0.33155059814453125,
0.1582293063402176,
0.07406844943761826,
0.01538720540702343,
0.2682286500930786,
-0.38529226183891296,
0.237746000289917,
0.5300508737564087,
-0.04735049605369568,
-0.339962363243103,
0.2862097918987274,
0.1026029959321022,
-0.3180435299873352,
-0.41275346279144287,
0.5880110263824463,
-0.5156036615371704,
-0.5020464658737183,
0.2396426945924759,
-0.3353498876094818,
-0.04304937273263931,
-0.12251920253038406,
0.46608614921569824,
-0.7413197159767151,
0.5889831185340881,
-0.7364557385444641,
-0.013083025813102722,
0.09272745996713638,
-0.5577530860900879,
-0.20107881724834442,
-0.5380237698554993,
0.9971346259117126,
-0.034900546073913574,
0.2004629373550415,
0.34200114011764526,
0.0758046805858612,
0.20655255019664764,
0.6050881743431091,
-0.01944820210337639,
-0.09857305139303207,
-0.726065456867218,
0.22257862985134125,
-0.5100059509277344,
0.6563834547996521,
0.07418059557676315,
0.25508514046669006,
-0.06393264979124069,
0.19235698878765106,
0.2710323929786682,
-0.10353798419237137,
0.5485081672668457,
-0.2857918441295624,
-0.1487746387720108,
-0.19256402552127838,
0.2757769823074341,
-0.640052318572998,
0.17542804777622223,
-0.031385526061058044,
-0.1393386870622635,
-0.35006624460220337,
0.3533005714416504,
-0.033261146396398544,
-0.2901272177696228,
0.21214726567268372,
0.470594584941864,
0.5441944599151611,
0.08242800086736679,
-0.2768709659576416,
-0.16172072291374207,
-0.15641167759895325,
0.16477198898792267,
0.5437016487121582,
0.3652757704257965,
-0.47741279006004333,
0.16369637846946716,
0.3108040988445282,
0.4107832610607147,
0.27219662070274353,
0.7717037796974182,
-0.7695460319519043,
0.1602182239294052,
-0.32382339239120483,
-0.4122052788734436,
0.41633129119873047,
-0.3149081766605377,
-0.7179948091506958,
0.019094889983534813,
-0.4587685763835907,
-0.3962228000164032,
0.47550898790359497,
-0.21178863942623138,
-0.015208923257887363,
0.06095607206225395,
-0.25968053936958313
] |
213016
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac%20Casaubon
|
Isaac Casaubon
|
Isaac Casaubon (; ; 18 February 1559 – 1 July 1614) was a classical scholar and philologist, first in France and then later in England.
His son Méric Casaubon was also a classical scholar.
Life
Early life
He was born in Geneva to two French Huguenot refugees. The family returned to France after the Edict of Saint-Germain in 1562, and settled at Crest in Dauphiné, where Arnaud Casaubon, Isaac's father, became minister of a Huguenot congregation. Until he was nineteen, Isaac had no education other than that given him by his father. Arnaud was away from home for long periods in the Calvinist camp, and the family regularly fled to the hills to hide from bands of armed Catholics who patrolled the country. It was in a cave in the mountains of Dauphiné, after the massacre of St Bartholomew, that Isaac received his first lesson in Greek, based on Isocrates' "Ad Demonicum."
At the age of nineteen Isaac was sent to the Academy of Geneva, where he read Greek under Franciscus Portus, a Cretan. Portus died in 1581, recommending Casaubon, then only twenty-two, as his successor. He remained at Geneva as professor of Greek until 1596. There he married twice, his second wife being Florence Estienne, daughter of the scholar-printer Henri Estienne. At Geneva, Casaubon lacked example, encouragement and assistance and struggled against the troops of the Catholic dukes of Savoy, but became a consummate Greek and classical scholar. He spent all the money he could spare on books, including copying classics that were not then in print. Even though Henri Estienne, Theodore de Beza (rector of the university and professor of theology), and Jacques Lect (Lectius), were men of superior learning, they often had no time for Casaubon.
Casaubon sought help by cultivating the acquaintance of foreign scholars, as Geneva, the metropolis of Calvinism, received a constant stream of visitors. He eventually met Henry Wotton, a poet and diplomat, who lodged with him and borrowed his money. More importantly, he met Richard Thomson ("Dutch" Thomson), fellow of Clare College, Cambridge, and through Thomson came to the attention of Joseph Scaliger. Scaliger and Casaubon first exchanged letters in 1594. They never met, but kept up a lengthy correspondence that shows their growing admiration, esteem and friendship. Influential French men of letters, the Protestant Jacques Bongars, the Catholic Jacques de Thou, and the Catholic convert Philippe Canaye (sieur de Fresnes) endeavoured to get Casaubon invited to France.
In 1596, they succeeded, and Casaubon accepted a post at the University of Montpellier, with the titles of conseiller du roi (king's advisor) and professeur stipendié aux langues et bonnes lettres (salaried professor of languages and literatures). He stayed there for only three years, with several prolonged absences. He was badly treated and poorly paid by the university authorities. Casaubon began to see the editing of Greek books as a more suitable job for him. At Geneva he had produced some notes on Diogenes Laërtius, Theocritus and the New Testament. He debuted as an editor with a complete edition of Strabo (1587), of which he was so ashamed afterwards that he apologized to Scaliger for it. This was followed by the text of Polyaenus, an editio princeps, 1589; a text of Aristotle, 1590; and a few notes contributed to Estienne's editions of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Pliny's Epistolae. His edition of Theophrastus's Characteres (1592), is the first example of his peculiar style of illustrative commentary, at once apposite and profuse. When he left for Montpellier he was already engaged upon his magnum opus, his editing of and commentary on Athenaeus.
Travels and tribulations
In 1598 Casaubon was at Lyon, overseeing the printing of his Athenaeus. Here he lived in the house of Méric de Vicq, surintendant de la justice (Superintendent of Justice), a liberal-minded Catholic. Accompanied by de Vicq, Casaubon briefly visited Paris, where he was presented to King Henry IV of France. The king said something about employing Casaubon's services in the "restoration" of the fallen University of Paris. In January 1599, he received a summons to return to Paris, but the terms of the letter were so vague that Casaubon hesitated to act on it. However, he resigned his chair at Montpellier. He stayed another year at Lyon with de Vicq, where he hoped to meet the king, who was expected to visit the south. Nothing more was heard about the professorship, but instead De Vicq summoned him to Paris for important business: the Fontainebleau Conference. Casaubon was persuaded to sit as a referee on the challenge sent to Du Plessis Mornay by Cardinal Duperron. By so doing he placed himself in a false position, as Joseph Scaliger said:
"Non debebat Casaubon interesse colloquio Plessiaeano; erat asinus inter simias, doctus inter imperitos."<p>
"Casaubon ought not to have been involved in the conference about Du Plessis; he was a donkey among monkeys, a learned man among the ignorant."
The issue was contrived that the Protestant party (Du Plessis Mornay) could not fail to lose. By concurring with this decision, Casaubon confirmed the Protestants' suspicions that, like his friend and patron, Philippe Canaye, he was contemplating abjuration. From then on, he became the object of the hopes and fears of the two religions; the Catholics lavishing promises and plying him with arguments; the Protestant ministers insinuating that he was preparing to forsake a losing cause, and only haggling about his price. Neither side could understand that Casaubon's reading of the church fathers led him to adopt an intermediate position between Genevan Calvinism and Ultramontanism.
Meanwhile, the king repeated his invitation to Casaubon to settle in Paris, and gave him a pension. No more was said about the university. The recent reform of the University of Paris closed its doors to all but Catholics; and though the chairs of the Collège de France were not governed by the statutes of the university, public opinion ran so violently against Protestants, that Henry IV dared not appoint a Calvinist to that position. When the king's sub-librarian Jean Gosselin died of extreme old age in 1604, Casaubon succeeded him, with a salary of 400 livres in addition to his pension.
Paris
Casaubon remained in Paris until the assassination of Henry IV in 1610. These ten years were the brightest period of his life. He had attained the reputation of being a learned man, in an age in which learning formed the sole standard of literary merit. He had money, the ability to worship as a Huguenot (though he had to travel to Hablon, ten miles from the center of Paris, or Charenton to worship), and the society of men of letters, both domestic and foreign. Above all, he had ample facilities for using Greek books, both printed and in manuscript, the want of which he had felt painfully at Geneva and Montpellier, and which only Paris could supply at that time.
Despite all these advantages, Casaubon considered many schemes for leaving Paris and settling elsewhere. Offers came to him from various quarters, including Nîmes, Heidelberg and Sedan, France. His friends Lect and Giovanni Diodati wished, rather than hoped, to get him back to Geneva. In Paris, Casaubon was still uneasy about his religion: the life of a Parisian Huguenot was always insecure, for the police were likely not strong enough to protect them against a sudden mob uprising. Since the Fontainebleau Conference, an impression prevailed that Casaubon was wavering. The Catholics told him he could gain a professorship only if he renounced Protestantism. When it became clear that Casaubon could not be bought, Henry IV, who liked Casaubon personally, took it upon himself to try to convert him. (Henry himself had converted to Catholicism in order to rule France.) The king's cardinal Duperron, in his capacity of aumonier, argued with Casaubon in the king's library. On the other hand, the Huguenot theologians, especially Pierre du Moulin, chief pastor of the church of Paris, accused Casaubon of conceding too much, and of having departed already from the lines of strict Calvinistic orthodoxy.
England
When the assassination of Henry IV gave full rein to the Ultramontane party at court, Duperron became more importunate, even menacing. Casaubon began to pay attention to overtures from the bishops and the court of England. In October 1610 he came to England in the suite of the ambassador, Lord Wotton of Marley (brother of Casaubon's early friend Henry Wotton), an official invitation having been sent him by Richard Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury. He had the most flattering reception from King James I, who often sent for him to discuss theological matters. The English bishops were delighted to find that the great French scholar was a ready-made Anglican, who had arrived, by independent study of the Fathers, at the very via media (middle way) between Puritanism and Catholicism which was becoming the fashion in the English Church. Casaubon, though a layman, was collated to a prebendal stall in Canterbury, and a pension of £300 a year was assigned him from the exchequer. King James insisted that "I will have Mr Casaubon paid before me, my wife, and my barnes." Casaubon still retained his appointments in France, and his office as librarian: he had obtained leave of absence for the visit to England, where he was not supposed to settle permanently. In order to retain their hold on him, the queen regent, Marie de Medici refused to allow his library to be sent over. It required a specific request from James himself to allow Madame Casaubon to bring him a part of his most necessary books. Casaubon continued to speak of himself as the servant of the regent, and to declare his readiness to return when summoned to do so.
Casaubon found great success in England. English Bishop John Overall received him and his whole family into the deanery of St Paul's, and entertained him there for a year. Lancelot Andrewes, then Bishop of Ely, also became Casaubon's friend, taking him to Cambridge, where he met with a most gratifying reception from the notabilities of the university. They went on together to Little Downham, where Casaubon spent six weeks of the summer of 1611, in which year he became naturalized. He accompanied the bishop on visits to nearby towns including Doddington and Wisbech.
In 1613 he was taken to Oxford by Sir Henry Savile, where, amid the homage and feasting of which he was the object, his principal interest was for the manuscript treasures of the Bodleian Library. He declined the honorary degree which was offered him.
Still, Casaubon gradually discovered the serious inconveniences of his position. Having been taken up by the king and the bishops, he had to share in their rising unpopularity. The courtiers were jealous of a foreign pensioner who was so close to the king. Casaubon was especially mortified by Sir Henry Wotton's behaviour towards him, so inconsistent with their former intimacy. His windows were broken by vandals, and his children were pelted in the streets. On one occasion he appeared at Theobalds with a black eye, having been assaulted in the street. These outrages seem to have arisen solely from the English antipathy to the Frenchman: Casaubon, though he could read an English book, could not speak English. This deficiency exposed him to insult and fraud, and restricted his social activity. It excluded him from the circle of the "wits"; and he was not accepted in the circle of the "antiquaries" like William Camden, Sir Robert Cotton and Henry Spelman.
Although Sir Henry Savile ostensibly patronized him, Casaubon could not help suspecting that it was Savile who had persuaded Richard Montagu to forestall Casaubon's book on Baronius. An exception was John Selden who was close enough to Casaubon to lend him money. Besides the jealousy of the natives, Casaubon had now to suffer the open attacks of the Jesuit pamphleteers, who, after he committed to Anglicism, detested him. Not only Joannes Eudaemon, Heribert Rosweyd and Scioppius (Gaspar Schoppe), but a respectable writer, friendly to Casaubon, Andreas Schott of Antwerp, gave currency to the insinuation that Casaubon had sold his conscience for English gold.
The most serious cause of discomfort in England was that his time was no longer his own. He was continually being summoned to one or other of James's hunting residences in order to converse. The king and the bishops compelled him to write pamphlets on the subject of the day, the royal supremacy. At last, ashamed of misappropriating Casaubon's stores of learning, they asked him to refute the popular Annals of Baronius.
In 1614 he published De rebus sacris et ecclesiasticis exercitationes XVI which consisted of a philological analysis of Corpus Hermeticum, a series of neo-platonic texts. He placed their origin in the third or fourth century AD, rather than in a much earlier "hermetic" period to which they had generally been ascribed.
He died in London of a congenital malformation of the bladder; but his end was hastened by an unhealthy life of over-study, and by his anxiety to acquit himself creditably in his criticism on Baronius. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. The monument by which his name is there commemorated was erected in 1632 by his friend Thomas Morton when Bishop of Durham.
Scholarship and correspondence
Besides the editions already mentioned, Casaubon published and commented upon Persius, Suetonius, Aeschylus, and the Scriptores Historiae Augustae. The edition of Polybius, on which he had spent vast labour, he left unfinished. His most ambitious work was his revision of the text of the Deipnosophistae of Athenaeus, with commentary. The Theophrastus perhaps exhibits his most characteristic excellences as a commentator. The Exercitationes in Baronium are but a fragment of the massive criticism which he contemplated; it failed in presenting the uncritical character of Baronius's history, and had only a moderate success, even among Protestants. His analysis of the Corpus Hermeticum overturned the previous general opinion in Europe that these texts dated from almost the time of Moses by locating them between 200 and 300 AD.
His correspondence (in Latin) was finally collected by Theodorus Janssonius van Almeloveen (Rotterdam, 1709), who prefixed to the letters a careful biography of Casaubon. But Almeloveen was acquainted with Casaubon's diary only in extract. More recently, a complete edition of all the letters written by and to Casaubon during his stay in England was published with extensive cultural-historical notes and introduction (Geneva, 2018). Casaubon's diary, Ephemerides, whose manuscript is preserved in the chapter library of Canterbury, was printed in 1850 by the Clarendon Press. It forms the most valuable record we possess of the daily life of a scholar, or man of letters, of the 16th century.
He also corresponded with the translators of the King James Version of the Bible and helped resolve issues in the translation.
Literary appearances
The scholars in Foucault's Pendulum by Umberto Eco and Middlemarch by George Eliot are named Casaubon. Mary Gentle named a character in her novels Rats and Gargoyles and the Architecture of Desire Casaubon, as an homage to Isaac Casaubon. Ross King makes mention of Casaubon in his novel Ex-Libris where he is said to have debunked the Corpus Hermeticum as a forgery (which he probably took from Frances Yates' Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition [1964])'.
In their book Isaac Casaubon, the Jews, and a Forgotten Chapter in Renaissance Scholarship, Anthony Grafton and Joanna Weinberg show that Casaubon was a Hebrew scholar too, taking serious interest in Jewish studies.
The Jewish bibliographer Isaac ben Jacob, in his Bibliography Otsar Hasefarim (1880), mentions notations on Michlol, the Hebrew book by David Kimhi on Hebrew grammar, which he attributes to one "Rabbi Isaac Casaubon".
Works
Casaubon, Isaac, De Satyrica Graecorum & Romanorum Satira, Paris, 1605. Facsimile ed., ed. Peter E. Medine, 1973, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, .
See also
Ralph Cudworth
Notes
References
Caterina Marrone, I geroglifici fantastici di Athanasius Kircher, Nuovi Equilibri, Viterbo, 2002, pag. 166, .
A. Grafton and J. Weinberg, "I have always loved the Holy Tongue": Isaac Casaubon, the Jews, and a Forgotten Chapter in Renaissance Scholarship, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011.
Paul Botley and Máté Vince (eds), The Correspondence of Isaac Casaubon in England, 1610-14. 4 volumes'', Geneva, Droz, 2018.
External links
1559 births
1614 deaths
Genevan scholars
Writers from the Republic of Geneva
English people of French descent
French classical scholars
French librarians
Huguenots
French Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Collège de France faculty
16th-century French people
16th-century Calvinist and Reformed Christians
|
[
-0.3090521991252899,
0.2855778634548187,
-0.8481723666191101,
-0.5045070648193359,
-0.04775388911366463,
1.0904875993728638,
0.5873944163322449,
0.3415650427341461,
-0.1403229981660843,
-0.7448905110359192,
-0.47511351108551025,
0.24338272213935852,
-0.0314001590013504,
-0.292373925447464,
0.05216209217905998,
-0.16943204402923584,
0.23462216556072235,
-0.7152040600776672,
-0.2808482348918915,
-0.2527076005935669,
0.10287467390298843,
0.27520331740379333,
0.17893822491168976,
0.08582743257284164,
-0.1663968414068222,
0.06700867414474487,
-0.1945260763168335,
-0.1918450891971588,
0.008926180191338062,
-0.4491720497608185,
-0.022422082722187042,
0.27472180128097534,
-0.022597091272473335,
-0.5671289563179016,
-0.8259029388427734,
0.47730380296707153,
-0.13658355176448822,
0.1793413609266281,
0.41304925084114075,
0.23465466499328613,
-0.00783565454185009,
-0.05387767776846886,
0.2443407028913498,
0.2631811201572418,
-0.4295065701007843,
-0.21927571296691895,
-1.561920166015625,
0.5597234964370728,
-0.6493809819221497,
-0.32921457290649414,
0.6350764036178589,
0.1750091016292572,
0.4883899688720703,
0.7424378395080566,
-0.6982298493385315,
0.6163172721862793,
-1.2995237112045288,
-0.6502794623374939,
0.6172438859939575,
-0.3504321873188019,
0.7743884325027466,
0.5581066012382507,
0.3037230968475342,
-0.006305437069386244,
0.09604960680007935,
0.1874137669801712,
-0.7986118793487549,
0.25584641098976135,
-0.5659611225128174,
-0.10859058797359467,
-0.04388866946101189,
0.37220701575279236,
-0.29196348786354065,
0.4890579283237457,
0.40744370222091675,
-0.5470132827758789,
0.15900669991970062,
0.5370657444000244,
-0.10409129410982132,
0.12602896988391876,
0.14458416402339935,
-0.09939578175544739,
1.2104793787002563,
-0.0217069610953331,
-0.17248547077178955,
0.9293527603149414,
-0.04833399876952171,
0.3377947509288788,
-0.4317277669906616,
-0.5743343234062195,
0.022533545270562172,
-0.3485974669456482,
0.3223320245742798,
0.043633412569761276,
-0.04593302309513092,
0.6143508553504944,
0.2864880859851837,
0.07216697186231613,
-0.3873002529144287,
-0.11406207829713821,
-0.9602131247520447,
0.28866294026374817,
0.29003649950027466,
0.013947161845862865,
0.10085876286029816,
0.09484837204217911,
-0.44393858313560486,
-0.1301478147506714,
-0.1233825832605362,
0.18384841084480286,
-0.1551719456911087,
0.4371284544467926,
-0.3579693138599396,
0.19653627276420593,
-0.008425758220255375,
0.24439877271652222,
0.511995255947113,
-0.9316543340682983,
-0.8300432562828064,
0.01309195626527071,
-0.03420137241482735,
0.40443071722984314,
0.560028612613678,
-0.12017055600881577,
-0.6693230867385864,
-0.30481162667274475,
0.23391950130462646,
0.3323962390422821,
0.034210093319416046,
0.13258574903011322,
0.1744173914194107,
1.0519001483917236,
0.24098168313503265,
-0.5941473841667175,
-0.6237949132919312,
0.05239985138177872,
0.11303988844156265,
0.42117565870285034,
-0.5685978531837463,
0.061673570424318314,
-0.3744540810585022,
-0.4552726447582245,
-0.45984286069869995,
-0.1634821891784668,
0.1020517498254776,
-0.10131260007619858,
0.2962534427642822,
-0.1339932531118393,
0.16398121416568756,
0.6095325350761414,
-0.6932400465011597,
0.31276386976242065,
0.024437295272946358,
-0.15079493820667267,
-0.2872650623321533,
0.3959047794342041,
0.5013179779052734,
0.513831615447998,
0.17453408241271973,
-0.15283863246440887,
0.2579241096973419,
-0.5366875529289246,
0.04980356991291046,
0.032382987439632416,
0.21190954744815826,
-0.22134409844875336,
0.3158716559410095,
-0.1380305141210556,
-0.15544526278972626,
-0.003057212335988879,
-0.1525905877351761,
-0.4490969479084015,
0.5873152613639832,
-0.3800029456615448,
-0.1295453906059265,
0.7028064131736755,
0.24026183784008026,
-0.14207689464092255,
0.973046064376831,
-0.12624743580818176,
-0.7841119170188904,
-0.05142452195286751,
0.05201249569654465,
-0.46804946660995483,
0.5170899033546448,
0.5168678760528564,
0.8769071102142334,
0.16542620956897736,
0.09448636323213577,
-0.22453396022319794,
-1.0855779647827148,
-0.6257302761077881,
-0.3346966505050659,
-0.19553932547569275,
0.8970382213592529,
0.34160396456718445,
-0.6474267244338989,
1.343069076538086,
-0.07871268689632416,
0.7012874484062195,
-0.5442405939102173,
-0.17559446394443512,
0.04940222203731537,
0.45847028493881226,
0.6298283338546753,
0.3962879180908203,
0.3001756966114044,
0.058213818818330765,
0.7541212439537048,
0.4819785952568054,
0.3123495280742645,
-0.5348119735717773,
0.3769344091415405,
0.7929297685623169,
-0.6833472847938538,
-0.5668500065803528,
-0.4307245910167694,
-0.15692079067230225,
0.048111386597156525,
-0.4988325834274292,
0.3868163526058197,
0.01750798709690571,
0.15236921608448029,
0.7253227829933167,
-0.36904802918434143,
0.7247529625892639,
-0.013425217941403389,
0.31167182326316833,
0.13395728170871735,
-0.9634870886802673,
-0.12180732935667038,
-0.19390864670276642,
0.38994300365448,
-0.37549951672554016,
-0.15163247287273407,
-0.20310768485069275,
0.007999473251402378,
-0.6015734672546387,
0.3435700237751007,
-0.3651514947414398,
0.3673427700996399,
0.44186124205589294,
-0.015249225310981274,
0.39994898438453674,
-0.04863642156124115,
0.6529014706611633,
0.4187740087509155,
-0.04558032378554344,
0.3783837854862213,
-0.2947496771812439,
0.16524000465869904,
0.5575963258743286,
-0.2991965115070343,
0.45924821496009827,
0.06875990331172943,
0.0022432769183069468,
1.0004963874816895,
0.6857267022132874,
0.3816475570201874,
0.07127965241670609,
0.11550187319517136,
-0.15433840453624725,
0.11559058725833893,
0.662043035030365,
0.35183900594711304,
-0.12073701620101929,
0.18584848940372467,
-0.8984339833259583,
0.1417006552219391,
-0.34884557127952576,
0.5355868339538574,
-0.5083988308906555,
0.05646132305264473,
0.8034616708755493,
-0.023703426122665405,
0.1468648761510849,
-0.05226799100637436,
-0.29388922452926636,
-0.2858850359916687,
-0.5698614120483398,
-0.1467413604259491,
0.7188862562179565,
-0.894526481628418,
0.4075387418270111,
-0.023361921310424805,
-0.4003468453884125,
0.02958025224506855,
-0.840320348739624,
0.4231562614440918,
-0.04104172810912132,
-0.025207644328475,
0.4272918999195099,
-0.4446108043193817,
-0.13284876942634583,
-0.13164551556110382,
0.18016740679740906,
-0.5779464840888977,
-0.7495033740997314,
-0.5014774799346924,
-0.36788687109947205,
-0.9469983577728271,
-0.2917337417602539,
0.13455460965633392,
0.728744626045227,
0.6269579529762268,
-0.02528434619307518,
-0.22905172407627106,
0.34617775678634644,
-5.240926265716553,
0.3514217734336853,
0.24453285336494446,
0.17421555519104004,
0.37012979388237,
0.2429250329732895,
0.29851242899894714,
-0.2604271173477173,
-0.1573719084262848,
-0.09795194119215012,
0.22995643317699432,
-0.24457338452339172,
-0.627338171005249,
0.8291385173797607,
0.19998350739479065,
0.6192570924758911,
-0.19030199944972992,
-0.17014943063259125,
-0.15160639584064484,
0.3801325559616089,
-0.349899023771286,
0.21244706213474274,
0.20842652022838593,
0.2783392667770386,
0.3592187166213989,
-0.10459639877080917,
-0.19364383816719055,
0.47076377272605896,
-0.8392422199249268,
-0.0744950920343399,
0.1364561915397644,
0.023237286135554314,
0.4253266751766205,
-0.09874872118234634,
0.022648882120847702,
-0.02951573021709919,
0.582279622554779,
0.4175625741481781,
-0.29210788011550903,
0.520416259765625,
-0.19842486083507538,
0.13234037160873413,
-0.6110743880271912,
0.694437563419342,
-0.653350830078125,
-0.37320050597190857,
-0.6525213122367859,
-0.17088691890239716,
0.11285747587680817,
0.2759983241558075,
-0.4817791283130646,
0.24767909944057465,
-0.34631362557411194,
0.1805638074874878,
0.06321316212415695,
-0.1692381054162979,
0.46723684668540955,
-0.05464877933263779,
-0.7034201622009277,
-0.10812058299779892,
0.6186438798904419,
-0.6734896302223206,
-0.09079811722040176,
-0.42030254006385803,
0.4060738682746887,
-0.38764333724975586,
0.14455406367778778,
-0.07974860817193985,
0.23233620822429657,
-0.372297078371048,
-0.07800360023975372,
0.7189992666244507,
-0.03616321459412575,
-1.1661502122879028,
-0.3199414908885956,
-0.3696291744709015,
-0.055928997695446014,
-0.5500472187995911,
-0.28902485966682434,
0.05523819103837013,
0.19311657547950745,
-0.618898868560791,
-0.07902377843856812,
1.2596410512924194,
0.7199898362159729,
0.0051178885623812675,
-0.2019825130701065,
0.14452481269836426,
-0.6942574381828308,
-0.40698981285095215,
-0.045883651822805405,
-0.403946191072464,
-0.24703451991081238,
0.36043429374694824,
0.0014022260438650846,
0.3365685045719147,
-0.6345290541648865,
0.5990110039710999,
0.7941423654556274,
0.3091554045677185,
-0.2913891673088074,
0.10976815223693848,
0.12939515709877014,
-0.034188542515039444,
0.57536780834198,
-0.5645059943199158,
-0.5194828510284424,
0.6981335878372192,
0.5591577887535095,
0.6048157811164856,
0.40410998463630676,
0.39724597334861755,
-0.4122742712497711,
0.33586978912353516,
-0.5463258028030396,
-0.12043564021587372,
0.1516726315021515,
0.3082379400730133,
0.2088438719511032,
0.07629256695508957,
-0.651593029499054,
0.26468297839164734,
-0.4763067662715912,
-0.1336648017168045,
-0.5741019248962402,
-0.19045595824718475,
-0.13516801595687866,
-0.6248261332511902,
-0.7309654355049133,
-0.6334168314933777,
-0.15085554122924805,
0.11527141183614731,
0.24882371723651886,
0.2542306184768677,
0.4049820899963379,
-0.34560543298721313,
-0.6293861269950867,
-0.7107651233673096,
0.29992154240608215,
-0.144514799118042,
0.00012275665358174592,
-0.6623094081878662,
-0.018639128655195236,
0.44129595160484314,
0.22902201116085052,
-0.24894285202026367,
0.2469571828842163,
0.06559436768293381,
-0.4999043047428131,
0.8209668397903442,
0.3636709153652191,
0.21274417638778687,
0.6031327843666077,
0.2065834254026413,
0.17515648901462555,
-0.21284665167331696,
0.08240956813097,
0.284468412399292,
0.27160540223121643,
-0.24246957898139954,
0.19299139082431793,
0.09320246428251266,
-0.6536324620246887,
-0.24313440918922424,
0.05790233612060547,
0.16589504480361938,
-0.2589961290359497,
-0.30401355028152466,
-0.5334914326667786,
0.3431203365325928,
-0.06481701135635376,
-0.4610394239425659,
-0.2301788032054901,
-0.46175524592399597,
0.5000390410423279,
-0.4759868383407593,
0.3539150357246399,
0.2895672023296356,
0.29491159319877625,
-0.07464056462049484,
-0.05025156959891319,
-0.4328407645225525,
-0.5909685492515564,
0.0645291805267334,
1.0736114978790283,
-0.014505669474601746,
-0.46096378564834595,
-0.9487267136573792,
-0.08310302346944809,
-0.5230315327644348,
0.007767407223582268,
-0.402201384305954,
-0.0150745315477252,
1.019018292427063,
-0.19085949659347534,
-0.30188417434692383,
0.42361021041870117,
-0.024613693356513977,
-0.2069208174943924,
-0.36772069334983826,
0.13936591148376465,
0.023002497851848602,
-0.1476481407880783,
0.09182202070951462,
0.16135290265083313,
-0.9920368790626526,
-0.2195528894662857,
-0.46465563774108887,
-0.6451873183250427,
0.9173427820205688,
-0.6314287781715393,
-0.6677234172821045,
-0.058194518089294434,
0.5762233138084412,
-0.3355306386947632,
-0.12808857858181,
0.0008172060479409993,
-0.046298518776893616,
-0.15636253356933594,
-0.4315185248851776,
-0.4315716326236725,
-0.15128538012504578,
-0.341165691614151,
-0.42321574687957764,
-0.37848326563835144,
0.2261417657136917,
0.4357028603553772,
0.24679610133171082,
0.8821399211883545,
-0.2015940248966217,
0.05989332124590874,
-0.07263076305389404,
-0.13672888278961182,
0.315035343170166,
-0.22322730720043182,
-0.3038962483406067,
0.4124411940574646,
-0.17592516541481018,
-0.29759079217910767,
-0.2634727954864502,
0.40964335203170776,
0.2903643548488617,
0.5441046953201294,
-0.23672038316726685,
-0.33168551325798035,
0.3894750773906708,
0.418914258480072,
0.1541101187467575,
-0.014148363843560219,
-0.23131035268306732,
-0.18673941493034363,
-0.13042251765727997,
-0.4887119233608246,
-0.27341893315315247,
0.5068578720092773,
-0.1507357507944107,
0.04037315398454666,
0.08469085395336151,
0.08896716684103012,
0.0722961500287056,
0.7189685702323914,
-0.3018694519996643,
-0.04127499833703041,
0.04201168566942215,
-0.0012294439366087317,
-0.23327043652534485,
0.542473316192627,
-0.024273695424199104,
0.2643578350543976,
0.13674116134643555,
-0.3126333951950073,
-0.815838634967804,
-0.8691314458847046,
0.9380467534065247,
-0.2018991857767105,
-0.11727558821439743,
0.35539746284484863,
0.004729319829493761,
1.0193216800689697,
-0.21671876311302185,
-1.3561190366744995,
-0.012876859866082668,
-0.1966937780380249,
-0.5620640516281128,
-0.013721603900194168,
-0.5495507121086121,
0.05691608414053917,
0.26972728967666626,
0.15439057350158691,
0.2572985887527466,
-0.8334060311317444,
0.3221501111984253,
0.6258782148361206,
0.26267313957214355,
0.23611056804656982,
0.6338590979576111,
-0.6992887258529663,
0.40583494305610657,
-0.1344032734632492,
-0.7253738045692444,
-0.5982021689414978,
0.36830174922943115,
0.8822809457778931,
-0.24242936074733734,
0.3843851089477539,
0.19552265107631683,
-0.3276515603065491,
0.011535574682056904,
-0.452480673789978,
0.4391467273235321,
0.5541205406188965,
0.1259276568889618,
0.004277566913515329,
0.06291694939136505,
-0.07195036858320236,
-0.09818580746650696,
0.25392094254493713,
-0.31433042883872986,
-0.651023268699646,
-0.02616744674742222,
0.3154415488243103,
-0.1660136580467224,
0.7650841474533081,
-0.9773969054222107,
0.16022439301013947,
0.5611745715141296,
0.1297796666622162,
0.15000982582569122,
-0.8562533855438232,
-0.034282952547073364,
0.17585790157318115,
0.2670595347881317,
-0.6079829335212708,
0.7500672340393066,
-0.19518180191516876,
-0.780299186706543,
-0.016745131462812424,
-0.6541523337364197,
0.2072884440422058,
-0.3265291452407837,
0.06566398590803146,
1.1196092367172241,
-0.38121142983436584,
0.11236724257469177,
-0.9464662671089172,
0.440425306558609,
-0.6477057337760925,
0.26607227325439453,
-0.47741517424583435,
0.17226549983024597,
0.6750657558441162,
0.457277774810791,
0.46454963088035583,
-0.1297852098941803,
0.09022939950227737,
0.6785973310470581,
0.5506735444068909,
0.15535575151443481,
-0.3111485242843628,
0.12049243599176407,
0.5687242150306702,
0.12243339419364929,
1.0767018795013428,
-0.35295993089675903,
-0.2225504368543625,
0.2924758195877075,
0.0846758633852005,
-0.3657251298427582,
0.16369178891181946,
-0.15991580486297607,
-0.2936239242553711,
-0.5159103274345398,
-0.043152227997779846,
0.26473069190979004,
0.3607719838619232,
0.10879484564065933,
0.2054375261068344,
0.2311972975730896,
-0.15079353749752045,
-0.045039307326078415,
-0.8174577355384827,
-0.6752845644950867,
-0.22698605060577393,
-0.17219875752925873,
0.25008144974708557,
-0.07837454229593277,
-0.2492132931947708,
-0.05959232524037361,
-0.30486583709716797,
-0.40924763679504395,
-0.1636422574520111,
-0.6140922904014587,
-0.4747364819049835,
-0.19340021908283234,
-0.6500149965286255,
0.38059714436531067,
-0.15584802627563477,
0.8867930173873901,
0.021705226972699165,
-1.0159176588058472,
0.014759824611246586,
-0.14126554131507874,
0.17589257657527924,
-0.2104027271270752,
-0.22910062968730927,
0.48009008169174194,
0.11249212175607681,
0.5485780239105225,
-1.2299578189849854,
0.4242230951786041,
-0.010678564198315144,
-0.2510845959186554,
-0.37410497665405273,
0.3261387050151825,
0.04404376819729805,
-0.22915874421596527,
0.194473996758461,
0.3659413754940033,
-0.17882513999938965,
0.6342623829841614,
0.5874696373939514,
0.3441610336303711,
-0.15268895030021667,
-0.05665823072195053,
-0.36735770106315613,
0.4333515763282776,
0.13035939633846283,
0.2693617343902588,
-0.4166077971458435,
0.2330111712217331,
0.10260999947786331,
-0.059225279837846756,
-0.8861775398254395,
-0.07010656595230103,
-0.03765207901597023,
-1.053868293762207,
0.8238956928253174,
0.34697186946868896,
-0.07908599823713303,
-0.3246229887008667,
0.5243911147117615,
0.6217478513717651,
0.04368753358721733,
0.26428863406181335,
0.0018183208303526044,
-0.23061735928058624,
-0.551222026348114,
-0.2589305341243744,
0.18553264439105988,
0.8813159465789795,
0.4575728476047516,
-0.20236285030841827,
0.32565540075302124,
-0.6344941258430481,
0.16759628057479858,
-0.05273522809147835,
0.03625744208693504,
-0.41075411438941956,
1.0293760299682617,
0.28458189964294434
] |
213018
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical%20Church%20in%20Germany
|
Evangelical Church in Germany
|
The Evangelical Church in Germany (, abbreviated EKD) is a federation of twenty Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist) and United (e.g. Prussian Union) Protestant regional churches and denominations in Germany, which collectively encompasses the vast majority of Protestants in that country. In 2020, the EKD had a membership of 20,236,000 members, or 24.3% of the German population. It constitutes one of the largest national Protestant bodies in the world. Church offices managing the federation are located in Hannover-Herrenhausen, Lower Saxony. Many of its members consider themselves Lutherans.
Historically, the first formal attempt to unify German Protestantism occurred during the Weimar Republic era in the form of the German Evangelical Church Confederation, which existed from 1922 until 1933. Earlier, there had been successful royal efforts at unity in various German states, beginning with Prussia and several minor German states (e.g. Duchy of Nassau) in 1817. These unions resulted in the first united and uniting churches, a new development within Protestantism which later spread to other parts of the world.
When Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, his administration tried to reorganize the old confederation into a unified German Evangelical Church as Hitler wanted to use a single Protestant church to further his own ambitions. This utterly failed, with the Confessing Church and the German Christians-led Reichskirche opposing each other. Other Protestant churches aligned themselves with one of these groups, or stayed neutral in this church strife.
The postwar church council issued the Stuttgart Declaration of Guilt on 19 October 1945, confessing guilt and declaring remorse for indifference and inaction of German Protestants in the face of atrocities committed by Hitler's regime as means to address the German collective guilt. In 1948, the Evangelical Church in Germany was organized in the aftermath of World War II to function as a new umbrella organization for German Protestant churches. As a result of tensions between West and East Germany, the regional churches in East Germany broke away from the EKD in 1969. In 1991, following German reunification, the East German churches rejoined the EKD.
The member churches (Gliedkirchen), while being independent and having their own theological and formal organisation, share full pulpit and altar fellowship, and are united in the EKD synod, but they act as individual members of the World Council of Churches (WCC) and the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe (CPCE). Boundaries of EKD churches within Germany partially resemble those of the states of the Holy Roman Empire and successor forms of German statehood (to the most part 1815 borders), due to the historically close relationship between individual German states and churches.
As for church governance, the Lutheran churches typically practise an episcopal polity, while the Reformed and the United ones a mixture of presbyterian and congregationalist polities. Most member churches are led by a (state) bishop. Only one member church, the Evangelical Reformed Church in Germany, is not restricted to a certain territory. In some ways, the other member churches resemble dioceses of the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, from an organisational point of view.
Name
The German term here more accurately corresponds to the broad English term Protestant rather than to the narrower evangelical (in German called ), although the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of England use the term in the same way as the German church. Literally, means "of the Gospel", denoting a Protestant Reformation emphasis on , "by scripture alone". Martin Luther encouraged the use of this term alongside Christian.
History
From the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 to the end of the First World War and the collapse of the German Empire, some Protestant churches were state churches. Each (state or regional church) was the official church of one of the states of Germany, while the respective ruler was the church's formal head (e.g. the King of Prussia headed the Evangelical Church of Prussia's older Provinces as supreme governor), similar to the British monarch's role as the Supreme Governor of the Church of England.
This changed somewhat with growing religious freedom in the 19th century, especially in the republican states of Bremen, Frankfurt (1857), Lübeck, and Hamburg (1860). The greatest change came after the German Revolution, with the formation of the Weimar Republic and the abdication of the princes of the German states. The system of state churches disappeared with the Weimar Constitution (1919), which brought about disestablishment by the separation of church and state, and there was a desire for the Protestant churches to merge. In fact, a merger was permanently under discussion but never materialised due to strong regional self-confidence and traditions as well as the denominational fragmentation into Lutheran, Reformed, and United and uniting churches.
During the Revolution, when the old church governments lost power, the People's Church Union () was formed and advocated unification without respect to theological tradition and also increasing input from laymen. However, the People's Church Union quickly split along territorial lines after the churches' relationship with the new governments improved.
It was realised that one mainstream Protestant church for all of Germany was impossible and that any union would need a federal model. The churches met in Dresden in 1919 and created a plan for federation, and this plan was adopted in 1921 at Stuttgart. Then in 1922 the then 28 territorially defined Protestant churches founded the German Evangelical Church Confederation (, DEK). At the time, the federation was the largest Protestant church federation in Europe with around 40 million members. Because it was a federation of independent bodies, the Church Union's work was limited to foreign missions and relations with Protestant churches outside Germany, especially German Protestants in other countries.
In July 1933, the German Evangelical Church (, DEK) was formed under the influence of the German Christians, a pro-Nazi religious movement. They had much influence over the decisions of the first National Synod, via their unambiguous partisanship in successfully backing Ludwig Müller for the office of Reich bishop. He did not manage, however, to prevail over the in the long term. The Confessing Church arose in resistance to the Nazi regime's ideology. After the installation of Hanns Kerrl as minister for church matters in a Führer-directive of 16 July 1935 and the foundation of the – in the end not materialising – Protestant Reich Church, the DEK played more or less no further role.
In 1948, freed from the German Christians' influence, the Lutheran, Reformed and United churches came together as the Evangelical Church in Germany at the Conference of Eisenach. In 1969, the regional Protestant churches in East Germany and East Berlin broke away from the EKD and formed the League of Evangelical Churches in the German Democratic Republic (, BEK), in 1970 also joined by the Moravian Herrnhut District. In June 1991, following German reunification, the BEK merged with the EKD.
While the members are no longer state churches, they enjoy constitutional protection as statutory corporations, and they are still called , and some have this term in their official names. A modern English translation, however, would be regional church. Apart from some minor changes, the territories of the member churches today reflect Germany's political organisation in the year 1848, with regional churches for states or provinces that often no longer exist or whose borders changed since. For example, between 1945 and 1948, the remaining six ecclesiastical provinces (), each territorially comprising one of the Old Prussia provinces, within the Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union assumed independence as a consequence of the estrangement among them during the Nazi struggle of the churches. This turned the Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union into a mere umbrella, being itself a member of EKD (and the BEK, 1969–1991) but covering some regional church bodies, which were again themselves members of EKD (and the BEK, 1969–1991).
Since 1973, when many Protestant churches in Europe, including the EKD members, concluded the Leuenberg Agreement, also the then 21 EKD members introduced full communion for their parishioners and ministry among each other.
Since also the regional Protestant churches in East Germany had signed the Leuenberg Agreement, thus the then ten members of the Federation of Protestant Churches in the German Democratic Republic practised full communion with the EKD members too. Ordination of women is practised in all 20 member churches with many women having been ordained in recent years. There are also several women serving as bishops. Margot Käßmann, former bishop of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hanover and Chairperson of the Council of the EKD from 2009 until February 2010, was the first woman to head the EKD. Blessings of same-sex marriages is practised and allowed in 14 of 20 and Blessing of same-sex unions are allowed in all other member churches.
The EKD has undergone a split in the 20th century and lost a bulk of its adherents in East Germany due to state atheist policies of the former East German government. After 1990, membership was counted and amounted to around the same number as the Roman Catholic Church. In the 21st century, membership in both the Evangelical Church and the Roman Catholic Church stagnates as more people are becoming religious nones.
Membership
Protestantism is the major religion in Northern, Eastern and Middle Germany, with the Reformed branch predominating in the extreme northwest and Lippe, the Lutheran branch in the north and south, and the United branch in Middle and Western Germany. While the majority of Christians in Southern Germany are Roman Catholic, some areas in Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria are predominantly Protestant, e.g. Middle Franconia and the government region of Stuttgart. The vast majority of German Protestants belong to a member church of the EKD. With 20,236,000 members in 2020, around 24.3 percent of all Germans belong to a member church of the EKD. Average church attendance is lower, however, with only around a million people attending a service on Sunday.
The regional Protestant church bodies accept each other as equals, despite denominational differences. No member church runs congregations or churches in the area of another member church, thus preventing competing with each other for parishioners. The only exception is the Evangelical Reformed Church, which combines Reformed congregations within the ambits of usually Lutheran member churches, which themselves do not include the eventual local Reformed congregations. Thus, for example, a Lutheran moving from a place where their parish belongs to a Lutheran member church, would be accepted in their new place of domicile by the locally competent congregation within another member church, even if this church and its local parish are Reformed or of united Protestant confession, with Lutheran being exchangeable with the two other respective Protestant confessions within the EKD. This is due to full pulpit and altar fellowship between all EKD member churches.
In this the ambits of the member churches resemble dioceses of the Anglican or Roman Catholic churches, however, else there is no common hierarchy supervising the member churches, who are legally independent equals with the EKD being their umbrella. Members of congregations within the member churches – like those of parishes within Catholic dioceses and those enrolled in Jewish congregations also enjoying statutory corporation status – are required to pay a church tax, a surcharge on their normal income tax collected by the states of Germany and passed on to the respective religious body.
2011 census results by state
Gallery
Structure
The structure of the EKD is based on federal principles. Each regional church is responsible for Christian life in its own area while each regional church has its own special characteristics and retains its independence. The EKD carries out joint tasks with which its members have entrusted it. For the execution of these tasks, the Church has the following governing bodies, all organised and elected on democratic lines:
Synod
The Synod is the legislature of the EKD. It has 126 members: 106 elected by Landeskirchen synods and 20 appointed by the council. These 20 are appointed for their importance in the life of the Church and its agencies. Members serve six year terms and the synod meets annually.
Praesides of the Synod
1949–1955: Gustav Heinemann
1955–1961: Constantin von Dietze
1961–1970:
1970–1973: Ludwig Raiser
1973–1985: Cornelius von Heyl
1985–2003: Jürgen Schmude
2003–2009: Barbara Rinke
2009–2013: Katrin Göring-Eckardt
2013–2021: Irmgard Schwaetzer
since 2021: Anna-Nicole Heinrich
Council of the EKD
The EKD Council is the representative and governing body of the Evangelical Church in Germany. The Council of the EKD has 15 members jointly elected by the Synod and Church Conference who serve terms of six years.
Chairman of the Council of the EKD
The representative of the EKD is the Chairman of the Council of the EKD.
1945-1949: Theophil Wurm, Bishop, Württemberg
1949-1961: Otto Dibelius, bishop of Berlin-Brandenburg
1961-1967: Kurt Scharf, president, bishop from 1966, Berlin-Brandenburg
1967-1973: , Bishop, Bavaria
1973-1979: , Bishop, Württemberg
1979-1985: , Bishop, Hanover
1985-1991: , bishop of Berlin-Brandenburg
1991-1997: , Bishop, Baden
1997-2003: Manfred Kock, president, Rhineland
2003-2009: Wolfgang Huber, bishop of Berlin-Brandenburg-Silesian Upper Lusatia
2009-2010: Margot Käßmann, bishop of Hanover
2010-2014: Nikolaus Schneider, president, Rhineland
2014-2021: Heinrich Bedford-Strohm, Bishop, Bavaria
2021-: Annette Kurschus, Bishop of Westphalia
Church Conference (permanent body)
The Church Conference is where member churches, through the representatives of their governing boards, can directly participate in the work of the EKD.
Church Office of the EKD
The Church Office is the administration of the EKD and shall the business of the Synod, Council and Conference of the EKD.
Main divisions:
I = line, law and finance: President
II = Religious Activities and Education: Vice President (since 2010)
III = Public Responsibility: Vice President Horst Gorski (also head of the Office of the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany) (since 2007)
IV = ecumenism and working abroad: Vice President Bishop , foreign bishop and head of the Office of the Union of Evangelical Churches) (since 2014)
President
1945-1948: Hans Asmussen
1949-1965: Heinz Brunotte
1966-1989:
1989-1997: Otto von Camphausen
1997-2006:
2006-2010:
since 2010:
The EKD Church Office has approximately 200 employees.
International activities
The EKD holds various charities ("Hilfswerke") under its auspices. The Gustav-Adolf-Werk (GAW) (Gustaphus Adolphus Union formerly) was founded 1832 in Leipzig as the first and eldest such organization and is responsible to aid feeble sister churches, especially in Roman Catholic countries and the Protestant diaspora. It has separate branches internationally, the organization in Austria is still called the Gustav-Adolf-Verein. Brot für die Welt is responsible for international development aid.
Member churches (since 2012)
The umbrella of the Evangelical Church in Germany comprises 20 regional churches:
11 United Protestant (Lutheran & Reformed)
7 Lutheran
2 Reformed
These bodies are termed Landeskirchen ("Regional Churches") though in most cases, their territories do not correspond to the current federal states, but rather to former duchies, electorates and provinces or mergers thereof.
Evangelical Church of Anhalt (Evangelische Landeskirche Anhalts), a united church body in Anhalt
Evangelical Church in Baden (Evangelische Landeskirche in Baden), a united church body in Baden
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Bavaria (Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirche in Bayern), a Lutheran church body in Bavaria
Evangelical Church Berlin-Brandenburg-Silesian Upper Lusatia (Evangelische Kirche in Berlin-Brandenburg-schlesische Oberlausitz), a united church body in Berlin-Brandenburg-Silesian Upper Lusatia merged in 2004 from:
Evangelische Kirche in Berlin-Brandenburg
Evangelische Kirche der schlesischen Oberlausitz
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Brunswick (Evangelisch-Lutherische Landeskirche in Braunschweig), a Lutheran church body in Brunswick
Evangelical Church of Bremen (Bremische Evangelische Kirche), a united church body in Bremen
Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Hanover (Evangelisch-Lutherische Landeskirche Hannovers), a Lutheran church body in the former Province of Hanover
Protestant Church in Hesse and Nassau (Evangelische Kirche in Hessen und Nassau), a united church body in the former People's State of Hesse and Nassau
Evangelical Church of Hesse Electorate-Waldeck (Evangelische Kirche von Kurhessen-Waldeck), a united church body in former Hesse-Cassel and Waldeck
Church of Lippe (Lippische Landeskirche), a Reformed church body of Lippe
Evangelical Church in Central Germany (Evangelische Kirche in Mitteldeutschland), a united church body that was created in 2009 from the merger of:
Evangelical Church of the Church Province of Saxony (Evangelische Kirche der Kirchenprovinz Sachsen) (Province of Saxony)
Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Thuringia (Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirche in Thüringen) (Thuringia)
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirche in Norddeutschland), a Lutheran church body that was created in 2012 from the merger of:
North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church (Nordelbische Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirche), a Lutheran church body in Northern Germany
Evangelical Lutheran Church of Mecklenburg (Evangelisch-Lutherische Landeskirche Mecklenburgs), a Lutheran church body in Mecklenburg
Pomeranian Evangelical Church (Pommersche Evangelische Kirche), a united church body in Pomerania
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Oldenburg (Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirche in Oldenburg), a Lutheran church body in Oldenburg
Evangelical Church of the Palatinate (Evangelische Kirche der Pfalz) or Protestantische Landeskirche, a united church body in Palatinate
Evangelical Church in the Rhineland (Evangelische Kirche im Rheinland), a united church body in the Rhineland
Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Saxony (Evangelisch-Lutherische Landeskirche Sachsens), a Lutheran church body in Saxony
Evangelical Lutheran Church of Schaumburg-Lippe (Evangelisch-Lutherische Landeskirche Schaumburg-Lippe), a Lutheran church body in Schaumburg-Lippe
Evangelical Church of Westphalia (Evangelische Kirche von Westfalen), a united church body in Westphalia
Evangelical Church in Württemberg (Evangelische Landeskirche in Württemberg), a Lutheran church body in Württemberg
Evangelical Reformed Church (Regional Church) Evangelisch-reformierte Kirche (Landeskirche), a Reformed church body, covering the territories of No. 3, 5, 7, 12, 16, 17, and 19
The Moravian Church ("Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine") and the Federation of Evangelical Reformed Congregations are associate members.
See also
Barmen Declaration
Evangelical Theology Student Council
German Evangelical Church Assembly
List of the largest Protestant bodies
Protestant Women in Germany
Religion in Germany
Union Evangelischer Kirchen (Union of Protestant Churches in Germany)
References
External links
Overview of World Religions
United and uniting churches
Germany
Members of the World Council of Churches
Christian organizations established in 1948
1948 establishments in Germany
|
[
0.5927827954292297,
0.4855935275554657,
0.11364426463842392,
-0.4376358687877655,
-0.37570512294769287,
-0.08490961790084839,
0.724308431148529,
0.15590216219425201,
-0.12364517152309418,
-0.2587449848651886,
-0.20416097342967987,
-0.2572214603424072,
0.1403740644454956,
0.47206300497055054,
-0.031559139490127563,
0.9329462051391602,
0.6369051337242126,
0.6319963932037354,
-0.3696327209472656,
-0.6448457837104797,
-0.3284316062927246,
-0.7128869295120239,
0.7997026443481445,
0.48997214436531067,
-0.05242422968149185,
-0.22376902401447296,
0.7128690481185913,
-0.6974199414253235,
-0.34909525513648987,
-0.1881335824728012,
0.032174739986658096,
0.9223529696464539,
-0.006530634593218565,
-0.11809302121400833,
0.4625943899154663,
0.2766602635383606,
0.4523337185382843,
-0.6381139159202576,
0.24133999645709991,
-0.527739942073822,
0.25682517886161804,
-0.3139798641204834,
0.5442479848861694,
0.3033299446105957,
0.02623620070517063,
-0.6649550795555115,
-1.0870498418807983,
0.1465202271938324,
-0.8481073975563049,
0.12166217714548111,
-0.29965755343437195,
-0.342751145362854,
0.25742822885513306,
0.7352297902107239,
-0.024455085396766663,
-0.020498178899288177,
-0.9623128771781921,
-0.2992490828037262,
0.5996332764625549,
0.2456074059009552,
0.28637877106666565,
0.04244503378868103,
0.08975380659103394,
0.15582409501075745,
0.6757528781890869,
-0.03562861308455467,
-0.2737324833869934,
0.5421783328056335,
-0.8243460059165955,
-1.0170707702636719,
-0.604186475276947,
-0.6768625974655151,
-0.48735812306404114,
-0.29043689370155334,
0.43135935068130493,
-1.0345855951309204,
-0.20029763877391815,
-0.006675444543361664,
0.48489195108413696,
-0.11911976337432861,
-0.005522817838937044,
0.785084068775177,
0.175824835896492,
-0.1884869933128357,
0.34685757756233215,
0.2365889847278595,
0.36703360080718994,
-0.44444751739501953,
-0.3632490336894989,
0.44295039772987366,
0.2750736176967621,
-0.1192367747426033,
-0.25939470529556274,
0.31137633323669434,
-0.33656948804855347,
-0.21447759866714478,
0.3609374761581421,
-0.06355555355548859,
0.008253669366240501,
0.6438043117523193,
0.5179873704910278,
0.5934687256813049,
-0.02312273159623146,
-0.2282552272081375,
-0.418438583612442,
-0.14417049288749695,
-0.3268859386444092,
-0.39238229393959045,
-0.23415495455265045,
0.1901184320449829,
-0.9086315631866455,
0.5031081438064575,
-0.11922833323478699,
0.1791914701461792,
0.03984502702951431,
-0.04190914332866669,
0.45545387268066406,
-0.9564384818077087,
-0.24808821082115173,
0.0933225154876709,
-0.27518415451049805,
0.6766232848167419,
0.16236358880996704,
0.48070117831230164,
-0.2579498291015625,
0.02613220363855362,
-0.06428208947181702,
1.087170958518982,
-0.8906196355819702,
-0.29100069403648376,
0.9659339189529419,
0.4217696189880371,
0.3193218410015106,
-0.18491652607917786,
-0.07744473963975906,
-0.33674412965774536,
0.7496591210365295,
0.10398011654615402,
0.3683387041091919,
0.17991456389427185,
-0.8205828070640564,
-0.4557230770587921,
0.004560434725135565,
-0.4418215751647949,
0.033466193825006485,
-0.6003432273864746,
-0.3598809540271759,
-0.5771785378456116,
-0.21214091777801514,
0.4647090435028076,
0.4831323027610779,
0.10088297724723816,
-0.22072455286979675,
0.10148530453443527,
-0.4374273121356964,
0.25855857133865356,
0.6715681552886963,
-0.08762281388044357,
0.5956444144248962,
0.7351225018501282,
-0.012570158578455448,
-0.31170713901519775,
0.13886047899723053,
-0.25281840562820435,
0.4349178075790405,
-0.057987913489341736,
0.27012521028518677,
0.31751465797424316,
-0.013883245177567005,
-0.06891379505395889,
-0.421112984418869,
-0.5158987045288086,
0.1424744725227356,
-0.24886836111545563,
-0.012392292730510235,
-0.1846870630979538,
0.44007575511932373,
0.5648826956748962,
0.1047079786658287,
-0.30087223649024963,
-0.804533839225769,
0.5023143887519836,
0.3101607859134674,
-0.40381374955177307,
-0.2656018137931824,
0.7660185098648071,
-0.6279086470603943,
0.5469790697097778,
-0.3773479759693146,
0.4827888607978821,
0.16575276851654053,
-1.0084882974624634,
0.31795307993888855,
-0.18245595693588257,
0.814531683921814,
-0.18740004301071167,
-0.47859662771224976,
0.21949172019958496,
-0.543976902961731,
0.06221754103899002,
-0.0972694605588913,
-0.5587433576583862,
-0.03397880867123604,
0.3132067620754242,
-0.283277302980423,
0.3759874701499939,
0.2381482571363449,
0.13919131457805634,
-0.02218155562877655,
0.08009491115808487,
0.09904471039772034,
-0.019122928380966187,
0.36663156747817993,
0.21199099719524384,
-0.025364842265844345,
-0.33242371678352356,
-0.4999808371067047,
0.045027006417512894,
-0.06572020798921585,
-0.22780460119247437,
0.2906811237335205,
0.027577700093388557,
-0.009089779108762741,
0.5720965266227722,
-0.32241079211235046,
-0.16091537475585938,
-0.15938688814640045,
0.34533199667930603,
-0.05453379452228546,
-0.08563961088657379,
0.6977126598358154,
0.49414926767349243,
-0.0757959708571434,
-0.10407403111457825,
0.10457570105791092,
-0.37780407071113586,
-0.4003111720085144,
0.05193033441901207,
0.26931339502334595,
-0.2994656562805176,
0.6639896631240845,
-0.2761526107788086,
-0.24469412863254547,
0.1984846144914627,
0.18201221525669098,
0.014388661831617355,
-0.36584487557411194,
-0.09554918855428696,
-0.6234461069107056,
0.3007255494594574,
0.1629774421453476,
-0.10102401673793793,
0.10997949540615082,
-0.4015701711177826,
0.5578889846801758,
-0.3655855357646942,
0.6510775089263916,
0.001973685808479786,
-0.049948640167713165,
0.28313902020454407,
0.025025738403201103,
-0.5830949544906616,
-0.21800072491168976,
-0.26268985867500305,
0.017846444621682167,
-0.34011316299438477,
-0.37235796451568604,
-0.15231890976428986,
-0.0829860270023346,
0.1379833072423935,
0.23220524191856384,
0.6313499808311462,
-0.6052180528640747,
0.12036058306694031,
-0.3567836284637451,
-0.22147871553897858,
-0.3071553409099579,
0.4226699471473694,
-0.7269227504730225,
-0.4529334306716919,
-0.38635653257369995,
0.27568885684013367,
-0.1918565332889557,
-0.9716973900794983,
0.20408283174037933,
-0.05873743072152138,
0.444890558719635,
-0.8599300980567932,
-0.46501168608665466,
0.18523606657981873,
0.38068249821662903,
0.5326681733131409,
-0.0713513121008873,
-0.46624377369880676,
0.06342645734548569,
0.19297918677330017,
0.5905991792678833,
-0.021133575588464737,
0.2538767457008362,
-0.527752161026001,
-0.27238929271698,
0.44932132959365845,
0.05284987762570381,
0.16152553260326385,
0.1357058733701706,
-0.7118000984191895,
0.04086422547698021,
-0.4508673846721649,
-5.57020902633667,
-0.10203660279512405,
-0.49819841980934143,
0.36964869499206543,
0.05069214105606079,
0.5746026039123535,
0.8482356667518616,
-0.3493589758872986,
-0.12276715785264969,
-0.4202473759651184,
0.03499995917081833,
-0.26438698172569275,
0.21023570001125336,
0.7121472954750061,
0.3753766119480133,
0.49422335624694824,
0.7102430462837219,
0.5123165249824524,
0.36252373456954956,
-0.3267248272895813,
0.07356582581996918,
-0.6759132146835327,
0.5220450162887573,
0.5787502527236938,
0.7022818922996521,
-0.36128848791122437,
-0.0898527204990387,
0.40911930799484253,
-0.20918196439743042,
-0.5148265957832336,
0.22758273780345917,
-0.27495431900024414,
0.1348760724067688,
-0.3909130394458771,
0.28535106778144836,
0.39908191561698914,
0.7493513822555542,
0.6654304265975952,
0.16617581248283386,
-0.46742919087409973,
0.4585649073123932,
0.5655097961425781,
-0.20484305918216705,
-0.5651898980140686,
0.1742386668920517,
-0.33094775676727295,
-0.161719411611557,
-0.07870782911777496,
-1.0040006637573242,
1.0955891609191895,
-0.41310015320777893,
-0.256713330745697,
0.5267669558525085,
-0.05268554016947746,
0.19525288045406342,
-0.35201266407966614,
0.1772426962852478,
0.4568256735801697,
0.11132539063692093,
0.17174622416496277,
0.41545408964157104,
-0.015071255154907703,
-0.523857831954956,
-0.4559706747531891,
-0.5230379700660706,
-0.16456303000450134,
-0.6666693091392517,
0.13843165338039398,
0.8201380372047424,
-0.2705351710319519,
-0.6483502388000488,
-0.06802859157323837,
-0.12166021764278412,
-0.7838388681411743,
-0.19066202640533447,
-0.9286918044090271,
0.2256453037261963,
-0.3886463940143585,
-0.07435499131679535,
0.6302230358123779,
0.03480800986289978,
-0.4268062114715576,
0.12172084301710129,
0.19978974759578705,
0.794516384601593,
0.05488695949316025,
-0.12047705054283142,
-0.060144905000925064,
0.11558672785758972,
-0.2631414830684662,
-0.558358907699585,
-0.5075656175613403,
0.06438621133565903,
0.21848469972610474,
-0.173462375998497,
0.9948802590370178,
-0.10068400204181671,
0.30565303564071655,
0.3993457555770874,
-0.2148854285478592,
1.0275722742080688,
0.028688402846455574,
-0.17094996571540833,
0.2714286744594574,
0.2979491353034973,
-0.16328950226306915,
0.2381402552127838,
-0.007964177057147026,
0.22814029455184937,
-0.007668741513043642,
0.09481794387102127,
-0.3140515685081482,
-0.12120164185762405,
-0.7387539744377136,
0.033186495304107666,
-0.29139870405197144,
-1.1220817565917969,
0.44808539748191833,
-0.25927984714508057,
0.24246454238891602,
0.5485281348228455,
0.42212674021720886,
0.18514986336231232,
-0.09858910739421844,
-0.4247499406337738,
-0.005584345664829016,
-0.30508214235305786,
0.2260146290063858,
-0.3410448133945465,
0.28249257802963257,
0.7830910682678223,
-0.1642177850008011,
0.24366141855716705,
-0.2731824815273285,
0.6300337910652161,
0.5621842741966248,
0.22107021510601044,
-0.25846150517463684,
-0.5150728225708008,
-0.5174176096916199,
0.36778154969215393,
-0.2066224217414856,
-0.01688437908887863,
0.7092637419700623,
0.5131421089172363,
0.028193378821015358,
-0.16787007451057434,
-0.25185173749923706,
-0.3969082236289978,
0.5247378945350647,
0.27173686027526855,
0.15499818325042725,
0.7444514632225037,
-0.05607214570045471,
-0.055691204965114594,
0.04692705720663071,
0.264313280582428,
0.3424549102783203,
-0.18182483315467834,
-1.061327576637268,
0.14384101331233978,
-0.11662277579307556,
-0.6030619740486145,
0.09459742158651352,
0.9122110605239868,
-0.42953574657440186,
-0.7312023043632507,
-0.028916010633111,
-0.5208565592765808,
0.20341883599758148,
0.14151138067245483,
-0.05654314160346985,
-0.6262524127960205,
0.4208211600780487,
0.29328322410583496,
0.23389160633087158,
-0.05941075459122658,
-0.14768922328948975,
0.03283264487981796,
-0.4507061243057251,
0.1504776030778885,
-0.09621273726224899,
-0.29167115688323975,
0.31934690475463867,
0.27790334820747375,
-0.22356125712394714,
-0.08146335184574127,
-0.07007253170013428,
-0.2284732162952423,
0.16766200959682465,
1.088841438293457,
-0.2785647511482239,
0.3438781201839447,
0.24935196340084076,
-0.23224762082099915,
-0.7852270603179932,
0.05751838535070419,
-0.2257988005876541,
0.30600976943969727,
-0.23380349576473236,
0.4803980886936188,
0.5083780884742737,
-0.11764887720346451,
0.20306450128555298,
0.08497290313243866,
-0.37548068165779114,
0.43413975834846497,
-0.38972917199134827,
-0.7629561424255371,
0.4485124945640564,
-0.6823334097862244,
-0.2868313789367676,
-0.5128515362739563,
0.6906027793884277,
-0.7986164093017578,
-0.31355923414230347,
0.5617994666099548,
-0.7610539793968201,
-0.43550848960876465,
0.23975928127765656,
-0.10324093699455261,
-0.02318127639591694,
-0.27681276202201843,
0.35151565074920654,
-0.6432965397834778,
0.1969786286354065,
0.2671023905277252,
-0.6472146511077881,
-0.3766220211982727,
-0.3698609471321106,
0.045594651252031326,
-0.03568834811449051,
0.18341322243213654,
-0.23193377256393433,
0.046824049204587936,
0.2173961102962494,
-0.26123857498168945,
0.32894691824913025,
-0.05481835454702377,
0.2067813277244568,
0.05244865640997887,
0.7182623744010925,
0.4156137704849243,
-1.143497109413147,
0.05148058757185936,
0.6311396360397339,
0.4651404321193695,
-0.6091779470443726,
-0.7487555146217346,
0.5021889209747314,
-0.46093612909317017,
0.09696588665246964,
-0.1009289100766182,
-0.7275910377502441,
0.5479230284690857,
-0.334018349647522,
-0.6314316391944885,
-0.05829492583870888,
0.21390041708946228,
-0.3193042576313019,
-0.22370480000972748,
-1.0517895221710205,
-0.22994022071361542,
0.1932031512260437,
0.13208752870559692,
-0.3260166347026825,
-0.8929334282875061,
-0.21954527497291565,
-0.11752943694591522,
-0.14961473643779755,
-0.5883029699325562,
-0.11187643557786942,
0.2839967608451843,
-0.23583458364009857,
-0.05330191180109978,
0.0897868424654007,
-0.3647645115852356,
-0.4406004548072815,
-0.3300206661224365,
0.3937526345252991,
-0.5146231055259705,
-0.22739356756210327,
0.21649383008480072,
-0.20823249220848083,
-0.0622858963906765,
-0.812411904335022,
-0.7591006755828857,
0.024941537529230118,
-0.5740081667900085,
-0.511712372303009,
-0.1658075600862503,
-0.4344930350780487,
-0.07397501915693283,
0.565491795539856,
-0.27814731001853943,
0.3820735812187195,
0.3860878348350525,
-0.18384258449077606,
0.2740340232849121,
-0.3131677508354187,
-0.07227397710084915,
0.5945197939872742,
0.20035609602928162,
-0.33889710903167725,
0.3967987596988678,
0.25104907155036926,
-0.14683742821216583,
0.15223121643066406,
0.08109156042337418,
0.28054890036582947,
0.45226433873176575,
0.061092816293239594,
-0.06011269986629486,
1.1316099166870117,
-0.06838495284318924,
0.14610180258750916,
0.6557909846305847,
-0.09548105299472809,
0.31667372584342957,
0.4318564832210541,
0.41959676146507263,
-0.3701300621032715,
0.5550200343132019,
0.2521403133869171,
-0.4912768006324768,
0.3883365988731384,
0.3512275218963623,
-0.22488722205162048,
-0.13720707595348358,
0.2729966640472412,
0.2990168333053589,
0.03967304527759552,
-0.6031115651130676,
0.45850488543510437,
-0.7324893474578857,
-0.39896827936172485,
-0.27202746272087097,
0.45766857266426086,
-0.5240484476089478,
1.0711896419525146,
-0.11466644704341888,
0.8082521557807922,
-0.23162251710891724,
0.3505094349384308,
0.03609098494052887,
0.14158695936203003,
-0.28537052869796753,
-0.16776181757450104,
0.411487340927124,
0.16471678018569946,
0.6965718269348145,
-0.3735901415348053,
0.26458802819252014,
-0.10670266300439835,
-0.1106048971414566,
-0.1527712196111679,
0.45708534121513367,
0.12035799026489258,
-0.06988067179918289,
0.1487061232328415,
-0.04226396605372429,
-0.15072409808635712,
0.12278342992067337,
0.005880451295524836,
-0.11343646049499512,
-0.0730472281575203,
-0.34784114360809326,
-0.33314627408981323,
-0.47114235162734985,
-0.28877541422843933,
0.35467034578323364,
-0.41822803020477295,
-0.16208219528198242,
0.0627463161945343,
-0.08222506195306778,
-0.2869042158126831,
0.733099639415741,
-0.2028605192899704,
0.38422006368637085,
0.42122364044189453,
-0.6136522889137268,
-0.08430276811122894,
-0.054534025490283966,
-0.4794864058494568,
0.12877127528190613,
0.2643599212169647,
0.18317344784736633,
-0.013131107203662395,
-0.056699298322200775,
0.4371246099472046,
0.011799806728959084,
-0.4569471776485443,
0.19352252781391144,
-0.31460580229759216,
-0.7826184630393982,
-0.06357502192258835,
-0.07353004068136215,
1.024732232093811,
0.31757718324661255,
-0.01227781642228365,
-0.26780959963798523,
0.424666166305542,
0.29915502667427063,
-0.08126667141914368,
-0.2598104476928711,
0.16236764192581177,
-0.20679150521755219,
0.16249439120292664,
-0.2263304591178894,
0.49904823303222656,
0.6643336415290833,
0.07123203575611115,
-0.09075625240802765,
0.13706398010253906,
-0.2263978272676468,
-0.4180656969547272,
0.6845679879188538,
-0.30646848678588867,
0.4221699833869934,
0.07738950848579407,
0.43592214584350586,
-0.2520955502986908,
0.30611127614974976,
0.11688069999217987,
0.369605153799057,
0.035917337983846664,
0.4196377992630005,
0.17266017198562622,
-0.5351201295852661,
0.5214184522628784,
-0.3375076651573181,
0.03598262742161751,
-0.1883755475282669,
0.2823472023010254,
-0.7462729215621948,
0.33048468828201294,
0.4949125051498413,
0.2714589834213257,
0.3877074122428894,
-0.43388456106185913,
-0.4474124312400818,
-0.49234476685523987,
0.16198724508285522,
0.31690096855163574,
0.2638450860977173,
0.11087232828140259,
0.2277933806180954,
-0.3244609236717224,
-0.6526417136192322,
0.2480124533176422,
0.28267139196395874,
-0.8544653654098511,
0.01685645990073681,
0.04550018534064293,
-0.20517176389694214,
-0.47138383984565735,
0.445140540599823,
-0.033169571310281754,
0.9266000986099243,
-0.19296719133853912
] |
213019
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20captains%20regent%20of%20San%20Marino
|
List of captains regent of San Marino
|
The captains regent (Italian: Capitani reggenti, sing. Capitano reggente) are the two heads of state of the Republic of San Marino. They are elected every six months by the Grand and General Council, the country's legislative body. Normally the Regents are chosen from opposing parties and they serve a six-month term. The investiture of the captains regent takes place on 1 April and 1 October every year. This tradition dates back at least to 1243.
The practice of dual heads of government (diarchy) is derived directly from the customs of the Roman Republic, equivalent to the consuls of ancient Rome.
1243–1500
1500–1700
1700–1900
1900-2020
Since 2020
See also
Politics of San Marino
Diarchy
Footnotes
References
List
San Marino, Captains-Regent 1900-
Captains Regent
San Marino
San Marino
|
[
-0.08690112084150314,
-0.13795530796051025,
-0.012124274857342243,
-0.06637024134397507,
-0.6213884949684143,
0.02816355787217617,
0.033321674913167953,
0.5304931998252869,
-1.0284243822097778,
-0.21581144630908966,
-0.07907835394144058,
0.299713671207428,
0.0969155952334404,
0.3770325481891632,
-0.019894029945135117,
-0.10538998991250992,
0.5449545383453369,
0.6642633080482483,
0.14442943036556244,
-0.44360312819480896,
0.1520025134086609,
0.6043680310249329,
-0.20576034486293793,
-0.47830793261528015,
-0.431989848613739,
0.47018513083457947,
0.8777347803115845,
-0.0815792828798294,
-0.11918614059686661,
-0.2844802737236023,
-0.11055198311805725,
0.5423615574836731,
-0.2251739203929901,
0.38481754064559937,
-0.02044059894979,
-0.3676411807537079,
0.36179864406585693,
-1.0319759845733643,
-0.48277032375335693,
-0.39358246326446533,
-0.22623629868030548,
-0.5044541954994202,
0.15596888959407806,
0.780815839767456,
-0.4068668782711029,
-0.26274654269218445,
-1.1836849451065063,
-0.14536048471927643,
-0.2559181749820709,
0.07890242338180542,
0.09449008852243423,
0.06547790765762329,
0.14823773503303528,
0.6844252347946167,
-0.06965997815132141,
0.3031937777996063,
-0.43293893337249756,
-0.13347096741199493,
0.0202778372913599,
0.13484203815460205,
0.3926488757133484,
0.49911531805992126,
0.08173306286334991,
-0.14197973906993866,
0.3606879711151123,
-0.06501873582601547,
0.3071975111961365,
0.6011407971382141,
-0.6605380177497864,
-0.4411141276359558,
-0.46250098943710327,
0.36104288697242737,
0.3567020297050476,
-0.7519837021827698,
-0.3239508867263794,
-0.28703445196151733,
-0.12071708589792252,
0.5092482566833496,
0.3627302050590515,
-0.9846401810646057,
-0.34434524178504944,
-0.23133353888988495,
0.5683754682540894,
-0.0492023341357708,
-0.005711795762181282,
0.23880566656589508,
0.01670880801975727,
-1.0007394552230835,
-0.4649105370044708,
0.9776259064674377,
-0.21712788939476013,
-0.17390282452106476,
1.1706727743148804,
-0.15841072797775269,
0.32740432024002075,
-0.049923598766326904,
-0.35466617345809937,
0.48407086730003357,
-0.05764692649245262,
0.14374782145023346,
-0.6627582311630249,
1.120703101158142,
0.40045595169067383,
0.17347393929958344,
-0.6080999374389648,
-0.5697597861289978,
-0.3735150098800659,
0.19136998057365417,
-0.6543547511100769,
0.41920894384384155,
-0.29410457611083984,
-0.30921855568885803,
0.0007080065552145243,
0.11845473945140839,
-0.481387734413147,
-0.39197152853012085,
0.2964480221271515,
-0.08036793768405914,
-0.5915295481681824,
0.04769027233123779,
0.18706810474395752,
0.1440509408712387,
0.20778344571590424,
-0.5672671794891357,
0.17055974900722504,
0.3292677104473114,
0.8282372355461121,
0.043011099100112915,
-0.12094863504171371,
0.4331076145172119,
0.15409503877162933,
1.1234241724014282,
-0.9351513385772705,
0.2570286691188812,
0.2043665647506714,
-0.3919632136821747,
-0.34122908115386963,
0.405358225107193,
0.20803263783454895,
0.2025851309299469,
-0.759480357170105,
0.30172422528266907,
-0.7115404009819031,
0.3300183415412903,
0.10808247327804565,
-0.5175161361694336,
-0.12965908646583557,
-0.5434788465499878,
-0.3625529110431671,
-0.06173121929168701,
-0.16583262383937836,
-0.8543174266815186,
0.30011239647865295,
0.2080044150352478,
-0.4591293931007385,
0.0758490264415741,
0.4103216826915741,
-0.5670303702354431,
0.4144054651260376,
0.44099554419517517,
-0.05603136122226715,
-0.06375174969434738,
0.10116398334503174,
0.15875041484832764,
0.027594590559601784,
0.3548794090747833,
0.18002404272556305,
0.4497280716896057,
-0.027005288749933243,
0.07709896564483643,
-0.5680447220802307,
0.2460315227508545,
0.181841179728508,
-0.6867255568504333,
-0.5890732407569885,
0.34367966651916504,
1.0541821718215942,
0.31489476561546326,
0.3887266516685486,
-0.5511428713798523,
-0.6730234026908875,
0.04436809942126274,
-0.05873982608318329,
0.1121462732553482,
0.5518541932106018,
0.09287796914577484,
0.22135819494724274,
0.501505970954895,
0.4524209499359131,
-0.359598845243454,
0.02282014675438404,
-0.2579367458820343,
0.41050755977630615,
0.26756659150123596,
0.5812917351722717,
0.07209853082895279,
-0.5162627100944519,
0.5098800659179688,
0.12136705964803696,
0.550197184085846,
-0.5858450531959534,
0.1119605153799057,
0.02915257029235363,
0.30679333209991455,
-0.2467268407344818,
0.6453248262405396,
-0.012029274366796017,
0.08352159708738327,
0.7728624939918518,
0.8004933595657349,
0.5630937218666077,
-0.2117834985256195,
0.11073952168226242,
-0.749875009059906,
0.2709190249443054,
-0.1771852821111679,
-0.33056655526161194,
0.3541133403778076,
0.08084320276975632,
-0.6353082060813904,
0.8404398560523987,
0.05815377086400986,
0.07072354108095169,
1.1243528127670288,
0.24613693356513977,
0.7493752241134644,
-0.5754074454307556,
0.009232444688677788,
0.17509615421295166,
-0.6196644902229309,
0.5605238676071167,
-0.4803035855293274,
0.41778674721717834,
-0.09103918820619583,
-0.6325355172157288,
-0.05997546389698982,
-0.4285696744918823,
-0.5771986842155457,
0.4730210304260254,
-0.1400151401758194,
-0.10931015759706497,
0.01720547303557396,
-0.0945659726858139,
0.3080427050590515,
0.3661259412765503,
0.46931979060173035,
-0.1909610778093338,
-0.013941970653831959,
-0.6722506880760193,
-0.22872258722782135,
0.8979387879371643,
-0.23281294107437134,
0.15406598150730133,
-0.22140319645404816,
0.3358134627342224,
-0.769267201423645,
0.2563067376613617,
-0.24816910922527313,
-0.29298609495162964,
-0.10034916549921036,
-0.3256860375404358,
0.2984820604324341,
0.3569069802761078,
0.23342296481132507,
-0.4089986979961395,
0.09099447727203369,
-0.3356432616710663,
-0.2900116741657257,
0.2490495890378952,
0.06413216143846512,
0.10286194086074829,
0.1679660826921463,
-0.7510425448417664,
-0.5528173446655273,
0.39554521441459656,
-0.2030385434627533,
-0.37466394901275635,
0.34238201379776,
-0.15368817746639252,
-0.6329407691955566,
-0.08500296622514725,
-0.11584760993719101,
-0.30562537908554077,
-0.30403512716293335,
-0.8243612051010132,
-0.2859720289707184,
0.24766422808170319,
-0.15495847165584564,
0.359660804271698,
-0.0002726590319070965,
-0.31256362795829773,
-0.1761215627193451,
-0.2035425454378128,
-0.04592590034008026,
-0.2888163924217224,
-0.2768242657184601,
-0.38210737705230713,
0.2972820997238159,
0.49578359723091125,
-0.9407176971435547,
-0.6727699637413025,
0.136663019657135,
-0.007419419474899769,
-0.3301832377910614,
0.23104269802570343,
0.36902347207069397,
-0.4892246425151825,
0.30879896879196167,
-5.322933197021484,
0.12870846688747406,
-0.3793785572052002,
0.35773807764053345,
0.0158317182213068,
-0.3218836486339569,
0.515861988067627,
-0.41730016469955444,
0.09461473673582077,
-0.24760568141937256,
-0.1404048502445221,
0.08886238187551498,
0.2801949679851532,
1.3159549236297607,
0.38463976979255676,
0.3409987986087799,
0.9441549181938171,
-0.08574364334344864,
0.2244521677494049,
0.024011915549635887,
-0.12532034516334534,
0.1890949159860611,
0.4873194694519043,
0.11512669920921326,
0.2467418611049652,
0.7640900611877441,
-0.4145475924015045,
-0.024182820692658424,
-0.6787542700767517,
-0.19801083207130432,
-0.21094955503940582,
0.19849523901939392,
0.057045575231313705,
-0.26509490609169006,
0.1332312375307083,
-0.0008847768767736852,
0.5035800337791443,
0.543796181678772,
0.12883295118808746,
-0.6534783244132996,
-0.48655274510383606,
0.609971284866333,
-0.3111049234867096,
0.4371355175971985,
0.06082288920879364,
0.2526790201663971,
-0.5984595417976379,
0.6576546430587769,
-0.38461974263191223,
1.0580389499664307,
-0.15109886229038239,
-0.12859438359737396,
0.39570948481559753,
0.45576024055480957,
0.17031139135360718,
-0.6033445000648499,
0.6165783405303955,
0.12932735681533813,
-1.1935398578643799,
0.5400201678276062,
0.26059991121292114,
-0.12562955915927887,
0.16855615377426147,
-0.548660933971405,
0.26767730712890625,
-0.4855705797672272,
-0.9828491806983948,
0.05499611794948578,
0.08828839659690857,
0.5659695863723755,
0.06408239901065826,
0.1794791966676712,
-0.518205463886261,
-1.0422321557998657,
0.6057147979736328,
-0.28012964129447937,
-0.4845272898674011,
0.01711050048470497,
0.2531336843967438,
0.1154341921210289,
-0.059182412922382355,
-0.06846991181373596,
-0.49810168147087097,
0.5675987601280212,
-0.3247528374195099,
-0.7880427241325378,
0.3197111189365387,
-0.03525028005242348,
-0.8350778818130493,
-0.7608412504196167,
0.12464301288127899,
-0.12990602850914001,
-0.2217750996351242,
0.3801504969596863,
-0.07408219575881958,
0.058317579329013824,
0.03039804846048355,
-0.027590598911046982,
0.6150791049003601,
-0.5182703137397766,
0.45269575715065,
-0.24744094908237457,
0.09100112318992615,
-0.6161465048789978,
-0.016686178743839264,
-0.22860519587993622,
-0.40050268173217773,
0.4179171025753021,
0.13295786082744598,
-0.36664101481437683,
-0.10250169038772583,
-0.4688425660133362,
-0.1670600175857544,
-0.7310610413551331,
0.5652418732643127,
-0.1432601511478424,
-0.13580037653446198,
1.031121015548706,
0.28938648104667664,
0.15120822191238403,
0.7581660151481628,
0.17227858304977417,
0.18734389543533325,
-0.09429754316806793,
-0.441980242729187,
0.7672273516654968,
-0.2466798573732376,
-0.377564013004303,
0.2444620579481125,
0.3159005045890808,
0.7149712443351746,
0.052681613713502884,
-0.4149843752384186,
0.15579216182231903,
0.3322829604148865,
-0.2801734507083893,
-0.6773666143417358,
-0.17177033424377441,
0.37919938564300537,
-0.5489471554756165,
-0.06997943669557571,
-0.2778279781341553,
-0.08907635509967804,
-0.1503475308418274,
0.2582383155822754,
0.21646499633789062,
-0.37786412239074707,
-0.2938949167728424,
-0.28252699971199036,
0.9836925268173218,
-0.19556592404842377,
-0.6068878769874573,
0.14483784139156342,
-0.8369544148445129,
0.22096863389015198,
-0.36142778396606445,
-0.352569580078125,
0.1549966186285019,
-0.529839277267456,
-0.20532755553722382,
0.006930484902113676,
-0.5071243047714233,
-0.8109461069107056,
0.49459874629974365,
0.5577830672264099,
-0.27048712968826294,
-0.48566296696662903,
-0.5773643255233765,
-0.17903833091259003,
1.1087044477462769,
-0.2892419695854187,
-0.0407056026160717,
-0.8905714750289917,
0.16763931512832642,
0.08083096891641617,
-0.25968092679977417,
0.12051035463809967,
0.8481462001800537,
-0.25083503127098083,
0.19767391681671143,
-0.07599203288555145,
0.24517716467380524,
0.06997981667518616,
0.3282831907272339,
0.3012373447418213,
0.47155043482780457,
0.24763932824134827,
-0.1462429016828537,
0.010470842011272907,
0.11599159985780716,
-0.3723127543926239,
0.982328474521637,
0.3180285394191742,
-0.5668895840644836,
-1.2692065238952637,
-0.3065527081489563,
-0.11891259253025055,
0.5973938703536987,
0.06684361398220062,
0.007117000874131918,
0.2039678990840912,
0.27899420261383057,
-0.4935470521450043,
-0.3321574926376343,
-0.1865512877702713,
-0.23059283196926117,
0.5626494884490967,
0.30864542722702026,
-0.4827726483345032,
0.6534637808799744,
-0.22550153732299805,
-1.1178516149520874,
-0.4760758578777313,
0.7042831182479858,
-0.3733128607273102,
-0.06019530072808266,
0.00803425908088684,
-0.6296113729476929,
-0.49001267552375793,
-0.4016914963722229,
-0.25902217626571655,
0.027089325711131096,
-0.11688841879367828,
-0.01075122132897377,
-0.31702810525894165,
-0.03902916610240936,
0.017807694151997566,
-0.5955374240875244,
0.4512574076652527,
0.1515951305627823,
0.3027256727218628,
0.07072728872299194,
0.09440223127603531,
-0.2387237399816513,
-0.4807029962539673,
0.09877078235149384,
-0.01955212652683258,
0.039556194096803665,
-0.5911778211593628,
0.6479079723358154,
0.15308550000190735,
1.3015912771224976,
0.3576038181781769,
-0.9710139632225037,
-0.06274470686912537,
0.6228682398796082,
0.1908167004585266,
-0.16715922951698303,
-0.23660999536514282,
-0.008822083473205566,
0.0074057066813111305,
-0.10198500007390976,
-0.8332681655883789,
-0.6129527688026428,
0.8388411402702332,
-0.23213766515254974,
0.11759879440069199,
0.525199294090271,
0.07005637139081955,
0.3673475682735443,
0.1641312539577484,
0.8366202712059021,
0.059192147105932236,
0.44538065791130066,
0.03904053196310997,
-0.16051389276981354,
0.12129685282707214,
-0.2204722911119461,
0.1978829950094223,
-0.08214031159877777,
-0.1643097847700119,
-0.36283615231513977,
-0.0038884780369699,
0.45543143153190613,
-0.11668810993432999,
0.32199767231941223,
0.07702983915805817,
-0.14778617024421692,
0.29367586970329285,
-0.28803637623786926,
-0.7971734404563904,
0.611044704914093,
-0.4477902948856354,
-0.2740270495414734,
0.5574392676353455,
-0.3238525688648224,
-0.4725780487060547,
0.6074799299240112,
-0.25653162598609924,
0.07784546166658401,
0.2954797148704529,
-0.4356563985347748,
-0.415740966796875,
0.7756859064102173,
0.25176820158958435,
0.27041348814964294,
-0.27528953552246094,
-0.03614764288067818,
0.23075762391090393,
0.40234294533729553,
-0.3927706778049469,
0.5576330423355103,
0.1689213365316391,
0.2519056499004364,
0.11023858934640884,
0.40685829520225525,
-0.08056078106164932,
-0.530423641204834,
-1.1127208471298218,
0.04574929177761078,
0.006247847341001034,
-0.08769745379686356,
0.4263850450515747,
0.5016455054283142,
-0.16078141331672668,
-0.13454848527908325,
0.6231114864349365,
-0.44030025601387024,
-0.023912249132990837,
0.35153302550315857,
0.39660313725471497,
-0.5969457030296326,
-0.2110973745584488,
0.2760433256626129,
-0.4497658312320709,
0.29701361060142517,
-0.5282661318778992,
-0.6154232621192932,
0.7787063121795654,
0.3047287166118622,
0.39056339859962463,
0.5045961141586304,
-0.8246769309043884,
0.36628058552742004,
-0.7301345467567444,
-0.7130372524261475,
0.5804645419120789,
-0.6554611921310425,
0.14170318841934204,
0.5355231165885925,
0.36006537079811096,
0.35301581025123596,
-0.23233608901500702,
0.08041861653327942,
0.35179442167282104,
0.4267888367176056,
-0.46349167823791504,
0.20949327945709229,
0.08444344252347946,
-0.15036165714263916,
0.3094242513179779,
0.32795941829681396,
0.7225291132926941,
0.32720568776130676,
0.08676787465810776,
0.3626205325126648,
0.2578102946281433,
0.13440731167793274,
-0.1262798309326172,
-0.9410766959190369,
-0.14005975425243378,
-0.3623610734939575,
0.08059325814247131,
0.15394848585128784,
-0.03477354347705841,
0.10259965807199478,
0.3196631073951721,
0.644003689289093,
-0.20072567462921143,
0.27105429768562317,
0.5439919829368591,
-0.02986648492515087,
-0.08405575901269913,
-0.20482802391052246,
0.18977108597755432,
0.5336414575576782,
0.8601552844047546,
0.14281554520130157,
-0.11349405348300934,
-0.43260353803634644,
-0.6530889272689819,
0.7283188104629517,
0.14236675202846527,
-0.7127581834793091,
-0.21081432700157166,
-0.37314775586128235,
-0.20219585299491882,
-0.02602531388401985,
0.40558385848999023,
0.14509575068950653,
-0.2604266107082367,
-0.18741483986377716,
-0.6846914291381836,
0.17592789232730865,
-0.9515990018844604,
-0.11889616400003433,
-0.407388299703598,
0.7343911528587341,
0.7344425916671753,
-0.7982659935951233,
-0.36910280585289,
0.5117343068122864,
-0.08313864469528198,
0.23811808228492737,
-0.3100828230381012,
0.08514577150344849,
-0.16483935713768005,
-0.0950414389371872,
0.1365160495042801,
0.4266359210014343,
0.02201738767325878,
0.06681320816278458,
0.0005714979488402605,
1.1287405490875244,
-0.7969931960105896,
0.4290429949760437,
0.8078309893608093,
-0.35708996653556824,
-0.32284390926361084,
-0.047567714005708694,
-0.11406047642230988,
-0.3207037150859833,
-0.07812603563070297,
0.1173800677061081,
-0.15141017735004425,
0.06941413134336472,
0.10288012772798538,
-0.1447151154279709,
-0.7968495488166809,
0.048080477863550186,
-1.1138995885849,
-0.056747641414403915,
-0.17244917154312134,
-0.2807370722293854,
-0.47523289918899536,
0.18117190897464752,
0.9597214460372925,
0.5805027484893799,
0.5313130021095276,
-0.604231059551239,
0.15359997749328613,
0.19562692940235138,
0.6996477842330933,
0.4255583584308624,
-0.8597450852394104,
-0.04615674167871475,
-0.03246242552995682,
0.13324201107025146,
-0.19736871123313904,
-0.1478842794895172,
0.09614058583974838,
0.3797031044960022,
0.5061858296394348,
-0.5450599193572998,
0.719913899898529,
-0.269578754901886,
0.05190954729914665,
-0.4349667727947235,
0.19954490661621094,
0.6811981797218323
] |
213023
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Elbian%20Evangelical%20Lutheran%20Church
|
North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church
|
The North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church (; NEK) was a Lutheran regional church in Northern Germany which emerged from a merger of four churches in 1977 and merged with two more churches in 2012. The NEK largely covered the area of the states of Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg where it was the most important Christian denomination. It had 2.1 million members (as of 2006) in 595 parishes, constituting 46% of the population in its ambit.
In May 2012 the NEK, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Mecklenburg and the Pomeranian Evangelical Church merged into Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany.
The NEK was a full member of the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD), the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany (VELKD), and the Lutheran World Federation (joined 1977). The church was also a member of the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe.
History
The North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church was founded in 1977 by the merger of four former state churches:
the Evangelical Lutheran State Church of Eutin (), which had been split off from the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Oldenburg and represented the former Prince-Bishopric of Lübeck.
the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the State of Hamburg ();
the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the State of Lübeck ();
the Evangelical Lutheran State Church of Schleswig-Holstein; ()
It is named after its ambit mostly located north of the River Elbe. In 1992 Maria Jepsen was the first woman to become a bishop in the North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church. At Pentecost 2012 it merged with the Evangelical Lutheran State Church of Mecklenburg and the Pomeranian Evangelical Church to form the new Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany.
Prominent buildings
The most prominent church buildings and sees of the bishops were Schleswig Cathedral, Lübeck Cathedral and St. Michaelis in Hamburg.
Practices
Ordination of women and blessing of same-sex unions were allowed.
List of bishops
Bishops of the Hamburg district (Sprengel Hamburg; 1977–2008)
The preaching venue of the bishop was the new St. Nicholas Church (till 1987) and thereafter St. Michael's.
1977–1983: Hans-Otto Wölber
1983–1992: Peter Krusche
1992–2008: Maria Jepsen
Bishops of the Holstein-Lübeck district (Sprengel Holstein-Lübeck; 1977–2008)
The preaching venue of the bishop was the Lübeck Cathedral.
1964–1981: Friedrich Hübner, until 1977 bishop of Holstein in Kiel for the Evangelical-Lutheran State Church of Schleswig-Holstein
1981–1991: Ulrich Wilckens
1991–2001: Karl Ludwig Kohlwage
2001–2008: Bärbel Wartenberg-Potter
Bishops of the Schleswig district (Sprengel Schleswig; 1977–2008)
The preaching venue of the bishop was the Schleswig Cathedral.
1967–1978: Alfred Petersen, until 1977 bishop of Schleswig for the Evangelical-Lutheran State Church of Schleswig-Holstein
1979–1990: Karlheinz Stoll
1991–2008: Hans-Christian Knuth
2008–today: Gerhard Ulrich
Bishops of the Hamburg and Lübeck district (Sprengel Hamburg und Lübeck; since 2008)
The preaching venue of the bishop is the St. Michaelis Church, Hamburg.
2008–2010: Maria Jepsen
2011–today: Kirsten Fehrs
Bishops of the Schleswig and Holstein district (Sprengel Schleswig und Holstein; since 2008)
The preaching venue of the bishop is the Schleswig Cathedral.
2008–2014: Gerhard Ulrich
2014–today:
References
External links
North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church (English)
Evangelical Church in Germany (English)
Christianity in Schleswig-Holstein
Christianity in Hamburg
Members of the World Council of Churches
Former member churches of the Evangelical Church in Germany
Lutheran denominations established in the 20th century
Christian organizations established in 1977
Religious organizations disestablished in 2012
History of Lutheranism in Germany
1977 establishments in West Germany
2012 disestablishments in Germany
|
[
-0.21782168745994568,
0.1420632004737854,
0.2890068292617798,
-0.5277671813964844,
-0.2834567427635193,
0.46866169571876526,
0.9310171008110046,
0.31895720958709717,
-0.1462114155292511,
-0.4655543565750122,
0.0721559226512909,
-0.5806348919868469,
-0.099129319190979,
0.7639007568359375,
-0.12707029283046722,
0.7900437712669373,
0.5992680191993713,
0.5745611786842346,
-0.05742793530225754,
-0.7444272041320801,
-0.26274678111076355,
-0.9936917424201965,
0.5908717513084412,
0.3798167109489441,
0.18049626052379608,
-0.20347487926483154,
0.25635746121406555,
-0.5603006482124329,
-0.13802281022071838,
0.044175032526254654,
0.1781681478023529,
0.9985615015029907,
-0.3703133463859558,
-0.039731211960315704,
0.10880780965089798,
0.28732535243034363,
0.07963939011096954,
-0.5929072499275208,
-0.35021400451660156,
-0.08430371433496475,
0.14641104638576508,
-0.04174955561757088,
-0.05460789427161217,
0.3737920820713043,
0.46405845880508423,
-0.242420494556427,
-1.021045446395874,
-0.09492732584476471,
-0.952771008014679,
-0.0721321552991867,
-0.44627729058265686,
-0.4724883735179901,
-0.22818946838378906,
0.9933860898017883,
-0.09188883751630783,
-0.3390439450740814,
-0.6652677059173584,
-0.22008422017097473,
0.3180355429649353,
0.03473154082894325,
0.13582617044448853,
0.03520163148641586,
-0.2903003394603729,
-0.002672203117981553,
0.1573236584663391,
0.09502619504928589,
-0.11723213642835617,
0.9065868258476257,
-0.48764902353286743,
-0.6217378377914429,
-0.30240482091903687,
-0.09425562620162964,
-0.39367812871932983,
-0.04317733645439148,
0.6178709268569946,
-0.6067695617675781,
0.12045957893133163,
-0.3017832338809967,
0.39917078614234924,
0.24162878096103668,
0.0850452408194542,
0.08451306074857712,
0.8968137502670288,
0.03973860293626785,
0.5261736512184143,
0.030512608587741852,
-0.17537462711334229,
-0.16602373123168945,
-0.5505371689796448,
-0.2613108158111572,
0.09848769009113312,
-0.6609150171279907,
-0.22522345185279846,
0.4766690731048584,
-0.14326578378677368,
0.4103614091873169,
0.10925033688545227,
0.22721217572689056,
0.14768952131271362,
0.7192708849906921,
0.673591673374176,
0.7755707502365112,
0.01859532855451107,
-0.07116524875164032,
-0.7271366119384766,
-0.36858832836151123,
0.04025012254714966,
-0.3286522626876831,
0.18870525062084198,
0.10739283263683319,
-0.6157280802726746,
0.3916822373867035,
0.10204841196537018,
0.6480181813240051,
0.4263664782047272,
0.42090415954589844,
0.06307706236839294,
-0.3674401342868805,
0.010329409502446651,
0.2883327901363373,
-0.014464371837675571,
0.8485752940177917,
-0.2169986367225647,
0.7610505223274231,
-0.32066261768341064,
0.7369875311851501,
-0.12705738842487335,
0.932490885257721,
-0.6802212595939636,
-0.30800047516822815,
0.8213694095611572,
0.5132025480270386,
0.40914180874824524,
0.054288458079099655,
0.05184096097946167,
0.11922605335712433,
0.7151997685432434,
0.1769171804189682,
0.6403908133506775,
0.24756696820259094,
-0.8525196313858032,
-0.16413074731826782,
-0.03945666551589966,
-0.24094609916210175,
0.044308118522167206,
-0.2712757885456085,
-0.4759586453437805,
-0.3489057719707489,
-0.03783348202705383,
0.1327780783176422,
0.6122199296951294,
0.13857966661453247,
-0.2002732902765274,
-0.09186452627182007,
-0.544209897518158,
0.5911703109741211,
-0.11375169456005096,
0.3602021634578705,
0.5575129389762878,
0.5542255640029907,
0.128279447555542,
0.4611973166465759,
0.08320186287164688,
0.3864820897579193,
0.6642195582389832,
-0.42050132155418396,
-0.20615379512310028,
-0.2208394855260849,
0.2646210491657257,
-0.06293890625238419,
-0.35330891609191895,
-0.4711422920227051,
0.04754331707954407,
0.07564744353294373,
-0.37133005261421204,
-0.3769645690917969,
0.33291298151016235,
0.23588278889656067,
0.04444820433855057,
-0.6814903020858765,
-0.906452476978302,
0.6224486231803894,
0.5629019141197205,
-0.19559526443481445,
-0.334394633769989,
0.9083777666091919,
-0.42589515447616577,
0.29074251651763916,
-0.24597004055976868,
0.2923872768878937,
0.1305771917104721,
-0.9306503534317017,
0.7633855938911438,
-0.34670716524124146,
1.1554694175720215,
0.014285333454608917,
-0.22411084175109863,
0.40383800864219666,
-0.7970400452613831,
0.46077126264572144,
-0.07954307645559311,
-1.109614372253418,
0.2768886983394623,
0.24956008791923523,
0.2539767026901245,
0.4589661955833435,
-0.005164123140275478,
-0.4140084385871887,
0.2706332802772522,
0.09943069517612457,
-0.22841531038284302,
-0.028395380824804306,
0.23962056636810303,
0.6725994348526001,
-0.1944352239370346,
-0.4899488091468811,
-0.10656335949897766,
0.45985546708106995,
0.1428629457950592,
-0.5352639555931091,
0.24162454903125763,
0.0002745051169767976,
0.06844210624694824,
0.40338334441185,
0.22695907950401306,
0.5540593862533569,
0.11324170976877213,
0.013449790887534618,
0.0459180548787117,
0.054641976952552795,
0.895909309387207,
1.064406394958496,
-0.2201446294784546,
-0.4441527724266052,
0.37908923625946045,
-0.5642904043197632,
-0.25645115971565247,
-0.4469255805015564,
-0.06644301861524582,
-0.13478058576583862,
0.4209236800670624,
-0.07529629021883011,
-0.7237952351570129,
0.3644886612892151,
0.21569062769412994,
0.1902826726436615,
0.03724796324968338,
0.26967906951904297,
-0.05441762134432793,
0.07202374935150146,
-0.41629472374916077,
0.18663135170936584,
-0.08509374409914017,
-0.4209502637386322,
0.21600547432899475,
0.17042341828346252,
0.3154107332229614,
-0.1944010853767395,
0.08571150153875351,
0.4390440881252289,
0.06626542657613754,
-0.683744490146637,
-0.07251666486263275,
-0.34647780656814575,
-0.3863791823387146,
-0.5321382284164429,
-0.0016401164466515183,
-0.054097577929496765,
0.26879018545150757,
-0.2676571309566498,
0.3815392851829529,
0.20763331651687622,
-0.22962142527103424,
0.10548000037670135,
-0.8577004075050354,
-0.612261950969696,
-0.5326264500617981,
0.3342452645301819,
-0.3931358754634857,
-0.42990171909332275,
-0.1941351741552353,
0.545522153377533,
-0.07738879323005676,
-0.4664469361305237,
0.19749312102794647,
0.11958502233028412,
0.41587409377098083,
-0.38443177938461304,
-0.17507940530776978,
0.039710793644189835,
0.11326152831315994,
0.3786086142063141,
-0.5179581642150879,
-0.3479042053222656,
0.05803951621055603,
0.313678115606308,
0.22847215831279755,
-0.09491054713726044,
0.700629472732544,
0.163345605134964,
-0.7532375454902649,
0.11573360860347748,
-0.49076077342033386,
0.6270514726638794,
0.2484644055366516,
-0.6067569255828857,
-0.17846019566059113,
-0.40888512134552,
-5.282177448272705,
-0.1316222846508026,
-0.31648877263069153,
0.1380101889371872,
-0.19152246415615082,
0.3517730236053467,
0.6971625089645386,
-0.13885241746902466,
0.35088086128234863,
0.26543188095092773,
-0.10689163953065872,
-0.18529772758483887,
-0.26101404428482056,
1.0054723024368286,
0.8163120150566101,
0.23117268085479736,
0.40842294692993164,
0.16587933897972107,
0.30260393023490906,
-0.8228428363800049,
0.20099449157714844,
-0.5491301417350769,
0.03842819109559059,
0.45517539978027344,
0.6543369293212891,
0.4655679166316986,
-0.04958716034889221,
0.21119439601898193,
-0.5252370238304138,
-0.6790133118629456,
0.4887259304523468,
-0.4321158230304718,
-0.16132648289203644,
-0.25727635622024536,
-0.13984590768814087,
-0.1381893903017044,
0.5414825081825256,
1.1524245738983154,
0.2601882815361023,
-0.1956019401550293,
0.7905066013336182,
1.0703681707382202,
-0.23785491287708282,
-0.42147931456565857,
0.5702085494995117,
-0.024587687104940414,
-0.42058438062667847,
-0.036751504987478256,
-0.5209896564483643,
1.447004795074463,
-0.1739969551563263,
-0.23750294744968414,
0.4907286763191223,
0.025750624015927315,
0.11240590363740921,
-0.41760337352752686,
-0.1309429109096527,
-0.07778763771057129,
-0.2741582989692688,
0.46419790387153625,
0.5007143020629883,
0.13747431337833405,
-0.6151466965675354,
-1.0320427417755127,
-0.690584659576416,
-0.13243016600608826,
-0.3777019679546356,
-0.022501450031995773,
0.6624371409416199,
-0.15323282778263092,
-0.5661893486976624,
0.3908516466617584,
-0.1734415888786316,
-1.0159538984298706,
-0.09081252664327621,
-0.8518784046173096,
-0.3654150366783142,
-0.3472602069377899,
-0.20644855499267578,
0.25838035345077515,
0.03603728860616684,
-0.47172442078590393,
0.11411534249782562,
0.6582195162773132,
0.7931827306747437,
0.3711758852005005,
-0.2804877460002899,
-0.6217976808547974,
-0.0270026046782732,
-0.46240895986557007,
0.21372129023075104,
-0.6309604644775391,
-0.07899703085422516,
0.41757017374038696,
-0.3495282828807831,
1.1994118690490723,
-0.3200262486934662,
0.35126638412475586,
0.28569307923316956,
-0.1725253015756607,
1.0051043033599854,
-0.2061803936958313,
-0.18020179867744446,
0.406859427690506,
0.3193010687828064,
-0.3068282902240753,
0.4084181785583496,
-0.11720709502696991,
-0.08548499643802643,
0.0747423991560936,
0.3670198321342468,
-0.44743645191192627,
-0.4861645996570587,
-0.0395837277173996,
-0.08874829858541489,
-0.5049054622650146,
-0.8468125462532043,
0.9260183572769165,
-0.103591188788414,
-0.14762772619724274,
0.9327252507209778,
-0.003831452690064907,
0.4877690374851227,
-0.41072481870651245,
-0.2629276514053345,
-0.5660381317138672,
-0.31011974811553955,
0.6632391810417175,
-0.8164297342300415,
0.42863357067108154,
0.21408985555171967,
-0.14026804268360138,
0.1355009377002716,
-0.3641188442707062,
0.2300587147474289,
0.22784025967121124,
-0.3627375364303589,
-0.6024911999702454,
-0.11072608828544617,
0.29600220918655396,
0.3737725615501404,
-0.16848190128803253,
-0.24519719183444977,
0.5530887246131897,
-0.1538376659154892,
0.1193460002541542,
0.37616202235221863,
-0.36173781752586365,
-0.6298583745956421,
0.2694341540336609,
-0.20670387148857117,
0.19137030839920044,
0.6943200826644897,
0.12026496976613998,
-0.16052065789699554,
0.06108691170811653,
1.0898903608322144,
0.36648836731910706,
-0.3168525695800781,
-0.27469563484191895,
-0.41716960072517395,
0.05391714349389076,
-0.6076638102531433,
0.08732778578996658,
0.39995577931404114,
-0.436027467250824,
-0.9583584666252136,
-0.07213936746120453,
-0.24956119060516357,
0.3148290514945984,
0.05898546800017357,
-0.3740234971046448,
-0.4268900454044342,
0.07996200770139694,
0.07341206073760986,
0.18909883499145508,
-0.06380521506071091,
-0.30507099628448486,
-0.7106213569641113,
-0.3321717381477356,
-0.001851202454417944,
0.08568122982978821,
-0.4885994791984558,
0.4438842833042145,
0.5161418914794922,
0.060112081468105316,
-0.4317539930343628,
0.050370216369628906,
-0.303338885307312,
-0.2971724271774292,
0.7540270090103149,
-0.559433102607727,
-0.00485633872449398,
0.07134207338094711,
-0.19462311267852783,
-0.9687845706939697,
0.008516602218151093,
-0.0718623623251915,
0.2914814352989197,
-0.2740090787410736,
0.3556845188140869,
0.33892515301704407,
-0.04298076778650284,
0.345283180475235,
-0.19833128154277802,
-0.7552350759506226,
0.35828733444213867,
-0.16689686477184296,
-0.9726820588111877,
0.2664108872413635,
-0.6864848732948303,
-0.44624099135398865,
-0.10095418244600296,
0.5423833727836609,
-0.6393694877624512,
-0.14079877734184265,
0.566362738609314,
-0.4451700448989868,
-0.6638273000717163,
0.39565202593803406,
-0.721753716468811,
-0.18277309834957123,
-0.47564250230789185,
-0.28827643394470215,
-0.5599709153175354,
0.09679381549358368,
0.7753880620002747,
-0.3048640191555023,
-0.4607181251049042,
-0.43452775478363037,
0.41076916456222534,
0.11028042435646057,
-0.12906120717525482,
-0.06724892556667328,
-0.1551550328731537,
0.12046351283788681,
0.0024364262353628874,
0.09815714508295059,
0.5214569568634033,
0.8367148041725159,
0.43168938159942627,
0.5395558476448059,
0.25892573595046997,
-0.9840840697288513,
0.19707031548023224,
-0.009438253939151764,
0.4835895299911499,
-0.5719445943832397,
-0.5563547015190125,
0.40126365423202515,
-0.19326601922512054,
0.1318264752626419,
-0.3727554380893707,
-0.8111922740936279,
0.7865511775016785,
-0.26084965467453003,
-0.7467139363288879,
0.23300595581531525,
-0.07403208315372467,
-0.2669167220592499,
-0.033518578857183456,
-0.729494571685791,
-0.4496036171913147,
0.20887765288352966,
0.031001515686511993,
-0.2721764147281647,
-0.6202699542045593,
-0.2058122307062149,
0.19317081570625305,
-0.45352303981781006,
-0.6861110329627991,
-0.2735353112220764,
0.6623624563217163,
0.0661046952009201,
-0.021199781447649002,
-0.27791616320610046,
-0.21581582725048065,
-0.35552066564559937,
0.495301753282547,
-0.13441753387451172,
-0.6385262608528137,
-0.4737829566001892,
0.13912294805049896,
-0.09253720939159393,
-0.2818344533443451,
-0.8898436427116394,
-0.5546547174453735,
-0.42378780245780945,
-0.35454022884368896,
-0.21141357719898224,
0.02037896402180195,
-0.22390826046466827,
0.11104632169008255,
-0.09825357794761658,
0.07944194972515106,
0.47715651988983154,
0.3230196237564087,
0.18491418659687042,
0.09102194756269455,
-0.3472571074962616,
-0.30196988582611084,
0.3451489508152008,
-0.010057494975626469,
-0.6121997833251953,
0.1327534019947052,
0.6826278567314148,
0.09299100935459137,
0.460228830575943,
-0.23579367995262146,
0.40569254755973816,
0.8237144947052002,
0.06045737862586975,
-0.45252135396003723,
1.219607949256897,
0.0037171482108533382,
0.1524791270494461,
0.5837741494178772,
-0.6778786182403564,
0.6084349751472473,
-0.1424764096736908,
0.6467179656028748,
0.2844907343387604,
0.6282963752746582,
0.4872599244117737,
-0.10077951103448868,
0.7098225951194763,
0.4361206293106079,
0.3619331121444702,
-0.18588869273662567,
0.0024946245830506086,
-0.3374108672142029,
-0.10083506256341934,
-0.23012486100196838,
0.13026191294193268,
-0.45789963006973267,
0.30481812357902527,
0.01499160099774599,
0.09172765165567398,
-0.7706877589225769,
0.9396708011627197,
-0.05559347942471504,
0.7425909638404846,
-0.2688203752040863,
-0.08069900423288345,
0.18013565242290497,
0.2673555910587311,
-0.2651347517967224,
-0.4370858371257782,
0.8352717161178589,
-0.14661811292171478,
0.4957171082496643,
-0.024241728708148003,
-0.1906569004058838,
-0.6041285395622253,
-0.4647865295410156,
0.17351944744586945,
0.28969672322273254,
-0.19977344572544098,
-0.42287003993988037,
0.22893957793712616,
-0.1274215131998062,
-0.14255884289741516,
0.25019311904907227,
0.23766261339187622,
-0.6624732613563538,
-0.12422958016395569,
-0.01924620009958744,
-0.44506582617759705,
-0.26961836218833923,
-0.059458423405885696,
0.32788416743278503,
-0.843224048614502,
-0.2791099548339844,
-0.23637211322784424,
-0.11768250912427902,
-0.2723301947116852,
0.6418896317481995,
0.06763742864131927,
0.09850308299064636,
0.6332642436027527,
-0.40720418095588684,
0.2791045606136322,
-0.29491618275642395,
0.013584619387984276,
0.2732744812965393,
-0.5266852378845215,
0.034478772431612015,
0.059282734990119934,
-0.0289083831012249,
0.23367521166801453,
0.3620881140232086,
-0.40883854031562805,
0.9978253841400146,
-0.3929916322231293,
-1.2308363914489746,
0.016012152656912804,
0.24548424780368805,
1.085537075996399,
-0.17361530661582947,
-0.5416390895843506,
0.05293552577495575,
0.6428805589675903,
0.3637588918209076,
0.5073464512825012,
-0.09435677528381348,
0.7176820039749146,
-0.7770524024963379,
0.26517626643180847,
0.18299445509910583,
0.10539350658655167,
0.4127446413040161,
0.7459831237792969,
-0.203957200050354,
-0.03559993579983711,
0.32421931624412537,
-0.6777595281600952,
0.8893536329269409,
-0.13928787410259247,
-0.2381511628627777,
0.185264453291893,
0.025721823796629906,
-0.08967624604701996,
0.07731395214796066,
-0.19459480047225952,
0.24325822293758392,
-0.0211713295429945,
0.30598318576812744,
0.07582849264144897,
-0.26311567425727844,
0.6076390743255615,
0.16243155300617218,
0.03761425241827965,
-0.7889906167984009,
-0.23493719100952148,
-0.7370502352714539,
0.019226286560297012,
0.09539680182933807,
0.2438170313835144,
0.4855191111564636,
-0.3979876935482025,
-0.6259877681732178,
-0.5019452571868896,
0.06223582476377487,
-0.12171304225921631,
0.06983644515275955,
0.5566362738609314,
-0.12004400044679642,
-0.7822026014328003,
-1.1178077459335327,
0.4869081974029541,
0.07626325637102127,
-0.46844038367271423,
-0.21623548865318298,
-0.1224917396903038,
-0.00580664211884141,
-0.8012100458145142,
0.1482812911272049,
-0.48158177733421326,
0.739464521408081,
-0.02022932842373848
] |
213027
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical%20Lutheran%20Church%20in%20Thuringia
|
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Thuringia
|
The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Thuringia (Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirche in Thüringen) was a Lutheran member church of the umbrella Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD). The seat of the church was in Eisenach. The church covered those parts of the state of Thuringia that were not part of the former Province of Saxony. It was the largest Protestant denomination in this area.
History
After in early November 1918 the grand duke, the dukes and princes of the eight monarchies, later merging into the new State of Thuringia, had abdicated and thus released each of the eight territorial Lutheran church bodies from their respective supreme governorate (summepiscopacy), Lutheran church leaders, among them the Saxe-Altenburgian court preacher Wilhelm Reichardt as one of the driving forces, decided the unification of the church bodies on 15 November 1918. Within seven of these Lutheran church bodies majorities formed to merge, to wit:
Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Principality of Reuss Junior Line (Evangelisch-lutherische Kirche des Fürstentums Reuß jüngere Linie)
Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Duchy of Saxe-Gotha (Evangelisch-lutherische Kirche des Herzogtums Sachsen-Gotha)
Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg (Evangelisch-lutherische Kirche des Herzogtums Sachsen-Altenburg)
Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen (Evangelisch-lutherische Kirche des Herzogtums Sachsen-Meiningen)
Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Grand Duchy of Saxony (Evangelisch-lutherische Kirche des Großherzogtums Sachsen)
Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (Evangelisch-lutherische Kirche des Fürstentums Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt) and
Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (Evangelisch-lutherische Kirche des Fürstentums Schwarzburg-Sondershausen).
Only the Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Principality of Reuss Elder Line (Evangelisch-lutherische Kirche des Fürstentums Reuß ältere Linie) refused the merger and renamed as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Reuss Elder Line (). On 5 December 1919 synodals from the seven other church bodies then convened for the constitutive synod, founding the Thuringian Evangelical Church (Thüringer evangelische Kirche), a Lutheran church body, with effect of 13 February 1920 and Reichardt as its spiritual leader then titled state supreme pastor (Landesoberpfarrer). Three months later all the eight former monarchies merged into the new state of Thuringia.
In 1922 the Thuringian Evangelical Church became a member of the German Evangelical Church Confederation, which was dissolved in 1933 in favour of a united Protestant church for all of Germany, which, however, never materialised due to inner church struggles on the Nazi intrusion in ecclesiastical affairs.
The parishioners within the Thuringia church body voted by a majority for candidates of the Nazi-submissive German Christians in the presbyteries and the synod in the unconstitutional reelection imposed by Hitler on 23 July 1933. Nazi opponents then formed the Confessing Church of Thuringia, gradually pressed into hiding. In 1934 the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Reuss Elder Line with 70,000 parishioners (as of 1922) merged in the Thuringian Evangelical Church, which thus comprised all the area of the state of Thuringia in its borders of 1920. During the struggle of the churches the official submissive church leadership even further radicalised in its extremism as to anti-Semitism and suppression of confessing church adherents.
In 1933 Reichardt adopted the title of a state bishop (Landesbischof) and deprived the synod of its legislative rights. Martin Sasse succeeded Reichardt after his retirement in 1934. After Sasse's death in 1942 the quarrelling fractions within the Thuringian German Christians blocked the appointment of a new state bishop, but Hugo Rönck, the head of the central church administration, assumed the leadership using the title church president. With the defeat of the Nazis in sight Confessing Church members within the Thuringia church body urged Rönck to resign in April 1945 and the US occupying power later arrested him only days after. In May 1945 Moritz Mitzenheim succeeded Rönck again using the constitutional title state supreme pastor. In August 1945 Mitzenheim participated for the Thuringian Evangelical Church in a meeting in Treysa, where the foundation of a new Protestant umbrella, the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) was decided, of which the Thuringian Evangelical Church became a founding member.
In 1948 the church body renamed into the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Thuringia. An orderly synod legalised the new title state bishop (Landesbischof), later used by Mitzenheim. He turned out to be a rather uncritical collaborator of the upcoming communist dictatorship. Under the influence of the high church functionary and later state bishop Ingo Braecklein, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Thuringia seceded from the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) and prompted the foundation of the Confederation of Protestant Churches in the GDR (Bund der Evangelischen Kirchen in der DDR) in 1969. In 1991 that confederation was dissolved again and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Thuringia rejoined the EKD.
Between 1945 and 1969 and again from 1991 to 2008 the church was also a full member of the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany (VELKD) and since 1973 also of the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe. The church body was based on the teachings brought forward by Martin Luther during the Reformation.
In December 2006 the church body had approx. 440,000 parishioners in 1,308 church parishes. There was no cathedral church. The church had its own academy in Neudietendorf.
On July 1, 2004, the church announced its intention to merge with the Evangelical Church of the Church Province of Saxony to form the new Evangelical Church in Central Germany. The merger was completed on January 1, 2009.
Spiritual leaders
1920–1934: Wilhelm Reichardt, titled Landesoberpfarrer (state supreme pastor), then - after July 1933 - Landesbischof (state bishop)
1934–1942: Martin Sasse, title state bishop
1942–1945: vacancy
1943–1945: Hugo Rönck per pro, Kirchenpräsident (church president), usurping the title of state bishop in early 1945, forced to resign in April 1945
1945–1970: Moritz Mitzenheim, at first titled state supreme pastor, then state bishop
1970–1978: Ingo Braecklein, state bishop
1978–1992: Werner Leich, state bishop
1992–2001: Roland Hoffmann, state bishop
2001–2008: Christoph Kähler, state bishop
Parishioners
1922: 1,384,000
2006: 440,000
Notes
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20070304090926/http://www.ekmd-online.de/portal/
http://www.ekd.de
Christianity in Thuringia
Thuringia
Thuringia
Christian organizations established in 1920
Christian organizations disestablished in 2009
|
[
0.017911896109580994,
0.5127096772193909,
0.38106396794319153,
-0.3000301420688629,
-0.5701679587364197,
0.6998431086540222,
0.9660894870758057,
0.17454400658607483,
-0.19360250234603882,
-0.30403560400009155,
-0.06285877525806427,
-0.537003755569458,
0.140711709856987,
0.5756505727767944,
-0.30507683753967285,
0.6793419122695923,
0.9114168286323547,
0.2736912965774536,
-0.20714956521987915,
-0.7182644009590149,
-0.1655571162700653,
-0.40791627764701843,
0.6716588139533997,
0.5010272860527039,
-0.026963887736201286,
-0.31527456641197205,
0.7416880130767822,
-0.18479816615581512,
-0.22472141683101654,
-0.4159104526042938,
0.03974622115492821,
0.9189432859420776,
-0.23121041059494019,
0.13125406205654144,
0.11801497638225555,
0.20782719552516937,
0.2471696138381958,
-0.9689801931381226,
-0.022078819572925568,
-0.5153794288635254,
0.14909031987190247,
0.2537614107131958,
0.31365326046943665,
0.19229446351528168,
0.3893981873989105,
-0.5769139528274536,
-1.5401480197906494,
0.1363716572523117,
-0.6752263307571411,
-0.13684715330600739,
-0.06334608793258667,
-0.09728708863258362,
0.6038145422935486,
0.9006747007369995,
0.10796114802360535,
0.08951021730899811,
-1.3485313653945923,
-0.005983779206871986,
0.6473786234855652,
0.6025420427322388,
0.6362574696540833,
0.26999425888061523,
-0.4463212192058563,
-0.012883354909718037,
0.5581571459770203,
0.006460892036557198,
-0.1463293731212616,
0.18584108352661133,
-0.2349676936864853,
-1.1937386989593506,
-0.4992395043373108,
-0.22285035252571106,
-0.09290416538715363,
-0.04156358912587166,
0.5776927471160889,
-0.362846702337265,
-0.3336334824562073,
-0.3527263402938843,
0.4019545912742615,
-0.17125743627548218,
-0.29634565114974976,
0.1811622828245163,
0.4310916066169739,
-0.002151846420019865,
0.03361603617668152,
0.3062068223953247,
0.12825536727905273,
-0.6849233508110046,
-0.3500742018222809,
0.049573250114917755,
-0.2968278229236603,
-0.14706668257713318,
-0.5630285143852234,
0.4615757465362549,
-0.24928860366344452,
0.1404338926076889,
-0.07317822426557541,
0.09916570037603378,
0.20753619074821472,
1.022476077079773,
0.06545304507017136,
0.6781317591667175,
0.29039469361305237,
0.007438076660037041,
-0.6597198843955994,
-0.17552055418491364,
-0.44397446513175964,
-0.02759738825261593,
-0.4810572564601898,
0.07939344644546509,
-0.9176427721977234,
0.44193169474601746,
0.12122480571269989,
0.04702385887503624,
0.2516997158527374,
-0.07845138758420944,
0.03179878741502762,
-0.552362322807312,
-0.10598377883434296,
0.2260391116142273,
-0.15546025335788727,
0.9061320424079895,
-0.0026946840807795525,
0.25686949491500854,
-0.3524460196495056,
0.36684030294418335,
-0.256419837474823,
1.34932541847229,
-0.849302351474762,
0.20269429683685303,
0.7478366494178772,
0.6713886260986328,
0.11631461977958679,
-0.2836310863494873,
0.316868394613266,
-0.23108360171318054,
0.6886968612670898,
-0.16623595356941223,
0.27315154671669006,
0.29510465264320374,
-0.588834822177887,
-0.6796677708625793,
-0.9420065879821777,
-0.21503694355487823,
-0.1866956204175949,
-0.5050070881843567,
-0.47863808274269104,
-0.612554132938385,
-0.4704884886741638,
-0.04080506041646004,
0.6760271191596985,
0.13823361694812775,
-0.21660320460796356,
0.22398246824741364,
-0.8413180112838745,
0.3645266592502594,
0.4618879556655884,
0.1132730022072792,
0.5898935794830322,
0.801225483417511,
-0.004806463606655598,
-0.06204652041196823,
0.15827679634094238,
0.0007319962023757398,
0.6832042932510376,
0.04194951802492142,
-0.03685356676578522,
0.11383847147226334,
0.10934773087501526,
-0.057381585240364075,
-0.6885789632797241,
-0.42168936133384705,
-0.36694854497909546,
-0.010644815862178802,
-0.12229405343532562,
-0.18578024208545685,
0.4424578845500946,
0.4222590923309326,
-0.25821030139923096,
-0.46554580330848694,
-0.7893955707550049,
0.5732921361923218,
0.4142964780330658,
0.10748656094074249,
-0.12010028958320618,
1.0064483880996704,
-0.5530683398246765,
0.599545419216156,
0.37612420320510864,
0.13419237732887268,
0.17194536328315735,
-1.1702035665512085,
0.5448778867721558,
-0.15860356390476227,
1.340298056602478,
0.08918684720993042,
-0.1279325932264328,
0.010446297936141491,
-0.36269301176071167,
0.2608763575553894,
-0.24907459318637848,
-0.6646865010261536,
-0.3259600102901459,
0.33782729506492615,
0.02169922925531864,
0.4840319752693176,
0.026885638013482094,
0.05962616205215454,
0.0913967713713646,
0.3423284888267517,
0.16129878163337708,
0.17513729631900787,
0.32543644309043884,
0.5628523826599121,
0.12436407059431076,
-0.3896998465061188,
-0.3192262053489685,
0.1891949474811554,
-0.10961108654737473,
-0.1962113082408905,
0.21074427664279938,
0.2534709572792053,
0.26645389199256897,
0.8859648704528809,
-0.15443004667758942,
0.599071741104126,
-0.107200987637043,
0.2177882194519043,
-0.20259809494018555,
-0.6847845315933228,
0.6304106712341309,
0.9967294335365295,
0.22580814361572266,
-0.21428708732128143,
0.24184249341487885,
-0.21102042496204376,
-0.22974024713039398,
-0.2635467052459717,
0.0031432192772626877,
-0.17322911322116852,
0.5657732486724854,
-0.3270558714866638,
-0.5107427835464478,
0.18381956219673157,
-0.02122032828629017,
0.2939797341823578,
-0.23824413120746613,
-0.1708235889673233,
-0.4847089648246765,
-0.1262304186820984,
0.4148966073989868,
-0.0249975323677063,
-0.07013990730047226,
-0.4674857556819916,
0.4887109100818634,
0.0998188853263855,
0.34843015670776367,
-0.2979468107223511,
-0.033579301089048386,
0.4401991665363312,
0.3250073194503784,
-0.09550437331199646,
0.13709811866283417,
-0.25708767771720886,
-0.1918739229440689,
-0.04026094824075699,
0.16625621914863586,
0.008128829300403595,
-0.2105017602443695,
0.16286368668079376,
-0.17818908393383026,
0.07635380327701569,
-0.6456527709960938,
-0.48391422629356384,
-0.32387927174568176,
-0.20635245740413666,
-0.7773062586784363,
0.5103264451026917,
-0.5205873250961304,
-0.17066015303134918,
-0.148080512881279,
0.7531887888908386,
-0.403795063495636,
-0.6571776866912842,
-0.12882977724075317,
0.2512495517730713,
0.5260151624679565,
-0.33971327543258667,
-0.32525011897087097,
0.1301116645336151,
0.1895134449005127,
0.23973657190799713,
-0.4434729218482971,
-0.2682996094226837,
-0.0181784275919199,
0.6437273621559143,
0.033442940562963486,
0.32323867082595825,
0.8451288342475891,
-0.3367518186569214,
-0.8105128407478333,
0.24170760810375214,
-0.43949151039123535,
0.3305879235267639,
-0.39755868911743164,
-0.5889704823493958,
-0.45021387934684753,
-0.4067862033843994,
-5.23717737197876,
-0.34705787897109985,
-0.17994356155395508,
0.2537178099155426,
-0.034761421382427216,
0.712745189666748,
0.33606067299842834,
-0.3787347674369812,
0.14722716808319092,
-0.005329307168722153,
0.4375263452529907,
-0.19317783415317535,
-0.06317855417728424,
0.515410304069519,
0.8932687044143677,
0.37077757716178894,
0.534186065196991,
0.11698545515537262,
0.3358555734157562,
-0.7828882932662964,
0.15589603781700134,
-0.08603636175394058,
0.264557808637619,
0.3898783326148987,
0.8867262005805969,
-0.006809365935623646,
0.06207212805747986,
0.44856783747673035,
-0.5309177041053772,
-0.32818078994750977,
0.1477832943201065,
-0.15155847370624542,
-0.025682134553790092,
0.15260347723960876,
0.05110899731516838,
0.15801294147968292,
0.6425705552101135,
1.0852826833724976,
0.4976944029331207,
-0.5431464314460754,
0.5914312601089478,
0.6333479285240173,
-0.5645126104354858,
-0.09610772132873535,
-0.0698610171675682,
-0.07387019693851471,
-0.3160918653011322,
0.03586195036768913,
-1.0592701435089111,
1.5948325395584106,
-0.5594883561134338,
-0.5473523139953613,
0.8013778924942017,
0.24926860630512238,
-0.05530732125043869,
-0.33307746052742004,
0.17194247245788574,
-0.26852861046791077,
-0.2172824889421463,
0.514204204082489,
0.09331939369440079,
-0.03523360565304756,
-0.3193608522415161,
-0.4368799030780792,
-0.5676387548446655,
-0.183447003364563,
-0.3784450590610504,
0.41399678587913513,
0.3801954984664917,
-0.04586220905184746,
-0.33066418766975403,
0.5784903764724731,
-0.26840272545814514,
-1.0009304285049438,
-0.1667080819606781,
-0.9545221924781799,
-0.4861854612827301,
-0.5987958908081055,
-0.2757418751716614,
0.012108969502151012,
0.44121915102005005,
-0.41085147857666016,
0.1943516731262207,
0.8944002389907837,
0.9688448309898376,
0.2726227939128876,
-0.4170660972595215,
-0.7001159191131592,
-0.05947260931134224,
-0.2904263734817505,
-0.3182496130466461,
-0.4756547808647156,
-0.0966542512178421,
0.2672920227050781,
-0.7713881134986877,
1.0434346199035645,
-0.2680463194847107,
-0.29143017530441284,
0.13721343874931335,
-0.24574433267116547,
1.3514121770858765,
0.13615961372852325,
-0.10393994301557541,
0.21391770243644714,
0.0743490681052208,
0.027151547372341156,
0.18388207256793976,
-0.12275910377502441,
-0.01830333098769188,
0.033409494906663895,
0.26802971959114075,
-0.4562090337276459,
-0.3209356963634491,
-0.408196359872818,
0.2944536507129669,
-0.8279353380203247,
-1.0352717638015747,
0.7198118567466736,
-0.16673977673053741,
-0.0007493282319046557,
1.0640813112258911,
-0.026505373418331146,
0.5751906037330627,
-0.2261454313993454,
-0.12747010588645935,
0.2507422864437103,
-0.017429169267416,
0.522121250629425,
-0.3241952955722809,
0.3596411943435669,
0.43587526679039,
-0.3480790853500366,
-0.4501963257789612,
-0.47656649351119995,
0.19110983610153198,
0.1378459334373474,
0.0024695706088095903,
-0.42660465836524963,
-0.2751275300979614,
-0.0777677670121193,
0.5236983895301819,
-0.05617644637823105,
-0.09668086469173431,
0.5903178453445435,
0.13310660421848297,
0.21335899829864502,
0.15662680566310883,
-0.4229331314563751,
-0.8504112958908081,
0.35738128423690796,
-0.6306374669075012,
-0.39629727602005005,
0.7922992706298828,
-0.029922550544142723,
-0.17773979902267456,
-0.09246169775724411,
0.44827529788017273,
0.3740297555923462,
-0.13241425156593323,
-0.6015294194221497,
0.05797474831342697,
-0.0709356889128685,
-0.6667520403862,
0.4590586721897125,
0.7407207489013672,
-0.2797375023365021,
-1.2029175758361816,
0.28030046820640564,
-0.5104418992996216,
0.8810986876487732,
0.10091783106327057,
-0.16427814960479736,
-0.680485188961029,
0.869536280632019,
0.2676660716533661,
-0.4405786097049713,
-0.09801410883665085,
0.13392163813114166,
-0.1888405829668045,
-0.4127090871334076,
-0.01980443298816681,
0.17598865926265717,
-0.37828388810157776,
0.6709290146827698,
0.8424001932144165,
-0.07293500751256943,
-0.4545382559299469,
-0.09279841184616089,
-0.34594035148620605,
0.20723877847194672,
0.42440980672836304,
-0.1799539178609848,
0.2483161985874176,
-0.09123048186302185,
-0.20358312129974365,
-1.2344985008239746,
0.18897725641727448,
-0.6773000359535217,
0.19305026531219482,
-0.23082807660102844,
0.3180179297924042,
0.44434624910354614,
0.057597771286964417,
0.3755783438682556,
0.05181562528014183,
-0.13261745870113373,
0.5791388750076294,
-0.09934679418802261,
-0.7264768481254578,
0.48903387784957886,
-0.41784435510635376,
-0.4165270924568176,
-0.31226205825805664,
0.824386477470398,
-0.5799947381019592,
-0.22104793787002563,
0.3410879373550415,
-0.5629053711891174,
-0.8324978947639465,
0.4099040925502777,
-0.42197465896606445,
-0.18464435636997223,
-0.5306103229522705,
0.0148491645231843,
-1.0217649936676025,
-0.27131810784339905,
0.3390437066555023,
-0.46046191453933716,
-0.08661478012800217,
-0.061332035809755325,
0.2960236072540283,
-0.3164936900138855,
0.43508604168891907,
-0.4870764911174774,
-0.45611828565597534,
-0.05183448642492294,
0.004225429613143206,
0.5045315027236938,
0.44806843996047974,
0.39150288701057434,
0.25119903683662415,
0.9364883303642273,
0.33020448684692383,
-0.8186618089675903,
0.4055219292640686,
0.1890493780374527,
0.23836065828800201,
-0.6312928199768066,
-0.4977339208126068,
0.5122119784355164,
-0.2759541869163513,
0.3595377504825592,
0.14880430698394775,
-0.7860720157623291,
0.6748259663581848,
-0.40907925367355347,
-0.637125551700592,
0.5579053163528442,
0.3544929325580597,
-0.21248620748519897,
-0.17482046782970428,
-0.39734330773353577,
-0.1252809315919876,
-0.0859224870800972,
-0.089298777282238,
-0.03165557235479355,
-0.15344840288162231,
0.12277422845363617,
0.018460536375641823,
-0.14775611460208893,
-0.7402187585830688,
-0.24503813683986664,
-0.005157415755093098,
-0.35921865701675415,
-0.6245284676551819,
-0.35073772072792053,
-0.4405359923839569,
-0.5428611636161804,
0.5301315784454346,
0.3545522689819336,
-0.19846728444099426,
-0.5533900856971741,
0.06269101798534393,
-0.3504044711589813,
-0.09119285643100739,
-0.4977875053882599,
-0.8211672306060791,
0.15562671422958374,
-0.27146053314208984,
0.07083333283662796,
-0.07247893512248993,
-0.34583890438079834,
-0.31596294045448303,
0.3921368718147278,
0.341126412153244,
0.14138486981391907,
0.19514480233192444,
-0.6270860433578491,
-0.2542042136192322,
0.005045000929385424,
0.02619926445186138,
0.3783800005912781,
0.3296031355857849,
-0.015305840410292149,
0.44350576400756836,
0.46872279047966003,
-0.20505854487419128,
-0.027004912495613098,
-0.501765787601471,
0.017174948006868362,
0.46756190061569214,
-0.11201557517051697,
-0.20569244027137756,
0.885346531867981,
0.01978212408721447,
0.24018122255802155,
0.7622537016868591,
0.2308884710073471,
0.33738863468170166,
0.34090521931648254,
0.36409637331962585,
-0.29841306805610657,
0.7551740407943726,
0.26191723346710205,
-0.22628431022167206,
0.6616501212120056,
0.10329634696245193,
0.04136136174201965,
0.07647038996219635,
0.12079890817403793,
-0.29024383425712585,
-0.06855712085962296,
-0.6258694529533386,
0.2333976775407791,
-0.2832053601741791,
0.2672637104988098,
-0.03555036708712578,
-0.026895418763160706,
-0.6231619715690613,
0.8376931548118591,
-0.07477841526269913,
0.8292143940925598,
-0.1695539504289627,
0.31251758337020874,
0.27983078360557556,
0.3411513566970825,
-0.01464793924242258,
-0.12761536240577698,
0.541445255279541,
-0.2987748682498932,
0.7369071841239929,
-0.21183356642723083,
0.15605640411376953,
-0.16284947097301483,
-0.23881728947162628,
0.2345268279314041,
0.38011476397514343,
-0.33895841240882874,
0.0029461570084095,
-0.237112358212471,
-0.0018568654777482152,
-0.5222969651222229,
-0.0725078210234642,
0.12086325138807297,
-0.8387061357498169,
-0.2915874719619751,
-0.32069656252861023,
-0.16906064748764038,
-0.2941795587539673,
-0.4400511085987091,
0.2718265950679779,
-0.5133822560310364,
0.004611516371369362,
-0.4611205756664276,
0.44146043062210083,
-0.5805521607398987,
0.911397397518158,
-0.2504464089870453,
0.18917638063430786,
0.6166532039642334,
-0.3226444721221924,
0.20710162818431854,
-0.2754529118537903,
-0.09567632526159286,
-0.03285116329789162,
0.09217824041843414,
0.22686313092708588,
-0.034514229744672775,
0.5700713992118835,
-0.16522464156150818,
0.4004709720611572,
-0.47329777479171753,
0.15724869072437286,
-0.3630602955818176,
-1.159637212753296,
-0.017513055354356766,
-0.43931490182876587,
0.9742727279663086,
0.16447286307811737,
-0.630045473575592,
-0.24300813674926758,
0.479701966047287,
0.14832887053489685,
0.4612029790878296,
-0.375318706035614,
0.3225100636482239,
-0.5733230710029602,
0.5791894793510437,
-0.19272680580615997,
0.6239017248153687,
0.32919827103614807,
0.5194747447967529,
-0.4302717447280884,
0.41364359855651855,
0.0944620668888092,
-0.2866901755332947,
0.8512528538703918,
-0.3001558482646942,
-0.13675528764724731,
0.14699730277061462,
0.20378388464450836,
-0.08233616501092911,
0.46800148487091064,
-0.0024986271746456623,
0.17448917031288147,
-0.43238019943237305,
0.05248500406742096,
0.024114307016134262,
-0.40952977538108826,
0.22227999567985535,
0.16279882192611694,
0.037042681127786636,
-0.32320302724838257,
0.23612914979457855,
-0.4918452203273773,
0.33879029750823975,
0.16992057859897614,
0.21456968784332275,
0.3570323586463928,
-0.18850719928741455,
-0.662658154964447,
-0.6881657242774963,
0.640284538269043,
0.5185381770133972,
-1.0964089632034302,
0.45601320266723633,
0.08978183567523956,
-0.667395830154419,
-0.5554788708686829,
0.17697566747665405,
0.29317665100097656,
-0.3914150893688202,
-0.07359010726213455,
-0.5564500689506531,
-0.11375602334737778,
-0.33495259284973145,
-0.10657744854688644,
-0.3679152727127075,
0.6447969675064087,
-0.18438251316547394
] |
213032
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandra%20of%20Russia
|
Alexandra of Russia
|
Alexandra of Russia may refer to:
Empress consorts of Russia
Irina Godunova (1557–1603), wife of Feodor I of Russia, who adopted the name Alexandra when she took the monastic vow
Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia) (1798–1860), wife of Nicholas I of Russia
Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse) (1872–1918), wife of Nicholas II of Russia
Grand Duchesses of Russia by birth
Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia (1783–1801), daughter of Paul I of ; first wife Archduke Joseph of Austria
Grand Duchess Alexandra Nikolaevna of Russia (1825–1844), daughter of Nicholas I of Russia; first wife of Prince Frederick William of Hesse-Kassel
Grand Duchess Alexandra Mikhailovna of Russia (1831–1832), daughter of Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich of Russia
Grand Duchess Alexandra Alexandrovna of Russia (1842–1849), daughter of Alexander II of Russia
Grand Duchesses of Russia by marriage
Grand Duchess Alexandra Georgievna of Russia, Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark, (1870–1891), daughter of George I of Greece; wife of Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia as Grand Duchess Alexandra Georgievna of Russia
Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Altenburg (1830–1911), daughter of Joseph, Duke of Saxe-Altenburg; wife of Grand Duke Constantine Nikolaevich of Russia as Grand Duchess Alexandra Iosifovna of Russia
Duchess Alexandra Petrovna of Oldenburg (1838–1900), daughter of Duke Peter Georgievich of Oldenburg; wife of Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaievich of Russia as Grand Duchess Alexandra Petrovna of Russia
See also
Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia (disambiguation)
|
[
-0.30421221256256104,
0.22271691262722015,
0.19482454657554626,
0.20048408210277557,
-0.7780803442001343,
0.7233573198318481,
0.8298031091690063,
-0.45864397287368774,
-0.892396867275238,
-0.42844998836517334,
-0.08671119809150696,
-0.0766250416636467,
-0.3387411832809448,
1.1222995519638062,
-0.7419170141220093,
0.29131078720092773,
0.3942083418369293,
1.0515589714050293,
-0.6356683373451233,
-0.37577980756759644,
0.38303327560424805,
0.11694389581680298,
0.32958751916885376,
-0.24311088025569916,
0.0737333670258522,
-0.18263953924179077,
0.6424745321273804,
-0.05634433403611183,
0.4593830704689026,
0.552096426486969,
0.2907053530216217,
0.002425588434562087,
0.2786119282245636,
0.18672524392604828,
-0.47871100902557373,
-0.327410489320755,
0.016214614734053612,
-0.02885730192065239,
-0.09058928489685059,
-0.45630547404289246,
-0.027233218774199486,
-0.2367514967918396,
0.465465247631073,
0.2795959711074829,
-0.4202217757701874,
-0.8091045618057251,
-1.9699915647506714,
0.3639163374900818,
0.0166444331407547,
-0.14546871185302734,
0.26200535893440247,
-0.28520968556404114,
0.816563606262207,
0.3157270550727844,
0.1948332041501999,
0.03157740831375122,
-1.4535855054855347,
0.05573932081460953,
-0.1719856858253479,
-0.10686559975147247,
0.43865272402763367,
0.41031479835510254,
0.3988926112651825,
0.29539841413497925,
0.27113279700279236,
-0.23723435401916504,
0.07681035250425339,
0.523344099521637,
-0.8088191151618958,
-0.5654000639915466,
0.14355838298797607,
0.03840562328696251,
0.4950312674045563,
-0.1128600686788559,
-0.040515534579753876,
-0.5889511704444885,
-0.3345852196216583,
-0.09701527655124664,
1.2747670412063599,
0.03731247037649155,
0.03297014161944389,
-0.45276790857315063,
0.3224814236164093,
0.14409708976745605,
0.2579338550567627,
-0.21543452143669128,
-0.17139077186584473,
0.13292406499385834,
-0.5649057626724243,
0.3835716247558594,
0.07748247683048248,
0.6279470324516296,
0.4776999056339264,
-0.08913007378578186,
-0.006627304013818502,
0.3117160201072693,
-0.00017389030836056918,
-0.018801961094141006,
-0.002467503072693944,
0.06443231552839279,
-0.26070189476013184,
-0.13813552260398865,
-0.49114006757736206,
-0.6977257132530212,
-0.696797251701355,
-0.9283989071846008,
-0.19373035430908203,
0.40779465436935425,
-0.5169629454612732,
-0.0012452650116756558,
-0.8379727602005005,
0.28791725635528564,
0.22755323350429535,
0.0714319497346878,
0.020413346588611603,
-0.11026252806186676,
-0.4805806279182434,
-0.856660008430481,
-0.11644252389669418,
0.09104247391223907,
0.476062536239624,
-0.031863342970609665,
-0.10363461077213287,
0.0359472818672657,
0.37301263213157654,
0.24802415072917938,
0.26598915457725525,
0.6855974197387695,
-0.5556777715682983,
0.12409768998622894,
0.17114858329296112,
1.0690945386886597,
-0.19069936871528625,
0.08066591620445251,
0.07857450842857361,
-0.6388769149780273,
0.14150939881801605,
-0.10863173007965088,
0.22801293432712555,
0.22928950190544128,
-0.7928177714347839,
0.08047899603843689,
-0.5525693297386169,
0.14261867105960846,
0.34437450766563416,
-0.1989499032497406,
-0.03759175166487694,
0.5152701735496521,
-0.4972979724407196,
-0.1095556914806366,
-0.4450784921646118,
-0.3489992022514343,
-0.23614808917045593,
-0.16408902406692505,
-0.39970698952674866,
0.10685797035694122,
0.581999659538269,
-0.4340669810771942,
0.33466672897338867,
0.4559890329837799,
-0.04273431375622749,
0.6210319399833679,
0.16656845808029175,
0.22752386331558228,
0.3258304297924042,
0.07472885400056839,
-0.11153286695480347,
0.7267598509788513,
-0.5826799273490906,
-0.2945774495601654,
-0.561877965927124,
0.5105096101760864,
-0.3693251609802246,
0.38353678584098816,
-0.3028549551963806,
0.643045961856842,
-0.04777287691831589,
0.07445165514945984,
-0.049944259226322174,
-0.8150471448898315,
-0.41982394456863403,
0.3102692663669586,
-0.10987363010644913,
0.4185955226421356,
0.021345039829611778,
0.44445908069610596,
0.033743519335985184,
0.23501910269260406,
0.2828233540058136,
-0.5421058535575867,
-0.10331360995769501,
-0.18852059543132782,
-0.02847316674888134,
0.058771293610334396,
0.7146801948547363,
-0.11772698909044266,
-0.747882604598999,
0.5306991934776306,
-0.3133058249950409,
0.6047655940055847,
0.38428956270217896,
-0.41843387484550476,
-0.3456529676914215,
-0.051626499742269516,
-0.01936790533363819,
0.33485147356987,
-0.006505203898996115,
-0.290781170129776,
0.1592526137828827,
1.034437656402588,
0.28562378883361816,
-0.6297047734260559,
0.5837963819503784,
0.0807560607790947,
-0.3737843334674835,
0.09623204171657562,
-0.7403927445411682,
0.2876690924167633,
-0.02598201297223568,
0.1450013518333435,
0.6348108053207397,
0.12849707901477814,
-0.15130306780338287,
-0.019332103431224823,
-0.5122019648551941,
0.21607860922813416,
-0.31681326031684875,
0.5603566765785217,
-0.1400633156299591,
-0.4166502058506012,
0.24122315645217896,
0.24813306331634521,
0.6498017311096191,
-0.125545933842659,
0.5324216485023499,
0.028321094810962677,
-0.045220114290714264,
-0.15907108783721924,
0.2804716229438782,
-0.2438644915819168,
-0.21389105916023254,
0.4741160571575165,
0.009939166717231274,
0.7701906561851501,
-0.11656127125024796,
0.30847498774528503,
-0.31428849697113037,
-0.40146785974502563,
-0.7847840785980225,
-0.613803505897522,
-0.19313141703605652,
0.44315674901008606,
-0.26501497626304626,
0.06704001873731613,
-0.17336130142211914,
-0.32743361592292786,
-0.20061571896076202,
0.07583790272474289,
-0.4943939745426178,
0.7002614736557007,
0.23756900429725647,
0.43374869227409363,
0.12820614874362946,
0.003945583943277597,
0.18226037919521332,
0.3804628551006317,
0.2799309492111206,
-0.5306853652000427,
0.4993741810321808,
0.33200961351394653,
0.6331420540809631,
-0.12378325313329697,
-0.8717336058616638,
-0.19369499385356903,
-0.1463925689458847,
-0.9205286502838135,
-0.6782945990562439,
1.092720627784729,
-0.5100269317626953,
-1.0103799104690552,
-0.43392783403396606,
0.6345956325531006,
0.055108048021793365,
-0.14802680909633636,
-0.6590996980667114,
-0.5798493027687073,
0.33416226506233215,
-0.28385186195373535,
-0.03587285429239273,
0.0226190946996212,
-0.04823826253414154,
0.5083969831466675,
-0.14964190125465393,
-0.7091688513755798,
-0.1074986383318901,
0.6721174120903015,
-0.4771350920200348,
0.45449337363243103,
0.4127768576145172,
0.24099743366241455,
-1.174241065979004,
-0.26427364349365234,
0.36425507068634033,
-0.08888065069913864,
0.3243885636329651,
0.0349007174372673,
0.01437447965145111,
0.03903186321258545,
-5.510918617248535,
-0.38579386472702026,
0.06515298783779144,
0.2750503122806549,
0.48765119910240173,
0.00877557136118412,
0.4655759036540985,
0.13330957293510437,
0.24702367186546326,
-0.04642783850431442,
1.1507372856140137,
0.584546685218811,
-0.09758248925209045,
0.04756469279527664,
0.21953144669532776,
0.15856453776359558,
0.3131404519081116,
-0.087492436170578,
-0.04321747645735741,
0.06685084849596024,
0.14209473133087158,
0.28036290407180786,
0.13488109409809113,
0.8582473397254944,
0.5696710348129272,
0.27162182331085205,
0.09907583892345428,
-0.4459100663661957,
-0.5819366574287415,
-0.5909289717674255,
-0.30952075123786926,
-0.029818259179592133,
0.41868487000465393,
-0.1254485845565796,
0.3523835837841034,
-0.11697320640087128,
0.5867686867713928,
0.16538171470165253,
0.04287923127412796,
-0.21061070263385773,
0.18061046302318573,
0.2402801662683487,
-0.246834397315979,
-0.4170651137828827,
-0.5517857074737549,
-0.5875380039215088,
-0.32426056265830994,
0.850250780582428,
-0.3945724666118622,
0.6275361180305481,
-0.38833296298980713,
-0.1752534657716751,
0.4354782700538635,
-0.2919464707374573,
0.14107567071914673,
0.22284264862537384,
-0.3514705002307892,
0.5123843550682068,
-0.22205540537834167,
0.2551478445529938,
0.3758421838283539,
-0.12355706095695496,
0.4940093755722046,
-0.49849823117256165,
-0.011969644576311111,
-0.2548455595970154,
-0.7422982454299927,
0.48522841930389404,
0.0166854877024889,
0.08783777803182602,
-0.3398790657520294,
0.29859694838523865,
-0.05889500677585602,
-0.8382778763771057,
0.2857706844806671,
-0.7403737306594849,
-0.24543625116348267,
-0.024711748585104942,
-0.4426190257072449,
-0.02192223072052002,
-0.010359159670770168,
-0.20643316209316254,
0.41946613788604736,
0.7759057879447937,
0.3609648048877716,
0.07223423570394516,
-0.004604270216077566,
-0.07843466103076935,
-0.5016762614250183,
0.4655802547931671,
-0.07288714498281479,
-0.673334002494812,
-0.05239822715520859,
0.5978752374649048,
-0.024027971550822258,
0.3722710907459259,
-0.0350116565823555,
-0.2831486165523529,
-0.13566653430461884,
-0.09003491699695587,
0.3323502242565155,
0.01635408215224743,
0.6137890815734863,
-0.24734468758106232,
0.16224221885204315,
-0.43683090806007385,
-0.3692258298397064,
0.08477478474378586,
0.6774624586105347,
-0.8404485583305359,
0.0897381380200386,
-0.2485228031873703,
-0.012723296880722046,
-1.3159135580062866,
0.6852025985717773,
-0.33757394552230835,
0.20242105424404144,
0.585981011390686,
0.12589716911315918,
-0.006327337585389614,
-0.374529093503952,
0.31676286458969116,
-0.7446736097335815,
-0.003442825051024556,
0.35142430663108826,
0.5017115473747253,
0.4981953799724579,
-0.011303072795271873,
-0.24816058576107025,
0.7741047143936157,
0.09790400415658951,
-0.10251382738351822,
-0.16484594345092773,
-0.137098491191864,
0.1181926354765892,
-0.2418108880519867,
-0.16117927432060242,
-0.6654896140098572,
-0.4653412699699402,
-0.6261005997657776,
-0.4385952949523926,
-0.21348106861114502,
-1.0427629947662354,
0.40074875950813293,
-0.17999540269374847,
0.658573567867279,
0.07239004969596863,
-0.30576953291893005,
0.0822005644440651,
0.8501682877540588,
-0.5159351825714111,
-0.041649602353572845,
0.6464957594871521,
-0.009882483631372452,
-0.12895013391971588,
0.16610482335090637,
0.5065059065818787,
0.22897358238697052,
-0.4543168544769287,
0.042474377900362015,
-0.7158035039901733,
-0.5640393495559692,
-0.5331161618232727,
-0.11436862498521805,
0.024223489686846733,
-0.023734718561172485,
-0.3995816707611084,
-0.33360955119132996,
-0.39138558506965637,
1.0319468975067139,
0.2845304310321808,
-0.5907497406005859,
-0.14465780556201935,
-0.2601109445095062,
-0.057123128324747086,
0.09666068106889725,
0.3089138865470886,
0.3536331057548523,
-0.27649176120758057,
-0.3717053532600403,
0.16610966622829437,
-0.1582109034061432,
-0.18717190623283386,
0.3187395930290222,
0.20045945048332214,
0.7385845184326172,
0.10053441673517227,
-0.35178908705711365,
-0.2354634702205658,
0.033278509974479675,
-0.3320835828781128,
0.051563337445259094,
-0.2459494024515152,
-0.12416219711303711,
-0.42447349429130554,
0.04016784951090813,
0.03522003814578056,
0.5529589056968689,
0.3061768114566803,
0.04959755018353462,
0.16738192737102509,
0.7345480918884277,
-0.5564430356025696,
-0.40110889077186584,
0.10797940194606781,
-0.6649885177612305,
0.590678870677948,
0.2917129397392273,
0.26519307494163513,
0.09872154146432877,
-0.01669331267476082,
-0.6083421111106873,
-0.06634655594825745,
0.748327910900116,
-0.43299147486686707,
0.49395525455474854,
0.31683245301246643,
-0.616822361946106,
-0.17816026508808136,
-0.6185044646263123,
-0.4788959324359894,
-0.2859373390674591,
-0.48384028673171997,
0.13146738708019257,
-0.20870640873908997,
0.43706125020980835,
0.3923870027065277,
-0.02030015178024769,
0.23153544962406158,
0.15534818172454834,
0.05492369830608368,
0.3308154344558716,
-0.39372697472572327,
-0.2208465039730072,
-0.103909932076931,
-0.6614379286766052,
0.8472785353660583,
-0.27542370557785034,
-0.22457937896251678,
0.10457298904657364,
0.6797824501991272,
0.5899468064308167,
-0.09139852225780487,
-0.4758574664592743,
0.3306635320186615,
-0.32902488112449646,
-0.1413116604089737,
-0.6756568551063538,
0.09476868063211441,
0.36021602153778076,
0.06427395343780518,
-0.32382673025131226,
-0.4745842516422272,
-0.8806092143058777,
0.4087466895580292,
-0.6973925828933716,
-0.11464106291532516,
0.3997601270675659,
-0.11353366822004318,
0.48040658235549927,
-0.3061879277229309,
0.22763630747795105,
-0.18587945401668549,
-0.07628027349710464,
0.05778886750340462,
0.6528573632240295,
-0.026360588148236275,
0.2876126766204834,
-0.24137000739574432,
0.08082757890224457,
0.45000261068344116,
-0.529567301273346,
0.3780110478401184,
-0.21429981291294098,
-0.9291037321090698,
0.5237768888473511,
-0.2177717387676239,
-0.1200534999370575,
0.2550879716873169,
0.5111063122749329,
-0.6024136543273926,
-0.4156372547149658,
-0.14693641662597656,
-0.3473155200481415,
0.2618272602558136,
-0.9607880115509033,
0.01718035899102688,
-0.18192581832408905,
-0.2826188802719116,
0.08187521994113922,
-0.3348051607608795,
-0.11224205046892166,
-0.05244177207350731,
0.26502764225006104,
0.09291385114192963,
0.5009201169013977,
-0.202406644821167,
0.5086303949356079,
-0.07209749519824982,
0.054950352758169174,
-0.535386323928833,
0.3223838210105896,
0.15849246084690094,
0.40827831625938416,
0.12476813048124313,
0.5653983354568481,
0.25585344433784485,
-0.457163542509079,
0.1539335548877716,
0.1842123568058014,
0.574222207069397,
-0.15823867917060852,
0.7848737835884094,
-0.10686394572257996,
-0.3144654929637909,
0.6180817484855652,
-0.22223280370235443,
-0.05069727450609207,
-0.440168559551239,
-0.2721526026725769,
0.3760499060153961,
0.5090391039848328,
-0.13536934554576874,
0.29640713334083557,
-0.27023664116859436,
-0.04092399403452873,
-0.16489799320697784,
0.1265278458595276,
-0.06214577332139015,
0.10928454250097275,
0.5528938174247742,
0.5127453804016113,
-0.6000790596008301,
0.6576279401779175,
-0.1203809604048729,
-0.5391854643821716,
0.027382055297493935,
-0.5201578736305237,
0.3223789930343628,
0.7057904005050659,
0.4091932475566864,
0.5160399675369263,
-0.7961017489433289,
-0.2903861999511719,
-0.016585521399974823,
0.46067559719085693,
-0.27912014722824097,
0.3896879553794861,
0.09717448800802231,
-0.11444538831710815,
0.5052409768104553,
-0.22049173712730408,
-0.6508692502975464,
-0.5079706907272339,
0.20866893231868744,
0.36924025416374207,
0.7181921005249023,
-0.9467492699623108,
0.11234977096319199,
-0.5013284683227539,
-0.7412992715835571,
-0.5179257392883301,
0.2895633280277252,
0.014721490442752838,
0.04036036506295204,
0.0034814795944839716,
0.3606785535812378,
-0.04437216371297836,
0.3266189396381378,
-0.7286356687545776,
0.7265840768814087,
-0.40480396151542664,
0.019528726115822792,
0.24292607605457306,
0.28346091508865356,
0.7175812125205994,
0.5500838160514832,
0.06552278995513916,
0.18516629934310913,
-0.18596147000789642,
-0.3001914918422699,
-0.003839615499600768,
0.43273043632507324,
-0.995164155960083,
-0.6405628323554993,
0.18826407194137573,
0.2994384765625,
-0.03438572213053703,
0.23300029337406158,
0.11268246173858643,
0.39745190739631653,
-0.09054490923881531,
0.2559657692909241,
0.15296876430511475,
-0.054553743451833725,
-0.19919228553771973,
-0.11982017010450363,
0.3599381148815155,
0.46130940318107605,
0.10004726052284241,
-0.2714627981185913,
0.3374226987361908,
0.4057106077671051,
0.2499946802854538,
-0.499639630317688,
0.729275643825531,
-0.10157608985900879,
-0.31795403361320496,
-0.38099321722984314,
-0.0788816511631012,
-0.018619922921061516,
-0.5368201732635498,
0.0671842023730278,
0.13738875091075897,
-0.24150337278842926,
0.11819703131914139,
1.0257073640823364,
-0.10993868857622147,
-0.25787174701690674,
-0.25247880816459656,
0.1743716150522232,
-0.5714008212089539,
0.3219309151172638,
0.3992477357387543,
-0.3432413637638092,
-0.004774633329361677,
-0.2662953734397888,
0.31842562556266785,
-0.12893901765346527,
0.09398838132619858,
-0.6524390578269958,
0.13872601091861725,
0.14724119007587433,
-0.10138213634490967,
-0.37311404943466187,
0.761473536491394,
0.4724973738193512,
0.0439203642308712,
0.03743170201778412,
-0.8924976587295532,
-0.3016557991504669,
0.233621746301651,
0.20953421294689178,
0.8380991220474243,
0.5185906291007996,
0.2187349647283554,
-0.2473854273557663,
-0.502912700176239,
-0.15068833529949188,
0.15137280523777008,
-0.34657496213912964,
0.1232278123497963,
0.2925626039505005,
-0.2917589843273163,
0.18939979374408722,
-0.7313799262046814,
0.2477477639913559,
-1.0657788515090942,
0.2703549265861511,
0.35557734966278076
] |
213036
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9ric%20Casaubon
|
Méric Casaubon
|
Meric Casaubon (14 August 1599 in Geneva – 14 July 1671 in Canterbury), son of Isaac Casaubon, was a French-English classical scholar. He was the first to translate the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius into English.
Although biographical dictionaries (including the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition) commonly accentuate his name to Méric, he himself did not do so.
Life
He was born in Geneva to a French father, scholar Isaac Casaubon; he was named for his godfather Meric de Vic. After education in Sedan, at an early age he joined his father in England, and completed his education at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford (B.A. 1618; M.A. 1621; D.D. 1636).
His defence of his father against the attacks of certain Catholics (Pietas contra maledicos patrii Nominis et Religionis Hostes, 1621), secured him the notice and favour of James I, who conferred upon him a prebendal stall in Canterbury Cathedral (stall IX) which he held from 1628 to his death. He also vindicated his father's literary reputation against certain impostors who had published, under his name, a work on The Origin of Idolatry (Vindicatio Patris adversus Impostores, 1624).
During the English Civil War he was deprived of his benefices and his prebendal stall at Canterbury Cathedral and retired to Oxford refusing to acknowledge the authority of Oliver Cromwell, who, notwithstanding, requested him to write an "impartial" history of the events of the period. In spite of the tempting inducements held out, he declined, and also refused the post of inspector of the Swedish universities offered him by Queen Christina. After the Restoration, he was reinstated in his benefice and his stall in Canterbury and devoted the rest of his life to literary work. He died at Canterbury and is buried in the Cathedral. His coin collection was incorporated into that of Canon John Bargrave.
Meric Casaubon's reputation was overshadowed by that of his father; but his editions of numerous classical authors, especially of the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, were especially valued, and reprinted several times (but by modern standards, his translation is difficult reading). He had an interest in the study of Anglo-Saxon, which he shared with his lifelong "trustie frend" William Somner. Edward Stillingfleet, whom Casaubon admired, bought many of his books, which are now in Archbishop Marsh's Library, Dublin. Some other volumes from his library came into Canterbury Cathedral Library through William Somner.
Controversy
In A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme (1655), Casaubon wrote against enthusiasm, and circumscribed the domain of the supernatural. The next year he produced an edition of John Dee, portraying him as having dealings with the Devil. The background is of orthodox Anglicans wishing to discredit the sectarian Protestants of the period; but also to validate the existence of spirits to atheists. Casaubon was in touch with Nicholas Bernard about the Dee manuscript. Following the Restoration, Casaubon wrote supporting the traditional theories of witchcraft. He was in fact operating on several fronts: as well as attacking those who would deny the supernatural entirely, and limiting the role of reason in faith, he defended humanist learning against the claims for the new natural philosophy, emanating from figures in the Royal Society who saw it as completely replacing the old learning.
Benefices
1626–1630 : rector of Bleadon, Somerset
1628–1671 : prebendal stall IX at Canterbury Cathedral
1630–1634 : rector of St Mary in the Marsh, Kent
1634–1634 : rector of Old Romney, Kent
1634–1662 : vicar of Minster, Kent
1634–1662 : vicar of Monkton with Birchington, Kent
1643/1644 : ejected from his benefices by Parliament
1660 : reinstated to the living at Minster
1662–1671 : rector of Ickham, Kent
Family
Meric Casaubon married Frances Harrison of Hampshire in about 1628. His wife's grandfather was William Barlow, who had been a canon of Winchester Cathedral since 1581. The couple had seven children, most of whom were born in Canterbury, but only two lived to maturity:
John Casaubon (1636-1692) was a country 'surgeon' who practised in and around the Canterbury area. He kept a diary of some of his cases and family matters. It ends with the self-diagnosis of the oesophageal cancer which finally caused his death. The diary is kept at Southampton Archives.
Anne Casaubon (c. 1649-1686) was the last child to be born. She married a country parson named John Dauling, who was also the executor of Meric Casaubon's will.
Frances Casaubon died on 24 February 1652 in London. Her poor health and death was one of the reasons Meric gave for not complying with Oliver Cromwell's request.
Works
Pietas contra maledicos patrii Nominis et Religionis Hostes (1621)
Vindicatio Patris adversus Impostores (1624)
As translator: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus the Roman Emperor, his Meditations Concerning Himself (1634, 1673)
A treatise of use and custome (1638)
De quatuor linguis commentationis, pars prior: quae, de lingua Hebraica: et, de lingua Saxonica (1650)
A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme (London: Thomas Johnson, 1655).
A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme, facsimile ed., introd. Paul J. Korshin, 1970, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, .
A true and faithful relation of what passed for many years between Dr. John Dee and Some Spirits (1659)
Of the Necessity of Reformation (1664)
On Credulity and Incredulity in Things natural, civil and divine (1668)
A Letter of Meric Casaubon to Peter du Moulin Concerning Natural Experimental Philosophie (1669). Facsimile ed., introd. David J. Lougee, 1977, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, .
A Treatise Proving Spirits, Witches, and Supernatural Operations, by Pregnant Instances and Evidences: Together with other Things worthy of Note (London: Brabazon Aylmer, 1672)
Generall Learning: A Seventeenth-Century Treatise on the Formation of the General Scholar (ed. Richard Serjeantson, 1999)
Notes
References
R. W. Serjeantson, 'Casaubon, (Florence Estienne) Meric (1599–1671)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 8 Feb 2009
Ryan Stark, Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenth-Century England (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2009), 146–73.
External links
1599 births
1671 deaths
Canons of Canterbury
British classical scholars
English people of French descent
French classical scholars
People educated at Eton College
People from Geneva
Supporters of witch hunting
|
[
-0.6454384326934814,
0.5999560952186584,
-0.3376525342464447,
-0.5227702856063843,
-0.45706087350845337,
1.22483229637146,
0.8921650052070618,
0.20643769204616547,
-0.573647141456604,
-0.7944834232330322,
-0.25181159377098083,
0.43798449635505676,
0.31756556034088135,
-0.3980536460876465,
-0.23421922326087952,
-0.3434527814388275,
0.6236889362335205,
-0.5323527455329895,
-0.640762448310852,
-0.1843242049217224,
-0.313495010137558,
0.03036140650510788,
0.36221256852149963,
0.3735300600528717,
-0.35331428050994873,
0.38363489508628845,
-0.10691903531551361,
0.2682669460773468,
0.25156885385513306,
-0.4175507426261902,
0.3957962393760681,
0.7909541726112366,
0.35942503809928894,
-1.0044949054718018,
-0.6154002547264099,
0.26937171816825867,
0.3089405596256256,
0.03920350968837738,
0.15144672989845276,
0.20698070526123047,
0.3036016523838043,
0.01089560892432928,
-0.01156302448362112,
0.24527697265148163,
-0.6293757557868958,
-0.11828159540891647,
-1.6326701641082764,
0.3995469808578491,
-0.728622555732727,
-0.01661357842385769,
0.5701324939727783,
0.09539226442575455,
0.24729548394680023,
0.5108706951141357,
-0.33174121379852295,
0.40220585465431213,
-1.1973912715911865,
-0.37061235308647156,
0.7923773527145386,
-0.24472156167030334,
0.5619121193885803,
0.4486398994922638,
0.22846408188343048,
0.05600133538246155,
-0.4171932339668274,
0.13234154880046844,
-0.31731459498405457,
0.06343857198953629,
-0.1713515967130661,
0.1053672730922699,
-0.08048079162836075,
0.19531725347042084,
0.09056436270475388,
0.26968756318092346,
0.41000327467918396,
-0.6980324387550354,
-0.20587097108364105,
0.39830636978149414,
0.038524188101291656,
0.11754970997571945,
-0.013834225945174694,
0.14927902817726135,
1.1398577690124512,
-0.39570289850234985,
0.23617278039455414,
0.5634975433349609,
-0.30665409564971924,
0.17412780225276947,
-0.4852198660373688,
-0.2065686136484146,
-0.11421384662389755,
-0.4301777184009552,
0.13264192640781403,
0.5770050287246704,
0.10447593778371811,
0.56492680311203,
-0.12201465666294098,
-0.06819994002580643,
0.08983821421861649,
0.07753042876720428,
-0.21028253436088562,
0.492948442697525,
0.4121570587158203,
0.0713021457195282,
-0.02513018064200878,
0.043288011103868484,
-0.7704045176506042,
-0.10206807404756546,
-0.4381493926048279,
-0.08039260655641556,
-0.09961408376693726,
0.3671279847621918,
-0.4256533980369568,
-0.06638072431087494,
-0.15218479931354523,
0.2855256497859955,
0.46580711007118225,
-0.7724435925483704,
-0.6134638786315918,
-0.22634005546569824,
-0.18514718115329742,
0.6543107628822327,
0.5360275506973267,
0.16851438581943512,
-0.6016009449958801,
0.11588886380195618,
0.18243110179901123,
0.3023775815963745,
-0.015568051487207413,
0.22261519730091095,
0.2753687798976898,
1.2587978839874268,
-0.03243475407361984,
-0.3519795835018158,
-0.5253347158432007,
0.07712320238351822,
0.1551697701215744,
0.6917540431022644,
-0.6597155332565308,
-0.11695792526006699,
-0.7025713324546814,
-0.3640814423561096,
-0.2645440101623535,
0.20043595135211945,
0.14330539107322693,
-0.20742155611515045,
-0.012172228656709194,
-0.11018038541078568,
0.022606423124670982,
0.5359048843383789,
-0.6652551889419556,
0.006584481336176395,
0.3899330198764801,
-0.2288617044687271,
-0.18707220256328583,
0.8566662669181824,
0.5267794728279114,
0.5191579461097717,
0.31316128373146057,
-0.11992392688989639,
0.07208339869976044,
-0.19142596423625946,
-0.23126991093158722,
-0.1941935271024704,
0.4709782004356384,
-0.005952049512416124,
0.09630177915096283,
-0.35371702909469604,
-0.15652945637702942,
-0.11155637353658676,
-0.44310370087623596,
-0.08321071416139603,
0.3917897641658783,
-0.6038376092910767,
-0.02535560168325901,
-0.005970907863229513,
0.37235474586486816,
0.22442661225795746,
0.36062857508659363,
-0.5157912969589233,
-0.6623785495758057,
-0.02345869690179825,
0.16438719630241394,
-0.6615021228790283,
0.7110029458999634,
0.4923012852668762,
0.715121328830719,
0.1590249389410019,
0.09124378114938736,
-0.035746268928050995,
-0.6932926177978516,
-0.711646556854248,
0.1707117259502411,
-0.4704808294773102,
0.9487253427505493,
0.35570061206817627,
-0.4747563600540161,
1.1580681800842285,
0.0525691956281662,
0.7566501498222351,
-0.42852115631103516,
-0.0024246671237051487,
0.12625305354595184,
0.4639776945114136,
0.492349773645401,
0.6991801857948303,
0.2697869539260864,
0.45214155316352844,
0.7089640498161316,
0.8601459264755249,
0.5923736691474915,
-0.381368488073349,
0.14576368033885956,
0.597312331199646,
-0.5560912489891052,
-0.4371463656425476,
0.040521420538425446,
-0.24967049062252045,
0.1933109164237976,
-0.4798314869403839,
0.7746043801307678,
-0.11630404740571976,
0.23280657827854156,
1.0559674501419067,
-0.06756533682346344,
0.8666906952857971,
-0.10096874088048935,
0.2762187719345093,
0.22141438722610474,
-0.7166038155555725,
-0.05453948676586151,
0.2095000147819519,
0.4430653750896454,
-0.20430360734462738,
-0.16485878825187683,
-0.27089327573776245,
-0.24527214467525482,
-0.5628692507743835,
0.2453927844762802,
-0.11705098301172256,
0.15795838832855225,
0.4847843050956726,
-0.4877692759037018,
0.10074197500944138,
0.26075467467308044,
0.4673002064228058,
0.13229015469551086,
-0.21234294772148132,
0.31227633357048035,
-0.2419521063566208,
0.6474815607070923,
0.6061016321182251,
-0.07074151188135147,
0.424829363822937,
-0.05313319340348244,
0.2030269205570221,
0.5491856336593628,
0.4443652927875519,
-0.044767849147319794,
0.22706232964992523,
-0.12799158692359924,
-0.2823164761066437,
0.0021536715794354677,
0.40354710817337036,
0.2912852466106415,
-0.5400417447090149,
0.28390538692474365,
-0.81827712059021,
0.30156055092811584,
-0.3076971769332886,
0.282287061214447,
-0.5738090872764587,
-0.36338210105895996,
0.3524538278579712,
0.3421218693256378,
0.01944318413734436,
-0.46935713291168213,
-0.27011439204216003,
-0.20128697156906128,
-0.43350750207901,
-0.19127711653709412,
0.9779570698738098,
-0.7915781736373901,
0.12931565940380096,
0.08572638779878616,
0.25949034094810486,
-0.2812071740627289,
-0.2986689805984497,
0.3850284814834595,
-0.28872740268707275,
0.06988205015659332,
0.14067023992538452,
-0.3213672339916229,
0.22217553853988647,
0.07257773727178574,
0.270004004240036,
-0.5379766821861267,
-0.757199227809906,
-0.35173675417900085,
-0.16171999275684357,
-0.6800989508628845,
-0.014724348671734333,
-0.10985954105854034,
0.49460774660110474,
0.41084182262420654,
-0.12730303406715393,
-0.4062666594982147,
0.2326347529888153,
-5.438438415527344,
-0.0010115933837369084,
-0.2539408504962921,
0.18727600574493408,
0.4807816445827484,
0.0010158903896808624,
0.09258434921503067,
-0.6359203457832336,
0.10191772133111954,
-0.17083679139614105,
0.3528793454170227,
0.02703060954809189,
-0.1595785915851593,
0.8636684417724609,
0.6062394380569458,
0.7171770334243774,
-0.004095518495887518,
-0.05273284763097763,
-0.044075656682252884,
0.17715413868427277,
0.0022590195294469595,
0.1433589607477188,
-0.07709572464227676,
0.4248334765434265,
0.20713253319263458,
-0.3657585382461548,
-0.052518490701913834,
0.7082510590553284,
-1.0561589002609253,
-0.2018941193819046,
-0.17956553399562836,
0.19301168620586395,
0.3273508846759796,
-0.04390249401330948,
-0.1765453815460205,
0.17882126569747925,
0.7257811427116394,
0.8109128475189209,
-0.006811947096139193,
0.40883728861808777,
-0.27564215660095215,
-0.0550200454890728,
-0.46964117884635925,
0.49480846524238586,
-0.4582616686820984,
-0.3819723129272461,
-0.8708482384681702,
0.15171651542186737,
0.38823801279067993,
0.603400468826294,
-0.23819293081760406,
0.1013985425233841,
-0.009523074142634869,
0.6114802360534668,
0.02808566205203533,
-0.6109371185302734,
0.4449236989021301,
0.03270697966217995,
-0.6995484828948975,
0.04829346016049385,
0.19915354251861572,
-0.7200918197631836,
0.28210973739624023,
-0.5991479158401489,
0.5450053811073303,
-0.44526195526123047,
0.12498828023672104,
-0.10855907946825027,
0.15815745294094086,
-0.5222772359848022,
-0.08228497952222824,
0.383145272731781,
-0.13305535912513733,
-1.1082590818405151,
-0.06076139584183693,
-0.4148326516151428,
-0.030677229166030884,
-0.36487507820129395,
-0.05640767887234688,
-0.1014508605003357,
0.3485054671764374,
-0.6480137705802917,
-0.43547409772872925,
1.165328860282898,
0.6815980672836304,
-0.018009096384048462,
-0.12500128149986267,
-0.16541169583797455,
-0.5436622500419617,
-0.04086759686470032,
-0.058023691177368164,
-0.4534013271331787,
-0.1408541053533554,
0.4717736840248108,
0.08466722816228867,
0.26438793540000916,
-0.5131173133850098,
0.36263686418533325,
0.8102713227272034,
-0.23771435022354126,
-0.3709448277950287,
-0.10410590469837189,
-0.050565820187330246,
-0.24092622101306915,
0.376650333404541,
-0.0031592180021107197,
-0.6785168647766113,
0.42382150888442993,
0.2884410619735718,
0.7442161440849304,
0.5083941221237183,
0.14663830399513245,
-0.772943377494812,
0.5390558838844299,
-0.23179544508457184,
-0.19189921021461487,
-0.07026863843202591,
0.5196428298950195,
0.49023765325546265,
0.1681542843580246,
-0.4751800298690796,
0.4269253611564636,
-0.03808834031224251,
0.09810639172792435,
-0.22313916683197021,
-0.001746408874168992,
-0.10558954626321793,
-0.4251817762851715,
-0.6166808605194092,
-0.3391121029853821,
-0.5230069160461426,
0.10273279249668121,
-0.07751765847206116,
0.12673553824424744,
0.3530166745185852,
-0.6346448063850403,
-0.5533902049064636,
-0.6324421167373657,
0.24449802935123444,
-0.21781225502490997,
0.17918074131011963,
-0.5075432658195496,
0.16817060112953186,
0.2815258502960205,
0.27004674077033997,
0.4071931540966034,
0.547386646270752,
0.02450910210609436,
-1.0216810703277588,
0.7351698875427246,
-0.09660541266202927,
0.01812685653567314,
0.5006569623947144,
0.03410711511969566,
-0.07313024997711182,
-0.18360432982444763,
-0.30467602610588074,
0.1989898532629013,
0.043771401047706604,
0.27026379108428955,
-0.255953848361969,
0.3471977114677429,
-0.4722134470939636,
0.12525925040245056,
-0.002790081314742565,
0.1489497423171997,
-0.32779383659362793,
-0.3741120994091034,
-0.9586801528930664,
0.5840219855308533,
-0.09349323809146881,
-0.17035691440105438,
-0.6299960017204285,
-0.2691221535205841,
0.6095256209373474,
-0.5485367178916931,
0.2971619963645935,
0.30135658383369446,
0.24752558767795563,
-0.15812736749649048,
-0.02598823979496956,
-0.052648093551397324,
-0.08697282522916794,
0.36954575777053833,
1.2281087636947632,
0.09933626651763916,
-0.6907174587249756,
-1.1628222465515137,
-0.180718332529068,
-0.4524472951889038,
0.2365649938583374,
-0.1301613301038742,
0.014624515548348427,
0.9944512844085693,
0.2229204922914505,
-0.6092126965522766,
0.3848190903663635,
-0.09941606223583221,
-0.03452508896589279,
-0.3274609446525574,
-0.05491548776626587,
0.18443864583969116,
-0.2671486735343933,
0.37442493438720703,
0.0646112784743309,
-1.1041120290756226,
-0.03646877408027649,
-0.24959270656108856,
-0.5621087551116943,
0.5840707421302795,
-0.0676131621003151,
-0.41555559635162354,
0.247781902551651,
0.7207512259483337,
-0.48566165566444397,
-0.17091502249240875,
-0.0445852056145668,
-0.025543035939335823,
-0.4341977536678314,
-0.6070546507835388,
-0.44137459993362427,
-0.6252795457839966,
-0.5653543472290039,
-0.46266743540763855,
-1.0112156867980957,
0.1582290679216385,
0.3825761377811432,
0.22965824604034424,
0.7667009234428406,
-0.12447042763233185,
0.1392122507095337,
-0.04775053262710571,
-0.0908762514591217,
-0.08108995854854584,
-0.28480732440948486,
-0.16075162589550018,
0.22459594905376434,
-0.07676950842142105,
-0.45092448592185974,
-0.15518563985824585,
0.289389044046402,
0.8103222846984863,
0.4319070875644684,
-0.44277045130729675,
-0.29577764868736267,
0.25258880853652954,
0.4594505727291107,
0.08535047620534897,
-0.13935644924640656,
0.056023672223091125,
0.17447838187217712,
-0.14428171515464783,
-0.6497392058372498,
-0.23525936901569366,
0.6823078989982605,
0.13418042659759521,
-0.3180936276912689,
-0.20993530750274658,
0.11947744339704514,
-0.01928846351802349,
0.45579928159713745,
0.21937362849712372,
0.05418627709150314,
-0.050244517624378204,
0.13686412572860718,
-0.028578002005815506,
0.3023184835910797,
-0.19085530936717987,
0.0317753441631794,
-0.1561661809682846,
-0.6390836834907532,
-0.9447079300880432,
-0.8890706300735474,
0.7413285970687866,
-0.22333760559558868,
0.09805693477392197,
0.2500945031642914,
-0.15740326046943665,
1.390911340713501,
-0.050987061113119125,
-0.7606697678565979,
-0.10677648335695267,
-0.30876651406288147,
-0.47710880637168884,
0.1556970775127411,
-0.11930196732282639,
-0.2235347181558609,
-0.11089558154344559,
-0.08203813433647156,
0.30220770835876465,
-0.8245840668678284,
0.14002196490764618,
0.09683503955602646,
0.5813212394714355,
-0.01617903634905815,
0.6749002933502197,
-0.46231183409690857,
0.41462936997413635,
-0.45577681064605713,
-0.4502736032009125,
-0.5498450994491577,
0.5057209730148315,
0.5903795957565308,
-0.5439881086349487,
0.16960087418556213,
0.2827950716018677,
-0.30838656425476074,
-0.03088037483394146,
-0.5135272741317749,
0.23168009519577026,
0.41436609625816345,
0.01089528389275074,
-0.12011879682540894,
0.05952742323279381,
-0.21377548575401306,
-0.41674691438674927,
0.7408278584480286,
-0.6752204298973083,
-0.6578466892242432,
0.1244439035654068,
0.5670963525772095,
-0.371760755777359,
0.30607327818870544,
-0.7322009205818176,
0.33228394389152527,
0.6710084080696106,
0.04084217920899391,
-0.45749589800834656,
-0.4982033967971802,
0.1808386594057083,
0.17284417152404785,
0.3898831903934479,
-0.9498560428619385,
0.6229499578475952,
-0.22394660115242004,
-0.4229488670825958,
-0.07620977610349655,
-0.4958913326263428,
0.25748997926712036,
0.02192046493291855,
0.2899501323699951,
1.2188453674316406,
-0.693764865398407,
-0.014764220453798771,
-0.8837268948554993,
0.3497338593006134,
-0.4179305136203766,
0.26524990797042847,
-0.32367926836013794,
0.25525036454200745,
0.4674670696258545,
-0.01501435600221157,
0.4894794225692749,
-0.37278732657432556,
-0.14673581719398499,
0.3727930784225464,
0.262657105922699,
0.07595444470643997,
-0.2258765995502472,
0.14157812297344208,
0.33733463287353516,
-0.39442178606987,
0.8605028986930847,
-0.0728863924741745,
-0.17666633427143097,
0.07029218971729279,
0.13949111104011536,
-0.20734809339046478,
0.032072827219963074,
0.17804624140262604,
-0.48418989777565,
-0.5437592267990112,
-0.012267791666090488,
0.7061177492141724,
0.094615638256073,
-0.08679163455963135,
0.33010613918304443,
-0.15288247168064117,
-0.20775966346263885,
-0.03131643310189247,
-0.7297383546829224,
-0.329327791929245,
-0.33655592799186707,
-0.17632730305194855,
-0.10133175551891327,
-0.10246479511260986,
-0.25727131962776184,
0.4669627249240875,
-0.4286164939403534,
-0.46548977494239807,
-0.15883103013038635,
-0.8783774971961975,
-0.26732635498046875,
-0.11779679358005524,
-0.7116870284080505,
0.25662389397621155,
0.12845982611179352,
0.5290893316268921,
0.4721173346042633,
-0.7763488292694092,
-0.18556798994541168,
-0.056943610310554504,
0.07667960971593857,
-0.06357235461473465,
-0.2669718563556671,
0.19547538459300995,
-0.16327297687530518,
0.26757100224494934,
-1.2794607877731323,
0.23110291361808777,
0.08130109310150146,
0.08664236962795258,
-0.6218472719192505,
0.14293579757213593,
-0.10729340463876724,
-0.0938330888748169,
0.14707355201244354,
0.1638098508119583,
0.12180006504058838,
0.6435303688049316,
0.07462330907583237,
0.018169080838561058,
-0.022640863433480263,
-0.1542399823665619,
-0.05923471972346306,
-0.12170234322547913,
0.06696773320436478,
0.06567378342151642,
-0.6123707294464111,
0.3596038222312927,
0.11728576570749283,
0.157667338848114,
-0.5801248550415039,
-0.0828901007771492,
-0.1897091269493103,
-0.4339179992675781,
0.6740385890007019,
0.37732821702957153,
-0.021336687728762627,
-0.005829010158777237,
0.5730669498443604,
0.3120485544204712,
0.3126397430896759,
0.484110951423645,
-0.5195123553276062,
-0.30164632201194763,
-0.22237353026866913,
-0.23927536606788635,
0.44216740131378174,
0.6615281105041504,
0.6430163383483887,
-0.36771056056022644,
0.18374137580394745,
-0.532861590385437,
0.18944871425628662,
-0.013868759386241436,
-0.050336986780166626,
-0.12241985648870468,
0.7213680744171143,
0.15394233167171478
] |
213037
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20City%20Line
|
Northern City Line
|
The Northern City Line is a commuter railway line in England, which runs from Moorgate station to Finsbury Park in London with services running beyond. It is part of the Great Northern Route services, and operates as the south-eastern branch of the East Coast Main Line (ECML). It is underground from Moorgate to Drayton Park in Highbury, from which point it runs in a cutting until joining the ECML south of Finsbury Park. Its stations span northern inner districts of Greater London southwards to the City of London, the UK's main financial centre. Since December 2015, its service timetable has been extended to run into the late evenings and at weekends, meeting a new franchise commitment for a minimum of six trains per hour until 23:59 on weekdays and four trains per hour at weekends.
The official name for this line is the Moorgate Line, but it is rarely referred to as this due to confusion with the Widened Lines route which goes from to . Until March 2009, it also served surface-level station on the London Midland Region. The Northern City Line's name is derived from the fact that it was originally a London Underground line, where it was described or managed as part of both the Metropolitan and Northern lines (sometimes as the "Highbury Branch"), although never connected to either. Built as an isolated route with a northern terminus at Finsbury Park, reconstruction connected it to the British Rail network in 1976 and began its modern service pattern. One of London's deep-level railways, the Northern City is unlike the others in being owned by Network Rail and served by commuter trains operated by Great Northern from Moorgate to Finsbury Park and onwards to Hertfordshire.
In 2016, it was proposed that all London rail services be transferred to Transport for London to create a London Suburban Metro, which would bring the line back under the jurisdiction of TfL.
History
The Great Northern & City Railway (GN&CR) was planned to allow electrified trains to run from the Great Northern Railway (GNR, now the East Coast Main Line) at Finsbury Park to the City of London at Moorgate. Despite being built using similar methods to the tube network then under construction, the tunnels were built large enough to take a main-line train, with an internal diameter of , compared with those of the Central London Railway with a diameter less than . For this reason the line was popularly known as the "Big Tube" in its early days. However, the GNR eventually opposed the scheme and cancelled its electrification plans, and the line opened in 1904 with the northern terminus in tunnels underneath Finsbury Park GNR station. It was originally electrified using an unusual fourth-rail system with a conductor rail outside both running rails.
The GN&CR was bought in 1913 by the Metropolitan Railway (MR), which operated what are today the Metropolitan and Hammersmith & City lines and the former East London line. The MR had plans to link it to the Circle and Waterloo & City lines, but these were never fulfilled. During this period, the line remained an isolated branch, without through services to any other part of the rail network. Carriages were brought to it through a connection into a freight yard near Drayton Park station, where a small depot was built to service trains.
The GN&CR generating station closed when the MR took over, and became the studio of Gainsborough Pictures. After lying derelict for many years, it became a temporary venue for the Almeida Theatre. It has since been redeveloped as apartments.
After the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board in 1933, the MR was amalgamated with the other Underground railways and the line was renamed the Northern City Line. In 1934 it was re-branded as part of the Edgware–Morden line (which was renamed the Northern line in 1937), and in 1939 operations were transferred from the Metropolitan to the Northern. As part of London Transport's New Works Programme, the Northern Heights plan was to connect the Northern City Line at Finsbury Park to existing main-line suburban branches running to Alexandra Palace, High Barnet and Edgware, which would be taken over by London Transport and electrified. The Highgate branch of the Edgware–Morden line would connect to this network north of Highgate. Only parts of this plan were completed: when the Second World War started, the Highgate link and electrification of the Barnet branch were well under way and ultimately completed, but the Northern City connection to Highgate was first postponed and finally cancelled after the war.
After the war there were proposals to extend the Northern City Line north and south. The London Plan Working Party Report of 1949 proposed several new lines and suburban electrification schemes for London, lettered from A to M. The lower-priority routes J and K would have seen the Northern City Line extended to Woolwich (Route J) and Crystal Palace (Route K), retaining the "Northern Heights" extensions to Edgware and Alexandra Palace. The lines would have run in small-diameter tube tunnels south from Moorgate to Bank and London Bridge. The "K" branch would have run under Peckham to Peckham Rye, joining the old Crystal Palace (High Level) branch (which was still open in 1949) near Lordship Lane. Nothing came of these proposals, and the Edgware, Alexandra Palace and Crystal Palace (High Level) branches were all closed to passengers in 1954. As a result, the Northern City Line remained isolated from the rest of the network.
In 1964, the Northern City Line (low level) platforms at Finsbury Park were given over to become the southbound platforms of both the Piccadilly line and (then new) Victoria Line, the former Piccadilly line platforms becoming the northbound Piccadilly and Victoria lines' platforms. From this time the NCL used Drayton Park as its terminus. At the same time a change was made at Highbury & Islington, with the northbound Northern City line diverted to a new platform alongside the northbound Victoria line, and the southbound Victoria using the former northbound Northern City platform, both providing cross-platform interchange. Passengers from Moorgate to Finsbury Park took the Northern City line to Highbury & Islington and then changed onto the Victoria Line.
In 1970 the line was connected (as intended by its original promoters) to the mainline via the high level platforms at Finsbury Park as part of a wider plan to electrify ECML suburban services. The line was renamed Northern line (Highbury Branch) and the following year an agreement was made to transfer it to British Rail. Commuter trains were run to/from Moorgate instead of King's Cross, relieving congestion at King's Cross.
The last London Underground services ran in October 1975 and British Rail services commenced in August 1976, replacing services to Broad Street via the city branch of the North London Line. These British Rail services used the name "Great Northern Electrics". The track and tunnels are now owned by Network Rail. Services are provided by Great Northern to and, via the Hertford Loop Line, to (with some extending to Stevenage, Hitchin or Letchworth). The name "Northern City Line" has been revived to refer to the underground part of the route.
Infrastructure
From Finsbury Park to Drayton Park traction current is supplied at 25 kV AC via overhead line, controlled by York Electrical Control Room.
From Drayton Park to Moorgate traction current is supplied at 750 V DC via third rail. There are two electrical sections, separated by a gap at Poole Street:
Queensland Road to Poole Street
Poole Street to Finsbury Circus
Trains change from AC to DC traction supply, or vice versa, whilst standing at Drayton Park station. The platform starting signal on the Up platform at Drayton Park is held at danger (red) as the train approaches. This ensures that all trains stop to lower the pantograph before going into the tunnel.
Signalling is controlled from Kings Cross power box. Between Drayton Park and Moorgate, there is no Automatic Warning System or Train Protection & Warning System equipment provided, due to the position of the auxiliary return rail. All signals are multiple aspect colour light signals fitted with train stop arms.
Operational procedures
Because mainline trains operate over the infrastructure inherited from London Underground, there are some practices on the NCL which differ from Railway Rulebook instructions, and these are contained in an additional publication. These include:
Passing signals at danger
If a train is standing at a signal at danger inside a tunnel and it is not possible for the driver to contact the signaller, the driver is permitted to pass that signal under their own authority. As soon as the train starts to move, the tripcock on the train will automatically operate and bring the train to a stop, so the driver must reset it before continuing. They must then proceed with caution, be prepared to stop short of any obstruction, and do not travel any faster than . When they reach the next signal they must stop and attempt to contact the signaller, to inform the signaller of what has taken place regardless of the aspect that it is showing.
Platform starting signals, which let the train into a tunnel, can only be passed at danger with the signaller's authority.
Assisting a failed train
Unlike surface lines, the driver of a train which fails on the NCL is not required to leave the train to lay detonators and then wait for the assisting train. The driver remains with the train and the signaller will authorise the driver of the assisting train to proceed to the rear of the failed train at a maximum speed of . To ensure that the rear of the failed train is always visible, all trains working over the NCL are required to display three red lights at their rear: two tail lamps plus the red portion of the destination roller blind.
On reaching the failed train, the assisting driver will stop short then clip their tunnel telephone onto the tunnel wires so that they can discuss with the driver of the failed train how to carry out the assistance in order to get the trains moving again. Then the two trains are coupled together and the drivers can talk to each other over the usual cab-to-cab handsets before proceeding.
Rolling stock
As part of its contract to supply electrical equipment during the construction of the line, in 1901 British Thomson-Houston provided 35 sets of traction control equipment to Brush Electrical Engineering Company and Dick, Kerr & Company. The original plan was for 11 seven-car trains (33 motors and 44 trailers) and one shunting locomotive. Initially 26 motorcars and 32 trailer cars were built. They were known as the 'wooden' cars because they were fabricated of teak and mahogany on steel underframes. In 1906 Brush delivered another five motors and 13 trailers. There were of all-steel construction and naturally-enough referred to as 'steel cars'. The GN&CR converted one trailer to a motor car, bringing the fleet to 32 motors and 44 trailers. (The remaining sets of traction control equipment were used as maintenance spares.) Normal operation was six-car formations at peak times, reduced to two-car sets at other times. Cars were long over buffers, wide, and in height. Seats were provided for 58 passengers in the wooden trailers and 64 in the steel ones. Motor cars seated 54 because of a equipment compartment behind the driver's cab. Uniquely in England, coupling between cars was by means of link and pin on the centre-line.
The original fleet of 76 carriages was withdrawn and replaced by London Underground Standard Stock on 15 May 1939. These became the last pre-1938 trains running on the Underground, being phased out during the last weeks of October 1966 through 3 November. 1938 tube stock serviced the line, in variously three-, four- and six-car formations, until its temporary closure on 4 October 1975.
Services are currently operated by dual-voltage Class 717 electric multiple units (EMUs), which replaced Class 313 units as part of a franchise commitment when Govia Thameslink Railway took over management of the line and its services. The Class 717s began to enter service in March 2019. To comply with the health and safety regulations for trains operating in single-bore tunnels where there is not enough clearance space for side evacuation, they have emergency doors at both ends of a unit. When operating on , the two motor coaches of a Class 313 collected traction current from their own shoe gear only; there was no traction bus linking them together as found on most Electric Multiple Units. All of the Class 313 units when operating on the NCL had their Driving Motor B vehicle at the London end, and whilst on were electronically limited to , which is the maximum line speed. All stations are long enough to accept six-car trains.
Accidents and incidents
Moorgate tube crash
The Moorgate tube crash, the most serious accident on the London Underground, occurred at Moorgate on 28 February 1975, when a Highbury Branch train ran through the terminus at speed and crashed into the dead end of the tunnel beyond. The cause of the crash, which killed 43 people, was never determined. A report found that there was insufficient evidence to say if it was a deliberate act of the driver or due to a medical condition.
Tunnel penetration incident
On 8 March 2013, pile boring operations from a building site in East Road, Hackney, above the tunnel, penetrated and obstructed the line between Old Street and Essex Road stations. A serious accident was averted by the actions of an observant train driver, and the line was restricted for several days for repairs. A subsequent investigation by the Rail Accident Investigation Branch was highly critical of carelessness on the construction companies involved and the planning approval process.
Passenger volume
This is the number of passengers using stations on the line from the year beginning April 2002 to the year beginning April 2019.
See also
Northern Heights plan
References
Bibliography
External links
Underground Line Guide – Northern line – comprehensive history of the Northern line and its branches
Transport in the City of London
Transport in the London Borough of Islington
Railway lines in London
Railway lines opened in 1904
Standard gauge railways in London
Electric railways in the United Kingdom
Underground commuter rail
|
[
0.02043965645134449,
-1.1183879375457764,
0.6340542435646057,
-0.5924355387687683,
0.41168129444122314,
-0.25766512751579285,
0.4105387330055237,
0.31641891598701477,
0.39253151416778564,
-0.1719614863395691,
-0.42356616258621216,
0.0866287499666214,
-0.4175185561180115,
-0.15625333786010742,
0.2436373233795166,
-0.49552303552627563,
-0.03372747451066971,
0.3027336001396179,
0.1631624698638916,
-0.019582001492381096,
0.1060836911201477,
0.24048326909542084,
0.6313208937644958,
-0.22026342153549194,
0.8149901032447815,
-0.7857061624526978,
0.016684606671333313,
0.1115758940577507,
-0.3014522194862366,
-0.052650466561317444,
0.3926619589328766,
0.1358090192079544,
0.13239599764347076,
-0.30569586157798767,
0.4848480224609375,
0.11001349985599518,
-0.045628488063812256,
-0.4023287296295166,
-0.5776837468147278,
-0.009683954529464245,
-0.5167821645736694,
0.005292639136314392,
-0.08046694099903107,
0.43974271416664124,
0.23624010384082794,
-0.004976396448910236,
-0.9458906054496765,
-0.2234303206205368,
-0.6682013869285583,
-0.0978623703122139,
-0.9511781930923462,
0.34881535172462463,
-0.499239981174469,
0.1400764286518097,
1.116981029510498,
0.40084826946258545,
-0.2917003333568573,
-0.03921554982662201,
0.09442570805549622,
-0.484381765127182,
-0.3030473291873932,
0.23753200471401215,
-0.11080897599458694,
0.25359731912612915,
0.5070522427558899,
0.17904219031333923,
0.026740988716483116,
0.8043959736824036,
-0.5215555429458618,
-0.07147374749183655,
0.4866939187049866,
-0.0029777269810438156,
0.42450904846191406,
0.3916548192501068,
-0.30629754066467285,
-0.2031475007534027,
0.4563972055912018,
-0.2589331865310669,
-0.1160397157073021,
0.34045347571372986,
-0.11804891377687454,
0.1003870740532875,
0.9745503067970276,
0.5759188532829285,
0.8917663097381592,
0.17896267771720886,
-0.6756418347358704,
-0.12163721024990082,
-0.4886617064476013,
0.7266566157341003,
-0.5246236324310303,
0.22098462283611298,
0.43738988041877747,
0.38058117032051086,
0.32482171058654785,
0.005483654793351889,
0.2495419681072235,
0.5149097442626953,
0.27115195989608765,
-0.241006001830101,
-0.4329841434955597,
-0.2311372458934784,
0.30007174611091614,
-0.9068676233291626,
-0.8789019584655762,
-0.6560073494911194,
-0.42681658267974854,
0.06940990686416626,
0.5878656506538391,
0.12715527415275574,
-1.2382826805114746,
-0.09107883274555206,
-0.39501670002937317,
0.2917361259460449,
0.39709433913230896,
0.2362196445465088,
-0.2521944046020508,
-0.057045433670282364,
0.137281134724617,
-0.31468307971954346,
0.14995111525058746,
0.36140891909599304,
0.2280123084783554,
0.3792484402656555,
-0.15223583579063416,
0.37243160605430603,
0.2468840628862381,
-0.006699006073176861,
0.2968680262565613,
-0.20274703204631805,
0.5180624723434448,
1.425649642944336,
-0.1751789003610611,
-0.25272709131240845,
-0.44992148876190186,
-0.1794220209121704,
-0.2715759575366974,
0.758217453956604,
0.8756209015846252,
0.24685074388980865,
-0.9425122141838074,
-0.02203841134905815,
0.43461769819259644,
-0.1419845074415207,
1.0035669803619385,
0.19819803535938263,
-0.2280312478542328,
-0.503939688205719,
0.269087016582489,
-0.530228316783905,
0.22973397374153137,
0.5266005992889404,
-0.31059029698371887,
-0.3060986399650574,
-0.6766210794448853,
0.2672070264816284,
0.7563257217407227,
0.07278910279273987,
-0.014506421983242035,
0.1449553370475769,
0.057905565947294235,
0.6994526982307434,
0.2317265123128891,
0.2296852320432663,
0.00552071537822485,
0.330682635307312,
-0.4131161570549011,
-0.1057422086596489,
0.3824472427368164,
-0.2684873342514038,
-0.10297079384326935,
-0.20609986782073975,
0.878797173500061,
-0.643435537815094,
0.37144047021865845,
-0.5666260719299316,
0.07626430690288544,
0.5014594793319702,
0.09844551980495453,
-0.6801990270614624,
-0.45021140575408936,
0.5334572792053223,
0.16282868385314941,
0.24272388219833374,
-0.29454803466796875,
-0.6482110619544983,
-0.30189719796180725,
0.5525226593017578,
-0.3749159276485443,
-0.32007256150245667,
-0.08412664383649826,
-0.3504902124404907,
0.19496609270572662,
-0.86552894115448,
0.09890060126781464,
-0.24658741056919098,
-0.0036578653380274773,
0.9290767908096313,
-0.5380737781524658,
0.6375803351402283,
0.43384718894958496,
-0.560097336769104,
0.09216447919607162,
0.4302347004413605,
-0.19894838333129883,
-0.055650465190410614,
-0.12013697624206543,
-0.6645451784133911,
0.032573845237493515,
-0.08562960475683212,
0.15271395444869995,
-0.34366297721862793,
-0.15479038655757904,
-0.09731558710336685,
0.6713593006134033,
-0.7206108570098877,
-0.50330650806427,
0.21814580261707306,
0.23199158906936646,
0.04974368214607239,
1.0170235633850098,
0.5185302495956421,
0.20139658451080322,
0.20513205230236053,
-0.7783911228179932,
0.45461544394493103,
0.22160570323467255,
0.7097732424736023,
0.4761299788951874,
-0.18334999680519104,
0.32639238238334656,
0.14256933331489563,
-0.7123692631721497,
-0.2325374037027359,
0.0019465116783976555,
-0.7125987410545349,
0.5278753042221069,
-0.35474371910095215,
0.02436899207532406,
-0.4397431015968323,
0.313422828912735,
0.21901069581508636,
-0.9077832102775574,
0.6410901546478271,
-0.06392855197191238,
0.30253714323043823,
0.2282118946313858,
0.11804300546646118,
0.12215640395879745,
-0.08644021302461624,
-0.22768574953079224,
0.047069571912288666,
-0.5218673348426819,
0.5268505811691284,
0.5721577405929565,
-0.28490352630615234,
0.3089222013950348,
-0.08738372474908829,
0.4178149998188019,
0.5853546857833862,
0.24163146317005157,
-0.9069445133209229,
-0.43532198667526245,
-0.028219440951943398,
-0.35374054312705994,
-0.29870665073394775,
-0.3740169405937195,
-0.6388313174247742,
0.6052558422088623,
0.34541261196136475,
-0.17906522750854492,
0.18706898391246796,
-0.727355420589447,
0.30191275477409363,
-0.1841263622045517,
-0.1296689212322235,
0.550040066242218,
0.4327627122402191,
0.1504407525062561,
0.10714899003505707,
0.19833895564079285,
0.3463628590106964,
-0.3549484610557556,
-0.39033272862434387,
-0.0755644366145134,
-0.4801385998725891,
0.3895564079284668,
0.08880177140235901,
-0.2787993252277374,
-0.5189274549484253,
-0.5539549589157104,
-0.05536284297704697,
-0.21423426270484924,
0.22886790335178375,
-0.3704787492752075,
-0.2340831756591797,
-0.22250394523143768,
-0.10162728279829025,
0.2032717764377594,
-0.15443530678749084,
-0.0034641039092093706,
0.06807249039411545,
0.26770320534706116,
-0.13073037564754486,
-0.19241082668304443,
-0.13738347589969635,
-0.6037859320640564,
-0.6086901426315308,
-5.2055158615112305,
0.8809488415718079,
-0.7925836443901062,
0.04359624534845352,
0.38260334730148315,
-0.12250502407550812,
0.1764175295829773,
-0.1171039342880249,
0.3506092429161072,
-1.054172158241272,
-0.08184180408716202,
-0.29525288939476013,
-0.488334983587265,
-0.16424572467803955,
0.20839957892894745,
-0.21139642596244812,
-0.2093386948108673,
-0.3049020767211914,
0.6138952374458313,
-0.17046980559825897,
-0.42558878660202026,
-0.09040160477161407,
0.057713355869054794,
0.6989343166351318,
0.6093757748603821,
0.5890975594520569,
-0.396677166223526,
-0.280083030462265,
-1.0449817180633545,
-0.5457292199134827,
0.977786123752594,
-0.06521758437156677,
-0.23283454775810242,
-0.16975174844264984,
0.2163172960281372,
-0.15928645431995392,
0.49878984689712524,
-0.10149335861206055,
0.159247025847435,
0.04243329167366028,
0.2542153298854828,
0.6358396410942078,
-0.27497678995132446,
-0.5089108347892761,
0.32156893610954285,
-0.004456853494048119,
-0.7045280933380127,
-0.03833149001002312,
-0.3850736618041992,
0.6436247825622559,
-0.1526765674352646,
0.9039618968963623,
0.41350257396698,
-0.591399073600769,
-0.4347728192806244,
-0.503122866153717,
-0.15292713046073914,
-0.5248119235038757,
0.40665727853775024,
-0.042040158063173294,
0.609591007232666,
-0.2102881669998169,
-0.22935143113136292,
0.02245151437819004,
-0.19735626876354218,
-0.34587234258651733,
-0.7068709135055542,
-0.16869284212589264,
0.8272291421890259,
-0.1165279895067215,
-0.7093048095703125,
0.11659622192382812,
0.48244205117225647,
-0.5476107597351074,
-0.04626646265387535,
-0.15288498997688293,
0.009598164819180965,
0.32276079058647156,
1.0421189069747925,
-0.16758112609386444,
-0.035007864236831665,
-0.3598249852657318,
-0.23711006343364716,
0.1564537137746811,
0.22661177814006805,
-0.5992563366889954,
-0.2331707924604416,
0.546152651309967,
-0.1376294195652008,
-0.39140358567237854,
0.5708034038543701,
-0.7360248565673828,
0.11573975533246994,
0.2851836085319519,
-0.1985446661710739,
-0.26776307821273804,
-0.693496584892273,
0.6025194525718689,
-0.14505743980407715,
-0.5036293864250183,
0.47546178102493286,
-0.2882043719291687,
-0.47424304485321045,
-0.2800687551498413,
-0.37641775608062744,
-0.571248471736908,
0.09611400216817856,
0.01952318474650383,
0.13014718890190125,
-0.36421558260917664,
0.004432691726833582,
-0.6677252650260925,
-0.6850889325141907,
-0.07982362806797028,
0.2643232047557831,
-0.02029203251004219,
-0.8771499991416931,
0.4852689802646637,
0.2846209406852722,
0.34240439534187317,
-0.020659228786826134,
0.12709826231002808,
0.04233957827091217,
0.2942827045917511,
-0.07370983064174652,
0.5599600672721863,
0.20422819256782532,
0.23109124600887299,
0.38854098320007324,
-0.3596143424510956,
0.10157126933336258,
-0.008116551674902439,
-0.05855502560734749,
-0.3375363349914551,
-0.838823676109314,
-0.4639785885810852,
-0.5322297811508179,
-0.03902982547879219,
0.1843268722295761,
0.5303434729576111,
-0.0785837173461914,
0.30868950486183167,
0.021568648517131805,
0.1602671593427658,
0.25276798009872437,
0.5803316235542297,
-0.27723634243011475,
-0.49616992473602295,
-0.9155733585357666,
-0.38647741079330444,
0.031956661492586136,
-0.8226824402809143,
0.14335305988788605,
-0.5665864944458008,
0.03108268976211548,
-0.4673309326171875,
-0.007268521934747696,
0.2274436503648758,
0.02507983148097992,
0.11174935102462769,
-0.3256950080394745,
-0.48829931020736694,
-0.269140362739563,
0.5122426152229309,
0.2436598539352417,
-0.3862709701061249,
0.2769624888896942,
-0.7064138650894165,
0.2206379622220993,
0.04860563948750496,
-0.2917478084564209,
-0.6178019046783447,
0.19680841267108917,
-0.5957825183868408,
-0.18421612679958344,
0.8010216951370239,
-0.8940659165382385,
-0.44081810116767883,
-0.1426597237586975,
-0.6499297022819519,
0.14688415825366974,
-0.08397403359413147,
-0.34298014640808105,
0.25865638256073,
0.5364771485328674,
-0.4853236675262451,
-0.7426730394363403,
0.09604503959417343,
0.8799747228622437,
-0.24798297882080078,
0.3451341390609741,
0.05371710658073425,
-0.014595077373087406,
0.19762234389781952,
-0.2927127480506897,
-0.4217248558998108,
0.13475967943668365,
1.2072137594223022,
-0.16577062010765076,
-0.6782058477401733,
-0.5754599571228027,
0.3785325884819031,
-1.1375236511230469,
0.10537946224212646,
1.07064950466156,
-0.5397974848747253,
0.25689932703971863,
0.5207171440124512,
-0.7291218638420105,
-0.24353711307048798,
-0.10555689036846161,
-1.1469577550888062,
-0.06278178840875626,
-0.156817227602005,
-0.5374252796173096,
0.0945456475019455,
-0.1955735981464386,
-0.44324570894241333,
-0.4675312340259552,
-0.2982163429260254,
-0.4901670813560486,
0.08185228705406189,
-0.6484900116920471,
-0.17312011122703552,
-0.44416025280952454,
0.4665745198726654,
0.3883858323097229,
-1.1198855638504028,
0.21803608536720276,
-0.2776128947734833,
0.3947378098964691,
0.07439544796943665,
0.36131516098976135,
0.9132192134857178,
0.536299467086792,
0.1681010127067566,
-0.10602198541164398,
-0.5472545027732849,
0.421011745929718,
0.11743879318237305,
0.3127560019493103,
0.1710556149482727,
-0.34472572803497314,
-0.9045074582099915,
0.012282007373869419,
0.21839138865470886,
0.914970338344574,
-0.347453236579895,
-0.28858643770217896,
0.06693631410598755,
0.7908266186714172,
-0.5333274602890015,
-0.6014138460159302,
-0.09127787500619888,
0.5649932622909546,
-0.6270968317985535,
0.24295978248119354,
-0.35469233989715576,
0.06327275186777115,
-0.03728208318352699,
0.6560925245285034,
-0.508755624294281,
-0.05411979928612709,
0.5355173349380493,
0.9213472604751587,
-0.12136131525039673,
0.09802720695734024,
-0.5785784125328064,
0.14747068285942078,
-0.8943966627120972,
0.47462669014930725,
-0.3086357116699219,
0.1447097361087799,
-0.320239782333374,
-0.3129640817642212,
0.06618612259626389,
0.5511696934700012,
-0.48525556921958923,
-0.043311141431331635,
-0.22482895851135254,
-0.5310102701187134,
0.13460984826087952,
-0.24047280848026276,
-0.5406888723373413,
-0.01742444559931755,
0.038696154952049255,
0.6726005673408508,
0.1058584600687027,
-0.31311067938804626,
0.007994210347533226,
-0.04415259510278702,
-0.3749385178089142,
-0.19748514890670776,
0.07303180545568466,
-0.1251828670501709,
0.621959924697876,
0.4842281639575958,
0.2339816391468048,
0.4760130047798157,
-0.1643306463956833,
-0.41373932361602783,
0.44434335827827454,
-0.0960928276181221,
-0.2885066270828247,
0.203256756067276,
0.5891270637512207,
0.48844319581985474,
-0.47812873125076294,
0.7152265906333923,
-0.08741245418787003,
0.6316160559654236,
0.3579624891281128,
0.39288127422332764,
1.3295091390609741,
-0.4735350012779236,
0.5823997259140015,
0.4455468952655792,
-0.5095977783203125,
0.27007004618644714,
0.9191872477531433,
-0.00978400930762291,
1.0443171262741089,
0.6406197547912598,
0.3383277356624603,
-0.3387240767478943,
0.3767942488193512,
0.08851661533117294,
0.1323169469833374,
0.0296885184943676,
0.6381834745407104,
0.18873150646686554,
-0.2451571524143219,
-0.4307211935520172,
0.9225361347198486,
0.1049790158867836,
-0.6568469405174255,
0.22397394478321075,
-0.3904693126678467,
-0.41448673605918884,
0.13511863350868225,
0.12902292609214783,
0.08375122398138046,
-0.6483908295631409,
-0.3453124761581421,
0.12550359964370728,
0.20053964853286743,
0.5514277219772339,
0.07768948376178741,
0.15458950400352478,
1.0573217868804932,
0.4327230751514435,
0.41088441014289856,
-0.3694244921207428,
0.17798422276973724,
0.7074822187423706,
-0.09320708364248276,
0.13502992689609528,
-0.049290262162685394,
-0.12264847755432129,
-0.26958730816841125,
0.35457465052604675,
0.9820095300674438,
0.5305200219154358,
-0.7480193376541138,
-0.984844982624054,
-0.4370473325252533,
-0.31351929903030396,
-0.6918945908546448,
0.21092745661735535,
0.3845111131668091,
-0.1254337877035141,
0.33156201243400574,
-0.37715429067611694,
-0.10387718677520752,
0.04876135662198067,
0.43017810583114624,
0.4477810263633728,
0.41252845525741577,
-0.0532107949256897,
0.1246609017252922,
-0.6851195693016052,
0.5706573128700256,
-0.3194435238838196,
-0.16621915996074677,
-0.11460161209106445,
-0.3172447383403778,
-0.793917179107666,
-0.1206054836511612,
-1.3246923685073853,
-0.5713971257209778,
-0.39637675881385803,
0.48745042085647583,
0.2523254454135895,
-0.16715741157531738,
-0.3236920237541199,
0.013083340600132942,
-0.13543684780597687,
0.5064773559570312,
0.07833299040794373,
0.2302321195602417,
0.9187164306640625,
0.5108477473258972,
0.30428922176361084,
0.6790736317634583,
-0.30140408873558044,
1.0886427164077759,
-0.5797502398490906,
-0.17932724952697754,
-0.2966513931751251,
0.576549768447876,
0.06706653535366058,
0.10939976572990417,
-0.2169947624206543,
0.2605750858783722,
0.031882237643003464,
0.9140354990959167,
0.3380201458930969,
0.35088199377059937,
-0.16241346299648285,
-0.41713741421699524,
0.29749995470046997,
0.011526952497661114,
0.1314566433429718,
0.02181296795606613,
0.34941384196281433,
-0.48659399151802063,
0.1719300001859665,
0.44027602672576904,
0.011906838975846767,
0.8347834944725037,
0.029493799433112144,
-0.33012866973876953,
-0.9436046481132507,
-0.3097766041755676,
-0.9103384613990784,
0.21143241226673126,
-0.008196155540645123,
0.28158292174339294,
0.616150438785553,
0.20534509420394897,
0.3599691390991211,
0.4324893057346344,
0.8152173161506653,
0.452043354511261,
0.24405255913734436,
-0.5229589939117432,
0.0009311634348705411,
-0.18791551887989044,
-1.5168921947479248,
0.3314878046512604,
-0.2240961194038391,
-0.23024992644786835,
0.35082149505615234,
0.20092123746871948,
0.11864366382360458,
0.10290921479463577,
0.5345501899719238,
-0.31476789712905884,
0.0023725973442196846,
0.28680694103240967
] |
213040
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norrmalmstorg
|
Norrmalmstorg
|
Norrmalmstorg () is a town square in central Stockholm, Sweden. It connects shopping streets Hamngatan and Biblioteksgatan and is the starting point for tram travellers with the Djurgården line. Close to the southwest is the park Kungsträdgården.
In the Swedish edition of Monopoly, Norrmalmstorg is the most expensive lot.
The square is famous for the 1973 Norrmalmstorg robbery, in which events gave name to the Stockholm syndrome. The building in question is now occupied by the Nobis Hotel Stockholm.
Gallery
See also
Norrmalm (proper)
References
Squares in Stockholm
|
[
-0.24805423617362976,
0.13156013190746307,
0.5755239129066467,
-0.27949875593185425,
-0.19508709013462067,
-0.31013238430023193,
0.9849255681037903,
0.5022169351577759,
-0.8336538672447205,
-0.5923417806625366,
-0.1181502714753151,
-0.39721837639808655,
-0.3898122310638428,
0.33712494373321533,
-0.3907305896282196,
0.0761662945151329,
0.18318848311901093,
1.1955236196517944,
-0.043225206434726715,
-0.4180620312690735,
0.28964507579803467,
-0.34346285462379456,
0.1226644366979599,
-0.09630388766527176,
0.10496696084737778,
-0.3913942575454712,
0.2964475154876709,
0.3645543158054352,
0.391260027885437,
0.31018850207328796,
-0.14686061441898346,
0.31453952193260193,
0.048849232494831085,
-0.34862956404685974,
0.4228985607624054,
0.548060417175293,
0.23471282422542572,
-0.592332124710083,
-0.07908762991428375,
0.5088797807693481,
-0.44453519582748413,
-0.07800991833209991,
-0.7418308258056641,
0.5300935506820679,
0.25381597876548767,
-1.3541826009750366,
-1.1799827814102173,
0.6177332401275635,
-1.1294270753860474,
0.8323185443878174,
-0.8901246190071106,
0.015661943703889847,
-0.1571309119462967,
0.8951237201690674,
0.32744455337524414,
0.26305830478668213,
-0.8190440535545349,
0.4125871956348419,
0.6290789246559143,
0.5821247696876526,
0.212776318192482,
0.3516470789909363,
0.02152176760137081,
-0.2918314039707184,
0.7986860871315002,
0.177143394947052,
0.21287168562412262,
0.24059583246707916,
0.6333712339401245,
-0.816916286945343,
-0.3700083792209625,
0.35303109884262085,
0.6047919392585754,
0.04906303063035011,
-0.2722718119621277,
-0.5764013528823853,
0.1932847797870636,
0.0861082598567009,
-0.18435081839561462,
-0.7873364686965942,
0.1300988793373108,
-0.3070783317089081,
0.5260226726531982,
0.5145836472511292,
0.7966504096984863,
-0.13119934499263763,
-1.2240790128707886,
-0.9762464165687561,
-0.6706249117851257,
0.1553514003753662,
-0.3637270927429199,
0.15258608758449554,
0.37510794401168823,
0.37750011682510376,
0.047756511718034744,
0.5322476029396057,
-0.33847537636756897,
0.19074788689613342,
0.1558198183774948,
0.8293445110321045,
-0.1328476071357727,
0.8253417015075684,
0.21894195675849915,
0.22642025351524353,
-0.2129090577363968,
-0.7457942962646484,
-0.4568699598312378,
-0.6017399430274963,
0.40255430340766907,
-0.8667628765106201,
-0.9557843208312988,
0.5304144620895386,
-0.24424415826797485,
0.029523031786084175,
0.0053513068705797195,
1.0654267072677612,
0.5748922228813171,
-0.022033780813217163,
-0.20241443812847137,
0.04734141007065773,
0.19428205490112305,
0.621467113494873,
0.0008966454188339412,
0.23846030235290527,
-0.4214536249637604,
-0.15484480559825897,
-0.2576391398906708,
0.7251065969467163,
-0.33342280983924866,
0.2628442049026489,
-0.06919454783201218,
0.48755019903182983,
-0.4426755905151367,
0.15519621968269348,
0.04793005809187889,
-0.3149309754371643,
0.5598816275596619,
0.4175126254558563,
-0.019270405173301697,
0.3175280690193176,
-0.2611694633960724,
-0.1075885072350502,
-0.19710232317447662,
-0.6125105619430542,
0.12085819244384766,
-0.33087173104286194,
-0.27207058668136597,
-1.1228464841842651,
-0.7964721322059631,
-0.036019738763570786,
0.6763542890548706,
0.48820996284484863,
0.3423214554786682,
-0.22602441906929016,
0.02220091223716736,
0.7409499287605286,
0.0841662809252739,
0.1212395653128624,
0.15139275789260864,
0.4070260524749756,
0.5310819149017334,
0.0785340890288353,
0.14156819880008698,
-0.13624124228954315,
-0.2065558284521103,
0.28074488043785095,
0.9148041009902954,
0.9498777389526367,
0.27764520049095154,
-0.15822115540504456,
-0.3134695589542389,
-0.18685336410999298,
0.5012075901031494,
-0.2660538852214813,
0.4337064325809479,
0.033071212470531464,
0.1502298265695572,
-0.07826554775238037,
0.00939731951802969,
-0.2724228501319885,
-0.6854204535484314,
0.09619390964508057,
0.18113283812999725,
-0.11861119419336319,
0.28226158022880554,
0.029872240498661995,
0.28336194157600403,
0.7472025156021118,
-0.12083368748426437,
0.25918200612068176,
-0.1846117079257965,
-0.5254141688346863,
0.6170974373817444,
0.5540370345115662,
0.7168098092079163,
0.5341520309448242,
-0.11163092404603958,
-0.28525492548942566,
-0.6265300512313843,
1.0017095804214478,
-0.6884501576423645,
-0.6843686699867249,
0.7342560291290283,
-0.3472196161746979,
-0.16665777564048767,
0.37867072224617004,
0.015517134219408035,
-0.29550740122795105,
-0.4542945325374603,
0.48681938648223877,
0.4744621813297272,
-1.2756378650665283,
0.797403872013092,
0.3526820242404938,
0.06080026924610138,
-0.3881596028804779,
-0.26146426796913147,
0.2177623212337494,
0.30293193459510803,
-0.2747925817966461,
0.9594748616218567,
0.19379977881908417,
0.14847034215927124,
0.43362995982170105,
-0.22894254326820374,
0.2509331703186035,
0.38563013076782227,
0.8544612526893616,
0.263962060213089,
-0.3804951608181,
0.9271268248558044,
0.26199981570243835,
0.5197140574455261,
0.3190082311630249,
-0.22894638776779175,
-0.11928704380989075,
0.2323962152004242,
-0.2805420160293579,
0.5116268992424011,
-0.6205609440803528,
-0.07258663326501846,
0.04795628413558006,
-0.539390504360199,
0.3065868318080902,
0.6472822427749634,
0.6346012353897095,
-0.4663071036338806,
0.2186768352985382,
0.3920567035675049,
-0.5560212731361389,
-0.17953850328922272,
-0.04012869670987129,
-0.21181310713291168,
-0.8886597156524658,
-0.12924885749816895,
-0.2434285283088684,
0.6736213564872742,
0.442804753780365,
0.29271993041038513,
-0.11291147768497467,
-0.7902677655220032,
-0.27716121077537537,
-0.006677459925413132,
0.29505598545074463,
-0.7000864744186401,
-0.15426091849803925,
0.29432395100593567,
-0.23035696148872375,
0.6737891435623169,
-0.182530477643013,
-0.0853218287229538,
-0.8547441959381104,
-0.5109380483627319,
-0.3552873730659485,
-0.20730029046535492,
-0.960935652256012,
0.14176872372627258,
-0.006126242224127054,
-0.3048180043697357,
-0.23674675822257996,
0.43870672583580017,
0.9309080243110657,
0.403247594833374,
-0.30574190616607666,
-0.6969224810600281,
0.023128200322389603,
-0.4455416202545166,
0.13874998688697815,
0.09705161303281784,
0.25312143564224243,
-0.5264372229576111,
0.11610414832830429,
-0.20809081196784973,
0.5664586424827576,
0.2825550436973572,
0.1676356941461563,
-0.2161252200603485,
-0.588272213935852,
0.8533615469932556,
-0.16619554162025452,
-0.8624864220619202,
0.2750214636325836,
-0.23832379281520844,
0.27191466093063354,
-0.6578869223594666,
-0.17004847526550293,
-0.2821498215198517,
-0.02202305570244789,
-4.8015666007995605,
0.10275378078222275,
-0.35019052028656006,
-0.15391089022159576,
-0.15284980833530426,
0.6952493190765381,
0.5163376331329346,
-0.19135825335979462,
-0.046062447130680084,
-0.041286930441856384,
0.02217036485671997,
-0.5448564291000366,
0.19017842411994934,
1.0438190698623657,
0.4728055000305176,
0.8371286988258362,
-0.05702086538076401,
0.14312168955802917,
0.13813243806362152,
-0.2062622457742691,
-0.02778214029967785,
-0.0921013355255127,
-0.29671794176101685,
0.36660903692245483,
0.6082633137702942,
0.6920493841171265,
-0.1039997786283493,
-0.19305071234703064,
-1.1566333770751953,
-0.6228600740432739,
0.35191717743873596,
-0.038213521242141724,
-0.26759767532348633,
-0.3536986708641052,
-0.27144524455070496,
0.9094627499580383,
0.06074186787009239,
-0.02526194415986538,
-0.21162952482700348,
-0.5987404584884644,
0.7932373285293579,
0.3917545676231384,
0.1810992807149887,
-0.36003440618515015,
0.883454442024231,
-0.14733660221099854,
-0.8950816988945007,
0.001550865825265646,
-0.6749258637428284,
0.27724167704582214,
0.3056030571460724,
0.2624581456184387,
0.3844350278377533,
0.25054067373275757,
-0.4780377447605133,
-0.5498582124710083,
0.6178553104400635,
-0.1438736468553543,
-0.08471491187810898,
0.15934765338897705,
0.6026201844215393,
-0.2311103790998459,
0.12867210805416107,
-0.6439222693443298,
-0.00734578026458621,
-0.5510425567626953,
0.1768985241651535,
0.2993815243244171,
0.595672607421875,
0.2714666724205017,
0.20051445066928864,
0.539207935333252,
-0.5641834139823914,
-1.0603418350219727,
-0.9300723075866699,
-1.0214158296585083,
-0.9183110594749451,
-0.08811882138252258,
-0.3929941654205322,
-0.11981578171253204,
-0.1484043449163437,
-0.4487271010875702,
-0.7685853838920593,
0.7654973864555359,
0.11788437515497208,
-0.5466392636299133,
0.0759127140045166,
-0.00480247288942337,
-0.4299178123474121,
-0.16466709971427917,
-0.3467762768268585,
-0.5835567116737366,
0.016528677195310593,
-0.20477482676506042,
-0.696086049079895,
0.18662932515144348,
-0.1978270709514618,
-0.10816005617380142,
-0.01459133718162775,
-0.33328479528427124,
1.348405361175537,
-0.7498048543930054,
0.15478560328483582,
0.2212733030319214,
-0.0879439190030098,
-0.4616301953792572,
0.3299831748008728,
0.42411816120147705,
-0.007530176546424627,
0.00853637233376503,
0.05405842140316963,
-0.4741290807723999,
0.14497075974941254,
-0.9771093130111694,
0.7264940738677979,
-0.40646272897720337,
-0.19470196962356567,
1.3309301137924194,
-0.44553786516189575,
-0.32612866163253784,
-0.0945732593536377,
0.5907479524612427,
0.12693287432193756,
0.027409225702285767,
-0.42364099621772766,
-0.3706124722957611,
0.03840113431215286,
-0.24689435958862305,
0.08340446650981903,
-0.12723252177238464,
0.25346502661705017,
0.23041847348213196,
-0.1675599068403244,
-0.7923696637153625,
0.12700694799423218,
-0.8347070217132568,
-0.6112226843833923,
-0.1043713316321373,
0.5001834034919739,
0.2082127183675766,
0.5037218928337097,
-0.28021886944770813,
0.027931805700063705,
1.0922095775604248,
-0.3458126485347748,
0.5925500988960266,
0.09152693301439285,
-0.15576136112213135,
-1.2071436643600464,
0.3903559744358063,
-0.984619677066803,
-0.6501723527908325,
0.08063352853059769,
-0.9474217891693115,
0.1293964982032776,
-0.45553699135780334,
0.18853621184825897,
0.7549645304679871,
-0.4846622943878174,
-0.1304374635219574,
-0.11608167737722397,
-0.4457743465900421,
-0.8637332320213318,
-0.1535148173570633,
-0.0942285805940628,
-0.6054362058639526,
-0.9059116840362549,
-0.20369677245616913,
-0.736499547958374,
0.8041743040084839,
-0.21519970893859863,
-1.3235743045806885,
-0.6605331301689148,
-0.6608315110206604,
0.42847150564193726,
-0.36613166332244873,
0.6300593018531799,
0.3766196072101593,
0.062042415142059326,
0.15464730560779572,
-0.359958678483963,
0.5780217051506042,
-0.23746275901794434,
0.9523630738258362,
1.1203638315200806,
-0.4121231436729431,
-0.6174524426460266,
-0.09124402701854706,
-0.1712845414876938,
-0.6289599537849426,
0.8317159414291382,
-0.4418042004108429,
-0.05250117555260658,
-0.14045467972755432,
0.2314179241657257,
-0.9831492900848389,
-0.15355829894542694,
0.09115208685398102,
-0.05339062586426735,
-0.031844984740018845,
0.23821385204792023,
0.38707152009010315,
-0.6142577528953552,
1.2958943843841553,
0.15244176983833313,
-0.16082032024860382,
0.5728042125701904,
0.890548825263977,
-0.11733245849609375,
0.7422540783882141,
-1.1840648651123047,
-0.5484074354171753,
-0.13750195503234863,
0.3116021752357483,
-0.7350324988365173,
0.2500472366809845,
0.26921185851097107,
-0.6799943447113037,
-0.7203426361083984,
-0.26572826504707336,
-0.332082599401474,
-0.30112066864967346,
-0.39649972319602966,
-0.2547219395637512,
-1.2128492593765259,
0.2897513210773468,
0.19950808584690094,
-0.44682177901268005,
0.7884852290153503,
-0.37898311018943787,
0.6361270546913147,
0.21559396386146545,
0.6679158210754395,
0.044743262231349945,
0.2717849016189575,
-0.08093158155679703,
-0.44699621200561523,
0.2824014127254486,
0.5884568691253662,
1.1652451753616333,
0.5372164249420166,
0.29748567938804626,
0.20209649205207825,
-0.10806271433830261,
0.16438888013362885,
0.5267183184623718,
0.6096831560134888,
0.18958409130573273,
-0.4243695139884949,
0.09590620547533035,
-0.4382590055465698,
-0.4239118695259094,
-0.04905594140291214,
0.09790756553411484,
1.2727423906326294,
-0.5965571999549866,
0.5974568128585815,
0.5717487931251526,
0.16522018611431122,
0.20611941814422607,
0.14071345329284668,
-0.1713951975107193,
-0.24553342163562775,
0.057674989104270935,
0.26513805985450745,
-0.044515352696180344,
-0.7433731555938721,
-0.49810078740119934,
0.6940596699714661,
-0.15486590564250946,
-0.5233222842216492,
-0.6304694414138794,
0.96695876121521,
0.17993180453777313,
-0.26650336384773254,
0.05398090183734894,
0.2854493260383606,
-0.5091208219528198,
0.2162734419107437,
-0.8341689109802246,
-0.08557002991437912,
0.00013596708595287055,
0.49662038683891296,
-0.44057199358940125,
-0.010032983496785164,
-0.5741128921508789,
-0.3826690912246704,
-0.17319153249263763,
-0.41016697883605957,
0.7155812978744507,
-0.9014012813568115,
-0.5158700942993164,
0.38993480801582336,
0.5483556985855103,
-0.37484776973724365,
0.2362957000732422,
0.4620566964149475,
0.5333055257797241,
-0.31660109758377075,
0.09202027320861816,
-0.6645057201385498,
-0.11387446522712708,
-0.11648531258106232,
-0.4189004898071289,
-0.0046225180849432945,
0.2519623339176178,
0.1773882955312729,
-0.3840722441673279,
-0.38818296790122986,
-0.013728003017604351,
-0.33762696385383606,
-0.046296656131744385,
-0.013153460808098316,
0.9447172284126282,
-0.5631411075592041,
-0.1652352660894394,
0.45147666335105896,
-0.5725763440132141,
0.06809184700250626,
0.6453273892402649,
0.24611778557300568,
-0.007950865663588047,
-0.0851457417011261,
0.5345215797424316,
0.17159037292003632,
0.701953113079071,
0.23075218498706818,
-0.007774670608341694,
0.17984753847122192,
0.03672736883163452,
-0.6263962388038635,
-0.2858533561229706,
-0.7531777620315552,
1.3622545003890991,
-0.5231286883354187,
-0.02130398154258728,
0.02442113868892193,
-0.7906749248504639,
-0.06342107802629471,
-0.08229001611471176,
0.4369226098060608,
0.45774415135383606,
-0.3145960867404938,
0.13476191461086273,
-0.35529279708862305,
-0.2588660717010498,
0.18264402449131012,
-0.4754626452922821,
0.13073581457138062,
0.08798547834157944,
0.09825947880744934,
-0.33659252524375916,
0.2398514300584793,
-0.017524385824799538,
0.12513571977615356,
0.05170227959752083,
-0.6618807911872864,
-0.5910146236419678,
-0.363857626914978,
-0.08366569876670837,
0.1456557810306549,
0.024424241855740547,
-0.30460891127586365,
0.0765313059091568,
-0.1786164492368698,
-0.013604964129626751,
-0.08135806024074554,
-0.09679882228374481,
-0.1412426382303238,
0.3344113528728485,
-0.1029316708445549,
0.35564014315605164,
0.2381143718957901,
-0.25705215334892273,
0.07700134068727493,
0.012762737460434437,
0.4069182276725769,
0.5249773263931274,
0.37422895431518555,
-0.023793810978531837,
0.2722967267036438,
1.193889856338501,
0.04462111368775368,
-0.6085352897644043,
0.015625175088644028,
-0.42217501997947693,
0.07262835651636124,
-0.19367888569831848,
-0.1189456433057785,
-0.05301510542631149,
0.2957429587841034,
-0.3227301836013794,
0.13815760612487793,
0.45244672894477844,
-0.9440702199935913,
-0.06763947010040283,
-0.30609336495399475,
0.6158033609390259,
-0.0004228358156979084,
-0.6758163571357727,
-0.03313048556447029,
0.6336832046508789,
-0.03136830776929855,
0.6107547283172607,
-0.2832030653953552,
0.6588981747627258,
-0.3332965075969696,
0.04555181786417961,
0.48676857352256775,
0.7226840853691101,
-0.0027271886356174946,
0.04261353611946106,
-0.12993374466896057,
0.01442801859229803,
-0.403099924325943,
0.1256728619337082,
0.3195241093635559,
-0.09124545007944107,
-0.0188662800937891,
0.1497773826122284,
0.05404776707291603,
0.035958558320999146,
0.3980664908885956,
0.17071840167045593,
-0.09665537625551224,
-0.778999924659729,
0.13715413212776184,
0.14823883771896362,
0.5014152526855469,
0.11058010160923004,
0.060255467891693115,
0.038983531296253204,
-0.5894361138343811,
-0.19155730307102203,
-0.18937522172927856,
-0.40976962447166443,
1.0089603662490845,
0.7719404101371765,
0.724214494228363,
-0.17246609926223755,
0.2462993711233139,
0.08732572197914124,
0.005902954842895269,
0.15541324019432068,
-0.7097793221473694,
0.6739481091499329,
-0.2087632119655609,
-0.5187481045722961,
-0.3606346845626831,
-0.2092297077178955,
0.19512371718883514,
-0.9824298620223999,
0.5170513391494751,
-0.29917004704475403,
0.10446520149707794,
-0.16205264627933502,
0.29051005840301514,
-0.1867557168006897,
0.15449726581573486,
0.38165026903152466
] |
213047
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heir%20apparent
|
Heir apparent
|
An heir apparent is a person who is first in an order of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting by the birth of another person; a person who is first in order of succession but can be displaced by the birth of a more eligible heir is known as heir presumptive.
Today these terms most commonly describe heirs to hereditary titles (e.g. titles of nobility) or offices, especially when only inheritable by a single person. Most monarchies refer to the heir apparent of their thrones with the descriptive term of crown prince or crown princess, but they may also be accorded with a more specific substantive title: such as Prince of Orange in the Netherlands, Duke of Brabant in Belgium, Prince of Asturias in Spain (also granted to heirs presumptive), or Prince of Wales in the United Kingdom; former titles include Dauphin in the Kingdom of France, and Tsesarevich in Imperial Russia.
The term is also used metaphorically to indicate an expected successor to any position of power, e.g. a political or corporate leader.
This article primarily describes the term heir apparent in a hereditary system regulated by laws of primogeniture—it may be less applicable to cases where a monarch has a say in naming the heir (performed either while alive, e.g. crowning the heir as a , or through the monarch's will).
Heir apparent versus heir presumptive
In a hereditary system governed by some form of primogeniture, an heir apparent is easily identifiable as the person whose position as first in the line of succession to a title or office is secure, regardless of future births. An heir presumptive, by contrast, can always be "bumped down" in the succession by the birth of somebody more closely related in a legal sense (according to that form of primogeniture) to the current title-holder.
The clearest example occurs in the case of a childless bearer of a hereditary title that can only be inherited by one person. If at any time the title bearer were to produce children, those children would rank ahead of any person who had formerly been heir presumptive.
Many legal systems assume childbirth is always possible regardless of age or health. In such circumstances a person may be, in a practical sense, the heir apparent but still, legally speaking, heir presumptive. Indeed, when Queen Victoria succeeded her uncle King William IV, the wording of the proclamation even gave as a caveat:
This provided for the possibility that William's wife, Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, was pregnant at the moment of his death, since such a posthumous child, regardless of its sex, would have displaced Victoria from the throne. Adelaide was 44 at the time, so pregnancy was possible even if unlikely.
Daughters in male-preference primogeniture
Daughters (and their lines) may inherit titles that descend according to male-preference primogeniture, but only in default of sons (and their heirs). That is, both female and male offspring have the right to a place somewhere in the order of succession, but when it comes to what that place is, a female will rank behind her brothers regardless of their ages or her age.
Thus, normally, even an only daughter will not be heir apparent, since at any time a brother might be born who, though younger, would assume that position. Hence, she is an heir presumptive. For example, Queen Elizabeth II was heir presumptive during the reign of her father, King George VI, because at any stage up to nine to ten months after his death, George could have fathered a legitimate son.
Women as heirs apparent
In a system of absolute primogeniture that disregards gender, female heirs apparent occur. As succession to titles, positions, or offices in the past most often favoured males, females considered to be an heir apparent were rare. Absolute primogeniture was not practised by any modern monarchy for succession to their thrones until the late twentieth century, with Sweden being the first to adopt absolute primogeniture in 1980 and other Western European monarchies following suit.
Since the adoption of absolute primogeniture by contemporary Western European monarchies, examples of female heirs apparent include Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden, Princess Catharina-Amalia of the Netherlands, and Princess Elisabeth of Belgium; they are, respectively, the oldest children of Kings Carl XVI Gustaf, Willem-Alexander, and Philippe. Princess Ingrid Alexandra of Norway is heir apparent to her father, who is heir apparent to the Norwegian throne, and Victoria herself has a female heir apparent in her oldest child, Princess Estelle. Victoria was not heir apparent from birth (in 1977), but gained the status in 1980 following a change in the Swedish Act of Succession. Her younger brother Carl Philip (born 1979) was thus heir apparent for a few months (and is a rare example of an heir apparent losing this status without a death occurring).
In 2015, pursuant to the 2011 Perth Agreement, the Commonwealth realms changed the rules of succession to the 16 thrones of Elizabeth II to absolute primogeniture, except for male heirs born before the Perth Agreement. The effects are not likely to be felt for many years; the first two heirs at the time of the agreement (Charles, Prince of Wales, and his son Prince William, Duke of Cambridge) were already eldest born children, and in 2013 William's first-born son Prince George of Cambridge became the next apparent successor.
But even in legal systems that apply male-preference primogeniture, female heirs apparent are by no means impossible: if a male heir apparent dies leaving no sons but at least one daughter, then the eldest daughter would replace her father as heir apparent to whatever throne or title is concerned, but only when it has become clear that the widow of the deceased is not pregnant. Then, as the representative of her father's line she would assume a place ahead of any more distant relatives. Such a situation has not to date occurred with the English or British throne; several times an heir apparent has died, but each example has either been childless or left a son or sons. However, there have been several female heirs apparent to British peerages (e.g. Frances Ward, 6th Baroness Dudley, and Henrietta Wentworth, 6th Baroness Wentworth).
In one special case, however, England and Scotland had a female heir apparent. The Revolution settlement that established William and Mary as joint monarchs in 1689 only gave the power to continue the succession through issue to Mary II, elder daughter of the previous king, James II. William, by contrast, was to reign for life only, and his (hypothetical) children by a wife other than Mary would be placed in his original place (as Mary's first cousin) in the line of succession – after Mary's younger sister Anne. Thus, although after Mary's death William continued to reign, he had no power to beget direct heirs, and Anne became the heir apparent for the remainder of William's reign. She eventually succeeded him as Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland.
Displacement of heirs apparent
The position of an heir apparent is normally unshakable: it can be assumed they will inherit. Sometimes, however, extraordinary events—such as the death or the deposition of the parent—intervene.
People who lost heir apparent status
Al-Mufawwid on 30 April 892, al-Muwaffad was removed from the succession (heir apparent) completely, and when al-Mu'tamid died in October 892, he was succeeded by Al-Mu'tadid.
Parliament deposed James Francis Edward Stuart, the infant son of King James II & VII (of England and Scotland respectively) whom James II was raising as a Catholic, as the King's legal heir apparent—declaring that James had, de facto, abdicated—and offered the throne to James II's oldest daughter, the young prince's much older Protestant half-sister, Mary (along with her husband, Prince William of Orange). When the exiled King James died in 1701, his Jacobite supporters proclaimed the exiled Prince James Francis Edward as King James III of England and James VIII of Scotland; but neither he nor his descendants were ever successful in their bids for the throne.
Crown Prince Gustav (later known as Gustav, Prince of Vasa), son of Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden, lost his place when his father was deposed and replaced by Gustav IV Adolf's aged uncle, the Duke Carl, who became Charles XIII of Sweden in 1809. The aged King Charles XIII did not have surviving sons, and Prince Gustav was the only living male of the whole dynasty (besides his deposed father), but the prince was never regarded as heir of Charles XIII, although there were factions in the Riksdag and elsewhere in Sweden who desired to preserve him, and, in the subsequent constitutional elections, supported his election as his grand-uncle's successor. Instead, the government proceeded to have a new crown prince elected (which was the proper constitutional action, if no male heir was left in the dynasty), and the Riksdag elected first August, Prince of Augustenborg, and then, after August's death, the Prince of Ponte Corvo (Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, who acceded as Charles XIV John in 1818). The two lines united later, when Charles XIV John's great-grandson Crown Prince Gustaf (who acceded as Gustaf V in 1907) married Gustav IV Adolf's great-granddaughter Victoria of Baden, who became Crown Princess of Sweden. Thus, from Gustav VI Adolf onwards, the kings of Sweden are direct descendants of both Gustav IV Adolf and his son's replacement as crown prince, Charles XIV John.
Prince Carl Philip of Sweden, at his birth in 1979, was heir apparent to the throne of Sweden. Less than eight months later, a change in that country's succession laws instituted absolute primogeniture, and Carl Philip was supplanted as heir apparent by his elder sister Victoria.
Muqrin bin Abdulaziz became Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia in January 2015 upon the death of his half-brother King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al Saud and the accession of another half-brother, Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, to the Saudi throne. In April of that year, Salman removed Muqrin as Crown Prince, replacing him with their nephew Muhammad bin Nayef. Muhammad bin Nayef himself was later replaced as Crown Prince by the king's son Mohammad bin Salman.
Breaching legal qualification of heirs apparent
In some jurisdictions, an heir apparent can automatically lose that status by breaching certain constitutional rules. Today, for example:
A British heir apparent would lose this status if he or she became a Catholic. This is the only religion-based restriction on the heir-apparent. (Previously, marrying a Catholic also equated to losing this status, however, in October 2011, the governments of the then-16 Commonwealth realms — now 15, of which Queen Elizabeth II is monarch — agreed to remove the restriction on marriage to a Catholic. All of the Commonwealth realms subsequently passed legislation to implement the change, which fully took effect in March 2015.)
Swedish Crown Princes and Crown Princesses would lose heir apparent status, according to the Act of Succession, if they married without approval of the monarch and the Government, abandoned the "pure Evangelical faith", or accepted another throne without the approval of the Riksdag.
Dutch Princes and Princesses of Orange would lose status as heir to the throne if they married without the approval of the States-General, or simply renounced the right.
Spanish Princes and Princesses of Asturias would lose status if they married against the express prohibition of the monarch and the Cortes.
Belgian Dukes and Duchesses of Brabant would lose heir apparent status if they married without the consent of the monarch, or became monarch of another country.
Danish Crown Princes and Princesses would lose status if they married without the permission of the monarch. When the monarch grants permission for a dynast to enter marriage, he may set conditions that must be met for the dynasts and/or their children to gain or maintain a place in the line of succession; this also applies for Crown Princes and Princesses.
Current heirs apparent
Heirs apparent who never inherited the throne
Heirs apparent who predeceased the monarch
Heirs apparent who were forced to abandon their claim
Heirs apparent of monarchs who themselves abdicated or were deposed
See also
List of heirs apparent
President-elect
Prime minister-designate
Heads of former ruling families
Notes and references
Notes
References
Monarchy
Inheritance
|
[
-0.3875660002231598,
-0.17858201265335083,
0.08000637590885162,
0.07966125756502151,
-0.05131765827536583,
-0.228834867477417,
0.002523266477510333,
0.5451600551605225,
-0.6126940846443176,
-0.7927464246749878,
-1.067954421043396,
0.15954573452472687,
-0.07877141237258911,
0.29665249586105347,
-0.43045032024383545,
0.3706139326095581,
0.34220337867736816,
0.45586496591567993,
-0.8038759827613831,
-0.6501638889312744,
0.0026916905771940947,
0.4431391954421997,
-0.09898548573255539,
-0.25831151008605957,
0.7698243856430054,
-0.24625496566295624,
0.36886873841285706,
-0.03345436230301857,
-0.38014891743659973,
-0.05084984004497528,
0.03264294192194939,
-0.3792625963687897,
0.06642482429742813,
-0.07530257850885391,
-0.1215776801109314,
-0.3504568934440613,
0.19145694375038147,
-0.5290592908859253,
-0.6633619070053101,
-0.8971021175384521,
-0.14735957980155945,
-0.20133815705776215,
0.10129828006029129,
0.10657425969839096,
-0.7428202033042908,
-0.5130752921104431,
-1.8739995956420898,
-0.12645690143108368,
0.006277341861277819,
-0.17136377096176147,
0.016518911346793175,
-0.0863981544971466,
-0.18450194597244263,
0.430923730134964,
0.4334730803966522,
-0.1577579528093338,
-0.41108396649360657,
-0.02916833385825157,
-0.25317439436912537,
-0.010086877271533012,
0.3735926151275635,
-0.13419467210769653,
0.026173925027251244,
0.7460105419158936,
0.2777540683746338,
-0.035292934626340866,
0.2241034209728241,
0.2654060423374176,
-0.9020088315010071,
-0.11904790252447128,
-0.440224289894104,
-0.21128606796264648,
0.5858641862869263,
0.45770466327667236,
-0.3823823928833008,
0.0823109820485115,
0.24930740892887115,
0.2840854525566101,
0.5336135625839233,
-0.460509330034256,
0.1360882967710495,
0.05744379013776779,
0.05039297789335251,
0.31352511048316956,
0.08784584701061249,
0.5131826996803284,
-0.11592228710651398,
0.4718174636363983,
-0.4728013873100281,
1.0271828174591064,
0.26325276494026184,
0.29233518242836,
0.3638458549976349,
-0.135525181889534,
-0.10507047176361084,
-0.3290207087993622,
0.5951725840568542,
-0.3263872265815735,
0.09934457391500473,
-0.40826988220214844,
-0.02200096659362316,
-0.14571309089660645,
0.2091112732887268,
-1.0285594463348389,
-0.3727087080478668,
-0.5848445892333984,
-0.4700605571269989,
0.09246844053268433,
-0.09601110219955444,
-0.0848066508769989,
-0.1550852656364441,
0.5727041363716125,
0.407209187746048,
0.37720203399658203,
-0.31618180871009827,
0.032910920679569244,
-0.05032631382346153,
0.15790481865406036,
-0.23798666894435883,
-0.3921603858470917,
0.41088560223579407,
0.22565880417823792,
-0.1385224312543869,
0.012813663110136986,
0.16156239807605743,
-0.061753202229738235,
0.15683771669864655,
0.5374132394790649,
-0.316910058259964,
-0.0807662159204483,
0.03155776485800743,
0.23566772043704987,
-0.5701496601104736,
0.06925545632839203,
0.4161052405834198,
-0.15516865253448486,
-0.07901816070079803,
-0.14543375372886658,
0.8219089508056641,
0.3621029555797577,
-0.7040175795555115,
-0.24419891834259033,
-0.15227274596691132,
0.25315263867378235,
0.36518824100494385,
-0.12729324400424957,
-0.19037452340126038,
-0.10138387978076935,
-0.01678299531340599,
0.7392435073852539,
-0.3634541928768158,
-0.33797487616539,
-0.30054500699043274,
-0.09552541375160217,
-0.47096017003059387,
0.15757861733436584,
0.878297746181488,
-0.10848936438560486,
0.28428807854652405,
0.7787860035896301,
0.01625826209783554,
0.09007000923156738,
0.39660489559173584,
-0.16460329294204712,
0.5935852527618408,
-0.4702662527561188,
-0.049273114651441574,
0.5567343831062317,
-0.3227311968803406,
-0.2222827821969986,
-0.25488534569740295,
0.8602136373519897,
-0.025186138227581978,
-0.01475610863417387,
-0.0979122743010521,
0.515747606754303,
0.06438744068145752,
-0.06137118116021156,
1.079138159751892,
-0.392686128616333,
-0.6020333766937256,
0.4509856700897217,
0.43411940336227417,
0.29833611845970154,
-0.19101962447166443,
-0.15557916462421417,
-0.3622934818267822,
0.0261343102902174,
0.44202420115470886,
-0.19860856235027313,
-0.5366978049278259,
-0.13077916204929352,
-0.5699668526649475,
-0.951134443283081,
-0.19288568198680878,
-0.4075278639793396,
0.05958245322108269,
0.43987682461738586,
0.06952182203531265,
0.865797221660614,
0.31117236614227295,
-0.057349611073732376,
-0.02723388932645321,
0.1430557817220688,
-0.11862622201442719,
0.5787933468818665,
0.2487553507089615,
-0.02331739291548729,
0.4589313566684723,
0.03180675208568573,
0.3184903860092163,
0.25163114070892334,
0.9686180949211121,
0.3252917230129242,
0.4674237072467804,
0.41371873021125793,
-0.5832077264785767,
-0.5226868987083435,
0.012112438678741455,
-0.4899139702320099,
0.5599575042724609,
0.671464741230011,
-0.08854218572378159,
0.29411250352859497,
-0.3340102732181549,
0.6164544224739075,
-0.27286261320114136,
-0.3700715899467468,
-0.19438670575618744,
-0.2707069218158722,
0.3217606544494629,
-0.015523506328463554,
0.47999587655067444,
-0.07105810940265656,
-0.24030913412570953,
-0.39300307631492615,
-0.40450021624565125,
-0.31427741050720215,
0.23771308362483978,
0.07289502024650574,
-0.10592301934957504,
0.05376184731721878,
-0.2704392671585083,
0.6383370757102966,
0.26630228757858276,
0.49338480830192566,
-0.0044123404659330845,
0.2021874040365219,
-1.039918065071106,
-0.203360915184021,
0.5006265044212341,
-0.18722404539585114,
0.09841130673885345,
-0.24917080998420715,
-0.1087329238653183,
-0.5051760673522949,
-0.8979766368865967,
0.7494768500328064,
-0.029499243944883347,
0.3651011884212494,
-0.011580782942473888,
0.07462042570114136,
0.3710504174232483,
-0.033633582293987274,
-0.1992664486169815,
0.09530536830425262,
-0.3541661500930786,
-0.3084900677204132,
-0.21580633521080017,
0.22629095613956451,
0.36748531460762024,
-0.2293335646390915,
-0.5164596438407898,
-0.3216949701309204,
-0.6370317339897156,
-0.3339587450027466,
0.4699227213859558,
0.535458505153656,
-0.12545855343341827,
-0.797881543636322,
0.05284648388624191,
0.16063015162944794,
-0.653723955154419,
-0.6514917016029358,
-0.5251697301864624,
-0.235596165060997,
0.3488164246082306,
-0.1845502257347107,
-0.137302428483963,
0.5008854866027832,
-0.49410930275917053,
0.3323614299297333,
0.42771115899086,
0.03623455762863159,
0.5230059027671814,
0.6568971872329712,
0.16337046027183533,
0.12114787846803665,
-0.26686736941337585,
-0.910020112991333,
-0.6779646873474121,
-0.030971437692642212,
0.268931120634079,
-0.4550390839576721,
0.37701302766799927,
0.45129308104515076,
0.030933408066630363,
-0.10408589243888855,
-5.493506908416748,
-0.050472524017095566,
-0.17364992201328278,
0.16588379442691803,
0.9609699249267578,
0.2145475149154663,
0.8127875924110413,
0.016263242810964584,
-0.4435400068759918,
0.062419142574071884,
0.6106541156768799,
-0.35996392369270325,
0.4171031415462494,
0.2690998911857605,
0.29848095774650574,
-0.3399406671524048,
0.6146081686019897,
0.36072492599487305,
-0.09486266225576401,
0.3189767003059387,
-0.7421292066574097,
-0.4334356486797333,
0.4426340162754059,
0.43647217750549316,
-0.07882651686668396,
0.17693772912025452,
-0.09310595691204071,
-0.2684488594532013,
-0.38774868845939636,
-0.5882424712181091,
0.31469494104385376,
0.41462525725364685,
0.5715437531471252,
0.04178490489721298,
-0.35673847794532776,
-0.21838966012001038,
0.3550175428390503,
0.3546205759048462,
-0.02372080087661743,
-0.2767215967178345,
0.14267931878566742,
-0.10400699079036713,
-0.44359880685806274,
0.5406489968299866,
-0.2643832266330719,
-0.30559712648391724,
-0.030003726482391357,
0.1240033209323883,
-0.11229697614908218,
0.4052870571613312,
-0.5386485457420349,
0.6301906108856201,
0.2932624816894531,
-0.5540738701820374,
0.01924986205995083,
0.7410483956336975,
-0.09978436678647995,
0.3393809199333191,
-0.16952069103717804,
0.3604869246482849,
0.22788363695144653,
-0.6160523891448975,
0.6356475353240967,
0.17525286972522736,
-0.011623144149780273,
-0.04476645588874817,
-0.7076427936553955,
0.44551077485084534,
1.0576496124267578,
0.23538777232170105,
-0.6619861125946045,
0.07796825468540192,
0.2599325478076935,
-0.9408243298530579,
-0.2033853977918625,
-0.7236443758010864,
0.22043843567371368,
0.1636422574520111,
0.15426507592201233,
-0.3938593864440918,
0.14106430113315582,
0.2868685722351074,
-0.2399185746908188,
0.559627890586853,
0.24644334614276886,
-0.4742308557033539,
0.029935099184513092,
0.38078200817108154,
0.37511566281318665,
-0.48423367738723755,
0.4383174180984497,
-0.17227904498577118,
-0.275902658700943,
0.09512492269277573,
0.21287567913532257,
0.09123923629522324,
-0.052843742072582245,
-0.1926860362291336,
0.560234010219574,
0.03000650554895401,
0.051767148077487946,
-0.2963104248046875,
0.001355289830826223,
-0.32666996121406555,
-0.12168372422456741,
-0.3616372048854828,
-0.18164120614528656,
0.3066703677177429,
0.2284560352563858,
-0.5128253102302551,
0.19927632808685303,
-0.21090003848075867,
-0.10989680886268616,
-1.1128073930740356,
-0.407633900642395,
-0.5950289964675903,
-0.6148964762687683,
0.6483713388442993,
0.19438976049423218,
0.21715104579925537,
-0.25230830907821655,
0.46490877866744995,
-0.8640936017036438,
-0.009492459706962109,
-0.7322009801864624,
0.25608447194099426,
0.14561215043067932,
-0.27900898456573486,
0.36609649658203125,
-0.5759073495864868,
0.7367579340934753,
0.5494873523712158,
-0.21052111685276031,
-0.040963687002658844,
0.13362851738929749,
-0.6914737224578857,
0.904618501663208,
-0.055387649685144424,
-0.5694623589515686,
-0.9783138036727905,
-0.2765428125858307,
-0.49515748023986816,
-0.4555959105491638,
-0.40714898705482483,
0.43715301156044006,
-0.11527464538812637,
-0.1646871566772461,
-0.0013652228517457843,
-0.04824279993772507,
0.7804726362228394,
-0.04916934669017792,
-0.21146145462989807,
0.5808641910552979,
-0.6494010090827942,
-0.01326439343392849,
-0.49477332830429077,
-0.7956375479698181,
-0.2655308246612549,
-0.379680871963501,
-0.7799749374389648,
-0.3784419298171997,
-0.3524877727031708,
-0.653144359588623,
-0.3412836492061615,
0.8316424489021301,
0.33377179503440857,
-0.58986896276474,
-0.0030685688834637403,
-0.5027257800102234,
0.8109185695648193,
-0.09765788912773132,
-0.8875289559364319,
-0.42948079109191895,
-0.7861642837524414,
0.335312157869339,
-0.5081466436386108,
0.3494778275489807,
0.6314268708229065,
0.17221662402153015,
-0.24994352459907532,
0.13366609811782837,
-0.11593044549226761,
-0.022040052339434624,
0.08910045027732849,
0.14236252009868622,
-0.6654306054115295,
0.10347289592027664,
-0.3258371651172638,
-0.4665818214416504,
-0.5061448812484741,
0.0834018811583519,
0.40970197319984436,
0.34435272216796875,
-0.3651835322380066,
-0.28043684363365173,
0.14497670531272888,
-0.012895210646092892,
-0.1796979010105133,
-0.16218580305576324,
-0.05968103185296059,
0.19725401699543,
0.43435391783714294,
-0.2112072855234146,
0.10020119696855545,
0.6488577127456665,
-0.5067007541656494,
0.14027594029903412,
-0.07961072027683258,
-0.4627036452293396,
0.3415904641151428,
-0.1969933658838272,
-0.7916731238365173,
-0.07174324244260788,
0.6466192603111267,
-0.1903812140226364,
-0.0854640081524849,
0.0032038558274507523,
-0.8039998412132263,
0.41862648725509644,
-0.4679303765296936,
0.3958873450756073,
0.062253475189208984,
0.35286518931388855,
0.46985751390457153,
0.2794383466243744,
-0.12536288797855377,
0.5268113613128662,
-0.09155760705471039,
1.0055547952651978,
-0.6775302290916443,
-0.06328718364238739,
0.12399715930223465,
-0.232171893119812,
0.09767773747444153,
-0.5193432569503784,
-0.03732055798172951,
0.6044162511825562,
-0.5026424527168274,
0.048443738371133804,
-0.2956547141075134,
0.18648074567317963,
1.522379755973816,
0.3219241201877594,
-0.5321399569511414,
0.03187483921647072,
-0.0013687522150576115,
0.13697203993797302,
-0.7366246581077576,
-0.2960892915725708,
0.9050803780555725,
0.24450069665908813,
-0.007394816260784864,
-0.3513337969779968,
0.10253909230232239,
-0.5167721509933472,
-0.4719148576259613,
-0.3614141047000885,
-0.2826739251613617,
0.11635662615299225,
0.783027172088623,
0.2900729179382324,
-0.19136066734790802,
0.32751983404159546,
-0.29150626063346863,
0.9635740518569946,
-0.0490051731467247,
-0.6379856467247009,
0.06525810807943344,
0.5254318118095398,
-0.20458009839057922,
-0.03693003207445145,
-0.39151737093925476,
0.35813742876052856,
-0.08941170573234558,
1.090569019317627,
0.23799680173397064,
0.40458598732948303,
-0.11095555126667023,
-0.3434315025806427,
0.2950761616230011,
-0.4036071300506592,
-0.21854114532470703,
-0.29192423820495605,
-0.9122706055641174,
0.3830178678035736,
-1.030048131942749,
0.3927239179611206,
-0.033112794160842896,
-0.6364996433258057,
-0.07422484457492828,
-0.6615588068962097,
0.17787736654281616,
0.49067220091819763,
0.13151384890079498,
0.16841797530651093,
0.8273517489433289,
0.03306224197149277,
0.7336994409561157,
0.18215610086917877,
-0.06279736757278442,
-0.19639746844768524,
0.6843215227127075,
0.26113632321357727,
-0.40224599838256836,
-0.18868745863437653,
0.5590625405311584,
-0.36748063564300537,
-0.6919716596603394,
0.3310095965862274,
0.022034037858247757,
-0.04609191045165062,
0.014944443479180336,
0.4317081570625305,
0.7308545112609863,
-0.39156439900398254,
-0.18972395360469818,
0.4155403673648834,
-0.371147483587265,
-0.23460513353347778,
0.05640518292784691,
0.36437296867370605,
-0.35100820660591125,
0.10021118819713593,
-0.19504842162132263,
-0.28219515085220337,
0.35387882590293884,
-0.17212539911270142,
0.12629938125610352,
0.24340425431728363,
0.4808461368083954,
0.7904664278030396,
0.9017566442489624,
-0.3039071559906006,
0.5971854329109192,
-0.24003799259662628,
-0.6722441911697388,
0.484093576669693,
-0.6003918647766113,
0.16926614940166473,
0.7510685920715332,
0.9473199844360352,
0.716559886932373,
-0.22249235212802887,
-0.021498965099453926,
-0.5105823874473572,
-0.15713778138160706,
-0.46099069714546204,
0.49911409616470337,
0.33168914914131165,
0.20862814784049988,
0.5642759799957275,
-0.39073267579078674,
0.13649310171604156,
-0.15464217960834503,
0.3676334619522095,
0.2234654724597931,
0.28588858246803284,
-0.30000030994415283,
0.25827521085739136,
-0.7077434659004211,
-0.5353193283081055,
-0.2965260446071625,
0.30647918581962585,
0.3987167179584503,
0.2485533505678177,
-0.850594162940979,
0.6068137288093567,
-0.2203931361436844,
0.3942054510116577,
0.03063330613076687,
0.2598073184490204,
-0.082441046833992,
0.27252161502838135,
0.012485104613006115,
0.47923314571380615,
0.1517784297466278,
0.3515177369117737,
-0.11704019457101822,
-0.3309209644794464,
-0.32621023058891296,
-0.09251873940229416,
-0.5659087896347046,
-0.5205682516098022,
-0.9360476732254028,
-0.2563489079475403,
0.12143941968679428,
0.2563703656196594,
0.2854044437408447,
-0.29799124598503113,
0.7071624994277954,
0.36792275309562683,
0.09316043555736542,
0.28509214520454407,
-0.31297174096107483,
0.12055701017379761,
0.030569549649953842,
-0.20860858261585236,
0.39913591742515564,
0.2107415497303009,
-0.1907770037651062,
-0.24491460621356964,
0.8886200785636902,
-0.26686957478523254,
-0.18505021929740906,
0.46972450613975525,
-0.10881420969963074,
-0.08132555335760117,
0.24036991596221924,
-0.6113978624343872,
0.28126275539398193,
0.2835070788860321,
-0.6019242405891418,
0.28726938366889954,
0.4524904489517212,
0.14610931277275085,
-0.32881835103034973,
0.3579391539096832,
0.20083777606487274,
0.4380546808242798,
-0.4532969295978546,
0.3912896513938904,
0.054512105882167816,
0.3793950080871582,
0.050822336226701736,
-0.4299479126930237,
-0.17197942733764648,
0.18838784098625183,
0.6967374086380005,
-0.9226288795471191,
0.6335559487342834,
-0.8059528470039368,
0.4705876111984253,
-0.31911328434944153,
-0.5132477879524231,
-0.22021614015102386,
0.026077568531036377,
0.2319478541612625,
0.4898500144481659,
-0.5045583844184875,
-0.453978955745697,
-0.4437837600708008,
0.22354194521903992,
0.44138261675834656,
0.6664013266563416,
0.1208857074379921,
-0.3018477261066437,
-0.2840450704097748,
0.16695618629455566,
-0.30845651030540466,
-0.29292383790016174,
0.4961585998535156,
0.14269529283046722,
0.8519943356513977,
0.025527991354465485,
0.1811324954032898,
-0.09587066620588303,
0.22466544806957245,
-0.6647022366523743,
-0.4335755705833435,
0.8903511166572571
] |
213052
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coventry%20Transport%20Museum
|
Coventry Transport Museum
|
Coventry Transport Museum (formerly known as the Museum of British Road Transport) is a transport museum, located in Coventry city centre, England.
It houses the largest collection of British-made road transport held in public ownership. It is located in Coventry because the city was previously the centre of the British car industry and the birthplace of the bicycle. There are more than 240 cars and commercial vehicles, 100 motorcycles, 200 bicycles.
As of June 30, 2019, Coventry Transport Museum is no longer free admission. Prices for adults will be £14, concessions will be £10.50 and juniors (5 to 16 years) will be £7 with special prices for families. Admission to the museum is still free for Coventry residents
The ever-changing temporary exhibitions feature motor cars, commercial vehicles, cycles and motorcycles from the museums own collection and beyond. The museum offers activities ranging from engineering challenges to scientific experiments.
The museum is also home to a 60 year old Vintage Sleigh Ride, that has been popular in the city for generations of local residents.
It has a full-time archive department, which deals with an array of historical items, and offers a public enquiry service answering questions and finding items and information. Visitors need to contact the museum prior to visiting should they wish to access the archives, or speak to a curator.
Exhibits
Notable exhibits in the museum are Thrust2 and ThrustSSC, the British jet cars which broke the land speed record in 1983 and 1997, respectively, and some of the Royal cars - Queen Mary's and King George V's State limousines.
Coventry Transport Museum's £8.5 million redevelopment project in which 12 of the Museum's 14 galleries were completely transformed was completed in 2015, the project was funded by the Heritage Lottery Foundation, European Development Fund, Biffa Award and Garfield Weston. As part of the Museum's redevelopment project, both Thrust SSC and Thrust 2 cars were relocated by specialist haulier from their position in the Museum's Spirit of Speed Gallery to the new Biffa Award Land Speed Record Gallery which opened in 2015.
Many mass-produced cars are in the collection, including an Austin Allegro, an Austin Metro previously owned by Lady Diana Spencer, a Ford Escort MK2, Hillman Imp, Triumph Acclaim, Talbot Sunbeam, Talbot Horizon, Peugeot 206 and Peugeot 405. Many of the vehicles on display were either produced in Coventry or produced by companies which had a presence in Coventry at some stage.
A Humber staff car used by General Montgomery during the Second World War is also on display.
The museum displays many Jaguars and other Coventry built cars such as the Triumph, Humber and Standard marques, an Alvis tank, Massey Ferguson tractors, and Coventry built buses, including the bus that the Coventry City football team paraded in after their victory in the 1987 FA Cup Final. Coventry motorcycle marques are also represented in the museum's collection including: Triumph, Francis-Barnett, Rudge-Whitworth and Coventry-Eagle and it is affiliated to the British Motorcycle Charitable Trust.
References
External links
Collections Database
|
[
0.456553190946579,
-0.1574016511440277,
0.4525993764400482,
-0.7935616374015808,
0.4994407296180725,
0.10737252980470657,
0.24694612622261047,
0.21867984533309937,
-0.7933278679847717,
0.21961553394794464,
-0.43090274930000305,
0.2860106825828552,
0.11029021441936493,
0.6549674868583679,
-0.05830790102481842,
0.20583687722682953,
-0.13482199609279633,
0.35862815380096436,
0.5258873701095581,
0.040274642407894135,
0.1961507648229599,
-0.5635817050933838,
0.14037656784057617,
0.0362827330827713,
0.09363484382629395,
-0.4288216829299927,
0.7772606611251831,
0.2763160169124603,
-0.2705431282520294,
-0.017361029982566833,
-0.2062290459871292,
-0.2811283469200134,
-0.31110742688179016,
-0.1592312604188919,
0.10494843870401382,
-0.2795439064502716,
0.24151809513568878,
-1.0644384622573853,
-0.1504446268081665,
-0.2831234931945801,
-0.16835851967334747,
-0.0071190521121025085,
-0.049764733761548996,
0.20132672786712646,
-0.08215733617544174,
0.2522107660770416,
-0.9575342535972595,
-0.4523696005344391,
-0.631198525428772,
-0.004469980485737324,
-0.4786553382873535,
0.6221504211425781,
0.5127184391021729,
0.7169077396392822,
0.3978503942489624,
0.46759986877441406,
-0.7596371173858643,
-0.24033018946647644,
0.5676549077033997,
-0.21411177515983582,
0.3777120113372803,
0.7917097806930542,
0.2643283009529114,
0.45624449849128723,
-0.027570009231567383,
-0.36450695991516113,
0.5426006317138672,
0.8955471515655518,
-0.0179633516818285,
-0.11081530153751373,
-0.5694509744644165,
-0.4895339906215668,
0.26855555176734924,
-0.0692768394947052,
-0.6230043172836304,
0.03895478695631027,
0.15119215846061707,
-0.3953177332878113,
0.09676200896501541,
-0.07999617606401443,
0.46837541460990906,
0.1826469898223877,
0.9195676445960999,
0.8095825910568237,
0.8465203642845154,
0.29311585426330566,
-1.2914735078811646,
-0.14655572175979614,
-0.4395073652267456,
0.919609546661377,
-0.7704334259033203,
-0.011543897911906242,
0.3165624737739563,
-0.1851550042629242,
0.0729721412062645,
0.10365939885377884,
0.009859227575361729,
-0.08963879197835922,
0.4112885594367981,
0.5461068749427795,
-0.050550803542137146,
0.8117178678512573,
-0.10562362521886826,
-0.24883732199668884,
-0.402295857667923,
-0.4625052511692047,
-0.7851179838180542,
-0.46082803606987,
0.15979240834712982,
0.38648101687431335,
-0.7154808044433594,
-0.4418710768222809,
-0.555210292339325,
0.19929784536361694,
0.10733326524496078,
0.5889657735824585,
0.17628563940525055,
-0.6504763960838318,
-0.38262996077537537,
0.157709538936615,
-0.3089582324028015,
0.39052531123161316,
0.01583567075431347,
0.06164956092834473,
-0.24291281402111053,
0.37092676758766174,
0.3672497570514679,
0.5368143916130066,
-0.436255544424057,
0.027016520500183105,
0.42411622405052185,
0.7154580354690552,
-0.5189614295959473,
-0.6038457751274109,
-0.08859571069478989,
-0.07182500511407852,
-0.022498708218336105,
0.37805619835853577,
0.4367477595806122,
0.48473265767097473,
-0.4452838599681854,
-0.23521441221237183,
-0.2836596667766571,
-0.06276879459619522,
0.7398279905319214,
-0.22382289171218872,
-0.49975505471229553,
-0.16398298740386963,
-0.5811505317687988,
-0.5390965938568115,
-0.11556395143270493,
0.1303420215845108,
-0.3254816234111786,
-0.5085529685020447,
-0.5620337128639221,
0.8335254192352295,
0.7616379261016846,
-0.09284454584121704,
0.24238865077495575,
0.4354553520679474,
-0.2287410944700241,
-0.04854189231991768,
-0.0872030183672905,
0.5186619758605957,
-0.27411651611328125,
-0.042840149253606796,
0.19591490924358368,
-0.049749910831451416,
0.4190331995487213,
-0.5569471716880798,
-0.34448206424713135,
0.044118888676166534,
0.6768338680267334,
-0.2120366096496582,
-0.2580677270889282,
-0.10704991966485977,
1.038046956062317,
0.2671031057834625,
-0.10191909223794937,
-0.21853645145893097,
-0.5776216387748718,
0.21584023535251617,
0.4939836263656616,
0.15393976867198944,
0.6365108489990234,
-0.1349976509809494,
0.3781961500644684,
0.11611787229776382,
-0.3957170844078064,
-0.5958987474441528,
0.14765144884586334,
-0.3621859550476074,
0.5874813795089722,
-0.964174747467041,
0.8002211451530457,
0.11715081334114075,
-0.20656530559062958,
0.4663267731666565,
-0.6842719912528992,
0.6939244270324707,
0.152252197265625,
0.046155575662851334,
-0.018822019919753075,
-0.2653748095035553,
0.4096118211746216,
-0.351141095161438,
0.6352541446685791,
-0.500972330570221,
-0.06273923069238663,
0.06500464677810669,
0.527633786201477,
-0.6964039206504822,
0.09895426779985428,
0.0978863388299942,
0.25243040919303894,
-0.5611717700958252,
0.01792994700372219,
0.10199341177940369,
-0.15335248410701752,
-0.515312671661377,
1.0820237398147583,
0.556046724319458,
-0.2481171041727066,
0.17589245736598969,
-0.49942120909690857,
0.2874930500984192,
-0.37727218866348267,
0.08402327448129654,
0.5209341645240784,
-0.42234116792678833,
-0.12842625379562378,
0.26380065083503723,
-0.4225398600101471,
-0.016599856317043304,
-0.05110135301947594,
-0.22470198571681976,
-0.25889530777931213,
-0.0386308953166008,
-0.0935978889465332,
-0.26817065477371216,
0.08949676901102066,
-0.054480522871017456,
-0.8797599673271179,
0.2790848910808563,
0.4884275197982788,
-0.10965761542320251,
-0.18483012914657593,
0.6096429228782654,
-0.3710987865924835,
-0.3316487967967987,
0.13493666052818298,
0.36129647493362427,
0.5095096230506897,
0.22577577829360962,
0.37323951721191406,
-0.620455265045166,
0.0039009684696793556,
0.16780944168567657,
0.21525618433952332,
0.5661510825157166,
0.21624290943145752,
-0.4975498616695404,
-0.6032522320747375,
0.325629323720932,
-0.18828658759593964,
-0.2746565043926239,
-0.35970863699913025,
-0.6861727237701416,
0.3870164453983307,
0.21334406733512878,
0.5344682335853577,
-0.23769794404506683,
0.18769431114196777,
0.22603468596935272,
0.5514945983886719,
0.2519334852695465,
0.08311035484075546,
0.07172364741563797,
0.5392566919326782,
0.23102229833602905,
0.09911505877971649,
0.5905906558036804,
0.22891470789909363,
-0.7226172089576721,
-0.31450456380844116,
0.23076146841049194,
-0.29974913597106934,
0.26097869873046875,
-0.31214872002601624,
-0.21088172495365143,
-0.24663430452346802,
-0.01233399473130703,
-0.26151973009109497,
0.3261907994747162,
-0.23558169603347778,
0.3795216679573059,
-0.2945772111415863,
-0.13297490775585175,
0.20721954107284546,
-0.6856580972671509,
-0.3699190318584442,
1.2687402963638306,
-0.38180896639823914,
-0.08524362742900848,
0.3583937883377075,
0.22981242835521698,
-0.6055806279182434,
-0.9176097512245178,
-5.3601579666137695,
0.22657963633537292,
-0.18783719837665558,
-0.10353635251522064,
0.7664794921875,
-0.15070840716362,
-0.00203657615929842,
-0.2408018857240677,
-0.275795042514801,
-0.5728356838226318,
0.20190759003162384,
0.18557249009609222,
-0.4561093747615814,
0.8493362665176392,
0.4207908809185028,
0.576753556728363,
0.4167032241821289,
0.8317086696624756,
0.6765426397323608,
-0.1477089375257492,
-0.32380878925323486,
-0.4533236622810364,
-0.6436125636100769,
0.30640920996665955,
-0.26893341541290283,
0.7309725284576416,
-0.9121013283729553,
0.1065722405910492,
-0.776147723197937,
0.2973371744155884,
0.03259178623557091,
-0.34962600469589233,
-0.7674726843833923,
-0.006329248193651438,
0.27954548597335815,
-0.0072569032199680805,
0.14796195924282074,
0.3530575633049011,
0.21533583104610443,
-0.593608021736145,
0.10839588940143585,
0.5900677442550659,
-0.23272795975208282,
-0.10196984559297562,
0.30345574021339417,
-0.36879491806030273,
-0.6458699703216553,
-0.1637481302022934,
-0.09509740024805069,
0.4619201123714447,
-0.503442645072937,
0.48714083433151245,
0.836170494556427,
-0.16514840722084045,
0.12405811995267868,
-0.7705835103988647,
0.2904883623123169,
-0.08760256320238113,
0.568052351474762,
-0.18216292560100555,
-0.5262218713760376,
-0.4578167200088501,
-0.008432663977146149,
-0.32821035385131836,
-1.234484076499939,
0.22308342158794403,
-0.24773751199245453,
0.13311205804347992,
0.7170767188072205,
-0.27760249376296997,
-0.8805933594703674,
-0.029076693579554558,
-0.4807388484477997,
-0.5438582897186279,
0.17808052897453308,
-0.021794503554701805,
-0.0367438942193985,
0.39343833923339844,
0.04694392532110214,
0.282964289188385,
-0.2219713181257248,
-0.7284137010574341,
-0.010342789813876152,
-0.015589860267937183,
-0.010376141406595707,
-0.7815302014350891,
0.23145614564418793,
0.059875018894672394,
-0.36551105976104736,
-0.6279201507568359,
-0.12053822726011276,
-0.2633655071258545,
-0.9067679643630981,
0.496736615896225,
0.26047229766845703,
0.02572939172387123,
-0.17370137572288513,
0.8703534007072449,
0.23558326065540314,
-0.5897085666656494,
0.22036974132061005,
-0.6408438086509705,
0.047224871814250946,
0.09541407227516174,
-0.0737418606877327,
-0.08716915547847748,
-0.04468442127108574,
0.07574781030416489,
0.4174163341522217,
-0.1987762302160263,
-0.19947174191474915,
-0.30223348736763,
-0.6204630732536316,
-0.1939440220594406,
0.34120479226112366,
-0.11753370612859726,
-0.2750628590583801,
0.9594931602478027,
0.4593716263771057,
0.19780205190181732,
0.39733201265335083,
-0.12080513685941696,
-0.5527854561805725,
0.07873627543449402,
0.14391367137432098,
0.3411475121974945,
0.2966539263725281,
0.1966204196214676,
-0.001702616224065423,
-0.41600537300109863,
-0.09659766405820847,
0.21363095939159393,
0.20443402230739594,
0.8799238801002502,
-0.30746111273765564,
-0.33980515599250793,
-0.766889750957489,
-0.43900206685066223,
0.19140015542507172,
0.19413655996322632,
0.5812211036682129,
-0.17962855100631714,
0.05270139127969742,
0.29423847794532776,
0.6224677562713623,
0.48777899146080017,
0.06055138632655144,
0.20973731577396393,
-0.7124131917953491,
-0.15469829738140106,
-0.3323821723461151,
-0.2667849361896515,
-0.37636542320251465,
-0.5468913912773132,
0.05072890967130661,
-0.4293486475944519,
-0.03313116356730461,
0.4252648651599884,
-0.18145865201950073,
-0.3992220163345337,
0.4639967679977417,
0.0741908997297287,
-0.28101661801338196,
0.39030519127845764,
0.09902770072221756,
0.016302738338708878,
0.19975651800632477,
-0.30985307693481445,
0.13785229623317719,
0.5909231901168823,
-0.13361680507659912,
-0.3250793218612671,
-0.7796385288238525,
-0.4772050082683563,
0.776979923248291,
0.24878765642642975,
0.018416324630379677,
0.16633567214012146,
0.17122535407543182,
0.46693873405456543,
0.1093434989452362,
0.23994451761245728,
-0.30092155933380127,
0.03903099149465561,
0.12174081802368164,
-0.05507072061300278,
-0.3307589888572693,
0.02902466617524624,
0.2919468283653259,
-0.7198837399482727,
0.2883831560611725,
0.08699660003185272,
0.014563214965164661,
0.3177213668823242,
-0.2955757677555084,
-0.6406726837158203,
0.5515413284301758,
-0.1480552703142166,
0.13574880361557007,
-0.7612207531929016,
0.5540803074836731,
0.4276159703731537,
-0.7516933679580688,
0.730825662612915,
0.30430325865745544,
-0.598168671131134,
0.42469069361686707,
0.27172496914863586,
0.10130331665277481,
0.7685263752937317,
-0.6544053554534912,
-0.6280731558799744,
0.1718224436044693,
0.34800928831100464,
-0.8084698915481567,
-0.193439319729805,
0.20619364082813263,
-0.4413227438926697,
-0.24578021466732025,
-0.2422172576189041,
-0.9055404663085938,
-0.1433475762605667,
-1.0541260242462158,
-0.16107793152332306,
-0.6622832417488098,
0.4211578071117401,
0.9910232424736023,
-0.9142522215843201,
0.20911692082881927,
-0.5083535313606262,
-0.14301088452339172,
-0.3025839626789093,
0.1311195194721222,
0.5225560665130615,
0.43231064081192017,
0.04279706999659538,
-0.12009815126657486,
-0.05088746175169945,
0.3765801191329956,
0.4594116806983948,
0.0009761289693415165,
0.9149709343910217,
0.01832866109907627,
-0.9323524832725525,
-0.10580866783857346,
0.4820563495159149,
1.0775866508483887,
-0.14146387577056885,
-0.43097802996635437,
0.36716124415397644,
0.08479578793048859,
-0.09902959316968918,
-0.5525304675102234,
-0.0557560995221138,
0.7201440334320068,
-0.6087743639945984,
-0.05064404383301735,
-0.09380276501178741,
0.17494794726371765,
-0.5421432256698608,
0.27890995144844055,
0.04763013869524002,
-0.3599802851676941,
0.0009463141905143857,
0.40599241852760315,
0.1324809193611145,
-0.6702485680580139,
-0.805596113204956,
-0.15916411578655243,
-0.5704416632652283,
-0.049660030752420425,
0.2789364457130432,
0.6809794902801514,
0.6531392931938171,
-0.055327773094177246,
-0.6613664031028748,
0.24619650840759277,
-1.2165709733963013,
0.39025598764419556,
0.06653641164302826,
-0.2348659783601761,
-0.020555682480335236,
-0.05547642707824707,
-0.377509742975235,
0.6153357028961182,
-0.6922100782394409,
-0.00892222486436367,
0.32513490319252014,
-0.1183210238814354,
-0.06876562535762787,
-0.14005859196186066,
-0.22847336530685425,
-0.05902455747127533,
0.036615632474422455,
-0.20283885300159454,
0.5113109946250916,
-0.07228802889585495,
0.46249106526374817,
0.1351187527179718,
0.12009000033140182,
-0.9007638096809387,
0.5361136198043823,
-0.09465248137712479,
-0.7567466497421265,
0.40022900700569153,
0.29300037026405334,
-0.600269079208374,
-0.14233732223510742,
0.30999740958213806,
-0.05965529382228851,
0.13621312379837036,
0.1424185335636139,
0.3180212378501892,
1.045859694480896,
-0.4998302459716797,
-0.1909698098897934,
0.3710092306137085,
-0.9265901446342468,
0.02661791630089283,
0.5333228707313538,
0.08112483471632004,
0.7454954981803894,
0.2840104401111603,
-0.49989160895347595,
-0.5925244688987732,
0.8847271800041199,
-0.2285659909248352,
-0.046187154948711395,
0.25757017731666565,
0.6108048558235168,
0.2489209920167923,
-0.6046542525291443,
-0.5637190341949463,
1.1408134698867798,
0.20944048464298248,
-0.024418296292424202,
0.3242798149585724,
-0.16492246091365814,
-0.13777606189250946,
0.29366084933280945,
0.03574027121067047,
-0.02026304416358471,
-0.20641502737998962,
0.23044416308403015,
-0.40888601541519165,
0.126456618309021,
0.24796847999095917,
-0.014104221016168594,
0.17536067962646484,
0.45489758253097534,
0.34423595666885376,
0.1793932318687439,
0.6566251516342163,
0.32063961029052734,
0.24452443420886993,
-0.34480050206184387,
0.1678304523229599,
-0.3707440495491028,
-0.41695505380630493,
0.44228464365005493,
0.5039903521537781,
0.7238989472389221,
0.23910818994045258,
0.18732742965221405,
-0.37778016924858093,
-0.016858980059623718,
0.43513983488082886,
-0.4481857717037201,
-0.034402064979076385,
0.384171724319458,
0.2618294954299927,
0.4782984256744385,
-0.6558112502098083,
0.3530957102775574,
0.01699138805270195,
0.02720978856086731,
0.28415754437446594,
0.31690675020217896,
-0.29581400752067566,
0.16162864863872528,
-0.2647393047809601,
0.4378085136413574,
0.41393786668777466,
-0.23510213196277618,
0.31282666325569153,
-0.6000953316688538,
-0.4612348973751068,
0.5107370615005493,
-0.5063325762748718,
-0.26690396666526794,
-0.37588152289390564,
0.20842023193836212,
-0.2866452634334564,
-0.08511286973953247,
-0.8185789585113525,
-0.43885594606399536,
-0.2857658267021179,
0.2647641897201538,
-0.2213514894247055,
-0.006110966205596924,
-0.027862632647156715,
0.9619827270507812,
-0.527752161026001,
0.6770778894424438,
-0.6814309358596802,
0.32782235741615295,
-0.630383312702179,
-0.14123928546905518,
-0.6218785643577576,
0.4146353006362915,
-0.1293160766363144,
0.26143690943717957,
-0.35642850399017334,
-0.2041390836238861,
-0.9694598913192749,
0.8827059268951416,
0.6690665483474731,
-0.08853010088205338,
-0.2685697674751282,
-0.5059537291526794,
0.3727952241897583,
-0.3911547362804413,
0.6987251043319702,
0.3976527750492096,
-0.10089799016714096,
-0.6606966853141785,
0.455861896276474,
-0.06877140700817108,
-0.39415863156318665,
0.24086397886276245,
-0.053906723856925964,
-0.024746721610426903,
-1.050865888595581,
-0.5600706338882446,
-0.7819840312004089,
0.07737021148204803,
0.6168756484985352,
0.9367516040802002,
0.6068210005760193,
0.053477175533771515,
0.023694809526205063,
-0.3098949193954468,
0.6160709857940674,
-0.3808976709842682,
0.48185303807258606,
-0.28459200263023376,
0.15982098877429962,
-0.4107852876186371,
-0.5934516787528992,
0.5227262377738953,
0.3765529990196228,
-0.09021458774805069,
0.3920794129371643,
-0.6737906336784363,
0.3515487313270569,
0.004600562155246735,
0.020448962226510048,
-0.24902266263961792,
0.0185803584754467,
-0.38795047998428345
] |
213055
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Woman%20Who%20Did
|
The Woman Who Did
|
The Woman Who Did (1895) is a novel by Grant Allen about a young, self-assured middle-class woman who defies convention as a matter of principle and who is fully prepared to suffer the consequences of her actions. It was first published in London by John Lane in a series intended to promote the ideal of the "New Woman". It was adapted into a British silent film in 1915, The Woman Who Did, which was directed by Walter West, and later into a 1925 German film, Die Frau mit dem schlechten Ruf.
Plot summary
Herminia Barton, the Cambridge-educated daughter of a clergyman, frees herself from her parents' influence, moves to London and starts living alone. As she is not a woman of independent means, she starts working as a teacher. When she meets and falls in love with Alan Merrick, a lawyer, she suggests they live together without getting married. Reluctantly, he agrees, and the couple move to Italy. There, in Florence, Merrick dies of typhoid before their daughter Dolores is born. Legal technicalities and the fact that the couple were not married prevent Herminia from inheriting any of Merrick's money.
Dreaming of being a role model for Dolores and her friends, Herminia returns to England and raises her daughter as a single mother. She wants to show the younger generation that even as a woman there is something one can do about the unfair position of women in society—a small step maybe, but with more and larger steps to follow soon. However, Dolores turns out to be ashamed of her mother's unmarried state and gradually turns against her. Eventually, Herminia chooses to make a huge sacrifice for her daughter's benefit and commits suicide.
Reception
Allen was sympathetic to the feminist cause and saw his novel as a way to promote women's rights. It certainly created an immediate popular sensation - Flora Thompson for instance describing how, in small-town Hampshire, "copies were bought and handed round until practically everyone of mature age in the village had read and passed judgement on it". However, the novel was also controversial right from the start, with conservative readers as well as feminists criticizing Allen for the heroine he had invented. For example, Victoria Crosse wrote her novel The Woman Who Didn't (1895) as a response to Allen's book and Mrs. Lovett Cameron wrote The Man Who Didn't.
Whereas Herminia Barton questions the institution of marriage by refusing to get married herself, Victoria Crosse's heroine Eurydice Williamson—"the woman who didn't"—remains faithful to her impossible husband although, during a passage from India, she meets a man who falls in love with her. Similarly, Lovett Cameron's hero is a married man who resists the temptation to stray.
Another novel written in reply to Allen's work, Lucas Cleeve's The Woman Who Wouldn't, (1895) sold well and received hostile reviews. The author said of this:
"If one young girl is kept from a loveless, mistaken marriage, if one frivolous nature is checked in her career of flirtation by remembrance of Lady Morris, I shall perhaps be forgiven by the public for raising my feeble voice in answer to The Woman Who Did".
The campaigner Emma Brooke saw this novel and her own novel "The Superfluous Woman" as important in trying to resolve the "Sex Question" which she thought dominated intellectual debate in the 1880s. She was annoyed when H. G. Wells reinvented the question when he spoke to the Fabian Society in 1906.
Sarah Grand, the feminist writer who coined the term "New Woman," considered the novel to have and important social purity moral:Mr. Grant Allen is a large-minded, liberal man, and he argues that if men are permitted to practice polygamy then women should be equally free to indulge in polyandry. I do not know that he approves of polygamy, only he is liberal enough to say that if men are to claim sexual freedom then it should be accorded to women also. The story answers the question when followed to its logical conclusions, and shows very clearly that women have nothing to gain and everything to lose by renouncing the protection which legal marriage gives.Thomas Hardy approved more of Allen's progressive aims in the novel, than of their artistic realisation.
References
External links
"The Woman Who Wouldn't Do", a parody first published in Punch No.108 (March 30, 1895) 153.
Free MP3 audiobook of The Woman Who Did from LibriVox
Note: "She-Note Series" is an allusion to John Lane's "Keynote Series" in which The Woman Who Did was published.
1895 Canadian novels
Canadian novels adapted into films
John Lane (publisher) books
|
[
-0.19856055080890656,
-0.08174964040517807,
-0.42204415798187256,
-0.2173466980457306,
0.10159504413604736,
0.5140900611877441,
0.7700461745262146,
-0.6856797337532043,
-0.23193949460983276,
0.1044432669878006,
0.4145505130290985,
0.19878120720386505,
0.10047779977321625,
0.6268244385719299,
-0.18127655982971191,
0.10695726424455643,
0.4237307012081146,
0.23469148576259613,
-0.1771322637796402,
-0.8066006302833557,
-0.2425941824913025,
-0.644306480884552,
0.07937880605459213,
-0.26747798919677734,
0.18959100544452667,
0.03507062420248985,
0.8537368774414062,
-0.9986037611961365,
-0.02653113380074501,
0.01853853277862072,
0.38059520721435547,
-0.4925002157688141,
-0.12496616691350937,
-0.2118775099515915,
-0.63666832447052,
0.11361303925514221,
-0.48340585827827454,
-0.009415390901267529,
-0.5968756675720215,
-0.1966949850320816,
-0.5797621607780457,
-0.012203623540699482,
0.6234023571014404,
0.7006109356880188,
-0.4058818817138672,
0.0670357272028923,
-1.3901957273483276,
0.12345849722623825,
-0.20855119824409485,
-0.006553215906023979,
-0.1724650114774704,
0.2978922426700592,
1.0911808013916016,
0.43822696805000305,
-0.17248055338859558,
0.8447478413581848,
-0.4708457291126251,
-0.005048786289989948,
-0.3780423402786255,
-0.586979866027832,
0.4806385040283203,
-0.11801273375749588,
0.7901753783226013,
0.057250943034887314,
0.5924882888793945,
1.04081392288208,
-0.2047092467546463,
0.6910932064056396,
0.25415486097335815,
0.5437842011451721,
-0.1244133710861206,
-0.5697270035743713,
0.07933922857046127,
0.07046346366405487,
-0.5048983693122864,
-0.5110828280448914,
0.1845775693655014,
-0.4981001615524292,
0.2632907032966614,
0.227057546377182,
-0.48880302906036377,
0.12683328986167908,
0.2972155809402466,
-0.22242410480976105,
0.3169361352920532,
0.1318150758743286,
-0.13100795447826385,
0.4479789733886719,
-0.14936544001102448,
0.19231322407722473,
-0.0028054516296833754,
-0.4747026860713959,
-0.7743499279022217,
0.24152904748916626,
0.219366654753685,
0.33437633514404297,
0.1910029649734497,
-0.041941724717617035,
-0.5660964846611023,
-0.12865789234638214,
0.14902850985527039,
0.08064106851816177,
0.5681772828102112,
-0.16817200183868408,
-0.037112414836883545,
-0.3632547855377197,
0.11548857390880585,
-0.7611021995544434,
0.9465246200561523,
0.032629307359457016,
0.11237675696611404,
0.43490728735923767,
-0.32279282808303833,
-0.21867859363555908,
-0.2632727324962616,
0.7813483476638794,
0.3801347017288208,
-0.1327870637178421,
-0.056141447275877,
-0.04841598495841026,
0.1702304631471634,
-0.12152779847383499,
0.38169074058532715,
0.5353888273239136,
0.1001221090555191,
-0.4144628643989563,
0.11943165957927704,
0.3385182023048401,
-0.41953060030937195,
-0.04304463043808937,
0.3320402204990387,
1.0816837549209595,
-0.32436034083366394,
-0.5187253952026367,
-0.23586435616016388,
0.5689600706100464,
0.4280654489994049,
0.6152998805046082,
-0.3558636009693146,
0.10900497436523438,
-0.5702296495437622,
0.4700760543346405,
-0.6467499136924744,
0.1581331491470337,
0.44487327337265015,
-0.08154453337192535,
0.41482827067375183,
-0.23661501705646515,
-0.058055728673934937,
0.11926034837961197,
0.09724898636341095,
-0.07836762815713882,
0.3536844551563263,
-0.04684305563569069,
-0.44000256061553955,
0.3441835939884186,
0.4331914186477661,
-0.11104597896337509,
-0.013295510783791542,
0.10046833008527756,
0.2051416039466858,
0.5260384678840637,
0.08365234732627869,
-0.48688697814941406,
-0.16006989777088165,
-0.5906208753585815,
0.7946105003356934,
-0.032972875982522964,
0.023569023236632347,
-0.12994004786014557,
-0.364222913980484,
-0.18088720738887787,
0.14606545865535736,
-0.44464895129203796,
0.06160522624850273,
0.29530656337738037,
0.09658484905958176,
0.4301888048648834,
-0.08087972551584244,
-0.021243005990982056,
-0.5048345327377319,
0.6922257542610168,
-0.2396126389503479,
-0.46997302770614624,
0.5912085175514221,
0.16963858902454376,
0.10575909912586212,
0.23919008672237396,
-0.429943710565567,
0.6467177867889404,
-0.5779933929443359,
-0.8090249300003052,
0.3853254020214081,
0.05359279736876488,
1.3431997299194336,
0.10637663304805756,
-0.312424898147583,
1.2468892335891724,
-0.5579598546028137,
0.7099596261978149,
-0.1770058572292328,
-0.18523189425468445,
-0.09336165338754654,
-0.22467286884784698,
-0.3880558907985687,
0.3751818835735321,
-0.06209569796919823,
0.5724576711654663,
0.5959756374359131,
0.36744028329849243,
0.3384110629558563,
-0.17017976939678192,
0.6676635146141052,
0.3880912959575653,
-0.47083616256713867,
-0.04820633307099342,
0.06135052442550659,
-0.11503317952156067,
0.746025562286377,
0.048489511013031006,
0.4415748119354248,
0.17262999713420868,
0.23672007024288177,
0.5923342108726501,
-0.1102394089102745,
0.1794588714838028,
-0.049929067492485046,
0.25192779302597046,
-0.03469562903046608,
-0.7095683813095093,
-0.3288126587867737,
0.8584359884262085,
0.44515538215637207,
0.04665776714682579,
0.4803254306316376,
-0.17386296391487122,
-0.2822834849357605,
-0.1716347187757492,
0.15497362613677979,
-0.013747668825089931,
0.5200202465057373,
0.3867679536342621,
0.408646821975708,
0.9605802893638611,
-0.2983211576938629,
-0.07057832181453705,
0.4475013315677643,
0.17742645740509033,
0.04001425951719284,
-0.028369642794132233,
0.28253453969955444,
0.7187280058860779,
0.5501629114151001,
0.2808402180671692,
-0.12164339423179626,
-0.5344717502593994,
-0.32694342732429504,
-0.2424323558807373,
0.6818931698799133,
0.01883610710501671,
0.2629438638687134,
0.02443179301917553,
-0.07419385761022568,
0.20306843519210815,
0.15552213788032532,
-0.465106725692749,
-0.4034709334373474,
-0.5194562673568726,
0.320963591337204,
0.6037424802780151,
0.1027897298336029,
0.04147714748978615,
-0.1108667179942131,
0.07441816478967667,
0.46949881315231323,
-0.24279281497001648,
0.2179565727710724,
0.20701567828655243,
-0.5591670274734497,
-0.70557701587677,
0.10370602458715439,
1.0009219646453857,
0.6874276995658875,
-1.2001646757125854,
0.36087897419929504,
-0.3695679306983948,
0.13625715672969818,
-0.23019233345985413,
-0.5595940351486206,
0.47199323773384094,
-0.13070133328437805,
-0.01719367876648903,
-0.37017154693603516,
-1.061337947845459,
0.2766783833503723,
0.09652300179004669,
-0.7949778437614441,
0.31912168860435486,
0.3310462534427643,
0.3667432367801666,
-0.02247786894440651,
0.2140481024980545,
-0.2204464077949524,
0.1311771124601364,
0.541180431842804,
-0.09456364810466766,
0.049867358058691025,
0.3611944615840912,
-5.678638458251953,
0.13077618181705475,
0.12310738861560822,
-0.0410151481628418,
0.20716889202594757,
0.1717648059129715,
0.7436619997024536,
0.08889084309339523,
-0.24992653727531433,
0.18252533674240112,
0.4909179210662842,
0.35764360427856445,
0.10907244682312012,
0.3880406320095062,
0.07156331092119217,
-0.16733743250370026,
-0.18818813562393188,
-0.3472239077091217,
-0.5984466671943665,
0.27513745427131653,
0.027158034965395927,
0.17703190445899963,
-0.5020982027053833,
0.029223302379250526,
0.5778992176055908,
0.3346400558948517,
-0.7062703967094421,
-0.13600397109985352,
-0.35616716742515564,
0.18255378305912018,
0.24129970371723175,
-0.2264750599861145,
-0.2565806210041046,
0.07098418474197388,
-0.22763653099536896,
0.12389933317899704,
0.5593432784080505,
0.33847466111183167,
-0.05658705532550812,
0.16080664098262787,
-0.357748419046402,
-0.07278158515691757,
-0.040673140436410904,
-0.18091750144958496,
0.5020619034767151,
-0.2593836486339569,
-0.5938296914100647,
-0.5764674544334412,
0.1016368493437767,
0.348938524723053,
-0.038338400423526764,
-0.24214781820774078,
0.2969413101673126,
0.09641934931278229,
0.36186665296554565,
0.039525892585515976,
-0.020579632371664047,
0.26503369212150574,
-0.32635313272476196,
0.10704655200242996,
0.16394321620464325,
-0.10796543955802917,
0.6119967103004456,
-0.3485451638698578,
-0.006474487017840147,
-0.3753705322742462,
0.1359291672706604,
-0.1512993723154068,
-0.12727709114551544,
0.49354037642478943,
0.2914905250072479,
0.45103010535240173,
0.026439305394887924,
-1.4047415256500244,
0.018461832776665688,
-0.08073677867650986,
-0.18401847779750824,
-0.1943364441394806,
-0.08964119106531143,
-0.8311305046081543,
0.7807996869087219,
-0.3044172525405884,
0.07700449973344803,
0.1377040147781372,
0.07370193302631378,
0.016621695831418037,
0.18845434486865997,
-0.4644075334072113,
-0.538262128829956,
-0.022717377170920372,
0.0025897305458784103,
0.2216917723417282,
-0.27116745710372925,
0.6050347089767456,
0.18283070623874664,
0.5691671371459961,
0.057281360030174255,
-0.1697281152009964,
0.22877362370491028,
-0.244476780295372,
-0.2181057184934616,
-0.24421025812625885,
0.15568561851978302,
-0.3881397247314453,
-0.3633774518966675,
-0.29625368118286133,
-0.6738013625144958,
0.5573697686195374,
0.4902280867099762,
-0.47982415556907654,
-0.017710097134113312,
-0.4432467222213745,
-0.2882326543331146,
-0.4237455725669861,
0.25935739278793335,
-0.21614214777946472,
0.1766887754201889,
-0.277983158826828,
0.3395043611526489,
0.12304262816905975,
0.10572652518749237,
0.4892468750476837,
-0.7873393893241882,
-0.3001198470592499,
-0.4776826798915863,
-0.5068117380142212,
0.7580047845840454,
-0.18215613067150116,
-0.07952481508255005,
0.2556494176387787,
-0.3078078329563141,
-0.225406214594841,
-0.31916946172714233,
-0.3642268776893616,
-0.30074429512023926,
-0.32033583521842957,
-0.3108484447002411,
0.22404024004936218,
-0.4451054036617279,
0.6148783564567566,
-0.4352829158306122,
-0.2667640745639801,
-0.6614055037498474,
0.40052416920661926,
-0.04160565137863159,
-0.12367168813943863,
-0.15998581051826477,
0.19714152812957764,
-0.4923233389854431,
0.28020551800727844,
-0.5884290337562561,
-0.22451113164424896,
0.8813226819038391,
-0.23835402727127075,
-0.0869005024433136,
-0.24397794902324677,
0.28299644589424133,
0.6028697490692139,
-0.5000882148742676,
-0.029919227585196495,
-0.6432481408119202,
-0.0695091187953949,
-0.7134255766868591,
-0.23287175595760345,
0.09643982350826263,
-0.06657209992408752,
-0.5998240113258362,
-0.5155252814292908,
-0.3263899087905884,
0.9054936766624451,
0.15485188364982605,
-0.4927937388420105,
0.41908395290374756,
-0.027600640431046486,
0.5928400158882141,
0.083195261657238,
-0.2463640570640564,
0.0832667127251625,
0.03425588458776474,
-0.08226883411407471,
0.27103614807128906,
-0.19573134183883667,
-0.1995096057653427,
0.44281700253486633,
0.629283607006073,
-0.4791986644268036,
-0.3150099813938141,
-0.3209482431411743,
-0.6855040788650513,
0.27395811676979065,
0.507652759552002,
0.17428918182849884,
0.4627748429775238,
0.45596206188201904,
-0.9944524168968201,
-0.14268282055854797,
0.3730441629886627,
-0.2652447521686554,
-0.030919088050723076,
-0.26121535897254944,
0.009443553164601326,
0.7214229106903076,
-0.271936297416687,
0.1542058140039444,
0.3047012388706207,
-1.2670872211456299,
0.1466602385044098,
-0.1342056393623352,
-0.6611949801445007,
0.5271912813186646,
-0.2294824868440628,
0.07793047279119492,
-0.4942309260368347,
0.23835442960262299,
-0.19303560256958008,
0.10668274015188217,
0.7118985056877136,
-0.42858797311782837,
-0.4344733953475952,
-0.273244172334671,
-0.2882605493068695,
-0.2542097270488739,
-0.520700216293335,
0.06817572563886642,
-0.35387086868286133,
-0.16799934208393097,
0.06322074681520462,
-0.5708135366439819,
0.5307585597038269,
-0.49861347675323486,
-0.596686601638794,
0.3207893371582031,
-0.09000769257545471,
-0.10636133700609207,
-0.23799274861812592,
-0.4723123013973236,
0.3534775674343109,
-0.19945575296878815,
-0.3743501901626587,
0.20291592180728912,
0.7400770783424377,
0.813391923904419,
0.4660018980503082,
-0.2721720337867737,
0.04762165993452072,
-0.33204177021980286,
-0.14703013002872467,
-0.6597052812576294,
-0.277479887008667,
0.3069416582584381,
-0.15348400175571442,
-0.2521125078201294,
-0.291393518447876,
-0.6581501960754395,
0.5973677039146423,
-0.0692351832985878,
0.34681007266044617,
0.0627421960234642,
-0.12547144293785095,
-0.14357200264930725,
-0.1447632908821106,
0.594240128993988,
-0.5530713796615601,
0.12237093597650528,
0.3279896080493927,
0.4348970949649811,
-0.10804340243339539,
-0.5504074096679688,
0.11785706877708435,
-0.43761104345321655,
-0.23868423700332642,
-0.3214854598045349,
0.08900748193264008,
-0.23775742948055267,
-0.003425753675401211,
-0.17962536215782166,
-0.6034504771232605,
-0.0944427102804184,
0.37232136726379395,
-0.6700654029846191,
-0.08394923061132431,
0.05923140048980713,
-0.22142355144023895,
-0.431131511926651,
-0.3224271237850189,
-0.3129836916923523,
0.35074368119239807,
-0.9299363493919373,
-0.6574264168739319,
-0.6083091497421265,
0.11371977627277374,
-0.08946176618337631,
0.5524062514305115,
0.0027549522928893566,
0.4837772250175476,
0.2470443695783615,
-0.44832372665405273,
0.005861932411789894,
-0.2414415031671524,
-0.4055008590221405,
-0.4065125286579132,
0.16340017318725586,
0.412752240896225,
0.3899270296096802,
0.16003571450710297,
-0.03622451424598694,
-0.07753201574087143,
0.06843869388103485,
-0.4788082242012024,
0.4457392692565918,
-0.010235607624053955,
-0.1601388156414032,
0.06267856806516647,
0.38308021426200867,
-0.8080695271492004,
-0.5842698812484741,
0.09183090925216675,
-0.6114965081214905,
0.17584559321403503,
0.11242906004190445,
-0.07643479853868484,
-0.24661831557750702,
1.0009584426879883,
0.11709756404161453,
-0.02244706079363823,
0.557916522026062,
-0.7710511088371277,
0.8683351278305054,
-0.5432360768318176,
-0.1231214702129364,
0.38226741552352905,
0.3908807039260864,
-0.0027310841251164675,
0.6372051239013672,
-0.2196761518716812,
-0.29611626267433167,
-0.044253651052713394,
-0.09633810818195343,
0.1904904544353485,
0.20832104980945587,
0.26487255096435547,
0.02843109332025051,
0.07893651723861694,
0.11047129333019257,
0.15827004611492157,
0.010398602113127708,
0.42772895097732544,
0.03395905718207359,
0.19562923908233643,
0.05852420628070831,
0.565900981426239,
0.30312076210975647,
0.4980836808681488,
-0.6236439347267151,
0.4944395124912262,
0.31948211789131165,
0.09750233590602875,
0.11118216067552567,
-0.4199058413505554,
-0.3492461144924164,
-0.49612319469451904,
-0.126912459731102,
0.21930985152721405,
-0.07925118505954742,
0.021224405616521835,
0.11802294105291367,
-0.22069621086120605,
-0.02867978811264038,
-0.7048848271369934,
0.08153112977743149,
1.1031248569488525,
0.2679930031299591,
0.04864649847149849,
-0.01432887278497219,
0.3657208979129791,
0.6835411190986633,
0.3124925494194031,
0.017349572852253914,
0.25405532121658325,
-0.2280922532081604,
-0.3091415464878082,
0.20629771053791046,
-0.4903731346130371,
0.24360935389995575,
0.12902598083019257,
-0.36860087513923645,
0.10515523701906204,
0.0922359824180603,
-0.16603080928325653,
-0.9298248291015625,
0.165593221783638,
-0.9518293142318726,
-0.39004960656166077,
0.14217840135097504,
-0.6098501682281494,
-0.43855491280555725,
0.3103605806827545,
0.7193911075592041,
0.07856755703687668,
0.48339155316352844,
-0.21917632222175598,
0.11551868915557861,
-0.5550685524940491,
0.728297770023346,
-0.3567388653755188,
0.8460033535957336,
-0.3252612054347992,
0.6773864030838013,
-0.7179730534553528,
0.1781330406665802,
-0.5053213834762573,
-0.030855320394039154,
0.25127485394477844,
0.5305340886116028,
-0.32985812425613403,
-0.33192116022109985,
0.5213654637336731,
-0.2559114694595337,
0.07882619649171829,
0.04658106714487076,
-0.34381648898124695,
-0.2366718053817749,
-0.11960803717374802,
0.2652221918106079,
-0.49603593349456787,
-0.11401575058698654,
0.23732182383537292,
-0.10049684345722198,
0.11212398111820221,
0.36605721712112427,
-0.48398077487945557,
0.14768801629543304,
-0.078163743019104,
-0.15151463449001312,
0.4920983910560608,
0.48649221658706665,
0.27511024475097656,
0.5794621706008911,
-0.06789188832044601,
-0.19442956149578094,
-0.006478753872215748,
-0.6920804977416992,
-0.24641676247119904,
0.3912074565887451,
-1.0165899991989136,
-0.09347037225961685,
-0.550757884979248,
-0.37949809432029724,
0.18091125786304474,
0.44031885266304016,
0.19339947402477264,
0.03345523774623871,
-0.2994595766067505,
-0.6797295808792114,
-0.3276898264884949,
0.0960768386721611,
0.154042586684227,
-0.5944135189056396,
0.5229693651199341,
0.03683871403336525
] |
213058
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barebone%27s%20Parliament
|
Barebone's Parliament
|
Barebone's Parliament, also known as the Little Parliament, the Nominated Assembly and the Parliament of Saints, came into being on 4 July 1653, and was the last attempt of the English Commonwealth to find a stable political form before the installation of Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. It was an assembly entirely nominated by Oliver Cromwell and the Army's Council of Officers. It acquired its name from the nominee for the City of London, Praise-God Barebone. The Speaker of the House was Francis Rous. The total number of nominees was 140, 129 from England, five from Scotland and six from Ireland (see the list of MPs).
After conflict and infighting, on 12 December 1653, the members of the assembly voted to dissolve it. It was preceded by the Rump Parliament and succeeded by the First Protectorate Parliament.
Need for a parliament
Following the execution of King Charles, the Rump Parliament was the last remaining element of the English government. It had little or no claim to representation of the populace and held elections only to replace members. The mood of the country was for long-needed reforms to be carried out but the Rump made little progress. The enactment of a Navigation Act to aid merchants led to the First Anglo-Dutch War in 1652. There was an expectation that a new parliament should be called; however, the Rump made no moves towards its dissolution.
Debate over form of assembly
The forced dissolution of the Rump Parliament on 20 April 1653 left a gap in the legislature, with no blueprint to fill it. Cromwell and the Council of Officers announced that they would be guided by God's providence in doing so: "as we have been led by necessity and Providence to act as we have done, even beyond and above our own thoughts and desires, so we shall ... put ourselves wholly upon the Lord for a blessing".
On 29 April, Cromwell set up a small Council of State of thirteen members, responsible for foreign policy and administration of the country. Its establishment was announced the next day. The Council of Officers remained responsible for decisions about the new form of government. John Lambert argued in favour of lodging power in the hands of ten or twelve men. Thomas Harrison, drawing on his Fifth Monarchist beliefs, argued that their duty was to accelerate the coming of the kingdom of Christ by putting power into the hands of godly men. He put forward the idea of a larger assembly, preferably numbering seventy based on the Jewish Sanhedrin. The Council of Officers agreed on Harrison's model, raising the number of representatives to 140 to allow members from across England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland, (the Scottish and Irish delegates were English soldiers serving in those countries)
The Council of Officers then settled the question of how to select the group's representatives, agreeing that members should be chosen by the council, all of whom were free to put forward nominations. Power would be vested in each member by Cromwell in his role as commander-in-chief of the army. Although there was negative reaction from some churches, with a member of a congregation in London declaring "the question is not so much now who is Independent, Anabaptist, etc., as who is for Christ and who is for Cromwell", most of the sects welcomed the decision. S. R. Gardiner conjectured that the Council of Officers consulted congregational churches in each county, asking them to send names of suitable candidates for the new assembly. However, no copy of any letter of consultation survives, and although some churches did send in nominations, there is no evidence that a mass consultation took place. By 3 May the Council of Officers had had over a hundred names submitted by its members. By 23 May an initial list of nominations was ready, which was then added to and refined over the next few weeks.
Inauguration
The assembly met for the first time on 4 July in the council chamber at Whitehall. Cromwell opened proceedings with a speech around two hours long. He began by summing up the "series of Providences" that had brought them to this point, starting with the Short Parliament and singling out 1648 as the "most memorable year that ever this nation saw". In a much-analysed passage, Cromwell is supposed to have declared: "God doth manifest it to be the day of the Power of Jesus Christ". This has sometimes been adduced as evidence that Cromwell shared Harrison's Fifth Monarchist beliefs, welcoming the assembly as the start of Christ's kingdom on earth. However, the first published version of the speech records this sentence as "God doth manifest it to be a day of the Power of Jesus Christ", considerably softening the impact, and implying that he merely thought it to be a spiritually joyful occasion. Cromwell then asked a written 'instrument' to be read out, drawn up by the Council of Officers and investing power in the assembly.
The assembly then adjourned before sitting in full on the following day. On that day they elected Francis Rous, initially as chairman (he was not known as Speaker until a month later). Henry Scobell was appointed as Clerk. Cromwell and four other officers – Lambert, John Desborough, Harrison and Matthew Tomlinson – were then co-opted as members. On 12 July, the assembly published a declaration declaring itself to be the parliament of the Commonwealth of England. This was the first time that it had been formally described as a parliament.
Membership
The parliament became a subject of ridicule very quickly after its establishment. A newswriter called them "Pettifoggers, Innkeepers, Millwrights, Stockingmongers and such a rabble as never had hopes to be of a Grand Jury". In particular, its members were singled out for their alleged low social status, their puritanism and their relative lack of political experience. These criticisms were seen to be encapsulated by one of its members, Praise-God Barebone, a leather seller, Fifth Monarchist and lay preacher from Fleet Street in London. Before its dissolution the assembly had become known as Barebone's Parliament.
Despite contemporary slanders, the assembly's members were mainly drawn from the richest five per cent of the population, and few tradesmen were represented. Nor was it solely composed of Fifth Monarchists, despite the impression that hostile contemporary pamphlets give. Twelve or thirteen members can be identified as Fifth Monarchists, some of whom had served with Harrison. These were contrasted with about fifteen of the more active members of the assembly, who were more moderate Independents. Although it is misleading to divide the assembly into two parties, an analysis of its entire membership along moderate and radical lines identifies 76 members as religious moderates and 47 as radicals, with a further 21 either impossible to identify or not participating in the assembly.
Only four regicides, Anthony Stapley, John Carew, Thomas Harrison, and Cromwell himself, were appointed. Thomas Harrison was the leader of the Fifth Monarchists and John Carew was also a Fifth Monarchist.
The rise of conflict
On 13 July, the assembly began debating tithes – which were objected to by many sects on the grounds that they were a remnant of Catholicism, that they supported a professional rather than voluntary clergy, and that their economic burden fell unequally. There was general consensus that tithes were objectionable, but little agreement about what mechanism for generating revenue should replace them. Debate within the assembly was quickly echoed by petitions from churches around the country. Another contentious issue the assembly debated during its early weeks was the trial of John Lilburne, which again did little to unite opinion. A third issue, reform of the legal system, again split the members, with Fifth Monarchists arguing that only laws contained in scripture should be reflected in the temporal legal system, while former members of the Rump's Hale Commission pushed for progressive reform.
By early September, Cromwell was already said to have been growing frustrated with the assembly's in-fighting between different groups. A newswriter reported him saying to a confidant that he was "more troubled now with the fool than before now with the knave". He also wrote to his son-in-law Charles Fleetwood complaining that the members "being of different judgements, and of each sort most seeking to propagate their own, that spirit of kindness that is to them, is hardly accepted of any". Attendance also began to fall. Over one hundred members were present at most votes in July, dropping to an average turnout of 70 by October. Various bills inflamed conflict between the radical and moderate members – bills to abolish the Court of Chancery, regulate legal fees, and speed up settlement of cases in the Court of Admiralty all became bogged down in conflict. At this point, however, radical members were still mainly outnumbered in votes by moderate and conservative members.
Dissolution and aftermath
This changed during November and December when debate returned to the question of tithes. On 6 December the committee of the assembly appointed to consider the question presented their report, covering the question of how unfit ministers were to be ejected, naming commissioners who would have the job of enacting this, and retaining support for tithes in prescribed circumstances. The first clause of the report was voted against by 56 votes to 54 in a defeat for the moderates. Two days later, moderates came to the House and demanded that the assembly abdicate its powers, criticising radical members for threatening the wellbeing of the Commonwealth by fomenting disagreement. Rous and around 40 members walked out and went to Cromwell at Whitehall, presenting a document signed by nearly 80 members that declared: "Upon a Motion this day made in the House, that the sitting of this Parliament any longer as now constituted, will not be for the good of the Commonwealth". Those left in the house were soon confronted by troops requesting that they leave.
The collapse of the radical consensus which had spawned the Nominated Assembly led to the Grandees passing the Instrument of Government in the Council of State which paved the way for Cromwell's Protectorate.
See also
List of MPs nominated to the English parliament in 1653
Notes
References
Abbott, W.C. (ed.) (1937–47). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, 4 vols. III
Cromwell, Oliver. "Speech 1 – 14th July 1653", SpeechesCromwell Website
Midgley, Henry 'Political thinking and the creation of the assembly of 1653' Seventeenth Century Vol. 31 No. 1 (2016)
Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate (Clarendon Press), .
Further reading
Chambers' Book of Days: Praise-God Barebones' Parliament
Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (Everyman classics), .
Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1967). "Oliver Cromwell and his Parliaments", in his Religion, the Reformation and Social Change (Macmillan).
Worden, Blair (1977). The Rump Parliament (Cambridge University Press), .
1653 establishments in England
1653 disestablishments in England
Fifth Monarchists
17th-century English parliaments
Interregnum (England)
Republicanism in England
|
[
0.09473731368780136,
-0.14099770784378052,
-0.2955138087272644,
-0.22309385240077972,
-0.3967587947845459,
0.9181976914405823,
0.7191818356513977,
0.2789238393306732,
-0.5128243565559387,
-0.4185817837715149,
0.08591839671134949,
0.204100102186203,
-0.46803081035614014,
0.26771655678749084,
-0.544136106967926,
0.23147588968276978,
0.5512344837188721,
-0.02803424745798111,
0.5275613069534302,
-0.15707144141197205,
-0.17518039047718048,
0.5132772922515869,
-0.04105282202363014,
0.16063159704208374,
0.13392341136932373,
0.2409125119447708,
0.9541715383529663,
-0.2921808958053589,
-0.31348538398742676,
-0.3639899492263794,
-0.2299972027540207,
-0.2133306860923767,
-0.08497409522533417,
-0.4952014684677124,
0.18624134361743927,
-0.23082110285758972,
-0.23453842103481293,
-0.3716237545013428,
-0.39808350801467896,
-0.00017719790048431605,
-0.13918089866638184,
-0.2650781273841858,
0.38300183415412903,
0.21643628180027008,
-0.7858598232269287,
-0.12722502648830414,
-0.7432923913002014,
0.7321406006813049,
-0.570610523223877,
0.537889838218689,
-0.08825802803039551,
0.3283860683441162,
0.030479196459054947,
0.6069225668907166,
0.44744810461997986,
-0.05496271327137947,
-0.07177836447954178,
0.00756798405200243,
0.21472622454166412,
-0.22061288356781006,
0.6325219869613647,
0.26850295066833496,
-0.09764675050973892,
-0.18830503523349762,
-0.3947712481021881,
-0.0031606904231011868,
0.15461331605911255,
0.5284140706062317,
-0.8448030948638916,
-0.29339006543159485,
-0.10939421504735947,
-0.16755156219005585,
0.02776510640978813,
0.9311777353286743,
0.11094751954078674,
-0.4520569443702698,
0.07735457271337509,
0.32279911637306213,
0.9179589152336121,
0.1901998668909073,
0.2725372314453125,
0.2438688427209854,
0.37621164321899414,
0.2687206268310547,
0.5001980662345886,
0.1577441543340683,
-0.17853933572769165,
-0.24744752049446106,
-0.27073371410369873,
0.047540273517370224,
-0.2416767030954361,
-0.08355053514242172,
0.12746720016002655,
-0.12596559524536133,
-0.7720233201980591,
-0.6345013380050659,
-0.5949874520301819,
-0.11198769509792328,
0.2574058175086975,
-0.11616268754005432,
-0.1643545925617218,
-0.013563662767410278,
0.6627792119979858,
0.36636385321617126,
-0.3014789819717407,
-0.046327706426382065,
-0.4785275459289551,
0.3028612732887268,
0.24239933490753174,
-0.16733874380588531,
0.4728221595287323,
-0.0013122728560119867,
-0.3322286009788513,
0.23043912649154663,
-0.14083656668663025,
-0.1401710957288742,
-0.2118915170431137,
-1.3575339317321777,
-0.6144458055496216,
-0.536281168460846,
-0.18141335248947144,
0.6944685578346252,
0.6973637342453003,
0.13787966966629028,
-0.11533589661121368,
-0.19841372966766357,
0.41984841227531433,
0.7339999675750732,
-0.1412954181432724,
-0.01215934008359909,
0.5040602087974548,
0.9173135161399841,
0.009078405797481537,
-0.5089300870895386,
-0.10117852687835693,
0.1734572798013687,
-0.11816581338644028,
0.18996956944465637,
0.2896025478839874,
0.1321476846933365,
-0.32973945140838623,
-0.21328715980052948,
0.040285658091306686,
0.2470482885837555,
0.46758976578712463,
-0.43392664194107056,
-0.10723031312227249,
-0.1745014488697052,
-0.7961654663085938,
-0.013815455138683319,
-0.11096209287643433,
-0.016850249841809273,
0.12256714701652527,
-0.36864835023880005,
0.45736920833587646,
0.9099660515785217,
0.3758772909641266,
-0.5555508136749268,
0.19076579809188843,
0.7688803672790527,
0.07540977746248245,
-0.00017087513697333634,
0.022750264033675194,
-0.23982997238636017,
0.5706762075424194,
0.027324803173542023,
0.09711460024118423,
-0.19644008576869965,
0.30493396520614624,
0.3466092646121979,
-0.1482326239347458,
-0.3250924050807953,
0.3384441137313843,
-0.1723823845386505,
-0.6066716909408569,
-0.3392305374145508,
0.9482559561729431,
-0.3742576837539673,
0.1665695607662201,
-0.41877779364585876,
-0.3352496922016144,
0.05571961775422096,
0.11031875014305115,
0.01809030771255493,
-0.02696855552494526,
0.3419765532016754,
0.6779565215110779,
0.34203362464904785,
-0.5578762888908386,
-0.025225210934877396,
-0.08805295825004578,
-0.7214335203170776,
0.5964835286140442,
-0.4400099813938141,
1.2759798765182495,
0.4629483222961426,
-1.0664384365081787,
0.9709698557853699,
-0.0550701804459095,
0.9473088383674622,
-0.18332023918628693,
-0.533075213432312,
0.0604621097445488,
-0.24043428897857666,
-0.07494279742240906,
0.09928780794143677,
0.19467487931251526,
0.22348855435848236,
0.7306642532348633,
-0.07189109921455383,
0.09487994015216827,
-0.49851441383361816,
0.0916181355714798,
-0.15171653032302856,
0.11554022878408432,
-0.6774107813835144,
0.09888715296983719,
-0.3830440044403076,
-0.1501689851284027,
-0.6810440421104431,
0.3902299404144287,
0.061656653881073,
0.06883403658866882,
0.037458088248968124,
0.582781970500946,
0.46002086997032166,
-0.33751291036605835,
0.030986063182353973,
0.0966378003358841,
0.028218263760209084,
-0.12839283049106598,
0.07829709351062775,
0.07522326707839966,
0.11711008101701736,
0.11319421976804733,
-0.5374248027801514,
-0.2940171957015991,
-0.3199089467525482,
0.513877809047699,
0.2295372039079666,
0.34362104535102844,
0.1323346048593521,
-0.579279899597168,
-0.11780226230621338,
-0.09233137965202332,
0.22321420907974243,
0.5856897234916687,
0.12193799018859863,
-0.20287731289863586,
-0.5217214822769165,
0.42834678292274475,
0.2609277665615082,
0.2184751331806183,
0.04962188005447388,
0.6148281097412109,
0.16826599836349487,
0.34236976504325867,
0.052105408161878586,
-0.05915672704577446,
0.12229640036821365,
-0.6849203705787659,
-0.6092272400856018,
-0.18237219750881195,
0.3802913427352905,
0.20733165740966797,
-0.23752740025520325,
-0.6321503520011902,
-0.4491513669490814,
0.897148609161377,
0.31776344776153564,
0.7427781820297241,
-0.6224570870399475,
-0.47297629714012146,
0.3785720765590668,
0.4918845593929291,
0.1143195852637291,
0.20006895065307617,
0.1700126677751541,
-0.38412097096443176,
-0.909771203994751,
-0.07687008380889893,
0.7165435552597046,
0.14714904129505157,
-0.8123956918716431,
-0.18913525342941284,
-0.04163916036486626,
0.7086915373802185,
-0.3637920916080475,
-0.07834791392087936,
-0.06045248731970787,
0.08357032388448715,
0.13874551653862,
-0.03690860792994499,
-0.5800827741622925,
0.082275390625,
0.7218714952468872,
0.09571855515241623,
-0.19253811240196228,
-0.35976704955101013,
-0.36435243487358093,
-0.04167530685663223,
-0.419830322265625,
-0.1557895690202713,
-0.37844857573509216,
0.6976673007011414,
0.07479184120893478,
0.10130128264427185,
-0.40277308225631714,
-5.594397068023682,
0.07730285078287125,
-0.33540576696395874,
-0.12017302960157394,
0.9235081076622009,
0.10207553952932358,
0.32107850909233093,
-0.09437505900859833,
0.39669227600097656,
-0.22631368041038513,
-0.32774683833122253,
-0.06181851401925087,
0.08691335469484329,
0.5065931677818298,
0.38060879707336426,
0.09802239388227463,
0.6999849677085876,
-0.06389833241701126,
-0.08538422733545303,
0.12486106157302856,
0.48106852173805237,
-0.1972316950559616,
-0.11063103377819061,
-0.12040408700704575,
0.3800450265407562,
0.5183650255203247,
-0.5480262041091919,
0.7489944696426392,
0.4132139980792999,
-0.13880667090415955,
-0.10396727919578552,
-0.09780915826559067,
0.3884219527244568,
-0.8749080896377563,
0.004822927992790937,
0.22459332644939423,
0.30111363530158997,
0.7591383457183838,
0.17880772054195404,
-0.5846606492996216,
-0.17662076652050018,
0.37063321471214294,
-0.2331750988960266,
-0.03745215758681297,
0.3681623339653015,
-0.06318149715662003,
-0.6484909057617188,
-0.2747775912284851,
-0.2684434950351715,
0.5272111296653748,
-0.23608027398586273,
0.3443374037742615,
0.5310842990875244,
0.21307268738746643,
0.27546051144599915,
-0.24242928624153137,
-0.11583629995584488,
0.16337065398693085,
-0.4487020671367645,
-0.4674416184425354,
0.3746277391910553,
-0.830928385257721,
0.09357362985610962,
-0.2122514247894287,
0.15450236201286316,
-0.23911377787590027,
-0.36017945408821106,
0.35290852189064026,
0.6532392501831055,
0.7685174345970154,
0.437142938375473,
-0.06288226693868637,
-0.33992138504981995,
-0.9686725735664368,
0.3617527484893799,
-0.8626790642738342,
-0.024335691705346107,
-0.45870843529701233,
-0.11018012464046478,
0.1747976392507553,
0.11615840345621109,
0.0584569051861763,
-0.3980869948863983,
0.6737555861473083,
-0.057398635894060135,
-0.014559785835444927,
-0.30410388112068176,
0.0728646069765091,
-1.1400279998779297,
-0.374956339597702,
0.11386903375387192,
-0.7032861113548279,
-0.7308281064033508,
0.07959847897291183,
0.23939868807792664,
-0.3319043219089508,
-0.08678262680768967,
-0.22646833956241608,
0.3786659836769104,
0.5542019009590149,
0.25637128949165344,
0.15262453258037567,
-0.6184017658233643,
-0.5089677572250366,
0.3656393587589264,
-0.28218069672584534,
-0.7991393804550171,
0.6903159618377686,
-0.4514472186565399,
0.3417252004146576,
-0.012981213629245758,
-0.2019142508506775,
-0.7532703876495361,
-0.004573020152747631,
-0.09802297502756119,
-0.07494748383760452,
-0.23475611209869385,
-0.07851102948188782,
0.34607914090156555,
-0.12618957459926605,
0.35406771302223206,
0.17660850286483765,
-0.34943687915802,
0.21410003304481506,
-1.1214842796325684,
0.041666287928819656,
0.1820310652256012,
0.02518814615905285,
-0.37261760234832764,
-0.38392210006713867,
-0.1085967943072319,
-0.4464958906173706,
-0.29675593972206116,
0.318012535572052,
0.21041972935199738,
-0.10800250619649887,
0.09765422344207764,
-0.3626354932785034,
-0.4044414162635803,
-0.3785523474216461,
-0.07758201658725739,
-0.4396321177482605,
0.4251127541065216,
-0.22596672177314758,
0.2880619168281555,
0.4802149534225464,
0.22411231696605682,
0.622475266456604,
-0.5619094371795654,
0.7278463244438171,
-0.38574203848838806,
0.07409316301345825,
0.09150943905115128,
-0.18400949239730835,
0.07202458381652832,
-0.6539087295532227,
0.45444455742836,
-0.21615110337734222,
-0.022035304456949234,
-0.21819768846035004,
-0.34539252519607544,
-0.1327749788761139,
-0.3731774091720581,
0.055025674402713776,
-0.01895115338265896,
-0.7546146512031555,
-0.6489477753639221,
-0.02733062021434307,
-0.14085398614406586,
0.03611882030963898,
-0.3996277153491974,
0.001566627761349082,
0.19140087068080902,
0.48968327045440674,
0.7933214902877808,
-0.4567733407020569,
0.16974236071109772,
0.4283796548843384,
-0.13539093732833862,
0.42813539505004883,
-0.1863863319158554,
0.1749792844057083,
-0.018524110317230225,
-0.07240721583366394,
0.7969822287559509,
-0.09162919223308563,
-0.46881967782974243,
0.22955192625522614,
-0.05664462223649025,
-0.4975959360599518,
0.1677744835615158,
0.28808102011680603,
0.7043018341064453,
0.39336279034614563,
-0.6002264022827148,
0.031701236963272095,
0.6047347784042358,
0.7394013404846191,
-0.026826679706573486,
-0.19306741654872894,
0.14031846821308136,
0.09612875431776047,
-0.33102163672447205,
-0.38018834590911865,
0.16923251748085022,
-0.14712470769882202,
0.34587857127189636,
-0.3362606465816498,
-0.8143414855003357,
0.3860279321670532,
0.13371999561786652,
-0.7363864779472351,
0.26678016781806946,
0.647172749042511,
-0.6122133731842041,
-0.3675374686717987,
0.14047180116176605,
0.3842542767524719,
-0.032127782702445984,
-1.1481258869171143,
-0.30145418643951416,
-0.44706568121910095,
-0.34820231795310974,
-0.1472085565328598,
-0.44794222712516785,
0.4111427366733551,
0.42219239473342896,
-0.05675722658634186,
0.06556550413370132,
-0.4587245285511017,
0.14990103244781494,
-0.40364548563957214,
-0.4590893089771271,
0.2737644612789154,
-0.14810727536678314,
0.397360235452652,
0.12728270888328552,
-0.3257310092449188,
-0.21681717038154602,
0.7380926609039307,
0.6525545120239258,
1.7164174318313599,
0.6658880710601807,
-0.5159605741500854,
-0.5633848905563354,
0.27821704745292664,
-0.23777584731578827,
0.123234823346138,
-0.018751122057437897,
0.1270405799150467,
-0.3914226293563843,
0.3305872678756714,
-0.42227235436439514,
0.3943940997123718,
0.4823046028614044,
-0.04790408909320831,
0.2546049654483795,
-0.10035015642642975,
-0.2307034283876419,
0.1604951173067093,
0.1975114643573761,
0.5946208238601685,
-0.22132104635238647,
-0.22321517765522003,
0.15874922275543213,
-0.2465791553258896,
-0.20540018379688263,
-0.2356005609035492,
0.29580074548721313,
-0.2404075264930725,
-0.1717280000448227,
0.2373255044221878,
-0.6185781955718994,
-0.30877456068992615,
-0.02270750142633915,
-0.7519725561141968,
-0.031387630850076675,
-0.38933607935905457,
0.9818398952484131,
0.03420647978782654,
-0.8265750408172607,
-0.1699647158384323,
0.2771378755569458,
-0.3261261582374573,
-0.10156787186861038,
-0.6361178755760193,
-0.125777468085289,
-0.17235195636749268,
-0.014945773407816887,
-0.27170464396476746,
-0.46181997656822205,
-0.0011787735857069492,
0.21554559469223022,
-0.10299175977706909,
-0.4845217764377594,
0.23900072276592255,
-0.08407704532146454,
0.3433648347854614,
0.2609139382839203,
0.1593712419271469,
-0.6301035284996033,
0.5292977094650269,
-0.052512023597955704,
0.11488597840070724,
-0.469744473695755,
0.07425486296415329,
-0.3782685697078705,
0.07746054977178574,
-0.18769130110740662,
0.26396802067756653,
0.7436040639877319,
0.07236001640558243,
0.19404198229312897,
0.31488466262817383,
-0.32500922679901123,
-0.42134860157966614,
0.4349653124809265,
-0.6135009527206421,
-0.5978335738182068,
0.2049623280763626,
0.11214549839496613,
-0.815275251865387,
-0.5885157585144043,
0.139816552400589,
0.4194001257419586,
0.5756335854530334,
-0.27278435230255127,
-0.033308081328868866,
-0.012146202847361565,
0.23207762837409973,
0.3117993175983429,
0.13565628230571747,
-0.3065696656703949,
0.45977070927619934,
-0.2909563481807709,
-0.5101512670516968,
0.04236400127410889,
-0.2885119318962097,
0.03484877943992615,
0.639225423336029,
0.39854753017425537,
0.3378482758998871,
-1.2494211196899414,
-0.330392062664032,
0.07598729431629181,
0.13591837882995605,
-0.32433006167411804,
-0.5317698121070862,
0.5586903691291809,
0.3407837748527527,
0.7662511467933655,
-0.2826751470565796,
0.424444317817688,
0.526595950126648,
0.537923276424408,
-0.5423350930213928,
-0.13762032985687256,
0.09262745827436447,
-0.20962399244308472,
0.021001242101192474,
-0.01797506771981716,
0.5582709908485413,
0.28468790650367737,
0.16360773146152496,
-0.5408174991607666,
0.3928911089897156,
-0.06267662346363068,
0.1993255615234375,
0.0609167143702507,
0.13704301416873932,
0.5067751407623291,
0.4918738603591919,
-0.47977355122566223,
-0.5490149855613708,
-0.2902803421020508,
0.24456515908241272,
0.3710891902446747,
0.35167139768600464,
0.19800730049610138,
-0.7826878428459167,
-0.2373296022415161,
-0.2930350601673126,
-0.42454060912132263,
-1.0009665489196777,
0.08151186257600784,
0.04525880143046379,
0.4175507426261902,
0.1788565069437027,
-0.36358800530433655,
-0.5687717795372009,
-0.42296385765075684,
-1.041373610496521,
-0.1952984780073166,
0.33908674120903015,
-1.0863851308822632,
-0.06886689364910126,
0.20110778510570526,
0.847553551197052,
0.7657413482666016,
0.23958230018615723,
0.20446622371673584,
0.44998201727867126,
-0.1533532589673996,
0.6703901290893555,
0.21473358571529388,
0.744940996170044,
-0.4503536820411682,
-0.5265381336212158,
-0.680355966091156,
0.6721125841140747,
0.47515642642974854,
0.2502632439136505,
-0.15081875026226044,
0.7842199206352234,
-0.20494963228702545,
0.33213475346565247,
0.1194002777338028,
-0.18213258683681488,
-0.26303592324256897,
0.5903274416923523,
0.18185719847679138,
-0.03345605731010437,
-0.1890162080526352,
0.010771066881716251,
0.19078053534030914,
-0.6391890645027161,
0.4728451669216156,
-0.15813477337360382,
-0.5862006545066833,
0.5565406084060669,
-0.27131330966949463,
0.05644199624657631,
0.3926985263824463,
0.08943429589271545,
0.03999435529112816,
0.7104933857917786,
0.019678939133882523,
0.6785103678703308,
-0.18486657738685608,
-0.2837667167186737,
-0.034680407494306564,
-0.030224744230508804,
0.6507475972175598,
0.03151961788535118,
0.014560852199792862,
-0.6994897723197937,
-0.3031843304634094,
-0.5678643584251404,
-0.9831724762916565,
0.5555394291877747,
0.2706008553504944,
0.8107535243034363,
0.26563265919685364,
-0.5165979862213135,
-0.089828260242939,
-1.1162878274917603,
0.2833077013492584,
0.014935934916138649,
0.1569846272468567,
0.3248111307621002
] |
213059
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wen%20Jiabao
|
Wen Jiabao
|
Wen Jiabao (born 15 September 1942), also spelled as Wen Chia-pao, is a retired Chinese politician who served as the sixth Premier of the State Council of the People's Republic of China and serving as China's head of government for a decade between 2003 and 2013. In his capacity as Premier, Wen was regarded as the leading figure behind Beijing's economic policy. From 2002 to 2012, he held membership in the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, the country's de facto top power organ, where he was ranked third out of nine members and headed by Party general secretary Hu Jintao.
He worked as the chief of the Party General Office between 1986 and 1993, and accompanied Party general secretary Zhao Ziyang to Tiananmen Square during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. In 1998, he was promoted to the post of Vice Premier under Premier Zhu Rongji, his mentor, and oversaw the broad portfolios of agriculture and finance.
Wen was dubbed "the people's premier" by both domestic and foreign media. Instead of concentrating on GDP growth in large cities and rich coastal areas, Wen advocated for advancing policies considered more favourable towards farmers and migrant workers. Wen's government reduced agricultural taxes and pursued ambitious infrastructure projects. Following the global financial crisis of 2008, Wen's government injected four trillion yuan into the economy as part of a stimulus program.
Seen as the leading member of the reform wing of the Communist Party, Wen's family came under scrutiny by investigative journalists for having accumulated a massive fortune during his time in government, casting a cloud over his legacy shortly prior to his retirement. He left office in 2013 and was succeeded by Li Keqiang.
Early life and rise to power
A native of Beichen District, Tianjin, Wen Jiabao went to the Nankai High School from which his predecessor premier Zhou Enlai graduated. He joined the Communist Party of China (CPC) in April 1965 and entered the work force in September 1967.
Wen has a background in engineering and holds a post-graduate degree from the Beijing Institute of Geology. He studied geomechanics in Beijing and began his career in the geology bureau of Gansu province. From 1968 to 1978, he presided over the Geomechanics Survey Team under the Gansu Provincial Geological Bureau and head of its political section. Wen succeeded in office, rising as chief of the Gansu Provincial Geological Bureau and later as Vice-minister of Geology and Mineral Resources.
Wen was "discovered" by then-general secretary Hu Yaobang, and joined the ranks of the Central Committee and Politburo. There was some public speculation after 1989 over whether Wen was closer to Hu Yaobang or Zhao Ziyang, but Wen implicitly confirmed that he was a protégé of Hu by the release of his 2010 article, "Recalling Hu Yaobang when I return to Xingyi". After Wen was promoted to work in Beijing, he served as Chief of the Party's General Affairs Office, an organ that oversaw day-to-day operations of the party's leaders. He remained in the post for eight years.
Wen has built a network of patronage during his career. Throughout this period Wen was said to be a strong administrator and technocrat, having earned a reputation for meticulousness, competence, and a focus on tangible results. Outgoing Premier Zhu Rongji showed his esteem for Wen by entrusting him from 1998 with the task of overseeing agricultural, financial and environmental policies in the office of Vice-Premier, considered crucial as China prepared to enter the World Trade Organization. Wen served as Secretary of the Central Financial Work Commission from 1998 to 2002. By the end of the 1990s Wen and Zhang Peili were the main investor and founder of Ping An Insurance, which was established with the help of Hong Kong tycoon Cheng Yu-tung's family through real estate firm New World Development.
Survival of Tiananmen purge
Wen's most significant political recovery occurred after accompanying Zhao on his visit to students demonstrating in Tiananmen Square in 1989. Unlike Zhao, who was purged from the party days later for "grave insubordination" and lived under house arrest in Beijing until his death in January 2005, Wen survived the political aftermath of the demonstrations.
Wen Jiabao is the only Chief of the Party's General Affairs Office to have served under three General Secretaries: Hu Yaobang, Zhao Ziyang, and Jiang Zemin.
First-term Premiership
Wen entered the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, China's highest ruling council, in November 2002, ranked third out of nine members (After Hu Jintao and Wu Bangguo). During the transition of authority as Hu Jintao assumed the general secretary and presidency in November 2002 and March 2003 respectively, Wen's nomination as premier was confirmed by the National People's Congress with over 99% of the delegates' vote. After taking over as Premier, Wen oversaw the continuation of economic reforms and has been involved in shifting national goals from economic growth at all costs to growth which also emphasizes more egalitarian wealth, along with other social goals, such as public health and education. Wen's broad range of experience and expertise, especially cultivated while presiding over agricultural policies under Zhu Rongji has been important as the "fourth generation" sought to revitalize the rural economy in regions left out by the past two decades of reform. In addition, the Chinese government under Wen has begun to focus on the social costs of economic development, which include damage to the environment and to workers' health. This more comprehensive definition of development was encapsulated into the idea of a xiaokang society.
Initially regarded as quiet and unassuming, Wen is said to be a good communicator and is known as a "man of the people." Wen has appeared to make great efforts to reach out those who seem left out by two decades of stunning economic growth in rural and especially western China. Unlike Jiang Zemin and his protégés on the Politburo Standing Committee, who form the so-called "Shanghai clique", both Wen and Hu hail from, and have cultivated their political bases, in the vast Chinese interior. Many have noted the contrasts between Wen and Hu, "men of the people", and Jiang Zemin, the flamboyant, multilingual, and urbane former mayor of Shanghai, the country's most cosmopolitan city.
Like Hu Jintao, whose purported brilliance and photographic memory have facilitated his meteoric rise to power, Wen is regarded as well-equipped to preside over a vast bureaucracy in the world's most populated and perhaps rapidly changing nation. In March 2003, the usually self-effacing Wen was quoted as saying, "The former Swiss ambassador to China once said that my brain is like a computer", he said. "Indeed, many statistics are stored in my brain."
Mild-tempered and conciliatory, especially compared to his predecessor, the tough, straight-talking Zhu Rongji, Wen's consensual management style has enabled him to generate a great deal of good will, but has also created some opponents who are in support of tougher policy decisions. Notably, Wen was widely known to have clashed with then-Shanghai party chief Chen Liangyu over the central government's policies.
Wen was involved in two major episodes involving public health. In early 2003, he was involved in ending the official inaction over the SARS crisis. On 1 December 2004, he became the first major Chinese official to publicly address the problem of AIDS, which has devastated parts of Yunnan and Henan and threatens to be a major burden on Chinese development. Since May 2004, Wen made various visits to communities devastated by AIDS, trips shown prominently on national media. By showing these actions, Wen displayed an effort to reverse years of what many activists have described as a policy of denial and inaction. Furthermore, Wen is concerned about the health and safety of previous drug addicts; since March 2004, Wen had visited several drug addict treatment facilities in southern China and addressed the issue to the patients in person, recognizing that AIDS is more likely to be spread by drug abuse and the reuse of hypodermic syringes than by sexual contact.
Wen was known to conduct visits to relatively poor areas of China's countryside randomly to avoid elaborate preparations to appease officials and hide the real situation, which is done often in China. At committee meetings of the State Council, Wen made it clear that the rural wealth disparity problem must be addressed. Along with general secretary Hu Jintao, the government focused on the "Three Rural Issues", namely, agriculture, the countryside, and farmers, and emphasized these core areas as requiring further work and development. The Hu-Wen administration abolished the thousand year old agricultural tax entirely in 2005, a bold move that significantly changed the rural economic model. But despite these initiatives, Wen has been criticized for allowing the urban-rural gap to actually increase during his tenure.
Like Zhu Rongji, Wen is generally seen as a popular communist official with the Chinese public. His attitude is seemingly sincere and warm, triggering comparisons with former premier Zhou Enlai. Wen spent Chinese New Year in 2005 with a group of coal miners in a Shanxi coal mine. To many, Wen has gained the image of being the "people's premier", a populist, and an ordinary Chinese citizen who knows and understands ordinary people's needs. In an annual meeting of the Chinese Authors Association, Wen spoke for over two hours to the delegates without looking at script. To foreign media, Wen was also the highest figure in the Chinese government to give free press conferences, often facing politically sensitive and difficult questions regarding subjects such as Taiwan Independence, Tibetan independence and human rights.
In December 2003, Wen visited the United States for the first time. During the trip, Wen was able to get President George W. Bush to issue what many saw as a mild rebuke to the then President of the Republic of China (Taiwan), Chen Shui-bian. Wen has also been on visits to Canada and Australia, mostly on economic issues. Wen also visited Japan in April 2007 in what was termed the "de-thawing journey", where he characterized the relationship between the Asian powers as for "mutual benefit". He also met with Emperor Akihito and played baseball.
On 15 March 2005, after the anti-secession law was passed, by a majority of 2,896 to nil, with two abstentions by the National People's Congress, Wen said: "We don't wish for foreign intervention, but we are not afraid of it." as an allusion to the United States' stance on Taiwan. That earned him a long round of applause that was rare even by Chinese standards.
On 5 March 2007, Wen announced plans to increase the military budget. By the end of 2007 the military budget rose 17.8 percent from the previous year's 45 billion dollars, creating tension with the United States.
There were rumours about Wen's retirement and reputed clashes with former Shanghai party chief Chen Liangyu before the party's 17th Party Congress. Some sources suggested that Wen would ask to retire due to fatigue. Ultimately, Wen stayed on the Premier job, and was responsible for the drafting of the important speech delivered by Party general secretary Hu Jintao outlining China's direction in the next five years.
In January 2008, while during the midst of severe snowstorms, Premier Wen made his way south and visited train stations in Changsha and Guangzhou, addressing the public while calming their mood for long train delays.
Second-term Premiership
Wen Jiabao was appointed to a second five-year term as premier on 16 March 2008, leading efforts to cool soaring inflation and showcase the country to the world at the 2008 Summer Olympics. He received fewer votes in favour than he did in 2003, a sign that the premiership can create enemies, even in the mere formalities of China's electoral system. Wen faced grave economic challenges as the world became increasingly affected by the U.S. economic crisis. Social stability and regional activism in China's restive hinterland regions also dominated Wen's policy agenda. On 18 March 2008, during the press conference after the 2008 National People's Congress, Wen toed the government line in blaming supporters of the Dalai Lama for violence in Tibet, and said Chinese security forces exercised restraint in confronting rioting and unrest in the streets of Lhasa. Wen acted as the spokesman of the Chinese government during the 2008 unrest in Tibet and refused to negotiate with the Dalai Lama and his followers, unless they chose to "give up all separatist activities." On 12 November 2010, during the 2010 Asian Games opening ceremony in Guangzhou, Wen became the first non-head of state to open the Asian Games.
In his final address as China's prime minister Wen warned of the nation's growing divisions between rich and poor, the hazards of unchecked environmental degradation and the risks posed by unbalanced economic growth.
Response to 2008 Sichuan earthquake
Premier Wen Jiabao's popularity was boosted significantly when he went to the disaster area of the Sichuan a mere few hours after the disaster occurred. He declared on national television that survivors are to be rescued as long as there is "a glimmer of hope". He was named the General Commander of the Earthquake Relief Efforts Committee immediately following the disaster. Following his visits to the area, images of the Premier were displayed on national media, numerous videos popped up on Chinese video sites making comparisons with former Premier Zhou Enlai, a largely popular figure who was also dubbed the "People's Premier". While party leaders are often shown on state television looking rather stiff and sitting motionlessly, Wen's on-site image and candid nature attracted a large popular following of Chinese citizens.
In addition, there was speculation on internet forums as well as foreign media about the availability of the scientific prediction of the 2008 earthquake, and Wen was quoted as the only high-ranking Chinese leader to try to announce the scientific prediction and made it public, but was somehow prevented by other members of the Politburo Standing Committee.
2009 NPC
Before the 2009 National People's Congress convened, on 28 February, Premier Wen Jiabao went online on video chat to answer queries hosted by China's official government website gov.cn and the official Xinhua News Agency. During the session Wen openly advocated for transparency of the government and remarked that he was somewhat nervous about the occasion. He received a wide range of questions from large numbers of online Chinese netizens and chose to answer selected questions about prominent economic issues, such as global financial breakdown.
At the Congress, Wen also passed on a message of reassurance that GDP growth would not dip below 8% in 2009. He did not introduce a new stimulus package, and played down speculation that part of the 1.18 trillion RMB central government spending was not going directly into the economy. He also expressed concern about the security of Beijing's holdings in U.S. treasury debt. In a more unusual gesture, Wen also expressed interest in visiting Taiwan, stating he would "crawl there if [he] could not walk".
Foreign policy
Wen Jiabao played a prominent role advancing China's foreign policy positions, and became increasingly visible on the world stage as China's economic power expanded. He went on an official working visit to North Korea on 4 October 2009, the first time a Chinese Premier has visited North Korea since Li Peng's visit in 1991. He was greeted at the Pyongyang Airport by ailing North Korean leader Kim Jong-Il. Kim rarely greeted foreign dignitaries himself upon their arrival at the airport. Reuters believed this to be a show of solidarity from North Korea and that the country was serious in fostering a good relationship with China. Wen also met with European Union leaders at a China-EU conference in late November 2009, where he refused calls for China to revalue its Yuan and re-examine its foreign exchange regime. Wen remarked in Nanjing that "some countries are on the one hand pressuring China to appreciate its currency while on the other hand they are practising trade protectionism against China in many different forms."
In December, in what was seen as a mild rebuke of Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper during the latter's working visit to China, Wen stated, "This is your first trip to China and this is the first meeting between the Chinese Premier and the Canadian Prime Minister in almost five years. Five years is too long a time for China Canada relations." However, the interpretation that Wen rebuked Harper was later disputed in select newspaper editorials. Wen also travelled to the 2009 UN Climate Change Conference, where he met with U.S. President Barack Obama twice to secure an 11th-hour non-binding agreement on emissions cuts.
Political views
Domestic and foreign media variously described Wen as "populist" and in touch with the needs of ordinary people. On most social issues Wen seemed to be moderate, with his brand of policies based around societal harmony as prescribed by the Scientific Development Concept, the leading ideology of the administration.
In the first term of his Premiership Wen's attitudes towards political reform seemed ambivalent. He remarked that "the socialist system will continue in China for the next 100 years", although later, in a press conference at the 2007 National People's Congress, he stated that "democracy is one of the basic goals of the socialist system". Furthermore, in an interview in September 2008, Wen acknowledged that the democratic system in China needs to be improved, where the power "truly belongs to the people" through the construction of an independent judicial system and for the government to accept criticism from the people. Wen, seen as a former ally of Premier Zhao Ziyang, was likely supportive of the latter's political rehabilitation; however, he rarely mentioned Zhao publicly during his premiership. When asked by CNN whether or not China will liberalize for free elections in the next 25 years, Wen stated that it would be "hard to predict." On the subject of Taiwan, he reputedly believed in gradual negotiations. On the subject of Tibet, he toed the party line in condemning the exiled Dalai Lama for inciting "separatist violence".
Xinhua published articles in early 2007 on the direction of national development. The authorship of the articles was attributed separately to Wen Jiabao, particularly 26 February piece "Our Historical Tasks at the Primary Stage of Socialism and Several Issues Concerning China's Foreign Policy". The article advanced Wen's "peace doctrine" in global affairs, as well as what appeared to be inclinations towards fostering social democracy and advocacy of universal values. This was suspected as a sign that Wen has some differing viewpoints to the official party line – that values are relativistic and that "Chinese values" are not necessarily the same as "Western values," and that universal values is thus an empty concept. The debate continues to rage in Chinese political circles today, with neo-leftist thinkers such as Chinese Academy of Social Sciences President Chen Kuiyuan criticizing Wen's advocacy of universal values, saying that it relegates Chinese values and thinking as an inferior alternative to supposedly more "correct" Western norms.
Wen is perceived by some observers as a liberal voice in China's ruling elite. Wen has openly talked about democracy and increased freedoms in his speeches and interviews with foreign correspondents, although much of it was deemed "sensitive" commentary and censored in state media. Wen remarked that "someone who speaks is not a criminal, someone who listens is duly warned" (, which alludes to the classical work Shi Jing) at an internal party conference in 2009, an event reported on Xinhua and other state networks. His remarks triggered debate from netizens, as it seemed to contravene the practices of the Communist Party, particularly in its suppression of dissent. Analysts noted that Wen's message was aimed at party members, and not necessarily the general public because Wen believes freedom of speech has deteriorated since Hu Jintao's accession to power and has negatively affected China's political landscape and international reputation. His comments also ostensibly addressed the pervasive "fake-talking" present in Chinese political circles, in an attempt to curb systemic and institutional woes stemming from officials who are afraid to speak the truth.
Wen has progressively amped up his liberal rhetoric as his Premiership continued, remarking in August 2010 that "Without political reform, China may lose what it has already achieved through economic restructuring". Wen's comments were largely censored in state media, but he gained support from a group of some 23 party elders in October, who denounced the authorities' censorship of Wen's remarks in an open letter to the National People's Congress. In an interview with Fareed Zakaria on CNN's Global Public Square television program aired in 2008, Wen made the following statement: "I have summed up my political ideals into the following four sentences. To let everyone lead a happy life with dignity. To let everyone feel safe and secure. To let the society be one with equity and justice. And to let everyone have confidence in the future. In spite of the various discussions and views in the society, and in spite of some resistance, I will act in accordance with these ideals unswervingly, and advance within the realm of my capabilities political restructuring. I will like to tell you the following two sentences to reinforce my view on this point. I will not fall in spite of the strong wind and harsh rain, and I will not yield until the last day of my life." At the 2012 National People's Congress, Wen mentioned the word "reform" 70 times. He remarked that China must "press ahead with both economic structural reforms and political structural reforms, in particular reforms on the leadership system of the Party and the country." There is also indication from party insiders that Wen has been pushing the case for the political rehabilitation of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.
Public image and political influence
Wen has been described as a populist by most observers. His quick responses and visits to the scenes of various disasters, including the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, has earned him a considerable reputation as an approachable leader in touch with the experiences of the masses. Wen engages regularly with locals on his trips to various provinces domestically as well as foreign visits; he played baseball and badminton with Japanese and South Korean citizens during visits to those countries. "Whether taking a stroll or swimming, it puts me at ease both mentally and physically and helps me handle my heavy workload," Wen had remarked.
Wen's public image has been criticized by Chinese dissident Yu Jie, who charged that Wen's rhetoric is insincere and empty. Dissidents such as Yu allege that Wen's parade of appearances on Chinese media is a carefully managed public relations campaign designed to distract people from real issues. They say that through use of Wen's charisma, the government hopes to showcase cosmetic solutions to much larger, systemic issues in order to placate public opinion. They also point out that Wen's words are rarely translated into deeds. On the other hand, Li Datong, a pro-democracy advocate, in an interview with the Associated Press, stated that "among the top Chinese leaders, who else speaks about democracy? Who else speaks about universal values and freedom?... Wen is the only one." Li believes that Wen is genuinely calling for democratic reform but he is powerless to make major decisions on the matter due to internal opposition. Wen's family members have also been subject to gossip and scrutiny outside of mainland China. Taiwanese media zoomed in on his wife's alleged personal fortunes from her jewelry business, while the Financial Times reported on a private equity firm called New Horizon Capital co-founded by Wen's son Wen Yunsong.
When he was the head of the Chinese government, Wen Jiabao was considered to be one of the most powerful statesmen in the world. In 2006, he was named to the Time 100 list. In 2009, Wen was named one of ten people and the only non-American in a list compiled by ABC of people who shaped the U.S. economy the most since 2000. Wen also topped a list of "10 leaders to watch" in 2010 released 19 January by Eurasia Group, a global political risk research and consulting firm. Behind that U.S. President Barack Obama came second. In August 2010, Wen was named "The Man of the People" by Newsweek. In October 2010, Wen Jiabao was a person selected on the Time's cover that the title was "Wen's World". In 2011, Wen was ranked 14th in Forbes Magazine's List of The World's Most Powerful People.
In 2021 Chinese authorities censored a tribute that Wen Jiabao had written for this mother in the small paper Macau Herald.
Personal life and family wealth
Wen Jiabao is married to Zhang Peili, whom he met while working as a government geologist in Gansu. Zhang is a jewellery expert and has played a prominent role in the nation's diamond trade. She rarely appears with Wen in public. In October 2012, The New York Times reported that Wen's relatives have controlled financial assets then worth at least US$2.7 billion during his time as Premier. In response, a Chinese government spokesman stated that the report "blackens China's name and has ulterior motives", and the websites of The New York Times were censored in mainland China. Lawyers representing Wen's family also denied the report's content. Wen personally wrote a letter submitted to the Politburo Standing Committee asking for an investigation to the claim and willing to make his family assets public. Professor Zhu Lijia, of the Chinese Academy of Governance, suggest that this is Wen's last try to push the passing of the "Sunshine law", which would require government officials to release their financial information to the public. Professor Jean-Pierre Cabestan of Hong Kong's Baptist University questioned the timing of the report and suggested "It looks very much [like] some people close to Bo Xilai are trying to throw mud at the reformists".
Wen is said to have an introverted personality. He has stated that his one regret so far in life was never having learned to drive a manual transmission car. Wen is known for his adept use of Chinese poetry to convey political and diplomatic messages, when responding to journalists, or simply to begin a speech.
See also
Politics of the People's Republic of China
History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)
Hu–Wen Administration
References
External links
"Wen Jiabao's family amasses wealth of more than $2.7 billion USD" New York Times, 25 October 2012
"Recalling Hu Yaobang When I Return to Xingyi" [Chinese: 再回兴义忆耀邦]: an essay written by Wen as a eulogy of Hu Yaobang. The article originally appeared in The People's Daily on 15 April 2010.
Wen Jiabao at Facebook
Wen Jiabao biography @ China Vitae, the web's largest online database of China VIPs
The Age – Who is Wen Jiabao?
How to pronounce Wen Jiabao
Wen says China's reforms irreversible
Corpus of Political Speeches :Free access to political speeches by Wen Jiabao and other Chinese politicians, developed by Hong Kong Baptist University Library
|-
|-
|-
|-
1942 births
Tianjin Nankai High School alumni
China University of Geosciences alumni
Chinese geologists
Chinese reformers
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Tianjin
Living people
People's Republic of China politicians from Tianjin
Premiers of the People's Republic of China
Scientists from Tianjin
Members of the 17th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party
20th-century Chinese politicians
21st-century Chinese politicians
Members of the 16th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 15th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
|
[
-0.5414783358573914,
0.23892131447792053,
-0.09816596657037735,
-0.31065815687179565,
-0.12765765190124512,
0.33744776248931885,
-0.32656171917915344,
0.08592832833528519,
-0.29975754022598267,
-0.1738738864660263,
-0.23221540451049805,
-0.16901318728923798,
-0.08293147385120392,
0.09096033871173859,
-0.29822561144828796,
-0.49595698714256287,
0.20451907813549042,
0.5647504925727844,
-0.513550877571106,
-0.30593615770339966,
-0.07137029618024826,
-0.0955493301153183,
-0.024603715166449547,
0.4105164408683777,
-0.09887940436601639,
0.11449113488197327,
0.22877264022827148,
0.14924362301826477,
0.2523912787437439,
-0.4003482758998871,
-0.06734535843133926,
-0.06750848144292831,
0.5317584276199341,
0.4552113711833954,
-0.5951691269874573,
-0.042063191533088684,
-0.27156761288642883,
-0.27474063634872437,
-0.36583220958709717,
0.14532235264778137,
-0.563948392868042,
0.002631122712045908,
0.20366942882537842,
0.2328266054391861,
0.09686596691608429,
-1.0790337324142456,
-1.431566834449768,
0.464618057012558,
-0.920204222202301,
-0.6929115653038025,
-0.5166457295417786,
1.1226856708526611,
0.11440670490264893,
0.4337327778339386,
0.18810705840587616,
-0.3193323016166687,
-0.5181836485862732,
-0.7245079874992371,
-0.4734170436859131,
-0.614065408706665,
0.3167790472507477,
-0.037443287670612335,
0.8152534365653992,
-0.08336334675550461,
0.6928591132164001,
-0.49962782859802246,
0.3935869038105011,
0.37159979343414307,
-0.06289756298065186,
-0.07082828879356384,
0.01899203285574913,
0.49839848279953003,
0.5327292680740356,
-0.054837267845869064,
-0.3515898287296295,
-0.24529346823692322,
-0.0170961394906044,
-0.09865273535251617,
0.3804171681404114,
0.0674968883395195,
-0.3060481548309326,
-0.3266051709651947,
0.36811959743499756,
0.5436696410179138,
-0.6217349767684937,
0.2490038424730301,
0.15205393731594086,
0.4433465600013733,
-0.49293428659439087,
0.7688173651695251,
-0.75104159116745,
-0.14367106556892395,
0.5668027400970459,
-0.5220872759819031,
-1.1075392961502075,
-0.0614292286336422,
0.4568710923194885,
0.42259934544563293,
-0.0365912988781929,
-0.5729063749313354,
0.10796017199754715,
-0.17253173887729645,
0.16652032732963562,
-0.5453099012374878,
-0.45993784070014954,
-0.4968937933444977,
-0.2535907030105591,
0.03185637667775154,
-0.2145054042339325,
-0.15791821479797363,
-0.45163053274154663,
0.21398909389972687,
0.31886330246925354,
0.48204129934310913,
0.7561397552490234,
0.08808626234531403,
-0.46539363265037537,
-0.19908729195594788,
-0.04666295275092125,
-0.2944369614124298,
0.07212091237306595,
0.36700427532196045,
-0.1573951691389084,
-0.7000777125358582,
0.22013598680496216,
-0.5240829586982727,
-0.4165046811103821,
0.03421083837747574,
-0.3085552453994751,
0.3720736801624298,
0.8918611407279968,
0.372495174407959,
-0.6313599944114685,
-0.15181832015514374,
-0.3727065324783325,
-0.23469336330890656,
0.405110627412796,
0.3204675614833832,
0.3679918348789215,
-0.08801418542861938,
-0.3330342769622803,
0.13910743594169617,
-0.06895314902067184,
-0.14746840298175812,
0.008609099313616753,
0.691727340221405,
-0.5067976117134094,
-0.2204708307981491,
-0.5729953646659851,
-0.14382034540176392,
-0.1684732884168625,
-0.3574100136756897,
-0.04086720943450928,
-0.5285876393318176,
-0.11947500705718994,
0.9783622026443481,
0.8621573448181152,
0.045541249215602875,
0.29682886600494385,
0.2048095017671585,
0.5655695796012878,
-0.3640023469924927,
-0.4164697825908661,
-0.1438896358013153,
0.41812270879745483,
0.04688787832856178,
0.4365575611591339,
0.8641595244407654,
-0.2011726349592209,
-0.3496880829334259,
-0.3476913273334503,
-0.07838534563779831,
-0.017088089138269424,
-0.6316905617713928,
-0.11927450448274612,
0.523593008518219,
0.016345644369721413,
-0.5098866820335388,
0.5825039148330688,
0.42679741978645325,
-0.747588574886322,
0.21278557181358337,
0.0011698132148012519,
0.8351061344146729,
0.6909089088439941,
0.16516557335853577,
-0.1648898422718048,
-0.1346132457256317,
0.7436826825141907,
-0.11607836186885834,
-0.28074464201927185,
-0.4626387059688568,
0.2465793937444687,
0.06344892829656601,
-0.1166224256157875,
0.10755794495344162,
0.04423118010163307,
1.1805644035339355,
-0.12363575398921967,
-0.0647742822766304,
-0.06961164623498917,
-0.14164547622203827,
-0.3062599003314972,
-0.3666136562824249,
0.24062448740005493,
0.9356705546379089,
1.071535587310791,
0.7822275161743164,
-0.03614594414830208,
0.5511336326599121,
-0.05249534547328949,
-0.7436796426773071,
-0.11499452590942383,
0.16007959842681885,
0.04313799738883972,
-0.5582262277603149,
-0.5863165259361267,
-0.71214359998703,
-0.25986456871032715,
-0.11830135434865952,
0.8475348949432373,
0.3371800184249878,
-0.5209288001060486,
1.0768829584121704,
-0.18127453327178955,
0.6806907057762146,
0.17517082393169403,
0.3746890425682068,
-0.44378602504730225,
0.18421697616577148,
-0.03887533023953438,
-0.21393312513828278,
0.18696606159210205,
-0.41177111864089966,
0.21303343772888184,
-0.01929813250899315,
-0.305571049451828,
0.08221945911645889,
0.5386314988136292,
-0.37830716371536255,
0.6321178078651428,
0.06564868986606598,
-0.0425284244120121,
-0.050141144543886185,
-0.17761710286140442,
-0.04909776523709297,
-0.8544315695762634,
0.33630967140197754,
-0.09922616928815842,
0.04120337590575218,
0.2368692010641098,
0.25229936838150024,
0.6716369390487671,
-0.10465668141841888,
0.3889411389827728,
-0.6186586618423462,
0.3298274278640747,
0.15599466860294342,
0.04398219659924507,
0.3430434465408325,
0.3845798075199127,
-0.6638864874839783,
-0.1533053070306778,
0.16581106185913086,
-0.02067388780415058,
0.3922747075557709,
0.10440065711736679,
-0.42800265550613403,
-0.14368268847465515,
-0.15258429944515228,
-0.08628726005554199,
-0.25205498933792114,
-0.2783069610595703,
0.016674906015396118,
0.16527822613716125,
-0.30256420373916626,
-0.3290208578109741,
0.3115604817867279,
-0.8854037523269653,
-1.372501015663147,
0.7766991853713989,
0.6467673778533936,
-0.10350950062274933,
-0.42891016602516174,
-0.29926449060440063,
-0.7298038601875305,
-0.3592227101325989,
0.14582449197769165,
0.22393372654914856,
-0.1430836319923401,
-0.5452954173088074,
0.31716111302375793,
0.4994828999042511,
-0.08242179453372955,
-0.3459767997264862,
0.6449630260467529,
0.04479553923010826,
-0.3557073771953583,
0.5412846207618713,
0.1359153687953949,
-0.2755914032459259,
-0.2726338505744934,
0.17185573279857635,
0.2680937945842743,
0.4426041841506958,
0.12958171963691711,
0.2384488433599472,
0.2843756377696991,
-5.513526439666748,
-0.013572155497968197,
0.21021661162376404,
-0.1911195069551468,
-0.0641954094171524,
0.20921020209789276,
0.17023023962974548,
-0.27741631865501404,
0.3938525319099426,
-0.2278464287519455,
0.5407330989837646,
0.15084697306156158,
0.44017431139945984,
0.37274643778800964,
0.17224396765232086,
0.565789520740509,
0.6867418885231018,
-0.5188239812850952,
0.5074074864387512,
0.37729543447494507,
-0.3124580979347229,
-0.2354375571012497,
-0.1866072565317154,
0.4417385160923004,
0.07753385603427887,
-0.08363527804613113,
-0.012081329710781574,
0.518525242805481,
-0.3449900150299072,
-0.5402728319168091,
-0.16875594854354858,
-0.5012851357460022,
-0.4220104217529297,
0.6638092398643494,
0.16304482519626617,
-0.4788747727870941,
0.45313695073127747,
0.387079119682312,
-0.02179783023893833,
-0.20202627778053284,
0.38293251395225525,
-0.018879123032093048,
-0.5328967571258545,
0.05785534530878067,
-0.2584497630596161,
-0.32209473848342896,
-0.22749833762645721,
-0.009647004306316376,
-0.6506825685501099,
0.33503180742263794,
0.36869582533836365,
0.20083096623420715,
0.3974775969982147,
-0.43414750695228577,
0.47433528304100037,
0.79196697473526,
-0.10749752819538116,
-0.015127791091799736,
-1.1721687316894531,
0.012948607094585896,
0.269194632768631,
-0.3695484399795532,
0.03867921605706215,
-0.14022687077522278,
-0.32982465624809265,
0.07624411582946777,
-0.18522761762142181,
0.09666527062654495,
-0.04344738647341728,
0.021086743101477623,
-0.2961088716983795,
0.28759363293647766,
0.34093594551086426,
-1.1042660474777222,
0.3771425485610962,
-0.5720441937446594,
0.345872700214386,
0.5060307383537292,
-0.42024511098861694,
-0.22405055165290833,
-0.018227726221084595,
0.06199599429965019,
0.34281352162361145,
0.8798338770866394,
0.44965481758117676,
0.11244592815637589,
0.5991398692131042,
0.5925936102867126,
0.3444803059101105,
0.5638538599014282,
0.256597638130188,
-0.7286711931228638,
0.4402172565460205,
0.43573281168937683,
0.09249158203601837,
0.3241453170776367,
-0.16652214527130127,
0.3465981185436249,
-0.16127687692642212,
-0.5880534052848816,
0.4501306414604187,
0.0671074241399765,
-0.6526651978492737,
-0.3493921756744385,
0.18496103584766388,
0.05747176334261894,
0.5598564147949219,
-0.036232996731996536,
0.23479092121124268,
0.16981573402881622,
0.1700601428747177,
0.889390766620636,
-0.0631575882434845,
-0.6618337631225586,
0.8258176445960999,
0.04575923830270767,
-0.06563844531774521,
-0.25162622332572937,
0.2167690396308899,
0.35175710916519165,
-0.011878924444317818,
0.864582896232605,
-0.27597326040267944,
0.029634982347488403,
-0.10173262655735016,
0.018358631059527397,
-0.22360843420028687,
0.3778754770755768,
-0.2980368435382843,
-0.5693938136100769,
0.47531935572624207,
0.12070135772228241,
0.21000416576862335,
0.3104839622974396,
0.31122905015945435,
-0.258333683013916,
-0.7401236295700073,
-0.7151354551315308,
-0.30116164684295654,
0.224667027592659,
-0.02792387828230858,
-0.1611727476119995,
-0.5807490944862366,
-0.42363518476486206,
-0.10336460173130035,
-0.3328423798084259,
-0.42902007699012756,
0.2534005045890808,
-0.1834203153848648,
0.937061607837677,
0.5548251271247864,
-0.750688910484314,
0.28047484159469604,
0.1863936185836792,
-0.3900740444660187,
-0.017340032383799553,
-0.3476311266422272,
-0.3697579801082611,
0.3847147822380066,
-0.43326807022094727,
0.17693161964416504,
-0.6503575444221497,
-0.6895535588264465,
-0.15121355652809143,
0.2122349590063095,
0.20758412778377533,
0.041330475360155106,
0.30291905999183655,
-0.1477728635072708,
0.4882318079471588,
0.4121541380882263,
0.005638012662529945,
-0.2629106640815735,
0.36108213663101196,
0.1680835783481598,
-0.17412741482257843,
0.1091112568974495,
0.5182830691337585,
-0.019202392548322678,
0.22083839774131775,
-0.5582252740859985,
0.19051054120063782,
-0.37313008308410645,
-0.30133041739463806,
-0.05068250373005867,
0.324246346950531,
-0.08664154261350632,
-0.24669848382472992,
-0.33293190598487854,
0.20483382046222687,
0.28439992666244507,
-0.06101958826184273,
-0.09658998996019363,
0.8180118203163147,
-0.049874551594257355,
-0.11881604790687561,
-0.1738903969526291,
0.11798497289419174,
-0.5898633003234863,
0.15792617201805115,
-0.25717228651046753,
0.07909965515136719,
-0.15268661081790924,
-0.2777147591114044,
0.319204181432724,
-0.46699726581573486,
-0.19170962274074554,
-0.06536127626895905,
0.8376304507255554,
0.17632748186588287,
-0.5318661332130432,
-0.4765995442867279,
-0.029403777793049812,
0.05857234075665474,
-0.29079994559288025,
-0.20964334905147552,
0.5674141049385071,
-0.3430577218532562,
-0.3316822052001953,
-0.7039914131164551,
-0.42680245637893677,
-0.1341438591480255,
-0.05896393954753876,
-0.23566609621047974,
0.19552122056484222,
0.02261022850871086,
0.2752116620540619,
0.340044766664505,
0.6528621315956116,
-0.14062859117984772,
-1.1531893014907837,
-0.28427332639694214,
0.44410353899002075,
0.11647256463766098,
-0.7081682682037354,
-0.5083394646644592,
0.6339567303657532,
0.24823100864887238,
-0.48572757840156555,
-0.07230925559997559,
-0.07525669783353806,
0.8560789823532104,
-0.024786191061139107,
-0.6863740682601929,
-0.22568100690841675,
0.1873328983783722,
0.5715535879135132,
-0.02398112416267395,
-0.14958292245864868,
-0.09360095858573914,
0.570149838924408,
-0.20492494106292725,
-0.8053605556488037,
-0.3231421709060669,
-0.24695183336734772,
-0.9006396532058716,
0.2661324143409729,
-0.0859728753566742,
0.5063170790672302,
-0.13026297092437744,
-0.21106424927711487,
-0.25539669394493103,
0.6143772602081299,
-0.1775255799293518,
-0.27058935165405273,
0.5427685379981995,
-0.16490118205547333,
0.3717587888240814,
-0.31805577874183655,
-0.5119495391845703,
0.03188944607973099,
-0.3659461736679077,
-0.6693907976150513,
0.49017906188964844,
-0.5895066857337952,
-0.037189073860645294,
0.168160080909729,
0.312636137008667,
0.09180396050214767,
-0.07151023298501968,
-0.9559243321418762,
-0.130943164229393,
0.07771901786327362,
-0.09830085188150406,
-0.22763897478580475,
-1.1284220218658447,
0.48437434434890747,
-0.2751506567001343,
0.1851831078529358,
-0.053490251302719116,
-0.7218550443649292,
-0.18622058629989624,
-0.6152619123458862,
-0.055040400475263596,
-0.5814474821090698,
0.626430094242096,
0.63675856590271,
0.927710771560669,
0.10723346471786499,
-0.18202956020832062,
-0.09775596857070923,
0.22246591746807098,
0.485700398683548,
0.541803777217865,
-0.20192700624465942,
-0.4453842043876648,
-0.29481589794158936,
-0.5133658647537231,
0.2877202332019806,
0.5236354470252991,
0.6450484395027161,
-0.27767977118492126,
0.4325227737426758,
0.45428189635276794,
-0.584982693195343,
-0.14987599849700928,
0.07847635447978973,
-0.005281755235046148,
-0.36191269755363464,
0.025937240570783615,
0.04929528012871742,
-0.40415656566619873,
0.03188416734337807,
0.3442230820655823,
0.43872374296188354,
0.7087398171424866,
-0.006526992656290531,
0.08647426217794418,
-0.03521225228905678,
0.23236826062202454,
0.37167853116989136,
0.5511615872383118,
0.28633472323417664,
-0.5878496170043945,
0.2965891361236572,
-0.576112687587738,
-0.026703648269176483,
-0.7811707854270935,
0.12935110926628113,
-0.15422281622886658,
0.1705598086118698,
0.6773450374603271,
-0.5744107365608215,
0.09900322556495667,
0.5306940078735352,
0.3405013978481293,
-0.3895174264907837,
0.5647981762886047,
-0.5859436392784119,
-0.6823293566703796,
0.721034824848175,
0.02883148193359375,
0.2670576870441437,
-0.937562882900238,
0.10139629244804382,
-0.059035345911979675,
-0.1586972326040268,
0.35503047704696655,
0.09446058422327042,
0.21688885986804962,
-0.08049143850803375,
-0.2297676056623459,
0.695487916469574,
0.0746317058801651,
-0.22595828771591187,
-0.08581747114658356,
-0.453684002161026,
-0.6905924677848816,
-0.0413421131670475,
-0.06349217891693115,
0.19725485146045685,
-0.16472125053405762,
-0.29078423976898193,
0.4397052526473999,
-0.024387044832110405,
0.10827863216400146,
0.40292274951934814,
0.20280353724956512,
-0.11474797874689102,
0.23445269465446472,
-0.09572861343622208,
0.041590072214603424,
0.2947341799736023,
-0.8089808225631714,
0.12899433076381683,
0.5629917979240417,
-0.1703919917345047,
0.2092382311820984,
-0.03586554899811745,
0.3225032389163971,
0.26237326860427856,
-0.19692832231521606,
-0.09546909481287003,
0.3879902958869934,
0.3370877504348755,
0.06172565370798111,
-0.5819341540336609,
0.6937990784645081,
1.0094022750854492,
0.18228214979171753,
0.2165529578924179,
0.2566359341144562,
-0.3405141234397888,
0.5780652165412903,
-0.027009451761841774,
0.12324143201112747,
-0.5387089848518372,
0.08028356730937958,
-0.7798518538475037,
0.0026935283094644547,
0.02118779718875885,
0.21358008682727814,
-0.4394485652446747,
0.9082863926887512,
-0.1607973277568817,
0.876535952091217,
0.7789797186851501,
-0.11750185489654541,
0.5018818974494934,
-0.3297882676124573,
-0.648512601852417,
-0.25087350606918335,
-0.07241476327180862,
0.5061920881271362,
0.4218309223651886,
0.4497796595096588,
0.04841714724898338,
-0.5306321382522583,
-0.4684399664402008,
0.855781078338623,
-1.1303168535232544,
-0.42123016715049744,
-0.47605252265930176,
-0.31882795691490173,
-0.22846108675003052,
0.07103495299816132,
0.7445456981658936,
0.5651569962501526,
-0.1954619139432907,
-0.27779096364974976,
-0.04353306069970131,
0.6732016801834106,
0.27095332741737366,
0.12750375270843506,
0.2395731508731842,
-0.22534258663654327,
-0.3843717575073242,
0.14946573972702026,
-0.5763586163520813,
-0.19359168410301208,
0.28441402316093445,
-0.2613430321216583,
0.43443551659584045,
-0.9358086585998535,
0.25394171476364136,
-0.3872241973876953,
0.18368837237358093,
0.036589477211236954,
0.3408418893814087,
-0.11894851177930832
] |
213060
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Rich%2C%202nd%20Earl%20of%20Warwick
|
Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick
|
Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick (5 June 158719 April 1658), Lord of the Manor of Hunningham, was an English colonial administrator, admiral, and Puritan, who commanded the Parliamentarian navy during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.
Personal details
Robert Rich, later Lord Holland, was the eldest son and third of four children born to Robert Rich, 1st Earl of Warwick (1559-1619) and his first wife Penelope (1563-1607). His parents separated soon after Henry's birth, although they did not formally divorce until 1605, when Penelope married her long-time partner, Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy (1563-1606). Penelope was sister of the Earl of Essex, executed for treason in 1601, making Rich a cousin to future Parliamentarian general Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex.
He had two sisters, Essex (1585-1658) and Lettice (1587-1619) and a younger brother Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland (1590–1649). He also had a number of half brothers and sisters, including Penelope (1592-?), Isabella, Mountjoy Blount, 1st Earl of Newport (1597-1666), and Charles (1605-1627). Almost certainly fathered by Charles Mountjoy, these children were brought up within the Rich family and appear in its pedigree, with the exception of Mountjoy, who was legitimised after his father's death.
Robert Rich married three times, first in February 1605 to Frances Hatton (1590–1623) Lady of the Manor of Hunningham, daughter and heiress of Sir William Hatton (1560–1597) Lord of the Manor of Hunningham, formerly "Newport", the granddaughter of Francis Gawdy. Their children included Anne (1604-1642), Robert (1611–1659), Lucy (1615-after 1635), Frances (1621-1692) and Charles (1623?–1673). Sometime before January 1626, he married Susan Rowe (1582–1646), a daughter of Sir Henry Rowe, Lord Mayor of London, and widow of William Holliday (c.1565–1624), Alderman of London, a wealthy London merchant and chairman of the East India Company. In March 1646, he made his third and last marriage to Eleanor Wortley (died 1667); neither of these produced children.
Career
He succeeded to his father's title as Earl of Warwick in 1619.
Early developing interest in colonial ventures, he joined the Guinea, New England, and Virginia companies, as well as the Virginia Company's offspring, the Somers Isles Company. Warwick's enterprises involved him in disputes with the British East India Company (1617) and with the Virginia Company, which in 1624 was suppressed as a result of his action.
In 1627 he commanded an unsuccessful privateering expedition against the Spanish.
He sat as a Member of Parliament for Maldon for 1604 to 1611 and for Essex in the short-lived Addled Parliament of 1614.
Slave trade
In late August 1619, one of the privateer ships sponsored by the Earl, the White Lion, arrived at Point Comfort, Virginia with 20 slaves from Ndongo in present-day Angola. The Africans were sold to Governor George Yeardley and the Cape Merchant of the Colony of Virginia. The White Lion and the Treasurer had captured the Africans from the Portuguese slave ship São João Bautista bound for Veracruz. This marked the beginning of the American slave trade.
Colonial ventures
Warwick's Puritan connections and sympathies gradually estranged him from the court but promoted his association with the New England colonies. In 1628 he indirectly procured the patent for the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and in 1631 he was granted the "Saybrook" patent in Connecticut. Forced to resign the presidency of the Council for New England in the same year, he continued to manage the Somers Isles Company and Providence Island Company, the latter of which, founded in 1630, administered Old Providence on the Mosquito Coast. Meanwhile, in England, Warwick opposed the forced loan of 1626, the payment of ship money, and Laud's church policy.
His Richneck Plantation was located in what is now the independent city of Newport News, Virginia. The Warwick River, Warwick Towne, Warwick River Shire, and Warwick County, Virginia are all believed named for him, as are Warwick, Rhode Island and Warwick Parish in Bermuda (alias The Somers Isles). The oldest school in Bermuda, Warwick Academy, was built on land in Warwick Parish given by the Earl of Warwick; the school was begun in the 1650s (its early records were lost with those of the Warwick Vestry in a twentieth-century shipwreck), though the school places its founding officially in 1662. Warwick Academy
In September 1640 Warwick signed the Petition of Twelve to Charles I, asking the king to summon another parliament.
Civil War period
In 1642, following the dismissal of the Earl of Northumberland as Lord High Admiral, Warwick was appointed commander of the fleet by Parliament. In 1643 he was appointed head of a commission for the government of the colonies, which the next year incorporated Providence Plantations, afterwards Rhode Island, and in this capacity he exerted himself to secure religious liberty.
As commander of the fleet, in 1648, Warwick retook the 'Castles of the Downs' (at Walmer, Deal, and Sandown) for Parliament, and became Deal Castle's captain 1648–53. The subject was criticized for not recapturing the royalist fleet in 1648 when Prince Rupert suffered mutiny and disarray in Hellevoetsluis. However, he was dismissed from office on the abolition of the House of Lords in 1649. He retired from national public life, but was intimately associated with the Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell, whose daughter Francis married his grandson and heir, also Robert Rich, in 1657 (the marriage was a short one as the grandson died the following year).
References
Sources
External links
|-
1587 births
1658 deaths
16th-century English nobility
17th-century English nobility
People from Essex
Royal Navy admirals
Earls of Warwick (1618)
Lord-Lieutenants of Essex
17th-century English Puritans
Robert
Isla de Providencia people
Members of Parliament for Maldon
English MPs 1604–1611
English MPs 1614
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge
Members of the Inner Temple
Military personnel of the English Civil War
|
[
-0.5418052077293396,
-0.5770485997200012,
-0.3041357100009918,
-0.261880487203598,
0.2011871635913849,
1.035111665725708,
0.2601845860481262,
0.30350273847579956,
-0.6687024235725403,
-0.4230562150478363,
-0.16855692863464355,
0.49110496044158936,
-0.5657898783683777,
-0.0042426688596606255,
0.058452919125556946,
0.642064094543457,
0.6265542507171631,
-0.43417754769325256,
-0.12354069948196411,
-0.6291784048080444,
0.20664465427398682,
-0.048170141875743866,
0.6559851169586182,
0.19842840731143951,
0.13634862005710602,
-0.05188637226819992,
0.7625156044960022,
-0.21811577677726746,
-0.34107592701911926,
-0.4912320673465729,
-0.05009591579437256,
0.4859670102596283,
0.18330903351306915,
0.017196204513311386,
-0.4799966514110565,
0.048214614391326904,
-1.031237006187439,
-0.1001756489276886,
-0.4208587110042572,
0.1815074235200882,
-0.11085467040538788,
-0.2960461676120758,
0.32634401321411133,
0.2194591760635376,
-0.14433647692203522,
-0.016498472541570663,
-1.162563443183899,
-0.002055330667644739,
-0.20349068939685822,
0.043829724192619324,
0.6600848436355591,
0.7755319476127625,
-0.1310090720653534,
0.43756213784217834,
0.19615791738033295,
0.4603843688964844,
-0.9060094356536865,
-0.46203288435935974,
0.44706475734710693,
-0.31026557087898254,
0.6197169423103333,
0.34085750579833984,
0.29677608609199524,
0.17585726082324982,
-0.17318809032440186,
-0.5681180953979492,
0.15838776528835297,
-0.06045285239815712,
-0.8600631356239319,
-0.25179600715637207,
0.2460874766111374,
0.267335444688797,
-0.02443188801407814,
0.49808499217033386,
-0.032895203679800034,
-0.022056270390748978,
0.08335014432668686,
0.1895848661661148,
0.05771281197667122,
0.4924391806125641,
0.3580884337425232,
-0.5962225198745728,
0.9200833439826965,
0.43705835938453674,
0.04513733834028244,
0.44331952929496765,
0.15691974759101868,
0.7957453727722168,
-0.5696514844894409,
-0.22871601581573486,
0.4477974772453308,
0.38747575879096985,
0.38533902168273926,
-0.2385478913784027,
-0.36759185791015625,
0.4526929259300232,
-0.09832725673913956,
-0.4334338903427124,
-0.2899121642112732,
-0.2221328318119049,
0.035774268209934235,
0.6138444542884827,
0.3637549579143524,
0.42108047008514404,
-1.1417101621627808,
0.15244770050048828,
0.05936995893716812,
-0.21692417562007904,
-0.3148845136165619,
0.15125460922718048,
-0.13344664871692657,
0.26955652236938477,
-0.22868220508098602,
-0.1860361397266388,
0.0740039125084877,
-0.08356189727783203,
-0.22504562139511108,
-0.5881428718566895,
-0.719089925289154,
-0.37004023790359497,
0.07378587126731873,
0.5865857005119324,
0.12466767430305481,
0.5382415652275085,
-0.09261202812194824,
-0.41031336784362793,
0.5094444155693054,
-0.11307524889707565,
0.24799329042434692,
0.2514040470123291,
0.5869289040565491,
0.8653934001922607,
-0.9452461004257202,
0.09142729640007019,
-0.23304221034049988,
-0.18010084331035614,
-0.1611541211605072,
0.3175915777683258,
0.35147568583488464,
-0.06216375529766083,
-1.4876646995544434,
-0.37936797738075256,
-0.20175249874591827,
0.035518813878297806,
0.3884334862232208,
0.2218087613582611,
-0.07884956896305084,
-0.037958987057209015,
-0.06260781735181808,
0.3023358881473541,
-0.35326114296913147,
0.14855003356933594,
-0.0803934782743454,
-0.8543217182159424,
-0.20400972664356232,
0.3781348168849945,
0.6781757473945618,
-0.15111002326011658,
0.2443123757839203,
0.6013950109481812,
-0.3109323978424072,
0.03996793180704117,
-0.14147455990314484,
-0.2229555994272232,
-0.0005845933337695897,
0.24463053047657013,
0.05379679054021835,
-0.09942545741796494,
-0.6569489240646362,
-0.04546178877353668,
-0.37013474106788635,
-0.027569610625505447,
0.871009111404419,
-0.45014119148254395,
-0.24496906995773315,
0.6206839680671692,
0.8875321745872498,
-0.14118275046348572,
0.8931910991668701,
-0.29396745562553406,
-0.5218716859817505,
0.14786480367183685,
0.6623454093933105,
-0.5630919337272644,
0.2850198447704315,
0.2671964764595032,
0.31957194209098816,
-0.4837990403175354,
0.08099284023046494,
0.03738410398364067,
-0.15672314167022705,
-0.35228919982910156,
-0.2868570387363434,
-1.0213567018508911,
0.7352219820022583,
0.16540813446044922,
-0.723493754863739,
0.27409499883651733,
0.40716779232025146,
0.7047704458236694,
-0.08682992309331894,
0.03809966519474983,
0.12425021082162857,
0.09370873123407364,
-0.09737423807382584,
-0.26464569568634033,
0.006774716079235077,
0.06937172263860703,
0.4268834888935089,
1.138228416442871,
0.2440558671951294,
0.0843278095126152,
0.14106419682502747,
0.20218423008918762,
-0.06477496027946472,
-1.0705991983413696,
0.3073785603046417,
-0.21389898657798767,
0.03377404808998108,
-0.6176620125770569,
0.5162757039070129,
-0.1937522441148758,
-0.09428238123655319,
0.646159291267395,
0.204787939786911,
0.8520488142967224,
-0.7649918794631958,
-0.01144950557500124,
-0.3308289051055908,
-0.53867107629776,
-0.3836701810359955,
0.39221739768981934,
0.13224062323570251,
-0.1313547044992447,
0.5127381682395935,
-0.012406949885189533,
0.075049489736557,
0.5528560876846313,
-0.048586804419755936,
0.1968836635351181,
-0.09597110748291016,
0.3445616662502289,
-0.5427597165107727,
0.06376326829195023,
-0.2562897503376007,
0.4086281657218933,
-0.1006731316447258,
-0.23788808286190033,
-0.11877376586198807,
-1.008803129196167,
0.522240400314331,
0.4697558283805847,
0.1637813299894333,
0.45027869939804077,
0.3838626444339752,
-0.47032859921455383,
0.10938402265310287,
0.15934866666793823,
0.27788421511650085,
0.5056941509246826,
-0.5938918590545654,
0.18319226801395416,
-0.12080065160989761,
0.5082225203514099,
0.529135525226593,
-0.2991660535335541,
0.04312452673912048,
-0.21119274199008942,
0.6123711466789246,
-0.21137720346450806,
0.5542635321617126,
-0.7906705141067505,
-0.3230541944503784,
-0.11916183680295944,
0.5267921686172485,
-0.19702011346817017,
0.3157278895378113,
0.3481161892414093,
-0.3365468978881836,
-0.6662662029266357,
0.2536284029483795,
0.5737754702568054,
-0.7622278332710266,
-0.4339722990989685,
0.38055041432380676,
-0.3318401575088501,
-0.3676694929599762,
-0.1385505050420761,
0.4453379511833191,
-0.08995521813631058,
-0.008853157982230186,
0.015057224780321121,
-0.5628896355628967,
-0.30699318647384644,
-0.11556684225797653,
0.7171528339385986,
-0.4999944567680359,
0.0613422729074955,
-0.2067602425813675,
-0.18411538004875183,
-0.40410277247428894,
0.1746617704629898,
-0.4755440354347229,
0.19007278978824615,
0.7409770488739014,
0.09184477478265762,
-0.047449953854084015,
0.05598236620426178,
-5.325666904449463,
0.44867444038391113,
-0.06167178601026535,
0.5180523991584778,
0.35874229669570923,
-0.19344066083431244,
0.3464418351650238,
-0.3930376470088959,
0.5526363849639893,
-0.37208661437034607,
0.7468236088752747,
-0.39109373092651367,
-0.10691342502832413,
0.21696744859218597,
0.391069233417511,
0.31178176403045654,
0.9066970348358154,
-0.37542808055877686,
0.6154196262359619,
0.03937274590134621,
-0.11005479097366333,
0.4762822389602661,
-0.2301018387079239,
-0.23291850090026855,
0.7188854217529297,
0.4715805649757385,
-0.02229510433971882,
-0.26193365454673767,
-0.7495304346084595,
-0.31912174820899963,
-0.4716012179851532,
0.061065059155225754,
0.3800585865974426,
-0.4908977150917053,
-0.3143402934074402,
-0.5415635704994202,
0.19274462759494781,
0.5352330207824707,
0.20264090597629547,
0.06207948550581932,
0.04283198341727257,
-0.11082878708839417,
-0.8574267625808716,
-0.0760931670665741,
0.2631360590457916,
-0.7041904926300049,
-0.9519230723381042,
0.22704443335533142,
0.26867860555648804,
0.23085558414459229,
-0.12462088465690613,
0.3017551302909851,
-0.14237725734710693,
-0.04563787579536438,
0.2191401720046997,
0.07132910192012787,
-0.210500568151474,
0.4044705927371979,
-0.42152857780456543,
0.3352275490760803,
0.4758117198944092,
-0.9473666548728943,
0.03300255537033081,
0.9436265230178833,
-0.3152906596660614,
0.09370377659797668,
0.5298200249671936,
-0.1304866075515747,
0.6758065223693848,
0.24939438700675964,
0.08552245795726776,
0.5054934620857239,
0.7590334415435791,
-0.9242439270019531,
0.1016019955277443,
-0.19502580165863037,
-0.303331196308136,
0.2965717017650604,
0.06351296603679657,
-0.24521152675151825,
-0.18440809845924377,
-0.7075777649879456,
0.14157523214817047,
0.5445769429206848,
0.15689106285572052,
-0.5642458200454712,
-0.5420891046524048,
0.4103429615497589,
-0.7639233469963074,
0.1245112344622612,
-0.13550128042697906,
-0.6892538666725159,
-0.1290189027786255,
0.4537181258201599,
0.5509093403816223,
-0.3647480010986328,
-0.16024529933929443,
0.30627238750457764,
0.5899790525436401,
0.1896176040172577,
-0.6217032074928284,
0.45452070236206055,
-0.2647281587123871,
-0.9299248456954956,
0.35249650478363037,
-0.06236762925982475,
-0.05385170131921768,
0.6740434765815735,
-0.053619224578142166,
0.29043498635292053,
0.6398915648460388,
0.02538447268307209,
-0.4198566973209381,
-0.26520052552223206,
0.0607156865298748,
-0.4497886300086975,
0.18653275072574615,
0.3298480808734894,
0.8784763813018799,
-0.12668120861053467,
-0.2781756520271301,
0.5145187377929688,
-0.513502836227417,
-0.41156813502311707,
-0.6250113844871521,
0.22134436666965485,
0.21601352095603943,
-0.26837220788002014,
-0.684185266494751,
-0.06652764230966568,
0.1468762457370758,
-0.0683647096157074,
-0.4191324710845947,
0.044222407042980194,
0.4765084385871887,
-0.7134222388267517,
-0.45055803656578064,
-0.42421287298202515,
0.31324756145477295,
-0.15992102026939392,
-0.08065512031316757,
-0.5874190926551819,
0.1838754564523697,
-0.2572025656700134,
-0.29874375462532043,
-0.01468926016241312,
0.20645909011363983,
0.2248029112815857,
0.32383814454078674,
0.2599368095397949,
-0.26615259051322937,
0.24468953907489777,
0.5694457292556763,
-0.017868168652057648,
-0.14309877157211304,
-0.9277552366256714,
-0.21888983249664307,
-0.34283503890037537,
-0.21892860531806946,
-0.42168885469436646,
0.2991323471069336,
0.3323552906513214,
-1.012616753578186,
-0.3062739074230194,
0.48276445269584656,
-0.22111275792121887,
-0.27071836590766907,
-0.10410740226507187,
-0.6081822514533997,
0.5999621748924255,
0.3870571553707123,
-0.6930294632911682,
0.007402779068797827,
-0.0924195870757103,
0.3027556538581848,
-0.29136472940444946,
-0.0094037726521492,
0.08273851871490479,
0.24056865274906158,
0.609053909778595,
0.09565439075231552,
0.22297421097755432,
-0.3918530344963074,
-0.13923679292201996,
0.9742497205734253,
-0.3157815933227539,
-0.16450491547584534,
-0.3153332471847534,
-0.06344848871231079,
-0.2951909601688385,
-0.8059097528457642,
-0.12092215567827225,
0.3815583288669586,
0.8196266293525696,
-0.18060415983200073,
0.19508713483810425,
0.29242759943008423,
0.4705602824687958,
0.09972035139799118,
-0.07386153191328049,
-0.2533724009990692,
0.3856866657733917,
-0.36333316564559937,
-0.4876335561275482,
-0.19567497074604034,
-0.5648860931396484,
-0.3675747215747833,
-0.2439793348312378,
0.2059698849916458,
0.886533260345459,
-0.4571576714515686,
-0.7595087885856628,
-0.036229752004146576,
0.5662182569503784,
0.15361388027668,
-0.1959875077009201,
-0.08827053010463715,
0.47630858421325684,
0.29055291414260864,
-0.6808640956878662,
-0.41244277358055115,
-0.2309449166059494,
-0.5300305485725403,
-0.16023528575897217,
-0.7553473711013794,
0.5182738900184631,
0.5944693088531494,
-0.2672169506549835,
0.417161762714386,
-0.11821931600570679,
0.007191461510956287,
-0.42052316665649414,
-0.14529621601104736,
1.0886099338531494,
0.004778314847499132,
-0.061675772070884705,
0.8093497157096863,
-0.27142781019210815,
0.11688213795423508,
0.011779244057834148,
0.5898054242134094,
1.2182756662368774,
0.041022639721632004,
-0.3209502696990967,
0.133492112159729,
0.1328955739736557,
-0.145399808883667,
-0.40466880798339844,
-0.15352344512939453,
-0.3018277585506439,
0.11902153491973877,
-0.2817516326904297,
-0.47857144474983215,
0.2623479664325714,
0.8717913627624512,
-0.6219539046287537,
0.11939100921154022,
-0.08841091394424438,
-0.3751251697540283,
-0.23801307380199432,
-0.24049751460552216,
0.6600782871246338,
-0.48011064529418945,
0.15894941985607147,
0.5075730085372925,
-0.5773475170135498,
-0.22098278999328613,
0.004618779290467501,
-0.0520564466714859,
-0.3257366716861725,
-0.5461905002593994,
-0.42822378873825073,
-0.8191202878952026,
0.7746676206588745,
0.16345983743667603,
0.23246502876281738,
0.30875593423843384,
-0.935156524181366,
1.3546854257583618,
0.14673791825771332,
-1.2164556980133057,
-0.03590284660458565,
0.1295381635427475,
-0.4561523497104645,
-0.2628187835216522,
-0.4918389916419983,
0.01682823896408081,
-0.10981342941522598,
0.22195787727832794,
0.28385257720947266,
0.1468803435564041,
-0.03924780339002609,
-0.19140638411045074,
-1.0276896953582764,
-0.3368799388408661,
0.022272517904639244,
-0.40264812111854553,
-0.21774666011333466,
0.20525795221328735,
-0.25195369124412537,
-0.5743300914764404,
0.5823055505752563,
0.4765004515647888,
-0.15998904407024384,
0.4856882393360138,
-0.19185632467269897,
-0.4136165976524353,
-0.12480772286653519,
-0.5586460828781128,
0.6356214880943298,
-0.06210267171263695,
-0.8473647236824036,
-0.2985895574092865,
-0.11045857518911362,
-0.3884163796901703,
-0.5836105942726135,
0.5967397093772888,
-0.6116402745246887,
-0.1249995157122612,
-0.148142009973526,
0.10537420958280563,
-0.343862384557724,
-0.22824758291244507,
0.06394480168819427,
0.19917841255664825,
0.7294386029243469,
-0.26666051149368286,
-0.40888988971710205,
-0.02323010377585888,
0.6586969494819641,
0.042129188776016235,
-0.21169345080852509,
-0.9285982251167297,
0.6272159814834595,
-0.09575576335191727,
-0.2944673001766205,
-0.10160307586193085,
-0.4576272666454315,
0.47664082050323486,
0.33865416049957275,
0.34711936116218567,
0.6183997988700867,
-0.15146395564079285,
0.12844084203243256,
-0.4492082893848419,
0.2723482549190521,
0.04113965854048729,
-0.03827830031514168,
0.1186540424823761,
-0.03417240455746651,
0.7865569591522217,
0.29921528697013855,
0.6170807480812073,
-0.4286852777004242,
0.4785487651824951,
0.7319980263710022,
0.7773126363754272,
-0.02614632621407509,
-0.7749861478805542,
-0.19484180212020874,
0.356818288564682,
0.13105466961860657,
0.4461672902107239,
-0.03540578484535217,
0.022106291726231575,
-0.24690911173820496,
0.01443503424525261,
0.015159184113144875,
0.29130789637565613,
0.2004646360874176,
0.2240542471408844,
-0.2324083298444748,
-0.46066179871559143,
-0.4733394682407379,
-0.16777800023555756,
0.9190032482147217,
0.276001900434494,
0.3064064085483551,
0.14362864196300507,
-0.14241042733192444,
-0.6311711072921753,
0.06603299081325531,
0.04855598881840706,
-0.311016708612442,
0.12477973848581314,
-0.0754074826836586,
-0.08100154995918274,
0.042181070894002914,
-0.4897140562534332,
-0.4619244635105133,
-0.05735628679394722,
-0.7269713282585144,
-0.271136611700058,
0.352033793926239,
-1.0583534240722656,
0.16246767342090607,
-0.014862246811389923,
1.2574408054351807,
0.6175554394721985,
-0.0007114770705811679,
-0.04372379556298256,
0.4439612329006195,
-0.4706263542175293,
0.5674284100532532,
-0.4717191755771637,
0.3914130628108978,
-0.2904927134513855,
-0.3000563383102417,
-1.2768058776855469,
0.8293616771697998,
0.5058842897415161,
0.055777158588171005,
-0.6517955660820007,
0.4185143709182739,
-0.07860836386680603,
0.15572452545166016,
0.33407917618751526,
-0.30063825845718384,
0.04527360945940018,
0.003997177351266146,
0.4071429371833801,
0.6703306436538696,
-0.01819382980465889,
-0.3026401400566101,
0.16674190759658813,
-0.08096159994602203,
0.6108062267303467,
-0.4011722505092621,
-0.948257327079773,
0.32919424772262573,
-0.03695268556475639,
0.02664310857653618,
-0.21909628808498383,
-0.24435269832611084,
0.0014997107209637761,
-0.12197301536798477,
0.7320188283920288,
0.46150660514831543,
-0.34182029962539673,
-0.7035679221153259,
0.1959388107061386,
-0.009353872388601303,
0.600000262260437,
-0.514840304851532,
0.15851180255413055,
-0.8788734078407288,
0.48686960339546204,
-0.3590843677520752,
-0.014545201323926449,
1.083933711051941,
0.47251516580581665,
0.30779126286506653,
0.28829723596572876,
-1.0165797472000122,
0.37653848528862,
-0.118935227394104,
0.13289572298526764,
0.07661091536283493,
0.4209665358066559,
-0.29001766443252563
] |
213061
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M33
|
M33
|
M33, M-33, or M.33 may refer to:
M-33 (Michigan highway), a state highway in Michigan
M33 cluster bomb, a Cold War-era U.S. biological cluster bomb
HMS M33, an M29-class monitor warship of the Royal Navy
M33 helmet, used by the Italian Army in World War II
Macchi M.33, an Italian racing flying boat of 1925
Miles M.33 Monitor, a 1944 twin engined British target tug aircraft
Mike Tempesta (aka M.33), a rock guitarist
Messier 33, or Triangulum Galaxy, a galaxy in the Local Group of galaxies
M33 (gene)
M33 ball, a jacketed .50_BMG ammunition cartridge
M33, US Army rocket launcher for the Honest John rocket
M33, the postcode district of Sale, a town in Greater Manchester, England
See also
M33 in Andromeda, a collection of science fiction short stories by A. E. van Vogt
|
[
-0.6494179368019104,
0.009891151450574398,
-0.4325082004070282,
-0.3917803168296814,
-0.630392849445343,
0.9170620441436768,
0.9555281400680542,
0.044039249420166016,
-0.45482757687568665,
-0.26542624831199646,
-0.5654163360595703,
0.4594506323337555,
-0.3837610185146332,
0.4326847493648529,
0.5246428847312927,
0.39690929651260376,
0.5492864847183228,
0.3640981614589691,
0.3222009837627411,
0.018268615007400513,
0.15991245210170746,
0.3404318392276764,
0.6256802678108215,
-0.4209136366844177,
-0.021066365763545036,
0.0530390664935112,
0.6776989698410034,
-0.07503579556941986,
0.6119397282600403,
-0.2096417248249054,
-0.24153873324394226,
0.4719657003879547,
0.15973486006259918,
-0.33226102590560913,
0.020118603482842445,
-0.49852240085601807,
-0.14336082339286804,
-0.30485567450523376,
-0.11982055753469467,
-0.10029831528663635,
-0.2407834827899933,
-0.29476824402809143,
-0.16345196962356567,
0.45039767026901245,
0.3841797411441803,
-0.14350314438343048,
-1.6700657606124878,
-0.06601739674806595,
-0.3883908987045288,
0.018169132992625237,
-0.17401525378227234,
0.2759722173213959,
0.4393620491027832,
0.25922074913978577,
0.26754090189933777,
0.4184795022010803,
-0.4467471241950989,
-0.45658451318740845,
0.8131363987922668,
0.024728691205382347,
0.08323976397514343,
-0.1366398185491562,
-0.052609656006097794,
0.7226945757865906,
-0.584247350692749,
0.33629244565963745,
-0.37507736682891846,
1.0123727321624756,
-0.7625015377998352,
-0.05034612864255905,
0.03114258125424385,
-0.6004611849784851,
0.10643499344587326,
-0.09786342084407806,
-0.013346300460398197,
-0.5740720629692078,
-0.3064563572406769,
0.01692822016775608,
-0.05717276409268379,
-0.09195984899997711,
0.0037892265245318413,
0.7649219036102295,
0.3191726505756378,
0.00782203022390604,
-0.03209538757801056,
0.26578766107559204,
0.04442605748772621,
0.030961820855736732,
-0.2374725043773651,
0.9159194827079773,
-0.43610915541648865,
-0.20317760109901428,
0.6542566418647766,
-0.042389314621686935,
0.25601935386657715,
-0.03872281312942505,
-0.5726555585861206,
0.3009708523750305,
0.5572766065597534,
0.42910143733024597,
0.3304128050804138,
0.2638515532016754,
0.11968329548835754,
-0.14289657771587372,
-0.4746944010257721,
0.14693418145179749,
-0.5535475611686707,
-0.4991760551929474,
-0.6123231053352356,
-0.1464439183473587,
-0.9647594094276428,
0.07666835933923721,
-0.118177630007267,
-0.415767103433609,
-0.16487820446491241,
0.24417507648468018,
-0.11199222505092621,
-0.3904247581958771,
-0.15595319867134094,
0.3077971637248993,
0.5583475232124329,
0.30628830194473267,
-0.07147885113954544,
0.34020382165908813,
0.5070292353630066,
-0.19589097797870636,
0.3848581910133362,
0.11447050422430038,
-0.07408131659030914,
0.15889383852481842,
0.10894353687763214,
0.917704701423645,
0.2114996314048767,
0.09827627241611481,
-0.37485235929489136,
-0.6379279494285583,
-0.0869264304637909,
0.7988948225975037,
0.03970489278435707,
-0.03066926635801792,
-1.0820327997207642,
0.24055735766887665,
0.0685119703412056,
-0.0781579539179802,
0.7089425325393677,
0.6818927526473999,
-0.14596664905548096,
0.11464560776948929,
-0.3936598300933838,
-0.7693883180618286,
0.010009202174842358,
-0.7718549966812134,
-0.11858536303043365,
0.017023254185914993,
-0.2552977204322815,
0.527563214302063,
0.05739189684391022,
-0.07545388489961624,
0.5680571794509888,
0.3419015407562256,
-0.2278767228126526,
0.10926798731088638,
-0.20919352769851685,
0.6546228528022766,
0.0007152307080104947,
0.1219099685549736,
-0.06892120093107224,
-0.30109134316444397,
0.4498756229877472,
0.25743940472602844,
-0.08653251081705093,
-0.15710937976837158,
0.4285387396812439,
-0.2826349437236786,
0.2967272400856018,
-0.45036694407463074,
0.7604213356971741,
0.6801585555076599,
0.22382192313671112,
-0.5099905729293823,
-0.34368613362312317,
-0.275370717048645,
0.13379700481891632,
-0.28114932775497437,
0.19300387799739838,
0.10385747253894806,
1.066901445388794,
0.1622663140296936,
-0.2095465064048767,
0.035591140389442444,
-0.5229076147079468,
0.01734614372253418,
0.052972327917814255,
-0.3527441918849945,
1.2519608736038208,
-0.29591044783592224,
-0.4702260494232178,
0.046022411435842514,
-0.026021840050816536,
1.0853749513626099,
0.7047064900398254,
-0.8085500597953796,
0.7873003482818604,
-0.10149981081485748,
-0.5051945447921753,
0.5327715277671814,
0.404935747385025,
-0.07458499073982239,
0.2619371712207794,
0.17073914408683777,
0.255680114030838,
-0.587932288646698,
-0.4266299903392792,
-0.45332857966423035,
0.5318589806556702,
0.23010790348052979,
0.2760114073753357,
-0.2646339535713196,
-0.3843821883201599,
0.11665254086256027,
0.6506339311599731,
-0.722998857498169,
-0.5196127891540527,
0.10852476209402084,
-0.9632151126861572,
0.17787764966487885,
0.17366570234298706,
0.3161306083202362,
-0.02493380568921566,
-0.2737978994846344,
0.10258806496858597,
0.16484570503234863,
-0.11844529956579208,
0.2915085256099701,
-0.007971268147230148,
-0.366322785615921,
0.049760814756155014,
-0.019349602982401848,
-0.03956669196486473,
-0.5371331572532654,
0.032218508422374725,
0.6111189723014832,
-0.30470478534698486,
0.0030441656708717346,
-0.17384609580039978,
-0.5561885237693787,
0.6770229339599609,
0.008346308022737503,
-0.46114233136177063,
-0.348084419965744,
0.07443566620349884,
0.4259852170944214,
0.4160151183605194,
-0.022474301978945732,
0.031096771359443665,
0.2358427345752716,
0.36476778984069824,
0.01748817414045334,
0.24703671038150787,
0.25353434681892395,
-0.7044409513473511,
0.24591411650180817,
-0.03645148128271103,
0.1868080198764801,
0.0483986996114254,
0.14059318602085114,
-0.21454553306102753,
-0.3058638572692871,
0.6325427293777466,
0.21317216753959656,
0.3906627893447876,
-0.5005576610565186,
-0.20864446461200714,
-0.3442676067352295,
-0.05877164751291275,
-0.5777361392974854,
0.27741679549217224,
0.3436969816684723,
-0.4757995307445526,
-0.6031931042671204,
-0.25432419776916504,
0.5111595392227173,
0.6873846054077148,
-0.24547624588012695,
0.06912489235401154,
-0.31891027092933655,
0.05346890166401863,
0.0791979655623436,
0.171434685587883,
-0.49286454916000366,
-0.46813780069351196,
-0.08934223651885986,
-0.5458735227584839,
-0.3648100197315216,
-0.1541350930929184,
0.03439442440867424,
-0.6141449809074402,
0.4961787760257721,
0.4473036527633667,
0.5135224461555481,
-0.5383089780807495,
0.28014618158340454,
-0.459168404340744,
0.20714132487773895,
0.09908158332109451,
0.3056620955467224,
-0.20829860866069794,
0.5630975961685181,
-5.556876182556152,
-0.1296045035123825,
-0.7546383142471313,
-0.3386261463165283,
0.4236055016517639,
0.09517040103673935,
0.3118465840816498,
-0.17424555122852325,
0.004342042841017246,
-0.7234178781509399,
-0.09305619448423386,
0.3385314345359802,
-0.28387296199798584,
0.08412854373455048,
-0.5381555557250977,
0.10572033375501633,
0.042717162519693375,
0.2260192185640335,
0.6843650341033936,
0.20597897469997406,
0.3484451174736023,
-0.4041941165924072,
0.1344812661409378,
-0.43033429980278015,
0.1647041290998459,
0.46795234084129333,
-0.21978530287742615,
0.15875348448753357,
-0.06372871994972229,
0.21820496022701263,
0.17229068279266357,
-0.48925167322158813,
-0.4370500147342682,
-0.28014543652534485,
-0.13497109711170197,
-0.37773218750953674,
1.2214988470077515,
0.10513275116682053,
0.6441051959991455,
-0.3401147127151489,
-0.2523886263370514,
0.12205322086811066,
0.5148259401321411,
0.7158365845680237,
0.8257190585136414,
0.2414838820695877,
-0.33105725049972534,
-0.16718265414237976,
0.24173900485038757,
0.79790198802948,
0.05794868990778923,
0.29285621643066406,
0.8369007110595703,
0.26227813959121704,
0.6107596755027771,
-0.24678736925125122,
-0.36213016510009766,
-0.06606794893741608,
0.6097251772880554,
0.42979803681373596,
0.5802693963050842,
-0.18125194311141968,
-0.4799851179122925,
-0.5324825644493103,
-0.020934563130140305,
-0.6461127996444702,
-0.500724196434021,
-0.03969452157616615,
0.436177134513855,
-0.2380196899175644,
-0.5744911432266235,
0.43484950065612793,
0.05494054779410362,
-0.8361572623252869,
0.814669132232666,
-0.054572299122810364,
-0.09793467819690704,
-0.12490038573741913,
-0.30899378657341003,
0.11294102668762207,
-0.6032989621162415,
-0.4633062183856964,
-0.26134276390075684,
0.13324403762817383,
0.08315715938806534,
-0.2265947312116623,
-0.26225602626800537,
0.17807075381278992,
0.452734112739563,
0.031022407114505768,
0.4272279441356659,
-1.033013939857483,
0.715408980846405,
-0.18135206401348114,
0.25865864753723145,
0.4482199251651764,
0.03596333786845207,
0.3723762631416321,
0.43654829263687134,
-0.37860527634620667,
0.24968744814395905,
-1.0316557884216309,
0.05873103812336922,
-0.15133900940418243,
-0.3845873475074768,
-0.2769143581390381,
-0.2710569202899933,
0.30476412177085876,
0.7526593208312988,
0.05740765109658241,
-0.1749117374420166,
-0.5928711891174316,
-0.8258436322212219,
-0.588979959487915,
0.5091046094894409,
-0.2337854504585266,
-0.3555956184864044,
0.1634562760591507,
0.5325144529342651,
0.4347896873950958,
-0.2101898491382599,
0.494587242603302,
0.08010296523571014,
-0.21714548766613007,
-0.33860546350479126,
0.06956504285335541,
-0.052792444825172424,
-0.5485787391662598,
-0.5601930022239685,
-0.39024966955184937,
0.02347182296216488,
0.23919928073883057,
-0.2715042233467102,
0.05475151166319847,
-0.07449950277805328,
-0.5096757411956787,
-0.26724329590797424,
0.3940468728542328,
-0.04393761232495308,
-0.49903640151023865,
-0.18626953661441803,
-0.14295008778572083,
-0.4567100405693054,
0.01863839291036129,
0.1871482878923416,
0.36437827348709106,
0.3524216413497925,
0.08054757118225098,
-0.3857147693634033,
0.5136602520942688,
-0.4608713686466217,
-0.7567733526229858,
0.6142827868461609,
0.0479821041226387,
-0.18837878108024597,
-0.15534968674182892,
-0.283973753452301,
0.09889339655637741,
-0.5647337436676025,
-0.6405046582221985,
0.611494779586792,
-0.2503426671028137,
-0.8372724056243896,
0.38888880610466003,
0.5731251835823059,
0.07410820573568344,
0.38205647468566895,
-0.4344203472137451,
0.24022141098976135,
0.8574901223182678,
-0.14828625321388245,
-0.43514978885650635,
-0.511681079864502,
-0.2297556847333908,
-0.007177672348916531,
0.14752227067947388,
-0.24183480441570282,
-0.17182932794094086,
-0.2954563498497009,
0.011459028348326683,
-0.156264528632164,
-0.12414364516735077,
-0.058001287281513214,
0.6246162056922913,
0.5034119486808777,
-0.31266310811042786,
-0.4563387334346771,
0.3731769323348999,
-0.21561835706233978,
-0.42206716537475586,
0.4080785810947418,
0.05028706416487694,
0.3498682975769043,
-0.10363948345184326,
-0.8348271250724792,
-0.28829821944236755,
-0.24216561019420624,
0.3900662064552307,
-0.021904902532696724,
-0.36246490478515625,
0.11819688975811005,
0.4482736885547638,
-0.25358638167381287,
0.34568357467651367,
0.5366256237030029,
-0.23786316812038422,
0.3498220145702362,
-0.05789812654256821,
-0.2727094292640686,
0.32382526993751526,
0.28817635774612427,
-1.3397265672683716,
-0.16761696338653564,
0.6622404456138611,
-0.19904351234436035,
0.20951592922210693,
-0.3350966274738312,
0.2589106857776642,
-0.4976584017276764,
-0.5940191149711609,
-0.39619842171669006,
-0.6998888850212097,
-0.6983702182769775,
-0.08246005326509476,
-0.9428704380989075,
0.7898432016372681,
-0.3074518144130707,
-0.7114959359169006,
0.5763604044914246,
-0.07467254251241684,
-0.25922340154647827,
-0.028353415429592133,
0.27423954010009766,
0.4710824489593506,
-0.14218755066394806,
-0.06807845085859299,
-0.3959899842739105,
-0.016001882031559944,
-0.2822038531303406,
0.5358253717422485,
0.06896620243787766,
0.12584470212459564,
0.26088863611221313,
-0.7621904611587524,
-0.26183342933654785,
-0.19903281331062317,
0.5215643644332886,
-0.35902899503707886,
-0.07413267344236374,
0.06612894684076309,
0.008944694884121418,
-0.428299218416214,
-0.6813268065452576,
-0.4000668525695801,
1.2703051567077637,
-0.4974419176578522,
-0.3568642735481262,
-0.7671630382537842,
0.22296962141990662,
0.005192024167627096,
-0.2699766457080841,
0.06509141623973846,
-0.5495560765266418,
0.32683584094047546,
0.23307271301746368,
0.09062564373016357,
-0.05481712147593498,
-0.14087212085723877,
0.5785174369812012,
-0.1587209701538086,
-0.7856519222259521,
-0.03515879809856415,
0.28168973326683044,
0.5315216779708862,
-0.49926838278770447,
-0.09909434616565704,
0.09694933146238327,
-0.3988330662250519,
0.1493224948644638,
0.08279099315404892,
-0.43435245752334595,
0.22290395200252533,
-0.24840977787971497,
-0.26557713747024536,
-0.12324929237365723,
-0.3486490249633789,
0.3012038767337799,
-0.25425148010253906,
-0.19661234319210052,
0.4386531114578247,
-0.12955249845981598,
0.10988301783800125,
-0.7661136388778687,
0.5179310441017151,
-0.352867990732193,
0.1465628743171692,
-0.30329662561416626,
0.2455204427242279,
-0.1826152354478836,
0.23043663799762726,
-0.19663861393928528,
0.9807729125022888,
0.35416948795318604,
-0.16227009892463684,
0.4485231935977936,
0.2674423158168793,
0.0000029236209684313508,
-0.44541895389556885,
0.61775803565979,
0.08010932058095932,
-0.12524034082889557,
0.22064068913459778,
0.5426956415176392,
0.6983535885810852,
-0.6434325575828552,
0.008376955054700375,
0.5107321739196777,
-0.28848451375961304,
-0.3581071197986603,
0.080001100897789,
0.6607702374458313,
0.6449483633041382,
0.09322725981473923,
0.3353813886642456,
-0.7916297316551208,
1.0160025358200073,
-0.1562422215938568,
-1.1135895252227783,
0.5726472735404968,
0.21672146022319794,
0.6823907494544983,
-0.2943626046180725,
-0.529742956161499,
0.3097893297672272,
-0.2609938681125641,
-0.6729924082756042,
0.06381190568208694,
-0.04685154929757118,
0.4321204125881195,
0.7509512901306152,
0.3577278256416321,
0.4908825159072876,
-0.38952338695526123,
-0.012529144994914532,
-0.2171819508075714,
0.6673359274864197,
0.13769087195396423,
-0.2170431911945343,
-0.08627452701330185,
-0.10178288072347641,
0.3366292715072632,
0.4942777156829834,
0.7245155572891235,
0.6439731121063232,
-0.4107968807220459,
0.203077033162117,
-0.4680086374282837,
-0.15884481370449066,
-0.035286854952573776,
-0.35343021154403687,
0.7315455675125122,
0.5735729336738586,
0.3382887840270996,
-0.10875342041254044,
0.03968951106071472,
-0.029875345528125763,
-0.617572009563446,
-0.5346617102622986,
0.07763233780860901,
0.23369067907333374,
0.44966554641723633,
0.8478609323501587,
-0.22053740918636322,
-0.1827097088098526,
0.03827643394470215,
0.6501640677452087,
0.13035815954208374,
-0.020254993811249733,
-0.052697375416755676,
0.3625188171863556,
-0.4620237648487091,
0.06514932215213776,
-0.11938139796257019,
-0.31568413972854614,
-0.3528536260128021,
-0.3278280198574066,
-0.010345925576984882,
0.2835897207260132,
-0.24901805818080902,
-0.2782067060470581,
-0.11726661026477814,
-0.38014888763427734,
-0.20029014348983765,
0.04695330932736397,
-0.42157676815986633,
0.02574726566672325,
0.21870119869709015,
0.926380455493927,
0.5122944712638855,
1.0939465761184692,
0.17499080300331116,
0.1719643622636795,
-0.10631168633699417,
0.049965448677539825,
-0.9116035103797913,
0.45088961720466614,
-0.2978513836860657,
0.1318981647491455,
-0.2501494884490967,
0.03340553492307663,
0.6667818427085876,
-0.469122052192688,
0.048854727298021317,
-0.0650181844830513,
-0.47425779700279236,
0.20830366015434265,
0.2757483124732971,
-0.848911464214325,
0.03581927716732025,
-0.05816606432199478,
0.20651701092720032,
-0.4355361759662628,
-0.159047931432724,
0.5649359822273254,
-0.8070425391197205,
0.1824491322040558,
0.4690217673778534,
-0.26049524545669556,
-0.4782138168811798,
-0.016359074041247368,
0.012481439858675003,
-0.013156901113688946,
-0.72429358959198,
-0.10333985090255737,
-0.4318733513355255,
0.215833842754364,
0.6139987111091614,
0.028659166768193245,
0.09122779220342636,
0.5337704420089722,
0.01633979193866253,
-0.3786906898021698,
0.1384531408548355,
0.4524898827075958,
-1.026695966720581,
-0.3825206160545349,
-0.4036271870136261,
-0.7236682772636414,
-0.09034848213195801,
0.3486957550048828,
0.3020971417427063,
-0.1460791826248169,
0.21452836692333221,
-0.021814823150634766,
0.7175092101097107,
0.12421214580535889,
0.5287749171257019,
-0.41364261507987976,
0.22471089661121368,
-0.11250565946102142
] |
213063
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimeter
|
Trimeter
|
In poetry, a trimeter (Greek for "three measure") is a metre of three metrical feet per line. Examples:
When here // the spring // we see,
Fresh green // upon // the tree.
See also
Anapaest
Dactyl
Tristich
Triadic-line poetry
References
Types of verses
|
[
0.019423671066761017,
0.2971382439136505,
-0.27634376287460327,
-0.2999124825000763,
-0.4300122857093811,
0.9905737638473511,
0.8763096928596497,
-0.22279547154903412,
-0.21620222926139832,
-0.5102822780609131,
-0.17021934688091278,
-0.12000586837530136,
0.08119986206293106,
0.06821896135807037,
0.0977611243724823,
0.5101346969604492,
0.45398035645484924,
0.002687490079551935,
0.45579957962036133,
-0.10242339223623276,
-0.2796604633331299,
0.5582166910171509,
0.552944004535675,
-1.1957913637161255,
0.760593593120575,
-0.24253159761428833,
0.0699809342622757,
0.39394089579582214,
-0.045231934636831284,
-0.1873997300863266,
0.15871776640415192,
0.9992798566818237,
-0.3535845875740051,
-0.20499776303768158,
0.34195470809936523,
-0.4694977402687073,
0.08386653661727905,
0.027493150904774666,
-0.19505846500396729,
-0.6060861349105835,
-0.19103531539440155,
-0.28351670503616333,
0.2685708999633789,
-0.4512629210948944,
-0.3577028810977936,
-0.4327899217605591,
-1.7011122703552246,
0.1041303426027298,
-0.43852779269218445,
0.0752253606915474,
-0.6830073595046997,
-0.018300171941518784,
0.23504319787025452,
0.5121539235115051,
-0.14719580113887787,
0.47441238164901733,
-1.08888840675354,
0.17887692153453827,
0.4352416694164276,
-0.053414247930049896,
0.18112170696258545,
-0.045014552772045135,
-0.4356456995010376,
0.24692489206790924,
0.12935984134674072,
0.05490673705935478,
-0.30304595828056335,
0.10686513036489487,
-0.09201690554618835,
-0.05207553505897522,
0.08899053186178207,
0.20945949852466583,
-0.5848488807678223,
0.8908788561820984,
-0.3928365707397461,
-0.21908651292324066,
-0.08784594386816025,
-0.3307008445262909,
0.37538138031959534,
-0.0031945144291967154,
-0.20010064542293549,
0.7033966183662415,
0.2995404303073883,
0.284702330827713,
-0.13042956590652466,
-0.062348172068595886,
-0.22425046563148499,
0.13616447150707245,
-0.43804991245269775,
0.4891897439956665,
0.5178048610687256,
-0.6183720231056213,
0.24561086297035217,
-0.17387692630290985,
-0.25205159187316895,
-0.1694616824388504,
0.30951517820358276,
0.1467875838279724,
0.042180135846138,
-0.0900309830904007,
-0.1905323714017868,
-0.16762100160121918,
0.17436620593070984,
-0.288585364818573,
-0.5547656416893005,
-0.012262110598385334,
0.30067768692970276,
-0.3725859224796295,
0.599998414516449,
0.06419652700424194,
-0.12619681656360626,
-0.05531046912074089,
0.39177411794662476,
0.12895482778549194,
-0.5195707082748413,
-0.06552131474018097,
0.40310612320899963,
0.3572452962398529,
-0.5239159464836121,
-0.03413723409175873,
0.3383094370365143,
0.3835192918777466,
0.8654714822769165,
-0.161050483584404,
-0.25139370560646057,
-0.31869804859161377,
0.6102977991104126,
0.5118978023529053,
-0.4363900423049927,
0.30313917994499207,
-0.0934348925948143,
0.46621018648147583,
0.3019607961177826,
0.09466612339019775,
-0.1419391632080078,
-0.5238649249076843,
0.5271995067596436,
0.004164377227425575,
0.3233714997768402,
0.4960334599018097,
0.005292095243930817,
0.3496623635292053,
-0.8000298142433167,
-0.11048667877912521,
0.2557890713214874,
-0.27955901622772217,
0.07085628807544708,
-0.18581536412239075,
-0.48229336738586426,
0.39184311032295227,
0.15283936262130737,
0.3195143938064575,
0.47769179940223694,
0.3643913269042969,
-0.4941217005252838,
-0.05005369707942009,
0.43534696102142334,
0.8318797945976257,
-0.2869718372821808,
0.08682001382112503,
-0.6609838604927063,
0.33727264404296875,
-0.06875049322843552,
0.17489533126354218,
-0.18471182882785797,
-0.28776824474334717,
0.17287586629390717,
0.40279921889305115,
-0.37076157331466675,
-0.02531493827700615,
0.09830299764871597,
-0.2596190869808197,
0.1445692777633667,
0.2102825790643692,
-0.23769617080688477,
-0.21091386675834656,
0.6583442091941833,
0.5680263638496399,
0.18236301839351654,
-0.42538484930992126,
-0.5378251075744629,
0.2725006639957428,
0.584474503993988,
0.02883143350481987,
0.9757551550865173,
-0.3417629897594452,
0.42299118638038635,
-0.035986851900815964,
-0.40773019194602966,
-1.0584628582000732,
-0.6377156376838684,
-0.5477863550186157,
-0.050728533416986465,
0.08012393116950989,
0.9477384090423584,
-0.5274798274040222,
-0.11197718232870102,
0.17595481872558594,
0.2660960853099823,
0.6443853974342346,
-0.10408622026443481,
-0.23367154598236084,
0.09508456289768219,
0.25982385873794556,
0.2654789388179779,
0.6038153171539307,
-0.1223098561167717,
0.4132859706878662,
0.05163687467575073,
0.001697835512459278,
0.08183908462524414,
-0.5130555629730225,
0.19897954165935516,
-0.31526046991348267,
-0.4001319408416748,
-0.34675341844558716,
-0.3314116597175598,
0.048293586820364,
-0.015714997425675392,
-0.10451806336641312,
0.49982601404190063,
-0.5348725318908691,
-0.12039656937122345,
-0.15191204845905304,
-0.8053064346313477,
0.09904274344444275,
-0.10850818455219269,
-0.05103873834013939,
-0.295167475938797,
-0.6550782918930054,
-0.6230058073997498,
-0.512790858745575,
0.12472140043973923,
-0.3429524302482605,
-0.18151350319385529,
0.005871810484677553,
0.05828111246228218,
-0.3390367925167084,
0.6582937836647034,
-0.9661120176315308,
0.1624552309513092,
-0.23206616938114166,
0.15897949039936066,
0.02952284924685955,
0.3151223361492157,
0.32364487648010254,
0.28648626804351807,
0.07706273347139359,
-0.059530455619096756,
0.038017239421606064,
0.038357388228178024,
0.469540536403656,
-0.3254300653934479,
-0.26514190435409546,
-0.11078982055187225,
0.3738950490951538,
0.5225103497505188,
-0.003479880979284644,
0.3271924555301666,
-0.16412533819675446,
-0.37551331520080566,
0.3741442859172821,
0.8945261836051941,
-0.3279206156730652,
-0.1613294780254364,
-0.18494351208209991,
-0.36709046363830566,
-0.48193320631980896,
0.9147300124168396,
-0.11815115809440613,
0.5575385093688965,
0.45836636424064636,
-0.6904422640800476,
0.47427573800086975,
-0.620128870010376,
-0.6686354279518127,
1.269649624824524,
-0.5999854803085327,
-0.7532120943069458,
-0.5824452042579651,
0.16459234058856964,
0.378756582736969,
0.2591422498226166,
-0.5193025469779968,
-0.41146060824394226,
-0.28993988037109375,
0.5599908232688904,
-0.14844933152198792,
0.6866592764854431,
-0.16955158114433289,
-0.13014966249465942,
0.5477789640426636,
-0.1580878347158432,
-0.24170097708702087,
0.0444035604596138,
0.22347819805145264,
0.029526177793741226,
-0.33997997641563416,
0.2206295132637024,
0.00013201450929045677,
-0.5026571154594421,
-0.015831129625439644,
0.1311010718345642,
0.4517514109611511,
-0.019515547901391983,
-0.34282147884368896,
-0.2844441533088684,
0.6702268123626709,
-5.615231990814209,
-0.3082098364830017,
-0.6784675717353821,
-0.6515749096870422,
0.250000536441803,
0.5099023580551147,
0.5428159236907959,
-0.1467270404100418,
-0.19745540618896484,
-0.3602416515350342,
-0.1201452910900116,
-0.08656241744756699,
0.6002930998802185,
0.009767579846084118,
0.6665322780609131,
-0.2987683415412903,
0.00797730591148138,
-0.02502264827489853,
-0.017946550622582436,
0.6502724289894104,
0.3726297914981842,
0.06720631569623947,
0.322703093290329,
0.5771409273147583,
0.2799435555934906,
-0.544549822807312,
-0.21929492056369781,
0.29113438725471497,
-0.3375273048877716,
0.1677299290895462,
0.3764599859714508,
-0.024213043972849846,
0.43470123410224915,
-0.42004141211509705,
-0.23983962833881378,
-0.15930306911468506,
0.647218644618988,
0.18016959726810455,
0.3108801245689392,
-0.2060181349515915,
-0.026490377262234688,
0.32483264803886414,
0.37517881393432617,
-0.10055486857891083,
-0.19493553042411804,
0.29749584197998047,
-0.23371809720993042,
-0.08262617886066437,
-0.28660595417022705,
0.8741427659988403,
0.054536618292331696,
-0.1642245203256607,
0.05934862047433853,
-0.5335973501205444,
0.29919251799583435,
-0.1786729395389557,
0.06371967494487762,
-0.13887928426265717,
-0.1284417062997818,
0.27202534675598145,
0.5433048605918884,
-0.8883609175682068,
-0.2028883546590805,
-0.6445225477218628,
-0.1862444430589676,
-0.6979740262031555,
-0.953170657157898,
0.17294469475746155,
0.1686616688966751,
0.5169656872749329,
-0.6252472996711731,
0.35002943873405457,
0.1587313413619995,
-0.43688178062438965,
0.5693135261535645,
-0.18432195484638214,
0.6341419816017151,
-0.24647313356399536,
0.44318056106567383,
0.04567878320813179,
-0.21192969381809235,
-0.5067795515060425,
0.055545907467603683,
0.43432092666625977,
0.3512623906135559,
-0.17337127029895782,
-0.3525492250919342,
-0.19326554238796234,
-0.08915004879236221,
-0.4408760368824005,
1.203308343887329,
-0.4229799509048462,
0.20290851593017578,
0.43140408396720886,
0.28133922815322876,
0.10726343840360641,
-0.02656693011522293,
-0.12524078786373138,
0.9676446318626404,
-0.5889752507209778,
0.30508676171302795,
0.07056352496147156,
0.5724415183067322,
0.10867975652217865,
-0.12518054246902466,
-0.3101804256439209,
-1.1874713897705078,
0.17559684813022614,
0.5581284761428833,
-0.3736194670200348,
-0.11824674904346466,
0.13833805918693542,
0.17645993828773499,
0.015609173104166985,
-0.44426459074020386,
-0.11911407113075256,
-0.6137932538986206,
0.16587460041046143,
0.1025104895234108,
0.23095786571502686,
-0.05911900848150253,
0.21169649064540863,
-0.20831619203090668,
-0.45534321665763855,
-0.3639388680458069,
0.062118370085954666,
-0.2673095464706421,
0.11611604690551758,
-0.3087189197540283,
-0.1000438928604126,
0.8220633268356323,
-0.2042967528104782,
0.1412462443113327,
-0.07367956638336182,
-0.11975192278623581,
-0.6487476825714111,
-0.3485235571861267,
0.4841112792491913,
-0.07315731793642044,
-0.49173808097839355,
0.11264599114656448,
-0.582868754863739,
-0.47946926951408386,
-0.015448007732629776,
0.9184077382087708,
0.2819980978965759,
-0.12813866138458252,
-1.0094633102416992,
-0.5269136428833008,
0.48205330967903137,
0.26155024766921997,
-0.2378886342048645,
0.6329578161239624,
-0.740711510181427,
0.237057626247406,
-0.033829253166913986,
-0.4651675522327423,
0.3579121232032776,
0.12777924537658691,
-0.32851770520210266,
-0.3842453062534332,
0.1693829894065857,
-1.0693035125732422,
-0.43514639139175415,
-0.08183132857084274,
-0.5826455354690552,
-0.23711282014846802,
-0.295293390750885,
0.19503550231456757,
0.3078865706920624,
0.14071382582187653,
-0.2928956151008606,
0.1218276396393776,
-0.23888245224952698,
-0.27648910880088806,
0.9246942400932312,
-0.15176911652088165,
0.26128190755844116,
-0.4686255156993866,
0.13786014914512634,
-0.04385294392704964,
-0.2943596839904785,
-0.14356030523777008,
0.5267513394355774,
0.3632587492465973,
-0.14387808740139008,
-0.04318302497267723,
-0.2660452425479889,
-0.6271953582763672,
0.1646716594696045,
0.03492727130651474,
-0.4790833592414856,
-0.009644328616559505,
-0.5757856369018555,
-0.6046344637870789,
-0.3076781928539276,
-0.2031705230474472,
1.0420266389846802,
-0.12924101948738098,
-0.2219577580690384,
0.05707399919629097,
0.5430974364280701,
-0.3669873774051666,
-0.17396685481071472,
0.3366224467754364,
-1.0101284980773926,
0.7970952391624451,
-0.2986624240875244,
-0.1599329113960266,
0.27100861072540283,
-0.1562730073928833,
-0.6347289085388184,
-0.7706890106201172,
-0.14414137601852417,
-0.29464036226272583,
-0.12651342153549194,
0.1137457937002182,
-0.6196193695068359,
-0.04563688114285469,
-1.2463877201080322,
0.7304779291152954,
-0.39470338821411133,
-0.7100667953491211,
0.13289397954940796,
0.28484460711479187,
-0.33345580101013184,
-0.05137505754828453,
-0.4552023708820343,
0.41262558102607727,
-0.4597136974334717,
-0.11707685887813568,
0.19328320026397705,
0.13137425482273102,
0.2404596209526062,
-0.30732837319374084,
-0.3339652419090271,
-0.7095784544944763,
-0.23282594978809357,
0.01848144270479679,
0.22811010479927063,
0.4263331890106201,
0.9977840185165405,
0.036329418420791626,
0.2309020459651947,
-0.5455371141433716,
0.08087077736854553,
0.09237121790647507,
-1.062156319618225,
-0.305014044046402,
0.6212102174758911,
0.25569766759872437,
-0.06887973099946976,
-0.3877999484539032,
-0.834330677986145,
0.7546354532241821,
0.19723854959011078,
0.08798776566982269,
-0.32587161660194397,
0.3875281810760498,
0.38646945357322693,
0.3292539417743683,
-0.46674084663391113,
-0.3357734680175781,
0.21358464658260345,
-0.22399373352527618,
-0.0887593999505043,
0.23257431387901306,
0.22777199745178223,
0.8114011287689209,
-0.6874885559082031,
-0.24337807297706604,
-0.6979722380638123,
0.047019440680742264,
-0.013673028908669949,
0.258242666721344,
0.12858468294143677,
-0.2609528601169586,
-0.06089272350072861,
0.3071821928024292,
0.375144898891449,
-0.19813138246536255,
-0.20474858582019806,
-0.37397119402885437,
0.3562677800655365,
0.008108220994472504,
-0.07793737947940826,
0.39475902915000916,
0.2741757035255432,
-0.2858216166496277,
-0.05012395605444908,
-0.2783394753932953,
0.011699494905769825,
-0.1595141589641571,
0.49120527505874634,
-0.4949856996536255,
0.17542129755020142,
0.26551225781440735,
0.5495087504386902,
-0.24885481595993042,
0.004304406698793173,
0.02560526691377163,
0.0014082907000556588,
0.4576946198940277,
-1.024463176727295,
-0.1890142410993576,
-0.10723056644201279,
0.6154466271400452,
-0.5335639715194702,
0.2809582054615021,
0.4110007882118225,
0.027335386723279953,
0.39444634318351746,
0.7088646292686462,
0.6115963459014893,
0.3434721529483795,
-0.4973998963832855,
0.6349681615829468,
-0.0011946512386202812,
0.32841020822525024,
0.40425485372543335,
0.09979497641324997,
-0.35134661197662354,
0.774321436882019,
-0.11832182854413986,
-0.7585102319717407,
0.42766591906547546,
-0.1607109159231186,
0.15895739197731018,
-0.06036222726106644,
0.2470415085554123,
0.6041945815086365,
0.41629454493522644,
-0.6269620060920715,
-0.0014867866411805153,
0.1781005561351776,
-0.5462716221809387,
0.03477673605084419,
-0.00866110809147358,
0.08976446837186813,
0.3284657299518585,
0.6516627669334412,
-0.02581990510225296,
0.6766880750656128,
0.5497807264328003,
-0.05673407390713692,
-0.10912682861089706,
-0.3013877272605896,
-0.04906858131289482,
-0.27384230494499207,
0.030051767826080322,
0.33097290992736816,
0.8026530742645264,
0.7266250252723694,
-0.11940710246562958,
0.2873581647872925,
0.010742832906544209,
0.2804657518863678,
0.08569755405187607,
0.11937166750431061,
0.119907908141613,
0.03525266796350479,
0.4895278513431549,
0.0693102553486824,
-0.42011040449142456,
-0.27928590774536133,
0.1534222811460495,
0.4568899869918823,
-0.6860916018486023,
-0.22585155069828033,
-0.12231265008449554,
0.547042191028595,
0.8241663575172424,
-0.536422610282898,
0.17141428589820862,
0.22216105461120605,
0.17737315595149994,
0.3882647454738617,
0.0204195324331522,
0.17420829832553864,
-0.5914231538772583,
-0.2014070302248001,
-0.0131769934669137,
-0.20659688115119934,
-0.464566707611084,
-0.6063929796218872,
0.2770170271396637,
0.5408994555473328,
-0.051987696439027786,
-0.5714280009269714,
0.027568865567445755,
-0.04315321519970894,
0.12778398394584656,
0.009119397029280663,
-0.8825064301490784,
-0.5495768785476685,
0.14667487144470215,
0.23274648189544678,
1.3320870399475098,
-0.1591361165046692,
-0.023588033393025398,
0.49148595333099365,
0.16680358350276947,
0.5302139520645142,
-0.479695588350296,
-0.26726898550987244,
0.38758283853530884,
0.27274006605148315,
0.2532309293746948,
-0.12727047502994537,
-0.19576984643936157,
1.0281554460525513,
-0.3087196946144104,
0.12416984140872955,
0.309146910905838,
-0.07157167047262192,
0.06667347997426987,
0.19207854568958282,
-0.22194133698940277,
0.051194798201322556,
-0.2143317312002182,
-0.09513281285762787,
0.5024564266204834,
-0.4813757836818695,
0.13611114025115967,
-0.5381501913070679,
-0.06712783873081207,
0.40175044536590576,
0.5949189066886902,
-0.3471618592739105,
0.881999671459198,
-0.43451157212257385,
-0.004101494327187538,
-1.0293525457382202,
0.35645484924316406,
-0.12087487429380417,
-0.0018365533323958516,
-0.33167824149131775,
-0.24083465337753296,
-0.2084743231534958,
-0.3473908305168152,
0.13387452065944672,
-0.05193832144141197,
-0.2423975020647049,
0.41322076320648193,
-0.21921007335186005,
0.5451948642730713,
-0.7750195860862732,
-0.15650519728660583,
-0.6646603345870972,
0.14796091616153717,
0.683225154876709,
-0.3851093053817749,
0.14620450139045715,
0.17360937595367432,
0.2773216664791107,
0.033019740134477615,
0.5317654609680176,
-0.45462939143180847,
0.09544432908296585,
0.3884598910808563
] |
213066
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrameter
|
Tetrameter
|
In poetry, a tetrameter is a line of four metrical feet. The particular foot can vary, as follows:
Anapestic tetrameter:
"And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea" (Lord Byron, "The Destruction of Sennacherib")
"Twas the night before Christmas when all through the house" ("A Visit from St. Nicholas")
Iambic tetrameter:
"Because I could not stop for Death" (Emily Dickinson, eponymous lyric)
Trochaic tetrameter:
"Peter, Peter, pumpkin-eater" (English nursery rhyme)
Dactylic tetrameter:
Picture your self in a boat on a river with [...] (The Beatles, "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds")
Spondaic tetrameter:
Long sounds move slow
Pyrrhic tetrameter (with spondees ["white breast" and "dim sea"]):
And the white breast of the dim sea
Amphibracic tetrameter:
And, speaking of birds, there's the Russian Palooski, / Whose headski is redski and belly is blueski. (Dr. Seuss)
See also
Iambic pentameter
Anapestic tetrameter
External links
Tetrameter.com A website devoted to verse in tetrameter
Types of verses
|
[
0.15753653645515442,
0.2631019055843353,
-0.1706135869026184,
0.14291933178901672,
-0.4985978901386261,
0.7854288220405579,
0.9268224835395813,
-0.10820827633142471,
-0.20426276326179504,
-0.5588090419769287,
-0.15904434025287628,
-0.13932816684246063,
0.24759647250175476,
0.2756930887699127,
0.1532248705625534,
0.33144789934158325,
0.3750729262828827,
0.25798964500427246,
0.22247761487960815,
-0.07499384135007858,
-0.17415280640125275,
0.5355525612831116,
0.661406934261322,
-1.1104573011398315,
0.3949984908103943,
-0.2034432739019394,
0.24768857657909393,
0.3654230535030365,
-0.10822972655296326,
-0.22131367027759552,
0.19363372027873993,
1.1612639427185059,
-0.16347277164459229,
-0.3187488913536072,
0.27331581711769104,
-0.6025943756103516,
0.16327713429927826,
-0.32932162284851074,
-0.08616618812084198,
-0.9702199697494507,
0.105394646525383,
-0.23430712521076202,
0.22039583325386047,
-0.31043440103530884,
-0.3082015812397003,
-0.3432193696498871,
-1.509308934211731,
-0.058163102716207504,
-0.601130485534668,
0.10611646622419357,
-0.6918097138404846,
0.09246816486120224,
0.30260029435157776,
0.7097292542457581,
0.09747117012739182,
0.6709602475166321,
-1.2136106491088867,
0.016540780663490295,
0.6872389912605286,
0.1857239454984665,
0.16578178107738495,
-0.009780921041965485,
-0.39936819672584534,
0.1957162767648697,
-0.054154470562934875,
0.24058063328266144,
-0.22784295678138733,
-0.003896009176969528,
-0.1548166275024414,
-0.047101281583309174,
0.10682635009288788,
-0.2059023380279541,
-0.29798826575279236,
1.0259335041046143,
-0.4814396798610687,
-0.13379979133605957,
0.09188436716794968,
-0.2080855518579483,
0.4069194793701172,
-0.20194411277770996,
-0.3428992033004761,
0.5289925932884216,
0.49669885635375977,
0.3041824996471405,
0.027415229007601738,
-0.15295003354549408,
-0.37434566020965576,
0.003392560174688697,
-0.4025272727012634,
0.5080205798149109,
0.39397910237312317,
-0.5278967022895813,
0.092575803399086,
0.10576701164245605,
-0.46370357275009155,
-0.16301275789737701,
0.2926105856895447,
-0.05907614156603813,
0.026565611362457275,
0.10708540678024292,
0.22303444147109985,
-0.07303036004304886,
0.456447035074234,
-0.0544271320104599,
-0.4629811942577362,
-0.3482381999492645,
0.08359899371862411,
-0.15369242429733276,
0.7134722471237183,
-0.24683170020580292,
-0.17508600652217865,
-0.1272365301847458,
0.004518439061939716,
0.42705440521240234,
-0.34801366925239563,
0.0021782112307846546,
0.5324966907501221,
0.1794748604297638,
-0.5473469495773315,
-0.19571565091609955,
0.19802334904670715,
0.20608840882778168,
0.7235664129257202,
-0.0733354240655899,
-0.27440762519836426,
-0.06556834280490875,
0.20603398978710175,
0.3889252245426178,
-0.41904670000076294,
0.2963310480117798,
-0.09762418270111084,
0.6481542587280273,
0.45259687304496765,
-0.2556008994579315,
-0.04315635561943054,
-0.6089584827423096,
0.5746828317642212,
-0.014158956706523895,
0.24101555347442627,
0.7082340717315674,
-0.1199655681848526,
-0.09909755736589432,
-0.9157478213310242,
-0.284980833530426,
0.32217058539390564,
-0.26573801040649414,
0.155063197016716,
-0.18117891252040863,
-0.2381948083639145,
0.497557133436203,
0.19352009892463684,
0.5293377637863159,
0.23497271537780762,
0.2692882716655731,
-0.42318564653396606,
0.13004320859909058,
0.2611369788646698,
0.8120917081832886,
-0.1293465495109558,
0.25400322675704956,
-0.588774561882019,
0.2621593773365021,
0.005336251575499773,
-0.08081682026386261,
-0.02027757093310356,
-0.4858841896057129,
0.1496974527835846,
0.37889018654823303,
-0.38106995820999146,
0.2696225047111511,
-0.1128925085067749,
-0.393648236989975,
0.1406727433204651,
0.2709992229938507,
-0.09163976460695267,
-0.18066008388996124,
0.4819479286670685,
0.22813384234905243,
0.3104269802570343,
-0.23394988477230072,
-0.600599467754364,
0.6512308120727539,
0.5885499715805054,
-0.024369606748223305,
0.8108934164047241,
-0.15299998223781586,
0.46919625997543335,
0.20095829665660858,
-0.228770911693573,
-0.9683894515037537,
-0.3264351189136505,
-0.3803275227546692,
0.21445061266422272,
-0.1617254912853241,
1.0361835956573486,
-0.11373542994260788,
-0.2128012478351593,
-0.14943335950374603,
-0.1246766746044159,
0.6207408308982849,
0.0028719520196318626,
-0.30514633655548096,
0.03489537909626961,
0.14631614089012146,
0.4699292480945587,
0.8806818127632141,
-0.1341642588376999,
-0.04210444539785385,
0.16226808726787567,
-0.017622999846935272,
0.13484877347946167,
-0.7019622325897217,
0.35884469747543335,
-0.4352598190307617,
-0.42752906680107117,
-0.23008857667446136,
-0.0802694633603096,
-0.082789845764637,
0.021798137575387955,
-0.36395636200904846,
0.45492300391197205,
-0.3680613040924072,
-0.04786529392004013,
-0.05853850767016411,
-0.5410329699516296,
-0.10975510627031326,
0.023121416568756104,
0.3423957824707031,
-0.18377117812633514,
-0.8576999306678772,
-0.4012966454029083,
-0.23667936027050018,
0.06577853858470917,
-0.6193181872367859,
-0.180705726146698,
-0.017073364928364754,
0.13664165139198303,
-0.36715516448020935,
1.0179979801177979,
-0.6500281095504761,
-0.044638752937316895,
-0.17438456416130066,
-0.0886288434267044,
0.11039936542510986,
0.17370235919952393,
0.34322965145111084,
0.1452794224023819,
0.10246451944112778,
-0.23328837752342224,
-0.11921458691358566,
0.10427656024694443,
0.3007928431034088,
-0.2588314712047577,
-0.33447542786598206,
-0.30586686730384827,
0.21122373640537262,
0.3850390613079071,
-0.05530642718076706,
0.09530752152204514,
-0.03531530126929283,
-0.4312189221382141,
0.27054157853126526,
0.8401827812194824,
-0.4313613474369049,
0.024159815162420273,
-0.28741833567619324,
-0.41156071424484253,
-0.43112659454345703,
0.7873914241790771,
-0.18019279837608337,
0.3105379343032837,
0.41446542739868164,
-0.5335386395454407,
-0.08419874310493469,
-0.5209627151489258,
-0.2877727746963501,
0.7469239234924316,
-0.40154457092285156,
-0.9575986862182617,
-0.47496297955513,
0.016812298446893692,
0.6482290625572205,
0.5262532830238342,
-0.6014290452003479,
-0.24589955806732178,
-0.330412894487381,
0.7430492043495178,
-0.4485151767730713,
0.5669748187065125,
-0.4677700698375702,
-0.1145915687084198,
0.572162926197052,
-0.1957947462797165,
0.028014514595270157,
0.0684206560254097,
0.3867618441581726,
0.12970562279224396,
-0.4401876628398895,
0.16619187593460083,
-0.054871220141649246,
-0.4204452633857727,
-0.16791293025016785,
-0.21897244453430176,
0.3266254663467407,
-0.25967875123023987,
-0.2708301544189453,
-0.37532052397727966,
0.41317081451416016,
-5.642703056335449,
-0.11788931488990784,
-0.90803462266922,
-0.35114559531211853,
0.17419297993183136,
0.40053319931030273,
0.7237042188644409,
0.2669330835342407,
-0.5695586800575256,
-0.3014502227306366,
-0.08892720937728882,
-0.2894437313079834,
0.2807628810405731,
0.229312926530838,
0.5141156911849976,
-0.20031307637691498,
0.45684415102005005,
-0.41454899311065674,
-0.08898191899061203,
0.4819471538066864,
0.31967929005622864,
0.110643669962883,
0.28549331426620483,
0.4914512634277344,
0.5011990666389465,
-0.3975864350795746,
-0.18388088047504425,
0.27719250321388245,
-0.4595818817615509,
0.385364830493927,
0.24856410920619965,
0.1348901093006134,
0.03204715624451637,
-0.5848492383956909,
-0.16107282042503357,
-0.1686265915632248,
0.6497529745101929,
0.06885583698749542,
0.1919713020324707,
-0.11924915015697479,
-0.25293827056884766,
0.3400406241416931,
0.393944650888443,
-0.008759578689932823,
-0.132901132106781,
0.33889761567115784,
-0.14956699311733246,
-0.16491980850696564,
-0.3832799196243286,
0.9521953463554382,
-0.3470291197299957,
-0.02311420813202858,
0.47917303442955017,
-0.4215319752693176,
0.41429460048675537,
-0.21449752151966095,
0.2670535445213318,
-0.5396058559417725,
-0.3103594183921814,
0.18027466535568237,
0.44801267981529236,
-0.8399056196212769,
0.14470906555652618,
-0.7283892631530762,
-0.02765834517776966,
-0.6786040663719177,
-1.0496320724487305,
0.04616639390587807,
0.3015285134315491,
0.47517845034599304,
-0.5346578359603882,
0.428938627243042,
-0.06482424587011337,
-0.3021666705608368,
0.36420759558677673,
-0.12003830075263977,
0.548592209815979,
0.13956096768379211,
0.3762059211730957,
0.1214696541428566,
-0.2674243450164795,
-0.14409856498241425,
-0.6203070878982544,
0.6244334578514099,
0.5655224323272705,
-0.3197174668312073,
-0.2790725827217102,
-0.23431293666362762,
-0.23262372612953186,
-0.4792180061340332,
1.0875747203826904,
-0.2750198245048523,
0.06912851333618164,
0.24475380778312683,
0.2911815941333771,
0.053813159465789795,
-0.086933434009552,
-0.2981182932853699,
0.6196306943893433,
-0.6687477231025696,
0.13445515930652618,
-0.11519519239664078,
0.49359947443008423,
0.2692596912384033,
-0.1194845512509346,
-0.45504435896873474,
-1.0254002809524536,
0.37004467844963074,
0.48163068294525146,
-0.351511687040329,
-0.1507614552974701,
-0.2981030344963074,
-0.19623950123786926,
-0.07692170143127441,
-0.3991890251636505,
0.06184367462992668,
-0.38860100507736206,
0.29874861240386963,
0.33314940333366394,
0.21706517040729523,
0.13073021173477173,
0.3463066518306732,
-0.011222826316952705,
-0.4683680236339569,
-0.45661455392837524,
0.00943444762378931,
-0.0935952216386795,
-0.039185065776109695,
-0.1528676599264145,
-0.08989311009645462,
0.5486156344413757,
0.011997204273939133,
-0.010560453869402409,
-0.12922874093055725,
-0.2176176756620407,
-0.25173255801200867,
-0.1247972920536995,
0.2281644195318222,
-0.3264925181865692,
-0.5462945699691772,
0.31306326389312744,
-0.56218421459198,
-0.13793392479419708,
-0.12006936222314835,
1.2840306758880615,
0.2235000729560852,
0.2033388912677765,
-0.8193769454956055,
-0.8121699094772339,
0.7116909623146057,
0.5997546911239624,
0.16314063966274261,
0.8206917643547058,
-0.6018194556236267,
0.030765239149332047,
0.1584164798259735,
-0.34845593571662903,
0.4466323256492615,
-0.0929701030254364,
-0.47263169288635254,
-0.24989618360996246,
0.20235314965248108,
-0.865929126739502,
-0.2584603726863861,
0.06566634774208069,
-0.6368358731269836,
-0.6800639629364014,
-0.19479624927043915,
0.07232305407524109,
0.37732282280921936,
0.3610275387763977,
-0.5788797736167908,
-0.029214683920145035,
-0.09266556054353714,
-0.14741022884845734,
0.5120006799697876,
-0.002352908719331026,
0.37086933851242065,
-0.019343582913279533,
-0.30355727672576904,
-0.09995398670434952,
-0.23918059468269348,
-0.37783050537109375,
0.45524680614471436,
0.3866168260574341,
-0.2104860097169876,
-0.0943450927734375,
0.08225758373737335,
-0.443512499332428,
0.17775598168373108,
0.3453088104724884,
-0.19253896176815033,
0.23352642357349396,
-0.5087558031082153,
-0.5742173194885254,
-0.3758161962032318,
0.01782180741429329,
1.0206862688064575,
-0.426848828792572,
-0.42880716919898987,
0.2065429836511612,
0.5331400036811829,
-0.6550304889678955,
-0.0977294072508812,
0.5674731731414795,
-0.8421899080276489,
0.8004889488220215,
-0.21517042815685272,
-0.4288167953491211,
0.2997688353061676,
-0.26866912841796875,
-0.4968489110469818,
-0.5592085719108582,
-0.05299319699406624,
-0.17296956479549408,
-0.36487969756126404,
0.25677379965782166,
-0.30928927659988403,
-0.20152419805526733,
-1.109542965888977,
0.5300244092941284,
-0.31235694885253906,
-0.7621095180511475,
-0.023757077753543854,
-0.1950896680355072,
-0.15946783125400543,
-0.02100462280213833,
-0.1670181155204773,
0.37748056650161743,
-0.44997623562812805,
-0.13397331535816193,
-0.030791377648711205,
0.2511255443096161,
0.05916517600417137,
-0.3017703890800476,
-0.058165136724710464,
-0.6626113653182983,
-0.025400729849934578,
0.04042917490005493,
0.29357296228408813,
0.7431443929672241,
0.7854307889938354,
0.34823861718177795,
0.10953502357006073,
-0.4003193974494934,
0.27875444293022156,
0.10219714790582657,
-1.2505854368209839,
-0.47081926465034485,
0.4974230229854584,
0.2516465187072754,
-0.3001783788204193,
-0.740116536617279,
-0.6961831450462341,
0.9594051241874695,
0.06689915806055069,
0.3454057276248932,
-0.38166800141334534,
0.6420892477035522,
0.559338390827179,
0.22167834639549255,
-0.40861642360687256,
-0.36629921197891235,
-0.08047811686992645,
-0.3829234838485718,
-0.03812769800424576,
0.09853820502758026,
0.4212999641895294,
0.8861570358276367,
-0.8268306255340576,
-0.3400563597679138,
-0.4538542628288269,
-0.2504720985889435,
0.028289424255490303,
0.33140406012535095,
-0.12986014783382416,
-0.19388291239738464,
-0.2167138010263443,
-0.03378506377339363,
0.106478251516819,
0.028224138543009758,
-0.04091871157288551,
-0.17286419868469238,
0.21898844838142395,
0.0898747518658638,
0.23755191266536713,
0.2548263967037201,
0.01808301918208599,
-0.09549466520547867,
0.0448826365172863,
-0.5731937289237976,
-0.16422878205776215,
0.13017016649246216,
0.6256517171859741,
-0.028767375275492668,
0.23400545120239258,
0.49986204504966736,
0.4957146942615509,
-0.20108307898044586,
-0.08113940805196762,
0.026550129055976868,
0.5641427040100098,
0.45350468158721924,
-1.291042447090149,
0.13348209857940674,
-0.02978622168302536,
0.5289345383644104,
-0.6602741479873657,
0.606609582901001,
0.07342376559972763,
0.24554236233234406,
0.36107003688812256,
0.5199381709098816,
0.6387484073638916,
0.48340651392936707,
-0.4504750967025757,
0.36214959621429443,
0.09501230716705322,
0.06448101252317429,
0.23267509043216705,
-0.007458838168531656,
-0.31251034140586853,
0.786124050617218,
-0.12170674651861191,
-0.48419538140296936,
0.5198301076889038,
-0.3799067735671997,
-0.21129149198532104,
-0.17503196001052856,
0.26947444677352905,
0.5528594255447388,
0.3191256523132324,
-1.015727162361145,
-0.16520608961582184,
0.2364833652973175,
-0.487929105758667,
-0.04037847742438316,
0.2334713190793991,
-0.18653546273708344,
0.6556560397148132,
0.538878321647644,
-0.22630080580711365,
0.49768948554992676,
0.5408016443252563,
-0.10775090008974075,
-0.2641621530056,
-0.04291941598057747,
-0.04898186773061752,
0.06328140199184418,
-0.12511755526065826,
0.28875377774238586,
0.5984277725219727,
0.8487313985824585,
-0.45816221833229065,
0.1953422874212265,
-0.30513066053390503,
0.30682775378227234,
0.077747642993927,
-0.013362142257392406,
-0.06732653826475143,
-0.2637101709842682,
0.24752309918403625,
0.04415151849389076,
-0.4053107500076294,
-0.17207229137420654,
0.3013893961906433,
0.3972097933292389,
-0.46731168031692505,
-0.2177002727985382,
-0.05781198665499687,
0.5922191739082336,
0.6828724145889282,
-0.430798202753067,
0.48203232884407043,
0.15360714495182037,
0.03544303774833679,
0.45028144121170044,
-0.1327136754989624,
0.3236169219017029,
-0.473977267742157,
-0.16858944296836853,
0.09958379715681076,
-0.13389036059379578,
-0.3474968671798706,
-0.1086844727396965,
0.35369735956192017,
0.6721822023391724,
0.00021854674560017884,
-0.2904543876647949,
0.06388355791568756,
0.098295196890831,
-0.13497412204742432,
-0.10957123339176178,
-0.6760939359664917,
-0.7286763191223145,
0.35827386379241943,
-0.40064936876296997,
1.48363196849823,
-0.3436666429042816,
-0.29031702876091003,
0.18172265589237213,
0.0386243537068367,
0.3855346739292145,
-0.32249388098716736,
-0.6203747391700745,
0.5157749056816101,
0.4104357957839966,
0.13109096884727478,
-0.23027503490447998,
0.19334323704242706,
1.1589986085891724,
-0.34725335240364075,
0.14747950434684753,
0.1798865795135498,
0.020719580352306366,
-0.03977493941783905,
0.05127379670739174,
-0.39262425899505615,
-0.05646469071507454,
-0.4505769610404968,
-0.060560114681720734,
0.4511202871799469,
-0.3246701657772064,
0.18037720024585724,
-0.28857681155204773,
-0.2990044355392456,
0.4549568295478821,
0.548442006111145,
-0.17132340371608734,
0.5309739708900452,
-0.4466813802719116,
0.1991952806711197,
-0.8522976636886597,
0.44095584750175476,
-0.041249830275774,
0.11447840183973312,
0.0008301478810608387,
0.30895692110061646,
-0.23121456801891327,
-0.35609355568885803,
0.33675307035446167,
-0.3390682339668274,
-0.4284701347351074,
0.6074000000953674,
-0.9127078056335449,
0.2759138345718384,
-0.8285884857177734,
-0.12568476796150208,
-0.7235453128814697,
-0.06667152792215347,
0.8073147535324097,
-0.263088196516037,
0.028834685683250427,
0.0018823783611878753,
0.19637370109558105,
-0.2499120980501175,
0.3992631435394287,
-0.5525709390640259,
0.09553070366382599,
0.6396818161010742
] |
213067
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Orgreave
|
Battle of Orgreave
|
The Battle of Orgreave was a violent confrontation on 18 June 1984 between pickets and officers of the South Yorkshire Police (SYP) and other police forces, including the Metropolitan Police, at a British Steel Corporation (BSC) coking plant at Orgreave, in Rotherham, South Yorkshire, England. It was a pivotal event in the 1984–1985 UK miners' strike, and one of the most violent clashes in British industrial history. Journalist Alastair Stewart has characterised it as "a defining and ghastly moment" that "changed, forever, the conduct of industrial relations and how this country functions as an economy and as a democracy". Most media reports at the time depicted it as "an act of self-defence by police who had come under attack". In 2015, the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) reported that there was "evidence of excessive violence by police officers, a false narrative from police exaggerating violence by miners, perjury by officers giving evidence to prosecute the arrested men, and an apparent cover-up of that perjury by senior officers".
Historian Tristram Hunt has described the confrontation as "almost medieval in its choreography ... at various stages a siege, a battle, a chase, a rout and, finally, a brutal example of legalised state violence".
71 picketers were charged with riot and 24 with violent disorder. At the time, riot was punishable by life imprisonment. The trials collapsed when the evidence given by the police was deemed "unreliable". Gareth Peirce, who acted as solicitor for some of the pickets, said that the charge of riot had been used "to make a public example of people, as a device to assist in breaking the strike", while Michael Mansfield called it "the worst example of a mass frame-up in this country this century".
In June 1991, the SYP paid £425,000 in compensation to 39 miners for assault, wrongful arrest, unlawful detention and malicious prosecution.
Following the 2016 inquest verdict into the 1989 Hillsborough disaster, previously censored documents suggesting links between the actions of senior SYP officers at both incidents were published. This led to renewed calls for a public inquiry to be held into the actions of the police at Orgreave. In October 2016, in an Oral Answer to a Question in the House of Commons, a written ministerial statement to the House of Commons and Lords, and in a letter to the Orgreave Truth and Justice Campaign (OTJC), Home Secretary Amber Rudd announced there would be no statutory inquiry or independent review. In 2016, Alan Billings, the South Yorkshire Police and Crime Commissioner, admitted that the SYP had been "dangerously close to being used as an instrument of state".
Despite the police evidence subsequently being deemed unreliable in court, there still exists a body of opinion that the police at Orgreave "were upholding the law in the face of intimidation from thousands of strikers".
Background
Transport of coal and coke
The Orgreave Coking Works, where coal was turned into coke for use in steel production, was regarded by National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) leader Arthur Scargill as crucial. Early in the strike, British Steel plants had been receiving "dispensations", picket-permitted movements of coal to prevent damage to their furnaces. However, it was found that more than the permitted amount of coal had been delivered, so action was taken.
In the early days of the 1984–1985 strike, the NUM made a decision to picket the integrated steel complexes. Scargill invoked the notion of the old Triple Alliance whereby the unions in coal, steel and rail were bound to support one another, and asked steelworkers not to handle deliveries of coal. Bill Sirs of the Iron and Steel Trades Confederation (ISTC) rejected such calls on the grounds that industrial action by steelworkers at the integrated complexes could incapacitate the rolling mills and billet forges, and cause job losses. Sirs stated, in defiance of Scargill, that his members would continue to handle any fuel that presented itself.
There was also some opposition within the NUM to the picketing of the steel plants, as closures in the steel industry could reduce demand for coal and lead to job losses in the coal industry. Mick McGahey, the deputy leader of the NUM, was particularly concerned about the picketing of the Ravenscraig steelworks in Scotland, which he had campaigned to keep open, and negotiated agreements to maintain supplies of coal to the plant.
Picketing was largely unsuccessful at the plants of Ravenscraig, Llanwern and Port Talbot, which were all close to deep-water ports and had a range of methods of receiving coal supplies. The plant at Scunthorpe was inland and thus more vulnerable to picketing. The cokeworks at Orgreave became a target of the NUM pickets in an attempt to deny supplies of coal and coke to Scunthorpe.
An agreement between the NUM and ISTC over deliveries of 15,700 tonnes of coal per week to Scunthorpe broke down after an explosion in the Queen Mary blast furnace at the plant on 21 May 1984. It took two hours to douse the flames and a further eight hours to stop the liquid iron bursting through the brickwork. This was considered a result of the poor quality of coal supplies. Attempts by the ISTC to persuade the NUM to deliver more coal did not bring immediate results, with the divisional official Roy Bishop writing on both the physical dangers to the workers by the Queen Mary and the possibility of irreversible damage to the furnace. As the NUM did not respond immediately, British Steel decided to act quickly to find alternative supplies. The company ordered a large consignment of coal from Poland to be delivered to Flixborough, Lincolnshire, and spoke to every haulage company it had ever used to arrange for non-unionised hauliers to transport the coal. In addition, an order was made for 5,000 tonnes of top-quality coke to be delivered from Orgreave to Scunthorpe.
A sympathetic steelworker informed the Barnsley NUM of the plans on 22 May. Although there had been some picketing at Orgreave since the start of the strike, 23 May is generally considered the beginning of the major struggle between NUM pickets and the police to stop deliveries of coke from the plant. 18 June, which is often known as the Battle of Orgreave, is generally considered the end of this period.
Changes in policing tactics
Mass picketing had proved successful at the Battle of Saltley Gate in Saltley, Birmingham, during the 1972 miners' strike. At Saltley Coke Works, 30,000 pickets and supporters led by Scargill had faced 800 police officers, and on 10 February 1972 Sir Derrick Capper, the chief constable of Birmingham City Police, ordered the coking plant to close its gates "in the interests of public safety". Closure of the Saltley works secured victory for the NUM and nine days later the Conservative government of Edward Heath agreed to meet the union's demands.
As a direct result of Saltley, the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) established the National Reporting Centre (NRC) which would be "operationalised in times of industrial or political crisis [to provide] a coordinated national response to demands on policing". The NRC assumed the power – "endorsed by the Home Secretary" – to deploy police officers from any force in the country to areas of "high tension" and "across force boundaries without the knowledge or consent of local police authorities". Speaking in October 1984, John Alderson, the former deputy chief constable of Dorset Police, criticised the NRC as a "de facto national police". In addition, events in the early 1980s, such as the national steel strike of 1980 and the riots in inner-city areas such as Brixton and Toxteth, had led police forces to train officers to deal with mass protests differently. For example, officers during the 1981 riots had been left using dustbin lids to protect themselves from missiles, whereas the police at Orgreave had all been equipped with riot shields.
Riot at Maltby and death of Joe Green
The Battle of Orgreave came amidst events that caused tensions to escalate in the Yorkshire coalfield. In Maltby, roughly from Orgreave, a large group of young mineworkers besieged the town's police station on Saturday 9 June. There was a heavy police response that left the town cordoned off for several days and created local resentment. On Friday 15 June, an underground worker from Kellingley Colliery named Joe Green was killed whilst picketing. As Green was trying to dissuade lorries from delivering fuel to Ferrybridge A Power Station, he was fatally struck by a trailer. This came after the death of David Jones in controversial circumstances at Ollerton on 15 March 1984, and also a similar incident in the 1972 strike in which the picket Freddie Matthews was killed by a lorry that mounted the pavement to cross a picket line. Speaking at a well-attended rally in nearby Wakefield on Sunday 17 June, Scargill made an impassioned plea to close Orgreave with mass picketing.
Events
The NUM deployed 5,000 pickets from across the UK, who planned to use sheer numbers ("mass picketing") to prevent access to Orgreave by strike-breaking lorries that collected coke for use at Scunthorpe. The South Yorkshire Police (SYP) were determined not to see a repeat of 1972's Battle of Saltley Gate – where 30,000 pickets had overwhelmed 800 police officers – and deployed around 6,000 officers from eighteen different forces at Orgreave, equipped with riot gear and supported by police dogs and 42 mounted police officers. Robert East et al, writing in the Journal of Law and Society in 1985, suggested that rather than maintaining order and upholding the law, "the police intended that Orgreave would be a 'battle' where, as a result of their preparation and organisation, they would 'defeat' the pickets". Michael Mansfield said: "They wanted to teach the miners a lesson – a big lesson, such that they wouldn't come out in force again." Civil liberties pressure group Liberty has said: "There was a riot. But it was a police riot."
Having corralled the pickets into a field overlooking the coke works, the SYP positioned officers equipped with long riot shields at the bottom of the field and mounted police and dogs to either side. A road along one side of the field allowed the mounted police to deploy rapidly, and a railway cutting at the top of the field made retreat by the pickets difficult and dangerous. When the pickets surged forward at the arrival of the first convoy of lorries, SYP Assistant Chief Constable Anthony Clement ordered a mounted charge against them. It was "a serious overreaction" and the miners responded by throwing stones and other missiles at the police lines. Clement ordered two further mounted advances, and the third advance was supported by "short shield" snatch squads who followed the mounted police, "delivering baton beatings to the unarmed miners". There followed a lull of several hours, during which many pickets left the scene. The coking plant had closed for the day and no more lorries were due to arrive. Those pickets that remained in the field were sunbathing or playing football and posed no threat to the police or the plant. By now "massively outnumbering" the pickets, the police advanced again and launched another mounted charge. Officers pursued the pickets out of the field and into Orgreave village, where Clement ordered a "mounted police canter" which Hunt describes as an "out-of-control police force [charging] pickets and onlookers alike on terraced, British streets".
Trials
Official reports state that during the confrontation 93 arrests were made, with 51 pickets and 72 policemen injured. 95 pickets were charged with riot, unlawful assembly and similar offences after the battle. A number of these men were put on trial in 1985, but the trials collapsed, all charges were dropped and a number of lawsuits were brought against the SYP for assault, unlawful arrest and malicious prosecution. The SYP later agreed to pay £425,000 compensation and £100,000 in legal costs to 39 pickets in an out of court settlement. However, no officer was disciplined for misconduct.
Writing for The Guardian in 1985, Gareth Peirce said that the events at Orgreave "revealed that in this country we now have a standing army available to be deployed against gatherings of civilians whose congregation is disliked by senior police officers. It is answerable to no one; it is trained in tactics which have been released to no one, but which include the deliberate maiming and injuring of innocent persons to disperse them, in complete violation of the law."
Calls for official inquiry
Mansfield described the evidence given by the SYP as "the biggest frame-up ever". He said that the force had a culture of fabricating evidence which was not corrected by the time of the Hillsborough disaster. After the 2012 report of the Hillsborough Independent Panel, NUM leader Chris Kitchen called for the investigation into the force's practices to be widened to cover the Orgreave clashes. Also in 2012, the Orgreave Truth and Justice Campaign (OTJC) was formed to campaign for a public inquiry into the policing of the events of 18 June 1984, following the success of the Hillsborough Justice Campaign. In October 2012, a BBC One regional news and current affairs programme, Inside Out, broadcast a 30-minute film about the events at Orgreave. The programme reexamined the evidence that the SYP had deliberately attempted to co-ordinate arrest statements in order to charge the miners with riot.
Following the programme, the SYP referred itself to the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC).
In June 2015, the IPCC announced that it would not launch a formal investigation into the events at Orgreave because too much time had passed. A Labour MP, Helen Jones, responded in the House of Commons by expressing her "deep concern", saying that the decision "calls into question whether the IPCC is fit for purpose".
Labour MS Mick Antoniw, who represented several Welsh miners charged with offences at Orgreave, said the miners were "surrounded on all sides by police horses and police dogs and then savagely attacked by charge after charge of baton-wielding police officers on horseback. Despite public calls at that time for an investigation, no inquiry ever took place. The tragedy of this failure is that not only have those miners who were arrested been denied the justice and vindication that would come from such an inquiry it meant that an early opportunity to investigate the culture and operation of the South Yorkshire Police never took place."
In September 2016, Mike Freeman, a retired detective superintendent with Greater Manchester Police who had been a sergeant at Orgreave, told how the SYP pre-arranged a system whereby officers who made arrests would not – contrary to established police procedure – be responsible for their prisoners and write out statements detailing the arrest, but instead hand over prisoners at a reception point, return to the picket line, and at the end of the operation simply sign statements which had been pre-prepared by other officers not involved in the arrest. Freeman said that he had "never encountered it before or since" and "I knew in my own mind that was wrong, and I can clearly remember saying to colleagues that I was with that day, 'I will not be making an arrest on that operation', and I didn't." Another officer said that he and colleagues at Orgreave had been instructed by a superior officer not to write anything in their pocketbooks, a practice controversially repeated by the SYP at Hillsborough in 1989. It was a disciplinary offence not to write in their pocketbooks, which were considered "contemporaneous notes" and "very difficult to amend without it being obvious, and therefore persuasive, credible evidence in a courtroom".
In October 2016, a former Merseyside Police officer who was present at Orgreave told BBC journalist Dan Johnson that at a briefing before the confrontation senior SYP officers were "anticipating trouble and in some ways relishing it and looking forward to it". He said that the police support units had been given "a licence to do what we wanted" and were ordered to charge "a largely peaceful crowd". Of the violence that followed, he said: "I couldn't believe what I was seeing. I was just seeing police officers attack people. These were people on the ground and even if they weren't doing anything – just walking away – police officers had their batons and they were just hitting people." A number of police officers had removed the identification numbers on their uniforms, as illustrated in an iconic photograph taken on the day by Martin Jenkinson.
The campaign for an inquiry gained more coverage following revelations about corruption in the SYP during the Hillsborough disaster. Wakefield Metropolitan District Council became the first council in the UK to fly the flag of the OTJC in June 2016, whilst other councils in South Yorkshire and Derbyshire were considering the same action.
Media coverage
Footage of the confrontation had been filmed by a crew from the BBC. When this appeared on that evening's news bulletins, it was edited and broadcast out of chronological sequence, showing pickets throwing stones at the police and the police subsequently carrying out a mounted charge. This corresponded with the narrative given by the police that the decision to use horses was necessary to stop the stone throwing, and was only taken after the police had been subjected to a sustained barrage of missiles. Video taken by the police's own cameramen and footage recorded by filmmaker Yvette Vanson demonstrated that the reverse was true, and that the stone throwing had been a response to the unprovoked first mounted charge. In July 1991 the BBC said:
Tony Benn challenged this explanation, stating that he had spoken to BBC staff shortly after the broadcast who "were up in arms as they could see quite clearly that the police charge[d] and then the miners throw stones [but they] were ordered to transpose the order in such a way as to give the opposite impression". Benn said: "They didn't make a mistake ... Whoever gave the orders actually destroyed the truth of what they reported."
Independent Television News (ITN) also filmed the events, and part of their news bulletin that evening showed a policeman standing over a prone picket and repeatedly striking him in the head with his baton. The picket was beaten unconscious and the policeman's baton broke in half. In the BBC's report, filmed from the same vantage point, the footage was cut just before the policeman began beating the picket. In 2014, a spokesman for the BBC claimed that the crew had "failed to record some of the violence due to a camera error".
At an internal BBC meeting held on 19 June 1984, Peter Woon, the editor of BBC News, said there was "a general feeling in the newsroom" that the previous day's coverage of Orgreave had displayed "a marginal imbalance", while Alan Protheroe, the assistant director general of the BBC, admitted that "the BBC's early evening coverage of Orgreave might not have been wholly impartial". In 2009, Nicholas Jones, a former BBC journalist, said: "I got ensnared by the seeming inevitability of the Thatcherite storyline that the mineworkers had to be defeated in order to smash trade union militancy." Jones said that the media may have been guilty of "a collective failure of judgment", and if its "near-unanimous narrative had not been so hostile to the NUM and had done more to challenge government then Thatcher may have been forced to reach a negotiated settlement during the initial phase of the dispute". Geoffrey Goodman, a former industrial editor for the Daily Mirror, said that "the dominant media account" had been "hostile" to the strikers, "with much of the UK's mainstream media willingly 'marshalled by Downing Street to provide the propaganda that helped defeat the miners.
Analysis
Paul Routledge, a journalist and biographer of Arthur Scargill, suggested that the National Coal Board (NCB) had used the Orgreave dispute as a diversionary tactic to concentrate pickets in one location and relieve the pressure of policing working pits in Nottinghamshire. He writes that Kevin Hunt, the NCB director of industrial relations, had asked Scargill in advance if he would allow more tonnage to be allowed out of Orgreave, which led Scargill to believe that Orgreave was a pressure point that he should target. The picketing of working pits in Nottinghamshire lost momentum after Orgreave, partly because many pickets were given bail conditions after being arrested, and the number of strikers in Nottinghamshire decreased.
Ian MacGregor, Chairman of the NCB, wrote in his biography, "It [Orgreave] became a cause célèbre for Scargill, a fight he had to win. We were quite encouraged that he thought it so important and did everything we could to help him continue to think so, but the truth was that it hardly mattered a jot to us – beyond the fact that it kept him out of Nottingham."
David Hart, a right-wing political activist and adviser to MacGregor, the NCB, and Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, claimed that Orgreave was "a set-up by us". He said in a 1993 interview, "The coke was of no interest whatsoever. We didn't need it. It was a battleground of our choosing on grounds of our choosing. I don't think that Scargill believes that even today. The fact is that it was a set-up and it worked brilliantly." Following his comments, senior managers from the NCB denied these claims and threatened Hart with disassociation. John Alderson, in Principled Policing: Protecting the Public with Integrity (1998), wrote that if MacGregor and Hart's claims were true, the "conspiracy to draw the miners into mass pickets and predictable violent conflict between the police and themselves" constituted a "deceit... tantamount to incitement".
Inside the NUM the failure of the mass picketing tactic led some in the regional union leadership, especially those influenced by the Eurocommunist wing of the Communist Party of Great Britain in Scotland and South Wales, to turn towards a "cultural politics" approach of building a mass movement in the country to support, through solidarity and practical help, the striking miners and to force a political concession from the government. The rejection of the "militant labourism" of Scargill this represented was and remains an area of controversy and dispute in the wider Labour Movement in Britain.
In culture
In 2001, conceptual artist Jeremy Deller originated and set in motion the idea of a re-enactment of the event as an arts project, commissioned by British arts organisation Artangel, with the recreations scripted and staged by historical re-enactment events company EventPlan Limited. The event took place on 17 June 2001 and was filmed by film director Mike Figgis for a Channel 4 documentary. The re-enactment featured 800 people including 280 local residents, a number of people (police and pickets) from the original encounter and 520 re-enactors from various groups such as The Sealed Knot, Legio II Augusta (Romans), The Vikings (reenactment), War of the Roses and English Civil War Society, but with authentic 1980s clothing and techniques. Only the railway crossing was omitted from the re-enactment, on safety grounds.
The Dire Straits song "Iron Hand" from the 1991 album On Every Street tells the story of the event.
The Manic Street Preachers song "30-Year War" from Rewind the Film mentions the event as an instance of class conflict.
In the video for his song "Sirens", Dizzee Rascal is chased by huntsmen through the fictional 'Orgreave Estate'.
Irvine Welsh's Skagboys opens with a journal entry detailing the lead character Mark Renton's experience at The Battle of Orgreave.
The confrontations at Orgreave form a substantial part of David Peace's 2004 novel GB84.
Orgreave is subject of protest art prints by British artist Darren Coffield.
The Orgreave Truth and Justice Campaign has been involved in a number of fundraising and commemorative activities in 2014 and 2015, including live concerts and a fundraising double-CD compilation album, containing (in part) musical and spoken-word tracks relating to the events.
See also
Wapping dispute
BBC controversies
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Interview Yvette Vanson Documentary Film Maker of Battle of Oregrave British Entertainment History Project
1984 in England
1984 labor disputes and strikes
1984 riots
History of South Yorkshire
Labour disputes in England
Law enforcement in England and Wales
Mining in South Yorkshire
Police brutality in the United Kingdom
Police misconduct in England
Riots and civil disorder in England
UK miners' strike (1984–1985)
June 1984 events in the United Kingdom
|
[
-0.3838115334510803,
-0.045703403651714325,
0.5428462028503418,
-0.6080212593078613,
0.027619417756795883,
0.1495726853609085,
0.04828799515962601,
-0.31696370244026184,
-0.19521936774253845,
0.09249752759933472,
-0.08892622590065002,
0.6417553424835205,
-0.21948352456092834,
0.5535665154457092,
-0.2597101330757141,
0.8577125072479248,
0.370645672082901,
0.13045208156108856,
0.13378886878490448,
-0.5781300663948059,
0.27339503169059753,
-0.40493401885032654,
0.46548300981521606,
0.7797080278396606,
0.39388981461524963,
0.21375872194766998,
0.48536399006843567,
-0.2560168504714966,
0.21211190521717072,
0.0891256183385849,
0.06459688395261765,
0.4439520835876465,
0.41390860080718994,
-0.16020570695400238,
0.010999561287462711,
0.2968238294124603,
-0.5015841126441956,
0.32591238617897034,
-0.23712024092674255,
-0.3403237760066986,
-0.19079387187957764,
-0.22844986617565155,
0.11115045100450516,
0.3506070375442505,
0.10390646755695343,
0.705809473991394,
-0.808349072933197,
0.12678518891334534,
-0.6387106776237488,
-0.15249092876911163,
-0.8375986814498901,
1.1101189851760864,
0.5823181867599487,
-0.009217491373419762,
0.22353091835975647,
0.17319142818450928,
-0.663526177406311,
-0.39803066849708557,
0.5829331278800964,
-1.169924259185791,
0.350699245929718,
0.5082069635391235,
0.07185637205839157,
-0.5750572085380554,
-0.5936301350593567,
0.008009951561689377,
0.15049529075622559,
0.8997580409049988,
-0.14528284966945648,
-0.6424446105957031,
0.23882469534873962,
0.08982142060995102,
-0.05507335811853409,
0.5463935732841492,
-0.13647903501987457,
-0.08524952828884125,
0.09489082545042038,
-0.33611831068992615,
-0.3758260905742645,
0.2806148827075958,
0.5344789624214172,
0.011604329571127892,
0.37569087743759155,
-0.04623333364725113,
0.6969770789146423,
0.32416796684265137,
-0.8372475504875183,
0.37224912643432617,
-0.2932858467102051,
0.45389968156814575,
-0.14328011870384216,
-0.2339768409729004,
0.021702313795685768,
0.4002532958984375,
-0.06918095052242279,
0.11337358504533768,
0.4774128198623657,
0.1666390597820282,
0.06146632507443428,
0.22610431909561157,
0.5323842167854309,
0.06101096421480179,
0.07643492519855499,
0.044771451503038406,
-0.4147210121154785,
-0.05572999641299248,
-0.004595176316797733,
-0.7178975939750671,
0.24536240100860596,
-0.6815598011016846,
-0.4442550241947174,
0.03848370909690857,
-0.9596900343894958,
-0.04319901764392853,
0.11825940757989883,
0.1829487681388855,
-0.009028411470353603,
-0.4569976031780243,
0.08962813019752502,
0.3095886707305908,
-0.2320413589477539,
0.29393109679222107,
-0.5827929377555847,
1.0166951417922974,
-0.22398969531059265,
-0.1835501790046692,
-0.002050731098279357,
0.5910736918449402,
-0.5913012623786926,
0.372516006231308,
0.1672065407037735,
0.9138080477714539,
0.08896784484386444,
-0.10972536355257034,
0.024883266538381577,
-0.18132396042346954,
0.6171812415122986,
-0.048100657761096954,
0.283304363489151,
0.566498339176178,
-0.3345499634742737,
0.0414135716855526,
-0.055384181439876556,
0.15510126948356628,
0.0744684711098671,
-0.49135878682136536,
-0.1251901537179947,
-0.9033288359642029,
0.34130796790122986,
-0.660879909992218,
0.5672510862350464,
-0.5008488893508911,
-0.5000694990158081,
-0.23038239777088165,
0.008981941267848015,
0.515607476234436,
0.11136531084775925,
-0.809148907661438,
0.012151763774454594,
0.3451920449733734,
0.3105521500110626,
0.3473247289657593,
-0.35905247926712036,
0.33624905347824097,
-0.2777805030345917,
-0.01033554133027792,
0.004426199942827225,
-0.6169099807739258,
0.2676616311073303,
-0.1146320253610611,
-0.6799912452697754,
-0.11207269877195358,
0.3461853563785553,
-0.183059424161911,
-0.1483529657125473,
0.5101320743560791,
0.5253154039382935,
0.17116571962833405,
0.06101192161440849,
0.2337838113307953,
-0.6417427659034729,
-0.1601620614528656,
0.24384592473506927,
-0.14316514134407043,
0.30245739221572876,
0.5118477940559387,
0.4505124092102051,
-0.3773743510246277,
-0.2818562984466553,
0.4070298969745636,
-0.38110464811325073,
-0.43097081780433655,
0.7628895044326782,
-0.49280595779418945,
1.4649735689163208,
-0.12647804617881775,
-0.49531856179237366,
0.047659583389759064,
0.5231353044509888,
0.8175702691078186,
-0.0765976831316948,
-0.14036430418491364,
0.7052637338638306,
-0.48519736528396606,
-0.33741509914398193,
-0.4303244650363922,
-0.23313745856285095,
-0.35566410422325134,
-0.32338249683380127,
0.5128787159919739,
-0.455059289932251,
-0.6518297791481018,
-0.02542964555323124,
0.15537193417549133,
0.14542481303215027,
-0.036149416118860245,
-0.21909427642822266,
0.05418587103486061,
0.6355356574058533,
-0.9206746816635132,
0.11250384896993637,
-0.0534132681787014,
0.17987199127674103,
0.2571154832839966,
0.09778361022472382,
0.3390859365463257,
0.12828104197978973,
0.4826028645038605,
0.5028187036514282,
-1.2587025165557861,
-0.46643519401550293,
0.8304749727249146,
-0.5235977172851562,
-0.2466888129711151,
0.30942708253860474,
-0.4067964255809784,
0.06368491053581238,
-0.07518456131219864,
-0.18996784090995789,
-0.5817659497261047,
0.19617807865142822,
0.04675119370222092,
-0.23672425746917725,
0.15963520109653473,
0.5067262649536133,
0.2900714576244354,
0.05018310248851776,
0.621569812297821,
-0.21739915013313293,
-0.012488332577049732,
0.13605037331581116,
0.2746313512325287,
0.17580755054950714,
-0.1214539110660553,
0.07448913156986237,
-0.29364731907844543,
0.18253131210803986,
-0.2580473721027374,
-0.2674393951892853,
0.1298762708902359,
-0.1539088636636734,
-0.6979379653930664,
-0.4016745686531067,
0.5418878197669983,
0.38308271765708923,
-0.05903616175055504,
-0.6622112393379211,
-0.26235270500183105,
0.8297806978225708,
-0.07800304889678955,
0.3655756413936615,
-0.24405263364315033,
-0.05512146279215813,
0.4055115580558777,
0.18132461607456207,
0.11921463906764984,
0.09922294318675995,
-0.4275048077106476,
-0.05082166939973831,
-0.6805726885795593,
0.4020638167858124,
0.5808560252189636,
-0.04200729727745056,
-0.5787183046340942,
0.33273524045944214,
0.5334674715995789,
-0.11352574825286865,
-0.05514425411820412,
-0.60007643699646,
-0.5184215307235718,
-0.17725048959255219,
-0.034249819815158844,
0.08562253415584564,
0.15822376310825348,
0.1446472555398941,
0.23910202085971832,
-0.09966935217380524,
-0.017400313168764114,
0.9871383309364319,
0.07699970155954361,
-0.1059451550245285,
0.7823375463485718,
-0.912455677986145,
-0.16832667589187622,
0.6468035578727722,
-0.9361181259155273,
0.01675880327820778,
-0.349919855594635,
-5.645410060882568,
0.602748692035675,
-0.24841713905334473,
-0.009321421384811401,
-0.0481455959379673,
0.367574006319046,
0.25981512665748596,
-0.38823819160461426,
-0.290137380361557,
-0.24665296077728271,
-0.5971887111663818,
-0.44594159722328186,
-0.038043055683374405,
-0.26451796293258667,
0.4911622703075409,
0.32859331369400024,
0.9224775433540344,
-0.572511613368988,
0.6671088933944702,
-0.0900697112083435,
0.2693467438220978,
-0.32150375843048096,
-0.4825691878795624,
0.071222685277462,
-0.34856462478637695,
0.49001142382621765,
-0.4141879975795746,
-0.30210405588150024,
-0.2761862277984619,
-0.17236937582492828,
0.1691758781671524,
-0.20658501982688904,
-0.2282419055700302,
-0.21018733084201813,
-0.34789055585861206,
-0.3489822447299957,
0.5201544165611267,
-0.05882047861814499,
-0.2714672088623047,
-1.427512288093567,
-0.14064788818359375,
0.5173379182815552,
-0.046025071293115616,
-0.05223909392952919,
1.1191248893737793,
-0.3602450489997864,
-0.3826925456523895,
-0.3942355811595917,
-0.7084810733795166,
0.32520556449890137,
-0.13977260887622833,
-0.28744375705718994,
0.5455595254898071,
0.2946365773677826,
-0.07347258925437927,
0.1827738881111145,
-0.3638465404510498,
-0.25719037652015686,
0.07930735498666763,
-0.03112034685909748,
0.24807021021842957,
-0.6984108090400696,
-0.21456509828567505,
-0.6605687737464905,
-0.22593560814857483,
0.13337461650371552,
0.23736362159252167,
-0.12382055073976517,
0.09598040580749512,
-0.0656600072979927,
0.2879163920879364,
0.6991828083992004,
-0.3586755394935608,
-0.8901631832122803,
-0.08329550921916962,
-0.15295498073101044,
0.36657044291496277,
0.045109789818525314,
0.22032451629638672,
0.5435348153114319,
0.14304868876934052,
-0.36463212966918945,
0.39816346764564514,
-0.3565487861633301,
-0.36668112874031067,
-0.23104707896709442,
-0.36370348930358887,
0.3832171559333801,
0.015710091218352318,
-0.15991392731666565,
0.2524724006652832,
-0.17615433037281036,
-0.3787408471107483,
0.5197787880897522,
0.6280046105384827,
0.2139931470155716,
-0.2653035819530487,
0.5895635485649109,
0.05528385192155838,
0.18471825122833252,
0.29450634121894836,
-0.2931535542011261,
0.38558006286621094,
-0.3340458273887634,
-0.11602309346199036,
-0.1275513619184494,
-0.5600675940513611,
0.16204288601875305,
0.3865453004837036,
-0.14103010296821594,
0.3262046277523041,
-0.2245994210243225,
0.03919198736548424,
-0.21693873405456543,
0.08165200799703598,
-0.3150128424167633,
0.10383599996566772,
0.13433712720870972,
0.43430033326148987,
-0.06616127490997314,
0.029058411717414856,
0.15315423905849457,
-0.3666015863418579,
0.21673907339572906,
-0.2005767524242401,
-0.82578045129776,
0.4785632789134979,
0.16637973487377167,
-0.19566382467746735,
0.2274249941110611,
-0.16223526000976562,
0.2231365144252777,
0.09604503959417343,
0.1724904328584671,
-0.28989526629447937,
-0.675605058670044,
0.2034061700105667,
-0.7962039709091187,
0.3537839949131012,
0.6628032326698303,
0.5662619471549988,
-0.0541306771337986,
-0.05244521424174309,
-0.08823781460523605,
-0.012975513935089111,
0.4725552201271057,
-0.04152755066752434,
0.026923447847366333,
-0.3366740643978119,
0.9434895515441895,
-0.5470360517501831,
0.22121670842170715,
0.3832149803638458,
-0.2700282335281372,
0.03827735781669617,
0.0805467814207077,
-0.040066298097372055,
0.26890408992767334,
-0.011492636986076832,
-0.05808134004473686,
-0.08296526968479156,
0.21391847729682922,
-1.2655892372131348,
0.14322330057621002,
-0.0746484324336052,
-0.28152886033058167,
-0.22528956830501556,
-0.6413419246673584,
0.17653897404670715,
0.16563372313976288,
0.23426026105880737,
-0.19656716287136078,
-0.5427210330963135,
-0.09493593871593475,
0.12763690948486328,
0.0305408276617527,
-0.2907654345035553,
-0.08537030965089798,
0.12005902826786041,
-0.08035653084516525,
-0.1361970156431198,
0.5513509511947632,
0.06737005710601807,
0.7278662323951721,
0.2007131278514862,
-0.15594013035297394,
-0.3236829340457916,
0.031042950227856636,
0.3003825843334198,
0.1261191964149475,
0.06550057977437973,
-0.39634472131729126,
0.21651116013526917,
0.20383958518505096,
-0.42102310061454773,
-0.2870967388153076,
0.07654289901256561,
-0.10568808019161224,
-0.29029563069343567,
-0.779956042766571,
0.057943664491176605,
0.5905411243438721,
-0.4047268331050873,
-0.1569156050682068,
-0.06603369861841202,
-0.6033523678779602,
0.1838526427745819,
-0.12087374180555344,
-0.8420197367668152,
0.47644561529159546,
-0.37357813119888306,
-0.41003090143203735,
-0.8015614151954651,
0.872269332408905,
-0.5134713649749756,
0.05568363890051842,
0.00679655559360981,
-0.06373731791973114,
-0.3415597677230835,
-0.44277602434158325,
-0.5966047644615173,
-0.07156053185462952,
-0.7393926978111267,
-0.11231045424938202,
-0.8231814503669739,
0.6171442270278931,
0.4139202833175659,
-0.8761999011039734,
0.5138804912567139,
0.43720704317092896,
-0.8435419201850891,
0.48284801840782166,
0.17376147210597992,
0.4126077890396118,
0.3196505904197693,
0.2837321162223816,
0.23956094682216644,
-0.1985163688659668,
0.24166223406791687,
0.514255940914154,
0.30104801058769226,
0.7427797317504883,
0.7438207864761353,
-0.3533949851989746,
0.21828648447990417,
-0.11353511363267899,
0.45347896218299866,
-0.06518172472715378,
-0.41683080792427063,
0.044631343334913254,
0.13200442492961884,
0.3810596466064453,
0.0644177794456482,
-0.44425520300865173,
0.45828744769096375,
-0.836097776889801,
0.33700093626976013,
-0.29322218894958496,
0.46583762764930725,
-0.10197088122367859,
-0.26044127345085144,
0.0435761958360672,
-0.31584882736206055,
0.12388525158166885,
0.5080892443656921,
0.24241502583026886,
-0.039999887347221375,
-1.0312247276306152,
0.33473843336105347,
-0.5004479289054871,
0.4878486692905426,
-0.09095093607902527,
-0.08306296914815903,
0.0922795757651329,
0.4745861291885376,
-0.2023795247077942,
-0.052345916628837585,
-0.7428014874458313,
0.40569883584976196,
0.14805056154727936,
-0.5428932905197144,
-0.009126227349042892,
-0.1745097041130066,
-0.5876243710517883,
0.5202740430831909,
-0.506145715713501,
0.16896016895771027,
-0.47830730676651,
-0.31280648708343506,
-0.2030061036348343,
-0.0015002783620730042,
0.04554292559623718,
0.292366623878479,
-0.23316112160682678,
-0.011961961165070534,
0.23033662140369415,
0.2572869658470154,
0.204706609249115,
-0.6087474822998047,
-0.04120512306690216,
-0.599003255367279,
0.8852719068527222,
-0.21288730204105377,
-0.8001551032066345,
0.09265989065170288,
0.11380599439144135,
-0.06922949105501175,
-0.6554651260375977,
0.1734616458415985,
-0.17730014026165009,
0.23780149221420288,
0.03264573961496353,
-0.18745508790016174,
0.2552432715892792,
-0.792115330696106,
-0.446946382522583,
0.3434506356716156,
-0.5446513891220093,
-0.047291602939367294,
0.18887031078338623,
-0.23999182879924774,
0.3307795524597168,
0.517680287361145,
0.43485602736473083,
0.4071815609931946,
0.9170084595680237,
-0.14361491799354553,
0.2593287229537964,
0.13272692263126373,
0.3516601324081421,
-0.3819935619831085,
-0.17155508697032928,
-0.5745720267295837,
0.3639299273490906,
-0.24097879230976105,
-0.25862494111061096,
0.33294206857681274,
-0.4597001373767853,
-0.1833495795726776,
0.5853833556175232,
-0.23388420045375824,
0.6166590452194214,
0.056034673005342484,
-0.15157455205917358,
-0.14536286890506744,
0.177085742354393,
-0.07250551134347916,
-0.07091382890939713,
0.18532554805278778,
0.2945587635040283,
0.1880430281162262,
-0.08511623740196228,
-0.24462616443634033,
-0.45876872539520264,
-0.22142432630062103,
0.19463813304901123,
0.22413389384746552,
-0.10009097307920456,
-0.4334944486618042,
0.6809637546539307,
0.029706934466958046,
0.6210902333259583,
0.22589871287345886,
-0.12699711322784424,
-0.318808913230896,
0.13933253288269043,
-0.052498895674943924,
-0.2463178038597107,
0.1632913053035736,
0.6449679136276245,
0.71452397108078,
0.19255177676677704,
-0.5357304811477661,
-0.4922278821468353,
-0.289345383644104,
-0.2545071244239807,
0.558285117149353,
0.5777813792228699,
-0.21515725553035736,
0.307723730802536,
-0.23275426030158997,
0.6371737718582153,
-0.1119835153222084,
-0.48399585485458374,
0.37270984053611755,
-0.44204843044281006,
-0.031348031014204025,
0.3949968218803406,
0.07156068086624146,
-0.5993959903717041,
0.42565831542015076,
-0.21299901604652405,
-0.1469208151102066,
-0.4367993175983429,
-0.11171421408653259,
-0.034776728600263596,
0.06950504332780838,
0.9894102215766907,
0.6684631705284119,
0.3400547206401825,
0.20830196142196655,
-0.08691151440143585,
-0.30613481998443604,
-0.07953975349664688,
-0.12396946549415588,
0.8133130669593811,
-0.4822017252445221,
-0.4069562256336212,
-0.3450815677642822,
0.5436639785766602,
0.36931365728378296,
-0.05063705891370773,
-0.07641437649726868,
0.6676011085510254,
-0.6662933230400085,
-0.2099071890115738,
0.6746085286140442,
-0.379163920879364,
-0.196249857544899,
-0.8103025555610657,
0.03557664528489113,
0.3084075152873993,
0.4186188578605652,
0.22525382041931152,
0.29476168751716614,
-0.15512602031230927,
0.7116142511367798,
0.3258747160434723,
0.3154088854789734,
0.8360987305641174,
0.13227644562721252,
0.030070599168539047,
-0.06053612381219864,
0.12219121307134628,
-0.3669527471065521,
-0.39362633228302,
0.230253666639328,
0.2059205025434494,
-0.10152637958526611,
-0.0809420719742775,
0.48119863867759705,
-0.7188102602958679,
0.25049200654029846,
-0.20918983221054077,
0.515867292881012,
0.09299841523170471,
-0.4542297124862671,
-0.1286698281764984,
-0.011132922023534775,
0.22157268226146698,
0.6333976984024048,
-0.11653666198253632,
-0.09111852198839188,
-0.4120534062385559,
0.14687885344028473,
-0.15331314504146576,
-0.705126941204071,
-0.6806374788284302,
-0.29567039012908936,
-0.32223862409591675
] |
213070
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20insemination
|
Artificial insemination
|
Artificial insemination (AI) is the deliberate introduction of sperm into a female's cervix or uterine cavity for the purpose of achieving a pregnancy through in vivo fertilization by means other than sexual intercourse or in vitro fertilisation. It is a fertility treatment for humans, and is common practice in animal breeding, including dairy cattle (see Frozen bovine semen) and pigs.
Artificial insemination may employ assisted reproductive technology, sperm donation and animal husbandry techniques. Artificial insemination techniques available include intracervical insemination (ICI) and intrauterine insemination (IUI). The beneficiaries of artificial insemination are women who desire to give birth to their own child who may be single, women who are in a lesbian relationship or women who are in a heterosexual relationship but with a male partner who is infertile or who has a physical impairment which prevents full intercourse from taking place. Intracervical insemination is the easiest and most common insemination technique and can be used in the home for self-insemination without medical practitioner assistance. Compared with natural insemination (i.e., insemination by sexual intercourse), artificial insemination can be more expensive and more invasive, and may require professional assistance.
Some countries have laws which restrict and regulate who can donate sperm and who is able to receive artificial insemination, and the consequences of such insemination. Some women who live in a jurisdiction which does not permit artificial insemination in the circumstance in which she finds herself may travel to another jurisdiction which permits it.
Humans
History
The first recorded case of artificial insemination was John Hunter in 1790, who helped impregnate a linen draper's wife. The first reported case of artificial insemination by donor occurred in 1884: Dr. William H. Pancoast, a professor in Philadelphia, took sperm from his "best looking" student to inseminate an anesthetized woman without her knowledge. The case was reported 25 years later in a medical journal. The sperm bank was developed in Iowa starting in the 1950s in research conducted by University of Iowa medical school researchers Jerome Sherman and Raymond Bunge.
In the United Kingdom, the British obstetrician Mary Barton founded one of the first fertility clinics to offer donor insemination in the 1930s, with her husband Bertold Wiesner fathering hundreds of offspring.
In the 1980s, direct intraperitoneal insemination (DIPI) was occasionally used, where doctors injected sperm into the lower abdomen through a surgical hole or incision, with the intention of letting them find the oocyte at the ovary or after entering the genital tract through the ostium of the fallopian tube.
General
The sperm used in artificial insemination may be provided by either the woman's husband or partner (partner sperm) or by a known or anonymous sperm donor (see sperm donation (donor sperm)).
If the procedure is successful, the woman will conceive and carry a baby to term in the normal manner. A pregnancy resulting from artificial insemination is no different from a pregnancy achieved by sexual intercourse. In all cases of artificial insemination, the recipient woman will be the biological mother of any child produced, and the male whose sperm is used will be the biological father.
There are multiple methods used to obtain the semen necessary for artificial insemination. Some methods require only men, while others require a combination of a male and female. Those that require only men to obtain semen are masturbation or the aspiration of sperm by means of a puncture of the testicle and epydidymus. Methods of collecting semen that involve a combination of a male and female include interrupted intercourse, intercourse with a 'collection condom', or the post-coital aspiration of the semen from the vagina.
Artificial insemination techniques were originally used mainly to assist heterosexual couples to conceive where they were having difficulties. With the advancement of techniques in this field, notably ICSI, the use of artificial insemination for such couples has largely been rendered unnecessary. However, there are still reasons why a couple would seek to use artificial insemination using the male partner's sperm. In the case of such couples, before artificial insemination is turned to as the solution, doctors will require an examination of both the male and female involved in order to remove any and all physical hindrances that are preventing them from naturally achieving a pregnancy including any factors which prevent the couple from having satisfactory sexual intercourse. The couple is also given a fertility test to determine the motility, number, and viability of the male's sperm and the success of the female's ovulation. From these tests, the doctor may or may not recommend a form of artificial insemination. The results of investigations may, for example, show that the woman's immune system may be rejecting her partner's sperm as invading molecules. Women who have issues with the cervix – such as cervical scarring, cervical blockage from endometriosis, or thick cervical mucus – may also benefit from artificial insemination, since the sperm must pass through the cervix to result in fertilization.
Artificial insemination in humans today is therefore principally used as a fertility method for women without a male partner who wish to have their own children and who do so where sperm from a sperm donor is used. Donor sperm may be used in other ways, such as IVF and ICSI and a woman having a baby by a sperm donor will usually also have these methods available to her as alternatives to artificial insemination.
Preparations
Timing is critical, as the window and opportunity for fertilization is little more than twelve hours from the release of the ovum. To increase the chance of success, the woman's menstrual cycle is closely observed, often using ovulation kits, ultrasounds or blood tests, such as basal body temperature tests over, noting the color and texture of the vaginal mucus, and the softness of the nose of her cervix. To improve the success rate of artificial insemination, drugs to create a stimulated cycle may be used, but the use of such drugs also results in an increased chance of a multiple birth.
Sperm can be provided fresh or washed. The washing of sperm increases the chances of fertilization. Pre- and post-concentration of motile sperm is counted. Sperm from a sperm bank will be frozen and quarantined for a period, and the donor will be tested before and after production of the sample to ensure that he does not carry a transmissible disease. For fresh shipping, a semen extender is used.
If sperm is provided by a private donor, either directly or through a sperm agency, it is usually supplied fresh, not frozen, and it will not be quarantined. Donor sperm provided in this way may be given directly to the recipient woman or her partner, or it may be transported in specially insulated containers. Some donors have their own freezing apparatus to freeze and store their sperm.
Techniques
Semen used is either fresh, raw, or frozen. Where donor sperm is supplied by a sperm bank, it will always be quarantined and frozen, and will need to be thawed before use. The sperm is ideally donated after two or three days of abstinence, without lubrication as the lubricant can inhibit the sperm motility. When an ovum is released, semen is introduced into the woman's vagina, uterus or cervix, depending on the method being used.
Sperm is occasionally inserted twice within a 'treatment cycle'.
Intracervical
Intracervical insemination (ICI) simulates the ejaculation of semen by the penis into the vagina during intercourse. It is painless and is the simplest, easiest and most common method of artificial insemination. ICI involves the introduction of unwashed or raw semen into the vagina at the entrance to the cervix, usually by means of a needleless syringe.
ICI is commonly used in the home, by self-insemination and practitioner insemination. Raw semen from a private donor may be used for ICI. Semen supplied by a sperm bank prepared for ICI or IUI use is suitable for ICI. It is a popular method amongst single and lesbian women purchasing donor sperm on-line.
Although ICI is the method most closely duplicating insemination through intercourse, a meta-analysis has shown no difference in live birth rates compared with IUI. It may also be performed privately by the woman, or, if she has a partner, in the presence of her partner, or by her partner. ICI was previously used in many fertility centers as a method of insemination, although its popularity in this context has waned as other, more reliable methods of insemination have become available.
During ICI, air is expelled from a needleless syringe which is then filled with semen which has been allowed to liquify. A specially-designed syringe, wider and with a more rounded end, may be used for this purpose. Any further enclosed air is removed by gently pressing the plunger forward. The woman lies on her back and the syringe is inserted into the vagina. Care is optimal when inserting the syringe, so that the tip is as close to the entrance to the cervix as possible. A vaginal speculum may be used for this purpose and a catheter may be attached to the tip of the syringe to ensure delivery of the semen as close to the entrance to the cervix as possible. The plunger is then slowly pushed forward and the semen in the syringe is gently emptied deep into the vagina. It is important that the syringe is emptied slowly for safety and for the best results, bearing in mind that the purpose of the procedure is the replicate as closely as possible a natural deposit of the semen in the vagina. The syringe (and catheter if used) may be left in place for several minutes before removal. The woman can bring herself to orgasm so that the cervix 'dips down' into the pool of semen, again replicating closely vaginal intercourse, and this may improve the success rate. The woman is advised to lie still for about half-an-hour to ensure that the semen flows into the cervix which may also improve the success rate.
One insemination during a cycle is usually sufficient. Additional inseminations may not improve the chances of a pregnancy.
Ordinary sexual lubricants should not be used in the process, but special fertility or 'sperm-friendly' lubricants can be used for increased ease and comfort.
When performed at home without the presence of a professional, aiming the sperm in the vagina at the neck of the cervix may be more difficult to achieve and the effect may be to 'flood' the vagina with semen, rather than to target it specifically at the entrance to the cervix. This procedure is therefore sometimes referred to as 'intravaginal insemination' (IVI). Sperm supplied by a sperm bank will be frozen and must be allowed to thaw before insemination. The sealed end of the straw itself must be cut off and the open end of the straw is usually fixed straight on to the tip of the syringe, allowing the contents to be drawn into the syringe. Sperm from more than one straw can generally be used in the same syringe. Where fresh semen is used, this must be allowed to liquefy before inserting it into the syringe, or alternatively, the syringe may be back-loaded.
A conception cap, which is a form of conception device, may be inserted into the vagina following insemination and may be left in place for several hours. Using this method, a woman may go about her usual activities while the cervical cap holds the semen in the vagina close to the entrance to the cervix. Advocates of this method claim that it increases the chances of conception. One advantage with the conception device is that fresh, non-liquefied semen may be used. The man may ejaculate straight into the cap so that his fresh semen can be inserted immediately into the vagina without waiting for it to liquefy, although a collection cup may also be used. Other methods may be used to insert semen into the vagina notably involving different uses of a conception cap. These include a specially designed conception cap with a tube attached may be inserted empty into the vagina after which liquefied semen is poured into the tube. These methods are designed to ensure that semen is inseminated as close as possible to the cervix and that it is kept in place there to increase the chances of conception.
Intrauterine
Intrauterine insemination (IUI) involves injection of washed sperm into the uterus with a catheter. If unwashed semen is used, it may elicit uterine cramping, expelling the semen and causing pain, due to content of prostaglandins. (Prostaglandins are also the compounds responsible for causing the myometrium to contract and expel the menses from the uterus, during menstruation.) Resting on the table for fifteen minutes after an IUI is optimal for the woman to increase the pregnancy rate. Using this technique, fertilisation takes place in the external part of the fallopian tubes, in the same way that occurs naturally.
For heterosexual couples, the indications to perform an intrauterine insemination are usually a moderate male factor, the incapability to ejaculate in vagina and an idiopathic infertility. A short period of ejaculatory abstinence before intrauterine insemination is associated with higher pregnancy rates. For the man, a TMS of more than 5 million per ml is optimal. In practice, donor sperm will satisfy these criteria and since IUI is a more efficient method of artificial insemination than ICI and, because of its generally higher success rate, IUI is usually the insemination procedure of choice for single women and lesbians using donor semen in a fertility centre. Lesbians and single women are less likely to have fertility issues of their own and enabling donor sperm to be inserted directly into the womb will produce a better chance of conceiving.
For lesbian couples, IUI is the preferred treatment to achieve pregnancy. Lesbian couples may either select a friend or family member as their sperm donor or choose an anonymous donor. After a donor sperm is selected, a couple can proceed with donor sperm IUI. IUI is the least expensive option for same-sex couples and can be done without the use of medication. According to a study from 2021, lesbian women undergoing IUI had a clinical pregnancy rate of 13.2% per cycle and 42.2% success rate given the average number of cycles at 3.6.
Trans individuals who possess eggs and are not taking testosterone can utilize IUI with either a partner or donor's sperm. For trans women, IUI success rates vary but heavily depend on the age of the person carrying the pregnancy. However, IUI success rate data has not been published for trans women.
Unlike ICI, intrauterine insemination normally requires a medical practitioner to perform the procedure. One of the requirements is to have at least one permeable tube, proved by hysterosalpingography. The infertility duration is also important. A female under 30 years of age has optimal chances with IUI; A promising cycle is one that offers two follicles measuring more than 16 mm, and estrogen of more than 500 pg/mL on the day of hCG administration. However, GnRH agonist administration at the time of implantation does not improve pregnancy outcome in intrauterine insemination cycles according to a randomized controlled trial.One of the prominent private clinic in Europe has published a data A multiple logistic regression model showed that sperm origin, maternal age, follicle count at hCG administration day, follicle rupture, and the number of uterine contractions observed after the second insemination procedure were associated with the live-birth rate
The steps to follow in order to perform an intrauterine insemination are:
Mild Controlled Ovarian Stimulation (COS): there is no control of how many oocytes are at the same time when stimulating ovulation. For that reason, it is necessary to check the amount being ovulated via ultrasound (checking the amount of follicles developing at the same time) and administering the desired amount of hormones.
Ovulation Induction: using substances known as ovulation inductors.
Semen capacitation: wash and centrifugation, swim-up, or gradient. The insemination shouldn't be performed later than an hour after capacitation. 'Washed sperm' may be purchased directly from a sperm bank if donor semen is used, or 'unwashed semen' may be thawed and capacitated before performing IUI insemination, provided that the capacitation leaves a minimum of, usually, five million motile sperm.
Luteal Phase support: a lack of progesterone in the endometrium could end a pregnancy. To avoid that 200 mg/day of micronized progesterone are administered via vagina. If there is pregnancy, this hormone is kept administering until the tenth week of pregnancy.
IUI can be used in conjunction with controlled ovarian hyperstimulation (COH). Clomiphene Citrate is the first line, Letrozole is second line, in order to stimulate ovaries before moving on to IVF. Still, advanced maternal age causes decreased success rates; women aged 38–39 years appear to have reasonable success during the first two cycles of ovarian hyperstimulation and IUI. However, for women aged over 40 years, there appears to be no benefit after a single cycle of COH/IUI. Medical experts therefore recommend considering in vitro fertilization after one failed COH/IUI cycle for women aged over 40 years.
A double intrauterine insemination theoretically increases pregnancy rates by decreasing the risk of missing the fertile window during ovulation. However, a randomized trial of insemination after ovarian hyperstimulation found no difference in live birth rate between single and double intrauterine insemination. A Cochrane found uncertain evidence about the effect of IUI compared with timed intercourse or expectant management on live birth rates but IUI with controlled ovarian hyperstimulation is probably better than expectant management.
Due to the lack of reliable evidence from controlled clinical trials, it is not certain which semen preparation techniques are more effective (wash and centrifugation; swim-up; or gradient) in terms of pregnancy and live birth rates.
Intrauterine tuboperitoneal
Intrauterine tuboperitoneal insemination (IUTPI) involves injection of washed sperm into both the uterus and fallopian tubes. The cervix is then clamped to prevent leakage to the vagina, best achieved with a specially designed double nut bivalve (DNB) speculum. The sperm is mixed to create a volume of 10 ml, sufficient to fill the uterine cavity, pass through the interstitial part of the tubes and the ampulla, finally reaching the peritoneal cavity and the Pouch of Douglas where it would be mixed with the peritoneal and follicular fluid. IUTPI can be useful in unexplained infertility, mild or moderate male infertility, and mild or moderate endometriosis. In non-tubal sub fertility, fallopian tube sperm perfusion may be the preferred technique over intrauterine insemination.
Intratubal
Intratubal insemination (ITI) involves injection of washed sperm into the fallopian tube, although this procedure is no longer generally regarded as having any beneficial effect compared with IUI. ITI however, should not be confused with gamete intrafallopian transfer, where both eggs and sperm are mixed outside the woman's body and then immediately inserted into the fallopian tube where fertilization takes place.
Pregnancy rate
The rate of successful pregnancy for artificial insemination are 10-15% per menstrual cycle using ICI, and 15–20% per cycle for IUI. In IUI, about 60 to 70% have achieved pregnancy after 6 cycles.
However, these pregnancy rates may be very misleading, since many factors have to be included to give a meaningful answer, e.g. definition of success and calculation of the total population. These rates can be influenced by age, overall reproductive health, and if the patient had an orgasm during the insemination. The literature is conflicting on immobilization after insemination has increasing the chances of pregnancy Previous data suggests that it is statistically significant for the patient to remain immobile for 15 minutes after insemination, while other review article claims that it is not. A point of consideration, is that it does cost the patient or healthcare system to remain immobile for 15 minutes if it does increase the chances. For couples with unexplained infertility, unstimulated IUI is no more effective than natural means of conception.
The pregnancy rate also depends on the total sperm count, or, more specifically, the total motile sperm count (TMSC), used in a cycle. The success rate increases with increasing TMSC, but only up to a certain count, when other factors become limiting to success. The summed pregnancy rate of two cycles using a TMSC of 5 million (may be a TSC of ~10 million on graph) in each cycle is substantially higher than one single cycle using a TMSC of 10 million. However, although more cost-efficient, using a lower TMSC also increases the average time taken to achieve pregnancy. Women whose age is becoming a major factor in fertility may not want to spend that extra time.
Samples per child
The number of samples (ejaculates) required to give rise to a child varies substantially from person to person, as well as from clinic to clinic. However, the following equations generalize the main factors involved:
For intracervical insemination:
N is how many children a single sample can give rise to.
Vs is the volume of a sample (ejaculate), usually between 1.0 mL and 6.5 mL
c is the concentration of motile sperm in a sample after freezing and thawing, approximately 5–20 million per ml but varies substantially
rs is the pregnancy rate per cycle, between 10% to 35%
nr is the total motile sperm count recommended for vaginal insemination (VI) or intra-cervical insemination (ICI), approximately 20 million pr. ml.
The pregnancy rate increases with increasing number of motile sperm used, but only up to a certain degree, when other factors become limiting instead.
With these numbers, one sample would on average help giving rise to 0.1–0.6 children, that is, it actually takes on average 2–5 samples to make a child.
For intrauterine insemination, a centrifugation fraction (fc) may be added to the equation:
fc is the fraction of the volume that remains after centrifugation of the sample, which may be about half (0.5) to a third (0.33).
On the other hand, only 5 million motile sperm may be needed per cycle with IUI (nr=5 million)
Thus, only 1–3 samples may be needed for a child if used for IUI.
Social implications
One of the key issues arising from the rise of dependency on assisted reproductive technology (ARTs) is the pressure placed on couples to conceive; 'where children are highly desired, parenthood is culturally mandatory, and childlessness socially unacceptable'.
The medicalization of infertility creates a framework in which individuals are encouraged to think of infertility quite negatively. In many cultures donor insemination is religiously and culturally prohibited, often meaning that less accessible "high tech" and expensive ARTs, like IVF, are the only solution.
An over-reliance on reproductive technologies in dealing with infertility prevents many – especially, for example, in the "infertility belt" of central and southern Africa – from dealing with many of the key causes of infertility treatable by artificial insemination techniques; namely preventable infections, dietary and lifestyle influences.
If good records are not kept, the offspring when grown up risk accidental incest.
Legal restrictions
Some countries restrict artificial insemination in a variety of ways. For example, some countries do not permit AI for single women, and other countries do not permit the use of donor sperm.
As of May 2013, the following European countries permit medically assisted AI for single women:
Belarus
Belgium
Britain
Bulgaria
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Latvia
Moldova
Montenegro
Netherlands
North Macedonia
Romania
Russia
Spain
Ukraine
Armenia
Cyprus
Other animals
Artificial insemination is used for pets, livestock, endangered species, and animals in zoos or marine parks difficult to transport.
Reasons and techniques
It may be used for many reasons, including to allow a male to inseminate a much larger number of females, to allow the use of genetic material from males separated by distance or time, to overcome physical breeding difficulties, to control the paternity of offspring, to synchronize births, to avoid injury incurred during natural mating, and to avoid the need to keep a male at all (such as for small numbers of females or in species whose fertile males may be difficult to manage).
Semen is collected, extended, then cooled or frozen. It can be used on-site or shipped to the female's location. If frozen, the small plastic tube holding the semen is referred to as a straw. To allow the sperm to remain viable during the time before and after it is frozen, the semen is mixed with a solution containing glycerol or other cryoprotectants. An extender is a solution that allows the semen from a donor to impregnate more females by making insemination possible with fewer sperm. Antibiotics, such as streptomycin, are sometimes added to the sperm to control some bacterial venereal diseases. Before the actual insemination, estrus may be induced through the use of progestogen and another hormone (usually PMSG or Prostaglandin F2α).
History
The first viviparous animal to be artificially fertilized was a dog. The experiment was conducted with success by the Italian Lazzaro Spallanzani in 1780. Another pioneer was the Russian Ilya Ivanov in 1899. In 1935, diluted semen from Suffolk sheep was flown from Cambridge in Britain to Kraków, Poland, as part of an international research project. The participants included Prawochenki (Poland), Milovanoff (USSR), Hammond and Walton (UK), and Thomasset (Uruguay).
Modern artificial insemination was pioneered by John O. Almquist of Pennsylvania State University. He improved breeding efficiency by the use of antibiotics (first proven with penicillin in 1946) to control bacterial growth, decreasing embryonic mortality, and increase fertility. This, and various new techniques for processing, freezing, and thawing of frozen semen significantly enhanced the practical utilization of artificial insemination in the livestock industry and earned him the 1981 Wolf Foundation Prize in Agriculture. Many techniques developed by him have since been applied to other species, including humans.
Species
Artificial insemination is used in many non-human animals, including sheep, horses, cattle, pigs, dogs, pedigree animals generally, zoo animals, turkeys and creatures as tiny as honeybees and as massive as orcas (killer whales).
Artificial insemination of farm animals is common in the developed world, especially for breeding dairy cattle (75% of all inseminations). Swine are also bred using this method (up to 85% of all inseminations). It is an economical means for a livestock breeder to improve their herds utilizing males having desirable traits.
Although common with cattle and swine, artificial insemination is not as widely practiced in the breeding of horses. A small number of equine associations in North America accept only horses that have been conceived by "natural cover" or "natural service" – the actual physical mating of a mare to a stallion – the Jockey Club being the most notable of these, as no artificial insemination is allowed in Thoroughbred breeding. Other registries such as the AQHA and warmblood registries allow registration of foals created through artificial insemination, and the process is widely used allowing the breeding of mares to stallions not resident at the same facility – or even in the same country – through the use of transported frozen or cooled semen.
In modern species conservation, semen collection and artificial insemination are used also in birds. In 2013 scientist of the Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Germany, from the working group of Michael Lierz, Clinic for birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, developed a novel technique for semen collection and artificial insemination in parrots producing the world's first macaw by assisted reproduction.
Scientists working with captive orcas were able to pioneer the technique in the early 2000s, resulting in "the first successful conceptions, resulting in live offspring, using artificial insemination in any cetacean species". John Hargrove, a SeaWorld trainer, describes Kasatka as being the first orca to receive artificial insemination.
Violation of rights
Artificial insemination on animals has been criticised as a violation of animal rights, with animal rights advocates equating it with rape and arguing it constitutes institutionalized bestiality. Artificial insemination of farm animals is condemned by animal rights campaigners such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) and Joey Carbstrong, who identify the practice as a form of rape due to its sexual, involuntary and perceived painful nature. Animal rights organizations such as PETA and Mercy for Animals frequently write against the practice in their articles. Much of the meat production in the United States depends on artificial insemination, resulting in an explosive growth of the procedure over the past three decades. The state of Kansas makes no exceptions for artificial insemination under its bestiality law, thus making the procedure illegal.
See also
Accidental incest
Conception device
Donor conceived people
Ejaculation
Embryo transfer
Ex-situ conservation
Frozen bovine semen
Frozen zoo
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection
Semen extender
Sperm bank
Sperm donation
Sperm sorting
Surrogacy
Wildlife
References
Further reading
Hammond, John, et al., The Artificial Insemination of Cattle (Cambridge, Heffer, 1947, 61pp)
External links
Detailed description of the different fertility treatment options available
A history of artificial insemination
What are the Ethical Considerations for Sperm Donation?
United States state court rules sperm donor is not liable for children
UK Sperm Donors Lose Anonymity
AI technique in the equine
IntraUterine TuboPeritoneal Insemination (IUTPI)
The Hastings Center's Bioethics Briefing Book entry on assisted reproduction
Annales de Gembloux L´Organisation Scientifique de l Índustrie Animale en URSS, Artificial Insemination in the URSS, by Luis Thomasset, 1936
Fertility medicine
Reproduction in mammals
Livestock
Pets
Cryobiology
Semen
Assisted reproductive technology
Theriogenology
|
[
0.2391403168439865,
0.035281047224998474,
-0.6112766265869141,
0.31847891211509705,
0.393446683883667,
0.6589463949203491,
0.568773090839386,
0.4779275953769684,
0.03441672772169113,
-0.3021737337112427,
-0.26044923067092896,
0.10782383382320404,
-0.2524961829185486,
0.7565054297447205,
-0.6394410133361816,
-0.02522616647183895,
0.32944148778915405,
0.7395788431167603,
0.5239977240562439,
-0.27288830280303955,
-0.37175053358078003,
-0.47678154706954956,
-0.2021774798631668,
0.08783486485481262,
0.08220024406909943,
-0.6654298901557922,
0.1830143928527832,
-0.5411332845687866,
-0.266356885433197,
-0.41421273350715637,
0.3389142155647278,
0.06855079531669617,
0.058252185583114624,
-0.3620125949382782,
0.05562826246023178,
-0.10919557511806488,
-0.30249646306037903,
-0.5990310311317444,
-0.5277599096298218,
-0.07947688549757004,
-0.5424022674560547,
-0.1671014279127121,
0.565673291683197,
-0.14370068907737732,
-0.3375137746334076,
-0.7129746675491333,
-0.789753794670105,
0.6039299964904785,
-0.5689026713371277,
0.3201635479927063,
-0.5953891277313232,
-0.46555545926094055,
0.18640469014644623,
0.33410462737083435,
0.3729895353317261,
0.7665650248527527,
-0.4379109740257263,
-0.04230072721838951,
-0.18747252225875854,
-0.5340161323547363,
0.41715356707572937,
0.2883670926094055,
0.32216882705688477,
0.07149750739336014,
0.5850062370300293,
0.23697425425052643,
0.3897159695625305,
0.2935355305671692,
-0.3105897605419159,
-1.2410601377487183,
-0.8112677335739136,
-0.2281922549009323,
0.2393614500761032,
0.018457595258951187,
-0.348385751247406,
-0.42588722705841064,
-0.21186676621437073,
0.06517432630062103,
0.7060968279838562,
0.05164168030023575,
0.006893269717693329,
0.5882832407951355,
-0.3232594132423401,
0.384133517742157,
0.5853106379508972,
0.27930888533592224,
-0.07299346476793289,
1.1218599081039429,
0.05459859222173691,
0.2634219229221344,
-0.0002430948952678591,
0.4792725741863251,
0.5364529490470886,
-0.17889821529388428,
-0.04959423467516899,
0.010184956714510918,
-0.08355356752872467,
-0.1843690276145935,
0.4855411648750305,
0.02105722203850746,
-0.5059661269187927,
0.06898222863674164,
0.31203582882881165,
-0.07365152984857559,
0.13418647646903992,
-0.5251162052154541,
-0.3148399293422699,
-0.2287595123052597,
0.14942459762096405,
0.0343606173992157,
0.12801098823547363,
0.3705935776233673,
0.18013206124305725,
0.2906976342201233,
-0.45413246750831604,
0.7033641934394836,
0.0036390796303749084,
-0.12154116481542587,
-0.29150375723838806,
-0.19630415737628937,
0.27496209740638733,
0.07798396050930023,
0.014074359089136124,
-0.3503037989139557,
-0.3778724670410156,
0.40446850657463074,
0.6780969500541687,
1.0576249361038208,
-0.5771895051002502,
0.6404234170913696,
0.17061211168766022,
0.6381809711456299,
0.265948623418808,
0.30455970764160156,
-0.017422670498490334,
-0.44135206937789917,
0.27501121163368225,
-0.3867148160934448,
1.3645472526550293,
0.4249504506587982,
-1.109817624092102,
-0.5510081648826599,
-0.21521486341953278,
0.057121142745018005,
0.7474654912948608,
0.09535457193851471,
0.3797464966773987,
0.1916477084159851,
-0.30554327368736267,
0.2474936693906784,
-0.21987830102443695,
0.14367897808551788,
-0.004819853231310844,
-0.2420961856842041,
-0.0873185470700264,
0.12567001581192017,
0.6945640444755554,
-0.3622618019580841,
-0.04918905347585678,
0.24323852360248566,
0.37537384033203125,
0.5156792998313904,
-0.43087321519851685,
-0.15637856721878052,
-0.5720536112785339,
-0.5977894067764282,
1.112310767173767,
0.9539322257041931,
-0.1508745402097702,
-0.020609965547919273,
-0.49894627928733826,
0.13109202682971954,
0.5728265047073364,
-0.3282620310783386,
0.3241703510284424,
-0.07042541354894638,
0.3139052391052246,
-0.24614837765693665,
1.089207649230957,
0.4940648078918457,
-0.9057341814041138,
0.6020280122756958,
-0.14363877475261688,
0.6066219806671143,
0.06511999666690826,
-0.6879291534423828,
0.05599205940961838,
-0.23985156416893005,
-0.719657301902771,
0.11120398342609406,
-1.105635166168213,
0.04834570735692978,
0.07426807284355164,
0.008066135458648205,
0.667614221572876,
0.05052315816283226,
-0.26872050762176514,
1.2506226301193237,
-0.24765434861183167,
0.27057120203971863,
-0.043970879167318344,
0.7419843673706055,
0.022243861109018326,
-0.00948520377278328,
-1.2227824926376343,
0.6186835765838623,
0.5300292372703552,
-0.3140806257724762,
0.2006654143333435,
0.4279334247112274,
0.16278843581676483,
0.21196314692497253,
0.6392278075218201,
-0.9907205104827881,
-0.20802150666713715,
0.4213242828845978,
-0.7755857110023499,
0.4313931167125702,
0.023268351331353188,
-0.15462924540042877,
0.6722832322120667,
-0.12387517839670181,
0.18198269605636597,
0.08486058562994003,
0.6977949738502502,
0.6851204037666321,
-0.135318785905838,
-0.16403859853744507,
0.1502152532339096,
-0.45195022225379944,
0.22754544019699097,
0.4461967945098877,
0.4167577922344208,
-0.11911951750516891,
-0.5606656074523926,
0.47149738669395447,
0.1191612109541893,
-0.46574461460113525,
-0.12424156814813614,
0.27826812863349915,
0.16474777460098267,
0.6912859082221985,
-0.11073702573776245,
0.4182710349559784,
-0.22186213731765747,
-0.2000264972448349,
0.17944911122322083,
-0.2928510308265686,
-0.2719680070877075,
0.11745572835206985,
-0.1157386302947998,
0.25740766525268555,
0.11997218430042267,
-0.012532579712569714,
0.3930753469467163,
-0.520190417766571,
-0.5492879748344421,
0.47405076026916504,
0.3035680651664734,
-0.23193086683750153,
0.06309501826763153,
-0.01497802883386612,
0.6222640872001648,
0.037782393395900726,
-0.06573794037103653,
0.01603217050433159,
-0.381870299577713,
-0.028347255662083626,
-0.34489771723747253,
0.08884395658969879,
0.8219082355499268,
0.1871761977672577,
-0.9506263136863708,
0.05945620313286781,
-0.19272790849208832,
-0.09756076335906982,
-0.23999081552028656,
0.2297525256872177,
-0.43711668252944946,
0.0026975292712450027,
0.3319484293460846,
0.24827001988887787,
-0.5650604963302612,
-0.4119015038013458,
-0.6645427346229553,
-0.16366362571716309,
-0.09064675867557526,
-0.9778573513031006,
-0.03049464337527752,
-0.31929925084114075,
-0.5705384016036987,
0.25735822319984436,
-0.06650256365537643,
0.22257231175899506,
0.1969560831785202,
-0.01980469562113285,
-0.18658140301704407,
0.3750804364681244,
0.6217001080513,
0.0399610735476017,
-0.25479656457901,
-0.02493445761501789,
-0.10859375447034836,
0.02850547432899475,
-0.19266630709171295,
-0.07999247312545776,
0.6988523602485657,
-0.4155137538909912,
-5.327518939971924,
0.18752481043338776,
-0.013080324977636337,
0.17085129022598267,
0.8208357691764832,
0.27196916937828064,
0.946384847164154,
-0.2264338880777359,
-0.5669800043106079,
0.31394991278648376,
0.03286096453666687,
0.08633097261190414,
-0.005192869808524847,
0.3901449739933014,
0.28786495327949524,
0.2801462411880493,
0.0958462581038475,
-0.35366931557655334,
0.4288734197616577,
0.2321212738752365,
-0.26206669211387634,
0.4494243562221527,
-0.0642719492316246,
0.7511336803436279,
0.38762402534484863,
-0.23060071468353271,
-0.274091899394989,
-0.09056713432073593,
-0.7105509042739868,
0.3686578571796417,
-0.07948161661624908,
-0.4208163022994995,
0.1427154690027237,
-0.04619801789522171,
-0.7131496667861938,
0.7621845602989197,
0.8669269680976868,
-0.3470449447631836,
0.6482200026512146,
-0.12876638770103455,
-0.4404328167438507,
0.059215985238552094,
-0.18860916793346405,
0.2449934184551239,
0.15683622658252716,
-0.3461059331893921,
-0.08247710764408112,
0.0804508775472641,
0.014433952048420906,
0.714752197265625,
-0.0846412405371666,
0.41472864151000977,
0.570426881313324,
0.3449084460735321,
-0.36818116903305054,
0.47956371307373047,
0.0458296462893486,
0.34213873744010925,
-0.400638610124588,
-0.20352941751480103,
-0.11195535957813263,
-0.8123759031295776,
-0.18193218111991882,
-0.3425666093826294,
0.4071555733680725,
-0.5430802702903748,
-0.2690351903438568,
-0.42285290360450745,
0.4420279264450073,
0.5449466109275818,
-0.40884730219841003,
0.4196510910987854,
0.2635781764984131,
-0.8562526702880859,
0.5462079644203186,
-0.7768920660018921,
-0.4770108163356781,
-0.248429074883461,
-0.029038935899734497,
0.01088742446154356,
-0.4716767966747284,
-0.4019888937473297,
-0.13732151687145233,
0.6222126483917236,
0.3800389766693115,
-0.13918018341064453,
0.016051145270466805,
-0.1455894410610199,
-0.5646278858184814,
-0.5460261106491089,
0.7613330483436584,
0.14249001443386078,
-0.28770712018013,
-0.4074138104915619,
0.15662404894828796,
1.1815705299377441,
-0.3676510155200958,
0.4698113799095154,
0.7154768705368042,
0.1283292919397354,
-0.003774391720071435,
-0.21807712316513062,
-0.3575012683868408,
-0.4028090238571167,
0.18056908249855042,
-0.41897347569465637,
-0.08066953718662262,
0.33949682116508484,
0.213652104139328,
-0.5216429233551025,
-0.18670162558555603,
0.8550187945365906,
-0.48136526346206665,
-0.3274592459201813,
-0.34775176644325256,
0.5729491114616394,
-0.07557452470064163,
0.867705225944519,
0.8101116418838501,
0.3385688364505768,
0.5812579989433289,
0.09658829867839813,
-0.7118842005729675,
0.1653217077255249,
0.7805700898170471,
-0.8705501556396484,
0.4788484573364258,
0.6199699640274048,
-0.07855675369501114,
-0.47607845067977905,
0.1598508507013321,
0.21934832632541656,
-0.47336259484291077,
-0.19355513155460358,
-0.11902040243148804,
0.009860101155936718,
-0.364925742149353,
0.1470251977443695,
-0.6490783095359802,
-0.0728108137845993,
0.09397200495004654,
-0.31999671459198,
-0.49937963485717773,
-0.25033989548683167,
-0.10037568211555481,
0.3956439793109894,
0.06469133496284485,
-0.2904537320137024,
0.0639345571398735,
0.1273157000541687,
-0.43952739238739014,
-1.0575162172317505,
0.44627150893211365,
-0.6215986013412476,
-0.10433030873537064,
-0.1420787274837494,
0.7065376043319702,
0.27343660593032837,
-0.411790668964386,
-0.31485071778297424,
-0.5227280259132385,
-0.3209740221500397,
-1.0142756700515747,
-0.4314803183078766,
-0.2881205379962921,
0.41232696175575256,
-0.2689775824546814,
-0.5399547219276428,
-0.8974267840385437,
0.7293540239334106,
-0.05599270761013031,
-0.20027092099189758,
-0.25262540578842163,
0.009686138480901718,
0.07439595460891724,
0.042274851351976395,
-0.22960327565670013,
0.0034678883384913206,
-0.32999828457832336,
-0.4796506464481354,
0.3310626149177551,
-0.641181468963623,
-0.12806585431098938,
0.1646692305803299,
0.4018717408180237,
-0.5478373765945435,
-0.09103922545909882,
-0.24713991582393646,
-0.47876277565956116,
0.12005063891410828,
-0.8289970755577087,
0.37876787781715393,
1.1859943866729736,
-0.41756346821784973,
-0.6413259506225586,
0.015230277553200722,
-0.9960148334503174,
0.6227363348007202,
-0.003208724781870842,
-0.15789541602134705,
0.6081259846687317,
0.12628240883350372,
-0.716885507106781,
-0.1939074546098709,
0.11897958815097809,
-0.4910662770271301,
-0.08665762841701508,
0.19860057532787323,
-0.2236545830965042,
0.4321095943450928,
-0.14591296017169952,
-0.597870945930481,
-0.05337010696530342,
1.0235587358474731,
-0.7598856091499329,
0.29676133394241333,
-0.39278644323349,
-0.37460842728614807,
-0.022635415196418762,
0.032777052372694016,
0.2769645154476166,
-0.4332074522972107,
-0.041123002767562866,
-0.19015738368034363,
-0.4190533459186554,
-0.3152484595775604,
0.10597794502973557,
-1.0556937456130981,
1.0079090595245361,
-0.20546680688858032,
-0.08124386519193649,
-0.213232159614563,
-0.40558841824531555,
0.26765021681785583,
-0.4811265468597412,
-0.0036723006051033735,
0.5185469388961792,
0.15902334451675415,
-0.35411974787712097,
-0.10423329472541809,
0.5390474200248718,
0.5073263645172119,
-0.16105809807777405,
0.18350613117218018,
-0.6809902191162109,
0.5168443918228149,
-0.37930920720100403,
-0.6589223146438599,
-0.5445312261581421,
0.2582620084285736,
-0.007252407260239124,
-0.47608980536460876,
-0.3882104158401489,
-0.32154005765914917,
-0.4052545428276062,
-0.20775583386421204,
0.21057946979999542,
-0.020560704171657562,
-0.12268940359354019,
0.20492321252822876,
-0.1370348483324051,
-0.4530433714389801,
-0.6191037893295288,
0.07172714918851852,
0.35331082344055176,
-0.19162185490131378,
0.021396085619926453,
0.8555642366409302,
0.1343812346458435,
-0.007713058963418007,
0.15119780600070953,
-0.12081562727689743,
0.4908043444156647,
0.16155380010604858,
-0.11060742288827896,
-0.04040735214948654,
0.31375157833099365,
-0.17426636815071106,
0.38711488246917725,
-0.06114892661571503,
-0.19586414098739624,
-0.04648943990468979,
0.4898357689380646,
-0.5025067925453186,
-0.03433066979050636,
-0.24370503425598145,
0.6259272694587708,
-0.6830125451087952,
-0.9603294730186462,
0.08580182492733002,
0.08207167685031891,
-0.26351794600486755,
0.11012399196624756,
0.14572326838970184,
0.4428711235523224,
0.15409621596336365,
-0.20488569140434265,
-0.08674746006727219,
0.017508629709482193,
-0.9050782918930054,
-0.5306786298751831,
0.2843402922153473,
0.33681976795196533,
-0.8280688524246216,
0.3894408643245697,
-0.17765595018863678,
-0.18561778962612152,
-0.5251050591468811,
-0.12750092148780823,
0.29167550802230835,
0.19545206427574158,
0.14074255526065826,
0.1043524518609047,
0.5273137092590332,
-0.3386757969856262,
0.21125032007694244,
0.017590846866369247,
-0.7233867645263672,
-0.21188540756702423,
0.5469749569892883,
0.20484310388565063,
-0.5404565334320068,
0.10718667507171631,
-0.5900408029556274,
0.23058469593524933,
-0.04917950928211212,
0.3600086271762848,
0.3321857154369354,
0.23669672012329102,
0.1962716430425644,
0.5988460779190063,
-0.2574928402900696,
0.37717968225479126,
0.2507163882255554,
0.015991168096661568,
-0.7414454221725464,
0.10452239960432053,
-0.8666883111000061,
-0.8191800713539124,
1.2573007345199585,
0.4581165313720703,
0.39779114723205566,
-0.0038257280830293894,
0.3264496922492981,
-0.1731559783220291,
0.4131862223148346,
0.18190832436084747,
0.6352340579032898,
-0.28743603825569153,
0.0831802487373352,
0.20748141407966614,
-0.6000852584838867,
0.2931976318359375,
-0.24070312082767487,
0.22329430282115936,
-0.3414417803287506,
0.6065241694450378,
-0.5667853951454163,
-0.14353829622268677,
-0.4444296956062317,
-0.050218645483255386,
0.13250136375427246,
0.5804372429847717,
-0.08369093388319016,
1.130582332611084,
-0.1478903442621231,
0.47719666361808777,
-0.5194252133369446,
0.14199666678905487,
-0.4360770285129547,
0.8084166049957275,
-0.4652206003665924,
-0.40250566601753235,
-0.08870536834001541,
0.724724292755127,
0.42552629113197327,
-0.0018608304671943188,
0.3528277277946472,
-0.6772651672363281,
-0.42679038643836975,
-0.517869770526886,
-0.25139325857162476,
0.35383111238479614,
-0.503444492816925,
-0.302341103553772,
0.3632063567638397,
0.03172062337398529,
0.16510634124279022,
-0.10726378858089447,
0.5013805031776428,
-0.0519055500626564,
0.3951082229614258,
0.5301694273948669,
0.07622698694467545,
-0.575139582157135,
-0.21548660099506378,
0.4542931914329529,
-0.01823783665895462,
-0.0314149335026741,
0.2988227605819702,
0.16100649535655975,
0.812166690826416,
-0.08929166942834854,
-0.39439645409584045,
-0.49278077483177185,
0.4622330665588379,
-0.7387120127677917,
0.5344589352607727,
-0.2940680682659149,
0.05047885701060295,
0.5736542344093323,
-0.3428156077861786,
-0.10390909016132355,
0.21567682921886444,
0.2520301043987274,
0.24059543013572693,
0.3225865960121155,
-0.46101826429367065,
0.12474080920219421,
-0.28739893436431885,
-0.26421719789505005,
-0.4289683401584625,
-0.3167535662651062,
0.7318795323371887,
-0.5032663345336914,
0.17825543880462646,
1.0242921113967896,
-0.05993049591779709,
-0.5981922149658203,
0.5479562282562256,
-1.150298833847046,
0.6451390981674194,
-0.3520872890949249,
0.24184907972812653,
0.023224174976348877,
-0.45175179839134216,
-0.01807335577905178,
0.6233677864074707,
0.4416795074939728,
-0.3359571397304535,
0.47116637229919434,
-0.20353490114212036,
-0.05857302248477936,
0.09852783381938934,
-0.022160954773426056,
-0.6814665198326111,
-0.20046366751194,
-0.14864817261695862,
0.10199610143899918,
-0.3405810296535492,
-0.1946837604045868,
-0.21267051994800568,
0.13755495846271515,
-0.15817686915397644,
-0.438625305891037,
-0.2742544710636139,
0.6089428663253784,
-0.6018766164779663,
-0.3272113502025604,
0.9599961638450623
] |
213071
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito%20Coast
|
Mosquito Coast
|
The Mosquito Coast, also known as the Miskitu Coast, Mosquito Shore and the Miskitu Kingdom, historically included the kingdom's fluctuating area along the eastern coast of present-day Nicaragua and Honduras. It formed part of the Western Caribbean Zone. It was named after the local Miskitu Nation and was long dominated by British interests. The Mosquito Coast was militarily incorporated into Nicaragua in November 1894; however, in 1960, the northern part was granted to Honduras by the International Court of Justice.
The Mosquito Coast was generally defined as the domain of the Mosquito or Miskitu Kingdom and expanded or contracted with that domain. During the 19th century, the question of the kingdom's borders was a serious issue of international diplomacy between Britain, the United States, Nicaragua, and Honduras. Conflicting claims regarding both the kingdom's extent and arguable nonexistence were pursued in diplomatic exchanges. The British and Miskitu definition applied to the whole eastern seaboard of Nicaragua and even to La Mosquitia in Honduras: i.e., the coast region as far west as the Río Negro or Tinto.
History
Before the arrival of Europeans in the region, the area was divided into a large number of small, egalitarian groups, possibly speaking languages related to Sumu and Paya. Columbus visited the coast briefly in his fourth voyage. Detailed Spanish accounts of the region, however, only relate to the late 16th and early 17th centuries. According to their understanding of the geography, the region was divided between two "Provinces" Taguzgalpa and Tologalpa. Lists of "nations" left by Spanish missionaries include as many as 30 names, though careful analysis of them by Karl Offen suggests that many were duplicated and the regional geography included about a half dozen entities speaking related but distinct dialects occupying the various river basins of the region.
Attempted Spanish settlement
During the 16th century, Spanish authorities issued various licenses to conquer Taguzgalpa and Tologalpa in 1545, 1562, 1577, and 1594, but no evidence suggests that any of these licenses resulted in even brief settlements or conquests. The Spanish were unable to conquer this region during the 16th century and in the 17th century sought to "reduce" the region through missionary efforts. These included several attempts by Franciscans between 1604 and 1612; another one led by Fray Cristóbal Martinez in 1622, and a third one between 1667 and 1675. None of these efforts resulted in any lasting success.
Because the Spanish failed to have significant influence in the region, it remained independent of outside control. This allowed the native people to continue their traditional way of life and to receive visitors from other regions. English and Dutch privateers who preyed on Spanish ships soon found refuge in the Mosquito Coast.
British contact and recognition of the Mosquito Kingdom
Although the earliest accounts do not mention it, a political entity of uncertain organization, but probably not very stratified, which the English called the "Mosquito Kingdom" was present on the coast in the early seventeenth century. One of the kings of this polity visited England around 1638 at the behest of the Providence Island Company and sealed an alliance.
In subsequent years, the kingdom stood strongly against any Spanish incursions and was prepared to offer rest and asylum to any anti-Spanish groups that might come to their shores. At the very least English and French privateers and pirates did visit there, taking in water and food. A detailed account of the kingdom written by a buccaneer known only as M. W. describes its organization as being fundamentally egalitarian, with the king and some officials (usually called "Captains" in that period but later being more elaborate) being primarily military leaders, but only in time of war.
Early British alliance
The first British contacts with the Mosquito region started around 1630, when the agents of the English chartered Providence Island Company—of which the Earl of Warwick was chairman and John Pym treasurer—occupied two small cays and established friendly relations with the local inhabitants. Providence Island, the company's main base and settlement, entered into regular correspondence with the coast during the decade of company occupation, 1631–1641.
The Providence Island Company sponsored the Miskito's "King's Son" visit to England during the reign of Charles I (1625–1649). When his father died, this son returned home and placed his country under English protection. Following the capture of Providence Island by Spain in 1641, England did not possess a base close to the coast. However, shortly after the English captured Jamaica in 1655, they recommenced relations with the coast, and Oldman went to visit England. According to the testimony of his son Jeremy, taken around 1699, he was received in audience by "his brother king", Charles II and was given a "lac'd hat" and a commission "to kindly use and relieve such straggling Englishmen as should chance to come that way".
Emergence of the Mosquitos Zambos (Miskito Sambu)
While accounts vary, the Miskito Sambu appear to be descended from the survivors of a shipwrecked slave ship who reached this area in the mid-seventeenth century. These survivors intermarried with the local Miskito people, thereby creating a mixed-race group. They gradually adopted the language and much of the culture of their hosts. The Miskito Sambu settled near the Wanks (Coco) River. By the late 17th century, their leader held the office of general with jurisdiction over the northern portions of the Miskito Kingdom. In the early eighteenth century, they managed to take over the office of King, which they held for at least the rest of the century.
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Miskitos Zambos began a series of raids that attacked Spanish-held territories and still independent indigenous groups in the area. Miskito raiders reached as far north as the Yucatán, and as far south as Costa Rica. They sold many of the captives they took as slaves to English or other British merchants; the slaves were transported to Jamaica to work on sugar plantations. Through such raiding, the Zambo gained a more dominant position and the king's domain was inhabited primarily by Zambos. They also assisted the government of Jamaica in hunting down Maroons in the 1720s.
Sociopolitical system
Although English accounts referred to the area as a "kingdom", it was relatively loosely organized. A description of the kingdom written in 1699, notes that it occupied discontinuous areas along the coast. It probably did not include a number of settlements of English traders. Although English accounts refer as well to various noble titles, Miskito social structure does not appear to have been particularly stratified. The 1699 description noted that people holding titles such as "king" and "governor" were only empowered as war leaders, and did not have the last word in judicial disputes. Otherwise, the author saw the population as living in an egalitarian state.
M. W. mentioned titled officers in his account of 1699, but later sources define these superior offices to include the king, a governor, and a general. In the early 18th century, the Miskito kingdom became organized into four distinct clusters of population, centered on the banks of the navigable rivers. They were integrated into a single if loosely structured political entity. The northern portions were dominated by Sambus and the southern ones by Tawira Miskitos. The king, whose domain lay from the Wanks River south to the Rio Kukalaya, including the king's residence near Sandy Bay, was a Sambu, as was the general, who ruled the northern portions of the kingdom, from the Wanks River to nearly Trujillo. The Governor, who was a Tawira, controlled the southern regions, from the Cucalaya River to Pearl Key Lagoon. In the later 18th century (post 1766), another title, Admiral, was recorded; this man was also a Tawira, controlling a region on the extreme south from Pearl Key Lagoon down to around Bluefields.
British settlement
The Miskito king Edward I and the British concluded a formal Treaty of Friendship and Alliance in 1740, and Robert Hodgson, Senior was appointed as Superintendent of the Shore. The language of the treaty includes what amounts to a surrender of sovereignty, and is often taken by historians as an indication that a British protectorate was established over the Miskito Kingdom.
Britain's primary motive and the most immediate result of the treaty was to secure an alliance between the Miskito and British for the War of Jenkins' Ear, and the Miskito and British cooperated in attacks on Spanish settlements during the war. The most notable being the Raid on Matina in August by 1747 – the main fort (Fuerte de San Fernando de Matina) was captured and the cacao rich area was subsequently ravaged. This military cooperation would prove important as Miskito forces were vital to protecting not only British interests in the Miskito Kingdom but also for British holdings in British Honduras (now Belize).
A more lasting result of this formal relation was that Edward I and other Miskito rulers who followed him allowed the British to establish settlements and plantations within his realm, and issued the first land grants to this effect in 1742. British settlement concentrated especially in the Black River area, Cape Gracias a Dios, and Bluefields. The British plantation owners used their estates to grow some export crops and as bases for the exploitation of timber resources, especially mahogany. Most of the labor on the estates was supplied by African slaves and by indigenous slaves captured in Miskito and British raids into Spanish territory. By 1786, there were several hundred British residents on the shore and several thousand slaves, mostly African.
The Miskito kings received regular gifts from the British in the form of weapons and consumer goods, and provided security against slave revolts and capturing runaways.
British evacuation
Spain, which claimed the territory, suffered considerably from the Miskito attacks which continued during peacetime. When the American Revolutionary War broke out, Spanish forces attempted to eliminate the British presence, seizing the settlement at Black River, and driving British settlers from the isle of Roatán; however, this ultimately failed when armed settlers led by the Anglo-Irish soldier Edward Despard retook the settlements.
Although Spain had been unable to drive the British from the coast or occupy any position, in the course of the diplomatic negotiations following the war, Britain found itself making concessions to Spain. In the 1786 Convention of London, Britain agreed to evacuate British settlers and their slaves from the Mosquito Coast to their as yet informal colony in what was to become British Honduras; later treaties recognized Britain's commercial, but never territorial rights in the region. Some of the settlers and their slaves remained after they swore loyalty to the King of Spain, especially in Bluefields.
Spanish interlude
Government reorganization and Spanish settlement
The Mosquito Coast was initially annexed (or from the Spanish point of view, re-annexed) to the Captaincy General of Guatemala. Since the beginning, however, poor land communication with Guatemala City made easier for the Miskito elites to sail to Cartagena de Indias and swear fealty to Spain before the Viceroy of New Granada instead. Viceroy Francisco Gil de Taboada even suggested that government over the Mosquito Coast should be transferred to Havana, Cuba, mirroring the long-standing relation that the Mosquito Kingdom had earlier with British Jamaica, but this idea was rejected by the Spanish Crown. Guatemala protested the perceived unruliness of the Spanish appointed governor at Bluefields, who was none other but a former British Superintendent of the Mosquito Coast who had sworn recent fealty to Spain, Robert Hodgson Jr., but his loyalty and good work were defended by the New Granadan Viceroy José Manuel de Ezpeleta, who succeeded Taboada in 1789 and considered that Hodgson's influence among the Miskito was vital to avoid a revolt. Hodgson Jr. was the son of Robert Hodgson Sr., the first British appointed Superintendent in 1749–1759, and he had occupied himself this post from 1767 to 1775, when his political enemies persuaded Lord George Germain to replace him with James Lawrie, the last British Superintendent before the evacuation and a declared adversary of Hodgson.
The Spanish hoped to win over support of the Miskito elite by offering presents like the British had and educating their youth in Guatemala, as many Miskito had been educated previously in Jamaica. Catholic missionaries also travelled to the Coast with the aim of converting the native population in this period. The acceptance of the new order was unequal and often influenced by the underlying tensions within the own Miskito elites, divided between the northern regions controlled by the Sambu, loyal to King George II Frederic who remained himself friendly to the British, and the Tawira southerners aligned with Admiral Briton, who developed closer ties with Spain and adopted the name Don Carlos Antonio Castilla after his own conversion.
The Spanish also sought to occupy the positions formerly held by British settlers with their own colonists. Beginning in 1787, around 1,200 settlers were brought in from the Iberian Peninsula and the Canary Islands. They settled in Sandy Bay, Cape Gracias a Dios and Black River, but not in the new capital Bluefields.
Miskito revolt
The new colony suffered setbacks as a result of many of the settlers dying en route and the Miskito Crown showing its dissatisfaction with the gifts offered by the Spanish. The Miskito resumed trade with Jamaica and, when news of another Anglo-Spanish War arrived in 1797, George II raised an army to attack Bluefields, deposing Hodgson, and drove the Spanish out of the kingdom on September 4, 1800. However, the king died suddenly in 1801. According to British George Henderson, who visited the Mosquito Coast in 1804, many in the kingdom believed that George II had been poisoned by his brother Stephen as part of a deal with the Spanish. In order to prevent Stephen from seizing power for himself, General Robinson spirited George II's young heir George Frederic Augustus I to Jamaica by way of Belize and established a regency in his name.
With Spanish power over the Mosquito Coast vanished and British influence rapidly returning, the Captaincy General of Guatemala sought full control of the shore from Spain. The Colombian Ricardo S. Pereira, writing in 1883, considered this act a miscalculation on the part of the Real Audiencia of Guatemala, and if they had simply raised an army and marched on the Mosquito Coast, nobody would have questioned that the area was part of the Captaincy General once Spanish power was fully restored. Instead, the Spanish government heeded the old advice exposed by Gil de Taboada and Ezpeleta, and decided against Guatemala's request on November 30, 1803, reaffirming the control of the Viceroyalty of New Granada over the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina (used by New Granadan coast guards as a base against British privateers, often coming from the Mosquito Coast itself), and transferring sovereignty of the Mosquito Coast over to New Granada and considering the area a dependency of San Andrés. While Spanish rule was never restored over the Mosquito Coast (instead, the British occupied the Archipelago itself in 1806 during the course of the war against Spain), the Royal Decree of 1803 became the reason for territorial disputes between the United Provinces of Central America and Gran Colombia after Latin American independence, and between Nicaragua and Colombia for the rest of the 19th century.
In the meantime George II's brother Stephen made some overtures to Spain, who reciprocated by calling Stephen king and giving him the traditional gifts (albeit less frequently than to George II), but he later changed allegiances and raided Spanish held territory. In 1815, Stephen, styling himself "King Regent [...] of the Shore", and 33 other Miskito notables gave their "consent, assent, and declaration to, for, and of" George Frederic Augustus I as their "Sovereign King". His coronation in Belize on January 16, 1816, in a deliberate move to secure British support, marked the end of the regency. Meanwhile, Spain lost rule over New Granada in 1819 and over Central America in 1821, when the First Mexican Empire was proclaimed.
Renewed British presence
As internecine conflicts seized both Gran Colombia and Central America post-independence, the potential of any regional power to threaten the Miskito kingdom declined. Miskito Kings renewed their alliance with Great Britain, which in 1801 had merged with Ireland to form the United Kingdom, and Belize replaced Jamaica as the principal British connection to the kingdom. George Frederic Augustus I's 1816 coronation in Belize was imitated by his successor Robert Charles Frederic in 1845.
Economic expansion
The Miskito kings allowed the settlement of foreigners in their lands as long as their sovereignty was respected, opportunity that was seized by British merchants and Garifuna people from Trujillo, Honduras. Between 1820 and 1837 the Scottish con man Gregor MacGregor pretended to have been named "Cacique of Poyais" by George Frederic Augustus I and sold forged land rights to eager settlers and investors in Britain and France. Most settlers suffered from the lack of infrastructure and died from tropical diseases, MacGregor having led them to believe that the area was already developed and just in need of skilled workers. In the 1830s and 40s King Robert Charles Frederic also appointed small traders, notably William Hodgson and brothers Peter and Samuel Shepherd, as his agents to administer his claims to tribute and taxes from lands as far south as Panama.
At the same time, the mahogany trade peaked in Europe, but the supply in Belize, a main exporter, was becoming scarce. The Miskito Kingdom became an alternative source to Belize-based traders and wood cutting companies, who acquired concessions and land grants from Robert Charles Frederic. In 1837, Britain formally recognized the Mosquito Kingdom as an independent state, and took diplomatic measures to prevent the new nations that left the imploding Federal Republic of Central America in 1838–1841 from interfering with the kingdom.
The expansion of the economy attracted and benefitted from the arrival of capital from the United States, and immigrants from the States, the West Indies, Europe, Syria and China. Especially abundant was the immigration of Afro-Caribbeans following the abolition of slavery in the British and French Caribbean in 1841, who settled mainly in and around Bluefields, merging with the descendants of the slaves that had not been evacuated in 1786 and giving origin to the Miskito Coast Creoles. Because of their greater knowledge of English, the Creoles soon became the workers most sought by foreign companies, occupying the intermediate levels in the businesses and relegating the native Miskitu to the worst paid occupations at the base.
In August 1841, a British ship, without knowledge of London, carried the Miskito King Robert Charles Frederic and the British Governor of Belize, Alexander MacDonald, to occupy Nicaragua's only Caribbean port in San Juan del Norte, placed at the mouth of the San Juan River and likely endpoint of a possible future transoceanic canal through Nicaragua, and claimed it for the Mosquito Kingdom. The commander of the port was kidnapped and abandoned in a deserted beach, and the civilian population was told to leave the place by March 1842. The Nicaraguan government protested and the British did not carry on the threatened evacuation of the port, but neither did they take action against MacDonald for the incident.
Second British protectorate and American opposition
In 1844, the British government declared a new protectorate over the Mosquito Kingdom and appointed a consul-general of the Mosquito Coast, Patrick Walker with seat in Bluefields. The proclamation was motivated by the state of anarchy in the Mosquito Kingdom after the death of Robert Charles Frederic, but also by the impending American annexation of Texas and the British desire to build a canal through Central America before the United States did.
The protectorate was claimed to extend from Cape Honduras in the north to the mouth of the San Juan River in the south, including San Juan del Norte. Nicaragua protested again and sent forces to San Juan del Norte, which the Miskito King George Augustus Frederic II replied to with an ultimatum demanding all Nicaraguan forces to leave before January 1, 1848. Nicaragua appealed to the United States, but the Americans, then at war with Mexico, did not answer. After the ultimatum expired, Miskito-British forces led by the King and Patrick Walker, and backed by two British warships, seized San Juan del Norte. They also destroyed Serapaqui, where the British prisoners captured during the first attempt on San Juan del Norte were interned, and advanced to Lake Nicaragua, during which Walker drowned. On March 7 Nicaragua signed a peace treaty where it ceded San Juan del Norte to the Mosquito Kingdom, who renamed it Greytown after Charles Edward Grey, governor of Jamaica.
With the Mexican–American War concluded, the new US delegate in Central America, E. G. Squier, tried to get Nicaragua, El Salvador and Honduras to form a common front against the British, who were now threatening to annex Tiger Island (El Tigre) in Honduras' Pacific coast. After British and American forces nearly clashed in El Tigre, both governments reprimanded the commanders of their forces there and concluded the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty on April 18, 1850. In this document the two powers pledged themselves to guarantee the neutrality and equal use of the proposed canal, and to not "occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito Coast or any part of Central America", nor make use of any protectorate or alliance, present or future, to such ends.
The United States assumed that this meant the immediate British evacuation of the Mosquito Coast, while the British argued that it only bound them to not expand further in Central America and that both the 1844 protectorate and the 1848 peace treaty were still valid. On November 21, the American steamer Prometheus was fired upon by a British warship for not paying port tariffs at Greytown. One of the passengers was Cornelius Vanderbilt, business magnate and one of the richest people in the United States. The British government apologized after the United States sent two armed sloops to the area.
More incidents happened in the following years. In 1852, Britain occupied the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras and rebuffed the American protests claiming that they had been part of Belize before the treaty. The American representative in Nicaragua, Solon Borland, considered the treaty breached and argued openly for the US annexation of Nicaragua and the rest of Central America, for which he was forced to resign. In 1853, the buildings of the US-owned Accessory Transit Company in Greytown were looted and destroyed by the locals. In 1854, an American steamer captain killed a Greytown Creole, and Borland, who had remained in Greytown after his resignation, stopped the arrest for murder by threatening the marshal and his men with a rifle, arguing that they had no power to arrest an American citizen. Though he held no office, Borland ordered 50 American passengers bound for New York to remain on land and "protect US interests" while he sailed to the United States for help. In an example of gunboat diplomacy, the Americans sent then the and demanded 24,000 dollars in damages, an apology and a pledge of good behavior in the future. When the terms weren't met, the crew bombarded Greytown, then landed and burnt the town to the ground. Damage was extensive but no one was killed. With its attention seized by the ongoing Crimean War and the firm opposition of Britain's merchant class to a war with the United States, the British government only protested and demanded an apology that was never received.
By 1859 British opinion was no longer supportive of their nation's presence in the Mosquito Coast. The British government returned the Bay Islands and ceded the northern part of the Mosquito Coast to Honduras, negotiating with Guatemala to enlarge the British territory in Belize as compensation. The next year, Britain signed the Treaty of Managua, ceding the rest of the Mosquito Coast to Nicaragua.
Arrival of the Moravian Church
In the 1840s, two British citizens who travelled Europe advertising the sale of land in Cabo Gracias a Dios attracted the interest of Prince Charles of Prussia. Charles' first plan was to establish a Prussian settlement in the area and sent three German merchants to study this possibility on the ground. Their dictamen was against colonization, but their suggestion to evangelize the Mosquito Coast was taken up by the Prince of Schönburg-Waldenburg, who delegated the task in the Moravian Church. The first missionaries arrived in 1848 with a letter of recommendation from Lord Palmerston and began to work in 1849 in Bluefields, targeting the royal family and the Creoles before expanding to the rest of the Kingdom. In 1880, the mission saw a membership of 1,030 made up of mostly urban creoles. By 1890, the membership was 3,924 and made up of mostly Miskito and rural natives.
Treaty of Managua
Britain and Nicaragua signed the Treaty of Managua on January 28, 1860, which transferred suzerainty over the Caribbean coast between Cabo Gracias a Dios and Greytown to Nicaragua. Attempts to decide the sovereignty over the northern bank of the Wanks/Coco River which cuts Cabo Gracias a Dios in half, began in 1869, but would not be settled until ninety-one years later when the International Court of Justice decided in favor of Honduras.
The 1860 treaty also recognized that the Mosquito Kingdom, now reduced to the territory around Bluefields, would become an autonomous Miskito reserve. The municipal constitution of the reserve, signed on September 13, 1861, confirmed George Augustus Frederic II as ruler of the territory and its inhabitants, but only as hereditary chief and not king, a title that, along those of general, admiral and governor, was abolished; and that the hereditary chief would be advised by a council of 41 members elected for a period of eight years. The composition of this council was not limited to Miskito: instead, the first council included a number of Moravian missionaries and its first session started with an oration in this denomination. In compensation for his losses, George Augustus Frederic II would be paid £1000 yearly and until 1870 by the Nicaraguan government.
The death of George Augustus Frederic II in 1865, after only half that time had passed, led to a dispute between Nicaragua and the reserve's government. As indicated in its name, the position of hereditary chief was not completely elective like the title of King that preceded it, but had to be occupied by a member of George Augustus Frederic II's lineage of full Miskito ancestry. The council argued that none of George Augustus Frederic II's wives was Miskito and that none of their children was eligible as a result. The election of William Henry Clarence as new chief, George Augustus Frederic II's nephew by his second sister, was not recognized by Nicaragua. William Henry Clarence asked for support to Great Britain, accusing Nicaragua of not abiding to the terms of the 1860 treaty and threatening the Miskitu's autonomy, and complaining both about increasing Nicaraguan immigration and the political instability in Nicaragua proper, which threatened the peace within the reserve.
In 1881, Nicaragua and Britain agreed to subject the most disputed points of the 1860 treaty to the arbitration of the Emperor Francis Joseph I of Austria-Hungary. His decision, released on June 2, agreed largely with the interests of the Miskito—and by extension, the British. The arbitration decided that:
Sovereignty over the Mosquito Coast belonged to Nicaragua, but it was largely limited by the autonomy of the Miskito, as recognized in the 1860 treaty.
Nicaragua had the right to fly its flag in any part of the Mosquito Coast.
Nicaragua could maintain a Commissioner on the Mosquito Coast to defend her national interests.
The Miskito could also fly their own flag on the Mosquito Coast, so long as said flag included some sign of Nicaraguan suzerainty. A compromise was reached by using the flag used during the British protectorate (designed by Patrick Walker), but with the Union Flag on the canton replaced by the flag of Nicaragua.
Nicaragua could not make concessions to the exploitation of natural resources in the Mosquito Coast. That right alone corresponded to the Miskito government.
Nicaragua could not regulate the Miskito's trade, nor tax importations to or exportations from the Mosquito Coast.
Nicaragua had to pay the money overdue to the Miskito king.
Nicaragua could not limit the goods imported or exported through the port of San Juan del Norte (Greytown), unless these goods went to or came from Nicaraguan territory outside the reserve.
From 1883, the land and capital in the reserve began to be agglutinated by an increasingly small number of US citizens.
Annexation to Nicaragua
When in 1894, Rigoberto Cabezas led a campaign to annex the reserve, natives responded with vigorous protest, an appeal to Britain to protect them, and more militant resistance – to little avail. The situation was such that, from July 6 to August 7, the US occupied Bluefields to 'protect US interests'. After enjoying almost complete autonomy for fourteen years, on 20 November 1894 their territory formally became incorporated into that of the republic of Nicaragua by Nicaraguan president José Santos Zelaya. The former Mosquito Coast was established as the Nicaraguan department of Zelaya. During the 1980s, the department was dissolved and substituted by the North Atlantic Autonomous Region (RAAN) and South Atlantic Autonomous Region (RAAS), autonomous regions with a certain degree of self-government. Those regions were renamed the North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region (RACCN) and the South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region (RACCS) in 2014.
Miskito under Nicaragua
The Miskito continued to enjoy a certain autonomy under Nicaragua, though there was considerable tension between the claims of the government and those of the indigenous people. This tension was expressed openly during Sandinista rule, which sought greater state control. The Miskito were strong supporters of U.S. efforts to undermine the Sandinistas and were important allies of the Contras.
Miskito separatism
Miskito dissidents declared the independence of the unrecognized Communitarian Nation of Moskitia in 2009. The movement is led by Reverend Hector Williams, who was elected as "Wihta Tara" (Great Judge) of Moskitia by the Council of Elders, its governing body composed of traditional leaders from within the Miskito community. The council advocates for independence and has considered a referendum, seeking international recognition. It also addresses the needs of the impoverished Moskitian communities, such as drug addiction among youth as the coast is slowly gaining influence as a corridor for drug trafficking. However, the allure of possible Narco funding might be a tempting method of supporting independence should the movement find no support.
The movement was backed by a 400-man "indigenous army" made up of veterans of the contras, which captured the YAMATA party headquarters in 2009.
Miskito Kings
c. 1650–c. 1687 Oldman
c. 1687–1718 Jeremy I
1718–1729 H.M. Jeremy II
1729–1739 H.M. Peter I
1739–1755 H.M. Edward I
1755–1776 H.M. George I
1776–1801 H.M. George II Frederic
1801–1824 H.M. George Frederic Augustus I
1824–1842 H.M. Robert Charles Frederic
1842–1865 H.M. George Augustus Frederic II
1865–1879 H.E. William Henry Clarence, Hereditary Chief of Miskito
1879–1888 H.E. George William Albert Hendy, Hereditary Chief of Miskito
1888–1889 H.E. Andrew Hendy, Hereditary Chief of Miskito
1889–1890 H.E. Jonathan Charles Frederick, Hereditary Chief of Miskito
1890–1908 H.E. Robert Henry Clarence, Hereditary Chief of Miskito
Inhabitants
The Mosquito Coast was a sparsely populated territory.
Today, what used to be the Miskito Coast of Nicaragua has a population of 400,000 inhabitants, consisting of 57% Miskito, 22% Creoles (Afro-Europeans), 15% Ladinos, 4% Sumu (Amerindian), 1% Garifuna (Afro-Indians), 0.5% Chinese and 0.5% Rama (Amerindian).
Religion
Anglicanism and the Moravian Church gained a significant following in the Mosquito Coast.
Early history of the Mosquito Coast also saw minor involvement from the Puritans.
Popular culture
W. Douglas Burden describes an expedition in search of a silver mine along the coast. The relevant chapters are "an Outlandish Land" and "Blake's Story" in Look to the Wilderness.
See also
Garifuna people
Miskito
La Mosquitia
The Mosquito Coast - a 1986 US movie
Footnotes
Sources and references
Internet resources
https://web.archive.org/web/20050506032019/http://www.flag.de/FOTW/flags/ni-mc.html – Mosquito Coast flag
Printed sources
Cwik, Christian; Displaced minorities: The Wayuu and Miskito people, in: The Palgrave Handbook of Ethnicity, Ed.: Steven Ratuva. (London, New York, Singapure, Palgrave Macmillan 2019) url=http://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-981-130242-8_117-1
Dozier, Craig; Nicaragua's Mosquito Shore: The Years of British and American Presence, University of Alabama Press, 1985
Floyd, Troy S.; The Anglo-Spanish Struggle for Mosquitia, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque (NM), 1967
Ibarra Rojas, Eugenia; Del arco y la flecha a las armas de fuego. Los indios mosquitos y la historia centroamericana, Editorial Universidad de Costa Rica, San Jose, 2011
Naylor, Robert A.; Penny Ante Imperialism: The Mosquito Shore and the Bay of Honduras, 1600–1914: A Case Study in British Informal Empire, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, London, 1989
Olien, Michael; The Miskito Kings and the Line of Succession, Journal of Anthropological Research, vol. 39, no. 2, 1983, pp. 198–241
Olien, Michael; Micro/Macro-Level Linkages: Regional Political Structure on the Mosquito Coast, 1845–1864, Ethnohistory, vol. 34, no. 3, 1987, pp. 256–287
Olien, Michael; General, Governor and Admiral: Three Miskito Lines of Succession, Ethnohistory, vol. 45, no. 2, 1998, pp. 278–318
Potthast, Barbara; Die Mosquitoküste im Spannungsfeld Britischer und Spanischer Politik, 1502–1821, Bölau., Cologne, 1988
Romero Vargas, Germán; Las Sociedades del Atlántico de Nicaragua en los siglos XVII y XVIII, Banco Nicaraguënse, Managua, 1995
Geography of Honduras
Geography of Nicaragua
Colonial Central America
History of Honduras
History of Nicaragua
Former English colonies
Former Spanish colonies
Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas
Former colonies in North America
Regions of Central America
History of the British West Indies
17th century in Central America
18th century in Central America
19th century in Honduras
19th century in Nicaragua
Former monarchies of North America
States and territories established in 1638
States and territories disestablished in 1894
1638 establishments in North America
1860 disestablishments in North America
1638 establishments in the British Empire
1787 disestablishments in the British Empire
1787 establishments in New Spain
1819 disestablishments in New Spain
1844 establishments in the British Empire
1860 disestablishments in the British Empire
19th-century disestablishments in Central America
United Kingdom–United States relations
1894 disestablishments in North America
|
[
0.13889263570308685,
-0.3560415208339691,
0.03670966997742653,
0.11238428205251694,
0.15457387268543243,
-0.025462105870246887,
0.016586504876613617,
0.6683500409126282,
-0.2713092565536499,
-0.2824985682964325,
-0.05143751576542854,
0.5192508697509766,
-0.18258671462535858,
0.6807593703269958,
-0.6354822516441345,
0.7599194049835205,
0.07878708839416504,
0.45979487895965576,
0.20676660537719727,
-0.25288859009742737,
-0.6284335851669312,
-0.018996043130755424,
-0.14823263883590698,
0.2743726074695587,
0.6474694013595581,
-0.24565260112285614,
0.05471552163362503,
-0.01468233484774828,
0.2869803309440613,
0.1272900253534317,
0.16381782293319702,
0.44297656416893005,
-0.5479856133460999,
-0.15603481233119965,
-0.09948642551898956,
-0.31404486298561096,
-0.5428227186203003,
-0.16196192800998688,
-0.5822267532348633,
-0.44733816385269165,
-0.6963135600090027,
-0.14041990041732788,
0.608415961265564,
0.14372670650482178,
0.2424013614654541,
0.13720370829105377,
-1.0108689069747925,
0.15396496653556824,
-0.2686934471130371,
-0.08882708847522736,
-0.8348215818405151,
0.7102686762809753,
-0.20779864490032196,
0.06671594083309174,
0.02740122564136982,
0.2223399430513382,
-0.7018824219703674,
-0.06131981313228607,
0.24099108576774597,
-0.3603943884372711,
0.5814834237098694,
0.36203479766845703,
-0.3365151286125183,
0.5576671361923218,
-0.18617379665374756,
0.2334286868572235,
0.24492643773555756,
0.37127968668937683,
-0.15853683650493622,
-0.7585468292236328,
-0.15559574961662292,
0.33672815561294556,
-0.05337129533290863,
-0.2465047836303711,
-0.4564138650894165,
-0.2834930717945099,
-0.5941566228866577,
-0.2355685979127884,
-0.055115170776844025,
0.6929924488067627,
0.017050744965672493,
-0.15546591579914093,
0.3607088029384613,
-0.6175470948219299,
0.24830912053585052,
-0.0662154033780098,
0.07403304427862167,
0.31238025426864624,
-0.41330015659332275,
0.3012833893299103,
-0.05842902883887291,
0.2541619539260864,
0.2883566617965698,
-0.42071670293807983,
0.11003821343183517,
-0.41245099902153015,
0.2329876869916916,
0.25135836005210876,
-0.23986844718456268,
0.43096616864204407,
-0.7918062210083008,
0.4284975528717041,
0.34183546900749207,
0.2470904141664505,
-0.7924757599830627,
0.3581995964050293,
0.12118445336818695,
0.5711981654167175,
-0.052622780203819275,
0.13874605298042297,
0.029873143881559372,
0.0999969094991684,
0.17834994196891785,
0.3054703176021576,
-0.13670675456523895,
0.13632091879844666,
-0.11053698509931564,
0.03550802543759346,
0.2416052371263504,
-0.3012654483318329,
0.33141323924064636,
0.6615691184997559,
-0.49637672305107117,
-0.3684123456478119,
0.16257689893245697,
0.08402597904205322,
0.19013282656669617,
-0.46647098660469055,
-0.5379710793495178,
0.13176217675209045,
0.4491705000400543,
0.8286079168319702,
-0.08234769105911255,
0.18694591522216797,
0.16088958084583282,
0.11620877683162689,
0.030583862215280533,
0.3534111976623535,
0.34345701336860657,
-0.03835292160511017,
-0.8630495667457581,
-0.3818569481372833,
-1.089396357536316,
-0.007022066041827202,
0.061457566916942596,
-0.6252704858779907,
0.20414847135543823,
-0.765969455242157,
0.08735454827547073,
-0.5161705613136292,
-0.01194590050727129,
0.05414152517914772,
0.14663055539131165,
-0.08408748358488083,
0.123665951192379,
-0.0885428786277771,
0.2703160047531128,
-0.24167639017105103,
0.5312957763671875,
0.02969297207891941,
-0.31423136591911316,
0.5790432095527649,
0.43072566390037537,
0.08745358139276505,
-0.18866807222366333,
-0.05078935995697975,
0.31460824608802795,
0.43692052364349365,
0.463379830121994,
0.2113761156797409,
-0.34446266293525696,
0.12469372153282166,
0.4499899446964264,
-0.2334802746772766,
-0.6357153058052063,
-0.12149849534034729,
0.5705423951148987,
-0.15664571523666382,
-0.09403957426548004,
-0.17389288544654846,
-0.6080776453018188,
0.7543573975563049,
-0.23235519230365753,
0.29637137055397034,
-0.4329344928264618,
0.045559268444776535,
0.3698943555355072,
0.15659891068935394,
-0.39335402846336365,
-0.09624728560447693,
-0.04139462485909462,
-0.1263420283794403,
0.3564303517341614,
-0.14200451970100403,
0.743247926235199,
0.5402846932411194,
-0.11545473337173462,
0.8386894464492798,
0.1702500730752945,
0.47774776816368103,
-0.31524842977523804,
-0.05126295983791351,
0.43678274750709534,
-0.08296303451061249,
-0.8906334042549133,
0.019769323989748955,
-0.23730577528476715,
0.39017000794410706,
0.44522321224212646,
0.3297234773635864,
-0.4312035143375397,
0.10635291039943695,
0.15177792310714722,
-0.21382050216197968,
0.022726932540535927,
-0.7288879156112671,
0.035687047988176346,
-0.1666380763053894,
0.20671962201595306,
-0.5320901274681091,
-0.00754915177822113,
-0.5064026713371277,
-0.2654685974121094,
0.4690698981285095,
0.4258883595466614,
0.382937490940094,
0.06030524522066116,
0.18294382095336914,
0.6329097747802734,
-0.6113799810409546,
-0.31901007890701294,
-0.15015125274658203,
0.6055415272712708,
-0.5160559415817261,
-0.23261752724647522,
0.1578236073255539,
-0.041354574263095856,
-0.8077561259269714,
-0.17480191588401794,
-0.007893839851021767,
0.0937998965382576,
-0.32397574186325073,
-0.41293755173683167,
0.569629967212677,
0.0747094452381134,
0.17027540504932404,
0.21206524968147278,
0.07717948406934738,
-0.32795360684394836,
0.19854135811328888,
0.11270082741975784,
0.672255277633667,
0.17157502472400665,
0.0845131203532219,
0.44912266731262207,
0.06522269546985626,
-0.15333375334739685,
-0.3545505106449127,
0.6373589038848877,
-0.20286300778388977,
-0.023932920768857002,
0.39989328384399414,
-0.1692652702331543,
0.7188138365745544,
0.3545975685119629,
-0.4889586865901947,
-0.020839035511016846,
-0.46700188517570496,
-0.21547546982765198,
0.042777806520462036,
0.08958853036165237,
0.2451312392950058,
-0.2756408154964447,
-0.2362925261259079,
-0.23367655277252197,
-0.469647079706192,
0.4100484549999237,
-0.41705089807510376,
-0.3815946877002716,
-0.034657638520002365,
0.21677370369434357,
0.009827008470892906,
-0.16281375288963318,
-0.8940276503562927,
-0.27402520179748535,
-0.8261697888374329,
-0.010503893718123436,
-0.17773643136024475,
-0.34886908531188965,
0.4606075584888458,
-0.599236011505127,
-0.3039781451225281,
-0.1602577120065689,
1.052164077758789,
-0.7807936668395996,
-0.18790218234062195,
-0.019173985347151756,
-0.326406329870224,
0.707675039768219,
-0.8487445116043091,
-0.6578219532966614,
0.49960413575172424,
-0.8274070620536804,
-0.17147858440876007,
0.14526914060115814,
0.05157501995563507,
-0.42944324016571045,
0.2706279754638672,
-5.806175708770752,
0.5602041482925415,
-0.08833807706832886,
-0.13261692225933075,
-0.3184432089328766,
-0.07364851981401443,
0.32588544487953186,
0.20662640035152435,
0.21368779242038727,
-0.05625419691205025,
0.42866089940071106,
0.1118655800819397,
-0.2221507579088211,
0.21858318150043488,
0.44007813930511475,
0.5112254619598389,
0.28360244631767273,
0.10844118893146515,
-0.1730460673570633,
-0.11095089465379715,
-0.5665466785430908,
0.38628697395324707,
0.15506960451602936,
0.3054468631744385,
0.04645979776978493,
0.30198296904563904,
-0.22512026131153107,
-0.08780238777399063,
-1.082345962524414,
-0.015470456331968307,
-0.4728054404258728,
0.023868607357144356,
0.33211749792099,
0.11601842194795609,
0.051082249730825424,
0.06716839969158173,
0.27477744221687317,
0.07734063267707825,
0.3403828740119934,
-0.2540971338748932,
-0.38608643412590027,
0.3520260751247406,
-0.3927871584892273,
0.09674228727817535,
-0.2723611295223236,
-0.13103680312633514,
0.0164115522056818,
-0.04487849399447441,
0.0984523668885231,
0.8841395378112793,
0.10113463550806046,
-0.17134827375411987,
0.20550744235515594,
0.017646318301558495,
0.3297467827796936,
-0.08100999891757965,
0.5178800225257874,
-0.8067951798439026,
-1.103395938873291,
0.5109401941299438,
0.38803553581237793,
-0.2117895781993866,
-0.2687641680240631,
0.08440177887678146,
0.8064114451408386,
-0.3239980638027191,
-0.4634741544723511,
-0.3477807343006134,
0.6474773287773132,
-0.13572800159454346,
0.3041800558567047,
-0.09952142089605331,
-0.3484427034854889,
-0.602948009967804,
-0.3348284959793091,
-0.22573861479759216,
-0.5017008185386658,
-0.2693920135498047,
0.2838599681854248,
-0.4572497010231018,
-0.09542150795459747,
0.25034087896347046,
-0.2371862232685089,
0.11436901241540909,
-0.46590456366539,
-0.6967954635620117,
0.15528015792369843,
0.3753781020641327,
-0.06397393345832825,
0.28956446051597595,
0.44444626569747925,
0.18565461039543152,
0.5992870926856995,
-0.31044068932533264,
-0.16552668809890747,
0.6591088771820068,
-0.17539545893669128,
0.300942987203598,
0.2748548090457916,
-0.7901078462600708,
1.15473473072052,
-0.41912785172462463,
0.37190142273902893,
-0.27185508608818054,
-0.038511522114276886,
0.22305993735790253,
-0.0633188933134079,
0.041926059871912,
0.5824518203735352,
-0.39238181710243225,
-0.01007221732288599,
0.3128671646118164,
-0.1457172930240631,
0.12277857214212418,
0.3700047731399536,
-0.1830866038799286,
-0.27226021885871887,
0.6762333512306213,
0.9995072484016418,
0.04409594461321831,
0.3609144389629364,
-0.17041748762130737,
-0.5779522061347961,
0.4035286009311676,
0.04139544069766998,
0.22773627936840057,
0.3789321482181549,
0.6428173184394836,
0.09534182399511337,
0.45399147272109985,
0.4104030132293701,
-0.6055592894554138,
0.4649878740310669,
-0.30035364627838135,
0.004230363294482231,
-0.2125636786222458,
-0.6509380340576172,
-1.2011971473693848,
0.10279764235019684,
-0.1570029854774475,
-0.5125781893730164,
-0.012352642603218555,
0.20434029400348663,
0.438061386346817,
0.5537949204444885,
0.2431425005197525,
-0.6484123468399048,
-0.7315536141395569,
-0.4986216723918915,
0.21622098982334137,
0.28826865553855896,
0.046530768275260925,
-0.05256573110818863,
-0.5250107645988464,
-0.2839897871017456,
-0.11741025745868683,
0.3933008015155792,
0.2761855125427246,
-0.14609257876873016,
-0.06079994514584541,
0.20441055297851562,
-0.18952897191047668,
-0.9211519956588745,
0.46145474910736084,
0.4297289550304413,
-0.22554713487625122,
-0.19969041645526886,
-0.15794485807418823,
0.18739467859268188,
0.5111786723136902,
0.6949419975280762,
-0.653925895690918,
-0.5827895998954773,
-0.20928139984607697,
0.3521387577056885,
0.13233080506324768,
-0.8127525448799133,
0.5788259506225586,
-0.1051502376794815,
-0.07892712950706482,
-0.5015741586685181,
-0.496236115694046,
-0.14572231471538544,
0.11317696422338486,
0.1112615093588829,
-0.18728671967983246,
-0.5707448124885559,
-0.19964343309402466,
-0.20928668975830078,
0.1525464504957199,
0.36750975251197815,
0.37599948048591614,
-0.04276355355978012,
0.3880670368671417,
-0.6717768907546997,
-0.2858349680900574,
-0.05369393900036812,
0.7594207525253296,
-0.09326082468032837,
0.033124860376119614,
-0.18779528141021729,
0.27514156699180603,
-0.5445600748062134,
0.5066114068031311,
-0.3584825396537781,
-0.141968235373497,
0.4138539731502533,
0.16008438169956207,
-0.822771430015564,
0.6746490001678467,
-0.5237508416175842,
-0.35064324736595154,
0.08947654813528061,
0.8643601536750793,
0.26405176520347595,
-0.029384493827819824,
-0.1139814704656601,
-0.3111635744571686,
-0.02604389376938343,
0.18863314390182495,
-0.0027664871886372566,
0.22898226976394653,
0.20749929547309875,
-0.1732010692358017,
-0.24971942603588104,
0.7400655746459961,
0.19195283949375153,
-0.8195775151252747,
0.4124670624732971,
-0.08373153954744339,
0.11539556831121445,
-0.5005687475204468,
0.35976454615592957,
0.30378538370132446,
-0.33712539076805115,
0.0826835110783577,
0.28236880898475647,
-0.2974250912666321,
0.8821383714675903,
0.6680529713630676,
0.9247393608093262,
0.6311805248260498,
-0.38540491461753845,
-0.29687339067459106,
0.5664611458778381,
0.443633109331131,
-0.2679581940174103,
-0.6468177437782288,
-0.6822439432144165,
0.4058014154434204,
0.12878070771694183,
-0.40504229068756104,
-0.4874321222305298,
0.22695788741111755,
0.6519225835800171,
-0.39318859577178955,
-0.040419965982437134,
0.27670130133628845,
-0.08264399319887161,
-0.19854708015918732,
0.30872923135757446,
0.07289072871208191,
0.017627669498324394,
0.06665382534265518,
0.16816332936286926,
-0.4910447895526886,
-0.1355583369731903,
0.049081530421972275,
0.24845083057880402,
-0.3209315240383148,
0.6164572238922119,
0.16813670098781586,
0.576740562915802,
0.2252139002084732,
0.10440055280923843,
0.2712525427341461,
0.24417835474014282,
-0.21691063046455383,
0.21784707903862,
-0.012803402729332447,
-0.8050211668014526,
-0.4568816125392914,
-0.1483166217803955,
-0.5329247117042542,
0.06711144745349884,
-0.2982195317745209,
-0.19496741890907288,
0.015446025878190994,
0.13614648580551147,
-0.40314528346061707,
0.2501548230648041,
-0.17164503037929535,
0.42290350794792175,
-0.3071277439594269,
-0.17913523316383362,
-0.09242573380470276,
-0.08165159076452255,
0.3851749897003174,
-0.20216664671897888,
0.10802485793828964,
-1.0553239583969116,
0.3451654016971588,
-0.37267592549324036,
-0.2637574076652527,
0.09631452709436417,
-0.60884028673172,
0.5452420115470886,
0.13511405885219574,
-0.617601752281189,
-0.2411019206047058,
0.22759214043617249,
0.4497608542442322,
0.06818703562021255,
0.40834277868270874,
-0.2539973258972168,
0.05156216770410538,
0.28459617495536804,
-0.12228783220052719,
0.6740644574165344,
0.5763770341873169,
0.48082852363586426,
0.08218473196029663,
-0.06516319513320923,
0.0773499384522438,
0.49997249245643616,
0.6186076402664185,
-0.5871296525001526,
-0.16927170753479004,
0.3594004213809967,
0.5887374877929688,
0.04890018329024315,
-0.4886517822742462,
-0.5286394953727722,
0.24769903719425201,
-0.5069481134414673,
-0.055607978254556656,
0.29818132519721985,
-0.49271777272224426,
-0.5709539651870728,
0.16133619844913483,
0.7574284672737122,
0.4360889792442322,
0.41111090779304504,
-0.11194910109043121,
0.1358230859041214,
-0.12814785540103912,
0.11275465041399002,
0.17258380353450775,
0.2877205014228821,
-0.7859610915184021,
0.6576979756355286,
-0.6288360953330994,
0.39385735988616943,
-0.1960354745388031,
0.34141725301742554,
-0.14664556086063385,
0.44279351830482483,
-0.25782451033592224,
-0.5186129808425903,
0.08047963678836823,
-0.4773097038269043,
-0.04279058426618576,
-0.1264970749616623,
0.09931468218564987,
-0.21018464863300323,
-0.14618626236915588,
0.5093653202056885,
-0.39787593483924866,
-0.26279401779174805,
0.3444201946258545,
0.5138046741485596,
0.0153426518663764,
0.08511310070753098,
-0.03971482813358307,
0.17113640904426575,
0.43103858828544617,
0.03546575829386711,
0.716115415096283,
0.19774828851222992,
0.1985851526260376,
-0.11679841578006744,
0.3886753022670746,
0.39914509654045105,
-0.38303813338279724,
-0.17300868034362793,
-0.4174404740333557,
-0.10327348858118057,
-0.2869489789009094,
-0.3638909161090851,
0.23545226454734802,
0.25035443902015686,
-0.4650845527648926,
-0.49014341831207275,
0.2777564227581024,
-0.5797699093818665,
0.17160828411579132,
-0.3357900083065033,
0.7072206735610962,
0.36523449420928955,
-0.3329373002052307,
-0.031015321612358093,
0.5167158246040344,
0.2721386253833771,
-0.06685233116149902,
-0.8637052178382874,
0.5658925771713257,
-0.4539896547794342,
0.28238776326179504,
-0.358871191740036,
0.43384990096092224,
-0.06714537739753723,
0.2286863774061203,
-0.21331654489040375,
0.28691351413726807,
-0.49553126096725464,
0.27786868810653687,
0.6987875699996948,
-0.32601526379585266,
0.1761385053396225,
-0.39238226413726807,
-0.057595301419496536,
-0.31577953696250916,
-0.3920726478099823,
0.22311902046203613,
0.38962098956108093,
-0.26337993144989014,
0.10120059549808502,
0.44453948736190796,
-0.5235563516616821,
0.6116079092025757,
0.14060574769973755,
-0.31190231442451477,
-0.5604458451271057,
0.24254624545574188,
-0.43248477578163147,
-0.8021479845046997,
0.18510229885578156,
0.37746894359588623,
0.4000689387321472,
-0.07402008026838303,
0.6187910437583923,
-0.39943361282348633,
0.19702982902526855,
-0.39509665966033936,
-0.004320819862186909,
-0.33884868025779724,
0.22600336372852325,
0.07833811640739441,
-0.7422828674316406,
0.35691964626312256,
-0.07358760386705399,
-0.26549041271209717,
-0.0564599484205246,
0.12402410060167313,
-0.02552834153175354,
-0.23694269359111786,
0.09121326357126236,
-0.7158801555633545,
-0.025687601417303085,
0.19875159859657288
] |
213072
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amory%20Lovins
|
Amory Lovins
|
Amory Bloch Lovins (born November 13, 1947) is an American writer, physicist, and former chairman/chief scientist of the Rocky Mountain Institute. He has written on energy policy and related areas for four decades, and served on the US National Petroleum Council, an oil industry lobbying group, from 2011 to 2018.
Lovins has promoted energy efficiency, the use of renewable energy sources, and the generation of energy at or near the site where the energy is actually used. Lovins has also advocated a "negawatt revolution" arguing that utility customers don't want kilowatt-hours of electricity; they want energy services. In the 1990s, his work with Rocky Mountain Institute included the design of an ultra-efficient automobile, the Hypercar. He has provided expert testimony and published 31 books, including Reinventing Fire, Winning the Oil Endgame, Small is Profitable, Brittle Power, and Natural Capitalism.
Early life and education
Lovins was born in Washington, DC. His father, Gerald H. Lovins worked as an engineer and his mother, Miriam Lovins, worked as a social services administrator. Lovins is the brother of Julie Beth Lovins, a computational linguist who wrote the first stemming algorithm for word matching.
In 1964, Lovins entered Harvard College as a National Merit Scholar. After two years there, he transferred to Oxford. In 1969, he became a junior research fellow at Merton College, Oxford, as a result of which he had a temporary Oxford master of arts status. He left without a degree in 1971, because the university would not allow him to pursue a doctorate in energy. Lovins moved to London to pursue his energy work, and returned to the United States in 1981. He settled in western Colorado in 1982.
Work
Friends of the Earth
Each summer from 1965 to 1981, Lovins guided mountaineering trips and photographed the White Mountains of New Hampshire, contributing photographs to At Home in the Wild: New England's White Mountains. In 1971, he wrote about Wales' endangered Snowdonia National Park in the book, Eryri, the Mountains of Longing, commissioned by David Brower, president of Friends of the Earth. Lovins spent about a decade as British representative for Friends of the Earth.
During the early 1970s, Lovins became interested in resource policy, especially energy policy. The 1973 energy crisis helped create an audience for his writing and an essay originally penned as a U.N. paper grew into his first book concerned with energy, World Energy Strategies (1973). His next book was Non-Nuclear Futures: The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy (1975), co-authored with John H. Price.
Rocky Mountain Institute
By 1978, Lovins had published six books and consulted widely. In 1982, he and his wife, Hunter Lovins founded Rocky Mountain Institute, based in Snowmass, Colorado. Together with a group of colleagues, the Lovinses fostered efficient resource use and sustainable development.
Lovins clients have included many Fortune 500 companies, real-estate developers, and utilities. Public-sector clients have included the OECD, UN, Resources for the Future, many national governments, and 13 US states. Lovins served in 1980 and 1981 on the U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Research Advisory Board, and from 1999 to 2001 and 2006 to 2008 on Defense Science Board task forces on military energy efficiency and strategy. His visiting academic chairs most recently included a visiting professorship in Stanford University's School of Engineering.
Since 1982, RMI has grown into a broad-based "think-and-do tank" with more than 85 staff and an annual budget of some $13 million. RMI has spun off five for-profit companies.
Ideas
Soft energy paths
Amory Lovins published an article in Foreign Affairs called "Energy Strategy: The Road Not Taken?" in 1976. Lovins argued that the United States had arrived at an important crossroads and could take one of two paths. The first, supported by U.S. policy, promised a future of steadily increasing reliance on fossil fuels and nuclear fission, and had serious environmental risks. The alternative, which Lovins called "the soft path", favored "benign" sources of renewable energy like wind power and solar power, along with a heightened commitment to energy conservation and energy efficiency. In October 1977, The Atlantic ran a cover story on Lovins' ideas. Residential solar energy technologies are prime examples of soft energy technologies and rapid deployment of simple, energy conserving, residential solar energy technologies is fundamental to a soft energy strategy.
Lovins has described the "hard energy path" as involving inefficient energy use and centralized, non-renewable energy sources such as fossil fuels. He believes soft path impacts are more "gentle, pleasant and manageable" than hard path impacts. These impacts range from the individual and household level to those affecting the very fabric of society at the national and international level.
Lovins on the Soft Path is a documentary film made by Amory and Hunter Lovins. It received "Best Science and Technology Film, San Francisco International Film Festival, 1983; Blue Ribbon, American Film Festival, 1982; Best of the Festival, Environmental Education Film Festival, 1982; Best Energy Film, International Environmental Film Festival, 1982; and Chris Bronze Plaque, Columbus International Film Festival, 1982."
Nuclear power limitations
Lovins wrote that nuclear power plants are intermittent in that they will sometimes fail unexpectedly, often for long periods of time. For example, in the United States, 132 nuclear plants were built, and 21% were permanently and prematurely closed due to reliability or cost problems, while another 27% have at least once completely failed for a year or more. The remaining U.S. nuclear plants produce approximately 90% of their full-time full-load potential, but even they must shut down (on average) for about 1 out of each 18 months for scheduled refueling and maintenance. To cope with such intermittence by nuclear (and centralized fossil-fueled) power plants, utilities install a "reserve margin" of roughly 15% extra capacity spinning ready for instant use.
Lovins also argues that nuclear plants have an additional disadvantage: for safety, they must instantly shut down in a power failure, but due to the inherent nuclear-physics of the systems, they can't be restarted quickly. For example, during the Northeast Blackout of 2003, nine operating U.S. nuclear units had to shut down temporarily. During the first three days after restarting, their output was less than 3% of normal. After twelve days of restart, their average capacity loss had exceeded 50 percent.
Lovins provided his general assessment of nuclear power in a 2011 Huffington Post article, saying that "Nuclear power is the only energy source where mishap or malice can kill so many people so far away; the only one whose ingredients can help make and hide nuclear bombs; the only climate solution that substitutes proliferation, accident, and high-level radioactive waste dangers. Indeed, nuclear plants are so slow and costly to build that they reduce and retard climate protection". With respect to the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, Lovins wrote: "An earthquake-and-tsunami zone crowded with 127 million people is an unwise place for 54 reactors".
In terms of the UK, Amory Lovins commented in 2014 that:
Britain's plan for a fleet of new nuclear power stations is ... unbelievable ... It is economically daft. The guaranteed price [being offered to French state company EDF] is over seven times the unsubsidised price of new wind in the US, four or five times the unsubsidised price of new solar power in the US. Nuclear prices only go up. Renewable energy prices come down. There is absolutely no business case for nuclear. The British policy has nothing to do with economic or any other rational base for decision making.
Negawatt revolution
A negawatt is a unit in watts of power saved. It is basically the opposite of a watt. Amory Lovins has advocated a "negawatt revolution", arguing that utility customers don't want kilowatt-hours of electricity; they want energy services such as hot showers, cold beer, lit rooms, and spinning shafts, which can come more cheaply if electricity is used more efficiently.
According to Lovins, energy efficiency represents a profitable global market and American companies have at their disposal the technical innovations to lead the way. Not only should they "upgrade their plants and office buildings, but they should encourage the formation of negawatt markets". Lovins sees negawatt markets as a win-win solution to many environmental problems. Because it is "now generally cheaper to save fuel than to burn it, global warming, acid rain, and urban smog can be reduced not at a cost but at a profit".
Lovins explains that many companies are already enjoying the financial and other rewards that come from saving electricity. Yet progress in converting to electricity saving technologies has been slowed by the indifference or outright opposition of some utilities. A second obstacle to efficiency is that many electricity-using devices are purchased by people who won't be paying their running costs and thus have little incentive to consider efficiency. Lovins also believes that many customers "don't know what the best efficiency buys are, where to get them, or how to shop for them".
Hypercar
In 1994, Amory Lovins developed the design concept of the Hypercar. This vehicle would have ultra-light construction with an aerodynamic body using advanced composite materials, low-drag design, and hybrid drive. Designers of the Hypercar claim that it would achieve a three- to fivefold improvement in fuel economy, equal or better performance, safety, amenity, and affordability, compared with today's cars.
In 1999, RMI took this process a step further by launching a for-profit venture, Hypercar Inc. in which RMI has a minority interest. In 2004, Hypercar Inc. changed its name to Fiberforge to better reflect the company's new goal of lowering the cost of high-volume advanced-composite structures by leveraging the patents of David F. Taggart, one of the founders of Hypercar, Inc.
Lovins says the commercialisation of the Hypercar began in 2014, with the production of the all-carbon electric BMW i3 family and the 313 miles per gallon Volkswagen XL1.
Citizen participation
Lovins does not see his energy ideas as green or left-wing, and he is an advocate of private enterprise and free market economics. He notes that Rupert Murdoch has made News Corporation carbon-neutral, with savings of millions of dollars. But, says Lovins, large institutions are becoming more "gridlocked and moribund", and he supports the rise of "citizen organizations" around the world.
Paul Hawken's Blessed Unrest chronicles the rise of millions of non-profit citizen organizations around the world — the greatest social movement in history. As central institutions become more gridlocked and moribund, a new vitality is beginning to spread renewal through the stem to the flower.
Criticism
Institutions and energy specialists have criticized various positions taken by Amory Lovins. One of the main points of contention is the assumption by the RMI of a linear relation between improvements in energy efficiency and reductions in aggregate energy consumption. The Jevons Paradox suggests that improvements in energy efficiency actually lead to an increase in energy use, as a result of decreasing cost. This "rebound effect" is downplayed in the analyses performed by Lovins.
Other assumptions made by Lovins have also received criticism. For example, in Lovins' book, Reinventing Fire, it is assumed that 50% of all electricity in the US could come from wind in 2050. Other authors find that this is capped probably around 30%. Similar overestimates are identified in PV (solar), where estimates are made for about 30%; this is seen as implausible. Moreover, according to the authors, no analyses are given about the need for huge volumes of electricity storage, which would be needed when the sun doesn't shine and the wind doesn't blow.
Awards
Amory Lovins was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1984, of the World Academy of Art and Science in 1988, and of the World Business Academy in 2001. He has received the Right Livelihood Award, the Blue Planet Prize, Volvo Environment Prize, the 4th Annual Heinz Award in the Environment in 1998, and the National Design (Design Mind), Jean Meyer, and Lindbergh Awards.
Lovins is also the recipient of the Time Hero for the Planet awards, the Benjamin Franklin and Happold Medals, and the Shingo, Nissan, Mitchell, and Onassis Prizes. He received a MacArthur Fellowship in 1993, and is an honorary member of the American Institute of Architects (AIA), a Foreign Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences, and an Honorary Senior Fellow of the Design Futures Council. He is on the Advisory Board of the Holcim Foundation.
In 2009, Time magazine named Lovins as one of the world's 100 most influential people.
On March 17, 2016, Lovins received the Bundesverdienstkreuz 1. Klasse (Officer's Cross of the Order of Merit) from the Federal Republic of Germany for intellectually underpinning Germany's Energiewende, most notably with his concept of "soft energy" and how that promotes peace and prosperity.
Lovins was a senior Ashoka Fellow in 2009.
Personal life
In 1979 Amory Lovins married L. Hunter Sheldon, a lawyer, forester, and social scientist. They separated in 1989 and divorced in 1999. In 2007, he married Judy Hill, a fine-art landscape photographer.
Books
This is a list of books which are authored or co-authored by Amory B. Lovins:
Open pit Mining London : Earth Island, 1973. . 118 p.
World Energy Strategies: Facts, Issues, and Options London : Friends of the Earth Ltd. for Earth Resources Research Ltd., 1975. 131 p. .
Nuclear power: Technical Bases for Ethical Concern (1975, 2nd edition). 39 p.
The Energy Controversy: Soft Path Questions and Answers (1979)
Non-Nuclear Futures: The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy (with John H. Price) San Francisco, 1980. 223p.
Least-Cost Energy: Solving the CO2 Problem Andover, Mass. : Brick House Pub. Co., 1982 184p.
Brittle Power: Energy Strategy for National Security (with L Hunter Lovins) Andover, Mass. : Brick House, 1982 re-released in 2001. 486p.
The First Nuclear World War (with Patrick O'Heffernan; L Hunter Lovins) New York : Morrow, 1983. 444 p
Energy Unbound: A Fable for America's Future (with L Hunter Lovins; Seth Zuckerman) San Francisco : Sierra Club Books, 1986. 390 p
Reinventing Electric Utilities: Competition, Citizen Action, and Clean Power (1996)
Factor Four: Doubling Wealth – Halving Resource Use: A Report to the Club of Rome (1997)
Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution (2000)
Small is Profitable: The Hidden Economic Benefits of Making Electrical Resources the Right Size (2003)
The Natural Advantage Of Nations: Business Opportunities, Innovation And Governance in the 21st Century (2004)
Winning the Oil Endgame: Innovation for Profit, Jobs and Security (2005) (PDF)
Let the Mountains Talk, Let the Rivers Run: A Call to Save the Earth (2007)
Reinventing Fire: Bold Business Solutions for the New Energy Era (2011)
Non-English
Faktor vier. Doppelter Wohlstand – halbierter Verbrauch (1997)
Facteur 4 : deux fois plus de bien-être en consommant deux fois moins de ressources: Rapport au Club de Rome (1997)
Öko-Kapitalismus: Die industrielle Revolution des 21. Jahrhunderts (2002)
See also
Anti-nuclear movement in the United States
Benjamin K. Sovacool
Ecological modernization
Energy security and renewable technology
Hermann Scheer
Mark Z. Jacobson
Renewable energy policy
Renewable energy commercialization
References
External links
The Rocky Mountain Institute's home page
The frugal cornucopian
Congressional testimony on nuclear power
"A 40-year plan for energy" (TEDSalon NY2012)
"Winning the oil endgame" (TED2005)
A TV documentary series on Lovins produced by NHK
Amory Lovin's presentation to the Berlin Energy Transition Dialogue 2016, March 17–18, 2016
1947 births
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
American business writers
American environmentalists
American non-fiction environmental writers
21st-century American physicists
Appropriate technology advocates
Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford
Harvard College alumni
Living people
MacArthur Fellows
People associated with energy
Renewable energy commercialization
Sustainability advocates
American anti–nuclear power activists
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
|
[
0.08775259554386139,
0.933471143245697,
-0.2976437509059906,
-0.2163853794336319,
0.6867520213127136,
0.3269377648830414,
0.33933621644973755,
0.2146444171667099,
0.10864309221506119,
0.5474261045455933,
-0.49950575828552246,
0.3999985158443451,
-0.17600661516189575,
-0.27122029662132263,
-0.2678314447402954,
-0.15861880779266357,
-0.04054144397377968,
-0.25045230984687805,
-0.2870841920375824,
-0.16595879197120667,
0.050786834210157394,
-0.24296119809150696,
0.3105227053165436,
0.3454362750053406,
-0.35392487049102783,
0.579026997089386,
-0.09677763283252716,
-0.43255186080932617,
-0.22565315663814545,
0.091118723154068,
-0.326302170753479,
0.6517446041107178,
0.054386794567108154,
-0.40609660744667053,
-0.3870471715927124,
0.6293721199035645,
-0.22219468653202057,
0.3408815562725067,
-0.0853075459599495,
0.24382446706295013,
0.6622339487075806,
0.12754946947097778,
-0.29218199849128723,
-0.11211617290973663,
-0.5753448009490967,
-0.3163871467113495,
-1.42630934715271,
0.22645995020866394,
-0.7579375505447388,
-0.737926185131073,
-0.4807595908641815,
0.26837411522865295,
0.035610876977443695,
-0.24296073615550995,
0.2761392891407013,
0.10818355530500412,
-0.5308571457862854,
-0.28097063302993774,
0.11517338454723358,
-0.17643199861049652,
-0.0390431173145771,
0.2219248265028,
0.01275537721812725,
-0.4285377562046051,
-0.05431092530488968,
0.4089806377887726,
0.23690566420555115,
-0.15968787670135498,
0.20607547461986542,
-0.11004163324832916,
0.306522399187088,
0.4398552477359772,
-0.25816866755485535,
-0.1560267210006714,
0.37830546498298645,
-0.03494993597269058,
0.23324447870254517,
0.13922837376594543,
-0.23991607129573822,
0.432508647441864,
0.30172204971313477,
-0.008258839137852192,
0.9143983721733093,
-0.05015372112393379,
-0.05321098491549492,
0.01994149573147297,
-0.24241143465042114,
0.6448660492897034,
-0.36700043082237244,
0.07811117172241211,
-0.6101157069206238,
-0.3803361654281616,
0.33201685547828674,
0.22705571353435516,
0.29278790950775146,
-0.5184206366539001,
0.27960526943206787,
0.28258436918258667,
-0.01914709433913231,
-0.0901617631316185,
-0.2422814518213272,
0.18192878365516663,
0.1705424040555954,
-0.13652357459068298,
-0.020399626344442368,
0.31097403168678284,
-0.16674771904945374,
-0.3779877722263336,
-0.09831995517015457,
-0.39489099383354187,
-0.7048290371894836,
0.5357335805892944,
-0.06645719707012177,
-0.07359620183706284,
0.06664378941059113,
0.3434394299983978,
0.13256022334098816,
-0.6851902008056641,
-0.5101498961448669,
0.2862025797367096,
0.46196359395980835,
0.8559932112693787,
-0.15225090086460114,
0.241130530834198,
-0.048710934817790985,
0.15433311462402344,
-0.10511563718318939,
-0.06735724210739136,
-0.4757257401943207,
0.40170884132385254,
0.18709349632263184,
0.5883219838142395,
0.09496600925922394,
0.22686395049095154,
-0.2917041778564453,
0.11584820598363876,
0.20463110506534576,
-0.5359100699424744,
-0.07494664937257767,
0.8266461491584778,
-0.3417454659938812,
-0.35282811522483826,
-0.4416967034339905,
-0.16457690298557281,
0.22356541454792023,
-0.17727959156036377,
0.05923847854137421,
-0.38548749685287476,
0.21727648377418518,
0.1250283122062683,
-0.16501212120056152,
-0.03522375598549843,
-0.5197169780731201,
-0.5314815044403076,
0.09482298791408539,
0.48226088285446167,
0.6686690449714661,
0.7844696044921875,
0.27501150965690613,
-0.05674804374575615,
0.011204012669622898,
0.12908440828323364,
-0.025643907487392426,
0.3726201057434082,
0.40533894300460815,
-0.2142057567834854,
0.5537629723548889,
-0.004192500375211239,
-0.2458886057138443,
0.3014173209667206,
-0.23766252398490906,
-0.07792121171951294,
0.4863039553165436,
0.02987346239387989,
-0.3114681541919708,
0.39368847012519836,
0.640807569026947,
0.38444024324417114,
0.37903356552124023,
0.007481565233319998,
-0.44284576177597046,
-0.46544498205184937,
0.018231937661767006,
-0.34758850932121277,
0.629911482334137,
-0.18398994207382202,
0.3327257037162781,
-0.0428481251001358,
0.6414255499839783,
-0.10126899182796478,
-0.7397037744522095,
-0.4704369306564331,
0.28932735323905945,
-0.18331682682037354,
0.5569146275520325,
-0.1865200251340866,
-0.7899770736694336,
0.6597316265106201,
0.3439860939979553,
0.6152106523513794,
-0.3545593321323395,
-0.32534876465797424,
0.04529799520969391,
-0.1596681773662567,
0.0540219247341156,
0.6111379265785217,
0.7127193212509155,
0.0175267793238163,
0.36930719017982483,
0.21007710695266724,
0.26346245408058167,
-0.049826767295598984,
-0.15008042752742767,
0.6239140033721924,
-0.6168402433395386,
-0.429257869720459,
-0.4044727385044098,
0.09969091415405273,
0.02120119519531727,
-0.22111481428146362,
0.768502950668335,
0.16790537536144257,
-0.12280946224927902,
0.4540112018585205,
-0.34542137384414673,
0.796420156955719,
0.264168381690979,
0.0971459448337555,
0.4875152111053467,
-0.10702551901340485,
0.46916985511779785,
-0.07636403292417526,
0.1660064160823822,
-0.33309271931648254,
0.156358003616333,
0.3946729600429535,
0.12685586512088776,
-0.3621383011341095,
0.015445146709680557,
-0.34198781847953796,
0.016628149896860123,
0.5573192238807678,
-0.6699527502059937,
0.5648207068443298,
-0.25675803422927856,
0.3283819258213043,
0.07161712646484375,
-0.08329398185014725,
-0.6385911703109741,
0.2839058041572571,
-0.26675131916999817,
0.15214483439922333,
0.14794602990150452,
0.7104571461677551,
-0.012800443917512894,
0.14113810658454895,
-0.06519568711519241,
0.3030647039413452,
0.7235240340232849,
0.24564293026924133,
0.42253756523132324,
-0.30566105246543884,
0.08636345714330673,
0.2196674346923828,
-0.10737045109272003,
-0.34909287095069885,
0.27816855907440186,
-0.8572871685028076,
0.354568213224411,
0.1639777570962906,
0.32314634323120117,
-0.3729343116283417,
-0.30363309383392334,
0.7643237709999084,
0.2006060779094696,
-0.4561121463775635,
0.011786595918238163,
-0.04169056564569473,
-0.8884747624397278,
-0.4607415795326233,
0.33509162068367004,
0.83293616771698,
-0.06327284872531891,
0.30535873770713806,
0.025443069636821747,
-0.565182089805603,
-0.0774010643362999,
0.10008810460567474,
0.13720731437206268,
0.10978088527917862,
-0.3575459420681,
0.4110729992389679,
-0.07162447273731232,
0.09832561016082764,
-0.38106733560562134,
0.8668422102928162,
0.39222729206085205,
-0.5866702795028687,
0.06277124583721161,
0.23956283926963806,
-0.2869357168674469,
-0.10080195218324661,
-0.3383939266204834,
0.503950834274292,
0.046841371804475784,
0.18689551949501038,
-0.21496546268463135,
-0.1625346839427948,
-5.835668563842773,
0.22329238057136536,
-0.3696768581867218,
-0.7779606580734253,
-0.17415282130241394,
0.3062080144882202,
0.2738206088542938,
0.07443917542695999,
-0.0910722091794014,
-0.32349449396133423,
-0.3499041497707367,
-0.18848305940628052,
0.14340005815029144,
1.0328001976013184,
0.8491117358207703,
0.4012470245361328,
0.3557487428188324,
0.19222913682460785,
0.11533370614051819,
0.7179270386695862,
0.07600895315408707,
-0.20443570613861084,
-0.7066630125045776,
0.21974395215511322,
-0.05394186079502106,
0.3651959002017975,
-0.45606857538223267,
0.3029291033744812,
-0.22406934201717377,
-0.5389113426208496,
0.4283860921859741,
-0.10119554400444031,
-0.23605595529079437,
-0.3900635838508606,
0.008778143674135208,
0.19678650796413422,
0.6144757270812988,
0.10297101736068726,
0.768182635307312,
0.13546569645404816,
0.2620111405849457,
-0.04947032034397125,
-0.34843507409095764,
0.22759288549423218,
0.1980883628129959,
-0.0442916564643383,
-0.524434506893158,
0.5810269117355347,
-0.3678571581840515,
0.384148508310318,
0.13056880235671997,
0.04368368536233902,
0.31368401646614075,
0.19703572988510132,
-0.33747708797454834,
0.2800642251968384,
-0.03653353825211525,
-0.1855979561805725,
-0.7823079824447632,
0.614462673664093,
0.3237515091896057,
-0.35451287031173706,
0.13510268926620483,
-0.11786850541830063,
-0.3929499089717865,
-0.024648642167448997,
0.05451039969921112,
-0.014069683849811554,
0.14209036529064178,
-0.7898067831993103,
0.23217594623565674,
0.591141402721405,
-0.16933920979499817,
-1.2218421697616577,
-0.29318884015083313,
-0.5650857090950012,
0.05522315576672554,
-0.017967412248253822,
-0.4958747327327728,
-0.10082109272480011,
-0.08753430843353271,
-0.35720646381378174,
-0.1273968666791916,
0.6230300068855286,
0.1096799299120903,
0.21679630875587463,
-0.2789066731929779,
0.047065235674381256,
-0.7678815722465515,
-0.4453013241291046,
0.40280625224113464,
0.007267495151609182,
0.3427349627017975,
-0.051426034420728683,
0.3743164539337158,
0.1485905945301056,
0.04355700686573982,
0.20097634196281433,
0.8738802671432495,
0.2910862863063812,
-0.2570136487483978,
-0.44937801361083984,
0.7705230116844177,
-0.9372997879981995,
-0.3593728244304657,
-0.24303948879241943,
0.17647507786750793,
0.019541092216968536,
0.5260330438613892,
0.06371147185564041,
-0.43220099806785583,
0.8127948045730591,
-0.15742982923984528,
-0.01960022747516632,
0.10102630406618118,
0.030252836644649506,
-0.1907382607460022,
-0.3773069977760315,
0.5427112579345703,
0.1676444113254547,
-0.5407973527908325,
-0.054991304874420166,
0.7488502264022827,
-0.432198166847229,
0.05213356390595436,
-0.5951547622680664,
0.0446605384349823,
-0.46807196736335754,
-0.5052368640899658,
0.02779407985508442,
-0.27107924222946167,
0.8542841076850891,
0.10195477306842804,
0.04781350865960121,
-0.11087159067392349,
0.21092236042022705,
-0.5586585402488708,
-0.20318681001663208,
0.10604674369096756,
-0.05900096520781517,
0.13667945563793182,
-0.12843281030654907,
0.10527417808771133,
0.553270161151886,
-0.44030359387397766,
0.1292511224746704,
0.2648123800754547,
0.25099027156829834,
-0.26021072268486023,
0.26129135489463806,
0.25605133175849915,
-0.23425035178661346,
0.13079723715782166,
-0.4525769352912903,
-0.10527217388153076,
0.21427474915981293,
-0.4908202290534973,
-0.01661730371415615,
-0.18333065509796143,
0.057063713669776917,
0.2639041244983673,
-0.22249838709831238,
-1.0742765665054321,
-0.03281112387776375,
-0.31091293692588806,
0.25969088077545166,
-0.5504572987556458,
-0.7363415956497192,
-0.6514672040939331,
0.30591291189193726,
0.24830371141433716,
-0.43109241127967834,
-0.36212050914764404,
-0.5187360048294067,
-0.25859108567237854,
0.009380195289850235,
-0.3015858829021454,
-0.6427980661392212,
0.20631128549575806,
-0.20268037915229797,
0.3263084292411804,
0.09752294421195984,
-0.3956351578235626,
0.2731972336769104,
0.2949487566947937,
-0.26218917965888977,
-0.3078651428222656,
-0.1936405748128891,
0.0686715766787529,
0.07021314650774002,
0.14994943141937256,
0.05369563400745392,
0.5471763610839844,
0.5813195705413818,
0.13575059175491333,
-0.06529422849416733,
0.1781216710805893,
0.140544131398201,
-0.34025487303733826,
-0.050873029977083206,
-0.36991822719573975,
-0.16372434794902802,
-0.24575264751911163,
0.07374363392591476,
-0.15145394206047058,
-0.8557454943656921,
-0.434527724981308,
0.31080901622772217,
0.03432650491595268,
0.6022723913192749,
-0.5829973816871643,
-0.07831598073244095,
0.40830788016319275,
0.23559550940990448,
-0.1283518373966217,
0.4373454451560974,
0.2925206422805786,
0.08758088946342468,
-1.0467597246170044,
-0.13373446464538574,
-0.38170477747917175,
0.24238945543766022,
0.019033703953027725,
-0.1702953577041626,
0.03411780670285225,
-0.08916148543357849,
0.031382568180561066,
0.3722301125526428,
0.3299614489078522,
-0.00039608002407476306,
-0.21263431012630463,
-0.22089701890945435,
0.00752685684710741,
0.06087145209312439,
-0.14069528877735138,
0.5693989396095276,
0.33401259779930115,
0.42878827452659607,
0.37217870354652405,
-0.15571607649326324,
0.1895524561405182,
0.29192233085632324,
0.07188207656145096,
-0.17970910668373108,
-0.24151037633419037,
0.006166823208332062,
0.02393985725939274,
-0.14565689861774445,
-0.3187256157398224,
0.14449046552181244,
0.8597384095191956,
-0.13920627534389496,
-0.31579628586769104,
0.25699281692504883,
0.8868973255157471,
-0.11499287188053131,
-0.02890755794942379,
-0.2987321615219116,
0.16430827975273132,
-0.34164664149284363,
0.2303541600704193,
-0.129492849111557,
-0.5043192505836487,
0.24093012511730194,
-0.305000364780426,
0.04127483814954758,
0.2436368316411972,
-0.2305632382631302,
0.5153958797454834,
-0.4841013550758362,
0.13956932723522186,
-0.5865501165390015,
-0.14743494987487793,
0.9681180119514465,
-0.4538934826850891,
0.26307913661003113,
0.48531678318977356,
-0.41312116384506226,
-0.25046417117118835,
-0.44768762588500977,
-0.9277896285057068,
0.8832017779350281,
-0.2794780135154724,
-0.3973515033721924,
-0.4020402431488037,
-0.48157382011413574,
-0.2865505814552307,
-0.08160160481929779,
-0.3993827998638153,
-0.12289547920227051,
-1.040102481842041,
0.25074657797813416,
-0.7886151671409607,
-0.4359147548675537,
-0.02816879004240036,
-0.1585504710674286,
-0.23303773999214172,
0.4422631561756134,
-0.39647814631462097,
-0.26812744140625,
-0.7103708386421204,
0.40076524019241333,
0.3912040889263153,
-0.39675644040107727,
-0.033065203577280045,
-0.1683531403541565,
0.04963475465774536,
0.037550508975982666,
-0.4549071192741394,
0.06467341631650925,
0.022369425743818283,
-0.22317396104335785,
-0.39258286356925964,
0.7665146589279175,
-0.5676841139793396,
-0.45901209115982056,
0.3652147948741913,
-0.48555684089660645,
0.5483320951461792,
0.5768433809280396,
0.24177485704421997,
0.03145359084010124,
0.5923481583595276,
-0.5092813372612,
0.5168225765228271,
0.8567502498626709,
0.14696480333805084,
0.24913163483142853,
-0.1858348399400711,
0.05744408071041107,
-0.06342116743326187,
-0.31705597043037415,
0.11728288233280182,
0.18720898032188416,
-0.021897507831454277,
-0.3019983470439911,
0.13919278979301453,
-0.746225893497467,
-0.36637887358665466,
0.3454115390777588,
-0.476105272769928,
0.9828569889068604,
-0.18173633515834808,
0.26049482822418213,
-0.3585870862007141,
-0.2113598883152008,
-0.01696491241455078,
0.792549729347229,
-0.5524627566337585,
-0.2753807306289673,
0.1207844465970993,
-0.1629149168729782,
0.34878721833229065,
-1.2542192935943604,
-0.1666962057352066,
-0.38581207394599915,
0.26939481496810913,
0.0822705626487732,
-0.359228253364563,
0.1396191120147705,
0.026715844869613647,
-0.3264867067337036,
0.9837386012077332,
0.26601463556289673,
0.3550638258457184,
-0.46800556778907776,
-0.3006739318370819,
-0.8248392939567566,
-0.06455432623624802,
0.36383387446403503,
-0.10207659006118774,
0.4130530059337616,
-0.12601338326931,
0.8462117314338684,
-0.3177403509616852,
0.12423490732908249,
0.18675027787685394,
0.25051578879356384,
-0.11960554122924805,
-0.08164028823375702,
-0.1945849508047104,
0.3941578269004822,
0.023221218958497047,
-0.06130712106823921,
-0.012787127867341042,
-0.6828786134719849,
0.3288763463497162,
0.47191566228866577,
-0.03118566796183586,
-0.28982287645339966,
0.6354733109474182,
-0.5655457377433777,
-0.3163110315799713,
0.40689677000045776,
-0.05321585386991501,
0.051691606640815735,
-0.1804565042257309,
0.3885147273540497,
0.4428038001060486,
0.11145969480276108,
0.09921149909496307,
0.12827643752098083,
0.5500160455703735,
-0.3190850019454956,
-0.3936460018157959,
-0.2987217903137207,
-0.4770601689815521,
0.10418523848056793,
-0.44706180691719055,
0.1011916771531105,
0.04430802911520004,
-0.07032927870750427,
-0.20044472813606262,
0.25840115547180176,
0.11988082528114319,
-0.38830262422561646,
0.15100817382335663,
0.24349790811538696,
-0.005630976986140013,
0.14451485872268677,
-0.23024320602416992,
0.05743222311139107,
0.09099235385656357,
0.08256970345973969,
-0.3491862416267395,
-0.03503640741109848,
0.015897195786237717,
-0.34147220849990845,
-0.3653869032859802,
0.1553134024143219,
0.5225915312767029,
-0.6572909355163574,
-0.6144706606864929,
0.3499539792537689,
-0.14262989163398743,
-1.2780791521072388,
-0.04647570103406906,
0.7544207572937012,
0.05409657582640648,
-0.36448442935943604,
0.10723954439163208,
0.4510839581489563,
-0.3630416691303253,
-0.23068082332611084,
0.08169010281562805,
0.48595112562179565,
-0.3728944659233093,
-0.4488455355167389,
-0.06300173699855804,
0.2976880371570587,
-0.008299797773361206,
-0.5847287774085999,
0.03907228633761406,
-0.3735642433166504,
0.23173874616622925,
0.3252297341823578,
0.32639840245246887,
-0.18036608397960663,
0.37917929887771606,
0.0681801438331604
] |
213073
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20crow
|
House crow
|
The house crow (Corvus splendens), also known as the Indian, greynecked, Ceylon or Colombo crow, is a common bird of the crow family that is of Asian origin but now found in many parts of the world, where they arrived assisted by shipping. It is between the jackdaw and the carrion crow in size ( in length) but is slimmer than either. The forehead, crown, throat and upper breast are a richly glossed black, whilst the neck and breast are a lighter grey-brown in colour. The wings, tail and legs are black. There are regional variations in the thickness of the bill and the depth of colour in areas of the plumage.
Taxonomy
The nominate race C. s. splendens is found in Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh and has a grey neck collar. The subspecies C. s. zugmayeri is found in the dry parts of South Asia and Iran and has a very pale neck collar. The subspecies C. s. protegatus is found in southern India, the Maldives (sometimes separated as maledivicus) and Sri Lanka and is darker grey. C. s. insolens, found in Myanmar, is the darkest form and lacks the grey collar.
Distribution and habitat
It has a widespread distribution in southern Asia, being native to Nepal, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Maldives and Laccadive Islands, South West Thailand and coastal southern Iran. It was introduced to East Africa around Zanzibar (about 1897) and Port Sudan. It arrived in Australia via ship but has up to now been exterminated. Recently, it has made its arrival in Europe and has been breeding in the Dutch harbour town Hook of Holland since 1998.
A population between 200 and 400 birds has been present in Sham Shui Po, New Kowloon, Hong Kong, in particular Lai Kok Estate and Sham Shui Po Park, as well as Kowloon Tsai Park in Kowloon Tsai. An individual has been present in Cork Harbour on the south coast of Ireland since early September 2010.
In the New World, a small population of house crows is established in the area around St. Petersburg, Florida.
It is associated with human settlements throughout its range, from small villages to large cities. In Singapore, there was a density of 190 birds/km2 in 2001 with efforts to suppress the population in planning.
Due to a human population explosion in the areas it inhabits, this species has also proportionately multiplied. Being an omnivorous scavenger has enabled it to thrive in such circumstances.
Invasive species
The invasive potential for the species is great all over the tropics. This species is able to make use of resources with great flexibility and appears to be associated with humans, and no populations are known to exist independently of humans. Based on niche-modelling it is estimated that it can also persist in some coastal areas in southern and northwestern Europe. In 2016, house crow was added to the List of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern. Breeding population of this species is reported from Netherlands (Hoek van Holland), while individuals were seen in Belgium, Hungary, Poland and Spain.
Behaviour
Diet
House crows feed largely on refuse around human habitations, small reptiles and mammals, and other animals such as insects and other small invertebrates, eggs, nestlings, grain and fruits. House crows have also been observed swooping down from the air and snatching baby squirrels. Most food is taken from the ground, but also from trees as opportunity arises. They are highly opportunistic birds and given their omnivorous diet, they can survive on nearly anything that is edible. These birds can be seen near marketplaces and garbage dumps, foraging for scraps. They have also been observed to eat sand after feeding on carcasses.
Nesting
At least some trees in the local environment seem to be necessary for successful breeding although house crows occasionally nest on telephone towers. It lays 3–5 eggs in a typical stick nest, and occasionally there are several nests in the same tree. In South Asia they are parasitized by the Asian koel. Peak breeding in India as well as Peninsular Malaysia is from April to July. Large trees with big crowns are preferred for nesting.
Roosting
House crows roost communally near human habitations and often over busy streets. A study in Singapore found that the preferred roost sites were in well-lit areas with a lot of human activity, close to food sources and in tall trees with dense crowns that were separated from other trees. The roost sites were often enclosed by tall buildings. Before flying into roost trees, crows make pre-roosting aggregations perched on TV antennas, roof tops, wayside trees, open fields, and feed or preen during this time.
Voice
The voice is a harsh kaaw-kaaw.
Relationship to humans
It is suspected that paramyxoviruses, such as PMV 1 that causes of Newcastle disease may be spread by Corvus splendens. Outbreaks of Newcastle disease in India were often preceded by mortality in crows. They have also been found to carry Cryptococcus neoformans, which can cause cryptococcosis in humans.
House crows in Tanzania curiously showed an absence of blood parasites, although some species such as Trypanosoma corvi have been first described from this species. Pathologist T.R. Lewis expressed surprise at the numbers of haematozoa present in the blood of house crows from Calcutta.
Gallery
References
External links
House Crow Monitor
Bibliography from Corvids Literature Database
House Crow Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Corvus splendens at Global Invasive Species Database
Corvus
crow, house
Birds described in 1817
Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot
|
[
0.5746812224388123,
0.02463206648826599,
-0.30915555357933044,
-0.24494194984436035,
0.37959781289100647,
0.4047761559486389,
0.3810422122478485,
0.17884477972984314,
-0.778733491897583,
-0.0397549569606781,
-0.44246014952659607,
-0.23893024027347565,
-0.8250867128372192,
0.36561161279678345,
-0.432949036359787,
-0.003224423620849848,
0.33481350541114807,
0.31333479285240173,
0.13535569608211517,
-0.18250490725040436,
-0.45313385128974915,
-0.2535749673843384,
-0.02724822796881199,
0.007819904014468193,
0.17944644391536713,
-0.02411990985274315,
0.01772080361843109,
0.030774883925914764,
0.09223774820566177,
-0.1745729297399521,
0.20915625989437103,
0.38748612999916077,
0.47134649753570557,
0.33886849880218506,
-0.3303065598011017,
-0.24549612402915955,
-0.43335190415382385,
-0.2484576553106308,
-0.3304804265499115,
-0.5775837302207947,
-0.29590168595314026,
0.09823435544967651,
0.7499308586120605,
0.10237438976764679,
-0.41430607438087463,
-0.37108755111694336,
-1.2643269300460815,
0.5520220398902893,
-0.2858204245567322,
0.525743305683136,
-0.48693305253982544,
0.4564945101737976,
-0.21397711336612701,
0.22778061032295227,
0.1423363834619522,
0.3030282258987427,
-0.5160959959030151,
0.05766880884766579,
0.16024330258369446,
-0.6527054905891418,
0.3158667981624603,
-0.035276997834444046,
0.5098158717155457,
0.289579838514328,
0.6892970204353333,
0.45336610078811646,
0.3765678405761719,
-0.09525248408317566,
-0.0036609515082091093,
0.3924328684806824,
-0.3311794400215149,
-0.2640925943851471,
-0.29195621609687805,
0.3902413845062256,
-0.6924462914466858,
-0.39312857389450073,
-0.22689053416252136,
0.2342631071805954,
0.20811794698238373,
0.2886148691177368,
0.2475825995206833,
0.12732373178005219,
0.385351300239563,
-0.13920989632606506,
0.2675549387931824,
0.37008750438690186,
-0.6520124077796936,
-0.18273437023162842,
-0.1829780787229538,
-0.2813493609428406,
-0.20344215631484985,
0.3509494960308075,
0.27364763617515564,
0.43507856130599976,
-0.7905101180076599,
-0.5024703145027161,
0.007152070757001638,
-0.3307253420352936,
0.8732162714004517,
-0.17229455709457397,
-0.6568205952644348,
0.2507206201553345,
1.019007682800293,
0.1987820714712143,
-0.562934398651123,
-0.10441437363624573,
-0.3000336289405823,
0.19496722519397736,
-0.38981732726097107,
0.5776002407073975,
-0.34343940019607544,
0.19218090176582336,
0.09819453954696655,
0.04306787624955177,
-0.20832450687885284,
0.18804241716861725,
0.07180581241846085,
-0.10634738206863403,
-0.24732087552547455,
-0.1576014757156372,
0.004299801308661699,
0.7922163009643555,
-0.07617470622062683,
0.5376760363578796,
0.0039393845945596695,
0.38098788261413574,
0.34323158860206604,
0.3582904636859894,
-0.49380502104759216,
-0.034813880920410156,
0.5215420722961426,
0.8442261815071106,
-0.27926674485206604,
0.20808005332946777,
-0.8085938096046448,
0.1529550999403,
0.12337954342365265,
0.3222246468067169,
0.737579345703125,
0.22226108610630035,
-1.2802114486694336,
-0.3683704435825348,
-0.0029222473967820406,
0.2009568065404892,
-0.4202854037284851,
0.5759167075157166,
0.19086012244224548,
-0.8996531367301941,
-0.21520648896694183,
-0.33959507942199707,
-0.120060496032238,
0.33451807498931885,
0.07993215322494507,
-0.4910106956958771,
-0.537892758846283,
-0.21620965003967285,
0.048718661069869995,
-0.6443676352500916,
0.4583631753921509,
-0.09226708114147186,
-0.20711129903793335,
0.14014044404029846,
-0.026601525023579597,
0.06769539415836334,
0.0929088294506073,
0.08618625998497009,
0.1474204808473587,
0.3440207839012146,
-0.28600603342056274,
-0.019905967637896538,
-0.017404744401574135,
0.13945125043392181,
0.33621713519096375,
0.2456890344619751,
-0.8800121545791626,
-0.4483529031276703,
-0.3657666742801666,
-0.2801511287689209,
0.601730227470398,
-0.059654418379068375,
-0.6819661259651184,
0.39421114325523376,
-0.053001657128334045,
-0.35414695739746094,
-0.4594775438308716,
0.4542553424835205,
-0.08051551878452301,
0.02544652484357357,
-0.009395651519298553,
-0.5452922582626343,
-0.3486524224281311,
-0.2731952667236328,
-0.09091152250766754,
-0.38153865933418274,
0.20905348658561707,
-0.002790346508845687,
-0.4769851863384247,
1.0976346731185913,
-0.01933341659605503,
0.530778169631958,
-0.24028924107551575,
0.17893312871456146,
0.23880431056022644,
0.17837095260620117,
-0.8883694410324097,
0.07330011576414108,
-0.5086225867271423,
0.8372764587402344,
0.5873886346817017,
0.212138369679451,
-0.1314956396818161,
-0.473513126373291,
-0.04032542556524277,
0.39198991656303406,
0.38086235523223877,
0.10179730504751205,
-0.3768928647041321,
-0.04000324010848999,
0.056455232203006744,
-0.4028729796409607,
0.7869008183479309,
-0.16216886043548584,
-0.42267605662345886,
0.6672279238700867,
0.17148688435554504,
0.7003888487815857,
0.6857557892799377,
-0.5537109375,
0.27571365237236023,
-0.5110865831375122,
-0.04869398474693298,
-0.13403117656707764,
0.2089553028345108,
-0.3759753704071045,
-0.23181430995464325,
0.10657874494791031,
0.41520801186561584,
-0.5009132623672485,
0.14155694842338562,
0.02928522229194641,
0.5353999137878418,
-0.30088114738464355,
0.1480337679386139,
0.045904189348220825,
0.4050345718860626,
0.13970185816287994,
0.10945842415094376,
-0.13965871930122375,
-0.20548085868358612,
0.1444154679775238,
0.8347220420837402,
0.6350841522216797,
0.5830102562904358,
-0.19827595353126526,
-0.11802598088979721,
-0.09103311598300934,
-0.1405220329761505,
0.02954927645623684,
0.26630300283432007,
0.2623082995414734,
-0.365069717168808,
0.49173372983932495,
0.1205601617693901,
0.2357419729232788,
0.21430091559886932,
-0.2988394796848297,
0.08840647339820862,
-0.28571617603302,
0.653385579586029,
0.3138515055179596,
0.2717684805393219,
-0.15208955109119415,
-0.46916359663009644,
0.11087585240602493,
0.14457179605960846,
-0.8571761250495911,
-0.12090325355529785,
-0.4891415536403656,
-0.2571166455745697,
-0.40533486008644104,
-0.03483957052230835,
0.27616333961486816,
0.20365217328071594,
-1.1169947385787964,
0.6213515996932983,
-0.5308221578598022,
-0.1478356271982193,
-0.705925703048706,
0.06242719665169716,
-0.22347943484783173,
0.15446937084197998,
0.04948617145419121,
-0.027181359007954597,
0.3188594877719879,
-0.33406728506088257,
-0.05736454576253891,
-0.28124773502349854,
0.864267885684967,
0.11642070859670639,
-0.8309338688850403,
0.1257864236831665,
0.10344809293746948,
-0.19651691615581512,
0.21165019273757935,
0.10231146961450577,
0.06722400337457657,
0.2183564454317093,
0.09437133371829987,
-5.896962642669678,
0.17376253008842468,
0.026863519102334976,
-0.4350675940513611,
-0.08308989554643631,
0.5024946331977844,
0.4359951615333557,
0.05035161226987839,
0.2789279818534851,
0.17901088297367096,
0.5202008485794067,
0.1366778463125229,
-0.1896546632051468,
-0.15454930067062378,
0.365774005651474,
0.11000732332468033,
-0.46194010972976685,
0.2632942795753479,
0.048382822424173355,
0.05948194861412048,
-0.22643804550170898,
0.4510974884033203,
0.3361947536468506,
0.8056862950325012,
-0.2874905467033386,
0.332255095243454,
0.13958334922790527,
-0.683876633644104,
-0.7088243961334229,
-0.2753448188304901,
-0.5906955599784851,
-0.35103851556777954,
0.020546091720461845,
-0.5639955997467041,
-0.25563371181488037,
-0.26175686717033386,
0.38103264570236206,
0.23997798562049866,
-0.09331348538398743,
-0.08418674767017365,
-0.31110814213752747,
-0.13469980657100677,
0.033059701323509216,
0.07080138474702835,
0.3282841145992279,
-0.16117992997169495,
-0.20228560268878937,
0.005394007544964552,
-0.36688554286956787,
0.40306907892227173,
-0.4714195132255554,
0.2588222324848175,
0.20933178067207336,
0.4586702883243561,
0.03556209057569504,
0.32785674929618835,
-0.06485385447740555,
0.028531836345791817,
-0.358114093542099,
-0.025797689333558083,
0.7450449466705322,
-0.110996775329113,
-0.2868426740169525,
-0.18228575587272644,
0.4639948010444641,
-0.025963015854358673,
-0.40835505723953247,
-0.16023172438144684,
0.561741054058075,
-0.3576224446296692,
-0.02688690461218357,
-0.4747871458530426,
0.1769612580537796,
-0.9413138031959534,
0.3673161566257477,
-0.4253612756729126,
-0.11254063248634338,
-0.10583627969026566,
0.09717408567667007,
0.08942124247550964,
0.4234001040458679,
-0.08621656894683838,
-0.06313631683588028,
-0.3203658163547516,
-0.24772602319717407,
-1.1125413179397583,
-0.9251382946968079,
0.22655250132083893,
-0.1994936168193817,
0.056198809295892715,
0.8698117136955261,
-0.10290343314409256,
0.20228935778141022,
0.5466799736022949,
0.8926153779029846,
0.8101243376731873,
0.16944658756256104,
-0.2740611135959625,
0.5203590393066406,
0.07611867785453796,
0.6232391595840454,
0.19104357063770294,
-0.6321656107902527,
-0.3420456051826477,
0.6428675055503845,
-0.4580336809158325,
-0.14348171651363373,
0.6946162581443787,
0.7380496859550476,
-0.1576508730649948,
0.256980299949646,
-0.46597808599472046,
-0.1196809634566307,
-0.22632452845573425,
0.4273104965686798,
0.07112019509077072,
0.29160597920417786,
0.30577918887138367,
0.20596951246261597,
-0.1520037055015564,
-0.17687134444713593,
-0.14901839196681976,
-0.6589051485061646,
0.5448744893074036,
-0.223208487033844,
-0.4748859107494354,
-0.20461758971214294,
0.0013936442555859685,
-0.3841906487941742,
-0.7225119471549988,
0.2032729983329773,
-0.2610539495944977,
0.11367971450090408,
-0.4405161142349243,
-0.3496566414833069,
0.04264528676867485,
0.164054736495018,
-0.396596223115921,
0.27310478687286377,
-0.2323789894580841,
-0.9049883484840393,
-0.20510233938694,
-0.1036844253540039,
0.40513136982917786,
0.5685828924179077,
0.3813532888889313,
-0.626004695892334,
-0.2084486335515976,
0.24219895899295807,
0.7333908081054688,
-0.07737866789102554,
-0.21347922086715698,
0.5259811282157898,
0.2646440863609314,
-0.6132493615150452,
-0.7237090468406677,
0.6319206357002258,
0.19077372550964355,
-0.30453723669052124,
-0.32884982228279114,
0.2982129752635956,
-0.2509658932685852,
-0.5063488483428955,
-0.012762853875756264,
-0.09320028126239777,
-0.027701176702976227,
-0.0062517463229596615,
0.005217254627496004,
0.08260265737771988,
0.026654327288269997,
0.5704299211502075,
0.04362453520298004,
-0.5445722341537476,
0.4195842444896698,
0.2638212740421295,
-0.04415082186460495,
-0.6537572145462036,
0.3666187822818756,
-0.059972915798425674,
0.26285097002983093,
-0.45163440704345703,
0.20593346655368805,
-0.49805784225463867,
0.4306041896343231,
0.22550594806671143,
-0.1785203516483307,
0.46082910895347595,
-0.5432578325271606,
0.20418062806129456,
-0.2264031022787094,
0.49799785017967224,
0.46123623847961426,
0.22181330621242523,
0.7231379151344299,
-0.2787608802318573,
-0.1483599990606308,
-0.02291298098862171,
0.6195177435874939,
-0.23679159581661224,
-0.5253261923789978,
0.14221380650997162,
-0.11651690304279327,
-0.15336984395980835,
-0.17923609912395477,
0.1462274193763733,
-0.2547970712184906,
0.7055394649505615,
-0.125163733959198,
-0.042272310703992844,
0.3592682480812073,
-0.15392149984836578,
-0.323975145816803,
-0.3736838102340698,
0.6089603304862976,
0.12991397082805634,
-0.02381950058043003,
-0.3224206268787384,
0.004949595313519239,
0.12791548669338226,
-0.1740802526473999,
-0.29585331678390503,
-0.1084318533539772,
-0.11892379820346832,
-0.527052104473114,
-0.5306209325790405,
0.4005676805973053,
-0.0645785853266716,
-0.15516836941242218,
0.7929093837738037,
-0.5241788029670715,
0.08951106667518616,
0.10652019083499908,
0.17568372189998627,
0.14811520278453827,
-0.3609030246734619,
0.19658087193965912,
-0.12848851084709167,
-0.2535085678100586,
0.6696026921272278,
0.9998580813407898,
0.3008660078048706,
0.9298485517501831,
0.36672791838645935,
-0.23589034378528595,
0.14634516835212708,
0.30906978249549866,
-0.1373443901538849,
-0.29297935962677,
-0.4729188084602356,
-0.24002055823802948,
0.5607072114944458,
0.2593233287334442,
0.44618937373161316,
0.40236201882362366,
0.013138307258486748,
-0.24905461072921753,
0.1970268040895462,
0.559857189655304,
-0.13452298939228058,
0.3644985854625702,
0.09583240747451782,
0.035200200974941254,
-0.0925775095820427,
0.1363077163696289,
-0.07598809152841568,
-0.20606665313243866,
-1.062365174293518,
0.23154422640800476,
-0.017201552167534828,
-0.34895920753479004,
0.6237730383872986,
-0.01966141164302826,
0.4971894919872284,
-0.18072275817394257,
0.9625198245048523,
0.3706561326980591,
-0.23942869901657104,
-0.48596733808517456,
-0.1476626992225647,
0.15512096881866455,
-0.3136710822582245,
-0.47434017062187195,
-0.0016669061733409762,
-0.8118842840194702,
0.030729586258530617,
-0.5141721963882446,
-0.05571279674768448,
-0.16931001842021942,
0.25875064730644226,
-0.3243386149406433,
-0.42721104621887207,
0.04993733763694763,
0.32656389474868774,
0.35752448439598083,
-0.30230897665023804,
0.0393894799053669,
-0.31357312202453613,
0.4190728962421417,
0.09948525577783585,
0.009125558659434319,
-0.9101279377937317,
-0.21521930396556854,
-0.04450450837612152,
0.08493558317422867,
0.08044363558292389,
-0.15137995779514313,
0.21319369971752167,
-0.06551198661327362,
-0.5043752789497375,
0.04179617390036583,
0.2479962706565857,
-0.6332014203071594,
0.0019791023805737495,
0.11517129838466644,
0.0020439415238797665,
0.46005570888519287,
0.4265817701816559,
-0.8138281106948853,
0.6271642446517944,
0.2125304788351059,
0.38026368618011475,
-0.47087305784225464,
0.3877074420452118,
0.14093418419361115,
-0.1295304149389267,
0.1217479333281517,
-0.464654803276062,
0.07535988092422485,
0.3004835247993469,
0.05402342230081558,
0.6666115522384644,
0.11769068986177444,
-0.16562505066394806,
-0.1629869043827057,
0.04881984367966652,
-0.18211285769939423,
0.14823326468467712,
-0.75411057472229,
-0.35813453793525696,
0.6331365704536438,
1.171103835105896,
0.6608846187591553,
0.42928963899612427,
-0.08360546082258224,
0.06146306172013283,
0.09949178248643875,
-0.137651264667511,
0.2001699060201645,
-0.2507838308811188,
-0.07349758595228195,
0.18845480680465698,
0.027118470519781113,
0.5585976839065552,
-0.40169665217399597,
0.47118017077445984,
0.16956041753292084,
-0.305308073759079,
0.09187906235456467,
0.06656169146299362,
0.06647824496030807,
-0.3016168177127838,
0.12464909255504608,
-0.4369150400161743,
0.35272839665412903,
-0.5706095099449158,
0.09792269766330719,
-0.15091384947299957,
-0.555142343044281,
-0.21558456122875214,
-0.43270620703697205,
-0.39636513590812683,
-0.3473241329193115,
-0.08803094178438187,
-0.06790763884782791,
0.07940211147069931,
0.3006080090999603,
-0.08353274315595627,
0.16295990347862244,
0.46859967708587646,
0.17840225994586945,
-0.38522306084632874,
-0.6122432947158813,
0.46005967259407043,
-0.47133687138557434,
0.41304880380630493,
-0.31250065565109253,
-0.6189358234405518,
-0.15427269041538239,
-0.75208979845047,
0.47257354855537415,
-0.20950563251972198,
-0.19515639543533325,
-0.005582947283983231,
0.16474026441574097,
-0.14401984214782715,
0.07063671946525574,
0.05876999720931053,
0.4415033757686615,
-0.10894369333982468,
0.00781361572444439,
0.17838232219219208,
0.3302065432071686,
-0.21230535209178925,
-0.4795196056365967,
-0.10631369054317474,
0.036849163472652435,
-0.6414648294448853,
0.009210474789142609,
-0.8058858513832092,
0.6669555902481079,
-0.08277911692857742,
0.11120500415563583,
0.09055795520544052,
-0.4272303879261017,
-0.11214189976453781,
0.2952110767364502,
0.593317985534668,
-0.23910634219646454,
-0.1172422543168068,
-0.29426443576812744,
-0.05362163111567497,
-0.13764171302318573,
0.06577175855636597,
-0.3254178762435913,
-0.03871913626790047,
-0.2750154435634613,
0.2515862286090851,
0.12251462042331696,
-0.7064995765686035,
0.5427280068397522,
0.10860170423984528,
0.09490495920181274,
-0.40150877833366394,
-0.05187365040183067,
-0.16595551371574402,
-0.2704659700393677,
0.22461067140102386,
0.5175871253013611,
0.46918153762817383,
0.009315753355622292,
0.3672839105129242,
0.24133697152137756,
0.604270339012146,
-0.41589534282684326,
0.5517861843109131,
-0.14583656191825867,
-0.07160628587007523,
-0.6652000546455383,
-0.31335797905921936,
0.3216363787651062,
0.24493706226348877,
-0.22015735507011414,
0.026032105088233948,
-0.13725143671035767,
-0.02215372584760189,
0.24661149084568024,
0.13190534710884094,
-0.3126787543296814,
0.13282115757465363,
-0.30316439270973206
] |
213077
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20%28musical%29
|
Chicago (musical)
|
Chicago is a 1975 American musical with music by John Kander, lyrics by Fred Ebb, and book by Ebb and Bob Fosse. Set in Chicago in the jazz age, the musical is based on a 1926 play of the same title by reporter Maurine Dallas Watkins, about actual criminals and the crimes on which she reported. The story is a satire on corruption in the administration of criminal justice and the concept of the "celebrity criminal".
The original Broadway production opened in 1975 at the 46th Street Theatre and ran for 936 performances, until 1977. Bob Fosse choreographed the original production, and his style is strongly identified with the show. It debuted in the West End in 1979, where it ran for 600 performances. Chicago was revived on Broadway in 1996, and a year later in the West End.
The 1996 Broadway production holds the record as the longest-running musical revival and the longest-running American musical in Broadway history. It is the second longest-running show ever to run on Broadway, behind only The Phantom of the Opera. Chicago surpassed Cats on November 23, 2014, when it played its 7,486th performance. The West End revival became the longest-running American musical in West End history. Chicago has been staged in numerous productions around the world, and has toured extensively in the United States and United Kingdom. The 2002 film version of the musical won the Academy Award for Best Picture.
History
The musical Chicago is based on a play of the same name by reporter and playwright Maurine Dallas Watkins, who was assigned to cover the 1924 trials of accused murderers Beulah Annan and Belva Gaertner for the Chicago Tribune. In the early 1920s, Chicago's press and public became riveted by the subject of homicides committed by women. Several high-profile cases arose, which generally involved women killing their lovers or husbands. These cases were tried against a backdrop of changing views of women in the jazz age, and a long string of acquittals by Cook County juries of female murderers (juries at the time were all male, and convicted murderers generally faced death by hanging). A lore arose that, in Chicago, feminine or attractive women could not be convicted. The Chicago Tribune generally favored the prosecution's case, while still presenting the details of these women's lives. Its rivals at the Hearst papers were more pro-defendant, and employed what were derisively called "sob-sisters" – women reporters who focused on the plight, attractiveness, redemption, or grace of the female defendants. Regardless of stance, the press covered several of these women as celebrities.
Annan, the model for the character of Roxie Hart, was 23 when she was accused of the April 3, 1924, murder of Harry Kalstedt, who served as the basis for the Fred Casely character. The Tribune reported that Annan played the foxtrot record Hula Lou over and over for two hours before calling her husband to say she killed a man who "tried to make love to her". Her husband Albert Annan inspired the character, Amos Hart. Albert was an auto mechanic who bankrupted himself to defend his wife, only for her to publicly dump him the day after she was acquitted. Velma Kelly is based on Gaertner, who was a cabaret singer, and society divorcée. The body of Walter Law was discovered slumped over the steering wheel of Gaertner's abandoned car on March 12, 1924. Two police officers testified that they had seen a woman getting into the car and shortly thereafter heard gunshots. A bottle of gin and an automatic pistol were found on the floor of the car. Lawyers William Scott Stewart and W. W. O'Brien were models for a composite character in Chicago, Billy Flynn. Just days apart, separate juries acquitted both women.
Watkins' sensational columns documenting these trials proved so popular that she wrote a play based on them. The show received both good box-office sales and newspaper notices and was mounted on Broadway in 1926, running 172 performances. Cecil B. DeMille produced a silent film version, Chicago (1927), starring former Mack Sennett bathing beauty Phyllis Haver as Roxie Hart. It was later remade as Roxie Hart (1942) starring Ginger Rogers, but in this version, Roxie was accused of murder without having really committed it.
In the 1960s, Gwen Verdon read the play and asked her husband, Bob Fosse, about the possibility of creating a musical adaptation. Fosse approached playwright Watkins numerous times to buy the rights, but she repeatedly declined; by this point she may have regretted that Annan and Gaertner had been allowed to walk free, and that her treatment of them should not be glamorized. Nonetheless, upon her death in 1969, her estate sold the rights to producer Richard Fryer, Verdon, and Fosse. John Kander and Fred Ebb began work on the musical score, modeling each number on a traditional vaudeville number or a vaudeville performer. This format made explicit the show's comparison between "justice", "show-business", and contemporary society. Ebb and Fosse penned the book of the musical, and Fosse also directed and choreographed.
Synopsis
Act I
Velma Kelly is a vaudevillian who welcomes the audience to tonight's show ("All That Jazz"). Interplayed with the opening number, the scene cuts to February 14, 1928, in the bedroom of chorus girl Roxie Hart, where she murders Fred Casely as he attempts to break off an affair with her.
Roxie convinces her husband Amos that the victim was a burglar, and Amos agrees to take the blame. Roxie expresses her appreciation of her husband's willingness to do anything for her ("Funny Honey"). However, when the police mention the deceased's name, Amos belatedly realizes that Roxie has lied to him. With both Roxie and Amos furious at each other for the other's betrayal, Roxie confesses and is arrested. She is sent to the women's block in the Cook County Jail, where several women accused of killing their lovers are held ("Cell Block Tango"); among the inmates is Velma Kelly, revealing herself to have been involved in the death of her husband and sister after she caught them having sex, though she denies committing the act on account of blacking out from the sight. The block is presided over by Matron "Mama" Morton, whose system of taking bribes ("When You're Good to Mama") perfectly suits her clientele. She has helped Velma become the media's top murderer-of-the-week and is acting as a booking agent for Velma's big return to vaudeville.
Velma is not happy to see Roxie, who is stealing not only her limelight but also her lawyer, Billy Flynn. Roxie convinces Amos to pay for Billy Flynn to be her lawyer ("A Tap Dance"), though Amos lacks the funds. Eagerly awaited by his all-woman clientele, Billy sings his anthem, complete with a chorus of fan dancers ("All I Care About"). Billy takes Roxie's case before realizing Amos doesn't have the money; to make up the difference, he turns the case into a media circus and rearranges her story for consumption by sympathetic tabloid columnist Mary Sunshine ("A Little Bit of Good"), hoping to sell proceeds in an auction. Roxie's press conference turns into a ventriloquist act, with Billy dictating a new version of the truth ("We Both Reached for the Gun") to the reporters while Roxie mouths the words.
Roxie becomes the most popular celebrity in Chicago, as she boastfully proclaims while planning for her future career in vaudeville ("Roxie"). As Roxie's fame grows, Velma's notoriety subsides, and in an act of desperation she tries to talk Roxie into recreating the sister act ("I Can't Do It Alone"). Roxie turns her down, only to find her own headlines replaced by the latest sordid crime of passion ("Chicago After Midnight"). Separately, Roxie and Velma realize there is no one they can count on but themselves ("My Own Best Friend"), and Roxie decides that being pregnant in prison would put her back on the front page.
Act II
Velma returns to introduce the opening act, resentful of Roxie's manipulation of the system ("I Know a Girl") and ability to seduce a doctor into saying Roxie is pregnant; as Roxie emerges, she sings gleefully of the future of her unborn (nonexistent) child ("Me and My Baby"). Amos proudly claims paternity, but still, nobody notices him, and Billy exposes holes in Roxie's story by noting that she and Amos had not had sex in four months, meaning if she were pregnant, the child was not Amos's, in hopes that Amos will divorce her and look like a villain, which Amos almost does ("Mr. Cellophane"). Velma tries to show Billy all the tricks she has planned for her trial ("When Velma Takes The Stand"), which Roxie treats skeptically. Roxie, upset with being treated like a "common criminal" and considering herself a celebrity, has a heated argument with Billy and fires him; Billy warns her that her kind of celebrity is fleeting and that she would be just as famous hanging from a noose. At that moment, Roxie witnesses one of her fellow inmates, a Hungarian woman who insisted on her innocence but could not speak English and whose public lawyer refused to defend her, become the first woman to be executed in Chicago ("Hungarian Rope Trick").
The trial date arrives, and the now freshly terrified Roxie runs back to Billy, who calms Roxie by suggesting she will be fine so long as she makes a show of the trial ("Razzle Dazzle"). Billy uses Amos as a pawn, turning around and insisting that Amos is actually the father of Roxie's child. As Roxie recounts Billy's carefully crafted false narrative of the night of Fred's murder (with Fred re-appearing on stage in flashback), she steals all of Velma's schtick, down to the rhinestone garter, to the dismay of Mama and Velma ("Class"). As promised, Billy gets Roxie acquitted, but just as the verdict is announced, some even more sensational crime pulls the press away, and Roxie's fleeting celebrity life is over. Billy leaves, done with the case, admitting that he only did it for the money. Amos tries to get Roxie to come home and forget the ordeal, but she is more concerned with the end of her brief run of fame and admits she isn't pregnant, at which point a fed up Amos leaves her.
The final scene cuts to a Chicago vaudeville theater, where Roxie and Velma (acquitted off-stage) are performing a new act in which they sing bittersweetly about modern life ("Nowadays"). The former Mary Sunshine, revealed during the trial actually to be a man in drag, takes his natural male form as a pushy vaudeville promoter, shaping Roxie and Velma's dance ("Hot Honey Rag") to make it as sexy as possible. The show ends with a brief finale as Roxie and Velma thank their audience ("Finale").
Musical numbers
1975 Original Broadway Production
"Chicago: A Musical Vaudeville"
Act 1
"Overture" – Orchestra
"All That Jazz" – Velma Kelly and Company
"Funny Honey" – Roxie Hart, Amos Hart, Sergeant Fogarty
"Cell Block Tango" – Velma and the Girls
"When You're Good to Mama" – Matron "Mama" Morton
"Tap Dance" - Roxie, Amos, and Boys
"All I Care About" – Billy Flynn and the Girls
"A Little Bit of Good" – Mary Sunshine
"We Both Reached for the Gun" – Billy, Roxie, Mary Sunshine
"Roxie" – Roxie and Boys
"I Can't Do It Alone" – Velma
"Chicago After Midnight" – Orchestra
"My Own Best Friend" – Roxie and Velma
Act 2
"I Know a Girl" – Velma
"Me and My Baby" – Roxie and Company
"Mr. Cellophane" – Amos Hart
"When Velma Takes the Stand" – Velma and Boys
"Razzle Dazzle" – Billy and Company
"Class" – Velma and Morton
"Nowadays" – Roxie
Finale: "Nowadays"/"R.S.V.P"/"Keep It Hot" – Roxie and Velma †
1996 Revival Production
"Chicago: The Musical"
Act 1
"Overture" – Orchestra
"All That Jazz" – Velma Kelly and Company
"Funny Honey" – Roxie Hart
"Cell Block Tango" – Velma and the Murderesses
"When You're Good to Mama" – Matron "Mama" Morton
"Tap Dance" - Roxie, Amos, and Boys
"All I Care About" – Billy Flynn and the Girls
"A Little Bit of Good" – Mary Sunshine
"We Both Reached for the Gun" – Billy, Roxie, Mary and the Reporters
"Roxie" – Roxie and the Boys
"I Can't Do It Alone" – Velma
"I Can't Do It Alone (Reprise)" – Velma
"Chicago After Midnight" – Orchestra
"My Own Best Friend" – Roxie and Velma
"Finale Act I: All That Jazz (Reprise)" – Velma
Act 2
"Entr'acte" – Orchestra
"I Know a Girl" – Velma
"Me and My Baby" – Roxie and Company
"Mr. Cellophane" – Amos Hart
"When Velma Takes the Stand" – Velma and the Boys
"Razzle Dazzle" – Billy and Company
"Class" – Velma and Mama Morton
"Nowadays/Hot Honey Rag" – Velma and Roxie
"Finale Act II: All That Jazz (Reprise)" – Company
† In the 1975 Original Broadway Production and its Playbill, there are a few contradicting song lists. Songs such as "R.S.V.P" and "Keep It Hot" which were instrumental pieces in the "Finale" were removed from the licensable music, but were included in original production and script. Other songs such as "Ten Percent" sung by a deleted character who was Velma's agent, and "No" sung by Roxie and Boys were cut soon into the production and only appear on demo recordings and in the original Playbill, but are not in the original script. Other cut songs from the show were "Rose Colored Glasses" a different version of "We Both Reached for the Gun", "Pansy Eyes", and "Loopin' the Loop".
Cast and characters
Principal
Source for West End: overthefootlights.co.uk
Principal characters (defined as having at least one featured musical number) and performers of notable stage productions:
Ensemble
Fred Casely: Roxie's paramour, a furniture salesman. Shot dead at the beginning of the play, he appears in flashback during the trial.
Katalin Hunyak: One of Roxie and Velma's fellow inmates, who speaks almost no English and is most likely innocent of the crime she is accused of committing. (Her last name Hunyak is an ethnic slur for Hungarian people.) Her hanging sets up the climax of the musical.
One-scene characters
Sergeant Fogarty: Police officer who arrests Roxie and investigates Fred's murder.
Liz, Annie, Mona and June: Four other inmates who appear only in "Cell Block Tango".
Aaron: Katalin's indifferent public defender, who prefers to cut plea deals instead of actually defending his clients.
Martin Harrison: assistant district attorney who prosecutes Roxie. Harrison only appears during the trial but is mentioned earlier.
Kitty Baxter: An heiress who murders her boyfriend and his two mistresses after finding all three of them in bed together. Her sensational arrest briefly eclipses Roxie's fame similar to how Roxie stole Velma's limelight, inspiring her to create the pregnancy act to regain her status in the media.
Harry: Kitty's boyfriend.
The ensemble also calls for a judge, jury foreman, gynecologist, court clerk, newspaper reporters, male sycophants for Roxie and Velma, and other miscellaneous roles, which are usually held as dual roles by other members of the ensemble.
Notable replacements
Broadway (1975-77)
Roxie Hart: Liza Minnelli
Broadway revival (1996- )
Roxie Hart: Mel B, Christie Brinkley, Charlotte d'Amboise, Paige Davis, Kara DioGuardi, Sandy Duncan, Veronica Dunne, Charlotte Kate Fox, Robin Givens, Melanie Griffith, Melora Hardin, Samantha Harris, Marilu Henner, Ruthie Henshall, Robyn Hurder, Erika Jayne, Bonnie Langford, Shiri Maimon, Bianca Marroquín, Gretchen Mol, Jennifer Nettles, Bebe Neuwirth, Petra Nielsen, Brandy Norwood, Desi Oakley, Lisa Rinna, Chita Rivera, Brooke Shields, Ashlee Simpson, Amy Spanger, Denise van Outen, Ana Villafañe, Nana Visitor, Michelle Williams, Rumer Willis, Rita Wilson, Ryoko Yonekura, Karen Ziemba, Anne Horak Gallagher (u/s), Chryssie Whitehead (u/s)
Velma Kelly: Pia Douwes, Deidre Goodwin, Lana Gordon, Jasmine Guy, Ruthie Henshall, Carly Hughes, Nikka Graff Lanzarone, Sharon Lawrence, Ute Lemper, Vicki Lewis, Bianca Marroquín, Luba Mason, Anna Montanaro, Mýa, Caroline O'Connor, Reva Rice, Amra-Faye Wright, Leigh Zimmerman, Amy Spanger (u/s), Chryssie Whitehead (u/s)
Billy Flynn: Pasquale Aleardi, Obba Babatundé, Brent Barrett, Hinton Battle, Wayne Brady, Jaime Camil, Philip Casnoff, Maxwell Caulfield, Chuck Cooper, Billy Ray Cyrus, Jason Danieley, Taye Diggs, Colman Domingo, John Dossett, Christopher Fitzgerald, Alexander Gemignani, Eddie George, Cuba Gooding Jr., Louis Gossett Jr., Michael C. Hall, Todrick Hall, George Hamilton, Harry Hamlin, Gregory Harrison, Tom Hewitt, James Monroe Iglehart, Gregory Jbara, Joey Lawrence, Huey Lewis, Norm Lewis, Peter Lockyer, Jeff McCarthy, Christopher McDonald, Brian McKnight, Paul Alexander Nolan, John O'Hurley, Adam Pascal, Marti Pellow, Clarke Peters, Ron Raines, Kevin Richardson, John Schneider, Matthew Settle, Chaz Lamar Shepherd, Christopher Sieber, Jerry Springer, Elvis Stojko, Patrick Swayze, Paulo Szot, Alan Thicke, Robert Urich, Usher, Ben Vereen, Tom Wopat, Tony Yazbeck, Billy Zane, Marco Zunino, Michael Berresse (u/s)
Amos Hart: Rob Bartlett, Kevin Chamberlin, Cory English, Christopher Fitzgerald, Tom McGowan, Vincent Pastore, Ernie Sabella, Chris Sullivan, Paul C. Vogt, James T. Lane (u/s), Adam Zotovich (u/s)
Matron "Mama" Morton: Kandi Burruss, B.J. Crosby, Larisa Dolina, Debbie Gravitte, Jennifer Holliday, Cady Huffman, Patti LaBelle, NeNe Leakes, Adriane Lenox, Debra Monk, Anne L. Nathan, Bebe Neuwirth, Michele Pawk, Christine Pedi, Roz Ryan, Camille Saviola, Valerie Simpson, Angie Stone, Mary Testa, Aida Turturro, Sofía Vergara, Lillias White, Terri White, Wendy Williams, Chandra Wilson, Carol Woods
Mary Sunshine: Nick Adams (u/s)
Musical and staging style
According to Fred Ebb, he wrote the book in a vaudeville style because "the characters were performers. Every musical moment in the show was loosely modeled on someone else: Roxie was Helen Morgan, Velma was Texas Guinan, Billy Flynn was Ted Lewis, Mama Morton was Sophie Tucker." Kander elaborates that the reason the show was called a vaudeville "is because many of the songs we wrote are related to specific performers like those you mentioned, and Eddie Cantor and Bert Williams as well."
It was through the initial production, and not the writing, that many of the "traditional" Chicago staging conventions were developed:
The double snap in "Razzle Dazzle" was added as an afterthought at the suggestion of Fred Ebb to John Kander. Kander explains: "I remember when we wrote "Razzle Dazzle", before we took it in and played it for Bob, you [Ebb] said with absolute confidence 'Try adding a couple of finger snaps to it. Bobby will love that.' We added them...and as soon as he heard the finger snaps, he loved the song." During rehearsals, "Razzle Dazzle" was originally staged as an orgy on the steps of the courthouse. Fosse was talked out of allowing this staging, when Jerry Orbach "convinced him that he was missing the Brechtian subtlety intrinsic in the number."
The original finale was "Loopin' the Loop", a doubles act with Gwen Verdon and Chita Rivera; however, "the scene seemed too much like an amateur act so Fosse asked for something more 'glamorous in pretty gowns'". The piece was cut and replaced with "Nowadays". Instrumental sections of "Loopin' the Loop" can still be heard in the Overture. Two other sections termed "Keep It Hot" and "RSVP" were cut from the finale as well.
Another principal character, a theatrical agent named Harry Glassman, was played by David Rounds, whose role was to exploit the notoriety of the prisoners for his own gain. He also served as the evening's M.C. This character's role and the song "Ten Percent" was cut, with the character folded into that of Matron Mama Morton, and various members of the chorus shared his M.C. duties.
In a reversal of roles, Fosse decided the lyrics to the number "Class" were too offensive and censored Kander and Ebb's original version of the song. One of the original lyrics "Every guy is a snot/Every girl is a twat" was restored for the 2002 movie, although the entire number was cut from the final release of the movie.
Productions
Original Broadway production
Chicago: A Musical Vaudeville opened on June 3, 1975 at the 46th Street Theatre, and ran for a total of 936 performances, closing on August 27, 1977. The opening night cast starred Chita Rivera as Velma Kelly, Gwen Verdon as Roxie Hart, Jerry Orbach as Billy Flynn and Barney Martin as Amos Hart. Velma Kelly had been a comparatively minor character in all versions of Chicago prior to the musical rendering. The role was fleshed out to balance Chita Rivera's role opposite Gwen Verdon's Roxie Hart.
The musical received mixed reviews. The Brechtian style of the show, which frequently dropped the fourth wall, made audiences uncomfortable. According to James Leve, "Chicago is cynical and subversive, exploiting American cultural mythologies in order to attack American celebrity culture."
The show opened the same year as Michael Bennett's highly successful A Chorus Line, which beat out Chicago in both ticket sales and at the Tony Awards. The show was on the verge of closing when it ran into another setback: Gwen Verdon had to have surgery on nodes in her throat after inhaling a feather during the show's finale. The producers contemplated closing the show, but Liza Minnelli stepped in and offered to play the role of Roxie Hart in place of Verdon. Her run lasted slightly over a month (August 8, 1975, through September 13, 1975), boosting the show's popularity, until Gwen Verdon recuperated and returned to the show. Ann Reinking, who would go on to star in the highly successful 1996 revival and choreograph that production in the style of Bob Fosse, was also a cast replacement for Roxie Hart during the show's original run.
1979 West End
The first West End, London production opened at the Cambridge Theatre in April 1979 and ran for around 600 performances (having debuted at the Crucible Theatre, Sheffield, on 23 November 1978). It commenced in the West End with most of the Sheffield cast, and was directed by Peter James and choreographed by Gillian Gregory. The producers were Ray Cooney and Larry Parnes. Jenny Logan starred as Velma Kelly, with Ben Cross as Billy, Antonia Ellis as Roxie Hart and Don Fellows as Amos Hart.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120719142243/http://westend.broadwayworld.com/shows/full.php?showid=3958 "'Chicago West End, 1979 listing"] westend.broadwayworld.com. Retrieved January 1, 2011</ref> Ellis (Actress of the Year in a Musical) and Ben Cross (Actor of the Year in a Musical) were nominated for the Laurence Olivier Award for their performances, and the musical was nominated as Musical of the Year. Elizabeth Seal later replaced Ellis as Roxie Hart.
1981 Australia
The original Australian production opened at the Sydney Opera House's Drama Theatre in June 1981. Featuring Nancye Hayes (Roxie), Geraldine Turner (Velma), Terence Donovan (Billy), Judi Connelli (Mama) and George Spartels (Amos), it was a new production directed by Richard Wherrett for the Sydney Theatre Company, rather than a replica of the Broadway production. It transferred to the Theatre Royal in Sydney, before touring to Melbourne's Comedy Theatre, Adelaide's Festival Theatre and a return season at the Theatre Royal, playing until March 1982. Sydney Theatre Company's production also toured to the Hong Kong Arts Festival in February 1983.
1992 Los Angeles production
The Long Beach Civic Light Opera presented Chicago in 1992, directed by Rob Marshall with choreography by Ann Reinking. Juliet Prowse played Roxy opposite Bebe Neuwirth as Velma. Gary Sandy played Billy Flynn with Kaye Ballard as Mama Morton.
1996 Broadway revival
City Center Encores! series presented Chicago in concert in May 1996. The Encores! series, according to their statement, "celebrates the rarely heard works of America's most important composers and lyricists...Encores! gives three glorious scores the chance to be heard as their creators originally intended."
The production was directed by Walter Bobbie with choreography "in the style of Bob Fosse" by Ann Reinking, who also reprised her previous role as Roxie Hart. Also in the cast were Bebe Neuwirth as Velma Kelly, Joel Grey as Amos Hart and James Naughton as Billy Flynn. The show was well-received, with Howard Kissel, reviewing for the New York Daily News writing that "This Chicago impressed me far more than the original.". Ben Brantley, in his review for The New York Times, wrote " 'Make love to the audience' was another Fosse dictum. That's exactly what Ms. Reinking and her ensemble do. Chicago can still seem glibly cynical and artificially cold, especially in its weaker second act. But these performers know just how to take off the chill." By May 10, 1996, there was talk of a Broadway production: "Down the block, there is a move afoot to move the Encores production of Chicago to Broadway. Rocco Landesman said that he and Fran and Barry Weissler wanted to bring the production to the Martin Beck Theater this summer."
Barry and Fran Weissler brought the Encores! production to Broadway, after some revision and expansion, but retaining the spare and minimalist style in costumes and set. The set design includes the presence of the band center stage in an evocation of a jury box, around and upon which the actors play some scenes. There are also chairs along the sides of this central piece, in which the actors at times sit or lounge, when not directly involved in the action. The show opened on November 14, 1996, at the
Richard Rodgers Theatre (the same theater where the original production had played) with a script adapted by David Thompson, eventually setting a record for recovering its initial costs faster than any other musical in history, likely due in part to the stripped-down design elements.
Unlike the original production, the revival was met with praise from critics. The CurtainUp reviewer noted, "The show garnered ecstatic reviews, enviable box office sales and enough awards to warrant a special Chicago trophy room." Society had changed in light of events such as the O. J. Simpson murder case, and audiences were more receptive to the criminal-as-celebrity theme of the show.
The revival of Chicago won six Tony Awards, more than any other revival in Broadway history until South Pacific won seven Tonys in 2008. Chicago won for Best Revival of a Musical, Best Leading Actress in a Musical for Bebe Neuwirth, Best Leading Actor in a Musical for James Naughton, Best Lighting Design of a Musical for Ken Billington, Best Director of a Musical for Walter Bobbie and Best Choreography for Ann Reinking. Chicago: The Musical has run for more than 9,000 performances" 'Chicago' Listing" IBDB.com and holds the record for longest-running musical revival on Broadway. Ann Reinking, Bebe Neuwirth, James Naughton, and Joel Grey returned for cameo appearances.
The cast recording of the revival was released on January 28, 1997, on RCA Victor. The cast recording won the 1997 Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album.
Among the many other performers and celebrities who have appeared in the show are Brandy Norwood, Usher, Christopher Sieber, Charlotte d'Amboise, Cuba Gooding Jr., Michael C. Hall, Roz Ryan, Jerry Springer, Brooke Shields, NeNe Leakes, Debra Monk, Patrick Swayze, Kevin Richardson, Gretchen Mol, Rita Wilson, Alan Thicke, Melanie Griffith, Taye Diggs, Erika Jayne, Carol Woods, Chandra Wilson, John O'Hurley, Christine Pedi, Ashlee Simpson, Adam Pascal, Todrick Hall, Amy Spanger, Leigh Zimmerman, Wendy Williams, Samantha Harris, Jennifer Nettles, Marilu Henner, Jeff McCarthy, Norm Lewis, Kevin Chamberlin, Christopher Fitzgerald, Philip Casnoff, Pasquale Aleardi, Ruthie Henshall, Christie Brinkley, Tony Yazbeck, Kara DioGuardi, Sofía Vergara, Mel B, Ryoko Yonekura, and Shiri Maimon.
On January 29, 2003, more than six years into its run, the Broadway production moved a second time, to the Ambassador Theatre, where it has played ever since. On November 23, 2014, Chicago became the second longest-running Broadway show, surpassing Cats.
London revivals
On November 18, 1997, the revival production opened in London's West End."Chicago" listing thisistheatre.com, accessed May 27, 2009 Like the New York revival, it was directed by Walter Bobbie and designed by John Lee Beatty, with choreography by Ann Reinking in the style of Bob Fosse. The show ran at the Adelphi Theatre for nine years until transferring to the Cambridge Theatre in April 2006. The original cast of the production included German jazz singer Ute Lemper as Velma, British actress Ruthie Henshall as Roxie Hart, Nigel Planer as Amos Hart, and Henry Goodman as Billy Flynn. The production won the 1998 Olivier Award for Outstanding Musical, and Lemper was awarded Best Actress in a Musical. Both Lemper and Henshall have played the role of Velma on Broadway.
Like its Broadway counterpart, the London production featured many celebrities in the starring roles. For example, Marti Pellow, David Hasselhoff, John Barrowman, Tony Hadley, Jerry Springer, Kevin Richardson and Ian Kelsey have all played the role of Billy Flynn. Maria Friedman, Josefina Gabrielle, Denise Van Outen, Claire Sweeney, Linzi Hateley, Frances Ruffelle, Jennifer Ellison, Jill Halfpenny, Brooke Shields, Sally Ann Triplett, Bonnie Langford, Tina Arena, Ashlee Simpson, Aoife Mulholland, Michelle Williams and Christie Brinkley have all played Roxie Hart. Williams was the first African American woman to play the part of Roxie on the West End stage. James Doherty was a replacement as Amos.
The production moved out of the Cambridge Theatre on August 27, 2011 and transferred to the Garrick Theatre on November 7, 2011, starring America Ferrera as Roxie. Robin Cousins joined the cast as Billy Flynn on July 17, 2012. The show closed on September 1, 2012 after a total run of nearly 15 years in London. The UK tour of the production continued after the closing.
To celebrate the 21st Anniversary of the West End revival production, Chicago returned, this time at the Phoenix Theatre opening April 11, 2018, starring Cuba Gooding Jr. as Billy Flynn, Sarah Soetaert as Roxie Hart, Josefina Gabrielle as Velma Kelly, and Ruthie Henshall as Mama Morton. A cast change saw Martin Kemp take over the role of Billy Flynn, with Alexandra Burke as Roxie Hart and Mazz Murray as Mama Morton. Denise Van Outen was announced to take over the role of Velma from 24 September 2018, but due to sustaining a stress fracture in her heel, her integration was delayed until 7 October. The production featured on ITV's reality show, The Big Audition, to cast the replacement Velma. Following multiple rounds of singing, dancing and acting auditions, Laura Tyrer was selected to fill in for the role.
North American tours
There have been ten North American national tours of Chicago. The first tour started in April 1997 in Cincinnati, Ohio, six months after the revival opened on Broadway. The cast featured Charlotte d'Amboise (Roxie Hart), Jasmine Guy (Velma Kelly), Obba Babatundé (Billy Flynn) and Carol Woods (Matron "Mama" Morton). A second company started in December 1997 in Tampa, Florida. The tour went on hiatus in Fall 1999 and started again in October 1999 in Denver, Colorado, featuring Robert Urich as Billy Flynn, Vicki Lewis (Velma) and Nana Visitor (Roxie).Dillard, Sandra C. "ALL JAZZED UP Robert Urich is keen on dancing in 'Chicago'", The Denver PostOctober 17, 1999, p.H1 The next tour started in October 2000 in Stamford, Connecticut, with Robert Urich. Chita Rivera joined the tour for several weeks.
The 2003 tour started in June 2003 at the National Theatre, Washington, DC, with Brenda Braxton playing Velma, Bianca Marroquin as Roxie, and Gregory Harrison as Billy Flynn.Gans, Andrew. "Brenda Braxton Returns to 'Chicago' Next Month" playbill.com, December 24, 2003 During 2004 the tour cast included Alan Thicke and Tom Wopat as Billy Flynn and Carol Woods as Matron "Mama" Morton. The most recent tour started in November 2008 in Charlotte, North Carolina and starred Tom Wopat as Billy Flynn, Bianca Marroquin as Roxie Hart, Terra C. MacLeod as Velma Kelly and Roz Ryan (later replaced by Carol Woods) as Matron "Mama" Morton.Russell, Robert. "Review: Chicago s Razzle Dazzle frazzle at Starlight", The Kansas City Star, August 14, 2009 On January 16, 2012 Peruvian actor Marco Zunino joined the cast as Billy Flynn.Amra-Faye Wright Returns to Broadway's Chicago Feb. 2; Marco Zunino, Bianca Marroquin Extend Runs
2019 Australia
On 14 June 2018, the Gordon Frost Organisation announced a revival tour of Chicago commencing early 2019 at the Capitol Theatre in Sydney. The show starred Natalie Bassingthwaighte as Roxie Hart and Casey Donovan as Matron "Mama" Morton. The Melbourne leg of the tour starred Jason Donovan as Billy Flynn. Jason's father Terence had played the same role in the original 1981 Australian production.
2021 UK Tour
A new UK and Ireland tour began on September 11, 2021 at the King's Theatre, Glasgow.
International productions
The first Japanese-language production of the Tony-winning revival of Kander and Ebb's Chicago debuted in October 2008 at the Akasaka ACT Theatre in Tokyo, Japan, followed by an engagement at Osaka's Umeda Art Theatre. Presented by Barry and Fran Weissler in association with Tokyo Broadcasting System, Inc. and Kyodo Tokyo Inc., the b production starred Ryoko Yonekura as Roxie Hart, Yōka Wao as Velma Kelly and Ryuichi Kawamura as Billy Flynn.
In Perú, the musical opened on June 16, 2012 starring Tati Alcántara, Denisse Dibós, and Marco Zunino at Teatro Municipal de Lima in Lima. The show was also staged using a Spanish translation in Costa Rica in 2017 starring Silvia Baltodano and Isabel Guzman.
A French-language production of Chicago, based on the Broadway 1996 revival, opened on September 18, 2018 at Théâtre Mogador in Paris with Sofia Essaïdi as Velma Kelly, Carien Keizer as Roxie Hart and Jean-Luc Guizone as Billy Flynn. Directed by Dominique Trottein with a book translated by Nicolas Engel, this production is choreographed by Ann Reinking and the music was supervised by Rob Bowman. This production will close on June 30, 2019.
The Stratford Festival in Ontario, Canada, will present an entirely new production of Chicago as part of their 2020 season, the organization was granted new production rights outside of New York or London for the first time in 30 years. It will be directed by Donna Feore.
Anniversary
On Tuesday November 16, 2021, there was a celebration at the Ambassador Theater marking Chicago the Musical's 25th year anniversary. Celebrities like Andrew Rannells, Bebe Neuwirth, and New York City Mayor-elect Eric Adams showed up to celebrate 25 years of the musical.
Recordings
There have been several cast recordings of Chicago'':
1975 Original Broadway Cast
1981 Original Australian Cast
1996 Broadway Revival
1998 London Cast
1997 Austrian (German language) Cast – Live Cast Album (with Anna Montanaro)
1999 Dutch Cast – Live Cast Album, 2 discs (with Pia Douwes)
2014 German Cast - Live Cast Album, Stuttgart, 1 disc with Nigel Casey, Lana Gordon, Carien Keizer
Awards and nominations
Original Broadway production
Original London production
1996 Broadway revival
1997 London revival
References
External links
Chicago, The Musical, Official Website
Chicago, El Musical, Spanish Production Official Website
Plot summary, character descriptions & licensing info for Chicago
New Velma on B'way
Gerónimo Rauch-Mary Sunshine in Chicago (Spain)
Ovrtur.com Listing
Chicago song lyrics
1975 musicals
Broadway musicals
Chicago in fiction
Plays set in Illinois
Drama Desk Award-winning musicals
Laurence Olivier Award-winning musicals
Musicals based on plays
West End musicals
Plays set in the United States
Musicals choreographed by Bob Fosse
Musicals set in the Roaring Twenties
Musicals by Kander and Ebb
Sororicide in fiction
Mariticide in fiction
Tony Award-winning musicals
|
[
-0.3944534659385681,
0.45363008975982666,
-0.6176537871360779,
-0.16085338592529297,
0.17309223115444183,
-0.06271068751811981,
0.0440799854695797,
-0.06575457006692886,
0.009515732526779175,
-0.4250587821006775,
0.13927730917930603,
0.17299510538578033,
-0.5713586807250977,
-0.16407933831214905,
-0.3701699376106262,
0.4320058524608612,
0.097634457051754,
-0.3059042990207672,
-0.17203731834888458,
-0.6869168877601624,
-0.337863951921463,
-0.6519094705581665,
0.3493396043777466,
0.4724803566932678,
0.3911709189414978,
0.12738525867462158,
0.18473738431930542,
-0.19175752997398376,
0.008548500016331673,
0.7097882032394409,
0.15798939764499664,
0.22027084231376648,
0.33548983931541443,
-0.31228089332580566,
-0.24429652094841003,
0.3653642237186432,
-0.37232980132102966,
-0.19182133674621582,
-0.008831488899886608,
-0.6901500225067139,
0.4860212802886963,
-0.11098363995552063,
0.4910183548927307,
0.417508602142334,
0.20732855796813965,
0.3078085780143738,
-1.6138331890106201,
0.4941171705722809,
-0.6165395379066467,
-0.3450271189212799,
0.0012391845230013132,
0.15676788985729218,
0.6834473013877869,
0.612945020198822,
-0.1393987536430359,
0.3250671923160553,
-0.41749289631843567,
0.33724263310432434,
-0.10038650780916214,
-0.4868661165237427,
-0.11060433834791183,
0.762961745262146,
0.5398895144462585,
0.015618972480297089,
-0.1021236926317215,
-0.09024739265441895,
0.10240987688302994,
0.33955973386764526,
0.6596687436103821,
-0.5500650405883789,
0.013870653696358204,
0.03831816464662552,
-0.24987713992595673,
0.13045044243335724,
0.1977154165506363,
-0.3560584783554077,
0.7633653283119202,
-0.1263839304447174,
-0.4226272702217102,
0.5247446298599243,
-0.2891806960105896,
-0.3456437289714813,
0.47384244203567505,
0.29528695344924927,
-0.023652078583836555,
-0.3034934401512146,
-0.8342669010162354,
0.08566056191921234,
-0.3820915222167969,
-0.2857576012611389,
-0.4560096263885498,
-0.6340740919113159,
-0.07492350041866302,
0.661150336265564,
0.1461920440196991,
0.36488014459609985,
0.561073362827301,
0.13436901569366455,
-0.14859357476234436,
-0.28735023736953735,
0.06820880621671677,
-0.3258435130119324,
0.1571611613035202,
-0.08021101355552673,
-0.5696009993553162,
0.025557560846209526,
0.5229887366294861,
-0.43195122480392456,
0.4801907539367676,
0.27802321314811707,
-0.11306291073560715,
-0.1980968862771988,
-0.11452675610780716,
-0.19585834443569183,
0.7016839385032654,
0.2218915820121765,
-0.003980294801294804,
-0.0716182067990303,
-0.37659919261932373,
0.033547889441251755,
-0.05841054394841194,
0.4545644521713257,
0.052432093769311905,
0.3172004222869873,
-0.8405230641365051,
0.5140146613121033,
0.17593176662921906,
0.7175745368003845,
-0.2423122376203537,
-0.46883413195610046,
-0.0735468789935112,
0.5697584748268127,
-0.2556370496749878,
-0.2752862870693207,
0.002772707724943757,
-0.12509691715240479,
0.43839114904403687,
-0.2691500782966614,
-0.41950079798698425,
0.13842888176441193,
-0.2865287959575653,
-0.09797029197216034,
-0.07396729290485382,
-0.5532505512237549,
0.3686688542366028,
-0.7956143617630005,
0.1505943387746811,
-0.27408838272094727,
0.1240319013595581,
-0.5077751874923706,
0.5318687558174133,
0.3718646764755249,
-0.28764355182647705,
0.4416213929653168,
-0.5663090944290161,
0.08724022656679153,
-0.01412614993751049,
0.06765268743038177,
-0.0052056098356842995,
0.35386669635772705,
0.4217400550842285,
0.3794184625148773,
0.2533288300037384,
-0.3124287724494934,
-0.14000478386878967,
-0.23114946484565735,
-0.0889461413025856,
-0.050045475363731384,
-0.22521772980690002,
0.04298819229006767,
0.07946691662073135,
0.23059064149856567,
0.09064050763845444,
0.1204649806022644,
-0.019817983731627464,
0.3693976402282715,
0.2278941571712494,
0.08726239949464798,
-0.016877083107829094,
-0.09104152768850327,
-0.3156181573867798,
0.14384551346302032,
0.3625516891479492,
-0.04310901463031769,
0.14567060768604279,
-0.07709028571844101,
0.13279546797275543,
0.0430406853556633,
0.2817663252353668,
0.06771408021450043,
-0.061999931931495667,
-0.6445156335830688,
0.4759643077850342,
-0.2895743250846863,
1.050943374633789,
0.30112239718437195,
0.029712878167629242,
-0.32898223400115967,
0.1575276106595993,
0.15078279376029968,
0.10907163470983505,
0.34044814109802246,
1.4892733097076416,
-0.06822674721479416,
0.2826150059700012,
-0.2304932177066803,
0.12961538136005402,
0.1104193776845932,
-0.2249758094549179,
0.6031894087791443,
0.05801459774374962,
-0.3034517168998718,
0.5256678462028503,
0.35672619938850403,
-0.11856909096240997,
-0.4105754494667053,
-0.19169366359710693,
0.520739734172821,
0.2582378387451172,
-0.41502395272254944,
0.8847211599349976,
0.37599050998687744,
-0.1874525398015976,
-0.2133622169494629,
0.0013887265231460333,
1.0299031734466553,
0.24860422313213348,
-0.06802613288164139,
-0.06114240363240242,
0.3686753213405609,
0.09529886394739151,
0.41252243518829346,
-0.19591660797595978,
-0.9821828007698059,
0.21051332354545593,
0.0238341037184,
0.39189350605010986,
-0.12545298039913177,
0.3152148425579071,
-0.1123589277267456,
0.2857424318790436,
-0.0646350309252739,
-0.810548722743988,
0.15559664368629456,
-0.20834316313266754,
-0.05034415051341057,
-0.09307385981082916,
0.08149917423725128,
0.6084399819374084,
0.17725683748722076,
0.21269311010837555,
0.12993088364601135,
0.37130606174468994,
0.29995858669281006,
-0.22958898544311523,
0.34495285153388977,
-0.2108948677778244,
-0.6924641728401184,
0.7111442685127258,
-0.10669037699699402,
0.045235127210617065,
-0.48213323950767517,
0.3414110541343689,
-0.5017048716545105,
0.07758712023496628,
-0.9631516933441162,
-0.5983753204345703,
-0.10052434355020523,
-0.21020932495594025,
0.09589435905218124,
0.09895329177379608,
0.09474409371614456,
-0.3265044391155243,
0.5326946377754211,
0.19861747324466705,
0.5158560872077942,
-0.06519027054309845,
-0.030446594581007957,
-0.35174688696861267,
-0.2788518965244293,
0.19452506303787231,
0.04092248156666756,
-0.06409057229757309,
-0.711595892906189,
-0.3288924992084503,
0.17148901522159576,
0.43368569016456604,
-0.7291331887245178,
-0.2606194019317627,
0.26214125752449036,
0.6057066321372986,
0.38193297386169434,
-0.3583695590496063,
-0.38328513503074646,
0.4977569580078125,
0.008270329795777798,
0.1879996955394745,
-0.015848428010940552,
-0.5824311375617981,
0.3560596704483032,
0.4568718373775482,
0.2438623160123825,
-0.10832055658102036,
-0.30021533370018005,
0.32891979813575745,
-0.29615524411201477,
-0.5269404053688049,
-0.41842442750930786,
-5.990091323852539,
-0.10789932310581207,
-0.48779281973838806,
-0.10000915825366974,
-0.5934781432151794,
-0.40460485219955444,
0.17792361974716187,
-0.45275232195854187,
0.37053969502449036,
-0.23767027258872986,
-0.6171757578849792,
-0.12497811764478683,
-0.7535811066627502,
0.46182191371917725,
0.22892868518829346,
-0.3179057240486145,
-0.4260932207107544,
-0.9450563788414001,
0.116702139377594,
0.3142877519130707,
0.06443242728710175,
-0.5365428924560547,
-0.0906040146946907,
0.31026577949523926,
0.588685929775238,
0.5316345691680908,
-0.5072295069694519,
0.09210214018821716,
-0.5804355144500732,
-0.11401444673538208,
-0.07911062985658646,
-0.04847773164510727,
0.20500513911247253,
-0.40285736322402954,
0.10461723059415817,
0.03301021084189415,
0.20399819314479828,
-0.4059343636035919,
-0.11261163651943207,
-0.19673199951648712,
-0.12944893538951874,
-0.24469205737113953,
0.02276049554347992,
-0.3236057460308075,
0.3745575249195099,
-0.11612220853567123,
-0.39840322732925415,
-0.0869789570569992,
-0.46160459518432617,
1.1064432859420776,
0.4928687512874603,
0.685053825378418,
0.1424533724784851,
-0.3721894919872284,
0.03783135116100311,
-0.7144389152526855,
0.4442459046840668,
-0.1815750002861023,
-0.025550602003932,
0.005266646388918161,
0.5264332890510559,
-0.08504015952348709,
-0.10259504616260529,
0.07673044502735138,
-0.2861412465572357,
-0.16458739340305328,
0.0018322860123589635,
0.07769358158111572,
-0.11561369895935059,
0.3554745018482208,
0.47963523864746094,
0.6238964200019836,
0.43701207637786865,
-0.8918479681015015,
-0.2993679940700531,
-0.11269359290599823,
-0.2991502285003662,
-0.016013089567422867,
-0.06436215341091156,
0.30142101645469666,
-0.05968548730015755,
-0.23969915509223938,
-0.1425258219242096,
0.32083430886268616,
0.0702146664261818,
-0.15205369889736176,
-0.5687440633773804,
0.6549968123435974,
-0.801268458366394,
-0.15691272914409637,
0.7455669045448303,
-0.5078825354576111,
-0.1510162353515625,
0.15457576513290405,
0.29102563858032227,
-0.027280518785119057,
0.2480590045452118,
0.049277413636446,
0.479335218667984,
0.15241216123104095,
0.0862959697842598,
0.0067693633027374744,
0.2975885570049286,
0.0713488906621933,
0.0859316885471344,
-0.544539213180542,
-0.06372319161891937,
-0.02197170816361904,
0.8168540596961975,
-0.18302536010742188,
0.33867254853248596,
-0.47035646438598633,
-0.2501388192176819,
-0.7189053297042847,
0.25904130935668945,
-0.18355852365493774,
0.3421464264392853,
0.06034264713525772,
0.13110846281051636,
0.38386502861976624,
0.04003114625811577,
-0.09425614029169083,
0.31014305353164673,
0.12986765801906586,
-1.1719657182693481,
0.41467398405075073,
0.015621683560311794,
0.12474051117897034,
-0.14565469324588776,
0.5744613409042358,
-0.4538094997406006,
0.26839426159858704,
0.17712467908859253,
-0.10323283821344376,
0.15307991206645966,
0.2612804174423218,
-0.4317886233329773,
-0.028787419199943542,
0.23147329688072205,
-0.021554147824645042,
0.2682519853115082,
-0.4703848361968994,
-0.060607172548770905,
0.03290722146630287,
0.061233796179294586,
0.2352140247821808,
-0.12945951521396637,
-0.6075964570045471,
-0.25975120067596436,
0.07077353447675705,
0.20674259960651398,
0.1050121933221817,
0.4266866445541382,
-0.30777332186698914,
-0.7129911184310913,
-0.08380982279777527,
0.48030000925064087,
-0.27388495206832886,
-0.11867571622133255,
0.497198224067688,
0.3216317296028137,
-0.5306508541107178,
-0.5931280851364136,
-0.13142871856689453,
0.1747535765171051,
-0.3432581126689911,
-0.09504075348377228,
-0.527681827545166,
-0.5058107376098633,
0.038017936050891876,
0.43857941031455994,
-0.16476529836654663,
0.1293848752975464,
-0.15455983579158783,
0.29020601511001587,
-0.2694731056690216,
-0.12873393297195435,
-0.6921019554138184,
-0.08385267108678818,
0.2784295082092285,
0.41471898555755615,
-0.8305752873420715,
-0.3471430838108063,
0.40477341413497925,
0.41794368624687195,
-0.29990363121032715,
-0.9216822385787964,
-0.3651663362979889,
0.02387010119855404,
0.09731405973434448,
0.15621863305568695,
-0.43275919556617737,
0.3019181489944458,
0.06174813583493233,
-0.26967495679855347,
-0.3952609896659851,
0.1949666440486908,
-0.29631558060646057,
-0.060003072023391724,
-0.36580023169517517,
0.07441515475511551,
0.1517380028963089,
-0.41926929354667664,
0.04207814857363701,
0.23995889723300934,
-0.5380008220672607,
0.1070326417684555,
0.5238075852394104,
-0.3270711302757263,
0.2753439247608185,
-0.2625424265861511,
-0.6285113096237183,
0.13985367119312286,
-0.4951239824295044,
-0.22336477041244507,
0.49310457706451416,
0.1784583479166031,
-0.15519659221172333,
-0.851763129234314,
0.0897635892033577,
-0.41109201312065125,
-0.08701246976852417,
-0.7078171372413635,
-0.5367722511291504,
-0.48591116070747375,
0.4043227732181549,
-0.28992989659309387,
-0.5137824416160583,
-0.6410441398620605,
-0.31671130657196045,
0.07357464730739594,
0.4253118634223938,
-0.010715244337916374,
-0.04330483451485634,
-0.09877192229032516,
-0.2162332981824875,
-0.8359484076499939,
-0.04895243048667908,
-0.000020092224076506682,
0.8339203000068665,
0.5207123160362244,
0.4629475772380829,
0.38378041982650757,
0.1551211178302765,
0.38831627368927,
-0.1466868370771408,
0.10294758528470993,
-0.05940574035048485,
0.05167616531252861,
0.08035127818584442,
0.15548092126846313,
-0.13896766304969788,
-0.10969541221857071,
-0.5369513034820557,
0.5105929374694824,
-0.4938673675060272,
-0.19951759278774261,
0.7802774906158447,
-0.3627678155899048,
0.2757664620876312,
-0.19895721971988678,
0.44387856125831604,
-0.3237806558609009,
0.12703709304332733,
-0.030826712027192116,
0.41747015714645386,
0.24467410147190094,
-0.6028168797492981,
-0.034884124994277954,
-0.25121355056762695,
0.23525582253932953,
0.06573773920536041,
0.6093232035636902,
0.26968297362327576,
0.4183602035045624,
-0.15064358711242676,
-0.27454498410224915,
-0.14724226295948029,
0.18454663455486298,
-0.22581782937049866,
-0.015938276425004005,
0.403521865606308,
-0.42053529620170593,
-0.5408279299736023,
0.35112515091896057,
-0.26514649391174316,
-0.36424461007118225,
-0.3181719481945038,
0.07919741421937943,
0.03703071549534798,
0.010898896493017673,
0.23185883462429047,
0.15563660860061646,
0.3081700801849365,
-0.24273502826690674,
0.3674190044403076,
0.593914806842804,
0.5131073594093323,
0.21936315298080444,
-0.10802604258060455,
-0.47532057762145996,
0.23755398392677307,
0.18779708445072174,
-0.5125223398208618,
-0.11845801770687103,
0.22202147543430328,
0.18039600551128387,
-0.052177608013153076,
-0.7469274997711182,
0.2877526581287384,
0.19724377989768982,
-0.5509326457977295,
0.1657351851463318,
0.910802960395813,
-0.767698347568512,
0.5293533802032471,
0.5542325973510742,
-0.43134453892707825,
-0.03902435302734375,
0.32869309186935425,
0.18322470784187317,
0.03040485642850399,
0.3911556601524353,
-0.007616607006639242,
0.2391880303621292,
-0.06865748763084412,
0.16749712824821472,
0.4725870192050934,
-0.16369085013866425,
0.2418200671672821,
0.6784704923629761,
-0.1863463670015335,
0.1173120066523552,
0.3029887080192566,
0.1331811398267746,
0.2563084065914154,
0.16782164573669434,
-0.40127697587013245,
-0.7809070348739624,
0.14665864408016205,
-0.116463802754879,
-0.40191179513931274,
0.11757675558328629,
-0.02778516337275505,
-0.05904683098196983,
-0.1799732744693756,
0.3947111964225769,
0.1431102305650711,
-0.42419126629829407,
0.02992689609527588,
-0.1356145143508911,
0.4711425304412842,
-0.37388893961906433,
-0.7997696399688721,
0.2010766714811325,
-0.25286078453063965,
0.4759380519390106,
0.08357135206460953,
0.4830542206764221,
0.15705569088459015,
-0.32137832045555115,
0.02313825488090515,
0.6540869474411011,
-0.2056744247674942,
-0.35037392377853394,
0.20978449285030365,
0.09316190332174301,
-0.3151382505893707,
-0.23604190349578857,
0.20832356810569763,
-0.5740270018577576,
-0.15458865463733673,
-0.29756632447242737,
0.06475978344678879,
0.19808435440063477,
0.2316928207874298,
0.11006990075111389,
-0.059400517493486404,
0.24398237466812134,
0.7935901284217834,
-0.06943224370479584,
0.2751619219779968,
-0.9141898155212402,
-0.06686533242464066,
-0.20876939594745636,
-0.3802993595600128,
-0.05999496206641197,
-0.1152409240603447,
-0.10224834829568863,
-0.8267231583595276,
0.9179133176803589,
-0.8519015908241272,
0.4302523732185364,
0.10705512017011642,
0.13652609288692474,
-0.6010645031929016,
-0.15051515400409698,
0.8148154616355896,
0.10797359049320221,
-0.09497860074043274,
0.5943503379821777,
-0.2478206902742386,
0.368050754070282,
0.21334949135780334,
-0.06997397541999817,
0.27009186148643494,
-0.31876954436302185,
0.20338040590286255,
0.06433320045471191,
0.22656255960464478,
-0.29843616485595703,
0.4077591598033905,
-0.2918526232242584,
-0.007580598350614309,
0.1797119528055191,
0.26918551325798035,
0.32193660736083984,
0.09640137851238251,
-0.14772561192512512,
-0.3163928985595703,
0.4335381090641022,
0.08597679436206818,
-0.010594011284410954,
-0.06323747336864471,
0.17356762290000916,
0.24969911575317383,
-0.20459771156311035,
-0.5319793820381165,
0.7497671246528625,
0.5883527994155884,
0.8423598408699036,
-0.00046690410817973316,
-0.3699802756309509,
-0.21951794624328613,
0.06099352985620499,
-0.09673403948545456,
0.5625418424606323,
0.24891261756420135,
0.36520418524742126,
-0.31140974164009094,
0.21964451670646667,
-0.1580124944448471,
-0.5759688019752502,
0.28414908051490784,
-0.13993898034095764,
0.2547960877418518,
0.4825318157672882,
-0.48995494842529297,
-0.6529623866081238,
0.9121001958847046,
-0.11606336385011673,
-0.7779617309570312,
0.29290321469306946,
-0.06946536898612976,
0.08376067131757736,
-0.3969791531562805,
-0.04895344004034996,
-0.6079521179199219,
0.39119333028793335,
0.14044128358364105
] |
213088
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RBMK
|
RBMK
|
The RBMK (, РБМК; reaktor bolshoy moshchnosti kanalnyy, "high-power channel-type reactor") is a class of graphite-moderated nuclear power reactor designed and built by the Soviet Union. The name refers to its design where, instead of a large steel pressure vessel surrounding the entire core, the core is surrounded by a cylindrical annular steel tank inside a concrete vault and each fuel assembly is enclosed in an individual 8 cm (inner) diameter pipe (called a "technological channel"). The channels also contain the coolant, and are surrounded by graphite.
The RBMK is an early Generation II reactor and the oldest commercial reactor design still in wide operation. Certain aspects of the original RBMK reactor design, such as the large positive void coefficient, the 'tip effect' of the control rods and instability at low power levels, contributed to the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, in which an RBMK experienced an uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction, leading to a steam and/or hydrogen explosion, large fire and subsequent core meltdown. Radioactivity was released over a large portion of Europe. The disaster prompted worldwide calls for the reactors to be completely decommissioned; however, there is still considerable reliance on RBMK facilities for power in Russia. Most of the flaws in the design of RBMK-1000 reactors were corrected after the Chernobyl accident and a dozen reactors have since been operating without any serious incidents for over thirty years. While nine RBMK blocks under construction were cancelled after the Chernobyl disaster, and the last of three remaining RBMK blocks at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant was shut down in 2000, as of December 2021 there were still 8 RBMK reactors and three small EGP-6 graphite moderated light-water reactors operating in Russia, though all have been retrofitted with a number of safety updates. Only two RBMK blocks were started after 1986: Ignalina-2 and Smolensk-3.
History
The RBMK was the culmination of the Soviet nuclear power program to produce a water-cooled power reactor with dual-use potential based on their graphite-moderated plutonium production military reactors. The first of these, Obninsk AM-1 ("Атом Мирный", Atom Mirny, Russian for "Atoms for Peace") generated 5 MW of electricity from 30 MW thermal power, and supplied Obninsk from 1954 until 1959. Subsequent prototypes were the and both at Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station.
By using a minimalist design that used regular (light) water for cooling and graphite for moderation, it was possible to use low-enriched uranium for fuel (1.8% enrichment instead of considerably more expensive enriched uranium of around 4%). This allowed for an extraordinarily large and powerful reactor that could be built rapidly, largely out of parts fabricated on-site instead of by specialized factories. The initial 1000 MWe design also left room for development into yet more powerful reactors. For example, the RBMK reactors at the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant in Lithuania were rated at 1500 MWe each, a very large size for the time and even for the early 21st century.
The RBMK-1000's design was finalized in 1968. At that time it was the world's largest nuclear reactor design, surpassing western designs and
the VVER (an earlier Soviet PWR reactor design) in power output and physical size, being 20 times larger by volume than contemporary western reactors. Similarly to CANDU reactors it could be produced without the specialized industry required by the large and thick-walled reactor pressure vessels such as those used by VVER reactors, thus increasing the number of factories capable of manufacturing RBMK reactor components. No prototypes of the RBMK were built; it was put directly into mass production.
The RBMK was proclaimed by some as the national reactor of the Soviet Union, probably due to nationalism because of its unique design, large size and power output and especially since the VVER was called the American reactor by its detractors in the Soviet Union, since its design is more similar to that of western PWR reactors. A top-secret invention patent for the RBMK design was filed by Anatoly Aleksandrov from the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, who personally took credit for the design of the reactor, with the Soviet patent office. Because a containment building would have needed to be very large and thus expensive (doubling the cost of each unit) due to the large size of the RBMK, it was originally omitted from the design. It was argued by its designers that the RBMK's strategy of having each fuel assembly in its own channel with flowing cooling water was an acceptable alternative for containment.
The RBMK was mainly designed at the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy and , headed by Anatoly Aleksandrov and Nikolai Dollezhal respectively, from 1964 to 1966. The RBMK was favored over the VVER by the Soviet Union due to its ease of manufacture (due to a lack of a large and thick-walled reactor pressure vessel and relatively complex associated steam generators) and its large power output which would allow the Soviet government to easily meet their central economic planning targets. The flaws in the original RBMK design were recognized by others, including from within the Kurchatov Institute before the first units were built, but the orders for construction of the first RBMK units, which were at Leningrad, had already been issued in 1966 by the Soviet government by the time their concerns reached the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Soviet Council of Ministers. This prompted a sudden overhaul of the RBMK. Plutonium production in an RBMK would have been achieved by operating the reactor under special thermal parameters, but this capability was abandoned early on. This was the design that was finalized in 1968. The redesign did not solve flaws that were not discovered until years later. Construction of the first RBMK, which was at Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant, began in 1970. Leningrad unit 1 opened in 1973.
At Leningrad it was discovered that the RBMK, due to its high positive void coefficient, became harder to control as the uranium fuel was consumed or burned up, becoming unpredictable by the time it was shut down after three years for maintenance. This made controlling the RBMK a very laborious, mentally and physically demanding task requiring the timely adjustment of dozens of parameters every minute, around the clock, constantly wearing out switches such as those used for the control rods and causing operators to sweat. The enrichment percentage was thus increased to 2.0%, up from 1.8% to alleviate these issues. The RBMK was considered by some in the Soviet Union to be already obsolete shortly after the commissioning of Chernobyl unit 1. Aleksandrov and Dollezhal did not investigate further or even deeply understand the problems in the RBMK, and the void coefficient was not analyzed in the manuals for the reactor. Engineers at Chernobyl unit 1 had to create solutions to many of the RBMK's flaws such as a lack of protection against no feedwater supply. Leningrad and Chernobyl units 1 both had partial meltdowns that were treated (alongside other nuclear accidents at power plants) as state secrets and so were unknown even to other workers at those same plants.
By 1980, NIKIET realized after completing a confidential study that accidents with the RBMK were likely even during normal operation, but no action was taken to correct the RBMK's flaws. Instead, manuals were revised, which was believed to be enough to ensure safe operation as long as they were followed closely. However, the manuals were vague and Soviet power plant staff already had a habit of bending the rules in order to meet economic targets, despite inadequate or malfunctioning equipment. Crucially, it was not made clear that a number of control rods had to stay in the reactor at all times in order to protect against an accident, as loosely articulated by the Operational Reactivity Margin (ORM) parameter.
An ORM chart recorder and display were added to RBMK control rooms after the Chernobyl disaster.
A 45-year lifetime is envisaged for many of the units, after mid-life refurbishment.
Reactor design and performance
Reactor vessel, moderator and shielding
The reactor pit or vault is made of reinforced concrete and has dimensions . It houses the vessel of the reactor, which is annular, made of an inner and outer cylindrical wall and top and bottom metal plates that cover the space between the inner and outer walls, without covering the space surrounded by the vessel.
The reactor vessel is an annular steel cylinder with hollow walls and pressurized with nitrogen gas, with an inner diameter and height of , and a wall thickness of . In order to absorb axial thermal expansion loads, it is equipped with two bellows compensators, one on the top and another on the bottom, in the spaces between the inner and outer walls.
The vessel surrounds the graphite core block stack, which serves as moderator. The graphite stack is kept in a helium-nitrogen mixture for providing an inert atmosphere for the graphite, preventing it from potential fires and for excess heat transfer from the graphite to the coolant channels.
The moderator blocks are made of nuclear graphite the dimensions of which are on the plane perpendicular to the channels and with several longitudinal dimensions of between and depending on the location in the stack. There are holes of diameter through the longitudinal axis of the blocks for the fuel and control channels. The blocks are stacked, surrounded by the reactor vessel into a cylindrical core with a diameter and height of . The maximum allowed temperature of the graphite is up to .
The reactor has an active core region 11.8 meters in diameter by 7 in height. There are 1700 tons of graphite blocks in an RBMK-1000 reactor. The pressurized nitrogen in the vessel prevents the escape of the helium-nitrogen mixture used to cool the graphite stack.
The reactor vessel has on its outer side an integral cylindrical annular water tank, a welded structure with thick walls, an inner diameter of and an outer diameter of , internally divided to 16 vertical compartments. The water is supplied to the compartments from the bottom and removed from the top; the water can be used for emergency reactor cooling. The tank contains thermocouples for sensing the water temperature and ion chambers for monitoring the reactor power. The tank, along with an annular sand layer between the outer side of the tank and inner side of the pit, and the relatively thick concrete of the reactor pit serve as lateral biological shields.
The top of the reactor is covered by the upper biological shield (UBS), also called "Schema E", or, after the explosion (of Chernobyl Reactor 4), Elena. The UBS is a cylindrical disc of in size and 2000 tons in weight. It is penetrated by standpipes for fuel and control channel assemblies. The top and bottom are covered with thick steel plates, welded to be helium-tight, and additionally joined by structural supports. The space between the plates and pipes is filled with serpentinite, a rock containing significant amounts of bound water. The serpentinite provides the radiation shielding of the biological shield and was applied as a special concrete mixture. The disk is supported on 16 rollers, located on the upper side of the reinforced cylindrical water tank. The structure of the UBS supports the fuel and control channels, the floor above the reactor in the central hall, and the steam-water pipes.
Below the bottom of the reactor core there is the lower biological shield (LBS), similar to the UBS, but only in size. It is penetrated by the tubes for the lower ends of the pressure channels and carries the weight of the graphite stack and the coolant inlet piping. A steel structure, two heavy plates intersecting in right angle under the center of the LBS and welded to the LBS, supports the LBS and transfers the mechanical load to the building.
Above the UBS, there is a space with upper channel piping and instrumentation and control (I&C) or control and monitoring cabling. Above that is Assembly 11, made up of the upper shield cover or channel covers. Their top surfaces form part of the floor of the reactor hall and serve as part of the biological shield and for thermal insulation of the reactor space. They consist of serpentinite concrete blocks that cover individual removable steel-graphite plugs, located over the tops of the channels, forming what resembles a circle with a grid pattern. The floor above the reactor is thus known by RBMK plant workers as pyatachok, referring to the five-kopeck coin. There is one cover (lid/block) per plug, and one plug per channel.
Fuel channels
The fuel channels consist of welded zircaloy pressure tubes in inner diameter with thick walls, led through the channels in the center of the graphite moderator blocks. The top and bottom parts of the tubes are made of stainless steel, and joined with the central zircaloy segment with zirconium-steel alloy couplings. The pressure tube is held in the graphite stack channels with two alternating types of high split graphite rings; one is in direct contact with the tube and has clearance to the graphite stack, the other one is directly touching the graphite stack and has clearance to the tube; this assembly reduces transfer of mechanical loads caused by neutron-induced swelling, thermal expansion of the blocks, and other factors to the pressure tube, while facilitating heat transfer from the graphite blocks. The pressure tubes are welded to the top and bottom plates of the reactor vessel.
While most of the heat energy from the fission process is generated in the fuel rods, approximately 5.5% is deposited in the graphite blocks as they moderate the fast neutrons formed from fission. This energy must be removed to avoid overheating the graphite. About 80–85% of the energy deposited in the graphite is removed by the fuel rod coolant channels, using conduction via the graphite rings. The rest of the graphite heat is removed from the control rod channels by forced gas circulation through the gas circuit.
There are 1693 fuel channels and 170 control rod channels in the first generation RBMK reactor cores. Second generation reactor cores (such as Kursk and Chernobyl 3/4) have 1661 fuel channels and 211 control rod channels.
The fuel assembly is suspended in the fuel channel on a bracket, with a seal plug. The seal plug has a simple design, to facilitate its removal and installation by the remotely controlled online refueling machine.
The fuel channels may, instead of fuel, contain fixed neutron absorbers, or be filled completely with cooling water. They may also contain silicon-filled tubes in place of a fuel assembly, for the purpose of doping for semiconductors. These channels could be identified by their corresponding servo readers, which would be blocked and replaced with the atomic symbol for silicon.
The small clearance between the pressure channel and the graphite block makes the graphite core susceptible to damage. If a pressure channel deforms, e.g. by too high an internal pressure, the deformation can cause significant pressure loads on the graphite blocks and lead to damage.
Fuel
The fuel pellets are made of uranium dioxide powder, sintered with a suitable binder into pellets in diameter and long. The material may contain added europium oxide as a burnable nuclear poison to lower the reactivity differences between a new and partially spent fuel assembly. To reduce thermal expansion issues and interaction with the cladding, the pellets have hemispherical indentations. A hole through the axis of the pellet serves to reduce the temperature in the center of the pellet and facilitates removal of gaseous fission products. The enrichment level in 1980 was 2% (0.4% for the end pellets of the assemblies). Maximum allowable temperature of the fuel pellet is .
The fuel rods are zircaloy (1% niobium) tubes in outer diameter, thick. The rods are filled with helium at 0.5 MPa and hermetically sealed. Retaining rings help to seat the pellets in the center of the tube and facilitate heat transfer from the pellet to the tube. The pellets are axially held in place by a spring. Each rod contains of fuel pellets. The fuel rods are long, with of that being the active length. The maximum allowed temperature of a fuel rod is .
The fuel assemblies consist of two sets ("sub-assemblies") with 18 fuel rods and 1 carrier rod. The fuel rods are arranged along the central carrier rod, which has an outer diameter of . All rods of a fuel assembly are held in place with 10 stainless steel spacers separated by distance. The two sub-assemblies are joined with a cylinder at the center of the assembly; during the operation of the reactor, this dead space without fuel lowers the neutron flux in the central plane of the reactor. The total mass of uranium in the fuel assembly is . The fuel burnup is 20 MW·d/kg. The total length of the fuel assembly is , with of the active region.
In addition to the regular fuel assemblies, there are instrumented ones, containing neutron flux detectors in the central carrier. In this case, the rod is replaced with a tube with wall thickness of ; and outer diameter of .
Unlike the rectangular PWR/BWR fuel assemblies or hexagonal VVER fuel assemblies, the RBMK fuel assembly is cylindrical to fit the round pressure channels.
The refueling machine is mounted on a gantry crane and remotely controlled. The fuel assemblies can be replaced without shutting down the reactor, a factor significant for production of weapon-grade plutonium and, in a civilian context, for better reactor uptime. When a fuel assembly has to be replaced, the machine is positioned above the fuel channel: then it mates to the latter, equalizes pressure within, pulls the rod, and inserts a fresh one. The spent rod is then placed in a cooling pond. The capacity of the refueling machine with the reactor at nominal power level is two fuel assemblies per day, with peak capacity of five per day.
The total amount of fuel under stationary conditions is 192 tons. The RBMK core has a relatively low power density at least partly due to the 25 cm spacing between channels and thus fuel assemblies.
Control rods
Most of the reactor control rods are inserted from above; 24 shortened rods are inserted from below and are used to augment the axial power distribution control of the core. With the exception of 12 automatic rods, the control rods have a long graphite section at the end, separated by a long telescope (which creates a water-filled space between the graphite and the absorber), and a boron carbide neutron absorber section. The role of the graphite section, known as "displacer", is to enhance the difference between the neutron flux attenuation levels of inserted and retracted rods, as the graphite displaces water that would otherwise act as a neutron absorber, although much weaker than boron carbide; a control rod channel filled with graphite absorbs fewer neutrons than when filled with water, so the difference between inserted and retracted control rod is increased. When the control rod is fully retracted, the graphite displacer is located in the middle of the core height, with 1.25 m of water at each of its ends. The displacement of water in the lower 1.25 m of the core as the rod moves down could cause a local increase of reactivity in the bottom of the core as the graphite part of the control rod passes that section. This "positive scram" effect was discovered in 1983 at the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant. The control rod channels are cooled by an independent water circuit and kept at . The narrow space between the rod and its channel hinders water flow around the rods during their movement and acts as a fluid damper, which is the primary cause of their slow insertion time (nominally 18–21 seconds for the reactor control and protection system rods, or about 0.4 m/s). After the Chernobyl disaster, the control rod servos on other RBMK reactors were exchanged to allow faster rod movements, and even faster movement was achieved by cooling of the control rod channels by a thin layer of water between an inner jacket and the Zircaloy tube of the channel while letting the rods themselves move in gas.
The division of the control rods between manual and emergency protection groups was arbitrary; the rods could be reassigned from one system to another during reactor operation without technical or organizational problems.
Additional static boron-based absorbers are inserted into the core when it is loaded with fresh fuel. About 240 absorbers are added during initial core loading. These absorbers are gradually removed with increasing burnup. The reactor's void coefficient depends on the core content; it ranges from negative with all the initial absorbers to positive when they are all removed.
The normal reactivity margin is 43–48 control rods.
Gas circuit
The reactor operates in a helium–nitrogen atmosphere (70–90% He, 10–30% N2 by volume). The gas circuit is composed of a compressor, aerosol and iodine filters, adsorber for carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ammonia, a holding tank for allowing the gaseous radioactive products to decay before being discharged, an aerosol filter to remove solid decay products, and a ventilator stack, the iconic chimney above the space between reactors in second generation RBMKs such as Kursk and Chernobyl 3/4 or some distance away from the reactors in first generation RBMKs such as Kursk and Chernobyl 1/2. The gas is injected to the core stack from the bottom in a low flow rate, and exits from the standpipe of each channel via an individual pipe. The moisture and temperature of the outlet gas is monitored; an increase of them is an indicator of a coolant leak. A single gas circuit serves two RBMK-1000 reactors or a single RBMK-1500; RBMK reactors were always built in pairs. The gas circuit is housed between two reactors in second generation RBMKs such as Chernobyl 3/4, Kursk 3/4 and Smolensk 1-4.
Primary coolant circuit
The reactor has two independent cooling circuits, each having four main circulating pumps (three operating, one standby) that service one half of the reactor. The cooling water is fed to the reactor through lower water lines to a common pressure header (one for each cooling circuit), which is split to 22 group distribution headers, each feeding 38–41 pressure channels through the core, where the coolant boils. The mixture of steam and water is led by the upper steam lines, one for each pressure channel, from the reactor top to the steam separators, pairs of thick horizontal drums located in side compartments above the reactor top; each has diameter, length, wall thickness of , and weighs . Steam, with steam quality of about 15%, is taken from the top of the separators by two steam collectors per separator, combined, and led to two turbogenerators in the turbine hall, then to condensers, reheated to , and pumped by the condensate pumps to deaerators, where remains of gaseous phase and corrosion-inducing gases are removed. The resulting feedwater is led to the steam separators by feedwater pumps and mixed with water from them at their outlets. From the bottom of the steam separators, the feedwater is led by 12 downpipes (from each separator) to the suction headers of the main circulation pumps, and back into the reactor. There is an ion exchange system included in the loop to remove impurities from the feedwater.
The turbine consists of one high-pressure rotor (cylinder) and four low-pressure ones. Five low-pressure separators-preheaters are used to heat steam with fresh steam before being fed to the next stage of the turbine. The uncondensed steam is fed into a condenser, mixed with condensate from the separators, fed by the first-stage condensate pump to a chemical (ion-exchange) purifier, then by a second-stage condensate pump to four deaerators where dissolved and entrained gases are removed; deaerators also serve as storage tanks for feedwater. From the deaerators, the water is pumped through filters and into the bottom parts of the steam separator drums.
The main circulating pumps have the capacity of 5,500–12,000 m3/h and are powered by 6 kV electric motors. The normal coolant flow is 8000 m3/h per pump; this is throttled down by control valves to 6000–7000 m3/h when the reactor power is below 500 MWt. Each pump has a flow control valve and a backflow preventing check valve on the outlet, and shutoff valves on both inlet and outlet. Each of the pressure channels in the core has its own flow control valve so that the temperature distribution in the reactor core can be optimized. Each channel has a ball type flow meter.
The nominal coolant flow through the reactor is 46,000–48,000 m3/h. The steam flow at full power is /h.
The nominal temperature of the coolant at the inlet of the reactor is about and the outlet temperature , at pressure in the drum separator and reactor of . The pressure and the inlet temperature determine the height at which the boiling begins in the reactor; if the coolant temperature is not sufficiently below its boiling point at the system pressure, the boiling starts at the very bottom part of the reactor instead of its higher parts. With few absorbers in the reactor core, such as during the Chernobyl accident, the positive void coefficient of the reactor makes the reactor very sensitive to the feedwater temperature. Bubbles of boiling water lead to increased power, which in turn increases the formation of bubbles.
If the coolant temperature is too close to its boiling point, cavitation can occur in the pumps and their operation can become erratic or even stop entirely. The feedwater temperature is dependent on the steam production; the steam phase portion is led to the turbines and condensers and returns significantly cooler () than the water returning directly from the steam separator (284 °C). At low reactor power, therefore, the inlet temperature may become dangerously high. The water is kept below the saturation temperature to prevent film boiling and the associated drop in heat transfer rate.
The reactor is tripped in cases of high or low water level in the steam separators (with two selectable low-level thresholds); high steam pressure; low feedwater flow; loss of two main coolant pumps on either side. These trips can be manually disabled.
The level of water in the steam separators, the percentage of steam in the reactor pressure tubes, the level at which the water begins to boil in the reactor core, the neutron flux and power distribution in the reactor, and the feedwater flow through the core have to be carefully controlled. The level of water in the steam separator is mainly controlled by the feedwater supply, with the deaerator tanks serving as a water reservoir.
The maximum allowed heat-up rate of the reactor and the coolant is /h; the maximum cool-down rate is /h.
ECCS
The reactor is equipped with an emergency core cooling system (ECCS), consisting of dedicated water reserve tank, hydraulic accumulators, and pumps. ECCS piping is integrated with the normal reactor cooling system. In case of total loss of power, the ECCS pumps are supposed to be powered by the rotational momentum of the turbogenerator rotor for the time before the diesel generators come online. The Chernobyl disaster occurred during a botched test of this system. The ECCS has three systems, connected to the coolant system headers. In case of damage, the first ECCS subsystem provides cooling for up to 100 seconds to the damaged half of the coolant circuit (the other half is cooled by the main circulation pumps), and the other two subsystems then handle long-term cooling of the reactor.
The short-term ECCS subsystem consists of two groups of six accumulator tanks, containing water blanketed with nitrogen under pressure of , connected by fast-acting valves to the reactor. Each group can supply 50% of the maximum coolant flow to the damaged half of the reactor. The third group is a set of electrical pumps drawing water from the deaerators. The short-term pumps can be powered by the spindown of the main turbogenerators.
ECCS for long-term cooling of the damaged circuit consists of three pairs of electrical pumps, drawing water from the pressure suppression pools; the water is cooled by the plant service water by means of heat exchangers in the suction lines. Each pair is able to supply half of the maximum coolant flow. ECCS for long-term cooling of the intact circuit consists of three separate pumps drawing water from the condensate storage tanks, each able to supply half of the maximum flow. The ECCS pumps are powered from the essential internal 6 kV lines, backed up by diesel generators. Some valves that require uninterrupted power are also backed up by batteries.
Reactor control/supervision systems
The distribution of power density in the reactor is measured by ionization chambers located inside and outside the core. The physical power density distribution control system (PPDDCS) has sensors inside the core; the reactor control and protection system (RCPS) uses sensors in the core and in the lateral biological shield tank. The external sensors in the tank are located around the reactor middle plane, therefore do not indicate axial power distribution nor information about the power in the central part of the core. There are over 100 radial and 12 axial power distribution monitors, employing self-powered detectors. Reactivity meters and removable startup chambers are used for monitoring of reactor startup. Total reactor power is recorded as the sum of the currents of the lateral ionization chambers. The moisture and temperature of the gas circulating in the channels is monitored by the pressure tube integrity monitoring system.
The PPDDCS and RCPS are supposed to complement each other. The RCPS system consists of 211 movable control rods. Both systems, however, have deficiencies, most noticeably at low reactor power levels. The PPDDCS is designed to maintain reactor power density distribution between 10 and 120% of nominal levels and to control the total reactor power between 5 and 120% of nominal levels. The LAC-LAP (local automatic control and local automatic protection) RPCS subsystems rely on ionization chambers inside the reactor and are active at power levels above 10%. Below those levels, the automatic systems are disabled and the in-core sensors are not accessible. Without the automatic systems and relying only on the lateral ionization chambers, control of the reactor becomes very difficult; the operators do not have sufficient data to control the reactor reliably and have to rely on their intuition. During startup of a reactor with a poison-free core this lack of information can be manageable because the reactor behaves predictably, but a non-uniformly poisoned core can cause large nonhomogenities of power distribution, with potentially catastrophic results.
The reactor emergency protection system (EPS) was designed to shut down the reactor when its operational parameters are exceeded. The design accounted for steam collapse in the core when the fuel element temperature falls below 265 °C, coolant vaporization in fuel channels in cold reactor state, and sticking of some emergency protection rods. However, the slow insertion speed of the control rods, together with their design causing localized positive reactivity as the displacer moves through the lower part of the core, created a number of possible situations where initiation of the EPS could itself cause or aggravate a reactor runaway.
The SKALA or SCALA computer system for calculation of the reactivity margin was collecting data from about 4,000 sources. Its purpose was to assist the operator with steady-state control of the reactor. Ten to fifteen minutes were required to cycle through all the measurements and calculate the results. SKALA could not control the reactor, instead it only made recommendations to the operators, and it used 1960s computer technology.
The operators could disable some safety systems, reset or suppress some alarm signals, and bypass automatic scram, by attaching patch cables to accessible terminals. This practice was allowed under some circumstances.
The reactor is equipped with a fuel rod leak detector. A scintillation counter detector, sensitive to energies of short-lived fission products, is mounted on a special dolly and moved over the outlets of the fuel channels, issuing an alert if increased radioactivity is detected in the steam-water flow.
In RBMK control rooms there are two large panels or mimic displays representing a top view of the reactor. One display is made up mostly or completely (in first generation RBMKs) of colored dials or rod position indicators: these dials represent the position of the control rods inside the reactor and the color of the housing of the dials matches that of the control rods, whose colors correspond to their function, for example, red for automatic control rods. The other display is a core map or core channel cartogram and is circular, is made of tiles, and represents every channel on the reactor. Each tile is made of a single light cover with a channel number and an incandescent light bulb, and each light bulb illuminates to represent out-of-spec (higher or lower than normal) channel parameters. Operators have to type in the number of the affected channel(s) and then view the instruments to find exactly what parameters are out of spec. The core map represented information from the SKALA computer. Each unit had its own computer housed in a separate room. The control room also has chart or trend recorders. Some RBMK control rooms have
been upgraded with video walls that replace the mimic displays and most chart recorders and eliminate the need to type in channel numbers and instead operators lay a cursor over a (now representative) tile to reveal its parameters which are shown on the lower side of the video wall. The control room is located below the floor of the deaerator room, and both rooms are in the space between the reactor and turbine buildings.
Containment
The RBMK design was built primarily to be powerful, quick to build and easy to maintain. Full physical containment structures for each reactor would have more than doubled the cost and construction time of each plant, and since the design had been certified by the Soviet nuclear science ministry as inherently safe when operated within established parameters, the Soviet authorities assumed proper adherence to doctrine by workers would make any accident impossible. Additionally, RBMK reactors were designed to allow fuel rods to be changed at full power without shutting down (as in the pressurized heavy water CANDU reactor), both for refueling and for plutonium production (for nuclear weapons). This required large cranes above the core. As the RBMK reactor core is very tall (about ), the cost and difficulty of building a heavy containment structure prevented the building of additional emergency containment structures for pipes on top of the reactor core. In the Chernobyl accident, the pressure rose to levels high enough to blow the top off the reactor, breaking open the fuel channels in the process and starting a massive fire when air contacted the superheated graphite core. After the Chernobyl accident, some RBMK reactors were retrofitted with a partial containment structure (in lieu of a full containment building), which surround the fuel channels with water jackets in order to capture any radioactive particles released.
The bottom part of the reactor is enclosed in a watertight compartment. There is a space between the reactor bottom and the floor. The reactor cavity overpressure protection system consists of steam relief assemblies embedded in the floor and leading to Steam Distributor Headers covered with rupture discs and opening into the Steam Distribution Corridor below the reactor, on level +6. The floor of the corridor contains entrances of a large number of vertical pipes, leading to the bottoms of the Pressure Suppression Pools ("bubbler" pools) located on levels +3 and +0. In the event of an accident, which was predicted to be at most a rupture of one or two pressure channels, the steam was to be bubbled through the water and condensed there, reducing the overpressure in the leaktight compartment. The flow capacity of the pipes to the pools limited the protection capacity to simultaneous rupture of two pressure channels; a higher number of failures would cause pressure buildup sufficient to lift the cover plate ("Structure E", after the explosion nicknamed "Elena", not to be confused with the Russian ELENA reactor), sever the rest of the fuel channels, destroy the control rod insertion system, and potentially also withdraw control rods from the core. The containment was designed to handle failures of the downcomers, pumps, and distribution and inlet of the feedwater. The leaktight compartments around the pumps can withstand overpressure of 0.45 MPa. The distribution headers and inlets enclosures can handle 0.08 MPa and are vented via check valves to the leaktight compartment. The reactor cavity can handle overpressure of 0.18 MPa and is vented via check valves to the leaktight compartment. The pressure suppression system can handle a failure of one reactor channel, a pump pressure header, or a distribution header. Leaks in the steam piping and separators are not handled, except for maintaining slightly lower pressure in the riser pipe gallery and the steam drum compartment than in the reactor hall. These spaces are also not designed to withstand overpressure. The steam distribution corridor contains surface condensers. The fire sprinkler systems, operating during both accident and normal operation, are fed from the pressure suppression pools through heat exchangers cooled by the plant service water, and cool the air above the pools. Jet coolers are located in the topmost parts of the compartments; their role is to cool the air and remove the steam and radioactive aerosol particles.
Hydrogen removal from the leaktight compartment is performed by removal of 800 m3/h of air, its filtration, and discharge into the atmosphere. The air removal is stopped automatically in case of a coolant leak and has to be reinstated manually. Hydrogen is present during normal operation due to leaks of coolant (assumed to be up to per hour).
Other systems
For the nuclear systems described here, the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant is used as the example.
Electrical systems
The power plant is connected to the 330 kV and 750 kV electrical grid. The block has two electrical generators connected to the 750 kV grid by a single generator transformer. The generators are connected to their common transformer by two switches in series. Between them, the unit transformers are connected to supply power to the power plant's own systems; each generator can therefore be connected to the unit transformer to power the plant, or to the unit transformer and the generator transformer to also feed power to the grid. The 330 kV line is normally not used, and serves as an external power supply, connected by a station transformer to the power plant's electrical systems. The plant can be powered by its own generators, or get power from the 750 kV grid through the generator transformer, or from the 330 kV grid via the station transformer, or from the other power plant block via two reserve busbars. In case of total external power loss, the essential systems can be powered by diesel generators. Each unit transformer is connected to two 6 kV main power boards, A and B (e.g. 7A, 7B, 8A, 8B for generators 7 and 8), powering principal non-essential drivers and connected to transformers for the 4 kV main power and the 4 kV reserve busbar. The 7A, 7B, and 8B boards are also connected to the three essential power lines (namely for the coolant pumps), each also having its own diesel generator. In case of a coolant circuit failure with simultaneous loss of external power, the essential power can be supplied by the spinning down turbogenerators for about 45–50 seconds, during which time the diesel generators should start up. The generators are started automatically within 15 seconds at loss of off-site power.
Turbogenerators
The electrical energy is generated by a pair of 500 MW hydrogen-cooled turbogenerators. These are located in the -long machine hall, adjacent to the reactor building. The turbines, the venerable five-cylinder K-500-65/3000, are supplied by the Kharkiv turbine plant; the electrical generators are the TVV-500. The turbine and the generator rotors are mounted on the same shaft; the combined weight of the rotors is almost and their nominal rotational speed is 3000 rpm. The turbogenerator is long and its total weight is . The coolant flow for each turbine is /h. The generator produces 20 kV 50 Hz AC power. The generator's stator is cooled by water while its rotor is cooled by hydrogen. The hydrogen for the generators is manufactured on-site by electrolysis. The design and reliability of the turbines earned them the State Prize of Ukraine for 1979.
The Kharkiv turbine plant (now Turboatom) later developed a new version of the turbine, K-500-65/3000-2, in an attempt to reduce use of valuable metal. The Chernobyl plant was equipped with both types of turbines; Block 4 had the newer ones.
Design variants
RBMK-1500
The only differences between RBMK-1000 and RBMK-1500 reactors are that the RBMK-1500 is cooled with less water, which also has a helical laminar instead of a purely laminar flow through the fuel rods, and it uses less uranium. The helical flow is created by turbulators in the fuel assembly and increases heat removal. Because of the RBMK's positive void coefficient, the reduced cooling water volume causes a higher power output. As the name suggests, it was designed for an electrical power output of 1500 MW. The only reactors of this type and power output are the ones at Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant.
RBMK-2000 and RBMK-3600
The RBMK-2000 and RBMK-3600 were designed to produce 2000 and 3600 MW of electrical power respectively. The RBMK-2000 would have had an increased channel diameter and number of fuel rods per fuel assembly while maintaining the same dimensions of the reactor core as the RBMK-1000 and RBMK-1500. The RBMK-3600 presumably similarly to the RBMK-1500 would have added turbulators to the RBMK-2000 design to increase heat removal.
RBMKP-2400
The RBMKP-2400 is rectangular instead of cylindrical, and it was a modular, theoretically infinitely longitudinally expandable design with vertical steam separators, intended to be made in sections at a factory for assembly in situ. It was designed to have a power output of 2400 MWe, and a higher thermal efficiency due to steam superheating directly in the reactor core in special fuel channels with fuel rods with stainless steel cladding instead of the more common Zircaloy cladding, for a steam outlet temperature of 450°C. No reactor with this power output has ever been built, with the most powerful one currently being as of 2018 the 1750 MWe EPR. The development of this design was cancelled in the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster. An RBMKP-4800 would have had an increased number of evaporating and superheating channels thus increasing power output. Two RBMK-2400s were planned for the .
Design flaws and safety issues
As an early Generation II reactor based on 1950s Soviet technology, the RBMK design was optimized for speed of production over redundancy. It was designed and constructed with several design characteristics that proved dangerously unstable when operated outside their design specifications. The decision to use a graphite core with natural uranium fuel allowed for massive power generation at only a quarter of the expense of heavy water reactors, which were more maintenance-intensive and required large volumes of expensive heavy water for startup. However, it also had unexpected negative consequences that would not reveal themselves fully until the 1986 Chernobyl disaster.
High positive void coefficient
Light water (ordinary H2O) is both a neutron moderator and a neutron absorber. This means that not only can it slow down neutrons to velocities in equilibrium with surrounding molecules ("thermalize" them and turn them into low-energy neutrons, known as thermal neutrons, that are far more likely to interact with the uranium-235 nuclei than the fast neutrons produced by fission initially), but it also absorbs some of them.
In the RBMK series of reactors, light water functions as a coolant, while moderation is mainly carried out by graphite. As graphite already moderates neutrons, light water has a lesser effect in slowing them down, but could still absorb them. This means that the reactor's reactivity (adjustable by appropriate neutron-absorbing rods) must take into account the neutrons absorbed by light water.
In the case of evaporation of water to steam, the place occupied by water would be occupied by water vapor, which has a density vastly lower than that of liquid water (the exact number depends on pressure and temperature; at standard conditions, steam is about as dense as liquid water). Because of this lower density (of mass, and consequently of atom nuclei able to absorb neutrons), light water's neutron-absorption capability practically disappears when it boils. This allows more neutrons to fission more U-235 nuclei and thereby increase the reactor power, which leads to higher temperatures that boil even more water, creating a thermal feedback loop.
In RBMK reactors, generation of steam in the coolant water would then in practice create a void: a bubble that does not absorb neutrons. The reduction in moderation by light water is irrelevant, as graphite still moderates the neutrons. However, the loss of absorption dramatically alters the balance of neutron production, causing a runaway condition in which more and more neutrons are produced, and their density grows exponentially. Such a condition is called a "positive void coefficient", and the RBMK reactor series has the highest positive void coefficient of any commercial reactor ever designed.
A high void coefficient does not necessarily make a reactor inherently unsafe, as some of the fission neutrons are emitted with a delay of seconds or even minutes (post-fission neutron emission from daughter nuclei), and therefore steps can be taken to reduce the fission rate before it becomes too high. This situation, however, does make it considerably harder to control the reactor, especially at low power. Thus, control systems must be very reliable and control-room personnel must be rigorously trained in the peculiarities and limits of the system. Neither of these requirements were in place at Chernobyl: since the reactor's actual design bore the approval stamp of the Kurchatov Institute and was considered a state secret, discussion of the reactor's flaws was forbidden, even among the actual personnel operating the plant. Some later RBMK designs did include control rods on electromagnetic grapples, thus controlling the reaction speed and, if necessary, stopping the reaction completely. The RBMK reactor at Chernobyl, however, had manual clutch control rods.
All RBMK reactors underwent significant changes following the Chernobyl disaster. The positive void coefficient was reduced from +4.5 β to +0.7 β, decreasing the likelihood of further reactivity accidents, at the cost of higher enrichment requirements of the uranium fuel.
Improvements since the Chernobyl accident
In his posthumously published memoirs, Valery Legasov, the First Deputy Director of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, revealed that the Institute's scientists had long known that the RBMK had significant design flaws. Legasov's suicide in 1988, following frustrated attempts to promote nuclear and industrial safety reform, caused shockwaves throughout the scientific community. The RBMK's design problems were discussed increasingly openly.
Following the accident at Chernobyl, all remaining RBMK reactors were retrofitted with a number of updates for safety. The largest of these updates fixed the RBMK control rod design. The control rods have graphite displacers, which prevent coolant water from entering the space vacated as the rods are withdrawn. In the original design, those displacers, being shorter than the height of the core, left columns of water at the bottom (and at the top) when the rods were fully extracted. During insertion, the graphite would first displace that lower water, locally increasing reactivity. Also, when the rods were in their uppermost position, the absorber ends were outside the core, requiring a relatively large displacement before achieving a significant reduction in reactivity. These design flaws were likely the final trigger of the first explosion of the Chernobyl accident, causing the lower part of the core to become prompt critical when the operators tried to shut down the highly destabilized reactor by reinserting the rods.
The updates are:
An increase in fuel enrichment from 2% to 2.4% to compensate for control rod modifications and the introduction of additional absorbers.
Manual control rod count increased from 30 to 45.
80 additional absorbers inhibit operation at low power, where the RBMK design is most dangerous.
SCRAM (rapid shut down) sequence reduced from 18 to 12 seconds.
Precautions against unauthorized access to emergency safety systems.
In addition, RELAP5-3D models of RBMK-1500 reactors were developed for use in integrated thermal-hydraulics-neutronics calculations for the analysis of specific transients in which the neutronic response of the core is important.
Deformed graphite moderator blocks
From May 2012 to December 2013, Leningrad-1 was offline while repairs were made related to deformed graphite moderator blocks. The 18-month project included research and the development of maintenance machines and monitoring systems. Similar work will be applied to the remaining operational RBMKs. Graphite moderator blocks in the RBMK can be repaired and replaced in situ, unlike in the other current large graphite moderated reactor, the Advanced gas-cooled reactor.
Longitudinal cutting in some of the graphite columns during lifetime extension refurbishment work can return the graphite stack to its initial design geometry.
Further development
A post-Soviet redesign of the RBMK is the MKER (Russian: МКЭР, Многопетлевой Канальный Энергетический Реактор [Mnogopetlevoy Kanalniy Energeticheskiy Reaktor] which means Multi-loop pressure tube power reactor), with improved safety and a containment building. The physical prototype of the MKER-1000 is the 5th unit of the Kursk Nuclear Power Plant. The construction of Kursk 5 was cancelled in 2012. A MKER-800, MKER-1000 and MKER-1500 were planned for the Leningrad nuclear power plant.
Closures
Of the 17 RBMKs built (Unit 5 was still under construction at the Kursk Nuclear Power Plant), all three surviving reactors at the Chernobyl plant have now been closed. Unit 1 was closed in 1996, Unit 3 in 2000, (Unit 4 having been destroyed in the accident, and Unit 2 disabled after a hydrogen explosion in 1991). Chernobyl 5 and 6 were under construction at the time of the accident at Chernobyl, but further construction was stopped due to the high level of contamination at the site limiting its longer term future. Both reactors at Ignalina in Lithuania were also shut down. Russia is the only country to still operate reactors of this design: Leningrad (2 RBMK-1000), Smolensk (3 RBMK-1000) and Kursk (3 RBMK-1000), Kursk Unit 1 was shutdown via its BSM key at 00:24, December 19th, 2021, bringing an end to the last time the plant would run all four of its units side by side. There are currently no further RBMK Reactors under construction in Russia. The last RBMK Reactor in Russia is expected to shut down in 2034 at Smolensk-3.
List of RBMK reactors
Color key:
{|
|-
| – Operational reactor (including reactors currently offline)
|
| – Reactor decommissioned
|
| – Reactor destroyed
|
| – Abandoned or cancelled reactor
|
|}
A graphite-moderated Magnox reactor exists in North Korea at the Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. It is important to keep in mind that while the gas cooled Magnox, AGR and pebble bed reactors (Such as the Dragon reactor at Winfrith) use graphite as moderators their use of gases (carbon dioxide for Magnox and AGR, while helium for Dragon) as heat transfer fluids causes them to have no void coefficient.
See also
Nikolay Dollezhal, head of RBMK design bureau
References
Sources and external links
Technical data on RBMK-1500 reactor at Ignalina nuclear power plant – a decommissioned RBMK reactor
Chernobyl – A Canadian Perspective – A brochure describing nuclear reactors in general and the RBMK design in particular, focusing on the safety differences between them and CANDU reactors. Published by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.
Nuclear power reactor types
Nuclear technology in the Soviet Union
Nuclear power in the Soviet Union
|
[
0.2305922508239746,
0.29506102204322815,
-0.015782399103045464,
0.08036475628614426,
-0.11256411671638489,
0.0034220919478684664,
0.16270922124385834,
-0.33978724479675293,
-0.29108625650405884,
0.8336846232414246,
-0.34427499771118164,
0.3622521162033081,
-0.3498099446296692,
0.5264442563056946,
0.07703082263469696,
0.6531550884246826,
0.39752933382987976,
-0.0030534956604242325,
-0.054944079369306564,
-0.36823126673698425,
0.19530393183231354,
0.027801888063549995,
0.9874994158744812,
0.08033593744039536,
0.3556534945964813,
0.11501973122358322,
0.8365911841392517,
-0.015069017186760902,
-0.355436235666275,
0.28170159459114075,
0.11566241830587387,
0.3476453125476837,
0.35708361864089966,
0.4048245847225189,
0.833320140838623,
0.587829053401947,
-0.3434154689311981,
-0.1384182870388031,
-0.4067787826061249,
-0.8406274914741516,
0.00039227932575158775,
0.028902973979711533,
0.2959824204444885,
0.5616126656532288,
-0.44745248556137085,
-0.3236309885978699,
-1.1103146076202393,
0.4558424949645996,
-0.044563375413417816,
-0.12708944082260132,
-0.5408949851989746,
0.692250669002533,
0.2525066137313843,
0.018667852506041527,
-0.11368925124406815,
0.10986915230751038,
-0.41092127561569214,
0.17415350675582886,
0.2063736617565155,
-0.21416549384593964,
0.3582630455493927,
-0.19619940221309662,
-0.2113179713487625,
0.6026291251182556,
0.8520363569259644,
0.4121338129043579,
-0.4147185683250427,
-0.4892963767051697,
-0.6776261925697327,
0.015805566683411598,
0.27429622411727905,
-0.290976881980896,
-0.19055107235908508,
-0.27893486618995667,
0.13571104407310486,
-0.40754058957099915,
-0.4216860830783844,
-0.5136877298355103,
-0.009096275083720684,
0.48035725951194763,
-0.029671693220734596,
0.2740972936153412,
-0.06671112775802612,
-0.16892531514167786,
-0.08435339480638504,
0.3771381974220276,
-0.31689828634262085,
0.4031274914741516,
-0.9894819259643555,
0.4949052333831787,
-0.6152187585830688,
-0.1785002499818802,
0.33526888489723206,
0.3364947736263275,
-0.21925413608551025,
-0.6651285290718079,
-0.917626678943634,
0.054150693118572235,
0.31070995330810547,
0.13826611638069153,
-0.010597119107842445,
0.1697940230369568,
0.3107762634754181,
0.3462027907371521,
-0.44298088550567627,
-0.4574131965637207,
-0.7168104648590088,
-0.6254128217697144,
-0.4650089740753174,
0.11883759498596191,
-0.3161909878253937,
0.23118075728416443,
-0.061917923390865326,
-0.07715757191181183,
-0.05520949885249138,
0.23966212570667267,
0.07897883653640747,
-0.7327797412872314,
-0.333546906709671,
0.49295875430107117,
0.6443443894386292,
1.0555028915405273,
-0.28120580315589905,
0.1648847907781601,
0.19468240439891815,
-0.05400816723704338,
0.5130112767219543,
0.7557268738746643,
-1.3542134761810303,
0.21381118893623352,
0.391525536775589,
1.1857354640960693,
-0.012155267409980297,
0.1348060667514801,
-0.4351712167263031,
0.026505297049880028,
-0.0002157573908334598,
-0.5159100890159607,
0.14241088926792145,
0.5922092199325562,
-0.4719790816307068,
-0.12299200147390366,
0.37665271759033203,
-0.3157312273979187,
0.06455429643392563,
-0.33159297704696655,
-0.38578203320503235,
-0.3051717281341553,
-0.31169065833091736,
-0.2079993486404419,
0.14326809346675873,
-0.10801289975643158,
-0.30976244807243347,
-0.08837135136127472,
-0.5386279821395874,
-0.20031626522541046,
0.135996013879776,
-0.013469673693180084,
0.03884737193584442,
-0.03831903636455536,
-0.6308451294898987,
0.2928554117679596,
-0.5308421850204468,
0.4251776933670044,
-0.020896555855870247,
-0.16814550757408142,
0.5749172568321228,
0.2601882219314575,
0.01625576987862587,
-0.3443816900253296,
-0.051889363676309586,
-0.010562824085354805,
0.6332846879959106,
-0.07024026662111282,
-0.12523764371871948,
-0.15773804485797882,
0.22912277281284332,
-0.11653777956962585,
0.41014209389686584,
-0.0866827443242073,
-0.4062454402446747,
0.31584593653678894,
-0.022620249539613724,
-0.21756155788898468,
-0.04286897927522659,
0.3931867778301239,
0.4066714644432068,
0.2571636438369751,
-0.12258291989564896,
0.06468652188777924,
-0.0965418890118599,
-0.37339672446250916,
0.23239843547344208,
-0.39918360114097595,
1.183435082435608,
-0.1232251450419426,
-0.3033660352230072,
0.5706015825271606,
-0.3724426329135895,
0.32589486241340637,
-0.12027627229690552,
0.19268153607845306,
0.3846505582332611,
-0.6417572498321533,
-0.3240748941898346,
-0.28168538212776184,
0.4351109266281128,
0.49983692169189453,
0.16320376098155975,
-0.2265911102294922,
0.11191056668758392,
-0.8849284648895264,
0.7863474488258362,
-0.4186790883541107,
0.17693322896957397,
-0.331324964761734,
-0.905920147895813,
-0.07864188402891159,
-0.017023619264364243,
0.27490630745887756,
0.5754269957542419,
-0.24063821136951447,
-0.4528443515300751,
0.3857402503490448,
-0.4535413086414337,
0.13808055222034454,
0.6108853816986084,
-0.06617752462625504,
0.3508298695087433,
0.40310123562812805,
0.36257898807525635,
-0.183598592877388,
0.5553404092788696,
0.1275128871202469,
-0.3095313012599945,
0.3090671896934509,
-0.3688046634197235,
0.3128276765346527,
0.7384399175643921,
-0.31796935200691223,
-0.22191768884658813,
0.41741564869880676,
-0.3763728737831116,
0.22983379662036896,
0.8803000450134277,
-0.3349373936653137,
-0.15907789766788483,
0.22714616358280182,
-0.16170203685760498,
-0.25733286142349243,
-0.026439253240823746,
0.09633900970220566,
0.46681833267211914,
-0.29816076159477234,
0.5143523216247559,
0.10796607285737991,
0.0361957922577858,
0.2870939075946808,
0.06199884042143822,
0.034448470920324326,
-0.32480067014694214,
-0.27277860045433044,
-0.3294356167316437,
-0.18808886408805847,
-0.11230292916297913,
-0.05246235802769661,
0.12990278005599976,
-0.29046007990837097,
0.8391342163085938,
0.05134674534201622,
-0.10847687721252441,
0.08829252421855927,
0.01809711754322052,
0.39745447039604187,
0.0052545275539159775,
-0.9810500741004944,
0.4742613136768341,
0.6438352465629578,
-0.5541249513626099,
-0.2591268718242645,
-0.02971235290169716,
0.29580456018447876,
0.08141730725765228,
-0.6522033214569092,
-0.25192537903785706,
0.4741961359977722,
-0.5112531781196594,
-0.10102225840091705,
0.38891658186912537,
-0.5715462565422058,
-0.6915601491928101,
-0.152140811085701,
-0.5086299777030945,
-0.05233484506607056,
-0.6555092334747314,
0.8231204748153687,
0.21123714745044708,
-0.1876218467950821,
0.26432004570961,
0.2485988438129425,
-0.36131444573402405,
0.06454762071371078,
-0.4375011920928955,
0.4388243854045868,
-0.2728726267814636,
0.3815605044364929,
-0.15662510693073273,
0.2885708510875702,
-5.735631942749023,
-0.3273690938949585,
-0.2606982886791229,
-0.5260476469993591,
0.5129556655883789,
0.2482234388589859,
-0.0895676240324974,
-0.1288834661245346,
0.3624303340911865,
-0.25281840562820435,
-0.4167027175426483,
0.19559475779533386,
0.14283320307731628,
0.08325053006410599,
0.231296569108963,
-0.047742825001478195,
0.163929745554924,
0.15197856724262238,
0.39968517422676086,
-0.3350027799606323,
0.7292046546936035,
-0.04861179739236832,
-0.30204421281814575,
-0.03454522043466568,
0.04259243607521057,
0.13859178125858307,
-0.1905495822429657,
0.62928706407547,
-0.4935813844203949,
-0.9560803174972534,
-0.2288413792848587,
-0.5983275175094604,
0.018156515434384346,
-0.19121743738651276,
0.6069325804710388,
-0.05322336032986641,
0.5780166983604431,
0.6621929407119751,
0.5121416449546814,
0.18846076726913452,
0.28857535123825073,
0.09126701205968857,
0.04974064603447914,
0.034829773008823395,
-0.026566972956061363,
-0.05248727649450302,
-0.40069064497947693,
0.10301783680915833,
-0.2855152189731598,
0.36401960253715515,
0.3179529309272766,
0.31056857109069824,
1.1076549291610718,
0.4666554629802704,
0.19925491511821747,
-0.2958053946495056,
-0.5790655612945557,
0.24648632109165192,
-0.28271812200546265,
0.31539055705070496,
-0.2660925090312958,
0.313769668340683,
-0.4559844732284546,
-0.4227624237537384,
-0.3276840150356293,
-0.33616092801094055,
-0.39749616384506226,
-0.0378112755715847,
0.1385781168937683,
0.03367718681693077,
-0.5030339956283569,
0.47321659326553345,
-0.30175840854644775,
-0.8515470623970032,
0.07372167706489563,
-0.33579105138778687,
0.4299496114253998,
-0.3358175456523895,
-0.24812909960746765,
0.260065495967865,
-0.32259228825569153,
-0.3574703633785248,
-0.426972895860672,
0.1310151219367981,
0.5585885643959045,
-0.6892762780189514,
-0.1014823168516159,
0.634128212928772,
0.09112724661827087,
-0.07451846450567245,
0.4551249146461487,
-0.5354547500610352,
0.7092255353927612,
-0.11882301419973373,
0.22310324013233185,
-0.3689018487930298,
-0.009758176282048225,
-0.03567962348461151,
0.6157962083816528,
-0.19165314733982086,
0.029687214642763138,
0.08421612530946732,
0.11060765385627747,
-0.5110563039779663,
-0.0861441045999527,
-0.2721474766731262,
-0.3000353276729584,
0.1300356537103653,
0.37311169505119324,
0.0009513348340988159,
-0.13099780678749084,
0.12178663164377213,
-0.2092878669500351,
-0.5083497762680054,
0.585590660572052,
0.17894017696380615,
-0.6083669066429138,
0.2580086886882782,
-0.026441378518939018,
0.5476369857788086,
0.036732740700244904,
0.3589304983615875,
-0.10698766261339188,
-0.39035093784332275,
-0.2793796956539154,
-0.5080618262290955,
0.06787582486867905,
0.4094747006893158,
-0.5588862895965576,
0.04456617310643196,
0.4362984597682953,
0.3585817813873291,
-0.025842012837529182,
-0.31675073504447937,
0.4044423997402191,
0.10058174282312393,
-0.41163161396980286,
0.4862707555294037,
-0.13798779249191284,
-0.0339721217751503,
-0.2531951665878296,
-0.24119633436203003,
0.3541037142276764,
0.235147163271904,
-0.11145313829183578,
0.5648438930511475,
0.3155170977115631,
0.33985888957977295,
-0.027874799445271492,
-0.007504201028496027,
0.08227252960205078,
-0.10238047689199448,
0.12461018562316895,
-0.5417662858963013,
-0.1933591365814209,
0.23337633907794952,
0.4999582767486572,
-0.044978924095630646,
0.7663576602935791,
-0.3782709538936615,
0.5207112431526184,
-0.029466960579156876,
-1.0949379205703735,
-0.41928839683532715,
0.10871922224760056,
0.5280612111091614,
-0.5067562460899353,
-0.14781178534030914,
0.33197852969169617,
0.5409247875213623,
-0.013190184719860554,
-0.1380949765443802,
-0.7896201610565186,
-0.42316898703575134,
0.4992869198322296,
0.8177260756492615,
-0.08960771560668945,
-0.36501890420913696,
0.09483642131090164,
0.03558389097452164,
0.2188146561384201,
0.30886027216911316,
0.16157208383083344,
1.1733336448669434,
0.3972456753253937,
-0.6029441356658936,
-0.45479878783226013,
0.43333813548088074,
-0.5524337291717529,
-0.4952022433280945,
0.2671302258968353,
-0.6298296451568604,
0.959916889667511,
0.1857372373342514,
-0.20666426420211792,
-0.5667715668678284,
-0.42476293444633484,
0.727537214756012,
0.0576825775206089,
-0.15039075911045074,
0.0027767186984419823,
0.30665671825408936,
-0.4783414304256439,
0.37300169467926025,
0.5968406796455383,
-0.1862356811761856,
-0.3872978389263153,
0.09913883358240128,
-0.006953700445592403,
0.42653682827949524,
-0.13498182594776154,
-0.6732930541038513,
0.4670054018497467,
0.48336732387542725,
-0.47485989332199097,
-0.26253780722618103,
-0.020463058724999428,
-0.3762534260749817,
-0.446873277425766,
-0.3206947147846222,
-0.9524829387664795,
-0.07613160461187363,
0.3003644347190857,
-0.12319017201662064,
-0.9723894596099854,
-0.14542093873023987,
-0.20195084810256958,
-0.18030497431755066,
-0.6127557754516602,
-0.0742073729634285,
-0.09496477991342545,
-0.3349078893661499,
0.054234620183706284,
-0.7810134291648865,
0.08242874592542648,
0.05511363968253136,
-0.32562482357025146,
0.3308691084384918,
0.11075188219547272,
0.08875669538974762,
0.38999664783477783,
0.5942328572273254,
0.17341910302639008,
-0.3240281343460083,
-0.13321059942245483,
0.26898542046546936,
0.8330723643302917,
0.05968582630157471,
-0.4062710106372833,
0.5083022117614746,
0.06731996685266495,
-0.32029643654823303,
-0.4823805093765259,
-0.3185594379901886,
1.2537527084350586,
-0.12026968598365784,
0.19804717600345612,
-0.6047846674919128,
0.16753509640693665,
0.47070732712745667,
-0.375862181186676,
0.15730854868888855,
-0.47314441204071045,
-0.018000561743974686,
-0.05155288800597191,
0.417971670627594,
-0.41168367862701416,
-0.3963291347026825,
-0.001422220841050148,
-0.22131013870239258,
0.22578559815883636,
-0.039411962032318115,
0.11596501618623734,
0.8393656015396118,
-0.1099131852388382,
0.26836270093917847,
-0.41772013902664185,
-0.3940799832344055,
0.06449662894010544,
0.5169194340705872,
-0.7371817827224731,
0.18780052661895752,
0.15775586664676666,
-0.3554224669933319,
-0.15086084604263306,
-0.28039735555648804,
-0.026493370532989502,
0.12835554778575897,
-0.19461363554000854,
0.013379541225731373,
-0.30593132972717285,
-0.39855828881263733,
-0.8191440105438232,
0.1905762106180191,
-0.5540137887001038,
-0.09744268655776978,
-0.03751455247402191,
0.4441479742527008,
-0.4727444052696228,
0.33056119084358215,
-0.6035175919532776,
0.5723835229873657,
-0.27449744939804077,
-0.1442042738199234,
0.3282417058944702,
0.30941566824913025,
0.3045269250869751,
0.5850507616996765,
-0.12043628841638565,
0.029498683288693428,
-0.13152168691158295,
-0.27713391184806824,
-0.05305381119251251,
0.10769893229007721,
0.011049722321331501,
-0.15383687615394592,
0.565342128276825,
0.10547875612974167,
0.12889760732650757,
0.021578796207904816,
1.2167974710464478,
0.45574939250946045,
-0.013492983765900135,
0.08700679987668991,
-0.5433160066604614,
0.9071655869483948,
-0.4337921738624573,
-0.8572571873664856,
-0.12416715174913406,
0.3336913585662842,
0.4544588029384613,
0.1668069064617157,
-0.6441242098808289,
0.433005690574646,
-0.5388783812522888,
0.11557010561227798,
-0.14430856704711914,
0.07150986045598984,
-0.08073157072067261,
0.5877687931060791,
0.12798288464546204,
0.652157187461853,
-0.5740954875946045,
-0.2011953890323639,
-0.04608376324176788,
0.49764484167099,
0.4008214771747589,
0.24052020907402039,
-0.5215641260147095,
0.004260833840817213,
-0.0522749237716198,
-0.10274763405323029,
0.23037822544574738,
-0.40293073654174805,
-0.09353066980838776,
-0.3073616623878479,
0.6152329444885254,
-0.45550331473350525,
0.7133727073669434,
-0.09088116139173508,
-0.02082771062850952,
0.30557501316070557,
-0.1404203474521637,
0.20080748200416565,
-0.2340404987335205,
-0.1577153354883194,
-0.41106393933296204,
-0.5765848159790039,
0.15696360170841217,
-0.20613454282283783,
0.16610214114189148,
0.3229946792125702,
-0.15790897607803345,
0.1782931387424469,
-0.6418779492378235,
0.1160687506198883,
0.07102042436599731,
0.19138269126415253,
-0.22119247913360596,
0.40453946590423584,
-0.22935687005519867,
0.8817041516304016,
-0.09310522675514221,
-0.6249867677688599,
-0.41811326146125793,
0.03742539882659912,
0.17836149036884308,
-0.26512452960014343,
0.2619955539703369,
-0.05183883756399155,
0.3213967978954315,
-0.5022218227386475,
-0.8630257844924927,
0.3827671706676483,
-0.4852956533432007,
-0.25611260533332825,
0.12805014848709106,
-0.07029733806848526,
0.02923342026770115,
0.7183254957199097,
-0.2182544469833374,
0.42985257506370544,
0.1502912938594818,
0.7550979256629944,
-0.5715053677558899,
-0.14597252011299133,
-0.30946046113967896,
0.30948737263679504,
-0.45736274123191833,
-0.18585114181041718,
0.5511103868484497,
-0.36627331376075745,
0.4108862280845642,
0.33696308732032776,
-0.11811685562133789,
-0.028969917446374893,
0.5414151549339294,
-0.5758123397827148,
0.2515248954296112,
0.21311257779598236,
-0.047784898430109024,
-0.7194247245788574,
0.21222496032714844,
0.19533973932266235,
-0.28321173787117004,
-0.35860762000083923,
0.6888689994812012,
-0.34498292207717896,
-0.4223177134990692,
-0.16900771856307983,
-0.019420722499489784,
-0.3426557183265686,
-0.29174917936325073,
0.8141395449638367,
-0.3321550786495209,
-0.18743480741977692,
-0.25867801904678345,
0.379504919052124,
0.5309351682662964,
-0.3003399968147278,
0.36257219314575195,
0.33111342787742615,
0.35581687092781067,
-0.18144425749778748,
-0.06752937287092209,
0.4519532024860382,
-0.02728164754807949,
-0.4996570944786072,
-0.37455472350120544,
0.41311314702033997,
-0.08755967766046524,
-0.6718718409538269,
-0.3578718602657318,
-0.1886771023273468,
0.20635823905467987,
-0.6631693243980408,
0.30136680603027344,
-0.09045165032148361,
0.25556784868240356,
-0.4646787941455841
] |
213090
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20George%20Burry
|
Andrew George Burry
|
Andrew George Burry (February 2, 1873 – January 22, 1975) was a businessman, manufacturer and philanthropist. Born in Undervillier, Switzerland, he emigrated to the United States in 1884. Burry founded the Wayne Paper Box and Printing Corp. in 1898, and was also the founder and President of the National Paper Box Manufacturing Association(s) in 1917 - 1918, and 1926 - 1928.
He donated lavish sums to the YMCA, and in his hometown of Fort Wayne, Indiana, he was a trustee of the YMCA College there and of the Congregational Church.
1873 births
1975 deaths
American manufacturing businesspeople
American centenarians
Men centenarians
People from Fort Wayne, Indiana
|
[
-0.1594042032957077,
0.5159993767738342,
-0.8633770942687988,
0.12283642590045929,
0.41995325684547424,
0.7211998105049133,
0.32729610800743103,
0.007208534516394138,
-0.05466292053461075,
-0.27626991271972656,
0.30408135056495667,
0.15396036207675934,
-0.1252029836177826,
0.8001436591148376,
-0.4127158522605896,
0.3144620656967163,
0.10720961540937424,
0.190156027674675,
-0.15947100520133972,
-0.10152134299278259,
-0.8084143996238708,
-0.23942571878433228,
0.49771198630332947,
0.5231354832649231,
-0.22983932495117188,
0.37736237049102783,
0.002067584777250886,
-1.038651943206787,
0.33163130283355713,
0.25169283151626587,
0.25750184059143066,
0.3547428846359253,
0.4636811316013336,
-0.918165922164917,
-0.37549856305122375,
-0.6322005391120911,
-0.012569176033139229,
-0.21056243777275085,
-0.06434185057878494,
0.2496129423379898,
-0.09376542270183563,
0.39480140805244446,
0.2177823930978775,
0.31259942054748535,
-0.2843610942363739,
-0.5020062923431396,
-1.8849461078643799,
-0.015958214178681374,
-0.37518852949142456,
-0.5297389626502991,
-0.2622457444667816,
0.2961597740650177,
0.2528317868709564,
0.36759698390960693,
-0.3246038556098938,
0.2598162591457367,
-0.27254581451416016,
0.16865591704845428,
0.3312934935092926,
-0.3708988130092621,
0.3880568742752075,
-0.1673993319272995,
0.7400223016738892,
-0.2131374329328537,
0.6175854206085205,
0.6373589634895325,
-0.13815824687480927,
0.44887465238571167,
0.14101925492286682,
0.2383355349302292,
-0.06434089690446854,
0.1116592064499855,
0.6189829707145691,
0.19194155931472778,
0.27264004945755005,
-0.32185959815979004,
-0.3495204746723175,
0.12244615703821182,
0.0919397622346878,
0.4012155830860138,
-0.11836881935596466,
-0.12240341305732727,
0.38115277886390686,
-0.07291529327630997,
0.15255971252918243,
0.2057250589132309,
-0.7161401510238647,
0.48331207036972046,
-0.3156747817993164,
0.022226421162486076,
-0.5854817032814026,
0.17389781773090363,
0.005878874566406012,
0.15560704469680786,
-0.5401235818862915,
-0.6047003865242004,
0.03568296879529953,
-0.08026301860809326,
-0.06080301105976105,
-0.1105000376701355,
-0.10393845289945602,
0.11982469260692596,
0.2057552933692932,
-0.0445391871035099,
-0.08903440833091736,
0.45581749081611633,
-0.34815189242362976,
-0.6118212342262268,
0.1572326421737671,
-0.23319992423057556,
-0.3201347589492798,
0.07987100630998611,
-0.06693772971630096,
-0.43707922101020813,
-0.16554506123065948,
0.40401139855384827,
0.31429657340049744,
-1.0081708431243896,
-0.3195480406284332,
-0.5610151290893555,
0.0415000356733799,
0.8013299107551575,
-0.6825375556945801,
-0.29351213574409485,
-0.6296155452728271,
-0.1038246899843216,
0.31070348620414734,
0.16921555995941162,
0.22266116738319397,
-0.021265484392642975,
0.5965249538421631,
1.1405709981918335,
-0.38088053464889526,
-0.3332119286060333,
-0.472026526927948,
-0.2313866764307022,
-0.14805720746517181,
0.14113196730613708,
-0.1546618640422821,
-0.4236277639865875,
0.12260719388723373,
-0.015332818031311035,
-0.43894270062446594,
0.026398995891213417,
0.24996282160282135,
0.013771280646324158,
0.1948678344488144,
-0.30812495946884155,
-0.32888737320899963,
-0.3531914949417114,
0.14385662972927094,
-0.1102536991238594,
-0.08012857288122177,
-0.2448563426733017,
-0.2894872725009918,
0.4608458876609802,
0.15402133762836456,
-0.5241756439208984,
0.5962978005409241,
0.4058855473995209,
0.15433180332183838,
-0.04834085330367088,
-0.2612558603286743,
-0.021934743970632553,
0.04477798193693161,
0.18878202140331268,
-0.02929609827697277,
-0.2949695587158203,
-0.6088621616363525,
0.06604219228029251,
-0.512013852596283,
-0.2070222795009613,
0.18291181325912476,
-0.4788288176059723,
0.4144412577152252,
0.19622260332107544,
0.3303053677082062,
-0.2104158103466034,
0.29086267948150635,
-0.6407592296600342,
-0.5523641109466553,
0.011258825659751892,
0.27791765332221985,
-0.49934878945350647,
0.5915027856826782,
0.30424726009368896,
0.46308478713035583,
-0.3591795265674591,
0.6724286079406738,
-0.21321909129619598,
0.04339610040187836,
-0.76678466796875,
-0.516045331954956,
-0.1512400209903717,
1.018627405166626,
0.3822309076786041,
-0.5264216661453247,
0.7655267119407654,
0.8458927273750305,
0.5474526882171631,
-0.35743820667266846,
-0.2792975902557373,
0.03945736587047577,
-0.5302917957305908,
-0.3892329931259155,
0.7490828037261963,
0.5277858972549438,
0.17099323868751526,
0.29679638147354126,
0.3817988336086273,
0.5728186964988708,
-0.4811706244945526,
0.3380587100982666,
-0.09118190407752991,
0.11478953808546066,
-0.7076119184494019,
-0.01582932658493519,
-0.013682124204933643,
0.3368358314037323,
-0.20301303267478943,
0.6605499982833862,
0.4370158612728119,
-0.09821804612874985,
1.002466082572937,
0.5427935123443604,
0.6055454611778259,
-0.021099736914038658,
-0.7489449977874756,
0.3124341666698456,
-0.27282294631004333,
-0.07949841767549515,
-0.28838804364204407,
0.13071733713150024,
-0.639281690120697,
0.2712897062301636,
-0.1725878268480301,
-0.43255916237831116,
-0.3394091725349426,
0.11428799480199814,
-0.002116104355081916,
-0.16289836168289185,
0.06264746189117432,
-1.025362491607666,
0.2148454785346985,
0.2605167031288147,
0.14844481647014618,
-0.3820851147174835,
-0.23209157586097717,
0.13878242671489716,
-0.1923055499792099,
0.8185120820999146,
0.5497269630432129,
0.30830949544906616,
0.040780097246170044,
0.7075204253196716,
-0.41959503293037415,
0.411925345659256,
-0.0014730892144143581,
0.31752046942710876,
-0.005313986912369728,
-0.03798658028244972,
0.3870455324649811,
0.07873478531837463,
0.47620144486427307,
0.14743952453136444,
-0.17079748213291168,
0.11806780099868774,
-0.18194524943828583,
0.27437466382980347,
-0.060319848358631134,
0.9122453331947327,
-0.3146875202655792,
-0.4685458838939667,
0.790692925453186,
0.9332441091537476,
-0.3951345384120941,
0.00607595220208168,
0.7506170272827148,
-1.0898317098617554,
-0.9459043741226196,
0.3037377893924713,
0.7517614364624023,
-0.23115505278110504,
-0.44646403193473816,
0.1748243272304535,
-0.08240671455860138,
-0.16615837812423706,
0.07795879989862442,
0.027746859937906265,
0.22554880380630493,
0.10201403498649597,
0.328742653131485,
-0.39231258630752563,
0.7072001099586487,
-0.4981577694416046,
0.695935070514679,
-0.031761229038238525,
-0.3776116669178009,
0.4420371353626251,
-0.25782591104507446,
-0.47111186385154724,
-0.07416435331106186,
-0.5064271688461304,
0.12292155623435974,
0.5567651391029358,
0.061174176633358,
0.205155611038208,
-0.5507270693778992,
-5.506381511688232,
0.2835502326488495,
0.07159741967916489,
-0.3967164158821106,
0.3906760811805725,
0.4904897212982178,
0.33553048968315125,
0.2289782613515854,
0.07187700271606445,
0.23586852848529816,
0.3067055344581604,
-0.038407593965530396,
0.391202449798584,
0.3481307625770569,
0.6889966130256653,
0.32196804881095886,
0.6867168545722961,
0.3710787296295166,
0.46596094965934753,
0.14586779475212097,
-0.1679464429616928,
-0.16081830859184265,
-0.28780949115753174,
0.31635165214538574,
0.33089137077331543,
-0.00786732230335474,
-0.1167513057589531,
0.19971098005771637,
-0.8319278955459595,
-0.46695971488952637,
0.37423771619796753,
-0.01476920023560524,
-0.1589033305644989,
-0.2311549335718155,
-0.34072595834732056,
-0.7360466122627258,
0.34922972321510315,
-0.07542038708925247,
0.3825363218784332,
-0.10928179323673248,
-0.2812511622905731,
0.15485353767871857,
-0.6781352758407593,
0.1899814009666443,
0.0504625029861927,
-0.7137354016304016,
-0.5818328857421875,
0.27040189504623413,
-0.20937730371952057,
0.4544207453727722,
0.4797884523868561,
0.3413850963115692,
0.6291071772575378,
0.3495272994041443,
0.29881709814071655,
0.01659330353140831,
0.13811971247196198,
0.07037170976400375,
-0.9316100478172302,
0.418062299489975,
0.6782404780387878,
0.00852727610617876,
-0.01982703246176243,
0.04232834652066231,
0.18400801718235016,
-1.05240797996521,
0.22055082023143768,
-0.4270069897174835,
-0.14050352573394775,
-0.3685348331928253,
-0.09806828200817108,
0.7596096992492676,
0.4597853124141693,
-1.2192012071609497,
0.29915812611579895,
-0.15229052305221558,
-0.14330968260765076,
-0.09167703241109848,
-0.563274085521698,
-0.3975379467010498,
0.4479703903198242,
-0.10359306633472443,
0.1427467316389084,
1.3796539306640625,
0.14426474273204803,
0.04845190420746803,
-0.29972293972969055,
0.4694024920463562,
-0.5896989107131958,
-0.48006099462509155,
-0.04304121807217598,
0.2898498773574829,
0.15994080901145935,
-0.02018391713500023,
-0.2161666601896286,
0.025556139647960663,
-0.24985629320144653,
0.289392352104187,
0.38394787907600403,
0.4599422514438629,
0.020249508321285248,
0.011838183738291264,
-0.5488417148590088,
-0.5102046728134155,
-0.1635645031929016,
-0.09117225557565689,
-0.32293155789375305,
0.15679077804088593,
0.7463774085044861,
0.29237887263298035,
-0.5081125497817993,
0.11535131186246872,
-0.769011914730072,
-0.3251906931400299,
0.33966749906539917,
-0.16696663200855255,
0.06440319865942001,
-0.24020357429981232,
0.6783567070960999,
0.5349865555763245,
0.45970839262008667,
0.593296468257904,
0.13863104581832886,
0.15748333930969238,
0.21895605325698853,
-0.204902783036232,
0.4316268563270569,
-0.5387970805168152,
-0.6586317420005798,
-0.6262854933738708,
0.2848605513572693,
0.3179244101047516,
-0.25911325216293335,
-0.0019003493944182992,
-0.23018760979175568,
-0.4940287470817566,
-0.511162281036377,
-0.502999484539032,
-0.1396917700767517,
0.3539559543132782,
-0.10853344202041626,
-0.007953187450766563,
-0.22985681891441345,
0.24821814894676208,
0.2216678261756897,
0.39431703090667725,
0.07243857532739639,
0.12569735944271088,
-0.6779362559318542,
0.4437863230705261,
-0.8168315291404724,
-0.6556302309036255,
0.3930334448814392,
-0.4582737982273102,
-0.5256263017654419,
0.19723162055015564,
-0.327338844537735,
-0.22127626836299896,
-0.0969468429684639,
-0.1304149627685547,
-0.0517040453851223,
0.31352558732032776,
-0.8441473245620728,
-0.22615045309066772,
-0.18717557191848755,
0.40024372935295105,
-0.3282352685928345,
0.05428509786725044,
-0.5847163200378418,
0.6567739844322205,
0.26643607020378113,
-0.12043401598930359,
-0.5826356410980225,
-0.18277740478515625,
0.3816600739955902,
0.3502624034881592,
-0.12082947045564651,
-0.17846928536891937,
0.05608765780925751,
0.13508188724517822,
0.33654478192329407,
0.25512757897377014,
-0.4744977355003357,
0.040721308439970016,
0.6916638612747192,
-0.5462789535522461,
-0.19058313965797424,
-0.3788925111293793,
-0.14061804115772247,
0.0634884387254715,
-0.4173332750797272,
-0.45707494020462036,
0.8731310963630676,
0.6139625906944275,
-0.07417354732751846,
-0.007544402033090591,
0.12731878459453583,
-0.2892051935195923,
-0.4288094937801361,
-0.6545300483703613,
-0.04698225483298302,
-0.05996493250131607,
-0.17696422338485718,
0.0522964671254158,
-0.2632993757724762,
-1.0280770063400269,
-0.28429558873176575,
-0.017429294064641,
-0.209095761179924,
1.2220265865325928,
0.36338022351264954,
0.08475340157747269,
-0.26475366950035095,
0.19450512528419495,
-0.20932550728321075,
0.23457297682762146,
0.3481261730194092,
0.19019095599651337,
-0.5052275657653809,
-0.6911129355430603,
-0.6038976907730103,
-0.4847033619880676,
0.17938292026519775,
-0.1939951777458191,
-0.8827444911003113,
0.2608940303325653,
-0.32044950127601624,
0.04535825550556183,
0.605559229850769,
-0.3946462869644165,
-0.687656044960022,
-0.4523668885231018,
-0.0871230736374855,
0.17385374009609222,
0.05680074170231819,
0.6727491021156311,
0.331415593624115,
0.8114991784095764,
-0.34199100732803345,
0.024757685139775276,
-0.2865743637084961,
1.057045578956604,
0.22298239171504974,
-0.20239174365997314,
-0.40015050768852234,
0.12840859591960907,
0.6429537534713745,
0.3457466959953308,
-0.2373427301645279,
0.19135010242462158,
0.7816452383995056,
-0.4857400953769684,
-0.40230780839920044,
-0.0014640893787145615,
0.32874277234077454,
-0.37231746315956116,
0.2136310189962387,
0.1210939958691597,
0.21912448108196259,
0.3360673189163208,
-0.5403875112533569,
0.13532577455043793,
-0.12815867364406586,
0.1502804458141327,
-0.08928833901882172,
0.07429202646017075,
-0.3464561998844147,
-0.27155163884162903,
0.3892020583152771,
-0.7016095519065857,
0.028078613802790642,
0.15959487855434418,
-0.5486228466033936,
-0.140926331281662,
-0.5283147096633911,
0.6405275464057922,
0.2944459319114685,
-0.7351175546646118,
0.2083662450313568,
-0.7653782367706299,
-1.1276618242263794,
0.1557018905878067,
0.0491490438580513,
-0.2298281043767929,
-0.1595025360584259,
-0.7226257920265198,
-0.8162615299224854,
-0.3039676249027252,
-0.3059086501598358,
-0.4307408928871155,
-0.8268446326255798,
0.14636531472206116,
-0.7588399052619934,
0.2566317319869995,
-0.3618480861186981,
0.38362860679626465,
-0.4466361701488495,
0.5761976838111877,
-0.090688556432724,
0.0698009505867958,
-0.35769447684288025,
0.5863086581230164,
0.308389276266098,
0.3216240704059601,
0.19212472438812256,
0.29752346873283386,
-0.017002740874886513,
-0.06128972768783569,
-0.17010080814361572,
-0.30368155241012573,
0.02667785994708538,
-0.3542998135089874,
0.17441435158252716,
0.40358421206474304,
-0.5633711218833923,
-0.5044507384300232,
0.453459769487381,
-0.7526293992996216,
-0.10878077149391174,
0.03587641194462776,
-0.28528910875320435,
0.10088685899972916,
0.7031963467597961,
0.2403525561094284,
-0.1358361691236496,
0.9625554084777832,
-0.2739124000072479,
0.03929874300956726,
0.4268980026245117,
0.3526378870010376,
0.20560845732688904,
0.18416406214237213,
-0.5473877787590027,
0.09232938289642334,
0.020840182900428772,
0.14866137504577637,
0.08090919256210327,
-0.35390010476112366,
-0.18335400521755219,
0.4215153753757477,
0.1477440595626831,
0.8007218241691589,
-0.04723581671714783,
0.22629116475582123,
0.061771344393491745,
0.56740403175354,
0.2572490870952606,
0.46133050322532654,
-0.2501601576805115,
0.27877336740493774,
0.13045836985111237,
0.18509675562381744,
0.30857279896736145,
-0.9098675847053528,
-0.07428357750177383,
0.481271356344223,
0.3301820456981659,
0.16996780037879944,
-0.31414100527763367,
-0.11156756430864334,
0.28683003783226013,
-0.5877917408943176,
0.86549311876297,
-0.25576406717300415,
-0.24354174733161926,
-0.7005566954612732,
-0.7970294952392578,
-0.5026910901069641,
-0.3616507351398468,
0.483083575963974,
0.14176315069198608,
-0.04694228991866112,
0.06508615612983704,
0.43032509088516235,
0.30537283420562744,
0.7043428421020508,
0.5503572821617126,
0.1831391155719757,
-0.14714372158050537,
0.7006585001945496,
-0.42873403429985046,
-0.10289183259010315,
-0.6716617345809937,
-0.45235976576805115,
0.07440612465143204,
0.19403275847434998,
-0.1692514717578888,
0.4411638081073761,
-0.020512599498033524,
-0.5043795108795166,
0.33901920914649963,
-0.4613070785999298,
-0.30869877338409424,
0.724930465221405,
-0.27933168411254883,
-0.08518937975168228,
-0.07954313606023788,
0.2999870181083679,
0.2135159969329834,
-0.2583702802658081,
-0.27543631196022034,
0.3719179332256317,
0.1332954317331314,
0.2441374808549881,
-0.20968139171600342,
0.38135626912117004,
-0.5210374593734741,
0.05997598171234131,
-0.5755587220191956,
0.6394482254981995,
-0.262314110994339,
0.3898831009864807,
-0.5038450956344604,
0.7721679210662842,
-0.2143978625535965,
-0.28671932220458984,
0.43926700949668884,
-0.02155148983001709,
-0.6838857531547546,
-0.09003950655460358,
-0.0956980437040329,
0.10073155909776688,
0.24956244230270386,
-0.08361239731311798,
-0.18423624336719513,
-0.07655385136604309,
0.17476877570152283,
-0.05957861244678497,
-0.1950860321521759,
0.7033857107162476,
-0.2822631597518921,
-1.0064364671707153,
-0.5702118873596191,
-0.038537584245204926,
0.10300342738628387,
-0.21534116566181183,
-0.08915349841117859,
0.6369560956954956,
0.7060447931289673,
-0.2745683789253235,
0.22683767974376678,
-0.18687187135219574,
0.536063015460968,
-0.1627400517463684,
0.12933069467544556,
0.2423063963651657,
0.2087593674659729,
-0.424026221036911,
0.03546186536550522,
0.7410317659378052,
-0.31942370533943176,
-0.41929933428764343,
0.38657060265541077,
-0.3184429705142975,
0.4467560946941376,
0.02953406609594822,
0.2620554268360138,
-0.23610858619213104,
0.12582892179489136,
0.11907564103603363
] |
213091
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20and%20the%20Amazing%20Technicolor%20Dreamcoat
|
Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat
|
Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat (often colloquially known as Joseph) is a sung-through musical comedy with lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Andrew Lloyd Webber, based on the character of Joseph from the Bible's Book of Genesis. This was the first Lloyd Webber and Rice musical to be performed publicly; their first collaboration, The Likes of Us, written in 1965, was not performed until 2005. Its family-friendly retelling of Joseph, familiar themes and catchy music have resulted in numerous stagings. According to the owner of the copyright, the Really Useful Group, by 2008 more than 20,000 schools and amateur theatre groups had staged productions.
Joseph was first presented as a 15-minute "pop cantata" at Colet Court School in London in 1968, and was published by Novello and recorded in an expanded form by Decca Records in 1969. After the success of the next Lloyd Webber and Rice piece, Jesus Christ Superstar, Joseph received amateur stage productions in the US beginning in 1970, and the first American release of the album was in 1971. The musical had its professional premiere, as a 35-minute musical, at the Haymarket ice rink during the Edinburgh International Festival in 1972. It was Part Two of Bible One, a Young Vic Theatre Company production presented by the National Theatre of Great Britain. While still undergoing various modifications and expansions, the musical was produced in the West End in 1973. In 1974, its full modern format was performed at the Haymarket Theatre in Leicester and was also recorded that year. The musical was mounted on Broadway in 1982. Several major revivals, national tours, and a 1999 direct-to-video film starring Donny Osmond followed.
Synopsis
Act I
Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat is based on the story of Joseph from the Bible's Book of Genesis.
A Narrator opens the show by introducing Joseph, the dreamer ("Prologue"). Joseph sings an inspiring, but seemingly meaningless song to the audience ("Any Dream Will Do"). The Narrator then draws the audience's attention to Joseph's father Jacob and his 12 sons ("Jacob and Sons"). Jacob favors Joseph over his other sons, and he gives Joseph a multi-colored coat to show his affection for him. Joseph is ecstatic about this gift ("Joseph's Coat"), while his brothers look on with jealousy.
The brothers’ jealousy is compounded by Joseph's dreams, which suggest that he is destined to rule over them ("Joseph's Dreams"). To stop this from happening, they try to kill him by throwing him down a pit, before changing their minds and selling him as a slave to some passing Ishmaelites. The Narrator comments on how powerless Joseph was to stop this ("Poor, Poor Joseph").
To hide what they have done, Joseph's brothers and their wives tell Jacob that his beloved son has been killed. As proof, they show him Joseph's coat, which they have torn to pieces and covered in goat's blood ("One More Angel in Heaven"). When the devastated Jacob exits, the brothers and wives cheerfully celebrate Joseph's departure ("Hoedown").
Meanwhile, Joseph is taken to Egypt, where he is bought as a slave by the wealthy Potiphar. He works hard and is promoted, eventually running the household. Joseph catches the eye of Mrs Potiphar and although he turns down her advances, Potiphar sees them together and jumps to the wrong conclusion ("Potiphar"). Heartbroken, he throws Joseph in jail.
A miserable Joseph laments his situation ("Close Every Door"). Two prisoners, both former servants of the Pharaoh, are put in his cell. Joseph interprets their strange dreams and predicts the Butler will return to Pharaoh's service, while the Baker will be executed. As Joseph questions his predictions, the other prisoners encourage Joseph to follow his own dreams ("Go, Go, Go Joseph").
Act II
The Narrator opens the second act with news that there's a glimmer of light for Joseph in jail: Pharaoh himself had a run of crazy dreams and nobody can interpret them ("Pharaoh Story"). Pharaoh's (now freed) Butler tells him of Joseph's skills deciphering dreams ("Poor, Poor Pharaoh"). Pharaoh has Joseph brought to him and describes his dream involving seven fat cows, seven skinny cows, seven healthy ears of corn, and seven dead ears of corn ("Song of the King").
Joseph deduces that there will be seven plentiful years of crops followed by seven years of famine ("Pharaoh's Dreams Explained"). Impressed with what he hears, Pharaoh puts Joseph in charge of preparations for the famine and the former slave becomes the second most powerful man in Egypt, Pharaoh's right-hand man ("Stone the Crows").
Meanwhile, Joseph's family back home is now starving and poor, having lost their farm and living off scraps in a brothel. Joseph's brothers regret what they did to him and how they lied to their father, thinking that things might have turned out differently if Joseph was still with them ("Those Canaan Days"). Hearing that Egypt still has food, they travel there to beg for supplies ("The Brothers Come to Egypt").
In Egypt, the brothers beg for food from Joseph, not realizing who he is ("Grovel, Grovel"). Joseph gives them sacks of food, but plants a golden cup in the one belonging to Benjamin, his youngest brother. When the brothers attempt to depart, Joseph stops them, accusing them of theft. Each brother empties his sack ("Who's the Thief?”), and when the cup is found in Benjamin's sack Joseph accuses him of stealing. The other brothers beg Joseph to take them prisoner instead and let Benjamin go free ("Benjamin Calypso").
Joseph sees that his brothers have changed and reveals who he really is ("Joseph All the Time"). Joseph sends for his father Jacob ("Jacob in Egypt"). Upon meeting Jacob for the first time in years, Joseph sings "Any Dream Will Do" again, and the lyrics are revealed to be a vague overview of the story. Jacob gives Joseph his coat back ("Give Me My Colored Coat")
In some productions, the cast perform a medley of songs from the show as they take their bows ("Joseph Megamix").
Production
Development and early vocal performances, publication, and recordings 1968–1971
The 17-year-old budding musical-theatre composer Andrew Lloyd Webber was contacted by the 20-year-old aspiring pop-songwriter Tim Rice in 1965, and they created their first musical, The Likes of Us. They produced a demo tape of that work in 1966, but the project failed to gain a backer.
In the summer of 1967, Alan Doggett, a family friend of the Lloyd Webber’s who had assisted on The Likes of Us and who was the music teacher at the Colet Court school in London, commissioned Lloyd Webber and Rice to write a piece for the school's choir. Doggett requested a "pop cantata" along the lines of Herbert Chappell's The Daniel Jazz (1963) and Michael Hurd's Jonah-Man Jazz (1966), both of which had been published by Novello and were based on the Old Testament. The request for the new piece came with a 100-guinea advance from Novello. This resulted in Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, a retelling of the biblical story of Joseph, in which Lloyd Webber and Rice humorously pastiched a number of pop-music styles.
The piece was first presented as a 15-minute pop cantata at Colet Court School in London on 1 March 1968. Lloyd Webber's composer father William arranged for a second performance at his church, Westminster Central Hall, with a revised and expanded 20-minute format; the boys of Colet Court and members of the band Mixed Bag sang at this performance in May 1968. One of the children's parents in that audience was Derek Jewell, a Sunday Times music critic; he reviewed the piece in the newspaper, calling it a new pop oratorio and praising its innovation and exuberance. By its third performance, at St Paul's Cathedral in November 1968, the musical had been expanded to 35 minutes.
Novello published the lyrics and sheet music of the 20-minute version at the beginning of 1969, as the third of their Old Testament pop cantatas. Decca Records, which had already recorded the St Paul's Cathedral version of the musical in the summer of 1968, released the recording in 1969, credited to the Joseph Consortium, following the Novello publication. David Daltrey, front man of British psychedelic band Tales of Justine, played the role of Joseph and lead guitar, and Tim Rice was Pharaoh. Other vocalists included members of the Mixed Bag group, such as Terry Saunders and Malcolm Parry, and the choir of Colet Court School.
A 32-minute recording of the musical with 19 tracks was issued in the US on Scepter Records in 1971. It was a reissue of the 1969 Decca UK album, capitalising on the success of 1970's Jesus Christ Superstar in the US. It featured Daltrey as Joseph, Rice as Pharaoh, William S. Lloyd Webber on the Hammond organ, Alan Doggett conducting, and the Colet Court choir as the chorus.
Early stage performances
First American amateur productions 1970–1973
Lloyd Webber and Rice used the popularity of their subsequent musical, the rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar, to promote Joseph, which was advertised in America as a "follow-up" to Superstar. The rock opera's title song "Superstar" had been an international hit single released in late 1969, and "I Don't Know How To Love Him", another hit from Jesus Christ Superstar, was released 1 May 1970. The first American production of Joseph was an amateur stage production in May 1970, at Cathedral College of the Immaculate Conception in Douglaston, Queens, New York City. Following this, other schools and colleges sought to produce the piece.
Young Vic UK production and move to West End and Leicester 1972–1974
In late August and September 1972, Joseph was presented at the Edinburgh International Festival by the Young Vic Theatre Company, directed by Frank Dunlop. It starred Gary Bond in the title role, Peter Reeves as the narrator, and Gordon Waller as Pharaoh; Alan Doggett was the music director. In October the production played at London's Young Vic Theatre, and in November at the Roundhouse. The production was part of a double bill called Bible One: Two Looks at the Book of Genesis. Part I was Dunlop's reworking of the first six of the medieval Wakefield Mystery Plays, with music by Alan Doggett. Part II was Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. This production of Joseph, still a 35-minute musical, was also broadcast in the UK by Granada Television in 1972.
In February 1973, theatre producer Michael White and impresario Robert Stigwood mounted a further expanded version of the Young Vic production at the Albery Theatre in the West End, where it ran for 243 performances. This Young Vic production of Joseph was recorded for an LP released on the RSO label in 1973. The mystery plays that had preceded the original Young Vic productions were dropped, and instead the musical was preceded by a piece called Jacob's Journey, with music and lyrics by Lloyd Webber and Rice and a book by television comedy writers Ray Galton and Alan Simpson. Jacob's Journey, which contained a great deal of spoken dialogue, was eventually phased out in favour of a sung-through score that became part of Joseph. The first production of the show in its modern, final form was at the Haymarket Theatre in Leicester, which presented the musical several times from 1974 through 1978.
English Cast charts
Irish productions, 1974–1978
Starting in 1974, Irish stage and screen producer Noel Pearson mounted an Irish production of Joseph, starring Tony Kenny in the title role and with Pearson playing Jacob , which ran off-and-on for several years on several stages, starting in the Olympia Theatre in Dublin, moving on to the Cork Opera House for a two-week run, then to Limerick and then the Gaiety Theatre in Dublin, followed by several other venues over the next 4 years . A cast recording was produced by Ram Records .
Professional US productions, including Broadway, 1974–1984
In 1974, Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat was performed at the Playhouse in the Park in Philadelphia. The musical ran at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in New York in 1976 and in 1977 as "holiday fare". In the 1976 production, which opened on 30 December, direction was by John Dunlop, with a cast that featured Cleavon Little as the Narrator and David-James Carroll as Joseph. In the 1977 production, running in December through 1 January 1978, staging was by Graciela Daniele, with Carroll as Joseph, Alan Weeks as the Narrator and William Parry as Pharaoh/Elvis. In 1979, Joseph made its Connecticut debut at the historic Downtown Cabaret Theatre ahead of moving to New York City.
Joseph received an Off-Broadway production at the Entermedia Theatre, running from 18 November 1981 through 24 January 1982. Directed by Tony Tanner, the cast starred Bill Hutton as Joseph, Laurie Beechman as the Narrator, and Tom Carder as Pharaoh.
The production transferred to Broadway at the Royale Theatre on 27 January 1982 and ran through 4 September 1983, with 747 performances. Judith Dolan designed costumes for the production. This production was recorded on the Chrysalis label, and is the first to feature the Prologue (dubbed on the Chrysalis release "You are what you feel"). The producers were Gail Berman and Susan Rose, who were the youngest producers on Broadway. The show received six Tony Award nominations including Best Musical and Best Original Score but won zero. Allen Fawcett replaced Hutton as Joseph in June 1982. David Cassidy took over the role of Joseph in March 1983 and also performed in the touring cast in 1983–1984.
1990s
With Jason Donovan in the lead, the expanded show was restaged in 1991 at the London Palladium with Steven Pimlott as director and Anthony Van Laast as choreographer, winning the 1992 Laurence Olivier Award for set design. The cast album of this production was the #1 UK album for two weeks in September 1991, and the single "Any Dream Will Do" from it was also the #1 UK single for two weeks in June–July 1991. When Donovan left, former children's TV presenter Phillip Schofield portrayed Joseph.
The musical opened in Toronto at the Elgin Theatre in June, 1992 until September that same year, with Donny Osmond as Joseph and Janet Metz as the Narrator. A major Australian production, based on the 1991 UK version, opened on 31 December 1992 at the State Theatre in Melbourne. It featured Indecent Obsession lead singer David Dixon as Joseph and Tina Arena as the Narrator. The musical then played seasons in Brisbane and Sydney through 1993.
The show was revived in the United States in 1993, playing in Los Angeles at the Pantages Theatre for 18 weeks, and in San Francisco at the Golden Gate Theatre for an 8-week run, before moving to Broadway, where it played for 231 performances at the Minskoff Theatre from 10 November 1993 to 29 May 1994. The cast featured Michael Damian (Joseph), Kelli Rabke (Narrator), Clifford David (Jacob), and Robert Torti (Pharaoh).
Patrick Cassidy and Debbie Gibson performed 16 shows between 6–16 December 1999, at the Shubert Theatre in Chicago, IL. Students from Lake Bluff Middle School performed as part of the dream Choir.
2000s
A production starring Stephen Gately previewed in Oxford in December 2002, before moving to Liverpool over Christmas 2002. This production reached the West End at the New London Theatre in March 2003.
A US national tour began in September 2005 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, starring Patrick Cassidy.
A 2007 revival of the London Palladium production at the Adelphi Theatre starred a Joseph cast with the winner of BBC One's Any Dream Will Do, presided over by Lloyd Webber. This was the second reality talent show to search for a West End star, capitalising on the success of the 2006 BBC–Lloyd Webber series, How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?. Viewers voted for Lee Mead as Joseph. Mead had given up his ensemble role in The Phantom of the Opera, where he also understudied Raoul. The new Joseph production, which began on 6 July 2007, used Steven Pimlott's original direction (Pimlott had died since staging the Palladium production), with Preeya Kalidas as the Narrator.
2010s
The long-running UK touring production was re-cast in 2010 with Keith Jack taking on Joseph in July 2010 opposite Jennifer Potts as narrator.
A new North American touring production began on 4 March 2014 in Cleveland, Ohio starring Diana DeGarmo as the Narrator and Ace Young as Joseph.
The 2016 UK touring production starred Joe McElderry as Joseph and Lucy Kay as the Narrator. The tour started again in February 2019 with Jaymi Hensley taking the lead role, with Trina Hill portraying the Narrator.
In November 2018 it was announced that Joseph would return to the London Palladium for a limited run over the summer in 2019 to celebrate the show's 50th anniversary. Sheridan Smith starred as the Narrator and Jason Donovan played Pharaoh, with the title role of Joseph being played by drama school graduate Jac Yarrow. The production ran from 27 June 2019 (previews), opening 11 July, to 8 September. The success of this production led to it being announced to make a return the following year.
2020s
On 17 February 2020, a 50th anniversary concert production of Joseph was staged at Lincoln Center's David Geffen Hall in New York City. Produced by Manhattan Concert Productions, directed by Michael Arden conducted by Stephen Oremus, and accompanied by the New York City Chamber Orchestra with over 300 singers, the one night only sold-out concert presentation starred Noah Galvin (a last minute replacement for Ari'el Stachel) as Joseph along with Eden Espinosa, Alex Newell, and Jessica Vosk sharing the central role of The Narrator. Additional casting included Chuck Cooper as Jacob, Andy Karl as Potiphar, Orfeh as Mrs. Potiphar, and Merle Dandridge as The Pharaoh.
The production returned to the London Palladium in 2021, playing a limited season from 1 July to 5 September. The production which was postponed from 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic sees Alexandra Burke join the company as The Narrator and Yarrow and Donovan return to the roles of Joseph and Pharaoh respectively.
Characters
Narrator: A character not of the time or place of the action. The Narrator tells the story through word and song, guiding the audience gently through the story of Joseph and his brothers, usually gives meaning to the story with his/her words. In early productions this character was usually played by a man; later productions have featured a woman in the role.
Jacob: The father of twelve sons, his favourite being Joseph. At times he may appear unfair and shallow, but he is, more importantly, the prophet who recognises the future and the calling of Joseph, thus saving the House of Israel. Sometimes doubles as Potiphar.
Joseph: Eleventh son of Jacob. Obviously his father's favourite, Joseph early on shows a talent for interpreting dreams and telling the future. This gets him into trouble with his brothers when he predicts his future will include ruling over the other eleven. However, it saves his life when in Egypt he correctly interprets Pharaoh's dreams. In the end he has risen to a great position of power, but he still forgives his brothers and brings his family to Egypt to partake of the bounty he has accumulated there.
Ishmaelites: Men of the desert, they buy Joseph as a slave, take him to Egypt, and sell him to Potiphar.
Potiphar: A powerful and rich Egyptian, Potiphar purchases Joseph and puts him to work in his household, where he soon realises that Joseph is honest, hard-working, and a great addition to his pool of help. When he grows suspicious of Mrs. Potiphar and Joseph, however, he grows angry and has Joseph thrown into prison. Often played by the actor playing Jacob.
Mrs. Potiphar: Beautiful but evil, Mrs. Potiphar tries to seduce Joseph, but is unsuccessful. However, she does manage to rip off much of his clothing just as her husband comes into the room, thus condemning him to prison. Also plays one of the wives.
Baker: One of Pharaoh's servants, the Baker is in prison with Joseph who correctly interprets his dreams and predicts that he will be put to death. Played by one of the brothers.
Butler: Another of Pharaoh's servants, the Butler is also in prison with Joseph who also correctly interprets his dreams, this time that he will be released and taken back into Pharaoh's household. It is the Butler who tells Pharaoh about Joseph and his uncanny ability with dreams. Played by one of the brothers.
Pharaoh: The most powerful man in Egypt, Pharaoh is considered a god on earth. When Joseph interprets his dreams, he promotes him to one of the highest positions in his government. In most productions, Pharaoh is portrayed as an Elvis Presley-style figure. Sometimes played by one of the brothers.
Joseph's Eleven Brothers: Although acting usually as a group, they each have their own different personalities, talents, and flaws. As a group they sell Joseph into slavery, but as individuals they deal with the following years and how they can make amends. They sing and dance their way through many situations and places. The brothers also double as Egyptians and servants of Potiphar.
Reuben: Eldest son of Jacob. Takes the lead on "One More Angel in Heaven"
Simeon: Second son of Jacob. Takes the lead on "Those Canaan Days"
Levi: Third son of Jacob.
Judah: Fourth son of Jacob. Takes the lead on "Benjamin Calypso".
Dan: Fifth son of Jacob.
Naphtali: Sixth son of Jacob.
Gad: Seventh son of Jacob.
Asher: Eighth son of Jacob.
Issachar: Ninth son of Jacob.
Zebulun: Tenth son of Jacob.
Benjamin: Youngest son of Jacob. Joseph accuses him of stealing the golden cup.
The Wives: The wives of Jacob. The actresses playing the wives also double as Egyptians and servants of Potiphar.
Adult chorus
Children's chorus
Principal casts
Musical numbers
Act I
Overture – Ensemble, Choir
Prologue (Some Folks Dream) – Narrator
Any Dream Will Do – Joseph, Children
Jacob and Sons/Joseph's Coat – Joseph, Narrator, Jacob, Brothers, Wives, Children
Joseph's Dreams – Joseph, Narrator, Brothers, Female Ensemble
Poor, Poor Joseph – Narrator, Brothers, Female Ensemble, Children
One More Angel in Heaven – Reuben, Jacob, Reuben's Wife, Brothers, Wives
Potiphar –Joseph, Narrator, Potiphar, Mrs. Potiphar, Male Ensemble, Children
Close Every Door – Joseph, Ensemble, Children
Go, Go, Go Joseph – Joseph, Narrator, Baker, Butler, Ensemble, Children
Act II
Entr'acte – Choir
Pharaoh's Story – Narrator, Ensemble., Children
Poor, Poor Pharaoh – Joseph, Narrator, Pharaoh, Butler, Ensemble
Song of the King – Pharaoh, Ensemble, Children
Pharaoh's Dream Explained – Joseph, Ensemble, Children
Stone the Crows – Joseph, Narrator, Pharaoh, Female Ensemble
Those Canaan Days – Simeon, Jacob, Brothers
The Brothers Come to Egypt/Grovel, Grovel – Joseph, Narrator, Brothers, Female Ensemble, Children
Who's the Thief? – Joseph, Narrator, Brothers, Female Ensemble, Children
Benjamin Calypso – Judah, Brothers, Female Ensemble, Children
Joseph All the Time – Joseph, Narrator, Brothers, Female Ensemble, Children
Jacob in Egypt – Ensemble
Any Dream Will Do (Reprise)/Give Me My Coloured Coat – Joseph, Narrator, Ensemble, Children
Joseph Megamix – Full Company
Lloyd Webber used a variety of musical styles, including parodies of French ballads ("Those Canaan Days"), Elvis-themed rock and roll ("Song of the King"), western music ("One More Angel in Heaven"), 1920s Charleston ("Potiphar"), Calypso ("Benjamin Calypso"), jazz ("Joseph's Dreams") and 1970s go-go ("Go, Go, Go Joseph").
"Prologue" was first included in the 1982 Broadway production; the inclusion of "Any Dream Will Do" at the start of the show (and the renaming of the closing version as per the above list) dates from the 1991 revival. The UK touring production circa 1983–1987 (produced by Bill Kenwright) included an additional song "I Don't Think I'm Wanted Back at Home", which was originally part of Jacob's Journey.
Awards and nominations
Original Broadway production
1991 West End revival
2003 West End revival
2019 West End revival
Film adaptation
In 1999, a direct-to-video film adaptation of the same title starring Donny Osmond was released, directed by David Mallet and based on Steven Pimlott's 1991 London Palladium production. Osmond had toured North America in the role after opening the Toronto revival in 1992. In the film, Maria Friedman appears as the Narrator, Richard Attenborough as Jacob, Ian McNeice as Potiphar, Joan Collins as Mrs. Potiphar and Robert Torti as Pharaoh.
References
External links
Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat – Official Site
Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat at Andrew Lloyd Webber's Really Useful Group website
Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat on Tim Rice's Official Site (links on left for production history)
Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat – Plot summary and character descriptions on StageAgent.com
Any Dream Will Do! – BBC show website
1968 musicals
Broadway musicals
West End musicals
Musicals by Andrew Lloyd Webber
Musicals by Tim Rice
Musicals by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice
Musicals based on religious traditions
Musicals based on the Bible
Compositions with a narrator
Cultural depictions of Joseph (Genesis)
Sung-through musicals
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
British musicals
|
[
-0.22420690953731537,
0.6286875009536743,
-0.8171693086624146,
0.23567239940166473,
0.6986729502677917,
0.3161323368549347,
0.09589867293834686,
0.501232385635376,
0.14969196915626526,
-0.18512041866779327,
-0.874045729637146,
-0.194366455078125,
0.2659125030040741,
0.5458604693412781,
-0.5150827169418335,
0.10029148310422897,
0.3431798219680786,
0.4285612404346466,
-0.005862083286046982,
-0.5020310282707214,
-0.3336070477962494,
-0.16505970060825348,
-0.2638927400112152,
0.43515560030937195,
-0.11141100525856018,
-0.403226763010025,
-0.21930429339408875,
-0.40796515345573425,
0.4021622836589813,
0.09647386521100998,
-0.011335826478898525,
0.08064137399196625,
0.43517962098121643,
-0.809333860874176,
-0.39198487997055054,
-0.538446307182312,
-0.7818652391433716,
-0.4194847643375397,
-0.41883960366249084,
-0.9905925393104553,
0.44523441791534424,
-0.35577166080474854,
0.48344412446022034,
-0.42814892530441284,
-0.06376128643751144,
-0.08267385512590408,
-0.9070445895195007,
0.31058061122894287,
-1.2182544469833374,
-0.32332101464271545,
0.3527459502220154,
0.37416979670524597,
0.47900712490081787,
0.1259133517742157,
-0.11680442839860916,
0.6721378564834595,
-0.6103818416595459,
0.4015834927558899,
0.17497113347053528,
-0.12092074006795883,
-0.1811380237340927,
0.31996530294418335,
0.09199486672878265,
-0.24360628426074982,
0.48141026496887207,
-0.13602878153324127,
0.10519760102033615,
0.2860347628593445,
-0.06028960645198822,
-0.36984241008758545,
0.19402405619621277,
-0.17766745388507843,
0.2141624391078949,
-0.3553076982498169,
0.021367976441979408,
-1.0197217464447021,
0.756255030632019,
0.337130069732666,
0.12641721963882446,
0.4620454013347626,
-0.568950355052948,
0.3710996210575104,
0.06355557590723038,
0.8759574890136719,
-0.6078482866287231,
0.41342324018478394,
-0.002602942055091262,
0.1548028588294983,
-0.3736672103404999,
-0.16558250784873962,
-0.8767102360725403,
0.18534879386425018,
-0.008468241430819035,
0.35040175914764404,
0.18818293511867523,
-0.29505422711372375,
-0.5464063286781311,
-0.10491993278265,
-0.4031117260456085,
0.11272253096103668,
-0.15018604695796967,
-0.05203838273882866,
0.3153574764728546,
-0.33874180912971497,
-0.3302842378616333,
0.39556634426116943,
0.3200467526912689,
-0.19048301875591278,
0.46591296792030334,
0.36045041680336,
-0.0767991840839386,
-0.027390122413635254,
-0.09762939810752869,
0.10459516942501068,
-0.06854484975337982,
-0.24479925632476807,
0.2616958022117615,
-0.6847653985023499,
-0.9959746599197388,
-0.18714037537574768,
0.17411941289901733,
0.533724308013916,
0.15327875316143036,
0.3416540324687958,
-0.3637642562389374,
0.5823150277137756,
0.06452668458223343,
-0.019550008699297905,
-0.12442903220653534,
0.038805875927209854,
0.5830023884773254,
0.9245880842208862,
0.0493958406150341,
-0.6089442372322083,
-0.24116794764995575,
-0.06772679090499878,
0.23408879339694977,
0.4243132472038269,
-0.18024525046348572,
0.7032939791679382,
-0.7674445509910583,
-0.3160189390182495,
-0.23335181176662445,
0.26184627413749695,
0.20144610106945038,
-0.03959215059876442,
-0.49679630994796753,
0.3198694586753845,
0.034223634749650955,
-0.3751761317253113,
0.0002406532730674371,
-0.23468059301376343,
-0.5515182614326477,
-0.562644898891449,
0.11201255768537521,
0.3790113627910614,
0.5745328068733215,
-0.3285280168056488,
0.36887797713279724,
0.10728589445352554,
0.23579834401607513,
0.1280074119567871,
0.017708655446767807,
-0.6744592189788818,
-0.3913111984729767,
-0.11937671899795532,
0.42453455924987793,
0.22430896759033203,
-0.49054595828056335,
0.45427292585372925,
0.10756633430719376,
0.5179709196090698,
0.06399105489253998,
-0.0004825833602808416,
-0.33338692784309387,
-0.10939637571573257,
0.9137074947357178,
0.42514416575431824,
0.06873902678489685,
-0.21875034272670746,
-0.7164164185523987,
0.8022671937942505,
-0.010743516497313976,
-0.4883635640144348,
0.21471703052520752,
0.19178837537765503,
0.08713660389184952,
0.1709890365600586,
-0.41361626982688904,
-0.25119200348854065,
-0.7194001078605652,
-0.8299104571342468,
0.09548387676477432,
-0.6301987767219543,
0.5105847716331482,
0.24518106877803802,
-0.28251802921295166,
0.305026113986969,
0.7197117805480957,
-0.08292095363140106,
-0.0100369518622756,
0.3733842074871063,
0.5865299701690674,
0.06701744347810745,
-0.4501461386680603,
-0.14221185445785522,
0.0963452160358429,
0.20224376022815704,
0.3216477632522583,
-0.06550482660531998,
0.590142011642456,
0.1430502086877823,
0.5685972571372986,
-0.40077948570251465,
-0.5180901288986206,
-0.6779337525367737,
-0.18030820786952972,
0.013730460777878761,
0.09697246551513672,
-0.16821706295013428,
0.6240350604057312,
-0.13388925790786743,
0.06161106005311012,
-0.6201485991477966,
0.3975200057029724,
1.0688111782073975,
-0.05626445263624191,
-0.22417762875556946,
0.044481292366981506,
0.40564924478530884,
-0.7262784242630005,
0.18198874592781067,
-0.4795197546482086,
-0.2531977891921997,
-0.464881032705307,
-0.2758040726184845,
0.0510672889649868,
-0.7660008668899536,
0.024565553292632103,
0.11572308093309402,
0.23499974608421326,
-0.025549396872520447,
-1.197420597076416,
0.28458327054977417,
-0.16873769462108612,
-0.23249955475330353,
-0.23688499629497528,
0.020419791340827942,
0.02924332022666931,
0.27233177423477173,
-0.1585177183151245,
0.32159358263015747,
0.15185482800006866,
0.08402153104543686,
0.13853663206100464,
0.39824432134628296,
-0.3991987109184265,
-0.14249227941036224,
0.35257428884506226,
0.6628113389015198,
0.26261618733406067,
0.34601113200187683,
0.36603274941444397,
0.37844711542129517,
-0.10425563156604767,
-1.108551025390625,
-0.3863324522972107,
-0.022935546934604645,
-0.2502426505088806,
0.5543850660324097,
0.8430811166763306,
-0.3409251570701599,
-0.6597273349761963,
0.13218918442726135,
0.5317239165306091,
-0.306764155626297,
-0.02149714156985283,
-0.03502654656767845,
-0.4720918536186218,
-0.8126342296600342,
0.5690652132034302,
0.8941172361373901,
-0.5845234394073486,
-0.06902019679546356,
-0.04376791790127754,
-0.1944650262594223,
0.03597633168101311,
-0.34169891476631165,
-0.07334812730550766,
-0.27217918634414673,
-0.09382963180541992,
0.20680752396583557,
-0.16354422271251678,
-0.29136815667152405,
0.1283240020275116,
0.39785313606262207,
0.4823566675186157,
-0.15939904749393463,
-0.33657529950141907,
0.011829815804958344,
-0.4309422969818115,
0.1845036894083023,
-0.030763929709792137,
-0.14885379374027252,
0.5739713907241821,
0.3125002980232239,
0.2827340066432953,
-0.22853924334049225,
-5.6713738441467285,
0.08988470584154129,
-0.3178904056549072,
0.11347158253192902,
0.6487056016921997,
0.03642153739929199,
0.22351659834384918,
-0.40581461787223816,
-0.06686253100633621,
0.05729572847485542,
-0.5529599785804749,
0.019691990688443184,
-0.2623186707496643,
0.6633338332176208,
0.10683835297822952,
-0.20788900554180145,
-0.43754881620407104,
-0.36965474486351013,
0.5467529892921448,
0.3261158764362335,
-0.3947954475879669,
-0.021977923810482025,
0.19961649179458618,
0.09866353124380112,
0.815522313117981,
-0.011741978116333485,
-0.3469439446926117,
0.1612265259027481,
-0.8599045276641846,
0.33046576380729675,
-0.12752781808376312,
-0.6424978971481323,
0.2624625265598297,
-0.2460310310125351,
-0.03998521715402603,
-0.399412602186203,
0.7989974617958069,
-0.2519519627094269,
0.6112754940986633,
-0.26179733872413635,
-0.6316561102867126,
-0.5520926117897034,
-0.5204788446426392,
-0.32709628343582153,
0.2670140564441681,
-0.09530433267354965,
0.047581713646650314,
-0.25601625442504883,
0.23668792843818665,
0.8805200457572937,
0.6758393049240112,
0.7051069736480713,
0.6194230914115906,
-0.26583531498908997,
0.43312743306159973,
0.029853425920009613,
0.2977900803089142,
0.539778470993042,
-0.09783423691987991,
0.15364214777946472,
0.8247776627540588,
-0.18967987596988678,
-0.0798337310552597,
-0.352189302444458,
0.5646920800209045,
-0.4341928958892822,
-0.469504177570343,
-0.22919274866580963,
0.09776341170072556,
-0.34158042073249817,
0.2151285856962204,
-0.5114344358444214,
0.4108353853225708,
-0.7262952327728271,
-0.03933631628751755,
-0.40639883279800415,
-0.47130608558654785,
0.1721375584602356,
-0.0982852354645729,
-0.01004215981811285,
-0.6352429389953613,
-0.6532782316207886,
-0.30145585536956787,
-0.0940907672047615,
0.05878222733736038,
-0.0008400600636377931,
-0.9226978421211243,
0.18842199444770813,
-0.16474123299121857,
-0.008562413975596428,
0.25460004806518555,
-0.32742029428482056,
-0.3849734663963318,
0.28660452365875244,
0.2317635864019394,
-0.05119859799742699,
0.18917760252952576,
0.8281611800193787,
0.46381619572639465,
0.4450308382511139,
-0.8942776918411255,
-0.6420726180076599,
0.7139841914176941,
0.10140877217054367,
0.7619865536689758,
-0.8821147084236145,
-0.046948499977588654,
0.025282589718699455,
0.19530144333839417,
0.4348883032798767,
0.17971904575824738,
-0.03276851400732994,
-0.0878574550151825,
-0.6475866436958313,
0.21235202252864838,
0.006238920148462057,
0.27139976620674133,
0.1352403312921524,
0.5180457234382629,
0.48609450459480286,
0.023855410516262054,
0.22175130248069763,
-0.4185962677001953,
0.25893428921699524,
-0.41116437315940857,
0.441396027803421,
0.2015000283718109,
-0.10406176000833511,
0.13677671551704407,
-0.7188761830329895,
-0.6893578767776489,
0.12174449861049652,
0.01921851374208927,
0.06403934210538864,
0.10723422467708588,
-0.15287907421588898,
-0.3519897758960724,
-0.5219811797142029,
0.02641083113849163,
-0.22380371391773224,
-0.21978123486042023,
-0.28800448775291443,
-0.38972392678260803,
0.3815031945705414,
0.317931205034256,
-0.022223392501473427,
-0.028844255954027176,
-0.4243541359901428,
0.07925910502672195,
0.032728973776102066,
0.42933645844459534,
0.04821030795574188,
0.6557790040969849,
-0.3993344306945801,
-0.8193862438201904,
0.37009793519973755,
-0.10002259910106659,
-0.1480311155319214,
-0.19521251320838928,
-0.007258952595293522,
0.7430871725082397,
-0.22438709437847137,
-0.8531352877616882,
-0.022800782695412636,
0.2883904278278351,
-0.3027222454547882,
-0.11351683735847473,
-0.5692926645278931,
-0.16491074860095978,
0.24834957718849182,
0.18774116039276123,
0.42839086055755615,
-0.41609352827072144,
0.007193881552666426,
0.5860520005226135,
0.38477712869644165,
-0.013352685607969761,
-0.11471832543611526,
0.009870434179902077,
0.06977275758981705,
0.0013616569340229034,
-0.70638507604599,
-0.18913450837135315,
-0.2860708236694336,
-0.15800169110298157,
0.18064789474010468,
-0.6773025393486023,
0.18603309988975525,
-0.24339069426059723,
-0.32958847284317017,
-0.6316004991531372,
0.35086092352867126,
0.3444034457206726,
0.10230755805969238,
-0.8583346009254456,
0.12828245759010315,
-0.015021657571196556,
0.3782244920730591,
0.6289494633674622,
-0.2980334758758545,
-0.5636389255523682,
0.1490958034992218,
-0.3757135570049286,
-0.03253087028861046,
0.6572044491767883,
-1.0859688520431519,
-0.1566329002380371,
0.1320982128381729,
0.09479221701622009,
0.7016580104827881,
-0.0320529006421566,
-0.750128448009491,
0.13184060156345367,
0.10592146962881088,
-0.07809397578239441,
0.43860018253326416,
0.5585211515426636,
-0.5534449219703674,
-0.09985197335481644,
-0.292051762342453,
-0.18766379356384277,
0.43061453104019165,
-0.11302323639392853,
-0.24959342181682587,
-0.6788944602012634,
-0.09430722892284393,
0.10673434287309647,
-0.4652690291404724,
-0.08560674637556076,
-0.9894381761550903,
0.40778812766075134,
0.16126945614814758,
-0.15807315707206726,
0.7512931823730469,
-0.3510458767414093,
-0.21537955105304718,
-0.05030090734362602,
0.21907469630241394,
-0.057644322514534,
0.12025847285985947,
1.1596399545669556,
0.22921913862228394,
0.15650776028633118,
-0.18054838478565216,
-0.10196838527917862,
0.7526831030845642,
0.09087561070919037,
-0.15795238316059113,
-0.12348201870918274,
-0.03564175218343735,
0.5200155377388,
-0.3104987144470215,
-0.6583481431007385,
-0.30947554111480713,
0.32752636075019836,
-0.8110772967338562,
-0.39130762219429016,
0.11131411045789719,
-0.05076872929930687,
-0.13983815908432007,
0.06027117744088173,
-0.026172393932938576,
-0.5045894980430603,
0.29946333169937134,
-0.06043863669037819,
0.12990295886993408,
0.5123558044433594,
-0.016931474208831787,
-0.05281678959727287,
-0.7382028698921204,
0.34130433201789856,
0.3085858225822449,
-0.14131975173950195,
0.20437118411064148,
0.08026347309350967,
0.27226585149765015,
0.3805946111679077,
-0.4486273527145386,
0.2466461956501007,
-0.2651132643222809,
-0.23156052827835083,
1.1709773540496826,
-0.4190731942653656,
-0.49435189366340637,
-0.10027553141117096,
-0.1367333084344864,
0.1610259860754013,
-0.3278961181640625,
0.31658226251602173,
0.1279245764017105,
-0.607134997844696,
0.40240392088890076,
0.20048005878925323,
-0.09821660816669464,
0.001125721842981875,
-0.395111083984375,
0.3172324299812317,
0.31760480999946594,
0.1301574856042862,
-0.30896511673927307,
-0.22440606355667114,
0.47851574420928955,
0.6577779650688171,
-0.28648582100868225,
0.19885946810245514,
0.8852640986442566,
-0.14650267362594604,
-0.5800207257270813,
-0.3846030533313751,
0.1105710044503212,
0.1669081300497055,
-0.13464951515197754,
-0.38251519203186035,
0.7295022010803223,
-0.5750735998153687,
0.11679421365261078,
0.7258185148239136,
-0.3449719250202179,
0.37239933013916016,
0.63557368516922,
-0.31142953038215637,
-0.7287865281105042,
0.27824121713638306,
-0.6863569617271423,
-0.03399145230650902,
0.37375855445861816,
0.3412529230117798,
-0.21180017292499542,
0.2053610384464264,
0.5552908778190613,
0.8636917471885681,
0.04477269947528839,
-0.2611078917980194,
-0.04203805699944496,
-0.04045059531927109,
-0.2626150846481323,
0.03725868836045265,
0.2795158624649048,
-0.16308052837848663,
0.6868987083435059,
0.07101783156394958,
-0.2431986778974533,
-0.12029924243688583,
0.2979881167411804,
0.19292612373828888,
0.14067678153514862,
0.030202094465494156,
0.18745329976081848,
-0.5664817094802856,
0.4357798099517822,
-0.18317747116088867,
0.5468822121620178,
0.16630205512046814,
-1.0982962846755981,
1.0631353855133057,
0.10010523349046707,
0.41037148237228394,
0.22224587202072144,
0.5602973103523254,
0.6833083033561707,
0.04652989283204079,
0.3097350299358368,
0.4980175197124481,
0.11072062700986862,
0.20878112316131592,
-0.09310809522867203,
0.04324941709637642,
0.06815577298402786,
-0.17323127388954163,
0.39151862263679504,
-0.06945851445198059,
0.16435584425926208,
-0.6482707262039185,
0.11475616693496704,
0.339667946100235,
0.6901639103889465,
0.06362149119377136,
0.045454833656549454,
0.27517110109329224,
0.20725320279598236,
0.0526139996945858,
-0.2178339958190918,
-0.38962334394454956,
0.12357780337333679,
-0.0448954775929451,
0.2344890683889389,
-0.3554326295852661,
0.049666713923215866,
-0.19462740421295166,
-0.30733802914619446,
0.471083402633667,
-1.0905659198760986,
0.2524900436401367,
0.37317904829978943,
-0.33860597014427185,
-0.1770782619714737,
-0.5031310319900513,
0.4293714463710785,
-0.11734474450349808,
-0.08539637178182602,
0.8494652509689331,
0.8758145570755005,
0.4019603431224823,
0.2189829796552658,
-0.0062489015981554985,
0.2609960436820984,
-0.15357883274555206,
-0.222831130027771,
-0.8693792223930359,
-0.0789608508348465,
-0.17432045936584473,
-0.13987940549850464,
-0.40397337079048157,
-0.32713374495506287,
-0.2195679247379303,
-0.006877276115119457,
-0.01531012263149023,
0.290623277425766,
0.27138134837150574,
-0.6567217111587524,
0.11709220707416534,
-0.07342328876256943,
-0.22806473076343536,
0.3646657466888428,
-0.1812014877796173,
0.6087819337844849,
0.4357357323169708,
-0.18729647994041443,
-0.2833887040615082,
0.35949239134788513,
-0.07243970036506653,
0.6076627373695374,
-0.3017015755176544,
0.005399004090577364,
-0.46467137336730957,
-0.16907434165477753,
0.3814167380332947,
0.7282429933547974,
-0.03965292125940323,
-0.41927969455718994,
0.2807208299636841,
0.031560689210891724,
0.18235832452774048,
0.38718897104263306,
-0.11184627562761307,
-0.27173539996147156,
-0.003224552609026432,
0.301090806722641,
-0.7678046226501465,
0.3168063461780548,
0.46267029643058777,
-0.43351978063583374,
0.38281622529029846,
-0.4895809590816498,
-0.05705023929476738,
0.11335501819849014,
0.05720348283648491,
-0.4197830855846405,
0.7453868985176086,
0.06635905802249908
] |
213098
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Afghan%20Transitional%20Administration%20personnel
|
List of Afghan Transitional Administration personnel
|
The Afghan Transitional Administration was established in June and July 2002. It has been replaced with the election of a permanent government in 2004.
President and chairman
Hamid Karzai
Vice presidents
Hedayat Arsala
Mohammad Qasim Fahim
Abdul Karim Khalili
Nematullah Shahrani
Security advisors
Yunus Qanuni
Zalmay Rassoul
Ministers
Sayed Hussein Anwari (Agriculture)
Mir Wais Saddiq (Son of Ismail Khan) (Air Transport/Tourism)
Arif Nurzai (Border Affairs)
Sayed Mustafa Kazemi (Commerce)
Masum Stanakzai (Communication)
Mohammad Qasim Fahim (Defense)
Abdul Rashid Dostum (Deputy Defense)
Muhammad Yunus Qanuni (Education)
Yusuf Nooristani (Environment) (U.S. citizen)
Ashraf Ghani Ahmadzai (Finance) (U.S. citizen)
Abdullah (Foreign Affairs)
Mohammad Amin Naziryar (Hajj and Waqf)
Dr. Soheila Siddiqi (Health)
Sharif Fayez (Higher Education) (U.S. citizen)
Sayed Makhdoom Raheen (Information/Culture) (Raheen is a U.S. citizen)
Ali Ahmad Jalali (Interior) (since Jan. 2003) (U.S. citizen)
Ahmed Yusuf Nuristani (Irrigation/Environment)
Abdul Rahim Karimi (Justice)
Noor Mohammad Qarqin (Labor/Social Affairs)
Mohammad Alim Razm (Light Industries)
Abdullah Wardak (Martyrs and Disabled)
Juma Muhammad Muhammadi (Mines and Industries) (died in plane crash, February 24, 2003)
Mohammad Mohaqeq (Planning)
Mohammad Amin Farhang (Reconstruction) (German citizen)
Inayatulah Nazeri (Refugees)
Hanif Atmar (Rural Development)
Said Mohammad Ali Jawid (Transportation)
Yusuf Pashtun until August 16, 2003 (Urban Planning)
Ahmed Shaker Kargar (Water and Electricity)
Habiba Sarobi (Women's Affairs)
Mahbooba Hoquqmal (State or Advisor-Minister for Women's Affairs)
Gul Agha Sherzai after August 16, 2003 (Urban Affairs)
Head of Supreme Court
Fazl Hadi Shinwari
Governors
Ghazni province: Qari Baba
Herat province: Ismail Khan until August 13, 2003
Kabul province: Taj Mohammad Mujaahid
Kandahar province: Gul Agha Sherzai until August 16, 2003; then Yusuf Pashtun
Khost province: Hakim Taniwal (appointed by Karzai in April 2002)
Kunar province: Sayyid Yusuf
Nangarhar province: Gul Agha Sherzai replacing Hajji Din Muhammad (brother of late Hajji Qadir)
Nimruz province: Abdul Karim Brahoui
Paktia province: Taj Mohammad Wardak (appointed by Karzai in mid-February 2002)
Zabul province: Hamidullah Tokhi until August, 2003; then Hafizullah Khan
Anwar ul-Haq Ahadi (governor of the Afghan Central Bank)
Jawzjan Sayeed Ahmad Shah
Afghan ambassadors and envoys
To Australia: Mahmoud Saikal
To Canada: Omar Samad, was Jalil Jamili
To People's Republic of China: Rahi Barlas
To Egypt: Abdul Ghafar Karzai
To France: Dr. Zalmai Haquani
To Germany: Hamidullah Nasir Zia
To India: Massoud Khalili
To Iran: Dr. Ahmad Moshahed
To Italy: Mostapha Zair
To Japan: Anwar Akbari
To Pakistan: Nangyalai Tarzi
To Russia: Ahmad Zia Massoud (Brother of Ahmad Shah Massoud)
To Saudi Arabia: Anwar Neko
To Tajikistan: Mohammad Dawod Panjshiri
To Turkmenistan: Mohammad Nazir Qasimi
To United Arab Emirates: Mr. Rashuddin
To United Kingdom: Ahmad Wali Massoud
To United Nations New York City: Dr. Rawan Farhadi
To United Nations Geneva: Shams Ul-Zakir Kazimi
To United States: Ishaq Shahryar; Chargé d' Affaires: Haroun Amin
To Uzbekistan: Abdul Samad
Foreign ambassadors and chargés d'affaires in Kabul
People's Republic of China: Sun Yuxi
European Union: Francesc Vendrell
Germany: Rainer Eberle
Pakistan: Rustam Shah Mohmand
Saudi Arabia: Abdullah Fahd al-Kahlani
Switzerland: Christian Dunant (in Islamabad)
United Nations: Lakhdar Brahimi
United States: Robert Finn
2000s in Afghanistan
Transitional
|
[
0.15414120256900787,
0.6470860242843628,
-0.231252059340477,
-0.42746272683143616,
-0.5014988780021667,
0.10081823170185089,
0.5983718037605286,
-0.02482626773416996,
-0.24340768158435822,
-0.09498173743486404,
-0.5048242807388306,
-0.023527588695287704,
-0.17565982043743134,
0.1240406259894371,
-0.30193307995796204,
0.6336890459060669,
0.08152324706315994,
0.2593040466308594,
0.3161785304546356,
-0.6569687724113464,
0.24060334265232086,
-0.12769269943237305,
0.1369754523038864,
-0.3602584898471832,
0.28861963748931885,
-0.0039060318376868963,
0.4810792803764343,
0.13906699419021606,
0.20461782813072205,
-0.2589724361896515,
-0.025714240968227386,
0.2948869466781616,
0.011257198639214039,
-0.2397349625825882,
-0.1863798052072525,
0.22799785435199738,
0.06744032353162766,
0.3509601652622223,
-0.017391329631209373,
-1.0584588050842285,
-0.10642322897911072,
-0.272967666387558,
-0.23003704845905304,
0.24888266623020172,
-0.028368821367621422,
-0.6655396819114685,
-1.2362064123153687,
-0.17302793264389038,
-0.4714939296245575,
-0.5725006461143494,
-0.47119584679603577,
-0.12045278400182724,
0.7308966517448425,
-0.5143338441848755,
0.38956916332244873,
-0.13067784905433655,
-0.6625974774360657,
-0.3361799120903015,
0.08039259165525436,
0.3735082745552063,
0.3330044150352478,
0.32341909408569336,
0.37403133511543274,
-0.26911184191703796,
0.18757589161396027,
0.18535831570625305,
0.6958821415901184,
0.5430677533149719,
0.26383110880851746,
-0.49931788444519043,
0.3003520369529724,
0.09159652143716812,
0.10665031522512436,
0.07423721253871918,
0.1136183887720108,
-0.6697021722793579,
0.44138890504837036,
-0.02534259855747223,
0.12254801392555237,
0.20503905415534973,
0.05968327820301056,
0.028223376721143723,
0.5120170712471008,
-0.8592429757118225,
0.07316766679286957,
-0.1759452074766159,
-0.11885751783847809,
0.007730943616479635,
-0.6335861086845398,
0.7823970913887024,
0.04845057800412178,
-0.044635746628046036,
0.6720384955406189,
0.31816333532333374,
-0.1105625256896019,
0.1303820163011551,
-0.31042227149009705,
0.46437227725982666,
0.18249300122261047,
0.13259750604629517,
0.07137736678123474,
0.8774517178535461,
-0.42591068148612976,
-0.2145167589187622,
-0.222526416182518,
-0.6818711161613464,
-0.593656063079834,
-0.5489780902862549,
-0.5014215111732483,
-0.5412405133247375,
-0.3108818531036377,
0.13111068308353424,
-0.4950520098209381,
0.1663748025894165,
-0.3314346969127655,
0.6071739196777344,
0.27126824855804443,
-0.11113563179969788,
-0.1013927012681961,
0.687324583530426,
-0.19559815526008606,
1.0113424062728882,
-0.5800433158874512,
0.2735230624675751,
-0.12003781646490097,
0.43442317843437195,
0.5093553066253662,
0.10346085578203201,
-0.22242310643196106,
0.8217111229896545,
-0.09209544956684113,
0.7906707525253296,
-0.23452427983283997,
0.6907932758331299,
0.5263172388076782,
-0.593474805355072,
0.022705499082803726,
0.05678175762295723,
0.1479262113571167,
0.08722133934497833,
-0.7008767127990723,
0.22327962517738342,
-0.7738703489303589,
0.25351959466934204,
-0.08109073340892792,
-0.254207044839859,
-0.1854177862405777,
-0.12651944160461426,
0.020337752997875214,
0.08541136980056763,
-0.10746069252490997,
-0.5177915692329407,
-0.1971471905708313,
0.43140092492103577,
-0.29282769560813904,
0.1322716772556305,
0.8069548010826111,
-0.19128721952438354,
0.666893482208252,
0.09440021216869354,
0.567473292350769,
0.6040894985198975,
-0.056738391518592834,
0.05787123367190361,
0.28939905762672424,
0.11653032898902893,
-0.2239268273115158,
-0.11878667026758194,
0.39355695247650146,
-0.1336359977722168,
-0.6965831518173218,
0.4042171239852905,
-0.4057330787181854,
-0.08100243657827377,
0.06617065519094467,
0.05000084638595581,
0.7521277666091919,
0.47136253118515015,
0.23294685781002045,
0.1601153314113617,
-0.43969690799713135,
-0.4746342897415161,
0.33367374539375305,
-0.03581118956208229,
0.7326828837394714,
0.0496789924800396,
0.19257201254367828,
0.04009131342172623,
0.1563681960105896,
0.3070356845855713,
-0.4479345381259918,
-0.4325999617576599,
0.466492235660553,
-0.22291743755340576,
0.8694196939468384,
0.12458091229200363,
-0.07658873498439789,
0.9377248287200928,
-0.15643921494483948,
0.9177550077438354,
0.3092000186443329,
-0.4396800398826599,
0.4360896646976471,
-0.15137256681919098,
-0.39998137950897217,
0.889958918094635,
0.1778845638036728,
0.2066255509853363,
0.41131657361984253,
0.5251399874687195,
0.5265340805053711,
0.31911465525627136,
-0.6997649669647217,
-0.019856123253703117,
0.16140781342983246,
0.274460107088089,
-0.5788609385490417,
0.2176962047815323,
0.1574763059616089,
-0.32826703786849976,
0.49032866954803467,
0.07940375059843063,
-0.14855092763900757,
0.9715534448623657,
-0.33021390438079834,
-0.04892167076468468,
-0.1039259284734726,
0.11249267309904099,
0.29841575026512146,
-0.5006523132324219,
0.31669530272483826,
0.07883089780807495,
-0.08486591279506683,
-0.13822625577449799,
-0.05477131903171539,
-0.1019224300980568,
-0.5977538824081421,
-0.5480464696884155,
0.18994663655757904,
0.012148513458669186,
0.3190148174762726,
-0.00004534799882094376,
0.2314600646495819,
-0.1221107691526413,
0.11115825921297073,
0.1999489665031433,
-0.1933572143316269,
0.4358203411102295,
-0.19295139610767365,
-0.16724681854248047,
0.34324049949645996,
-0.0895468071103096,
0.31200817227363586,
-0.6273882389068604,
-0.03598862886428833,
-0.10276386886835098,
0.05282709747552872,
-0.11670047789812088,
-0.4757574200630188,
-0.18727007508277893,
0.15534795820713043,
0.15990619361400604,
-0.19875352084636688,
0.3847023844718933,
0.05550863593816757,
-0.686493992805481,
-0.708431601524353,
-0.647553026676178,
-0.03741977736353874,
0.14154638350009918,
0.6337991952896118,
-0.26704177260398865,
0.20574279129505157,
-0.20838510990142822,
-0.00405132258310914,
-0.1418171226978302,
-0.05047476291656494,
0.7127255797386169,
-0.7894209623336792,
-0.8083332180976868,
0.5460919737815857,
0.14706291258335114,
0.38508227467536926,
0.05325212702155113,
-0.3680275082588196,
-0.3465418219566345,
-0.1387229561805725,
-0.28373193740844727,
-0.3661883473396301,
-0.46206697821617126,
-0.48608988523483276,
0.22599279880523682,
0.16241298615932465,
-0.1747669279575348,
-0.1699305772781372,
0.10674961656332016,
0.004222654737532139,
0.1994900107383728,
0.09572185575962067,
-0.05095834657549858,
-0.42637768387794495,
0.47416460514068604,
-0.507800281047821,
-0.2490057349205017,
-0.11610914021730423,
-0.2754245698451996,
-0.17578677833080292,
-0.7785664796829224,
-5.659805774688721,
0.17533737421035767,
-0.02657967619597912,
-0.7181827425956726,
-0.4006795883178711,
-0.2043609768152237,
0.8039913177490234,
-0.2654639184474945,
0.19712713360786438,
0.4107056260108948,
-0.2553026080131531,
-0.2275231033563614,
0.44422465562820435,
0.5932149887084961,
0.7769976854324341,
0.4599551558494568,
1.0458548069000244,
0.1611221432685852,
0.7350985407829285,
-0.17258897423744202,
-0.01858292706310749,
-0.27404388785362244,
-0.17467333376407623,
-0.12197698652744293,
0.6195879578590393,
0.6497226357460022,
-0.27029553055763245,
0.06673230975866318,
-0.21268004179000854,
-0.010653615929186344,
-0.06678718328475952,
-0.0603451170027256,
0.0888831689953804,
-0.06622298061847687,
-0.4966124892234802,
0.0375908762216568,
0.2696247398853302,
0.7401533722877502,
0.3726884424686432,
-1.176231861114502,
-0.5208187103271484,
0.11976965516805649,
-0.3425450921058655,
0.06692754477262497,
0.31935662031173706,
0.23191364109516144,
-0.4445405900478363,
-0.1934630572795868,
-0.4550250470638275,
0.9096494317054749,
0.4334847033023834,
-0.04378829151391983,
0.7226919531822205,
0.8841186761856079,
-0.1015227660536766,
-0.3654937148094177,
0.26164159178733826,
0.09363283962011337,
-0.33891618251800537,
0.7552472949028015,
-0.03644337132573128,
-0.5687280297279358,
0.1530492752790451,
-1.034156322479248,
-0.19876310229301453,
-0.049437761306762695,
-0.528984010219574,
-0.331418514251709,
0.16581271588802338,
0.12665602564811707,
-0.4397917091846466,
-0.27896368503570557,
-0.12021685391664505,
-0.67558354139328,
0.39031079411506653,
-1.3611410856246948,
0.05988062918186188,
0.2233775556087494,
0.11829318851232529,
-0.20417672395706177,
0.053550198674201965,
-0.6060899496078491,
-0.1375693529844284,
0.11628610640764236,
0.515001654624939,
-0.21875031292438507,
0.5247461795806885,
-0.32074061036109924,
0.14535509049892426,
-0.4040953814983368,
0.686546802520752,
-0.43892624974250793,
0.5873029828071594,
0.11710316687822342,
0.3613366484642029,
0.5442502498626709,
0.7726793885231018,
-0.11270372569561005,
0.3551304340362549,
-0.6921878457069397,
0.6308850646018982,
-0.6273617148399353,
0.389929860830307,
-0.8680528402328491,
0.13618451356887817,
-0.5666865706443787,
0.09506724029779434,
-0.014670497737824917,
0.7525702118873596,
-0.11031516641378403,
0.25015988945961,
-0.5161202549934387,
-0.2341480255126953,
-0.09197811037302017,
-0.1703348606824875,
-0.08430216461420059,
0.05214429646730423,
0.76204514503479,
0.30548563599586487,
0.5772761702537537,
-0.007595469243824482,
-0.5215288996696472,
0.3334694504737854,
0.10817359387874603,
-0.08048690110445023,
0.06817399710416794,
-0.4058435559272766,
-0.14362789690494537,
0.09093938022851944,
0.025385281071066856,
0.6798879504203796,
0.5105733871459961,
-0.25221699476242065,
-0.6911346912384033,
0.24196241796016693,
-0.472738653421402,
-0.0918121188879013,
-0.8810379505157471,
0.5447048544883728,
-0.22110852599143982,
-0.08209910243749619,
-0.2153320461511612,
-0.5109823346138,
0.01889391615986824,
0.03528532385826111,
0.3466222286224365,
0.051532793790102005,
-0.35880571603775024,
-0.42701026797294617,
0.2798134386539459,
-0.003561385441571474,
-0.33932188153266907,
0.34730064868927,
0.08363287895917892,
-0.41756585240364075,
0.3941221833229065,
0.6569880843162537,
0.5170842409133911,
-0.21188984811306,
-0.5295941233634949,
-0.0548451729118824,
-0.5157248973846436,
-0.8676716685295105,
0.12720628082752228,
0.6684350371360779,
-0.4584779739379883,
-0.06646926701068878,
0.10893994569778442,
-0.2833980321884155,
1.128878116607666,
-0.053143829107284546,
-0.3498770296573639,
-0.6586167216300964,
0.3495918810367584,
0.4921991527080536,
-0.06668667495250702,
0.2728254199028015,
0.29089686274528503,
0.1665925234556198,
-0.03805790841579437,
-0.4231801927089691,
0.03373672068119049,
-0.04035520553588867,
0.154288649559021,
-0.011968810111284256,
0.3088051676750183,
-0.3804330825805664,
-0.6743136644363403,
-0.20853883028030396,
-0.3212522566318512,
0.5911174416542053,
0.3251001536846161,
0.003791115479543805,
-0.12729854881763458,
-0.1868591457605362,
-0.8073092699050903,
-0.20447055995464325,
0.51791912317276,
-0.08022794872522354,
-0.5768625736236572,
0.34190598130226135,
0.49780040979385376,
-0.28760188817977905,
0.5309745669364929,
-0.16927719116210938,
0.029417550191283226,
0.3348821699619293,
0.02825983241200447,
-0.4200352728366852,
-0.4034366011619568,
-0.13002410531044006,
-0.2867383360862732,
-0.3144416809082031,
0.7070326209068298,
-0.692550003528595,
-0.1434061974287033,
-0.1272697001695633,
-0.14938941597938538,
-0.23144185543060303,
0.07353700697422028,
-0.261787474155426,
-0.5367501974105835,
0.03345705568790436,
-0.43829625844955444,
-0.7323473691940308,
-0.24047990143299103,
0.4660903215408325,
-1.2971947193145752,
-0.25973260402679443,
-0.0378786139190197,
-0.07549064606428146,
-0.19917483627796173,
0.4132826030254364,
-0.035465799272060394,
-0.5795505046844482,
0.15033560991287231,
-0.4164581298828125,
-0.37419143319129944,
0.06734468787908554,
0.17019633948802948,
-0.20655125379562378,
0.9122292995452881,
0.5882624983787537,
-0.8074150085449219,
-0.5564029812812805,
0.17853547632694244,
0.17663215100765228,
-0.4896453022956848,
-0.12182245403528214,
0.2542409300804138,
-0.027197087183594704,
0.12003869563341141,
-0.46758198738098145,
-0.6272565126419067,
0.7607099413871765,
0.21029116213321686,
-0.3373940587043762,
0.24695168435573578,
0.028173374012112617,
-0.03699344024062157,
0.2907198965549469,
0.016192857176065445,
-0.3175886869430542,
0.31312641501426697,
0.39213716983795166,
-0.05435851588845253,
-0.2593802809715271,
-0.33279645442962646,
0.21786077320575714,
-0.5568132996559143,
-0.9063870310783386,
-0.043972309678792953,
0.376840204000473,
0.6390817761421204,
0.7781983017921448,
-0.3142806589603424,
0.20229923725128174,
0.06449444591999054,
-0.042802486568689346,
0.08520378917455673,
-0.4402907192707062,
-0.09051255136728287,
-0.06903514266014099,
-0.12464889138936996,
0.44871869683265686,
-1.0363681316375732,
-0.15954183042049408,
0.34539371728897095,
-0.4588296711444855,
-0.4775855541229248,
0.15930487215518951,
0.018975194543600082,
-0.651129961013794,
0.4206795394420624,
-0.2962856590747833,
0.754020094871521,
0.11440397053956985,
0.3112645149230957,
-0.3144330382347107,
0.0931544229388237,
-0.6435371041297913,
0.5380034446716309,
-0.205350860953331,
-0.34624794125556946,
0.09403623640537262,
0.049237124621868134,
0.38488781452178955,
0.004272814374417067,
0.020196326076984406,
0.063771091401577,
0.20921243727207184,
0.1265813708305359,
0.8491662740707397,
0.4950385093688965,
-0.21022862195968628,
-0.3349995017051697,
0.3324410617351532,
-0.7020066976547241,
0.2985824942588806,
-0.0489576980471611,
0.5971254110336304,
-0.29041436314582825,
0.2090647965669632,
0.7610130906105042,
-0.4565863609313965,
0.8966801762580872,
0.13056910037994385,
0.09671056270599365,
0.09221035242080688,
-0.5949962735176086,
0.09216302633285522,
0.13720273971557617,
-0.29932722449302673,
-0.2541319727897644,
-0.014237118884921074,
-0.19690358638763428,
0.11912757158279419,
-0.004561636596918106,
-0.17703194916248322,
1.0270054340362549,
0.19898581504821777,
0.7655841708183289,
0.24169185757637024,
-0.1904914528131485,
0.028609998524188995,
0.3586580753326416,
-0.4265443980693817,
0.4954743981361389,
0.7814788222312927,
-0.06846947222948074,
-0.43471211194992065,
0.3264274299144745,
0.4134865701198578,
-0.14750859141349792,
-0.5934682488441467,
-0.3279494047164917,
0.04207928851246834,
-0.024690642952919006,
0.19361643493175507,
-0.8730539083480835,
-0.0690704882144928,
-0.31175917387008667,
-0.008486784994602203,
0.36614349484443665,
0.4856187701225281,
-0.1329837590456009,
-0.1422947645187378,
-0.6001492738723755,
0.27438899874687195,
0.29768022894859314,
0.13758441805839539,
0.41277703642845154,
-0.44252488017082214,
-0.08426553755998611,
-0.23976483941078186,
-0.16393908858299255,
-0.1711527705192566,
0.13168910145759583,
-0.2685909569263458,
0.1995743215084076,
0.340013712644577,
-0.05421481281518936,
0.12478027492761612,
-0.5029927492141724,
0.29183587431907654,
-0.1548687070608139,
-0.07919211685657501,
0.5428950786590576,
0.16112853586673737,
-0.11142212897539139,
0.21680694818496704,
-0.31408703327178955,
-0.05935845524072647,
0.14411035180091858,
-0.13895399868488312,
0.18669943511486053,
-0.1673603504896164,
0.6111584901809692,
0.5171359777450562,
-0.9060466289520264,
-0.3217763304710388,
0.34878256916999817,
-0.06325672566890717,
0.15389080345630646,
0.08695288002490997,
0.13474765419960022,
-0.5757374167442322,
0.24952417612075806,
-0.3155410587787628,
0.41926202178001404,
0.2775789201259613,
0.9609253406524658,
0.15450544655323029,
0.3092919886112213,
-0.08411646634340286,
-0.019900090992450714,
0.4181884527206421,
-0.5280291438102722,
0.2595374882221222,
-0.3670403063297272,
-0.054833654314279556,
-0.673987627029419,
-0.4699833393096924,
0.5569696426391602,
-0.12864644825458527,
-0.6773366928100586,
0.028028644621372223,
0.04513812065124512,
-0.26224806904792786,
0.8548333048820496,
0.0142018161714077,
-0.2524260878562927,
-0.457935631275177,
-0.5406753420829773,
-0.4516855776309967,
0.1917755901813507,
0.6386081576347351,
0.9920240640640259,
0.7980199456214905,
-0.18488198518753052,
-0.15543092787265778,
-0.7117385864257812,
0.00538063095882535,
0.2734885513782501,
-0.5710537433624268,
0.10619177669286728,
-0.1384270042181015,
-0.14173787832260132,
-0.8150967359542847,
0.5283735990524292,
0.3796652555465698,
-0.36967596411705017,
0.5064354538917542,
-0.6989182233810425,
-0.12855692207813263,
-0.24582988023757935,
-0.005092761013656855,
-0.2525847256183624,
0.08000051975250244,
0.1951272338628769
] |
213099
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon%20Le%20Bon
|
Simon Le Bon
|
Simon John Charles Le Bon (born 27 October 1958) is an English musician, singer, songwriter, lyricist and model. He is best known as the lead singer and lyricist of the band Duran Duran and its offshoot Arcadia. Le Bon has received three Ivor Novello Awards from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors, including the award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music.
Early life
Le Bon was born on 27 October 1958, on his father’s birthday, near Bushey, Hertfordshire, England, the first of three boys for Ann-Marie Le Bon, followed by his younger brothers, David and Jonathan (b. 1965). His mother encouraged his artistic talent when he was six years old by entering him in a screen test for a Persil washing powder TV advert.
He was a member of the local church choir from a young age, and was trained as an actor.
Education
Le Bon went to Pinner County Grammar School in Pinner, Middlesex, the same school Elton John had attended some years earlier. He also attended Nower Hill High School, his mother's former school. In 1978 he completed an art foundation course at Harrow School of Art, before studying drama at the University of Birmingham.
Career
Before Duran Duran
He worked as a theatre porter at Northwick Park Hospital Accident and Casualty, and also sang in a punk band called Dog Days at Harrow School Of Art. He appeared in a few television commercials and also in several theatre productions including Tom Brown's Schooldays in the West End of London.
Le Bon worked on a kibbutz – an Israeli collective community – in the Negev desert in Israel in 1978, and then returned to England to study drama at the University of Birmingham before meeting the fledgling band Duran Duran in 1980.
Duran Duran
Duran Duran was founded by childhood friends John Taylor and Nick Rhodes along with singer/songwriter Stephen Duffy in 1978, but Duffy left a year later, convinced they weren't going anywhere. The band went through a long succession of lineup changes after Duffy's departure, but finally settled on a guitarist and drummer. The band had a powerful pop sound flavoured with disco, funk, and electronics, built on a solid rock rhythm section, and all they needed was a charismatic singer with a distinctive voice.
Le Bon's ex-girlfriend, Fiona Kemp (a barmaid at the Rum Runner nightclub where Duran Duran were rehearsing), introduced him to the band in May 1980, recommending him as a potential vocalist. As band legend has it, he turned up for the audition wearing pink leopard-print trousers, and carrying a notebook containing a large collection of poems he had written—several of which would later become tracks on the early Duran Duran albums.
After listening to the songs the band had already composed together, Le Bon spent some time fitting one of his poems ("Sound of Thunder") to one of the instrumentals, and found they had a good match. Le Bon agreed to "try [Duran Duran] out for the summer"; within six weeks the band was playing steadily around Birmingham, London and Nottingham, and a national tour supporting Hazel O'Connor led to a record deal with EMI Records in December that year.
The band's first album, Duran Duran, was released in 1981, and they quickly became famous as part of the New Romantic movement. Three more albums followed in quick succession: Rio (1982), Seven and the Ragged Tiger (1983) and the live album Arena (1984). Each album release was accompanied by heavy media promotion and a lengthy concert tour. By mid-1984, the band were ready for a break. Duran Duran's only other work that year was an appearance on the Band Aid charity single "Do They Know It's Christmas?" which was recorded at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill, London on 25 November 1984. Le Bon’s vocal appears fourth on the song after Paul Young, Boy George and George Michael sing their lines.
Following the departures of Roger Taylor and Andy Taylor, Le Bon, Rhodes and John Taylor continued on as Duran Duran, recording and releasing Notorious (1986) and Big Thing (1988). The group added guitarist Warren Cuccurullo and drummer Sterling Campbell and recorded the album Liberty (1990), but the band's success had begun to wane in the late 1980s.
Duran Duran had a resurgence in popularity in 1993 with The Wedding Album, featuring the top-10 single "Ordinary World". Several months into the extensive worldwide concert tour supporting this album, Le Bon suffered a torn vocal cord, and the tour was postponed for six weeks while he recovered.
In 1995, Duran Duran released the covers album Thank You, and Le Bon had the chance to cover some of his favourite artists, (Jim Morrison, Lou Reed and Elvis Costello), but the album was severely panned by critics from all quarters. That year Le Bon also performed Duran Duran's 1993 hit "Ordinary World" with opera tenor Luciano Pavarotti during a "Children of Bosnia" benefit concert for War Child. Le Bon described the event to Jam! Showbiz thusly: "If you're talking about name dropping, he's one of the biggest names you could drop, Pav-The-Man".
When bass guitarist John Taylor left the band in 1997, Le Bon and Rhodes remained as the only two members who had been with Duran Duran from the beginning of their recording career. The successive two albums with Le Bon, Rhodes and Cuccurullo, Medazzaland (1997) and Pop Trash (2000) were not commercial successes.
In 2001, Duran Duran's original five members reunited to record a new album, Astronaut, for Epic Records. Astronaut was released worldwide on 11 October 2004. The album was preceded by the single "(Reach Up For The) Sunrise", their first UK Top 10 single in a decade.
Arcadia
Before Duran Duran reunited in 1986, Le Bon formed the band Arcadia with Nick Rhodes. The band had a UK/US top 10 hit with their first single "Election Day", and released one album, So Red The Rose in 1985.
Solo excursions
While Le Bon has been in Duran Duran for the band's entire recording history, he has also dabbled in solo outings. In 1985, for the Whitbread Round the World Race, he contributed a song entitled "Grey Lady Of The Sea" and narrated a video of that year's race called Drum (1987). "Grey Lady Of The Sea" was released as a single in Japan in 1988.
In 1989, for Jonathan Elias' Requiem For The Americas project, Le Bon contributed "Follow In My Footsteps", with The Bangles' Susanna Hoffs on background vocals. The track was released on 7" single in Italy that year.
In 1998, along with friend Nick Wood and wife Yasmin, he set up SYN Entertainment (Simon Yasmin Nick) in Tokyo, Japan. Having first conceived the idea in 1988, Le Bon is currently described as SYN's "Founder and Chairman", while Wood is "Founder, President and Creative Director".
In 2000, SYN Entertainment founded SYN Records which has released a number of compilations, some of which have included contributions by Le Bon. Another solo track, "Dreamboy", was featured on the SYN-released soundtrack to the Mario Van Peebles movie Love Kills.
Also in 2000, SYN co-executive produced the Duran Duran album Pop Trash along with Nick Rhodes and Warren Cuccurullo's side-venture TV Mania.
In October 2005 Dutch trance DJ Ferry Corsten released the track "Fire", with vocals by Simon Le Bon. It was a remix of the lesser known Duran Duran single "Serious", from the album Liberty.
(full credits: Ferry Corsten feat. Simon Le Bon - Fire (Flashover remix), on Flashover Recordings)
In late 2006, Le Bon became a member of Shinzou Sound, and took part in the Japan-based online manga project, 'Synesthesia', by co-writing the theme song 'Nobody Knows' along with Nick Wood.
In 2010, Le Bon collaborated on the song "Record Collection", the title track from Mark Ronson's third album. In the song, Le Bon is heard singing the chorus, along with Mark Ronson and hip hop artist Wiley. Ronson later produced Duran Duran's 2010 album All You Need Is Now, and 2015's Paper Gods.
Since 2020, he has been hosting the music show WHOOOSH! with Katy Krassner. Originally on the Duran Duran website, the show moved to Spotify and then to SiriusXM where it airs on the Volume channel. The duo play eight songs per week and discuss them. Le Bon curates all the tracks.
Personal life
In the early 1980s, Le Bon was engaged to his then longtime girlfriend, model-turned-actress Claire Stansfield. After breaking up with her, he wooed fashion model Yasmin Parvaneh. Seeing her face in a magazine, he phoned her modelling agency to track her down and they married on 27 December 1985. Yasmin suffered two miscarriages, but the couple went on to have three daughters, including Amber Rose Tamara Le Bon. He became a grandfather in 2018.
During Duran Duran's hiatus in 1985, Le Bon drew media attention when his maxi yacht, Drum, lost its keel and capsized during the Fastnet race, just off Falmouth, along the southern coast of Cornwall. Before being rescued, Le Bon and other crew members were trapped under the boat, inside the hull, for forty minutes. They were all rescued by the Royal Navy, using a Search and Rescue helicopter from 771 Naval Air Squadron based near Helston. The rescue earned the Rescue Diver, POACMN L Slater, a George Medal. Despite the accident, Le Bon and Drum went on to participate in the 1985-1986 Whitbread Round the World Race, coming in third overall in elapsed time. Le Bon and his partners eventually sold Drum; the events surrounding Drum and the races were chronicled in a 1989 movie entitled Drum – The Journey Of A Lifetime and the book One Watch at a Time written by Drum'''s skipper, Skip Novak.
Twenty years after his accident, in 2005, Le Bon made public his desire to race again. During a touring break in August 2005, Le Bon again raced Drum in the Fastnet race, borrowing the vessel from her current owner (the late Scottish multi car garage owner Sir Arnold Clark) to participate, and raising funds for the RNLI charity. Le Bon had to leave the race unfinished, as light winds were slowing Drum (and the other competitors), and would have delayed the boat's arrival at Plymouth, interfering with Le Bon's obligation to perform in Japan. He appears as the narrator in a documentary film project called The Weekend Sailor which is about a Swan 65 sailing yacht called Sayula II that won the first Whitbread Round the World sailing race in 1973/74.
In 2009 Le Bon (who describes himself as a "concerned agnostic") contributed an essay to the book The Atheist's Guide to Christmas'', edited by Ariane Sherine. In 2014, he became a distinguished supporter of Humanists UK.
Le Bon injured his vocal cords and was unable to finish his 2011 summer tour. He remarked, "I am trying to be philosophical."
On 11 July 2018 Le Bon was accused by a therapist named Shereen Hariri of sexually assaulting her at The Wherehouse, a record store she worked for at the time during a photograph session on 10 April 1995. He responded via the band's social media pages denying the allegation saying in part, "I have always been one who can admit to my mistakes and apologize for my failings. But I cannot apologize for something I did not do."
References
Further reading
External links
SYN Entertainment official website
Duran Duran official website
WHOOOSH!
1958 births
20th-century English male singers
21st-century English male singers
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Duran Duran members
English people of French descent
English agnostics
English new wave musicians
English pop singers
English male singer-songwriters
English male sailors (sport)
British synth-pop new wave musicians
Ivor Novello Award winners
Living people
People from Bushey
People from Pinner
English tenors
Musicians from Hertfordshire
Male new wave singers
Volvo Ocean Race sailors
|
[
0.29767170548439026,
0.19571556150913239,
-0.0845416933298111,
-0.700126051902771,
0.11826545000076294,
0.7562017440795898,
0.3775242865085602,
0.044336408376693726,
-0.29571983218193054,
0.11118555814027786,
-0.7588814496994019,
0.6889638900756836,
-0.16838020086288452,
-0.2949966788291931,
0.1463720202445984,
0.3477431535720825,
0.07013605535030365,
0.03506248816847801,
-0.0945553407073021,
-0.3358418345451355,
-0.1220356896519661,
0.2875102460384369,
-0.32722312211990356,
0.2988608777523041,
-0.040973346680402756,
0.8257179856300354,
-0.16735823452472687,
0.021838290616869926,
0.27362170815467834,
-0.49937012791633606,
0.17745926976203918,
0.4081670343875885,
0.3836258351802826,
-0.7448574304580688,
0.16869981586933136,
0.013421567156910896,
-0.42519718408584595,
-0.6653245687484741,
-0.26037105917930603,
0.03026977926492691,
0.05054660141468048,
0.1623164266347885,
0.26087167859077454,
0.2526688277721405,
-0.6695120334625244,
-0.5493932366371155,
-1.2668920755386353,
0.6379322409629822,
-0.9798189997673035,
-0.48853394389152527,
-0.19985482096672058,
0.14227032661437988,
0.28086787462234497,
-0.04602544382214546,
0.010456438176333904,
-0.12757614254951477,
-0.36726289987564087,
-0.1897381693124771,
-0.1467524915933609,
-0.19584769010543823,
0.0859941840171814,
0.26928454637527466,
-0.068461574614048,
-0.5042701363563538,
-0.17927902936935425,
-0.2735914885997772,
0.5490493774414062,
0.1510770618915558,
0.0658847764134407,
-0.19168436527252197,
-0.2580886781215668,
0.5669557452201843,
-0.023454885929822922,
-0.42975395917892456,
-0.001998946303501725,
-0.055822502821683884,
0.2889788746833801,
-0.09978877007961273,
0.2433425784111023,
0.670005738735199,
0.18394608795642853,
0.04318050667643547,
1.043750286102295,
0.575764536857605,
0.07345302402973175,
0.2575600743293762,
-0.3185659348964691,
0.608889639377594,
-0.6481631994247437,
0.1344488263130188,
-0.8084794282913208,
-0.9096940159797668,
-0.01937752030789852,
0.417941689491272,
0.3809274435043335,
-0.8422635793685913,
-0.4125264585018158,
0.09314204007387161,
0.8358948826789856,
-0.1557399034500122,
0.2390432208776474,
-0.3924783766269684,
0.02057143859565258,
-0.5816587209701538,
-0.39804574847221375,
-0.2356358915567398,
-0.1973571926355362,
-0.6999468207359314,
-0.20209862291812897,
-0.294862300157547,
0.1135239377617836,
0.07204821705818176,
-0.49251964688301086,
-0.1299736052751541,
0.7411126494407654,
0.46808984875679016,
-0.13415655493736267,
-0.9407457113265991,
-1.044761061668396,
0.027812719345092773,
0.22549548745155334,
0.0035700451117008924,
0.05451999977231026,
0.5379505157470703,
-0.47670280933380127,
-0.43057286739349365,
0.31752821803092957,
0.005329504143446684,
-0.40020492672920227,
0.22483688592910767,
0.49253231287002563,
0.7031118273735046,
-0.3922313451766968,
-0.2900744080543518,
-0.9031028151512146,
-0.18806633353233337,
0.5503220558166504,
0.27587997913360596,
-0.2927754521369934,
0.234405517578125,
-0.3611973524093628,
0.19266685843467712,
-0.28622007369995117,
-0.17283885180950165,
0.4691844582557678,
0.15537217259407043,
-0.1724364012479782,
-0.17741937935352325,
0.19563543796539307,
-0.2557622492313385,
0.12997987866401672,
0.3442380726337433,
-0.18596599996089935,
-0.32952725887298584,
-0.42794257402420044,
0.37273481488227844,
0.6135212779045105,
0.35341525077819824,
-0.20705749094486237,
-0.5095973014831543,
0.5728813409805298,
0.07503782212734222,
-0.1972574144601822,
0.11371392011642456,
0.6401036381721497,
-0.1473473608493805,
-0.14758352935314178,
0.30532148480415344,
0.11646591126918793,
0.11390680819749832,
-0.3246539533138275,
-0.11529337614774704,
0.1797722429037094,
-0.2547782063484192,
-0.5299192070960999,
0.35714951157569885,
0.48963990807533264,
0.2833249568939209,
0.4176221191883087,
0.09595327079296112,
-0.3128681778907776,
-0.5815595388412476,
0.5964678525924683,
-0.2648402452468872,
0.7446867823600769,
0.225882425904274,
0.058767735958099365,
-0.06284116953611374,
0.5612350702285767,
0.20787669718265533,
-0.6643277406692505,
-0.41372549533843994,
0.4811399579048157,
-0.004793393425643444,
0.2734839916229248,
0.10242360085248947,
-0.2683439552783966,
0.8577210903167725,
0.6245884895324707,
0.4638347029685974,
-0.7265974879264832,
-0.19335544109344482,
0.14826957881450653,
-0.17130734026432037,
-0.23307044804096222,
0.25163042545318604,
0.8662407398223877,
-0.450253963470459,
-0.1343262940645218,
0.28686705231666565,
0.31583744287490845,
-0.5967854261398315,
0.5127260684967041,
0.3467126488685608,
-0.4306221902370453,
-0.49951139092445374,
-0.40186595916748047,
-0.1363876610994339,
-0.0879012793302536,
-0.23316757380962372,
0.5406602621078491,
0.6638222932815552,
-0.19403260946273804,
0.27549511194229126,
0.1319085657596588,
1.144703984260559,
-0.17836622893810272,
-0.5633779168128967,
0.19537250697612762,
-0.04151412844657898,
-0.39627620577812195,
0.37724000215530396,
-0.05114707723259926,
-0.3536519408226013,
-0.44073429703712463,
0.2752229869365692,
0.4060352146625519,
-0.5063028335571289,
-0.21390940248966217,
-0.5810274481773376,
0.22330477833747864,
0.6257016658782959,
-0.8046753406524658,
0.3056117594242096,
-0.2117643803358078,
0.5319570302963257,
-0.2447795867919922,
0.39264437556266785,
-0.03954170271754265,
0.30434659123420715,
-0.059159912168979645,
0.2147107869386673,
0.31889262795448303,
0.5537670254707336,
-0.003786472138017416,
-0.14675365388393402,
0.3487876355648041,
0.5989497303962708,
0.26328229904174805,
0.5296528935432434,
-0.26573148369789124,
-0.7116976380348206,
0.41616106033325195,
0.0445764996111393,
-0.3483300805091858,
-0.42557862401008606,
0.08151093125343323,
-0.6803808808326721,
0.9086812138557434,
0.057358045130968094,
0.2703791856765747,
-0.19157838821411133,
-0.40346354246139526,
0.6141436100006104,
0.5032877326011658,
0.4840564727783203,
0.16167184710502625,
0.07941471040248871,
0.2664799392223358,
-0.8371126055717468,
0.13001610338687897,
0.7905116081237793,
-0.08765871077775955,
-0.4551044702529907,
0.026860419660806656,
-0.07605256885290146,
0.06309454143047333,
0.1045219823718071,
0.11559832096099854,
0.050792891532182693,
-0.3073433041572571,
0.7841426730155945,
-0.2636622488498688,
0.12173347920179367,
-0.2115805298089981,
0.14281879365444183,
-0.03163390979170799,
-0.7682980298995972,
-0.5912078619003296,
-0.14642199873924255,
0.16266916692256927,
0.09145264327526093,
0.4385963976383209,
0.25846973061561584,
1.2012815475463867,
-0.2488158792257309,
-0.04589519277215004,
-0.3432402014732361,
-5.6587066650390625,
0.05401036515831947,
0.6044602394104004,
0.10763534158468246,
0.12951591610908508,
-0.10411572456359863,
0.2035229355096817,
-0.32934072613716125,
-0.12079045921564102,
-0.6336255669593811,
-0.5556581616401672,
0.09304463118314743,
-0.4745360314846039,
0.5186869502067566,
0.6175495982170105,
0.6333968043327332,
0.23548558354377747,
-0.6105345487594604,
0.6918624639511108,
0.4939422905445099,
-0.06798878312110901,
-0.4260038435459137,
-0.3716200590133667,
-0.43539753556251526,
-0.36158326268196106,
0.12547367811203003,
-0.8657373189926147,
0.03800150752067566,
-0.3494843542575836,
0.2586188316345215,
0.1187615916132927,
0.25165417790412903,
-0.113921158015728,
-0.7518730759620667,
-0.006872575264424086,
-0.24185821413993835,
0.7071230411529541,
-0.2827858030796051,
0.6857169270515442,
-0.15593011677265167,
0.31886571645736694,
0.566562294960022,
-0.02639736980199814,
0.42519038915634155,
-0.006065335590392351,
-0.10988939553499222,
-0.8472722768783569,
-0.4765373170375824,
0.1628488004207611,
0.7856255769729614,
0.23861077427864075,
-0.286022424697876,
-0.06884024292230606,
-0.5839214324951172,
0.39292657375335693,
-0.10120619833469391,
0.47666019201278687,
0.2603985071182251,
-0.29058894515037537,
0.1977258026599884,
0.5006780028343201,
0.04392915964126587,
0.3556661903858185,
-0.20890137553215027,
0.5655845999717712,
0.07000590115785599,
0.3893435299396515,
-0.07011756300926208,
0.1530735045671463,
-0.5162269473075867,
-0.1048022210597992,
-0.35542887449264526,
0.1124023050069809,
-1.4085934162139893,
-0.5932447910308838,
-0.27046552300453186,
0.11694023758172989,
0.15533140301704407,
-0.39354920387268066,
-0.5290497541427612,
0.018714401870965958,
-0.5619059205055237,
-0.5717395544052124,
0.7153805494308472,
-0.22748814523220062,
-0.5149655342102051,
-0.7121604084968567,
0.32874155044555664,
-0.5489873886108398,
-0.2469862550497055,
-0.1856703907251358,
-0.25613316893577576,
-0.15525566041469574,
0.16465440392494202,
0.13987289369106293,
-0.25759005546569824,
0.22085246443748474,
0.46521425247192383,
0.198605477809906,
0.5434974431991577,
0.0966864749789238,
-0.3144438862800598,
0.0647321566939354,
-0.4469379484653473,
0.5089253187179565,
-0.001362406532280147,
0.04739237204194069,
-0.19252504408359528,
0.4285450577735901,
0.39358875155448914,
0.03720720112323761,
0.34750497341156006,
-0.6354933977127075,
0.09089499711990356,
0.100733183324337,
-0.4259025752544403,
-0.4454899728298187,
-0.17849215865135193,
0.08771844953298569,
0.561555027961731,
-0.08798833936452866,
0.4670141041278839,
0.296688973903656,
-0.19190798699855804,
-0.1142265796661377,
-0.24322031438350677,
-0.019594568759202957,
-1.0692181587219238,
-0.05562274530529976,
0.06304406374692917,
-0.13005048036575317,
0.6577091217041016,
-0.012647011317312717,
-0.1080150231719017,
0.6233544945716858,
-0.24730294942855835,
-0.08372823894023895,
-0.34174633026123047,
0.05104883760213852,
-0.30136898159980774,
0.01779341511428356,
-0.49691611528396606,
0.18899375200271606,
0.2851943075656891,
-0.03367402404546738,
0.060992151498794556,
0.38402044773101807,
0.47801560163497925,
0.034448932856321335,
0.7529449462890625,
0.568821907043457,
0.28204837441444397,
0.5651088953018188,
-0.7546351552009583,
-0.2655467092990875,
0.35642245411872864,
-0.8128782510757446,
-0.5207523107528687,
0.43429693579673767,
-0.13441012799739838,
0.6019461750984192,
-0.8032312989234924,
-0.7101105451583862,
0.20668092370033264,
-0.11128194630146027,
-0.13572567701339722,
-0.0465499684214592,
-0.28645560145378113,
-0.7521224021911621,
-0.023001834750175476,
-0.24482272565364838,
-0.668099582195282,
-0.2707946002483368,
-0.43444713950157166,
-0.3460462689399719,
-0.2679389417171478,
0.08672147989273071,
-0.26342329382896423,
-0.2858218848705292,
0.5737851858139038,
-0.2613382339477539,
0.5425727367401123,
-0.1985829472541809,
-0.1319422423839569,
0.2970523238182068,
-0.764686644077301,
-0.6976028084754944,
-0.2707415223121643,
0.4458532929420471,
-0.41392597556114197,
-0.2867884337902069,
0.26454269886016846,
0.6073816418647766,
0.5184296369552612,
-0.00709689361974597,
-0.7995405793190002,
0.18809035420417786,
0.14561833441257477,
0.08822567015886307,
-0.2852958142757416,
-0.008218074217438698,
-0.04110536351799965,
-0.23884087800979614,
0.4297972619533539,
0.3628300726413727,
-0.43111053109169006,
-0.016266297549009323,
-0.024816099554300308,
0.09977412223815918,
0.16430509090423584,
-0.2584517002105713,
-0.16571402549743652,
0.4630747437477112,
0.24700263142585754,
-0.5870761275291443,
0.2925148606300354,
0.21337702870368958,
0.1770881563425064,
0.048128049820661545,
-0.4998120665550232,
-0.7885672450065613,
-0.22843503952026367,
-0.7400683760643005,
-0.06767206639051437,
-0.38550299406051636,
0.40124011039733887,
0.9838313460350037,
0.1633981168270111,
0.21192725002765656,
0.02260061912238598,
-0.02993937022984028,
-0.23720283806324005,
0.0186357069760561,
0.18262414634227753,
-0.560758113861084,
0.21525879204273224,
-0.1802562177181244,
0.49877238273620605,
0.18622983992099762,
0.2907295823097229,
0.5312351584434509,
1.0205036401748657,
-0.00027289616991765797,
-0.10403410345315933,
-0.19374841451644897,
0.6708760857582092,
0.8909252882003784,
-0.31969133019447327,
-0.2831336259841919,
-0.20006676018238068,
0.20957079529762268,
-0.10987264662981033,
-0.2913694679737091,
0.24300910532474518,
0.44529351592063904,
-0.1361548900604248,
-0.17819981276988983,
-0.08251816034317017,
-0.016315992921590805,
0.21134574711322784,
0.39099907875061035,
0.1585765779018402,
-0.23826926946640015,
-0.038942307233810425,
-0.35823383927345276,
0.046310458332300186,
-0.14836974442005157,
-0.21551400423049927,
-0.440749853849411,
-0.17064277827739716,
0.0308403167873621,
0.016744662076234818,
-0.28711530566215515,
0.8024351000785828,
-0.029880955815315247,
0.2686375677585602,
-0.038640234619379044,
-0.2505738437175751,
0.1984178125858307,
0.1667708307504654,
-0.45818907022476196,
0.3600350618362427,
0.600896418094635,
-0.8987765312194824,
0.3303370773792267,
-0.21099475026130676,
0.05947207659482956,
-0.285555899143219,
0.19186291098594666,
-0.06764911860227585,
-0.2503780722618103,
0.1646842360496521,
-0.544369101524353,
-0.04660051688551903,
-0.08548317104578018,
0.4097776412963867,
-0.6018834114074707,
0.30605730414390564,
-0.2985135018825531,
-0.23598115146160126,
0.13832469284534454,
0.1368548572063446,
1.0299978256225586,
-0.08795079588890076,
0.07555291801691055,
0.23072369396686554,
-0.20118339359760284,
-0.4856724739074707,
0.28871244192123413,
0.41504499316215515,
0.4055810272693634,
0.3410622477531433,
-0.060680896043777466,
0.3307603895664215,
-0.6126260161399841,
0.44515347480773926,
0.47639214992523193,
-0.43796855211257935,
0.3374330699443817,
0.40302136540412903,
-0.12404462695121765,
-0.6310875415802002,
0.38680484890937805,
-0.253876656293869,
0.6839776039123535,
0.9645477533340454,
0.005084434058517218,
-0.1183105930685997,
-0.1474754512310028,
0.23043452203273773,
-0.05582810565829277,
0.3965488374233246,
-0.0004355281125754118,
0.3867610692977905,
0.017521608620882034,
-0.351338267326355,
-0.022694319486618042,
0.15177176892757416,
0.22011737525463104,
0.20197002589702606,
-0.6049290299415588,
0.3974980413913727,
-0.6766018867492676,
-0.19946661591529846,
0.026517517864704132,
-0.2530955374240875,
0.12668758630752563,
0.17431363463401794,
-0.5608115196228027,
0.17446954548358917,
-0.04054506495594978,
-0.10057249665260315,
-0.05943818390369415,
-0.03334354609251022,
0.344419002532959,
-0.6514886617660522,
0.437505304813385,
-0.2663170397281647,
-0.39200279116630554,
0.21865764260292053,
0.16226905584335327,
-0.014945654198527336,
1.034507393836975,
0.25618135929107666,
-0.6100674271583557,
0.010327537544071674,
-0.1233246773481369,
-0.5518844723701477,
0.16360151767730713,
0.5312065482139587,
0.07573151588439941,
0.36265045404434204,
-0.05866171047091484,
0.45871788263320923,
0.000013997806490806397,
0.2972724139690399,
0.0766441598534584,
-0.2155483514070511,
-0.59268718957901,
0.003389346646144986,
-0.40826523303985596,
-0.41687583923339844,
-0.36547693610191345,
-0.08960850536823273,
-0.031624287366867065,
0.04302426427602768,
-0.14592322707176208,
0.4393943250179291,
-0.5223006010055542,
0.18884456157684326,
0.7506762742996216,
-0.44600018858909607,
-0.06058206036686897,
0.1401030570268631,
-0.7483760714530945,
-0.41322454810142517,
0.017032286152243614,
0.9832752346992493,
0.3070586621761322,
-0.11176091432571411,
0.15302219986915588,
0.5063378810882568,
-0.19462426006793976,
-0.0036717476323246956,
0.4082329273223877,
-0.02047380805015564,
-0.5452274680137634,
-0.09665010124444962,
-0.6921008229255676,
0.3200857639312744,
0.34550175070762634,
-0.3246661126613617,
-0.5237089991569519,
-0.2329733818769455,
0.18721789121627808,
0.3095451295375824,
-0.1286795437335968,
0.2384982854127884,
0.19432713091373444,
-0.00942179374396801,
0.19915364682674408,
0.8582581281661987,
0.22624839842319489,
0.2833174467086792,
-0.21981306374073029,
0.4354303479194641,
-0.32686787843704224,
-0.10417969524860382,
-0.621971607208252,
0.5841793417930603,
-0.14428113400936127,
-0.29780659079551697,
-0.6189248561859131,
-0.23872174322605133,
-0.18798209726810455,
-0.9272812604904175,
0.826562762260437,
0.7334501147270203,
0.09881033003330231,
-0.23732584714889526,
0.5793020129203796,
-0.0897446870803833,
0.014495733194053173,
-0.017931638285517693,
-0.5285969376564026,
-0.18644458055496216,
-0.07051028311252594,
0.02618994191288948,
-0.5638912916183472,
-0.2346525490283966,
0.5513456463813782,
-0.6074104905128479,
0.5922507047653198,
-0.588867723941803,
-0.4160715639591217,
-0.11395253241062164,
0.1899326741695404,
0.23297682404518127,
0.5899205207824707,
-0.22579745948314667
] |
213100
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Vereen
|
Ben Vereen
|
Benjamin Augustus Vereen (born October 10, 1946) is an American actor, dancer and singer. Vereen gained prominence for his performances in the original Broadway productions of the musicals Jesus Christ Superstar, for which he received a Tony Award nomination, and Pippin, for which he won the 1973 Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.
Early life
Vereen was born Benjamin Augustus Middleton on October 10, 1946 in Laurinburg, North Carolina. While still an infant, Vereen and his family relocated to the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood in Brooklyn, New York City. He was adopted by James Vereen, a paint-factory worker, and his wife, Pauline, who worked as a maid and theatre wardrobe mistress. He discovered he was adopted when he applied for a passport to join Sammy Davis Jr. on a tour of "Golden Boy" to London when he was 25. He was raised Pentecostal.
During his pre-teen years, he exhibited an innate talent for drama and dance and often performed in local variety shows. At the age of 14, Vereen enrolled at the High School of Performing Arts, where he studied under world-renowned choreographers Martha Graham, George Balanchine, and Jerome Robbins. Upon his graduation, he struggled to find suitable stage work and was often forced to take odd jobs to supplement his income.
Career
Stage
When Vereen was 18 years old, he made his New York stage bow off-off Broadway in The Prodigal Son at the Greenwich Mews Theater directed by Stella Holt. By the following year, he was in Las Vegas, performing in Bob Fosse's production of Sweet Charity, a show with which he toured in 1967–68. He returned to New York City to play Claude in Hair in the Broadway production, before joining the national touring company.
The following year, he was cast opposite Sammy Davis Jr. in the film adaptation of Sweet Charity. After developing a rapport with Davis, Vereen was cast as his understudy in the upcoming production of Golden Boy, which toured England and ended the run at the Palladium Theatre in London's West End.
Vereen was nominated for a Tony Award for Jesus Christ Superstar in 1972 and won a Tony for his appearance in Pippin in 1973. Vereen appeared in the Broadway musical Wicked as the Wizard of Oz in 2005. Vereen has also performed in one-man shows and actively lectures on black history and inspirational topics.
Television
Vereen has also starred in numerous television programs, and is well known for the role of 'Chicken' George Moore in Alex Haley's landmark TV miniseries Roots, for which he received an Emmy nomination in 1977.
Vereen's four-week summer variety series, Ben Vereen ... Comin' At Ya, aired on NBC in August 1975 and featured regulars Lola Falana, Avery Schreiber and Liz Torres.
In 1978, on a Boston Pops TV special, Vereen performed a tribute to Bert Williams, complete with period makeup and attire, and reprising Williams' high-kick dance steps, to Vaudeville standards such as "Waitin' for the Robert E. Lee".
In 1981, Vereen performed at Ronald Reagan's first inauguration. The performance generated controversy as Vereen performed the first part of the show in blackface. Before the finale, ABC cut the live performance, generating confusion and anger from viewers at home. According to video artist Edgar Arcenaux, what TV viewers didn’t see was the second part of the performance, in which Vereen mimicked being refused service because of his color while trying to buy the Republican elite a congratulatory drink. As Arceneaux explains, Vereen's performance was meant as a critique of Republican civil rights policies, but the TV audience didn't get to see it.
Vereen was cast opposite Jeff Goldblum in the short-lived detective series Tenspeed and Brown Shoe (1980). During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Vereen worked steadily on television with projects ranging from the sitcom Webster to the drama Silk Stalkings.
In 1985, Vereen starred in the Faerie Tale Theatre series as Puss in Boots alongside Gregory Hines. He appeared on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air episode "Papa's Got a Brand New Excuse", in which he played Will Smith's biological father Lou Smith. He made several appearances on the 1980s sitcom Webster as the title character's biological uncle.
He also appeared as Mayor Ben (a leopard) on the children's program Zoobilee Zoo and as Itsy Bitsy Spider in Mother Goose Rock 'n' Rhyme. In 1993 he appeared in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Interface" as the father of Roots co-star LeVar Burton's character Geordi La Forge; fellow Roots star Madge Sinclair appeared in the same episode as Geordi's mother. In Roots, Vereen had played "Chicken George", the grandson of Burton's character Kunta Kinte. He also appeared on the television series The Nanny episode "Pishke Business". In 2010, he appeared on the television series How I Met Your Mother episodes "Cleaning House" and "False Positive" as Sam Gibbs, the long lost father of James Stinson, Barney Stinson's brother. He returned in 2013 and 2014 for another two episodes.
Personal life
Vereen has appeared as a public speaker and humanitarian speaking on such topics as black history, overcoming adversity, and the importance of continuing education.
In 2007, he was diagnosed with type 2 diabetes and has a website in which he shares his personal story along with advice from medical experts.
According to The Fayetteville Observer of April 29, 2006, Vereen learned while applying for a passport in the late 1960s that he was adopted. His birth certificate revealed that his birth name was Benjamin Augustus Middleton, that he was the son of Essie Middleton, and that he was born in Laurinburg, North Carolina. In April 2006, Vereen visited Scotland County with a genealogist on a search for family members and learned that his mother's name was Essie May Pearson. The Laurinburg Exchange reported: "Vereen, an adoptee who learned that he was born in Laurinburg and made a celebrated trip to Scotland County in 2006 to reconnect with family. While on the trip he learned his mother had died 24 years before, but that several relatives still lived in the area." According to her acquaintances, Essie had gone on a trip when Vereen was a child, and had left her baby in someone's care. When she returned, the child was gone. In the April 28, 2006 interview with the 'Laurinburg Exchange', Vereen said that his visit "has just all been so overwhelming ... I've finally found my family".
In May 2006, he met his mother's daughter (his sister), Gloria Lewis-Walker, of Derby, Connecticut.
He also has a brother, James Middleton, who lives in Tucson, Arizona.
In the early 1980s, Vereen moved with his family to Saddle River, New Jersey.
His 16-year-old daughter, Naja, was killed in an auto accident in 1987 on the New Jersey Turnpike when a truck overturned on her car.
In 1992, Vereen suffered three accidents in one day, when his car hit a tree causing him to hit his head on the roof of his car, then he suffered a stroke while he was walking on a Malibu highway, apparently veering into the road where he was struck by a car driven by record producer David Foster. His critical injuries (including a broken leg) required him to undergo arduous physical rehabilitation in the ensuing months.
Vereen is the godfather of R&B singer Usher and is also the first cousin once removed of former NFL running back Shane Vereen. Vereen was the keynote speaker for the Boys & Girls Clubs in St. Petersburg, Florida annual alumni tribute gala held in October 2007.
In August 2011, Vereen was named Co-Artistic Director of Tampa's Broadway Theatre Project.
In September 2012, Vereen filed for divorce from his wife of 36 years, Nancy Bruner Vereen, citing irreconcilable differences.
He is an active Democrat.
Vereen was inducted as an honorary member of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity on April 9, 2019.
His son, Ben Vereen Jr., died in 2020 at the age of 55.
Sexual harassment allegations
In January 2018, four actresses in a Florida production of Hair directed by Vereen in 2015 alleged that he sexually harassed them throughout the production.
According to the New York Daily News, "the women — part of the Venice Theatre production outside of Tampa — say Vereen forced unwanted kisses, hugged them aggressively, stripped naked during an acting exercise and made degrading comments about their weight, sex appeal and personal lives". The Daily News published cast members' claims that he used his position of authority as a director and mentor to pressure them to engage him in unwanted sexual interactions. For example, two of the actresses said he privately lured them on separate occasions to his Florida rental home. One woman willingly admits she and Vereen began a relationship, though she feels it was ultimately coerced; the other says he sexually molested her and later nonconsensually kissed her and made sexually disparaging remarks.
According to Variety, "While directing the 2015 production of the musical at the Venice Theatre in Florida, Vereen is alleged to have invited female cast members back to his apartment and goaded them into sex acts. He’s also accused of inappropriate talk and conduct during rehearsals that involved cast members stripping naked, ostensibly as preparation for a show that has, since its original 1967 production, been associated with a famous, full-cast nude scene."
Vereen has since apologized for his misconduct.
Filmography
Film
Television
Theatre
Discography
Solo albums
Off-Stage (Buddah Records, 1975)
Ben Vereen (Buddah Records, 1976)
Signed, Sealed, Delivered! (51 West, 1979)
Here I Am (Accord, 1982)
Steppin' Out Live (Ghostlight Records, 2010)
Ensemble albums
Grind (Original Cast Recording) (TER, 1985)
Pippin (Original Broadway Cast) (Decca Broadway, 2000)
Singles and EPs
Superstar (MCA Records, 1971)
Could We Start Again Please? / Heaven On Their Minds (Decca, 1972)
Stop Your Half-Steppin' Ma Ma (Buddah Records, 1975)
By Your Side (Buddah Records, 1975)
Got It Made / Read Between the Lines (Ariola, 1980)
Awards and Nominations
Theater
Television
Honors
The Community Mental Health Council awarded Vereen with their 2004 Lifeline Celebration Achievement Award. For his humanitarian contributions, he has received a number of awards including Israel's Cultural and Humanitarian Awards, three NAACP Image Awards, an Eleanor Roosevelt Humanitarian Award and a Victory Award. He has received honorary doctorates from the University of Arizona, Emerson College, St. Francis College, and Columbia College in Chicago. In 2001, Medgar Evers College created the Ben Vereen Scholarship for the Performing Arts, and in 2004, he received an Achievement in Excellence Award from his alma mater, the High School of the Performing Arts.
He was the first simultaneous winner of the "Entertainer of the Year," “Rising Star," and "Song and Dance Star" awards from the American Guild of Variety Artists (AGVA). He also earned a coveted spot in the Casino Legends Hall of Fame.
Vereen was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for his performance in the Hallmark movie An Accidental Friendship. In 2004, Vereen was nominated for a "Career Achievement Award" by the Le Prix International Film Star Awards Organization.
In 2011, he was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame.
In 2012, Vereen was inducted into the National Museum of Dance's Mr. & Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney Hall of Fame.
References
External links
http://www.lycos.com/info/ben-vereen--sweet-charity.html
https://www.pbs.org/wnet/broadway/stars/vereen_b.html
Ben Vereen Interviewed on XNDTV.com
Angels of Love Spiritual Center (Rev. Ben Vereen, Spiritual Director)
1946 births
Living people
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American singers
21st-century American male actors
21st-century American singers
African-American male actors
African-American male dancers
African-American male singers
American adoptees
American gospel singers
American male dancers
American male film actors
American male musical theatre actors
American male singers
American male television actors
American male voice actors
Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School alumni
Male actors from North Carolina
North Carolina Democrats
People from Laurinburg, North Carolina
People from Saddle River, New Jersey
Singers from North Carolina
Tony Award winners
|
[
-0.3219815790653229,
0.08485744148492813,
-0.07252661138772964,
-0.49746793508529663,
0.23711754381656647,
0.8901675343513489,
1.0523457527160645,
0.21268190443515778,
-0.4994092583656311,
0.005756505765020847,
-0.07127367705106735,
0.3269074857234955,
0.026469895616173744,
0.14894001185894012,
0.010797425173223019,
0.5662385821342468,
0.6273786425590515,
0.23058836162090302,
-0.16041313111782074,
-0.5716665387153625,
-0.4836311638355255,
-0.3635401725769043,
0.643460214138031,
0.35552212595939636,
-0.5677594542503357,
0.7681064605712891,
-0.536396861076355,
-0.08638555556535721,
0.07851860672235489,
0.09402602910995483,
-0.2646697759628296,
0.3850928843021393,
0.5671318769454956,
-0.3615066707134247,
-0.45771193504333496,
0.3519900143146515,
-0.46279650926589966,
-0.10109273344278336,
-0.21889355778694153,
0.5422679781913757,
-0.29023078083992004,
-0.04818471893668175,
0.2734171152114868,
-0.4451720416545868,
-0.2033604383468628,
-0.716902494430542,
-1.2552474737167358,
0.23767873644828796,
-0.6910030245780945,
-0.6990978717803955,
-0.19158245623111725,
-0.15615835785865784,
0.43453794717788696,
-0.25021836161613464,
0.44768163561820984,
-0.8430654406547546,
-0.3238416612148285,
-0.3186739981174469,
0.24282823503017426,
-0.2846803665161133,
0.18544326722621918,
-0.0986180230975151,
0.23562516272068024,
-1.1580595970153809,
0.05894165113568306,
0.2832896113395691,
0.5696693062782288,
0.5218743085861206,
0.1378183513879776,
-0.3603092133998871,
-0.2104942500591278,
0.8542699813842773,
0.3359138071537018,
-0.7553345561027527,
0.6093066930770874,
-0.25331586599349976,
0.6440368890762329,
-0.013656866736710072,
-0.2735326588153839,
0.2318635731935501,
0.14894318580627441,
-0.30317339301109314,
0.3773443400859833,
0.6128191947937012,
-0.06666529178619385,
-0.3235531747341156,
-0.3768816888332367,
0.4230559468269348,
-0.21982158720493317,
-0.10973898321390152,
-0.738702654838562,
-0.40359747409820557,
0.08049038052558899,
0.46499285101890564,
-0.09815176576375961,
-0.6207840442657471,
-0.04482095688581467,
-0.0055767991580069065,
0.5270392298698425,
-0.22275730967521667,
0.07354173809289932,
-0.6768109202384949,
0.3980276584625244,
-0.8267805576324463,
-0.21561656892299652,
0.14544677734375,
0.6169450879096985,
-0.07062841206789017,
-0.2849043011665344,
-0.4603012502193451,
-0.4017925262451172,
-0.027343353256583214,
0.2190425843000412,
-0.13153791427612305,
0.23714928328990936,
1.0438848733901978,
0.2675403654575348,
-0.7316946387290955,
-1.0734552145004272,
0.1852024495601654,
0.2611226737499237,
0.5397739410400391,
-0.36796578764915466,
0.6713560223579407,
-0.7141727209091187,
-0.08084620535373688,
-0.15966172516345978,
0.3783687651157379,
-0.11567565053701401,
0.40426141023635864,
0.37455302476882935,
0.5347911715507507,
0.03242243081331253,
0.03882116079330444,
-0.5721216797828674,
0.23965272307395935,
0.40356966853141785,
0.04440390318632126,
-0.19449344277381897,
-0.08996228873729706,
-0.5025612115859985,
-0.15373791754245758,
-0.6328861117362976,
-0.21312333643436432,
0.6345317363739014,
0.2658929228782654,
0.23121428489685059,
-0.2225201278924942,
0.26736435294151306,
-0.10848117619752884,
-0.33145907521247864,
0.5077841281890869,
0.42923152446746826,
-0.6113252639770508,
-0.326346755027771,
-0.06225644052028656,
0.2577008903026581,
0.24268151819705963,
0.12851226329803467,
-0.29179269075393677,
0.3039810061454773,
0.06132134050130844,
-0.06008460372686386,
0.14532391726970673,
0.720339834690094,
-0.2812165319919586,
0.259436696767807,
-0.6307584643363953,
0.008054867386817932,
0.06635786592960358,
0.18138904869556427,
0.30373188853263855,
0.3943878710269928,
-0.19840629398822784,
-0.4124019145965576,
0.3984425663948059,
0.0588228777050972,
0.3593352735042572,
-0.14112624526023865,
-0.2657235264778137,
-0.40205255150794983,
-0.22288429737091064,
0.38681066036224365,
-0.37527960538864136,
0.5204013586044312,
0.14195920526981354,
0.06869424134492874,
-0.14491751790046692,
0.47113779187202454,
0.046339355409145355,
-0.8563666939735413,
-0.12208160012960434,
0.7173463702201843,
0.49982139468193054,
0.17052926123142242,
0.045699965208768845,
0.2906767725944519,
0.20227108895778656,
0.30537885427474976,
0.1759769320487976,
-0.3485105335712433,
-0.5359535217285156,
0.20781052112579346,
0.2166166603565216,
0.011978188529610634,
0.6966987252235413,
0.6366873979568481,
-0.0828833281993866,
0.3050336241722107,
-0.1757863312959671,
0.019936557859182358,
-0.9518377780914307,
0.16601310670375824,
0.1792396754026413,
-0.26462996006011963,
-0.9899256825447083,
-0.4804614186286926,
-0.16938404738903046,
0.05521971359848976,
-0.5686799883842468,
0.4620082974433899,
0.4402112364768982,
0.16463911533355713,
0.025213148444890976,
-0.16830477118492126,
0.8582105040550232,
-0.14095959067344666,
-0.40107813477516174,
0.17438767850399017,
0.14984990656375885,
0.013981550000607967,
0.20586788654327393,
-0.39701414108276367,
-0.7663339972496033,
-0.4668099284172058,
0.3861559331417084,
0.5403780341148376,
-0.4123733639717102,
0.1211252212524414,
-0.6285591125488281,
0.4812314510345459,
0.7846806049346924,
-0.7513033747673035,
0.33522355556488037,
-0.2009153515100479,
0.6605982780456543,
0.2935697138309479,
0.4926559031009674,
-0.2463139444589615,
-0.18844559788703918,
0.05284633859992027,
0.16996817290782928,
0.5502194166183472,
0.09128577262163162,
0.5224503874778748,
0.12362757325172424,
0.2558574676513672,
0.4717070162296295,
0.8429414629936218,
0.3017192482948303,
0.19968435168266296,
-0.4195701777935028,
0.20573966205120087,
-0.5044223070144653,
-0.7395498156547546,
0.2757674753665924,
-0.2956627607345581,
-0.5090506672859192,
0.5505055785179138,
-0.1885315179824829,
0.5522772073745728,
-0.41079533100128174,
-0.6341187357902527,
0.0413980707526207,
0.38289937376976013,
0.6912404894828796,
0.28432270884513855,
-0.2888104319572449,
-0.32423123717308044,
-0.5479541420936584,
0.33723127841949463,
0.8158789873123169,
-0.22482992708683014,
-0.22772908210754395,
0.06321702897548676,
-0.4510206878185272,
-0.0751187801361084,
0.07853721082210541,
0.22569553554058075,
0.05523650348186493,
0.07825953513383865,
0.6301138401031494,
-0.0017425466794520617,
0.763534426689148,
-0.27360209822654724,
0.049702733755111694,
0.47811824083328247,
0.3767491579055786,
-0.13104356825351715,
0.41127559542655945,
-0.01300251018255949,
0.44721293449401855,
-0.3698744475841522,
0.4649219214916229,
0.4363543391227722,
-0.042411986738443375,
-0.5641734600067139,
-0.24327513575553894,
-5.37079381942749,
-0.04408765584230423,
0.33652937412261963,
-0.18330127000808716,
0.6221030950546265,
-0.23052151501178741,
0.336398184299469,
0.01265502069145441,
0.2731758654117584,
0.21801014244556427,
0.19370150566101074,
-0.2863706648349762,
-0.22874879837036133,
0.4174329936504364,
0.4803977608680725,
0.25571492314338684,
0.1495465785264969,
-0.565670371055603,
0.4667776823043823,
0.5489253401756287,
-0.020278550684452057,
-0.29606208205223083,
-0.5387428998947144,
-0.5900159478187561,
-0.12066582590341568,
0.3087450861930847,
-0.788025438785553,
0.43644246459007263,
-0.7840810418128967,
-0.24628491699695587,
-0.22600215673446655,
-0.17505231499671936,
-0.49529266357421875,
-0.6001558899879456,
-0.10892388969659805,
-0.1551785171031952,
0.46369239687919617,
-0.47089505195617676,
0.5175783634185791,
-0.33848291635513306,
-0.04104772210121155,
0.2794804275035858,
-0.8437218070030212,
0.15845400094985962,
0.3413292467594147,
-0.039888154715299606,
-0.7034483551979065,
-0.6397943496704102,
0.13625670969486237,
0.42596638202667236,
0.4301750063896179,
0.048203691840171814,
0.38458725810050964,
-0.6885004639625549,
0.7336567640304565,
-0.2069776952266693,
-0.013262837193906307,
0.3669312000274658,
-0.7789842486381531,
0.4328947961330414,
-0.15379959344863892,
-0.227447971701622,
-0.30877894163131714,
0.07950317859649658,
0.12193351984024048,
-0.3275008201599121,
0.8050867319107056,
0.07754039019346237,
0.386568158864975,
-1.029438853263855,
0.23250672221183777,
0.46487951278686523,
0.32847774028778076,
-1.0835626125335693,
0.22785569727420807,
-0.7362633943557739,
0.43817609548568726,
0.02491878718137741,
-0.8575795888900757,
-0.7522494792938232,
-0.06757283955812454,
-0.662541925907135,
0.08591849356889725,
0.41283944249153137,
0.4688751995563507,
0.004266584292054176,
-0.39648810029029846,
0.09872142970561981,
-0.34753450751304626,
-0.3575674295425415,
-0.29666292667388916,
-0.499296635389328,
0.0259417537599802,
0.05019036680459976,
0.23541314899921417,
0.5019097328186035,
0.32088005542755127,
0.6941797733306885,
-0.16876155138015747,
0.6338242292404175,
0.00433860719203949,
-0.8116876482963562,
0.4756772816181183,
-0.6611647605895996,
0.2641580104827881,
0.1964041292667389,
0.47217777371406555,
0.3564932942390442,
0.833631157875061,
0.02772500365972519,
0.16552920639514923,
0.6357253789901733,
-0.3480551838874817,
-0.4299040734767914,
-0.03423351049423218,
-0.06909458339214325,
-0.688651978969574,
0.3372502326965332,
0.33785131573677063,
0.5703065395355225,
0.39273756742477417,
0.4961951971054077,
0.6637065410614014,
0.031789928674697876,
-0.17761395871639252,
-0.14605998992919922,
-0.38941165804862976,
-0.3705560564994812,
-0.3363730311393738,
0.08847718685865402,
-0.3979717791080475,
0.8870595097541809,
-0.09052680432796478,
-0.23979292809963226,
0.6949708461761475,
0.007430281490087509,
-0.09008866548538208,
-0.010218787007033825,
0.1805126816034317,
0.15103501081466675,
-0.11639431118965149,
-0.3521087169647217,
-0.1250615268945694,
0.287221223115921,
-0.2023897022008896,
-0.04834648594260216,
0.3566690683364868,
-0.09381622076034546,
-0.1398734599351883,
0.35833168029785156,
0.8830658197402954,
0.2853764295578003,
0.5346814393997192,
-0.8780835270881653,
-0.09708914160728455,
-0.1612791121006012,
-0.5048704743385315,
-0.47153130173683167,
0.6181517839431763,
-0.009944039396941662,
-0.017999906092882156,
-0.47874435782432556,
-1.1067270040512085,
0.22272458672523499,
-0.19717064499855042,
-0.2704121470451355,
-0.38512998819351196,
-0.6514391899108887,
-0.6664181351661682,
0.246638223528862,
-0.06342744827270508,
-0.6836953163146973,
0.005559897981584072,
0.09148530662059784,
-0.052669722586870193,
0.27534228563308716,
-0.42105409502983093,
-0.7682718634605408,
0.12104213982820511,
0.23374174535274506,
0.20772087574005127,
0.32206979393959045,
-0.9524535536766052,
0.0392233245074749,
0.22463448345661163,
-0.3847491145133972,
-0.46313583850860596,
-0.10290290415287018,
-0.14430111646652222,
0.19225572049617767,
0.036595478653907776,
-0.48638513684272766,
-0.11122878640890121,
0.3152829110622406,
-0.4416196644306183,
-0.15315943956375122,
0.022575311362743378,
-0.5326703786849976,
-0.1399366408586502,
0.020387759432196617,
-0.049025360494852066,
0.37653881311416626,
-0.7634915113449097,
-0.09048845618963242,
0.43657979369163513,
-0.7789611220359802,
-0.302663117647171,
0.21246159076690674,
-0.3413286805152893,
0.577800989151001,
-0.3777098059654236,
-0.3011884093284607,
-0.03846896067261696,
0.14293552935123444,
-0.2655041813850403,
0.3681931495666504,
0.7560716271400452,
0.28018051385879517,
0.13749518990516663,
-0.6129012107849121,
-0.4920611083507538,
-0.8896905779838562,
-0.5209285020828247,
-0.033945661038160324,
-0.6456286907196045,
-0.23247162997722626,
0.30185481905937195,
-0.6480422616004944,
0.45053595304489136,
-0.4035896956920624,
-0.3292354345321655,
-0.41703861951828003,
0.32347720861434937,
0.29446253180503845,
-0.7388186454772949,
0.3626621961593628,
-0.22954250872135162,
0.3505692481994629,
-0.33145853877067566,
0.3695947825908661,
0.9138486981391907,
0.756131112575531,
-0.16023747622966766,
-0.0005789886927232146,
-0.13126179575920105,
0.48392587900161743,
0.3467254340648651,
-0.5394588708877563,
0.2028011977672577,
-0.11771946400403976,
0.4330426752567291,
-0.2100115865468979,
-0.5838265419006348,
0.7101035118103027,
1.013375997543335,
-0.2984883189201355,
0.6591182351112366,
-0.2532319128513336,
-0.12073071300983429,
-0.24622289836406708,
-0.21396279335021973,
-0.18868079781532288,
-0.1859610676765442,
0.10518400371074677,
-0.6197707056999207,
0.035533357411623,
0.0526888482272625,
-0.1689322143793106,
0.07897425442934036,
-0.17957015335559845,
-0.35775622725486755,
0.15495069324970245,
-0.0684792697429657,
0.4273211658000946,
-0.7042169570922852,
0.7227481603622437,
0.5987634658813477,
-0.22351188957691193,
-0.3657347559928894,
0.05839363485574722,
-0.09660276770591736,
0.5882166028022766,
0.0003168680123053491,
-0.7902059555053711,
0.0010040935594588518,
-0.36273571848869324,
0.1689104437828064,
-0.3628961443901062,
-0.4303089678287506,
-0.0064280033111572266,
-0.23938046395778656,
0.31998175382614136,
-0.8312563300132751,
-0.01963244192302227,
0.07425189763307571,
-0.3100243806838989,
-0.5741909146308899,
0.9463660717010498,
0.14838315546512604,
-0.30362874269485474,
-0.35674211382865906,
0.6503751277923584,
0.00467970734462142,
-0.13151922821998596,
0.2504290044307709,
0.01144888810813427,
-0.040775854140520096,
-0.7324139475822449,
-0.104372039437294,
0.210224449634552,
0.3583816587924957,
-0.13572268187999725,
0.2617872655391693,
0.6769657135009766,
-0.19991284608840942,
-0.19247999787330627,
0.6715156435966492,
-0.21474042534828186,
-0.30912771821022034,
0.26581308245658875,
-0.41481754183769226,
-0.3955566883087158,
0.8948548436164856,
-0.24327707290649414,
0.7008456587791443,
1.177018165588379,
0.5509039163589478,
-0.2273707091808319,
-0.21566593647003174,
0.3725738525390625,
0.13778476417064667,
-0.12723605334758759,
0.021677330136299133,
0.4464798867702484,
-0.18986652791500092,
-0.4289510250091553,
0.6587240695953369,
0.12158719450235367,
0.413972407579422,
0.4931335151195526,
-0.7593392133712769,
0.7973281145095825,
0.2436482459306717,
0.15247637033462524,
0.027822716161608696,
-0.18820829689502716,
-0.040394578129053116,
0.482820600271225,
-0.26819077134132385,
-0.6250368356704712,
-0.6289631724357605,
-0.16384835541248322,
-0.07312366366386414,
-0.938430666923523,
0.4276040494441986,
-0.48338544368743896,
0.5086727142333984,
-0.5094535946846008,
-0.13675692677497864,
-0.030105480924248695,
0.08770357072353363,
-0.9502730965614319,
1.3643543720245361,
0.2960919737815857,
-0.3246716856956482,
-0.3514487147331238,
-0.18710508942604065,
-0.638852059841156,
0.1222984567284584,
0.7457039952278137,
0.23834696412086487,
0.36531221866607666,
-0.2007369101047516,
0.44303789734840393,
0.4107132852077484,
0.7057616710662842,
0.1823933869600296,
-0.4776199162006378,
-0.5799506306648254,
0.26117435097694397,
-0.26569733023643494,
0.15666566789150238,
0.037446361035108566,
-0.009760147891938686,
-0.0523839071393013,
-0.20612263679504395,
-0.017749032005667686,
0.22225666046142578,
-0.36228784918785095,
-0.20608483254909515,
0.7362536787986755,
-0.9859182238578796,
0.17555877566337585,
0.5652744770050049,
-0.5752665996551514,
-0.2487734705209732,
-0.49383479356765747,
0.8839144706726074,
0.43816137313842773,
-0.06563926488161087,
0.46666601300239563,
0.8704555630683899,
0.39638689160346985,
0.06624174863100052,
0.18818259239196777,
0.033437326550483704,
-0.5339015126228333,
0.24756668508052826,
-0.311379075050354,
0.05108329653739929,
0.5313701629638672,
-0.03791482001543045,
-0.1994735449552536,
-0.4708523452281952,
0.13316479325294495,
0.46444055438041687,
0.30538901686668396,
0.3255654573440552,
-0.1730967015028,
-0.15747098624706268,
-0.23649032413959503,
0.5120895504951477,
0.030931910499930382,
-0.23527482151985168,
-0.08120021969079971,
0.5908381938934326,
-0.40943917632102966,
-0.21049167215824127,
0.06486337631940842,
0.05777266249060631,
-0.15376408398151398,
0.22752046585083008,
-0.6611925959587097,
-0.1433381289243698,
-0.2973197102546692,
-0.8267683386802673,
0.980864405632019,
0.5652573108673096,
0.6599665284156799,
-0.485170841217041,
0.6650629043579102,
0.18702812492847443,
-0.10245044529438019,
0.18171921372413635,
-0.8803842663764954,
0.15170753002166748,
-0.009527656249701977,
-0.244916170835495,
-0.0073598213493824005,
0.11581947654485703,
-0.37632352113723755,
-0.9738198518753052,
0.7523956894874573,
-0.7841187119483948,
-0.3457425832748413,
0.126174658536911,
0.020906927064061165,
0.2306355983018875,
0.4234156906604767,
-0.37532705068588257
] |
213104
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Ward%20Studebaker
|
John Ward Studebaker
|
John Ward Studebaker (June 10, 1887 – July 26, 1989) served as U.S. Commissioner of Education from 1934 to 1948. He was also Chairman of the U.S. Radio Education Committee. His was the longest tenure of any education commissioner, and he devoted much of his time to children's literacy and arithmetic.
Studebaker was born in Iowa and grew up in McGregor, Iowa. Although he was small in stature and had lost his right eye in an accident at the age of 12, he was a "star all-round high school and college athlete" who was the quarterback of his high school and college football teams, as well as playing baseball and basketball in college. He attended Leander Clark College in Toledo, Iowa (now part of Coe College), paying his way through school by working as a bricklayer.
After college, he served as principal of a public school, and in 1914 became assistant superintendent of schools in Des Moines, Iowa. During World War I he took a leave of absence from that position to become national director of the Junior Red Cross and to undertake graduate study at Columbia University, where he was awarded a master's degree in 1920. Returning to Des Moines, in 1920 he became the city's school superintendent. As superintendent, he started special education programs for children with disabilities and "slow learners."
Studebaker was first appointed Commissioner of Education by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1934. He served for the remainder of Roosevelt's presidency and continued in the position under President Harry Truman, resigning in 1948 with the explanation that he could no longer afford to serve in a position that paid only $10,000 annually.
Studebaker was best known, while Commissioner of Education, for his work on public forums. Believing that public discussion as civic education was the key to renewing democracy, he first ran a series of forums in Des Moines, Iowa, in 1932 – 1934, then instituted the Federal Forum Project, 1936 – 1941 until just before the outbreak of World War II. Studebaker published The American Way (1935) and Plain Talk (1936), both of which were influential with Depression-era educators.
Studebaker maintained his membership in the bricklayers' union long after becoming an educator. He was a member of the Methodist church, the Masons and Shriners, and Rotary International. Studebaker was also a member of the Peabody Awards Board of Jurors from 1940 to 1942. He died in 1989 in Walnut Creek, California, at age 102.
References
1887 births
1989 deaths
American bricklayers
American centenarians
Men centenarians
American school superintendents
Teachers College, Columbia University alumni
Educators from Iowa
Franklin D. Roosevelt administration personnel
People from McGregor, Iowa
Truman administration personnel
United States Bureau of Education people
|
[
-0.06937309354543686,
0.8365741968154907,
-0.4773460924625397,
0.36489737033843994,
-0.6688524484634399,
0.18316029012203217,
0.8651063442230225,
0.07301478087902069,
-0.5087205171585083,
-0.739875853061676,
0.3276333808898926,
0.3571607768535614,
-0.038945045322179794,
0.9944379925727844,
0.40278953313827515,
0.09906478971242905,
-0.2284301370382309,
0.45260119438171387,
-0.5226778388023376,
-0.41981440782546997,
-0.12235642224550247,
-0.6258077025413513,
0.22771181166172028,
-0.4197482764720917,
0.22101792693138123,
0.6172759532928467,
-0.28445520997047424,
-0.34063056111335754,
-0.4094470143318176,
0.399699330329895,
0.22275499999523163,
0.1412530392408371,
0.18905197083950043,
0.12209568172693253,
-0.610558271408081,
-0.44157931208610535,
-0.013968080282211304,
-0.9987770915031433,
0.20985351502895355,
0.3107472360134125,
-0.4013608694076538,
0.17557281255722046,
0.3701059818267822,
0.39169755578041077,
-0.16356179118156433,
0.1318819671869278,
-1.2959498167037964,
-0.14571809768676758,
-0.03310384228825569,
-0.31348031759262085,
-0.3682613670825958,
-0.49119803309440613,
0.7689387798309326,
0.7625723481178284,
-0.032184358686208725,
0.08904648572206497,
0.20761820673942566,
-0.13692106306552887,
-0.048320867121219635,
-0.6562969088554382,
0.4455876648426056,
-0.09051476418972015,
0.34262147545814514,
0.6340043544769287,
0.17229074239730835,
0.032912205904722214,
-0.22334685921669006,
0.8438534140586853,
-0.22280801832675934,
0.21394917368888855,
-0.38225221633911133,
-0.022930219769477844,
0.5044189095497131,
0.14308132231235504,
0.8260778784751892,
-1.1196287870407104,
-0.24886496365070343,
0.2674790620803833,
-0.2530411183834076,
-0.14115558564662933,
-0.011280897073447704,
-0.42149314284324646,
0.2795787751674652,
0.1274334043264389,
0.052110981196165085,
-0.12992529571056366,
-0.873315691947937,
0.0841006487607956,
-0.549487292766571,
0.1932535022497177,
-0.19767363369464874,
-0.46045759320259094,
-0.20002181828022003,
-0.025735553354024887,
-0.7128289341926575,
-0.29882851243019104,
0.4533427357673645,
0.3707038164138794,
-0.11305156350135803,
0.1733495444059372,
0.2791597843170166,
-0.11318683624267578,
-0.35972410440444946,
0.6149505972862244,
-0.17297521233558655,
0.3770747780799866,
-0.10722649842500687,
-0.23279790580272675,
-0.1018761396408081,
-0.0030277962796390057,
-0.5075092315673828,
0.1374104619026184,
-0.3010658025741577,
-0.029115376994013786,
-0.4391346871852875,
0.31307727098464966,
0.1947745680809021,
-1.1330811977386475,
-0.5372666120529175,
-0.5833700895309448,
-0.12695537507534027,
0.2190125584602356,
0.0246730986982584,
-0.3490986227989197,
-0.7171939611434937,
0.5165423154830933,
-0.36951693892478943,
0.08650977909564972,
-0.045401304960250854,
-0.07450754195451736,
0.44031187891960144,
0.5230568051338196,
-0.31090086698532104,
0.4894022047519684,
-0.8277980089187622,
-0.29457032680511475,
0.2386355847120285,
-0.0059664808213710785,
-0.1752060502767563,
0.34065157175064087,
-0.0073492201045155525,
-0.49809327721595764,
-0.6496053338050842,
0.1280398964881897,
0.14380450546741486,
-0.06013652682304382,
0.09541808068752289,
0.7736398577690125,
-0.21468383073806763,
0.4255070388317108,
0.2911050021648407,
-0.013394158333539963,
0.30391567945480347,
0.3394090533256531,
-0.05023105815052986,
1.4382431507110596,
-0.001537786447443068,
0.27882036566734314,
0.6405532956123352,
0.6843129992485046,
-0.1547490656375885,
0.6438459157943726,
-0.42163440585136414,
0.3702581524848938,
0.41559240221977234,
0.050867658108472824,
0.21689273416996002,
-0.44235464930534363,
-0.13448281586170197,
-0.9506703019142151,
-0.1396944522857666,
-0.08400696516036987,
0.6545595526695251,
-0.7116753458976746,
0.05922550708055496,
0.7844720482826233,
1.1138533353805542,
-0.45009374618530273,
0.41878724098205566,
-0.470041960477829,
-0.8567256331443787,
-0.6818699836730957,
0.7211732268333435,
0.3637354373931885,
0.19302599132061005,
-0.0036565240006893873,
0.36107438802719116,
-0.046392008662223816,
0.17098642885684967,
-0.7768313884735107,
-0.44949260354042053,
-1.2122056484222412,
0.25984618067741394,
-0.7822228670120239,
1.3355587720870972,
0.3353767395019531,
0.01839427649974823,
-0.5963294506072998,
-0.08267828077077866,
1.0798949003219604,
-0.286761075258255,
-0.8980851769447327,
0.10013004392385483,
-0.6892582178115845,
0.5482064485549927,
1.2743581533432007,
0.6768145561218262,
-0.6012480854988098,
0.10437583178281784,
0.9154266715049744,
0.47310054302215576,
-0.559969425201416,
0.5716055035591125,
0.709628164768219,
-0.44964656233787537,
-0.677384614944458,
-0.3128446340560913,
-0.4092988967895508,
0.501194417476654,
-0.8403950929641724,
0.6720999479293823,
0.6885796189308167,
-0.2875593602657318,
0.8964582085609436,
-0.35991382598876953,
0.27802813053131104,
-0.45367711782455444,
0.08688543736934662,
-0.8864825963973999,
-0.09676939994096756,
0.9981425404548645,
0.5363532900810242,
0.16552861034870148,
-0.8777810335159302,
0.2348998636007309,
0.405783474445343,
0.30629798769950867,
0.003633558750152588,
0.727642297744751,
-0.42055684328079224,
0.016303658485412598,
0.49784818291664124,
-0.4792139530181885,
0.44085195660591125,
0.17660558223724365,
0.0916009470820427,
0.6108320355415344,
0.2811829745769501,
-0.9477996230125427,
-0.5708870887756348,
0.3218894302845001,
0.15271790325641632,
0.4874776005744934,
-0.5374327898025513,
-0.14644524455070496,
-0.24834954738616943,
0.25092002749443054,
-0.4276965260505676,
-0.06109822168946266,
0.26553866267204285,
0.05832795426249504,
-0.004867467563599348,
-0.09520520269870758,
-0.2820710241794586,
0.10107066482305527,
-0.41404998302459717,
-0.4137748181819916,
-0.5894843339920044,
0.301833838224411,
-0.19262106716632843,
-0.3840700685977936,
0.0076561011373996735,
-0.5810732841491699,
0.3921707570552826,
-0.028155751526355743,
0.4789419174194336,
-0.1980256736278534,
0.42922917008399963,
-0.6754602193832397,
-0.30436021089553833,
0.3109300136566162,
1.1742604970932007,
-0.7253178954124451,
-0.246498242020607,
-0.2562888562679291,
-0.19512103497982025,
-0.44444963335990906,
-0.7631811499595642,
-0.2824850082397461,
-0.546333909034729,
0.2671745717525482,
0.7152701616287231,
-0.7429763674736023,
0.5056765079498291,
-0.20230109989643097,
0.5075411796569824,
0.552750289440155,
-1.1921619176864624,
0.26017603278160095,
-0.33349668979644775,
-0.6962342858314514,
-0.41720864176750183,
-0.3223332166671753,
-0.05593213811516762,
0.9341292381286621,
-0.052152279764413834,
-0.22693917155265808,
-0.6657516956329346,
-4.831695556640625,
-0.05328097194433212,
-0.06296049803495407,
-0.5328370332717896,
0.6799788475036621,
0.3626173734664917,
0.44593214988708496,
-0.19786599278450012,
0.009352250955998898,
-0.379321813583374,
0.42330583930015564,
0.7455180287361145,
0.2933811545372009,
1.051761507987976,
0.8868815302848816,
0.5566729307174683,
1.4987157583236694,
-0.3606024384498596,
0.07620590925216675,
-0.05069124326109886,
-0.25085192918777466,
-0.5061473250389099,
0.3050974905490875,
-0.19183336198329926,
0.7857106328010559,
-0.13221010565757751,
-0.7188857793807983,
0.6096897721290588,
-0.516207218170166,
0.16014760732650757,
0.8335493206977844,
0.15588334202766418,
0.2626790702342987,
-0.3913775384426117,
-0.12285551428794861,
-0.28874531388282776,
0.23892351984977722,
0.6609949469566345,
0.0417463518679142,
-0.17927008867263794,
0.42243221402168274,
0.2674585282802582,
-0.47564688324928284,
-0.3174375295639038,
0.18925559520721436,
-0.2934979796409607,
-0.7461031079292297,
-0.1811697632074356,
-0.4660574793815613,
0.800141453742981,
0.5555627942085266,
0.4608982503414154,
0.3430076241493225,
0.6407972574234009,
0.6583595275878906,
-1.0373088121414185,
0.3922140300273895,
0.7002163529396057,
-1.1632094383239746,
-0.3846333920955658,
0.08944395929574966,
-0.7472051382064819,
-0.15584932267665863,
-0.5968417525291443,
-0.37892618775367737,
-0.6688822507858276,
-0.0651756003499031,
0.009868986904621124,
-0.4548322260379791,
-0.024736709892749786,
-0.26172536611557007,
1.26120126247406,
0.24481551349163055,
-1.2003998756408691,
0.24771124124526978,
-0.20910698175430298,
-0.3713598847389221,
0.1689525544643402,
-0.5118379592895508,
-0.0847252607345581,
0.25489768385887146,
-0.360846608877182,
-0.6178575158119202,
0.9326751232147217,
0.9690666198730469,
-0.1912682056427002,
0.30385416746139526,
0.07735252380371094,
-0.342837393283844,
-0.6426873803138733,
0.5673354268074036,
0.032783497124910355,
0.00037848143256269395,
-0.0711706280708313,
-0.015606177039444447,
0.41314268112182617,
-0.2690213918685913,
0.7177639007568359,
0.2682490646839142,
-0.3229821026325226,
0.031865764409303665,
0.06493879109621048,
0.20353025197982788,
-0.3592313528060913,
-0.061672642827034,
-0.43783992528915405,
0.09941954165697098,
0.2546736001968384,
0.6735992431640625,
0.5996720790863037,
-0.7238833904266357,
-0.09764135628938675,
-0.5433846712112427,
-0.16074810922145844,
0.5788956880569458,
-0.23870213329792023,
-0.27423134446144104,
0.4098620116710663,
0.8862665891647339,
0.06309401243925095,
0.4415281414985657,
0.5019899010658264,
-0.49154776334762573,
0.1909504234790802,
-0.21652883291244507,
0.1240932047367096,
0.10867061465978622,
-0.19736385345458984,
-0.3577055037021637,
-0.02578534185886383,
0.040840573608875275,
1.2063097953796387,
0.034838709980249405,
0.28648778796195984,
-0.5125539302825928,
-0.26774391531944275,
-0.26194140315055847,
-0.1476704627275467,
-0.3214114010334015,
-0.569438636302948,
0.12189845740795135,
-0.23068183660507202,
0.24837498366832733,
0.17018625140190125,
-0.15440857410430908,
0.7562789916992188,
0.3004775941371918,
-0.35930415987968445,
-0.6353952884674072,
-0.17420464754104614,
-1.1666823625564575,
-0.7976085543632507,
0.08714576065540314,
-0.5238876342773438,
0.3046034276485443,
-0.08728309720754623,
-0.029398221522569656,
0.02628120593726635,
-0.7719987034797668,
0.09805262088775635,
-0.140811026096344,
-0.2524896562099457,
-0.43822023272514343,
-0.0019180071540176868,
0.1296265423297882,
0.12817977368831635,
-0.24048665165901184,
-0.7781481146812439,
-0.7114353179931641,
0.9584723711013794,
0.12657083570957184,
-0.45177215337753296,
-0.669400691986084,
-0.4580383598804474,
0.49497005343437195,
0.3308579921722412,
0.3175678253173828,
0.1596284806728363,
0.3519595265388489,
-0.0330074243247509,
0.00207226793281734,
0.5301346778869629,
-0.006438885349780321,
-0.047979023307561874,
0.6500255465507507,
-1.0547500848770142,
-0.824995756149292,
0.06781113892793655,
0.06162317469716072,
0.42095357179641724,
0.18752099573612213,
-0.15951918065547943,
0.49696820974349976,
0.8103313446044922,
-0.041109442710876465,
-0.4271228015422821,
0.15542522072792053,
0.3202173113822937,
-0.39328086376190186,
-0.5883380770683289,
-0.09254442900419235,
0.23595382273197174,
-0.1330723911523819,
0.12657345831394196,
-0.549403190612793,
-0.5455330014228821,
0.41180771589279175,
0.21497555077075958,
0.044973209500312805,
0.6174420118331909,
-0.06886231154203415,
-0.81935054063797,
-0.1909855455160141,
0.05173451825976372,
-0.1401403248310089,
-0.08527971804141998,
0.7589561343193054,
0.4336978793144226,
-0.7813820242881775,
-0.6776140928268433,
-0.6420366764068604,
-0.07964655756950378,
-0.16446992754936218,
-0.2663712203502655,
-0.696026086807251,
0.1309458613395691,
-0.44668862223625183,
-0.043988633900880814,
0.18262647092342377,
-0.44515618681907654,
-0.2624117136001587,
0.04842990264296532,
-0.21944431960582733,
0.3465978801250458,
0.258200079202652,
-0.060556259006261826,
0.267255961894989,
0.4064596891403198,
-0.06958834826946259,
-0.41517770290374756,
0.7569469213485718,
1.1323654651641846,
0.11925375461578369,
-0.035112686455249786,
-0.5140600204467773,
0.06726808845996857,
0.08725869655609131,
0.3691021800041199,
0.043871134519577026,
0.39157259464263916,
-0.2189050316810608,
0.19018100202083588,
-0.940545916557312,
-0.3360292315483093,
1.0111032724380493,
-0.05508016422390938,
-0.20168770849704742,
0.3519292175769806,
0.20410723984241486,
-0.1614437848329544,
-0.35437896847724915,
1.068725347518921,
0.11362983286380768,
0.2930491864681244,
-0.174495130777359,
0.3398353159427643,
-0.5961161851882935,
-0.0869874656200409,
0.20104505121707916,
-0.4317770302295685,
-0.7621711492538452,
0.14114123582839966,
-0.047914884984493256,
0.022190919145941734,
-0.35993656516075134,
0.17812387645244598,
0.03604660555720329,
0.024991236627101898,
0.1033724769949913,
-0.3961085081100464,
-1.1117738485336304,
-0.43658646941185,
-0.42201539874076843,
-0.06002016365528107,
-0.6316584348678589,
-0.41304147243499756,
-0.44874247908592224,
-0.7429822087287903,
-0.20748195052146912,
-0.27594178915023804,
-0.2686774432659149,
0.15080665051937103,
0.023348286747932434,
0.20927728712558746,
-0.8880404829978943,
0.20170630514621735,
0.342517226934433,
0.8147121667861938,
-0.18691635131835938,
0.37480881810188293,
-0.5781745314598083,
0.4020388126373291,
0.33294811844825745,
-0.18759121000766754,
0.3894609808921814,
0.08459407836198807,
0.1994435042142868,
-0.4390265941619873,
0.14952793717384338,
-0.10784001648426056,
0.595460832118988,
0.5541989803314209,
0.16055849194526672,
0.9640950560569763,
-0.8269346356391907,
-0.441150039434433,
0.8673194050788879,
0.07785108685493469,
-1.0145548582077026,
0.2109166383743286,
-0.44175225496292114,
-0.13228914141654968,
-0.11167729645967484,
-0.179122656583786,
0.02033948339521885,
0.5093151330947876,
-0.2207108438014984,
-0.47032713890075684,
-0.007741324137896299,
0.28765279054641724,
0.17914581298828125,
-0.5287263989448547,
-0.8133022785186768,
1.000571608543396,
-0.3279314637184143,
0.6499807238578796,
-0.1905837208032608,
-0.8257598876953125,
-0.4947357177734375,
0.5263862609863281,
-0.049739494919776917,
0.8614166975021362,
0.09421508014202118,
-0.10334126651287079,
0.08551140874624252,
-0.2163592129945755,
-0.4629664719104767,
0.3092566132545471,
0.011581778526306152,
-0.005272228736430407,
-0.14251846075057983,
0.30751875042915344,
-0.024427911266684532,
0.305936336517334,
-0.5661810040473938,
-0.49519088864326477,
0.20478154718875885,
-0.1950850784778595,
-0.591084361076355,
-0.566108763217926,
0.018299775198101997,
-0.5927951335906982,
1.253320574760437,
0.029990553855895996,
0.034491393715143204,
-0.43854546546936035,
-0.10893584787845612,
-0.5711508393287659,
0.08735489100217819,
0.6662696003913879,
0.46304258704185486,
-0.46324071288108826,
0.16658565402030945,
0.2209898829460144,
0.14932101964950562,
0.3100941479206085,
0.6496919989585876,
-0.049811165779829025,
-0.08626065403223038,
0.038298919796943665,
-0.992605447769165,
0.7057504653930664,
-0.23924240469932556,
-0.43222835659980774,
0.057764068245887756,
0.04892764240503311,
0.03559204563498497,
0.21894817054271698,
0.19935406744480133,
-0.24548782408237457,
0.3841419517993927,
-0.17265184223651886,
-0.3885096609592438,
0.5354533791542053,
-0.5135922431945801,
-0.22206316888332367,
0.028143510222434998,
0.03527309373021126,
0.9257798790931702,
0.38576897978782654,
-0.04228755086660385,
0.24972063302993774,
0.14808519184589386,
-0.23618167638778687,
-0.5607014298439026,
0.28116774559020996,
-0.3322233259677887,
0.6584583520889282,
-0.09187097102403641,
0.16351352632045746,
-0.5704078674316406,
0.6450954079627991,
-0.5169070363044739,
0.5204843282699585,
-0.057742517441511154,
-0.30650442838668823,
0.5714256763458252,
-0.3467640280723572,
-0.36586514115333557,
0.22892144322395325,
-0.1475873589515686,
0.4001580476760864,
-0.11995988339185715,
-0.10360313206911087,
0.189104363322258,
0.12974566221237183,
0.11917813867330551,
-0.19883018732070923,
0.14921946823596954,
0.7075623869895935,
0.10491427034139633,
-0.9495353102684021,
-0.5047435164451599,
-0.5677068829536438,
0.06088657304644585,
-0.23636092245578766,
0.04839576780796051,
0.906856894493103,
0.710492730140686,
-0.7952504754066467,
0.47841131687164307,
0.17875300347805023,
0.11781319230794907,
0.33749645948410034,
-0.06417693942785263,
0.5228094458580017,
-0.14033673703670502,
-0.5462522506713867,
0.4191037714481354,
0.46486592292785645,
0.34366607666015625,
-0.04121991619467735,
0.00001748548493196722,
-0.03315351530909538,
0.9003437757492065,
-0.46125510334968567,
0.7982600331306458,
0.25632956624031067,
0.49811190366744995,
0.014201819896697998
] |
213108
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20crow
|
American crow
|
The American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) is a large passerine bird species of the family Corvidae. It is a common bird found throughout much of North America. American crows are the New World counterpart to the carrion crow and the hooded crow. Although the American crow and the hooded crow are very similar in size, structure and behavior, their calls and visual appearance are different. The American crow, nevertheless, occupies the same ecological niche that the hooded crow and carrion crow do in Eurasia.
From beak to tail, an American crow measures , almost half of which is tail. Mass varies from about . Males tend to be larger than females. The most usual call is . Plumage is all black, with iridescent feathers. It looks much like other all-black corvids. They can be distinguished from the common raven (C. corax) because American crows are smaller; from the fish crow (C. ossifragus) because American crows do not hunch and fluff their throat feathers when they call; and from the carrion crow (C. corone) by size, as the carrion crow is larger and of a stockier build. They are very intelligent, and adaptable to human environments.
American crows are common, widespread, and susceptible to the West Nile virus, making them useful as a bioindicator to track the virus's spread. Direct transmission of the virus from crows to humans is impossible. They are considered an agricultural pest, and are subject to hunting and management.
Taxonomy and systematics
The American crow was described by German ornithologist Christian Ludwig Brehm in 1822. Its scientific name means literally 'short-billed crow', from Ancient Greek ('short-') and ('billed').
A 2012 genetic analysis of the genus Corvus by Knud A Jønsson and colleagues using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA calculated that the American crow diverged from a lineage that gave rise to the collared, carrion and hooded crows around 5 million years ago.
"American crow" has been designated the official name by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).
Subspecies
The number of subspecies varies by authority, ranging between three and five. The unclear taxonomy of the northwestern crow, previously its own species, has complicated subspecies determinations. Subspecies differ in bill proportion and form a rough NE–SW clinal in size across North America. Birds are smallest in the far west and on the southern coast.
C. b. brachyrhynchos (Brehm, 1822) – eastern crow: northeastern United States, eastern Canada and surroundings. The nominate subspecies, and largest.
C. b. hesperis (Ridgway, 1887) – western crow: western North America except the Arctic north, the Pacific Northwest and the extreme south. Smaller overall with a proportionally more slender bill and low-pitched voice.
C. b. caurinus (Baird, 1858) – northwestern crow: of the Pacific temperate rain forests was formerly considered a distinct species as C. b. caurinus, averaging smaller in size than other American crows with a distinctly hoarser call. It forms a hybrid swarm with American crow (sensu stricto) in coastal Washington and British Columbia. The American Ornithological Society lumped the northwestern crow with the American crow in 2020. It is now considered a geographic variation within C. b. hesperis.
C. b. pascuus (Coues, 1899) – Florida crow: Florida. Mid-sized, short-winged, but decidedly long bill and legs.
C. b. paulus (Howell, 1913) – southern crow: southern United States. Smaller overall, bill also small.
Description
The American crow is a large, distinctive bird with iridescent black feathers all over. Its legs, feet and bill are also black. They measure in length, of which the tail makes up about 40%. The wing chord is , with the wingspan ranging from . The bill length can be from , varying strongly according to location. The tarsus is and the tail is . The body mass can vary from . Males tend to be larger than females.
The most usual call is a loud, short, and rapid . Usually, the birds thrust their heads up and down as they utter this call. American crows can also produce a wide variety of sounds and sometimes mimic noises made by other animals, including other birds such as barred owls.
Visual differentiation from the fish crow (C. ossifragus) is extremely difficult and often inaccurate. Nonetheless, differences apart from size do exist. Fish crows tend to have more slender bills and feet. There may also be a small sharp hook at the end of the fish crow's upper bill. Fish crows also appear as if they have shorter legs when walking. More dramatically, when calling, fish crows tend to hunch and fluff their throat feathers.
If seen flying at a distance from where size estimates are unreliable, the distinctly larger common ravens (C. corax) can be distinguished by their almost lozenge-shaped tail and their larger-looking heads. They also fluff their throat feathers when calling — like fish crows, only more so. Ravens also soar for extended periods, unlike crows, which rarely fly more than a few seconds without flapping their wings.
Crows have been noted to be intelligent. They have the same brain-weight-to-body ratio as humans. This has led to some studies that have identified that crows are self-aware and that young crows take time to learn from tolerant parents. While a human has a neocortex, the crow has a different area in their brain that is equally complex.
The average lifespan of the American crow in the wild is 7–8 years. Captive birds are known to have lived up to 30 years.
Distribution and habitat
The range of the American crow now extends from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean in Canada, on the French islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, south through the United States, and into northern Mexico. The increase in trees throughout the Great Plains during the past century due to fire suppression and tree planting facilitated range expansions of the American crow as well as range expansions of many other species of birds. Virtually all types of country from wilderness, farmland, parks, open woodland to towns and major cities are inhabited; it is absent only from tundra habitat, where it is replaced by the common raven. This crow is a permanent resident in most of the US, but most Canadian birds migrate some distances southward in winter. Outside of the nesting season these birds often gather in large (thousands or even millions) communal roosts at night.
The American crow was recorded in Bermuda from 1876 onwards.
Behavior and ecology
Studying the behavior of American crows is laborious due to the difficulty in catching them to band them, let alone catching them again. Thus much of their behavior, including daily routine, migration, molting, survivorship, age of first breeding, nestling development, nature of nesting helpers, and more remains poorly studied.
Diet
The American crow is omnivorous. It will feed on invertebrates of all types, carrion, scraps of human food, nuts such as walnuts and almonds, seeds, eggs and nestlings, stranded fish on the shore and various grains. American crows are active hunters and will prey on mice, frogs, and other small animals. In the winter and autumn, the diet of American crows is more dependent on nuts and acorns. Occasionally, they will visit bird feeders. The American crow is one of only a few species of bird that has been observed modifying and using tools to obtain food.
Like most crows, they will scavenge at landfills, scattering garbage in the process. Where available, corn, wheat and other crops are a favorite food. These habits have historically caused the American crow to be considered a nuisance. However, it is suspected that the harm to crops is offset by the service the American crow provides by eating insect pests.
Reproduction
American crows are socially monogamous cooperative breeding birds. Mated pairs form large families of up to 15 individuals from several breeding seasons that remain together for many years. Offspring from a previous nesting season will usually remain with the family to assist in rearing new nestlings. American crows do not reach breeding age for at least two years. Most do not leave the nest to breed for four to five years.
The nesting season starts early, with some birds incubating eggs by early April. American crows build bulky stick nests, nearly always in trees but sometimes also in large bushes and, very rarely, on the ground. They will nest in a wide variety of trees, including large conifers, although oaks are most often used. Three to six eggs are laid and incubated for 18 days. The young are usually fledged by about 36 days after hatching. Predation primarily occurs at the nest site and eggs and nestlings are frequently eaten by snakes, raccoons, ravens and domestic cats. Adults are less frequently predated, but face potential attack from great horned owls, red-tailed hawks, peregrine falcons and eagles. They may be attacked by predators such as coyotes or bobcats at carrion when incautious, although this is even rarer.
West Nile virus
American crows succumb easily to West Nile virus infection. This was originally a mosquito-borne African virus causing encephalitis in humans and livestock since about 1000 AD, and was accidentally introduced to North America in 1999, apparently by an infected air traveller who got bitten by a mosquito after arrival. It is estimated that the American crow population has dropped by up to 45% since 1999. Despite this decline, the crow is considered a species of least concern.
The disease runs most rampant in the subtropical conditions which encourage reproduction of its mosquito vectors among which Culex tarsalis is most significant. Mortality rates appear to be higher than those in other birds, causing local population losses of up to 72% in a single season. Because of this, American crows are a sentinel species indicating the presence of West Nile virus in an area. Crows cannot transmit the virus to humans directly.
Intelligence
American crows, like other corvids, are highly cunning and inquisitive. They are able to steal food from other species, often in creative ways. One example shows a group of crows stealing a fish from a Northern river otter: one bird pecked the otter's tail to distract it while other birds swooped in and stole the fish. They are able to use and modify tools.
Relationship with humans
Crows are a motif in human culture, often associated with death, thieves, graveyards, bad luck, and other negative connotations.
Status and management
The intelligence and adaptability of the American crow has insulated it from threats, and it is instead considered an agricultural pest. In 2012, BirdLife International estimated the American crow population to be around 31 million. The large population and vast range result in the least concern status for the American crow, meaning that the species is not threatened with extinction.
Crows have been killed in large numbers by humans, both for recreation and as part of organized campaigns of extermination. In Canada, American crows have no protections, aside from Quebec which bans their hunting during the nesting season. Laws on their hunting vary throughout the United States. New Jersey allows for a limited hunting season, unless if they are agricultural pests in which case they may killed. Oklahoma allows hunting even during the nesting season. In the first half of the 20th century, state sponsored campaigns dynamited roosting areas, taking large numbers of crows. A campaign in Oklahoma from 1934 to 1945 dynamited 3.8 million birds. The effect on populations was negligible and damage to agricultural crops did not decrease, and thus the campaign was halted as ineffective. In a study taking data from 1917 to 1999, intentional killings were the overwhelming cause of death for crows, accounting for 68% of all recovered bird bands.
Non-deadly methods of managing crows are varied but usually limited in their effectiveness. High value crops may be netted, but this is cost prohibitive for most other crops. Frightening may be used to disperse crows, including loud noises from guns, fake hawks flown from balloons, fake owls that move with the wind, strips of reflective tape on fences, or recordings of crow distress calls. Poisoned baits are of limited effectiveness, as the most toxic baits are necessary but are generally unacceptable for use. Crows quickly learn to avoid less toxic baits, as the baits make crows sick. The actual effect of crows on agriculture has been poorly studied. There is some suggestion that they may be a benefit to farmers, by eating insect pests and chasing off livestock predators like hawks.
References
Bibliography
Goodwin, Derek & Gillmor, Robert (1976): Crows of the World (1st ed.). University of Washington Press, Seattle.
External links
Skull of American Crow
Pictures of American Crow on Birds of the World at Flickr
American Crow call
Northwestern Crow call (two birds)
Corvus
crow, American
crow, American
Tool-using animals
Birds described in 1822
Taxa named by Christian Ludwig Brehm
Articles containing video clips
|
[
0.11381788551807404,
0.1834179013967514,
-0.5085962414741516,
-0.3146836757659912,
0.06558620929718018,
0.283403605222702,
0.6733779907226562,
0.19984132051467896,
-0.5133599638938904,
-0.2886981666088104,
0.1327241063117981,
0.2137613743543625,
-0.7080214023590088,
0.007627991959452629,
-0.577020525932312,
0.3599589765071869,
0.06911424547433853,
0.4034431576728821,
0.08629710227251053,
-0.2723487317562103,
-0.5798451900482178,
-0.4332219064235687,
0.24832044541835785,
-0.5507777333259583,
0.12274039536714554,
0.30025023221969604,
0.24895548820495605,
-0.04858088493347168,
-0.11700796335935593,
0.3341890573501587,
0.03827544301748276,
0.45117390155792236,
0.5734624862670898,
0.4103424549102783,
-0.15309618413448334,
0.05868465453386307,
-0.11436955630779266,
-0.08058357238769531,
-0.20892491936683655,
-0.37112540006637573,
-0.2675400674343109,
-0.18331047892570496,
0.49981689453125,
0.009061172604560852,
-0.2205708920955658,
-0.5962578058242798,
-1.2688322067260742,
0.43631047010421753,
-0.3512468934059143,
0.16026878356933594,
-0.5023890137672424,
0.3603822886943817,
-0.15021423995494843,
0.9817731380462646,
0.17411594092845917,
-0.04903188720345497,
-0.3992162048816681,
-0.33406609296798706,
-0.12007635086774826,
-0.3542196452617645,
-0.01179860346019268,
0.1788339912891388,
0.13204318284988403,
0.4437136948108673,
0.3531247675418854,
0.6313942670822144,
0.6081375479698181,
0.08275489509105682,
-0.14583857357501984,
0.27086347341537476,
-0.3480539619922638,
-0.5942103862762451,
-0.5220584273338318,
0.569444477558136,
-0.33676737546920776,
-0.7706942558288574,
0.2417355626821518,
0.23763330280780792,
0.11199067533016205,
-0.06567993015050888,
0.2471236288547516,
0.38600316643714905,
0.5523422956466675,
0.14350339770317078,
-0.5007410049438477,
0.354498952627182,
-0.5432074069976807,
-0.04196414351463318,
0.00044396286830306053,
-0.05222189426422119,
-0.5874396562576294,
0.13633984327316284,
0.08420471101999283,
0.3103553056716919,
-0.27144548296928406,
-0.2383439540863037,
0.10391995310783386,
-0.17284643650054932,
0.5622782111167908,
-0.05499160289764404,
-0.6552053093910217,
-0.10938594490289688,
1.3754315376281738,
0.10350672155618668,
-0.3457190990447998,
-0.3750925064086914,
-0.21552541851997375,
-0.10282112658023834,
0.12837764620780945,
0.24891456961631775,
-0.48536619544029236,
0.19928929209709167,
0.03783540055155754,
-0.17935924232006073,
-0.17889024317264557,
0.6928063631057739,
0.5077740550041199,
-0.12353405356407166,
-0.053685419261455536,
-0.37203457951545715,
0.18149864673614502,
1.0714689493179321,
-0.19776353240013123,
0.7674140334129333,
0.17446283996105194,
0.605906069278717,
0.6032236814498901,
0.4081795811653137,
-0.3301529586315155,
0.07737414538860321,
0.053186651319265366,
0.8487693667411804,
-0.17865487933158875,
0.2080446183681488,
-0.4299735724925995,
-0.047862522304058075,
-0.11890345066785812,
-0.07258940488100052,
0.6424616575241089,
0.5886673331260681,
-1.1298680305480957,
-0.624427080154419,
-0.393832802772522,
-0.09857336431741714,
-0.041445739567279816,
0.3268037736415863,
0.19431520998477936,
-0.6068727374076843,
-0.4788384735584259,
0.25390055775642395,
0.062213268131017685,
-0.23903261125087738,
0.09404756128787994,
0.2393823266029358,
-0.27242311835289,
-0.6773539781570435,
0.6424663066864014,
-0.27166277170181274,
0.5008514523506165,
0.32025182247161865,
-0.13644354045391083,
0.17953543365001678,
0.04882531985640526,
-0.5122498869895935,
0.24948222935199738,
-0.1958007514476776,
0.07252062857151031,
0.02238776721060276,
-0.4254711866378784,
0.13869881629943848,
0.08475585281848907,
0.10264304280281067,
0.5708938241004944,
0.49267691373825073,
-0.2367207556962967,
-0.6116365194320679,
-0.09096070379018784,
-0.265778124332428,
0.3766293227672577,
0.24021406471729279,
-0.6555095314979553,
0.4084853231906891,
0.03394702076911926,
-0.30284082889556885,
-0.24262528121471405,
0.18373584747314453,
-0.21425028145313263,
0.05899280682206154,
0.3041963279247284,
-0.6669054627418518,
-0.176681250333786,
-0.453014612197876,
-0.5596745610237122,
-0.37509867548942566,
0.32705262303352356,
-0.047009821981191635,
-0.5825358033180237,
0.7959542870521545,
-0.05051519721746445,
0.2105015516281128,
-0.3628806173801422,
-0.2369152158498764,
0.6821213960647583,
0.18765056133270264,
-0.7791910171508789,
0.40242475271224976,
-0.24588418006896973,
0.5375686287879944,
0.8497802019119263,
0.5949303507804871,
-0.21333914995193481,
-0.560160219669342,
-0.5071574449539185,
0.34298279881477356,
0.261213093996048,
0.5157570242881775,
-0.11788791418075562,
0.15107785165309906,
0.22736966609954834,
-0.11673954129219055,
1.174497365951538,
-0.3534533679485321,
-0.20316646993160248,
0.2562982439994812,
0.3103945255279541,
0.32792428135871887,
0.6681696176528931,
-0.1076456680893898,
-0.03664412349462509,
-0.4171077013015747,
0.19491028785705566,
0.10009491443634033,
0.35299375653266907,
-0.38554346561431885,
-0.05995337292551994,
-0.4727628827095032,
0.128265380859375,
-0.4172722101211548,
0.5053377151489258,
-0.37428346276283264,
0.39668384194374084,
-0.09455925226211548,
0.3492666482925415,
0.2106466144323349,
0.35139960050582886,
-0.31925132870674133,
-0.015561348758637905,
0.028218692168593407,
-0.37323978543281555,
0.21505224704742432,
0.11929136514663696,
0.42785370349884033,
0.6137466430664062,
-0.2814074456691742,
-0.37396886944770813,
0.3539867103099823,
-0.0676097422838211,
0.04315044730901718,
0.4807000756263733,
-0.07842403650283813,
0.055214375257492065,
0.3008735775947571,
0.18942415714263916,
0.03479989990592003,
0.16029132902622223,
-0.33824634552001953,
-0.12143686413764954,
0.3895125985145569,
-0.023711683228611946,
0.5600817203521729,
0.5890299677848816,
0.11114174127578735,
0.016857190057635307,
-0.39120638370513916,
0.1428399384021759,
-0.6818674206733704,
0.17422842979431152,
-0.29012003540992737,
-0.5278101563453674,
-0.5081228613853455,
0.1516692340373993,
0.3911244869232178,
0.3366694152355194,
-0.26453715562820435,
0.3866799771785736,
-0.4413509666919708,
0.6162104606628418,
-1.0123541355133057,
-0.015395316295325756,
-0.12082944065332413,
-0.07799727469682693,
0.08586826920509338,
-0.20088382065296173,
0.0798037201166153,
-0.48418864607810974,
-0.014431725256145,
-0.07691772282123566,
0.8607860207557678,
0.34253713488578796,
-0.8728652596473694,
-0.0770845040678978,
0.1805199533700943,
0.3681957423686981,
0.19014683365821838,
0.579336404800415,
-0.11731182038784027,
0.340709924697876,
0.19156961143016815,
-5.7263689041137695,
0.0225659366697073,
-0.023225318640470505,
-0.5788164734840393,
-0.3346439003944397,
0.3664127290248871,
0.18117967247962952,
-0.144325852394104,
0.0028915819711983204,
0.1674668788909912,
0.6690582633018494,
0.41328391432762146,
-0.17952357232570648,
-0.1124764233827591,
0.4654374122619629,
-0.11793267726898193,
-0.49798583984375,
-0.16556097567081451,
0.15253178775310516,
0.12191207706928253,
0.19736944139003754,
0.428439199924469,
-0.15509231388568878,
0.5986358523368835,
0.09206131100654602,
-0.3807595372200012,
-0.3059414029121399,
-0.6067240238189697,
-0.44203776121139526,
-0.46386003494262695,
-0.14218781888484955,
0.43388989567756653,
-0.40384846925735474,
-0.30823537707328796,
-0.07155277580022812,
-0.3303936719894409,
0.33440884947776794,
0.43731576204299927,
-0.03787872940301895,
0.009123831056058407,
0.09827693551778793,
0.09438961744308472,
-0.10309281945228577,
0.0446123331785202,
0.7156662344932556,
0.1722424328327179,
-0.13877883553504944,
-0.1665779948234558,
-0.4163110852241516,
0.42365527153015137,
-0.16209866106510162,
0.3303319215774536,
-0.010209526866674423,
0.6733427047729492,
0.2688705325126648,
-0.008739144541323185,
-0.009018815122544765,
0.3098876476287842,
-0.5967684388160706,
0.08591026812791824,
0.6261696815490723,
-0.23440000414848328,
-0.07406125217676163,
-0.3408907353878021,
-0.19899146258831024,
-0.23673856258392334,
-0.314818799495697,
0.15671025216579437,
0.6628086566925049,
-0.18552391231060028,
0.13359367847442627,
0.231127068400383,
-0.13040828704833984,
-0.8668923377990723,
0.8830003142356873,
-0.5955280065536499,
-0.2427416443824768,
0.1925344318151474,
-0.406936377286911,
0.30162695050239563,
0.4034450352191925,
-0.34985628724098206,
0.45710963010787964,
-0.23815444111824036,
-0.14154388010501862,
-0.4546869397163391,
-0.7865070700645447,
0.29574066400527954,
-0.2766813039779663,
-0.19380401074886322,
0.5017955899238586,
-0.13105280697345734,
-0.12069830298423767,
0.42368802428245544,
1.0837968587875366,
-0.07016687095165253,
0.3906761109828949,
-0.38911354541778564,
0.44382670521736145,
0.024686386808753014,
0.5606679320335388,
0.03253323584794998,
-0.47661930322647095,
-0.7235984206199646,
0.05899406597018242,
-0.36609211564064026,
-0.019119279459118843,
0.6009615063667297,
1.2763323783874512,
-0.472911536693573,
0.33640700578689575,
-0.44685864448547363,
0.2477973997592926,
-0.4774242341518402,
0.2814299464225769,
0.3983691930770874,
0.2566150724887848,
0.04163643717765808,
0.027155419811606407,
0.24370984733104706,
-0.7774092555046082,
-0.21882681548595428,
-0.7166834473609924,
0.23239827156066895,
0.3420290946960449,
-0.7872827649116516,
-0.18369004130363464,
0.48118898272514343,
-0.722761869430542,
-0.5582898259162903,
0.10230410844087601,
0.1893133968114853,
-0.17793375253677368,
-0.07128995656967163,
-0.11436394602060318,
0.4271685481071472,
0.02732526697218418,
0.22501270473003387,
0.8990516662597656,
-0.2722924053668976,
-0.5620684027671814,
0.04082033783197403,
-0.0914316475391388,
0.4976087808609009,
0.4083329141139984,
0.2624194324016571,
-0.2718956768512726,
-0.490697979927063,
-0.35572493076324463,
0.7663178443908691,
0.1968732476234436,
0.2801600694656372,
0.3428475856781006,
0.08438868820667267,
-0.10455027967691422,
-0.0867493748664856,
0.837475061416626,
0.609542191028595,
-0.14793993532657623,
-0.4435817003250122,
0.030268903821706772,
-0.3849335014820099,
-0.7117429375648499,
-0.25846678018569946,
0.247312530875206,
-0.26406919956207275,
-0.7204698324203491,
-0.25752514600753784,
0.47745946049690247,
0.13050325214862823,
0.730469822883606,
-0.46286794543266296,
-0.28893110156059265,
0.27459484338760376,
-0.05002081021666527,
0.06980937719345093,
-0.46260547637939453,
0.11925847828388214,
-0.3912113904953003,
-0.012617398053407669,
-0.14828354120254517,
-0.03695382922887802,
-0.7087377905845642,
-0.13479037582874298,
-0.009389420971274376,
-0.7453149557113647,
0.551324188709259,
-0.3496369421482086,
0.11562519520521164,
0.04902024194598198,
0.3393571078777313,
0.12314411997795105,
0.08518662303686142,
0.21046334505081177,
-0.10366076231002808,
0.07155159115791321,
0.18143393099308014,
-0.034130826592445374,
-0.33673420548439026,
-0.812289297580719,
0.08748111128807068,
0.01929493062198162,
-0.1825328767299652,
-0.11804461479187012,
-0.07989627122879028,
-0.6121290922164917,
0.7648926973342896,
0.05526791512966156,
-0.3304443657398224,
0.01590646058320999,
-0.4168076515197754,
-0.3150920867919922,
-0.3771612346172333,
0.8187834620475769,
-0.10470897704362869,
0.4080510437488556,
-0.09699850529432297,
0.4143049716949463,
-0.22595514357089996,
-0.08617391437292099,
0.09072994440793991,
-0.14254312217235565,
-0.17407110333442688,
-0.44873154163360596,
-0.3051069378852844,
0.5567359924316406,
0.0732022225856781,
-0.050323329865932465,
1.2363429069519043,
-0.6501033902168274,
-0.14191551506519318,
0.2943671643733978,
-0.4669994115829468,
-0.11276517063379288,
-0.4600362479686737,
-0.04128499701619148,
-0.6964861750602722,
-0.33193469047546387,
0.7528083324432373,
0.7452114820480347,
0.5248967409133911,
1.5542731285095215,
0.11880046874284744,
-0.2182186394929886,
0.42766273021698,
0.2547767460346222,
-0.3095411956310272,
-0.1539412885904312,
-0.8334881067276001,
0.03500641509890556,
0.3254537582397461,
-0.4257982671260834,
0.10791891068220139,
0.17841646075248718,
0.23200134932994843,
0.030919652432203293,
-0.3631061911582947,
0.7074507474899292,
-0.31641268730163574,
0.37497037649154663,
0.05304617062211037,
-0.16323356330394745,
-0.7902771234512329,
0.4040322005748749,
-0.38367560505867004,
-0.029108289629220963,
-0.7551631927490234,
0.34207677841186523,
-0.1658252328634262,
-0.5953481793403625,
0.3342815339565277,
-0.3418436050415039,
0.12533573806285858,
0.24068614840507507,
0.4776068329811096,
0.21969272196292877,
-0.45823290944099426,
-0.4061652719974518,
-0.4407927691936493,
0.2357303649187088,
-0.09588102251291275,
-0.1983533799648285,
0.15832798182964325,
-0.38867130875587463,
-0.06198524311184883,
-0.10937581956386566,
0.06494376063346863,
-0.3449421525001526,
-0.20630256831645966,
-0.41448119282722473,
-0.7259358763694763,
0.029261795803904533,
0.12651661038398743,
0.01434809248894453,
-0.0643572136759758,
0.2368571162223816,
0.615219235420227,
0.38413146138191223,
0.2504045069217682,
0.1306512951850891,
-0.7525946497917175,
0.030670074746012688,
-0.12978440523147583,
-0.2155582159757614,
-0.07926605641841888,
-0.3296951949596405,
-0.10591069608926773,
-0.01817799173295498,
-0.380227267742157,
0.28846898674964905,
0.05741197243332863,
-0.8009997606277466,
0.05947446823120117,
0.35919755697250366,
-0.04586077108979225,
0.5736281275749207,
0.2881147563457489,
-0.23324579000473022,
0.5784608125686646,
-0.0330999381840229,
0.15561649203300476,
-0.34352239966392517,
0.6981693506240845,
0.3173447847366333,
-0.32180508971214294,
-0.2199164181947708,
-0.5960528254508972,
0.4840642213821411,
0.24463903903961182,
0.06349758058786392,
0.5716776847839355,
0.09737322479486465,
-0.5144685506820679,
-0.406157523393631,
-0.1662745475769043,
-0.010535935871303082,
0.18954695761203766,
-0.5917273163795471,
-0.742027223110199,
0.7766984105110168,
0.9073737859725952,
0.299771249294281,
0.5959917902946472,
0.5222045183181763,
0.15664984285831451,
-0.4296150505542755,
0.03656989708542824,
0.040560100227594376,
0.2626033127307892,
-0.41221022605895996,
-0.02826424315571785,
-0.18353699147701263,
0.04019183665513992,
-0.8139392733573914,
0.9963750243186951,
0.3092100918292999,
0.2797248959541321,
0.0905345007777214,
-0.283748596906662,
-0.05600769817829132,
-0.43702760338783264,
-0.12682993710041046,
-0.3325169086456299,
0.23579415678977966,
-0.5211924910545349,
0.14612679183483124,
-0.4416489005088806,
-0.5733394026756287,
-0.6319782137870789,
-0.5485331416130066,
-0.15322785079479218,
-0.03923870250582695,
-0.21898287534713745,
0.0812888965010643,
0.23384420573711395,
0.7175279259681702,
-0.21320290863513947,
0.2214672565460205,
0.32794591784477234,
-0.27890193462371826,
-0.3718734681606293,
-0.3694491684436798,
0.2519805431365967,
-0.45407798886299133,
0.2915613353252411,
-0.012704544700682163,
-0.2894452214241028,
-0.04916631802916527,
-0.42404401302337646,
0.04750616475939751,
-0.22093291580677032,
-0.6307508945465088,
0.16038525104522705,
-0.4751623272895813,
0.00022985647956375033,
-0.1435314565896988,
0.22909942269325256,
0.9479103088378906,
-0.015687745064496994,
-0.06890851259231567,
0.12830303609371185,
-0.04721188545227051,
-0.3012143075466156,
-0.16150996088981628,
0.26617714762687683,
-0.04197320714592934,
-0.5832077264785767,
-0.03278845548629761,
-0.976407527923584,
0.9336289167404175,
0.10929365456104279,
-0.010648620314896107,
-0.002925044624134898,
0.004119873512536287,
0.39937442541122437,
0.29535436630249023,
0.6581655144691467,
-0.5838630199432373,
-0.24169565737247467,
-0.39846137166023254,
-0.03342214971780777,
-0.6336734890937805,
0.3682388961315155,
-0.03076125867664814,
0.12617206573486328,
-0.2121545821428299,
0.5358187556266785,
0.24126243591308594,
-0.49963438510894775,
0.1913391649723053,
-0.2815341651439667,
-0.07402948290109634,
-0.4473443627357483,
0.12786655128002167,
-0.1355636864900589,
-1.113249659538269,
0.49334391951560974,
1.2551157474517822,
0.6755966544151306,
-0.27584749460220337,
-0.020412106066942215,
-0.1951369047164917,
-0.12159165740013123,
-0.2916719317436218,
0.08206304162740707,
0.2642827033996582,
-0.27963054180145264,
-0.9625317454338074,
-0.3292764723300934,
0.16730520129203796,
0.16969607770442963,
-0.24246177077293396,
-0.17185889184474945,
-0.41090890765190125,
0.03545678034424782,
0.45574724674224854,
0.3940902352333069,
-0.3849929869174957,
0.5948505997657776,
-0.21214185655117035
] |
213111
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For%20Dummies
|
For Dummies
|
{{Infobox book series
| name = For Dummies
| title_orig =
| image = For Dummies logo.svg
| image_caption =
| author = Various
| illustrator = Rich Tennant (UK editions use Ed McLachlan)
| cover_artist =
| translator =
| country = United States
| language = English
| genre = Instructional/reference
| publisher = IDG Books/Hungry Minds. Later John Wiley & Sons.
| pub_date = October 1, 1991 (DOS For Dummies)
| english_pub_date =
| media_type =
| preceded by =
| followed by =
| website =
}}For Dummies is an extensive series of instructional/reference books which are intended to present non-intimidating guides for readers new to the various topics covered. The series has been a worldwide success with editions in numerous languages.
The books are an example of a media franchise, consistently sporting a distinctive cover—usually yellow and black with a triangular-headed cartoon figure known as the "Dummies Man", and an informal, blackboard-style logo. Prose is simple and direct; bold icons, such as a piece of string tied around an index finger, are placed in the margin to indicate particularly important passages.
Almost all Dummies books are organized around sections called "parts", which are groups of related chapters. Parts are almost always preceded by a Rich Tennant comic that refers to some part of the subject under discussion, though the comics were discontinued in 2012. Sometimes the same Tennant drawing reappears in another Dummies book with a new caption.
Another constant in the Dummies series is "The Part of Tens", a section at the end of the books where lists of 10 items are included. They are usually resources for further study and sometimes also include amusing bits of information that do not fit readily elsewhere.
History
The first title, DOS For Dummies, was written by Dan Gookin and published in November 1991 by IDG Books. DOS For Dummies became popular due to the rarity of beginner-friendly materials for using DOS. The Windows title written by Andy Rathbone was soon released. While initially the series focused solely on software and technology topics, it later branched out to more general-interest titles, with topics as diverse as Acne For Dummies, Chess For Dummies, Fishing For Dummies and many other topics. The series is now published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., which acquired Hungry Minds (the new name for IDG Books as of 2000) in early 2001.
Notable For Dummies books include:
DOS For Dummies, the first, published in 1991, whose first printing was just 7,500 copies
Windows for Dummies, asserted to be the best-selling computer book of all time, with more than 15 million sold
L'Histoire de France Pour Les Nuls, the top-selling non-English For Dummies title, with more than 400,000 sold
Expansions and alternative versions
Several related series have been published, including Dummies 101, with step-by-step tutorials in a large-format book (now discontinued); More ... for Dummies, which are essentially sequels to the first ... For Dummies book on the subject; and For Dummies Quick Reference, which is a condensed alphabetical reference to the subject. A larger All-in-One Desk Reference format offers more comprehensive coverage of the subject, normally running about 750 pages. Also, some books in the series are smaller and do not follow the same formatting style as the others.
Wiley has also launched an interactive online course with Learnstreet based on its popular book, Java for Dummies, 5th edition.
A spin-off board game, Crosswords for Dummies, was produced in the late 1990s. The game is similar to Scrabble, but instead of letter tiles, players draw short strips of cardboard containing pre-built English words. The words vary in length from three to seven letters, with more points acquired for playing longer words. Another board game, SAT Game For Dummies, is used in SAT preparation. A Chess for Dummies was made, a black-and-yellow chessboard with a picture of a piece, along with a summary of how the piece moves, printed its starting positions, although there is a book with the same name.
In 2009, French publisher Anuman Interactive obtained the digital exploitation rights and launched many applications based on the For Dummies collection, such as Home Design 3D For Dummies and History For Dummies.
Authors
With more than 200 million books in print and around 2,500 titles, For Dummies brings together a bevy of authors including Herman Aguinis, Dan Gookin, Karl Barksdale, Michael Taillard and Andy Rathbone, Wayne Baker Brooks, Patrick Joseph McGovern, Loren Weisman, Mark Kellner, Mary Jane Sterling, Mark Ryan and Stephen P. Maran.
In popular culture
A fictional installment called Singing like Bocelli for Dummies was featured in Quintuplets 2000, the fourth episode of season 4 of South Park.
A fictional installment called Voodoo for Dummies was featured in Bride of Chucky.
An item in the video game The Binding of Isaac: Rebirth is named "Telepathy for Dummies" in reference to this book series.
In the 2007 film Evan Almighty, Evan can be seen holding a book titled "Building an Ark for Dummies".
See also
Complete Idiot's Guides – a similar series of how-to books from Alpha Books
Pour les nuls, a similar series in French.
FabJob – a similar series of how-to-books for starting a business or dream career
Teach Yourself – another similar series published by Hodder Headline
Very Short Introductions'', a similar series of introductory books published by the Oxford University Press.
References
External links
Titles and Description of all For Dummies titles
Handbooks and manuals
Series of books
2001 mergers and acquisitions
Book series introduced in 1991
Study guides
|
[
0.20505788922309875,
0.12708218395709991,
0.3724817633628845,
0.40872591733932495,
-0.1935504525899887,
-0.09854406863451004,
0.14414992928504944,
0.0719975158572197,
-0.4761330783367157,
0.013192174024879932,
-0.6866009831428528,
0.40598800778388977,
-0.41471248865127563,
0.41943690180778503,
0.5819278359413147,
0.35756781697273254,
-0.13421005010604858,
0.6809753179550171,
-0.3281727433204651,
-0.3975769877433777,
-0.1764705926179886,
-0.8389784097671509,
0.20392504334449768,
-0.5847339034080505,
-0.07504406571388245,
0.19982895255088806,
0.8381784558296204,
0.3703629970550537,
-0.27286142110824585,
0.2588137686252594,
-0.026960769668221474,
0.2069280594587326,
0.08957783132791519,
0.7788987755775452,
0.012741324491798878,
0.06741522997617722,
0.2728562653064728,
-0.23989567160606384,
0.36762121319770813,
-0.7556881904602051,
0.553494930267334,
0.12961646914482117,
0.04991820454597473,
0.30513182282447815,
0.06316141784191132,
-0.44859763979911804,
-1.6023555994033813,
-0.5134413838386536,
-0.21393796801567078,
0.05132012441754341,
-0.13913853466510773,
0.6459783315658569,
-0.09161954373121262,
0.60862797498703,
0.33742964267730713,
0.41292867064476013,
-0.2365836799144745,
0.31256696581840515,
-0.12979890406131744,
-0.04762427136301994,
0.11548802256584167,
0.028913309797644615,
0.3960060477256775,
0.6020147204399109,
-0.10580071061849594,
0.18116550147533417,
-0.32185953855514526,
0.40995994210243225,
-0.4038083553314209,
0.268332839012146,
-0.1512271910905838,
-0.2599857449531555,
0.6198848485946655,
-0.08243691921234131,
-0.10534342378377914,
0.17025908827781677,
0.24052561819553375,
-0.19086936116218567,
0.4631747007369995,
-0.13480277359485626,
0.1451444774866104,
0.32921138405799866,
0.8349257111549377,
0.0552099384367466,
0.19482217729091644,
0.19045306742191315,
-0.4841761887073517,
-0.2463795244693756,
0.04235634580254555,
1.2136051654815674,
0.17705419659614563,
-0.19629164040088654,
-0.16776563227176666,
0.15193472802639008,
0.3524847626686096,
-0.3112959563732147,
-0.3769170641899109,
0.08344941586256027,
0.3357744812965393,
0.031419895589351654,
0.6307408809661865,
0.4198403060436249,
0.3855896294116974,
-0.30536165833473206,
-0.5529994368553162,
-0.6529442071914673,
-0.03431347757577896,
-0.5100100636482239,
0.22578386962413788,
0.40110519528388977,
-0.23992633819580078,
0.04752558842301369,
0.47449615597724915,
0.10088719427585602,
0.2676216959953308,
0.43525230884552,
-0.39227569103240967,
-0.03739967569708824,
-0.4325227439403534,
0.987786054611206,
0.04233919829130173,
0.014924306422472,
-0.06223464012145996,
-0.1449427604675293,
0.9656188488006592,
0.7443174123764038,
-0.2873342037200928,
0.3363354504108429,
-0.49165964126586914,
0.32808709144592285,
0.26127246022224426,
0.8798691630363464,
-0.26927295327186584,
-0.45785191655158997,
-0.2251475602388382,
-0.24649424850940704,
0.4987723231315613,
0.19909381866455078,
-0.20816758275032043,
-0.4538964033126831,
-0.4023132920265198,
0.1369689553976059,
-0.814773440361023,
-0.1371833235025406,
0.0677185207605362,
-0.1704702377319336,
0.30788904428482056,
-0.2331029325723648,
-0.5902883410453796,
-0.017451375722885132,
0.27172693610191345,
-0.11370830982923508,
0.3217461109161377,
-0.44120723009109497,
-0.23119544982910156,
0.0733838826417923,
-0.007613074500113726,
-0.23064658045768738,
-0.04818231239914894,
-0.20340247452259064,
-0.20601493120193481,
0.20606444776058197,
-0.7388092279434204,
-0.02007962390780449,
-0.3768625259399414,
-0.1356477588415146,
0.03852779418230057,
-0.03699652850627899,
0.04167943075299263,
0.021907515823841095,
0.03374925255775452,
0.22531180083751678,
-0.08386416733264923,
-0.08336574584245682,
0.2501519024372101,
0.21325437724590302,
0.6557710766792297,
0.8492831587791443,
0.19885678589344025,
-1.0014499425888062,
-0.5175195932388306,
-0.1529597043991089,
0.39093440771102905,
-0.41362276673316956,
0.5871008038520813,
0.24750305712223053,
0.7260116338729858,
0.14813348650932312,
-0.35077813267707825,
-0.43203842639923096,
-0.4216078519821167,
-0.25863420963287354,
0.6528388857841492,
-0.37205466628074646,
1.2453440427780151,
-0.045353736728429794,
-0.5342029333114624,
-0.022834697738289833,
-0.17511548101902008,
0.36109665036201477,
0.16431179642677307,
0.357158362865448,
0.31081467866897583,
-0.39828750491142273,
-0.6999027729034424,
0.7808058857917786,
-0.009790436364710331,
0.2337665855884552,
0.2855289578437805,
-0.07888373732566833,
0.9907459020614624,
-0.4652887284755707,
-0.3330465257167816,
0.07981730997562408,
0.0315161868929863,
-0.12960095703601837,
-0.1394876390695572,
-0.010871860198676586,
0.3569011092185974,
-0.49196064472198486,
0.03438311070203781,
-0.29292622208595276,
-0.5321057438850403,
0.18539971113204956,
-0.5038029551506042,
0.28248482942581177,
-0.20975062251091003,
0.11615082621574402,
0.5614277720451355,
-1.0508214235305786,
-0.12822318077087402,
-0.16592352092266083,
0.07995115965604782,
0.1979125440120697,
-0.35989928245544434,
0.24565081298351288,
0.07901622354984283,
-0.6500274538993835,
0.5077356696128845,
0.10111500322818756,
-0.3916047513484955,
-0.3378952145576477,
-0.09518786519765854,
-0.10175839811563492,
-0.1818723976612091,
-0.15226483345031738,
0.011680125258862972,
0.5472116470336914,
-0.28936177492141724,
-0.302020400762558,
0.7899835109710693,
0.2884865403175354,
0.19327667355537415,
0.2843315005302429,
0.27439579367637634,
-0.018744628876447678,
-0.4443884789943695,
-0.3800772428512573,
0.12133397161960602,
0.37064096331596375,
-0.31211796402931213,
0.28869137167930603,
0.02019689790904522,
-0.11616969853639603,
-0.9590044617652893,
-0.38059285283088684,
-0.504807710647583,
-0.13322722911834717,
-0.2727219760417938,
0.4858485460281372,
-0.4715719521045685,
0.6017265915870667,
-0.29276043176651,
-0.7341297268867493,
0.4211350083351135,
-0.2670547068119049,
0.9416767358779907,
0.44542747735977173,
0.11134237796068192,
-0.2958177328109741,
0.13987578451633453,
0.6106166839599609,
0.5984084606170654,
-0.25853413343429565,
-0.6511936783790588,
-0.37657615542411804,
0.4335126280784607,
-0.3257277309894562,
-0.14557017385959625,
-0.2940284013748169,
-0.08468780666589737,
0.8842695951461792,
-0.1953747570514679,
0.4078547954559326,
-0.3196151554584503,
0.3877577483654022,
-0.24097107350826263,
0.3420381247997284,
0.5552197098731995,
-0.07923521846532822,
0.25706619024276733,
0.3821793794631958,
-0.3088094890117645,
-0.20124074816703796,
0.15889647603034973,
0.08661679923534393,
-0.4882630407810211,
-0.23907609283924103,
-5.663856029510498,
-0.023718884214758873,
-0.5050391554832458,
-0.18270975351333618,
0.03581048175692558,
-0.03590092808008194,
1.1263059377670288,
-0.20166996121406555,
-0.47173580527305603,
0.007413065992295742,
-0.02278739959001541,
0.04927350953221321,
0.06877540796995163,
-0.22303923964500427,
0.5470174551010132,
0.3199304938316345,
1.0754499435424805,
0.29954805970191956,
-0.4010419547557831,
-0.25151047110557556,
-0.3174959123134613,
0.09009930491447449,
0.38505426049232483,
0.03970680385828018,
0.39397501945495605,
0.6723073124885559,
-0.37419089674949646,
-0.16554726660251617,
-0.432615727186203,
0.02284097857773304,
0.16889294981956482,
-0.2796342372894287,
0.047747354954481125,
-0.7303879261016846,
0.43397748470306396,
-0.48384493589401245,
0.8644533157348633,
0.8232638835906982,
0.44978103041648865,
-0.09061109274625778,
-0.2573215067386627,
0.03620656579732895,
0.009446626529097557,
-0.08240040391683578,
0.22046291828155518,
-0.05547920987010002,
-0.03777433559298515,
-0.15277837216854095,
-0.4219983220100403,
0.5225518941879272,
-0.14940866827964783,
-0.3246714770793915,
0.27740368247032166,
0.1766614317893982,
0.24109295010566711,
-0.41333410143852234,
0.18409548699855804,
0.553704559803009,
-0.7585338354110718,
-0.21288226544857025,
0.5046298503875732,
-0.2827521860599518,
-0.6877015829086304,
-0.4567795395851135,
-0.2942012846469879,
-0.17674501240253448,
-1.0133808851242065,
-0.25601568818092346,
0.35056665539741516,
0.2517172694206238,
-0.6991527676582336,
-0.10357218980789185,
-0.06246205046772957,
-0.6834633350372314,
0.5531660318374634,
0.22845451533794403,
0.022260192781686783,
0.2931361198425293,
0.12316016107797623,
-0.14563873410224915,
-0.005910049192607403,
-0.30472296476364136,
-0.12143290042877197,
0.5891883373260498,
-0.28607404232025146,
-0.5038080215454102,
-0.45533183217048645,
0.08333806693553925,
-0.1688978672027588,
-0.10456424206495285,
0.45139530301094055,
0.03899640962481499,
-0.3470230996608734,
0.42272859811782837,
0.13372862339019775,
-0.5240712761878967,
0.6207228899002075,
0.10981359332799911,
0.0010566278360784054,
-0.8532879948616028,
0.5522958636283875,
-0.25699475407600403,
0.296987920999527,
-0.9772500991821289,
-0.6218781471252441,
-0.2344100922346115,
-0.39287373423576355,
0.20439989864826202,
0.6969740390777588,
-0.5628460049629211,
-0.334484338760376,
-0.5148321390151978,
-0.3860485851764679,
-0.11654674261808395,
0.3674727976322174,
-0.04314292222261429,
0.10874922573566437,
0.6557466983795166,
-0.2845858335494995,
-0.1640973538160324,
-0.05270063877105713,
0.21275384724140167,
0.05483897402882576,
-0.7739015817642212,
-0.29562652111053467,
0.524681031703949,
0.028712254017591476,
-0.07941640168428421,
-0.2151801586151123,
-0.2614785432815552,
-0.012884315103292465,
-0.09544410556554794,
0.4264664351940155,
-0.5355547070503235,
-0.4872550070285797,
-0.4488883316516876,
-0.9821550250053406,
-0.00980578362941742,
0.4861253798007965,
-0.46681708097457886,
-0.03207729756832123,
-0.10054239630699158,
0.25197187066078186,
-0.054598789662122726,
0.5221535563468933,
0.06198156252503395,
0.21218112111091614,
-0.14331746101379395,
-0.022662099450826645,
0.32627609372138977,
-0.15852409601211548,
-0.609027087688446,
0.496708482503891,
-0.3184179663658142,
-0.38798779249191284,
-0.05539882183074951,
-0.1564878225326538,
0.28870493173599243,
0.07473164796829224,
-1.287271499633789,
0.003197378944605589,
-0.31909212470054626,
-0.8125705718994141,
0.4311894178390503,
0.42646804451942444,
0.4736812710762024,
0.11736747622489929,
-0.4101887345314026,
0.1462303251028061,
0.42681121826171875,
0.24454766511917114,
0.2879161536693573,
-1.2639262676239014,
0.34356287121772766,
0.023945748805999756,
0.46266859769821167,
-0.16043983399868011,
-0.27292585372924805,
0.4486570954322815,
-0.3640275001525879,
0.07836578786373138,
-0.07710054516792297,
0.20147691667079926,
-0.21326248347759247,
-0.29768019914627075,
-0.25366199016571045,
0.09554293006658554,
0.19872938096523285,
-0.6588903665542603,
0.08440469950437546,
0.28503063321113586,
0.39028626680374146,
0.7485226392745972,
-0.27351778745651245,
-0.9345518946647644,
-0.3427889347076416,
-0.10826887935400009,
0.35299432277679443,
-0.11510608345270157,
-0.4380849003791809,
-0.12022559344768524,
0.42553645372390747,
-0.4845641553401947,
-0.08131884038448334,
0.44405242800712585,
-0.3850663900375366,
0.189309224486351,
0.42868945002555847,
-0.3198123276233673,
0.37512755393981934,
-0.08701062202453613,
-0.7420773506164551,
-0.20766858756542206,
-0.09712652117013931,
-0.1350797712802887,
-0.5369546413421631,
0.31282418966293335,
-0.7179070711135864,
0.09096236526966095,
-0.5205850601196289,
-0.3608471751213074,
-0.22510884702205658,
-0.7971653938293457,
0.1550624817609787,
0.13856737315654755,
-0.05648285895586014,
0.35955682396888733,
-0.7035889029502869,
0.22536958754062653,
-0.4348624050617218,
-0.530623197555542,
0.056715331971645355,
0.06155920773744583,
0.1332729309797287,
-0.19070684909820557,
0.4765706956386566,
-0.03682936355471611,
0.21641963720321655,
0.4266389310359955,
0.284358412027359,
0.4117090106010437,
0.8829772472381592,
0.10721912235021591,
-0.760003387928009,
-0.28510311245918274,
0.4674186408519745,
0.1610572785139084,
-0.9098455309867859,
-1.0357142686843872,
0.5489818453788757,
0.13532167673110962,
-0.5448469519615173,
-0.4256901741027832,
-0.04527156427502632,
0.7673091888427734,
-0.33433276414871216,
-0.4756547808647156,
0.3941574692726135,
0.3078156113624573,
0.4796763062477112,
-0.12501618266105652,
1.2989027500152588,
0.007794898469001055,
0.14818066358566284,
0.4815908670425415,
0.4060426950454712,
0.04709811508655548,
-0.3780161440372467,
0.30307337641716003,
-0.17085440456867218,
0.04751671105623245,
0.00040581938810646534,
1.1014790534973145,
0.19782885909080505,
0.03523954749107361,
-0.020234007388353348,
-0.26122501492500305,
-0.615656852722168,
0.23769986629486084,
-0.3585623502731323,
-0.08697804808616638,
0.2747969627380371,
0.033872369676828384,
-0.33703866600990295,
0.3961617946624756,
-0.32348009943962097,
-0.22732651233673096,
0.3279607594013214,
-0.3537610173225403,
0.12918975949287415,
-0.10155998170375824,
0.46804124116897583,
-0.4995054304599762,
0.09718707203865051,
0.2837204337120056,
0.009250844828784466,
-0.1475362628698349,
-0.4031331539154053,
0.14003273844718933,
0.22454006969928741,
-0.2426924854516983,
0.6830568909645081,
0.3458695113658905,
-0.9135896563529968,
1.0909011363983154,
0.3610604703426361,
-0.07896051555871964,
-0.39838874340057373,
-0.0728084146976471,
-0.015307419002056122,
0.48309212923049927,
-0.03736904263496399,
-0.3272206485271454,
0.9468328356742859,
0.04921014979481697,
-0.6046403050422668,
0.5989605188369751,
-0.18927466869354248,
0.19656036794185638,
0.36827874183654785,
0.032467301934957504,
0.6152728796005249,
0.37764960527420044,
0.3795507550239563,
-1.2735644578933716,
0.29752832651138306,
-0.6378930807113647,
-0.5809775590896606,
0.7480340003967285,
0.22072328627109528,
0.1344534009695053,
-0.02594439499080181,
-0.665164589881897,
0.22672039270401,
-0.26237618923187256,
-0.21227028965950012,
0.44529587030410767,
-0.23958641290664673,
-0.3543975055217743,
0.6629294157028198,
0.37436437606811523,
0.10801964998245239,
-0.14500761032104492,
-0.23067863285541534,
-0.19266897439956665,
0.17475122213363647,
0.014658097177743912,
0.021766673773527145,
0.4777987003326416,
0.3785487711429596,
0.15230955183506012,
0.24584247171878815,
0.11734248697757721,
-0.01938394084572792,
-0.17467151582241058,
-0.2274160385131836,
0.43885987997055054,
-0.6200668215751648,
-0.5069724321365356,
-0.6511181592941284,
-0.31230103969573975,
0.3553556799888611,
-0.009844168089330196,
-0.04006979614496231,
0.5328696966171265,
-0.031019289046525955,
0.47307851910591125,
-0.07939159870147705,
0.02382967434823513,
0.34015145897865295,
0.26837703585624695,
0.24871885776519775,
-0.2715464234352112,
0.4030124247074127,
-0.1688527911901474,
-0.033550459891557693,
0.8209123015403748,
0.1318030059337616,
0.16778817772865295,
0.10580191016197205,
-0.480308473110199,
0.08970575779676437,
0.19946187734603882,
-0.47108194231987,
0.6252987384796143,
-0.4249090850353241,
-0.26292848587036133,
-0.04238595440983772,
0.6623319983482361,
-0.39484670758247375,
0.049527816474437714,
-0.47072121500968933,
-0.8853855729103088,
0.07503548264503479,
-0.18237651884555817,
-0.5000815987586975,
-0.2931036651134491,
1.0453749895095825,
-0.36659401655197144,
0.1912829577922821,
-0.27639785408973694,
0.16259653866291046,
-0.143458291888237,
0.26905176043510437,
-0.11622339487075806,
0.5927029252052307,
0.053669560700654984,
0.42898470163345337,
-0.34170010685920715,
0.6451415419578552,
0.16357606649398804,
0.04591316729784012,
0.32813790440559387,
-0.1581660956144333,
-0.13130243122577667,
-0.3898853659629822,
0.3580913543701172,
-0.4401427209377289,
-0.49482423067092896,
-0.3220568001270294,
0.2772739827632904,
-0.3269825875759125,
0.19446565210819244,
0.4186185598373413,
-0.015242557972669601,
-0.29177501797676086,
0.14684389531612396,
0.27830904722213745,
-0.8042027354240417,
0.05248624086380005,
-0.8750123381614685,
0.24062184989452362,
-0.4477393925189972,
-0.10348596423864365,
-0.332358717918396,
0.6801081299781799,
0.43772533535957336,
0.5593603253364563,
-0.024464229121804237,
-0.5393532514572144,
-0.35468801856040955,
-0.16915738582611084,
0.30002185702323914,
0.37952566146850586,
-0.7716730237007141,
0.23209519684314728,
0.2085275501012802,
0.4011116027832031,
-0.33989834785461426,
0.28204846382141113,
-0.15523068606853485,
-0.23306158185005188,
-0.19815915822982788,
-0.12639139592647552,
-0.03226110339164734,
0.3716379702091217,
-0.18042418360710144,
0.0357813723385334,
-0.02852242812514305,
0.3889116048812866
] |
213112
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoobilee%20Zoo
|
Zoobilee Zoo
|
Zoobilee Zoo is a children's television series featuring actors dressed as animal characters that originally aired from 1986 to 1987. It continued to run in syndication until 2000 on several television channels including commercial network television stations, PBS stations, The Learning Channel, and Hallmark Channel. The original 65 episodes are currently owned by Hallmark Properties and were produced by WQED Pittsburgh.
Hosted by Ben Vereen, the show revolves around a group of six creative animal friends who live in a magical land called Zoobilee Zoo. Each possess a unique artistic skill and they frequently break into song and dance.
Plot
Each episode is opened by a greeting from host Ben Vereen, dressed as a spotted snow leopard, who plays the mayor of Zoobilee Zoo. Speaking directly to viewers that he refers to as "Zoobaroos", Vereen usually appears throughout each episode to summarize the main themes or to perform a song and dance.
The plot in each episode revolves around the main characters, called Zoobles, as they play together and encounter difficulties common to young children. The primary themes are cooperation, making friends, and creativity.
Cast and characters
Each Zooble character has a certain artistic talent that shapes the way they approach different scenario.
Sandey Grinn as Bill Der Beaver in all but 2 episodes, who likes to invent and fix stuff.
Michael Sheehan as the original Bill Der Beaver in 2 episodes. When Sheehan decided to leave the show for other interests (such as Jem), he was replaced by Sandey Grinn.
Forrest Gardner as Van Go Lion, who enjoys art.
Karen Hartman as Talkatoo Cockatoo, who enjoys reading, writing, and speech.
Michael B. Moynahan as Lookout Bear, who enjoys adventuring and travel.
Gary Schwartz as Bravo Fox, who enjoys performing.
Louise Vallance (Stevie Vallance) as Whazzat Kangaroo, the youngest Zooble who encourages kids to enjoy music and dance.
Ben Vereen as Mayor Ben, a snow leopard who stars as the host of the show explaining what kind of adventure the Zoobles will be having.
Minor characters
Roger Behr as Limerick Leprechaun and Peter Possum
Roger Peltz as Rhymin' Simon and the Genie
Crosby the Dog as Crosby
Suzy Gilstrap as Sandy
Robert Shields as Elmo the Clown
Patty Maloney as Ergo
Helen Lambros as The Witch
Vinson Crump as Vince
Norman Merrill as Dr. Feelright
In addition, Grinn, Schwartz and Vallance have also played some minor characters. Schwartz played the gorilla in "A Camping We Will Go" (revealed in a blooper reel) and Grinn played Bravo's Vaudeville friend Charlie Google in "Vaudeville Star". Due to this, in the respective episodes, neither Bravo nor Bill appear. Vallance voiced Gilda the Tooth Fairy in "When You Wish Upon a Tooth Fairy".
Background and production
Premiering on September 15, 1986, Zoobilee Zoo was produced and directed by Steve Binder. The show's concept was developed by Hallmark Entertainment, which partnered with children's production company DIC Enterprises.
In 1992, The Learning Channel picked up the show as part of its Ready Set Learn lineup for preschoolers.
Episodes were released on a wide array of VHS tapes, the most recent series released in 1997, but not yet released to DVD. In 2000, three new direct-to-video episodes and soundtracks were released, and the stage show Zoobilee Zoo Live! toured briefly.
Reception
Zoobilee Zoo was well-received critically, but earned only modest viewer ratings. It was praised by the National Education Association (NEA), the American Federation of Teachers and the National Association of Elementary School Principals. In addition, it was endorsed by the Action for Children's Television (ACT).
Episodes
"*" Episodes contain Michael Sheehan as Bill Der Beaver. All other segments feature Sandey Grinn in the role.
A Star is Born
Two's A Crowd
Blue Ribbon Zoobles
Bravo, Come Home!
Land of Rhymes
The Genie
The Tooth Fairy
The Robot Zoobles
Trading Places
The Great Trash Mystery*
Strike Up the Band
Mystery in Zoobilee Zoo
Popular Bill
The Cockatoo/Fox Report
Grown Up for a Day*
Winter Wonderland
Fox in Wolf's Clothing
Vaudeville Star
Doctor in the House?
Backwardville
Speak to Me, Bill
A Sticky Situation
To See or Not to See
Just in Time
Cave Zoobles
Bear Behind the Badge
One Touch of Van Go
Job Hunting
The Great Game #1
Lookout, Super Zooble
Invisible Zooble
Lookout's Dog
Endangered Zoobra
Bravo's Puppets
The Witch's Spell
Talkerella
The Great Game #2
Van Go, Master Painter
The Ghost of Zoobilee Woods
Pigment Puzzle
Whazzat the Clown
The Great Zooble Tryouts
Gotta Dance
Close Encounters of a Zooble Kind
Laughland
Lady Whazzat
The Zooble Book of Records
Sing Along #1
The Magic Ring
A Trip to Memoryland
The Zooble Hop
Attack of the Giant Potatoes
Teleportation
Simon and the Leprechaun
Pictures to Remember
Smart Dummy
The Zoobadoobas
Sing Along #2
Without a Sound
Bill Sees Stars
A Time for Laughs
A Camping we will Go
Surprise, Surprise
Bravo's Party
Piano Man Bill
Awards and recognition
The series was awarded the 1987 Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Costume Design.
See also
New Zoo Revue
References
External links
ZoobileeZoo.com
1986 American television series debuts
1987 American television series endings
1980s American children's television series
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
Television series by DIC Entertainment
Television series by CBS Studios
English-language television shows
American television shows featuring puppetry
|
[
0.008632880635559559,
-0.11927084624767303,
-0.30831360816955566,
0.2210889458656311,
0.15263856947422028,
0.20560941100120544,
0.4778878390789032,
0.14806342124938965,
-0.30819469690322876,
0.49066850543022156,
-0.26185140013694763,
0.6167116165161133,
-0.2685970962047577,
0.4343097507953644,
-0.5512600541114807,
0.15340156853199005,
0.2788504660129547,
0.21034954488277435,
0.24960581958293915,
-0.489633172750473,
-0.21639536321163177,
-0.7338290214538574,
0.1596299111843109,
-0.20194752514362335,
-0.12611231207847595,
0.01328581664711237,
0.27126604318618774,
0.6386523246765137,
0.8450695872306824,
-0.04669783264398575,
0.16925792396068573,
-0.002817281521856785,
-0.08218307048082352,
-0.16697977483272552,
-0.39911824464797974,
0.25579413771629333,
-0.4043436348438263,
-0.14260251820087433,
-0.3673008382320404,
-0.6946121454238892,
0.26487722992897034,
0.012654667720198631,
-0.36379924416542053,
0.014439737424254417,
-0.046429749578237534,
-0.7648119330406189,
-1.4254990816116333,
-0.21524712443351746,
-0.37258824706077576,
-0.1464979499578476,
-0.16748183965682983,
0.5533687472343445,
0.535974383354187,
-0.045829616487026215,
-0.025712281465530396,
0.6677803993225098,
-0.4842309355735779,
-0.2647857069969177,
-0.16297850012779236,
-0.05400232598185539,
0.27304336428642273,
0.22323128581047058,
0.24499401450157166,
0.28180789947509766,
-0.6612103581428528,
0.16367298364639282,
0.24574989080429077,
0.6036940813064575,
0.35353121161460876,
-0.39389824867248535,
0.051155123859643936,
0.02942325919866562,
0.14228537678718567,
0.09374747425317764,
0.20634578168392181,
-0.5728694200515747,
0.4130803644657135,
-0.12918758392333984,
0.22303909063339233,
0.6832196712493896,
0.03505156934261322,
0.3860678970813751,
0.716690719127655,
-0.14062504470348358,
0.2840922176837921,
-0.11208836734294891,
-0.24140207469463348,
0.28380098938941956,
-0.6489357948303223,
-0.22812575101852417,
-0.8452712297439575,
0.2594219148159027,
-0.06313851475715637,
0.22527143359184265,
-0.07025260478258133,
-0.19258223474025726,
-0.5156440734863281,
-0.17416414618492126,
0.33061057329177856,
0.28360190987586975,
-0.4105762839317322,
0.19337394833564758,
0.19953221082687378,
-0.3575700521469116,
-0.388252317905426,
-0.005859772674739361,
0.41171956062316895,
-0.43779292702674866,
-0.7731124758720398,
0.6122841835021973,
-0.6038793921470642,
-0.060627710074186325,
-0.05543038621544838,
-0.2926633954048157,
0.1647459864616394,
0.23969408869743347,
0.22103728353977203,
-0.04182951897382736,
-1.0402772426605225,
0.14475952088832855,
-0.11759768426418304,
0.10956843942403793,
-0.258200079202652,
-0.03956107422709465,
-0.5770359635353088,
0.4010750651359558,
-0.2915005087852478,
0.22289343178272247,
-0.46695399284362793,
0.5678550601005554,
0.26119983196258545,
0.7100639343261719,
-0.025104058906435966,
-0.2701405882835388,
-0.008282638154923916,
-0.19864965975284576,
0.347639799118042,
-0.2428317666053772,
-0.275716632604599,
-0.36160945892333984,
-0.4677886664867401,
0.17084917426109314,
-0.8312559723854065,
0.24293731153011322,
-0.14400985836982727,
-0.25810739398002625,
-0.03938308358192444,
0.1887849122285843,
-0.38025444746017456,
-0.7766557931900024,
-0.21848122775554657,
-0.08347497880458832,
0.04209339618682861,
-0.5446824431419373,
-0.3520171642303467,
0.505698561668396,
-0.201772078871727,
-0.09880436211824417,
0.31708991527557373,
0.08360224217176437,
-0.16186730563640594,
0.16005666553974152,
-0.45355287194252014,
-0.3027693033218384,
0.0025573382154107094,
-0.38286882638931274,
-0.16974112391471863,
0.02590659074485302,
0.1423293799161911,
0.1446581333875656,
-0.24762986600399017,
0.10070536285638809,
0.0231462474912405,
0.14382728934288025,
0.025478100404143333,
-0.21851558983325958,
0.7288227081298828,
0.03349608555436134,
-0.21801021695137024,
0.031688392162323,
-0.47128933668136597,
0.21660761535167694,
0.21510647237300873,
-0.04423145204782486,
0.5941286087036133,
-0.19579601287841797,
0.42193931341171265,
0.07763305306434631,
-0.06616488844156265,
-0.04700792208313942,
-0.7859544157981873,
-0.24111156165599823,
0.39667266607284546,
-0.0009646679391153157,
1.2172986268997192,
0.5264056921005249,
-0.33166807889938354,
0.4017302393913269,
0.2618441879749298,
0.11621984094381332,
-0.013243484310805798,
0.3265460431575775,
0.4666113555431366,
0.4274435043334961,
-0.7281308174133301,
-0.0735197514295578,
0.11112521588802338,
0.030147714540362358,
0.525668203830719,
0.856033980846405,
0.13934731483459473,
-0.11973467469215393,
0.6589372754096985,
-0.16839171946048737,
0.23601236939430237,
0.19449159502983093,
-0.28722503781318665,
0.045648492872714996,
-0.31689128279685974,
-0.5805684924125671,
0.301010400056839,
-0.19231225550174713,
-0.33064034581184387,
0.3609284460544586,
-0.0936574935913086,
0.6934710741043091,
0.36011171340942383,
-0.13654425740242004,
0.6486238837242126,
-0.3593805134296417,
-0.255102276802063,
0.2552211582660675,
0.08229903131723404,
-0.9309206008911133,
-0.13038070499897003,
0.528790295124054,
0.30625084042549133,
-0.5597295761108398,
0.05333086475729942,
0.20691725611686707,
0.10095494240522385,
-0.0296798013150692,
-0.3730399012565613,
-0.08160337060689926,
0.5122994184494019,
-0.34425514936447144,
0.3774259090423584,
0.21211709082126617,
-0.8012154698371887,
-0.5938381552696228,
0.3336745500564575,
0.12016560137271881,
0.38073304295539856,
0.3139764964580536,
0.2411385029554367,
-0.05858161300420761,
-0.2614588737487793,
-0.5539959073066711,
0.49792131781578064,
0.0584145113825798,
0.29463616013526917,
0.08250792324542999,
0.2268705815076828,
-0.20071007311344147,
-0.3180859088897705,
-0.4575516879558563,
-0.03801986947655678,
-0.7896516919136047,
-0.42027637362480164,
0.3436930179595947,
0.2016090303659439,
0.2416960746049881,
-0.49679034948349,
0.05835474282503128,
0.012714652344584465,
-0.0796550065279007,
0.04695648327469826,
0.32586827874183655,
-0.024762505665421486,
-0.4573863744735718,
0.0703033059835434,
0.29313644766807556,
0.3710579574108124,
-0.6159273982048035,
-0.47925394773483276,
-0.1944904625415802,
-0.06776084005832672,
-0.25360527634620667,
-0.540509819984436,
-0.47393640875816345,
-0.05140054598450661,
0.38802382349967957,
-0.28428739309310913,
0.5165609121322632,
-0.4645037055015564,
-0.09920307248830795,
0.19260548055171967,
0.7636083960533142,
0.2776777148246765,
-0.02453327551484108,
-0.03971584513783455,
0.3439548909664154,
-0.45923513174057007,
-0.20133262872695923,
0.2194126397371292,
0.22978758811950684,
0.04218302667140961,
-0.9048374891281128,
-6.002644062042236,
0.14932313561439514,
-0.24634836614131927,
0.24047839641571045,
0.5020879507064819,
-0.09366126358509064,
0.6098649501800537,
-0.22108007967472076,
0.32278433442115784,
0.45468318462371826,
-0.2675032317638397,
0.06340789794921875,
-0.07585613429546356,
0.12639789283275604,
0.1480609029531479,
-0.3064860999584198,
0.09069416671991348,
0.21104201674461365,
-0.041477102786302567,
0.34541016817092896,
0.04733295738697052,
-0.008985345251858234,
-0.08193711191415787,
0.39084792137145996,
0.20990753173828125,
0.682500422000885,
0.12019747495651245,
-0.07001949101686478,
-0.49784937500953674,
-0.2270822525024414,
-0.044323887676000595,
-0.3633115887641907,
0.005963194649666548,
-0.19347180426120758,
-0.10468827188014984,
0.41762539744377136,
0.5746552348136902,
-0.35060232877731323,
0.4686868488788605,
-0.4576844573020935,
-0.3857940137386322,
-0.2216300070285797,
-0.0016281262505799532,
0.08837408572435379,
0.21727153658866882,
-0.3867793083190918,
-0.11310629546642303,
-0.2510460615158081,
-0.08805055171251297,
0.7005823850631714,
0.37428686022758484,
0.6938154101371765,
0.511287271976471,
0.5756094455718994,
0.13732512295246124,
-0.33459797501564026,
0.3126332461833954,
0.2720642387866974,
-0.13770164549350739,
-0.043618764728307724,
0.08065708726644516,
-0.1511426717042923,
-0.5140880942344666,
-0.8573129773139954,
-0.2631033658981323,
0.09305716305971146,
0.17294277250766754,
0.14404219388961792,
0.19032248854637146,
0.07847586274147034,
-0.18187153339385986,
0.06377360969781876,
0.040393054485321045,
-0.9625921845436096,
0.3382086455821991,
0.1904345452785492,
-0.5094172358512878,
-0.12399705499410629,
-0.4605773389339447,
-0.227931946516037,
0.05354640632867813,
-0.1644132286310196,
-0.04857509583234787,
0.8208057284355164,
-0.3646060526371002,
-0.9117804169654846,
-0.04167681932449341,
-0.20544981956481934,
-0.37472906708717346,
-0.08154425024986267,
0.40144941210746765,
-0.15747420489788055,
-0.5504597425460815,
0.4322017431259155,
0.230068638920784,
0.43120867013931274,
0.2951677441596985,
0.45697924494743347,
0.29054492712020874,
-0.33690890669822693,
0.18393349647521973,
-0.007032579276710749,
0.5541449785232544,
-0.31267106533050537,
0.08991584926843643,
-0.5891520380973816,
0.1830640435218811,
0.015359302051365376,
0.525636613368988,
0.04809367656707764,
-0.021405426785349846,
-0.12941952049732208,
-0.43711057305336,
0.08608872443437576,
0.5421845316886902,
0.4140404760837555,
0.36131399869918823,
0.7238138318061829,
0.22377698123455048,
0.7053397297859192,
0.023338740691542625,
0.4051365554332733,
0.26730209589004517,
-0.1989561766386032,
-0.18123281002044678,
0.3535926043987274,
0.18068355321884155,
0.1213897243142128,
-0.010788069106638432,
-0.3155871331691742,
-0.4067654609680176,
0.04947890341281891,
0.2560391426086426,
-0.09781008213758469,
0.2576327919960022,
-0.19240494072437286,
-0.45007240772247314,
-0.5799651145935059,
0.2811289131641388,
-0.17803479731082916,
0.02655615471303463,
-0.36429527401924133,
-0.10511533915996552,
0.3604145348072052,
-0.158897265791893,
-0.19943416118621826,
0.274261474609375,
-0.5401517748832703,
0.00028672872576862574,
-0.14467424154281616,
-0.21186897158622742,
-0.6473707556724548,
0.528179407119751,
-0.39134106040000916,
-0.021925995126366615,
-0.1393364518880844,
-0.031615741550922394,
-0.3431166112422943,
0.23453685641288757,
0.01980571262538433,
0.04810067638754845,
-0.46032941341400146,
-0.5311195850372314,
0.11655431985855103,
-0.12324928492307663,
0.0844147726893425,
0.08341681212186813,
-0.7964053750038147,
-0.18100352585315704,
0.2412337362766266,
-0.19141755998134613,
0.038117457181215286,
0.12890346348285675,
0.5622212290763855,
0.38390088081359863,
0.12235318124294281,
-0.09068448841571808,
-0.7283296585083008,
0.2918764054775238,
0.23735783994197845,
0.042040616273880005,
-0.7615019083023071,
0.03336350619792938,
0.016929516568779945,
0.6935898661613464,
-0.23116913437843323,
-0.5285002589225769,
-0.18625706434249878,
-0.014606236480176449,
0.3567790389060974,
-0.032184332609176636,
0.7715619802474976,
0.5946259498596191,
0.11516012996435165,
-0.8295363187789917,
-0.22076651453971863,
-0.0762912854552269,
0.06469157338142395,
0.2296994924545288,
-0.6962332129478455,
-0.3670911192893982,
-0.23116013407707214,
-0.46117129921913147,
0.02464834600687027,
0.3108176290988922,
-0.5807948112487793,
0.009603509679436684,
0.3559406101703644,
-0.028845855966210365,
0.31329402327537537,
-0.1725638210773468,
-0.4749642014503479,
-0.10480940341949463,
0.16283851861953735,
-0.45542094111442566,
0.21934270858764648,
0.00034965400118380785,
-0.38463398814201355,
-0.25637152791023254,
-0.6233663558959961,
-0.5045363903045654,
-0.5240584015846252,
-0.6588888168334961,
-0.4981023371219635,
-1.2496047019958496,
-0.02436921000480652,
0.36233773827552795,
-0.9710626006126404,
-0.3235788941383362,
-0.01794181391596794,
-0.07749205827713013,
-0.4136642515659332,
0.4089100956916809,
-0.07689741998910904,
-0.7524204254150391,
-0.13106019794940948,
0.17628806829452515,
0.10532762110233307,
0.05884314328432083,
0.6950486302375793,
0.48977312445640564,
0.8389201760292053,
-0.3717014193534851,
0.43478789925575256,
0.20141348242759705,
0.49327224493026733,
-0.1608148217201233,
-0.10530944168567657,
-0.5467273592948914,
-0.1114790141582489,
0.20688432455062866,
-0.036051519215106964,
-0.42654815316200256,
0.2884206473827362,
0.3700130581855774,
-0.6496800184249878,
-0.1419416218996048,
0.4491647481918335,
-0.29253387451171875,
-0.1721319705247879,
0.15429896116256714,
0.4580473005771637,
-0.4175812304019928,
0.19968834519386292,
0.22361905872821808,
0.1662822961807251,
0.2107488512992859,
-0.07075770199298859,
0.6022741198539734,
-0.027420487254858017,
0.3310311436653137,
0.3111473321914673,
0.6170905232429504,
0.8028072118759155,
0.047697827219963074,
0.13419298827648163,
0.07318876683712006,
-0.9140254259109497,
0.11934014409780502,
0.08615706115961075,
0.10430923849344254,
0.5553051829338074,
-0.43172669410705566,
-0.5499763488769531,
0.06357116252183914,
-0.6914230585098267,
-0.19159528613090515,
-0.19527572393417358,
-0.25532349944114685,
0.3242872655391693,
0.08991413563489914,
0.3503704369068146,
-0.26664191484451294,
-0.028545942157506943,
0.34898728132247925,
-0.1081593930721283,
0.2023138403892517,
-0.0014036045176908374,
-0.19679142534732819,
-0.35002681612968445,
-0.8476911783218384,
0.5764655470848083,
0.03524886816740036,
-0.7035571932792664,
0.6261551976203918,
0.03368270769715309,
0.3982163071632385,
0.213631272315979,
-0.3583768308162689,
0.1746620088815689,
0.018886318430304527,
-0.157370924949646,
0.33062639832496643,
0.8026463985443115,
-0.15201221406459808,
0.250024676322937,
0.22409959137439728,
-0.18200145661830902,
-0.08085037022829056,
0.048737868666648865,
0.16409137845039368,
0.017087679356336594,
-0.26475808024406433,
-0.20177152752876282,
-0.30567362904548645,
0.6209538578987122,
0.033453237265348434,
-0.16711315512657166,
0.7953743934631348,
0.44252705574035645,
0.3799654543399811,
-0.568124532699585,
0.2743964195251465,
0.31021785736083984,
0.2112112194299698,
-0.35017257928848267,
0.29989928007125854,
0.023876160383224487,
0.006314865779131651,
0.6481131911277771,
-0.0807165578007698,
0.04338410124182701,
-0.12225675582885742,
-0.0855763852596283,
0.02061997540295124,
0.2049320638179779,
0.19004559516906738,
0.3416275680065155,
0.1157316341996193,
0.11597634851932526,
0.2755119502544403,
0.12064521759748459,
0.4267577826976776,
-0.3490237593650818,
0.593497097492218,
-0.353288859128952,
0.1440097540616989,
-0.3041340112686157,
0.058742355555295944,
-0.04883791133761406,
-0.12913261353969574,
0.3465021252632141,
-0.1468682438135147,
0.5791979432106018,
0.43093863129615784,
0.2564483880996704,
-0.1820431500673294,
-0.06888380646705627,
0.13015717267990112,
0.4063650667667389,
0.24761991202831268,
0.16776782274246216,
-0.003328056074678898,
0.18386003375053406,
0.33816877007484436,
0.7233351469039917,
0.2224007248878479,
0.08316868543624878,
-0.3772628605365753,
0.2928926348686218,
-0.03367125988006592,
-0.16590635478496552,
-0.2120940387248993,
-0.34468257427215576,
0.3253362774848938,
0.12731681764125824,
-0.18902811408042908,
0.1752246916294098,
-0.039104215800762177,
-0.8007858395576477,
0.2739103138446808,
-0.8553774952888489,
0.1248970553278923,
0.14124318957328796,
-0.304308146238327,
-0.07132548838853836,
-0.29899320006370544,
0.4791395366191864,
-0.013404211960732937,
-0.5270563364028931,
0.5711208581924438,
0.09040404111146927,
-0.31967926025390625,
0.24011917412281036,
-0.33781540393829346,
0.5085194706916809,
-0.3137762248516083,
-0.09325573593378067,
-0.8642656207084656,
0.44167593121528625,
0.4090321660041809,
0.8501011729240417,
0.28719452023506165,
0.13861879706382751,
-0.20858889818191528,
0.3214578926563263,
0.5447568297386169,
-0.05773794278502464,
0.10414633899927139,
-0.2851637899875641,
0.1081676185131073,
-0.6031290888786316,
-0.3066308796405792,
0.33269011974334717,
-0.2991330623626709,
-0.2918374240398407,
-0.008781975135207176,
-0.26459071040153503,
-0.6532504558563232,
0.21707823872566223,
0.5604029893875122,
0.02175927720963955,
-0.163308247923851,
-0.366921067237854,
-0.5276203155517578,
-0.03857855498790741,
0.39240822196006775,
0.8028934597969055,
1.1221837997436523,
-0.2261805534362793,
0.6424424648284912,
-0.33919039368629456,
0.38603806495666504,
0.06071353331208229,
-0.11514317989349365,
-0.2093440443277359,
0.5720680356025696,
-0.03484654426574707,
-0.5876717567443848,
-0.2778271436691284,
-0.2549249231815338,
-0.13582314550876617,
0.04980316758155823,
-0.47835424542427063,
-0.6939108967781067,
-0.036446381360292435,
0.057015057653188705,
0.03522218391299248,
0.28873252868652344,
0.329546183347702
] |
213115
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairlight%20Glen
|
Fairlight Glen
|
Fairlight Glen lies about east of the fishing port of Hastings and west of the small village of Fairlight Cove on the East Sussex coast. It is a wooded area forming part of the Hastings Country Park Nature Reserve and leading down to Covehurst Bay. This is a naturist beach, but is shared by non-naturist visitors. The name Covehurst Bay is not normally used for the beach, but is marked on OS maps.
The beach is mainly shingle with large boulders and some patches of sand, particularly at low tide. The main cove lies between lower cliff areas formed in major cliff collapses some time in the past. There are no facilities or buildings of any kind on the beach, nor in the country park on the cliffs above. The harbour arm of Hastings is just visible at low tide, as is the nuclear power station at Dungeness a few miles further east.
The beach can be reached by walking from Hastings along the hilly clifftop coast path until a signpost points out a pathway leading down the cliff to the cove. There is currently a detour around Ecclesbourne Glen due to a landslip
The beach can also be reached from Firehills, a coastguard station and viewpoint, with parking for visitors to the park. From here it is a steep 20 minute walk downhill west along the coast path.
It is normally possible to walk along the beach to Hastings, but this may be cut off at high tide; the journey is an arduous one, involving extensive walking on loose pebbles and the debris from cliff falls. It also possible, at low tide only, to walk east along the beach to Fairlight Cove and Petts Level. Both these routes may be blocked by cliff falls which happen regularly on this coast.
The high cliffs are sandstone and clay which is subject to erosion. Access to the beach was officially closed when the original wooden steps leading down from the coast path were swept away in a landslip. Alternative steps have been cut into the path by users; as of June 2021 the path was safe to walk, but the visitor should be prepared for a bit of a climb Anyone contemplating swimming should be aware of hidden rocks and the absence of lifeguards or normal rescue services. Occasionally people have been rescued by helicopter from the beach or cliffs.
See also
Hastings Country Park
Fairlight, East Sussex
Speckled Wood, Hastings
References
External links
Covehurst Bay
Hastings Country Park
a walk through the country park
Clothes free beach at Fairlight Glen
Local rainfall statistics
Tourist attractions in East Sussex
Hastings
Nude beaches
|
[
-0.5717279314994812,
0.320661336183548,
-0.10551963001489639,
-0.548526406288147,
0.038530200719833374,
-0.11716218292713165,
0.1954602301120758,
0.3543848991394043,
-0.014899363741278648,
-0.20419839024543762,
-0.7480860948562622,
0.1710071861743927,
0.2228388488292694,
0.7793919444084167,
-0.39365220069885254,
0.134919211268425,
-0.03760497272014618,
1.0618828535079956,
0.5837737917900085,
-0.6557024121284485,
0.2608017921447754,
-0.6325041055679321,
-0.25754493474960327,
0.09686404466629028,
0.0853351429104805,
0.07309252768754959,
0.7348328232765198,
0.44507092237472534,
0.609711766242981,
0.1416197121143341,
-0.18933217227458954,
0.3844214677810669,
-0.05143285542726517,
-0.8565792441368103,
0.2263202667236328,
-0.41248878836631775,
0.6470413208007812,
-0.09767427295446396,
-0.7169288992881775,
0.05229901522397995,
-0.4807136058807373,
-0.00787169486284256,
-0.07422614842653275,
0.3332982361316681,
-0.019609052687883377,
-0.2575242519378662,
-1.7162104845046997,
0.024266324937343597,
-0.4208129644393921,
0.639620304107666,
-1.2004708051681519,
-0.11533889919519424,
0.36033979058265686,
0.407620370388031,
0.6551976799964905,
0.8975181579589844,
-0.5994149446487427,
0.7943093776702881,
0.8270825147628784,
0.027104632928967476,
-0.02419367805123329,
-0.18170718848705292,
-0.022759146988391876,
0.1446814239025116,
-0.3826741874217987,
1.007112741470337,
-0.01215014886111021,
0.404923677444458,
0.049854159355163574,
0.08766531199216843,
0.09179694950580597,
-0.07642965763807297,
0.6151068806648254,
0.4150497019290924,
-0.6464337110519409,
1.01058828830719,
-0.22021043300628662,
0.11955393105745316,
0.09178277105093002,
0.11600668728351593,
0.15348325669765472,
-0.3401789367198944,
0.6548084616661072,
0.5583820939064026,
0.15873463451862335,
-0.1161424070596695,
-0.5398095846176147,
0.24300673604011536,
-0.17281974852085114,
0.8002783060073853,
-0.7561790943145752,
-0.7516112923622131,
-0.23858849704265594,
0.04989771917462349,
0.6644741296768188,
0.0665542259812355,
0.16599735617637634,
0.38764679431915283,
0.38315197825431824,
0.5044537782669067,
-0.17461024224758148,
0.5304639339447021,
0.5412566661834717,
-0.2857801914215088,
-1.0862797498703003,
0.08541098982095718,
-0.9975995421409607,
-0.9959454536437988,
0.3614093065261841,
-0.38922590017318726,
-0.4357016086578369,
0.32094839215278625,
-0.013374964706599712,
0.2296472042798996,
-0.5797727108001709,
0.7295079827308655,
0.6344547271728516,
-0.4943441152572632,
-0.018759220838546753,
-0.13162821531295776,
1.1235425472259521,
0.922605574131012,
-0.0283580981194973,
-0.29819273948669434,
0.01484939269721508,
0.44246554374694824,
0.09585034102201462,
0.8177140951156616,
-0.23315511643886566,
0.43737637996673584,
0.0037458855658769608,
0.06354498118162155,
-0.3397282660007477,
-0.18591897189617157,
0.04074765369296074,
-0.6808852553367615,
0.5279274582862854,
0.15098731219768524,
0.6209304928779602,
0.3187974989414215,
-0.9799650311470032,
0.09809663891792297,
-0.6613972187042236,
-0.3718869388103485,
0.4146350622177124,
0.7335078716278076,
-0.18839193880558014,
-0.7888547778129578,
0.1442992240190506,
-0.2850525975227356,
0.36459454894065857,
-0.005873153917491436,
0.4847407341003418,
-0.31844016909599304,
-0.4066397249698639,
0.18077325820922852,
0.6310945749282837,
-0.39263293147087097,
0.4566195607185364,
0.2817482054233551,
0.47545289993286133,
-0.019054388627409935,
0.4017530381679535,
-0.2500145435333252,
0.2495122253894806,
0.4655040502548218,
0.5031474232673645,
-0.6925724148750305,
-0.0038739885203540325,
0.5837332010269165,
-0.524709939956665,
0.09371645748615265,
1.088051676750183,
-1.0680121183395386,
0.6539997458457947,
-0.4871588349342346,
0.6433519124984741,
0.5665152668952942,
-0.01932709477841854,
-0.6113668084144592,
-0.921165943145752,
0.11208703368902206,
0.19189496338367462,
-0.08453226834535599,
0.017341716215014458,
0.10980156064033508,
0.2562611997127533,
-0.046038754284381866,
0.020490605384111404,
0.15387101471424103,
-0.6660276055335999,
-1.0813697576522827,
0.38858187198638916,
-0.3131498694419861,
1.0209050178527832,
0.017438005656003952,
0.24551992118358612,
0.3438331186771393,
-0.07600724697113037,
0.42767617106437683,
-0.0390615351498127,
-0.13719293475151062,
0.3828217089176178,
-0.18576368689537048,
-1.5299385786056519,
0.7346162796020508,
0.3274694085121155,
0.03587628901004791,
-0.30347055196762085,
0.03961009159684181,
-0.07364032417535782,
-0.1426835060119629,
0.44165611267089844,
0.10862711071968079,
0.11927207559347153,
-0.5697062015533447,
0.05032365769147873,
0.007780086249113083,
0.4114573895931244,
-0.859767735004425,
0.18738766014575958,
0.43408650159835815,
-0.16802746057510376,
0.0671112984418869,
-0.09949842095375061,
1.092397928237915,
0.19986572861671448,
0.10784465074539185,
-0.051783230155706406,
-0.7732215523719788,
-0.0700843334197998,
-0.12075527012348175,
-0.640587329864502,
-0.2544704079627991,
-0.17558108270168304,
-0.48610180616378784,
-0.056765180081129074,
-0.5148906111717224,
0.5914515852928162,
0.12395824491977692,
0.251217782497406,
-0.5343005061149597,
-0.6685143709182739,
0.4225926697254181,
0.10372664779424667,
0.5474984049797058,
-0.09362965822219849,
0.45880746841430664,
0.2930396497249603,
-0.3335596024990082,
0.6704577803611755,
0.7848814129829407,
0.5144625306129456,
0.11262241750955582,
0.08856669813394547,
-0.08115240186452866,
-0.7728478312492371,
0.21839594841003418,
0.5025008320808411,
0.14916177093982697,
0.04161358252167702,
0.35213014483451843,
-0.28573063015937805,
0.5005470514297485,
-0.08245407044887543,
-0.8478493094444275,
-0.6308931112289429,
-0.5414111614227295,
0.3060809373855591,
-0.07030192017555237,
0.7605260610580444,
0.10002487897872925,
-0.3103945255279541,
-0.4714318513870239,
0.006980437785387039,
0.24667933583259583,
-0.2099563330411911,
-0.11671604216098785,
-0.5878123641014099,
-0.15316766500473022,
0.6369280815124512,
0.9945216178894043,
-0.302489310503006,
0.10983788222074509,
-0.6047753691673279,
0.5900181531906128,
0.19760289788246155,
0.49394071102142334,
-0.36254456639289856,
0.02900446020066738,
0.1623464822769165,
-0.36648276448249817,
-0.022712089121341705,
0.8776481747627258,
-0.32288986444473267,
-0.11003584414720535,
-0.46333399415016174,
-0.3703085482120514,
0.484150230884552,
0.08037297427654266,
-0.1663587987422943,
0.4594576954841614,
-0.7556227445602417,
-0.4368445873260498,
-0.2983834147453308,
0.37095823884010315,
-0.11386371403932571,
-0.17505383491516113,
-4.4997663497924805,
0.36337465047836304,
-0.17301598191261292,
0.4548185169696808,
0.02937849797308445,
0.056533243507146835,
0.1781817525625229,
-0.3426769971847534,
-0.3411855697631836,
0.44592544436454773,
-0.08286581933498383,
-0.01965368539094925,
0.4037385582923889,
0.638500988483429,
0.9219366312026978,
0.4751615524291992,
0.259268581867218,
-0.20346404612064362,
0.33324572443962097,
-0.20954440534114838,
-0.4933643937110901,
0.2580413520336151,
-0.4986530542373657,
0.4268205165863037,
0.0048777153715491295,
0.40104857087135315,
-0.12416522949934006,
-0.7140498757362366,
-1.0334008932113647,
-0.16705554723739624,
0.4009663462638855,
-0.4607323706150055,
0.7680255174636841,
0.6013206243515015,
-0.39752864837646484,
-0.13239625096321106,
-0.019105704501271248,
-0.20455357432365417,
0.9261801242828369,
-0.9257842898368835,
-0.5657685399055481,
0.44951558113098145,
-0.032320912927389145,
0.44980284571647644,
0.6581001281738281,
-0.47601407766342163,
-0.5118691921234131,
0.03506778925657272,
0.6431581974029541,
0.506044864654541,
0.2271198183298111,
0.4903261959552765,
1.1843169927597046,
0.07332443445920944,
-0.30761492252349854,
-0.005885099992156029,
0.35683372616767883,
-0.6171455979347229,
-0.5825021266937256,
0.20022115111351013,
0.36832064390182495,
-0.3341955840587616,
0.2289789766073227,
0.02122693881392479,
0.30465999245643616,
-0.609466552734375,
-0.12874309718608856,
-0.1274452656507492,
-0.391451895236969,
0.27810561656951904,
-0.09175648540258408,
0.37442442774772644,
-0.5942264199256897,
-1.1156693696975708,
-0.21015958487987518,
-0.7538076043128967,
-0.4658495783805847,
0.5185186862945557,
0.35054144263267517,
-0.2533974349498749,
0.3363194763660431,
-0.23046816885471344,
-0.17059992253780365,
1.0673553943634033,
-0.27795496582984924,
-0.8374277353286743,
0.08013444393873215,
-0.1839151233434677,
0.2105603963136673,
-0.9475402235984802,
0.43494370579719543,
-0.006691792514175177,
0.06540174037218094,
0.17555688321590424,
-0.4620114862918854,
0.6033426523208618,
0.5051776170730591,
0.2399483621120453,
0.5609351396560669,
-0.22623485326766968,
0.2827560603618622,
-0.5882639288902283,
-0.4038870334625244,
0.026867708191275597,
-0.49089255928993225,
-0.5089876055717468,
-0.3010513186454773,
0.053822580724954605,
0.48889806866645813,
-0.5860376954078674,
0.2608610987663269,
-0.48520222306251526,
-0.3384260833263397,
-0.28712430596351624,
0.3068472743034363,
-0.26691022515296936,
-0.11130524426698685,
0.5827631950378418,
0.21746213734149933,
0.0633162260055542,
0.45952022075653076,
0.3397562503814697,
-0.2574702799320221,
-0.09003125876188278,
-0.06946446001529694,
-0.4699779450893402,
0.6576856374740601,
0.206287682056427,
-0.9460326433181763,
0.22480568289756775,
-0.40358594059944153,
-0.3572240471839905,
0.290453165769577,
-0.6651514172554016,
-0.32264435291290283,
-0.7428404688835144,
-1.2166627645492554,
-0.546201229095459,
0.058949314057826996,
0.5040069818496704,
0.433422327041626,
0.4880647361278534,
-0.44092896580696106,
0.14853520691394806,
0.7329626083374023,
0.7531596422195435,
-0.016719674691557884,
-0.2660636603832245,
-1.0954787731170654,
0.20984648168087006,
-0.26063451170921326,
-0.41963115334510803,
-0.702063798904419,
-1.5683410167694092,
0.08770676702260971,
-0.5667826533317566,
-0.7808839082717896,
-0.053925350308418274,
-0.24331095814704895,
-0.08838474750518799,
-0.24586254358291626,
0.027869075536727905,
-0.946880578994751,
0.05491439998149872,
0.25033804774284363,
-0.08060596138238907,
-0.16638116538524628,
-0.2070116102695465,
-0.36345645785331726,
0.6177897453308105,
-0.07686781883239746,
0.05618603900074959,
-0.5526164770126343,
-0.03177328035235405,
0.2205246388912201,
0.019344693049788475,
-0.14045734703540802,
0.13589388132095337,
0.2062164545059204,
-0.6478480696678162,
-0.6144418716430664,
0.0960715115070343,
-0.29179686307907104,
0.5775025486946106,
0.511677086353302,
-0.6250128746032715,
-0.7564617395401001,
-0.18288663029670715,
-0.5406127572059631,
0.2966383993625641,
0.02172771655023098,
0.2839619815349579,
0.5019151568412781,
0.2607828974723816,
-0.774678647518158,
-0.338253378868103,
0.6162543892860413,
-0.2638869881629944,
-0.06803803890943527,
-1.4445533752441406,
0.3755810558795929,
0.49906015396118164,
-1.3312300443649292,
0.5228278040885925,
0.07110831141471863,
-1.4935966730117798,
-0.22673311829566956,
0.794853150844574,
-1.0857189893722534,
1.3150840997695923,
0.04971470311284065,
-1.0182914733886719,
0.18150806427001953,
0.21031658351421356,
-0.35657986998558044,
-0.3870171010494232,
0.011081951670348644,
-0.11497684568166733,
-0.10103766620159149,
-0.013626345433294773,
0.5963928699493408,
-0.776755154132843,
-0.13531678915023804,
-0.3439190089702606,
-1.1787739992141724,
0.18967409431934357,
0.7892971634864807,
-0.1865989714860916,
0.7402048707008362,
-0.3721398413181305,
-0.4271315932273865,
0.17549225687980652,
0.8485233187675476,
0.17815203964710236,
0.1252901554107666,
0.032453618943691254,
-0.4776594042778015,
0.31426742672920227,
0.5058786273002625,
0.660843551158905,
0.9143933057785034,
1.2749407291412354,
0.26131609082221985,
-0.5799362659454346,
-0.11398391425609589,
0.4495902955532074,
0.2306526154279709,
-0.7267412543296814,
-1.043318510055542,
0.270035982131958,
0.5210177898406982,
-0.5850509405136108,
-0.3348574936389923,
-0.6106564402580261,
1.0890010595321655,
-0.3484141230583191,
0.020717959851026535,
0.09435079246759415,
-0.05187990888953209,
0.5235148072242737,
0.28430506587028503,
0.47940218448638916,
-0.13066521286964417,
0.5765671133995056,
1.1311553716659546,
-0.2676108479499817,
0.2230144739151001,
-0.12184736132621765,
0.5386193990707397,
-0.8394284844398499,
0.28150463104248047,
-0.42137932777404785,
-0.13565772771835327,
-0.03902263566851616,
-0.2873714566230774,
0.06171799078583717,
-0.06299224495887756,
-1.0648438930511475,
0.6054789423942566,
-1.2254632711410522,
0.07592174410820007,
0.06358253210783005,
0.46390384435653687,
-0.3013138175010681,
-0.5202229022979736,
-0.14699359238147736,
-0.2519177198410034,
-0.07428257167339325,
-0.42368122935295105,
-0.1684006154537201,
-0.18785406649112701,
-0.4331722855567932,
0.34374484419822693,
0.032692473381757736,
0.19538390636444092,
0.2814429700374603,
0.014587199315428734,
0.12532241642475128,
-0.38703519105911255,
-0.36379820108413696,
-0.25267696380615234,
1.3739007711410522,
-0.3732227385044098,
-0.7550125122070312,
0.4731963574886322,
0.286342054605484,
-0.22687453031539917,
-0.6799647212028503,
0.5734068751335144,
0.05023684725165367,
0.11165556311607361,
1.1732869148254395,
-0.34124162793159485,
1.0256834030151367,
-0.006714939139783382,
0.031193489208817482,
0.1192677691578865,
-0.4644060730934143,
0.8532088994979858,
0.7446807622909546,
-0.33444780111312866,
-0.16369383037090302,
0.7463670969009399,
0.5521512627601624,
-0.7567972540855408,
0.936905562877655,
-0.7881991267204285,
-0.33404451608657837,
0.8582562208175659,
0.5412189364433289,
-0.27243998646736145,
-0.3747817575931549,
0.10912563651800156,
0.758446455001831,
-0.7715628147125244,
-0.714656412601471,
-0.2760413885116577,
-0.6714024543762207,
-0.4385695457458496,
0.21026445925235748,
0.41802000999450684,
0.35814499855041504,
0.8419325351715088,
-0.6219498515129089,
-0.020046699792146683,
0.23873570561408997,
-0.11792588233947754,
0.31122907996177673,
0.04423694685101509,
0.12226994335651398,
0.5341951251029968,
-0.3538484275341034,
0.25759777426719666,
-0.6492055654525757,
-0.08778688311576843,
0.5836275815963745,
0.0673874095082283,
-0.3109453320503235,
-0.8192667365074158,
-0.04382064938545227,
-0.04630332440137863,
-0.5013197660446167,
-0.4155965745449066,
-0.24273203313350677,
-0.2718273103237152,
-0.6786925792694092,
0.14447753131389618,
-0.4976876676082611,
-0.042532265186309814,
0.8011869192123413,
0.689293622970581,
0.3876989185810089,
0.3314806818962097,
0.0024404057767242193,
0.044973377138376236,
0.3055460453033447,
0.08188828825950623,
0.07858052849769592,
0.2546951174736023,
0.13742695748806,
-0.016647426411509514,
0.5834338665008545,
-0.31084245443344116,
-0.7336074709892273,
0.10392183065414429,
-0.9611911773681641,
-0.5271516442298889,
0.49698522686958313,
0.3702697455883026,
-0.12252908945083618,
0.3942270576953888,
-0.061579231172800064,
-0.6913469433784485,
-0.052039049565792084,
-0.6038007140159607,
-0.17102181911468506,
-0.15648527443408966,
0.5574014186859131,
-0.07117576152086258,
-0.20991253852844238,
-0.16907545924186707,
0.7875142693519592,
0.10917352139949799,
0.6665043830871582,
-0.16115036606788635,
0.6469476222991943,
-0.4011129140853882,
-0.28436270356178284,
-0.19178065657615662,
1.0346064567565918,
0.6282874941825867,
0.3071622848510742,
0.018982674926519394,
0.8044030666351318,
-0.44453057646751404,
0.034384168684482574,
0.13866865634918213,
-0.3094378709793091,
-0.127761572599411,
-0.9575933218002319,
-0.08265261352062225,
-0.3141319453716278,
0.36316096782684326,
0.7768656015396118,
0.39236027002334595,
-0.3472689390182495,
0.24021746218204498,
-0.23816445469856262,
-0.05341370031237602,
0.953190803527832,
-0.44336163997650146,
-0.298675000667572,
-0.26850882172584534,
0.3855023980140686,
-0.016401004046201706,
-0.0858055055141449,
0.07221178710460663,
1.0349055528640747,
0.12164570391178131,
-0.5044153928756714,
-0.37217819690704346,
-0.7764886021614075,
0.42560121417045593,
-0.037193864583969116,
-1.1764742136001587,
-0.20798644423484802,
-0.25652164220809937,
-0.983025848865509,
-0.34921756386756897,
0.3934287130832672,
0.6385200619697571,
-0.8311663866043091,
0.15474605560302734,
-0.11309956759214401,
-0.32114937901496887,
-0.05433354899287224,
0.2079598605632782,
-0.9108737111091614,
-0.3173615336418152,
0.3450489640235901
] |
213121
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavite
|
Cavite
|
, officially the Province of (; Chabacano: Provincia de Cavite), is a province in the Philippines located in the Calabarzon region in Luzon. Located on the southern shores of Manila Bay and southwest of Manila, it is one of the most industrialized and fastest-growing provinces in the Philippines. As of 2020, it has a population of
4,344,829, making it the most populated province in the country if the independent cities of Cebu are excluded from Cebu's population figure.
The de facto capital and seat of the government of the province is Trece Martires, although Imus is the official (de jure) capital.
For over 300 years, the province played an important role in both the country's colonial past and eventual fight for independence, earning it the title "Historical Capital of the Philippines". It became the cradle of the Philippine Revolution, which led to the renouncement of Spanish colonial control, finally culminating in the Philippine Declaration of Independence on June12, 1898 in Kawit. The old provincial capital, Cavite City also hosted docks for the Manila galleon, becoming an essential part of commerce between Asia and Latin America.
Originally an agricultural province, its northern cities of Bacoor, Imus, and Dasmariñas (with a combined population of 1,864,560 at the 2020 Census) are now suburbs of Manila due to increasing urbanization in the late 1900s. This province forms part of the Greater Manila Area.
Etymology
The name "Cavite" comes from the Hispanicized form of kawit or it may be a corruption of kalawit, Tagalog words for "hook", in reference to the small hook-shaped peninsula jutting out to Manila Bay. The name originally applied to the peninsula, Cavite La Punta (now Cavite City) and the adjacent lowland coastal area of Cavite Viejo (now Kawit).
Another theory proposes that the name is a Hispanicized form of kabit, Tagalog for "joined", "connected", or "attached", referring to the peninsula's topographical relation to the mainland. Edmund Roberts, in his 1821 memoir, stated that the "natives" called it Caveit due to the "crooked point of land extending into the sea".
History
Pre-Hispanic period
The present Cavite City was once a mooring place for Chinese junks trading that came to trade with the settlements around Manila Bay. The land was formerly known as "Tangway". Archeological evidence in coastal areas shows prehistorical settlements. According to local folklore, the earliest settlers of Cavite came from Sulu or Borneo.
Spanish colonial period
The Spanish colonizers who arrived in the late 16th century saw the unusual tongue of land jutting out on Manila Bay and saw its deep waters as the main staging ground where they could launch their bulky galleons. It would later become the most important port linking the colony to the outside world through the Manila-Acapulco Galleon trade. In 1571, Spanish colonizers established the port and City of Cavite and fortified the settlement as a first line of defense for the city of Manila. Galleons were built and fitted at the port and many Chinese merchants settled in the communities of Bacoor and Kawit, opposite the Spanish city to trade silks, porcelain and other oriental goods.
"A defensive curtained wall was constructed the length of Cavite's western side," beginning from the entrance, "La Estanzuela", and continuing to the end of the peninsula, "Punta de Rivera", with the eastern shore unprotected by a wall. Cavite contained government offices, churches, mission buildings, Spanish homes, Fort San Felipe and the Rivera de Cavite shipyard. Docks were in place to construct galleons and galleys, but without a dry dock, ships were repaired by careening along the beach.
Fort San Felipe, La Fuerza de San Felipe, was built between 1609 and 1616. This quadrilateral structure of curtained walls, with bastions at the corners, contained 20 cannons facing the seashore. Three infantry companies, 180 men each, plus 220 Pampangan infantry, garrisoned the fort.
The galleons Espiritu Santo and San Miguel, plus six galleys were constructed between 1606 and 1616. From 1729 to 1739, "the main purpose of the Cavite shipyard was the construction and outfitting of the galleons for the Manila to Acapulco trade run."
The vibrant mix of traders, Spanish seamen from Spain and its Latin-American colonies, as well as local residents, gave rise to the use of pidgin Spanish called Chabacano. A great number of Mexican men had settled at Cavite, spread throughout Luzon, and had integrated with the local Philippine population. Some of these Mexicans became Tulisanes (Bandits) that led peasant revolts against Spain.
In 1614, the politico-military jurisdiction of Cavite was established. As with many other provinces organized during the Spanish colonial era, Cavite City, the name of the capital, was applied to the whole province, Cavite. The province covered all the present territory except for the town of Maragondon, which used to belong to the Corregimiento of Mariveles. Maragondon was ceded to Cavite in 1754 when Bataan province was created from Pampanga province. Within Maragondon is a settlement established in 1660 by Christian Papuan exiles brought in by the Jesuits from Ternate in the Maluku Islands, and named this land Ternate after their former homeland.
Owing to its military importance, Cavite had been attacked by foreigners in their quest to conquer Manila and the Philippines. The Dutch made a surprise attack on the city in 1647, pounding the port incessantly, but were repulsed. In 1672, the British occupied the port during their two-year control in the Philippines.
In the 17th century, encomiendas (Spanish Royal land grants) were given in Cavite and Maragondon to Spanish conquistadores and their families. The religious orders began acquiring these lands, with some donated, enlarging vast haciendas (estates) in Cavite during the 18th and 19th century, enriching themselves. These haciendas became the source of bitter conflicts between the friar orders and Filipino farmers and pushed a number of Caviteños to live as outlaws. This opposition to the friar orders was an important factor that drove many Cavite residents to support reform, and later, independence.
In 1872, Filipinos launched their revolt against Spain. Three Filipino priests—Jose Burgos, Mariano Gomez and Jacinto Zamora—were implicated in the Cavite mutiny when 200 Filipinos staged a rebellion within Spanish garrisons. On August 28, 1896, when the revolution against Spain broke out, Cavite became a bloody theater of war. Led by Emilio Aguinaldo, Caviteños made lightning raids on Spanish headquarters, and soon liberated the entire province through the Battle of Alapan. Aguinaldo commanded the Revolution to its successful end – the proclamation of the First Republic of the Philippines on June 12, 1898, in Kawit.
During the Spanish–American War, American forces attacked the Spanish squadron in Cavite. The Spanish defeat marked the end of Spanish rule in the country. A captured Spanish cannon from the Cavite arsenal now sits in Village Green Park in Winnetka, Illinois, USA.
World War II: Japanese occupation and liberation
In May 1942, after the fall of Bataan and Corregidor Island, the Japanese Imperial forces occupied Cavite and made garrisons in each town of the province.
After surviving the Bataan Death March and released from Capas, Tarlac concentration camp USAFFE Col. Mariano Castañeda, returned to Cavite and secretly organized the guerilla forces in the province.
The Japanese authorities pressured him to accept the position as Provincial Governor of Cavite, he refused many times over until his excuses did not work, much against his will he was forced to accept the position by the Japanese, and by thinking that it would be beneficial to further organize the resistance movement as Governor by day and a guerilla commander by night. Eventually, the Japanese discovered his guerrilla connection and raided his house in the attempt to capture him, but he escaped along with Col. Lamberto Javalera by swimming the Imus river up to Salinas, Bacoor and finally joined his comrades in the field in Neneng, the General Headquarters of the FACGF located in Dasmariñas.
At this time due to his organizational skills the Fil American Cavite Guerilla Forces (FACGF) raised a regiment in each of the administrative units and also created attached special battalions Overall, 3 special battalions, 1 medical battalion, 1 signal company, 1 hospital unit, Division GHQ and Staff were raised to provide administrative and combat support. Later on, the FACGF, with a peak of 14,371 Enlisted Men and 1,245 officers, grew into a formidable force to take on the omnipresent rule of the Japanese in the province. At its peak the force contained 14 infantry regiments:
1st Infantry Regiment, Imus (Col. Lorenzo Saulog)
2nd Infantry Regiment, Bacoor (Col. Francisco Guererro)
3rd Infantry Regiment, Silang (Col. Dominador Kiamson)
4th Infantry Regiment, Dasmariñas (Col. Estanislao Mangubat Carungcong)
5th Infantry Regiment, Barangay Anabu, Imus (Col. Raymundo Paredes)
6th Infantry Regiment, Cavite City (Col. Amado Soriano)
7th Infantry Regiment, Alfonso (Col. Angeles Hernais)
8th Infantry Regiment, Naic (Col. Emilio Arenas)
9th Infantry Regiment, Mendez (Col. Maximo Rodrigo)
10th Infantry Regiment Kawit (Col. Hugo Vidal)
11th Infantry Regiment Imus (Col. Maximo Reyes)
12th Infantry Regiment, Amadeo (Col. Daniel Mediran)
13th Infantry Regiment, Rosario (Col. Ambrosio Salud)
14th Infantry Regiment, Brgy. Paliparan, Dasmariñas (Col. Emiliano De La Cruz)
On January 31, 1945, the liberation of the province of Cavite started with the combined forces of the American 11th Airborne Division under General Swing and Col. Hildebrand and the valiant Caviteño guerrilleros of the Fil-American Cavite Guerilla Forces, which liberated the province of Cavite from the Japanese occupiers, and protected at all costs the National Highway 17 from Tagaytay to Las Piñas that serve as the vital supply route of the 11th Airborne Division, paving the way towards the road to the bitter but victorious Battle of Manila.
Postwar growth
The economic growth of the country began to creep its way to the province following the end of the Second World War and the restoration of independence. Given its distance from Manila, the province soon began to feel a transformation into an economic provider of food and industrial goods not just for Metro Manila but for the whole of the country. In 1954, Trece Martires City was created out as a planned capital city from portions of Tanza, Indang, Naic, and General Trias. Despite the transfer of capital status to Imus in 1979, it retains many offices of the provincial government, acting thus as the de facto capital of the province. Also, Tagaytay's high location and cool temperatures would enable it to become a secondary summer capital and a vacation spot especially during the Christmas season, given its distance to the Manila area.
Plan CALABARZON of 1972, in the midst of martial law and the communist and anti-government aggression that occurred in the rural areas and the western highlands, set the roadmap for the arrival of industrial estates to the province, beginning an era of economic progress. Carmona was the first town to have industrial estates, through the rising number of residents from the capital region enabled the creation of a new town, General Mariano Alvarez, in 1981, from parts of the town's north and west. In addition, Bacoor, given its distance from Metro Manila, saw the building of the first residential villages to accommodate the rising number of workers in the capital in the same period, and today, this city, alongside other towns and cities in the province's north and central parts, have more residential subdivisions and townships, as well as a number of shopping malls and other private business establishments.
Geography
Cavite is surrounded by Laguna province to the east, Metro Manila to the northeast, and Batangas province to the south. To the west lies the South China Sea. It is located within the Greater Manila Area, not to be confused with adjacent Metro Manila, the defined capital region.
Cavite is the second-smallest province (the Province of Rizal being the smallest) in the Calabarzon region. Cavite occupies a land area of , which is approximately 8.72 percent of Calabarzon's total land area, 2.74 percent of the regional area and 0.48 per cent of the total land area of the Philippines. The municipalities of Maragondon and Silang have the biggest land areas, comprising and respectively, while the municipality of Noveleta has the smallest land area as indicated by or 0.38 percent of the provincial total and area.
Topography and slope
Situated at the entrance of Manila Bay, Cavite is characterized by rolling hinterlands punctuated by hills; shoreline fronting Manila Bay at sea level; and rugged portion at the boundary with Batangas where the Dos Picos mountains are located. The province has two mountain ranges.
Cavite is divided into four physiographical areas, namely: the lowest lowland area, lowland area, the central hilly area and the upland mountainous area.
The lowest lowland area is the coastal plain in particular. These areas have extremely low ground level of elevation compared to the high tide level of about from the mean sea level (msl). These are the cities of Cavite, Bacoor and the municipalities of Kawit, Noveleta, Rosario, northern part of Carmona and eastern part of Ternate.
The lowland area consists of the coastal and alluvial plains. These areas have flat ground slope of less than 0.5% and low ground elevation of . The alluvial plain can be found in the city of Imus and southern part of General Trias. Into these municipalities forms the transition area between the coastal plain and the central hilly area. It also covers some areas of Bacoor, Carmona, Kawit, Noveleta, Rosario, and Tanza.
The third topography type is the central hilly area, generally found on the mountain foot slope. It forms the rolling tuffaceous plateau. This topography includes steep hills, ridges and elevated inland valley. The plateau is characterized with ground elevation ranging from to nearly . Its ground slope ranges from 0.5 to 2%. The cities of Trece Martires and Dasmariñas and the municipalities of General Emilio Aguinaldo, General Mariano Alvarez, western part of Ternate, northern parts of Amadeo, Indang, Silang, Magallanes and Maragondon have this kind of topography.
The last topography type is upland mountainous area, found in the city of Tagaytay and the municipalities of Alfonso, Mendez, southern parts of Amadeo, Indang, Silang, Magallanes and Maragondon. They are situated at a very high elevation above with slopes of more than 2%. The Tagaytay ridge has an average elevation of with Mount Sungay at , the highest elevation in the province at . The mountain was much higher before with an elevation of , topped by rock formations that resembled horns (Sungay in Tagalog) hence the name. The prominence of the mountain was leveled in half during the construction of People's Park in the Sky during the Marcos administration.
Islands
Balot Island, located at the mouth of Ternate River
Caballo Island
Corregidor
El Fraile Island
Carabao Island
La Monja Island, located west of Corregidor
Limbones Island, located off Maragondon coast near Batangas border
Pulo ni Burunggoy (now Island Cove Resort; formerly Covelandia) located in Bacoor Bay
Santa Amalia Island, located Northwest of Corregidor
Land resources and distribution
Cavite's land resources are categorized into two: forest lands and alienable and disposable lands. Forest lands are being maintained as they play a great role in the ecological balance of the province aside from the fact that they are home to numerous flora and fauna that needs to be protected and preserved. Correspondingly, the alienable and disposable lands are the built-up areas as well as production areas. These lands are intended for urban, economic and demographic developments.
Forest lands
Cavite province lies in the western monsoon forest zone. This location is very beneficial for the formation of tropical rainforests, which are characteristically made through natural vegetation. In 2007, the existing forest area within the province totaled only to . These forest areas were categorized as Protected Landscape under the National Integrated Protected Area System (NIPAS) and the rest, unclassified forest (Non-NIPAS). A total of are located within the Mounts Palay-Palay–Mataas-na-Gulod Protected Landscape, a protected area in Ternate and Maragondon created by Proclamation Number 1594 on October 26, 1976. The park lies at the border of Cavite and Batangas and encompasses three peaks, Palay-Palay, Pico de Loro and Mataas na Gulod. The five unclassified forests are found along Tagaytay Ridge, Maragondon, Magallanes, Ternate and Alfonso. The other mountain peaks in the province are Mt. Buntis, Mt. Nagpatong, Mt. Hulog and Mt. Gonzales (Mt. Sungay).
Cavite's forest provides an abundance of different forest products. Bamboo, a member of the grass family, is one of the most available forest products found in the municipalities of Ternate, Magallanes, Maragondon and General Aguinaldo throughout the year.
Alienable and disposable lands
These lands are being used in various ways, either for agriculture, residences, open areas, etc. Based on the Cavite Provincial Physical Framework Plan 2005–2010, Cavite's alienable and disposable lands are further classified into production lands and built-up areas. Production lands in Cavite are intended for agriculture, fishery, and mining. On the other hand, built-up areas are mainly for residential areas, commercial, industrial and tourism areas.
Production land-use
Majority of production land-use is for agriculture. Considering that 50.33% of the total provincial land area is engaged in agriculture, it can be generalized that in spite of rapid urbanization in the province, Cavite remains to have an agricultural economy that makes food security attainable. Some of the major crops being produced in the province are rice, corn, coffee, coconuts, cut flowers and vegetables.
Included in the agricultural land use are livestock farms that range from piggery, poultry, goat and cattle farms. The climatic suitability of Cavite makes the province ideal for integrated farming, having crops and livestock raising in one farm.
Fishery is also another major component of the agricultural sector. Having rich marine resources and long coastlines, the province is home to numerous fishery activities providing livelihood to many Caviteños. In some lowland and even upland areas, fishery, in the form of fish ponds are also producing a large amount of fish products. Some areas in Cavite are also engaged in fish processing and production of fish products like fish sauce.
Mining is the third component of production land-use in the province. As of 2009, there are 15 mining and quarrying areas operating in Cavite. Extraction includes filling materials, gravel, and sand.
Built-up areas
The built-up areas are mainly composed of residential and industrial sites. This also includes commercial and business areas where commerce is transpiring. According to the 2007 Census of Population and Housing by the Philippine Statistics Authority, there are 611,450 occupied housing units in Cavite.
Moreover, according to the Housing and Land-Use Regulatory Board, there are around 1,224 housing subdivisions with issued license to sell in the province until 2009 which occupies an area of 9,471 hectares.
Meanwhile, the industrial sector also develops rapidly in the province. For 2009, operational industrial estates cover around . Tourism establishments are also considered built-up areas such as golf courses, leisure farms, resorts and the likes.
Water resources
The hydrological network of the province is composed of seven major rivers and its tributaries. These river systems generally flows from the highlands of Tagaytay and Maragondon to Manila Bay. Numerous springs, waterfalls and rivers found in the upland areas of the province, have been developed for tourism. In the lowland areas, hundreds of artesian wells and deep wells provide water supply for both residential and irrigation purposes.
Cavite shoreline stretches about . The communities located along the coast are Cavite City, Bacoor, Kawit, Noveleta, Rosario, Tanza, Naic, Maragondon, and Ternate. The richness of Cavite's coastal resources is a major producer of oysters and mussels. The fishing industry also produces shrimp and bangus (milkfish). The western coastline are lined with pale gray sand beaches popular with tourists. Thus, fishery and tourism contributes to the economic activity of the province.
Major rivers
These rivers are known to have various tributaries passing through the municipalities of the province:
Springs
Waterfalls
Soil properties
Cavite is composed of several soil types according to soil surveys conducted by the Bureau of Soils and Water Management (BSWM). Classification of soil types in a specific area is a very important consideration in identifying its most fitted land-use. This way, utmost productivity can be achieved.
The lowland area of Cavite is generally composed of Guadalupe clay and clay loam. It is characterized as coarse and granular when dry but sticky and plastic when wet. Its substratum is solid volcanic tuff. These types of soils are suited to lowland rice and corn while those in the upland are suited for orchard and pasture. Guadalupe clay adobes are abundant in the southern part of Bacoor and Imus bordering Dasmariñas. The soil is hard and compact and difficult to cultivate that makes it generally unsuitable for diverse cropping. It is very sticky when wet and granular when dry. Forage grass is advised for this type of soil. Hydrosol and Obando sand are found along Bacoor Bay. The shoreline of Rosario, Tanza, Naic and Ternate are lined with Guadalupe sand.
The central area principally consists of Magallanes loam with streaks of Magallanes clay loam of sandy texture. This is recommended for diversified farming such as the cultivation of upland rice, corn, sugarcane, vegetables, coconut, coffee, mangoes and other fruit trees. The steep phase should be forested or planted to rootcrops. The eastern side of Cavite consists of Carmona clay loam with streaks of Carmona clay loam steep phase and Carmona sandy clay loam. This type of soil is granular with tuffaceaous material and concretions. It is hard and compact when dry, sticky and plastic when wet. This type of soil is planted to rice with irrigation or sugarcane without irrigation. Fruit trees such as mango, avocado and citrus are also grown in this type of soil. Guingua fine sandy loam is found along the lower part of Malabon and Alang-ilang River at Noveleta.
The type of soils that dominate the upland areas are Tagaytay loam and Tagaytay sandy loam with mountain soil undifferentiated found on the south-eastern side bordering Laguna province. Also on the southern tip are Magallanes clay and Mountain soil undifferentiated with interlacing of Magallanes clay loam steep phase. The Tagaytay loam contains fine sandy materials, moderately friable, and easy to work on when moist. In an undisturbed condition, it bakes and becomes hard when dry. About one-half of this soil type is devoted to upland rice and upland crops. On the other hand, Tagaytay sandy loam is friable and granular with considerable amount of volcanic sand and underlain by adobe clay. Mountain soil undifferentiated is forested with bamboos found in the sea coast. Cavite also has the Patungan sand characterized by pale gray to almost white sand with substratum of marine conglomerates which are found at Santa Mercedes in Maragondon and in some coastlines of Ternate.
Mineral resources and reserves
The greater parts of Cavite are composed of volcanic materials, tuff, cinders, basalt, breccias, agglomerate and interbeddings of shales, and sandstones. The dormant and active volcanoes (Taal) are within these volcanic areas and have been the sources of volcanic materials which form the Tagaytay Cuesta. The drainage systems are deeply entrenched in the tuffs, eroding thin interbedded sandstones and conglomerate rocks which are the sources of little reserves of sand and gravel in the larger stream. Adobe stone quarries also flourish in the tuff areas.
Cavite coastal areas have marl and conglomerate sedimentary rocks and some igneous rocks which are prominent in the high, mountainous regions of western part of the province. Black sands are found in Kawit while Noveleta has its own salt products. Magallanes has gravel deposits while reserves of sand and gravel materials are found in Alfonso, Carmona, Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo, Naic, Ternate, Maragondon and Silang.
Administrative divisions
Cavite comprises 16 municipalities and 7 cities:
Climate
Cavite belongs to Type 1 climate based on the Climate Map of the Philippines by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). Being a Type 1, Cavite has two pronounced seasons – the dry season, which usually begins in November and ends in April, and the rainy season, which starts in May and ends in October. The Köppen Climate Classification sub-type for this climate is "Am" (Tropical Monsoon Climate).
Demographics
Cavite had a total population of in the , making it the most populous (if independent cities are excluded from Cebu), and the second most densely populated province in the country. The tremendous increase can be observed in the year 1990 when industrialization was introduced in the province. Investors established their businesses in different industrial estates that magnetized people to migrate to Cavite due to job opportunities the province offers. Another factor attributed to the increase of population is the mushrooming of housing subdivisions. Since Cavite is proximate to Metro Manila, people working in the metropolitan area choose to live in the province together with their families. Natural increase also contributes to the increase in population. The population density of the province based on the was .
Among the cities and municipalities in Cavite, the city of Dasmariñas has the biggest population with 659,019 people while the municipality of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo has registered the smallest population with 22,220 people.
Cavite is classified as predominantly urban having 90.69 percent of the population concentrated in the urban areas, while 9.21 percent of the population reside in the rural areas.
Religion
Christianity
In line with national statistics, Christianity is the predominant faith in the province, composed of Catholics, Protestants, and other Independent Christian groups. The majority (70%) of the population are Roman Catholic.
Adherents of the Philippine Independent Church, also known as the Aglipayan Church, are particularly found in the towns where historically the Philippine Revolution and anti-clericalist sentiments are strong.
The Eastern Orthodox Church presence in Cavite province was a part of the Philippine Orthodox Church here in the Philippines under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Moscow and its own Orthodox Diocese province in Southeast Asia the Diocese of the Philippines and Vietnam. Many Orthodox community lives throughout the province especially in the city of Tagaytay.
The strong presence of other Christian denominations and sects such as the mainline Protestant Evangelical Churches, Christian Fellowships and other Christian sects are also evident throughout the province. Chapels of the Iglesia ni Cristo also known as INC, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church including its key institutions such as the Adventist University of the Philippines and Adventist International Institute of Advanced Studies are in Cavite. Meanwhile, the Members Church of God International has established coordinating centers throughout the province and a local convention center situated in Biga, Silang, Cavite.
Islam
With the influx of Filipino Muslim migrants from the Mindanao, local Caviteño Balik Islam or reverts, and some non-Filipino expats, their OFW spouses and children returning from Muslim countries, Sunni Islam of either the Shafii or Hanbali schools-of-thought has become evident in various areas of the province, and accounts for the majority of the non-Christian population.
Mosques, prayer halls, and prayer rooms catering to the community exist in places where local Muslim Caviteños live and work; especially in the municipalities of Bacoor, Imus, Rosario, and Dasmariñas.
Interreligious dialogue and communal relations between the majority Christians and minority Muslims are peaceful and amicable, with some families consisting of both Christian and Muslim members.
Other faiths
Non-Abrahamic faiths include native-Tagalog Anitism, Animism, Sikhism, and Hinduism. Among the local Chinese and Chinese-Filipino communities Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism are followed.
Languages
The main languages spoken are Tagalog, Chavacano and English. Due to the province bordering south of Metro Manila, a large number of people from farther provinces migrated to Cavite, resulting in minor but significant usages of Bicolano, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon and Waray languages.
Chavacano in Cavite
Chavacano or Chabacano is a Spanish-based creole language and known in linguistics as Philippine Creole Spanish. Chabacano is originally spoken by majority of the Caviteños that lived in Cavite City and Ternate after the arrival of the Spaniards three centuries ago. The various groups in the area of different linguistic backgrounds adopted a pidgin language, with mostly Spanish vocabulary, in order to communicate with each other. As children grew up in Cavite with that pidgin as their native language, it evolved into a creole language.
Now used almost exclusively in Cavite City and coastal Ternate, Chabacano enjoyed its widest diffusion and greatest splendor in Spanish and American period of Filipino history, when newspapers and literary outputs flourished. Cavite Chabacano was spoken with relative ease because it was essentially a simplification of Castillan morphology patterned after the Tagalog syntax. Gradually and naturally, it acquired the sounds present in the Spanish phonological system. After World War II, creole Spanish speakers within the capital of the archipelago vanished. Around 30,000 Caviteños still speak Chabacano, mostly elderly speakers. The language is today taught in elementary schools in both Cavite City and Ternate as part of the K-12 national curriculum from the first to 3rd grades, building up a new generation of speakers and writers within the province.
Culture
Aside from the celebrations of town fiestas, the province of Cavite celebrates festivals as forms of thanksgiving for a bountiful harvest. Some of these festivals are also observed in honor of the historical legacies passed from one generation to another generation. In fact, the province fetes the renowned Kalayaan Festival which is given a great social importance in commemoration of the heroism of its people. The annual Fiesta de la Reina del Provincia de Cavite is a grandiose fiesta celebration in honor of the patroness of the province, the Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga. The image is enshrined at San Roque Church in Cavite City. Her feastday is celebrated every 2nd and 3rd Sunday of November.
Traditions and fiesta celebrations include Mardicas, a war dance held in Ternate town. Karakol street dancing with a fluvial procession is usually held in coastal towns. There is also a pre-colonial ritual called the Sanghiyang as a form of thanksgiving and to heal the sick. Another cultural tradition is the Live via Crucis or Kalbaryo ni Hesus held during Holy Week. The Maytinis or word prayer that is annually held in Kawit every December 24 before the beginning of the midnight Mass.
Festivals
Special events
Foundation Day
Cavite Province celebrates its foundation every March 10
Birthday of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo
This is celebrated every March 22 in commemoration of the birth of the First President of the Republic.
Independence Day
This is celebrated every June 12 in Kawit as a re-enactment of the historic proclamation of Philippine independence at the mansion of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo.
Economy
Agriculture
The province is predominantly an agriculture province. The province's economy is largely dependent to agriculture. Despite urbanization and industrialization, still, a significant number of inhabitants are engaged into agribusinesses. The data gathered from Office of the Provincial Agriculturist shows that though the province lies in the industrial belt, the agricultural land is about 49.38 percent or of the total land area of the Province. This is bigger than that of the declared agricultural lands in 2008 (69,290.03 hectares).
The municipality of Maragondon has the biggest area intended for agriculture, accounts for 14.57% of the total provincial agricultural lands while Cavite City has no longer available land for agriculture related activities and industries. If based on total agricultural lands, we may say that the major players in agriculture in the province are Maragondon, Silang, Indang, Naic and Alfonso. Of the eight districts in the province, the top three with the widest agricultural area are District VII comprising 43,587.01 hectares or 61.85 percent of the total agricultural areas with 27,115 farmers followed by District VI with 17.40 percent or having 8,701 farmers and District V comprising with 10,295 farmers. The municipality of Silang has the most farmers. The municipality of Maragondon only ranks 3rd in terms of number of farmers. This can be attributed to highly mechanized operation and vast plantation of rice. The same is true with General Trias and Naic, known as the rice producing municipalities in Cavite. The number of farmers increased by 6.5% that corresponds to around 3,097 farmers. The increase in the number of farmers was due to worldwide recession which led to work displacement of some inhabitants. Silang is dominated by pineapple and coffee plantations as well as with cutflower production.
Industry and commerce
Cavite has twelve economic zones. The largest economic zone under development is located in Gen. Trias, the PEC Industrial Park with 177 hectares intended for garments, textiles, semiconductors, food processing and pharmaceuticals.
Major townships
Villar City (Vista Land) 2,500 hectares — Bacoor and Dasmariñas (shared with Las Piñas and Muntinlupa)
Lancaster New City (ProFriends) 2,100 hectares — Imus, Kawit, General Trias and Tanza
Twin Lakes Tagaytay (Megaworld) 1,149 hectares — Alfonso (shared with Laurel, Batangas)
Vermosa (Ayala Land) 770 hectares — Imus and Dasmariñas
Eagle Ridge Golf & Residential Estates (Santa Lucia) 700 hectares — General Trias
Southwoods City (Megaworld) 561 hectares— Carmona (shared with Biñan, Laguna)
Camella Tanza (Vista Land) 500 hectares — Tanza
Suntrust Ecotown (Megaworld) 350 hectares — Tanza
Arden Botanical Estate (Megaworld) 251 hectares — Tanza, Cavite
Evo City (Ayala Land) 250 hectares — Kawit
South Forbes City (Cathay Land) 250 hectares — Silang
South Forbes Golf City (Cathay Land) 250 hectares — Silang, Cavite
Golden Horizon (HG-III Construction and Development Corp) 250 hectares — Trece Martires
Antel Grand (Antel Holdings) 170 hectares — General Trias
Maple Grove (Megaworld) 140 hectares — General Trias
Mallorca City (Cathay Land) 100 hectares — Silang and Carmona, Cavite
Tourism
Tagaytay serves as the main tourist center in the province. Historical attraction and sites are Fort San Felipe and Sangley Point, both in Cavite City; Corregidor Island; General Trias; Calero Bridge, Noveleta; Battle of Alapan Marker and Flag in Imus; Zapote Bridge in Bacoor; Battle of Binakayan Monument in Kawit; Tejeros Convention Site in Rosario; and Aguinaldo Shrine, the site of the declaration of Philippine Independence in Kawit. Several old churches stand as glorious reminders of how the Catholic faith has blossomed in the Province of Cavite. Existing museums include Geronimo de los Reyes Museum, General Trias; Museo De La Salle, Dasmariñas; Philippine Navy Museum, Cavite City; Baldomero Aguinaldo Museum, Kawit; and Cavite City Library Museum, Cavite City. There are eight world-class golf courses in the province. Natural wonders are mostly found in the upland areas such as Tagaytay Ridge, Macabag Cave in Maragondon, Balite Falls in Amadeo, Malibiclibic Falls in General Aguinaldo-Magallanes border, Mts. Palay-Palay and Mataas na Gulod National Park in Ternate and Maragondon, Sitio Buhay Unclassified Forest in Magallanes and flowers, vegetables and coffee farms.
The Aguinaldo Shrine and Museum in Kawit is where the independence of the Philippines was proclaimed on June 12, 1898, by General Aguinaldo, the Philippines' first president. The multi-level structure includes a mezzanine and tower, and spans 14,000 square feet. Today, the ground floor serves as a museum, which houses historical artifacts. The tomb of Aguinaldo lies in a garden behind the house.
The Andrés Bonifacio House in General Trias is the former home of the country's revolutionary leader The site of his court martial in Maragondon is also preserved.
Other historical sites include the Battle of Alapan and Battle of Julian Bridge Markers, the House of Tirona, and Fort San Felipe.
The main churches of the province are the Imus Cathedral, San Roque Parish in Cavite City where the miraculous image of Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga enshrined., Bacoor, Silang, Naic, Tanza, Ternate, Indang, General Trias, Kawit and Maragondon Catholic Churches. The Shrines of Our Lady of La Salette in Silang, and St. Anne, Tagaytay, also attract pilgrims.
Corregidor is an island fortress where Filipino and American forces fought against the Japanese invaders in 1942. It has become a tourist attraction with tunnels, cannons and other war structures still well-preserved. The famous line of General Douglas MacArthur said is associated with Corregidor: "I shall return!"
There are first class hotels, inns and lodging houses to accommodate both foreign and local tourists. Conference facilities can be found in several convention centers, hotels and resorts in the province. Restaurants and specialty dining places offer mushroom dishes, native delicacies and exotic cuisines. Seafoods, fruits, coffee, organic vegetables, tinapa, handicrafts, ornamental plants also abound in the province.
Mountain climbing is also one of the outdoor activities in Cavite. This includes Mount Pico De Loro which is within the towns of Ternate and Maragondon (and some parts of it are already part of Batangas), which is a part of the Palay-Palay and Mataas na Gulod protected landscape. Mt. Pico De Loro is the highest part of Cavite at 664 meters above sea level and is noted for its 360-degree view at its summit and a cliff known as Parrot's Beak or Monolith that mountaineers would also like to climb. Mt. Marami, within the same mountain range, located at Magallanes town is also a mountaineering location due to its "silyang bato" (en. Chair of rocks) at its summit.
There are twenty-two accredited tourism establishments and three accredited tour guides. There are also tour packages being arranged with the Department of Tourism. Centuries old traditions and the very rich culture of Cavite have been the source of great pride to Caviteños.
Transportation
In the mid-19th century, Cavite, particularly the Cavite Peninsula in the north, was a stop for ships from South America before free trade opened up.
Roads
Cavite's total road network comprises roughly . Of these, the national roads are mostly paved with concrete or asphalt and are relatively in good condition with some portions in need of rehabilitation. Provincial roads stretches to an approximate total length of . Most of these roads are concrete, some are paved with asphalt and the rest remain gravel roads. Majority of the municipal/city roads are paved with concrete, while barangay roads consist of 46.7% concrete and asphalt roads and 53.3% earth and gravel roads.
There are three main highways traversing the province: Aguinaldo Highway runs in a general north–south direction which includes the Tagaytay–Nasugbu Highway segment in the south; the Governor's Drive runs in a general east–west direction; the Antero Soriano Highway runs within the coastal towns on the northwest. The existing road length computed in terms of road density with respect to population at the standard of per 1,000 population has a deficit of .
In 2011, the Cavite Expressway (CAVITEx) was opened, which lessened the heavy volume of vehicles on Aguinaldo Highway in Bacoor. This project decreased the traffic congestion in Aguinaldo Highway in Bacoor, so travel time from Imus to Baclaran/Pasay is lessened to only one hour.
In 2013, the Kaybiang Tunnel, the country's longest underground highway tunnel at was opened along the Ternate–Nasugbu Road piercing through Mt. Pico De Loro's north ridge, and shortens the travel time from Manila to the western coves of Cavite and Nasugbu, Batangas.
Last July 24, 2015, the Muntinlupa–Cavite Expressway (MCX), a long access-controlled toll expressway linking the southern province of Cavite to Muntinlupa in the Philippines, was opened to the public. The road is expected to reduce travel time by an average of 45 minutes from Daang Hari to Alabang Interchange as well as decongest traffic in Cavite, Las Piñas and Muntinlupa.
Currently, Cavite province is served by three DPWH offices: Cavite 1st, Cavite 2nd and Cavite Sub District Engineering Offices.
Proposed/ongoing transportation projects
Sangley International Airport
The Department of Transportation had "no objection" to an offer building a P508-billion airport complex on reclaimed land in Sangley Point. The upcoming international airport was pursued as a joint venture between investors, including Chinese enterprises, and the Cavite LGU.
Cavite–Laguna and Cavite–Tagaytay–Batangas Expressways
The Cavite–Laguna Expressway (CALAEx) is an under-construction expressway that will cross the provinces of Cavite and Laguna in the Philippines. The construction of the four-lane long expressway will connect CAVITEx in Kawit to SLEx – Interchange. When constructed, it is expected to ease the traffic in the Cavite–Laguna region, particularly in Aguinaldo Highway, Santa Rosa–Tagaytay Road and Governor's Drive.
Cavite–Tagaytay–Batangas Expressway is also a proposed expressway connects with CALAEx from Silang, Cavite to Nasugbu, Batangas. CTBEx is a future alternative route for tourists going to Tagaytay and Nasugbu.
LRT Line 1 South Extension Project
The LRT Line 1 South Extension Project or Cavite Extension Project through southern Metro Manila to the Province of Cavite has been identified as an integral link of the Rail Transit Network by Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integration Study (MMUTIS). It is one of the priority projects of the Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC) and LRTA. It is also a flagship project of the Office of the President.
The project aims to expand the existing LRT Line 1 service southward to the cities of Parañaque, Las Piñas and the city of Bacoor in the Cavite Province. The 11.7-km route of the light railway system that will start from Baclaran to Niog was planned to carry a capacity of 40,000 passengers per direction per hour. The extension will have 48 air-conditioned coaches, 12-four car trains, 8 passenger stations and a satellite depot in Cavite. The groundbreaking of LRT Line 1 South Extension Project was held on Thursday, May 4, 2017. The actual construction officially started on Tuesday, May 7, 2019, because the Right-of-way is "free and clear" from obstructions. Once its fully operational, Cavite will be served by the LRT-1 (via Niog station). The extension is slated for partial operations by late 2024 or early 2025 and full operations by second quarter of 2027. This is the second project outside Metro Manila after the planned MRT-7 that starts from North Avenue, Quezon City and it will end in San Jose Del Monte, Bulacan. The said project will serve approximately 1.9 million commuters based in Pasay, Paranaque, Las Piñas and Bacoor.
LRT Line 6 Project
The proposed LRT Line 6 project would further extend the LRT system by another 19 kilometers all the way to Dasmariñas from the proposed end in Niog in Bacoor, Cavite.
The mass transit system would pass along the Aguinaldo Highway and would have stations in Niog, Tirona station, Imus station, Daang Hari station, Salitran station, Congressional Avenue station, and Governor's Drive station. The project will improve passenger mobility and reduce the volume of vehicular traffic in the Cavite area by providing a higher capacity mass transit system. It also aims to spur economic development along the extension corridor.
Ferry services
There is one ferry service: Metrostar Ferry, from Cavite City to SM Mall of Asia in Pasay.
Local government
Governor
Juanito Victor Remulla (NUP)
Vice Governor
Ramon M. Revilla III (Lakas-CMD/Partido Magdalo)
Board members
Ex-officio members
House of Representatives
Notable people
National heroes and patriots
Emilio Aguinaldo, First President of the Philippines
Mariano Álvarez, Philippine Revolutionary General
Mariano Trias, Philippine Revolutionary General
Pascual Álvarez, Philippine Revolutionary General
Santiago Álvarez, Philippine Revolutionary General
Baldomero Aguinaldo, Philippine Revolutionary General
Crispulo Aguinaldo, Philippine Revolutionary General
Licerio Topacio, Philippine Revolutionary General
Tomás Mascardo, Philippine Revolutionary General
Mariano Noriel, served as general under Emilio Aguinaldo's revolutionary army during the 1896 Philippine Revolution
José Tagle, Filipino military officer who participated in the Battle of Imus during the Philippine Revolution.
Julián Felipe, composer of the Philippine National Anthem & Reina de Cavite
Román Basa, Second president of the Katipunan
Ladislao Diwa, one of the founders of Katipunan
Thirteen Martyrs of Cavite, Filipino patriots
Felipe Calderón y Roca, lawyer, considered the Father of the Malolos Constitution
Mariano Castañeda, Cavite Governor 1944, General of the Filipino-American Cavite Guerilla Forces FACGF the liberators of Cavite during the Japanese Occupation and Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines in 1947.
Science and education
Olivia Salamanca, Filipino physician who trained in the United States at the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia and was the second female physician from the Philippines.
Paulo C. Campos, National Scientist of the Philippines for Nuclear Medicine
Hilario Lara, National Scientist of the Philippines for Public Health
Jose R. Velasco, National Scientist of the Philippines for Plant Physiology
Lourdes J. Cruz, National Scientist of the Philippines for Biochemistry
Francisca Tirona, educator, humanitarian, civic leader, and administrator, and co-founder of the Philippine Women's University.
Nemesio Prudente, educator, political activist, and human rights defender revered for serving as President of the Polytechnic University of the Philippines.
Literature and the arts
Pascual H. Poblete, revolutionary and writer
Alejandro G. Abadilla, poet, Father of Modern Philippine Poetry
Rogelio Ordoñez, multi-awarded Filipino fiction writer, poet, activist, journalist and educator
Efren Abueg, novelist, short story writer, essayist, fictionist
Mars Ravelo, graphic novelist
Eros Atalia, author, professor and journalist
Wilfredo Alicdan, artist
George Canseco, composer, songwriter
Josefino Cenizal, composer
Religion
Cardinal Luis Antonio Tagle, Archbishop of Manila, Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Imus, President of Caritas Internationalis and Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples
Archbishop Rolando Joven Tria Tirona OCD, D.D., Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Caceres and Bishop Emeritus of Prelature of Infanta and Diocese of Malolos
Bishop Cirilo Almario, Second bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Malolos
Politics and government
Cesar Virata, former prime minister of the Philippines
Serafin R. Cuevas, 106th Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines and 50th Secretary of the Department of Justice
Jose Portugal Perez, 167th Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines
Jose C. Mendoza, 168th Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines
Antero Soriano, former senator and former Cavite governor
Justiniano S. Montano, former senator and representative 6th District of Cavite
Ramon Revilla Sr., actor and former Senator
Panfilo Lacson, senator and 7th Chief of the Philippine National Police
Bong Revilla, actor, Senator, former Cavite governor, and vice governor
Francis Tolentino, Senator, former Metropolitan Manila Development Authority chairman and mayor of Tagaytay
Manuel Earnshaw, former Resident Commissioner to the U.S. House of Representatives from the Philippine Islands
Leonides Sarao Virata, 15th Secretary of the Department of Trade and Industry
Epimaco Velasco, 16th Secretary of the Department of the Interior and Local Government, former NBI director and former Cavite governor
Joseph Emilio Abaya, former Department of Transportation and Communications secretary and former representative 1st District of Cavite
Irineo "Ayong" Maliksi, PCSO chairman, former Representative 3rd District of Cavite, former Cavite Governor and former City Mayor of Imus
Leon Guinto, former mayor of the City of Manila during the Japanese occupation
Lani Mercado, actress, Bacoor city mayor and former representative of the 2nd congressional district of Cavite
Gilbert Remulla, TV host, news anchor, reporter, former representative the 1st congressional district of Cavite
Strike Revilla, Representative 2nd District of Cavite former councilor & mayor of Bacoor and former Cavite board member & former PCSO chairman
Abraham Tolentino, politician, sportsperson
Philanthropy
Efren Peñaflorida, CNN Hero of the Year for 2009.
Luis Yangco, Filipino-Chinese businessman and philanthropist
Entertainment
Leopoldo Salcedo, actor
Celeste Legaspi, singer, actress
Bayani Agbayani, comedian, TV host
Jasmine Trias, sensational singer; American Idol grand champion 3rd runner up
Louise delos Reyes, actress
Bella Santiago, singer
Christian Bables, actor
Kaye Abad, actress
Nash Aguas, Actor and Star Circle Kid Quest Grand Questor
Arra San Agustin, actress
Christian Bautista, singer, actor, and host
Miguel Tanfelix, actor
Bugoy Cariño, Child Actor
Olivia Cenizal, actress
Lyca Gairanod, The Voice Kids (Philippines season 1) Champion
Seth Fedelin, actor
Roxanne Guinoo, actress and Star Circle Teen Quest Finalist
Diether Ocampo, actor, singer, and model
Sugar Mercado, actress, former SexBomb Girls member
Marcelito Pomoy, singer, Pilipinas Got Talent grand winner
Marian Rivera, actress
Sports
Wesley So, chess grandmaster and 8th youngest chess grandmaster in history
Joseph Eric Buhain, chairman of the Philippines' Games and Amusement Board. swimmer
Terrence Romeo, Professional basketball player in the Philippine Basketball Association (PBA). Currently playing for the GlobalPort Batang Pier and Gilas Pilipinas. Former college player of the FEU Tamaraws
Ranidel de Ocampo, Professional basketball player in the Philippine Basketball Association, currently plays for the Talk 'N Text Tropang Texters
Yancy de Ocampo, athlete
Others
Leonardo Manicio, aka Nardong Putik Filipino gangster turned folk hero
Notes
References
External links
Provinces of the Philippines
States and territories established in 1614
1614 establishments in the Philippines
|
[
0.07562205940485,
0.2759990990161896,
0.3268146514892578,
0.23240447044372559,
-0.33149877190589905,
0.17596152424812317,
-0.18454554677009583,
0.9226638674736023,
-0.11576933413743973,
-0.13218438625335693,
-0.05603347718715668,
0.42208802700042725,
-0.27751803398132324,
0.0844447985291481,
-0.12845999002456665,
0.39134806394577026,
1.395816445350647,
0.8234297037124634,
0.08829846978187561,
-0.5049347877502441,
-0.49381425976753235,
-0.2947562038898468,
0.30385932326316833,
0.8050880432128906,
0.31914979219436646,
0.023605195805430412,
0.04523272439837456,
0.6453838348388672,
0.39666202664375305,
-0.1283237487077713,
-0.3108765184879303,
0.12023869901895523,
0.03377414494752884,
0.1102481335401535,
-0.0610291063785553,
0.05212739109992981,
-0.056063733994960785,
-0.6887231469154358,
-0.5353851914405823,
0.07005637139081955,
-0.3500828146934509,
-0.216631218791008,
0.25364893674850464,
0.012485086917877197,
0.03350848704576492,
-0.7304307222366333,
-0.8865067362785339,
0.8121881484985352,
-0.9494197964668274,
0.2785516083240509,
-1.1575716733932495,
0.5173014998435974,
-0.15913480520248413,
-0.11357751488685608,
0.09749383479356766,
0.4831303358078003,
-0.7143612504005432,
0.012926639057695866,
-0.3132742643356323,
-0.08637690544128418,
-0.349903404712677,
0.76611328125,
0.18309298157691956,
0.08832590281963348,
-0.4435816705226898,
-0.24358390271663666,
0.4907732307910919,
-0.09805423766374588,
-0.22625970840454102,
-0.5358534455299377,
0.08738892525434494,
0.5363808870315552,
0.265877902507782,
-0.022693749517202377,
-0.4959385395050049,
-0.8354722857475281,
-0.2596464157104492,
0.16327568888664246,
-0.09214130789041519,
0.1720728725194931,
-0.02728370390832424,
0.09348911792039871,
0.10371571034193039,
0.007529542315751314,
0.6149179339408875,
0.23511312901973724,
-0.3286503851413727,
-0.44152194261550903,
-0.14810411632061005,
0.44953128695487976,
-0.9047885537147522,
0.24105024337768555,
0.4100283980369568,
-0.25876811146736145,
-0.004332609940320253,
-0.720844030380249,
-0.3685992658138275,
0.1478201150894165,
-0.19673754274845123,
0.5328640341758728,
-0.6082848310470581,
0.4174574017524719,
0.7559295296669006,
0.5852345824241638,
-0.5442683696746826,
-0.13861782848834991,
-0.3024727702140808,
0.49118179082870483,
-0.7363690733909607,
0.12208079546689987,
-0.360195130109787,
-0.259103924036026,
0.1387883573770523,
0.5814114809036255,
0.3104790151119232,
-0.167790025472641,
0.41099122166633606,
-0.388780802488327,
0.051075529307127,
-0.7306281328201294,
-0.10510998219251633,
0.7995677590370178,
-0.14818716049194336,
0.35431694984436035,
0.30137816071510315,
-0.2680343985557556,
0.6213560104370117,
-0.02827458083629608,
0.08309514820575714,
0.3006729781627655,
-0.043421465903520584,
0.5905229449272156,
-0.624661922454834,
0.1823754459619522,
0.26106277108192444,
-0.7370618581771851,
-0.9803369045257568,
0.7973379492759705,
-0.06211872771382332,
-0.31376922130584717,
-1.1829144954681396,
-0.050331756472587585,
0.16479255259037018,
-0.028734752908349037,
0.3152991831302643,
0.04752970486879349,
0.07085920125246048,
-0.7821279764175415,
-0.8222951292991638,
-0.5216818451881409,
0.11824548244476318,
0.19184909760951996,
-0.5027894377708435,
0.27972331643104553,
-0.3262302279472351,
-0.1800031065940857,
1.075668454170227,
0.29956579208374023,
0.36307039856910706,
0.44685760140419006,
-0.10977774113416672,
-0.3586745858192444,
0.5693172216415405,
-0.30871763825416565,
-0.11545161157846451,
-0.02929374948143959,
0.38420039415359497,
1.1710792779922485,
0.36002397537231445,
0.6956160068511963,
-0.3990184962749481,
-0.2519286870956421,
-0.01479687262326479,
-1.1508638858795166,
-0.1739480197429657,
-0.5196524262428284,
0.24518248438835144,
0.23328690230846405,
-0.6854683756828308,
-0.10317539423704147,
-0.6327053904533386,
1.204085111618042,
-0.13290436565876007,
0.18835771083831787,
-0.22043350338935852,
0.06673978269100189,
0.20849168300628662,
0.3324378430843353,
0.38631671667099,
0.05200675129890442,
0.21435010433197021,
-0.06444548070430756,
-0.28598520159721375,
-0.265736848115921,
0.34575214982032776,
0.22331030666828156,
-0.2800317108631134,
0.688431978225708,
0.042330097407102585,
0.8055208325386047,
-0.2943150997161865,
-0.09708753973245621,
0.39097467064857483,
-0.13435082137584686,
-0.5569630265235901,
0.3249310851097107,
0.3699643015861511,
0.8550869822502136,
0.34945130348205566,
1.2680021524429321,
0.21683071553707123,
-0.08223710209131241,
-0.11795972287654877,
0.08958767354488373,
-0.06569024175405502,
-0.7371205687522888,
-0.2740543782711029,
-0.15310944616794586,
0.2822592258453369,
-0.22352594137191772,
0.057147104293107986,
-0.26681819558143616,
-0.1837506741285324,
0.8955773115158081,
0.11617923527956009,
1.2472450733184814,
0.2574472725391388,
0.04226112365722656,
0.7237013578414917,
-0.3281557559967041,
0.6390881538391113,
-0.24604175984859467,
0.487959086894989,
-0.45022261142730713,
-0.22193048894405365,
0.2271716594696045,
-0.4162009060382843,
-0.19520054757595062,
-0.11415074020624161,
-0.5167078375816345,
0.09249064326286316,
-0.20577716827392578,
-0.643601655960083,
0.08925347775220871,
0.628629207611084,
0.2838608920574188,
-0.5250446796417236,
-0.10317667573690414,
0.03889959305524826,
0.2951255440711975,
-0.06527940928936005,
0.04163924977183342,
0.19638691842556,
-0.27012577652931213,
0.12071938067674637,
-0.35116612911224365,
-0.5234164595603943,
-0.18478409945964813,
0.5164816379547119,
-0.36749306321144104,
-0.612051784992218,
0.0436108224093914,
-0.12472040951251984,
0.7650514245033264,
-0.3163129389286041,
-0.40864279866218567,
0.5828734636306763,
-0.27390021085739136,
-0.22434785962104797,
-0.021074777469038963,
-0.26287949085235596,
-0.5613843202590942,
-0.5561525821685791,
-0.22582970559597015,
0.2142869234085083,
-0.3743510842323303,
0.29204538464546204,
0.32826268672943115,
-0.5468620657920837,
-0.5998155474662781,
-0.2866257429122925,
0.9599921107292175,
-0.30468741059303284,
-0.4221421778202057,
-0.5265282392501831,
-0.43392297625541687,
0.1783161759376526,
-0.391934335231781,
-0.27375805377960205,
-0.05597623437643051,
-0.3533501923084259,
-0.8165450096130371,
-0.46899300813674927,
0.5863276124000549,
-0.327385812997818,
-0.34538331627845764,
0.04622362554073334,
0.377607136964798,
0.7729120850563049,
-1.415773868560791,
-0.6094269752502441,
0.26332879066467285,
-0.12725146114826202,
0.29168403148651123,
-0.14658431708812714,
0.30744898319244385,
-0.4695407450199127,
0.6423230767250061,
-5.3250555992126465,
0.09945616871118546,
-0.27264562249183655,
-0.8908122181892395,
0.04855729267001152,
-0.5452098250389099,
-0.5571707487106323,
-0.45364734530448914,
0.34971463680267334,
-0.633114218711853,
0.13966213166713715,
0.22347629070281982,
0.30111926794052124,
0.6002200841903687,
0.21452677249908447,
0.6102363467216492,
-0.2465427815914154,
-0.3412522077560425,
0.09166548401117325,
-0.05269721895456314,
-0.5584558844566345,
-0.26490578055381775,
-0.0836644247174263,
0.6628077030181885,
0.4310079514980316,
0.10771552473306656,
-0.2907724380493164,
-0.4229283332824707,
-0.30707603693008423,
-0.05888870358467102,
-0.4969269037246704,
0.051055289804935455,
0.18358880281448364,
0.2689884305000305,
-0.45771095156669617,
0.17587123811244965,
0.883581280708313,
-0.07789390534162521,
0.046021487563848495,
-0.5272375345230103,
0.042316216975450516,
0.21395255625247955,
-0.22931906580924988,
0.11494472622871399,
0.08746008574962616,
0.202887162566185,
-0.8036767840385437,
-0.13317027688026428,
-0.40756964683532715,
0.42125818133354187,
0.5336316227912903,
-0.05047213286161423,
0.18886986374855042,
0.029989654198288918,
0.1814858764410019,
-0.027498643845319748,
0.4926131069660187,
-0.8222236633300781,
-1.0657321214675903,
0.305043488740921,
0.15336540341377258,
0.3032122254371643,
-0.3480062484741211,
0.09552110731601715,
0.009034975431859493,
0.04512541741132736,
0.010435782372951508,
0.16904625296592712,
0.9046837091445923,
-0.12353704124689102,
-0.5130196213722229,
0.1204654797911644,
-0.6359078884124756,
-0.6287996172904968,
0.09420250356197357,
-0.43330347537994385,
-0.5670872330665588,
0.321834921836853,
-0.11240413039922714,
0.07546442002058029,
-0.10508537292480469,
0.14303851127624512,
0.2048075944185257,
0.5315955877304077,
-0.028424452990293503,
-0.0789891928434372,
0.14307332038879395,
0.2909761667251587,
-0.05452290549874306,
0.42469286918640137,
0.07146375626325607,
0.13080941140651703,
0.6271408796310425,
0.36064717173576355,
-0.18486902117729187,
0.25708863139152527,
0.06715752184391022,
0.41013506054878235,
-0.1775664985179901,
-0.5055956244468689,
1.1068211793899536,
-0.24287620186805725,
-0.14965058863162994,
-0.14237166941165924,
-0.17337258160114288,
-0.600994884967804,
-0.032127805054187775,
0.5270323157310486,
-0.3396166265010834,
-0.3517618179321289,
0.29438701272010803,
0.02290593460202217,
-0.24863138794898987,
-0.4500085711479187,
0.9840853810310364,
-0.20984327793121338,
-0.2749764621257782,
0.24671345949172974,
0.2783167064189911,
0.15709473192691803,
0.07759485393762589,
0.44084790349006653,
0.1334729939699173,
0.43983903527259827,
-1.0039377212524414,
-0.5340654253959656,
-0.3651244044303894,
0.8093357086181641,
0.4931183457374573,
0.11713282018899918,
0.30842652916908264,
-0.42654743790626526,
0.6990596652030945,
-0.14226123690605164,
-0.22971978783607483,
0.33661288022994995,
-0.06098942458629608,
-0.6903286576271057,
0.29998624324798584,
-0.3723470866680145,
0.2864235043525696,
-0.3728893995285034,
-0.5050780177116394,
0.20106379687786102,
0.2791662812232971,
-0.489016056060791,
-0.34973207116127014,
-0.4255479574203491,
-0.826417863368988,
-0.019790474325418472,
-0.297431081533432,
-0.6354286074638367,
-0.01009762566536665,
-0.24179422855377197,
-0.5004879832267761,
-0.9274539947509766,
-0.04946712777018547,
-0.005218411795794964,
0.5139299035072327,
0.1071135550737381,
0.43651726841926575,
-0.7587484121322632,
-0.6315669417381287,
0.15092189610004425,
-0.13093838095664978,
-0.360614150762558,
-0.29246729612350464,
-0.6967397928237915,
-0.040400389581918716,
0.9374444484710693,
0.24908052384853363,
-0.21027871966362,
-0.7035573720932007,
-0.31757044792175293,
0.698748767375946,
-0.8054680228233337,
0.004488559905439615,
0.032674986869096756,
-0.04369382560253143,
0.20805723965168,
0.26902854442596436,
-0.5805143117904663,
-0.3324863314628601,
0.16210772097110748,
0.9216389060020447,
0.16995921730995178,
-0.7453176975250244,
-0.2805890738964081,
-0.27063485980033875,
0.40749090909957886,
-0.03994913026690483,
0.04537542909383774,
0.03980126976966858,
0.3951624631881714,
-0.4617096483707428,
-0.1372092068195343,
-0.524150550365448,
0.41215187311172485,
0.1482986956834793,
-0.07844702154397964,
-0.5597499012947083,
0.5241745710372925,
-0.4795754551887512,
0.2548670470714569,
0.11653918027877808,
0.09835784137248993,
0.4333781599998474,
0.0570015013217926,
-0.5386883020401001,
0.2919333875179291,
-0.07548533380031586,
-0.01496980246156454,
0.306042343378067,
0.5356127619743347,
-0.17152322828769684,
0.22086471319198608,
0.07615243643522263,
-0.16076546907424927,
-0.35951754450798035,
-0.6939989924430847,
0.03202768415212631,
0.11545657366514206,
0.3132600784301758,
-0.23786728084087372,
0.16182145476341248,
1.4719054698944092,
0.2995452284812927,
-0.6896542906761169,
0.5740746259689331,
0.21314743161201477,
0.5436267852783203,
-0.2892192602157593,
0.5738876461982727,
-0.10339849442243576,
0.20188668370246887,
0.06563190370798111,
-0.016173046082258224,
0.3927209675312042,
-0.2870903015136719,
0.0877743661403656,
0.10202576965093613,
0.838549017906189,
-0.46722692251205444,
-0.6602401733398438,
-0.08198441565036774,
0.24227756261825562,
0.12448538094758987,
-0.05727482959628105,
-0.26594510674476624,
0.13231897354125977,
0.23333072662353516,
-0.8084052801132202,
-0.3711475431919098,
0.19704757630825043,
0.5622279047966003,
-0.5540072321891785,
-0.3886244297027588,
0.4234224557876587,
0.26491522789001465,
0.5162747502326965,
0.255022794008255,
-0.37900933623313904,
0.1831626147031784,
0.023714011535048485,
0.13791248202323914,
-0.37753576040267944,
-0.2259642630815506,
-0.2720297873020172,
0.27700328826904297,
0.18505290150642395,
-0.018365344032645226,
-0.12792672216892242,
0.18826061487197876,
-0.1834246665239334,
0.24828878045082092,
0.19427941739559174,
0.32980796694755554,
-0.2111697494983673,
0.3741380274295807,
-0.5292015075683594,
-0.9955234527587891,
0.09338751435279846,
-0.45261150598526,
-0.3595203757286072,
-0.21278998255729675,
-0.5944713354110718,
-0.24907419085502625,
0.4459179937839508,
-0.43695518374443054,
0.5479446649551392,
-0.2597604990005493,
-0.28394827246665955,
0.06877979636192322,
-0.46551990509033203,
0.13960155844688416,
-0.27371761202812195,
0.13757739961147308,
0.7030627131462097,
0.5946043133735657,
0.29702863097190857,
-0.6931214928627014,
0.17072367668151855,
0.48956048488616943,
-0.20627550780773163,
0.15576787292957306,
-0.25345325469970703,
-0.062104176729917526,
-0.11201561242341995,
-0.7228301167488098,
0.35583803057670593,
0.03197700157761574,
-0.01955597847700119,
0.49895259737968445,
-0.06256803125143051,
-0.2252340167760849,
0.9033898115158081,
0.9919349551200867,
-0.25612443685531616,
-0.15960834920406342,
0.6196061968803406,
0.44963493943214417,
-0.09937642514705658,
-0.10510830581188202,
0.4876202344894409,
0.3341014087200165,
1.166701078414917,
-0.24478517472743988,
-0.7556673884391785,
0.35596609115600586,
-0.3209141492843628,
0.27421489357948303,
-0.07246623933315277,
-0.7305871248245239,
0.7379323244094849,
-0.619290292263031,
-0.5011037588119507,
-0.011412255465984344,
-0.44003021717071533,
-0.15298114717006683,
0.563026487827301,
0.8645092844963074,
0.686316192150116,
-0.37562844157218933,
0.2777644097805023,
0.2598043382167816,
0.05938587337732315,
0.4640241861343384,
-0.25986239314079285,
0.03971480205655098,
-0.21997253596782684,
0.5077885389328003,
0.41141214966773987,
0.6408165693283081,
-0.047866981476545334,
0.19886115193367004,
0.5049722790718079,
-0.2624923288822174,
0.22237543761730194,
-0.16287235915660858,
-0.5233128070831299,
0.06272837519645691,
-0.29508471488952637,
0.19181504845619202,
0.3106706142425537,
-0.21355941891670227,
-0.4277091920375824,
0.7987238168716431,
0.4189533293247223,
-0.965205729007721,
0.2154003530740738,
-0.4008539915084839,
0.5136348605155945,
-0.10120027512311935,
0.18241731822490692,
-0.3794381022453308,
0.7081524729728699,
0.18624074757099152,
0.6533597707748413,
-0.2586930990219116,
0.026302190497517586,
-0.022844234481453896,
0.21056108176708221,
0.09822992980480194,
-0.6410999894142151,
0.0013906625099480152,
-0.43387922644615173,
0.09236973524093628,
0.01390158012509346,
-0.07145151495933533,
0.3553936779499054,
-0.35840001702308655,
-0.11371835321187973,
0.023999866098165512,
0.3090653717517853,
0.1389046013355255,
0.23452128469944,
-0.42535752058029175,
1.000195026397705,
0.7561901807785034,
-0.13249415159225464,
0.30224326252937317,
-0.4455798268318176,
0.28974542021751404,
-0.09044021368026733,
-0.0012278668582439423,
-0.3593035936355591,
-0.06851225346326828,
-0.17714770138263702,
-0.3439597189426422,
0.17502637207508087,
0.1268099993467331,
0.034850142896175385,
-0.5325724482536316,
0.06054810434579849,
-0.7592100501060486,
0.7669052481651306,
0.38071751594543457,
-0.34896019101142883,
0.043176449835300446,
-0.4232724606990814,
0.1395992785692215,
-0.30574747920036316,
-0.30571961402893066,
0.825464129447937,
0.5973976850509644,
-0.055233996361494064,
-0.36077815294265747,
0.7275926470756531,
-0.7389612197875977,
0.32865214347839355,
0.26280128955841064,
-0.7390222549438477,
-0.9596747159957886,
0.7147465944290161,
-0.2816750705242157,
-0.08436115086078644,
0.35250791907310486,
0.6687595248222351,
0.3351541757583618,
-0.029278812929987907,
-0.13611434400081635,
-0.32809045910835266,
0.7203878164291382,
-0.6095120310783386,
0.34480541944503784,
-0.6663820147514343,
-0.32530301809310913,
0.4695146083831787,
-1.1488360166549683,
0.456197053194046,
0.016702864319086075,
-0.050698619335889816,
0.479513943195343,
-0.03614450618624687,
-0.1858888417482376,
0.4245122969150543,
0.3950287103652954,
-0.29875636100769043,
0.2864396870136261,
-0.23167777061462402
] |
213126
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunnanozoon
|
Yunnanozoon
|
Yunnanozoon lividum (Yunnan + Greek ζῷον zôion, lividum; "livid animal of Yunnan") is an extinct species from the Lower Cambrian, Chengjiang biota of Yunnan province, China. It is thought of as a deuterostome suspected of being either a hemichordate or chordate,
Yunnanozoon is similar to the form Haikouella, which is almost certainly a chordate. Still, there are anatomical differences from Haikouella, including a smaller stomach and much larger (1 mm) pharyngeal teeth. It is by no means certain whether Yunannozoon possessed features such as a heart, gills, etc., which are seen in well-preserved specimens of Haikouella. Yunnanozoon somewhat resembles the Middle Cambrian Pikaia from the Burgess shale of British Columbia in Canada. Thirteen pairs of symmetrically arranged gonads have been identified, as have possible gill slits. However, some authors think that Yunnanozoon is closely related to the chordate Haikouella and that Yunnanozoon is probably a chordate rather than a hemichordate. A close relationship between Yunnanozoon and the taxon Vetulicolia has also been proposed.
See also
Cristozoa
References
External links
A picture can be found at https://web.archive.org/web/20030511135309/http://www.gs-rc.org:80/repo/repoe.htm
Maotianshan shales fossils
Deuterostome enigmatic taxa
Cambrian chordates
Fossil taxa described in 1995
Prehistoric chordate genera
Chordates
|
[
-0.5060136318206787,
0.24461698532104492,
-0.7565647959709167,
-0.33107268810272217,
-0.028752338141202927,
0.6012275218963623,
0.24253931641578674,
0.5044316649436951,
-0.07737519592046738,
0.05557003989815712,
0.2924607992172241,
0.027202285826206207,
-0.2807130813598633,
0.3743738532066345,
0.00003371785714989528,
0.852375864982605,
0.602864146232605,
0.2966495752334595,
-0.34480583667755127,
-0.18941327929496765,
0.3350280821323395,
-0.8836033940315247,
0.7934847474098206,
-0.08452112227678299,
-0.07135121524333954,
0.06803738325834274,
0.5643802285194397,
0.4780641496181488,
0.590678870677948,
-0.33806630969047546,
-1.0339184999465942,
0.7661926746368408,
-0.05215005576610565,
0.05708691477775574,
-0.22777366638183594,
0.587446391582489,
-0.7805439233779907,
-0.34669622778892517,
-0.5373685956001282,
-0.18293572962284088,
0.4181361496448517,
0.083182193338871,
-0.06364800781011581,
0.8932141065597534,
0.08294663578271866,
-0.5099321603775024,
-1.340941309928894,
0.7641230821609497,
-1.0054824352264404,
-0.07296519726514816,
0.04190099984407425,
0.5540664196014404,
0.1195841059088707,
0.11272437870502472,
-0.4527164101600647,
0.6871892809867859,
-0.9266944527626038,
-0.42270269989967346,
0.3697473704814911,
0.2987818121910095,
-0.03576218709349632,
0.2900857925415039,
-0.602387011051178,
0.14574314653873444,
-0.24113836884498596,
0.6184840202331543,
0.03729579970240593,
0.7688456177711487,
-0.3792140483856201,
-0.6787500977516174,
-0.07251421362161636,
0.5710603594779968,
0.07299638539552689,
0.5514918565750122,
-0.27358710765838623,
-0.025469476357102394,
-0.4802500009536743,
-0.11589433252811432,
0.36572468280792236,
0.22229968011379242,
0.22945843636989594,
0.16597436368465424,
0.9082520008087158,
-0.030580252408981323,
-0.2095516324043274,
-0.05258861556649208,
-0.7518893480300903,
0.4339505434036255,
-0.08845625072717667,
-0.05165949463844299,
-0.6434520483016968,
-0.29616594314575195,
0.518894612789154,
0.5299420356750488,
0.042374178767204285,
0.31631526350975037,
-0.5717232823371887,
0.8733256459236145,
0.3892212510108948,
0.14998868107795715,
-0.47523626685142517,
0.025370221585035324,
0.08571844547986984,
-0.17903104424476624,
-0.7530702948570251,
-0.3415828347206116,
-0.21228186786174774,
-0.1795434206724167,
-0.7641147971153259,
0.1688154637813568,
-0.6630451083183289,
0.26551783084869385,
-0.06813640892505646,
-0.21604497730731964,
0.6269250512123108,
0.11628010123968124,
-0.09864936023950577,
-0.41197633743286133,
0.04918793588876724,
-0.6331239938735962,
0.41744405031204224,
0.6614294052124023,
-0.4009503424167633,
0.18813610076904297,
0.41659167408943176,
-0.044217776507139206,
0.08627684414386749,
0.07432076334953308,
-0.7270583510398865,
0.3912293314933777,
1.0588992834091187,
1.1357837915420532,
-0.034122418612241745,
0.21339331567287445,
-0.33806273341178894,
-0.6423551440238953,
0.20020698010921478,
-0.018185153603553772,
-0.09083567559719086,
-0.20839153230190277,
-0.4707263708114624,
0.18255658447742462,
-1.0840849876403809,
0.23705898225307465,
0.028838537633419037,
0.09858110547065735,
0.2478824406862259,
-0.19933459162712097,
-0.4770364761352539,
-1.1103403568267822,
0.43125155568122864,
-0.6901918053627014,
-0.2921275496482849,
0.25368380546569824,
-0.3006744086742401,
0.525043249130249,
0.21882492303848267,
-0.1947205513715744,
0.49977728724479675,
-0.1334155648946762,
0.03671187907457352,
-0.2978651821613312,
-1.037056565284729,
-0.06945046037435532,
0.24363161623477936,
-0.5582770109176636,
0.31394144892692566,
0.40670260787010193,
-0.20218664407730103,
-0.07875111699104309,
-0.779754638671875,
-0.15742509067058563,
0.2881430387496948,
0.5782134532928467,
0.3148099184036255,
-0.7387281656265259,
0.06189955398440361,
0.6165328621864319,
0.28749072551727295,
-0.23405538499355316,
-0.8364654779434204,
0.04775933921337128,
0.23048847913742065,
0.2069316804409027,
0.9549779295921326,
0.6216295957565308,
1.0868171453475952,
0.48923373222351074,
-0.08286681026220322,
0.2248247116804123,
-0.5119484066963196,
-0.4459536671638489,
0.12889231741428375,
0.2616743743419647,
0.9965195655822754,
0.38264918327331543,
-0.2575286626815796,
0.46290576457977295,
0.3386155962944031,
0.5724916458129883,
-0.8336442708969116,
-0.05892930179834366,
0.4398791491985321,
-0.24042771756649017,
-0.4002879858016968,
-0.07104221731424332,
0.45346128940582275,
-0.04087099805474281,
0.31953826546669006,
0.49045315384864807,
-0.0031664595007896423,
-0.7410049438476562,
0.4320816993713379,
0.019410552456974983,
0.2430696189403534,
0.016539953649044037,
-0.37687426805496216,
-0.050289515405893326,
-0.4430150091648102,
-0.34941554069519043,
0.31853723526000977,
-0.8040340542793274,
0.4578201174736023,
0.39160361886024475,
-0.15227845311164856,
0.4995039105415344,
1.0349514484405518,
0.055412862449884415,
0.5242190957069397,
-0.5549451112747192,
-0.5780617594718933,
0.13868050277233124,
0.8850441575050354,
-0.10894083976745605,
0.0897458866238594,
-0.10786905139684677,
0.11265909671783447,
-0.39780157804489136,
0.19901835918426514,
-0.40115901827812195,
0.20412249863147736,
-0.1717565804719925,
-0.295398086309433,
-0.052222300320863724,
0.4369787871837616,
-0.040198735892772675,
0.06863528490066528,
0.5803356766700745,
-0.4048112630844116,
0.057321492582559586,
0.42196276783943176,
0.8797008991241455,
0.290155291557312,
-0.19568079710006714,
0.10643668472766876,
-0.28008484840393066,
0.45414942502975464,
-0.2509724199771881,
0.3686789274215698,
-0.29549601674079895,
-0.8926075100898743,
0.36320438981056213,
0.09136861562728882,
-0.29197922348976135,
-0.045686930418014526,
0.28117814660072327,
-0.11366984248161316,
-0.3069772720336914,
0.7410245537757874,
0.15412412583827972,
0.11718899011611938,
0.1993684321641922,
-0.6848418116569519,
0.5117179751396179,
-0.24906516075134277,
0.012942205183207989,
-0.3692016303539276,
-0.14703796803951263,
-0.6639901995658875,
-0.5982610583305359,
-0.2287624627351761,
0.892889678478241,
0.4999600648880005,
-0.512730062007904,
-0.8562493920326233,
-0.2760539948940277,
-0.08091447502374649,
-0.21320970356464386,
-0.06900227814912796,
-1.1770890951156616,
-0.1440407931804657,
-0.4107603132724762,
-0.1558278650045395,
0.08287443965673447,
-0.7563458681106567,
0.3019857108592987,
-0.455446720123291,
0.08650092780590057,
0.6682330965995789,
-0.21604914963245392,
-0.5188100337982178,
0.012455562129616737,
-0.2143692970275879,
0.5339387655258179,
0.38943055272102356,
-0.10378304123878479,
0.0931689515709877,
0.30748090147972107,
-5.239355564117432,
0.2591933608055115,
0.37762215733528137,
0.1677177995443344,
0.386737197637558,
0.3417103588581085,
-0.0036490480415523052,
-0.40638819336891174,
-0.0914972722530365,
-0.1517827808856964,
-0.43135178089141846,
0.320749431848526,
-0.07411205023527145,
-0.09633659571409225,
0.12949980795383453,
0.3119484484195709,
0.24295037984848022,
0.20874732732772827,
-0.3168417811393738,
0.23044273257255554,
0.027626197785139084,
-0.0912952870130539,
-0.3374161124229431,
0.704508900642395,
0.21917255222797394,
0.15798886120319366,
0.6403199434280396,
-0.4220764636993408,
-0.09417527914047241,
-0.6907219290733337,
-0.7730905413627625,
-0.593115508556366,
0.12240910530090332,
0.6134897470474243,
0.17239584028720856,
0.05212730914354324,
0.3882121443748474,
0.2971857190132141,
0.7475415468215942,
-0.41277775168418884,
-0.4605185389518738,
-0.03072637878358364,
-0.12367609888315201,
0.22025687992572784,
-0.03743428736925125,
-0.5158345103263855,
-0.16868139803409576,
-0.013067660853266716,
-0.7054463624954224,
0.8297474384307861,
-0.2888434827327728,
-0.6514446139335632,
0.26573988795280457,
0.7199084162712097,
0.2760234475135803,
0.37493449449539185,
0.2916136384010315,
0.2430882751941681,
-0.1838499754667282,
0.6321256756782532,
0.3127397298812866,
-0.37517717480659485,
-1.239141821861267,
-0.3161226511001587,
-0.07401540130376816,
0.1954028308391571,
-0.01600763574242592,
0.23567013442516327,
-0.23425745964050293,
0.2879665493965149,
-0.7389150261878967,
1.0541123151779175,
-0.5440976023674011,
-0.9443008899688721,
0.42773038148880005,
0.2232821136713028,
-0.48969441652297974,
-0.3528203070163727,
-0.5074232220649719,
0.33399030566215515,
-0.4961805045604706,
-0.2759571969509125,
0.6270572543144226,
0.7218528985977173,
-0.0491941012442112,
-0.28330472111701965,
0.31817808747291565,
0.4207663834095001,
0.12267423421144485,
0.127618670463562,
0.15626086294651031,
-0.42254838347435,
0.355658620595932,
0.5856996774673462,
0.16368278861045837,
0.6291077733039856,
0.7165029644966125,
0.18713639676570892,
0.5504385232925415,
-0.5402568578720093,
1.140088438987732,
-0.02648855932056904,
-0.22109442949295044,
-0.055733080953359604,
-0.41540563106536865,
-0.26360127329826355,
0.05486724153161049,
0.26346802711486816,
0.6874207258224487,
-0.22141194343566895,
0.03334198147058487,
0.4687528908252716,
-0.07156190276145935,
0.5974516868591309,
1.2356551885604858,
-0.32085180282592773,
0.10177092254161835,
-0.11420057713985443,
0.49009326100349426,
-0.44064226746559143,
0.35631269216537476,
0.5460366606712341,
-0.46673378348350525,
-0.23269203305244446,
0.054322656244039536,
-0.4380839467048645,
-0.12361299246549606,
0.4156668782234192,
-1.2538729906082153,
-0.01565980166196823,
-0.10843335837125778,
-0.5030213594436646,
-0.11464768648147583,
0.004828635603189468,
0.1359071433544159,
-0.6843530535697937,
-0.561397135257721,
-0.4828527867794037,
0.22113759815692902,
0.039961978793144226,
-0.16575874388217926,
-0.13457928597927094,
-0.32552847266197205,
-0.16890087723731995,
-0.21022409200668335,
0.23975948989391327,
-0.18594269454479218,
0.006486933678388596,
-0.423209011554718,
0.487412691116333,
-0.5225435495376587,
-0.7345051169395447,
0.09130045026540756,
-0.24810831248760223,
0.32460641860961914,
0.2947777211666107,
-0.47775089740753174,
0.00347111071459949,
1.0045981407165527,
-0.3188076913356781,
0.02161126583814621,
-0.5017186403274536,
-0.4175417125225067,
0.5372864007949829,
-0.021152613684535027,
0.011874886229634285,
0.4583291709423065,
-0.43422746658325195,
-0.047489702701568604,
0.6503756046295166,
0.14106030762195587,
0.5106338858604431,
0.2400265485048294,
-0.1648297756910324,
-0.051899563521146774,
-0.3490985035896301,
-0.08920984715223312,
0.07470542192459106,
-0.7517378926277161,
-0.21155504882335663,
0.24174444377422333,
-0.049329761415719986,
0.28587907552719116,
-0.05054967477917671,
0.9315076470375061,
-0.25808608531951904,
-0.4305771589279175,
-0.3190992772579193,
-0.5037634968757629,
-0.07947898656129837,
-0.22732509672641754,
0.1710730642080307,
0.24148567020893097,
0.369404673576355,
-0.0315546914935112,
-0.3303835690021515,
0.40380021929740906,
-0.21190443634986877,
0.05991193279623985,
-0.6507096886634827,
-0.05806812644004822,
0.380202054977417,
0.14438842236995697,
0.2318269908428192,
0.440795361995697,
-0.7438572645187378,
0.054556336253881454,
-0.16545823216438293,
-0.06254363805055618,
-0.13214156031608582,
-0.38256511092185974,
-0.6526422500610352,
-0.3876412510871887,
-0.1803622841835022,
-0.14184518158435822,
0.6589861512184143,
0.5773817300796509,
-0.18189777433872223,
-0.564402163028717,
-0.07003627717494965,
-0.8058823943138123,
-0.0731767937541008,
-0.4742288291454315,
-0.5567636489868164,
-0.41321635246276855,
-0.1730116456747055,
0.004656734876334667,
-0.2786048352718353,
0.6196321249008179,
-0.38768303394317627,
-0.18082448840141296,
-0.4296155273914337,
0.39398330450057983,
0.38677605986595154,
-0.06400138139724731,
-0.4885407090187073,
0.6734433174133301,
0.14332285523414612,
-0.013361448422074318,
0.3487189710140228,
0.3082171678543091,
0.6276126503944397,
-0.03475155308842659,
0.3873291313648224,
-0.001407010480761528,
-0.12079905718564987,
0.2520725727081299,
0.31292909383773804,
-0.7414087653160095,
-0.05231942981481552,
0.5518536567687988,
-0.2845684885978699,
-0.4873962700366974,
-0.3820088505744934,
1.0449988842010498,
-1.2405650615692139,
0.5050081014633179,
-0.0737576112151146,
-0.156417116522789,
0.17701154947280884,
-0.40207698941230774,
0.07558439671993256,
0.3954257369041443,
-0.3260425329208374,
0.09810280799865723,
0.12496186792850494,
-0.28156280517578125,
-0.14261171221733093,
0.5243205428123474,
-0.3082551956176758,
0.2066032588481903,
-0.03194843605160713,
-0.15041278302669525,
0.2609095573425293,
-0.3504016101360321,
-0.03038494475185871,
-0.15765012800693512,
-0.6356716156005859,
0.10050900280475616,
0.29607346653938293,
-1.0704197883605957,
0.04013044387102127,
0.3050420880317688,
-0.24282366037368774,
-0.34612131118774414,
-0.6624425649642944,
-0.2261315882205963,
-0.16482850909233093,
-0.030173620209097862,
0.06967630237340927,
0.00040134682785719633,
-0.31479790806770325,
-0.5646161437034607,
-0.5044203996658325,
0.3936661183834076,
0.3364388048648834,
-0.27711185812950134,
-0.0611516572535038,
-0.9973652958869934,
-0.0014007370918989182,
-0.7888324856758118,
0.653814435005188,
0.5833299160003662,
-0.17949281632900238,
0.06144309788942337,
-0.0828859955072403,
-0.17254778742790222,
0.005748201627284288,
-0.36626502871513367,
0.24439281225204468,
0.8558390736579895,
0.31791073083877563,
0.30154088139533997,
0.25632309913635254,
-0.31583720445632935,
0.45357465744018555,
0.3286023437976837,
-0.44420984387397766,
-0.07511915266513824,
0.48367777466773987,
0.40688556432724,
0.5808340907096863,
0.18431229889392853,
0.14160661399364471,
-0.44977617263793945,
0.4177115261554718,
-1.0597299337387085,
0.29734352231025696,
0.4463271498680115,
0.7198724150657654,
-0.06729010492563248,
0.05470671504735947,
-0.12520365417003632,
0.47492799162864685,
0.13771255314350128,
-0.5009493827819824,
0.17566916346549988,
-0.9117456674575806,
0.22120991349220276,
0.8182001709938049,
0.28433242440223694,
1.0523945093154907,
-0.11735766381025314,
0.09716660529375076,
0.2569638192653656,
0.6091073751449585,
-0.3777400255203247,
-0.5106529593467712,
-0.29113972187042236,
-0.2455173134803772,
0.333906888961792,
-0.12464507669210434,
-0.06516162306070328,
0.3689526617527008,
-0.12127740681171417,
-0.12768806517124176,
-0.6481691598892212,
-0.29596829414367676,
-0.5396670699119568,
0.4549431800842285,
0.02446223422884941,
0.6245052218437195,
-0.024931075051426888,
-0.25657007098197937,
-0.7808195352554321,
0.18393413722515106,
-0.17455652356147766,
-0.25824230909347534,
-0.3610929846763611,
-0.11989320814609528,
0.40359583497047424,
-0.28451070189476013,
0.339144229888916,
0.06788487732410431,
0.19524791836738586,
-0.23679021000862122,
0.2779066860675812,
0.41643890738487244,
-0.265997976064682,
-0.20701110363006592,
-0.37274590134620667,
0.5219471454620361,
0.30965089797973633,
-0.3101818561553955,
0.6272584795951843,
-0.48642638325691223,
1.0536786317825317,
0.3060395121574402,
0.22885841131210327,
-0.5261003375053406,
0.19610939919948578,
-0.26000529527664185,
-0.4573855996131897,
0.24088245630264282,
-0.24644352495670319,
-0.7256378531455994,
-0.3472743034362793,
0.5154596567153931,
0.4589422345161438,
0.46881595253944397,
0.7748954892158508,
-0.26573556661605835,
-0.12431831657886505,
0.5256422162055969,
-0.38043367862701416,
0.6432612538337708,
-0.46492162346839905,
0.8649671673774719,
-0.8551055192947388,
0.4032732844352722,
0.6419305801391602,
0.5123386383056641,
-0.24068179726600647,
0.3157295882701874,
0.07498087733983994,
0.021939227357506752,
0.3504039943218231,
-0.15028944611549377,
-0.07657678425312042,
-0.4920520484447479,
-0.2483908236026764,
-0.27513816952705383,
0.04169612005352974,
0.445989727973938,
-0.40244877338409424,
-0.05401942878961563,
-0.10648856312036514,
-0.16716064512729645,
-0.6150959730148315,
0.2320529818534851,
0.26612648367881775,
-0.27787426114082336,
-0.767336905002594,
0.05007627233862877,
-0.6536402106285095,
-0.21527040004730225,
0.4749951958656311,
0.326689213514328,
-0.23280921578407288,
-0.4898185431957245,
0.20535942912101746,
-0.07115550339221954,
-0.5059452056884766,
0.29039523005485535,
-0.6203677654266357,
0.19976472854614258,
-0.2510770559310913,
-0.4292536973953247,
-0.11293389648199081,
0.4260631501674652,
-0.13652251660823822,
0.5167644023895264,
0.38766223192214966,
-0.10094563663005829,
-0.733751118183136,
0.2386578917503357,
0.012622157111763954,
-0.5423346757888794,
0.42390161752700806,
-0.3478831946849823
] |
213128
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston%20Navy%20Yard
|
Boston Navy Yard
|
The Boston Navy Yard, originally called the Charlestown Navy Yard and later Boston Naval Shipyard, was one of the oldest shipbuilding facilities in the United States Navy. It was established in 1801 as part of the recent establishment of the new U.S. Department of the Navy in 1798. After 175 years of military service, it was decommissioned as a naval installation on 1 July 1974.
The property is administered by the National Park Service, becoming part of Boston National Historical Park. Enough of the yard remains in operation to support the moored USS Constitution ("Old Ironsides") of 1797, built as one of the original six heavy frigates for the revived American navy, and the oldest warship still commissioned in the United States Navy and afloat in the world. , a 1943 World War II-era Fletcher-class destroyer serving as a museum ship, is also berthed here. The museum area includes a dock which is a stop on the MBTA Boat water transport system. Among local people in the area and the National Park Service, it is still known as the Charlestown Navy Yard.
The South Boston Naval Annex was located along the waterfront in South Boston, an annex of the Navy Yard from 1920 to 1974. Other annexes of the Navy Yard during World War II were the Chelsea Naval Annex (formerly the Green Shipyard, now the Fitzgerald Shipyard), East Boston Naval Annex, and Boston Naval Yard Fuel Depot Annex.
History
The earliest naval shipbuilding activities in Charlestown, Massachusetts across the Charles River and Boston harbor to the north from the city of Boston, began during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). The Charlestown Arsenal of United States Army was established in 1794. Shortly thereafter, in 1800, the land for the Charlestown Navy Yard was purchased by the United States government and the yard itself was established. The yard built the first U.S. ship of the line, in 1814, and at least twelve small vessels for the American Civil War, but was primarily a repair and storage facility until the 1890s, when it started to build steel ships for the "New Navy". By then, it was called the Boston Navy Yard.
On 24 June 1833, the staff and dignitaries including then Vice President Martin Van Buren, Secretary of War Lewis Cass, Secretary of the Navy Levi Woodbury, and many Massachusetts officials, witnessed "one of the great events of American naval history": the early United States frigate was inaugurating the first naval drydock in New England designed by prominent civil engineer Loammi Baldwin, Jr.
The ropewalk supplied cordage used in the Navy from the time it opened in 1837 until the Yard closed in 1975. After the Civil War (1861–1865), the Yard was downgraded to an Equipment and Recruit Facility.
In the late 1880s and 1890s, the Navy began expanding again bringing into service new modern steel-hulled steam-powered warships and that brought new life to the Yard. In the first years of the 20th century, a second drydock was added. During World War II (1939/1941–1945), it worked to fix British Royal Navy warships and merchant transports damaged by the Nazi Germans when crossing the North Atlantic Ocean. On 27 September 1941—Liberty Fleet Day—Boston launched two destroyers, USS Cowie and the USS Knight. Even before the U.S. entered the Second World War after the Pearl Harbor attack on 7 December 1941, a month before in November, Boston was one of four United States naval shipyards selected to build s under the Lend-Lease military assistance program for the Royal Navy. Since the United States was at war when these ships were finally completed, some were later requisitioned and used by the United States Navy as destroyer escorts.
In the post war period, the shipyard modified World War II ships for Cold War (1945–1991) service through Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization (FRAM). The Korean War (1950–1953), and Vietnam War (1964–1975) did not bring much work to the yard since it was so far from the fighting. The Yard closed after the Vietnam War.
It was also the location of the Marine Barracks Boston.
Dry Docks and Slipways
Ships built at Boston Navy Yard
Current use
When ideas were floated for redevelopment of the yard, one popular idea was to have the yard turned into a construction yard for oil tankers. Ultimately, these plans fell through, and the site became part of the Boston National Historical Park. Its mission is, "to interpret the art and history of naval shipbuilding".
The Boston Navy Yard hosts many attractions, including Charlestown Naval Shipyard Park. The fully commissioned and the museum ship are tied up at Pier 1 and open to the public. The Navy Yard also hosts the USS Constitution Museum. Dry Dock No. 1 is still used for ship maintenance for Constitution and Cassin Young. In May 2015, Constitution entered the dry dock for three years of repairs.
The Yard is toward the north end of the Freedom Trail. The MBTA Boat stops at nearby Pier 4, providing easy visitor access to the Yard. The campus of the MGH Institute of Health Professions occupies seven buildings in the Yard, including classroom, office, and clinical space. Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital and multiple Massachusetts General Hospital research laboratories occupy the perimeter.
Gallery
See also
Port of Boston
List of National Historic Landmarks in Boston
National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts
List of military installations in Massachusetts
References
External links
Charlestown Navy Yard – Boston National Historical Park
Charlestown Online Navy Yard website
Navy Yards of the United States Navy
Historic districts in Suffolk County, Massachusetts
Navy Yard, Boston
National Historic Landmarks in Boston
Navy Yard, Boston
Manufacturing companies based in Boston
Navy Yard, Boston
Maritime museums in Massachusetts
Military and war museums in Massachusetts
Naval museums in the United States
Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
Boston National Historical Park
1800 establishments in Massachusetts
Shipyards on the National Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places in Boston
Military installations established in 1800
Military installations closed in 1974
Closed installations of the United States Navy
|
[
0.14222809672355652,
0.03372074291110039,
-0.28919973969459534,
-0.27207860350608826,
0.5534853935241699,
0.6242231726646423,
-0.00966552086174488,
0.46625080704689026,
-0.7103025913238525,
-0.5884966850280762,
-0.13897345960140228,
0.07860111445188522,
-0.38221558928489685,
0.992369532585144,
-0.370035320520401,
0.2652220129966736,
0.37570104002952576,
0.19833438098430634,
0.24645951390266418,
-0.21556030213832855,
-0.7437902688980103,
-0.15716835856437683,
0.37368831038475037,
0.1334638148546219,
0.2856591045856476,
-0.4497425854206085,
0.12919659912586212,
-0.16390833258628845,
-0.07573019713163376,
0.30408939719200134,
0.07540202885866165,
-0.39966773986816406,
-0.6104187965393066,
-0.3128201961517334,
0.15598361194133759,
-0.404965877532959,
0.11085568368434906,
0.30533525347709656,
-0.16909393668174744,
-0.41154909133911133,
-0.26764699816703796,
0.018473196774721146,
0.4192448854446411,
0.2737918794155121,
-0.09029436856508255,
0.5048653483390808,
-0.977910041809082,
0.027091987431049347,
-0.41269776225090027,
-0.1885194182395935,
-0.38956594467163086,
0.08808072656393051,
0.29292985796928406,
0.725877583026886,
0.23530206084251404,
0.7697468996047974,
-0.4781892001628876,
0.6708561182022095,
-0.10728823393583298,
-0.4725376069545746,
-0.1235252097249031,
0.8948172330856323,
0.5569724440574646,
0.6109525561332703,
0.2033688724040985,
-0.15590304136276245,
0.5416468381881714,
0.05080244317650795,
0.14321255683898926,
-0.30006659030914307,
0.6219835877418518,
-0.20741406083106995,
-0.2995458245277405,
0.044970013201236725,
-0.40386661887168884,
-0.1557452529668808,
-0.3371508717536926,
-0.4871666133403778,
-0.13833306729793549,
0.3782426416873932,
-0.28779810667037964,
0.34914764761924744,
0.579757809638977,
0.05140159651637077,
0.2716270983219147,
0.3574047386646271,
-0.48063361644744873,
-0.12561438977718353,
-0.49168214201927185,
0.9327436685562134,
0.03733685240149498,
0.3675399124622345,
0.37430334091186523,
0.3839467465877533,
0.1895056962966919,
-0.08854847401380539,
-0.2528582513332367,
0.5546991229057312,
0.1541706621646881,
0.5313286781311035,
-0.4701215922832489,
-0.06964514404535294,
0.682965874671936,
0.22202803194522858,
-0.09668225795030594,
-0.0026660682633519173,
0.32304325699806213,
0.012323555536568165,
0.16558291018009186,
-0.26607030630111694,
0.1307898610830307,
-0.2309209555387497,
-0.11389593780040741,
0.3772822916507721,
-0.8908763527870178,
0.12090916186571121,
0.3936538100242615,
-0.8609824776649475,
-0.30632448196411133,
-0.2180967777967453,
-0.014498928561806679,
0.8207724690437317,
-0.13522137701511383,
-0.39917486906051636,
-0.5014979839324951,
0.08774157613515854,
0.8931517004966736,
0.4591157138347626,
-0.6891664862632751,
-0.610924482345581,
0.3461097180843353,
1.2089130878448486,
-0.4948441684246063,
-0.004760506097227335,
-0.1893937736749649,
-0.4017382264137268,
0.082963727414608,
0.4389273524284363,
0.06523513048887253,
0.47590550780296326,
-0.7429962754249573,
-0.5042797923088074,
-0.36481428146362305,
-0.6132214665412903,
-0.3919658064842224,
-1.0274616479873657,
0.07708007842302322,
-0.3897373676300049,
0.04909631237387657,
0.3318108916282654,
0.5827130675315857,
-0.08495397120714188,
-0.3016396760940552,
-0.009915847331285477,
-0.1854051649570465,
-0.8081991672515869,
0.996342122554779,
-0.15573962032794952,
0.14874111115932465,
0.8040984272956848,
-0.5597596764564514,
-0.006712459493428469,
-0.31126055121421814,
-0.18609611690044403,
-0.8290833234786987,
0.3094691038131714,
0.9012135863304138,
-0.4564416706562042,
-0.30980822443962097,
0.22304695844650269,
-0.5733561515808105,
-0.30763116478919983,
0.7225556969642639,
0.5940436720848083,
-0.07616359740495682,
-0.13652382791042328,
0.7138675451278687,
-0.19724537432193756,
-0.02517535910010338,
-0.5220507383346558,
-0.5021830797195435,
0.5332574844360352,
0.5876339673995972,
0.04250797629356384,
0.2634308636188507,
-0.255260705947876,
0.29858314990997314,
-0.23520490527153015,
-0.364916056394577,
0.026385772973299026,
-0.12466979026794434,
-0.5203079581260681,
-0.2983141243457794,
-0.27701160311698914,
1.3710005283355713,
0.14270144701004028,
-0.8491880893707275,
0.9167371392250061,
-0.6745840311050415,
0.7273203730583191,
0.29732510447502136,
-0.11600979417562485,
0.5634347796440125,
-0.07609451562166214,
-1.1508188247680664,
-0.29088181257247925,
0.3186696767807007,
0.5477492213249207,
-0.003341990988701582,
0.42503005266189575,
0.38398000597953796,
-0.948603630065918,
-0.08924666047096252,
-0.17435981333255768,
0.19926008582115173,
-0.5542787909507751,
-0.1527845561504364,
-0.38946300745010376,
0.24901725351810455,
-0.7502075433731079,
1.0213980674743652,
0.009965554811060429,
0.5638600587844849,
0.5514651536941528,
-0.10032181441783905,
0.2672695219516754,
-0.6705600619316101,
0.3131662607192993,
-0.012281001545488834,
0.15670238435268402,
0.4889211058616638,
0.007511069066822529,
-0.4331888258457184,
-0.39803266525268555,
0.0622943677008152,
-0.21809963881969452,
-0.039790067821741104,
-0.105570487678051,
0.17449240386486053,
0.08949780464172363,
0.1712036430835724,
-0.2604937255382538,
-0.7026623487472534,
0.3260315954685211,
0.15330052375793457,
-0.5168061852455139,
-0.16745664179325104,
-0.30296382308006287,
0.050381775945425034,
-0.5673646330833435,
0.2269766628742218,
-0.04414195567369461,
0.4953247308731079,
-0.00021723542886320502,
0.05771865323185921,
-0.48358476161956787,
0.13421279191970825,
0.09383276104927063,
-0.10290474444627762,
-0.07354514300823212,
0.14245721697807312,
-0.11872682720422745,
-0.3675217628479004,
0.4152761399745941,
0.409001886844635,
-0.5882279276847839,
0.218738853931427,
-0.7888679504394531,
0.49048730731010437,
0.8498201966285706,
0.2231627255678177,
0.13218620419502258,
0.03041650727391243,
-0.16176432371139526,
0.3757181167602539,
-0.24513302743434906,
0.1819842904806137,
-0.13192275166511536,
-0.476390540599823,
-0.12755674123764038,
0.8434569239616394,
0.187942236661911,
-0.6242866516113281,
-0.9200072884559631,
0.08050811290740967,
-0.4725548326969147,
0.11836808919906616,
-0.5649839043617249,
-0.27965018153190613,
0.6596595048904419,
-0.23364944756031036,
-0.7290698885917664,
-0.7766756415367126,
0.2164791077375412,
-0.01202382706105709,
0.4425419569015503,
-0.13334901630878448,
-0.4866625964641571,
-0.029814990237355232,
-0.418499231338501,
-0.38395145535469055,
0.5122203826904297,
-0.28209811449050903,
0.009305580519139767,
-0.07713063806295395,
-0.7736098766326904,
-0.3310196101665497,
-0.39246973395347595,
-5.467702865600586,
0.21774932742118835,
-0.5349574685096741,
-0.3910485804080963,
-0.015181221067905426,
0.029617926105856895,
0.03590955212712288,
-0.22281105816364288,
0.25909924507141113,
-0.5742409229278564,
0.27218595147132874,
0.20385655760765076,
0.14158204197883606,
0.3487439751625061,
0.22688135504722595,
0.21307680010795593,
0.9064895510673523,
-0.1243010088801384,
0.24220652878284454,
-0.3577735722064972,
0.10339108109474182,
-0.5246865153312683,
0.1778823882341385,
0.2780854105949402,
0.6579033732414246,
0.20712563395500183,
-0.8408374190330505,
0.2007891982793808,
-0.7913411259651184,
-0.24683691561222076,
-0.37700021266937256,
0.061699796468019485,
0.22542443871498108,
-0.4081799387931824,
0.10305634140968323,
-0.48259437084198,
-0.038787588477134705,
0.23914431035518646,
0.08125504851341248,
-0.9642152190208435,
0.3712422251701355,
0.4460418224334717,
-0.6603236794471741,
-0.2905609607696533,
0.7695130705833435,
-0.5737581849098206,
-0.2645220160484314,
0.3707951009273529,
-0.03137575089931488,
0.2700328528881073,
0.058191996067762375,
0.5312269330024719,
0.639692485332489,
0.08223040401935577,
-0.06888972222805023,
-0.8925365805625916,
-0.08731064200401306,
-0.0025489600375294685,
-0.5874654650688171,
-0.14994633197784424,
-0.04245426133275032,
-0.13943567872047424,
0.00690426817163825,
0.24290040135383606,
-0.2804161012172699,
-0.7414337396621704,
-0.08600128442049026,
-0.07944948226213455,
-0.08604107052087784,
0.4393383860588074,
-0.03591650351881981,
0.8685519695281982,
0.13719497621059418,
-1.0018390417099,
0.11808348447084427,
-0.26874786615371704,
-0.21504423022270203,
-0.1872001737356186,
0.4667505919933319,
-0.09929212927818298,
-0.18670828640460968,
-0.30905774235725403,
-0.016546962782740593,
1.2260820865631104,
0.5329797863960266,
-0.011446557939052582,
-0.6327642798423767,
0.6386524438858032,
-0.6167621612548828,
-0.05151927098631859,
0.16250918805599213,
-0.11850783973932266,
0.7541531920433044,
-0.4470270574092865,
0.3737318813800812,
-0.5554571151733398,
0.17038622498512268,
0.7367064356803894,
1.0569922924041748,
-0.4274022877216339,
0.6918335556983948,
0.21185804903507233,
0.07534104585647583,
-0.29007941484451294,
0.15986816585063934,
-0.34590524435043335,
-0.21165990829467773,
0.3457365036010742,
0.6620633006095886,
0.30985429883003235,
-0.42375144362449646,
-0.7047931551933289,
0.20932038128376007,
-0.3974749445915222,
0.2833237946033478,
-0.18228089809417725,
-0.1944495588541031,
0.47491368651390076,
0.6564984917640686,
0.07530581951141357,
0.21219071745872498,
-0.045187924057245255,
-0.006523704621940851,
-0.16123467683792114,
-0.0613933764398098,
-0.519291877746582,
0.24776475131511688,
0.3673036992549896,
-0.1510886698961258,
0.11958380788564682,
-0.045771729201078415,
0.2080988883972168,
-0.21857093274593353,
0.23624581098556519,
-0.1402956247329712,
0.15437182784080505,
-0.2356141358613968,
-0.7270432710647583,
0.3876442611217499,
0.5036713480949402,
0.16802634298801422,
0.45482194423675537,
-0.24282823503017426,
-0.07395965605974197,
0.5342570543289185,
0.6661167740821838,
0.09497297555208206,
0.3218521475791931,
-0.3307049572467804,
-0.24758966267108917,
-0.7736799716949463,
-0.770700216293335,
-0.35765570402145386,
-0.4929172992706299,
-0.04745778813958168,
-0.07458589971065521,
0.3980550467967987,
0.47061654925346375,
-0.19084663689136505,
0.3995385468006134,
0.327011376619339,
0.08018864691257477,
-0.7137070298194885,
-0.835107684135437,
0.18593548238277435,
-0.009882663376629353,
-0.46239230036735535,
0.13494256138801575,
-0.3463078439235687,
0.5281752943992615,
0.7750766277313232,
-0.16499793529510498,
-0.5341575741767883,
-0.4534739851951599,
0.2220640778541565,
0.6543919444084167,
-0.42177391052246094,
-0.0752941220998764,
0.09968254715204239,
0.18471252918243408,
0.22287492454051971,
-0.33953142166137695,
-0.09666721522808075,
0.368611603975296,
0.19854243099689484,
-0.26774364709854126,
-0.14671708643436432,
-0.13703961670398712,
-0.22455903887748718,
-0.014877737499773502,
0.08896119892597198,
-0.7407240867614746,
0.4068267345428467,
0.4747382402420044,
-0.5210534334182739,
0.06054048240184784,
0.30858126282691956,
1.1580406427383423,
0.08436758816242218,
-0.4466896951198578,
-0.35641947388648987,
1.1071677207946777,
-1.0952857732772827,
0.5165227651596069,
-0.050533510744571686,
-0.23900145292282104,
0.29357632994651794,
0.23334841430187225,
0.6056455969810486,
0.6292835474014282,
-0.5702385306358337,
-0.05706736072897911,
0.37208735942840576,
0.5807331800460815,
-0.5605396032333374,
-0.5093228220939636,
0.22045792639255524,
-0.07545483857393265,
-0.09678144007921219,
-0.6114559173583984,
-0.07818146049976349,
0.21637864410877228,
-0.5990800261497498,
-0.4990862309932709,
-0.504899263381958,
0.9500434398651123,
-0.09823311120271683,
-0.4850230813026428,
-0.4113506078720093,
-0.7370386719703674,
0.30170342326164246,
-0.24235907196998596,
0.08802696317434311,
0.09657051414251328,
1.0147069692611694,
-0.2362811118364334,
-0.03627743571996689,
-0.09581850469112396,
0.6146817207336426,
0.1560751348733902,
0.8159964084625244,
0.91888827085495,
0.13651947677135468,
0.03941665589809418,
-0.11180448532104492,
0.4258812367916107,
0.7785243391990662,
-0.3086002767086029,
-0.45332083106040955,
0.4920518398284912,
-0.09911324828863144,
-0.7679587602615356,
-0.47679755091667175,
-0.641741931438446,
0.5152738690376282,
-0.2006106674671173,
0.13490943610668182,
0.5372343063354492,
-0.5093947052955627,
-0.44874170422554016,
-0.32935017347335815,
0.3499225974082947,
-0.9932466149330139,
-0.007142241112887859,
0.06084565445780754,
0.0980137288570404,
-0.511330783367157,
-0.24239616096019745,
-0.013547683134675026,
-0.7536703944206238,
0.05045381933450699,
0.04968351870775223,
0.3344346284866333,
0.20565657317638397,
0.15265507996082306,
0.001958496868610382,
0.24037902057170868,
-0.05974965915083885,
0.7492087483406067,
0.025282418355345726,
-0.4336181581020355,
0.10905234515666962,
-0.3239615261554718,
-0.9062127470970154,
0.0874318927526474,
-0.6343780755996704,
0.24068644642829895,
0.2978900074958801,
-0.16512984037399292,
-0.0683828666806221,
-0.0995144173502922,
-0.26975172758102417,
0.08768009394407272,
0.04966574162244797,
-0.6965973973274231,
0.5018967986106873,
0.1554509699344635,
0.35354217886924744,
0.518179714679718,
0.34109583497047424,
-1.2066045999526978,
0.3904600739479065,
-0.3415752053260803,
-0.5888364315032959,
0.1169205829501152,
-0.20767229795455933,
0.14510990679264069,
0.4177694022655487,
-0.2309410572052002,
-0.035265978425741196,
-0.12131737917661667,
-0.527461051940918,
0.08952968567609787,
0.31121161580085754,
-0.2137197107076645,
-0.15324023365974426,
0.7325809597969055,
-0.4408404529094696,
-0.23446357250213623,
0.3112880289554596,
-0.21593151986598969,
-0.34196799993515015,
0.10645133256912231,
0.3290781080722809,
0.10755666345357895,
0.7753443717956543,
-0.12128040194511414,
-0.28852707147598267,
-0.28083401918411255,
0.4364117383956909,
-0.49836117029190063,
-0.6749889254570007,
-0.7521291971206665,
0.25498145818710327,
-0.027980539947748184,
-0.2666371464729309,
-0.14697423577308655,
-0.5733854174613953,
-0.8137450218200684,
0.352654367685318,
0.8964618444442749,
0.5761961340904236,
-0.19245854020118713,
0.09401363879442215,
-0.15197394788265228,
0.18771831691265106,
0.18651044368743896,
0.3162934482097626,
0.12840043008327484,
-0.20813897252082825,
0.38280439376831055,
0.12989982962608337,
0.3338109850883484,
0.046542342752218246,
0.49571651220321655,
-0.1691853553056717,
0.42480939626693726,
0.06975124776363373,
0.4462665021419525,
-0.3766854405403137,
-0.2775037884712219,
0.20573702454566956,
0.4582356810569763,
-0.19111216068267822,
-0.24452373385429382,
0.36053112149238586,
0.0855841413140297,
-0.31582167744636536,
-0.2712307870388031,
-0.010123053565621376,
0.10705946385860443,
0.6423571109771729,
0.0895751565694809,
-0.19363197684288025,
-0.275972455739975,
0.6273946762084961,
0.6162933707237244,
0.47622713446617126,
0.4718679189682007,
-0.15941810607910156,
-0.17807547748088837,
0.18202939629554749,
-0.010381913743913174,
-0.4080412685871124,
-0.16780857741832733,
0.07614989578723907,
0.08226258307695389,
0.21412020921707153,
-0.02708405815064907,
-0.009496308863162994,
0.4311734437942505,
-0.2273758500814438,
-0.12741705775260925,
0.19555184245109558,
-0.5467870235443115,
-0.27474457025527954,
-0.06504280865192413,
0.6300000548362732,
0.18196070194244385,
0.3751803934574127,
-0.5446807146072388,
0.5592331290245056,
0.20441973209381104,
0.5709651708602905,
-0.44509008526802063,
-0.010338514111936092,
-0.43613123893737793,
-0.09198275208473206,
-0.24870067834854126,
0.4988143742084503,
-0.04946289584040642,
-0.10961877554655075,
-0.2943461835384369,
0.4303050935268402,
-0.7229351997375488,
-0.09638644754886627,
0.6499159336090088,
-0.555266797542572,
-0.3805619180202484,
-0.10961493104696274,
0.2707003355026245,
-0.11248242855072021,
-0.2910935580730438,
0.6336286664009094,
0.11022520065307617,
-0.8634714484214783,
0.09087658673524857,
-0.28167593479156494,
0.08781324326992035,
0.3932277262210846,
-0.24428381025791168,
-0.10590879619121552,
-0.2822760343551636,
0.11403856426477432,
-0.031007831916213036,
-0.3308907151222229,
-0.11060528457164764,
0.7634841203689575,
0.32579439878463745,
-0.5868130326271057,
0.05663670599460602,
-0.21459536254405975,
-0.17814546823501587,
-0.032598599791526794,
0.6762977242469788,
0.18243205547332764,
-0.2567185163497925,
-0.3145579695701599,
-0.15345771610736847,
1.2556777000427246,
0.40705132484436035,
-0.49556803703308105,
0.4905361235141754,
0.16460077464580536,
0.11478336900472641,
-0.07953491061925888,
0.13953682780265808,
-0.08193198591470718,
0.12163218855857849,
0.25411638617515564
] |
213135
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Aberdeen
|
University of Aberdeen
|
The University of Aberdeen (; abbreviated as Aberd. in post-nominals; ) is a public research university in Aberdeen, Scotland. It is an ancient university founded in 1495 when William Elphinstone, Bishop of Aberdeen and Chancellor of Scotland, petitioned Pope Alexander VI on behalf of James IV, King of Scots to establish King's College, making it Scotland's third-oldest university and the fifth-oldest in the English-speaking world. Aberdeen is consistently ranked among the top 160 universities in the world and is ranked within the top 20 universities in the United Kingdom according to The Guardian, The Times and The Sunday Times.
The university comprises three colleges — King's College, Marischal College, and Christ's College — that are now mainly ceremonial. The university as it is currently constituted was formed in 1860 by a merger between King's College and Marischal College, a second university founded in 1593 as a Protestant alternative to the former. The university's iconic buildings act as symbols of wider Aberdeen, particularly Marischal College in the city centre and the crown steeple of King's College in Old Aberdeen. There are two campuses; the predominantly utilised King's College campus dominates the section of the city known as Old Aberdeen, which is approximately two miles north of the city centre. Although the original site of the university's foundation, most academic buildings apart from the King's College Chapel and Quadrangle were constructed in the 20th century during a period of significant expansion. The university's Foresterhill campus is next to Aberdeen Royal Infirmary and houses the School of Medicine and Dentistry as well as the School of Medical Sciences. Together these buildings form one of Europe's largest health campuses. The annual income of the institution for 2020–21 was £235.9 million of which £45.9 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £228.6 million.
Aberdeen has students from undergraduate to doctoral level (as of ), including many international students. An abundant range of disciplines are taught at the university, with 650 undergraduate degree programmes offered in the 2012–13 academic year. Aberdeen has educated a wide range of notable alumni, and the university played key roles in the Scottish Reformation, Scottish Enlightenment, and the Scottish Renaissance. Five Nobel laureates have since been associated with the university: two in Chemistry, one in Physiology or Medicine, one in Physics, and one in Peace.
History
King's and Marischal Colleges
There appears to have existed in Old Aberdeen, from a very early period, a Studium Generate, or University, attached to the Episcopal Chapter of the See of Aberdeen. It is said to have been founded in 1157 by Edward, Bishop of Aberdeen, and although, according to Hector Boece, it still existed at the period when King's College was founded, it is probable that it had in some way ceased to answer the purposes which it must have been designed to serve, since King James IV., in his letter to Pope Alexander VI., requesting him to found a University in Old Aberdeen, mentions as the chief motive for the undertaking, the profound ignorance of the inhabitants of the north of Scotland, and the great deficiency of properly educated men to fill the clerical office in that part of his kingdom.
The first university in Aberdeen, King's College, formally The University and King's College of Aberdeen (Collegium Regium Abredonense), was founded on 10 February 1494 by William Elphinstone, Bishop of Aberdeen, Chancellor of Scotland, and a graduate of the University of Glasgow drafting a request on behalf of King James IV to Pope Alexander VI resulting in a Papal Bull being issued. It seems that James was keen to ensure that Scotland had as many universities as England at the time, and it was to possess all the privileges enjoyed by those of Paris and Bologna, two of the most highly favoured in Europe. The university, modelled on that of the University of Paris and intended principally as a law school, soon became the most famous and popular of the Scots seats of learning, largely due to the prestige of Elphinstone and his friend, Hector Boece, the first principal appointed in 1500. Its aim was to train doctors, teachers and clergy who would serve the communities of northern Scotland, as well as lawyers and administrators for the Scottish Crown. It was a collegiate foundation with 36 full-time staff and students and walls protecting it from the outside world. In 1497 the College established the first chair of medicine in the English-speaking world.
The first book (there was no printing press in Scotland at the time) to be printed in Edinburgh and in Scotland was the Aberdeen Breviary, which was written by both Elphinstone and Boece in 1509.
Following the Scottish Reformation in 1560, King's College was purged of its Roman Catholic staff but in other respects was largely resistant to change. George Keith, the fifth Earl Marischal, was a moderniser within the college and supportive of the reforming ideas of Peter Ramus and Andrew Melville. In April 1593 he founded a second university in the 'New Town', Marischal College. It is also possible the founding of another college in nearby Fraserburgh by Sir Alexander Fraser, a business rival of Keith, was instrumental in its creation. Aberdeen was highly unusual at this time for having two universities in one city: as 20th-century University prospectuses observed, Aberdeen had the same number as existed in England at the time (the University of Oxford and University of Cambridge).
Initially, Marischal College offered the Principal of King's College a role in selecting its academics, but this was refused - the first blow in a developing rivalry. Marischal College, in the commercial heart of the city (rather than the ancient but much smaller collegiate enclave of Old Aberdeen), was quite different in nature and outlook. For example, it was more integrated into the life of the city, such as allowing students to live outwith the college. The two rival colleges often clashed, sometimes in court, but also in brawls between students on the streets of Aberdeen. Duncan Liddell endowed the first chair in mathematics at Marischal College in 1613, but the first professor wasn't appointed until 1626.
As the institutions put aside their differences, a process of attempted (but unsuccessful) mergers began in the 17th century. During this time, both colleges made notable intellectual contributions to the Scottish Enlightenment. Both colleges supported the Jacobite rebellion and following the defeat of the 1715 rising were largely purged by the authorities of their academics and officials.
King Charles' University (1641–61) and the merger of the two colleges (1860)
The nearest the two colleges had come to full union was as the "Caroline University of Aberdeen", a merger initiated by Charles I of Scotland in 1641, which united the two colleges for twenty years. Following the civil conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, a more complete unification was attempted following the ratification of Parliament by Oliver Cromwell during the interregnum in 1654. This united university survived until the Restoration whereby all laws made during this period were rescinded by Charles II and the two colleges reverted to independent status. Charles I is still recognised as one of the university's founders, due to his part in creating the Caroline University and his benevolence towards King's College.
The Aberdeen Philosophical Society (known locally as the Wise Club) was created by Thomas Reid, George Campbell, David Skene, John Gregory, John Stewart, and Robert Traill, and held its first meeting in the Old Red Lion Inn on 12 January 1758. From its inception, the society was an intimate, private body whose members were drawn exclusively from the learned professions, and this feature differentiated it from the more open and socially inclusive societies like the Glasgow Literary Society or the Select Society of Edinburgh. Over 133 papers were given and discussed at the meeting, and many of these formed the basis of books subsequently published. The society was eventually disbanded in March 1773. The society and its individual members played a key role in the Scottish Enlightenment, and it was the most important forum for the promotion of enlightened thought and values in Aberdeen. The Philosophical Society was revived in 1840, with the object of receiving and debating original scientific, literary and philosophical papers from its members; however, the decision was taken on 13 September 1939 to discontinue its meetings, chiefly in view of the difficulties posed by the war, although it does not appear to have been ever formally wound up.
The Free Church of Scotland founded Christ's College in Aberdeen in 1843 for the training of ministers. An extravagant Gothic building, with a commanding oriel window and tower, was erected for the college at the western end of Union Street in 1850. Linked to the college was a museum and library (containing 17,000 volumes). Following the Church reunion of 1929, Christ's College became a Church of Scotland college and was also integrated into the University of Aberdeen; henceforth, the university has been composed of three colleges. The college building is no longer used by either the Church or the University, and the College is contained completely within the buildings of King's College, maintaining its own Divinity library.
The University hosted its first meeting of the British Science Association in 1859. Having no suitable meeting place to host the meeting, the town raised the money themselves by personal subscription and built the Music Hall. It was capable of holding about 2,500 people and so successful was the meeting that associate membership, necessary to gain access to the proceedings, had to be capped. Prominent among the local organisers were Professors James Clerk Maxwell (Natural Philosophy) and James Nicol (Geology) of Marischal College. Prince Albert, the Prince Consort, took on the role of President for the year. The young Maxwell himself, still only 28, spoke on three different subjects, one being a presentation of his newly discovered law of molecular velocities in a gas. The ‘Maxwell distribution law’, as it is now known, is the law of physics with the strongest Aberdeen connection. In addition, Sir Charles Lyell, President of the Geological Section of the British Academy, and a champion Charles Darwin's work, made one of the first announcements that Darwin had undertaken a body of work on evolution and was about to release his findings. The organisers felt that they might be risking something in holding the meeting much further north than they had done before but in the event the Aberdeen meeting was the most well attended the BA had ever had.
Further unsuccessful suggestions for union were brought about throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries. William Ogilvie, known as the Rebel Professor, proposed a paper on the union and reform of the two colleges in 1787, but the proposals were rejected by seven (known as the 'seven wise Masters') out of ten professors at King's. The evolving examination system and university research now required much higher academic standards from the students. The two colleges in Aberdeen merged on 15 September 1860 in accordance with the Universities (Scotland) Act 1858, which also created a new medical school at Marischal College. The 1858 Act of Parliament stated the "united University shall take rank among the Universities of Scotland as from the date of erection of King's College and University." The university is thus Scotland's third oldest and the United Kingdom's fifth oldest University.
The transference of the Arts classes from Marischal to King's College required the extension of King's at the cost of £20,000. This included the rebuilding of two sides of the quadrangle for the class-rooms (1862) and the erection of the library (1870), which for many years had occupied the nave of the chapel.
In 1873, university students voted against university degrees being open to women. However, all faculties were open to women in 1892, and in 1894 the first 20 matriculated females began their studies at the university. Four women graduated in arts by 1898, and by the following year, women made up a quarter of the faculty.
The modern university
The closing of the quadrangle of Marischal College was completed during the university's quatercentenary in 1906, which was officially opened by Edward VII and Alexandra, and which saw some of the most extravagant celebrations and expressions of civic pride ever demonstrated in Aberdeen. Four days of festivities took place across the City, which included church services, banquets, torchlight processions, and fireworks displays. In all, the cost of the four days of festivities was the modern equivalent of £1.34 million. The ceremony saw the granting of honorary degrees to over a hundred public and academic figures from across the academic world. In an extravagant display of luxury, Lord Strathcona, the then Chancellor of the University, spent £8518 in entertaining around 2500 invited guests in a tent specially designed for the occasion. After having received an honorary degree (LLD) in 1905, Thomas Hardy celebrated Aberdeen as ‘a University which can claim in my opinion to an exceptional degree that breadth of view & openness of mind that all Universities profess to cultivate, but many stifle’. Hardy wrote a poem for a special number of the student publication, Alma Mater, in celebration of the quatercentenary of the university.‘I looked and thought, "All is too gray and cold
To wake my place-enthusiasms of old!"
Till a voice passed: "Behind that granite mien
Lurks the imposing beauty of a Queen."
I looked anew; and saw the radiant form
Of Her who soothes in stress, who steers in storm,
On the grave influence of whose eyes sublime
Men count for the stability of the time’In the 20th century, the university expanded greatly, particularly at King's College. New buildings were constructed on the land around King's College throughout the 20th century. Initially, these were built to match the ancient buildings (e.g. the New King's lecture rooms and Elphinstone Hall), but later ones from the 1960s onward were constructed in brutalist style. Meanwhile, the Foresterhill campus began to train medical students in the 1930s next to Aberdeen Royal Infirmary.
During the mid-20th century departments which had been at Marischal College moved into one of these new buildings (most at King's College) and by the late 20th-century Marischal College had been abandoned by all but the Anatomy Department, a graduation hall and the Marischal Museum (Marischal College has now been restored as the headquarters of Aberdeen City Council, which is leasing a portion of the complex from the university). Following extensive fundraising, a £57 million new university library (the Sir Duncan Rice Library) opened in autumn 2011 at the King's College campus to replace the outgrown Queen Mother Library and was officially opened by the Queen in September 2012. Today, most students spend most of their time in modern buildings which provide up-to-date facilities for teaching, research and other activities such as dining. However, the old buildings at King's College are still in use as lecture and tutorial rooms and accommodation for various academic departments.
In February 2020, the Scottish Funding Council (SFC) found that in approving a financial settlement agreement with the former Principal Professor Sir Ian Diamond, the university failed to make best use of public funds or exercise good governance. As a result of the investigation, the university was ordered to repay £119,000 of grant finance to the SFC and undertake an externally-facilitated examination of its governance and culture.
Buildings and campuses
The University's main campus is at King's College in Old Aberdeen, where the original buildings are still in use in addition to many 20th century buildings. A second campus at Foresterhill accommodates the School of Medicine, Medical Science & Nutrition. In addition, there are smaller facilities at other sites such as the Royal Cornhill Hospital to the west of the city centre, and the Rowett Institute in Bucksburn.
Current campuses
King's College
The King's College campus covers an area of some 35 hectares around the ancient King's College buildings and the High Street. It hosts around two-thirds of the university's built estate and most student facilities, and lies 2 miles north of Aberdeen city centre. The university does not own all the buildings on the "campus" which also include private houses, shops and businesses (although many of these rely heavily on custom from the university community) and it is best thought of as a district of the city dominated by the university. It can be reached from the city centre by bus routes 1, 2, 13, 19 and 20 operated by First Aberdeen and from northern Aberdeenshire or Aberdeen bus station by various routes operated by Stagecoach Bluebird.
The historic King's College buildings form a quadrangle with an interior court, two sides of which have been rebuilt and expanded with a library wing in the 19th century. The Crown Tower and the Chapel, the oldest parts, date from around 1500. The original foundation contained the Chapel, the Great Hall and living accommodation, with its own kitchen and brewery, a well in the quadrangle, and a college garden to provide herbs and vegetables. The Grammar School was just outside the walls, in front of the College. The Crown Tower is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft (12 m) high, consisting of a six-sided lantern and Imperial crown, both sculptured, and resting on the intersections of two arched ornamental slips rising from the four corners of the top of the tower. This crown, also known as the "Crown of Kings", frequently acts as a symbol of the university. The choir of the chapel contains original oak-canopied stalls, miserere seats, and lofty open screens in the French flamboyant style. They were preserved by the college's Principal during the Reformation, who fought off local barons who had attacked the nearby St Machar's Cathedral. The Cromwell Tower, created between 1658-1662 opposite the Crown Tower, was originally built as residential accommodation, but an observatory was built on top in 1826. The library wing was converted into an exhibition and conference venue in the 1990s and today also houses the university's Business School.
The first of the modern age of construction in the King's campus began with the construction in 1913 of the New Building (now known as "New King's"), largely in a similar architectural style to the old buildings. A large manse located on the lawn opposite King's College was removed before the First World War. New King's groups to form a yet larger quadrangle-like green for the campus also bordered by the High Street, King's and Elphinstone Hall, a traditional 1930 replacement for the Great Hall. The Elphinstone Hall was subsequently used as a dining facility but is now used for graduations, examinations, fairs, and other large university events.However, most students and staff spend relatively little time in these historic buildings, with a large number of modern ones housing most facilities and academic departments. Most date from the second half of the 20th century. Some of these echo the existing architecture of Old Aberdeen, such as the Fraser Noble Building with its distinctive concrete crown designed to resemble the one adorning King's College. Other buildings were constructed of stone in the 1950s (e.g. the Taylor Building and Meston Building). A number of other buildings are designed in the brutalist style, such as the Arts Lecture Theatre and adjoining William Guild Building, opened in 1969 to house the School of Psychology. Also on the site is the Cruickshank Botanic Garden which was presented to the university in 1899 and is open to the public.
The Powis Gateway forms the east gate and archway from College Bounds, Old Aberdeen. These oriental style towers with minarets have provoked much interest over the years. At one time there was a portrait of John Leslie dressed in Turkish costume, on the walls of Powis House, but there is no obvious connection between the estate and the Middle East. The gateway is also adorned with panels bearing the coats of arms of the Lairds of Powis. The Estate of Powis was owned by the Frasers - their crest is shown on the towers - until the marriage of an heiress to a Leslie. Powis House was built by Hugh Leslie. The house was the home of John Leslie, Professor of Greek at Kings College. It was subsequently owned by the Burnett Family. In 1936, J.G. Burnett sold most of the estate to Aberdeen Town Council who built a housing estate in the area comprising over 300 residences.
The most recent building on campus is the Sir Duncan Rice Library, completed in 2011 and designed by Danish architects Schmidt Hammer Lassen. It was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in September 2012 and named after Duncan Rice, a previous Principal of the university. This seven-storey tower, clad in zebra-like jagged stripes of white and clear glass, replaced the smaller Queen Mother Library as the university's main library and can be seen prominently from the entire campus and much of the city. It is open to the public and outstanding views of the city and coastline are available from the upper floors. In addition to expanded facilities it also houses public exhibition space and the university's historic collections, comprising more than a quarter of a million ancient and priceless books and manuscripts collected over five centuries since the university's foundations. Other libraries are in the Taylor Building on the same campus (for law books and materials) and at Foresterhill (for medicine and medical sciences). The university's library service (i.e. including all libraries) holds over one million books.
The most recent building is the Science Teaching Hub, completed in 2021.
Foresterhill
The University's Foresterhill Campus is located approximately to the east of the Old Aberdeen campus and is home to the University's Life Sciences and Medicine facilities. It is co-located with Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Royal Aberdeen Children's Hospital and Aberdeen Maternity Hospital, all teaching hospitals operated by regional health board NHS Grampian.The campus accommodates the School of Medicine, Medical Science & Nutrition; the School of Psychology; and the School of Biological Sciences. It also includes the Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, the Institute of Medical Sciences, Institute of Applied Health Sciences, Institute of Dentistry, and Institute of Education for Medical & Dental Sciences.
The Foresterhill site is managed jointly with NHS Grampian. The University has had a presence at Foresterhill since around 1938, and the management of the site was formalised in 1997 by the completion of an operational agreement between the two parties.
Doha, Qatar
A new campus in Doha, Qatar was established in May 2017. Known as AFG College with the University of Aberdeen, it is a partnership with Al Faleh Group for Educational and Academic Services (AFG). The courses currently offered are accounting, finance and business management. The campus Principal is Brian Buckley and Dean is Russell Williams. A new campus is expected to open in September 2022 with a 4,000 student capacity.
Former campuses
Marischal College
Marischal College is a neo-Gothic building, having been rebuilt in 1836–41, and greatly extended several years later. Formerly an open three-sided court, the college now forms a quadrangle as additions to the buildings were opened by King Edward VII in 1906 and form the current facade from Broad Street. The building is widely considered to be one of the best examples of neo-Gothic architecture in Great Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie was a native of Aberdeen as well as an alumnus of the university. The Mitchell Tower at the rear is named for the benefactor (Dr Charles Mitchell) who paid for the graduation hall. The opening of this tower in 1895 was part of celebrations of the 400th anniversary of the university.
Until 1996, Marischal College housed the Departments of Molecular & Cell Biology and Biomedical Sciences, which had been there for many decades. From 1996, the departments moved to Kings College campus and Foresterhill campus. Teaching no longer takes place at Marischal College, with many of the departments formerly based there having moved to King's College some decades previously. While graduations and other events (e.g. concerts) took place in the cathedral-like Mitchell Hall in the north wing, for many years much of the building (including the frontage to the street) was derelict.
The majority of the building was leased to Aberdeen City Council in 2008, with significant re-development taking place to allow the Council to occupy it as its new administrative headquarters. Occupation of the rear portion of the building is retained by the University including the former Marischal Museum and Mitchell Hall, which was used previously for graduation and other academic ceremonies before moving to Elphinstone Hall at King's College.
Hilton
A small campus at Hilton became part of the university estate following a merger in 2001 between the university and the Aberdeen campus of the Northern College of Education, and temporarily became home to the university's Faculty of Education. It was less than a mile southwest of King's College campus. Following the renovation of the MacRobert Building at King's College to house the School of Education (completed in 2005), the Hilton campus was closed and sold to developers. The campus was demolished and the land is now occupied by a residential development called "The Campus".
Organisation and administration
Governance
In common with the other ancient universities in Scotland, the university's structure of governance is largely regulated by the Universities (Scotland) Acts of 1858. This gives the university a tripartite constitution comprising the General Council of senior academics and graduates, the University Court responsible for finances and administration, and the Academic Senate (Senatus Academicus) - the university's supreme academic body.
There are correspondingly three main officers of the university. It is nominally headed by the Chancellor, a largely ceremonial position traditionally held by the Bishop of Aberdeen but divorced from the see as a result of the Scottish Reformation and holders are now elected for life by the General Council. There is also a rector of the university, who chairs the University Court and is elected by the students for a three-year term to represent their interests. There are also four Assessors, ten Masters, including the Principal and Vice Principal, and the factor or Procurator.
The administrative head and chief executive of the university is its principal and vice chancellor. The principal acts as chair of the Senatus Academicus, and his status as vice chancellor enables him to perform the functions reserved to the chancellor in the latter's absence, such as the awarding of degrees.
Chancellor
The chancellor is the nominal head of the university. The chancellor since 2013 is Camilla, Duchess of Rothesay. She is the first female chancellor of the university. The Chancellor, or, if necessary, his or her deputy, confers degrees on graduates and chairs the university's General Council.
Lord Rector
The rector of the university has been—since 1860—elected by the students to serve a three-year term of office; before that, the office was appointed. The Rector's duties are to chair meetings of the University Court and to represent student views on that body. In November 2014, a new rector was elected by the student body of the university, Maggie Chapman, co-convenor of the Scottish Green Party. Other notable Aberdeen rectors have included Winston Churchill, Andrew Carnegie, H. H. Asquith, and Clarissa Dickson Wright, who was Aberdeen's first female rector.
Principal and Vice-Chancellor
The principal and vice-chancellor of the university is Professor George Boyne. He joined the university on 1 August 2018 and was officially installed in his role on 16 January 2019.
The University Court
This body was created by the Commissioners during the merger of King's and Marischal in 1870. It was part of a series of reforms introduced to rectify the method of government, with the Court acting as a court of appeal from the Senatus. The Court originally consisted of six members; the Rector, representing the students, the Principal, and one Assessor each to the Chancellor, the Rector, the General Council and the Senatus. However, today the Court consists of many more members. The Court's principal role is to oversee the management of the revenue, property and other resources of the University.
Senatus Academicus
The Academic Senate (Latin Senatus Academicus) is the supreme academic body for the university. Its members include all the professors of the university, certain senior readers, a number of senior lecturers and lecturers and elected student senate representatives. It is responsible for authorising degree programmes and issuing all degrees to graduates, and for managing student discipline. The President of the Senate is the University Principal.
Colleges
The university is composed of three colleges: Christ's College, King's College and Marischal College. The purpose of the colleges at Aberdeen is mainly ceremonial, as students are housed in separate residential halls or private accommodations. Originally, Medicine and Law were taught at Marischal and Arts and Divinity at King's College; however, since 2009 all of the teaching is now done at King's College and Foresterhill.
Schools and Institutes
The University is divided into 12 schools which are organised within a broad range of disciplines, with the larger schools sub-divided into three teaching colleges.
Multi-disciplinary institutes and research centres allow the University's experts to collaborate on pioneering research projects.
Arts and Social Sciences
School of Divinity, History and Philosophy
Department of Divinity
Department of History of Art
Department of History
Department of Scandinavian Studies
Department of Philosophy
School of Education
Department of Education
School of Language, Literature, Visual Culture and Music
Department of English
Department of Language and Linguistics
Department of Film and Visual Culture
Department of Modern Languages
Department of Music
Elphinstone Institute
School of Law
School of Social Science
Department of Anthropology
Department of Politics and International Relations
Department of Sociology
Business
University of Aberdeen Business School
Life Sciences and Medicine
School of Biological Sciences
Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences
School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition
Institute of Applied Health Sciences
Institute of Dentistry
Institute of Medical Sciences
Institute of Education for Medical & Dental Sciences
The Rowett Institute
School of Psychology
Physical Sciences
School of Engineering
School of Geosciences
Department of Archaeology
Department of Geography and Environment
Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology
School of Natural and Computing Sciences
Department of Chemistry
Department of Computing Science
Department of Mathematics
Department of Physics
Postgraduate Research
Postgraduate Research School
Symbols of the university
The university's coat of arms is an integral part of the current logo, which along with the colours burgundy and white, is used extensively on campus signage, printed materials, and online.
Coat of arms
The university's coat of arms incorporates those of the founders and locations of the two colleges it is derived from. In the top left quadrant are the arms of the burgh of Old Aberdeen, with the addition of a symbol of knowledge being handed down from above. Top right are those of George Keith, the fifth Earl Marischal. Bottom left are those of Bishop William Elphinstone. The bottom right quarter is a simplified version of the three castles which represent the city of Aberdeen (this symbol of the city also appears prominently on the arms of The Robert Gordon University).
Motto
The motto of the University of Aberdeen is Initium Sapientiae Timor Domini, which translates from Latin as "The beginning of wisdom is fear of the Lord". It is a quote from the Old Testament of the Bible, Psalm 111, verse 10. It also appears in the Book of Proverbs (9:10). The motto can be seen at the archway beside New King's on the High Street at the King's College campus, as well as other campus locations and in formal settings such as on graduation certificates.
Tartan
A university tartan was created in 1992 as part of the celebrations for the 500th anniversary of the university which took place in 1995. The tartan was designed by the Weavers Incorporation of Aberdeen and Harry Lindley and incorporates colours from the university's coat of arms.
Academic dress
Academic dress has been worn in the University of Aberdeen since mediaeval times. Aberdeen shared with the other ancient universities the wearing of scarlet gowns (toga rubra) and a trencher for undergraduates, but by the middle of the twentieth century its use amongst the students had faded. Bursars formerly wore a black gown, and were made to perform menial services about college. Female students wore a trencher with scarlet tassels, while male students wore black tassels.
Academic dress is usually worn only at formal occasions, such as at graduation, Founder's Day, or academic processions which take place for ceremonial reasons. For undergraduate degrees (e.g. MA, BSc, LLB etc.), a long black gown is worn with a hood of black silk and lined with silk in a colour which varies depending on discipline. For example, the lining is white silk for all Master of Arts degrees, green silk for Bachelor of Science in pure sciences, and crimson silk for MBChB. A black mortarboard is also worn. For master's degrees (e.g. MSc, MLitt etc.) a long black gown is worn, with a white silk hood lined in a colour that varies by discipline. For PhD, the doctor's scarlet robe is worn with black facings and sleeve lining, along with a black "John Knox" cap. For other doctoral degrees (e.g. EdD, LLD etc.), the scarlet robe has facings and sleeve linings in a different colour.
Academics
Semesters
The academic year at Aberdeen was originally based upon the Scottish Term and Quarter Days, beginning with Martinmas (October - November), Candlemas (January - March), and ending with Whitsunday (April - June). However, today the academic term is divided into two semesters, the First Half-Session and the Second-Half Session, beginning in September and ending in May. Written examinations are sat in November and April and May, and graduation is celebrated either in November or at the end of June.
Rankings and reputation
Aberdeen is consistently ranked among the top 200 universities in the world and is ranked within the top 20 universities in the United Kingdom according to The Guardian. In the 2019 Times Higher Education University Impact Rankings, Aberdeen was ranked 31st in the world for impact on society. Aberdeen was also named the 2019 Scottish University of the Year by The Times and Sunday Times Good University Guide. Over 75 per cent of the University's research was classified as 'world leading' or 'internationally excellent' in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework.
Its highest internationally ranked subject is Divinity and Religious Studies, which is ranked at joint 25th in the world and 7th in the UK. It also has an excellent reputation for medical research and many of its subjects are ranked in top 10 in the UK, including Accounting & Finance (ranked 4th in the UK, Complete 2021), Civil Engineering (10th in the UK, Complete 2021), Computing Science (9th in the UK, Guardian 2021), Dentistry (9th in the UK, Complete 2020; 1st in the UK, Guardian 2021), Education (9th in the UK, Complete 2021), Electrical and Electronic Engineering (8th in the UK, Complete 2020), Law (6th in the UK, Complete 2021; 10th in the UK, Guardian 2021), Medicine (4th in the UK, Complete 2021; 2nd in the UK, Guardian 2021), Linguistics (5th in the UK, Complete 2021), Musics (10th in the UK, Guardian 2021), Physics (7th in the UK, Guardian 2021), Sociology (10th in the UK, Guardian 2021), and Sports Science (2nd in the UK, Complete 2021; 10th in the UK, Guardian 2021). Economics was ranked 11th in the UK by Times Subject Rankings and 12th in the UK by Complete University Guide 2019.
Aberdeen was ranked 9th for the average entry tariff by the Complete University Guide 2021 and 9th in the UK for the average entry tariff by Guardian 2021 rankings.
The university has one of the smallest percentages of students from lower-class backgrounds, being ranked fifth from bottom for class equality. The university participates in widening access schemes such as the Children's University, REACH Scotland, Access Aberdeen, and ASPIRENorth, in order to promote a more widespread uptake of those traditionally under-represented at university.
Lecture series
The Gifford Lectures, established in 1887 by Adam Gifford, began at the university (along with the other ancient universities in Scotland) with E.B Tylor's lecture on the Natural History of Religion between 1889–1991. Since then, over 30 Gifford Lectures have been given at the university, with some distinguished figures including Hannah Arendt, Alfred North Whitehead, Karl Barth, Paul Tillich, Michael Polanyi, N.T. Wright, and Jaroslav Pelikan.
A public lecture series was held in 2011 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the publication of the King's James Bible. The university is also host to the annual Andrew Carnegie Lecture Series which began in 2014, with the first lecture given by Matthew Barzun.
The Elphinstone Institute hosts its own monthly lecture series, which began in 2016, in the MacRobert Building, with lectures usually given on local or Scottish topics. The School of Engineering also hosts the RV Jones Distinguished Lecture Series which provides invited lectures from distinguished speakers in areas of engineering related to research within the School of Engineering.
Libraries and Museums
The library at university has undergone many trials and tribulations: it was first located in the nave of King's College Chapel and then moved to a new site in the College in 1870. The current library contains one of the most extensive university library collections in the United Kingdom, with over a million volumes and a quarter of a million ancient and priceless books and manuscripts, including the Hortus sanitatis. The library at Aberdeen was given the right of legal deposit under the Statute of Anne (1710) but this was rescinded in 1837, and as a result has a rare collection of pre-Victorian novels.
The core of the original library at King's College was formed from Elphinstone's books that he left to the university. The books were originally housed in a room in the south east tower (now the round tower). They were then moved to a building on the south side of Kings College Chapel, and in 1773 to the west end of the Chapel. They were located in 1870 to a new building as illustrated. This library was extended in 1885, with galleries being installed in 1912, reading desks in 1932 and a mezzanine floor in 1964. The Queen Mother Library had been the university's main library since 1965, and the original library in King's College was replaced with the King's College Conference Centre in 1991. The Queen Mother Library was refurbished and expanded in 1982.
The Sir Duncan Rice Library was officially opened on 24 September 2012 by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth accompanied by the Duke of Edinburgh, replacing the Queen Mother Library. It was designed by the Danish architectural firm Schmidt Hammer Lassen at the cost of £57 million. The building sits on a base of Scottish stone. The ground floor is double-height with seven floors above. The building is clad in zebra-like jagged stripes of white and clear glass. In the interior void spaces are located centrally. Contrasting with the geometric exterior, the central atrium formed by the void spaces has an organic form, shifting in location across the levels. It has won numerous awards for its architecture.
The university also has the Taylor Library and European Documentation Centre (law with official UK and EU publications), which is located in Old Aberdeen, and the Medical Library on the Foresterhill Campus covers the Medicine and Medical Sciences disciplines. Christ's College also possesses its own Divinity library.
The university maintains several museums and galleries, open free to the public. The University's collections are internationally renowned and are recognised as of national significance by the Scottish Government. Originating in the eighteenth century, they now have over 300,000 items across a wide range of Human Culture, Medicine and Health, and Natural History. The Zoology Museum is officially classified as a Recognised Collection of national significance to Scotland and features displays from protozoa to the great whales, including taxidermy, skeletal material, study skins, fluid-preserved specimens and models.
Student life
As of the university had students, of which were postgraduates. In 2009/10 students represented 120 different countries with about 46% men, 54% women. Of all of undergraduates, 19% were mature students (i.e. aged 25 years or more). The university has more than 550 different undergraduate degree programmes and more than 120 postgraduate taught programmes.
Students' Association
The student body is represented by a students' association known as Aberdeen University Students' Association (AUSA). Additionally, the elected Rector of the University of Aberdeen serves along with the rector's assessor and AUSA president as a students' representatives on the University Court.
AUSA does not operate a traditional students' union, instead operating out of a university building, Johnston, helping to support students and provide events and studying space. A large students' union formerly occupied an impressive granite building on the corner of Gallowgate and Upperkirkgate in the city centre, opposite Marischal College, but it closed in 2003. A second, smaller union opened at nearby Littlejohn Street a couple of years later, but by 2010 it too had closed.
The organisation has been involved in the creation of "The Hub", a university-owned dining and social centre created by an extensive renovation of the former Central Refectory at the King's College campus. It provides facilities for the whole university community (students and staff) and opened in 2006. A more traditional social space, the Butchart Student Centre, opened in 2009. It acts as the HQ of the Students' Association and provides a wide range of student facilities, but due to city council licensing regulations there is no bar. Facilities at the Butchart Centre include a large cafe, second-hand bookstore, facilities for student societies and offices. The Butchart Centre was converted from what had been the campus sports centre before the opening of the Aberdeen Sports Village nearby. AUSA operates out of the Johnston Building.
Student societies and organisations
There are over a hundred clubs and societies formally affiliated with the students' association. The students' association is responsible for sport at the university, which is managed by the Aberdeen University Sports Union, an AUSA committee. All registered students are eligible to join any of these clubs or societies.
The university's oldest student organisation is the Aberdeen University Debater, founded by JF Maclennan in 1848 as the King's College Debating Society. In 1871, a Literary Society was started by WM Ramsay, and four years later a Choral Society came to life. In 1884, the society also took the first steps towards the introduction of a students' representative council under support from Alexander Bain, the then Rector. The creation of the Union in 1895 provided a new debating chamber in Marischal College and the society's first permanent home. The chamber beneath Mitchell Hall in Marischal College is Scotland's oldest purpose-built debating chamber.
The first successful university newspaper, Alma Mater, began under the auspices of the University of Aberdeen Debating Society in 1883. The Alma Mater was replaced by The Gaudie, which has been in circulation since 1934, and is currently free-of-charge. The Gaudie is recognised as one of the oldest student newspapers in Scotland and the United Kingdom. It currently consists of 32 pages split into the sections News, Features, Science and Environment, Opine, International, Puzzles, Satire, Life and Style, Arts, Gaming and Tech, and Sports.
The Aberdeen Student Show is a musical and theatrical show, usually with a strong comedy element, staged every year since 1921. Its purpose is to raise money for charity, as part of the Aberdeen Students' Charities Campaign (“ASCC”). From the start it has involved a number of young writers, performers and musicians who have gone on to greater renown in the fields of theatre, media and the arts.
Each year a student-led torcher parade is held. First held in 1889, it is the largest of its kind in Europe. Student groups and societies build floats and parade in fancy dress through the city centre to raise money for local charities. Traditionally spectators donate money in the form of coppers, a colloquial term for 1p and 2p coins.
The Aberdeen Future Fund is an alumni fund run by the Development Trust. Since founding in 1998, Aberdeen Future Fund has raised over £2.5 million of unrestricted funds. Past projects have included a book fund for the Heavy Demand section in the library, providing "Safe Campus" leaflets, contributing to the student hardship fund, providing training mannequins for Clinical Skills, the organ for King's College Chapel, and funding for intramural sports.
University accommodation
Halls of residence are managed by the university. Two large concentrations of University accommodation are provided on the campus in Old Aberdeen and one mile north at the Hillhead Village.
Campus accommodation in the heart of Old Aberdeen consists of self-catered King's Hall and Elphinstone Rd Halls.
The Hillhead Village is located north of Seaton Park, through which students have a 20-minute walk or a 5-minute bus ride to the Old Aberdeen campus, and comprises a large number of catered and self-catered accommodation across 9 different properties. At the heart of the Hillhead Village is the Head Space. The Hillhead Village was developed from the 1960s onwards, when Adam Smith House, Wavell House, and Fyfe House were built in response to the University of Aberdeen's massive post-war expansion.
In addition, other student accommodation in the city is owned and operated by private providers such as Unite Group.
Following their first year, the majority of students live in private accommodation off-campus or in privately owned halls of residence. In recent years, rents and availability of accommodation has seen more second and third year students returning to university halls.
The university has a "First-Year Accommodation Guarantee" providing that the student accept their firm offer before a set date prior to the beginning of term. In 2014–15, the university ran out of rooms and had to resort to temporary accommodation. The university continues to monitor accommodation costs and where possible offers discretionary support to students, to improve access to higher education.
Halls of residence include:
Adam Smith House
Elphinstone Road Flats
Fyfe House
Grant Court
Hector Boece Court
Keith House
Kings Hall
New Carnegie Court
North Court
South House
Wavell House
The first modern halls of residence built by the university on the King's College campus was Crombie halls, named after James Edward Crombie. They opened in 1960. The Crombie-Johnston halls were closed in 2017 following a decline in demand for catered accommodation.
The Elphinstone Road halls were completed in 1992.
Sports clubs and the Sports Union
The students' association is responsible for sport at the university, which is managed by the Aberdeen University Sports Union, an AUSA committee. Established in 1889, it's affiliated to the BUCS and SSS and encompasses over fifty sports clubs. There are large playing fields at the back of King's College and also Aberdeen Sports Village, a partnership between the University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen City Council and sportscotland. The venue includes a nine-court indoor hall, full-sized synthetic football pitch, synthetic cricket wicket, fitness suite, squash courts and a sports performance lab among other facilities. The development on the site of the former Chris Anderson Stadium, opened on 24 August 2009. An aquatics centre featuring a 10 lane 50 m pool and diving complex opened in 2014.
A notable club is the Aberdeen University Football Club, which was formed in 1872, and currently competes in the SJFA North First Division. The Aberdeen University Rugby Football Club, founded in 1871, has a long history of producing both Scottish and British Lions players.
The annual boat race between Aberdeen University Boat Club and Robert Gordon University Boat Club has been competed for since 1995. The University of Aberdeen has lost only four times, in 2006, 2009, 2012 and 2013.
Aberdeen Sports Village served as one of the official pre-games training venues of the Cameroon Olympic Team prior to the London 2012 Olympic Games.
Music
There are a large number of ensembles at the University of Aberdeen. Some are directed by academic staff, while others are run by students both in and out of the department and include; Balinese Gamelan, Baroque Ensemble, Big Band, Cantores ad Portam, Chapel Choir, Choral Society, Concert Band, String Orchestra and Symphony Orchestra.
Student media
There are a number of student media organisations at the University of Aberdeen. These include The Gaudie (student newspaper), Granite City TV and Aberdeen Student Radio (ASR).
Traditions
Sponsio Academica
The Sponsio Academica is the oath, originally in Latin, taken by students matriculating into the four ancient Scottish universities (Edinburgh, St. Andrews, Aberdeen and Glasgow). This tradition now has been digitised at Aberdeen and is agreed to as part of an online matriculation process. Originally, new students matriculated in Mitchell Hall where the Chancellor would give a welcoming address.
Since 1888 the School of Medicine has used a form of the Sponsio Academica for graduating students to affirm in response to the discontinuation of the oath hitherto taken by students in all faculties:"I solemnly declare that as a Graduate of Medicine of the University of Aberdeen, I will exercise my profession to the best of my knowledge and ability, for the good of all persons whose health may be placed in my care, and for the public weal; that I will hold in due regard the honourable traditions and obligations of the Medical Profession, and will do nothing inconsistent therewith; and that I will be loyal to the University and endeavour to promote its welfare and maintain its reputation.'
Founders' Day
Usually held annually in February, on Founders’ Day, the university community pays tribute to its historic origins as an ancient University and in particular, the role played by William Elphinstone and other benefactors in the establishment of the University. The ceremony begins with an academic procession through the university and concludes with a service in King's College Chapel. Talks are given by university lecturers and invited guests. A candle is lit in the chapel to give thanks to Elphinstone and the other patron fathers.
Installing of the Rector
The Rector, an ancient post dating back to the foundation of the University in 1495, is the students’ representative, particularly in welfare matters, and sits on the University Court.
Tradition dictates that the University of Aberdeen's new rector must ride through Old Aberdeen aloft a bull carried at shoulder height by students of the university. The ceremony includes a colourful academic procession representing civic, student and academic life in Aberdeen. University staff and students, along with representatives from the City and Aberdeenshire Councils, Incorporated Trades, MSPs, and alumni, attend the ceremony which is followed by a reception in the King's Conference Centre.
The reception culminates with the new Rector being carried by the student mascot, Angus the Bull, from King's College to the St Machar Bar in the High Street of Old Aberdeen, where tradition also dictates that he buy a round of drinks for his student supporters.
Bajan
Bajan, a medieval term (literally 'yellow beak' – bec jaune), describing trainees in the pre-student year, was traditionally applied to Aberdeen University first year undergraduates. Female undergraduates were referred to as "bajanellas". Second year students were called 'Semis', and these usually played jokes upon or clashed with bajans. Semis would usually tear first year's gowns.
These terms were based on the four years of the degree:
B first year (bajan)
S second year (semi)
T third year (tertian)
M fourth year (magistrand)
Notable alumni and academics
See also
5677 Aberdonia, minor planet named after the University of Aberdeen
List of medieval universities
Ancient universities
References
External links
Aberdeen University Debater
University of Aberdeen Students' Association
Scholars and Literati at the University of Aberdeen (1495–1800), Repertorium Eruditorum Totius Europae – RETE
1495 establishments in Scotland
Educational institutions established in the 15th century
1860 establishments in Scotland
Universities UK
|
[
0.3651849329471588,
0.4013978838920593,
0.2471151202917099,
-1.2646950483322144,
-0.4728482663631439,
0.3342522978782654,
0.5650132298469543,
0.8666083216667175,
-0.2441791594028473,
-0.6233958601951599,
-0.6551661491394043,
-0.13181273639202118,
0.20218007266521454,
0.6597070693969727,
0.3324066698551178,
0.05265058949589729,
0.2820957899093628,
-0.025754544883966446,
0.10086607187986374,
-0.002716832561418414,
-0.20787227153778076,
0.32002127170562744,
-0.11181677132844925,
0.08523880690336227,
0.7784521579742432,
0.0003137305029667914,
0.7681167125701904,
-0.2531334459781647,
-0.1258164495229721,
-0.3027730882167816,
0.09652487933635712,
-0.30402204394340515,
-0.14219607412815094,
-0.13364316523075104,
0.08818666636943817,
-0.24731144309043884,
-0.14495855569839478,
-0.03671981766819954,
-0.39871087670326233,
-0.46247398853302,
-0.6932210922241211,
-0.4102901816368103,
0.722029983997345,
-0.08901219815015793,
-0.48917078971862793,
-1.3350651264190674,
-1.075825810432434,
0.8706972599029541,
-0.2510891854763031,
0.8629983067512512,
-0.4129519462585449,
0.12130864709615707,
0.315890908241272,
-0.20992207527160645,
-0.20418982207775116,
0.5109259486198425,
-0.24833865463733673,
0.2825208604335785,
-0.01695704273879528,
-0.34163767099380493,
0.47419074177742004,
1.1338621377944946,
-0.5267512798309326,
0.6819043755531311,
-0.013547081500291824,
0.36605304479599,
0.029868489131331444,
0.48545345664024353,
-0.7177544832229614,
-0.6651824712753296,
0.08058511465787888,
0.35300201177597046,
-0.5290462970733643,
0.2841007113456726,
-0.42468714714050293,
-0.9270342588424683,
0.2467387616634369,
-0.19051070511341095,
0.1942712515592575,
-0.3617711067199707,
0.30810466408729553,
0.5504842400550842,
0.30909883975982666,
0.10597559064626694,
0.49361899495124817,
0.21548819541931152,
-0.9812958836555481,
-0.053687695413827896,
-0.34861087799072266,
0.5535784959793091,
0.05518080294132233,
0.20854683220386505,
0.5909064412117004,
-0.11078386753797531,
0.38287031650543213,
0.1695687174797058,
-0.11228655278682709,
0.2157992720603943,
0.10652138292789459,
-0.43077602982521057,
-0.8100817203521729,
0.06364084035158157,
0.390326589345932,
-0.33180150389671326,
-0.3397984802722931,
0.2703739106655121,
-0.8490762114524841,
-0.34493228793144226,
-0.6328578591346741,
-0.5633933544158936,
-0.7285802364349365,
-0.2245347648859024,
-0.46138760447502136,
0.3761906027793884,
0.06692946702241898,
0.22627094388008118,
0.7606543302536011,
-0.09693840891122818,
-0.5756275653839111,
-0.4061536192893982,
0.07082924246788025,
0.42489534616470337,
0.02892311103641987,
0.047068070620298386,
-0.048021841794252396,
0.04091126099228859,
-0.19330595433712006,
0.15640701353549957,
-0.5723695755004883,
-0.07592074573040009,
0.156865656375885,
1.0281546115875244,
-0.1357526034116745,
0.0650515928864479,
0.009052146226167679,
0.0009605208761058748,
0.4224711060523987,
0.02850385755300522,
0.04849563539028168,
0.09180275350809097,
-1.3161489963531494,
0.21135838329792023,
-1.5147840976715088,
0.040043022483587265,
-0.2704516053199768,
-0.83659827709198,
0.031024307012557983,
0.00019239401444792747,
-0.09851093590259552,
-0.16155651211738586,
0.16248689591884613,
0.10720527172088623,
-0.4442695677280426,
0.4084591567516327,
0.17688940465450287,
0.6876542568206787,
1.0121188163757324,
0.2073962390422821,
0.5224044322967529,
0.12702251970767975,
0.06533118337392807,
0.30267593264579773,
0.26260462403297424,
-0.5464971661567688,
0.5810933113098145,
-0.5128006339073181,
0.20244339108467102,
-0.3980880379676819,
-0.22259828448295593,
-0.030868908390402794,
-0.6712580919265747,
-0.4726186990737915,
1.0892163515090942,
0.11615333706140518,
0.11149809509515762,
-0.3468201756477356,
-0.09200159460306168,
0.01766129955649376,
0.3490138649940491,
-0.23339799046516418,
-0.6869881749153137,
0.11809906363487244,
0.3113653361797333,
0.20939746499061584,
0.3358294367790222,
-0.24083800613880157,
0.5242277979850769,
0.33860641717910767,
0.014028461650013924,
0.6045645475387573,
-0.7548502683639526,
-0.5005773901939392,
-0.15775896608829498,
0.17181789875030518,
0.8818301558494568,
0.2726615369319916,
-0.6645159721374512,
0.708233654499054,
-0.3512766659259796,
1.1141307353973389,
-0.5276084542274475,
-0.21155956387519836,
0.03686707466840744,
-0.5396314263343811,
-0.4447588324546814,
0.8331812620162964,
0.32467618584632874,
-0.3816032111644745,
0.3818298578262329,
0.031027667224407196,
0.4233114719390869,
-0.4569235146045685,
0.5149527788162231,
-0.5482288002967834,
0.20380736887454987,
-0.12271825224161148,
-0.21455132961273193,
-0.7454895377159119,
-0.22796998918056488,
0.05180398002266884,
0.8492619395256042,
0.11351971328258514,
0.15808233618736267,
0.46673962473869324,
0.01829204522073269,
0.14363689720630646,
-0.060755450278520584,
0.3735188841819763,
-0.14514277875423431,
-0.11945097148418427,
0.17841683328151703,
-0.4419584572315216,
-0.029179614037275314,
-0.04852139949798584,
-0.42367514967918396,
-0.2314988225698471,
-0.6748523712158203,
0.07207277417182922,
0.9088572859764099,
-0.20673595368862152,
0.7389808893203735,
-0.0627785325050354,
-0.7238765954971313,
0.5858380794525146,
-0.05656949803233147,
0.3557116985321045,
-0.023074921220541,
0.09948305785655975,
0.003356118919327855,
-0.2617465555667877,
0.5218487977981567,
-0.35368919372558594,
0.1841433346271515,
-0.0010999093065038323,
0.17688296735286713,
-0.1288837194442749,
-0.11826220154762268,
0.3729044497013092,
0.5043811798095703,
0.06614378094673157,
-0.4166577458381653,
0.11561854183673859,
0.3024350702762604,
0.19540102779865265,
-0.28351905941963196,
0.033530108630657196,
-0.49063119292259216,
-0.7729023694992065,
0.6028879284858704,
0.1327342838048935,
0.187057763338089,
-0.012265685945749283,
-0.5541391372680664,
-0.7367421388626099,
-0.38490960001945496,
-0.30294910073280334,
0.7655094861984253,
-0.4684152603149414,
-0.6338830590248108,
-0.29810258746147156,
0.1373744159936905,
0.5427277088165283,
-0.28572675585746765,
-0.8915373086929321,
-0.4384496510028839,
-0.09740328788757324,
-0.15332749485969543,
0.14485298097133636,
-0.30743905901908875,
0.07777882367372513,
-0.27197253704071045,
0.011151691898703575,
0.26201289892196655,
-0.17467036843299866,
-0.1080431342124939,
-0.16677828133106232,
0.7244728207588196,
-0.1208786591887474,
0.5699770450592041,
-0.5296984910964966,
-0.5137746334075928,
0.09934331476688385,
0.3117865324020386,
0.024527842178940773,
0.19842174649238586,
-0.6371992230415344,
0.06721765547990799,
0.2576851546764374,
-5.137030124664307,
-0.18778768181800842,
-0.4092036187648773,
-0.0576661080121994,
0.927869975566864,
-0.4695195257663727,
0.5308843851089478,
-0.6612935066223145,
0.17028547823429108,
-0.9020885229110718,
0.07256968319416046,
0.22974883019924164,
-0.023876823484897614,
0.3017407953739166,
0.10053709894418716,
0.49722734093666077,
0.2340107411146164,
0.08796464651823044,
0.2544349431991577,
0.5703514814376831,
0.08528707921504974,
0.07031586021184921,
-0.2649587392807007,
0.546644389629364,
0.17539820075035095,
0.8697218298912048,
-0.17772062122821808,
-0.10011452436447144,
-0.3518792688846588,
-0.5419023036956787,
0.6628262400627136,
-0.13480904698371887,
0.47040337324142456,
-0.39886680245399475,
0.16754339635372162,
0.0356132797896862,
0.5333864688873291,
0.4858362376689911,
0.61507648229599,
-0.6711090803146362,
0.048083022236824036,
0.22331444919109344,
-0.07407999038696289,
0.26271089911460876,
0.4210478365421295,
-1.0550447702407837,
-0.3798527717590332,
0.25964900851249695,
-0.10864634066820145,
0.6757179498672485,
-0.4961070120334625,
0.37714558839797974,
0.4394971430301666,
0.39116716384887695,
-0.5173475742340088,
-0.33117908239364624,
-0.559373676776886,
0.6596755385398865,
-0.13518570363521576,
-0.050757311284542084,
0.3449496328830719,
-0.3787846863269806,
0.06424117088317871,
-0.10450619459152222,
-0.2788475453853607,
-0.6300903558731079,
0.24789632856845856,
0.2714688181877136,
0.08039075881242752,
0.28128668665885925,
-0.07943989336490631,
0.5992289185523987,
-0.5280767679214478,
-1.0033866167068481,
-0.45971179008483887,
-0.39605870842933655,
-0.47905224561691284,
-0.3853301405906677,
0.03592637926340103,
-0.04120573028922081,
-0.3511064350605011,
-0.07207372784614563,
-0.20002126693725586,
1.0665007829666138,
-0.6417872309684753,
-0.6230096817016602,
-0.28060483932495117,
0.31302106380462646,
-0.43264496326446533,
-0.6598471403121948,
-0.029474858194589615,
-0.06695214658975601,
-0.058420926332473755,
0.13117219507694244,
-0.2699618637561798,
-0.3028756380081177,
0.2757749855518341,
-0.046254713088274,
0.18567810952663422,
-0.15108011662960052,
1.04392409324646,
-0.5125442743301392,
-0.3740861117839813,
-0.49194544553756714,
-0.26165440678596497,
-0.26645636558532715,
-0.581847071647644,
0.517689049243927,
0.7383925318717957,
-0.2814007103443146,
-0.2506055235862732,
0.03917211294174194,
-0.1635468304157257,
0.506607174873352,
0.349374383687973,
-0.209296315908432,
-0.5188703536987305,
0.056615374982357025,
0.061904411762952805,
0.6725795269012451,
0.17926883697509766,
0.2232583463191986,
0.2809942960739136,
0.0039509995840489864,
0.5360942482948303,
-0.49751290678977966,
0.8968609571456909,
-0.41163426637649536,
-0.4701476991176605,
-0.22256574034690857,
0.42419567704200745,
-0.06926815956830978,
-0.2872779369354248,
0.03846505656838417,
-0.28757616877555847,
-0.17844603955745697,
-0.23869076371192932,
-0.005215171258896589,
0.14684101939201355,
-0.09607942402362823,
-0.1293381154537201,
0.23753692209720612,
0.4638083875179291,
0.43763113021850586,
0.22714589536190033,
0.6017683148384094,
-0.30353787541389465,
0.3907713294029236,
-0.6337824463844299,
0.2099466174840927,
-0.03631235286593437,
-0.34480100870132446,
0.1880907565355301,
-0.7875452637672424,
0.37061741948127747,
-0.026040703058242798,
-0.5746451020240784,
0.5465105772018433,
0.11528129875659943,
0.21018430590629578,
-0.07440565526485443,
0.030246280133724213,
-1.2482198476791382,
0.45443764328956604,
0.36355075240135193,
-0.3409903943538666,
-0.2945329248905182,
-0.2018863409757614,
0.2589772343635559,
0.38942480087280273,
-0.13192115724086761,
-0.3512677550315857,
-0.7486427426338196,
-0.7717294692993164,
0.33799517154693604,
-0.0023793033324182034,
-0.3332199454307556,
0.3552168011665344,
0.06669353693723679,
-0.2605913579463959,
0.6534308791160583,
-0.4004608988761902,
0.03204252943396568,
1.0956040620803833,
0.7084341049194336,
-0.21406519412994385,
-0.3265482485294342,
-0.6133216619491577,
0.630161464214325,
0.5159723162651062,
-0.1080106794834137,
-0.11934365332126617,
0.484663724899292,
0.19151005148887634,
-0.7228482961654663,
-0.53117436170578,
-0.557075560092926,
-0.0030936729162931442,
0.12802834808826447,
-0.24004945158958435,
0.3191051483154297,
0.7886090874671936,
-0.6268608570098877,
-0.04362422600388527,
-0.31842270493507385,
-0.32370781898498535,
0.35178038477897644,
-0.11657222360372543,
-0.43201759457588196,
0.4657669961452484,
-0.4197681248188019,
-0.9201635122299194,
0.4488101899623871,
0.9281420707702637,
-1.0275046825408936,
0.3066742718219757,
-0.08432876318693161,
-0.6564836502075195,
-0.02006831020116806,
-0.5797020792961121,
-0.560468852519989,
-0.4397253394126892,
0.08075416833162308,
0.006475962698459625,
-0.1295711100101471,
0.3837163746356964,
-0.13806521892547607,
-0.6914822459220886,
0.7512361407279968,
-0.5121356248855591,
0.44339606165885925,
0.25825607776641846,
0.19117631018161774,
0.13251858949661255,
0.08173875510692596,
0.2274852842092514,
0.08533405512571335,
0.3005621135234833,
-0.012480320408940315,
0.23182572424411774,
0.7515072822570801,
0.9423407912254333,
-0.08305004239082336,
-0.38165679574012756,
-0.03863758221268654,
0.26329919695854187,
0.5252166986465454,
-0.07061662524938583,
-0.341411828994751,
0.362203449010849,
0.49048495292663574,
-0.8805590271949768,
-0.4326600432395935,
-0.6790940165519714,
0.38390201330184937,
-0.7794739603996277,
0.689293384552002,
0.3621232211589813,
-0.2083461731672287,
-0.4434433877468109,
0.30236539244651794,
0.47027862071990967,
-0.7228038311004639,
0.3723004162311554,
0.007137315347790718,
-0.5028114914894104,
0.07392770051956177,
-0.782720148563385,
0.701056957244873,
0.10405082255601883,
-0.08819548040628433,
-0.7582821249961853,
0.25342509150505066,
0.513346254825592,
0.23566395044326782,
0.2863333225250244,
-0.08342619240283966,
-0.2959829270839691,
0.2665359079837799,
-0.21848686039447784,
-0.11924231052398682,
0.17720286548137665,
0.45057880878448486,
-0.4902603030204773,
0.43717437982559204,
-0.617728054523468,
0.24112574756145477,
0.2888180911540985,
-0.5418885946273804,
0.07733383029699326,
0.18388129770755768,
-0.7485897541046143,
-0.03504277393221855,
-0.11059174686670303,
-0.3893056809902191,
0.2776931822299957,
0.0178380087018013,
0.2152739316225052,
0.3749609887599945,
-0.20355571806430817,
-0.8230536580085754,
0.9307989478111267,
0.4809439182281494,
-0.2120727002620697,
0.5713164210319519,
0.33827927708625793,
0.0621008537709713,
0.3648599684238434,
-0.07332765311002731,
-0.47741904854774475,
0.3740275204181671,
0.22685913741588593,
0.4395069181919098,
0.49058765172958374,
-0.2623922824859619,
-0.015778454020619392,
0.11799629032611847,
-0.837028980255127,
0.006057195831090212,
0.6279526948928833,
-0.5483716726303101,
-0.2680528163909912,
0.030688516795635223,
0.4308856427669525,
-0.12383531033992767,
0.6466853618621826,
-0.4031435549259186,
-0.6736192107200623,
0.7324323058128357,
0.44837066531181335,
-0.28837287425994873,
0.3484186828136444,
-0.35945427417755127,
0.9318909645080566,
-0.6024325489997864,
-0.3609127402305603,
1.0568772554397583,
-0.7198010683059692,
-0.3255227506160736,
0.4836985766887665,
0.3155972957611084,
0.83798748254776,
0.04457875341176987,
-0.15079651772975922,
-0.12364133447408676,
0.07629991322755814,
-0.0460621602833271,
0.3852125108242035,
-0.3393877446651459,
-0.17645609378814697,
0.6079694032669067,
-0.5754131078720093,
0.17663216590881348,
0.163655087351799,
-0.08985678851604462,
0.3261072337627411,
-0.2497251182794571,
-0.2486748993396759,
0.030015815049409866,
-0.4113183319568634,
-0.20867770910263062,
0.5812597870826721,
0.6623323559761047,
-0.19139057397842407,
-0.5288772583007812,
-0.05171119421720505,
0.5112475156784058,
-0.2334119975566864,
0.02747022546827793,
0.2193601429462433,
0.6051411032676697,
0.4500138461589813,
-0.15178781747817993,
-0.383452832698822,
0.8846550583839417,
1.0508639812469482,
0.05292331799864769,
0.6663975119590759,
-0.2553158402442932,
-0.3132581114768982,
-0.7444090247154236,
0.5514593720436096,
-0.24171537160873413,
-0.2142595797777176,
-0.37461695075035095,
-0.3200443685054779,
-0.38927769660949707,
0.28448498249053955,
-0.7093318700790405,
-0.2835610806941986,
0.34098267555236816,
-0.37827983498573303,
0.16482365131378174,
-0.2357356995344162,
-0.61540287733078,
-0.2760566771030426,
-0.17649811506271362,
0.41283687949180603,
0.05928557366132736,
0.15057581663131714,
0.0693076103925705,
0.1884302794933319,
-0.0011593211675062776,
0.36891108751296997,
-0.34635114669799805,
0.6887757182121277,
-0.4332905411720276,
0.6779017448425293,
-0.5287167429924011,
0.6067147254943848,
0.22727306187152863,
-0.33358874917030334,
0.3831632733345032,
0.5424888134002686,
-0.32639938592910767,
0.5942217111587524,
0.8077024817466736,
-0.4586496651172638,
-0.5951452255249023,
-0.02986154891550541,
-0.1386323720216751,
-0.24416275322437286,
0.21282145380973816,
0.9499199390411377,
-0.44548335671424866,
-0.3060726523399353,
0.002007274655625224,
1.255373239517212,
-0.4651654362678528,
0.2646845877170563,
-0.5629944205284119,
0.2090713232755661,
-1.044372320175171,
0.29887381196022034,
-0.39718562364578247,
-0.3004858195781708,
0.30470114946365356,
0.7489805817604065,
-0.19207139313220978,
-0.3433658182621002,
-0.28818345069885254,
-0.18152523040771484,
0.7348360419273376,
0.5576204657554626,
-1.6805293560028076,
-0.11011705547571182,
0.012800786644220352,
-0.1422131508588791,
-0.28171077370643616,
0.03010896034538746,
0.48375746607780457,
-0.35005491971969604,
0.6420778036117554,
0.21538403630256653,
-0.11914627999067307,
0.21369628608226776,
0.17336824536323547,
-0.48430413007736206,
0.6417930722236633,
0.9375578165054321
] |
213137
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Baker
|
James Baker
|
James Addison Baker III (born April 28, 1930) is an American attorney, statesman, and political figure. He served as White House Chief of Staff and United States Secretary of the Treasury under President Ronald Reagan, and as U.S. Secretary of State and White House Chief of Staff under President George H. W. Bush.
Born in Houston, Baker attended The Hill School and Princeton University before serving in the United States Marine Corps. After graduating from the University of Texas School of Law, he pursued a legal career. He became a close friend of George H. W. Bush and worked for Bush's unsuccessful 1970 campaign for the United States Senate. After the campaign, he served in various positions for President Richard Nixon. In 1975, he was appointed Under Secretary of Commerce for Gerald Ford. He served until May 1976, ran Ford's 1976 presidential campaign, and unsuccessfully sought election as the Attorney General of Texas.
Baker ran Bush's unsuccessful campaign for the 1980 Republican presidential nomination, but made a favorable impression on the Republican nominee, Ronald Reagan. Reagan appointed Baker as his White House Chief of Staff, and Baker remained in that position until 1985, when he became the Secretary of the Treasury. As Treasury Secretary, he arranged the Plaza Accord and the Baker Plan. He resigned as Treasury Secretary to manage Bush's successful 1988 campaign for president. After the election, Bush appointed Baker to the position of Secretary of State. As Secretary of State, he helped oversee U.S. foreign policy during the end of the Cold War and dissolution of the Soviet Union, as well as during the Gulf War. After the Gulf War, Baker served another stint as White House Chief of Staff from 1992 to 1993.
Baker remained active in business and public affairs after Bush's defeat in the 1992 presidential election. He served as a United Nations envoy to Western Sahara and as a consultant to Enron. During the Florida recount following the 2000 presidential election, he managed George W. Bush's legal team in the state. He served as the co-chairman of the Iraq Study Group, which Congress formed in 2006 to study Iraq and the ongoing Iraq War. He serves on the World Justice Project and the Climate Leadership Council. Baker is the namesake of the James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy at Rice University.
Early life, education, and pre-political career
James Addison Baker III was born in Houston at 1216 Bissonnet St., the son of James A. Baker Jr. (1892–1973) and Ethel Bonner (née Means) Baker (August 6, 1894 – April 26, 1991). His father was a partner of Houston law firm Baker Botts. Baker has a sister, Bonner Baker Moffitt. His grandfather was attorney and banker Captain James A. Baker, and his great-grandfather was jurist and politician Judge James A. Baker.
Baker attended The Hill School, a boarding school in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. He graduated cum laude with an A.B. in history from Princeton University in 1952 after completing a 188-page senior thesis, titled "Two Sides of the Conflict: Bevin vs. Bevan", under the supervision of Walter P. Hall. He was a member of Phi Delta Theta. Baker was a member of the United States Marine Corps from 1952 to 1954, attaining the rank of first lieutenant as a naval gunfire officer serving in the Mediterranean Sea aboard the . He remained in the Marine Corps Reserve until 1958, and rose to the rank of captain. He earned a Bachelor of Laws (1957) from the University of Texas School of Law and began to practice law in Texas.
From 1957 to 1975, he practiced law at Andrews & Kurth after the anti-nepotism policy of his family firm, Baker Botts, prevented him from receiving a job there.
Early political career
Baker's first wife, the former Mary Stuart McHenry, was active in the Republican Party, working on the Congressional campaigns of George H. W. Bush. Originally, Baker had been a Democrat but too busy trying to succeed in a competitive law firm to worry about politics, and considered himself apolitical. His wife's influence led Baker to politics and the Republican Party. He was a regular tennis partner of George H. W. Bush at the Houston Country Club in the late 1950s. When Bush Sr. decided to vacate his Congressional seat and run for the U.S. Senate in 1970, he supported Baker's decision to run for the Congressional seat he was vacating. However, Baker changed his mind about running for Congress when his wife was diagnosed with breast cancer; she died in February 1970.
Bush Sr. then encouraged Baker to become active in politics to help deal with the grief of his wife's death, something that Bush Sr. himself had done when his daughter, Pauline Robinson Bush (1949–1953), died of leukemia. Baker became chairman of Bush's Senate campaign in Harris County, Texas. Though Bush lost to Lloyd Bentsen in the election, Baker continued in politics, becoming the finance chairman of the Texas Republican Party in 1971. The following year, he was selected as Gulf Coast Regional Chairman for the Richard Nixon presidential campaign. In 1973 and 1974, in the wake of the Nixon Administration's implosion, Baker returned to full-time law practice at Andrews & Kurth.
Baker's time away from politics was very brief, however. In August 1975, he was appointed Under Secretary of Commerce by President Gerald Ford, succeeding John K. Tabor. He served until May 1976, and was succeeded by Edward O. Vetter. Baker resigned to serve as campaign manager of Ford's unsuccessful 1976 election campaign. In 1978, with George H. W. Bush as his campaign manager, Baker ran unsuccessfully for Attorney General of Texas, losing to future Texas governor Mark White.
Reagan administration
In 1981, Baker was named White House Chief of Staff by President Ronald Reagan, in spite of the fact that Baker managed the presidential campaigns of Gerald Ford in 1976 and of George Bush in 1980 opposing Reagan. He served in that capacity until 1985. Baker is considered to have had a high degree of influence over the first Reagan administration, particularly in domestic policy.
In 1982, conservative activists Howard Phillips, founder of the Conservative Caucus, and Clymer Wright of Houston joined in an unsuccessful effort to convince Reagan to dismiss Baker as chief of staff. They claimed that Baker, a former Democrat and a Bush political intimate, was undermining conservative initiatives in the administration. Reagan rejected the Phillips-Wright request. Around 1983 Baker became heavily dispirited and tired due to the weight of his job; he attempted to become National Security Advisor, a change to which Reagan initially agreed, but some of Reagan's other advisers dissuaded him from naming Baker to the position. According to his wife, Baker was "so anxious to get out of [his job]" that he gave some consideration to the prospect of becoming Commissioner of Baseball, but he ultimately did not pursue that. In 1985, Reagan named Baker as United States Secretary of the Treasury, in a job-swap with then-Secretary Donald T. Regan, a former Merrill Lynch officer who became chief of staff. Reagan rebuked Phillips and Wright for having waged a "campaign of sabotage" against Baker.
Baker managed Reagan's 1984 re-election campaign in which Reagan polled a record 525 electoral votes total (of a possible 538), and received 58.8% of the popular vote to Walter Mondale's 40.6%.
While serving as Treasury Secretary, Baker organized the Plaza Accord of September 1985 and the Baker Plan to target international debt. He had Richard Darman of Massachusetts as his Deputy Secretary of the Treasury. Darman continued in the next administration as the Director of the Office of Management and Budget.
In 1985, Baker received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards.
During the Reagan administration, Baker also served on the Economic Policy Council, where he played an instrumental role in achieving the passage of the administration's tax and budget reform package in 1981. He also played a role in the development of the American Silver Eagle and American Gold Eagle coins, which both were released in 1986.
Baker also served on Reagan's National Security Council, and remained Treasury Secretary until 1988, during which time he also served as campaign chairman for George H. W. Bush's successful presidential bid.
Bush administration
President George H. W. Bush appointed Baker Secretary of State in 1989. Baker served in this role through 1992. From 1992 to 1993, he served as Bush's White House Chief of Staff, the same position that he had held from 1981 to 1985 during the first Reagan Administration.
In May 1990, Soviet Union's reformist leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited the U.S. for talks with President Bush; there, he agreed to allow a reunified Germany to be a part of NATO. He later revealed that he had agreed to do so because James Baker promised that NATO troops would not be posted to eastern Germany and that the military alliance would not expand into Eastern Europe. Privately, Bush ignored Baker's assurances and later pushed for NATO's eastwards expansion. In the Bush administration, Baker was a proponent of the notion that the USSR should be kept territorially intact, arguing that it would be destabilizing to have the USSR's nuclear arsenal in multiple new states. Bush and US defence secretary Dick Cheney were proponents for Soviet dissolution. Soviet states forced action by holding referendums on independence.
When Ukraine became independent, Baker sought to ensure that Ukraine would give up its nuclear weapons.
On January 9, 1991, during the Geneva Peace Conference with Tariq Aziz in Geneva, Baker declared that "If there is any user of (chemical or biological weapons), our objectives won't just be the liberation of Kuwait, but the elimination of the current Iraqi regime...." Baker later acknowledged that the intent of this statement was to threaten a retaliatory nuclear strike on Iraq, and the Iraqis received his message.
Baker helped to construct the 34-nation alliance that fought alongside the United States in the Gulf War.
Baker also spent considerable time negotiating one-on-one with the parties in order to organize the Madrid Conference of October 30-November 1, 1991, in an attempt to revive the Israeli–Palestinian peace process through negotiations involving Israel and the Palestinians, as well as Arab countries, including Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria.
Baker was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1991.
The 1992 election was complicated by the on-again-off-again candidacy of Ross Perot, who would end up taking 19% of the popular vote. In August, following the Democratic Convention, with Bush trailing Clinton in the polls by 24 points, Bush announced that Baker would return to the White House as Chief of Staff and as head of the re-election campaign. However, despite having run two winning campaigns for Ronald Reagan and one for Bush, Baker was unsuccessful in the second campaign for Bush, who lost to Clinton by 370 electoral votes to 168.
Policies on the Israeli-Arab conflict
Before the 1988 election, he and a team of some Middle Eastern policies experts created a report detailing the Palestine-Israel interactions. His team included Dennis Ross and many others who were soon appointed to the new Bush Administration.
Baker blocked the recognition of Palestine by threatening to cut funding to agencies in the United Nations. As far back as 1988, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) issued a "declaration of statehood" and changed the name of its observer delegation to the United Nations from the PLO to Palestine.
Baker warned publicly, "I will recommend to the President that the United States make no further contributions, voluntary or assessed, to any international organization which makes any changes in the PLO's status as an observer organization."
In May 1989, he gave a speech at the annual conference of the American Israel Public Affairs Committee. He called for Israel to "lay aside once and for all, the unrealistic vision of a greater Israel", cease the construction of Israeli settlements in West Bank and Gaza, forswear annexation of more territory, and to treat Palestinians "as neighbors who deserve political rights". Israeli officials and public were highly offended due to the tone of his speech, though his address called for little more than his predecessors.
Baker soon decided that Aaron David Miller and Daniel Kurtzer would be his principal aids in Middle Eastern policies. All three have been reported as leaning toward the policies of the Israeli Labor Party.
Baker was notable for making little and slow efforts towards improving the state of Israeli-Palestinian relations. When Bush was elected, he only received 29% of Jewish voters' support, and his reelection was thought to be imminent, so there was little pressure on the administration to make bold moves in diplomatic relations with Israel. Israeli leaders initially thought that Baker had a poor grasp of Middle Eastern issues - a perception exacerbated by his use of the term "Greater Israel" - and viewed Israel as a "problem for the United States" according to Moshe Arens. Baker proved willing to confront Israeli officials on statements they made contrary to American interests. After Israeli Deputy Foreign Minister Benjamin Netanyahu accused the United States of "building its policy on a foundation of distortion and lies," Baker banned Netanyahu from entering the State Department building, and refused to meet with him personally for the remainder of his tenure as secretary.
During his first eight months under the Bush administration, there were five meetings with the PLO, which is far less than his predecessors. All serious issues that Palestine sought to discuss, such as elections and representation in the Israeli government, were delegated to Egypt for decisions to be made.
More tensions rose in the Palestinian-Israeli conflict with a massive influx of Jewish people from the Soviet Union moved to Israel. The Israeli government decided to expand the population further into Palestinian territories. Amidst the growing support of Saddam Hussein in Palestine, due to his opposition toward Israel, and his invasion of Kuwait, and the beginning of the Gulf War, Baker decided that he would make some moves towards developing communications between Israel and Palestine.
Baker became the first American statesman to negotiate directly and officially with Palestinians in the Madrid Conference of 1991, which was the first comprehensive peace conference that involved every party involved in the Arab-Israeli conflict and the conference was designed to address all outstanding issues.
After this landmark event, he did not work to further improve Arab-Israeli relations. The administration forced Israel to halt the development of the 6,000 planned housing units, but the 11,000 housing units already under construction were permitted to be completed and inhabited with no penalty. In the meantime, Baker also tried to negotiate with the Syrian President Hafez al-Assad, in order to achieve a lasting peace between Israel and Syria.
However, Baker has been criticized for spending much of his tenure in a state of inaction regarding the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which arguably led to further infringements on Palestinian rights and the growing radicalism of Arabs and Israelis.
Post-Cabinet career
1993–2000
In 1993, Baker became the honorary chair of the James A. Baker III Institute of Public Policy at Rice University in Houston, Texas.
Also in 1993, the Enron Corporation hired Baker as a consultant within a month of his departure from the White House, and Enron said that Baker would have an opportunity to invest in any projects he developed. During his time at Enron, Baker tried to warn against the company's involvement with the Dabhol Power Station in India. Many of Baker's concerns proved correct, and the project became a key factor in the company's downfall.
In 1995, Baker published his memoirs of service as Secretary of State in a book entitled The Politics of Diplomacy: Revolution, War and Peace, 1989–1992 ().
In March 1997, Baker became the Personal Envoy of the UN Secretary-General for Western Sahara. In June 2004, he resigned from this position, frustrated over the lack of progress in reaching a complete settlement acceptable to both the government of Morocco and the pro-independence Polisario Front. He left behind the Baker II plan, accepted as a suitable basis of negotiations by the Polisario and unanimously endorsed by the Security Council, but rejected by Morocco.
In addition to the numerous recognitions received by Baker, he was presented with the prestigious Woodrow Wilson Award for public service on September 13, 2000, in Washington, D.C.
2000 presidential election and recount
In 2000, Baker served as chief legal adviser for George W. Bush during the 2000 presidential election campaign and oversaw the Florida recount. The 2008 film Recount covers the days following the controversial election. Baker was interviewed during the making of the film, and British actor Tom Wilkinson portrayed him in it.
Roles during the Bush administration and Iraq War
Baker also advised George W. Bush on Iraq. When the U.S. occupation of Iraq began in 2003 he was one of the Bush administration's first choices to direct the Coalition Provisional Authority, but he was deemed too old. In December 2003, President George W. Bush appointed Baker as his special envoy to ask various foreign creditor nations to forgive or restructure $100 billion in international debts owed by the Iraq government which had been incurred during the tenure of Saddam Hussein.
State of Denial, a book by investigative reporter Bob Woodward, says that White House Chief of Staff Andrew Card urged President Bush to replace Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld with Baker following the 2004 presidential election. Bush later confirmed that he made such an offer to Baker but that he declined. Bush would appoint another G. H. W. Bush Administration veteran, Robert Gates, instead, after the 2006 midterm elections. Baker was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2008.
On March 15, 2006, Congress announced the formation of the Iraq Study Group, a high-level panel of prominent former officials charged by members of Congress with taking a fresh look at America's policy on Iraq. Baker was the Republican co-chairman along with Democratic Congressman Lee H. Hamilton, to advise Congress on Iraq. The Iraq Study Group examined a number of ideas, including one that would create a new power-sharing arrangement in Iraq that would give more autonomy to regional factions. On October 9, 2006, the Washington Post quoted co-chairman Baker as saying "our commission believes that there are alternatives between the stated alternatives, the ones that are out there in the political debate, of 'stay the course' and 'cut and run'".
Donald Trump
Baker voted for Donald Trump in the 2016 election, and said prior to the 2020 election that he would do so again. During a 2016 memorial service for Nancy Reagan, he commented to former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney that he believed there were parallels between the rise of Trump and the rise of Reagan. He later gave informal advice to Trump during his 2016 presidential campaign and suggested the appointment of Rex Tillerson as Secretary of State.
Other advisory positions
Baker serves on the Honorary Council of Advisers for the U.S.-Azerbaijan Chamber of Commerce.
Baker also serves as an honorary director on the board of directors at the Atlantic Council.
James Baker serves as an Honorary Co-Chair for the World Justice Project. The World Justice Project works to lead a global, multidisciplinary effort to strengthen the Rule of Law for the development of communities of opportunity and equity.
Baker is a leader of the Climate Leadership Council, along with Henry Paulson and George P. Shultz. In 2017, this group of "Republican elder statesmen" proposed that conservatives embrace a fee and dividend form of carbon tax (in which all revenue generated by the tax is rebated to the populace in the form of lump-sum dividends), as a policy to deal with anthropogenic climate change. The group also included Martin S. Feldstein and N. Gregory Mankiw.
Baker began service on the Rice University board of trustees in 1993.
Personal life
Baker met his first wife, the former Mary Stuart McHenry, of Dayton, Ohio, while on spring break in Bermuda with the Princeton University rugby team. They married in 1953. Together they had four sons, including James Addison Baker IV, a partner at Baker Botts. Mary Stuart Baker (Mary Stuart was her full first name) died of breast cancer in February 1970.
In 1973, Baker and Susan Garrett Winston, a divorcee and a close friend of Mary Stuart, were married. Winston had two sons and a daughter with her former husband. She and Baker welcomed their daughter Mary Bonner Baker, born in 1977.
On June 15, 2002, Virginia Graeme Baker, the seven-year-old granddaughter of Baker, daughter of Nancy and James Baker IV, was the victim of lethal suction-pump entrapment in an in-ground spa. To promote greater safety in pools and spas, Nancy Baker gave testimony to the Consumer Product Safety Commission, and James Baker helped form an advocacy group, which led to the Virginia Graeme Baker Pool And Spa Safety Act (15 USC 8001). Another granddaughter is Rosebud Baker, a stand-up comedian.
Awards and Honors
Jefferson Awards for Public Service (1985)
Presidential Medal of Freedom (1991)
Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (1998)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (2015)
Notes
References
Further reading
Works by
1995: The Politics of Diplomacy. with Thomas M. DeFrank. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. .
2006: "Work Hard, Study... And Keep Out of Politics!": Adventures and Lessons from an Unexpected Public Life. with Steve Fiffer. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. .
Works about
Bryce, Robert, (2004). Cronies: Oil, the Bushes, and the Rise of Texas, America's Superstate. New York: Perseus Books Group. .
External links
Baker, James III(Woodson Research Center, Fondren Library, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA)
James Addison Baker Papers at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
James A. Baker III Oral History Collection at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
Profile in the Daily Princetonian
Biography on Baker Botts LLP website
Baker Institute for Public Policy
James Baker Oral History at Houston Oral History Project, November 20, 2007.
|-
|-
|-
1930 births
20th-century American politicians
American campaign managers
American Episcopalians
American memoirists
Atlantic Council
The Carlyle Group people
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
George H. W. Bush administration cabinet members
George W. Bush administration personnel
Living people
Members of the Council on Foreign Relations
Military personnel from Texas
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Princeton University alumni
Reagan administration cabinet members
Texas lawyers
Texas Republicans
The Kinkaid School alumni
The Hill School alumni
United States Marine Corps officers
United States Under Secretaries of Commerce
United States Secretaries of State
United States Secretaries of the Treasury
University of Texas School of Law alumni
White House Chiefs of Staff
Writers from Houston
Rice University trustees
United States Marine Corps reservists
|
[
-0.2916238009929657,
0.17669707536697388,
-0.5062081813812256,
-0.17298977077007294,
0.643612265586853,
0.6129534840583801,
0.7489425539970398,
-0.06945983320474625,
-0.48814699053764343,
0.028125593438744545,
-0.062418121844530106,
0.7187839150428772,
-0.5214595198631287,
0.21666750311851501,
-0.2883822023868561,
0.28296419978141785,
-0.1630035638809204,
-0.15542033314704895,
-0.012915424071252346,
0.01748793013393879,
-0.19537456333637238,
0.037658531218767166,
0.3963392674922943,
-0.1998586505651474,
-0.057106491178274155,
0.4756995737552643,
-0.27280518412590027,
-0.36509183049201965,
0.06229545548558235,
0.5625885128974915,
-0.046073976904153824,
-0.17482541501522064,
0.6289357542991638,
-0.23684431612491608,
-0.29836565256118774,
0.3678053915500641,
-0.1789742410182953,
-0.5721647143363953,
-0.1282201111316681,
0.5764827132225037,
-0.1707853376865387,
0.27227312326431274,
-0.00677536241710186,
-0.16644960641860962,
0.08785061538219452,
0.05305911600589752,
-1.6989736557006836,
-0.31553980708122253,
-0.4807021915912628,
-0.3423576354980469,
-0.2586045563220978,
-0.08435014635324478,
-0.17354950308799744,
0.25316303968429565,
0.3143528401851654,
-0.004370775073766708,
-0.18321962654590607,
-0.1600402444601059,
0.41425955295562744,
-0.5225241780281067,
0.1372552514076233,
-0.3651094138622284,
0.9257500767707825,
-0.47704705595970154,
-0.007730130571871996,
0.40683379769325256,
-0.02915959060192108,
0.48699072003364563,
-0.20621192455291748,
0.38625991344451904,
-0.06279853731393814,
0.26916074752807617,
0.5244176387786865,
0.16327466070652008,
0.7530286908149719,
-0.13475824892520905,
-0.2518443167209625,
-0.08716792613267899,
-0.33215752243995667,
0.1601136475801468,
-0.22154685854911804,
-0.3675277531147003,
0.330547034740448,
0.5510980486869812,
-0.2415858954191208,
-0.0065337433479726315,
-0.31047019362449646,
0.648958146572113,
-0.5339998006820679,
-0.018146049231290817,
-0.9191316962242126,
0.0823201835155487,
0.029276886954903603,
-0.3023938536643982,
-0.48798415064811707,
-0.8796554207801819,
0.3209911286830902,
-0.0657830610871315,
0.4319927394390106,
0.28941231966018677,
-0.2569220960140228,
0.0698762834072113,
0.3751130998134613,
0.06867372244596481,
-0.12436550110578537,
0.04667152836918831,
0.00672407541424036,
-0.3241884112358093,
0.1369672417640686,
-0.10258182138204575,
-0.2989770770072937,
0.17285168170928955,
0.22527089715003967,
-0.16883501410484314,
-0.2777154743671417,
0.6555672883987427,
0.007189864292740822,
-0.8432810306549072,
-0.5784119963645935,
-0.003908344078809023,
-0.09246380627155304,
0.18546362221240997,
-0.0009168082033284009,
-0.03268115594983101,
-0.5181892514228821,
-0.5442511439323425,
0.15290263295173645,
0.26900577545166016,
-0.13039354979991913,
-0.01772284135222435,
0.6398117542266846,
-0.024406511336565018,
-0.6203857660293579,
0.08197778463363647,
-0.5291576981544495,
-0.12971165776252747,
0.07158812880516052,
0.05665415897965431,
-0.5036286115646362,
0.18997982144355774,
-0.2590136229991913,
0.10824994742870331,
-0.20575712621212006,
-0.6051883697509766,
0.15267528593540192,
-0.22057753801345825,
0.2512294054031372,
0.11470282077789307,
-0.09836984425783157,
0.12698203325271606,
-0.06355655193328857,
0.462148517370224,
0.342914879322052,
-0.1413799524307251,
-0.36461853981018066,
1.0514346361160278,
0.3932111859321594,
0.6259159445762634,
0.3975134789943695,
0.4193660616874695,
-0.003438374726101756,
-0.09776541590690613,
-0.10095270723104477,
-0.027758896350860596,
0.19775521755218506,
0.3084399104118347,
-0.1189519390463829,
-0.15127262473106384,
-0.16878174245357513,
-0.17683729529380798,
-0.19572706520557404,
-0.1043325737118721,
0.28592121601104736,
-0.24433372914791107,
-0.3976253867149353,
0.12859074771404266,
0.7520676255226135,
0.02638579159975052,
0.5726873278617859,
-0.6689340472221375,
-0.4115413427352905,
-0.6156211495399475,
0.18758977949619293,
0.4802812933921814,
0.3594251871109009,
-0.15178519487380981,
0.3321518301963806,
-0.37296202778816223,
0.6800322532653809,
-0.786660373210907,
-0.16501256823539734,
-0.4651017487049103,
0.08739934116601944,
-0.11050557345151901,
0.061393797397613525,
0.7905738949775696,
-0.30077967047691345,
0.6459072828292847,
-0.4644927978515625,
0.782153308391571,
0.27538588643074036,
-0.36990171670913696,
-0.23152442276477814,
-0.9193373918533325,
0.24506127834320068,
0.4328572452068329,
0.46348655223846436,
-0.0208797138184309,
0.16373911499977112,
0.7494835257530212,
0.36299458146095276,
-0.694462239742279,
-0.4710496664047241,
0.3580627143383026,
-0.60940021276474,
-0.6343632340431213,
0.09207329154014587,
-0.2616370618343353,
0.49543219804763794,
-0.4786396920681,
0.6330311894416809,
0.5557976365089417,
-0.3569452464580536,
0.738152027130127,
-0.23666222393512726,
0.9785816073417664,
-0.13027659058570862,
0.2569805383682251,
-0.2771850824356079,
0.05828941613435745,
0.33447617292404175,
-0.0959591194987297,
0.07042550295591354,
-0.8921994566917419,
0.6488711833953857,
0.33211252093315125,
0.13489140570163727,
-0.03654240071773529,
0.02705521322786808,
-0.28149694204330444,
0.3091341257095337,
-0.018381629139184952,
-0.31609585881233215,
0.22685949504375458,
0.09984780102968216,
0.1863907277584076,
-0.07950788736343384,
-0.18101809918880463,
0.029389813542366028,
-0.23001737892627716,
0.5830481648445129,
0.4096197485923767,
0.6404120326042175,
0.15994805097579956,
-0.08667827397584915,
-0.120184525847435,
-0.02322874777019024,
0.2989477813243866,
0.38732171058654785,
0.3097611963748932,
0.11964837461709976,
0.10821690410375595,
0.03831562399864197,
0.1935446709394455,
-0.5171436071395874,
0.1818496286869049,
-0.2652839124202728,
-0.4952300488948822,
-0.18763002753257751,
0.06609106063842773,
0.18294940888881683,
-0.207683727145195,
-0.2405412644147873,
-0.06975291669368744,
0.22033505141735077,
0.22869910299777985,
0.19708028435707092,
-0.4280144274234772,
-0.6467486619949341,
-0.515394926071167,
0.5943630933761597,
0.826966404914856,
-0.13331247866153717,
0.23036739230155945,
-0.10056232661008835,
-0.6095840334892273,
-0.5737608075141907,
-0.9339612722396851,
-0.06113313138484955,
0.4260147213935852,
-0.07974786311388016,
0.5389750003814697,
-0.6527665853500366,
0.29749730229377747,
-0.10467388480901718,
0.13502946496009827,
-0.1817505955696106,
-0.9356463551521301,
0.11269808560609818,
-0.5124859809875488,
-0.36706218123435974,
0.04873934015631676,
-0.1061534434556961,
0.455270379781723,
0.8104852437973022,
0.09628389775753021,
-0.03348608687520027,
-0.16734273731708527,
-5.60917329788208,
-0.3403150141239166,
-0.11706037819385529,
-0.5817375779151917,
0.4137166738510132,
-0.007776473183184862,
0.1761084496974945,
-0.4628983438014984,
0.0327904149889946,
-0.17596350610256195,
0.4778754413127899,
-0.2997370958328247,
0.18815024197101593,
0.7069078087806702,
0.39635276794433594,
0.170754536986351,
0.48081186413764954,
-0.0018956295680254698,
0.3156152069568634,
0.34410539269447327,
0.5659810304641724,
-0.2826891243457794,
-0.2642595171928406,
-0.21747475862503052,
-0.4289340376853943,
0.05145058408379555,
-0.790736734867096,
0.00823395699262619,
-0.5620919466018677,
-0.25608861446380615,
-0.13010798394680023,
0.2539839446544647,
-0.13822291791439056,
-0.21086668968200684,
-0.0929274708032608,
-0.44555342197418213,
0.6718863844871521,
0.4963364601135254,
0.23201587796211243,
0.06454992294311523,
0.6223369836807251,
-0.07258304953575134,
-0.6668771505355835,
0.011033935472369194,
-0.1331295520067215,
0.07686519622802734,
-0.5219740271568298,
0.05306949466466904,
-0.39802786707878113,
0.3750646710395813,
0.4740680754184723,
0.4750460386276245,
0.657544732093811,
-0.052263177931308746,
0.03331926837563515,
-0.02829219400882721,
0.11273138970136642,
-0.012327168136835098,
-0.6306450963020325,
0.3932965099811554,
0.13899005949497223,
-0.47264763712882996,
0.34786146879196167,
-0.05961831286549568,
-0.35375410318374634,
-0.6067356467247009,
0.042642250657081604,
0.43464499711990356,
0.44032061100006104,
-0.20732422173023224,
-0.23552922904491425,
0.8799198865890503,
0.1534123569726944,
-1.574534296989441,
0.5767643451690674,
-0.1179160326719284,
-0.05404040962457657,
-0.13599355518817902,
-0.7781243920326233,
-0.5804985761642456,
0.4996435344219208,
0.05617380514740944,
0.35721224546432495,
0.5788764357566833,
0.49537646770477295,
-0.14604181051254272,
-0.19382138550281525,
0.5194100141525269,
-0.4932325780391693,
-0.7382615208625793,
-0.46512511372566223,
-0.11612193286418915,
0.1382691115140915,
-0.20954422652721405,
0.42605534195899963,
0.1393120288848877,
-0.1797179877758026,
0.24410003423690796,
0.12827391922473907,
-0.36553433537483215,
-0.593163788318634,
-0.41153162717819214,
-0.4939642548561096,
-0.8447750210762024,
-0.0713510736823082,
0.014621429145336151,
-0.32247188687324524,
0.3111110031604767,
0.47173890471458435,
0.2685871124267578,
-0.22957545518875122,
0.3058963418006897,
-0.16874898970127106,
-0.20378200709819794,
-0.028964417055249214,
-0.451689213514328,
-0.40139251947402954,
-0.0499589666724205,
0.5201656818389893,
0.3735743463039398,
0.031726278364658356,
0.7141551971435547,
-0.008291454054415226,
0.2639564871788025,
0.07363554835319519,
-0.520729124546051,
0.21666447818279266,
-0.4023073613643646,
-0.5780833959579468,
0.10373758524656296,
-0.10369890928268433,
0.7840284109115601,
-0.09427016228437424,
0.024876628071069717,
-0.3024943768978119,
-0.20679228007793427,
-0.21946720778942108,
-0.23691949248313904,
-0.43345218896865845,
-0.30349627137184143,
0.44703322649002075,
-0.30283012986183167,
0.28944915533065796,
-0.006727154366672039,
0.0955759808421135,
0.11887943744659424,
0.17641107738018036,
0.46615880727767944,
-0.18537263572216034,
0.0867852121591568,
-0.27812522649765015,
-0.2948031723499298,
0.5067038536071777,
-0.21891550719738007,
-0.5915758609771729,
-0.2591255307197571,
-0.494937002658844,
0.24705401062965393,
-0.09959098696708679,
-0.0472712442278862,
0.05690273642539978,
-0.03672698885202408,
-1.258925437927246,
-0.360005259513855,
-0.10949897021055222,
0.9198925495147705,
-0.5482332110404968,
0.36132505536079407,
-0.19874650239944458,
0.7273077964782715,
0.24742841720581055,
-0.4227404296398163,
-0.43129852414131165,
-0.21930675208568573,
0.22673875093460083,
0.10082792490720749,
0.40244603157043457,
-0.4368133246898651,
-0.09695304185152054,
0.6350253820419312,
0.24244387447834015,
-0.1361711323261261,
-0.6732112169265747,
-0.11763302981853485,
0.481717050075531,
-0.9354248642921448,
-0.2393672913312912,
-0.39462408423423767,
-0.26316219568252563,
0.23481617867946625,
0.8303426504135132,
-0.946980893611908,
0.3669206500053406,
0.4943426549434662,
0.17469926178455353,
-0.2696177363395691,
0.13371025025844574,
-0.12453847378492355,
-0.5218534469604492,
-0.3071123957633972,
-0.0008707385277375579,
0.37461212277412415,
-0.46401387453079224,
-0.00581139512360096,
-0.5298011898994446,
-0.7609331011772156,
-0.5975357890129089,
-0.04263986274600029,
0.20701389014720917,
0.598120927810669,
-0.2428358793258667,
-0.1612788587808609,
0.1608225256204605,
0.538875162601471,
-0.21139292418956757,
0.26443541049957275,
0.31451132893562317,
0.6167032122612,
-0.36078208684921265,
-0.7091100215911865,
-0.1724856197834015,
-0.8683028221130371,
-0.1510259062051773,
-0.06411872059106827,
0.0005701242480427027,
0.7816266417503357,
-0.0023578128311783075,
-0.19754692912101746,
0.5773478746414185,
-0.17257839441299438,
-0.2843570411205292,
-0.21530072391033173,
-0.4025270640850067,
0.2834417223930359,
0.002491549588739872,
-0.251385360956192,
0.14828376471996307,
0.7385461926460266,
-0.4394873380661011,
0.16941620409488678,
0.6631827354431152,
1.5718399286270142,
0.5227769613265991,
-0.11357944458723068,
-0.12951302528381348,
0.18537631630897522,
0.6908431053161621,
-0.24144808948040009,
0.2894344627857208,
0.6980616450309753,
0.05783875659108162,
0.2728556990623474,
-0.14542698860168457,
0.29880592226982117,
0.8930332660675049,
-0.3985287547111511,
-0.13612951338291168,
-0.09071369469165802,
0.19575312733650208,
-0.3169053792953491,
-0.29677194356918335,
0.625860333442688,
-0.278013676404953,
-0.0756310522556305,
0.1303882896900177,
-0.021383363753557205,
-0.10602834820747375,
0.41047239303588867,
0.21419908106327057,
-0.47747185826301575,
-0.38615870475769043,
-0.7617039084434509,
-0.4312621057033539,
0.8761042356491089,
-0.7213082313537598,
0.5904315114021301,
0.30775001645088196,
-0.1380690634250641,
0.16146403551101685,
-0.2156132012605667,
-0.6831009387969971,
-0.16454049944877625,
-0.4337415397167206,
-0.28678545355796814,
-0.1460135132074356,
-0.6016704440116882,
-0.3892701268196106,
-0.060829829424619675,
-0.4244117736816406,
-0.3672991991043091,
-0.5803517699241638,
0.3972810208797455,
-0.17139507830142975,
-0.3231211006641388,
-0.7460463047027588,
-0.06522801518440247,
0.05737893283367157,
0.9469761848449707,
-0.6773091554641724,
-0.2529933750629425,
0.1306799203157425,
0.20006483793258667,
0.45743098855018616,
-0.016257083043456078,
0.02657807618379593,
-0.35008931159973145,
-0.6844510436058044,
-0.5985583662986755,
-0.076861172914505,
0.05001261830329895,
0.3501219153404236,
0.04989925026893616,
0.7203418016433716,
0.22625209391117096,
-0.6077861785888672,
-0.13429604470729828,
0.5188751816749573,
-0.21710652112960815,
-0.34560081362724304,
-0.44278860092163086,
0.07177099585533142,
0.061047255992889404,
0.18252889811992645,
-0.4286626875400543,
0.619378924369812,
0.7702786922454834,
0.35997292399406433,
-0.19494149088859558,
-0.20960426330566406,
-0.0011360946809872985,
-0.011677431873977184,
-0.25361719727516174,
-0.46067970991134644,
0.7117636203765869,
0.11544272303581238,
-0.3886477053165436,
0.08418264985084534,
-0.3587362468242645,
0.1320844292640686,
0.3207314610481262,
-0.004047776106745005,
0.521362841129303,
0.07957906275987625,
0.39232537150382996,
0.2692975699901581,
-0.42251095175743103,
-0.18819719552993774,
0.6642287969589233,
0.3843015134334564,
-0.5441118478775024,
0.5620372891426086,
0.005509858950972557,
0.6270522475242615,
-0.06797031313180923,
-0.13183210790157318,
-0.050284456461668015,
-0.046126507222652435,
-0.38046225905418396,
-0.7641116976737976,
-0.36134710907936096,
0.3311443328857422,
-0.4998583197593689,
1.6786465644836426,
0.23303250968456268,
0.2081139087677002,
0.013505954295396805,
-0.1905793696641922,
-0.5874642133712769,
-0.15620410442352295,
0.7926322221755981,
-0.018970446661114693,
-0.08668433129787445,
-0.4241305887699127,
0.6059947609901428,
0.5615484714508057,
0.1662021428346634,
0.3259507715702057,
0.015905356034636497,
-0.0883476659655571,
0.22165440022945404,
-0.3353491723537445,
0.7056635618209839,
-0.4182623624801636,
-0.14912188053131104,
-0.2044399380683899,
0.25357651710510254,
0.2911527156829834,
0.3311251699924469,
-0.2822571098804474,
-0.37284427881240845,
0.12228837609291077,
-0.15156994760036469,
-0.42791008949279785,
0.8960754871368408,
-0.056904084980487823,
0.44072425365448,
0.0017474440392106771,
0.6748732328414917,
0.9081706404685974,
0.28891268372535706,
0.18110017478466034,
0.1681852638721466,
0.05754043534398079,
-0.37585777044296265,
-0.26921024918556213,
0.2061878889799118,
-0.15089051425457,
-0.2107352912425995,
-0.15092776715755463,
0.36483168601989746,
0.1029357761144638,
0.2823239266872406,
-0.5501372814178467,
-0.14447586238384247,
-0.07387733459472656,
0.11179990321397781,
0.39755117893218994,
-0.1334906667470932,
-0.12354858964681625,
-0.5017578601837158,
0.4021207094192505,
0.09006401896476746,
0.4371728301048279,
0.3170214593410492,
0.17706751823425293,
-0.2830166518688202,
0.42668235301971436,
0.03227364271879196,
0.0072652604430913925,
0.24989426136016846,
-0.05303569138050079,
-0.6741496324539185,
-0.06026548519730568,
0.09243527799844742,
-0.03452311083674431,
-0.6688288450241089,
0.23834259808063507,
0.5277153849601746,
0.12930725514888763,
-0.19889183342456818,
0.4476199746131897,
0.09772402048110962,
0.09526588022708893,
-0.3530362844467163,
-0.3062593638896942,
0.17965754866600037,
0.7711721658706665,
-0.9126613140106201,
0.7096073031425476,
-0.03820984065532684,
-0.08901581913232803,
-0.5570932626724243,
-0.154926598072052,
-0.3244286775588989,
0.7707054615020752,
0.017656050622463226,
0.319042444229126,
0.2696084678173065,
0.6258386969566345,
-0.5929545164108276
] |
213138
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Baker%20%28disambiguation%29
|
James Baker (disambiguation)
|
James Baker (born 1930) is an American attorney and statesman.
James, Jim(mie), Jimmy, or Jamie Baker may also refer to:
Lawyers
James A. Baker (born 1821) (1821–1897), American jurist and politician; often called "Judge Baker"
James A. Baker (born 1857) (1857–1941), American attorney often called "Captain Baker"
James A. Baker Jr. (1892–1973), American attorney
Musicians
James "Iron Head" Baker (fl. 1930s–1940s), African American traditional folk singer
James Baker (musician) (born 1954), Australian rock drummer and songwriter
James Baker (composer) (fl. 2000s–2010s), composer and percussionist with the New York City Ballet Orchestra
BlocBoy JB or James Baker (born 1996), American musician
Public officials
James Baker (Roundhead) (died 1689), English lawyer and politician
James A. Baker (born 1821) (1821–1897), American jurist and politician in Texas
James McNair Baker (1821–1892), American jurist and politician in the Confederate Senate during Civil War
James H. Baker (politician) (1829–1913), politician who was Ohio Secretary of State and Minnesota Secretary of State
James H. Baker (DOD), American foreign policy advisor
James Baker (Canadian politician) (1830–1906), British soldier and politician in British Columbia, Canada
James Marion Baker (1861–1940), 11th Secretary of the United States Senate
James A. Baker (justice) (1931–2008), American jurist who served on the Texas Supreme Court from 1995 to 2003
James M. Baker (mayor) (born 1942), mayor of Wilmington, Delaware from 2001 to 2013
James M. Baker (Virginia politician) (1845–1927), member of the Virginia House of Delegates
James E. Baker (born 1960), Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces
James A. Baker (government attorney) (fl. 1980s–2010s), American Department of Justice official; Counsel for Intelligence Policy
Jim Baker (politician) (fl. 2000s–2010s), Canadian legislator from Labrador West in Newfoundland/Labrador House of Assembly
James O. Baker, candidate in the 2010 United States House of Representatives elections in Missouri
Religious figures
James Chamberlain Baker (1879–1969), American Bishop of Methodist Episcopal Church and United Methodist Church
Father Yod or James Edward Baker (1922–1975), American spiritual leader
Jim Bakker (born 1940), American televangelist at the center of a sex scandal and accounting fraud
Sportspeople
James Baker (English cricketer) (1792–1839), English cricketer mostly for Sussex
James Clark Baker (1866–1939), New Zealand cricketer
James Mitchell Baker (1878–1956), South African Olympic runner
Jim Baker (footballer) (1891–1966), English professional centre back during the 1910s and 1920s for Leeds United A.F.C.
Jimmy Baker (footballer, born 1904) (1904–1979), Welsh-born football wing half who played for Coventry City
James Baker (footballer, born 1911) (1911–1974), English football player
Jimmie Baker (basketball) (born 1953), American basketball player
Jim Baker (bowls) (born 1958), Northern Irish and combined Irish lawn and indoor bowls player
Jamie Baker (ice hockey) (born 1966), Canadian professional hockey centre and sports broadcaster
Jamie Baker (tennis) (born 1986), British former tennis player
James Baker (New Zealand cricketer) (born 1988), New Zealand cricketer for Northern Districts
Other people
Jim Baker (frontiersman) (1818–1898), American trapper, scout and guide
James Baker (university president) (1848–1925), American academic administrator
James A. Baker (trade unionist) (before 1875–after 1903), Canadian miner and trade unionist
James Gilbert Baker (1914–2005), American astronomer and optics expert
Jimmy Baker (Australian artist) (c. 1915–2010), Australian Aboriginal artist
Jimmie Baker (television producer) (1920–2003), American television producer
A. J. Baker or Jim Baker (1922–2017), Australian philosopher
D. James Baker (born 1937), American oceanographer
Jim B. Baker (1941–2014), American actor
James Robert Baker (1947–1997), American author
James K. Baker (fl. 1970s–2000s), founder of Dragon Systems
Jimmy Baker (American artist) (born 1980), American artist
See also
Baker (surname)
James B. Baker House, historic home in Aberdeen, Maryland, United States
James Baker Institute, public policy think tank at Rice University, Houston, Texas, United States
|
[
-0.11822296679019928,
0.34642332792282104,
-0.5680640339851379,
-0.21655404567718506,
0.23681244254112244,
0.5003811120986938,
0.5688545107841492,
-0.2654084861278534,
-0.5340934991836548,
0.14139968156814575,
0.19186775386333466,
0.43658435344696045,
-0.38647347688674927,
0.30069807171821594,
-0.1543835550546646,
0.44169458746910095,
-0.2454511821269989,
-0.16067415475845337,
-0.28516000509262085,
-0.12507596611976624,
-0.07073205709457397,
-0.441687673330307,
0.23640036582946777,
-0.1812269687652588,
-0.11417201161384583,
0.4116532504558563,
-0.04791828989982605,
-0.36798959970474243,
-0.0012569219106808305,
0.27331995964050293,
0.005154334008693695,
0.14522437751293182,
0.5338261127471924,
-0.30597808957099915,
-0.30229824781417847,
-0.008659252896904945,
-0.06727661192417145,
-0.40048807859420776,
-0.019334664568305016,
0.16308073699474335,
-0.007066009100526571,
0.21725508570671082,
-0.1758081465959549,
-0.03342628851532936,
0.17498856782913208,
-0.05165193974971771,
-2.1041367053985596,
-0.4431312680244446,
-0.3822406232357025,
-0.4764723777770996,
0.21177567541599274,
-0.025657594203948975,
-0.13232174515724182,
0.21929535269737244,
-0.02477339096367359,
0.3240572214126587,
-0.22123849391937256,
-0.02773795649409294,
0.3472229540348053,
-0.4634805917739868,
0.20573937892913818,
-0.18197503685951233,
0.670875072479248,
-0.15106020867824554,
0.10069305449724197,
0.1721097230911255,
-0.16470076143741608,
0.4133908450603485,
-0.34698837995529175,
0.261580228805542,
-0.14309538900852203,
0.14364834129810333,
0.38874366879463196,
-0.14004048705101013,
0.30878230929374695,
0.10646554082632065,
0.20800702273845673,
-0.28537091612815857,
0.06349736452102661,
-0.2138008177280426,
-0.08256702125072479,
-0.40723559260368347,
0.43996644020080566,
0.23381461203098297,
-0.1568499058485031,
-0.04872490093111992,
-0.3788444697856903,
0.23553991317749023,
-0.013793005608022213,
0.13942855596542358,
-0.4044974148273468,
0.16288617253303528,
-0.1758962720632553,
-0.06019628047943115,
-0.2247532159090042,
-0.2587030529975891,
0.21292144060134888,
0.17246940732002258,
0.331741601228714,
-0.07960887998342514,
-0.07216186821460724,
0.12300943583250046,
0.3409408926963806,
-0.12277160584926605,
0.06470648944377899,
0.06871365755796432,
0.17866191267967224,
-0.30761078000068665,
0.3788467049598694,
-1.5637850761413574,
-0.16918031871318817,
0.3519802391529083,
-0.052348580211400986,
-0.13713647425174713,
-0.16797451674938202,
0.5294191241264343,
0.203866109251976,
-0.40447553992271423,
-0.388573557138443,
0.31959623098373413,
-0.2561461925506592,
0.6115044355392456,
-0.13612088561058044,
0.09417392313480377,
-0.3096781075000763,
-0.19849492609500885,
0.14312826097011566,
0.15172100067138672,
-0.42289015650749207,
0.37751689553260803,
0.3261856734752655,
0.5175420045852661,
-0.30016422271728516,
-0.050474926829338074,
-0.39795565605163574,
0.018667368218302727,
0.11533021926879883,
0.3429011106491089,
-0.45585349202156067,
0.09131235629320145,
-0.25590020418167114,
0.03214344009757042,
-2.0977041721343994,
-0.19905368983745575,
0.1451788693666458,
-0.1855676770210266,
0.17974106967449188,
0.20119111239910126,
0.1195547953248024,
0.3100464642047882,
-0.09140020608901978,
0.4629908502101898,
0.2826269567012787,
-0.03648610785603523,
-0.1676422506570816,
0.7576503157615662,
0.37045615911483765,
0.208613783121109,
0.3121979832649231,
0.22969140112400055,
-0.12254825234413147,
-0.02992977201938629,
-0.19229832291603088,
-0.06484991312026978,
0.25669631361961365,
0.16071736812591553,
0.0058531085960567,
-0.19857048988342285,
-0.136546328663826,
-0.1354445517063141,
-0.3651600182056427,
-0.3668319582939148,
0.3304118514060974,
-0.3376844525337219,
-0.23722270131111145,
0.07052786648273468,
0.3260904848575592,
0.3785950541496277,
0.3857533931732178,
-0.5597479939460754,
-0.272106796503067,
-0.5790150165557861,
-0.008604259230196476,
-0.021876687183976173,
0.476710706949234,
0.24785561859607697,
0.4276805818080902,
-0.26630067825317383,
0.901289165019989,
-0.3677732050418854,
-0.050640981644392014,
-0.19771221280097961,
0.14782367646694183,
-0.3571663796901703,
0.30068501830101013,
0.6046005487442017,
-0.3056325614452362,
0.1938811093568802,
-0.2514282763004303,
0.5751540064811707,
0.09481772780418396,
-0.15431877970695496,
-0.6189135909080505,
-0.4253367781639099,
0.30643877387046814,
2.1940133571624756,
0.333558052778244,
0.140431210398674,
0.34821730852127075,
0.8437384366989136,
0.6540084481239319,
-0.38424408435821533,
-0.42482736706733704,
0.23231889307498932,
-0.577312171459198,
-0.4820207953453064,
0.07331546396017075,
-0.25065189599990845,
0.5502966046333313,
-0.5241135954856873,
0.7826876640319824,
0.4103108048439026,
0.124504454433918,
0.7601758241653442,
0.12127037346363068,
0.8161381483078003,
0.039178717881441116,
0.5217667818069458,
-0.17510144412517548,
-0.6268230676651001,
-0.03841577097773552,
0.16106878221035004,
0.2757868468761444,
-0.7237007021903992,
0.42890554666519165,
0.21612903475761414,
0.11334332823753357,
-0.17128561437129974,
0.18203489482402802,
0.08987419307231903,
0.30078330636024475,
0.22248220443725586,
-0.2490779161453247,
0.22787700593471527,
0.020845355466008186,
0.2642378509044647,
-0.24316106736660004,
-0.12596696615219116,
0.09967121481895447,
0.04325919598340988,
0.41725292801856995,
0.5377857089042664,
0.4728713929653168,
0.10908950865268707,
-0.10162021964788437,
0.02977011539041996,
-0.030915532261133194,
0.17157478630542755,
0.02947351709008217,
0.15229828655719757,
0.01659301482141018,
0.19815324246883392,
-0.22580096125602722,
-0.0016918397741392255,
-0.29899492859840393,
-0.007474955171346664,
-0.3209977447986603,
-0.3057258129119873,
0.0822078138589859,
-0.057878587394952774,
0.09922687709331512,
-0.26396283507347107,
-0.4237227737903595,
-2.394810199737549,
0.17512379586696625,
0.20487868785858154,
-0.13295984268188477,
-0.17615732550621033,
-0.3787879943847656,
-0.3423018157482147,
0.33183610439300537,
0.5202258825302124,
0.07010027766227722,
0.2988353371620178,
0.07775989174842834,
-0.3426809310913086,
-0.2856058180332184,
-0.510319173336029,
0.35345351696014404,
0.16032366454601288,
-0.309603214263916,
0.4547451138496399,
-0.5055114030838013,
0.010770400054752827,
0.02794291079044342,
0.18742677569389343,
-0.07786954939365387,
-0.9364254474639893,
-0.07834684103727341,
-0.4737843871116638,
-0.5912744998931885,
0.45683756470680237,
0.08020975440740585,
0.2484438121318817,
0.4286230802536011,
0.0921311303973198,
-0.23151777684688568,
0.027228374034166336,
-5.139571666717529,
-0.2671031355857849,
-0.0810030996799469,
-0.14227505028247833,
0.08646519482135773,
0.1058448851108551,
0.22862915694713593,
-0.23555943369865417,
-0.07336172461509705,
-0.3994733393192291,
0.5946427583694458,
-0.4118574261665344,
0.31392472982406616,
0.5934525728225708,
0.3868168592453003,
0.22296525537967682,
0.6533413529396057,
-0.053996454924345016,
0.3580488860607147,
0.2310938835144043,
0.4438524544239044,
0.2050558626651764,
-0.4135037660598755,
-0.25068050622940063,
-0.4047386646270752,
0.2030220627784729,
-0.5488355755805969,
-0.002166538732126355,
-0.7160738110542297,
-0.04416356235742569,
-0.1959787905216217,
0.3777828812599182,
-0.3449171185493469,
-0.12220815569162369,
-0.3895350694656372,
-0.2923312783241272,
0.3718550205230713,
0.4667526185512543,
0.15014034509658813,
0.33425721526145935,
0.10055666416883469,
0.22622103989124298,
-0.5110188722610474,
-0.0522422194480896,
-0.41290614008903503,
0.09072920680046082,
-0.6743199229240417,
0.011687206104397774,
-0.4434061050415039,
0.5548904538154602,
0.1179950088262558,
0.2811237573623657,
1.0110689401626587,
0.005312041845172644,
0.01940750889480114,
-0.25493907928466797,
0.3626357316970825,
-0.19754672050476074,
-0.4665377140045166,
0.4266301393508911,
0.33880630135536194,
-0.3065904676914215,
0.5093314051628113,
-0.3796042203903198,
-0.4481220841407776,
-0.2716580927371979,
-0.10411711037158966,
-0.030871616676449776,
0.33314722776412964,
-0.3514241874217987,
-0.4049488306045532,
0.9670562148094177,
0.25652581453323364,
-1.190172791481018,
0.2275315374135971,
0.11595789343118668,
-0.21210703253746033,
0.017700595781207085,
-0.4889530539512634,
-0.37490367889404297,
0.33806362748146057,
-0.10997530072927475,
-0.07753216475248337,
0.7240107655525208,
0.3867179751396179,
-0.1590588390827179,
-0.3808271884918213,
0.4598549008369446,
-0.32268524169921875,
-0.13822345435619354,
-0.232027068734169,
-0.027681510895490646,
0.07807240635156631,
-0.005281106568872929,
0.36416056752204895,
0.42775848507881165,
0.27388593554496765,
-0.36496981978416443,
0.5603423714637756,
-0.2408965528011322,
-0.5558591485023499,
-0.4090033173561096,
-0.015624665655195713,
-0.7577719688415527,
-0.3399496376514435,
-0.05574838072061539,
-0.36307021975517273,
0.3337615132331848,
0.2175402045249939,
0.20743709802627563,
0.018694978207349777,
0.1315813660621643,
-0.2443530112504959,
-0.11976738274097443,
0.5207749009132385,
-0.32100242376327515,
-0.23639848828315735,
0.0372934453189373,
0.6635976433753967,
0.11251840740442276,
0.21706053614616394,
0.48428159952163696,
0.161752849817276,
-0.2498604655265808,
0.04528763145208359,
-0.26341286301612854,
0.30281931161880493,
-0.1426747441291809,
-0.726388156414032,
0.22033588588237762,
-0.38591718673706055,
0.8645707368850708,
-0.1407460719347,
-0.3385400176048279,
-0.0821181908249855,
-0.15456749498844147,
-0.12678341567516327,
0.09568161517381668,
-0.19035914540290833,
-0.1853986233472824,
0.4270966053009033,
-0.3900223970413208,
0.13386152684688568,
0.28136590123176575,
0.12198911607265472,
0.08940397202968597,
0.2919015884399414,
0.2598682641983032,
-0.019105182960629463,
0.21146108210086823,
0.09476873278617859,
-0.45965340733528137,
0.5901696681976318,
-0.1766979843378067,
-0.049573492258787155,
-0.03587769344449043,
-0.19256636500358582,
0.34775590896606445,
-0.32877692580223083,
0.13027848303318024,
-0.13502058386802673,
0.08495635539293289,
-1.266520380973816,
-0.1646972894668579,
0.1338096261024475,
0.3054529130458832,
-0.41332876682281494,
0.23028358817100525,
-0.2512790262699127,
0.7403337359428406,
0.2066853940486908,
-0.33909234404563904,
-0.36840519309043884,
-0.23947389423847198,
0.14725738763809204,
0.22518828511238098,
0.4724559187889099,
0.029149360954761505,
-0.1280781626701355,
0.2698991596698761,
0.25746339559555054,
0.03434150293469429,
-0.6434578895568848,
0.21600326895713806,
0.4527381360530853,
-0.46659523248672485,
-0.3672772943973541,
-0.3989560604095459,
-0.3907787799835205,
0.012798938900232315,
0.4089372158050537,
-0.44551950693130493,
0.4086175262928009,
0.47828227281570435,
0.36275336146354675,
0.018560683354735374,
0.32989153265953064,
-0.4157680869102478,
-0.3112267255783081,
-0.09247913211584091,
0.09948894381523132,
0.27582991123199463,
-0.5282585024833679,
-0.019991260021924973,
-0.20415909588336945,
-0.9674727916717529,
-0.35421377420425415,
0.05141689255833626,
-0.010138580575585365,
0.589768648147583,
-0.21068373322486877,
-0.2961706519126892,
0.07771489769220352,
0.41741180419921875,
-0.15447773039340973,
0.031019138172268867,
0.3761478364467621,
0.6735777258872986,
-0.30940690636634827,
-0.3433179259300232,
0.04355402663350105,
-0.43322956562042236,
0.06853075325489044,
0.09505162388086319,
-0.1058221086859703,
0.5861697196960449,
-0.1756100207567215,
-0.22085422277450562,
0.4637540280818939,
0.17571431398391724,
-0.40216532349586487,
-0.29159337282180786,
-0.12857435643672943,
-0.011641496792435646,
-0.14068607985973358,
-0.3079362213611603,
0.18491296470165253,
0.6861867904663086,
-0.6410558223724365,
-0.09860944747924805,
0.49494272470474243,
1.1778993606567383,
0.6702244877815247,
0.03787583112716675,
-0.13108789920806885,
-0.025420648977160454,
0.3730982840061188,
-0.17126230895519257,
0.14430002868175507,
0.5055845975875854,
-0.029920313507318497,
0.2987419068813324,
-0.4922163784503937,
-0.09396561980247498,
1.0452907085418701,
0.024953896179795265,
-0.0706026628613472,
0.03562210500240326,
0.4297216832637787,
-0.18012544512748718,
0.07178273797035217,
0.3369171619415283,
-0.25974854826927185,
-0.12522681057453156,
-0.3163394331932068,
0.20511530339717865,
0.058995570987463,
0.39630672335624695,
0.42251622676849365,
-0.2710597813129425,
-0.35382598638534546,
-0.6939677596092224,
-0.3834671974182129,
1.1829514503479004,
-0.30942896008491516,
0.33613407611846924,
0.38841724395751953,
-0.187479630112648,
0.24080151319503784,
-0.04229355230927467,
0.8383547067642212,
-0.10893511772155762,
-0.041279081255197525,
-0.22723881900310516,
-0.32840394973754883,
0.05345110595226288,
-0.34512078762054443,
0.02449970878660679,
-0.14114871621131897,
-0.26407113671302795,
-0.49346888065338135,
0.059118516743183136,
-0.37857258319854736,
-0.2667951285839081,
-0.45121532678604126,
-0.2814849019050598,
-0.3104679584503174,
0.6450313925743103,
-0.5625381469726562,
-0.3409174978733063,
0.043398287147283554,
0.1183926910161972,
0.5522929430007935,
-0.020152965560555458,
0.24493764340877533,
-0.27321916818618774,
-0.6250730752944946,
-0.30578431487083435,
-0.05053594335913658,
-0.39243295788764954,
0.4617212414741516,
-0.2431543469429016,
0.4296012818813324,
-0.0028759450651705265,
-0.29247650504112244,
-0.009079483337700367,
0.28703323006629944,
-0.27996140718460083,
0.03274814411997795,
0.0025727793108671904,
-0.10654351115226746,
0.20207826793193817,
0.3698079288005829,
-0.45298758149147034,
0.387378066778183,
0.6109476089477539,
0.11636162549257278,
-0.19217349588871002,
-0.15921929478645325,
-0.23322860896587372,
0.02499644085764885,
-0.48667165637016296,
-0.40527012944221497,
0.34096965193748474,
0.2525317370891571,
-0.09314187616109848,
0.2279014140367508,
-0.5184270739555359,
-0.0015425443416461349,
0.22648534178733826,
-0.10541240125894547,
0.24525852501392365,
0.31167173385620117,
0.2610706686973572,
0.009452098049223423,
-0.04614857956767082,
-0.3478938341140747,
0.47377529740333557,
0.33792799711227417,
-0.33898019790649414,
0.2139504849910736,
0.23564733564853668,
0.46084776520729065,
-0.3913528025150299,
-0.08832835406064987,
-0.1590966284275055,
0.22111085057258606,
-0.24720077216625214,
-0.27475446462631226,
-1.8667182922363281,
0.06842946261167526,
-0.1627606749534607,
1.086522102355957,
0.20298846065998077,
0.0740228220820427,
-0.05514619126915932,
-0.03717585653066635,
-0.2166394591331482,
-0.20179305970668793,
0.8518285751342773,
-0.05324175953865051,
-0.27073559165000916,
-0.020699286833405495,
0.6444510221481323,
0.47546878457069397,
0.06223567947745323,
0.2333814948797226,
-0.09156965464353561,
-0.18219171464443207,
-0.09151463210582733,
-0.05734358727931976,
0.6105721592903137,
-0.32111048698425293,
0.23101802170276642,
-0.17483505606651306,
-0.11849908530712128,
0.12520156800746918,
0.24635402858257294,
-0.28603464365005493,
-0.23452763259410858,
0.2660149335861206,
-0.24169236421585083,
-0.2605147957801819,
0.8186355829238892,
-0.4782663583755493,
0.568621814250946,
-0.34364405274391174,
0.6434226632118225,
0.5405399203300476,
-0.0806451365351677,
-0.08339246362447739,
-0.044352564960718155,
-0.12996289134025574,
-0.18119247257709503,
-0.12107168138027191,
0.029499802738428116,
-0.1870136857032776,
0.13944333791732788,
-0.252542108297348,
0.26641589403152466,
0.023991916328668594,
0.07962862402200699,
-0.4101870656013489,
-0.12478708475828171,
0.06664320081472397,
0.026589609682559967,
0.31601274013519287,
-0.020671209320425987,
0.048146918416023254,
0.05410146713256836,
0.015466433949768543,
0.15756875276565552,
0.1587369292974472,
-0.005483109969645739,
-0.11459562927484512,
-0.26015743613243103,
0.577954888343811,
0.06995966285467148,
0.08017773926258087,
0.36285701394081116,
-0.09217441827058792,
-0.35377639532089233,
-0.1453932225704193,
0.027140578255057335,
-0.10634715855121613,
-0.40984997153282166,
0.5711827874183655,
0.512845516204834,
-0.21692787110805511,
-0.1947937309741974,
0.24894219636917114,
0.13837933540344238,
-0.034347496926784515,
-0.04670285806059837,
-4.913535118103027,
0.049472518265247345,
0.5014803409576416,
-0.596903383731842,
0.550663948059082,
0.07409713417291641,
0.02312440797686577,
-0.30764997005462646,
-0.08543609082698822,
-0.6499658823013306,
0.46238648891448975,
0.30745965242385864,
-0.008323241956532001,
0.09531287103891373,
0.445577472448349,
-0.03997034579515457
] |
213141
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloc%20pot
|
Bloc pot
|
The Bloc Pot is a provincial political party in Quebec, Canada that is dedicated to ending cannabis prohibition. It has contested four provincial elections but it has failed to win any seats in the National Assembly of Quebec. The party was launched in 1997 by Marc-Boris St-Maurice as a way to push for political change to marijuana laws. He also went on to launch its federal offspring, the Marijuana Party of Canada.
Leaders of the Bloc Pot
Hugô St-Onge (2002–)
Alexandre Néron (acting, 2001–2002)
Pierre Audette (2000–2001)
Marc-Boris St-Maurice (1998–2000)
Election results
See also
Drug policy reform
Cannabis in Quebec
Legal issues of cannabis
List of Quebec general elections
List of Quebec leaders of the Opposition
List of Quebec premiers
Marijuana parties
Marijuana Party (Canada)
National Assembly of Quebec
Political parties in Quebec
Politics of Quebec
Timeline of Quebec history
External links
Official website
National Assembly historical information
La Politique québécoise sur le Web
Cannabis political parties of Canada
Provincial political parties in Quebec
Political parties established in 1998
Organizations based in Montreal
1998 establishments in Quebec
1998 in cannabis
Cannabis in Quebec
|
[
0.3589930534362793,
-0.12957444787025452,
0.18016943335533142,
0.2219226211309433,
-0.15835335850715637,
0.04937782511115074,
-0.4879186153411865,
0.06875310838222504,
-0.3438229560852051,
-0.1443600356578827,
-0.0051534948870539665,
0.13265928626060486,
-0.5593733191490173,
0.09374716132879257,
-0.05773938074707985,
0.6558548808097839,
0.418488472700119,
0.35808002948760986,
-0.3469543755054474,
-0.3033464550971985,
0.04302716627717018,
0.1001746654510498,
0.603183925151825,
0.1463089883327484,
-0.1284681111574173,
0.18879151344299316,
0.5514359474182129,
0.6136651635169983,
-0.4222952127456665,
0.49032726883888245,
0.016163794323801994,
0.43099820613861084,
0.551971435546875,
-0.5308212041854858,
0.7328881621360779,
-0.022277234122157097,
-0.16306141018867493,
-0.10325339436531067,
-0.19646421074867249,
-0.48639121651649475,
0.14132049679756165,
0.08315831422805786,
-0.18462474644184113,
0.5000914335250854,
0.5637413263320923,
-0.2135634869337082,
-1.2676117420196533,
0.5358678102493286,
-0.524382472038269,
-0.15745139122009277,
0.016090646386146545,
0.2959080636501312,
0.18696609139442444,
0.734062910079956,
0.39185649156570435,
0.496324747800827,
-1.066620945930481,
-0.03766109421849251,
-0.09879782795906067,
-0.5234923362731934,
-0.4109869599342346,
0.5632176995277405,
0.19953908026218414,
-0.0979987382888794,
0.8401692509651184,
-0.3010319471359253,
0.04464801028370857,
0.34480974078178406,
-0.3986680805683136,
-0.13069699704647064,
0.02072375826537609,
-0.21119526028633118,
-0.00922517478466034,
0.23808282613754272,
0.4314872622489929,
-0.0578194297850132,
0.3171963095664978,
0.4976060390472412,
-0.09790939837694168,
0.15884485840797424,
-0.13302558660507202,
0.03297635540366173,
0.42667722702026367,
0.33161503076553345,
0.4525367021560669,
0.1296125203371048,
0.2674579620361328,
-0.022073686122894287,
-0.08255108445882797,
-0.03555866703391075,
-0.5729524493217468,
-0.33346349000930786,
0.6431370973587036,
0.0038207294419407845,
0.15911519527435303,
-0.2381155639886856,
0.6018341779708862,
-0.043039850890636444,
0.13086098432540894,
0.24516326189041138,
0.422070175409317,
0.15385574102401733,
0.5944594144821167,
0.04774213582277298,
-0.40871649980545044,
-0.23350344598293304,
-0.43370458483695984,
-0.3337841033935547,
0.024231428280472755,
-0.5993269085884094,
0.05302988365292549,
0.36670687794685364,
-0.13951736688613892,
-0.020147526636719704,
0.5341723561286926,
0.3988139033317566,
-0.2086019515991211,
-0.6962782144546509,
0.49963071942329407,
0.3567115366458893,
0.1660573035478592,
1.0576941967010498,
-0.5649963617324829,
0.31848347187042236,
0.2706471383571625,
0.07656466215848923,
0.4990892708301544,
0.1532808095216751,
-0.6264697313308716,
0.1130288690328598,
0.712683379650116,
-0.06527954339981079,
-0.29509544372558594,
-0.5100622773170471,
-0.6450558304786682,
-0.22214381396770477,
0.5011349320411682,
0.4270450472831726,
0.5858904719352722,
0.39778825640678406,
-0.7359365224838257,
-0.5037075281143188,
-0.26787716150283813,
-0.7755849957466125,
0.12609687447547913,
0.19878964126110077,
-0.15979662537574768,
-0.04128258302807808,
-0.43501511216163635,
-0.561340868473053,
0.050487954169511795,
-0.03702383488416672,
0.2676430642604828,
-0.3220711648464203,
0.00026395299937576056,
0.028703374788165092,
0.5869899392127991,
-0.4431702196598053,
0.15268485248088837,
-0.06843899190425873,
0.3344082236289978,
-0.6123009324073792,
0.3797592222690582,
0.41884827613830566,
0.24007031321525574,
-0.3460281193256378,
-0.1971767544746399,
-0.10567295551300049,
0.4498532712459564,
0.6157919764518738,
-0.1480516642332077,
0.33927613496780396,
0.6786144375801086,
-1.0515044927597046,
0.23782466351985931,
-0.1931551992893219,
0.36073338985443115,
0.4613828659057617,
0.2749555706977844,
0.36267948150634766,
-0.7229635715484619,
0.2514110505580902,
-0.04318805783987045,
-0.35246312618255615,
-0.18481723964214325,
0.3804963231086731,
0.16674406826496124,
-0.26670923829078674,
0.30521339178085327,
0.13482356071472168,
0.09185537695884705,
-0.5466643571853638,
0.4145635962486267,
-0.6478608846664429,
0.8030930161476135,
0.13157279789447784,
-0.14985746145248413,
1.0727382898330688,
-0.09816844761371613,
0.21077299118041992,
-0.38017842173576355,
0.04587079584598541,
0.7539002299308777,
-0.11902448534965515,
-0.900194525718689,
0.6116554737091064,
-0.5686910152435303,
0.21481989324092865,
-0.4190422594547272,
0.5042966604232788,
0.11559581756591797,
-0.867876410484314,
0.12944462895393372,
0.04205779731273651,
-0.25672608613967896,
-0.5372154116630554,
-0.11531846970319748,
0.1793421059846878,
-0.3560963273048401,
0.6983433365821838,
0.40470290184020996,
-0.37932276725769043,
-0.04289603605866432,
0.7419822812080383,
-0.28160718083381653,
0.6179869771003723,
0.2871282398700714,
0.4638587236404419,
0.29109957814216614,
0.06500621140003204,
0.519469678401947,
0.3803320527076721,
0.16646930575370789,
-0.2712024450302124,
-0.5070859789848328,
0.020958052948117256,
0.22194437682628632,
-0.311276376247406,
0.19009165465831757,
0.28265172243118286,
0.2656569480895996,
-0.019456587731838226,
-0.5442128777503967,
-0.22400854527950287,
-0.06698437035083771,
-0.034027136862277985,
-0.6786341071128845,
0.6260105967521667,
0.9071693420410156,
0.3411145508289337,
0.42464786767959595,
-0.02156996540725231,
-0.2965014576911926,
-0.6032215356826782,
0.4005899429321289,
-0.2686666250228882,
0.4039752185344696,
-0.3326886296272278,
0.7065528631210327,
-0.19732949137687683,
-0.04148154705762863,
0.12718750536441803,
-0.3569698929786682,
-0.038925573229789734,
0.30716851353645325,
-0.4455612599849701,
-0.6013845205307007,
0.13863469660282135,
-0.24893566966056824,
0.14127162098884583,
0.6311382055282593,
0.28330209851264954,
-0.689400851726532,
-0.527194619178772,
-0.030392803251743317,
-0.2117464244365692,
-0.4937322437763214,
0.545569121837616,
-0.3826828598976135,
-0.9329785704612732,
-0.3806387782096863,
0.22584064304828644,
-0.11581269651651382,
0.006453688256442547,
-0.06841503828763962,
0.5003806352615356,
0.09784921258687973,
-0.47957709431648254,
-0.10141873359680176,
-0.05793433636426926,
-0.3113478124141693,
-0.4387403428554535,
-0.40951135754585266,
0.11125437915325165,
0.2890474498271942,
0.01373093482106924,
-0.5585792660713196,
0.3922680914402008,
0.4902613162994385,
-0.029547998681664467,
0.3097575604915619,
0.04439856857061386,
-0.4670735001564026,
0.2073492705821991,
0.6614230871200562,
-0.5417073369026184,
-0.5425422787666321,
-0.22766737639904022,
-5.637167453765869,
0.25391173362731934,
-0.2935931384563446,
0.6643855571746826,
-0.4117628335952759,
-0.07042062282562256,
0.11690838634967804,
-0.3381269872188568,
0.184042826294899,
-0.22795170545578003,
-0.5658360719680786,
-0.0567362904548645,
-0.12345509231090546,
0.3972058892250061,
0.18916219472885132,
0.5031172037124634,
0.1815660446882248,
-0.18898716568946838,
0.8509289026260376,
-0.8102144598960876,
0.3183884620666504,
0.2967686951160431,
-0.24730117619037628,
0.3003695011138916,
0.695306122303009,
0.2993968427181244,
-0.21049632132053375,
0.44998934864997864,
-0.7162452340126038,
-0.5775390863418579,
-0.10366269946098328,
0.29017406702041626,
0.029657753184437752,
-0.42765501141548157,
0.22911281883716583,
-0.17394152283668518,
0.6396273374557495,
0.46889978647232056,
-0.15997609496116638,
-0.06702271848917007,
-0.1991272270679474,
0.4100574851036072,
0.30390578508377075,
0.12652069330215454,
0.6238545775413513,
0.13741439580917358,
-0.4337368607521057,
-0.5195688605308533,
-0.6327298283576965,
0.23954890668392181,
0.11132984608411789,
-0.2027151882648468,
0.5875523686408997,
-0.06725471466779709,
-0.13609695434570312,
0.33093634247779846,
0.11736681312322617,
-0.8423309326171875,
-0.3693658113479614,
0.31867751479148865,
-0.26019346714019775,
-0.12304922938346863,
0.33723896741867065,
-0.3319978713989258,
-0.0643824115395546,
-0.14302995800971985,
-0.09446307271718979,
-0.06964724510908127,
0.82839435338974,
0.3209230899810791,
-0.19972443580627441,
0.22062794864177704,
-0.37671300768852234,
-1.0404675006866455,
-0.10626664012670517,
-0.1855255514383316,
-0.20676249265670776,
0.34039849042892456,
-0.18370309472084045,
0.04806915670633316,
-0.6122527122497559,
0.269906610250473,
0.010722566395998001,
0.2098248302936554,
-0.10306388884782791,
-0.25065892934799194,
-0.2924540936946869,
0.4872383177280426,
-0.7901679277420044,
0.46211934089660645,
-0.5487388372421265,
-0.035477183759212494,
0.5864217281341553,
-0.012579284608364105,
-0.19139602780342102,
-0.03336592763662338,
-0.1344202309846878,
-0.10887087136507034,
-0.2305602729320526,
-0.36612990498542786,
0.47152915596961975,
-0.025362683460116386,
-0.5471898317337036,
-0.7997103929519653,
-0.42376112937927246,
-0.10567676275968552,
-0.1610647588968277,
0.3850044012069702,
-0.0030127028003335,
0.3201051950454712,
-0.17876334488391876,
0.04250963777303696,
-0.3212674856185913,
0.43930110335350037,
0.49809029698371887,
-0.2659820318222046,
-0.5836297273635864,
0.6625499129295349,
0.5427104830741882,
-0.008512127213180065,
0.4045793116092682,
0.5501160621643066,
-0.11460956186056137,
0.14397276937961578,
-0.28737950325012207,
-0.24230077862739563,
-0.2088254988193512,
-0.04426814988255501,
0.18036803603172302,
0.7998789548873901,
0.16175436973571777,
-0.2605536878108978,
-0.3136885166168213,
-0.541974663734436,
0.3061273992061615,
-0.30865392088890076,
-0.234733447432518,
0.138183131814003,
-0.3503046929836273,
0.12472416460514069,
-0.13179567456245422,
0.06123815476894379,
0.3243510127067566,
-0.005613254848867655,
-0.00446606008335948,
0.025006111711263657,
-0.11205247789621353,
0.22038167715072632,
-0.1724143624305725,
0.5002319812774658,
0.14871791005134583,
0.17131325602531433,
0.5112997889518738,
-0.42396336793899536,
0.7893732786178589,
-0.23730680346488953,
0.3119441270828247,
0.3369183838367462,
0.8518560528755188,
-0.5570134520530701,
0.26154962182044983,
-0.06743760406970978,
-1.1574501991271973,
0.18047989904880524,
0.12741988897323608,
-0.18475906550884247,
-0.36662790179252625,
-0.5762466788291931,
-0.4221920967102051,
0.5052002668380737,
0.3096352517604828,
-0.14298684895038605,
-0.1064130961894989,
-0.1656189113855362,
0.3777023255825043,
-0.6257522106170654,
0.06918437033891678,
-0.09051310271024704,
-0.04103989154100418,
-0.0043286848813295364,
0.10592939704656601,
0.007608871441334486,
-0.27841758728027344,
0.7375143766403198,
0.7826052308082581,
-0.9090321063995361,
-0.2716233432292938,
-0.05065320432186127,
0.03822037950158119,
0.20880374312400818,
0.6102093458175659,
0.30858543515205383,
0.1627451479434967,
0.3180195689201355,
-0.3568601608276367,
-0.44809263944625854,
-0.5000666975975037,
0.3419892489910126,
-0.925930917263031,
-0.24320735037326813,
0.23420029878616333,
0.6100348234176636,
0.24778394401073456,
0.2019897997379303,
-0.06486575305461884,
-0.21743103861808777,
0.2645072638988495,
-0.6840735077857971,
-0.6774091720581055,
0.7133166193962097,
-0.06904790550470352,
-0.013982444070279598,
-0.34592995047569275,
0.009005587548017502,
-0.6509392857551575,
-0.17916058003902435,
0.34461167454719543,
-0.06678200513124466,
-0.5782347321510315,
0.0810161828994751,
-0.2758922278881073,
0.01712466962635517,
-0.26319044828414917,
-0.36998578906059265,
-0.4800909757614136,
0.9491056203842163,
0.7107805013656616,
-0.10794214904308319,
-0.15732458233833313,
0.017832713201642036,
-0.4047146439552307,
-0.795580267906189,
-0.3702760636806488,
-0.09186259657144547,
-0.1966901272535324,
0.13812513649463654,
0.014163542538881302,
0.5510022044181824,
-0.11501114815473557,
0.6417803168296814,
0.05930159240961075,
0.13848820328712463,
0.7152171730995178,
-1.1170536279678345,
-0.16210147738456726,
0.5848595499992371,
0.8251450061798096,
-0.32306087017059326,
-0.758302628993988,
-0.005092342384159565,
0.14108480513095856,
-0.13759128749370575,
-0.5825170874595642,
-0.16687241196632385,
1.5311217308044434,
-0.6077718138694763,
-0.14992313086986542,
-0.49613362550735474,
0.024799559265375137,
0.036054886877536774,
0.07320714741945267,
-0.4290918707847595,
-0.7240389585494995,
0.07004068046808243,
0.2007831484079361,
-0.021393585950136185,
-0.41136184334754944,
-0.45317843556404114,
-0.3488333225250244,
-0.8526500463485718,
-0.23232501745224,
-0.3591131865978241,
0.28671273589134216,
0.6003769636154175,
0.019201278686523438,
-0.1043296828866005,
0.3263118863105774,
-0.5524803996086121,
0.17420777678489685,
-0.23656073212623596,
-0.195968896150589,
0.4688344895839691,
0.26804426312446594,
-0.04899778217077255,
0.6504310965538025,
-0.8336195349693298,
-0.8514447808265686,
0.6370030045509338,
-0.4644239842891693,
-0.48371803760528564,
-0.24782845377922058,
-0.07704268395900726,
0.08554395288228989,
0.18030908703804016,
0.10423760861158371,
0.20428526401519775,
0.013921261765062809,
0.03480587154626846,
0.06328823417425156,
-0.5426745414733887,
-0.9985760450363159,
0.4494624435901642,
0.20209525525569916,
-0.3467586040496826,
-0.029651932418346405,
0.04493027180433273,
0.27977222204208374,
-0.3203403651714325,
-0.008436080999672413,
-0.04736657813191414,
0.7893556952476501,
-0.34185880422592163,
-0.21813303232192993,
0.4077431261539459,
-0.15295080840587616,
0.6674388647079468,
0.6245222687721252,
-0.629618763923645,
-0.04055258259177208,
0.15157119929790497,
0.7832902073860168,
0.437591016292572,
-0.0947948694229126,
-0.03445304557681084,
0.8369645476341248,
0.07211664319038391,
0.04424614459276199,
0.07403352856636047,
0.41588932275772095,
-0.14803436398506165,
-0.14998042583465576,
0.25649815797805786,
-0.2566431760787964,
0.6533657908439636,
-0.33758050203323364,
-0.188350111246109,
-0.5389024615287781,
0.014923046343028545,
-0.07573527097702026,
0.4466075301170349,
0.16809886693954468,
0.3595254123210907,
-0.8845765590667725,
-0.29121771454811096,
0.21986734867095947,
0.34716299176216125,
-0.06938128918409348,
0.03384549170732498,
0.6862303018569946,
1.0593780279159546,
0.7558460831642151,
-0.27588319778442383,
-0.8544320464134216,
-0.08509247750043869,
-0.03228979930281639,
0.039793163537979126,
0.7038083672523499,
-0.38807329535484314,
0.30151450634002686,
0.028478996828198433,
-0.007701826747506857,
0.10678857564926147,
-0.2728835344314575,
0.428474098443985,
-0.4008053243160248,
0.22342735528945923,
0.5993941426277161,
-0.41810160875320435,
-0.18448270857334137,
0.3079409599304199,
-0.007091970648616552,
-0.3101571798324585,
-0.16769936680793762,
0.44600245356559753,
-0.12805725634098053,
-0.24707667529582977,
-0.17960184812545776,
-0.26485446095466614,
-0.19924569129943848,
0.3401189148426056,
0.1583748757839203,
-0.021753603592514992,
-0.289460688829422,
-0.12075203657150269,
-0.09595601260662079,
-0.22303637862205505,
-0.24935169517993927,
0.0628301128745079,
-0.2915037274360657,
0.12328223884105682,
-0.5182861685752869,
-0.7396618723869324,
-0.4039083421230316,
-0.15226513147354126,
0.20720860362052917,
-0.4371006488800049,
-0.17210225760936737,
0.8077929019927979,
-0.17816774547100067,
0.012933464720845222,
0.07154953479766846,
-0.04774380102753639,
0.3384491503238678,
0.6235666275024414,
0.26843515038490295,
0.2030651867389679,
-1.0848042964935303,
-0.787264347076416,
-0.6594153046607971,
0.19613122940063477,
0.2704761028289795,
0.18433770537376404,
-0.5458044409751892,
0.5584724545478821,
0.18685021996498108,
-0.09888079762458801,
0.9034637808799744,
-0.7093294262886047,
-0.12691695988178253,
0.02349965274333954,
-0.13612808287143707,
-0.8532364368438721,
0.6578152179718018,
0.2539062798023224,
-0.07190382480621338,
-0.39574554562568665,
0.8923842906951904,
-0.18955694139003754,
-0.445182740688324,
0.5067257881164551,
-0.06871286034584045,
-0.44400307536125183,
-0.4513149559497833,
0.18316633999347687,
-0.5494174361228943,
-0.4036213457584381,
-0.04410973936319351,
0.026269005611538887,
0.10642930865287781,
-0.37834352254867554,
0.3844156861305237,
-0.22706769406795502,
0.18074999749660492,
-0.6154142022132874,
-0.7653447985649109,
0.17516042292118073,
0.3954859673976898,
-0.18720212578773499,
-0.28782767057418823,
0.07286464422941208,
-0.14081551134586334,
-0.034271132200956345,
0.06309954077005386,
-0.24368254840373993,
0.47041770815849304,
-0.030340341851115227,
0.2610739469528198,
-0.5220588445663452,
-0.026455622166395187,
-0.03194265812635422
] |
213142
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder%20of%20Laci%20Peterson
|
Murder of Laci Peterson
|
Laci Denise Peterson (née Rocha; May 4, 1975December 24, 2002) was an American woman who was the subject of a highly publicized murder case after she disappeared while eight months pregnant with her first child. She was reportedly last seen alive on December 24, 2002.
Her husband, Scott Peterson, was later convicted of first-degree murder for her death, and second-degree murder for the death of their unborn son Conner. Since his conviction, Peterson has been housed at San Quentin State Prison, though his death sentence was overturned on August 24, 2020. He was re-sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole on December 8, 2021.
Early life and marriage
Laci Denise Rocha was born May 4, 1975. Laci worked on the farm from a young age, and also enjoyed gardening with her mother, an activity from which she developed an appreciation for plant life that influenced her later life. Sharon and Dennis divorced when Laci and her brother Brent were young. Sharon and the children moved to Modesto, though the children visited the dairy farm on weekends. Sharon eventually married Ron Grantski, who helped raise Laci and Brent from the time Laci was two years old.
Laci was a cheerleader in junior high and high school. After graduating from Thomas Downey High School, she attended California Polytechnic State University, where she majored in ornamental horticulture. While at California Polytechnic, Laci would sometimes visit a friend who worked at a restaurant in Morro Bay called the Pacific Café. There, she met her friend's coworker, Scott Peterson, in mid-1994. Laci made the first move, sending Scott her phone number, and immediately after meeting him, she told her mother that she had met the man that she would marry. Scott later called Laci and they began dating, their first date being a deep-sea fishing trip on which Laci got seasick. As Laci's relationship with Scott grew more serious, he put aside his dreams of professional golf in order to focus on a business path. The couple dated for two years, and eventually moved in together.
While Scott finished his senior year, Laci took a job in nearby Prunedale. Prosecutors have stated that around this time, Scott engaged in the first of at least two extramarital affairs, though they have not revealed a name or details of this first relationship. After her graduation, the couple married at Sycamore Mineral Springs Resort in San Luis Obispo County's Avila Valley on August 9, 1997. Peterson graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in agricultural business in June 1998. After their graduations, the Petersons opened a sports bar in San Luis Obispo called The Shack. Business was initially slow, but eventually improved, especially on weekends. The Petersons decided to put The Shack up for sale when they moved to Laci's hometown of Modesto, California to start a family. In October 2000, they purchased a three-bedroom, two-bath bungalow house for $177,000 on Covena Avenue in an upscale neighborhood near East La Loma Park. They sold the Shack in April 2001.
Laci took a part-time job as a substitute teacher, and Scott got a job with Tradecorp U.S.A., a newly founded subsidiary of a European fertilizer company, in which Scott earned a salary of $5,000 a month before taxes. Laci's family, including her mother and younger sister, related that she worked enthusiastically at being the perfect housewife, enjoying cooking and entertaining, and that she and her family welcomed the news in 2002 that she was pregnant. Laci's due date was February 10, 2003. The couple had planned to name their son Conner. In November 2002, when Laci was seven months pregnant, Scott was introduced by a friend to a Fresno massage therapist named Amber Frey. In later public statements, Frey said Scott told her he was single, and the two began a romantic relationship. The last time Scott's parents saw Laci was during a three-day weekend they spent together in Carmel, California the week before Christmas 2002.
Disappearance
On December 23, 2002, at 5:45 p.m., Laci and Scott went to Salon Salon, the workplace of Laci's sister Amy Rocha, where Amy cut Scott's hair as she did each month. As they spoke, Scott offered to pick up a fruit basket that Amy had ordered for her grandfather as a Christmas gift the next day because he would be playing golf at a course nearby. Prosecutors say Scott also told other people he would play golf on the day of Christmas Eve. Her mother Sharon spoke with Laci on the telephone around 8:30 that evening. Apart from her husband Scott, the last two people known to have spoken to Laci before she disappeared were her half-sister, Amy, and her mother, Sharon.
Scott later told police that he last saw his wife about 9:30am on December 24, when he left to go fishing at the Berkeley Marina. He said Laci was watching a cooking television show, preparing to mop the floor, bake cookies, and walk the family dog to a nearby park. At the time of her disappearance, Laci was 7 1/2 months pregnant. Later that morning Karen Servas, a neighbor of the Petersons, stated that around 10:30am she found the Petersons' dog, a golden retriever named McKenzie, alone outside the home and returned him to the Petersons' back yard. Another neighbor named Mike Chiavetta said he saw McKenzie at about 10:45am as he played catch with his own dog. The Modesto Bee also reported an unnamed female neighbor who found the dog with muddy leash, wandering in the neighborhood. That neighbor put the dog in the Petersons' yard, not observing anything was out of place. Scott said he returned home that afternoon to find the house empty. Scott told Laci's mother that he found McKenzie in their back yard, though she related in her book that he later denied this. Laci's 1996 Land Rover Discovery SE was in the driveway. He showered and washed his clothes because he said he got wet from fishing.
Reported missing and initial investigation
According to ABC News, Scott reported Laci missing from their Modesto home. However, the New York Post reported that when Laci still had not returned home by 5:15pm, Peterson called his mother-in-law, and that a half-hour later, Laci's stepfather, Ron Grantski, called the police. The Modesto Bee also attributes the first call to police to Grantski. After police arrived at the Peterson home, Laci's keys, wallet and sunglasses were found in her purse in a closet at the home the evening of December 24. The dining room table was meticulously set for a family dinner the following night. One detective found a phone book on a kitchen counter, opened to a full-page ad for a defense lawyer. Scott was reported to be completely calm.
Modesto police detectives Jon Buehler and Allen Brocchini, the lead investigators on the case, questioned Scott Peterson that evening. Although Scott initially said he had spent the day golfing, he later told the police that he had gone to fish for sturgeon at the Berkeley Marina. At 2:15 p.m., he left a message for Laci, stating, "Hey, Beautiful. It's 2:15. I'm leaving Berkeley." Scott stated that he went fishing about 90 miles from the couple's Modesto home. Detectives immediately launched a search, but were surprised by Scott Peterson's behavior. Buehler told ABC News in 2017, "I suspected Scott when I first met him. Didn't mean he did it, but I was a little bit thrown off by his calm, cool demeanor and his lack of questioning ... he wasn't, 'Will you call me back? Can I have one of your cards? What are you guys doing now?'"
Search
Modesto police and firefighters carried out an extensive search along Dry Creek the day after Laci's disappearance. The search came to include helicopters equipped with searchlights, police mounted on horseback and bicycles, canine units, and water-rescue units on rafts. A total of 30 officers were involved in the search, as well as Laci's loved ones and volunteers, who posted fliers to raise awareness of her disappearance. At a press conference, detective Al Brocchini said that police did not believe that Laci decided to leave without contacting her family, commenting, "That is completely out of character for her." The initial search and later vigil were organized by the immediate family and friends. In the first two days, up to 900 people were involved in looking for Laci, before community officials or police directly participated in the search, and prior to significant media coverage. Eventually, the story attracted nationwide media interest.
A $25,000 reward was offered, later increased to $250,000, and finally to $500,000 for any information leading to Laci's safe return. Posters, blue and yellow ribbons, and fliers were circulated, and the original, basic version of the LaciPeterson.com website was launched by the husband of one of her friends. Friends, family, and volunteers set up a command center at a nearby Red Lion Hotel to record developments and circulate information. Over 1,500 volunteers signed up to distribute information and to help search for her.
Discovery of bodies
On April 13, 2003, a couple walking their dog found the decomposing, but well-preserved body of a late-term male fetus in a marshy area of the San Francisco Bay shore in Richmond's Point Isabel Regional Shoreline park, north of Berkeley. Its umbilical cord was still attached, appearing to have been torn, not cut or clamped, as is the normal practice after birth. Although a judge sealed the autopsy results, an anonymous Associated Press source revealed that 1.5 loops of nylon tape were found around the fetus' neck and a significant cut was on the fetus' body.
One day later, a passerby found the body of a recently pregnant woman, wearing beige pants and a maternity bra, washed up on the eastern rocky shoreline of the bay, one mile away from where the baby's body was found. The corpse was decomposed to the point of being almost unrecognizable as a human body. The woman had been decapitated and her limbs were missing, including most of her legs. On April 18, 2003, the results of DNA tests verified that they were the bodies of Laci and her unborn son, who was to be named Conner.
Autopsies
The autopsies on both bodies were performed by forensic pathologist Dr. Brian Peterson (no relation). Conner's skin was not decomposed at all, though the right side of his body was mutilated. An April 24 ABC News report stated his umbilical cord was still attached, and the San Francisco Chronicle reported that appeared torn, rather than cut or clamped, as is the normal practice following birth. However, ABC News later reported on May 30 that according to the autopsy, the placenta and umbilical cord were not found with the body.
The exact date and cause of Laci's death were never determined. Her cervix was intact. She had suffered two cracked ribs, but Dr. Peterson could not determine if this occurred before or after her death. Laci's upper torso had been emptied of internal organs except for the uterus, which protected the fetus, explaining the lower level of decomposition it experienced. Dr. Peterson concluded that the fetus had died in utero, and determined he had been expelled from Laci's decaying body, though when cross-examined in court, he conceded that he could not determine whether he had been born alive when this occurred. Dr. Peterson also found meconium in the fetus's bowels, which is the first stool passed after birth.
Investigation and trial
It was later publicized that Scott had numerous extramarital affairs, one of which Laci knew about. The most recent was with a massage therapist named Amber Frey, from nearby Fresno. Frey informed police of their relationship on December 30, 2002, shortly after discovering he was a person of interest in Peterson's disappearance and agreed to phone him while police recorded their conversation. She informed police he told her on December 9, two weeks before Peterson's disappearance, he was a widower, and it would be the first Christmas without his wife.
Scott was arrested on April 18, 2003, near a La Jolla golf course. He claimed to be meeting his father and brother for a game of golf. His naturally dark brown hair had been dyed blond, and his Mercedes was "overstuffed" with miscellaneous items, including nearly $15,000 in cash, 12 Viagra tablets, survival gear, camping equipment, several changes of clothes, four cell phones, and two driver's licenses, his and his brother's. Scott's father, Lee Peterson, explained that Scott had used his brother's license the day before to get a San Diego resident discount at the golf course, and that Scott had been living out of his car because of the media attention. Police and prosecutors, however, saw these items as an indication that Peterson had planned to flee to Mexico.
On April 21, 2003, Scott was arraigned in Stanislaus County Superior Court before Judge Nancy Ashley. He was charged with two felony counts of murder with premeditation and special circumstances. He pleaded not guilty. Judge Al Girolami of Stanislaus County Superior Court moved his trial to San Mateo County because so many people in Stanislaus had made up their minds about Peterson's guilt. His trial began on June 1, 2004. On November 12, 2004, Scott Peterson was convicted of first degree murder for his wife's death and second degree murder for Conner's death. Judge Alfred A. Delucchi sentenced Scott to death, calling the murder of Laci "cruel, uncaring, heartless, and callous".
In March 2019, California Governor Gavin Newsom issued a moratorium for all 737 prisoners on death row in California, including Peterson. The order postponed all executions for the duration of Newsom's tenure as governor. California had not executed a prisoner since 2006 due to legal challenges to the state's execution protocol. Newsom's order spares the approximately 25 prisoners on death row who had exhausted their legal appeals and could have had their executions move forward once the legal challenge was resolved. Peterson's sister-in-law Janey Peterson welcomed Newsom's decision but noted that his case was likely to be unaffected by it, and did not believe Peterson would exhaust all of his legal challenges by January 2027, when Newsom would be leaving office, assuming his re-election in 2022.
Aftermath
The death of Laci and Conner Peterson led to the passage of the Unborn Victims of Violence Act, which is also known as Laci and Conner's Law. On April 1, 2004, Sharon Rocha and her husband Ron Grantski were in attendance at the White House when President George W. Bush signed the bill into law. The Act provides that, under federal law, any person who causes death or injury to an unborn child while in the commission of a crime upon a pregnant woman will be charged with a separate offense.
On October 21, 2005, Stanislaus County, California, Superior Court Judge Roger Beauchesne ruled that Scott was not entitled to collect on Laci's $250,000 life insurance policy, having been convicted of her murder. Under California state law, criminals may not profit from insurance policies. On December 19, 2005, the money was given to her mother, Sharon Rocha, as the executor of her estate. The California Fifth District Court of Appeals in Fresno later affirmed the trial court's decision on October 31, 2007.
In 2006, Sharon wrote For Laci: A Mother's Story of Love, Loss, and Justice, a biography and memoir about Laci's life and death. All proceeds are used to fund the Laci and Conner Search and Rescue Fund, which she had founded. On January 29, 2006, it was listed at No. 1 on The New York Times Non-Fiction Best Seller list.
Laci's stepfather, Ron Grantski, died in his sleep at his Modesto home on April 8, 2018, at age 71, after a lengthy period of failing health. He was buried next to Laci and Conner. Laci's father, Dennis Rocha, died December 9, 2018, at the age of 72.
On August 24, 2020, in a 7-0 decision, the Supreme Court of California upheld Peterson's conviction, but overturned his death sentence, because Peterson's trial judge, Alfred Delucchi, who had died on February 26, 2008, had dismissed jurors who opposed capital punishment without asking them whether they could put their views aside. Justice Leondra Kruger explained that per U.S. Supreme Court rulings since 1968, "Jurors may not be excused merely for opposition to the death penalty, but only for views rendering them unable to fairly consider imposing that penalty in accordance with their oath. This is the meaning of the guarantee of an impartial jury."
Prosecutors initially stated that they would retry the penalty phase, but subsequently reversed that decision in June 2021.
On September 22, 2021, California Superior Court Judge Anne-Christine Massullo scheduled Peterson to be re-sentenced that November to life in prison without the possibility of parole. On December 8, Massullo re-sentenced Peterson to life in prison on without the possibility of parole for the first-degree murder of Laci, and a concurrent sentence of 15 years to life for the second-degree murder of Conner.
Depiction in media
In 2004, USA Network aired the television film The Perfect Husband: The Laci Peterson Story.
In 2004, E! aired an episode of The E! True Hollywood Story on Laci Peterson.
In 2005, the case was covered in the TV movie, Amber Frey: Witness for the Prosecution.
In 2010, the Peterson case was the topic of the eponymous premiere episode of Investigation Discovery's True Crime with Aphrodite Jones.
Although the case had been compared to the plot of Gillian Flynn's 2012 novel Gone Girl, Flynn refuted the notion her book was inspired by the Petersons, saying that although she saw parallels between the two, she made a point not to rely on any specific true account for her fiction. Rather, her portrayal of her characters as out-of-work writers was derived from her own experience being laid off from her job as a writer for Entertainment Weekly.
In 2015, the series Murder Made Me Famous covered the story in its second episode, which premiered August 22. It re-aired in 2017 on the American cable channel Reelz as Scott Peterson: What Happened?
In April 2017, Crime Junkie Podcast produced two episodes detailing Peterson's murder.
On April 21, 2017, the NBC news magazine Dateline aired the two-hour special, The Laci Peterson Story: A Dateline Investigation.
In May 2017, the Peterson case was the main focus of "Notorious: Scott Peterson", the Season 20 premiere of the Oxygen TV series Snapped.
In June 2017, ABC aired a two-hour documentary on the case titled Truth and Lies: The Murder of Laci Peterson.
In July 2017, HLN aired a two-hour program on the case titled How It Really Happened.
In August 2017, the case was covered in A&E's six part series, The Murder of Laci Peterson.
In November 2017, Investigation Discovery aired a two-hour documentary titled Scott Peterson: An American Murder Mystery.
In December 2018, the case was discussed on the talk show Dr. Phil.
In May 2021, the case was covered in the 48 Hours episode "Scott Peterson: Case in Question".
In May 2021, the case was covered in the 20/20 episode "One Last Chance".
See also
List of solved missing person cases
References
External links
"Links to past coverage of the murder of Laci Peterson". The Modesto Bee.
"Phone transcript: Peterson tells mistress of missing wife". Court TV. January 6, 2003.
2000s missing person cases
2002 in California
2002 murders in the United States
Capital murder cases
Crime in California
Deaths by person in the United States
December 2002 events in the United States
Familicides
Female murder victims
Formerly missing people
Incidents of violence against women
Missing person cases in California
Murder in the San Francisco Bay Area
Violence against women in the United States
History of women in California
|
[
-0.33481326699256897,
-0.08823798596858978,
-0.3198416233062744,
-0.04306753724813461,
0.4502776563167572,
0.7733563184738159,
0.4160429537296295,
-0.21967856585979462,
-0.749710738658905,
0.43643486499786377,
0.6996879577636719,
0.4251677691936493,
-0.9470025300979614,
0.3075201213359833,
-0.23586024343967438,
0.3898240327835083,
0.4879720211029053,
0.21547195315361023,
-0.15660980343818665,
-0.5749779939651489,
0.12838990986347198,
-0.5800415277481079,
0.583063006401062,
0.468544602394104,
-0.24629057943820953,
1.0283100605010986,
-0.2499578893184662,
-0.19063952565193176,
-0.365597128868103,
0.412706583738327,
0.37824419140815735,
-0.1433151662349701,
1.183667778968811,
-0.34128832817077637,
-0.2846486270427704,
0.3412421941757202,
-0.6474303603172302,
-0.3181084990501404,
-0.20962119102478027,
0.49233245849609375,
-0.8253758549690247,
0.12454015761613846,
-0.5735626816749573,
0.33027294278144836,
0.06025160104036331,
-0.06500072777271271,
-1.7102121114730835,
0.025926554575562477,
-0.06644239276647568,
-0.24342167377471924,
0.013781596906483173,
0.04343746230006218,
0.7699028253555298,
0.2266383022069931,
0.42336612939834595,
0.33573952317237854,
-0.21102190017700195,
-0.7208488583564758,
0.3470066487789154,
-0.15868917107582092,
0.24428364634513855,
-0.3244222402572632,
1.118957281112671,
-0.29380279779434204,
-0.3429096043109894,
0.23756451904773712,
0.5314488410949707,
1.1662235260009766,
-0.0563553124666214,
-0.261569082736969,
-0.2599692642688751,
0.38283348083496094,
0.3342173993587494,
-0.03507273271679878,
-0.3029617667198181,
0.09744415432214737,
0.45222193002700806,
-0.9660801291465759,
0.26272764801979065,
0.06974305212497711,
-0.12740106880664825,
0.5887783765792847,
0.15765094757080078,
-0.09351978451013565,
0.5158385038375854,
-0.011683865450322628,
-0.6670153141021729,
-0.032760847359895706,
0.4766019880771637,
0.918809175491333,
-0.3190702497959137,
-0.1937500238418579,
0.19034908711910248,
0.40740934014320374,
-0.4737266004085541,
-0.0739162489771843,
0.30813226103782654,
0.16120438277721405,
0.2971765398979187,
0.2167474329471588,
0.22596490383148193,
-0.12074285000562668,
-0.2984951138496399,
0.05322280526161194,
0.14045016467571259,
0.12964557111263275,
0.09498412162065506,
-0.4674036502838135,
0.03637615218758583,
-1.003880500793457,
0.07397399097681046,
0.26516929268836975,
-0.4311526417732239,
-0.011621399782598019,
-0.3058468699455261,
0.9329651594161987,
0.6022345423698425,
-0.5245182514190674,
-0.06207204610109329,
-0.6676845550537109,
-0.1928335577249527,
-0.3736545145511627,
-0.3764801323413849,
0.07561252266168594,
-0.41715478897094727,
-0.17993023991584778,
0.004886585287749767,
0.3166447579860687,
-0.35138633847236633,
0.5136435031890869,
0.04704001918435097,
0.3919779658317566,
-0.0726405456662178,
-0.33672770857810974,
0.294435054063797,
-0.8694745302200317,
0.2192109376192093,
-0.039689745754003525,
-0.23497821390628815,
0.1289212554693222,
-0.6478115916252136,
-0.3933025598526001,
-0.5885105729103088,
-0.2837192118167877,
0.8771812319755554,
-0.3392488956451416,
0.6922214031219482,
0.32067885994911194,
-0.39341893792152405,
0.29410743713378906,
0.3871554136276245,
-0.1341126263141632,
0.40303418040275574,
-1.123468041419983,
-0.695561408996582,
0.5044059157371521,
0.3408795893192291,
-0.5040111541748047,
0.015085658058524132,
-0.026332592591643333,
0.7898415327072144,
0.5548121929168701,
-0.42812153697013855,
0.06782213598489761,
-0.04683874547481537,
-0.14983975887298584,
0.06611859798431396,
-0.30523061752319336,
0.19932951033115387,
-0.20712333917617798,
-0.47095444798469543,
0.700040876865387,
0.43791496753692627,
-0.918186604976654,
-0.8413775563240051,
0.5227552652359009,
-0.37208041548728943,
-0.438770592212677,
-0.20834778249263763,
0.12994536757469177,
-0.4110833704471588,
-0.04126397520303726,
-0.39877721667289734,
-0.2124965488910675,
-0.3500227928161621,
-0.07941663265228271,
0.23638316988945007,
-0.11249399185180664,
0.06376118957996368,
0.05624542385339737,
-0.6018337607383728,
-0.4028335213661194,
0.647798478603363,
0.4438897967338562,
0.6934564709663391,
-0.22687582671642303,
-0.39569199085235596,
0.6605454087257385,
0.2063354253768921,
0.4653058648109436,
-0.5724226832389832,
-0.4692206382751465,
-0.003146735718473792,
-0.563916027545929,
-0.5032497644424438,
0.23461264371871948,
0.3055035471916199,
-0.05993253365159035,
-0.09101446717977524,
1.5180933475494385,
-0.01595797762274742,
-0.7808855772018433,
0.4241166114807129,
0.8721376657485962,
0.36345210671424866,
-0.47975385189056396,
-0.4133215844631195,
0.42167606949806213,
0.9265075325965881,
-0.748996913433075,
-0.10216542333364487,
0.42247024178504944,
-0.5700003504753113,
0.3834618330001831,
-0.31710338592529297,
1.0011779069900513,
-0.2646406292915344,
-0.28344491124153137,
0.33131882548332214,
-0.49804818630218506,
0.7461905479431152,
0.6503162384033203,
0.38411790132522583,
-0.5070472359657288,
-0.3842388987541199,
0.6382020115852356,
-0.34992191195487976,
-0.12018076330423355,
-0.10159794986248016,
-0.6069054007530212,
1.1546696424484253,
0.7197604179382324,
-0.04804291948676109,
0.20313875377178192,
-0.12632445991039276,
-0.08901970833539963,
-0.267533540725708,
0.08240599185228348,
0.35921409726142883,
0.3771910071372986,
0.3582753837108612,
0.6905096173286438,
0.20591959357261658,
-0.33331099152565,
0.30458933115005493,
-0.42188721895217896,
0.10145088285207748,
0.0646817535161972,
0.49917763471603394,
0.0062957885675132275,
0.5849514007568359,
0.07150491327047348,
0.3799464702606201,
0.614604651927948,
0.030654454603791237,
0.4420003294944763,
-0.6422882080078125,
-0.6637448668479919,
0.42110174894332886,
0.764911413192749,
0.08787029981613159,
-0.545709490776062,
-0.12205810099840164,
0.6371708512306213,
0.21080945432186127,
0.5417343378067017,
-0.8501311540603638,
0.16173674166202545,
-0.5869869589805603,
-0.16559503972530365,
0.12953604757785797,
0.3725700378417969,
0.47729554772377014,
-0.9663144946098328,
-0.03315664082765579,
-0.17153611779212952,
0.3517468273639679,
-0.1562054306268692,
-0.16487643122673035,
-0.495706707239151,
-0.5454760193824768,
0.04880569130182266,
-0.42623037099838257,
0.30016791820526123,
-0.13797923922538757,
0.3138779401779175,
-0.10820338875055313,
0.36689919233322144,
0.6690621972084045,
-0.32625555992126465,
0.05734720453619957,
0.4429164230823517,
-0.8079854846000671,
-0.420551061630249,
0.8322755694389343,
0.3964616656303406,
0.11362875998020172,
-0.2952786087989807,
-4.971019268035889,
0.637846827507019,
-0.4954524338245392,
-0.4399523437023163,
0.19178174436092377,
0.1586417704820633,
0.401467889547348,
-0.32638052105903625,
0.17872948944568634,
-0.030154269188642502,
0.3513334393501282,
-0.2602047622203827,
0.06470974534749985,
-0.20799985527992249,
-0.132864311337471,
0.19896858930587769,
0.44665855169296265,
-0.5057534575462341,
0.12242656946182251,
0.4666054844856262,
0.22071774303913116,
-0.3214051425457001,
-0.7095714211463928,
-0.17315497994422913,
-0.016511395573616028,
0.48300498723983765,
-0.5436136722564697,
-0.53260737657547,
-0.8526462912559509,
0.4154253900051117,
-0.10034248977899551,
-0.09062696993350983,
-0.7855557799339294,
-0.390658438205719,
-0.6331818699836731,
0.2240603268146515,
0.4533696174621582,
-0.23242531716823578,
-0.4497251510620117,
-0.577579915523529,
-0.4505678415298462,
-0.05364014580845833,
-0.439651221036911,
0.1421455293893814,
1.178350806236267,
-0.008965304121375084,
-0.6062672734260559,
-0.6558826565742493,
-0.6238822340965271,
0.15928959846496582,
0.23724721372127533,
-0.5299112796783447,
0.2616801857948303,
0.7478422522544861,
0.2881045341491699,
-0.584728479385376,
-0.42833226919174194,
-0.2762530744075775,
-0.6916727423667908,
-0.16986697912216187,
0.5936545729637146,
-0.14825710654258728,
0.49829065799713135,
-0.4371301829814911,
-0.3837708532810211,
-0.046053506433963776,
0.7886790633201599,
-0.5059807300567627,
0.004625733941793442,
-0.03341401368379593,
0.29011204838752747,
0.485975444316864,
-0.19865533709526062,
-1.020678997039795,
0.16374647617340088,
0.012104613706469536,
0.07239031046628952,
-0.11078553646802902,
-0.7230882048606873,
0.019927900284528732,
0.15643364191055298,
0.09952521324157715,
0.481435090303421,
0.5986765027046204,
0.8729108572006226,
-0.369351327419281,
-0.7196531295776367,
0.28971201181411743,
-0.3352859616279602,
-0.27968186140060425,
-0.28352972865104675,
0.167395681142807,
0.5645279884338379,
0.7118251919746399,
-0.41912198066711426,
0.5862619876861572,
0.2513338625431061,
0.21353530883789062,
0.24931690096855164,
0.040772464126348495,
0.1929614543914795,
-0.5387137532234192,
0.25249096751213074,
-0.4391934871673584,
-0.2637966573238373,
-0.6615253686904907,
0.11442392319440842,
-0.1860552579164505,
-0.3064424395561218,
-0.2217494547367096,
-0.01827528513967991,
-0.157557874917984,
-0.17673300206661224,
-0.21569980680942535,
0.5593971014022827,
-0.8688666820526123,
-0.2338455617427826,
0.5608031749725342,
0.665137767791748,
0.06713223457336426,
0.008401839062571526,
-0.07949711382389069,
-0.6940039992332458,
0.6697748303413391,
0.017075562849640846,
-0.7689376473426819,
0.17743009328842163,
-0.12395057082176208,
-0.3360845446586609,
0.8611377477645874,
-0.3925239145755768,
0.5077461004257202,
-0.39347004890441895,
-0.12239430099725723,
-0.08822336047887802,
-0.29100584983825684,
0.18487069010734558,
-0.6995381712913513,
0.1677326112985611,
0.046443551778793335,
0.6491360068321228,
0.22262752056121826,
-0.5323735475540161,
0.011259629391133785,
0.0890243798494339,
0.38891950249671936,
0.33249035477638245,
0.16859392821788788,
-0.4584934413433075,
0.19538815319538116,
-0.09772426635026932,
-0.2232096791267395,
0.7487873435020447,
-0.3302554190158844,
-0.32156842947006226,
-0.08096210658550262,
0.6376461982727051,
0.47036197781562805,
-0.9106529951095581,
0.2817128300666809,
-0.0022218942176550627,
-0.2859538495540619,
-0.9586133360862732,
0.3030143678188324,
-0.26021143794059753,
0.3243279457092285,
-0.3052419126033783,
-0.5293871760368347,
-0.3191629946231842,
1.0922549962997437,
-0.1184157058596611,
-1.1313397884368896,
-0.40267252922058105,
0.33146628737449646,
0.8512239456176758,
0.08282213658094406,
-0.24543194472789764,
-0.8789412975311279,
-0.05416762828826904,
-0.011743257753551006,
-0.20119105279445648,
0.018664686009287834,
-0.4062316417694092,
0.6873334646224976,
0.3256319761276245,
0.11140670627355576,
-0.4689203202724457,
-0.5764573812484741,
-0.653667688369751,
-0.05198384076356888,
0.0024288620334118605,
-0.08704595267772675,
0.22434048354625702,
0.2519720792770386,
-0.5191887021064758,
-0.7188079953193665,
0.03765716776251793,
0.022395970299839973,
-0.0030359376687556505,
0.8254851698875427,
-0.40545740723609924,
0.6614450812339783,
0.23434315621852875,
0.3440932333469391,
0.5738017559051514,
-1.269906997680664,
0.1765294075012207,
-0.02509806677699089,
-0.7356845736503601,
0.2315729856491089,
0.14815394580364227,
0.14229777455329895,
0.10948347300291061,
0.5999274253845215,
0.0690741315484047,
-0.13096006214618683,
0.6588172316551208,
-0.011790488846600056,
-0.2597056031227112,
-0.19827048480510712,
-0.31562697887420654,
0.26358383893966675,
-0.18781906366348267,
-0.4602602422237396,
-0.6576017737388611,
0.9389536380767822,
-0.11232911795377731,
-0.510892927646637,
1.0477712154388428,
0.4040258228778839,
-0.4228249490261078,
0.25288447737693787,
-0.18373554944992065,
-0.22634351253509521,
-0.37361446022987366,
-0.14241252839565277,
0.7294780611991882,
0.5056242942810059,
0.3405158817768097,
0.1681477427482605,
0.3094176948070526,
0.8305174708366394,
0.7013351321220398,
-0.709704577922821,
0.02701900526881218,
0.040693484246730804,
-0.005485681816935539,
-0.15594586730003357,
0.2504996657371521,
0.7752910256385803,
-0.30116090178489685,
-0.39530619978904724,
-0.13352975249290466,
-0.8008478879928589,
0.7179321050643921,
-0.5616778135299683,
0.3101511597633362,
-0.7039119005203247,
0.5238322019577026,
0.04287204518914223,
0.28614529967308044,
0.4345492422580719,
-0.7237721085548401,
0.3674466013908386,
0.07876195013523102,
0.4573637545108795,
-0.4328828454017639,
0.11529156565666199,
0.3230571746826172,
-0.3582715690135956,
-0.43415576219558716,
0.1101846694946289,
-0.18098929524421692,
0.2285970151424408,
-0.5612378120422363,
0.2681547701358795,
-0.005586142186075449,
0.048803381621837616,
-0.262612909078598,
-0.7413617968559265,
-0.8453183770179749,
-0.2996969521045685,
-0.3372533619403839,
-0.39303839206695557,
0.519314169883728,
-0.4081498980522156,
-0.3683079779148102,
-0.2092284858226776,
-0.6631370782852173,
-0.21937783062458038,
0.031981900334358215,
0.6382797956466675,
0.2940530478954315,
0.06434611976146698,
0.19954726099967957,
1.1172860860824585,
-0.16093753278255463,
0.8382048010826111,
0.015990741550922394,
0.1053370013833046,
0.05230387672781944,
0.35810306668281555,
-0.1482890546321869,
-0.7298056483268738,
-0.21589304506778717,
-0.7343482375144958,
-0.02283809706568718,
-0.5899776220321655,
0.5379695296287537,
0.25037071108818054,
0.23801274597644806,
0.11317954212427139,
0.34056246280670166,
-0.10119128972291946,
-1.223972201347351,
-0.3637893795967102,
-0.08195102959871292,
-0.3260565996170044,
-0.3844190239906311,
0.017059333622455597,
-0.2733747959136963,
0.18918147683143616,
0.953669548034668,
0.0896180272102356,
0.3623697757720947,
0.7823549509048462,
0.050563570111989975,
0.8010329604148865,
-0.32770809531211853,
0.06839770823717117,
-0.040783338248729706,
-0.7204378247261047,
-0.309442937374115,
0.9410598278045654,
-0.09835577756166458,
-0.4916948080062866,
0.2935044467449188,
-1.1565515995025635,
-0.14309726655483246,
0.26026400923728943,
0.3822975158691406,
0.7484129071235657,
-0.1665329486131668,
0.0650908574461937,
-0.02309579961001873,
0.4706406891345978,
0.1657952517271042,
0.11320720613002777,
0.569947361946106,
-0.1644550859928131,
0.12497818470001221,
-0.2503032386302948,
0.18557333946228027,
-0.14921201765537262,
0.32191604375839233,
0.06392780691385269,
0.46186789870262146,
-0.4144679009914398,
-0.8722156286239624,
-0.4944753050804138,
-0.7235627770423889,
-0.6704555749893188,
1.3252180814743042,
0.4737144112586975,
-0.04642383009195328,
-0.8820934295654297,
-0.23397649824619293,
-0.09203485399484634,
0.12731914222240448,
0.11166716367006302,
0.4210702180862427,
0.07251987606287003,
-0.42058825492858887,
0.1752459853887558,
0.41541317105293274,
0.3398529291152954,
0.452516108751297,
-0.3503290116786957,
-0.15879295766353607,
-0.4422038495540619,
-0.6508451700210571,
-0.6319566965103149,
-0.24049818515777588,
-0.17560337483882904,
-0.3854251801967621,
-0.16212354600429535,
0.3186185956001282,
0.7850200533866882,
0.7738710045814514,
-0.22460711002349854,
1.354209303855896,
-0.31764841079711914,
-0.053386759012937546,
0.24304309487342834,
0.05910670757293701,
0.3435676395893097,
-0.2590944468975067,
0.6980655789375305,
0.4064870774745941,
0.5157002806663513,
-0.17216533422470093,
0.46205198764801025,
-0.3274537920951843,
0.10450912266969681,
-0.8331217765808105,
0.48340511322021484,
-0.358273446559906,
0.031001023948192596,
-0.3343610167503357,
0.5342400670051575,
-0.7635354995727539,
-0.48313599824905396,
-0.3476165533065796,
0.19687554240226746,
-0.033532433211803436,
0.3945585787296295,
0.9054233431816101,
0.028162222355604172,
-0.8171446323394775,
-0.4990708529949188,
0.057625662535429,
0.19911602139472961,
0.12747390568256378,
0.5961838960647583,
-0.4297957122325897,
0.2583683431148529,
-0.2089443951845169,
-0.2250593602657318,
0.25348034501075745,
0.29726022481918335,
0.09969731420278549,
0.37976789474487305,
0.08069900423288345,
-0.02292889542877674,
0.5385438203811646,
-1.0692226886749268,
0.5186010599136353,
0.21214424073696136,
0.42031434178352356,
-0.08120471984148026,
0.7181910276412964,
0.051430247724056244,
-0.3761410415172577,
-0.35167646408081055,
0.10088169574737549,
0.09957551211118698,
-0.5208346247673035,
-0.7561355829238892,
0.2775534987449646,
-0.3591145873069763,
-0.15210944414138794,
-0.02284218743443489,
-0.335796982049942,
-0.5772961378097534,
-0.35562148690223694,
-0.3349662721157074,
0.01417174469679594,
-0.37125954031944275,
0.8171685934066772,
-0.19543901085853577
] |
213143
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20de%20Maistre
|
Joseph de Maistre
|
Joseph Marie, comte de Maistre (; 1 April 1753 – 26 February 1821) was a Savoyard philosopher, writer, lawyer and diplomat who advocated social hierarchy and monarchy in the period immediately following the French Revolution. Despite his close personal and intellectual ties with France, Maistre was throughout his life a subject of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which he served as a member of the Savoy Senate (1787–1792), ambassador to Russia (1803–1817) and minister of state to the court in Turin (1817–1821).
A key figure of the Counter-Enlightenment, Maistre regarded monarchy both as a divinely sanctioned institution and as the only stable form of government. He called for the restoration of the House of Bourbon to the throne of France and for the ultimate authority of the Pope in temporal matters. Maistre argued that the rationalist rejection of Christianity was directly responsible for the disorder and bloodshed which followed the French Revolution of 1789.
Biography
Maistre was born in 1753 at Chambéry, Duchy of Savoy, at that time part of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia which was ruled by the House of Savoy. His family was of French and Italian origin. His grandfather André (Andrea) Maistre, whose parents Francesco and Margarita Maistre (née Dalmassi) originated in the County of Nice, had been a draper and councilman in Nice (then under the rule of the House of Savoy) and his father François-Xavier, who moved to Chambéry in 1740, became a magistrate and senator, eventually receiving the title of count from the King of Piedmont-Sardinia. His mother's family, whose surname was Desmotz, were from Rumilly. His younger brother Xavier, who became an army officer, was a popular writer of fiction.
Maistre was probably educated by the Jesuits. After the Revolution, he became an ardent defender of the Jesuits, increasingly associating the spirit of the Revolution with the Jesuits' traditional enemies, the Jansenists. After completing his training in the law at the University of Turin in 1774, he followed in his father's footsteps by becoming a Senator in 1787.
A member of the progressive Scottish Rite Masonic lodge at Chambéry from 1774 to 1790, Maistre originally favoured political reform in France, supporting the efforts of the magistrates in the Parlements to force King Louis XVI to convene the Estates General. As a landowner in France, Maistre was eligible to join that body and there is some evidence that he contemplated that possibility. However, Maistre was alarmed by the decision of the States-General to combine aristocracy, clergy and commoners into a single legislative body which became the National Constituent Assembly. After the passing of the August Decrees on 4 August 1789, he decisively turned against the course of political events in France.
Maistre fled Chambéry when it was taken by a French revolutionary army in 1792, but he was unable to find a position in the royal court in Turin and returned the following year. Deciding that he could not support the French-controlled regime, Maistre departed again, this time for Lausanne, Switzerland, where he discussed politics and theology at the salon of Madame de Staël, and began his career as a counter-revolutionary writer, with works such as Lettres d'un Royaliste Savoisien ("Letters from a Savoyard Royalist", 1793), Discours à Mme. la Marquise Costa de Beauregard, sur la Vie et la Mort de son Fils ("Discourse to the Marchioness Costa de Beauregard, on the Life and Death of her Son", 1794) and Cinq paradoxes à la Marquise de Nav... ("Five Paradoxes for the Marchioness of Nav...", 1795).
From Lausanne, Maistre went to Venice and then to Cagliari, where the King of Piedmont-Sardinia held the court and the government of the kingdom after French armies took Turin in 1798. Maistre's relations with the court at Cagliari were not always easy. In 1802, he was sent to Saint Petersburg in Russia as ambassador to Tsar Alexander I. His diplomatic responsibilities were few and he became a well-loved fixture in aristocratic circles, converting some of his friends to Roman Catholicism and writing his most influential works on political philosophy.
Maistre's observations on Russian life, contained in his diplomatic memoirs and in his personal correspondence, were among Leo Tolstoy's sources for his novel War and Peace. After the defeat of Napoleon and the restoration of the House of Savoy's dominion over Piedmont and Savoy under the terms of the Congress of Vienna, Maistre returned in 1817 to Turin and served there as magistrate and minister of state until his death. He died on 26 February 1821 and is buried in the Jesuit Church of the Holy Martyrs (Chiesa dei Santi Martiri).
Political and moral philosophy
In Considérations sur la France ("Considerations on France", 1797), Maistre claimed that France has a divine mission as the principal instrument of good and evil on Earth. He interpreted the Revolution of 1789 as a providential event in which the monarchy, the aristocracy and the Ancien Régime in general, instead of directing the influence of French civilization to the benefit of mankind, had promoted the atheistic doctrines of the 18th-century philosophers. He claimed that the crimes of the Reign of Terror were the logical consequence of Enlightened thought as well as its divinely-decreed punishment.
In his short book Essai sur le Principe Générateur des Constitutions Politiques et des Autres Institutions Humaines ("Essay on the Generative Principle of Political Constitutions and other Human Institutions", 1809), Maistre argued that constitutions are not the product of human reason, but rather come from God, who slowly brings them to maturity. After the appearance in 1816 of his French translation of Plutarch's treatise On the Delay of Divine Justice in the Punishment of the Guilty, Maistre published in 1819 Du Pape ("On the Pope"), the most complete exposition of his authoritarian conception of politics.
According to Maistre, any attempt to justify government on rational grounds will only lead to unresolvable arguments about the legitimacy and expediency of any existing government and that this in turn will lead to violence and chaos. As a result, Maistre argued that the legitimacy of government must be based on compelling, but non-rational grounds which its subjects must not be allowed to question. Maistre went on to argue that authority in politics should derive from religion and that in Europe this religious authority must ultimately lie with the Pope.
What was novel in Maistre's writings was not his enthusiastic defense of monarchical and religious authority per se, but rather his arguments concerning the practical need for ultimate authority to lie with an individual capable of decisive action as well as his analysis of the social foundations of that authority's legitimacy. In his own words which he addressed to a group of aristocratic French émigrés, "you ought to know how to be royalists. Before, this was an instinct, but today it is a science. You must love the sovereign as you love order, with all the forces of intelligence." Maistre's analysis of the problem of authority and its legitimacy foreshadows some of the concerns of early sociologists such as Auguste Comte and Henri de Saint-Simon.
In addition to his voluminous correspondence, Maistre left two books that were published posthumously. Soirées de St. Pétersbourg ("St Petersburg Dialogues", 1821) is a theodicy in the form of a Platonic dialogue in which Maistre argues that evil exists because of its place in the divine plan, according to which the blood sacrifice of innocents returns men to God via the expiation of the sins of the guilty. Maistre sees this as a law of human history as unquestionable as it is mysterious. Examen de la Philosophie de Bacon, ("An Examination of the Philosophy of Bacon", 1836) is a critique of the thought of Francis Bacon, whom Maistre considers to be the fountainhead of the destructive Enlightened thought.
Repute and influence
Together with the Anglo-Irish statesman and philosopher Edmund Burke, Maistre is commonly regarded as one of the founders of European conservatism, but since the 19th century Maistre's authoritarian, "throne-and-altar" conception of conservatism declined in influence in comparison with the more liberal conservatism of Burke. However, Maistre's skills as a writer and polemicist ensured that he continues to be read. For instance, Matthew Arnold, an influential 19th-century critic, wrote as follows while comparing Maistre's style with his Irish counterpart:
Joseph de Maistre is another of those men whose word, like that of Burke, has vitality. In imaginative power he is altogether inferior to Burke. On the other hand his thought moves in closer order than Burke's, more rapidly, more directly; he has fewer superfluities. Burke is a great writer, but Joseph de Maistre's use of the French language is more powerful, more thoroughly satisfactory, than Burke's use of the English. It is masterly; it shows us to perfection of what that admirable instrument, the French language, is capable.
The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1910 describes his writing style as "strong, lively, picturesque" and that his "animation and good humour temper his dogmatic tone. He possesses a wonderful facility in exposition, precision of doctrine, breadth of learning, and dialectical power". Although a political opponent, Alphonse de Lamartine admired the splendour of his prose, stating:
Émile Faguet described Maistre as "a fierce absolutist, a furious theocrat, an intransigent legitimist, apostle of a monstrous trinity composed of pope, king and hangman, always and everywhere the champion of the hardest, narrowest and most inflexible dogmatism, a dark figure out of the Middle Ages, part learned doctor, part inquisitor, part executioner".
Amongst those who admired him was the poet Charles Baudelaire, who described himself a disciple of the Savoyard counter-revolutionary, claiming that he had taught him how to think. George Saintsbury called him "unquestionably one of the greatest thinkers and writers of the eighteenth century". Maistre also exerted a powerful influence on the Spanish political thinker Juan Donoso Cortés and later on the French monarchist Charles Maurras and his counter-revolutionary political movement Action Française.
According to Carolina Armenteros, Maistre's writings influenced not only conservative political thinkers, but also the utopian socialists. Early sociologists such as Auguste Comte and Henri de Saint-Simon explicitly acknowledged the influence of Maistre on their own thinking about the sources of social cohesion and political authority.
Works
Nobilis Ioseph Maistre Camberiensis ad i.u. lauream anno 1772. die 29. Aprilis hora 5. pomeridiana (Turin, 1772) – Joseph de Maistre's decree thesis, kept in the National Library of the University of Turin.
Éloge de Victor-Amédée III (Chambéry, 1775)
Lettres d'un royaliste savoisien à ses compatriotes (1793)
Étude sur la souveraineté (1794)
De l'État de nature, ou Examen d'un écrit de Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1795)
Considérations sur la France (London [Basel], 1796)
Intorno allo stato del Piemonte rispetto alla carta moneta (Turn, Aosta, Venice, 1797–1799)
Essai sur le Principe Générateur des Constitutions Politiques, 1814, [1st. Pub. 1809]
Du Pape, Tome Second, 1819.
De l'Église Gallicane, édit. Rodolphe de Maistre, 1821.
Les Soirées de Saint-Pétersbourg ou Entretiens sur le Gouvernement Temporel de la Providence, Tome Second, édit. Rodolphe de Maistre, 1821.
Lettres à un Gentilhomme Russe sur l'Inquisition Espagnole, édit. Rodolphe de Maistre, 1822.
Examen de la Philosophie de Bacon, ou: l'on Traite Différentes Questions de Philosophie Rationnelle, Tome Second, édit. Rodolphe de Maistre, 1836.
Lettres et Opuscules Inédits du Comte Joseph de Maistre, Tome Second, édit. Rodolphe de Maistre, Paris, 1853.
Mémoires Politiques et Correspondance Diplomatique, édit. Albert Blanc, Paris, 1859.
English translations
Memoir on the Union of Savoy and Switzerland, 1795.
Essay on the Generative Principle of Political Constitutions, 1847.
The Pope: Considered in His Relations with the Church, Temporal Sovereignties, Separated Churches and the Cause of Civilization, 1850.
Letters on the Spanish Inquisition, 1838.
In Menczer, Béla, 1962. Catholic Political Thought, 1789-1848, University of Notre Dame Press.
"Human and Divine Nomenclature," pp. 61–66.
"War, Peace, and Social Order," pp. 66–69.
"On Sophistry and Tyranny," pp. 69–71.
"Russia and the Christian West," pp. 72–76.
Lively, Jack. ed. The Works of Joseph de Maistre, Macmillan, 1965 ().
Richard Lebrun, ed. Works of Joseph de Maistre:
The Pope, Howard Fertig, 1975 ()
St. Petersburg Dialogues, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993 ()
Considerations on France, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1974 and Cambridge University Press, 1994 ()
Against Rousseau: "On the State of Nature" and "On the Sovereignty of the People," McGill-Queen's University Press, 1996 ()
Examination of the Philosophy of Bacon, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1998 ()
Blum, Christopher Olaf (editor and translator). Critics of the Enlightenment, ISI Books, 2004 (
1798, "Reflections on Protestantism in its Relations to Sovereignty," pp. 133–56.
1819, "On the Pope," pp. 157–96.
Lively, Jack. ed. The Generative Principle of Political Constitutions: Studies on Sovereignty, Religion, and Enlightenment, Transaction Publishers, 2011 ()
In Blum, Christopher O., editor and translator. Critics of the Enlightenment, Cluny Media, 2020 ()
1797, "Considerations on France," (excerpt of first two sections) pp. 75–90.
1819, "On the Pope," pp. 91–100.
Collected Works in English
Major Works, Volume I, Imperium Press, 2021.
See also
Louis Gabriel Ambroise de Bonald
François-René de Chateaubriand
Counter-Enlightenment
Notes
References
Sources
Armenteros, Carolina (2007). "From Human Nature to Normal Humanity: Joseph de Maistre, Rousseau, and the Origins of Moral Statistics," Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 68, No. 1, pp. 107–30.
Armenteros, Carolina (2007). "Parabolas and the Fate of Nations: Early Conservative Historicism in Joseph de Maistre's De la Souveraineté du Peuple," History of Political Thought, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 230–52.
Armenteros, Carolina et al. (2010). The New Enfant du Siècle: Joseph de Maistre as a Writer, St. Andrews Studies in French History and Culture.
Armenteros, Carolina (2011). The French Idea of History: Joseph de Maistre and his Heirs, 1794–1854. Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press
Armenteros, Carolina and Richard Lebrun (2011). Joseph de Maistre and his European Readers: From Friedrich von Gentz to Isaiah Berlin. Leiden and Boston: Brill.
Armenteros, Carolina and Richard Lebrun (2011). Joseph de Maistre and the Legacy of Enlightenment. Oxford: The Voltaire Foundation.
Austern, Donald M. (1974). The Political Theories of Edmund Burke and Joseph de Maistre as Representative of the Schools of Conservative Libertarianism and Conservative Authoritarianism. Amherst: Boston College Doctoral Thesis.
Barbey D'Aurevilly, Jules (1889). "Joseph de Maistre". In: Les Prophètes du Passé. Paris: Calmann Lévy, pp. 50–69.
Barthelet, Philippe (2005). Joseph de Maistre: Les Dossiers H. Geneva: L'Age d'Homme.
Blamires, Cyprian P. (1985). Three Critiques of the French Revolution: Maistre, Bonald and Saint-Simon. Oxford: Oxford University Doctoral Thesis.
Bradley, Owen (1999). A Modern Maistre: The Social and Political Thought of Joseph de Maistre. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press.
Brandes, Georg (1903). "Joseph de Maistre." In: Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature, Vol. 3. The Reaction in France. New York: The Macmillan Company, pp. 87–112
Camcastle, Cara (2005). The More Moderate Side of Joseph de Maistre. Ottawa: McGill-Queen's University Press.
Caponigri, A.R. (1942). Some Aspects of the Philosophy of Joseph de Maistre. PhD Thesis, University of Chicago.
Croce, Benedetto (1922). "Il Duca di Serra-Capriola e Giuseppe de Maistre". In: Archivio Storico per le Province Napoletane, Vol. XLVII, pp. 313–335.
Edwards, David W. (1977). "Count Joseph de Maistre and Russian Educational Policy, 1803-1828", Slavic Review, Vol. 36, pp. 54–75.
Eichrodt, Joan B. (1968). Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality, and Joseph de Maistre. New York: Columbia University Master's Thesis.
Faust, A.J. (1882). "Count Joseph de Maistre," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. VII, pp. 17–41.
Fisichella, Domenico (1963). Giusnaturalismo e Teoria della Sovranità in Joseph de Maistre. Messina: Firenze (Rep. in Politica e Mutamento Sociale. Lungro di Cosenza: Costantino Marco Editore, 2002, pp. 191–243 .)
Fisichella, Domenico (1993). Il Pensiero Politico di Joseph de Maistre. Roma-Bari: Laterza .
Fisichella, Domenico (2005). Joseph de Maistre, Pensatore Europeo. Roma-Bari: Laterza .
Garrard, Graeme (1995). Maistre, Judge of Jean-Jacques. An Examination of the Relationship between Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Joseph de Maistre, and the French Enlightenment. Oxford: Oxford University Doctoral Thesis.
Gianturco, Elio (1937). Joseph de Maistre and Giambattista Vico (Italian Roots of the Maistre's Political Culture). New York: Columbia University.
Gianturco, Elio (1936). "Juridical Culture and Politico-historical Judgement in Joseph de Maistre", Roman Revue, Vol. 27, pp. 254–262.
Glaudes, Pierre (1997). Joseph de Maistre et Les figures de l'Histoire: Trois Essais sur un Précurseur du Romantisme Français. In: Cahiers Romantiques. Saint Genouph: Librairie Nizet.
Godechot, Jacques (1982). The Counter-Revolution, Princeton University Press.
Lebrun, Richard A. (ed., 1988). Maistre Studies, Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Lebrun, Richard A. (2001). Joseph de Maistre's Life, Thought and Influence: Selected Studies. Ottawa: McGill-Queen's University Press.
Legittimo, Gianfranco (1963). Sociologi Cattolici Italiani: De Maistre, Taparelli, Toniolo. Roma: Il Quadrato.
Maistre, Rodolphe de, Hexis d'un soir ou de la prénotion d'un retour de l'Esprit dans la science, La Compagnie Littéraire, 2016, 154p. [1] ()
Mandoul, Jean (1900). Un Homme d'État Italien: Joseph de Maistre et la Politique de la Maison de Savoie. Paris: Alcan.
Mazlish, Bruce (1955). Burke, Bonald and de Maistre. A Study in Conservatism. New York: Columbia University Doctoral Thesis.
McMahon, Darrin M. (2002). Enemies of the Enlightenment: The French Counter-Enlightenment and the Making of Modernity. Oxford University Press.
Menczer, Béla (1962). "Joseph de Maistre." In: Catholic Political Thought, 1789–1848. University of Notre Dame Press, pp. 59–61.
Monteton, Charles Philippe Dijon de (2007). Die Entzauberung des Gesellschaftsvertrags. Ein Vergleich der Anti-Sozial-Kontrakts-Theorien von Carl Ludwig von Haller und Joseph Graf de Maistre im Kontext der politischen Ideengeschichte. Frankfurt am Main et al. .
Morley, John (1909). "Joseph de Maistre." In: Critical Miscellanies. London: Macmillan & Co., pp. 257–338.
Muret, Charlotte Touzalin (1933). French Royalist Doctrines since the Revolution. New York: Columbia University Press.
Pranchère, Jean-Yves (1992). Qu'est-ce que la Royauté? Joseph de Maistre. Paris: Vrin.
Pranchère, Jean-Yves (2005). L'Autorité contre les Lumières: la Philosophie de Joseph de Maistre. Geneva: Droz.
Sacré-Cœur Mercier, Lucille du (1953). The Historical Thought of the Comte Joseph de Maistre. Washington: Catholic University of America Thesis.
Siedentop, Larry Alan (1966). The Limits of Enlightenment. A Study of Conservative Political Thought in Early Nineteenth-Century France with Special Reference to Maine de Biran and Joseph de Maistre. Oxford: Oxford University Doctoral Thesis.
Thorup, Mikkel (2005). "'A World Without Substance': Carl Schmitt and the Counter-Enlightenment," Distinktion: Scandinavian Journal of Social Theory, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 19–39.
Thurston, Benjamin (2001). Joseph de Maistre. Logos and Logomachy. Oxford: Brasenose College-Oxford University Doctoral Thesis.
Vermale, François (1921), Notes sur Joseph de Maistre Inconnu. Chambéry: Perrin, M. Dardel Successeur.
External links
Works by Joseph de Maistre at Europeana
Works by Joseph de Maistre at Hathi Trust
The Joseph de Maistre Homepage at the University of Cambridge
Works of Joseph de Maistre in English Translation
Encyclopædia Britannica: Joseph de Maistre
The Super-Enlightenment: Joseph de Maistre
1753 births
1821 deaths
18th-century French writers
18th-century Italian writers
18th-century Italian male writers
18th-century philosophers
19th-century French writers
19th-century Italian writers
19th-century philosophers
Ambassadors of Italy to Russia
Conservatism
Conservatism in France
Conservatism in Italy
Counter-Enlightenment
Critics of atheism
Reactionary
Social critics
Christian humanists
French counter-revolutionaries
French monarchists
French medievalists
French philosophers
18th-century French philosophers
French political philosophers
French Ultra-royalists
Italian counter-revolutionaries
Italian monarchists
Italian medievalists
Italian philosophers
Italian political philosophers
Italian writers in French
French people of Italian descent
Italian people of French descent
Knights of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
People from Chambéry
18th-century people from Savoy
People from the Kingdom of Sardinia
Romanticism
Traditionalist School
Catholic philosophers
Roman Catholic writers
Savoyard counter-revolutionaries
French Freemasons
Italian Freemasons
French male writers
Ambassadors of the Kingdom of Sardinia
19th-century Italian male writers
University of Turin alumni
|
[
-0.5202303528785706,
0.34192192554473877,
-0.6243525147438049,
0.19767464697360992,
0.1339782178401947,
0.7806441783905029,
0.8024598360061646,
0.0877479612827301,
-0.4998537003993988,
-0.701735258102417,
-0.4905378222465515,
0.7236506938934326,
-0.2885797917842865,
0.2608496844768524,
0.13138708472251892,
-0.07961449027061462,
0.12168177962303162,
-0.3907410502433777,
-0.3876998722553253,
-0.43920987844467163,
-0.40723875164985657,
0.44857197999954224,
0.1740826666355133,
0.17952114343643188,
-0.35023233294487,
-0.24542289972305298,
0.2085675150156021,
0.004953127820044756,
0.3738897144794464,
-0.049969639629125595,
0.16775952279567719,
0.023908978328108788,
0.061639390885829926,
-0.2803652882575989,
-1.0984687805175781,
0.11912708729505539,
-0.3103603720664978,
0.0955599769949913,
0.2569914758205414,
0.27657604217529297,
-0.41371026635169983,
-0.4826669692993164,
0.26098597049713135,
-0.18648473918437958,
-0.2552943229675293,
-0.3434332609176636,
-1.4962196350097656,
0.6022548079490662,
-0.33418622612953186,
-0.21767431497573853,
-0.042414773255586624,
0.1784684807062149,
0.5475172996520996,
0.6078960299491882,
-0.2759675681591034,
-0.13833573460578918,
-1.1038910150527954,
0.019331125542521477,
0.1625683307647705,
-0.5042563676834106,
-0.15013957023620605,
0.7342411875724792,
0.6186541318893433,
-0.23835249245166779,
0.15157732367515564,
0.18417932093143463,
-0.2987132966518402,
0.21549296379089355,
-0.397946834564209,
0.15261241793632507,
-0.07497860491275787,
-0.21856527030467987,
0.5741369724273682,
0.5692077279090881,
0.39095646142959595,
-0.5030887722969055,
-0.1784553974866867,
0.3722114861011505,
0.2183147817850113,
0.04645237326622009,
0.06042368710041046,
0.049151815474033356,
0.9301168322563171,
0.1139116883277893,
-0.13883566856384277,
0.3475707769393921,
0.2573932707309723,
0.6017473340034485,
-0.6522234082221985,
-0.42597171664237976,
-0.8713940382003784,
0.13676796853542328,
0.6970568895339966,
-0.3218066692352295,
-0.5806188583374023,
0.5924659371376038,
0.46926239132881165,
0.031228521838784218,
-0.31911128759384155,
-0.0828995630145073,
0.018051518127322197,
0.2693277597427368,
0.48052674531936646,
0.12435438483953476,
0.009509705938398838,
-0.2348816990852356,
-0.007456878200173378,
-0.22607459127902985,
-0.4770689606666565,
0.11847365647554398,
-1.1014331579208374,
0.7155709862709045,
-0.24647334218025208,
0.2594578266143799,
0.04932871460914612,
0.5432814955711365,
-0.24437914788722992,
-0.5047544836997986,
-0.17959928512573242,
-0.20345701277256012,
0.008971775881946087,
0.04762054979801178,
0.2537362575531006,
0.21807889640331268,
-0.3444921672344208,
-0.3117856979370117,
0.13096463680267334,
0.08967433869838715,
-0.04159310460090637,
0.45466896891593933,
0.7981773614883423,
0.8861918449401855,
-0.4249611496925354,
-0.28457939624786377,
-0.3963252007961273,
-0.13010019063949585,
0.8522162437438965,
0.00976555235683918,
-0.050595544278621674,
0.31288161873817444,
-0.4719916880130768,
-0.223755344748497,
0.22871094942092896,
-0.16361112892627716,
-0.06437806785106659,
-0.28979992866516113,
0.4933927655220032,
0.018085194751620293,
0.32551392912864685,
-0.06644155830144882,
-0.6881157755851746,
-0.02368045784533024,
0.02320280857384205,
-0.5974326133728027,
0.16742897033691406,
0.26742684841156006,
0.5224982500076294,
0.32204192876815796,
0.06608391553163528,
0.03186006471514702,
0.30727142095565796,
0.2985879182815552,
-0.14869724214076996,
-0.11207389086484909,
0.9210816025733948,
-0.736197292804718,
-0.049176547676324844,
0.19615672528743744,
-0.008545921184122562,
0.23584520816802979,
-0.32715150713920593,
0.04365444928407669,
0.2858852744102478,
-0.27727529406547546,
-0.2385568916797638,
0.92564857006073,
-0.07714119553565979,
0.1130264475941658,
0.5445082783699036,
-0.05800386145710945,
-0.5217763185501099,
0.0037802241276949644,
0.1032830998301506,
-0.2885022759437561,
0.4921192526817322,
0.25380614399909973,
0.920223593711853,
-0.30011802911758423,
0.1187131479382515,
-0.48839667439460754,
-0.8408239483833313,
-0.22124823927879333,
0.24516187608242035,
-0.8575289845466614,
1.1136871576309204,
0.42808616161346436,
-0.6738479733467102,
1.1704418659210205,
-0.04273469001054764,
0.29370713233947754,
-0.2936886250972748,
-0.23282623291015625,
-0.05776849016547203,
0.42733633518218994,
-0.00428617000579834,
0.3956875801086426,
-0.3306099474430084,
-0.013327295891940594,
0.21077318489551544,
0.6666083335876465,
0.410117506980896,
-0.6999886631965637,
0.49799495935440063,
0.20252114534378052,
-0.5570662021636963,
-0.5700253248214722,
-0.4014461040496826,
-0.12841390073299408,
-0.056869033724069595,
0.20663152635097504,
0.2042546272277832,
-0.24254362285137177,
0.24886496365070343,
1.07240891456604,
-0.05739467218518257,
0.3668026328086853,
0.5721539855003357,
0.20768484473228455,
0.05010456591844559,
-0.28237447142601013,
-0.5461910963058472,
0.019381634891033173,
0.3506189286708832,
-0.247224360704422,
0.2562828063964844,
-0.07988359779119492,
-0.26397866010665894,
-0.6136327981948853,
-0.47262486815452576,
-0.4195229113101959,
0.49926620721817017,
0.36879077553749084,
0.014492752961814404,
0.392780065536499,
-0.018148111179471016,
0.67341148853302,
-0.5413683652877808,
0.1409229040145874,
-0.11861281841993332,
0.25484979152679443,
-0.3706068992614746,
0.8326671123504639,
-0.014861340634524822,
0.07783341407775879,
-0.27661484479904175,
-0.2573324739933014,
0.5827845335006714,
0.7791023850440979,
-0.02996828593313694,
0.23713363707065582,
0.035596199333667755,
-0.6954904794692993,
-0.3631798326969147,
0.41345590353012085,
0.37031593918800354,
0.38416776061058044,
-0.051056813448667526,
-0.17562571167945862,
0.46749791502952576,
0.1349639594554901,
0.5367764830589294,
-1.0458790063858032,
-0.1449657678604126,
0.12774255871772766,
0.18170909583568573,
-0.7954905033111572,
-0.4407963454723358,
0.15202035009860992,
-0.4255661964416504,
-0.7613748908042908,
-0.04325634986162186,
0.6453331112861633,
-0.7128359079360962,
0.6892356276512146,
0.0218806229531765,
-0.21184520423412323,
0.4870385229587555,
-0.3119780421257019,
0.40648502111434937,
0.3042905032634735,
0.07251372933387756,
0.33697274327278137,
-0.2751544415950775,
-0.5362794995307922,
0.1412169486284256,
0.1496725082397461,
-0.5224889516830444,
-0.412300705909729,
0.08075999468564987,
-0.05158229544758797,
-0.5382090210914612,
0.03857007995247841,
0.5145725011825562,
0.7999869585037231,
0.5436721444129944,
0.15646740794181824,
0.5410307049751282,
0.44416552782058716,
-5.496240615844727,
0.11741302907466888,
0.7564647793769836,
-0.12346377968788147,
-0.09130405634641647,
0.020545719191432,
0.5346062779426575,
-0.0761447325348854,
-0.4255460202693939,
0.08813343942165375,
0.24194273352622986,
-0.14765174686908722,
-0.15891051292419434,
0.796501636505127,
0.1893935203552246,
0.6759201288223267,
0.2203444242477417,
-0.6304340958595276,
0.07787823677062988,
0.3497198522090912,
-0.17805324494838715,
0.34626346826553345,
-0.019382234662771225,
0.2965185046195984,
0.401804119348526,
-0.08718977868556976,
0.14464879035949707,
0.6169643402099609,
-1.3208881616592407,
-0.6524577736854553,
-0.22386221587657928,
0.13343511521816254,
0.4241572320461273,
-0.5761532187461853,
0.6424145102500916,
-0.4441016912460327,
0.10191654413938522,
0.5019634962081909,
-0.6591746807098389,
0.38106298446655273,
-0.19661958515644073,
0.10431025177240372,
-0.5117685198783875,
0.5535138845443726,
-0.49114328622817993,
-0.3033876121044159,
-0.5783567428588867,
0.4547065496444702,
-0.2953907549381256,
0.4130910336971283,
-0.4779723286628723,
-0.2644452750682831,
0.1781868040561676,
-0.285850465297699,
0.10857455432415009,
0.4240933358669281,
0.06373253464698792,
0.15255200862884521,
-1.2166165113449097,
0.39905858039855957,
0.45230257511138916,
-0.26165273785591125,
-0.024078302085399628,
-0.31129905581474304,
0.5367148518562317,
-0.2843705117702484,
-0.5147247314453125,
0.01280161365866661,
-0.008079178631305695,
-0.19883683323860168,
0.06347202509641647,
0.5959894061088562,
0.14854229986667633,
-1.043338418006897,
-0.09174611419439316,
-0.4141324758529663,
-0.18582196533679962,
0.15566496551036835,
-0.20542912185192108,
0.2915426790714264,
0.003480348503217101,
-0.4434540569782257,
0.06544551253318787,
0.7749791741371155,
0.3942278027534485,
0.4706236720085144,
-0.06985358148813248,
0.2955012321472168,
-0.37906765937805176,
0.5760277509689331,
-0.281133234500885,
-0.4252804219722748,
-0.3152290880680084,
0.1718844771385193,
0.2627120018005371,
0.20528432726860046,
-0.310804158449173,
-0.48037710785865784,
0.4903348386287689,
0.24871931970119476,
-0.45863959193229675,
0.06047465652227402,
0.11515329778194427,
0.09907220304012299,
0.5839168429374695,
-0.3984753489494324,
-0.014571026898920536,
0.34519580006599426,
0.18703195452690125,
0.4634948670864105,
0.23193809390068054,
0.6325220465660095,
-0.43420279026031494,
-0.3101740777492523,
0.22533288598060608,
-0.3567407727241516,
-0.6026480793952942,
-0.025569401681423187,
0.1822550743818283,
0.31717997789382935,
-0.4446166455745697,
0.1324482262134552,
-0.42372262477874756,
0.0823252722620964,
-0.020482417196035385,
-0.22091425955295563,
0.42863374948501587,
-0.07984830439090729,
-0.39556437730789185,
-0.700188159942627,
0.059011977165937424,
0.383144736289978,
-0.16433952748775482,
0.007081694435328245,
0.4386824369430542,
-0.6978715062141418,
0.008628814481198788,
-0.21284595131874084,
0.00226739258505404,
-0.27125662565231323,
-0.16006143391132355,
-0.24707847833633423,
-0.20069600641727448,
0.4794160723686218,
0.5436041355133057,
0.09040150046348572,
0.24692650139331818,
0.3518948554992676,
-0.09506944566965103,
0.9046863913536072,
0.11280681192874908,
0.2193259447813034,
0.7119042873382568,
-0.22151075303554535,
-0.6787848472595215,
0.027903184294700623,
0.12347935885190964,
0.2895972430706024,
-0.0950826033949852,
-0.08311887830495834,
0.1725531965494156,
-0.4432622790336609,
-1.0136630535125732,
-0.5647545456886292,
0.39603084325790405,
0.558519184589386,
-0.38201233744621277,
-0.16486182808876038,
-0.28932255506515503,
0.21323040127754211,
-0.1987963169813156,
-0.4939875304698944,
0.1522044986486435,
-0.6367132067680359,
0.034977566450834274,
-0.49278777837753296,
0.047405634075403214,
0.4799906313419342,
-0.1411599963903427,
-0.47591859102249146,
-0.033424630761146545,
-0.2927168309688568,
-0.5841791033744812,
0.3810412883758545,
0.6306195855140686,
-0.11852411180734634,
-0.03803591430187225,
-0.2551230788230896,
0.03607240319252014,
-0.19372236728668213,
0.10000477731227875,
-0.2979198396205902,
-0.10539605468511581,
0.5983012914657593,
-0.30759385228157043,
-0.0653759017586708,
0.059460557997226715,
-0.24496860802173615,
-0.19005902111530304,
-0.7831030488014221,
0.07029130309820175,
0.2202727049589157,
0.4264916181564331,
-0.06601384282112122,
0.4863409399986267,
-1.0421148538589478,
0.09727951139211655,
-0.408515989780426,
-0.23258717358112335,
0.7370874881744385,
-0.7765573859214783,
-1.0711870193481445,
0.12213137000799179,
0.6356815099716187,
-0.1331918090581894,
-0.2349090874195099,
0.23329028487205505,
-0.16178017854690552,
-0.5538964867591858,
-0.6385434865951538,
0.05909040942788124,
-0.39376088976860046,
-0.28992536664009094,
-0.2260863184928894,
-0.4715781509876251,
-0.06231769919395447,
0.5097461342811584,
0.1834353655576706,
0.8062203526496887,
-0.34579217433929443,
-0.41615030169487,
0.4192497134208679,
-0.3682518005371094,
0.02034851349890232,
-1.0109905004501343,
-0.3018532991409302,
0.5186447501182556,
0.3076653778553009,
-0.4522320330142975,
0.04611411690711975,
0.28561389446258545,
1.0265520811080933,
0.4928561747074127,
-0.5199195146560669,
0.1524398773908615,
0.3100318908691406,
0.45449185371398926,
-0.19665613770484924,
0.22459739446640015,
0.1486656665802002,
-0.268481582403183,
0.2841590344905853,
-0.7008054256439209,
-0.20155256986618042,
0.5090025663375854,
-0.39467036724090576,
-0.09896045923233032,
0.11746431142091751,
0.31750011444091797,
0.4979415535926819,
-0.42219629883766174,
-0.05891688913106918,
0.07975845783948898,
-0.28385165333747864,
0.3052417039871216,
-0.12165416032075882,
0.33327817916870117,
0.14272332191467285,
0.1443675309419632,
-0.57218337059021,
-0.04355328530073166,
-1.0304278135299683,
-1.2808847427368164,
0.41031086444854736,
-0.41462504863739014,
0.05879973620176315,
-0.035070259124040604,
0.007025678642094135,
0.873461902141571,
-0.38416630029678345,
-1.1952235698699951,
-0.14304301142692566,
0.15914368629455566,
-0.16095149517059326,
0.06658662855625153,
-0.7886268496513367,
0.17118938267230988,
0.18260076642036438,
-0.5363562107086182,
0.5218906402587891,
-0.8624144196510315,
0.14809690415859222,
0.5629112124443054,
0.18962158262729645,
-0.31577804684638977,
0.27323150634765625,
-0.4425232410430908,
0.4760449528694153,
-0.062033575028181076,
-0.21013551950454712,
-0.00040411815280094743,
0.12989407777786255,
0.7400745153427124,
-0.2971298396587372,
0.43800806999206543,
0.14988426864147186,
-0.2992745339870453,
-0.3481827676296234,
-0.3032887279987335,
0.37258535623550415,
0.4384500980377197,
0.1680433452129364,
0.012394827790558338,
-0.23688730597496033,
-0.5204845070838928,
0.3020242154598236,
0.15623658895492554,
-0.4552266299724579,
-0.3070216178894043,
0.2605880796909332,
-0.1912749707698822,
0.25556930899620056,
0.06835135072469711,
-0.9994023442268372,
0.6939523220062256,
0.6532577872276306,
-0.2168029248714447,
0.20473796129226685,
-0.2800051271915436,
-0.1175217479467392,
0.02745484560728073,
0.6725999712944031,
-0.7692051529884338,
0.41946667432785034,
-0.5376718044281006,
-0.4484255611896515,
0.0038201233837753534,
-0.3296754062175751,
0.608639657497406,
-0.3246298134326935,
0.6658923029899597,
0.7161261439323425,
-0.6629214882850647,
-0.13062435388565063,
0.12090486288070679,
0.06335583329200745,
-0.16560953855514526,
0.12773548066616058,
-0.33164557814598083,
0.4943408966064453,
0.6676586866378784,
0.12432439625263214,
0.48208072781562805,
-0.4997570514678955,
0.2339111864566803,
0.1885964572429657,
-0.01429809257388115,
0.13438381254673004,
-0.21078228950500488,
0.5230537056922913,
-0.15162649750709534,
-0.3447418212890625,
0.4044634997844696,
-0.11594462394714355,
0.034971773624420166,
0.5634896159172058,
0.11272285878658295,
-0.03500974923372269,
-0.03758160397410393,
-0.3019624352455139,
-0.07158119231462479,
-0.6011114716529846,
-0.043965309858322144,
-0.005553985480219126,
0.1017354279756546,
-0.11617632210254669,
0.39891722798347473,
0.05307887867093086,
0.16464628279209137,
0.049962643533945084,
-0.40566861629486084,
-0.4220094084739685,
0.25349417328834534,
-0.1685420274734497,
-0.010001101531088352,
0.16476453840732574,
-0.10453575849533081,
0.030498221516609192,
0.11734837293624878,
0.11660680174827576,
-0.15181240439414978,
-0.410908043384552,
0.20330415666103363,
-0.17616255581378937,
-0.5921584963798523,
0.5510966777801514,
-0.5362880825996399,
0.9016942381858826,
0.09178239852190018,
-0.5879106521606445,
0.2531232237815857,
0.11643882840871811,
-0.5214263796806335,
-0.5890588164329529,
0.4938991069793701,
0.4094701111316681,
-0.21183785796165466,
-0.6770103573799133,
-1.1413360834121704,
0.23009976744651794,
-0.2785318195819855,
0.06945396214723587,
-0.054584674537181854,
0.6490784883499146,
0.025147948414087296,
0.4449733793735504,
0.5997797846794128,
-0.00589571101590991,
-0.17061316967010498,
-0.08636578917503357,
0.07520963251590729,
-0.08645611256361008,
0.22168715298175812,
0.03756259009242058,
-0.16695807874202728,
-0.1818360537290573,
0.5146889686584473,
-0.015024710446596146,
0.22143180668354034,
0.6202476024627686,
-0.25127729773521423,
0.1054612249135971,
-0.5924123525619507,
0.4664125144481659,
-0.2565402388572693,
-0.4085228145122528,
0.7147014737129211,
0.4508800506591797,
-0.22504544258117676,
-0.45552492141723633,
0.1276940405368805,
0.10994423925876617,
0.4783911108970642,
-0.07391247153282166,
-0.13232895731925964,
0.09847225993871689,
-0.46582257747650146,
-0.08723961561918259,
-0.11339922249317169,
-0.14569592475891113,
0.17371176183223724,
0.18753276765346527,
0.19708433747291565,
-1.072457194328308,
0.46072861552238464,
-0.37540891766548157,
0.3820139467716217,
-0.7152973413467407,
0.5593990683555603,
-0.032621175050735474
] |
213144
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Sheridan
|
Philip Sheridan
|
Philip "Phil" Henry Sheridan (March 6, 1831 – August 5, 1888) was a career United States Army officer and a Union general in the American Civil War. His career was noted for his rapid rise to major general and his close association with General-in-chief Ulysses S. Grant, who transferred Sheridan from command of an infantry division in the Western Theater to lead the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac in the East. In 1864, he defeated Confederate forces under General Jubal Early in the Shenandoah Valley and his destruction of the economic infrastructure of the Valley, called "The Burning" by residents, was one of the first uses of scorched-earth tactics in the war. In 1865, his cavalry pursued Gen. Robert E. Lee and was instrumental in forcing his surrender at Appomattox Courthouse.
Sheridan fought in later years in the Indian Wars of the Great Plains. Both as a soldier and private citizen, he was instrumental in the development and protection of Yellowstone National Park. In 1883, Sheridan was appointed general-in-chief of the U.S. Army, and in 1888 he was promoted to the rank of General of the Army during the term of President Grover Cleveland.
Early life and education
Sheridan claimed he was born in Albany in the State of New York, the third child of six of John and Mary Meenagh Sheridan, Irish Catholic immigrants from the parish of Killinkere in County Cavan, Ireland. He grew up in Somerset, Ohio. Fully grown, he reached only 165 cm (5 feet 5 inches) tall, a stature that led to the nickname, "Little Phil." Abraham Lincoln described his appearance in a famous anecdote: "A brown, chunky little chap, with a long body, short legs, not enough neck to hang him, and such long arms that if his ankles itch he can scratch them without stooping."
Sheridan worked as a boy in town general stores, and eventually as head clerk and bookkeeper for a dry goods store. In 1848, he obtained an appointment to the United States Military Academy from one of his customers, Congressman Thomas Ritchey; Ritchey's first candidate for the appointment was disqualified by failing an examination of mathematics skill and a "poor attitude." In his third year at West Point, Sheridan was suspended for a year for fighting with a classmate, William R. Terrill. The previous day, Sheridan had threatened to run him through with a bayonet in reaction to a perceived insult on the parade ground. He graduated in 1853, 34th in his class of 52 cadets.
Sheridan was commissioned as a brevet second lieutenant and was assigned to the 1st U.S. Infantry Regiment at Fort Duncan, Texas, then to the 4th U.S. Infantry Regiment at Fort Reading, California. Most of his service with the 4th Infantry was in the Pacific Northwest, starting with a topographical survey mission to the Willamette Valley in 1855, during which he became involved with the Yakima War and Rogue River Wars, gaining experience in leading small combat teams, being wounded (a bullet grazed his nose on March 28, 1857, at Middle Cascade, Oregon Territory), and some of the diplomatic skills needed for negotiating with Indian tribes. He lived with a mistress during part of his tour of duty, an Indian Rogue River woman and daughter of Takelma Chief Harney, named Frances by her white friends. He was promoted to first lieutenant in March 1861, just before the Civil War, and to captain in May, immediately after Fort Sumter.
Civil War
Western Theater
In the fall of 1861, Sheridan was ordered to travel to Jefferson Barracks, near St. Louis, Missouri, for assignment to the 13th U.S. Infantry. He departed from his command of Fort Yamhill, Oregon, by way of San Francisco, across the Isthmus of Panama, and through New York City to home in Somerset for a brief leave. On the way to his new post, he made a courtesy call to Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck in St. Louis, who commandeered his services to audit the financial records of his immediate predecessor, Maj. Gen. John C. Frémont, whose administration of the Department of the Missouri was tainted by charges of wasteful expenditures and fraud that left the status of $12 million in debt. Sheridan sorted out the mess, impressing Halleck in the process. Much to Sheridan's dismay, Halleck's vision for Sheridan consisted of a continuing role as a staff officer. Nevertheless, Sheridan performed the task assigned to him and entrenched himself as an excellent staff officer in Halleck's view.
In December, Sheridan was appointed chief commissary officer of the Army of Southwest Missouri, but convinced the department commander, Halleck, to give him the position of quartermaster general as well. In January 1862, he reported for duty to Maj. Gen. Samuel Curtis and served under him at the Battle of Pea Ridge. Sheridan soon discovered that officers were engaged in profiteering. They stole horses from civilians and demanded payment from Sheridan. He refused to pay for the stolen property and confiscated the horses for the use of Curtis's army. When Curtis ordered him to pay the officers, Sheridan brusquely retorted, "No authority can compel me to jayhawk or steal." Curtis had Sheridan arrested for insubordination but Halleck's influence appears to have ended any formal proceedings. Sheridan performed aptly in his role under Curtis and, now returned to Halleck's headquarters, he accompanied the army on the Siege of Corinth and served as an assistant to the department's topographical engineer, but also made the acquaintance of Brig. Gen. William T. Sherman, who offered him the colonelcy of an Ohio infantry regiment. This appointment fell through, but Sheridan was subsequently aided by friends (including future Secretary of War Russell A. Alger), who petitioned Michigan Governor Austin Blair on his behalf. Sheridan was appointed colonel of the 2nd Michigan Cavalry on May 27, 1862, despite having no experience in the mounted arm.
A month later, Sheridan commanded his first forces in combat, leading a small brigade that included his regiment. At the Battle of Booneville, Mississippi, July 1, 1862, he held back several regiments of Brig. Gen. James R. Chalmers's Confederate cavalry, deflected a large flanking attack with a noisy diversion, and reported critical intelligence about enemy dispositions. His actions so impressed the division commanders, including Brig. Gen. William S. Rosecrans, that they recommended Sheridan's promotion to brigadier general. They wrote to Halleck, "Brigadiers scarce; good ones scarce. ... The undersigned respectfully beg that you will obtain the promotion of Sheridan. He is worth his weight in gold." The promotion was approved in September, but dated effective July 1 as a reward for his actions at Booneville. It was just after Booneville that one of his fellow officers gave him the horse that he named Rienzi (after the skirmish of Rienzi, Mississippi), which he would ride throughout the war.
Sheridan was assigned to command the 11th Division, III Corps, in Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell's Army of the Ohio. On October 8, 1862, Sheridan led his division in the Battle of Perryville. Under orders from Buell and his corps commander, Maj. Gen. Charles Gilbert, Sheridan sent Col. Daniel McCook's brigade to secure a water supply for the army. McCook drove off the Confederates and secured water for the parched Union troops at Doctor's Creek. Gilbert ordered McCook not to advance any further and then rode to consult with Buell. Along the way, Gilbert ordered his cavalry to attack the Confederates in Dan McCook's front. Sheridan heard the gunfire and came to the front with another brigade. Although the cavalry failed to secure the heights in front of McCook, Sheridan's reinforcements drove off the Southerners. Gilbert returned and ordered Sheridan to return to McCook's original position. Sheridan's aggressiveness convinced the opposing Confederates under Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk, that they should remain on the defensive. His troops repelled Confederate attacks later that day, but did not participate in the heaviest fighting of the day, which occurred on the Union left.
On December 31, 1862, the first day of the Battle of Stones River, Sheridan anticipated a Confederate assault and positioned his division in preparation for it. His division held back the Confederate onslaught on his front until their ammunition ran out and they were forced to withdraw. This action was instrumental in giving the Union army time to rally at a strong defensive position. For his actions, he was promoted to major general on April 10, 1863 (with date of rank December 31, 1862). In six months, he had risen from captain to major general.
The Army of the Cumberland recovered from the shock of Stones River and prepared for its summer offensive against Confederate General Braxton Bragg. Sheridan's division participated in the advance against Bragg in Rosecrans's brilliant Tullahoma Campaign, and was the lead division to enter the town of Tullahoma. On the second day of the Battle of Chickamauga, September 20, 1863, Rosecrans was shifting Sheridan's division behind the Union battle line when Bragg launched an attack into a gap in the Union line. Sheridan's division made a gallant stand on Lytle Hill against an attack by the Confederate corps of Lt. Gen. James Longstreet, but was swamped by retreating Union soldiers. The Confederates drove Sheridan's division from the field in confusion. He gathered as many men as he could and withdrew toward Chattanooga, rallying troops along the way. Learning of Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas's XIV Corps stand on Snodgrass Hill, Sheridan ordered his division back to the fighting, but they took a circuitous route and did not participate in the fighting as some histories claim. His return to the battlefield ensured that he did not suffer the fate of Rosecrans who rode off to Chattanooga leaving the army to its fate, and was soon relieved of command.
During the Battle of Chattanooga, at Missionary Ridge on November 25, 1863, Sheridan's division and others in George Thomas's army broke through the Confederate lines in a wild charge that exceeded the orders and expectations of Thomas and Ulysses S. Grant. Just before his men stepped off, Sheridan told them, "Remember Chickamauga," and many shouted its name as they advanced as ordered to a line of rifle pits in their front. Faced with enemy fire from above, however, they continued up the ridge. Sheridan spotted a group of Confederate officers outlined against the crest of the ridge and shouted, "Here's at you!" An exploding shell sprayed him with dirt and he responded, "That's damn ungenerous! I shall take those guns for that!" The Union charge broke through the Confederate lines on the ridge and Bragg's army fell into retreat. Sheridan impulsively ordered his men to pursue Bragg to the Confederate supply depot at Chickamauga Station, but called them back when he realized that his was the only command so far forward. General Grant reported after the battle, "To Sheridan's prompt movement, the Army of the Cumberland and the nation are indebted for the bulk of the capture of prisoners, artillery, and small arms that day. Except for his prompt pursuit, so much in this way would not have been accomplished."
Overland Campaign
Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, newly promoted to be general-in-chief of all the Union armies, summoned Sheridan to the Eastern Theater to command the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac. Unbeknownst to Sheridan, he was actually Grant's second choice, after Maj. Gen. William B. Franklin, but Grant agreed to a suggestion about Sheridan from Chief of Staff Henry W. Halleck. After the war, and in his memoirs, Grant claimed that Sheridan was the very man he wanted for the job. Sheridan arrived at the headquarters of the Army of the Potomac on April 5, 1864, less than a month before the start of Grant's massive Overland Campaign against Robert E. Lee.
In the early battles of the campaign, Sheridan's cavalry was relegated by army commander Maj. Gen. George Meade to its traditional role—screening, reconnaissance, and guarding trains and rear areas—much to Sheridan's frustration. In the Battle of the Wilderness (May 5–6, 1864), the dense forested terrain prevented any significant cavalry role. As the army swung around the Confederate right flank in the direction of Spotsylvania Court House, Sheridan's troopers failed to clear the road from the Wilderness, losing engagements along the Plank Road on May 5 and Todd's Tavern on May 6 through May 8, allowing the Confederates to seize the critical crossroads before the Union infantry could arrive.
When Meade quarreled with Sheridan for not performing his duties of screening and reconnaissance as ordered, Sheridan told Meade that he could "whip Stuart" if Meade let him. Meade reported the conversation to Grant, who replied, "Well, he generally knows what he is talking about. Let him start right out and do it." Meade deferred to Grant's judgment and issued orders to Sheridan to "proceed against the enemy's cavalry" and from May 9 through May 24, sent him on a raid toward Richmond, directly challenging the Confederate cavalry. The raid was less successful than hoped; although his raid managed to mortally wound Confederate cavalry commander Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart at Yellow Tavern on May 11 and beat Maj. Gen. Fitzhugh Lee at Meadow Bridge on May 12, the raid never seriously threatened Richmond and it left Grant without cavalry intelligence for Spotsylvania and North Anna. Historian Gordon C. Rhea wrote, "By taking his cavalry from Spotsylvania Court House, Sheridan severely handicapped Grant in his battles against Lee. The Union Army was deprived of his eyes and ears during a critical juncture in the campaign. And Sheridan's decision to advance boldly to the Richmond defenses smacked of unnecessary showboating that jeopardized his command."
Rejoining the Army of the Potomac, Sheridan's cavalry fought inconclusively at Haw's Shop (May 28), a battle with heavy casualties that allowed the Confederate cavalry to obtain valuable intelligence about Union dispositions. They seized the critical crossroads that triggered the Battle of Cold Harbor (June 1 to June 12) and withstood a number of assaults until reinforced. Grant then ordered Sheridan on a raid to the northwest to break the Virginia Central Railroad and to link up with the Shenandoah Valley army of Maj. Gen. David Hunter. He was intercepted by the Confederate cavalry under Maj. Gen. Wade Hampton at the Battle of Trevilian Station (June 11–12), where in the largest all-cavalry battle of the war, he achieved tactical success on the first day, but suffered heavy casualties during multiple assaults on the second. He withdrew without achieving his assigned objectives. On his return march, he once again encountered the Confederate cavalry at Samaria (St. Mary's) Church on June 24, where his men suffered significant casualties, but successfully protected the Union supply wagons they were escorting.
History draws decidedly mixed opinions on the success of Sheridan in the Overland Campaign, in no small part because the very clear Union victory at Yellow Tavern, highlighted by the death of Jeb Stuart, tends to overshadow other actions and battles. In Sheridan's report of the Cavalry Corps' actions in the campaign, discussing the strategy of cavalry fighting cavalry, he wrote, "The result was constant success and the almost total annihilation of the rebel cavalry. We marched when and where we pleased; we were always the attacking party, and always successful." A contrary view has been published by historian Eric J. Wittenberg, who notes that of four major strategic raids (Richmond, Trevilian, Wilson-Kautz, and First Deep Bottom) and thirteen major cavalry engagements of the Overland and Richmond–Petersburg campaigns, only Yellow Tavern can be considered a Union victory, with Haw's Shop, Trevilian Station, Meadow Bridge, Samaria Church, and Wilson-Kautz defeats in which some of Sheridan's forces barely avoided destruction.
Army of the Shenandoah
Throughout the war, the Confederacy sent armies out of Virginia through the Shenandoah Valley to invade Maryland and Pennsylvania and threaten Washington, D.C. Lt. Gen. Jubal Early, following the same pattern in the Valley Campaigns of 1864, and hoping to distract Grant from the Siege of Petersburg, attacked Union forces near Washington and raided several towns in Pennsylvania. Grant, reacting to the political commotion caused by the invasion, organized the Middle Military Division, whose field troops were known as the Army of the Shenandoah. He considered various candidates for command, including George Meade, William B. Franklin, and David Hunter, with the latter two intended for the military division while Sheridan would command the army. All of these choices were rejected by either Grant or the War Department and, over the objection of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, who believed him to be too young for such a high post, Sheridan took command in both roles at Harpers Ferry on August 7, 1864. His mission was not only to defeat Early's army and to close off the Northern invasion route, but to deny the Shenandoah Valley as a productive agricultural region to the Confederacy. Grant told Sheridan, "The people should be informed that so long as an army can subsist among them recurrences of these raids must be expected, and we are determined to stop them at all hazards. ... Give the enemy no rest ... Do all the damage to railroads and crops you can. Carry off stock of all descriptions, and negroes, so as to prevent further planting. If the war is to last another year, we want the Shenandoah Valley to remain a barren waste."
Sheridan got off to a slow start, needing time to organize and to react to reinforcements reaching Early; Grant ordered him not to launch an offensive "with the advantage against you." And yet Grant expressed frustration with Sheridan's lack of progress. The armies remained unengaged for over a month, causing political consternation in the North as the 1864 election drew near. The two generals conferred on September 16 at Charles Town and agreed that Sheridan would begin his attacks within four days.
On September 19, Sheridan beat Early's much smaller army at Third Winchester and followed up on September 22 with a victory at Fisher's Hill. As Early attempted to regroup, Sheridan began the punitive operations of his mission, sending his cavalry as far south as Waynesboro to seize or destroy livestock and provisions, and to burn barns, mills, factories, and railroads. Sheridan's men did their work relentlessly and thoroughly, rendering over 400 square miles uninhabitable. The destruction presaged the scorched-earth tactics of Sherman's March to the Sea through Georgia—deny an army a base from which to operate and bring the effects of war home to the population supporting it. The residents referred to this widespread destruction as "The Burning." There has been much controversy over the scorched-earth tactics. Sheridan's troops told of the wanton attack in their letters home, calling themselves "barn burners" and "destroyers of homes." One soldier wrote to his family that he had personally set 60 private homes on fire and believed that "it was a hard looking sight to see the women and children turned out of doors at this season of the year" (winter). A Sergeant William T. Patterson wrote that "the whole country around is wrapped in flames, the heavens are aglow with the light thereof ... such mourning, such lamentations, such crying and pleading for mercy [by defenseless women] ... I never saw or want to see again." The Confederates were not idle during this period and Sheridan's men were plagued by guerrilla raids by partisan ranger Col. John S. Mosby.
Although Sheridan assumed that Jubal Early was effectively out of action and he considered withdrawing his army to rejoin Grant at Petersburg, Early received reinforcements and, on October 19 at Cedar Creek, launched a well-executed surprise attack while Sheridan was absent from his army, ten miles away at Winchester. Hearing the distant sounds of artillery, he rode aggressively to his command. He reached the battlefield about 10:30 a.m. and began to rally his men. Fortunately for Sheridan, Early's men were too occupied to take notice; they were hungry and exhausted and fell out to pillage the Union camps. Sheridan's actions are generally credited with saving the day (although Maj. Gen. Horatio G. Wright, commanding Sheridan's VI Corps, had already rallied his men and stopped their retreat). Early had been dealt his most significant defeat, rendering his army almost incapable of future offensive action. Sheridan received a personal letter of thanks from Abraham Lincoln and a promotion to major general in the regular army as of November 8, 1864, making him the fourth ranking general in the Army, after Grant, Sherman, and Meade. Grant wrote to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton after he ordered a 100-gun salute to celebrate Sheridan's victory at Cedar Creek, "Turning what bid fair to be a disaster into glorious victory stamps Sheridan, what I have always thought him, one of the ablest of generals." A famous poem, Sheridan's Ride, was written by Thomas Buchanan Read to commemorate the general's return to the battle. Sheridan reveled in the fame that Read's poem brought him, renaming his horse Rienzi to "Winchester," based on the poem's refrain, "Winchester, twenty miles away." The poem was widely used in Republican campaign efforts and some have credited Abraham Lincoln's margin of victory to it. As for Lincoln himself, the President, pleased at Sheridan's performance as a commander, wrote to Sheridan and playfully confessed his reassessment of the relatively short officer, "When this peculiar war began, I thought a cavalryman should be six feet four inches, but I have changed my mind. Five foot four will do in a pinch."
Sheridan spent the next several months occupied with light skirmishing and fighting guerrillas. Although Grant continued his exhortations for Sheridan to move south and break the Virginia Central Railroad supplying Petersburg, Sheridan resisted. Wright's VI Corps returned to join Grant in November. Sheridan's remaining men, primarily cavalry and artillery, finally moved out of their winter quarters on February 27, 1865, and headed east. The orders from Gen. Grant were largely discretionary: they were to destroy the Virginia Central Railroad and the James River Canal, capture Lynchburg if practicable, then either join William T. Sherman in North Carolina or return to Winchester.
Appomattox Campaign
Sheridan interpreted Grant's orders liberally and instead of heading to North Carolina in March 1865, he moved to rejoin the Army of the Potomac at Petersburg. He wrote in his memoirs, "Feeling that the war was nearing its end, I desired my cavalry to be in at the death." His finest service of the Civil War was demonstrated during his relentless pursuit of Robert E. Lee's Army, effectively managing the most crucial aspects of the Appomattox Campaign for Grant.
On the way to Petersburg, at the Battle of Waynesboro, March 2, he trapped the remainder of Early's army and 1,500 soldiers surrendered. On April 1, he cut off Gen. Lee's lines of support at Five Forks, forcing Lee to evacuate Petersburg. During this battle he ruined the military career of Maj. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren by removing him from command of the V Corps under circumstances that a court of inquiry later determined were unjustified. President Rutherford B. Hayes ordered a court of inquiry that convened in 1879 and, after hearing testimony from dozens of witnesses over 100 days, found that Sheridan's relief of Warren had been unjustified. Unfortunately for Warren, these results were not published until after his death.
Sheridan's aggressive and well-executed performance at the Battle of Sayler's Creek on April 6 effectively sealed the fate of Lee's army, capturing over 20% of his remaining men. President Lincoln sent Grant a telegram on April 7: "Gen. Sheridan says 'If the thing is pressed I think that Lee will surrender.' Let the thing be pressed." At Appomattox Court House, April 9, 1865, Sheridan blocked Lee's escape, forcing the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia later that day. Grant summed up Little Phil's performance in these final days: "I believe General Sheridan has no superior as a general, either living or dead, and perhaps not an equal."
Reconstruction
After Gen. Lee's surrender, and that of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston in North Carolina, the only significant Confederate field force remaining was in Texas under Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith. Sheridan was supposed to lead troops in the Grand Review of the Armies in Washington, D.C., but Grant appointed him commander of the Military District of the Southwest on May 17, 1865, six days before the parade, with orders to defeat Smith without delay and restore Texas and Louisiana to Union control. However, Smith surrendered before Sheridan reached New Orleans.
Grant was also concerned about the situation in neighboring Mexico, where 40,000 French soldiers propped up the puppet regime of Austrian Archduke Maximilian. He gave Sheridan permission to gather a large Texas occupation force. Sheridan assembled 50,000 men in three corps, quickly occupied Texas coastal cities, spread inland, and began to patrol the Mexico–United States border. The Army's presence, U.S. political pressure, and the growing resistance of Benito Juárez induced the French to abandon their claims against Mexico. Napoleon III announced a staged withdrawal of French troops to be completed in November 1867. In light of growing opposition at home and concern with the rise of German military prowess, Napoleon III stepped up the French withdrawal, which was completed by March 12, 1867. By June 19 of that year, Mexico's republican army had captured, tried, and executed Maximilian. Sheridan later admitted in his memoirs that he had supplied arms and ammunition to Juárez's forces: "... which we left at convenient places on our side of the river to fall into their hands".
On July 30, 1866, while Sheridan was in Texas, a white mob broke up the state constitutional convention in New Orleans. Thirty-four blacks were killed. Shortly after Sheridan returned, he wired Grant, "The more information I obtain of the affair of the 30th in this city the more revolting it becomes. It was no riot; it was an absolute massacre." In March 1867, with Reconstruction barely started, Sheridan was appointed military governor of the Fifth Military District (Texas and Louisiana). He severely limited voter registration for former Confederates and ruled that only registered voters (including black men) were eligible to serve on juries. Furthermore, an inquiry into the deadly New Orleans riot of 1866 implicated numerous local officials; Sheridan dismissed the mayor of New Orleans, the Louisiana attorney general, and a district judge. He later removed Louisiana Governor James M. Wells, accusing him of being "a political trickster and a dishonest man". He also dismissed Texas Governor James W. Throckmorton, a former Confederate, for being an "impediment to the reconstruction of the State", replacing him with the Republican who had lost to him in the previous election Elisha M. Pease. Sheridan had been feuding with President Andrew Johnson for months over interpretations of the Military Reconstruction Acts and voting rights issues, and within a month of the second firing, the president removed Sheridan, stating to an outraged Gen. Grant that, "His rule has, in fact, been one of absolute tyranny, without references to the principles of our government or the nature of our free institutions."
If Sheridan was unpopular in Texas, neither did he have much appreciation for the Lone Star State. In 1866 his quip was widely reported: "If I owned Texas and Hell, I would rent Texas and live in Hell."
During the Grant administration, while Sheridan was assigned to duty in the West, he was sent to Louisiana on two additional occasions to deal with problems that lingered in Reconstruction. In January 1875, federal troops intervened in the Louisiana Legislature following attempts by the Democrats to seize control of disputed seats. Sheridan supported Republican Governor William P. Kellogg, winner of the 1872 state election, and declared that the Democratic opponents of the Republican regime who used violence to overcome legitimate electoral results were "banditti" who should be subjected to military tribunals and loss of their habeas corpus rights. The Grant administration backed down after an enormous public outcry. A headline in the New York World newspaper shrieked "Tyranny! A Sovereign State Murdered!" In 1876, Sheridan was also sent to New Orleans to command troops keeping the peace in the aftermath of the disputed presidential election in 1876.
Indian Wars
The protection of the Great Plains fell under the Department of the Missouri, an administrative area of over 1,000,000 sq mi, encompassing all land between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock was assigned to the department in 1866 but had mishandled his campaign, resulting in Sioux and Cheyenne raids that attacked mail coaches, burned the stations, and killed the employees. They also killed and kidnapped a considerable number of settlers on the frontier. Under pressure from the governors, General Grant turned to Sheridan. In September 1866, Sheridan arrived at the former Fort Martin Scott near Fredericksburg, Texas, where he spent three months subduing Indians in the Texas Hill Country.
In August 1867, Grant appointed Sheridan to head the Department of the Missouri and pacify the Plains. His troops, even supplemented with state militia, were spread too thin to have any real effect. He conceived a strategy similar to the one he used in the Shenandoah Valley. In the Winter Campaign of 1868–69 (of which the Battle of Washita River was part) he attacked the Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Comanche tribes in their winter quarters, taking their supplies and livestock and killing those who resisted, driving the rest back into their reservations. When Sherman was promoted to General of the Army following Grant's election as President of the United States, Sheridan was appointed to command the Military Division of the Missouri, with all the Great Plains under his command. Professional hunters, trespassing on Indian land, killed over 4 million bison by 1874. As historian Dan Flores has shown, the quotations attributed to Sheridan that celebrate buffalo hunting or that he ever appeared before the Texas legislature about this matter are almost certainly apocryphal. As Flores notes, "there is no evidence the nineteenth-century Texas legislature ever considered a bill to outlaw or regulate the hide hunt." These erroneous charges against Sheridan first surfaced in the 1907 memoir of buffalo hunter John Cook.
Eventually the Indians returned to their designated reservations. Sheridan's department conducted the Red River War, the Ute War, and the Great Sioux War of 1876-77, which resulted in the death of a trusted subordinate, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer. The Indian raids subsided during the 1870s and were almost over by the early 1880s, as Sheridan became the commanding general of the U.S. Army.
Comanche Chief Tosawi reputedly told Sheridan in 1869, "Tosawi, good Indian," to which Sheridan supposedly replied, "The only good Indians I ever saw were dead." In Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, Dee Brown attributed the quote to Sheridan, stating that "Lieutenant Charles Nordstrom, who was present, remembered the words and passed them on, until in time they were honed into an American aphorism: The only good Indian is a dead Indian. Sheridan denied he had ever made the statement. Biographer Roy Morris Jr. states that, nevertheless, popular history credits Sheridan with saying "The only good Indian is a dead Indian." This variation "has been used by friends and enemies ever since to characterize and castigate his Indian-fighting career."
Postbellum career
Sheridan was promoted to lieutenant general on March 4, 1869. In 1870, President Grant, at Sheridan's request, sent him to observe and report on the Franco-Prussian War. As a guest of King Wilhelm I of Prussia, he was present when Emperor Napoléon III surrendered to the Germans, which was gratifying to Sheridan following his experiences with the French in Mexico. He later toured most of Europe and returned to the U.S. to report to Grant that although the Prussians were "very good brave fellows [who] had gone into each battle with the determination to win, ... there is nothing to be learned here professionally." He criticized their handling of cavalry and likened their practices to the manner in which Meade had attempted to supervise him. However, he referred to theirs as a "perfect military system" and had a high opinion of the officer corps. His words on the French were much more harsh; he criticized the French army for not taking numerous opportunities to halt the German advance, for advancing slowly and clumsily themselves, for not taking any of the numerous good opportunities to cut the enemy's unguarded lines of communication, and for being routed frequently. He remarked: "I am disgusted; all my boyhood's fancies of the soldiers of the great Napoleon have been dissipated, or else the soldiers of the "Little Corporal" have lost their elan in the pampered parade soldiers of the 'Man of Destiny'."
In 1871, Sheridan was present in Chicago during the Great Chicago Fire and coordinated military relief efforts. The mayor, Roswell B. Mason, to calm the panic, placed the city under martial law, and issued a proclamation putting Sheridan in charge. As there were no widespread disturbances, martial law was lifted within a few days. Although Sheridan's personal residence was spared, all of his professional and personal papers were destroyed. When Chicago's Washington Park Race Track organized the American Derby in 1883 he served as its first president.
On November 1, 1883, Sheridan succeeded General William T. Sherman as Commanding General of the U.S. Army, and held that position until his death. He was promoted on June 1, 1888, shortly before his death, to the rank of General in the Regular Army (the rank was titled "General of the Army of the United States", by Act of Congress June 1, 1888, the same rank held earlier by Grant and Sherman, which is equivalent to a five-star general, O-11, in the modern U.S. Army).
Sheridan served as commander in chief of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States (MOLLUS), a military society of officers who served in the Union armed forces and their descendants, from 1886 until his death in 1888. He was also the first president of the Society of the Army of the Potomac when it was founded in 1869 and as the ninth president of the National Rifle Association in 1885.
Yellowstone
The protection of the Yellowstone area was Sheridan's personal crusade. He authorized Lieutenant Gustavus Doane to escort the Washburn Expedition in 1870 and for Major John W. Barlow to escort the Hayden Expedition in 1871. Barlow named Mount Sheridan, a peak overlooking Heart Lake in Yellowstone, for the general in 1871. As early as 1875, Sheridan promoted military control of the area to prevent the destruction of natural formations and wildlife.
In 1882, the Department of the Interior granted rights to the Yellowstone Park Improvement Company to develop in the park. Their plan was to build a railroad into the park and sell the land to developers. Sheridan personally organized opposition to the plan and lobbied Congress for protection of the park; including expansion, military control, reducing the development to , and prohibiting leases near park attractions. In addition, he arranged an expedition to the park for President Chester A. Arthur and other influential men. His lobbying soon paid off. A rider was added to the Sundry Civil Bill of 1883, giving Sheridan and his supporters almost everything for which they had asked. In 1886, after a string of ineffectual and sometimes criminal superintendents, Sheridan ordered the 1st U.S. Cavalry into the park. The military operated the park until the National Park Service took it over in 1916.
Sheridan is mentioned favorably in The National Parks: America's Best Idea, Episode I, for his work saving Yellowstone National Park:
Personal life
On June 3, 1875, Sheridan married Irene Rucker, a daughter of Army Quartermaster General Daniel H. Rucker. She was 22, and he was 44. They had four children: Mary, born in 1876; twin daughters, Irene and Louise, in 1877; and Philip, Jr., in 1880. After the wedding, Sheridan and his wife moved to Washington, D.C. They lived in a house given to them by Chicago citizens in appreciation for Sheridan's protection of the city after the Great Chicago Fire in 1871. Philip Sheridan Jr. was an army officer who attained the rank of major and was the husband of Isabel McGunnegle. Isabel McGunnegle was the daughter of army officer George K. McGunnegle.
Death and burial
In 1888 Sheridan suffered a series of massive heart attacks two months after sending his memoirs to the publisher. Although thin in his youth, by 57 years of age he had reached a weight of over 200 pounds. After his first heart attack, the U.S. Congress quickly passed legislation to promote him to general of the army on June 1, 1888 and he received the news from a congressional delegation with joy, despite his pain.
His family moved him from the heat of Washington to his summer cottage in the Nonquitt enclave of Dartmouth, Massachusetts, where he died of heart failure on August 5, 1888.
His body was returned to Washington and he was buried on a hillside facing the capital city near Arlington House in Arlington National Cemetery. The sculpture on the marker was executed by English sculptor Samuel James Kitson. The burial helped elevate Arlington to national prominence. His wife Irene never remarried, saying, "I would rather be the widow of Phil Sheridan than the wife of any man living."
Legacy
Sheridan is the only person to be featured on a U.S. ten-dollar bill who was strictly associated with the military and not politics. He is featured on $5 and $10 bills.
Sheridan appeared on $10 U.S. Treasury notes issued in 1890 and 1891. His bust then reappeared on the $5 silver certificate in 1896. These rare notes are in great demand by collectors today.
Fort Sheridan in Illinois was named to honor General Sheridan's many services to Chicago. An equestrian statue of Sheridan by Gutzon Borglum (sculptor of the figures on Mt. Rushmore) at Belmont Avenue and Sheridan Road in Chicago depicts the general on his horse, Rienzi. Sheridan Road begins in Chicago, continues mostly along the shoreline of Lake Michigan for about 96 km (60 miles) through the North Shore suburbs, and leads to the Town of Fort Sheridan and ultimately Racine, Wisconsin. The landmark former U.S. Army base named for the general is now a reserve post and upscale residential community.
The M551 Sheridan tank is named after General Sheridan.
Mount Sheridan in Yellowstone National Park was named for Sheridan by Captain John W. Barlow in 1871.
The Sheridan Prize is a yacht-racing perpetual trophy awarded to the winner of an annual race on Geneva Lake. It was begun on the occasion of the general's visit to Lake Geneva (then, Geneva) in 1874.
In 1937 the US Post Office issued a series of commemorative stamp issues honoring various Army and Navy heroes. Among them was an issue commemorating Generals Ulysses S. Grant, William T. Sherman and Philip H. Sheridan.
Sheridan County, North Dakota; Sheridan County, Nebraska; Sheridan County, Montana; Sheridan County, Wyoming; and Sheridan County, Kansas, are named for him, as are the cities of Sheridan, Colorado; Sheridan, Montana (in Madison County); Sheridan, Wyoming; Sheridan, Arkansas; Sheridan, Oregon; Sheridan, Indiana; and Sheridan, Illinois (LaSalle County).
Sheridan Square in the West Village of New York City is named for the general and his statue is displayed nearby in Christopher Street Park. Sheridan Circle, Sheridan Street, and the neighborhood of Sheridan-Kalorama in Washington, D.C., are also named after him. Sheridan Avenue in the Bronx is one block east of Sherman Avenue. Sheridan Boulevard is a major north-south thoroughfare in Denver, Colorado.
The only equestrian Civil War statue in Ohio honors Sheridan. It is in the center traffic circle on US Route 22 in Somerset, Ohio, not far from the house where Sheridan grew up.
Sheridan High School is located 8 km (5 miles) north of General Sheridan's home town of Somerset. The athletic team is nicknamed "The Generals".
Sheridan Glacier, located 25 km (15 miles) outside of Cordova, Alaska was named in his honor.
In Albany, New York, there is an equestrian statue of Sheridan in front of the New York State Capitol, near Sheridan Avenue.
In World War II, the United States liberty ship, SS Philip H. Sheridan, was named in his honor.
Sheridan Road in Lawton, Oklahoma, leads to Fort Sill, where Sheridan supposedly uttered the words "The only good Indians I ever saw were dead."
Sheridan Drive in Arlington National Cemetery partially encircles the area that contains the general's gravesite. The Sheridan Gate, constructed in 1879 and dismantled and placed in storage in 1971, was once the Cemetery's main entrance.
A statue of Sheridan by Allen George Newman is sited in Scranton, Pennsylvania.
New York State Route 324 ("Sheridan Drive") in the northern suburbs of Buffalo, New York, is named for Sheridan Road in Chicago, and thus indirectly after Philip Sheridan. An equestrian statue of the general was planned to be built there in 1925.
John Philip Sousa wrote a descriptive piece for band memorializing Sheridan. Describing "Sheridan's Ride", published in 1891, as a "Scenes Historical", Sousa musically characterized Sheridan's famous ride back to his army in the Battle of Cedar Creek. The composition has six sections: Waiting for the Bugle, The Attack, The Death of Thoburn, The Coming of Sheridan, and The Apotheosis.
The Philip H. Sheridan School in Philadelphia was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.
Sheridan Hall on the Fort Hays State University campus in Hays, Kansas, is named in honor of Sheridan. The building commemorates Sheridan's time stationed at the Fort Hays military post.
The original site of the Phil Sheridan Elementary School in Chicago, which opened in 1888, was in the South Chicago neighborhood. In 1998, the school was renamed the Arnold Mireles Academy in memory of a murdered South Side community activist. The present-day Sheridan Elementary School in Chicago is a magnet school located at 533 W. 27th Street, in the city's Bridgeport neighborhood.
In Broward County, in southern Florida, there is another road named after Sheridan, Florida State Road 822, also known as "Sheridan Street", which runs on an east-west configuration, between State Road A1A at Hollywood Beach and U.S. Route 27, which borders the Everglades.
In popular culture
In literature
In the novel series The Brotherhood of War, the Parker family males are named after Philip Sheridan; the two most prominent are Philip Sheridan Parker III and Philip Sheridan Parker IV. The latter's great-great-grandfather supposedly fought with General Sheridan in the Indian Wars as a Master Sergeant in the 10th U.S. Cavalry Regiment, known as the Buffalo Soldiers.
In Sherman Alexie's novel Reservation Blues, Sheridan is portrayed as a head hunter for a record label responsible for the downfall of the novel's protagonist's band Coyote Springs. The link between the real Sheridan and the character in the book is made explicit in a brutal dream experienced by one of the characters.
Sheridan is featured, and interacts with the characters, in Michael Crichton's novel Dragon Teeth (2017).
Onscreen
Sheridan has been portrayed in films and television over the years:
Abraham Lincoln (1930), portrayed by Frank Campeau.
In Old Chicago (1938), portrayed by Sidney Blackmer.
Santa Fe Trail (1940), portrayed by David Bruce.
They Died with Their Boots On (1941), portrayed by John Litel. The movie inaccurately portrays Sheridan as a colonel and the commandant of the U.S. Military Academy before the start of the Civil War.
Rio Grande (1950), portrayed by J. Carrol Naish.
The Rifleman (1958) features Lawrence Dobkin as Sheridan in an episode "The Sheridan Story", wherein he befriends a wounded Confederate veteran who was severely wounded in the war (Royal Dano), who is staying temporarily on Lucas McCain's ranch n the New Mexico Territory. It is revealed that McCain, played by Chuck Connors, served under Sheridan during the war.
The Rebel (1960) features Andrew J. Fenady in the role of Sheridan in the episode "Johnny Yuma at Appomattox".
Death Valley Days (1961) features H. M. Wynant as Sheridan in the episode, "The Red Petticoat". In the story line, Sheridan's friendship with Indian scout Kahlu (Allen Jaffe) (1928-1989) is questioned after a number of ambushes result in dead troopers. Sheridan sticks to his instincts and defends his ally against the enraged residents of the fort. Stanley Andrews was the host.
North and South, Book II (1986), Episode 6, portrayed by Clu Gulager.
J. Michael Straczynski has stated that the character of Captain John Sheridan in the Babylon 5 television series is intended to be a direct descendant of General Sheridan.
Sheridan is described in the PBS documentary The West (1996) as "a ruthless warrior" who "played a decisive role in the army's long campaign against the native peoples of the plains". And "at Petersburg he won an important victory that halted Robert E. Lee's retreat from Richmond and helped bring the war to an end.
Dates of rank
See also
List of American Civil War generals (Union)
Notes
References
Sources
Atkinson, Rick. Where Valor Rests: Arlington National Cemetery. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 2007. .
Bigler, Philip. In Honored Glory: Arlington National Cemetery, The Final Post. 2nd ed. Arlington, VA: Vandermere Press, 1994. .
Cozzens, Peter. This Terrible Sound: The Battle of Chickamauga. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992. .
Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher. Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
Flores, Dan. American Serengeti: The Last Big Animals on the Great Plains. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2016. .
Fredriksen, John C. "Philip Henry Sheridan." In Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. .
Hess, Earl J. Civil War Campaign in the West. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. .
Hutton, Paul Andrew. Phil Sheridan and His Army. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985. .
Lockley, Fred. "Reminiscences of Mrs. Frank Collins, nee Martha Elizabeth Gilliam." The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society XVII (March 1916-December 1916), Portland, Oregon, The Ivy Press, 1916: 367–69.
Macdonald, James S., Jr. The Founding of Yellowstone into Law and into Fact at www.yellowstone-online.com.
Mieder, Wolfgang. "'The Only Good Indian Is a Dead Indian': History and Meaning of a Proverbial Stereotype." The Journal of American Folklore 106 (1993):38–60.
Morris, Roy, Jr. Sheridan: The Life and Wars of General Phil Sheridan. New York: Crown Publishing, 1992. .
Noe, Kenneth W. Perryville: This Grand Havoc of Battle. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2001. .
O'Connor, Richard. Sheridan. New York: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1953. .
Rhea, Gordon C. To the North Anna River: Grant and Lee, May 13–25, 1864. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000. .
Sheridan, Philip H. Personal Memoirs of P. H. Sheridan. 2 vols. New York: Charles L. Webster & Co., 1888. .
U.S. War Department. The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.
Underwood, Tom R., ed. Thoroughbred Racing & Breeding: The Story of the Sport and Background of the Horse Industry New York: Kessinger, 2004. . First published 1945 by Coward-McCann, Inc.
Wittenberg, Eric J. Little Phil: A Reassessment of the Civil War Leadership of Gen. Philip H. Sheridan. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2002. .
Further reading
Biographies
Davies, Eugene. General Sheridan. New York, D. Appleton and Company, 1895. .
Forsyth, George A. Thrilling Days in Army Life. New York and London, Harper & Bros., 1900. .
Suppiger, Joseph E. "Sheridan, The Life of a General." Lincoln Herald (Sept 1984), 86#3 pp. 157–70 on prewar; 87#1 pp. 18–26 on 1862–63; 87#2 pp. 49–57, on 1863–64.
Wheelan, Joseph. Terrible Swift Sword: The Life of General Philip H. Sheridan. New York: Da Capo Press, 2012. .
Civil War
Bissland, James. Blood, Tears, and Glory: How Ohioans Won the Civil War. Wilmington, OH: Orange Frazer Press, 2007. .
Coffey, David. Sheridan's Lieutenants: Phil Sheridan, His Generals, and the Final Year of the Civil War. Wilmington, DE: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005. .
Drake, William F. Little Phil: The Story of General Philip Henry Sheridan. Prospect, CT: Biographical Publishing Company, 2005. .
Feis, William B. "Neutralizing the Valley: The Role of Military Intelligence in the Defeat of Jubal Early's Army of the Valley, 1864–1865." Civil War History 39#3 (September 1993): 199–215.
Gallagher, Gary W., ed. The Shenandoah Valley Campaign of 1864. Military Campaigns of the Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006. .
Gallagher, Gary W., ed. Struggle for the Shenandoah: Essays on the 1864 Valley Campaign. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1991. .
Miller, Samuel H. "Yellow Tavern." Civil War History 2#1 (March 1956): 57–81.
Naroll, Raoul S. "Sheridan and Cedar Creek—A Reappraisal." Military Affairs 16#4 (Winter, 1952): 153–68.
Stackpole, Edward J. Sheridan in the Shenandoah: Jubal Early's Nemesis Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1992. .
Wert, Jeffry D. From Winchester to Cedar Creek: The Shenandoah Campaign of 1864. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987. .
Postwar
Dawson, Joseph G. III. "General Phil Sheridan and Military Reconstruction in Louisiana," Civil War History 24#2 (June 1978): 133–51.
Richter, William L. "General Phil Sheridan, The Historians, and Reconstruction, Civil War History 33#2 (June 1987): 131–54.
Taylor, Morris F. "The Carr–Penrose Expedition: General Sheridan's Winter Campaign, 1868–1869." Chronicles of Oklahoma 51#2 (June 1973): 159–76.
External links
PBS on Sheridan
PBS National parks on Sheridan, including rare images
Sheridan's Ride poem
Pictures of US Treasury Notes featuring Philip Sheridan, provided by the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco.
Commentary on Sheridan's role at Chickamauga
1831 births
1888 deaths
American military personnel of the Indian Wars
American people of Irish descent
Apache Wars
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Cavalry commanders
Military personnel from Albany, New York
People from Somerset, Ohio
People of the Reconstruction Era
People of Ohio in the American Civil War
People of the Great Sioux War of 1876
Presidents of the National Rifle Association
Union Army generals
United States Military Academy alumni
United States military governors
Rogue River Wars
Texas Republicans
Louisiana Republicans
19th-century American politicians
Activists from Ohio
Activists from New York (state)
People from Dartmouth, Massachusetts
Catholics from Massachusetts
Catholics from Ohio
Commanding Generals of the United States Army
|
[
-0.4646265208721161,
-0.011650320142507553,
-1.0333517789840698,
0.3381143808364868,
0.7266592979431152,
0.6667557954788208,
1.0248221158981323,
0.012042275629937649,
-0.2010294795036316,
-0.37104928493499756,
-0.5425592660903931,
-0.0312359482049942,
-0.7346068024635315,
0.1608346402645111,
-0.3461931645870209,
0.552241325378418,
0.31966739892959595,
-0.03476565331220627,
-0.08518464863300323,
-0.1975804716348648,
-0.38257691264152527,
0.10254617035388947,
0.20001447200775146,
0.014508359134197235,
0.1524318903684616,
0.18976500630378723,
-0.4002707004547119,
-0.6675646305084229,
0.3915436267852783,
-0.09480984508991241,
-0.219805046916008,
-0.04490404948592186,
0.7437264919281006,
-0.6125752925872803,
-1.0534934997558594,
-0.2582380175590515,
-1.2181493043899536,
-0.12691007554531097,
-0.02219381555914879,
0.3412127196788788,
-0.6452920436859131,
0.111546091735363,
0.35399988293647766,
0.0719100758433342,
-0.01462654396891594,
-0.05187123641371727,
-1.7641125917434692,
0.1634332239627838,
-0.40300506353378296,
-0.34574946761131287,
0.3263138234615326,
-0.37709057331085205,
-0.07537190616130829,
0.11187121272087097,
-0.1742279827594757,
0.16360707581043243,
-0.4359407424926758,
-0.516316294670105,
-0.1756235808134079,
-0.4372427761554718,
-0.05927453935146332,
0.35447967052459717,
0.9441352486610413,
-0.3995771110057831,
-0.03533989191055298,
-0.19153492152690887,
0.17116722464561462,
0.5884473919868469,
0.022539934143424034,
-0.13687177002429962,
0.394385427236557,
0.6276606321334839,
0.9659205079078674,
0.3624127209186554,
0.30055877566337585,
-0.6974776387214661,
0.2891731262207031,
0.5626285076141357,
-0.35886484384536743,
0.29910334944725037,
-0.36669787764549255,
-0.029949286952614784,
0.6033427715301514,
0.32839375734329224,
-0.3447951078414917,
0.4444980025291443,
-0.462395042181015,
0.08468693494796753,
-0.21489018201828003,
-0.14489531517028809,
-0.5855713486671448,
0.08262595534324646,
0.31514212489128113,
-0.20803743600845337,
-0.27557653188705444,
0.1498240977525711,
0.010924356058239937,
0.19448581337928772,
-0.2661839425563812,
-0.29406365752220154,
-0.38247641921043396,
-0.17107075452804565,
0.6249172687530518,
0.12656044960021973,
-0.24997186660766602,
0.4189770519733429,
0.15354986488819122,
-0.0736062303185463,
-0.1893777996301651,
-0.08393198251724243,
-0.41931217908859253,
-0.12461480498313904,
-0.04570649936795235,
-0.1265815794467926,
0.05470951274037361,
0.3406130075454712,
-0.0259252842515707,
-0.4823372960090637,
-0.5321351289749146,
-0.6951633095741272,
-0.16161344945430756,
0.5886441469192505,
-0.1393941342830658,
0.44436144828796387,
-0.37633928656578064,
-0.23207850754261017,
0.33495408296585083,
0.24260853230953217,
-0.11723306030035019,
0.6671242117881775,
0.13678424060344696,
0.9648647904396057,
-0.7240034341812134,
0.09163451194763184,
-0.7095898985862732,
-0.4170139729976654,
-0.2991536259651184,
0.23788611590862274,
-0.2734960913658142,
0.29914590716362,
-0.8536607027053833,
-0.02521606907248497,
0.4115426540374756,
0.23118984699249268,
0.07416138797998428,
-0.034251462668180466,
0.32827359437942505,
0.32410305738449097,
-0.30804625153541565,
-0.2880852222442627,
0.14362458884716034,
-0.377627432346344,
-0.10233338922262192,
0.20465660095214844,
-0.25199490785598755,
0.5979532599449158,
0.9577265381813049,
0.32165929675102234,
0.44503650069236755,
0.14287792146205902,
-0.11286848038434982,
0.0722879022359848,
-0.014147755689918995,
0.006281491834670305,
0.31081363558769226,
0.794968843460083,
0.29079023003578186,
-0.32239919900894165,
-0.6552974581718445,
0.18546918034553528,
0.12132584303617477,
0.11254547536373138,
0.04711947590112686,
-0.13882005214691162,
0.018755095079541206,
0.26804426312446594,
0.17208601534366608,
0.4046696126461029,
0.17636863887310028,
-0.6861310005187988,
-0.45072317123413086,
0.2605132758617401,
0.5372098088264465,
-0.1738819181919098,
0.11683791130781174,
0.2855551242828369,
0.4907011091709137,
-0.8046875,
0.29866889119148254,
-0.4616149067878723,
-0.4415474534034729,
-0.3565259277820587,
-0.5147725343704224,
-0.293875128030777,
0.8278239965438843,
0.1107703447341919,
-0.4371301531791687,
0.20676566660404205,
0.19090494513511658,
0.100575752556324,
0.4374590814113617,
-0.4884476363658905,
0.4439145028591156,
0.0012465593172237277,
-0.0827934667468071,
0.35707128047943115,
0.6850380301475525,
0.03845065459609032,
0.653319776058197,
0.6246734261512756,
0.8112910389900208,
-0.1272125542163849,
-0.18333126604557037,
0.6921529769897461,
0.06711976230144501,
-0.1799238622188568,
-0.11834229528903961,
-0.7007738351821899,
0.8585289716720581,
-0.12071584165096283,
0.5284914970397949,
-0.29871588945388794,
0.23486845195293427,
1.0476988554000854,
0.28552281856536865,
0.7340165972709656,
-0.310171902179718,
-0.11102482676506042,
-0.34488680958747864,
-0.28457701206207275,
-0.31427398324012756,
-0.22090020775794983,
-0.3186301589012146,
-0.42205819487571716,
0.5052156448364258,
-0.2095775306224823,
0.09092670679092407,
-0.24614554643630981,
-0.05751731991767883,
-0.6667690277099609,
-0.10715457797050476,
0.16063092648983002,
-0.2320324033498764,
0.1342051476240158,
0.09282128512859344,
-0.023359695449471474,
-0.1086873933672905,
-0.22726939618587494,
0.49533185362815857,
-0.32342734932899475,
-0.19982796907424927,
0.5404062271118164,
0.5637286901473999,
-0.30690819025039673,
0.3725929260253906,
-0.4341963231563568,
0.17133070528507233,
0.04756837710738182,
0.06616511195898056,
0.30972206592559814,
0.06439179182052612,
0.14326158165931702,
-0.08493486046791077,
0.2593967318534851,
0.4140773117542267,
-0.056105270981788635,
-0.42411890625953674,
-0.1705232411623001,
0.0928562805056572,
0.2729182541370392,
1.0260651111602783,
-0.3525727391242981,
-0.22365184128284454,
0.1957933008670807,
0.3147975206375122,
0.18514515459537506,
-0.38037431240081787,
0.2714500427246094,
-0.5827159881591797,
-0.9451325535774231,
0.23944364488124847,
0.6154479384422302,
-0.33697953820228577,
-0.5574562549591064,
-0.44325321912765503,
-0.6669590473175049,
-0.1592199057340622,
-0.3256525993347168,
0.0967538058757782,
0.2485693097114563,
-0.2974945902824402,
0.5091143250465393,
-0.4239403009414673,
0.4633932411670685,
0.11878219991922379,
0.29761889576911926,
-0.19196484982967377,
0.051103219389915466,
0.09858771413564682,
-0.15792343020439148,
-0.7373350858688354,
0.007639555726200342,
0.24756380915641785,
0.2342730462551117,
0.9310755133628845,
-0.18759894371032715,
0.46316394209861755,
0.05730917677283287,
-5.442235946655273,
0.35785630345344543,
0.2715925872325897,
-0.31398314237594604,
0.1407475471496582,
0.6503888964653015,
0.1032196655869484,
-0.27506980299949646,
0.23617717623710632,
-0.08557350188493729,
0.4093545973300934,
0.16648130118846893,
0.05606852471828461,
0.16475330293178558,
0.5602392554283142,
0.03613406419754028,
0.559013843536377,
0.041347455233335495,
0.2710055410861969,
0.6496856212615967,
-0.3560298979282379,
0.13713495433330536,
0.3253438174724579,
0.22615395486354828,
0.18746328353881836,
-0.09913767129182816,
-0.5402894020080566,
0.0616023987531662,
-0.057998280972242355,
-0.2948622405529022,
0.2644098997116089,
0.2773471772670746,
0.04099545255303383,
-0.22470155358314514,
-0.38244256377220154,
-0.750684380531311,
0.3105596601963043,
0.44291776418685913,
-0.3137136399745941,
0.10468339174985886,
0.3416781425476074,
-0.36449435353279114,
-0.8224197030067444,
-0.11686823517084122,
0.6580888628959656,
-0.41589874029159546,
-0.3888305723667145,
0.10644961148500443,
-0.06646288931369781,
0.2364843189716339,
0.349527508020401,
0.7622385621070862,
0.3129080533981323,
-0.2411068081855774,
0.3600127696990967,
0.4260159134864807,
0.016236305236816406,
-0.1587870717048645,
-0.7059115171432495,
0.560666561126709,
-0.06057804450392723,
-0.1727009415626526,
-0.09507540613412857,
0.3309454321861267,
0.21718336641788483,
-0.44677871465682983,
-0.21558651328086853,
-0.6037722826004028,
-0.12800483405590057,
-0.26076412200927734,
-0.014039378613233566,
1.23690927028656,
0.338692307472229,
-1.21160089969635,
0.4401489794254303,
-0.5772809982299805,
-0.3268796503543854,
-0.03659360110759735,
-0.6907506585121155,
-0.031634557992219925,
-0.5200726389884949,
-0.22830785810947418,
0.2181922197341919,
0.6942867040634155,
0.42518144845962524,
0.6093006730079651,
-0.4020589292049408,
0.10351710766553879,
-0.3032475411891937,
-0.2370532900094986,
-0.4236104488372803,
-0.18221046030521393,
0.050249066203832626,
0.18123115599155426,
0.6710383296012878,
0.2169477343559265,
0.07542262226343155,
1.0047389268875122,
0.1965266913175583,
0.3721070885658264,
-0.31739532947540283,
-0.0612659677863121,
-0.11063984781503677,
-0.6997188329696655,
0.15008261799812317,
-0.12194804102182388,
0.2738255560398102,
0.3339875638484955,
0.6437277793884277,
0.3024137318134308,
0.07713425904512405,
-0.1829373985528946,
-0.32128429412841797,
-0.245928093791008,
-0.022073470056056976,
-0.16706597805023193,
0.5004844069480896,
-0.021877020597457886,
1.177524447441101,
0.2624509632587433,
-0.1422557383775711,
0.5628893375396729,
0.05653035640716553,
-0.33963823318481445,
0.4490959644317627,
-0.6633849740028381,
-0.07581423223018646,
-0.9051557183265686,
-0.045612260699272156,
0.1265614777803421,
0.30018118023872375,
0.7825754284858704,
-0.4990306794643402,
0.2855899930000305,
-0.054230477660894394,
-0.06537342816591263,
0.3166111707687378,
-0.5045960545539856,
-0.1402330845594406,
-0.17718783020973206,
-0.3971368670463562,
-0.529696524143219,
-0.6308855414390564,
0.1431175023317337,
0.18557684123516083,
-0.5590609312057495,
-0.12780660390853882,
-0.3737959563732147,
-0.03841349110007286,
0.3516432046890259,
-0.6695199012756348,
-0.5978850722312927,
0.5749350786209106,
-0.5506182312965393,
-0.20985636115074158,
-0.2061631679534912,
-0.0712089017033577,
-0.07369573414325714,
-0.46619072556495667,
-0.2637079954147339,
0.14450083673000336,
-0.41966551542282104,
-0.4883604943752289,
-0.30417051911354065,
0.08588297665119171,
-0.04071221873164177,
-0.43357476592063904,
-0.36548906564712524,
-0.5598791837692261,
0.1788308322429657,
0.006839962210506201,
-0.5788881182670593,
0.3200533092021942,
0.12151434272527695,
-0.125955268740654,
0.10489647835493088,
-0.32261374592781067,
-0.17800280451774597,
-0.19856707751750946,
-0.345271497964859,
0.4089471101760864,
-0.023103078827261925,
-0.545680820941925,
-0.040284525603055954,
0.7819087505340576,
-0.22497610747814178,
-0.3428974747657776,
-0.3778199553489685,
-0.22336703538894653,
0.3976265788078308,
-0.7349961996078491,
-0.3490684926509857,
0.13112542033195496,
0.7511165142059326,
-0.21774423122406006,
0.317956805229187,
-0.19626301527023315,
-0.18389737606048584,
0.6932931542396545,
-0.3561835289001465,
0.130726620554924,
-0.2555159330368042,
-0.35634249448776245,
-0.4363507032394409,
-0.34814393520355225,
-0.7211798429489136,
-0.20566415786743164,
-0.23117905855178833,
-0.01257011853158474,
0.3338228762149811,
-0.014439594000577927,
-0.5961690545082092,
-0.2115599513053894,
0.12455001473426819,
-0.28157663345336914,
0.579666256904602,
-0.037117451429367065,
0.8092462420463562,
-0.33960825204849243,
-0.7748861312866211,
-0.8516982793807983,
-0.13390903174877167,
-0.33116406202316284,
-0.1424458622932434,
-0.24819950759410858,
0.3677047789096832,
0.11531020700931549,
-0.30329376459121704,
0.7566556334495544,
0.17992450296878815,
-0.9661117196083069,
-0.2059846669435501,
0.051446132361888885,
0.3424042761325836,
0.33348309993743896,
-0.09727469086647034,
0.8133609294891357,
0.19564689695835114,
-0.8796983957290649,
0.14485131204128265,
0.12819363176822662,
1.3069965839385986,
0.029969744384288788,
-0.29315587878227234,
-0.3095008134841919,
0.19251427054405212,
0.5818647146224976,
-0.7139168977737427,
-0.46394550800323486,
-0.1755032241344452,
0.8212326169013977,
-0.29640427231788635,
-0.5824218988418579,
0.1997872292995453,
0.9500606656074524,
-0.5077535510063171,
0.04619330167770386,
0.24913322925567627,
0.15443313121795654,
0.16838102042675018,
-0.18267251551151276,
-0.15568037331104279,
-0.20435725152492523,
0.1541597843170166,
0.15304391086101532,
-0.5671331286430359,
-0.3932355046272278,
-0.3473901152610779,
-0.04832441732287407,
-0.2353844940662384,
-0.3882303237915039,
-0.31651753187179565,
0.1372339129447937,
0.7792772650718689,
-0.18706637620925903,
0.603645920753479,
0.5647875666618347,
-0.36049848794937134,
0.019179243594408035,
-0.16715475916862488,
-0.9673179388046265,
-0.30493080615997314,
-0.3789914548397064,
-0.31277480721473694,
-0.1585005521774292,
-1.1192396879196167,
0.33148932456970215,
-0.3607642650604248,
-0.13926243782043457,
0.22054924070835114,
-0.11447352170944214,
0.22231632471084595,
-0.30351024866104126,
-0.4768950939178467,
0.14035414159297943,
0.5577173233032227,
-1.039722204208374,
0.9589574337005615,
0.1937861293554306,
0.3753378093242645,
-0.27774086594581604,
0.6882160902023315,
0.41594672203063965,
-0.08218493312597275,
-0.24948105216026306,
0.19984662532806396,
-0.004124983213841915,
-0.6409801840782166,
-0.03302222490310669,
-0.3010789155960083,
-0.04016927629709244,
-0.07876469194889069,
0.4816890060901642,
-0.10896103829145432,
-0.7743186950683594,
-0.0652802512049675,
0.6488468050956726,
-0.747341513633728,
-0.4027114808559418,
-0.13270287215709686,
0.19830888509750366,
-0.02738121710717678,
0.34633684158325195,
0.07913531363010406,
0.4482346475124359,
0.6797060966491699,
-0.29177942872047424,
0.17980138957500458,
-0.025003239512443542,
0.4150090515613556,
0.1486002802848816,
-0.6744186282157898,
-0.05097021907567978,
0.6030415892601013,
-0.16984160244464874,
-0.153268501162529,
-0.1813170462846756,
-0.48407089710235596,
-0.21469074487686157,
0.611645519733429,
-0.18743963539600372,
0.6625508069992065,
-0.15242192149162292,
0.3682244122028351,
0.015722200274467468,
0.5401114225387573,
0.3700580894947052,
0.0145894605666399,
-0.6099103093147278,
0.46398064494132996,
0.48578962683677673,
0.00932450219988823,
0.15755519270896912,
0.007783894427120686,
0.1172570064663887,
-0.23525580763816833,
0.5056633353233337,
0.10317756980657578,
-0.1583167463541031,
-0.5025383830070496,
0.1854385882616043,
-0.1773454248905182,
1.18636155128479,
-0.154571995139122,
0.11188654601573944,
0.24189697206020355,
-0.6363816857337952,
-0.44384217262268066,
-0.47300589084625244,
0.45082104206085205,
0.1897282898426056,
-0.169144868850708,
-0.33999577164649963,
0.273393452167511,
0.18334876000881195,
0.9569886922836304,
0.4931836724281311,
0.02905551716685295,
-0.196873739361763,
-0.3509584665298462,
-0.6482038497924805,
0.0018175678560510278,
0.07259620726108551,
-0.7108834385871887,
0.061428628861904144,
-0.36748114228248596,
0.06259912997484207,
0.1944247931241989,
-0.5826579332351685,
-0.3995271921157837,
0.4545397162437439,
-0.0869879424571991,
-0.1540890485048294,
0.034621357917785645,
0.8070867657661438,
0.42634448409080505,
0.6112673878669739,
0.9081850051879883,
0.9114155173301697,
-0.15039974451065063,
-0.19299864768981934,
-0.004207492806017399,
0.13512612879276276,
-0.5341041684150696,
-0.11569169908761978,
0.8017780780792236,
-0.19325610995292664,
-0.44679659605026245,
-0.6070103645324707,
0.33146733045578003,
0.044171810150146484,
0.2842313051223755,
-0.5319651365280151,
0.043947748839855194,
-0.2151804119348526,
0.13436907529830933,
0.630608856678009,
-0.35070398449897766,
-0.15133927762508392,
-0.9170504808425903,
0.47068965435028076,
0.023752206936478615,
-0.01844574324786663,
-0.004132459405809641,
-0.3724963366985321,
-0.1450679749250412,
0.17109045386314392,
-0.07632631063461304,
0.0029494513291865587,
0.7201746702194214,
0.5132108926773071,
-1.0395764112472534,
-0.6339626312255859,
-0.32175034284591675,
-0.10151498764753342,
-0.9477868676185608,
0.5544579029083252,
0.2307264357805252,
-0.008344045840203762,
-0.38467249274253845,
0.5397887825965881,
0.0973275750875473,
-0.2804308831691742,
-0.19126345217227936,
0.53412264585495,
0.47003141045570374,
0.07563044875860214,
-0.554135799407959,
0.24253958463668823,
0.8154323697090149,
0.13168077170848846,
-0.15401902794837952,
0.8275363445281982,
-0.4714421331882477,
0.46629610657691956,
0.7245917320251465,
0.24961917102336884,
-0.0006556595908477902,
0.26331692934036255,
0.1752111166715622
] |
213145
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy%20Douglas
|
Tommy Douglas
|
Thomas Clement Douglas (20 October 1904 – 24 February 1986) was a Scottish-born Canadian politician who served as seventh premier of Saskatchewan from 1944 to 1961 and Leader of the New Democratic Party from 1961 to 1971. A Baptist minister, he was elected to the House of Commons of Canada in 1935 as a member of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF). He left federal politics to become Leader of the Saskatchewan Co-operative Commonwealth Federation and then the seventh Premier of Saskatchewan. His government introduced the continent's first single-payer, universal health care program.
After setting up Saskatchewan's universal healthcare program, Douglas stepped down and ran to lead the newly formed federal New Democratic Party (NDP), the successor party of the national CCF. He was elected as its first federal leader in 1961. Although Douglas never led the party to government, through much of his tenure the party held the balance of power in the House of Commons. He was noted as being the main opposition to the imposition of the War Measures Act during the 1970 October Crisis. He resigned as leader the next year, but remained as a Member of Parliament until 1979.
Douglas was awarded many honorary degrees, and a foundation was named for him and his political mentor M. J. Coldwell in 1971. In 1981, he was invested into the Order of Canada, and he became a member of Canada's Privy Council in 1984, two years before his death. In 2004, a CBC Television program named Tommy Douglas "The Greatest Canadian", based on a Canada-wide, viewer-supported survey.
Early life
Thomas Clement Douglas was born in 1904 in Camelon, Falkirk, Scotland, the son of Annie (née Clement) and Thomas Douglas, an iron moulder who fought in the Boer War. In 1910, his family emigrated to Canada, where they settled in Winnipeg. Shortly before he left Scotland, Douglas fell and injured his right knee. Osteomyelitis set in and he underwent a number of operations in Scotland in an attempt to cure the condition. Later in Winnipeg, the osteomyelitis flared up again, and Douglas was sent to hospital. Doctors there told his parents his leg would have to be amputated; however, a well-known orthopedic surgeon took interest and agreed to treat him for free if his parents allowed medical students to observe. After several operations, Douglas's leg was saved. This experience convinced him that health care should be free to all. Many years later, Douglas told an interviewer, "I felt that no boy should have to depend either for his leg or his life upon the ability of his parents to raise enough money to bring a first-class surgeon to his bedside."
During World War I, the family went back to Glasgow. They returned to Winnipeg in late 1918, in time for Douglas to witness the Winnipeg general strike. From a rooftop vantage point on Main Street, he witnessed the police charging the strikers with clubs and guns, and a streetcar being overturned and set on fire. He also witnessed the RCMP shoot and kill one of the workers. This incident influenced Douglas later in life by cementing his commitment to protect fundamental freedoms in a Bill of Rights when he was premier of Saskatchewan.
In 1920, at the age of 15, Douglas began amateur boxing at the One Big Union gym in Winnipeg. Weighing , he won the 1922 Lightweight Championship of Manitoba after a six-round fight. Douglas sustained a broken nose, a loss of some teeth, and a strained hand and thumb. He held the title the following year.
In 1930, Douglas married Irma Dempsey, a music student at Brandon College. They had one daughter, actress Shirley Douglas, and they later adopted a second daughter, Joan, who became a nurse. Actor Kiefer Sutherland, son of daughter Shirley and actor Donald Sutherland, is his grandson.
Education
Douglas started elementary school in Winnipeg. He completed his elementary education after returning to Glasgow. He worked as a soap boy in a barber shop, rubbing lather into tough whiskers, then dropped out of high school at 13 after landing a job in a cork factory. The owner offered to pay Douglas's way through night school so that he could learn Portuguese and Spanish, languages that would enable him to become a cork buyer. However, the family returned to Winnipeg when the war ended and Douglas entered the printing trades. He served a five-year apprenticeship and worked as a Linotype operator finally acquiring his journeyman's papers, but decided to return to school to pursue his ambition to become an ordained minister.
Brandon University
In 1924, the 19-year-old Douglas enrolled at Brandon College, a Baptist school affiliated with McMaster University, to finish high school and study theology. During his six years at the college, he was influenced by the Social Gospel movement, which combined Christian principles with social reform. Liberal-minded professors at Brandon encouraged students to question their fundamentalist religious beliefs. Christianity, they suggested, was just as concerned with the pursuit of social justice as it was with the struggle for individual salvation. Douglas took a course in socialism at Brandon and studied Greek philosophy. He came first in his class during his first three years, then competed for gold medals in his last three with a newly arrived student named Stanley Knowles. Both later became ministers of religion and prominent left-wing politicians. Douglas was extremely active in extracurricular activities. Among other things, he became a champion debater, wrote for the school newspaper and participated in student government winning election as Senior Stick, or president of the student body, in his final year.
Douglas financed his education at Brandon College by conducting Sunday services at several rural churches for 15 dollars a week. A shortage of ordained clergy forced smaller congregations to rely on student ministers. Douglas reported later that he preached sermons advocating social reform and helping the poor: "[T]he Bible is like a bull fiddle ... you can play almost any tune you want on it." He added that his interest in social and economic questions led him to preach about "building a society and building institutions that would uplift mankind". He also earned money delivering entertaining monologues and poetry recitations at church suppers and service club meetings for five dollars a performance. During his second and third years at the college, he preached at a Presbyterian church in Carberry, Manitoba. There he met a farmer's daughter named Irma Dempsey who would later become his wife.
MA thesis on eugenics
Douglas graduated from Brandon College in 1930 and completed his Master of Arts degree in sociology at McMaster University in 1933. His thesis, "The Problems of the Subnormal Family", endorsed eugenics. The thesis proposed a system that would have required couples seeking to marry to be certified as mentally and morally fit. Those deemed to be "subnormal", because of low intelligence, moral laxity, or venereal disease would be sent to state farms or camps; while those judged to be mentally defective or incurably diseased would be sterilized.
Douglas rarely mentioned his thesis later in his life, and his government never enacted eugenics policies, even though two official reviews of Saskatchewan's mental health system recommended such a program when he became Premier and Minister of Health. As Premier, Douglas opposed the adoption of eugenics laws. By the time Douglas took office in 1944, many people questioned eugenics due to Nazi Germany's embrace of it in its effort to create a "master race". Instead, Douglas implemented vocational training for the mentally handicapped and therapy for those suffering from mental disorders.
PhD research in Chicago
In the summer of 1931, Douglas continued his studies in sociology at the University of Chicago. He never completed his PhD thesis, but was deeply disturbed by his field work in the Depression-era "jungles" or hobo camps where about 75,000 transients sheltered in lean-tos venturing out by day to beg or to steal. Douglas interviewed men who once belonged to the American middle class—despondent bank clerks, lawyers and doctors. Douglas said later: "There were little soup kitchens run by the Salvation Army and the churches ... In the first half-hour they'd be cleaned out. After that there was nothing ... It was impossible to describe the hopelessness." Douglas was equally disturbed that members of the Socialist Party sat around quoting Marx and Lenin, waiting for a revolution while refusing to help the destitute. Douglas said: "That experience soured me with absolutists ... I've no patience with people who want to sit back and talk about a blueprint for society and do nothing about it."
From pulpit to politics
Two months after Douglas graduated from Brandon College, he married Irma Dempsey and the two moved to the small town of Weyburn, Saskatchewan, where he became an ordained minister at the Calvary Baptist Church. Irma was 19, while Douglas was 25. With the onset of the Depression, Douglas became a social activist in Weyburn, and joined the new Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) political party. He was elected to the House of Commons of Canada in the 1935 federal election.
During the September 1939 special House of Commons debate on entering the war, Douglas, who had visited Nazi Germany in 1936 and was disgusted by what he saw, supported going to war against Hitler. He was not a pacifist, unlike his party's leader, J. S. Woodsworth, and stated his reasons:
Douglas and Coldwell's position was eventually adopted by the CCF National Council, but they also did not admonish Woodsworth's pacifist stand, and allowed him to put it forward in the House. Douglas assisted Woodsworth, during his leader's speech, by holding up the pages and turning them for him, even though he disagreed with him. Woodsworth had suffered a stroke earlier in the year and he needed someone to hold his notes, and Douglas still held him in very high regard, and dutifully assisted his leader.
After the outbreak of World War II, Douglas enlisted in the wartime Canadian Army. He had volunteered for overseas service when a medical examination turned up his old leg problems. Douglas stayed in Canada and the Grenadiers headed for Hong Kong. If not for that ailment, he would likely have been with the regiment when its members were killed or captured at Hong Kong in December 1941.
Premier of Saskatchewan
Despite being a federal Member of Parliament and not yet an MLA, Douglas was elected the leader of the Saskatchewan CCF in 1942 after successfully challenging the incumbent leader, George Hara Williams, but did not resign from the House of Commons until 1 June 1944. He led the CCF to power in the 15 June 1944 provincial election, winning 47 of 52 seats in the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan, and thus forming the first social democratic government in not only Canada, but all of North America. As premier, Douglas attended the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in June 1953.
Douglas and the Saskatchewan CCF then went on to win five straight majority victories in all subsequent Saskatchewan provincial elections up to 1960. Most of his government's pioneering innovations came about during its first term, including:
the creation of the publicly owned Saskatchewan Power Corporation, successor to the Saskatchewan Electrical Power Commission, which began a long program of extending electrical service to isolated farms and villages;
the creation of Canada's first publicly owned automotive insurance service, the Saskatchewan Government Insurance Office;
the creation of a large number of crown corporations, many of which competed with existing private sector interests;
legislation that allowed the unionization of the public service;
a program to offer taxpayer-funded hospital care to all citizens—the first in North America.
passage of the Saskatchewan Bill of Rights, legislation that broke new ground as it protected both fundamental freedoms and equality rights against abuse not only by government actors but also on the part of powerful private institutions and persons. (The Saskatchewan Bill of Rights preceded the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations by 18 months.)
Douglas was the first head of any government in Canada to call for a constitutional bill of rights. This he did at a federal-provincial conference in Quebec City in January 1950. No one in attendance at the conference supported him in this. Ten years later, Premier Jean Lesage of Quebec joined with Douglas at a First Ministers' Conference in July 1960 in advocating for a constitutional bill of rights. Thus, respectable momentum was given to the idea that finally came to fruition, on 17 April 1982, with the proclamation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Thanks to a booming postwar economy and the prudent financial management of provincial treasurer Clarence Fines, the Douglas government slowly paid off the huge public debt left by the previous Liberal government, and created a budget surplus for the Saskatchewan government. Coupled with a federal government promise in 1959 to give even more tax money for medical care, this paved the way for Douglas's most notable achievement, the introduction of universal health care legislation in 1961.
Medicare
Douglas's number one concern was the creation of Medicare. He introduced medical insurance reform in his first term, and gradually moved the province towards universal medicare near the end of his last term. In the summer of 1962, Saskatchewan became the centre of a hard-fought struggle between the provincial government, the North American medical establishment, and the province's physicians, who brought things to a halt with the 1962 Saskatchewan doctors' strike. The doctors believed their best interests were not being met and feared a significant loss of income as well as government interference in medical care decisions even though Douglas agreed that his government would pay the going rate for service that doctors charged. The medical establishment claimed that Douglas would import foreign doctors to make his plan work and used racist images to try to scare the public.
Douglas is widely known as the father of Medicare, but the Saskatchewan universal program was finally launched by his successor, Woodrow Lloyd, in 1962. Douglas stepped down as premier and as a member of the legislature the previous year, to lead the newly formed federal successor to the CCF, the New Democratic Party of Canada (NDP).
The success of the province's public health care program was not lost on the federal government. Another Saskatchewan politician, newly elected Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, decreed in 1958 that any province seeking to introduce a hospital plan would receive 50 cents on the dollar from the federal government. In 1962, Diefenbaker appointed Justice Emmett Hall—also of Saskatchewan, a noted jurist and Supreme Court Justice—to Chair a Royal Commission on the national health system—the Royal Commission on Health Services. In 1964, Justice Hall recommended a nationwide adoption of Saskatchewan's model of public health insurance. In 1966, the Liberal minority government of Lester B. Pearson created such a program, with the federal government paying 50% of the costs and the provinces the other half. The adoption of public health care across Canada ended up being the work of three men with diverse political ideals – Douglas of the CCF, Diefenbaker of the Progressive Conservatives, and Pearson of the Liberals.
Federal NDP leader
Election
The 1958 Canadian general election was a disaster for the CCF; its caucus was reduced to eight, and party leader M. J. Coldwell lost his own seat. The CCF executive knew that their party was dying and needed radical change. The executive persuaded Coldwell to remain as leader, but the party also needed a leader in the House of Commons to replace him, because he obviously was no longer a Member of Parliament. The CCF parliamentary caucus chose Hazen Argue as its new leader in the House. During the lead-up to the 1960 CCF convention, Argue was pressing Coldwell to step down; this leadership challenge jeopardized plans for an orderly transition to the new party that was being planned by the CCF and the Canadian Labour Congress. CCF national president David Lewis – who succeeded Coldwell as president in 1958, when the national chairman and national president positions were merged – and the rest of the new party's organizers opposed Argue's manoeuvres and wanted Douglas to be the new party's first leader. To prevent their plans from being derailed, Lewis unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Argue not to force a vote at the convention on the question of the party's leadership, and there was a split between the parliamentary caucus and the party executive on the convention floor. Coldwell stepped down as leader, and Argue replaced him, becoming the party's final national leader.
As far back as 1941, Coldwell wanted Douglas to succeed him in leading the National CCF (at that time, it was obvious that Coldwell would be assuming the national leadership in the near future). When the time came for the "New Party" to form, in 1961, Coldwell pressured Douglas to run for the leadership. Coldwell did not trust Argue, and many in the CCF leadership thought that he was already having secret meetings with the Liberals with a view to a party merger. Also, Coldwell and Douglas thought Lewis would not be a viable alternative to Argue because Lewis was not likely to defeat Argue; this was partly due to Lewis' lack of a parliamentary seat but also, and likely more importantly, because his role as party disciplinarian over the years had made him many enemies, enough to potentially prevent him from winning the leadership. Douglas, after much consultation with Coldwell, Lewis, and his caucus, decided in June 1961 to reluctantly contest the leadership of the New Party. He handily defeated Argue on 3 August 1961 at the first NDP leadership convention in Ottawa, and became the new party's first leader. Six months later, Argue crossed the floor and became a Liberal.
House of Commons, Act II
Douglas resigned from provincial politics and sought election to the House of Commons in the riding of Regina City in 1962, but was defeated by Ken More. He was later elected in a by-election in the riding of Burnaby—Coquitlam, British Columbia.
Re-elected as MP for that riding in the 1963 and 1965 elections, Douglas lost the redistricted seat of Burnaby—Seymour in the 1968 federal election. He won a seat again in a 1969 by-election in the riding of Nanaimo—Cowichan—The Islands, following the death of Colin Cameron in 1968, and represented it until his retirement from electoral politics in 1979.
While the NDP did better in elections than its CCF predecessor, the party did not experience the breakthrough it had hoped for. Despite this, Douglas was greatly respected by party members and Canadians at large as the party wielded considerable influence during Lester Pearson's minority governments in the mid-1960s.
Views on homosexuality
During the 1968 Federal Election, Douglas described homosexuality as a treatable illness by saying "its a mental illness [and] a psychiatric condition". Rather than treating it as a criminal offence with imprisonment, Douglas believed it could be treated by psychiatrists and social workers. This view of homosexuality was mainstream at the time, but has since raised questions about how historical figures are remembered.
The War Measures Act, 1970
The October 1970 Quebec FLQ Crisis put Douglas and David Lewis—now a Member of Parliament—on the "hotseat", with Lewis being the only NDP MP with any roots in Quebec. He and Lewis were opposed to 16 October implementation of the War Measures Act. The act, enacted previously only for wartime purposes, imposed extreme limitations on civil liberties, and gave the police and military vastly expanded powers for arresting and detaining suspects, usually with little to no evidence required. Although it was only meant to be used in Quebec, since it was federal legislation, it was in force throughout Canada. Some police services, from outside of Quebec, took advantage of it for their own purposes, which mostly had nothing even remotely related to the Quebec situation, as Lewis and Douglas suspected. During a second vote on 19 October, sixteen of the twenty members of the NDP parliamentary caucus voted against the implementation of the War Measures Act in the House of Commons and four voted with the Liberal government.
They took much grief for being the only parliamentarians to vote against it, dropping to an approval rating of seven per cent in public opinion polls. Lewis, speaking for the party at a press scrum that day: "The information we do have, showed a situation of criminal acts and criminal conspiracy in Quebec. But, there is no information that there was unintended, or apprehended, or planned insurrection, which alone, would justify invoking the War Measures Act." Douglas voiced similar criticism: "The government, I submit, is using a sledgehammer to crack a peanut."
About five years later, many of the MPs who voted to implement it regretted doing so, and belatedly honoured Douglas and Lewis for their stand against it. Progressive Conservative leader Robert Stanfield went so far as to say that, "Quite frankly, I've admired Tommy Douglas and David Lewis, and those fellows in the NDP for having the courage to vote against that, although they took a lot of abuse at the time ... I don't brood about it. I'm not proud of it."
Late career and retirement
Douglas resigned as NDP leader in 1971, but retained his seat in the House of Commons. Around the same time as the leadership convention held to replace him, he asked the party not to buy him an elaborate parting gift. Instead, he and his friend and political mentor M. J. Coldwell were honoured by the party with the creation of the Douglas–Coldwell Foundation in 1971. He served as the NDP's energy critic under the new leader, David Lewis. He was re-elected in the riding of Nanaimo–Cowichan–The Islands in the 1972 and 1974 elections. He retired from politics in 1979 and served on the board of directors of Husky Oil, an Alberta oil and gas exploration company that had holdings in Saskatchewan.
In 1980, Douglas was awarded a Doctor of Laws degree honoris causa by Carleton University in Ottawa. On 22 June 1981, Douglas was appointed to the Order of Canada as a Companion for his service as a political leader, and innovator in public policy. In 1985, he was appointed to the Saskatchewan Order of Merit and Brandon University created a students' union building in honour of Douglas and his old friend, Stanley Knowles.
In June 1984, Douglas was injured when he was struck by a bus, but he quickly recovered and on his 80th birthday he claimed to The Globe and Mail that he usually walked up to five miles a day. By this point in his life his memory was beginning to slow down and he stopped accepting speaking engagements but remained active in the Douglas–Coldwell Foundation. Later that year, on 30 November, he became a member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada.
Douglas died of cancer on 24 February 1986, at the age of 81 in Ottawa and was buried at Beechwood Cemetery.
In a national TV contest, conducted by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) in 2004, he was crowned "Greatest Canadian" by viewers in an online vote.
Tributes
Douglas Provincial Park near Saskatchewan's Lake Diefenbaker and Qu'Appelle River Dam was named after him. The statue The Greatest Canadian, created by Lea Vivot, was erected in his hometown of Weyburn in September 2010 and unveiled by his grandson Kiefer Sutherland. A library located in Burnaby, British Columbia, was named in his honour and had its soft opening on 17 November 2009. Several schools have been named after him, including Tommy Douglas Collegiate in Saskatoon, and a student housing co-op in Toronto, Campus Co-operative Residences, named one of their houses after him as well. The Tommy Douglas Secondary School in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada named in his honour opened in February 2015. Internationally the former National Labor College in Silver Spring, Maryland, was renamed the Tommy Douglas Center after its purchase by the Amalgamated Transit Union in 2014. In March 2019, a plaque commemorating Douglas as the "Father of Medicare" was revealed in Regina, Saskatchewan.
Artistic depiction
In the two CBC Television mini-series about Pierre Trudeau, Trudeau and Trudeau II: Maverick in the Making, Douglas is portrayed by Eric Peterson. In the biography mini-series, Prairie Giant: The Tommy Douglas Story, which aired on 12 and 13 March 2006, also on CBC, Douglas was played by Michael Therriault. The movie was widely derided by critics as being historically inaccurate. Particularly, the movie's portrayal of James Gardiner, premier of Saskatchewan from the late 1920s to mid-1930s, was objected to by political historians and the Gardiner family itself. In response, the CBC consulted a "third party historian" to review the film and pulled it from future broadcasts, including halting all home and educational sales. Prairie Giant was shown in Asia on the Hallmark Channel on 11 and 12 June 2007.
Douglas was also the subject of a 1986 National Film Board of Canada documentary Tommy Douglas: Keeper of the Flame, which received the Gemini Award for Best Writing in a Documentary Program or Series. Douglas was mentioned in the Michael Moore documentary Sicko, which compared the health care system in the United States with that of Canada and other countries.
Fables
"The Cream Separator" is a fable, written by Douglas, which aims to explain the inherent injustices of the capitalist system as it relates to the agricultural sector by making the analogy that the upper class gets the cream, the middle class gets the whole milk, and the farmers and industrial workers get a watery substance that barely resembles milk.
He was also known for his retelling of the fable of "Mouseland", which likens the majority of voters to mice, and how they either elect black or white cats as their politicians, but never their own mice: meaning that workers and their general interests were not being served by electing wealthy politicians from the Liberal or Conservative parties (black and white cats), and that only a party from their class (mice), originally the CCF, later the NDP, could serve their interests (mice). Years later, his grandson, television actor Kiefer Sutherland, provided the introduction to a Mouseland animated video that used a Douglas Mouseland speech as its narration.
Electoral history
Saskatchewan general elections, 1944 to 1960
Douglas led the CCF in five general elections: 1944, 1948, 1952, 1956 and 1960. He won a majority government each time.
1944 General election
The 1944 election was one of the most lopsided in Saskatchewan history. The CCF won 47 seats in the Legislative Assembly, with the Liberals reduced to only five seats.
1 Member of the federal Parliament until shortly before the election was called; Premier after election.
2 Premier when election was called; Leader of the Opposition after election.
3 Rounds to zero.
1948 General election
Douglas led the CCF in the 1948 election, and again won a majority, but with a much reduced seat count. The Liberals made significant comeback under a new leader, Walter Tucker, but remained the Official Opposition.
1 Premier when election was called; Premier after election.
2 Leader of the Opposition when election was called; Leader of the Opposition after election.
1952 General election
In his third general election, Douglas again led the CCF to a majority government, with an increased seat count from the 1948 election. The Liberals remained the Official Opposition.
1 Premier when election was called; Premier after election.
2 Leader of the Opposition when election was called; Leader of the Opposition after election.
1956 General election
In his fourth general election, Douglas again led the CCF to a majority government, with a reduced seat count from the 1952 election. The Liberals remained the Official Opposition, with a new leader, Alexander Hamilton McDonald.
1 Premier when election was called; Premier after election.
2 Leader of the Opposition when election was called; Leader of the Opposition after election.
1960 General election
In his fifth and last general election, Douglas again led the CCF to a majority government. The Liberals remained the Official Opposition under a new leader, Ross Thatcher.
1 Premier when election was called; Premier after election.
2 Leader of the Saskatchewan Liberal Party without seat in the Assembly when election called; Leader of the Opposition after election.
Saskatchewan constituency elections, 1934 to 1960
Douglas stood for election to the Legislative Assembly in six general elections, all in the constituency of Weyburn. He was defeated in his first election, in 1934, but was elected in the five general elections from 1944 to 1960.
1934 General election: Weyburn
E Elected.
X Incumbent.
1944 General election: Weyburn
E Elected.
1948 General election: Weyburn
E Elected.
X Incumbent.
1952 General election: Weyburn
E Elected.
X Incumbent.
1956 General election: Weyburn
E Elected.
X Incumbent.
1960 General election: Weyburn
X Elected.
X Incumbent.
1 Rounding error.
Federal general elections, 1962 to 1968
In 1961, Douglas was elected the first leader of the federal New Democratic Party (NDP). He led the NDP in four federal general elections: 1962, 1963, 1965 and 1968. The NDP under his leadership was a smaller party in the House of Commons.
1962 General election
In his first general election as leader of the NDP, Douglas more than doubled the seats won by the NDP, winning nineteen seats, compared to the eight seats won by the CCF in the 1958 election. Douglas was defeated in his own bid for a seat in Regina City, but won a by-election shortly afterwards in Burnaby—Coquitlam.
1 Prime Minister when election was called; Prime Minister after election.
2 Leader of the Opposition when election was called; Leader of the Opposition after the election.
3 Table does not include parties which received votes but did not elect any members.
1963 General election
Less than a year after the 1962 election, Diefenbaker's minority government fell on a motion of non-confidence, triggering the dissolution of Parliament and a general election. Douglas and the NDP held steady in their seat count.
1 Leader of the Opposition when election was called; Prime Minister after election.
2 Prime Minister when election was called; Leader of the Opposition after the election.
3 Table does not include parties which received votes but did not elect any members.
1965 General election
After two years of minority government, Pearson called an election. The result was another hung parliament. The NDP came third in the seat count.
1 Prime Minister when election was called; Prime Minister after election.
2 Leader of the Opposition when election was called; Leader of the Opposition after the election.
3 Table does not include parties which received votes but did not elect any members.
1968 General election
In his last general election as leader, the NDP held steady in seats, but Douglas was himself defeated in his own seat. He won a by-election shortly afterward in the riding of Nanaimo—Cowichan—The Islands and re-entered Parliament.
1 Prime Minister when election was called; Prime Minister after election.
2 Leader of the Opposition when election was called; Leader of the Opposition after the election.
3 Table does not include parties which received votes but did not elect any members.
Federal constituency elections, 1935 to 1940, 1962 to 1974
Douglas stood for election to the House of Common ten times, in two different provinces (Saskatchewan and British Columbia), and in five different ridings. He was elected eight times and defeated twice.
1935 General election: Weyburn
E Elected.
X Incumbent.
1940 General election: Weyburn
E Elected.
X Incumbent.
1962 General election: Regina City
E Elected.
X Incumbent.
1 Rounding error.
1962 By-election: Burnaby—Coquitlam
The by-election was triggered by the resignation of the incumbent NDP member, Erhart Regier, to allow Douglas, the party leader, to win a seat in the House of Commons.
E Elected.
1963 General Election: Burnaby—Coquitlam
E Elected.
X Incumbent.
1965 General Election: Burnaby—Coquitlam
E Elected.
X Incumbent.
1968 General Election: Burnaby—Seymour
E Elected.
X Incumbent (before redistribution).
1969 By-election: Nanaimo—Cowichan—The Islands
By-election was triggered by the death of the incumbent NDP member, Colin Cameron, on July 28, 1968.
E Elected.
1 Rounding error.
1972 General Election: Nanaimo—Cowichan—The Islands
E Elected.
X Incumbent.
Party leadership conventions
1942 Saskatchewan CCF leadership convention
In 1942, Douglas challenged George Hara Williams, the leader of the Saskatchewan Section of the CCF for the provincial leadership. He defeated Williams and became provincial leader.
1943 Saskatchewan CCF leadership challenge
In 1943, Douglas in turn was challenged for the leadership of the Saskatchewan CCF, by John Brockelbank. Douglas defeated the challenge.
1961 Federal NDP leadership
In 1961, Douglas contested the leadership of the federal New Democratic Party, the successor to the CCF. He defeated Hazen Argue by a vote of 1,391 to 380, to become the first leader of the party.
Honorary degrees
Douglas received honorary degrees from several universities, including
University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan (LLD) in 1962
McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario (LLD) in May 1969
Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario (LLD) on 27 May 1972
University of Regina in Regina, Saskatchewan in 1978
Carleton University in Ottawa, Ontario (LLD) in 1980
University of Toronto in Toronto, Ontario (LLD) in June 1980
University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, (LLD) 27 May 1981
Trent University in Peterborough, Ontario (LLD) in 1983
Notes
Archives
There are Tommy Douglas fonds at Library and Archives Canada and the Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Tommy Douglas and his Government 1944–1960
Biography of Thomas Clement Douglas
CBC Digital Archives – Tommy Douglas and the NDP
Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan
Douglas Provincial Park
1904 births
1986 deaths
Canadian Baptist ministers
Canadian eugenicists
Brandon University alumni
British emigrants to Canada
Canadian Christian socialists
Baptist socialists
Canadian activists
Canadian anti-poverty activists
Co-operative Commonwealth Federation MPs
20th-century Canadian politicians
Companions of the Order of Canada
Leaders of the Saskatchewan CCF/NDP
McMaster University alumni
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from British Columbia
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Saskatchewan
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Members of the Saskatchewan Order of Merit
NDP and CCF leaders
New Democratic Party MPs
People from Falkirk
Politicians from Brandon, Manitoba
Politicians from Winnipeg
Premiers of Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan Co-operative Commonwealth Federation MLAs
Scottish Christian socialists
Scottish Baptist ministers
Scottish emigrants to Canada
Deaths from cancer in Ontario
Typesetters
20th-century Baptist ministers
Royal Canadian Geographical Society fellows
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Burials at Beechwood Cemetery (Ottawa)
|
[
-0.6533054113388062,
0.035698410123586655,
-0.1462828367948532,
0.04315457120537758,
-0.35376009345054626,
0.6389763355255127,
0.764662504196167,
0.11901069432497025,
-0.3586251437664032,
0.01679791882634163,
0.06545991450548172,
0.1950027048587799,
-0.4106209874153137,
0.2358226329088211,
-0.15807974338531494,
0.4404931664466858,
-0.1252651959657669,
-0.09653370082378387,
-0.8594765067100525,
-0.2374987006187439,
-0.4871802031993866,
-0.6214647889137268,
0.6721757054328918,
0.5686925053596497,
-0.19213663041591644,
0.8201693296432495,
0.1090710237622261,
0.11737638711929321,
-0.29751262068748474,
0.304318904876709,
-0.24472147226333618,
-0.19381801784038544,
0.8139040470123291,
-0.1404932737350464,
-0.2638326585292816,
-0.2068168818950653,
-0.3371829688549042,
-0.5396079421043396,
-0.38076648116111755,
0.18394309282302856,
-0.3452361524105072,
-0.12394706904888153,
0.10285115242004395,
-0.04187457263469696,
0.21577496826648712,
-0.5155383348464966,
-1.6434869766235352,
0.20618946850299835,
0.003950050566345453,
-0.15929049253463745,
-0.31192654371261597,
0.46870681643486023,
0.2832653224468231,
-0.41802626848220825,
0.2548251748085022,
-0.05412645265460014,
-0.046496402472257614,
-0.18785423040390015,
-0.5660200715065002,
-0.6660487055778503,
-0.2743341028690338,
-0.20152698457241058,
0.7174555659294128,
0.04868260398507118,
0.35154497623443604,
0.02047158218920231,
0.052382759749889374,
0.3658727705478668,
-0.2033301293849945,
0.11014723032712936,
0.4820941686630249,
0.6725816130638123,
0.3708035945892334,
0.14893949031829834,
0.40723827481269836,
-0.26979872584342957,
0.349534809589386,
-0.08063606917858124,
0.27048447728157043,
0.30094286799430847,
-0.38049712777137756,
-0.4244336187839508,
0.21389462053775787,
0.6638945937156677,
0.008046938106417656,
0.026752950623631477,
-0.5589542984962463,
0.7974691390991211,
-0.3605026304721832,
-0.6418439745903015,
-1.112937569618225,
-0.41227662563323975,
-0.05450468510389328,
0.1268754005432129,
-0.8916321396827698,
-0.18878710269927979,
0.200502410531044,
0.25201791524887085,
-0.032605044543743134,
-0.3618479371070862,
0.3725491166114807,
0.010012024082243443,
0.36966922879219055,
-0.4208022654056549,
-0.9257158637046814,
0.24111595749855042,
-0.20512691140174866,
0.013690587133169174,
-0.44184720516204834,
-0.2929666340351105,
-0.7314544320106506,
-0.20732279121875763,
0.27390924096107483,
0.1246582642197609,
0.7122346758842468,
0.26952627301216125,
-0.04687061905860901,
-0.25965747237205505,
-0.28650227189064026,
-0.05999293178319931,
-0.2838553190231323,
-0.1468658745288849,
-0.6646550893783569,
0.2147846668958664,
-0.6800912022590637,
0.10023842006921768,
-0.3013911843299866,
-0.03930291160941124,
-0.1415494829416275,
0.14969515800476074,
0.46694809198379517,
0.6949350833892822,
-0.7970108389854431,
-0.1856871247291565,
-0.566665530204773,
0.474472314119339,
0.09258312731981277,
0.055779989808797836,
-0.2058584839105606,
-0.049133215099573135,
-0.5072346329689026,
0.12750206887722015,
-0.09230576455593109,
-0.48542502522468567,
-0.26769623160362244,
-0.12659837305545807,
-0.5091953873634338,
-0.1078014224767685,
-0.23968222737312317,
-0.15911754965782166,
0.4504745602607727,
0.3740367889404297,
0.42370325326919556,
-0.6076399087905884,
-0.38908737897872925,
1.1744059324264526,
-0.016812358051538467,
0.336129754781723,
0.14614032208919525,
0.005182770546525717,
0.21184580028057098,
0.268363356590271,
-0.11897751688957214,
0.5137786865234375,
0.5617679357528687,
0.12236709892749786,
-0.3040269911289215,
-0.5557366013526917,
0.14798736572265625,
-0.16974301636219025,
0.5058884024620056,
0.2510394752025604,
0.3712638020515442,
-0.02724812552332878,
0.17659002542495728,
0.30830156803131104,
0.41504204273223877,
-0.027575010433793068,
-0.06504066288471222,
-0.6790294051170349,
-1.0730085372924805,
-0.09963995218276978,
0.05094251409173012,
-0.21898886561393738,
-0.007326018065214157,
0.5373392105102539,
0.2434857040643692,
-0.22928555309772491,
0.8071781396865845,
-0.1632407307624817,
-0.10336089879274368,
-1.1125637292861938,
-0.25333526730537415,
-0.7915946841239929,
0.7471338510513306,
0.13546405732631683,
0.02485606074333191,
0.5699418783187866,
0.029953664168715477,
0.680284857749939,
-0.30929306149482727,
-0.1422734409570694,
0.4179238975048065,
-0.21412158012390137,
0.3846060633659363,
0.5913870334625244,
0.1643180102109909,
0.372110515832901,
0.5913945436477661,
0.8529726266860962,
0.1406080424785614,
-0.6793960332870483,
-0.5732400417327881,
0.6232932806015015,
-0.5298957824707031,
-0.6825368404388428,
-0.47395142912864685,
-0.48584285378456116,
0.14099396765232086,
0.025637110695242882,
0.2077879160642624,
0.4523962736129761,
-0.5833468437194824,
0.7778690457344055,
0.15099014341831207,
1.281636357307434,
0.2711699903011322,
0.0035379650071263313,
-0.24021196365356445,
-0.4042385220527649,
-0.10442449152469635,
0.6174212098121643,
-0.14059250056743622,
-0.6442739367485046,
-0.005049513652920723,
-0.030955160036683083,
0.19666585326194763,
0.38345301151275635,
-0.2139202207326889,
-0.44146010279655457,
-0.089059978723526,
0.21763040125370026,
-0.6032494902610779,
-0.025312138721346855,
0.17827701568603516,
0.36100056767463684,
-0.5276832580566406,
-0.1087137758731842,
0.39116498827934265,
0.07414593547582626,
0.3888252377510071,
0.354072630405426,
0.7087129950523376,
0.022542070597410202,
0.600190281867981,
-0.11353062093257904,
0.0637819916009903,
-0.48733121156692505,
-0.03573799878358841,
0.9030112624168396,
0.15544156730175018,
0.13122466206550598,
-0.11768242716789246,
0.23658853769302368,
0.45556187629699707,
0.1876337230205536,
-0.35601282119750977,
0.019415119662880898,
-0.21187268197536469,
-0.3150976598262787,
-0.1314237415790558,
-0.4362930357456207,
-0.277823269367218,
0.27047061920166016,
0.38017114996910095,
0.23811279237270355,
-0.31418055295944214,
0.034940242767333984,
-0.4088211953639984,
-0.9330162405967712,
0.38776761293411255,
1.0609201192855835,
-0.590091347694397,
-0.27650758624076843,
0.09862665086984634,
0.5581963062286377,
-0.7956250309944153,
-0.30823948979377747,
0.46695438027381897,
-0.7970980405807495,
-0.2721119225025177,
0.33950796723365784,
-0.30745306611061096,
0.05608605220913887,
-0.6120031476020813,
0.1937347948551178,
0.21780100464820862,
-0.18202368915081024,
0.6383402347564697,
-0.20906555652618408,
-0.27120551466941833,
-0.061738271266222,
-0.18390469253063202,
0.2359594851732254,
0.48864954710006714,
0.24167604744434357,
-0.47371095418930054,
-0.6683606505393982,
-5.570321083068848,
0.07930400967597961,
-0.20897074043750763,
-1.0204100608825684,
1.0694750547409058,
-0.01763325370848179,
0.3288828134536743,
-0.3666912019252777,
0.6225278973579407,
-0.003353165928274393,
0.07777687162160873,
-0.1678711324930191,
0.05285435542464256,
0.3121161460876465,
0.8166025876998901,
-0.08126581460237503,
0.5174702405929565,
-0.8803090453147888,
0.7541470527648926,
-0.004070917144417763,
0.5054723024368286,
-0.2559419870376587,
-0.3461867570877075,
0.3590103089809418,
-0.16164612770080566,
0.5183942317962646,
-0.06729276478290558,
0.08688661456108093,
-0.7214858531951904,
-0.16502338647842407,
-0.04877458140254021,
0.2421669214963913,
-0.20448976755142212,
0.24797722697257996,
-0.42354723811149597,
-0.5910237431526184,
0.2805303633213043,
0.21404185891151428,
0.22652237117290497,
-0.3061947226524353,
0.03910505399107933,
-0.160807803273201,
-0.4195014238357544,
-0.03019777685403824,
0.18044933676719666,
-0.511191725730896,
-0.44291067123413086,
-0.19683940708637238,
-0.6656638979911804,
0.7568268775939941,
0.3587564527988434,
0.4066373407840729,
0.6287842988967896,
-0.07410120964050293,
0.1259109228849411,
-0.10681717842817307,
0.10256092995405197,
-0.23605036735534668,
-0.8003442883491516,
0.45129549503326416,
0.31841740012168884,
-0.19673699140548706,
-0.39030489325523376,
-0.33998340368270874,
-0.5279778838157654,
-0.1336287558078766,
-0.10342133045196533,
0.14513836801052094,
0.6258988380432129,
-0.5714913606643677,
-0.22151881456375122,
0.36570414900779724,
-0.30846723914146423,
-1.04522705078125,
0.09956952929496765,
-0.1746893674135208,
-0.42892804741859436,
0.6743381023406982,
-0.40192946791648865,
-0.503884494304657,
0.08352548629045486,
-0.12092150747776031,
0.09653264284133911,
0.3109573423862457,
0.13802805542945862,
0.2519374489784241,
-0.24480170011520386,
0.7169397473335266,
0.5205848217010498,
-0.35356611013412476,
0.44927239418029785,
-0.6129646897315979,
0.4390254318714142,
0.1780724823474884,
0.5649207830429077,
-0.06947896629571915,
-0.03710116818547249,
0.10135670751333237,
-0.03392266482114792,
-0.17216457426548004,
-0.8006901144981384,
0.07060838490724564,
0.0012275173794478178,
-0.7975709438323975,
-0.19581930339336395,
-0.3057120442390442,
-0.317310094833374,
0.13946379721164703,
-0.11036143451929092,
0.6462494730949402,
-0.024598468095064163,
0.33654823899269104,
-0.6971871256828308,
-0.1880580335855484,
0.290941059589386,
-0.10871383547782898,
0.03865078464150429,
-0.022223690524697304,
0.7120993733406067,
0.3872808814048767,
0.04882065951824188,
-0.23888011276721954,
-0.036536674946546555,
0.5405425429344177,
0.1149791032075882,
-0.09974922984838486,
0.2714727222919464,
0.05468091741204262,
0.012606723234057426,
-0.09572780132293701,
0.3577876389026642,
0.5225650072097778,
0.27502474188804626,
0.275799423456192,
-0.2231997698545456,
-0.09868255257606506,
-0.04914030060172081,
-0.35482436418533325,
-0.38506773114204407,
-0.3294697701931,
-0.1638907939195633,
0.09165258705615997,
-0.018690738826990128,
0.344495952129364,
-0.27800506353378296,
0.02185860462486744,
0.02560478448867798,
0.49622562527656555,
-0.13334384560585022,
0.490436315536499,
-0.2708202004432678,
-0.45189690589904785,
0.9123573303222656,
-0.5829464793205261,
0.02845112420618534,
-0.09998780488967896,
-0.5452196598052979,
-0.07737157493829727,
0.04594820737838745,
-0.40871739387512207,
-0.1452374905347824,
0.16484223306179047,
-0.9103109240531921,
-0.11283402889966965,
0.24120710790157318,
0.30329418182373047,
-0.3234351873397827,
-0.30701079964637756,
0.3917471766471863,
0.9433100819587708,
0.3102104067802429,
-0.22435536980628967,
-0.2860619127750397,
-0.037936870008707047,
0.48156481981277466,
-0.3484938442707062,
0.012664065696299076,
-0.42035219073295593,
-0.0039759110659360886,
-0.025713002309203148,
0.466207355260849,
0.5002028942108154,
-0.38510236144065857,
0.245096817612648,
0.821800708770752,
-0.49302056431770325,
-0.7346104979515076,
-0.5915099382400513,
0.3488275110721588,
0.40146109461784363,
0.6736211776733398,
-0.0537971556186676,
-0.09323308616876602,
0.8292984366416931,
-0.14591282606124878,
0.16879743337631226,
0.07446298003196716,
-0.4704620838165283,
-0.21192118525505066,
0.13694919645786285,
-0.06745807826519012,
-0.0719933733344078,
0.08729248493909836,
-0.3130701184272766,
0.38625797629356384,
-0.9141547679901123,
-0.06554826349020004,
-0.1957819014787674,
-0.29524266719818115,
0.24450357258319855,
0.4090575873851776,
-0.09075209498405457,
0.035893287509679794,
-0.0486602820456028,
-0.2918952405452728,
0.3725322484970093,
0.048557136207818985,
0.2272428721189499,
-0.6393975615501404,
-0.5471990704536438,
-0.7702736258506775,
-0.38515183329582214,
-0.08408968895673752,
-0.025966016575694084,
-0.19906418025493622,
-0.511391818523407,
0.10434842109680176,
0.24532254040241241,
0.7275261878967285,
-0.22972503304481506,
-0.13807158172130585,
-0.2735847532749176,
0.17530806362628937,
0.21283748745918274,
-0.10483065247535706,
0.12481958419084549,
0.1667914241552353,
0.6429468989372253,
-0.11910688877105713,
0.19526775181293488,
0.4679372310638428,
1.3034734725952148,
0.49772948026657104,
-0.5255624651908875,
0.16702231764793396,
-0.41339194774627686,
0.44487857818603516,
-0.7586292624473572,
-0.13769446313381195,
0.2870945632457733,
0.6769781112670898,
0.054445505142211914,
-0.4937259554862976,
-0.15925715863704681,
0.625259518623352,
-0.08971851319074631,
-0.23322546482086182,
0.13000982999801636,
0.5112053155899048,
0.10649736225605011,
-0.4585148096084595,
0.09615311026573181,
-0.04810851439833641,
0.21081440150737762,
0.1744586080312729,
0.5652373433113098,
-0.3875562250614166,
-0.3406189978122711,
0.1940521001815796,
-0.4894907772541046,
-1.2144454717636108,
-0.3154734969139099,
0.31579944491386414,
0.21212340891361237,
-0.40459004044532776,
-0.01430972944945097,
0.29966309666633606,
-0.35049691796302795,
-0.12304139137268066,
-0.2859767973423004,
-0.605877697467804,
0.21142137050628662,
0.0968795120716095,
0.00777010153979063,
-0.735701858997345,
-0.416306734085083,
0.14467404782772064,
-0.18935641646385193,
-0.13888122141361237,
-0.07297328114509583,
-0.520270049571991,
0.6310795545578003,
-0.07871898263692856,
-0.2212192565202713,
-0.3610832095146179,
-0.2753206789493561,
-0.15990333259105682,
1.1160749197006226,
-0.03681298717856407,
0.05959932506084442,
-0.2188120037317276,
0.5980139970779419,
0.5931236147880554,
0.05577640235424042,
-0.3465041220188141,
-0.09267327934503555,
-0.14682261645793915,
-0.6378908157348633,
-0.3502735197544098,
0.26956865191459656,
0.8295077085494995,
-0.020427146926522255,
0.04228225350379944,
-0.051163699477910995,
-0.9294582009315491,
-0.14323019981384277,
0.6288282871246338,
-0.8017995953559875,
-0.1659749150276184,
-0.10700460523366928,
0.0497925691306591,
0.7927107810974121,
-0.0028553884476423264,
0.015612445771694183,
0.27606165409088135,
0.4324887990951538,
0.0788986086845398,
0.1549667865037918,
0.009030763059854507,
0.02818525955080986,
-0.14354397356510162,
0.0012885509058833122,
-0.04185939580202103,
0.6589171886444092,
-0.408226877450943,
-0.11046941578388214,
0.5259143114089966,
-0.6223088502883911,
0.13225479423999786,
0.5144155025482178,
0.04432402551174164,
1.0869072675704956,
0.014150155708193779,
0.13099898397922516,
0.6045812964439392,
0.3527900278568268,
0.24181731045246124,
-0.25373512506484985,
0.06895001232624054,
0.19170555472373962,
0.5572246313095093,
-0.015373836271464825,
-0.17994815111160278,
-0.8712517023086548,
-0.14060258865356445,
0.34768128395080566,
0.6005602478981018,
-0.035601235926151276,
-0.06252534687519073,
0.29087549448013306,
0.036658525466918945,
-0.25922179222106934,
0.9837274551391602,
0.25415316224098206,
-0.13091641664505005,
-0.003051888197660446,
0.49009233713150024,
-0.43721288442611694,
0.2207038700580597,
0.5772914290428162,
0.10404624044895172,
-0.42313921451568604,
-0.573632001876831,
-0.03912784159183502,
0.02322480082511902,
-0.14764951169490814,
0.8378303647041321,
-0.09890956431627274,
-0.4454607665538788,
0.5727669596672058,
-0.10240454971790314,
0.8508023023605347,
-0.26715579628944397,
-0.31654995679855347,
-0.05974481254816055,
0.27741044759750366,
-0.0575113482773304,
0.3421997129917145,
-0.23561905324459076,
-0.33086147904396057,
0.4138704240322113,
-0.41739052534103394,
-0.21390977501869202,
0.34551572799682617,
-0.080221027135849,
-0.14509494602680206,
-0.4498986601829529,
0.1853625327348709,
0.9214516282081604,
0.5655927062034607,
-0.1520468294620514,
0.06466622650623322,
-0.07726982980966568,
0.3041282892227173,
-0.17296725511550903,
0.5438336730003357,
-0.08410841226577759,
-0.07983144372701645,
-0.3813536763191223,
0.24979785084724426,
-0.16233192384243011,
1.1246731281280518,
-0.4584585428237915,
-0.1446945071220398,
-0.28169068694114685,
-0.4323248267173767,
0.7583658695220947,
-0.3725511133670807,
-0.2594493329524994,
-0.2598618268966675,
0.18263916671276093,
-0.2136407047510147,
0.6084365248680115,
0.2351599633693695,
-0.41813355684280396,
-0.12100169062614441,
0.29170462489128113,
-0.010929352603852749,
-0.3814864158630371,
0.367191880941391,
0.3732846677303314,
-0.4664932191371918,
-0.48376402258872986,
0.1668652445077896,
-0.04199691489338875,
-0.36672550439834595,
0.19730207324028015,
0.29428917169570923,
0.587303102016449,
-0.3911688029766083,
0.5993530750274658,
0.2744116187095642,
0.1896994709968567,
-0.1856054961681366,
-0.1255844384431839,
0.12093484401702881,
0.23753660917282104,
-0.2577923536300659,
-0.3517877459526062,
-0.10187401622533798,
-0.35879042744636536,
-0.5256766080856323,
0.1516033262014389,
-0.7053235173225403,
0.5045098662376404,
-0.37713903188705444,
-0.09266282618045807,
0.0823969617486,
0.04091281443834305,
-0.07135337591171265
] |
213149
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai%20Noon
|
Shanghai Noon
|
Shanghai Noon is a 2000 martial arts Western comedy film starring Jackie Chan, Owen Wilson and Lucy Liu. The first in the Shanghai film series and marking the directorial debut of Tom Dey, Shanghai Noon was written by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar. The film was a commercial success.
The film, set in Nevada and other parts of the American West in the 19th century, is a juxtaposition of a Western with a kung fu action film with extended martial arts sequences, as reflected by its title, which is a wordplay on the iconic western High Noon. It also has elements of comedy and the "Buddy cop film" genre, featuring two vastly different heroes (a Chinese Imperial Guard and an American Western outlaw) who team up to stop a crime. It is reminiscent of the iconic drama film of the genre from which it is largely inspired: Red Sun, with Charles Bronson (Wanted Cowboy) and Toshiro Mifune (Imperial Samuraï), but in the comedy register.
It was partially filmed in the Canadian Badlands, near Drumheller, Alberta, Canada, near Exshaw, Alberta, and also near Cochrane, Alberta. A sequel, Shanghai Knights, was released in 2003, with David Dobkin as director.
Plot
In 1881, Chon Wang – a homophone for John Wayne – is a Chinese Imperial Guard in the Forbidden City. After Princess Pei-Pei, aided by her foreign tutor, runs away to the United States, the Emperor of China sends three of his guards and the Royal Interpreter to retrieve her. Having failed to stop her escape, Wang insists on joining the mission. The Royal Interpreter, Wang's uncle, allows him to accompany the party, and the Captain of the Imperial Guards hopes the "foreign devils" will get rid of Wang. The party arrives in Nevada, where outlaw Roy O'Bannon and his gang hijack their train. Wallace, a new member of Roy's gang, kills Wang's uncle, and Wang, a skilled martial artist, fights off the gang before uncoupling the train cars and escaping on the engine. Wallace takes over the gang, leaving Roy buried up to his chin in the desert. Meanwhile, Pei-Pei, tricked into believing she was freely escaping her arranged marriage in China, learns she has been kidnapped by an agent of Lo Fong, a traitor who fled the Forbidden City.
Wang finds Roy and demands to know the direction to Carson City. Roy tells him the city is on the other side of a mountain, and Wang leaves two chopsticks in Roy's mouth to dig himself out. Reaching the other side of the mountain, Wang saves a Sioux boy from the Crow tribe and half-consciously marries the Sioux chief's daughter, Falling Leaves, during the wild celebrations. Wang finds a small town and encounters Roy in a tavern, inciting a barroom brawl. The two are sent to jail, and share each other's stories. Tempted by mention of the gold ransom, Roy offers to help Wang find the princess. After Falling Leaves helps them escape, Roy trains Wang in the ways of the cowboy, assisted by Falling Leaves.
In Carson City, Roy discovers that both he and Wang are wanted by Lo Fong's ally Marshal Nathan Van Cleef, narrowly escaping capture. They reach Roy’s "hideout” (a bordello), and bond with each other while recuperating there. They are arrested by Van Cleef after a drunken encounter with Wang, and discover that Lo Fong is behind the princess’ abduction. As they are about to be hanged, Wang frees himself, Falling Leaves shoots Roy loose, and they escape. Wang, upset at overhearing Roy tell a prostitute he is not Wang's friend, rides off alone. He finds Pei-Pei in Lo Fong's labor camp, but she wishes to stay and help the enslaved Chinese laborers. Lo Fong discovers Wang and attacks him, but Roy appears, saving Wang.
The next day, the Imperial Guards bring gold to the Carson City Mission church to ransom Pei-Pei from Lo Fong, but the exchange is complicated by the appearance of Wang and Roy. Wang tells his fellow guards he will not allow them to take the princess against her wishes. As the guards and Lo Fong fight, Van Cleef arrives and engages Roy in a gunfight. Roy survives unscathed, and shoots Van Cleef through his sheriff's star, killing him. Wang fights the Imperial Guards as Lo Fong chases Pei-Pei through the rafters of the church, but Wang convinces his guards to let him go to Pei-Pei’s aid instead. Wang and Lo Fong reach the bell tower, and Pei-Pei is wounded. Wang dismantles the bell, causing the ropes to strangle Lo Fong to death. The Imperial Guards agree to let Pei-Pei remain in Nevada, and reward Wang and Roy with the ransom gold.
Wallace and his gang arrive at the church, and demand that Roy and Wang come out and fight, but find themselves surrounded by the Sioux. At a Chinese cultural celebration, Roy shares a passionate kiss with Falling Leaves while Pei-Pei embraces Wang. Wang and Roy, who reveals his real name to be Wyatt Earp, become sheriffs and ride off after a new band of train robbers.
Cast
Jackie Chan as Chon Wang
Owen Wilson as Roy O'Bannon / Wyatt Earp
Lucy Liu as Princess Pei-Pei
Brandon Merrill as Indian Wife / Falling Leaves
Xander Berkeley as Marshal Nathan Van Cleef
Roger Yuan as Lo Fong
Kate Luyben as Fifi
Jason Connery as Calvin Andrews
Simon R. Baker as Little Feather
Walton Goggins as Wallace
Henry O as Royal Interpreter
Yu Rongguang as Imperial Guard Rong Guang Yu
Eric Chen as Imperial Guard Eric Chi Cheng Chen
Yuen Biao as Saloon Fighter (uncredited)
Box office
Produced at a budget of $55 million, the film grossed $99,274,467. The film opened in third place at the North American box office grossing USD$19.6 million in its opening weekend behind Dinosaur and Mission: Impossible 2.
Reception
Shanghai Noon was well received by critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 79% "certified fresh", based on 135 reviews with an average rating of 6.6/10. The site's consensus reads: "Although the plot is really nothing to brag about, Jackie Chan and Owen Wilson work well together. The cinematography looks great, and Jackie delivers a hilarious performance. This is an old-fashioned crowd-pleaser." On Metacritic it has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 30 reviews. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "A-" on scale of A to F.
Joe Leydon of Variety gave Shanghai Noon a favorable review, characterizing it as "Fast, furious and, quite often, very, very funny." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote: "If you see only one martial arts Western this year (and there is probably an excellent chance of that), this is the one."
Sequel
A sequel, Shanghai Knights, was released on February 7, 2003.
See also
The Fighting Fist of Shanghai Joe
Red Sun
Jackie Chan filmography
List of martial arts films
Notes
References
External links
2000 films
2000 action comedy films
2000 comedy films
2000 directorial debut films
2000 martial arts films
2000s Western (genre) comedy films
2000s buddy comedy films
2000s buddy films
2000s martial arts comedy films
American Western (genre) comedy films
American action comedy films
American buddy films
American films
Asian-American action films
Asian-American comedy films
Chinese-American films
English-language films
Films directed by Tom Dey
Films produced by Roger Birnbaum
Films scored by Randy Edelman
Films set in China
Films set in Nevada
Films set in the 1880s
Kung fu films
Mandarin-language films
Shanghai (film series)
Spyglass Entertainment films
Touchstone Pictures films
|
[
-0.2585151195526123,
0.2706620395183563,
-0.3336634933948517,
-0.15964530408382416,
0.2330823391675949,
-0.1420617550611496,
-0.06270276755094528,
0.12588541209697723,
0.10483922064304352,
0.1871764063835144,
-0.03817219287157059,
0.07699885964393616,
-0.0017063830746337771,
-0.19094695150852203,
0.09108986705541611,
-0.3423284888267517,
0.5314763784408569,
0.21125541627407074,
-0.13721808791160583,
-0.35514533519744873,
-0.33181485533714294,
-0.6493093371391296,
0.2915136218070984,
-0.08332107216119766,
-0.6988269090652466,
0.3223021626472473,
-0.21979975700378418,
0.5760606527328491,
0.3242317736148834,
-0.1066516861319542,
-0.10286928713321686,
0.3581668734550476,
0.48355257511138916,
0.20752862095832825,
0.08238674700260162,
0.31321394443511963,
-0.19917219877243042,
0.2577997148036957,
-0.12222765386104584,
-0.3357204496860504,
0.040848102420568466,
0.04118162766098976,
0.3880363702774048,
0.15390783548355103,
-0.05327446758747101,
-0.4270298480987549,
-1.293065071105957,
-0.11682425439357758,
-1.024915099143982,
-0.5760392546653748,
0.1430584043264389,
0.750296950340271,
0.4890182316303253,
0.25711825489997864,
-0.1796083152294159,
0.3827251195907593,
-0.9910508394241333,
-0.17169417440891266,
-0.06615965813398361,
-0.09944093972444534,
0.31607410311698914,
0.08478183299303055,
0.3444746136665344,
0.19241029024124146,
0.09000234305858612,
-0.03428325057029724,
0.03401700407266617,
0.07860100269317627,
0.6347774863243103,
-0.43141093850135803,
0.792059600353241,
0.34877023100852966,
-0.3227440416812897,
0.19728052616119385,
-0.4366361200809479,
-0.22023533284664154,
0.057471632957458496,
0.040284182876348495,
-0.36907339096069336,
0.27112752199172974,
-0.30033087730407715,
-0.6450537443161011,
1.1517423391342163,
0.5603852868080139,
-0.15153002738952637,
-0.3795180320739746,
0.11511893570423126,
0.1616882085800171,
-0.2705059349536896,
0.5728068947792053,
-0.48164334893226624,
0.10551508516073227,
0.0444435216486454,
0.41876423358917236,
-0.29536885023117065,
0.005320836324244738,
-0.3687206506729126,
0.5154784917831421,
0.4923344552516937,
-0.2631196081638336,
0.25644007325172424,
0.041076160967350006,
0.4846120774745941,
-0.4597618877887726,
-0.6237819194793701,
-0.2947377562522888,
0.09782039374113083,
-0.4375174939632416,
0.023680586367845535,
0.03701092302799225,
-0.5287624001502991,
0.16917529702186584,
0.0127070602029562,
0.0752328485250473,
0.2375657558441162,
-0.23031774163246155,
0.18452893197536469,
-0.35276737809181213,
-0.163423553109169,
-0.6939888000488281,
0.18540418148040771,
0.18474800884723663,
-0.15067757666110992,
0.4423406720161438,
0.4710656702518463,
0.6361922025680542,
0.2654823064804077,
0.3689587116241455,
0.17952373623847961,
0.4988870322704315,
0.05936737358570099,
0.15111880004405975,
-0.49748924374580383,
-0.08266440778970718,
0.0473506860435009,
-0.34643885493278503,
0.13430730998516083,
0.01732492633163929,
0.08444469422101974,
-0.15087197721004486,
-0.45057106018066406,
0.1213042214512825,
0.08293155580759048,
0.10183332115411758,
0.11597662419080734,
0.2752286195755005,
-0.20055796205997467,
-0.8560720682144165,
-0.22214868664741516,
-0.42848995327949524,
-0.11196292191743851,
0.18045233190059662,
-0.3288807272911072,
-0.4222961664199829,
-0.2983029782772064,
0.6552317142486572,
0.7901527881622314,
-0.46693798899650574,
-0.2817675471305847,
0.230990931391716,
0.16651996970176697,
-0.3506952226161957,
-0.36332425475120544,
-0.1503806710243225,
0.40929558873176575,
-0.10456603020429611,
0.5876781344413757,
0.1473296880722046,
-0.02098059467971325,
-0.2917642891407013,
-0.515436053276062,
0.13410545885562897,
0.04174795374274254,
-0.1655101627111435,
-0.3281807005405426,
0.03948858752846718,
0.3918697237968445,
0.4284713566303253,
0.0028638667427003384,
0.1926015466451645,
-0.6863795518875122,
0.857262134552002,
0.41430360078811646,
0.29405537247657776,
0.6070505380630493,
0.18032243847846985,
-0.2287907600402832,
0.3524055480957031,
-0.12845076620578766,
0.3874467611312866,
-0.16219671070575714,
-0.2637860178947449,
0.2901601493358612,
0.06377286463975906,
0.10085071623325348,
0.21871516108512878,
0.005328447557985783,
0.4403325319290161,
-0.024116234853863716,
0.13285936415195465,
-0.19356060028076172,
-0.044224776327610016,
0.31747111678123474,
0.40178239345550537,
-0.7726992964744568,
-0.21761095523834229,
0.4760124683380127,
0.5505748987197876,
-0.2496122419834137,
0.47114840149879456,
-0.3915683925151825,
-0.35007011890411377,
-0.21701349318027496,
0.4699677526950836,
0.2449391633272171,
-0.10460644215345383,
-0.755559504032135,
-0.25475138425827026,
-0.02367418445646763,
-0.2835099399089813,
0.4402904808521271,
-0.03259642794728279,
-0.40299174189567566,
0.22350488603115082,
0.30501073598861694,
1.166911005973816,
0.362901508808136,
0.17845162749290466,
-0.24828162789344788,
-0.1969967484474182,
0.07375693321228027,
0.1856628954410553,
-0.1189722865819931,
-0.05799584090709686,
0.6001999378204346,
0.07569921016693115,
0.5799458622932434,
-0.3464118540287018,
0.1708376556634903,
-0.5057737231254578,
0.2387944608926773,
0.009609542787075043,
-0.2608169615268707,
0.21000294387340546,
0.03083939477801323,
-0.07163958996534348,
-0.08842849731445312,
0.02410554513335228,
-0.39118900895118713,
-0.38759684562683105,
0.3258746862411499,
0.29397332668304443,
0.3366539180278778,
0.010849054902791977,
0.08360303938388824,
-0.4510538578033447,
0.015424721874296665,
-0.130787193775177,
0.5507092475891113,
-0.3102327585220337,
0.5071339011192322,
-0.05986879765987396,
0.7034186124801636,
0.14532402157783508,
-0.25164759159088135,
-0.20309074223041534,
-0.10763122141361237,
-0.578420877456665,
-0.01404541451483965,
0.31774309277534485,
0.1985584795475006,
-0.03932198882102966,
-0.2554735541343689,
0.23458272218704224,
-0.1554289162158966,
-0.2929733991622925,
-0.772254228591919,
0.13646946847438812,
-0.4092111885547638,
-0.3415687382221222,
0.2633342146873474,
0.49184924364089966,
0.0331176295876503,
-0.5119621753692627,
-0.22705714404582977,
-0.2282547950744629,
-0.6474472284317017,
0.028918378055095673,
-0.06281670928001404,
-0.30260491371154785,
-0.4403078556060791,
0.29886817932128906,
-0.11456720530986786,
-0.025538282468914986,
-0.12398301810026169,
-0.04160643741488457,
-0.26197800040245056,
0.25062426924705505,
0.11827042698860168,
0.4223865866661072,
0.18566541373729706,
0.5195547938346863,
0.02094794064760208,
-0.02775835059583187,
0.3436080515384674,
-0.022214729338884354,
0.22795400023460388,
-0.24336403608322144,
-6.091470718383789,
0.4420788288116455,
0.6049426198005676,
0.26239657402038574,
-0.19474177062511444,
-0.08774740993976593,
0.21290984749794006,
-0.45038172602653503,
-0.04283460974693298,
0.5349624752998352,
-0.2909223735332489,
-0.155959814786911,
0.1490129679441452,
-0.19952000677585602,
0.027585461735725403,
0.024210168048739433,
-0.2844683527946472,
-0.8381856679916382,
0.4911562204360962,
0.031195668503642082,
-0.5066190958023071,
-0.16637103259563446,
0.11757761240005493,
0.35978683829307556,
-0.1544789969921112,
0.44766348600387573,
0.050488002598285675,
0.12164270877838135,
-0.5901780128479004,
-0.16451258957386017,
-0.2529628276824951,
-0.0928754210472107,
0.03477535396814346,
0.2600252032279968,
-0.09682955592870712,
-0.33693623542785645,
0.09528422355651855,
-0.4297071099281311,
-0.008376382291316986,
-0.27811184525489807,
-0.10096137970685959,
0.23743726313114166,
-0.4317989945411682,
-0.07930590212345123,
0.6678078770637512,
-0.27819564938545227,
0.33634209632873535,
-0.3125976324081421,
-0.3250221312046051,
0.4534143805503845,
0.5366759300231934,
0.10539444535970688,
-0.07066947221755981,
-0.24496375024318695,
0.09387264400720596,
0.2824094891548157,
-0.1504427045583725,
-0.33677586913108826,
-0.3069494664669037,
-0.00221449276432395,
0.1382603794336319,
-0.19917534291744232,
0.057970546185970306,
0.24835890531539917,
0.1513630449771881,
0.21440525352954865,
0.3240210711956024,
-0.2973390817642212,
-0.31687116622924805,
0.2613679766654968,
-0.14390115439891815,
0.3337821960449219,
0.2744330167770386,
-0.8884725570678711,
0.028116300702095032,
-0.03692629560828209,
-0.4925404489040375,
0.5035499334335327,
-0.19752848148345947,
-0.18353137373924255,
-0.07621809095144272,
-0.13760067522525787,
0.7969953417778015,
0.1360485702753067,
0.6041671633720398,
-0.07136605679988861,
-0.10093540698289871,
0.2237759828567505,
0.21746760606765747,
0.4698902368545532,
0.6299819350242615,
-0.473908394575119,
0.12687575817108154,
0.39131325483322144,
0.45091956853866577,
0.39361968636512756,
0.20187509059906006,
0.1698063611984253,
0.3383348286151886,
-0.014835823327302933,
-0.2160191386938095,
-0.3062096834182739,
-0.10404906421899796,
0.09022990614175797,
-0.09447616338729858,
-0.3046519458293915,
0.9757583141326904,
0.6908172965049744,
0.4914875030517578,
-0.16566289961338043,
-0.08061961084604263,
0.08380898088216782,
-0.045136258006095886,
0.2341846376657486,
0.579292893409729,
-0.1750727742910385,
-0.4909241497516632,
0.0640118271112442,
-0.044447507709264755,
0.1979387253522873,
-0.17655499279499054,
0.6066396832466125,
-0.1953718662261963,
-0.12250968813896179,
0.13264507055282593,
-0.1788356602191925,
-0.11710470914840698,
0.4005749821662903,
-0.05584016814827919,
0.13803234696388245,
-0.29091590642929077,
-0.10347584635019302,
0.3785351514816284,
0.012525543570518494,
0.1795918494462967,
-0.40974318981170654,
-0.9890052080154419,
-0.20180681347846985,
-0.12968796491622925,
0.4549892246723175,
0.21224872767925262,
0.29435229301452637,
0.03316585719585419,
0.41979342699050903,
0.29950806498527527,
-0.2639767825603485,
-0.34890615940093994,
-0.757770299911499,
-0.19869154691696167,
0.4153628647327423,
0.037929411977529526,
-0.7291210889816284,
0.7491886615753174,
-0.31332650780677795,
-0.39667391777038574,
0.47146549820899963,
0.10091239213943481,
0.022587861865758896,
0.014798975549638271,
0.5516741871833801,
0.7874007821083069,
-0.1788686364889145,
-0.601373016834259,
0.07073766738176346,
-0.4960266649723053,
-0.42243361473083496,
0.11616026610136032,
-0.04290517792105675,
-0.6024036407470703,
0.10930665582418442,
0.3777225613594055,
-0.06765328347682953,
-0.11343733221292496,
0.33541256189346313,
-0.024067675694823265,
-0.0026098473463207483,
-0.11297603696584702,
0.3078942894935608,
0.08738286048173904,
-0.06528031826019287,
-0.12300849705934525,
-0.028882239013910294,
-0.31729453802108765,
0.02755771391093731,
0.46565720438957214,
0.033213432878255844,
-0.43099483847618103,
-0.05320752412080765,
-0.36766767501831055,
0.24637261033058167,
0.2817530035972595,
0.3946855366230011,
-0.026817847043275833,
0.32086870074272156,
-0.03174861893057823,
-1.0367752313613892,
0.2065451741218567,
0.36459317803382874,
0.0022416082210838795,
-0.018826322630047798,
-0.027691060677170753,
0.07330036163330078,
-0.39560991525650024,
0.1649385690689087,
0.6574180126190186,
-0.4067283868789673,
-0.15463308990001678,
0.17962485551834106,
0.10744375735521317,
-0.059498995542526245,
-0.474409282207489,
-0.60054612159729,
0.040662821382284164,
-0.34183254837989807,
-0.15944533050060272,
-0.18530353903770447,
0.3734873831272125,
-0.241850346326828,
-0.14648589491844177,
-0.24203838407993317,
-0.010458999313414097,
0.06897985935211182,
-0.5790362358093262,
-0.5987184643745422,
-0.8333261013031006,
0.17360934615135193,
0.2689730226993561,
-0.1978098750114441,
-0.06606762111186981,
-0.44120779633522034,
-0.44656801223754883,
0.0540996752679348,
0.29348933696746826,
0.4674997329711914,
0.17704683542251587,
-0.4287233054637909,
-0.2604820132255554,
-0.13804446160793304,
-0.09435033798217773,
0.47389617562294006,
-0.13738173246383667,
0.4020087718963623,
-0.06520137935876846,
0.38586747646331787,
0.021542808040976524,
0.5356075763702393,
0.108026422560215,
-0.2477237582206726,
-0.535530686378479,
-0.26865360140800476,
0.46587586402893066,
-0.2057976871728897,
-0.4268636703491211,
-0.07889004796743393,
-0.24508748948574066,
-1.4894866943359375,
-0.22539713978767395,
0.04951450973749161,
-0.31097814440727234,
0.010267584584653378,
-0.677025318145752,
-0.21628327667713165,
-0.3892240524291992,
-0.6178083419799805,
0.09047799557447433,
0.822018563747406,
0.14334487915039062,
0.11771449446678162,
-0.5499555468559265,
-0.03915322944521904,
0.035977914929389954,
-0.6037507653236389,
0.06068002060055733,
0.5649018287658691,
-0.01518947072327137,
0.030797112733125687,
-0.6578946113586426,
-0.110521100461483,
-0.4299663305282593,
-0.35703039169311523,
-0.12950274348258972,
0.04799289628863335,
-0.19602426886558533,
-0.593992292881012,
-0.293055921792984,
-0.36407992243766785,
0.5509370565414429,
-0.5708701014518738,
0.21024398505687714,
0.5005351901054382,
-0.63463294506073,
-0.1380457878112793,
-0.09540431946516037,
-0.039513010531663895,
0.16910535097122192,
0.20980411767959595,
0.8405832648277283,
0.618419885635376,
-0.876959502696991,
-0.26515039801597595,
-0.3009568750858307,
0.3177429735660553,
0.282289057970047,
-0.07665599882602692,
-0.2615329325199127,
-0.18755735456943512,
0.11781294643878937,
-0.8342791795730591,
-0.06143675372004509,
0.6235224008560181,
0.2637844383716583,
-0.11390971392393112,
0.019046595320105553,
0.5091609954833984,
-0.10578291118144989,
0.5390554070472717,
0.19205251336097717,
-0.05547674372792244,
-0.2856045961380005,
0.39429643750190735,
-0.017797110602259636,
-0.2891850769519806,
0.45918408036231995,
-0.21075208485126495,
-0.12739551067352295,
0.10799626260995865,
0.22172914445400238,
0.210552379488945,
0.1644488275051117,
0.6009970307350159,
0.06350775808095932,
0.12712763249874115,
0.32589083909988403,
0.027766181156039238,
0.2484801709651947,
-0.35656213760375977,
-0.026059040799736977,
-0.6232138276100159,
0.16430066525936127,
-0.019686801359057426,
0.6267969012260437,
0.43791481852531433,
-0.39921835064888,
0.061780866235494614,
0.9761513471603394,
-0.1893213391304016,
0.31242507696151733,
0.11668558418750763,
-0.019607925787568092,
-0.09415031224489212,
0.30287110805511475,
0.34296536445617676,
0.05963005870580673,
-1.0290679931640625,
1.1080505847930908,
-0.14290376007556915,
-0.847633957862854,
0.3148955702781677,
0.4601942002773285,
0.04910068213939667,
-0.2748876214027405,
-0.1992078274488449,
0.501652181148529,
0.04713093489408493,
0.08733008056879044,
0.022025423124432564,
-0.6209995746612549,
0.06292953342199326,
-0.25562575459480286,
0.33776330947875977,
-0.5172228813171387,
0.10679110884666443,
0.1713966429233551,
0.06569357961416245,
0.3442761301994324,
0.08406101912260056,
-0.24214623868465424,
0.22231417894363403,
-0.05289435386657715,
0.036305174231529236,
-0.49893099069595337,
0.18483799695968628,
-0.38258984684944153,
-0.417173832654953,
0.2732316255569458,
0.33244091272354126,
-0.43950340151786804,
0.04504261165857315,
-0.3198113441467285,
-0.5301181077957153,
0.5227851867675781,
-0.06784506142139435,
0.13543348014354706,
0.018154872581362724,
-0.1273295283317566,
-0.41492876410484314,
-0.7046374082565308,
0.15559661388397217,
0.08214553445577621,
0.2956404685974121,
0.27649933099746704,
0.3943158686161041,
0.11026721447706223,
0.8644402623176575,
0.04621795564889908,
-0.015160059556365013,
-0.8469789028167725,
0.13540755212306976,
-0.8580962419509888,
0.32281753420829773,
0.4628829061985016,
0.0305099505931139,
-0.2530565857887268,
0.6004692912101746,
-0.10170406103134155,
0.050454579293727875,
0.26149994134902954,
0.16722775995731354,
0.03361133113503456,
-0.5029005408287048,
-0.9515352845191956,
-0.42720723152160645,
0.4863269329071045,
-0.11284366995096207,
-0.006158092059195042,
0.18376041948795319,
0.012544170953333378,
-0.5902237892150879,
0.03798780217766762,
0.41492587327957153,
-0.11026833951473236,
0.7151708006858826,
-0.057757798582315445,
-0.16882368922233582,
0.020296597853302956,
-0.4838767945766449,
0.8189364075660706,
0.6293438673019409,
0.41977810859680176,
-0.09764687716960907,
0.12248507887125015,
0.39616599678993225,
-0.15990911424160004,
-0.07183557748794556,
0.21624737977981567,
-0.26092368364334106,
0.019622009247541428,
0.06334447115659714,
-0.6548815965652466,
0.26480990648269653,
0.10700644552707672,
-0.3760199248790741,
0.13164971768856049,
-0.5279846787452698,
-0.4007914960384369,
0.20648497343063354,
0.08954965323209763,
0.0036270541604608297,
0.32656216621398926,
-0.6496239304542542
] |
213154
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerealia
|
Cerealia
|
In ancient Roman religion, the Cerealia was the major festival celebrated for the grain goddess Ceres. It was held for seven days from mid- to late April, but the dates are uncertain.
The festival may have been founded as early as the Regal period. Its archaic nature is indicated by a nighttime ritual described by Ovid. Blazing torches were tied to the tails of live foxes, who were released into the Circus Maximus. The origin and purpose of this ritual is unknown; it may have been intended to cleanse the growing crops and protect them from disease and vermin, or to add warmth and vitality to their growth. Ovid offers an aetiological explanation: long ago, at ancient Carleoli, a farm-boy caught a fox stealing chickens and tried to burn it alive. The fox escaped, ablaze; in its flight it set the fields and their crops, which were sacred to Ceres, on fire. Ever since, foxes are punished at her festival.
The Ludi Ceriales or "Games of Ceres" were held as part of the festival in the Circus Maximus. Ovid mentions that Ceres' search for her lost daughter Proserpina was represented by women clothed in white, running about with lighted torches.
During the Republican era, the Cerealia was organised by the plebeian aediles, Ceres being one of the patron deities of the plebs or common people. The festival included ludi circenses, circus games. These opened with a horse race in the Circus Maximus, with a starting point just below the Aventine Temple of Ceres, Liber and Libera. After around 175 BC, the Cerealia included ludi scaenici, theatrical performances, held April 12–18. The plebeian aedile Gaius Memmius is credited with staging the first of these ludi scaenici. He also distributed a new commemorative denarius coin in honor of the event. His innovations led to his claiming to have presented "the first Cerealia.
See also
Roman festivals
Eleusinian mysteries
References
External links
Lacus Curtius site:William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1875: Cerealia
A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890)
Ancient Roman festivals
April observances
Recurring sporting events established before 1750
Religious festivals in Italy
Festivals of Demeter
|
[
-0.059605762362480164,
0.009945969097316265,
-0.4633009135723114,
-0.1099231168627739,
-0.2880033254623413,
1.1032392978668213,
0.4008622169494629,
1.2088021039962769,
-0.621039628982544,
-0.490283340215683,
0.1679581254720688,
0.31611379981040955,
0.26838403940200806,
0.8501237034797668,
-0.45960429310798645,
0.3699758052825928,
-0.10242029279470444,
0.6444216370582581,
0.6126917600631714,
0.2790582776069641,
0.3455648422241211,
-0.30235040187835693,
0.1734529435634613,
0.09833160042762756,
0.10471393913030624,
-0.22397975623607635,
0.38514620065689087,
0.7378571033477783,
-0.08458738774061203,
-0.5750459432601929,
-0.18918520212173462,
0.5144911408424377,
0.6785218119621277,
0.02154848538339138,
-0.19488979876041412,
-0.46452292799949646,
0.2770165205001831,
-0.30531489849090576,
-0.20779956877231598,
-0.34973323345184326,
-0.07396190613508224,
-0.47315022349357605,
0.5247287750244141,
-0.08831518143415451,
-0.652006983757019,
-0.1143316850066185,
-1.3225654363632202,
0.5244976282119751,
-0.7886547446250916,
-0.026575859636068344,
-0.10071519762277603,
0.411945641040802,
0.12553942203521729,
0.18421690165996552,
0.29728028178215027,
1.3525540828704834,
-0.9795547127723694,
0.07414213567972183,
0.7264326214790344,
0.03756299614906311,
0.3313024044036865,
0.2818329334259033,
0.06810116767883301,
0.3689138889312744,
0.001845190767198801,
-0.2730697691440582,
-0.06286608427762985,
0.757701575756073,
-0.07155109941959381,
-0.6339722871780396,
-0.7046647071838379,
-0.7016027569770813,
-0.5652701258659363,
0.47728466987609863,
-0.45740100741386414,
-0.8441990613937378,
-0.2387598752975464,
-0.4489539563655853,
0.1658235639333725,
0.002330819144845009,
-0.08078519254922867,
-0.1668500155210495,
0.6517965197563171,
0.2831208109855652,
0.519927442073822,
0.6307985186576843,
-0.2925698757171631,
-0.0922517478466034,
-0.47592073678970337,
0.13532452285289764,
-0.30467793345451355,
0.5560804605484009,
0.775887131690979,
-0.0037815046962350607,
-0.6515651941299438,
-0.09097589552402496,
-0.18447844684123993,
-0.2770407199859619,
0.3539162874221802,
0.07640418410301208,
-0.7960386872291565,
-0.08322557806968689,
0.08006080240011215,
0.21919269859790802,
-0.5352458357810974,
0.24094729125499725,
-0.3491474390029907,
-0.9611223936080933,
-0.35019057989120483,
-0.01644112542271614,
0.2268536239862442,
0.002750948304310441,
0.22453366219997406,
0.6678758859634399,
-0.526629626750946,
0.3162696361541748,
-0.3953934907913208,
-0.2592863142490387,
-0.9438848495483398,
-0.2672625184059143,
0.5089331865310669,
0.14864221215248108,
0.6044802069664001,
0.18846248090267181,
-0.6138896346092224,
-0.26797229051589966,
0.4813409745693207,
0.5086187720298767,
-0.46244141459465027,
0.5339727997779846,
1.08637535572052,
0.2525518238544464,
-0.47964268922805786,
-0.027153287082910538,
0.1402694433927536,
-0.36843135952949524,
-0.041979219764471054,
0.1363784223794937,
0.37019190192222595,
0.3090531826019287,
-1.3066082000732422,
-0.2645268142223358,
-0.05599987506866455,
0.20305190980434418,
-0.2671141028404236,
-0.570243239402771,
0.1160033643245697,
-0.1471014767885208,
-0.44879812002182007,
-0.1007872149348259,
0.4343193769454956,
-0.42503634095191956,
0.1282011717557907,
0.018068674951791763,
-0.3178870677947998,
0.613389790058136,
-0.2182302623987198,
0.5536606907844543,
-0.2421116828918457,
0.46393463015556335,
-0.1473752111196518,
0.23740386962890625,
-0.22866562008857727,
-0.2786460220813751,
0.04846024885773659,
0.012153086252510548,
0.38717296719551086,
0.27874886989593506,
-0.12786005437374115,
0.4442984461784363,
-0.36346307396888733,
0.33319494128227234,
0.05713668465614319,
0.04491802677512169,
-0.6171858906745911,
-0.15635529160499573,
0.8954653143882751,
0.13492581248283386,
0.5357062220573425,
0.4099522531032562,
-0.36235010623931885,
0.3070460259914398,
0.3747616410255432,
0.2469213753938675,
-0.11453085392713547,
-0.46468931436538696,
0.0387127511203289,
-0.7878767848014832,
-0.16798852384090424,
-0.40562504529953003,
-1.3327345848083496,
0.4107063114643097,
-0.31945985555648804,
-0.7541542053222656,
0.6628630757331848,
-0.3226238787174225,
-0.6575413346290588,
0.3347056806087494,
0.05531138926744461,
0.11284253746271133,
-0.5032503008842468,
-0.19865329563617706,
0.3521167039871216,
-0.6683976054191589,
-0.6485058069229126,
0.29450714588165283,
-0.2765873372554779,
-0.14072948694229126,
0.3580818176269531,
0.6379855871200562,
-0.44975921511650085,
0.10277607291936874,
0.6514717936515808,
-0.3568548560142517,
0.22944961488246918,
0.19025088846683502,
-0.39977434277534485,
0.483775794506073,
0.0867229774594307,
-0.5091051459312439,
0.10493218153715134,
-0.7310165762901306,
-0.34626877307891846,
0.06466019153594971,
0.12819752097129822,
-0.007103904150426388,
0.41838711500167847,
-0.011611225083470345,
0.06970637291669846,
-0.0691235139966011,
0.09333495795726776,
0.3860880434513092,
1.0144414901733398,
-0.635487973690033,
-0.5649628043174744,
0.07716859132051468,
-0.16111904382705688,
0.21455779671669006,
-0.3963654637336731,
-0.5318598747253418,
0.1203041672706604,
0.20101188123226166,
-0.1532442718744278,
-0.4957982897758484,
-0.15199540555477142,
-0.14589029550552368,
0.24741317331790924,
0.1065291166305542,
0.2677626609802246,
-0.43850916624069214,
0.6416956782341003,
0.5096518993377686,
0.4790275990962982,
-0.059336304664611816,
0.06231851130723953,
-0.4614686071872711,
0.13045859336853027,
0.24485021829605103,
0.845332145690918,
0.3858575224876404,
-0.13486316800117493,
0.0471872054040432,
0.6616848707199097,
-0.490022212266922,
0.8372761607170105,
-0.1985398381948471,
-0.12223543226718903,
-0.29997125267982483,
-0.4789433479309082,
0.2013022005558014,
0.4366445541381836,
0.19473475217819214,
0.06614731252193451,
0.21262085437774658,
0.29287663102149963,
-0.9568412899971008,
0.08324240893125534,
0.31818705797195435,
-0.485805481672287,
-0.522249162197113,
-0.16574037075042725,
0.15068687498569489,
-0.1445399969816208,
-0.2706281542778015,
-0.5416155457496643,
-0.14678768813610077,
-0.29237982630729675,
-0.277785986661911,
0.2499956488609314,
-0.15656818449497223,
0.16978764533996582,
0.20847269892692566,
-0.7855908274650574,
-0.0027000943664461374,
0.2403278797864914,
0.3719133138656616,
-0.36171337962150574,
-0.11782766133546829,
0.7713059782981873,
-0.7678292989730835,
0.4190281331539154,
0.6805935502052307,
0.13077320158481598,
0.2147688865661621,
0.19283054769039154,
-0.0375145822763443,
-0.3322644531726837,
-0.2243461161851883,
-5.294456958770752,
-0.3978238105773926,
-0.023324813693761826,
-0.08163437992334366,
0.5419790744781494,
0.4077012240886688,
0.26984331011772156,
0.2803223431110382,
0.7248545289039612,
-0.1772041618824005,
0.6116437315940857,
-0.27942579984664917,
-0.4585205912590027,
0.5428857803344727,
0.7347845435142517,
0.3948063850402832,
0.4172683656215668,
-0.7623681426048279,
0.37618502974510193,
0.28531643748283386,
0.21330419182777405,
0.269432932138443,
-0.6121662855148315,
0.8935695886611938,
-0.9404478073120117,
-0.1737421154975891,
-0.3806721270084381,
0.30784931778907776,
-0.8216300010681152,
0.5443301796913147,
0.27472472190856934,
-0.30811959505081177,
0.07379608601331711,
-0.6612942218780518,
-0.20977379381656647,
0.7340728044509888,
0.12927046418190002,
-0.4022080600261688,
0.42206498980522156,
0.18905049562454224,
-0.052649274468421936,
0.06569767743349075,
0.26469096541404724,
0.2743256092071533,
0.05450395867228508,
-0.1310468465089798,
-0.39992237091064453,
0.2037680596113205,
-0.08875934779644012,
0.8932521343231201,
-0.058282963931560516,
0.4166232645511627,
-0.037156183272600174,
0.16400352120399475,
-0.24821345508098602,
0.5733249187469482,
0.22485385835170746,
0.4790162444114685,
-0.42412716150283813,
-0.02138679474592209,
0.17606371641159058,
-0.2853029668331146,
0.09193876385688782,
-0.3560042083263397,
-0.19591127336025238,
0.07973060011863708,
-0.9030961990356445,
0.3192153573036194,
-0.25214239954948425,
0.36444389820098877,
-0.09551995247602463,
-0.012355177663266659,
-0.197276771068573,
-0.9024361968040466,
0.07388424128293991,
-0.43956103920936584,
-0.6066010594367981,
-0.029956962913274765,
-0.23337127268314362,
0.781859815120697,
0.3097916841506958,
-0.729752242565155,
0.3331874907016754,
-0.2583718001842499,
0.39163467288017273,
0.07397593557834625,
0.32118719816207886,
-0.7231059670448303,
-0.7582367658615112,
-0.3027111887931824,
0.4808844327926636,
-0.44102364778518677,
0.10922326892614365,
0.6928846836090088,
0.10228996723890305,
0.8307516574859619,
-0.654904842376709,
-0.3323664963245392,
0.7384235858917236,
0.040657855570316315,
0.23009656369686127,
0.15136347711086273,
0.3247474730014801,
0.42152753472328186,
-0.5598488450050354,
-0.5067213773727417,
-0.2608746886253357,
0.3526831865310669,
0.2240147888660431,
-0.6236689686775208,
0.09058523178100586,
0.1731984168291092,
-0.6282597184181213,
-0.3315907418727875,
0.3764876425266266,
0.7806108593940735,
0.04180809482932091,
0.8075582385063171,
0.3754393458366394,
0.07282549887895584,
0.35524168610572815,
-0.02567126229405403,
-0.4155840277671814,
-0.5632755160331726,
0.11512390524148941,
-0.17360739409923553,
0.2918435335159302,
-0.2291223704814911,
0.2774330973625183,
0.19557712972164154,
-0.10195894539356232,
-0.3447202146053314,
-0.45336586236953735,
0.31822043657302856,
0.5586867332458496,
0.2991248667240143,
-0.2932242155075073,
-0.06370440125465393,
-0.7188172340393066,
-0.37839773297309875,
-0.20928901433944702,
-0.37103623151779175,
-0.17828035354614258,
0.008963999338448048,
0.3976884186267853,
0.5904857516288757,
-0.1537400186061859,
-0.35015082359313965,
-0.29186365008354187,
0.2507612407207489,
0.1837064027786255,
0.5402194857597351,
-0.00440988689661026,
-0.20708045363426208,
-0.9667011499404907,
-0.1464308500289917,
0.7416691184043884,
0.5011358857154846,
-0.22783005237579346,
-0.5875527262687683,
-0.35782095789909363,
-0.9762512445449829,
-1.490216851234436,
0.09471997618675232,
-0.33593112230300903,
0.22765515744686127,
-0.33067402243614197,
-0.5560296177864075,
0.19288188219070435,
0.5201432704925537,
-0.23561614751815796,
-0.10287190973758698,
-0.11709262430667877,
0.34411385655403137,
0.4508795440196991,
-0.19850927591323853,
0.22681136429309845,
-0.6052377820014954,
-0.028738562017679214,
0.33304300904273987,
-0.3396076261997223,
-0.14308114349842072,
-0.4718908369541168,
-0.5421822667121887,
-0.11424979567527771,
-0.5305418968200684,
-0.29908913373947144,
-0.45775294303894043,
-0.5783031582832336,
-0.006664182059466839,
-0.40153899788856506,
-0.4252708852291107,
0.585386335849762,
0.08173885196447372,
-0.1716475635766983,
-0.3776590824127197,
-0.2882169783115387,
-0.044183943420648575,
-0.14951562881469727,
-0.7580636143684387,
-0.15226179361343384,
-0.03167710825800896,
-1.0080784559249878,
0.09799312800168991,
-0.11782890558242798,
-0.5077244639396667,
0.45587316155433655,
-0.17650106549263,
-0.490707665681839,
0.23814187943935394,
-0.4063018560409546,
-0.5709035992622375,
0.16637709736824036,
1.25905179977417,
-0.10355719923973083,
-0.030268477275967598,
-0.5979927182197571,
0.6478112936019897,
0.3782932460308075,
-0.24895721673965454,
-0.20022451877593994,
-0.2732025980949402,
-0.4153602719306946,
-0.6126829981803894,
-0.44947171211242676,
0.8755826950073242,
0.645689070224762,
-0.6074057221412659,
-0.044516660273075104,
0.16294847428798676,
0.9072772264480591,
0.049707163125276566,
0.10200753808021545,
-0.09739275276660919,
-0.29309865832328796,
-0.04326062649488449,
0.12398628890514374,
-0.037439487874507904,
0.1710227131843567,
0.21343576908111572,
0.6175613403320312,
0.2816901206970215,
0.39948415756225586,
-0.12921345233917236,
0.040651943534612656,
0.4734016954898834,
0.42708948254585266,
-0.33937472105026245,
0.10981427133083344,
0.16019207239151,
-0.3579866886138916,
-0.0391351617872715,
-0.4679648280143738,
-0.026911193504929543,
0.32980993390083313,
-0.6970646381378174,
-0.23413196206092834,
0.27367720007896423,
0.26354458928108215,
-0.2880088686943054,
0.5996095538139343,
0.18508115410804749,
0.2603031396865845,
0.408793568611145,
-0.06733591109514236,
-0.16215716302394867,
0.23640115559101105,
0.21524153649806976,
0.27101510763168335,
0.04769798740744591,
0.5931412577629089,
-0.6814724206924438,
-0.2992449402809143,
1.1262139081954956,
0.22325386106967926,
0.14555010199546814,
-0.5798866748809814,
-1.0561634302139282,
0.2995644807815552,
-0.23928000032901764,
-0.8021873831748962,
-0.3206932544708252,
0.024270426481962204,
0.1970546841621399,
0.22002765536308289,
-0.9368240237236023,
-0.7644544839859009,
0.12444628030061722,
0.04621605947613716,
0.4019327759742737,
-0.16244319081306458,
0.42157214879989624,
0.36045047640800476,
-0.2714681923389435,
-0.47503578662872314,
0.3346918225288391,
-0.3607276678085327,
0.372519850730896,
-0.02409319579601288,
-0.19001412391662598,
-1.0240966081619263,
0.8475548028945923,
0.7412388920783997,
-0.40724846720695496,
-0.374101847410202,
0.4735834002494812,
0.12996317446231842,
0.31561827659606934,
-0.6481786370277405,
-0.06655678898096085,
-0.48889270424842834,
-0.6527506113052368,
-0.10328291356563568,
0.2206467241048813,
0.16062727570533752,
0.15533475577831268,
0.107473224401474,
-0.23108944296836853,
0.07941652089357376,
0.5250469446182251,
0.7407293915748596,
0.08986425399780273,
0.2822720408439636,
-0.5040417313575745,
0.17763616144657135,
0.7709721922874451,
-0.487576425075531,
0.36625298857688904,
-0.06628064811229706,
-0.17512278258800507,
0.07061061263084412,
-0.20762547850608826,
-0.5968623757362366,
0.7238072156906128,
-0.1529872566461563,
-0.19425049424171448,
-0.10311934351921082,
-0.8278203010559082,
0.3808729946613312,
0.3952418565750122,
0.9102487564086914,
0.16389434039592743,
0.2079343944787979,
0.09762728214263916,
0.2987639307975769,
0.42186543345451355,
-0.26921889185905457,
-0.40161973237991333,
0.3788297772407532,
-0.18775521218776703,
0.16979137063026428,
-0.20815657079219818,
0.5529836416244507,
0.22199887037277222,
0.7555662989616394,
-0.1488327980041504,
0.7328305244445801,
-0.28700748085975647,
-0.2632654905319214,
0.2592981457710266,
0.12243954837322235,
0.3182850778102875,
0.4205518066883087,
0.02866514027118683,
-0.14066733419895172,
0.2023611217737198,
-0.5141660571098328,
-0.6787623167037964,
-0.9900463223457336,
0.2965047061443329,
0.5380098223686218,
-0.12950605154037476,
-0.5545268654823303,
0.63778156042099,
0.7288937568664551,
0.38082921504974365,
0.12079432606697083,
0.5038780570030212,
0.3226832449436188,
0.21220463514328003,
-0.049108490347862244,
-0.3224308490753174,
-0.2563607394695282,
-0.3294309377670288,
-0.9298562407493591,
-0.06322530657052994,
0.012765604071319103,
0.1951543688774109,
-0.005908574443310499,
0.20936423540115356,
0.14195379614830017,
0.35785648226737976,
0.14584694802761078,
-0.3345364034175873,
-0.6481469869613647,
0.5988040566444397,
-0.042911700904369354,
0.6643107533454895,
0.25420525670051575,
-0.20040751993656158,
0.6194329857826233,
-0.21550777554512024,
-0.6319462656974792,
0.5568506717681885,
-0.21036137640476227,
0.05862622708082199,
0.1753341406583786,
0.16067615151405334,
-0.9945254325866699,
0.8908693194389343,
0.5889782309532166,
-0.41878023743629456,
-0.2655044198036194,
0.014560076408088207,
-0.16124969720840454,
-0.8148050904273987,
0.6163156628608704,
-0.4686291515827179,
0.1056627631187439,
-0.574347198009491,
0.8118170499801636,
0.09732471406459808,
0.31507736444473267,
0.39275965094566345,
-0.10877189040184021,
0.032344844192266464,
0.6452590823173523,
0.43026280403137207,
-0.6231195330619812,
0.4076678156852722,
-0.19614417850971222,
0.38546621799468994,
-0.08669492602348328,
0.18548648059368134,
-0.403252512216568,
-0.07399070262908936,
0.3272467851638794,
0.0027802407275885344,
0.0322176069021225,
-0.28194859623908997,
0.6270915269851685,
-0.29457715153694153,
0.0671374723315239,
-0.9868823885917664,
0.2766612768173218,
0.059166815131902695,
0.24465885758399963,
-0.3856201171875,
-0.4202014207839966,
0.338424414396286,
0.07462062686681747,
-0.4426383376121521,
0.29342713952064514,
0.11405301094055176,
0.030071498826146126,
-0.5025596022605896,
0.36861011385917664,
-0.464390367269516,
0.5394986867904663,
-0.23360247910022736
] |
213158
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20humanism%20%28literature%29
|
New humanism (literature)
|
New Humanism was a term applied to a theory of literary criticism, together with its consequences for culture and political thought, developed around 1900 by the American scholar Irving Babbitt and the American literary critic and essayist Paul Elmer More. Babbitt's book Literature and the American College (1908) first gave it a definite form; it was aimed at a perceived gap between the ideals of liberal arts colleges, and university education as it actually existed.
Babbitt himself did not accept the qualification new as applied to his humanism, which became influential as a strand of conservative thought in the following years, up to the 1930s. Other authors associated with the New Humanist group included George Roy Elliott (1883–1963), Norman Foerster (1887–1972) and Stuart Pratt Sherman (1881–1926). Numerous attacks came from outside, especially during the 1920s.
This group was also at times known as The Nation criticism, from More's time editing The Nation from 1909. The adoption by Seward Collins of its philosophy, or some trappings, in his publication The Bookman did something to tarnish it, in a way that external critics had up until then failed to do. Some of the members renounced the approach.
References
Humanism and America: Essays on the Outlook of Modern Civilisation (1930) edited by Norman Foerster
The New Humanism: A Critique of Modern America, 1900–1940 (1977) J. David Hoeveler, Jr.
External links
"Irving Babbitt", in The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition
Literary criticism
|
[
-0.3233831524848938,
0.003646547207608819,
-0.4687751531600952,
0.04532993957400322,
-0.2619103491306305,
0.35801929235458374,
0.46676361560821533,
-0.041351813822984695,
0.2188057005405426,
-0.578169047832489,
-0.3052099645137787,
0.3345799744129181,
-0.2797267436981201,
0.39805710315704346,
0.24483267962932587,
-0.010529423132538795,
0.7943809032440186,
-0.7112990021705627,
-0.0020207453053444624,
-0.06228115037083626,
-0.6632242202758789,
0.149112731218338,
0.6443451642990112,
-0.4509248733520508,
0.33937132358551025,
-0.3725186288356781,
0.6375091075897217,
-0.42189523577690125,
-0.22392985224723816,
0.11316811293363571,
-0.18797865509986877,
0.3030282258987427,
-0.38445860147476196,
-0.11535511165857315,
-0.8442937135696411,
0.2323983907699585,
-0.48193252086639404,
0.00895741581916809,
0.24063082039356232,
-0.2417498379945755,
0.18164093792438507,
0.2742619514465332,
0.13517813384532928,
0.31367725133895874,
-0.4684685170650482,
-0.4565407335758209,
-1.7866183519363403,
0.38980159163475037,
-1.272335410118103,
-0.2782253921031952,
-0.12743809819221497,
0.5137196183204651,
0.4957166910171509,
0.4119308888912201,
-0.7003964781761169,
0.6629142165184021,
-0.6908766627311707,
-0.3886512815952301,
-0.018478263169527054,
-0.6818691492080688,
0.2757105827331543,
0.4148928225040436,
0.09582515805959702,
0.2611817717552185,
0.4050666391849518,
0.3013448715209961,
-0.2563892900943756,
-0.2983640730381012,
-0.35327109694480896,
-0.32696089148521423,
-0.075711190700531,
-0.09905554354190826,
-0.11420641839504242,
0.5772255659103394,
-0.04488103464245796,
-0.0780075266957283,
0.6506989598274231,
-0.1205209419131279,
-0.2035692036151886,
-0.17094939947128296,
-0.7001508474349976,
0.3146055042743683,
0.5737619996070862,
0.07130491733551025,
0.1551360934972763,
-0.1694447547197342,
0.042320169508457184,
0.37485364079475403,
-0.030544066801667213,
-0.34193113446235657,
-0.1906646341085434,
-0.26335322856903076,
0.5085340142250061,
0.40977776050567627,
0.5432239770889282,
0.1453029215335846,
0.6567059755325317,
0.3051622807979584,
-0.549382209777832,
-0.24783988296985626,
-0.25109294056892395,
0.36730945110321045,
0.6682602167129517,
-0.43126970529556274,
-0.530941903591156,
-0.422861248254776,
0.4181521236896515,
-0.7034960985183716,
-0.1499147266149521,
-0.08717824518680573,
-0.4893598258495331,
0.5746124982833862,
-0.012110672891139984,
0.4369746744632721,
0.31651896238327026,
0.336182177066803,
0.12782342731952667,
-0.21010366082191467,
-0.8321077823638916,
0.22492876648902893,
-0.13224734365940094,
0.3247104585170746,
-0.06510045379400253,
0.25848209857940674,
-0.25003349781036377,
-0.21775606274604797,
0.33277109265327454,
0.34582647681236267,
-0.6487998962402344,
-0.024443630129098892,
0.8251879811286926,
0.9868059754371643,
-0.11463344097137451,
-0.20595847070217133,
-0.06690951436758041,
0.022300712764263153,
0.9064940214157104,
0.04315545782446861,
-0.28473779559135437,
0.5956875085830688,
-0.08608710020780563,
-0.26605600118637085,
-0.7046463489532471,
-0.4486002027988434,
0.6988298296928406,
-0.5220258831977844,
0.8014425039291382,
-0.06999193131923676,
-0.3183917999267578,
-0.33431679010391235,
-0.05247281864285469,
0.14811041951179504,
-0.32093045115470886,
0.12004167586565018,
0.46553775668144226,
0.21939748525619507,
0.2960743010044098,
0.34679630398750305,
0.3278815746307373,
0.08559831231832504,
-0.15574310719966888,
0.016532311215996742,
-0.41999003291130066,
-0.21726857125759125,
-0.008019573986530304,
-0.9020268321037292,
-0.05141586810350418,
0.24937579035758972,
0.24282678961753845,
0.20724961161613464,
0.27946606278419495,
-0.21942654252052307,
0.4202309846878052,
-0.06435598433017731,
0.10285826027393341,
0.2119373083114624,
0.8336243629455566,
0.21454553306102753,
0.03414394333958626,
0.3078676462173462,
-0.8801507353782654,
0.5729316473007202,
0.10874572396278381,
-0.6041985750198364,
0.24797207117080688,
-0.22672300040721893,
0.7546129822731018,
0.527768075466156,
0.18809187412261963,
-0.20596574246883392,
-0.5382683873176575,
-0.39512360095977783,
-0.11129558086395264,
-0.4668614864349365,
1.1715964078903198,
0.12083610147237778,
-0.22428837418556213,
2.0975122451782227,
-0.11892465502023697,
0.441418319940567,
0.13779640197753906,
-0.27881038188934326,
0.0034437389113008976,
0.18150441348552704,
0.14375698566436768,
0.025863001123070717,
-0.105037622153759,
0.24025900661945343,
0.06772984564304352,
0.38443443179130554,
0.4790990650653839,
-0.12436621636152267,
0.3456072509288788,
0.01875891536474228,
-0.31923672556877136,
-0.1471301168203354,
0.17869342863559723,
0.17610770463943481,
-0.6655430197715759,
-0.2428189367055893,
0.8492217063903809,
-0.49012327194213867,
0.5751931071281433,
-0.0120200514793396,
-0.07635260373353958,
0.23790843784809113,
0.22871270775794983,
0.06537561863660812,
0.20619964599609375,
-0.5778177380561829,
-0.29357877373695374,
0.27017897367477417,
0.5254141688346863,
-0.3548066020011902,
0.22177822887897491,
0.05270186439156532,
0.006310831755399704,
-0.21172037720680237,
0.17058095335960388,
-0.2081376612186432,
0.31488966941833496,
-0.14399820566177368,
-0.014246813952922821,
0.2470676302909851,
-0.24739710986614227,
0.06321462243795395,
-0.2514743208885193,
0.6205320954322815,
-0.22793838381767273,
0.006811098661273718,
0.08361948281526566,
0.7091256380081177,
0.03941875696182251,
0.06635261327028275,
-0.18475060164928436,
0.007330205757170916,
-0.47427481412887573,
-0.09513048827648163,
0.9509679675102234,
0.005369735416024923,
-0.18116478621959686,
0.15046313405036926,
-0.04547734558582306,
0.09178125113248825,
-0.09821545332670212,
-0.3248679041862488,
0.3434562683105469,
-0.6178465485572815,
0.10722315311431885,
0.2006012201309204,
0.4118163287639618,
0.04639797285199165,
-0.4418801963329315,
0.5052597522735596,
-0.21331217885017395,
-0.5498433113098145,
0.24840210378170013,
-0.11937755346298218,
-0.7882077693939209,
-0.7262611985206604,
-0.29060935974121094,
0.603441596031189,
0.5955080389976501,
-1.0254616737365723,
-0.11535237729549408,
-0.8556143045425415,
0.05815993994474411,
-0.3199470341205597,
0.66631680727005,
0.19166350364685059,
-0.20284278690814972,
0.29098808765411377,
-0.29191938042640686,
-0.8011855483055115,
-0.11103621125221252,
0.33812040090560913,
-0.11543120443820953,
0.37833696603775024,
-0.31248119473457336,
0.1541883945465088,
-0.48778557777404785,
0.39746856689453125,
-0.3699524700641632,
0.5212420225143433,
0.5574455857276917,
0.22792254388332367,
-0.17656883597373962,
0.3346541225910187,
-5.741940021514893,
0.07979704439640045,
-0.16245970129966736,
-0.047026053071022034,
-0.3432396948337555,
0.22527293860912323,
0.5680679678916931,
-0.10986029356718063,
-0.11760030686855316,
-0.4396374225616455,
-0.5952985286712646,
-0.2421368807554245,
-0.10737182945013046,
1.1001394987106323,
0.29901331663131714,
-0.09555178880691528,
-0.35645177960395813,
0.19498200714588165,
-0.37562230229377747,
0.6481618285179138,
0.2580181062221527,
0.12416315823793411,
-0.3310711681842804,
0.387107789516449,
0.5660412311553955,
-0.10108955204486847,
-0.13324493169784546,
0.6843630075454712,
-0.406693696975708,
0.22528259456157684,
0.23646539449691772,
0.0005594035610556602,
0.350159227848053,
-0.2544493079185486,
0.1828068345785141,
0.26880568265914917,
0.277777761220932,
0.27741679549217224,
0.3193947672843933,
0.0990249365568161,
-0.8040443062782288,
0.4216875731945038,
-0.06819198280572891,
0.026533622294664383,
-0.3964623808860779,
0.33131811022758484,
-0.0091709541156888,
0.21810534596443176,
-0.27108779549598694,
0.2670992314815521,
0.007167111616581678,
-0.15881893038749695,
0.47872886061668396,
-0.13579103350639343,
0.4886237680912018,
-0.10550300031900406,
0.5794942378997803,
-0.610511839389801,
-0.7302422523498535,
-0.40555644035339355,
0.5407363772392273,
-0.2593953311443329,
0.012660537846386433,
-0.4066517949104309,
-0.1037687286734581,
-0.6431385278701782,
-0.8207536935806274,
0.10297800600528717,
0.2950788140296936,
0.1391814798116684,
-0.33550262451171875,
1.0476658344268799,
-0.11172708123922348,
-0.6236208081245422,
-0.09130199253559113,
-0.18598175048828125,
-0.2676226496696472,
-0.11795958131551743,
0.10641665011644363,
0.4981171488761902,
-0.124436154961586,
-0.4609561860561371,
-0.49731630086898804,
0.3534255623817444,
0.2739593982696533,
-0.5535815954208374,
0.224274143576622,
0.16473399102687836,
-1.2379603385925293,
-0.07582907378673553,
0.21329030394554138,
-0.30883800983428955,
0.03611065447330475,
0.1118033304810524,
0.31967833638191223,
0.16065816581249237,
-0.1265152543783188,
0.13609671592712402,
0.6362960338592529,
0.2508161962032318,
0.04383912310004234,
-0.2625094950199127,
0.27207106351852417,
-0.194296196103096,
0.1049584448337555,
-0.06689418852329254,
-0.7725677490234375,
0.49535247683525085,
0.8320654034614563,
-0.57362300157547,
0.14673857390880585,
0.5288484692573547,
-0.36494678258895874,
0.018393870443105698,
0.29907312989234924,
0.552971601486206,
-0.14093723893165588,
-0.13998010754585266,
-0.06435662508010864,
0.1532406508922577,
0.20316211879253387,
0.2685736119747162,
-0.5673293471336365,
-0.1295219212770462,
0.13039304316043854,
-0.22991348803043365,
-0.06573610007762909,
-0.0327412448823452,
-0.6497822999954224,
0.0498930849134922,
0.3597346544265747,
-0.11041496694087982,
-0.0831780731678009,
-0.7342818379402161,
0.7282932996749878,
-0.09861394017934799,
-0.6748342514038086,
0.014198344200849533,
-0.059547584503889084,
0.16023927927017212,
-0.06221017614006996,
-0.3555259108543396,
0.5230820178985596,
-0.16578902304172516,
0.5353446006774902,
-0.5529152750968933,
-0.0757117047905922,
-0.4403056204319,
-0.46098294854164124,
0.5064300298690796,
0.033076513558626175,
0.14187055826187134,
0.4038833677768707,
-0.22050383687019348,
-0.02876920811831951,
-0.3359838128089905,
-0.021865444257855415,
0.24539948999881744,
-0.1072152704000473,
-0.30657508969306946,
-0.3818974494934082,
-0.370220422744751,
-0.35990267992019653,
-0.22227519750595093,
0.15294168889522552,
-0.2773891091346741,
-0.3613395392894745,
-0.49448972940444946,
-0.15483231842517853,
0.024304255843162537,
0.2735600173473358,
-0.3745883107185364,
-0.2871890962123871,
-0.30143609642982483,
0.28539296984672546,
-0.07079911231994629,
-0.12010064721107483,
-0.28493455052375793,
0.027888353914022446,
-0.16573794186115265,
0.2153806984424591,
-0.38307952880859375,
-0.366722047328949,
0.6196177005767822,
0.8805850148200989,
-0.5154919624328613,
-0.03431665152311325,
-0.2755155563354492,
-0.693132758140564,
-0.15765462815761566,
0.025678928941488266,
0.2301303744316101,
0.6120558381080627,
0.2586438059806824,
-0.5588364005088806,
-0.21742044389247894,
-0.26429304480552673,
-0.1346731036901474,
-0.04321790486574173,
-0.16398268938064575,
0.5531499981880188,
0.5065460205078125,
0.27245745062828064,
-0.24859113991260529,
0.6590820550918579,
-1.1466487646102905,
-0.012024499475955963,
-1.2278939485549927,
-0.894577145576477,
0.824843168258667,
-0.1547817438840866,
-0.2409902811050415,
0.004947411362081766,
-0.26895949244499207,
-0.2811160981655121,
0.1301407366991043,
0.12730829417705536,
-0.22757279872894287,
-0.6586869359016418,
-0.19112397730350494,
0.7522901296615601,
-0.019856348633766174,
-0.8666369318962097,
-0.1213284283876419,
-0.28601089119911194,
-0.05692445859313011,
0.045227158814668655,
-0.35467031598091125,
0.21269769966602325,
-0.31252071261405945,
0.44740164279937744,
-0.457074910402298,
0.1354723423719406,
0.17604346573352814,
-0.13307000696659088,
-0.2614975571632385,
0.18561118841171265,
0.30537521839141846,
-0.19185523688793182,
-0.11697295308113098,
0.2039305567741394,
0.3918311595916748,
0.08644821494817734,
-0.24389269948005676,
-0.36564281582832336,
0.49888694286346436,
0.6084235310554504,
-0.12465541064739227,
-0.23436829447746277,
0.273550808429718,
0.18790525197982788,
-0.40810883045196533,
-0.7211073040962219,
-0.10936883091926575,
0.520597517490387,
0.10513723641633987,
-0.5611146092414856,
-0.2421928495168686,
0.2933107316493988,
0.4199050962924957,
0.4101611077785492,
-0.16589483618736267,
-0.4340524971485138,
0.4131339192390442,
0.003961648792028427,
0.1609124392271042,
0.08410796523094177,
-0.08398891985416412,
0.06600520014762878,
-0.6422532796859741,
-0.1161920577287674,
-0.06481730937957764,
-0.530882716178894,
0.1375807225704193,
0.4930839538574219,
-0.21091583371162415,
-0.4611697196960449,
-0.25550249218940735,
-0.045994777232408524,
-0.611767053604126,
0.18516191840171814,
0.36824893951416016,
-0.07648835331201553,
-0.4954877197742462,
-0.6406031847000122,
-0.0885395035147667,
0.4711572825908661,
-0.384473979473114,
-0.07852930575609207,
-0.01692120172083378,
-0.41856661438941956,
-0.2591985762119293,
0.24815481901168823,
0.11440558731555939,
-0.057953737676143646,
0.2384740263223648,
-0.03458073362708092,
0.1390390694141388,
-0.19759832322597504,
-0.439621239900589,
-0.029747331514954567,
-0.32385584712028503,
0.1747616082429886,
-0.5926470160484314,
0.4970187842845917,
-0.09674856811761856,
0.014780447818338871,
0.2822282910346985,
-0.09730571508407593,
0.3069714903831482,
0.46009230613708496,
0.2523365020751953,
0.20811866223812103,
0.4289500117301941,
-0.431001752614975,
0.220191091299057,
0.09827300161123276,
-0.08279254287481308,
0.7982067465782166,
0.45159339904785156,
0.19602732360363007,
0.23308660089969635,
0.4468126893043518,
-0.37809762358665466,
0.029217511415481567,
0.412800669670105,
-0.44480761885643005,
0.19280773401260376,
-0.566992998123169,
0.270809143781662,
0.44954121112823486,
0.6182389259338379,
-0.28405269980430603,
0.5934358239173889,
-0.005411897320300341,
-0.9745767116546631,
0.257506400346756,
-0.3134981095790863,
0.07434187084436417,
0.3433780372142792,
0.3244883716106415,
-0.1121797263622284,
0.15829290449619293,
0.42786329984664917,
0.28508368134498596,
0.14660939574241638,
0.39563360810279846,
0.18424388766288757,
0.22387132048606873,
0.4558541178703308,
0.8347763419151306,
0.25975507497787476,
0.16654209792613983,
-0.6618376970291138,
0.34800681471824646,
-0.8366326093673706,
0.4977959096431732,
-0.2525976598262787,
-0.08352414518594742,
-0.03630048409104347,
-0.0612286739051342,
0.5239532589912415,
-0.04675575718283653,
-0.450730562210083,
0.3833121955394745,
0.35819265246391296,
0.30571916699409485,
-0.07692413032054901,
0.39034387469291687,
0.07900626212358475,
0.38902243971824646,
-0.3233621418476105,
-0.3832595944404602,
0.44146111607551575,
-0.047165922820568085,
0.21117055416107178,
1.363602638244629,
-0.15172763168811798,
0.4295853078365326,
0.11442840099334717,
0.27141085267066956,
-0.3534351587295532,
-0.1695704460144043,
0.16999608278274536,
0.006749116349965334,
-0.4335304796695709,
0.2458886206150055,
0.2200593650341034,
-0.6472342610359192,
-0.021967917680740356,
-0.41180136799812317,
-0.6631820201873779,
-0.5331040024757385,
0.46795859932899475,
-1.073333501815796,
0.15451230108737946,
0.009868488647043705,
1.016871690750122,
-0.20812000334262848,
0.037236977368593216,
-0.35995376110076904,
0.23266741633415222,
-0.2222040295600891,
0.5275800824165344,
-0.395016074180603,
0.3283160328865051,
-0.6951420307159424,
-0.42175886034965515,
-0.4650200605392456,
0.8047128319740295,
0.23917366564273834,
0.17138060927391052,
-0.29264336824417114,
0.7864232063293457,
0.03148911893367767,
0.27920618653297424,
-0.31550753116607666,
0.16634434461593628,
0.2329244613647461,
-0.05424114689230919,
0.11057145148515701,
0.32012325525283813,
-0.23038746416568756,
-0.09805681556463242,
-0.7901067733764648,
0.27320003509521484,
-0.18444731831550598,
0.2385021597146988,
0.16815102100372314,
0.10064443200826645,
0.08024431765079498,
0.1412615180015564,
-0.38071295619010925,
0.16665740311145782,
-0.10168196260929108,
0.03793922811746597,
0.22149433195590973,
0.11013360321521759,
-0.18838603794574738,
-0.3792111277580261,
-0.1531635820865631,
-0.2581937909126282,
-0.1354423314332962,
0.3376902937889099,
-0.4586262106895447,
0.41302549839019775,
-0.01218254305422306,
0.06302899867296219,
-0.714475154876709,
0.07648661732673645,
-0.16145625710487366,
0.23929569125175476,
-0.02789146453142166,
-0.4063243865966797,
-0.05115317180752754,
-0.19933420419692993,
-0.01131732203066349,
-0.8555849194526672,
0.722631573677063,
-0.28415876626968384
] |
213160
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Man%20of%20the%20Mountain
|
Old Man of the Mountain
|
The Old Man of the Mountain, also called the Great Stone Face and the Profile, was a series of five granite cliff ledges on Cannon Mountain in Franconia, New Hampshire, United States, that appeared to be the jagged profile of a human face when viewed from the north. The rock formation, above Profile Lake, was tall and wide.
The Old Man of the Mountain is called "Stone Face" by the Abenaki and is a symbol within their culture. It is also a symbol to the Mohawk people. The first written mention of the Old Man was in 1805. It became a landmark and a cultural icon for the state of New Hampshire. It collapsed on May 3, 2003. After its collapse, residents considered replacing it with a replica, but the idea was ultimately rejected. It remains a visual icon on the state's license plates and in other places.
History
Franconia Notch is a U-shaped valley in the White Mountains that was shaped by glaciers. The Old Man formation was likely formed from freezing and thawing of water in cracks of the granite bedrock sometime after the retreat of glaciers 12,000 years ago. The formation was first noted in the records of a Franconia surveying team around 1805. Francis Whitcomb and Luke Brooks, part of the surveying team, were the first two to record observing the Old Man. The official state history says several groups of surveyors were working in the Franconia Notch area at the time and claimed credit for the discovery.
Indigenous legends
According to Abenaki legend, a human named Nis Kizos was born during an eclipse. He became a good leader and provider for his community. Nis Kizos was successful enough to attend Kchi Mahadan, a great gathering of other communities to trade. Tarlo, a beautiful Iroquois woman, returned with him. They fell in love. Tarlo had to return to her birth village because its people had been struck by a sickness. Nis Kizos promised he would live at the top of the mountain. By day he would look out for her, and at night he would light a fire to guide her back. With winter fast approaching, the elders sent Nis Kizos's brother Gezosa to bring him back. He was unsuccessful because Nis Kizo maintained his promise. Tarlo died in her birth village of sickness. After the winter Gezosa went back up the mountain to bring the news of Tarlo and retrieve Nis Kizos. He found no signs of the existence of Nis Kizos and was stricken with sadness. On his way back down the mountain he looked back and found Nis Kizos had become part of the mountain as a stone face to look after the land.
A modern addition to the Abenaki legend is that when Stone Face fell in 2003, he finally was re-united with Tarlo. The Great Circle was rejoined.
Denise Ortakales published a children's book in 2005 called The Legend of the Old Man of the Mountain, which relates the Mohawk legend of the stone face. In the tale, Chief Pemigewassat loved a maiden named Minerwa of the Mohawk people, which brought peace between their tribes for a long time. When Minerwa went back home to visit her dying father, Chief Pemigewassat promised he would stay and wait for her to return. However, the Great Spirit claimed him during the winter, and his people buried him facing towards Minerwa to watch for her return. His face was immortalized in the stone as the stone face, forever waiting and watching.
Post-colonial history
The Old Man became famous across the United States largely because of statesman Daniel Webster, a New Hampshire native, who once wrote: "Men hang out their signs indicative of their respective trades; shoemakers hang out a gigantic shoe; jewelers a monster watch, and the dentist hangs out a gold tooth; but up in the Mountains of New Hampshire, God Almighty has hung out a sign to show that there He makes men."
The writer Nathaniel Hawthorne used the Old Man as inspiration for his short story "The Great Stone Face", published in 1850, in which he described the formation as "a work of Nature in her mood of majestic playfulness".
The profile has been New Hampshire's state emblem since 1945. It was put on the state's license plate, state route signs, and on the back of New Hampshire's Statehood Quarter, which is popularly promoted as the only US coin with a profile on both sides. Before the collapse, it could be seen from special viewing areas along Interstate 93 in Franconia Notch State Park, approximately north of the state's capital, Concord.
Collapse
Freezing and thawing opened fissures in the Old Man's "forehead". By the 1920s, the crack was wide enough to be mended with chains, and in 1957 the state legislature passed a $25,000 appropriation for a more elaborate weatherproofing, using 20 tons of fast-drying cement, plastic covering and steel rods and turnbuckles, plus a concrete gutter to divert runoff from above. A team from the state highway and park divisions maintained the patchwork each summer.
Nevertheless, the formation collapsed to the ground between midnight and 2 a.m., May 3, 2003. Dismay over the collapse was so great that people visited to pay tribute, with some leaving flowers.
After the collapse
Early after the collapse, many New Hampshire residents considered replacement with a replica. That idea was rejected by an official task force in 2003 headed by former Governor Steve Merrill.
In 2004, the state legislature considered, but did not accept, a proposal to change New Hampshire's state flag to include the profile.
On the first anniversary of the collapse in May 2004, the Old Man of the Mountain Legacy Fund (OMMLF) began operating coin-operated viewfinders near the base of the cliff. When looking through them up at the cliff of Cannon Mountain one can see a "before" and "after" of how the Old Man of the Mountain used to appear.
Seven years after the collapse, on June 24, 2010, the OMMLF, now the Friends of the Old Man of the Mountain, broke ground for the first phase of the state-sanctioned "Old Man of the Mountain Memorial" on a walkway along Profile Lake below Cannon Cliff. It consists of a viewing platform with "Steel Profilers", which, when aligned with the Cannon Cliff above, create what the profile looked like up on the cliff overlooking the Franconia Notch. The project was overseen by Friends of the Old Man of the Mountain/Franconia Notch, a committee that succeeded the Old Man of the Mountain Revitalization Task Force. The Legacy Fund is a private 501(c)(3) corporation with representatives from various state agencies and several private nonprofits.
In 2013, the board called a halt to further fundraising. They announced their intention to spend what was left on minor improvements and dissolve the board.
The memorial was completed in September 2020.
Other proposals that were considered but rejected include:
Architect Francis Treves envisioned a walk-in profile made of 250 panels of structural glass attached to tubular steel framework and concrete tower, connected by a tram, rim trail or tunnel through to the cliff wall at the original site. It won an American Institute of Architects Un-Built Project Award.
In 2009, Ken N. Gidge, a state representative from Nashua, proposed building a copper replica of the Old Man on level ground above the ledge at the original site where hiking trails already lead.
Timeline of the Old Man
Details of the history of the Old Man of the Mountain include:
17th millennium BC–6th millennium BC — New England undergoes the Wisconsin glaciation, the most recent ice age. Glaciers cover New England and post-glacial erosion creates the cliff which would subsequently erode into the Old Man of the Mountain at Franconia Notch.
1805 — Francis Whitcomb and Luke Brooks, part of a Franconia surveying crew, are the first white settlers to record observing the Old Man, according to the official New Hampshire history.
Early 1800s — American statesman Daniel Webster brings national attention to the profile in his writings.
1832 — Author Nathaniel Hawthorne visits the area.
1850 — Hawthorne publishes "The Great Stone Face", a short story inspired by his visit. The story's title becomes an alternative name for the formation.
1869 — President Ulysses S. Grant visits the formation.
1906 — The Reverend Guy Roberts of New Hampshire, is the first to publicize signs of deterioration of the formation.
1916 — New Hampshire Governor Rolland H. Spaulding begins a concerted state effort to preserve the formation.
1926 — The formation appears on all New Hampshire passenger, dealer, replacement, and sample license plates for this year.
1945 — The Old Man is made the New Hampshire State Emblem.
1955 — President Dwight D. Eisenhower visits the profile as part of the Old Man's 150th "birthday" celebration.
1958 — Major repair work to the Old Man's forehead as a result of a legislative appropriation the previous year.
1965 — Niels Nielsen, a state highway worker, becomes the unofficial guardian of the profile, in an effort to protect the formation from vandalism and the ravages of the weather.
1974 — From 1974 to 1979, each license plate validation sticker has a likeness of the formation.
1976 — For the United States Bicentennial the formation is once again available on the state's license plate, but it costs an extra $5 and it can only be used as a front plate.
1986 — Vandalizing the Old Man is classified as a crime under the state criminal mischief law. Under the law (RSA 634:2 VI) it is a misdemeanor for any person to vandalize, deface or destroy any part of the Old Man, with a penalty of a fine of between $1,000 and $3,000 and restitution to the state for any damage caused.
1987 — Nielsen is named the official caretaker of the Old Man by the state of New Hampshire. Beginning this year all passenger car license plates now have a small image of the formation at the top. This practice continued through 1999. The license plates distributed after 1999 were redesigned to feature the Old Man of the Mountain much more prominently.
1988 — A stretch of Interstate 93 (which also runs jointly with U.S. Route 3 through the notch) opens below Cannon Mountain. The $56 million project, which took 30 years to build, was a compromise between the desire for a four-lane interstate and those who sought to limit the impact on the notch.
1991 — David Nielsen, son of Niels Nielsen, becomes the official caretaker of the Old Man.
2000 — The Old Man is featured on the state quarter of New Hampshire, and becomes the graphic background on passenger car license plates.
2003 — The Old Man collapses.
2004 — Coin-operated viewfinders are installed to show how the Old Man looked before its collapse.
2007 — Design of an Old Man of the Mountain memorial announced.
2010 — First phase of the state-sanctioned "Old Man of the Mountain Memorial" is unveiled.
2011 — Profiler Plaza is dedicated on June 12.
See also
List of rock formations that resemble human beings
Pareidolia
Cydonia, location of the "Face on Mars"
Old Man of the Lake
References
Further reading
External links
The Day the Old Man Fell via YouTube
The Old Man of the Mountain Legacy Fund
NH State Parks — An end is just a new beginning
19th-century paintings of the Old Man of the Mountain
Photos from atop the Old Man of the Mountain after the collapse
Landmarks in New Hampshire
Rock formations of New Hampshire
White Mountains (New Hampshire)
Landforms of Grafton County, New Hampshire
History of New Hampshire
Tourist attractions in Grafton County, New Hampshire
Destroyed rock formations
|
[
-0.4694559574127197,
0.6570033431053162,
-0.2098594605922699,
-0.5170615911483765,
0.2919905185699463,
0.4085236191749573,
0.9905295372009277,
0.27928346395492554,
-0.09202130138874054,
-0.4811043441295624,
-0.10104645043611526,
0.709222674369812,
-0.07841893285512924,
0.7782114148139954,
-0.5763034820556641,
0.14550743997097015,
0.3690735399723053,
-0.32430145144462585,
-0.02172679454088211,
-0.42134350538253784,
0.11648865789175034,
-0.3927101492881775,
0.5582027435302734,
-0.33645638823509216,
-0.12611201405525208,
0.19943362474441528,
0.4872705936431885,
-0.15024185180664062,
0.017271412536501884,
0.3204769790172577,
-0.6039441227912903,
0.184040829539299,
-0.3769158124923706,
-1.0500004291534424,
-0.643143892288208,
0.005307007115334272,
0.3667154312133789,
-0.08614933490753174,
-0.3381198048591614,
0.14362064003944397,
0.26375487446784973,
-0.24527564644813538,
0.03558703511953354,
0.7024505138397217,
-0.46296894550323486,
0.2287098467350006,
-1.1592961549758911,
0.24229635298252106,
-0.8055849075317383,
-0.6185673475265503,
-0.5369821190834045,
0.5428582429885864,
0.308732807636261,
0.19620053470134735,
0.22548581659793854,
-0.16661295294761658,
-0.1305662989616394,
-0.17267663776874542,
0.6560524106025696,
-0.34095731377601624,
0.18774506449699402,
0.5831332802772522,
-0.17743471264839172,
-0.25783997774124146,
-0.9298956394195557,
0.3639797866344452,
-0.07792594283819199,
0.5925109386444092,
-0.1895424872636795,
0.02814960479736328,
-0.1352168321609497,
-0.36293673515319824,
0.06615570187568665,
0.3826074004173279,
0.13778042793273926,
0.2505442798137665,
-0.12147574126720428,
-0.2738444209098816,
-0.16321109235286713,
-0.7085492610931396,
0.06405173987150192,
-0.11474089324474335,
0.6150018572807312,
0.14927855134010315,
-0.5622680187225342,
0.25125426054000854,
0.09113392233848572,
-0.11597342789173126,
-0.3416088819503784,
0.6268255114555359,
-0.8215831518173218,
-0.4120821952819824,
0.04755774512887001,
0.6346722841262817,
0.07780203968286514,
-0.31751489639282227,
0.10383617877960205,
-0.03170868754386902,
-0.1414061039686203,
0.4712710976600647,
0.5928349494934082,
0.10250315070152283,
1.0955471992492676,
-0.23228609561920166,
-0.17678096890449524,
-0.2571132779121399,
0.02823384292423725,
0.0036776463966816664,
-0.46799078583717346,
-0.5045095086097717,
-1.0354095697402954,
0.49536845088005066,
-0.31287041306495667,
0.1698814332485199,
0.10525264590978622,
0.5048115253448486,
0.2389957159757614,
-0.6370507478713989,
-0.18561995029449463,
-0.6530073285102844,
0.19967535138130188,
0.6482327580451965,
-0.2798759937286377,
-0.012688309885561466,
0.03999009355902672,
0.17244763672351837,
0.2700514495372772,
0.32038944959640503,
-0.7409638166427612,
-0.13036425411701202,
-0.06329246610403061,
0.39249110221862793,
0.6067298650741577,
-0.08014779537916183,
0.264398992061615,
-0.2415606826543808,
0.40062272548675537,
-0.5024755597114563,
0.08172591030597687,
0.6107946038246155,
-0.5109931826591492,
-0.5889264345169067,
-0.6622563600540161,
-0.2865721583366394,
0.29764115810394287,
-0.1582445204257965,
0.10717853903770447,
-0.552956759929657,
0.24700762331485748,
0.693714439868927,
0.1319645345211029,
-0.6534950733184814,
0.20337729156017303,
0.06545133888721466,
-0.20419837534427643,
0.26874470710754395,
-0.09186609089374542,
-0.0484880730509758,
0.23710301518440247,
-0.21681630611419678,
-0.042165931314229965,
0.07547960430383682,
0.16871292889118195,
0.3237835466861725,
0.8332781195640564,
-0.004254083149135113,
0.5398989319801331,
-0.6010617613792419,
-0.5813724398612976,
0.05104128643870354,
-0.27576708793640137,
0.1381710022687912,
0.5470437407493591,
-0.09114061295986176,
-0.8520694971084595,
-0.32741543650627136,
0.6940308213233948,
0.18997319042682648,
-0.12083554267883301,
-0.27366557717323303,
-0.6564973592758179,
-0.49830541014671326,
0.7023603320121765,
0.022409820929169655,
0.13817083835601807,
0.07477935403585434,
0.1981201469898224,
0.43755999207496643,
-0.14889433979988098,
-0.2880185544490814,
-0.42021527886390686,
-0.37625211477279663,
0.4047069549560547,
-0.19678351283073425,
1.2828480005264282,
0.005009910091757774,
-0.7409372329711914,
0.8224490880966187,
0.25041258335113525,
0.8008406162261963,
0.3072732090950012,
-0.8122789859771729,
0.4476466774940491,
-0.48413071036338806,
-0.19079160690307617,
0.19518975913524628,
-0.2257469743490219,
0.09824582934379578,
0.9048423171043396,
-0.14434759318828583,
0.2514575123786926,
-0.9622851014137268,
-0.03389270231127739,
0.7183125615119934,
0.05393688753247261,
-0.018512461334466934,
0.24488212168216705,
0.14162380993366241,
0.035295333713293076,
-0.8473122715950012,
0.7584741711616516,
0.2885589003562927,
-0.10750294476747513,
-0.08389448374509811,
-0.4818982779979706,
0.4564901888370514,
-0.5091556310653687,
-0.13850097358226776,
0.16960708796977997,
-0.6158594489097595,
0.1531035453081131,
0.2986539602279663,
0.4188213348388672,
0.23292411863803864,
0.7034475207328796,
-0.18216592073440552,
-0.2014826089143753,
-0.029369736090302467,
0.557677149772644,
-0.855129599571228,
-0.05396026372909546,
0.20025239884853363,
-0.09260367602109909,
0.47234711050987244,
0.06996173411607742,
0.17880482971668243,
0.5741819739341736,
1.0161734819412231,
-0.8703837990760803,
0.03480689227581024,
0.27868905663490295,
0.2545884847640991,
0.41553550958633423,
0.2794369161128998,
0.22563301026821136,
0.08202232420444489,
0.10760702937841415,
-0.24732914566993713,
-0.29602912068367004,
0.18959973752498627,
-0.19475972652435303,
0.016236022114753723,
-0.46581795811653137,
0.22209927439689636,
0.05234162509441376,
-0.5039987564086914,
0.07737568020820618,
-0.47494709491729736,
0.4029162526130676,
0.36774659156799316,
0.28261759877204895,
0.19196432828903198,
-0.193794846534729,
0.6796080470085144,
0.27151915431022644,
-0.3509679436683655,
0.10761197656393051,
0.11879011243581772,
-0.84339839220047,
0.17923642694950104,
0.5653913021087646,
1.3067562580108643,
0.5838400721549988,
-0.18607276678085327,
-0.05972607061266899,
-0.4230692386627197,
0.3931368887424469,
-0.17688658833503723,
-0.27311262488365173,
0.597800612449646,
0.3469688892364502,
0.3117966949939728,
0.3553367853164673,
0.25250735878944397,
-0.16594381630420685,
0.519309937953949,
0.4036819040775299,
-0.26878541707992554,
0.45881733298301697,
-0.03626105934381485,
-0.3261871933937073,
0.10254421085119247,
-0.8403071761131287,
0.0891193151473999,
-0.1872687041759491,
-0.375259131193161,
-0.39184078574180603,
-0.16460765898227692,
-5.571719646453857,
0.4653441309928894,
0.35804644227027893,
-0.7058748602867126,
0.2513611614704132,
-0.07668415457010269,
0.2276761829853058,
0.06909608840942383,
-0.411391019821167,
0.24627508223056793,
0.3881303071975708,
-0.29466307163238525,
0.6499161124229431,
0.31584250926971436,
0.6912664175033569,
0.016578108072280884,
0.2905215919017792,
-0.2872443199157715,
-0.12907813489437103,
-0.1994718760251999,
0.6954376101493835,
0.04994533583521843,
-0.0071020666509866714,
0.06501180678606033,
-0.3878416419029236,
1.2797235250473022,
-0.26250767707824707,
0.4790911078453064,
-0.17930595576763153,
-0.23409973084926605,
0.7702839374542236,
-0.1947045624256134,
0.09332026541233063,
-0.20537720620632172,
-0.3767305910587311,
0.09594448655843735,
0.412988543510437,
0.0882725641131401,
0.5811834931373596,
-0.7440088391304016,
0.05472560599446297,
0.2358873188495636,
-0.17555376887321472,
-0.1597646027803421,
0.6209409236907959,
0.019570987671613693,
-0.34907224774360657,
-0.25518372654914856,
0.014618858695030212,
0.32241514325141907,
-0.034124862402677536,
0.254965603351593,
1.4144595861434937,
0.3402527868747711,
0.21558316051959991,
-0.1560223549604416,
0.15829695761203766,
0.14775000512599945,
-0.4383852779865265,
0.2179962545633316,
0.16095753014087677,
-0.05563483387231827,
-0.2753044068813324,
-0.6615371704101562,
0.27306127548217773,
-0.9085195660591125,
0.3017454445362091,
0.672663152217865,
0.4476359188556671,
0.30426111817359924,
0.6819655299186707,
0.21974042057991028,
-0.059737760573625565,
-0.8478533029556274,
0.11574870347976685,
-0.43269482254981995,
0.15952977538108826,
-0.11981817334890366,
-0.6280590891838074,
-0.15708060562610626,
-0.009030183777213097,
-0.043078646063804626,
-0.01035112515091896,
-0.08053027093410492,
0.3819073736667633,
-0.06576161086559296,
0.0906917080283165,
-0.12443295121192932,
-0.6040148735046387,
-0.24693815410137177,
0.1150016188621521,
-0.230479896068573,
-0.2728497087955475,
0.1864750236272812,
0.3067636489868164,
0.33600082993507385,
-0.1566130518913269,
-0.05164092406630516,
0.8192298412322998,
0.6701338887214661,
0.7765190005302429,
-0.2749861180782318,
0.7156885266304016,
-0.28224608302116394,
-0.2848395109176636,
-0.338189959526062,
-0.183559849858284,
0.6659258604049683,
0.7755189538002014,
-0.2834656238555908,
-0.38435009121894836,
-0.07981331646442413,
-0.30889058113098145,
0.040575169026851654,
-0.03571343049407005,
-0.1141512542963028,
-0.45108330249786377,
-0.01959133706986904,
0.34030452370643616,
-0.17098259925842285,
0.4097274839878082,
-0.03348720073699951,
0.24376003444194794,
-0.5266863703727722,
-0.32290905714035034,
-0.4350667893886566,
0.2914927303791046,
0.025877611711621284,
-0.5716643333435059,
0.14553092420101166,
-0.04212057590484619,
-0.309052050113678,
0.1115804985165596,
0.5013156533241272,
0.14241766929626465,
-0.05198980122804642,
-0.10681537538766861,
-0.703967273235321,
-0.5232089757919312,
0.07753001153469086,
-0.06469200551509857,
0.05615096539258957,
-0.0003264140977989882,
0.6469985842704773,
0.22081519663333893,
0.3884517550468445,
-0.3142770528793335,
-0.10823336988687515,
-0.5976580381393433,
0.4844721257686615,
-0.3699060082435608,
0.19620944559574127,
-0.36525359749794006,
-0.5049811601638794,
-0.12931378185749054,
0.20192374289035797,
-0.4782768785953522,
-0.025038253515958786,
-0.24170994758605957,
-0.2000805139541626,
0.3593088388442993,
0.16805440187454224,
-0.8091649413108826,
0.1903773546218872,
-0.19522352516651154,
0.1475910097360611,
-0.009671150706708431,
-0.2889721393585205,
-0.09909147024154663,
0.40513864159584045,
0.6108021140098572,
-0.31354573369026184,
-0.4908023178577423,
-0.2634150981903076,
0.4264753758907318,
0.0765635073184967,
-0.5708180665969849,
0.3378146290779114,
0.7245038151741028,
-0.25286173820495605,
0.13564540445804596,
0.196415975689888,
-0.07086440920829773,
0.39216989278793335,
0.3487043082714081,
-0.3560844957828522,
-0.7634460926055908,
0.44820114970207214,
-0.20562763512134552,
-0.19360041618347168,
0.47892117500305176,
-0.49018919467926025,
0.3028624355792999,
0.543235719203949,
-0.1940464973449707,
-0.5286270976066589,
0.4964754581451416,
-0.01471747923642397,
-0.008317111991345882,
-0.28044968843460083,
0.12590624392032623,
0.018678583204746246,
-0.5119194388389587,
0.5390042662620544,
0.8172197341918945,
-1.1511043310165405,
0.5678696632385254,
-0.4446050822734833,
-0.5381308197975159,
0.6189332604408264,
-0.17320451140403748,
-0.8378384113311768,
-0.3923775255680084,
0.057351645082235336,
0.1497674286365509,
-0.3462814688682556,
0.24118460714817047,
-0.38914617896080017,
-0.1246064305305481,
-0.3956017792224884,
0.16571100056171417,
0.19110116362571716,
-0.45520055294036865,
0.22408322989940643,
-0.6633002161979675,
-0.1811283528804779,
0.17178203165531158,
-0.4169246554374695,
0.4577012062072754,
-1.0901849269866943,
0.0524846613407135,
0.17915929853916168,
-0.022806458175182343,
0.5162684321403503,
0.10292060673236847,
0.18176858127117157,
0.3987000286579132,
-0.2085990309715271,
0.12103334069252014,
0.6951935291290283,
0.47194910049438477,
0.8724153637886047,
0.3542904257774353,
-0.29474225640296936,
-0.00032916542841121554,
0.3342062830924988,
0.31306129693984985,
-0.03478158637881279,
-0.23331648111343384,
0.18779364228248596,
0.475286066532135,
-0.2015736997127533,
-0.6539691090583801,
-0.3574073612689972,
0.7424912452697754,
-0.5129032731056213,
0.10879185795783997,
-0.44502562284469604,
0.1798049956560135,
0.13444560766220093,
-0.14857135713100433,
-0.1857338398694992,
0.12318966537714005,
0.035273000597953796,
-0.032563187181949615,
-0.22890238463878632,
-0.32728812098503113,
-0.502570390701294,
0.450739324092865,
-0.7875002026557922,
0.007187619339674711,
-0.23428227007389069,
-0.06765708327293396,
-0.26852503418922424,
-0.6537126898765564,
0.21237042546272278,
-0.045357029885053635,
-0.324283242225647,
-0.09749310463666916,
-0.37358611822128296,
-0.9219024777412415,
-0.07855518907308578,
-0.17439013719558716,
-0.19692957401275635,
-0.19317369163036346,
-0.3953193426132202,
0.41626590490341187,
-0.22731195390224457,
-0.2000918835401535,
-0.671035647392273,
-0.7973592281341553,
0.12264858931303024,
0.008275607600808144,
-0.32740518450737,
-0.1273728609085083,
0.19425345957279205,
-0.09569704532623291,
0.20633633434772491,
-0.08772813528776169,
0.164476677775383,
-0.7517333030700684,
0.6148372292518616,
-0.06677474081516266,
-0.2772315740585327,
-0.15275080502033234,
-0.13812299072742462,
0.3138657510280609,
-0.05116232857108116,
0.41785314679145813,
-0.16195151209831238,
0.20098315179347992,
0.2211165875196457,
0.24277916550636292,
1.095757246017456,
-0.2038457691669464,
-0.43699854612350464,
0.3631935715675354,
-0.22839941084384918,
0.15213608741760254,
0.26673728227615356,
-0.3550649881362915,
0.1404423862695694,
0.9647351503372192,
0.1499532014131546,
0.19160771369934082,
1.4297784566879272,
-0.7854132652282715,
-0.4306040406227112,
-0.46746721863746643,
0.35801246762275696,
0.08178788423538208,
-0.10082033276557922,
-0.3147599697113037,
0.2583737075328827,
-0.30414730310440063,
-0.6551365852355957,
0.6345736384391785,
-0.19973088800907135,
-0.15760846436023712,
0.10234224796295166,
-0.5708842277526855,
0.4617941677570343,
-0.21955318748950958,
-0.12772971391677856,
0.03391537442803383,
0.017301099374890327,
0.019619157537817955,
0.37757280468940735,
0.4227368235588074,
-0.37883487343788147,
-0.07925604283809662,
-0.33412960171699524,
0.18810616433620453,
-0.44794172048568726,
0.2878982126712799,
0.018084751442074776,
-0.08848509937524796,
-0.24427594244480133,
-0.5109240412712097,
0.443202406167984,
-0.06998687237501144,
-0.10381214320659637,
-0.2016342431306839,
-0.7483261227607727,
-0.4705883860588074,
-0.2188403606414795,
-0.29213643074035645,
-0.27453646063804626,
-0.27838820219039917,
0.05509016290307045,
0.33598434925079346,
0.25278377532958984,
0.14875732362270355,
-0.20660105347633362,
-0.3044346272945404,
0.25603359937667847,
0.50808185338974,
0.19694563746452332,
0.16186413168907166,
0.12585261464118958,
0.1312703788280487,
-0.35724735260009766,
0.06267672777175903,
-0.3429925739765167,
0.09833961725234985,
-0.46801191568374634,
0.4609628915786743,
0.7976292967796326,
-0.14884580671787262,
-0.32935652136802673,
0.2448754608631134,
-0.6363668441772461,
-0.8283374905586243,
0.2624787390232086,
-0.015088902786374092,
-0.3460501432418823,
-0.08565697818994522,
0.7338703274726868,
0.03146380931138992,
1.069273591041565,
-0.005802247207611799,
0.10335862636566162,
0.10335438698530197,
0.28318580985069275,
-0.13945719599723816,
0.46493086218833923,
-0.02105429768562317,
-0.026824692264199257,
-0.298795610666275,
0.882317304611206,
-0.19150058925151825,
-0.11303117871284485,
-0.39340633153915405,
0.5134289860725403,
-0.7349869608879089,
-0.36013785004615784,
0.09304767102003098,
0.13403311371803284,
-0.5904364585876465,
-0.5689889788627625,
0.2521636188030243,
-0.2826292812824249,
0.6121485829353333,
0.5343234539031982,
-0.6090533137321472,
-0.41774222254753113,
0.0651915892958641,
-0.3879515528678894,
-0.5235315561294556,
0.4132303297519684,
0.48817622661590576,
-0.5902311205863953,
-0.11443980038166046,
0.2854445278644562,
-0.9247015714645386,
-0.5112307071685791,
0.3782466650009155,
0.37374797463417053,
0.03638352081179619,
-0.37741485238075256,
-0.01843913644552231,
-0.6583929061889648,
0.06488554179668427,
0.5408622622489929,
-0.32424196600914,
0.1997724324464798,
-0.30751368403434753,
-0.4524947702884674,
0.12965570390224457,
0.25362324714660645,
0.1359577775001526,
-0.4398558437824249,
0.3165198564529419,
-0.2606083154678345,
-0.1368294358253479,
-0.41546618938446045,
-0.3518734574317932,
-0.14466553926467896,
0.42783504724502563,
-0.23840542137622833
] |
213162
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20Presidency
|
Imperial Presidency
|
Imperial Presidency is a term applied to the modern presidency of the United States. It became popular in the 1960s and served as the title of a 1973 book by historian Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., who wrote The Imperial Presidency to address two concerns: that the presidency was uncontrollable and that it had exceeded its constitutional limits. According to Professor of political science Thomas E. Cronin, author of The State of the Presidency, the Imperial Presidency is a term used to define a danger to the American constitutional system by allowing the Presidency to create and abuse presidential prerogative during national emergencies. Its prerogative was based on: (1) presidential war powers vaguely defined in the constitution, and (2) secrecy - a system used that shielded the Presidency from the usual checks and balances afforded by the legislative and judicial branches.
History
Until the 1930s, the president had few staff, most based in the U.S. Capitol, where the President had always maintained an office (the President's Room). The office later became used only for ceremonial occasions, but in the 19th and early 20th centuries, presidents regularly operated out of the Capitol Hill office. However, Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency (1933–1945) during the Great Depression and World War II altered the previous importance of the office. The new age of electronic media, the growth of executive agencies under the New Deal, his Brain Trust advisors, and the creation of the Executive Office of the President in 1939 all marked the growth of the traditionally small presidential staff.
The post-war presidency has a large executive staff most often crowded in the West Wing (redesigned in 1934), the basement of the White House, or in the Eisenhower Executive Office Building, which is beside the White House and used by the Departments of Defense and State. Progressive overcrowding in the West Wing led President Richard Nixon to convert the former presidential swimming pool into a press room.
Arguments for its existence
As staff numbers increased, many people were appointed who held personal loyalty to the person serving as president and were not subject to outside approval or control.
Advisory bodies developed around the presidency, many of which complemented the main cabinet departments, which declined in influence. The National Security Council and the Office of Management and Budget are prime examples.
The Senate does not "advise and consent to" appointments to the Executive Office of the President (with only a handful of exceptions), as it does with cabinet appointments. A corollary is that EOP personnel are accountable only to the President and not to Congress.
The presidency relies on implicit powers not found in the Constitution. The extent of foreign policy and war powers of the presidency are questioned. Also, the extent of presidential secrecy is questioned.
A plebiscitary presidency is accountable only during elections or impeachment, rather than daily to the Congress, the press and the public.
The presidencies of Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan were particularly described as surrounded by "courts" in which junior staffers acted occasionally in contravention of Executive Orders or Acts of Congress. Schlesinger pointed out activities of some Nixon staffers during the Watergate affair as an example. Under Reagan (1981–1989), the role of Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, USMC, in the facilitation of funding to the Contras in Nicaragua, in explicit contravention of a congressional ban, was highlighted as an example of the ability to act by a "junior courtier" based on his position as a member of a large White House staff. Howard Baker, who served as Reagan's final Chief of Staff, was critical of the growth, complexity, and apparent unanswerability of the presidential "court".
Historian Zachary Karabell argued that executive power grew further in the 21st century, due in part to congressional inaction. Citing the presidencies of George W. Bush and Barack Obama as examples, he wrote: "9/11 saw the beginning of the current move toward an imperial presidency, as George W. Bush keyed off the crisis to expand executive authority in national security and domestic surveillance. In that, his administration had the legal but classified support of Congress, and for a time, a considerable portion of the public." Karabell said that this trend continued under Obama, and that "stonewalling" from Congress "provoked the Obama administration into finding innovative ways to exercise power," making Obama "one of the most powerful presidents ever." He wrote that this trend could potentially set precedent for further expansion of executive power. Karabell later argued that the presidency of Donald Trump had the possibly unintended effect of eroding executive power, citing the rescission of the DACA immigration policy and the Trump administration's threat to use its position to withdraw from NAFTA as instances which have led to some power being returned to Congress at the executive branch's expense.
Princeton University historians Kevin M. Kruse and Julian E. Zelizer argued that aspects of the imperial presidency are apparent in the Trump administration.
Criticisms
The Executive Office of the President makes up only a minute part of the federal bureaucracy, with no institutional continuity, and the President has little influence as to the appointment of most of its members.
The organization and functioning of most of the federal government is determined by law, and the president has thus little power to reorganize it.
Alasdair Roberts argued that the concept of the imperial presidency neglects several important changes in the context of governance over the last three decades, all of which tend to restrict the president's actual power:
The growth in the size and the complexity of the federal bureaucracy
A battery of post-Nixon controls on executive power, including transparency rules and "watchdog bureaucracies" such as the federal Inspectors General, a strengthened Government Accountability Office, and the Congressional Budget Office
The increased willingness of bureaucrats to protest or "blow the whistle" on policies with which they disagree, with stronger protection for whistleblowing
Changes in information and communication technologies that amplify the effect of official dissent and increase the capacity of opponents to mobilize against executive action
Declining public trust in and deference to federal authority
Declining executive discretion over the use of federal funds, which are increasingly committed to mandatory programs
Declining regulation of the private sector, as a consequence of the post-Reagan shift to neoliberal policies, economic globalization, and the growth of corporate lobbies
The "Imperiled Presidency" was a theory of former President Gerald Ford. Ford argued that rather than being too powerful, the president does not have enough power to be effective. The growth in the size of the bureaucracy surrounding the President since the New Deal made the executive more difficult to control. Ford said that "a principal weakness in the presidency is the inability of the White House to maintain control over the large federal bureaucracy. There is nothing more frustrating for a President than to issue an order to a Cabinet officer, and then find that, when the order gets out in the field, it is totally mutilated."
According to Dino P. Christenson and Douglas L. Kriner, president have considerably leeway to act independently of Congress and the courts, but unless domestic public opinion is in their favor, unilateral action risks inciting political pushback.
See also
Abuse of power
Color of law
Fourth branch of government
Madisonian Model
National Emergencies Act
Powers of the president of the United States
President for life
Separation of powers under the United States Constitution
Unitary executive theory
References
Further reading
Rudalevige, Andrew. The New Imperial Presidency: Renewing Presidential Power after Watergate. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005.
U.S. Congress, House, Committee on the Judiciary. The President’s Constitutional Duty to Faithfully Execute the Laws: Hearing Before the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, December 3, 2013
Wolfensberger, Donald R. The Return of the Imperial Presidency ? Wilson Quarterly. 26:2 (2002) pg. 37
Presidency of the United States
|
[
-0.10487104207277298,
0.19396446645259857,
-0.41561809182167053,
0.0862978845834732,
-0.0958654060959816,
-0.4588693082332611,
0.2844638228416443,
0.37461838126182556,
-0.5444268584251404,
-0.5508472919464111,
-0.4092612862586975,
-0.06940766423940659,
-0.24554578959941864,
0.8936065435409546,
-0.11298906058073044,
0.09824929386377335,
0.5951991081237793,
0.3793579339981079,
-0.3465995788574219,
-0.4567014276981354,
-0.35183316469192505,
0.8144639134407043,
-0.015547794289886951,
-0.310278058052063,
-0.16109102964401245,
-0.2706572115421295,
0.4491904675960541,
-0.8514102101325989,
-0.19453030824661255,
0.12104924023151398,
0.23422276973724365,
-0.28757616877555847,
-0.4714334309101105,
0.2568792998790741,
-0.37052714824676514,
-0.21041277050971985,
0.13124766945838928,
-0.44614773988723755,
-0.3238399922847748,
-0.5460489392280579,
-0.02548038959503174,
-0.2070499211549759,
0.5821962952613831,
0.10540999472141266,
-0.48808753490448,
-0.4056064784526825,
-1.704734444618225,
0.2452259510755539,
-0.44870224595069885,
0.13078613579273224,
-0.565858006477356,
0.24331079423427582,
0.23678822815418243,
0.11818532645702362,
-0.34807509183883667,
0.03492043912410736,
-0.4333631098270416,
0.3909463584423065,
-0.2647259533405304,
-0.78092360496521,
0.25118115544319153,
0.16523166000843048,
0.3008018732070923,
0.5518975853919983,
0.5740522146224976,
-0.21894915401935577,
0.18037253618240356,
-0.163510262966156,
-0.2811214327812195,
-0.10958757251501083,
-0.6679286956787109,
-0.3489329516887665,
0.6951148509979248,
-0.02706153318285942,
-0.20096524059772491,
-0.5028100609779358,
0.21987880766391754,
0.4347476363182068,
-0.0601593479514122,
-0.25214827060699463,
-0.4473029375076294,
0.10515309125185013,
0.5335920453071594,
-0.07348116487264633,
-0.41436055302619934,
0.20320285856723785,
-0.5581290125846863,
-0.016284363344311714,
0.1830504834651947,
0.47741737961769104,
-0.2834606468677521,
0.42305219173431396,
0.706631600856781,
-0.016466666013002396,
-0.05730695277452469,
-0.7113193273544312,
0.03595324605703354,
-0.2283405214548111,
-0.3328108787536621,
0.01588679663836956,
-0.4059707820415497,
-0.06611424684524536,
0.5802735090255737,
-0.13905473053455353,
-0.015093485824763775,
-0.6034376621246338,
-0.4531969130039215,
0.10652453452348709,
-0.25532394647598267,
-0.02379060722887516,
-0.10912461578845978,
0.18408797681331635,
0.33826297521591187,
0.13474200665950775,
-0.23850485682487488,
-0.08826214075088501,
0.05852833390235901,
-0.11855088174343109,
0.03432174026966095,
-0.6772932410240173,
0.711189866065979,
0.41597673296928406,
0.055686578154563904,
-0.652447521686554,
0.10801821947097778,
-0.17942987382411957,
0.36602553725242615,
-0.051390938460826874,
-0.706440806388855,
-0.23159997165203094,
0.13179972767829895,
0.4762691855430603,
-0.22377289831638336,
0.23184843361377716,
-0.8031527996063232,
0.04207940027117729,
0.22960452735424042,
-0.10815354436635971,
0.5178928375244141,
0.3019903898239136,
-0.4488714933395386,
-0.3210689127445221,
-0.8624169826507568,
0.09467460960149765,
0.5053895711898804,
-0.05293850973248482,
0.26481932401657104,
-0.18043428659439087,
-0.5396478772163391,
-0.26120418310165405,
-0.2708055078983307,
-0.09711641073226929,
0.15624354779720306,
0.3067532181739807,
0.24164314568042755,
0.005790452938526869,
0.6160265207290649,
-0.7653877139091492,
0.7042889595031738,
0.357476145029068,
-0.03875510394573212,
-0.29234379529953003,
0.009080497547984123,
-0.06016189977526665,
0.2676461338996887,
0.16741882264614105,
0.006757186260074377,
0.45474135875701904,
-0.05504951626062393,
0.1804177165031433,
-0.14368480443954468,
-0.06672259420156479,
-0.2391020953655243,
-0.09873763471841812,
-0.2397952377796173,
0.2627578377723694,
0.5132634043693542,
0.39417752623558044,
0.4393700063228607,
0.054863810539245605,
-0.48920097947120667,
-0.1289985477924347,
0.014894300140440464,
0.025150343775749207,
0.2380543202161789,
-0.1468917280435562,
0.46786296367645264,
0.24347944557666779,
-0.21717776358127594,
-0.47683072090148926,
0.10217712819576263,
-0.011851710267364979,
-0.343896746635437,
-0.5000377893447876,
0.6005527973175049,
0.3579752743244171,
-0.37643250823020935,
0.9631149768829346,
-0.11290822178125381,
0.04386558011174202,
0.23075123131275177,
0.20417256653308868,
-0.014256316237151623,
-0.24843710660934448,
-0.2491949200630188,
1.1053491830825806,
0.23784305155277252,
0.3859744966030121,
0.07153544574975967,
0.444060742855072,
0.4130268096923828,
-0.4791624844074249,
0.631273627281189,
0.16476275026798248,
0.43548786640167236,
0.08427996188402176,
-0.31621816754341125,
-0.2009657770395279,
0.16947460174560547,
-0.16529062390327454,
0.7520228624343872,
0.11335352808237076,
0.2829948663711548,
0.6499557495117188,
-0.22823166847229004,
-0.043318260461091995,
-0.16004927456378937,
0.1280919760465622,
0.00033741845982149243,
-0.29975399374961853,
0.36997854709625244,
-0.5461544990539551,
0.6377313137054443,
-0.06645037978887558,
0.19809143245220184,
-0.47833552956581116,
-0.2162960320711136,
-0.36995890736579895,
-0.3587552607059479,
-0.06180832162499428,
0.38821202516555786,
-0.32379966974258423,
-0.08472435921430588,
0.8185781836509705,
0.055411022156476974,
-0.07526608556509018,
-0.18357102572917938,
0.2692854404449463,
-0.18741939961910248,
-0.18702585995197296,
0.41887328028678894,
0.1766018271446228,
0.25780248641967773,
-0.21509821712970734,
-0.13164108991622925,
-0.16866260766983032,
-0.31622713804244995,
0.3382813334465027,
0.1345522403717041,
0.1330118030309677,
-0.4449251890182495,
0.6917118430137634,
-0.3573438227176666,
0.06760372221469879,
0.16411074995994568,
-0.21940355002880096,
-0.16625618934631348,
-0.3124760687351227,
-0.026941385120153427,
0.3836544156074524,
0.29880407452583313,
0.05464654788374901,
-0.5371554493904114,
-0.618802547454834,
0.1660243272781372,
-0.06861434876918793,
-0.19261705875396729,
0.5437619686126709,
-0.2546134889125824,
-0.35623204708099365,
0.08894865214824677,
0.10788082331418991,
0.28825175762176514,
-0.5009905695915222,
-0.421443372964859,
-1.2255425453186035,
0.10008356720209122,
-0.8275308012962341,
0.23900845646858215,
0.03733370080590248,
0.04659264162182808,
0.2579626441001892,
0.14406676590442657,
0.07298659533262253,
-0.05843255668878555,
0.17016571760177612,
0.06605953723192215,
0.1911989152431488,
-0.12099779397249222,
-0.2644791901111603,
-0.4643988609313965,
-0.235852912068367,
0.12403254210948944,
-0.1817650943994522,
0.5137391090393066,
0.055440183728933334,
0.4028315246105194,
-0.3949691951274872,
-6.088894367218018,
-0.2340501844882965,
-0.053767796605825424,
-0.08556950092315674,
0.25772273540496826,
0.018313070759177208,
0.3334011733531952,
-0.0385444238781929,
-0.2036365419626236,
-0.037061430513858795,
0.34388232231140137,
0.23698467016220093,
0.26142600178718567,
0.2570366859436035,
0.15193027257919312,
0.3179755210876465,
0.2822236120700836,
0.09140942990779877,
-0.13126389682292938,
0.07018765062093735,
-0.011368961073458195,
0.325782835483551,
0.9120407104492188,
0.7203812599182129,
0.31543776392936707,
0.15333788096904755,
-0.362263947725296,
0.011210079304873943,
-0.11666212975978851,
-0.023165244609117508,
-0.06414840370416641,
0.12060538679361343,
-0.2947693467140198,
-0.02198261022567749,
0.020145749673247337,
0.20771171152591705,
0.7595019936561584,
0.2098221331834793,
0.3885676860809326,
-0.19969750940799713,
-0.1782379448413849,
0.2738001048564911,
-0.03183509036898613,
0.5749761462211609,
-0.3269379734992981,
-0.16142021119594574,
-0.307291716337204,
-0.2610011696815491,
-0.06355593353509903,
0.2751721441745758,
-0.7280017733573914,
0.8929516077041626,
0.5617396235466003,
-0.04046985134482384,
0.007827088236808777,
0.0021931191440671682,
0.18554337322711945,
0.40385207533836365,
-0.3748510777950287,
-0.3573644161224365,
0.4682060778141022,
-0.3381785750389099,
-0.025068050250411034,
0.05619913712143898,
0.2621459364891052,
-0.5625308752059937,
-0.4500112533569336,
0.46561741828918457,
0.5864912271499634,
0.47835952043533325,
-0.14618757367134094,
0.20132683217525482,
0.36203548312187195,
-1.0916749238967896,
0.05646446347236633,
-0.7086781859397888,
0.04570862650871277,
0.06878931075334549,
0.16408507525920868,
0.38362938165664673,
-0.18428976833820343,
0.7091541886329651,
-0.07099524140357971,
0.4912244975566864,
0.05220358818769455,
-0.29627734422683716,
-0.18640761077404022,
0.9425354599952698,
-0.4448828399181366,
0.10627946257591248,
-0.042440153658390045,
-0.224252849817276,
-0.049184687435626984,
0.1872483342885971,
0.5604395270347595,
0.2925904095172882,
0.12064477056264877,
0.09944320470094681,
0.6239334940910339,
-0.03783814609050751,
0.42067205905914307,
-0.2670436203479767,
-0.12692631781101227,
-0.34270578622817993,
0.027319949120283127,
0.0448165088891983,
-0.40312910079956055,
0.5038637518882751,
0.36496928334236145,
0.06045221909880638,
-0.021102286875247955,
0.0377105213701725,
-0.04434506595134735,
-0.5052189230918884,
0.20620152354240417,
0.5540309548377991,
-0.1362689733505249,
0.7312790751457214,
-0.03828582167625427,
0.22943134605884552,
-0.02728331834077835,
0.183171808719635,
-0.6486259698867798,
0.4602046310901642,
-0.46979451179504395,
0.22568731009960175,
-0.10623414814472198,
-0.15832854807376862,
0.29514554142951965,
-0.3123469054698944,
0.22357909381389618,
0.056210972368717194,
0.030914675444364548,
0.003993412014096975,
0.2783799171447754,
0.1827882081270218,
0.18489399552345276,
-0.13697071373462677,
-0.11542526632547379,
-0.448926717042923,
-0.25649145245552063,
-0.4636624753475189,
-0.15698476135730743,
-0.06125125661492348,
0.2571398913860321,
0.04626985266804695,
-0.4504397213459015,
-0.22397764027118683,
-0.2776505947113037,
0.5691406726837158,
-0.22186750173568726,
-0.511391818523407,
0.2959844470024109,
-0.5521261692047119,
-0.3714942932128906,
-0.6679954528808594,
0.2940640449523926,
-0.20654703676700592,
-0.1322176605463028,
-0.04440202936530113,
-0.1042754203081131,
-0.72552090883255,
-0.6986734867095947,
0.07614998519420624,
0.3209461569786072,
-0.035453688353300095,
0.20729194581508636,
-0.1377411037683487,
-0.27135172486305237,
0.6985140442848206,
0.09829705208539963,
-0.35062628984451294,
-0.3852541148662567,
-0.6512542366981506,
0.17515456676483154,
0.4344344735145569,
0.2181229591369629,
0.26609840989112854,
-0.023243920877575874,
0.1843121498823166,
-0.04259827733039856,
-0.4030098021030426,
-0.42875221371650696,
0.2069106101989746,
-0.33462271094322205,
-0.6372030377388,
-0.23314505815505981,
0.0797545462846756,
-0.09561630338430405,
-0.5270535945892334,
0.022359784692525864,
0.17486853897571564,
0.3679572343826294,
-0.14677630364894867,
-0.8254753351211548,
0.23897893726825714,
-0.0583312027156353,
-0.3335401117801666,
0.06479807943105698,
-0.26766741275787354,
0.6352194547653198,
-0.11666560918092728,
-0.18231508135795593,
-0.014779411256313324,
-0.15490014851093292,
-0.16009531915187836,
0.008586584590375423,
0.1608782410621643,
-0.27071964740753174,
0.6470416784286499,
-0.33940285444259644,
-0.3923809230327606,
-0.041221823543310165,
0.3932730257511139,
-0.1127093955874443,
-0.44694623351097107,
-0.10971769690513611,
-0.34018823504447937,
-0.09001791477203369,
-0.19787418842315674,
0.19002097845077515,
0.11110100895166397,
0.015481141395866871,
-0.21576933562755585,
-0.12300637364387512,
0.13386264443397522,
-0.04934197664260864,
-0.2381671816110611,
0.05129929631948471,
-0.2524988055229187,
0.017913252115249634,
-0.05832887068390846,
-0.46707409620285034,
-0.17299191653728485,
0.26224666833877563,
-0.07654009759426117,
0.3565578758716583,
0.04698977619409561,
-0.287680983543396,
-0.02205602452158928,
-0.16811712086200714,
0.8743361234664917,
0.1365642547607422,
-0.3670002222061157,
-0.2854829728603363,
0.30297136306762695,
0.2546008229255676,
-0.5182490348815918,
-0.06122499704360962,
0.735417902469635,
0.47075963020324707,
-0.719141960144043,
0.05883810669183731,
0.09695698320865631,
0.4874517321586609,
-0.6135818362236023,
0.5973201394081116,
0.6208711266517639,
-0.07214287668466568,
0.3046943247318268,
-0.12278695404529572,
0.033441707491874695,
-0.5530334115028381,
-0.04045398533344269,
-0.15469299256801605,
-0.0667518749833107,
-0.18313555419445038,
-0.00394464610144496,
0.14839550852775574,
-0.5228551626205444,
0.633470892906189,
0.3399841785430908,
-0.15609712898731232,
0.08700826019048691,
0.6518839001655579,
0.08476711809635162,
-0.2928914427757263,
-0.14426693320274353,
0.13046878576278687,
0.1520107537508011,
-0.20401838421821594,
0.07146073132753372,
-0.3130281865596771,
-0.6454403400421143,
0.32235187292099,
-1.2188735008239746,
-0.05460456386208534,
-0.27700793743133545,
-0.6014898419380188,
-0.1866486817598343,
-0.38495221734046936,
-0.32508817315101624,
0.0020842659287154675,
0.2115432620048523,
-0.6977065801620483,
0.21339011192321777,
-0.1500977724790573,
0.24835951626300812,
0.12581364810466766,
0.22470848262310028,
-0.30556520819664,
0.6605342626571655,
-0.01116306520998478,
-0.041560299694538116,
-0.36905109882354736,
-0.10799962282180786,
-0.06311257928609848,
-0.2656361758708954,
-0.17874664068222046,
-0.5788002610206604,
0.22197425365447998,
-0.4050213098526001,
0.6091811656951904,
0.5223621129989624,
-0.345154345035553,
0.056168533861637115,
0.33836689591407776,
-0.06903625279664993,
-0.1277291625738144,
0.13118094205856323,
0.1455228179693222,
-0.06272410601377487,
-0.2022380530834198,
-0.1443055123090744,
0.0733959749341011,
0.2833349406719208,
-0.2140083760023117,
-0.19708174467086792,
0.35227444767951965,
0.025480149313807487,
0.8569465279579163,
0.38729000091552734,
-0.25002187490463257,
0.4647505283355713,
-0.5193380117416382,
-0.5844132900238037,
0.19545918703079224,
-0.5725958347320557,
-0.0462314635515213,
0.1857074499130249,
0.3173520267009735,
0.4266326129436493,
-0.4516288936138153,
-0.1444801241159439,
-0.28088852763175964,
0.12195463478565216,
0.026352835819125175,
-0.03189636021852493,
0.008773569017648697,
0.35719913244247437,
0.27530404925346375,
-0.15846595168113708,
0.2862561047077179,
0.429156631231308,
0.5068179368972778,
-0.6310809850692749,
0.5033285617828369,
0.44286996126174927,
-0.01356265414506197,
-0.8865417242050171,
-0.2882034182548523,
0.004483679309487343,
-0.0904025211930275,
0.22442369163036346,
0.36724621057510376,
0.02794595994055271,
-0.1870652288198471,
-0.09324365109205246,
-0.43227243423461914,
-0.05664607137441635,
0.36458876729011536,
-0.13458415865898132,
0.20737798511981964,
-0.2501288056373596,
0.7385440468788147,
0.3453035056591034,
0.5201679468154907,
0.3335934579372406,
0.6814618706703186,
0.2158253937959671,
0.4520576596260071,
0.0682721734046936,
0.35247814655303955,
-0.713959813117981,
-0.2177100032567978,
0.2599911093711853,
-0.27201390266418457,
0.38410958647727966,
-0.19985325634479523,
0.3397684693336487,
0.21472620964050293,
-0.11638123542070389,
-0.1954791396856308,
0.20553505420684814,
0.4161589741706848,
-0.19056741893291473,
-0.14101538062095642,
0.4744625985622406,
0.028180070221424103,
-0.11832471936941147,
0.027105603367090225,
0.22789590060710907,
0.042462319135665894,
-0.17764277756214142,
-0.14733858406543732,
0.1170564740896225,
-0.06515079736709595,
0.30887749791145325,
-0.3754430413246155,
0.4501872956752777,
-0.20708124339580536,
-0.7806872725486755,
-0.05037781223654747,
0.5627714395523071,
-0.05234835296869278,
0.5133715867996216,
0.5537686347961426,
0.015374619513750076,
0.43236294388771057,
-0.16538377106189728,
0.16043047606945038,
0.16737054288387299,
-0.16015608608722687,
0.6444892883300781,
0.11953411251306534,
0.17299866676330566,
0.4386420249938965,
0.18181364238262177,
-0.3333922326564789,
0.6868107914924622,
-0.03280041739344597,
-0.5829623341560364,
-0.5027772188186646,
-0.2640991806983948,
-0.027741678059101105,
0.004237547516822815,
0.0801861360669136,
0.6798708438873291,
-0.08410380035638809,
-0.5315476655960083,
-0.12039084732532501,
0.254986971616745,
0.021547863259911537,
-0.10902047157287598,
-1.2193907499313354,
-0.13262690603733063,
-0.09618419408798218,
-0.32216164469718933,
0.022302821278572083,
0.2980610132217407,
0.029476994648575783,
0.2069975584745407,
0.5880433320999146,
-0.23797732591629028,
0.24149811267852783,
-0.12558302283287048,
0.15380075573921204,
-0.46962159872055054,
0.5023030638694763,
0.853183925151825
] |
213163
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary%20Oldman
|
Gary Oldman
|
Gary Leonard Oldman (born 21 March 1958) is an English actor and filmmaker. Known for his versatility and intense acting style, he has received various accolades, including an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and three British Academy Film Awards. His films have grossed over $11 billion worldwide, making him one of the highest-grossing actors to date.
Oldman began acting in theatre in 1979 and made his film debut in Remembrance (1982). He continued to follow a stage career in London's Royal Court and was a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company, with credits including Cabaret, Romeo and Juliet, Entertaining Mr Sloane, Saved, The Country Wife and Hamlet. He rose to prominence in British film with his portrayals of Sid Vicious in Sid and Nancy (1986), Joe Orton in Prick Up Your Ears (1987) and Rosencrantz in Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead (1990), while also attracting attention as the leader of a gang of football hooligans in the television film The Firm (1989). Regarded as a member of the "Brit Pack", he achieved greater recognition as a New York gangster in State of Grace (1990), Lee Harvey Oswald in JFK (1991) and Count Dracula in Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992).
Oldman portrayed the villains in films such as True Romance (1993), The Fifth Element (1997), Air Force One (1997) and The Contender (2000); corrupt DEA agent Norman Stansfield, whom he played in Léon: The Professional (1994), was called one of cinema's best villains. He also played Ludwig van Beethoven in Immortal Beloved (1994) and later appeared in franchise roles such as Sirius Black in the Harry Potter series, James Gordon in The Dark Knight Trilogy (2005–2012) and a human leader, Dreyfus in Dawn of the Planet of the Apes (2014). He won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role as Winston Churchill in Darkest Hour (2017), and was nominated for his portrayals of George Smiley in Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (2011) and Herman J. Mankiewicz in Mank (2020).
Oldman was executive producer of films like The Contender, Plunkett & Macleane (1999) and Nil by Mouth (1997), the latter of which he also wrote and directed. He featured in television shows such as Fallen Angels, Tracey Takes On... and Friends, voiced Ignitius and Viktor Reznov respectively in The Legend of Spyro and Call of Duty video games and appeared in music videos for David Bowie, Guns N' Roses and Annie Lennox.
Early life and education
Gary Leonard Oldman was born in New Cross, London, on 21 March 1958, the son of Leonard Bertram Oldman (1921–1985), a former sailor who also worked as a welder, and Kathleen (née Cheriton; 1919–2018). He said his father was an alcoholic who left the family when Oldman was seven years old. His older sister, Maureen, is an actress better known as Laila Morse; she performed in Oldman's directorial debut Nil by Mouth (1997), before taking on her most famous role of Mo Harris in the BBC soap opera EastEnders.
Oldman attended West Greenwich School in Deptford, leaving at the age of 16 to work in a sports shop. He played piano as a child, but he gave up his musical aspirations to pursue an acting career after seeing Malcolm McDowell's performance in the film The Raging Moon (1971). In a 1995 interview with Charlie Rose, he said, "Something about Malcolm just arrested me, and I connected, and I said, 'I wanna do that.'"
Growing up in south London, Oldman supported his local football club, Millwall F.C., but also followed Manchester United because he idolised George Best. In 2011, he learned from his mother that his father had played for Millwall just after World War II: "Just after the war, [my mother] ran a boarding house for football playersMillwall players. And I knew that my dad was involved somehow with the reserve team. But two weeks ago my mum said, 'Oh yeah, your dad played for Millwall. When he was young he had a couple of first team games.'"
Oldman studied with the Young People's Theatre in Greenwich during the mid-1970s, while working jobs on assembly lines, as a porter in an operating theatre, selling shoes and beheading pigs in an abattoir. He applied unsuccessfully to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA), which welcomed him to try again the following year, but advised him to find something else to do for a living. When asked by Charlie Rose if he had reminded RADA of this, Oldman joked that "the work speaks for itself".
He won a scholarship to attend the Rose Bruford College in Sidcup, south-east London, from which he graduated with a BA in Acting in 1979. Oldman described himself as a "shy" but diligent worker during his time there, performing roles such as Puck in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream.
Career
Late 1970s–1980s
After leaving drama school, Oldman was the first in his year to receive professional work; he stated that this was not a result of being the most talented actor, but rather diligence and application. In 1979, he starred in Thark, opposite Annette Kerr, at York's Theatre Royal. Subsequent plays included Cabaret, Privates on Parade and Romeo and Juliet. In December 1979, Oldman appeared as Puss in Dick Whittington and His Cat, staged at York. He also acted in Colchester, then with Glasgow's Citizens Theatre; Oldman's work ethic and trademark intensity would make him a favourite with audiences in Glasgow during the 1980s. He also toured Europe and South America with the Citizens Theatre company.
From 1980 to 1981, Oldman appeared in The Massacre at Paris (Christopher Marlowe), Desperado Corner (Shaun Lawton) and Robert David MacDonald's plays Chinchilla and A Waste of Time. He performed in a 6-month West End run of MacDonald's Summit Conference, opposite Glenda Jackson, in 1982. Also that year, Oldman made his film debut in Colin Gregg's Remembrance, and would have starred in Don Boyd's Gossip if that film had not collapsed. The following year, he landed a starring role as a skinhead in Mike Leigh's film Meantime, and moved on to Chesterfield to assume the lead role in Entertaining Mr Sloane (Joe Orton). He then went to Westcliffe to star in Saved (Edward Bond).
Saved proved to be a major breakthrough for Oldman. Max Stafford-Clark, artistic director of the Royal Court Theatre, had seen Oldman's performance and cast him as Scopey, the lead role of Bond's The Pope's Wedding, in 1984. For his acclaimed performance, he won two of British theatre's top honours: the Time Out Fringe Award for Best Newcomer, and the Drama Theatre Award for Best Actor—the latter of which was shared with future film co-star Anthony Hopkins for his performance in Pravda. Oldman's turn in The Pope's Wedding led to a run of work with the Royal Court, and from 1984 to 1986 he appeared in Rat in the Skull (Ron Hutchinson), The Desert Air (Nicholas Wright), Cain and Abel, The Danton Affair (Pam Gems), Women Beware Women (Thomas Middleton), Real Dreams (Trevor Griffiths) and all three of Bond's The War Plays: Red Black and Ignorant, The Tin Can People and Great Peace. Oldman was a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company from 1985 to 1986.
The 1984 production of The Pope's Wedding had been seen by director Alex Cox, who offered Oldman the part of musician Sid Vicious in the 1986 film Sid and Nancy. He twice turned down the role before accepting it, because, in his own words: "I wasn't really that interested in Sid Vicious and the punk movement. I'd never followed it. It wasn't something that interested me. The script I felt was banal and 'who cares' and 'why bother' and all of that. And I was a little bit sort-of with my nose in the air and sort-of thinking 'well the theatre—so much more superior' and all of that." He reconsidered based on the salary and the urging of his agent. In 1987, Oldman gained his third starring film role as Joe Orton in Prick Up Your Ears, for which he received a BAFTA nomination for Best Actor. That same year, he appeared in the plays The Country Wife (William Wycherley) and Serious Money (Caryl Churchill). Film director Luc Besson told how, on the set of The Fifth Element (1997), Oldman could recite any scene from Hamlet (William Shakespeare), in which he had starred a decade earlier.
Oldman's performances in Sid and Nancy and Prick Up Your Ears paved the way for work in Hollywood, garnering acclaim from United States film critic Roger Ebert. Ebert wrote, "There is no point of similarity between the two performances; like a few gifted actors, [Oldman] is able to re-invent himself for every role. On the basis of these two movies, he is the best young British actor around." Vicious's former Sex Pistols bandmate, John Lydon, despite criticising Sid and Nancy, described Oldman as a "bloody good actor". The performance would go on to be ranked No. 62 in Premiere magazine's "100 Greatest Performances of All Time" and No. 8 in Uncut magazine's "10 Best actors in rockin' roles", the latter describing Oldman's portrayal as a "hugely sympathetic reading of the punk figurehead as a lost and bewildered manchild."
In late 1988, he starred opposite "hero" Alan Bates in We Think the World of You, and in 1989 alongside Dennis Hopper and Frances McDormand in the Chattahoochee. Also in 1989, Oldman also starred as football hooligan Clive "Bex" Bissel in controversial British television drama The Firm, giving a performance that Total Film numbered as his best and called "stunning" and "fearless" in 2011. Oldman and other young British actors of the 1980s who were becoming established Hollywood film actors, such as Tim Roth, Bruce Payne, Colin Firth, Daniel Day-Lewis and Paul McGann, were dubbed the "Brit Pack", of which Oldman was de facto leader.
1990s
In 1990, Oldman costarred with Tim Roth in Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead, Tom Stoppard's film adaptation of his own play of the same name. Total Film praised the movie, calling Oldman's character "a blitz of brilliant comedy timing and pitch perfect line delivery." He then starred opposite Sean Penn and Ed Harris in State of Grace (1990); Roger Ebert described Oldman's turn as the highlight, and Janet Maslin referred to his work as "phenomenal". He was offered, but turned down, the lead role in that year's Edward Scissorhands. Oldman moved to the United States in the early 1990s, where he has resided since.
In 1991, he began filming Dylan Thomas, a biopic on Welsh poet Dylan Thomas, with his then-wife Uma Thurman as Caitlin Thomas; production shut down shortly after filming began. Later in 1991, Oldman starred in his first US blockbuster, playing Lee Harvey Oswald in Oliver Stone's JFK. According to Oldman, very little was written about Oswald in the script. Stone gave him several plane tickets, a list of contacts and told him to do his own research. Oldman met with Oswald's wife, Marina, and her two daughters to prepare for the role. He filmed scenes for the 1992 neo-noir thriller Final Analysis, which were cut.
In 1992, he starred as Count Dracula in Francis Ford Coppola's romance-horror Bram Stoker's Dracula. A commercially successful film adaptation of Bram Stoker's 1897 novel, it was a box office success worldwide. Oldman's performance was recognised as the best male performance of 1992 by the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films, which awarded Oldman its Best Actor award. He served as a member of the Jury at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival. Oldman became a popular portrayer of villains: he played violent pimp Drexl Spivey in the Tony Scott-directed, Quentin Tarantino-written True Romance (1993), a role which MSN Movies described as "one of cinema's most memorable villains"; a sadistic prison warden in Murder in the First (1995); futuristic corporate tyrant Jean-Baptiste Emanuel Zorg in The Fifth Element (1997); and Dr. Zachary Smith/Spider Smith in the commercially successful but critically panned Lost in Space (1998). He was considered for two roles in Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction (1994), but neither were realised. Tarantino contemplated Oldman as gangster Jules Winnfield (played by Samuel L. Jackson), while TriStar executives recommended him for drug dealer Lance (portrayed by Eric Stoltz).
In 1994's Léon: The Professional, he played corrupt DEA officer Norman Stansfield, which has since been named by multiple publications as one of the best villains, and most corrupt cops, in cinema. Oldman also portrayed various accents; along with the Transylvanian Count Dracula, he gave a critically acclaimed reading of German-born Viennese composer Ludwig van Beethoven in Immortal Beloved, and played Russian terrorist Egor Korshunov in the 1997 blockbuster Air Force One. In 1998, MTV's Celebrity Deathmatch aired a match between claymation representations of Oldman and Christopher Walken to determine the greatest cinematic villain. The following year, Oldman served as executive producer of Plunkett & Macleane, and portrayed another historical figure, Pontius Pilate, in television film Jesus. He was also considered for the role of Morpheus in The Matrix.
2000s
Oldman appeared opposite Jeff Bridges as zealous Republican congressman Sheldon Runyon in The Contender (2000), of which he was also executive producer. Oldman received a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for his performance, although some claimed he was dissatisfied with DreamWorks' supposed editing of the film to reflect pro-Democratic leanings. These reports were declared "sloppy sensationalism" by his manager, Douglas Urbanski, who said that Oldman was "the least political person I know". He stressed that neither he nor Oldman had made the statements attributed to them, that they had "produced this film, every last cut and frame", and that DreamWorks "did not influence the final cut or have anything to do with it." Urbanski asserted that Oldman received "creepy phone calls advising him that he was ruining his chances of an Oscar nomination". The notion of Oldman criticising DreamWorks was dispelled as a "myth" by critic Roger Ebert.
In 2001, he starred opposite Anthony Hopkins in Hannibal, as Mason Verger, the only surviving victim of Hannibal Lecter. He spent six hours per day in the make-up room to achieve the character's hideously disfigured appearance, and went uncredited in the film. It marked the second time that Oldman had appeared opposite Hopkins, who was part of the supporting cast of Bram Stoker's Dracula. He received an Emmy Award nomination for two guest appearances in Friends in May 2001, appearing in the two-part episode "The One With Chandler and Monica's Wedding" as Richard Crosby, a pedantic actor who insists that "real" actors spit on one another when they enunciate, leading to tension, then friendship, with Joey Tribbiani (Matt LeBlanc). Oldman had previously worked with LeBlanc on Lost in Space.
Following his Friends appearance, Oldman did not appear in any major roles until 2004; it was suggested that he was blacklisted in Hollywood during this time, following the controversy that had surrounded the release of The Contender. In 2002, he starred in the generally well-received Interstate 60, and played the Devil in the BMW short film, The Hire: Beat the Devil. Guardian writer Xan Brooks described the early 2000s as Oldman's "low point", recalling "barrel-scraping roles" in the 2003 films Tiptoes and Sin. Although the film failed to impress reviewers, Oldman did garner some praise for his portrayal of a man with dwarfism in Tiptoes: Lisa Nesselson in Variety described his work as "astonishingly fine", and the performance was later mentioned in Mark Kermode's "Great Acting in Bad Films".
In 2004, Oldman returned to prominence when he landed a starring role in the Harry Potter film series, playing Harry Potter's godfather Sirius Black. The following year, he starred as James Gordon in Christopher Nolan's commercially and critically successful Batman Begins, a role that he reprised in the even more successful sequel The Dark Knight (2008) and once more in the conclusion, The Dark Knight Rises (2012). Film critic Mark Kermode, in reviewing The Dark Knight, downplayed claims that Heath Ledger's Joker was the highlight of the film, saying, "the best performance in the film, by a mile, is [by] Gary Oldman... it would be lovely to see him get a nomination because actually, he's the guy who gets kind of overlooked in all of this." Oldman co-starred with Jim Carrey in the 2009 version of A Christmas Carol in which Oldman played three roles. He had a starring role in David Goyer's supernatural thriller The Unborn, released in 2009.
2010s
In 2010, Oldman co-starred with Denzel Washington in The Book of Eli. He also played a lead role in Catherine Hardwicke's Red Riding Hood. Oldman voiced the role of villain Lord Shen and was nominated for an Annie Award for his performance in Kung Fu Panda 2.
Oldman received strong reviews and earned his first Academy Award nomination and a BAFTA Award nomination for his portrayal of British spy George Smiley in Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (2011), an adaptation of the John le Carré novel, directed by Tomas Alfredson. To prepare for the role of George Smiley, Oldman gained 15 pounds, watched Alec Guinness' performance in Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy, and paid a visit to Smiley's creator John le Carré to perfect the character's voice. In 2012, Oldman played Floyd Banner, a big-hitting mobster, in John Hillcoat's Lawless, alongside Tom Hardy, Shia LaBeouf, Guy Pearce and Jessica Chastain. The following year, he portrayed Nicholas Wyatt, a ruthless CEO, in Robert Luketic's Paranoia, along with Harrison Ford and Liam Hemsworth. In 2014, Oldman starred alongside Joel Kinnaman, Abbie Cornish, Michael Keaton and Samuel L. Jackson in the remake of RoboCop, as Norton, the scientist who creates the title character.
Also that year, Oldman starred in Dawn of the Planet of the Apes as one of the leads alongside Jason Clarke and Keri Russell. In a promotional interview published in the July/August issue of Playboy magazine, Oldman slammed what he saw as excessive political correctness in American media, alleged discriminating hypocrisy by entertainers who hide "behind comedy and satire to say things we can't ordinarily say", and downplayed the convictions behind offensive slurs said by actors Alec Baldwin and Mel Gibson, attributing their statements to anger and inebriation, respectively. He went on to say that Gibson—who had faced censure for antisemitic remarks—had "bitten the hand that [feeds]", being in "a town that's run by Jews" (referring to Hollywood). Oldman stressed that he is not "a fascist or a racist", but was nevertheless criticised for his comments. He issued multiple apologies, including on 25 June edition of late-night talk show, Jimmy Kimmel Live!, where he described the remarks as "offensive, insensitive, pernicious and ill-informed". Both the Anti-Defamation League and the Simon Wiesenthal Center welcomed Oldman's contrition (the latter inviting him to its Museum of Tolerance to screen 2017's Darkest Hour). Director David Fincher told Playboy, "I know him very well... Gary's not cruel. He's an incredibly thoughtful guy."
In 2015, Oldman played the head of police that investigates Tom Hardy's character in Child 44, alongside Noomi Rapace and Joel Kinnaman, and had a supporting role in the post-apocalyptic American thriller Man Down, directed by Dito Montiel, and starring alongside Shia LaBeouf and Kate Mara. In 2016, Oldman played a CIA chief in Criminal, directed by Ariel Vromen, and starring Kevin Costner, Tommy Lee Jones, Ryan Reynolds, Alice Eve, and Gal Gadot.
In 2017, Oldman played three film roles: a billionaire entrepreneur in The Space Between Us, a dictatorial President in The Hitman's Bodyguard, and former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in Joe Wright's war drama Darkest Hour—his portrayal of Churchill garnered critical acclaim. Oldman's transformation into the wartime Prime Minister took 200 hours in the makeup chair, 14 pounds of silicone rubber, and $20,000 worth of Cuban cigars, which gave him nicotine poisoning. In 2018, he won the Academy Award for Best Actor, Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama, Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor, Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actor, and BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role. His Golden Globe win came despite Oldman having once been a critic of that award; he noted that he was "amazed, flattered and very proud" to be nominated.
In 2018, in his first post-Oscar role, Oldman voiced an evil artificial intelligence in Netflix's independent film Tau and starred in Hunter Killer alongside Gerard Butler. In 2019, Oldman starred in horror-thriller Mary, directed by Michael Goi, and the thriller The Courier, opposite Olga Kurylenko, and appeared in Steven Soderbergh's The Laundromat as Jürgen Mossack, opposite Meryl Streep and Antonio Banderas.
2020s
In 2020, Oldman starred as Citizen Kane co-writer Herman J. Mankiewicz in David Fincher's biographical drama black-and-white Netflix movie Mank, which follows Mankiewicz's tumultuous development of the script for Citizen Kane alongside director Orson Welles. The film co-stars Amanda Seyfried, Lily Collins, and Charles Dance. Mank had a limited theatrical release on 13 November, and began streaming on Netflix on 4 December. It received positive reviews, earning 88% on Rotten Tomatoes with the critics consensus being, "Sharply written and brilliantly performed, Mank peers behind the scenes of Citizen Kane to tell an old Hollywood story that could end up being a classic in its own right." In 2021, Oldman starred opposite Armie Hammer in Crisis and in Joe Wright's The Woman in the Window, alongside Amy Adams.
He has been set to play a hitman alongside Dylan O'Brien in The Bayou. Oldman is also slated to direct a biopic about Eadweard Muybridge entitled Flying Horse.
Furthermore, Oldman has signed on to play the lead role in the Apple TV+ spy drama television series Slow Horses, based on the book of the same name. Slow Horses will mark the first time Oldman has played a lead role in a television series.
Other work
Filmmaking
In 1997, Oldman directed, produced, and wrote the award-winning Nil by Mouth, a film partially based on his own childhood. Nil by Mouth went on to win the BAFTA Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film (shared with Douglas Urbanski and Luc Besson) and also the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay, the Channel 4 Director's Award, and an Empire Award. In 1999, it was adjudged by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts as one of the hundred best British films of the 20th century. Nil By Mouth was listed by Time Out as number twenty-one of the top 100 best British films ever.
Oldman and producing partner Douglas Urbanski formed the SE8 GROUP to produce Nil by Mouth. The company also produced The Contender, which also starred Oldman. He completed a screenplay, Chang & Eng, co-written with Darin Strauss, based on the author's book of the same name. In September 2006, Nokia Nseries Studio released the Oldman-directed short film Donut, with music by Tor Hyams. The film was shot with an N93 to promote the phone. Juliet Landau made a 25-minute documentary about the making of the video. In 2011, he directed a music video for then-wife Alex Eden's first single, "Kiss Me Like the Woman You Loved".
Music
Oldman has had a keen interest in music from an early age. He is a proficient pianist and stated in a 1995 interview with Charlie Rose that he would rather be a musician than an actor. Oldman sang several tracks on the Sid and Nancy soundtrack, on which he performed alongside original Sex Pistols bassist Glen Matlock, and sang and played live piano in the 1988 movie Track 29. He traced over Beethoven compositions in 1994's Immortal Beloved, and tutored Harry Potter actor Daniel Radcliffe on bass guitar. Oldman appeared on Reeves Gabrels' album The Sacred Squall of Now, performing a vocal duet with David Bowie on the track "You've Been Around". He produced a live performance by former White Stripes member Jack White in conjunction with Vevo and YouTube. At the 2016 Brit Awards in London, Oldman paid tribute to Bowie, before receiving the Brits "Icon Award" on behalf of the singer and his family.
Voice acting
Oldman participated in the creation of The Legend of Spyro games, produced by Sierra Entertainment. He provided the voice of the Fire Guardian, Ignitus. He voices Sergeant Viktor Reznov and scientist Daniel Clarke in the Call of Duty games. He also provides the narration of Sergeant Jack Barnes in the Spearhead expansion for Medal of Honor: Allied Assault. In 2015 he voiced Lord Vortech, the evil mastermind who seeks to control the LEGO Multiverse, in the Lego Dimensions video game. He will play Admiral Ernst Bishop in the upcoming single-player campaign of the Chris Roberts-designed crowdfunded video game, Squadron 42.
Writing
In 2015, Oldman and his manager Douglas Urbanski signed a deal with the Simon & Schuster/Atria Publishing label Emily Bestler Books for Blood Riders, a vampire book series.
Acting style
Oldman studied the teachings of Konstantin Stanislavski and Stella Adler while at drama school but went "off-book", drawing much of his inspiration from American cinema. As a screen actor, Oldman was almost typecast as an anti-social personality early in his career. The necessity to express villainous characters in an overtly physical manner led to the cultivation of a "big" acting style that incorporated projection skills acquired during his stage training. He further sought to develop a distinctive approach that would distance him from his "stuffy" and "often interchangeable" British peers.
Oldman has conceded that his performances often involve an element of overacting: "It's my influence on those roles that probably [makes them] feel bigger than life and a little over-the-top. I mean, I do go for it a bit as an actor, I must admit." In another interview, he stated, "If it's coming from a sincere place, then I think the screen can hold the epic and it can hold the very, very small." Stuart Heritage of The Guardian wrote, "Finding the definitive Gary Oldman ham performance is like trying to choose which of your children you prefer. The man is a long-term devotee of the art of ham." Conversely, Oldman noted that he enjoys "playing characters where the silence is loud" such as George Smiley in Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (2011).
Oldman has adopted various accents for roles and portrayed a wide range of characters. He is known for his in-depth research of his roles, as well as his devotion to them, at one point being hospitalised after losing significant weight for Sid and Nancy. In a 2017 interview, he differentiated between immersion and impression:
Reception and legacy
Oldman has established a cult following among film fans. He is known for playing the primary antagonist in a number of popular motion pictures, which has seen him referenced in popular culture. At the peak of his popularity in the 1990s, Oldman was dubbed by Empire magazine Hollywood's "psycho deluxe", and was spoofed on popular television shows such as Fox comedy series In Living Color and MTV's Celebrity Deathmatch, as well as drafted in to appear on the first ever cover of Loaded magazine. In 1993, he appeared in the music video for Annie Lennox's international hit "Love Song for a Vampire", written for the soundtrack to Bram Stoker's Dracula, and had a cameo role as the Devil in the video for Guns N' Roses single "Since I Don't Have You"—Oldman also played the Devil in the 2002 BMW short Beat The Devil, alongside Clive Owen, James Brown and Marilyn Manson. He starred as a sleazy priest in the controversial religious-themed video for David Bowie's 2013 single "The Next Day". In contrast to his often dark on-screen roles, Oldman's affable real-life demeanour has been noted, and he was named as one of Empires "100 Sexiest Stars in Film History" in 2007. In 2011, Empire readers voted him the recipient of the Empire Icon Award, which was presented by Colin Firth.
Washington Post and Independent writers noted that Oldman is regarded as one of the greatest actors of his generation. In 2012, Globe and Mail journalist Lynn Crosbie wrote, "Critics never fail to single Oldman out... he is one of a few truly great living actors – arguably, even, the best." Of his diversity, Yahoo! Movies noted that he had "gained a well-earned reputation as a brilliant chameleon"; the Houston Chronicle dubbed Oldman "the face of versatility". He is noted for his avoidance of the Hollywood celebrity scene, often being referred to as an "actor's actor". His work has been acclaimed by Hollywood figures: Tom Hardy has described Oldman as his "absolute complete and utter hero" and "hands down, the greatest actor that's ever lived"; Brad Pitt, Daniel Radcliffe and Ryan Gosling have also cited Oldman as their favourite actor. Hardy recalled Oldman's influence on students at drama school, stating that "everybody used to quote him in all of his films". Jessica Chastain, Jennifer Lawrence, Joseph Gordon-Levitt, Tom Hiddleston and Chris Pine have also named Oldman as one of their favourite actors.
Other actors such as Christian Bale, Hugh Jackman, Benedict Cumberbatch, Shia LaBeouf, Ben Mendelsohn, Johnny Depp, Jason Isaacs, and Michael Fassbender have cited Oldman as an influence; Bale called him "the reason I'm acting". Anthony Hopkins, Ralph Fiennes, Keanu Reeves and Ray Winstone have used the term "genius" in reference to Oldman. John Hurt called him "the best of the bunch"; Colin Firth hailed him as "a very strong candidate for the world's best living actor" and a "hero" of his; and Alec Baldwin described him as "preternaturally gifted" and "the greatest film actor of his generation". Kristin Scott Thomas referred to Oldman as "the most amazing, generous actor". Christopher Eccleston hailed Oldman's Academy Award win for Darkest Hour as "massive" to people from working-class backgrounds. He remarked, "Oldman is as fine an actor as Daniel Day-Lewis, but Gary is not double-barrelled." Collaborating directors Luc Besson, Tony Scott and Christopher Nolan have lauded his work; Besson in 1997 called him "one of the top five actors in the world", while Scott labelled him a "genius". David Cronenberg said that Oldman "really is a fabulous actor" who gave "the best version" of James Gordon (in Nolan's Dark Knight trilogy).
Film critics have also been vocal in their appreciation of Oldman. Roger Ebert hailed him as "one of the great actors, able to play high, low, crass, noble"; while Gene Siskel called him "wonderful" and one of his favourite actors. Peter Travers described Oldman as "one of the best actors on the planet". Prior to his first Academy Award nomination for Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy, Oldman was regarded as one of the greatest actors never nominated for the award; In 2009, Leigh Singer of the Guardian called him "arguably the best actor never Oscar-nominated." Before winning for Darkest Hour, he also carried the label of the greatest actor never to win the Oscar. In 2018, Stuart McGurk of GQ described Oldman as "the master of being brilliant in bad movies".
In 1998, Oldman was honoured at the Camerimage Film Festival, where he was awarded the Krzysztof Kieślowski Award for Acting, the first recipient of the award. In 2011, Oldman received a Tribute Award from the Gotham Awards. In that same year, the Palm Springs International Film Festival announced that Oldman would be receiving its International Star Award, which honours "an actor or actress who has achieved both critical and commercial international recognition throughout their body of work." The PSIFF chairman called Oldman "a performer whose ability to portray the most extreme of characters is a testament to the enormity of his talent." In 2012, The Hollywood Reporter named Oldman the highest-grossing actor in history, based on lead and supporting roles. Films in which he has appeared have grossed over $4.1 billion in the United States, and over $11 billion worldwide.
In 2012, Oldman was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork – the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover – to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires to mark his 80th birthday. In 2014, he received the Dilys Powell Award For Excellence In Film by the London Film Critics.
In 2018, Oldman received the Variety Award at the British Independent Film Awards, which recognises a director, actor, writer or producer who has made a global impact and helped to focus the international spotlight on the U.K. Variety's vice president, Steven Gaydos, remarked that Oldman "has blazed a path as one of international cinema's most versatile and valued actors." In the same year, the Santa Barbara International Film Festival awarded Oldman the Maltin Modern Master Award, the highest accolade awarded by SPIFF that honors an individual who has enriched our culture through accomplishments in the motion picture industry. Leonard Maltin claimed Oldman has "once again proven that he is a force to be reckoned with, and a true master of his craft". Oldman was also awarded his first Career Achievement Award by the Hollywood Film Awards. The Make-up Artists and Hair Stylists Guild Awards as well honored him with the Distinguished Artisan Award, which IATSE President Susan Cabral-Ebert proclaimed him as "a chameleon, an actor who changes his appearance, his voice, everything about himself from film to film".
In 2019, British Airways celebrated its 100th anniversary with a television advertisement featuring key figures from British culture, including Oldman. He was described by BA as "an iconic British legend" who is "regarded as one of the greatest screen actors of his generation".
Personal life
Views and lifestyle
After establishing himself as an actor, Oldman moved to Los Angeles in the early 1990s. Despite numerous lead and supporting roles in major Hollywood films, he is protective of his private life and is known for his stance on celebrity culture and the ideals of Hollywood: "Being famous, that's a whole other career. And I haven't got any energy for it." In 2014, he described himself as a libertarian.
Oldman's alcoholism was well known during the early 1990s; he was arrested for drunk driving in 1991 and checked himself into rehab in 1994. In subsequent interviews, he acknowledged his problems with alcohol and called himself a recovering alcoholic in a 2001 interview with Charlie Rose. He now lives a teetotal lifestyle (he has been sober since 1997) and attributes his success in beating his addiction to attending meetings with Alcoholics Anonymous, whom he has publicly praised.
Marriages and family
Oldman has been married five times. He wed English actress Lesley Manville in 1987, and their son, Alfie, was born the following year. Oldman broke up with Manville in 1989, three months after their son was born. She stated in 2018 that they are on good terms, saying, "[H]e's got a new wife, and we all get on... Gary and I are friends." They have two grandchildren, Matilda and Ozzy Oldman, through Alfie.
Oldman met American actress Uma Thurman on the set of State of Grace; they were married in 1990, but divorced in 1992. From 1994 to 1996, he was engaged to Italian actress and model Isabella Rossellini, his co-star in Immortal Beloved, but they never wed.
From 1997 to 2001, Oldman was married to American model Donya Fiorentino, with whom he had two sons: Gulliver (born 1997) and Charlie (born 1999). Oldman was investigated and cleared of a domestic assault allegation made by Fiorentino during the pair's divorce, receiving sole legal and physical child custody; Fiorentino was granted limited, state-supervised contact dependent on her passing drug and alcohol tests. In 2003, a judge reduced her access to the children after dismissing claims that Oldman had drugged and physically abused them. Gulliver, whom Fiorentino claimed had witnessed the alleged domestic assault in addition to being a victim of abuse, has lamented the "pain and hardship" caused by his mother's "lies" over the years. He has also condemned the media's "disgusting" perpetuation of the assault allegation.
On 31 December 2008, Oldman married English singer and actress Alexandra Edenborough in Santa Barbara, California. Edenborough filed for divorce on 9 January 2015; the divorce was finalised in September 2015. In August 2017, Oldman married writer and art curator Gisele Schmidt in a private ceremony at the home of his manager, Douglas Urbanski.
Filmography
Accolades
See also
List of British Academy Award nominees and winners
List of actors with Academy Award nominations
List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories
References
External links
Interview with Gary Oldman on his directorial debut – Nil by Mouth
Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: The Strange Career of Gary Oldman
1958 births
Living people
20th-century English male actors
21st-century English male actors
Alumni of Rose Bruford College
Audiobook narrators
Best Actor AACTA International Award winners
Best Actor Academy Award winners
Best Actor BAFTA Award winners
Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners
Best Original Screenplay BAFTA Award winners
British expatriate male actors in the United States
English expatriates in the United States
English film directors
English libertarians
English male film actors
English male screenwriters
English male stage actors
English male television actors
English male video game actors
English male voice actors
Film directors from London
Male actors from London
Method actors
Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners
People from New Cross
Royal Shakespeare Company members
|
[
-0.13629359006881714,
0.28688618540763855,
-0.12627269327640533,
-0.5049412250518799,
0.38119810819625854,
0.537383496761322,
0.17832936346530914,
-0.12221530824899673,
-0.21973012387752533,
0.2275877147912979,
-0.5235327482223511,
0.8048729300498962,
0.008674361743032932,
0.40179306268692017,
0.6845983266830444,
0.52158522605896,
-0.19510653614997864,
0.09568257629871368,
-0.17607897520065308,
-0.4274885058403015,
-0.557120144367218,
0.025044023990631104,
0.06256501376628876,
0.48697251081466675,
-0.664298415184021,
0.7221787571907043,
-0.28778010606765747,
-0.22626811265945435,
-0.6041983962059021,
-0.5551661849021912,
-0.06110280752182007,
-0.02364477701485157,
0.2763836085796356,
-0.17625518143177032,
0.21727126836776733,
0.21828874945640564,
-0.35982730984687805,
-0.4782402217388153,
-0.14179334044456482,
0.17632228136062622,
-0.29113855957984924,
0.22722631692886353,
0.1284213811159134,
-0.004753660876303911,
-0.6896008849143982,
-0.11033084243535995,
-1.9079874753952026,
-0.0769810825586319,
-0.799669086933136,
-0.6402938365936279,
-0.10002417862415314,
0.12501826882362366,
0.8236971497535706,
-0.5294734239578247,
0.531960666179657,
-0.18137244880199432,
-0.15621212124824524,
-0.276868999004364,
0.4224473834037781,
0.041600555181503296,
0.3715194761753082,
-0.6801949739456177,
-0.07756508141756058,
-0.8328533172607422,
0.0689237043261528,
0.08817549794912338,
0.37182101607322693,
0.3440932333469391,
-0.07196920365095139,
-0.11861614882946014,
0.1497727781534195,
0.15110361576080322,
0.2646597623825073,
-0.366299033164978,
0.01791391894221306,
-0.28645917773246765,
0.580951988697052,
0.16641704738140106,
-0.43512576818466187,
-0.2882402539253235,
0.49711087346076965,
0.006275972817093134,
0.17083688080310822,
0.5799919366836548,
0.09617169201374054,
-0.054134659469127655,
-0.3846268653869629,
0.3803989291191101,
-0.6005944609642029,
0.5137754082679749,
-0.5537333488464355,
-0.3659322261810303,
-0.09733296185731888,
0.720844030380249,
0.31322118639945984,
-0.29556676745414734,
-0.19220077991485596,
0.10896659642457962,
0.7286630272865295,
-0.47366100549697876,
0.2627519965171814,
-0.1523623764514923,
0.5600963234901428,
-1.162171721458435,
-0.12415584921836853,
-0.3002043664455414,
0.036018386483192444,
-0.11326255649328232,
-0.1491471529006958,
-0.41244015097618103,
-0.31417641043663025,
0.5181050896644592,
-0.25642868876457214,
0.197660431265831,
-0.04742692783474922,
-0.03896176442503929,
-0.1737334281206131,
-0.8035873174667358,
-0.7155102491378784,
0.4583536982536316,
0.16197971999645233,
0.514171302318573,
-0.44872811436653137,
0.8396835923194885,
-1.3983547687530518,
0.19245046377182007,
-0.07439537346363068,
-0.06643559038639069,
-0.5771450400352478,
0.18923579156398773,
-0.07657504826784134,
0.927511990070343,
-0.41033288836479187,
-0.26627808809280396,
-0.4325781464576721,
0.07439421862363815,
0.356108158826828,
-0.09189318120479584,
-0.2407715767621994,
0.021638061851263046,
0.10448868572711945,
-0.10631728172302246,
-0.8138916492462158,
0.11017945408821106,
0.5884622931480408,
-0.019906332716345787,
0.05192849412560463,
-0.28723183274269104,
0.37302953004837036,
0.3638492524623871,
0.00890783779323101,
0.45191118121147156,
0.01099862065166235,
-0.9945640563964844,
-0.7688137888908386,
0.2439906746149063,
0.5609214305877686,
-0.3242875933647156,
0.14754493534564972,
-0.36178725957870483,
0.8566465377807617,
-0.5530427694320679,
-0.37603816390037537,
-0.22634026408195496,
0.8377679586410522,
-0.35180070996284485,
0.3063831031322479,
-0.3953440189361572,
-0.040551573038101196,
0.07634194940328598,
-0.09839311987161636,
-0.011473177000880241,
0.7049703598022461,
-0.5780677795410156,
-0.794727623462677,
0.5201643109321594,
0.1559327393770218,
0.6519173979759216,
0.15755759179592133,
-0.04592220485210419,
-0.5680752396583557,
-0.38952764868736267,
0.24649301171302795,
0.09446820616722107,
0.441072940826416,
0.2180127054452896,
-0.3739502727985382,
0.10577449202537537,
0.8239349722862244,
0.32600897550582886,
-0.23715485632419586,
-0.5351589918136597,
0.3446119427680969,
-0.4378458559513092,
-0.006525347474962473,
-0.09093402326107025,
-0.09703617542982101,
0.41042235493659973,
0.10765787214040756,
0.4536959230899811,
-0.2959713339805603,
-0.3068919777870178,
0.02358740195631981,
0.014938500709831715,
0.33305823802948,
0.4741068482398987,
0.7242785096168518,
-0.22999989986419678,
0.31381338834762573,
0.6305181384086609,
-0.19121073186397552,
-0.7811773419380188,
0.28238704800605774,
0.8739600777626038,
0.22125421464443207,
-0.24719908833503723,
-0.7061335444450378,
-0.4755479395389557,
-0.12770327925682068,
-0.49029025435447693,
0.23506098985671997,
0.9908690452575684,
0.04341571405529976,
0.3026198446750641,
-0.4350469410419464,
0.7801506519317627,
-0.08656081557273865,
-0.2743338942527771,
0.31099000573158264,
-1.0269910097122192,
0.5437246561050415,
0.7723546028137207,
-0.4842677414417267,
-0.3625398874282837,
-0.17634277045726776,
-0.04586121067404747,
0.5114139318466187,
-0.6803783774375916,
-0.4762532711029053,
-0.5994754433631897,
0.6100960373878479,
0.543904721736908,
-0.31851014494895935,
0.026239443570375443,
0.32214558124542236,
0.17921151220798492,
0.46681591868400574,
0.5522127151489258,
-0.7352665662765503,
0.22691015899181366,
0.3242495656013489,
-0.063128761947155,
0.06009558588266373,
-0.08542229980230331,
0.16814099252223969,
-0.34536322951316833,
-0.10915599763393402,
0.6973533034324646,
0.7592305541038513,
0.6050050854682922,
0.511025607585907,
-0.3725427985191345,
-0.14667293429374695,
-0.1845507025718689,
-0.9462467432022095,
-0.1366645097732544,
-0.21971184015274048,
-0.9371165633201599,
0.12944568693637848,
-0.2949742376804352,
-0.25706374645233154,
-0.1574297845363617,
0.21588240563869476,
-0.009094572626054287,
0.29714784026145935,
0.6478580832481384,
0.6467123031616211,
0.13323885202407837,
-0.16147328913211823,
-0.2228858470916748,
0.4559391140937805,
0.5846140384674072,
-0.3537854552268982,
-0.05844298377633095,
0.058671098202466965,
-0.32032525539398193,
-0.360705703496933,
0.1532343178987503,
0.07235564291477203,
-0.028163395822048187,
-0.061749283224344254,
1.079311728477478,
0.18930839002132416,
0.8403611183166504,
-0.07137209177017212,
0.1802394986152649,
-0.028840068727731705,
0.013154865242540836,
-0.05913645401597023,
-0.44562920928001404,
-0.2118346393108368,
0.776623547077179,
-0.21672660112380981,
0.2179589867591858,
0.324989914894104,
0.10767292976379395,
-0.6834912896156311,
-0.7986246347427368,
-5.335303783416748,
0.19346551597118378,
0.27271074056625366,
-0.009626355022192001,
0.7146561741828918,
-0.2954542636871338,
0.2920924723148346,
0.030607284978032112,
-0.07369298487901688,
0.07149995863437653,
0.0310983806848526,
0.23761476576328278,
-0.0926724448800087,
0.6505700945854187,
0.5294945240020752,
0.40605151653289795,
0.1293712705373764,
-0.36776190996170044,
-0.18996120989322662,
0.7525744438171387,
-0.34415358304977417,
-0.1793212890625,
-0.1869310736656189,
-0.07137979567050934,
-0.4929576814174652,
-0.09916973114013672,
-0.8561039566993713,
0.3273324966430664,
-0.5027485489845276,
-0.08426715433597565,
-0.24602538347244263,
-0.14363788068294525,
-0.6017217040061951,
0.058539167046546936,
-0.4982374310493469,
0.12744364142417908,
0.35270893573760986,
-0.18744544684886932,
0.25814956426620483,
-0.9313650727272034,
0.3375301659107208,
0.378163605928421,
-1.0301027297973633,
0.7152087092399597,
0.4606834053993225,
-0.553091824054718,
-0.5720505714416504,
-0.6427727937698364,
0.35054102540016174,
0.2875271439552307,
-0.013097187504172325,
0.39986246824264526,
0.3167434632778168,
-0.09179074317216873,
0.7042106986045837,
-0.4430484175682068,
0.22105617821216583,
0.3905755877494812,
-0.49590837955474854,
0.20063692331314087,
-0.21466182172298431,
0.19427955150604248,
-0.1062999963760376,
0.30978670716285706,
0.013323428109288216,
-0.05982343479990959,
0.2181410938501358,
0.11535588651895523,
0.38704046607017517,
-0.7648951411247253,
-0.1560758352279663,
0.39012470841407776,
0.5560351014137268,
-0.8839583396911621,
-0.4329772889614105,
-0.5144023299217224,
0.6062991619110107,
0.049172550439834595,
-0.7376798391342163,
-0.4774916470050812,
0.31008023023605347,
-0.4704720675945282,
0.12651026248931885,
0.705904483795166,
0.38115328550338745,
-0.19592662155628204,
-0.1888822615146637,
0.4771035611629486,
-0.04287286847829819,
-0.716400682926178,
-0.30038660764694214,
-0.24173620343208313,
-0.6746333241462708,
0.3594426214694977,
0.15083645284175873,
-0.004323394503444433,
0.040076158940792084,
0.45186248421669006,
0.3219485878944397,
0.4949572682380676,
0.12154822051525116,
-0.5018677711486816,
0.17081104218959808,
-0.7335300445556641,
0.29348844289779663,
0.18899519741535187,
0.26792097091674805,
0.5631084442138672,
0.5685340762138367,
-0.1528521478176117,
-0.057421158999204636,
0.7132201194763184,
-0.2077411413192749,
0.0752350464463234,
-0.1525026112794876,
-0.012822882272303104,
-0.2921065390110016,
-0.008035445585846901,
0.35289451479911804,
0.8646941184997559,
-0.20250177383422852,
0.4232464134693146,
-0.23177386820316315,
0.0013423912459984422,
-0.21648840606212616,
-0.06833980232477188,
0.1783127784729004,
0.07142136245965958,
0.00762872165068984,
-0.3655267059803009,
-1.2227545976638794,
0.5717488527297974,
0.15154506266117096,
-0.14673569798469543,
0.8327757716178894,
-0.6022670269012451,
-0.41219601035118103,
0.2698866128921509,
0.3968486189842224,
0.3745429813861847,
0.3759485185146332,
-0.5592082738876343,
0.30769994854927063,
0.5410244464874268,
0.11726588755846024,
-0.1400083750486374,
0.3380167484283447,
0.30609703063964844,
-0.2079562395811081,
0.560096263885498,
0.31764549016952515,
0.11080501973628998,
0.18800407648086548,
-0.9136789441108704,
-0.40635859966278076,
-0.10698650032281876,
-1.0613374710083008,
-0.4641450345516205,
0.4438689649105072,
-0.2873435914516449,
0.4251047968864441,
0.0065102409571409225,
-0.5673060417175293,
-0.12024173885583878,
0.3543072044849396,
0.33309197425842285,
-0.11141128838062286,
-0.6024150252342224,
-0.7533589601516724,
0.46448445320129395,
-0.27469000220298767,
-0.6567386984825134,
-0.1761123538017273,
-0.0836639255285263,
-0.12752731144428253,
0.3231188952922821,
-0.3725377917289734,
0.047874126583337784,
0.2174297273159027,
-0.166119784116745,
0.35939937829971313,
0.3134710192680359,
-0.9900237917900085,
-0.09858567267656326,
-0.10781299322843552,
-0.6294673681259155,
-0.3300569951534271,
-0.1976916342973709,
-0.17460080981254578,
-0.33365270495414734,
0.1614047735929489,
-0.20799465477466583,
0.32117128372192383,
0.6773653626441956,
-0.374392032623291,
-0.5325854420661926,
0.2549419403076172,
-0.9145691990852356,
0.14346018433570862,
-0.32168492674827576,
0.23289085924625397,
0.4122121334075928,
-0.7073125839233398,
0.2957877516746521,
0.5311419367790222,
-0.41567403078079224,
-0.4162525534629822,
0.20286351442337036,
-0.3274667263031006,
0.6074007153511047,
-0.5266820192337036,
-0.39387765526771545,
-0.4646267592906952,
0.0738586038351059,
-0.366060346364975,
0.42796045541763306,
0.4436989426612854,
0.16484269499778748,
0.12916024029254913,
-0.1754179149866104,
-0.4261135160923004,
-0.2725541889667511,
-0.2806291878223419,
-0.12736324965953827,
-0.48783251643180847,
-0.05311225354671478,
0.6216426491737366,
-0.3247629404067993,
0.44697585701942444,
-0.1418624073266983,
-0.23216092586517334,
-0.31354302167892456,
0.3420828878879547,
0.3009876608848572,
-0.26792681217193604,
0.020460406318306923,
-0.2675646245479584,
0.3283708691596985,
-0.20239317417144775,
0.10250835120677948,
0.8060939311981201,
0.9926834106445312,
-0.21418480575084686,
0.18513670563697815,
0.07307381927967072,
1.3228440284729004,
0.11983342468738556,
-0.36538177728652954,
-0.25282979011535645,
0.2276371568441391,
0.26654475927352905,
0.13350307941436768,
-0.1799757331609726,
0.7007508873939514,
0.1878139078617096,
-0.6311854124069214,
0.6120001077651978,
0.31761133670806885,
-0.1989571452140808,
-0.2268858700990677,
0.23307479918003082,
-0.2894238829612732,
0.45344918966293335,
-0.12281718850135803,
-0.30394721031188965,
0.1529349684715271,
-0.20548880100250244,
-0.2606697678565979,
0.3500000834465027,
-0.46552595496177673,
-0.5738948583602905,
0.08605565875768661,
-0.37603288888931274,
0.4592265486717224,
-0.09371709823608398,
0.2104473114013672,
0.06774142384529114,
-0.3210638463497162,
-0.46621111035346985,
0.03160358592867851,
-0.17312343418598175,
0.5576251149177551,
0.1778346300125122,
-1.300549864768982,
0.02645196206867695,
-0.4606649577617645,
0.7226437330245972,
-0.26623058319091797,
-0.06094959005713463,
-0.48294758796691895,
-0.2788885235786438,
0.14787159860134125,
-0.328578919172287,
-0.0341113917529583,
0.11615277826786041,
-0.4311200976371765,
-0.611303448677063,
1.042478084564209,
-0.042685117572546005,
-0.32340824604034424,
-0.29824167490005493,
0.7544100284576416,
0.5642873644828796,
-0.4096374213695526,
-0.020159199833869934,
0.06786748021841049,
-0.13826735317707062,
-0.4303806722164154,
0.05553996562957764,
0.40663495659828186,
0.21396462619304657,
-0.09831308573484421,
0.3579062819480896,
0.6707419157028198,
0.00033343417453579605,
-0.5142659544944763,
0.5117850303649902,
-0.07650261372327805,
0.13610714673995972,
-0.09431920945644379,
-0.4585903584957123,
-0.4446723163127899,
0.3129885196685791,
-0.7575586438179016,
0.4415571987628937,
1.1792473793029785,
0.1828359067440033,
0.0032726118806749582,
-0.23856022953987122,
0.6161978244781494,
-0.05139564722776413,
-0.43739646673202515,
0.09697867184877396,
0.8960835337638855,
-0.04524829238653183,
-0.6432733535766602,
0.9929590821266174,
-0.0667385533452034,
0.9605361223220825,
0.025938188657164574,
-0.6003057956695557,
0.5249233245849609,
-0.20490100979804993,
-0.037750244140625,
-0.15928363800048828,
-0.0868925228714943,
0.09245021641254425,
0.31487178802490234,
-0.44030922651290894,
-0.4475044906139374,
0.3579827547073364,
-0.13464578986167908,
0.25602737069129944,
-0.6486536264419556,
0.5039554834365845,
-0.6860243678092957,
0.5500850081443787,
-0.3913632333278656,
-0.32702362537384033,
0.014224170707166195,
-0.047614578157663345,
-0.26099786162376404,
0.7218001484870911,
0.2850428521633148,
-0.04409236088395119,
-0.5478329062461853,
-0.02183462865650654,
-1.0227267742156982,
0.14539408683776855,
0.503574013710022,
0.0016851648688316345,
0.016545938327908516,
-0.04727080836892128,
0.12565526366233826,
0.7546883225440979,
-0.16282959282398224,
0.08469727635383606,
-0.31212201714515686,
-0.3871847987174988,
0.4362223148345947,
-0.4028729200363159,
-0.08053568750619888,
0.22342009842395782,
-0.33365941047668457,
0.34449270367622375,
-0.4615667164325714,
-0.0998353436589241,
0.40431150794029236,
-0.0366787388920784,
0.10421422123908997,
0.4135221540927887,
-0.4156719446182251,
-0.6438661813735962,
0.35557809472084045,
-0.9580225944519043,
-0.12692733108997345,
-0.8101016879081726,
0.9519064426422119,
0.31600284576416016,
0.4716023802757263,
-0.10325432568788528,
0.7730515599250793,
-0.27021992206573486,
0.5208384990692139,
-0.29398441314697266,
0.11263337731361389,
-0.36042845249176025,
0.23647291958332062,
-0.4691403806209564,
0.4544137120246887,
0.5893347263336182,
-0.25138819217681885,
-0.34469208121299744,
-0.11861073970794678,
0.10036197304725647,
0.5086411833763123,
0.21476590633392334,
0.20375818014144897,
0.21638573706150055,
0.1096966564655304,
0.05514403432607651,
0.45751094818115234,
0.42088428139686584,
-0.12430186569690704,
-0.2980481684207916,
0.6940625309944153,
-0.07552539557218552,
0.038123972713947296,
-0.01487012393772602,
0.41299542784690857,
-0.27922627329826355,
0.6809178590774536,
-0.7098166346549988,
-0.06127138063311577,
-0.3230547308921814,
-0.9149083495140076,
0.6651907563209534,
0.8577074408531189,
0.4573640525341034,
0.019812677055597305,
0.36610913276672363,
0.4306153953075409,
0.5152701735496521,
0.21417245268821716,
-0.7989993095397949,
-0.28314945101737976,
-0.06366872787475586,
-0.3562166690826416,
0.14020808041095734,
0.21091273427009583,
-0.023918932303786278,
-0.5800365805625916,
0.4049021303653717,
-0.6161211729049683,
-0.7628552913665771,
0.09479677677154541,
-0.06937187165021896,
0.04020211845636368,
0.8149478435516357,
-0.43522289395332336
] |
213164
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20Gets%20Drafted
|
Donald Gets Drafted
|
Donald Gets Drafted is a 1942 American animated short film produced by Walt Disney Productions and released by RKO Radio Pictures. The cartoon has Donald Duck being drafted into the U. S. Army during World War II and follows his introduction to military life. The film was directed by Jack King and introduced the song "The Army's Not the Army Anymore" by Carl Barks and Leigh Harline. The voice cast includes Clarence Nash as Donald, John McLeish as an officer, and Billy Bletcher as Pete who is Donald's drill sergeant.
Donald Gets Drafted was the first of a six-part series, within the larger Donald Duck series, which shared a continuity of Donald serving in the army during World War II. The cartoon also revealed for the first time Donald's middle name – Fauntleroy – seen on his "Order to Report for Induction" form from the film's title screen.
Plot
Filled with enthusiasm, Donald reports to his local draft board after receiving a draft notice. Along the way, he passes several recruiting posters that romanticize military life. Especially intrigued by one for the Air Force, featuring attractive women and the promise of escorting them around, Donald decides that he "wants to fly". After arriving at the draft board, Donald expresses his desire to join the Army Air Forces, adding excitedly, "I came from a family of aviators!" The desk officer directs Donald to a room where he is to undergo a physical examination.
Inside the exam room, a team of white-coated doctors hurriedly pass Donald around, measuring him and testing his vital signs, vision, and hearing. Several gags during the scene emphasize the army's willingness to accept as many recruits as possible, such as a color vision test that Donald passes even after mistakenly identifying a green card as being blue. At the end of the exam Donald is issued a uniform - vastly oversized, but shrunk to fit thanks to a bucket of water dumped over his head - and has his rear end stamped with a large "OK."
During basic training, Donald's unit is marched around the field by the drill sergeant (Pete). Donald is distracted by some planes flying overhead, reminding him that he would rather be flying. His lack of concentration causes him to march out of step with the other soldiers and accidentally chop Pete's necktie in half with his rifle bayonet when he is ordered to turn "about face". Pete dismisses the other soldiers to drill Donald personally, but Donald's inability to understand Army jargon causes him to make a series of comical mistakes. Pete finally orders Donald to stand at attention, but Donald mistakenly stands over an anthill, and struggles to maintain his composure as the ants crawl all over him. Finally he snaps and scrabbles madly to get the ants off, accidentally firing his rifle several times and striking Pete as he climbs a tree to get away. Donald is later punished by being assigned to peel a roomful of potatoes, shaving off one peel to form his catchphrase "phooey" in response to the chorus' lyrics that describe the good conditions in the Army.
Voice cast
Donald Duck: Clarence Nash
Sgt. Pete: Billy Bletcher
Officer: John McLeish
Background
The satirical humor in Donald Gets Drafted reflects an anti-military sentiment felt in particular by Carl Barks, one of the writers of the film. (He had written the lyrics to the theme song, scripted the film, and also drew the recruitment posters which Donald passes on his way to the draft board.) Barks himself was a pacifist who was against America's involvement in the war. He once said "When I saw how little we accomplished with World War I, I thought, why in the devil kill off another whole generation of young men to accomplish the same result?" In Donald Gets Drafted Barks ridicules military recruitment, in particular its deceptive propaganda. The film is meant to draw a sharp distinction between the glamorous life presented in the posters outside the draft board compared to the reality Donald faces inside. Later, when Donald is at basic training, Barks pokes fun at military discipline, and even gives the sergeant a punishment of sorts by getting shot. This played well with audiences who were resentful of military strictness as America was mobilizing itself for war.
Releases
1942 – Original theatrical release
1984 – Donald Duck's 50th Birthday (TV special)
1997 – Ink & Paint Club, episode #1.31 "The Unseen Disney" (TV)
Home media
The short was released on May 18, 2004 on Walt Disney Treasures: Walt Disney on the Front Lines. and on December 6, 2005 on Walt Disney Treasures: The Chronological Donald, Volume Two: 1942-1946.
Additional releases include:
1985 – "An Officer and a Duck" (VHS)
See also
List of World War II short films
References
External links
1940s Disney animated short films
Donald Duck short films
World War II films made in wartime
Military humor in film
1942 animated films
1942 short films
1942 films
Films directed by Jack King
Films produced by Walt Disney
American films
Films scored by Paul Smith (film and television composer)
Films with screenplays by Carl Barks
|
[
-0.16974174976348877,
0.2851848006248474,
-0.4257948696613312,
0.2653077244758606,
0.4154336154460907,
-0.12723469734191895,
0.38738924264907837,
-0.12471411377191544,
-0.8165979385375977,
0.1786608099937439,
-0.2810802757740021,
0.4829573929309845,
-0.2538043260574341,
-0.1593334823846817,
-0.2282092422246933,
-0.015333831310272217,
0.2038211077451706,
0.11487824469804764,
0.20608282089233398,
-0.6673173904418945,
-0.6206982135772705,
-0.8348338603973389,
0.14976750314235687,
-0.12034579366445541,
-0.10677245259284973,
0.011807220056653023,
0.21231511235237122,
-0.26401180028915405,
-0.13008545339107513,
0.4765135645866394,
0.22047685086727142,
-0.3781180679798126,
0.12956276535987854,
-0.44328075647354126,
-0.6852853298187256,
-0.06949479132890701,
-0.3220527470111847,
-0.003145385067909956,
0.2184544950723648,
-0.6340035796165466,
0.3982447683811188,
-0.11982118338346481,
0.23588034510612488,
0.12664760649204254,
-0.4231019616127014,
-0.34062620997428894,
-1.3401967287063599,
-0.11796562373638153,
-0.4923350512981415,
-0.29917338490486145,
-0.03231566771864891,
0.6210474371910095,
-0.42560479044914246,
-0.20627644658088684,
0.20855313539505005,
1.0698877573013306,
0.19828163087368011,
-0.07877159118652344,
-0.6037474870681763,
-0.3623480498790741,
0.5874300599098206,
-0.023035690188407898,
0.6011205911636353,
-0.025769826024770737,
0.4317563474178314,
0.2843463122844696,
-0.21312487125396729,
0.4043607711791992,
0.33363720774650574,
-0.3465423882007599,
-0.04361731559038162,
0.06436289101839066,
0.015610257163643837,
0.07369360327720642,
0.39746540784835815,
-0.2020588517189026,
0.5832768678665161,
0.7442892789840698,
-0.3064645528793335,
0.4382188022136688,
-0.44575268030166626,
0.010104170069098473,
0.5409097075462341,
0.6395878195762634,
0.06723200529813766,
0.11781621724367142,
-0.44185638427734375,
0.19996115565299988,
-0.13621436059474945,
0.10943301767110825,
-0.2720509171485901,
-0.06796696782112122,
-0.4004494249820709,
-0.10188890993595123,
0.0005455737700685859,
-0.5272170901298523,
-0.5751181840896606,
-0.304135799407959,
0.12886342406272888,
-0.14102090895175934,
0.2154437154531479,
0.20772211253643036,
0.6627994179725647,
-0.25749653577804565,
-0.6247539520263672,
-0.19148223102092743,
0.13486143946647644,
-1.2312506437301636,
0.4622635543346405,
0.11101917922496796,
0.007297500502318144,
0.13723842799663544,
0.599800169467926,
-0.7511473894119263,
-0.14960160851478577,
1.0494829416275024,
0.35876843333244324,
-0.6622416377067566,
-0.35011616349220276,
0.6622143983840942,
0.0030581336468458176,
0.5176472067832947,
-0.488313227891922,
0.2524681091308594,
-0.1658145785331726,
0.13480201363563538,
0.368667334318161,
0.5753925442695618,
-0.440062940120697,
-0.2768206000328064,
0.09710132330656052,
0.6501469612121582,
-0.0479312427341938,
0.09345844388008118,
-0.33855268359184265,
0.1315215677022934,
0.13663679361343384,
0.025322899222373962,
-0.2983688414096832,
-0.3177884519100189,
-0.502280592918396,
0.4324331283569336,
-0.046673838049173355,
-0.44176816940307617,
-0.07498305290937424,
-0.14169728755950928,
0.14892153441905975,
-0.787388265132904,
-0.0052149370312690735,
-0.3511549234390259,
0.4053981900215149,
-0.2941846549510956,
0.5682071447372437,
-0.12997017800807953,
-0.48124563694000244,
0.38558679819107056,
0.2378160059452057,
-0.17513816058635712,
0.21640655398368835,
0.11733388155698776,
0.4058406949043274,
0.15076111257076263,
0.12649664282798767,
-0.25653043389320374,
-0.11911843717098236,
-0.02162894234061241,
0.541136622428894,
-0.3054543435573578,
-0.5408644080162048,
0.34797972440719604,
0.28650033473968506,
0.4548487365245819,
0.9567584991455078,
0.10389205068349838,
0.7789044976234436,
-0.13743096590042114,
0.7156835794448853,
0.5383186340332031,
0.6812018156051636,
-0.09900135546922684,
-0.36464524269104004,
0.2785813808441162,
0.26481935381889343,
-0.1558660864830017,
0.9575941562652588,
0.37075158953666687,
-0.0009464959730394185,
-0.24019765853881836,
-0.3137570023536682,
0.21247993409633636,
-0.6938162446022034,
-0.75918048620224,
-0.3356987535953522,
-0.2325134426355362,
1.0764827728271484,
0.10111939907073975,
-0.34536290168762207,
0.04387834668159485,
0.08273173123598099,
0.8103436827659607,
-0.4645518362522125,
0.09853321313858032,
1.1918962001800537,
0.31461673974990845,
-0.25548648834228516,
0.005980989430099726,
0.030443545430898666,
0.4936160743236542,
0.8656483292579651,
0.6662871241569519,
0.5273763537406921,
0.12491112947463989,
0.12748311460018158,
-0.05784270539879799,
-0.3503004014492035,
0.17297156155109406,
-0.3405945599079132,
0.19570119678974152,
-0.1261226385831833,
0.41075989603996277,
0.3171074092388153,
0.36062800884246826,
-0.579441249370575,
0.7057278156280518,
-0.2213798612356186,
0.7251045107841492,
0.16834542155265808,
-0.31863078474998474,
-0.047996386885643005,
-0.3966923654079437,
-0.3743803799152374,
0.28952479362487793,
-0.5897991061210632,
-0.47126057744026184,
-0.4706118404865265,
-0.4031035602092743,
0.4831894338130951,
-0.3326517939567566,
0.38297533988952637,
0.3768683671951294,
0.12760432064533234,
0.4461347162723541,
-0.8665401339530945,
0.3113325238227844,
-0.002955990843474865,
0.05859546735882759,
0.3411256968975067,
0.07084697484970093,
0.502094030380249,
-0.5721694827079773,
0.01582258567214012,
0.5894612073898315,
0.37659966945648193,
-0.5616694092750549,
-0.09615785628557205,
-0.013084892183542252,
-0.5066338181495667,
0.02910780906677246,
0.3445439636707306,
-0.010254796594381332,
0.41248804330825806,
0.473051518201828,
0.11161518096923828,
-0.15779021382331848,
-0.2443564236164093,
-0.8113887906074524,
-0.8915837407112122,
0.35676002502441406,
-0.6167213320732117,
0.631547212600708,
0.33705344796180725,
0.40892326831817627,
-0.22580604255199432,
0.1199733167886734,
0.3399154245853424,
-0.10950946062803268,
-0.08343249559402466,
0.04147624224424362,
-0.4582160711288452,
-0.9221555590629578,
0.5476290583610535,
0.9268738031387329,
-0.35086512565612793,
0.002018628641963005,
0.14884121716022491,
0.49018141627311707,
-0.07981962710618973,
-0.03112381510436535,
0.09101414680480957,
-0.3612949550151825,
0.1105865091085434,
-0.008615544997155666,
-0.1184067651629448,
0.695692241191864,
0.048102524131536484,
0.2943670451641083,
0.3712456226348877,
0.1251487135887146,
0.35728907585144043,
0.1720128357410431,
-0.16892941296100616,
0.4616524577140808,
-0.16997188329696655,
-0.44985732436180115,
0.5229924917221069,
0.1160702332854271,
0.16356904804706573,
-0.35062679648399353,
-5.482245445251465,
0.2960256040096283,
-0.1236136183142662,
0.2417377233505249,
0.5797067284584045,
0.20493312180042267,
0.07384597510099411,
-0.327129602432251,
0.20002087950706482,
0.5115301609039307,
-0.7094783782958984,
-0.19695118069648743,
-0.2685295641422272,
0.022255651652812958,
0.2921479344367981,
-0.6129932403564453,
0.7166339159011841,
-0.04857844486832619,
0.10641000419855118,
0.15691117942333221,
-0.44946372509002686,
-0.05590423196554184,
0.11542026698589325,
0.7765788435935974,
0.24255876243114471,
0.5955484509468079,
-0.21428939700126648,
0.14678765833377838,
-0.5630990862846375,
0.10840491950511932,
-0.3679881691932678,
0.06645026803016663,
0.40266549587249756,
-0.2747333347797394,
-0.5772112607955933,
-0.10505986213684082,
0.22529102861881256,
-0.10635268688201904,
0.7330936789512634,
-0.10134544968605042,
-0.5959793925285339,
-0.7544280886650085,
-0.15631507337093353,
-0.19783145189285278,
0.28155896067619324,
-0.1405082792043686,
-0.29157382249832153,
-0.5870971083641052,
0.4730762839317322,
-0.02547948621213436,
0.6033677458763123,
0.3920747935771942,
0.36976033449172974,
-0.1478680968284607,
-0.19294121861457825,
-0.16851899027824402,
0.33012932538986206,
0.19942699372768402,
-0.3083551824092865,
0.03974214941263199,
0.7195346355438232,
-0.36589956283569336,
-0.15515649318695068,
-0.2678816020488739,
-0.2581653892993927,
-0.8497306108474731,
0.0007756758714094758,
-0.2634049952030182,
0.3412991166114807,
0.39001497626304626,
0.07748185098171234,
0.7142229676246643,
0.23300816118717194,
-1.3031748533248901,
0.4069831967353821,
-0.21297337114810944,
-0.48478540778160095,
0.19337379932403564,
-0.23641477525234222,
-0.28890538215637207,
-0.22635845839977264,
-0.0902022197842598,
-0.24286097288131714,
0.43799686431884766,
-0.08229190111160278,
-0.12929224967956543,
-0.2830035388469696,
-0.25691643357276917,
-0.13633547723293304,
0.12059327960014343,
0.6868694424629211,
-0.15125197172164917,
-0.32363632321357727,
0.051672086119651794,
-0.05552248656749725,
0.08382248878479004,
-0.13119728863239288,
0.4883643686771393,
0.08298637717962265,
0.13938353955745697,
-0.5090449452400208,
-0.14133909344673157,
-0.21858498454093933,
-0.8809313178062439,
-0.4506646990776062,
-0.5387139916419983,
-0.08859289437532425,
0.7331241965293884,
0.5310216546058655,
0.8836816549301147,
-0.5056554079055786,
-0.8044393658638,
-0.4806259870529175,
-0.1686755120754242,
-0.175039604306221,
0.5883343815803528,
0.3004825711250305,
0.22815756499767303,
0.46220317482948303,
0.34463751316070557,
0.34393438696861267,
0.27294614911079407,
-0.20978620648384094,
-0.6864100098609924,
0.3234252631664276,
0.11467215418815613,
0.34860020875930786,
-0.1348428726196289,
0.2403499037027359,
-0.29682713747024536,
-0.005368831101804972,
0.306150883436203,
-0.14134864509105682,
0.18256622552871704,
-0.08751072734594345,
-0.3153489828109741,
-0.2715432047843933,
0.10754889249801636,
0.03052017278969288,
-0.059171415865421295,
-0.06793838739395142,
-0.2833479940891266,
-0.005318264942616224,
0.16286735236644745,
-0.12795016169548035,
-0.2584085762500763,
0.526505708694458,
-0.01764831691980362,
-0.15337595343589783,
0.30888208746910095,
-0.24439361691474915,
-0.8150655031204224,
0.586463212966919,
-0.857108473777771,
-0.40829378366470337,
-0.06292817741632462,
-0.4313470423221588,
-0.051401976495981216,
0.04620678350329399,
-0.6551183462142944,
-0.22480127215385437,
-0.17027701437473297,
-0.5266833901405334,
-0.685552179813385,
0.07299630343914032,
0.27931419014930725,
-0.4735802412033081,
-0.6644102931022644,
-0.6446436643600464,
0.9379321932792664,
0.05226578563451767,
0.4629644751548767,
-0.17607586085796356,
0.16046220064163208,
0.38668757677078247,
0.35301604866981506,
0.33093956112861633,
0.00859052874147892,
0.3957329988479614,
-0.3447790741920471,
0.0237186960875988,
0.04562130570411682,
-0.17495118081569672,
0.03068486973643303,
0.5510369539260864,
-1.0963551998138428,
-0.3505018353462219,
-0.049503859132528305,
-0.635786235332489,
0.36398452520370483,
-0.05069366469979286,
0.3627568185329437,
1.0604491233825684,
0.1891206055879593,
-0.9305028915405273,
0.3515282869338989,
0.04486030340194702,
0.5786958932876587,
-0.34408900141716003,
-0.45948755741119385,
-0.0370565690100193,
0.35462838411331177,
-0.40575727820396423,
-0.05560007691383362,
-0.04974636808037758,
-0.7432501912117004,
-0.10627108067274094,
0.45705291628837585,
-0.300761342048645,
0.6731111407279968,
0.22347953915596008,
-0.8720398545265198,
-0.26984626054763794,
-0.2790144383907318,
-0.4864007234573364,
0.2576174736022949,
0.20498427748680115,
-0.5579499006271362,
-0.21817918121814728,
-0.09781449288129807,
-0.9646707773208618,
-0.2903960943222046,
-0.740561306476593,
-0.13202683627605438,
-0.9805291891098022,
-0.45153728127479553,
-0.47490090131759644,
-0.3531704246997833,
0.4455097019672394,
-0.6442902684211731,
0.08433157205581665,
-0.37739622592926025,
0.2857843339443207,
0.3435852527618408,
-0.07569462060928345,
-0.029471389949321747,
0.20237502455711365,
0.16107313334941864,
-0.23223502933979034,
0.1971167027950287,
0.458233118057251,
1.2006195783615112,
0.4518641531467438,
-0.2769903242588043,
-0.283027321100235,
0.12292777001857758,
0.1403229832649231,
-0.6614359021186829,
-0.2905658483505249,
0.3388495445251465,
0.9407865405082703,
-0.18906337022781372,
-0.7944267988204956,
0.0946219190955162,
0.49759456515312195,
-0.2623349130153656,
-0.3887578845024109,
0.4354841113090515,
-0.1758030503988266,
-0.042627960443496704,
0.3562420606613159,
1.3763678073883057,
-1.1317518949508667,
0.3269553780555725,
0.09958537667989731,
0.11731389909982681,
0.06562889367341995,
-0.05427351966500282,
0.3026879131793976,
-0.0882374569773674,
-0.7276282906532288,
-0.03403005748987198,
0.5239548087120056,
0.6995860934257507,
0.31358280777931213,
0.1692533642053604,
0.09434599429368973,
-0.6282137036323547,
0.15423855185508728,
-0.8658478856086731,
-1.1223127841949463,
0.8924065828323364,
-0.05599270388484001,
-0.10706517100334167,
-0.1224479079246521,
-0.6178328394889832,
-0.5023663640022278,
0.17015184462070465,
0.14651113748550415,
0.1985124796628952,
-0.9108823537826538,
0.5755681991577148,
-0.5081700682640076,
0.207145556807518,
0.19136857986450195,
-0.21518990397453308,
0.338762491941452,
0.33189260959625244,
-0.464280903339386,
-0.32759350538253784,
-0.7420036196708679,
0.7702504992485046,
0.1145651564002037,
-0.12017153948545456,
0.19252261519432068,
0.4409947693347931,
-0.09311830252408981,
0.2344602346420288,
-0.41260480880737305,
0.4180022180080414,
-0.23642215132713318,
-0.8594574928283691,
-0.31424644589424133,
0.45919036865234375,
-0.5214054584503174,
-0.13850347697734833,
0.796099066734314,
-0.5955943465232849,
-0.0728893056511879,
0.1462678760290146,
0.05566921830177307,
-0.39116519689559937,
-0.18702280521392822,
-0.03741622343659401,
-0.48463064432144165,
0.2404242604970932,
-0.47700077295303345,
0.2677495777606964,
0.7219037413597107,
0.3051811754703522,
0.11089670658111572,
0.1819080263376236,
0.02452077530324459,
-0.07511952519416809,
-0.02917318604886532,
-0.0861482247710228,
0.11184762418270111,
-0.560387134552002,
0.12343797087669373,
0.5968912243843079,
-0.6310240030288696,
0.22906245291233063,
-0.015877705067396164,
0.04168958589434624,
0.18151219189167023,
0.08155624568462372,
0.33941903710365295,
-0.17739365994930267,
0.873242974281311,
0.4647670090198517,
0.13759920001029968,
0.1487274318933487,
0.027755575254559517,
-0.569249153137207,
0.6403668522834778,
-0.5692504048347473,
-0.06331919133663177,
-0.21889184415340424,
0.3198194205760956,
0.06691506505012512,
-0.49549004435539246,
-0.4354173541069031,
0.1979379951953888,
0.0338640995323658,
0.8311409950256348,
0.42615601420402527,
0.27786239981651306,
0.02551223151385784,
0.38829949498176575,
0.17314743995666504,
0.09062125533819199,
0.16438336670398712,
-0.05211597681045532,
0.05404646322131157,
0.32590511441230774,
0.5439196825027466,
0.10090435296297073,
-0.1813739538192749,
-0.5309430956840515,
0.18724589049816132,
-0.13828948140144348,
0.7119614481925964,
-0.9079549908638,
-0.2561025619506836,
-0.02372926101088524,
0.01129962783306837,
-0.02821218967437744,
0.27350977063179016,
0.07271908968687057,
-0.8029929995536804,
-0.13290679454803467,
-1.4834415912628174,
-0.71830815076828,
0.20929917693138123,
0.01380662526935339,
-0.6267229318618774,
-0.15909714996814728,
0.5166327953338623,
0.24464362859725952,
-0.07829741388559341,
-0.07554084062576294,
-0.253851056098938,
0.0038199247792363167,
0.4765862822532654,
0.09212075173854828,
-0.02002512849867344,
-0.3124468922615051,
-0.07124651968479156,
-0.20190271735191345,
0.8682416677474976,
-0.24882467091083527,
0.965362548828125,
-0.002078618621453643,
0.8524689078330994,
-0.19658753275871277,
-0.7677997946739197,
0.9115519523620605,
-0.6128525137901306,
-0.061057668179273605,
-0.4395414888858795,
-0.0762966126203537,
-0.5609685778617859,
-0.40202897787094116,
0.5237971544265747,
-0.3694479167461395,
-0.16246317327022552,
0.49177706241607666,
-0.3369777202606201,
-0.5924322009086609,
0.19560356438159943,
-0.3512572646141052,
0.29092937707901,
-0.25601452589035034,
-0.08588645607233047,
-0.004423965234309435,
-0.22002722322940826,
0.7332836389541626,
0.8475004434585571,
0.44759148359298706,
-0.4104068875312805,
0.5047707557678223,
-0.11749643087387085,
0.06812740117311478,
0.20078320801258087,
0.3514586389064789,
-0.18246442079544067,
0.3618718683719635,
-0.10158046334981918,
-0.31795734167099,
0.2409641295671463,
-0.262618750333786,
0.21630381047725677,
0.4025442600250244,
-0.519608736038208,
-0.41895753145217896,
0.6235854625701904,
-0.6391664743423462,
0.020681189373135567,
-0.011926142498850822,
0.4614749848842621
] |
213167
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiminy%20Cricket
|
Jiminy Cricket
|
Jiminy Cricket is the Walt Disney version of the "Talking Cricket" (Italian: Il Grillo Parlante), a fictional character created by Italian writer Carlo Collodi for his 1883 children's book The Adventures of Pinocchio, which Disney adapted into the animated film Pinocchio in 1940. Originally an unnamed, minor character in Collodi's novel who is killed by Pinocchio before returning as a ghost, he was transformed for the Disney adaptation into a comical and wisecracking partner who accompanies Pinocchio on his adventures, having been appointed by the Blue Fairy (known in the book as the "Fairy with Turquoise Hair") to serve as Pinocchio's official conscience. In the film, he sings "When You Wish Upon a Star", widely considered the Walt Disney Company's signature song.
Jiminy Cricket's appearance differs somewhat from that of actual crickets, which range from black to light brown and have long antennae and six legs; Jiminy Cricket has short antennae, a greenish-brown hue, and four limbs; like most Disney characterizations, he is bipedal. He dresses in the manner of a 19th- or early 20th-century gentleman, characteristically wearing a blue top hat and carrying a burgundy umbrella. Since his debut in Pinocchio, he has become an iconic Disney character, making numerous other appearances, including in Fun and Fancy Free (1947) as the host and in Mickey's Christmas Carol (1983) as the Ghost of Christmas Past.
Origin of name
"Jiminy Cricket!" was uttered in Pinocchios immediate Disney predecessor, 1937's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs by the seven dwarfs as a minced oath. It also occurs in the 1938 Mickey Mouse cartoon "Brave Little Tailor". The name was uttered once more in 1939's The Wizard of Oz by the protagonist Dorothy Gale which was done as a reference to Snow White.
Creation
The character was designed by Ward Kimball, who had been very disappointed and was about to leave the Disney studio when much of the work he did for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was cut from the final version of that film. However, Walt Disney persuaded him to stay by giving him the assignment of supervising the animation of Jiminy Cricket.
Voice actors
Jiminy Cricket has been voiced in English by six actors. He was originally performed by singer Cliff Edwards, who voiced the character for Disney through the 1960s and sang Jiminy's most famous song, "When You Wish Upon a Star". After Edwards' death, Clarence Nash voiced him for a brief period of time, until 1973, when Eddie Carroll took over the role as Jiminy's voice actor. Carroll played the role for 37 years, until his death in 2010. Actor Hal Smith voiced Jiminy in the Pinocchio Read-Along Storybook in 1992. Actor Phil Snyder next voiced Jiminy for the Kingdom Hearts video game series. In 2014, Snyder announced his retirement from voice acting to concentrate on his career teaching. Actor Joe Ochman took over the role at that time, beginning with Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remixs installment of Kingdom Hearts: Recoded, and he has been the voice of Jiminy since 2014.
Raphael Sbarge voices Jiminy in Once Upon a Time where he portrays him in human form as well. In the Italian dub of the Disney adaptation, Jiminy Cricket was voiced by Carlo Romano, who also dubbed for Fernandel in the Don Camillo series. In French he is voiced by Roger Carel, who is also the voice of Asterix and the French dub voices of Kaa from The Jungle Book and its sequel; Basil of Baker Street from The Great Mouse Detective; Winnie the Pooh; and Boomer the woodpecker from The Fox and the Hound.
After Pinocchio
In media
After Pinocchio, Jiminy appeared in Fun and Fancy Free as the host of the cartoon segments. The character also hosted a one-hour segment ABC Radio special in 1947, improbably concerning the year 1960. He also hosted many Disney television specials. Additionally, in a recurring segment of the children's television series The Mickey Mouse Club, he taught a generation how to spell "encyclopedia".
At theme parks
Jiminy Cricket also appears at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts as a meetable character, and in Pinocchio's Daring Journey, a dark ride themed to the movie from which he originated, found at three of the Disney parks worldwide (i.e. in California, Japan and France).
A minuscule version of him can also be spotted on the It's a Small World ride in Disneyland California.
1950s–1980s
In the 1950s–'70s, Jiminy Cricket appeared in four series of educational films aimed at grade-school audiences. In the I'm No Fool series, he advised children how to steer clear of dangerous traffic, sharp objects, strangers, exposed electrical lines, and so forth. Several of those series were first shown on The Mickey Mouse Club from 1955 through 1959.
The second series called You, teaches about the human body with the refrain "You are a human animal...". This, too, was originally shown on the "Mickey Mouse Club." The third series, "The Nature Of Things", combined live-action and animation, and the fourth series was called "Encyclopedia". In the 1950s, on The Mickey Mouse Club, he also sang two related songs related to safety: "Stop, Look, And Listen", and "Safety First".
On Disneyland Records, Jiminy Cricket sang the yuletide song "Kris, Kris Kringle (With A Tingle-Ingle-Ingle)" in a vaudevillian Tin Pan Alley style, first singing the song straight, and the second time speaking half of the song in rhythm. He ended the song by wishing everyone a "Merry Christmas".
In 1988, he made a brief cameo in Who Framed Roger Rabbit, when Eddie Valiant first drives through Toontown.
Mickey's Christmas Carol
Jiminy appeared in Mickey's Christmas Carol as the Ghost of Christmas Past. The badge is given to him by the Blue Fairy at the end of Pinocchio marking him as an official conscience now declares him to be the Ghost of Christmas Past. Scrooge is perplexed at his size, but Jiminy shoots back at him that if Scrooge were measured by his amount of kindness, "you'd be no bigger than a speck of dust!" Nevertheless, Jiminy shows him Scrooge's bygone Christmases: (Scrooge) while working at Fezziwig's, and putting his money before his love, whom he never saw again. When Scrooge begs the minuscule ghost to take him away from these bad memories, Jiminy reminds him that he "fashioned these memories" himself.
Other media
Disney children's records
Edwards (as Jiminy) performed the narration for several 78 RPM children's records. Two of them were Bongo (originally part of the animated feature Fun and Fancy Free) and The Littlest Outlaw. He also made some children's records simply as Cliff Edwards, including "Old MacDonald Had a Farm".
Comics
Jiminy appears in several comics, (first appearance in Mickey Mouse Magazine Vol. 5 No. 3 in 1939), such as various issues of Walt Disney's Comics and Stories, and he is featured on the covers of Four Color # 701, 795, 897 and 989.
Films and TV
Disney Sing-Along Songs
Jiminy Cricket hosted these five sing-along videos:
The Bare Necessities (October 13, 1987)
Very Merry Christmas Songs (November 15, 1988, transition cards only, before all songs)
Be Our Guest (June 19, 1992)
Friend Like Me (April 30, 1993)
Circle of Life (December 13, 1994; VHS version only)
Disney's House of Mouse
Jiminy Cricket is among the numerous Disney characters who appear in the television series House of Mouse; he also appears in the movie. He is most often sat on a table with Cri-Kee from Mulan. A running gag in the series involves Timon from The Lion King''' trying to eat him, and his rescue by Pumbaa.
Once Upon a Time
Jiminy (both in fairy-tale cricket form and as his "real world" human alias, Archie Hopper) is a core character on the Disney-owned ABC television series Once Upon a Time, played by Raphael Sbarge. In the series, which finds cursed fairy tale characters living in present-day Maine without memory of their true origins, Jiminy/Archie serves as the town counselor and "conscience". He also has a dalmatian named Pongo. The series adds additional backstory for the character, portraying his life as the human son of con artists, who inadvertently causes the death of a couple after striking a deal with Rumplestiltskin; Rumplestiltskin gave Jiminy a potion to give to his parents to get them out of his life, but his parents realized what he had planned and switched the potion with an identical bottle that was given to the couple that his parents had targeted for their latest con. He is eventually turned into the ethical cricket from previous portrayals by the Blue Fairy. In his cricket form, he is charged to look after and guide the dead couple's son, Geppetto, as long as he lives.
The Wonderful World of Mickey Mouse
In "Disappearing Act", Jiminy (voiced once again by Joe Ochman) makes a cameo appearance alongside other Disney magical characters like the Fairy Godmother from Cinderella, Flora, Fauna, and Merriweather from Sleeping Beauty, Merlin from The Sword in the Stone, and the Blue Fairy, to help Mickey realize he had the magic inside him all along.
Upcoming Disney+ projects
On October 25, 2019, it was reported that Disney is developing an undetermined animated project focused on Jiminy Cricket for its upcoming streaming service, Disney+. Joseph Gordon-Levitt will voice the character in a live-action adaptation of the film, which will be released exclusively on Disney+.
Video Games
Disney's Villains' Revenge
He is a main character in the game Disney's Villains' Revenge, wherein he must help the player save the stories of Dumbo, Alice in Wonderland, Peter Pan and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs from the Ringmaster, The Queen of Hearts, Captain Hook and the Queen.
Kingdom Hearts
He appears in the Kingdom Hearts video game series as the chronicler of Sora's travels, writing journals and keeping a cast list of the figures they meet, friend or foe. In the original Kingdom Hearts, he has some direct involvement with characters and elements based on the film Pinocchio. He has a substantially bigger part in the sequel, Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, frequently talking to Sora and offering advice. His role in Kingdom Hearts II is smaller than in the first game; he only appears in one cutscene. In Kingdom Hearts Coded, he finds a message in his journal he didn't write back at Disney Castle; to solve this, he and King Mickey digitize the contents of the note, awakening a virtual Sora. He is transported into the Data world halfway through the game but presumably sent back to the real world along with the others at the end. A dream world version of Jiminy Cricket appears in Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance; as it is a dream, those who are no longer in their world appear, either via travel or death. He returned in Kingdom Hearts III.
In the English releases he is voiced by Eddie Carroll for Kingdom Hearts, Kingdom Hearts II, and Kingdom Hearts Re:Chain of Memories, Phil Snyder for Kingdom Hearts Re:Coded and Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance (following Carroll's death in 2010), and Joe Ochman for the HD Cinematics of Re:Coded for Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix and Kingdom Hearts III (following Snyder's retirement in 2014). In the Japanese version, Jiminy was voiced by Kaneta Kimotsuki until his death in 2016 and by Yōhei Tadano since Kingdom Hearts III.
Disney Magic Kingdoms
Jiminy Cricket is a playable character in the mobile game Disney Magic Kingdoms. He is a limited time character, debuting during an Event focused on Pinocchio.
Disney park appearances
Jiminy Cricket can be seen meeting and greeting guests from time to time in the Disney Parks, most prominently at Disney's Animal Kingdom at Rafiki's Planet Watch. His signature features the 'J' as an umbrella.
More recently, Cricket and the Blue Fairy are the hosts of the Wishes: A Magical Gathering of Disney Dreams fireworks display at the Magic Kingdom theme park.
Cricket also hosts the Nighttime parade, SpectroMagic In the Magic Kingdom (replaced in early 2010 for an updated version of the Main Street Electrical Parade).
He also appears daily in the "Disney Festival of Fantasy Parade" at Magic Kingdom in Florida.
He also appears as the pace of play ambassador at Walt Disney World Golf Resort in Florida.
International performers
Roger Carel (French)
Georg Thomalla (German, film)
Carlo Romano (Italian, film)
Masashi Ebara (Japanese, Pony Canyon edition of the film)
Kaneta Kimotsuki (Japanese, all other appearances until his death in 2016)
Yōhei Tadano (Japanese, Kingdom Hearts III'')
John Price (Danish, 1940 version of the film)
Ove Sprogøe (Danish, 1978 version of the film as well as "From all of us to all of you")
Pablo Palitos (Spanish in Latin America Version)
References
Disney animated characters
Disney core universe characters
Film characters introduced in 1940
Pinocchio characters
Characters in Disney package films
Fictional crickets
Fictional storytellers
Fictional artists
Kingdom Hearts characters
Film sidekicks
Pinocchio (1940 film) eo:Jiminy Cricket
Male characters in animation
|
[
0.1900050938129425,
0.1634194701910019,
-0.8788248300552368,
0.42757198214530945,
0.08177085220813751,
-0.5941364765167236,
0.1909218281507492,
0.595480740070343,
-0.0733998641371727,
0.14063289761543274,
-0.20956256985664368,
-0.1785779744386673,
-0.41918566823005676,
0.6666160821914673,
-0.13172288239002228,
0.6855606436729431,
0.31445664167404175,
0.27226513624191284,
0.05142804607748985,
-0.8419963121414185,
-0.15348374843597412,
-0.29155850410461426,
-0.19234643876552582,
-0.2916262745857239,
-0.18250125646591187,
0.1652378886938095,
0.2505192458629608,
-0.16756370663642883,
0.2555699348449707,
0.21085873246192932,
-0.22696633636951447,
0.2831937372684479,
0.07104437798261642,
0.0665503591299057,
-0.46673285961151123,
-0.4843103587627411,
-0.29400643706321716,
-0.2468881607055664,
0.08376513421535492,
-1.2574645280838013,
0.7007644176483154,
-0.14223314821720123,
0.6919735670089722,
-0.25823187828063965,
-0.14105845987796783,
-0.15249736607074738,
-1.1297718286514282,
0.7204815149307251,
-0.24526050686836243,
0.1362062394618988,
0.24016867578029633,
1.1345586776733398,
0.1381537765264511,
1.048188328742981,
-0.06929055601358414,
0.5280339121818542,
0.007299251388758421,
0.15777800977230072,
0.1799643486738205,
0.2483936995267868,
0.38756880164146423,
0.5082427263259888,
0.563341498374939,
-0.0410628616809845,
0.3487342596054077,
0.2834767997264862,
0.10668731480836868,
0.07076435536146164,
0.4521663188934326,
-0.2833906412124634,
-0.4853493571281433,
-0.6731404662132263,
-0.3079625368118286,
0.049023084342479706,
0.04475616663694382,
-0.1320200264453888,
0.4237140417098999,
0.6921171545982361,
0.3210247755050659,
0.7635126113891602,
-0.20445199310779572,
0.011324307881295681,
0.6659905910491943,
0.2947964668273926,
0.04197587072849274,
0.3857024610042572,
-0.1891908347606659,
-0.1479596644639969,
-0.3729556202888489,
0.18000327050685883,
-0.4246247708797455,
-0.06663390249013901,
-0.03545775264501572,
0.11232937127351761,
-0.518665075302124,
-0.3676077425479889,
0.004106801934540272,
-0.14640039205551147,
-0.22494745254516602,
-0.0013225673465058208,
-0.21127331256866455,
-0.09818791598081589,
0.70244300365448,
0.09581227600574493,
-0.47497570514678955,
0.06804575026035309,
-0.09444615244865417,
-0.8571079969406128,
-0.06725235283374786,
0.668518602848053,
0.01879291422665119,
-0.24055206775665283,
0.3761354088783264,
-0.1129169836640358,
-0.5255919694900513,
-0.5110856294631958,
0.13770301640033722,
-0.5371219515800476,
-0.20406073331832886,
0.46434280276298523,
-0.2709302306175232,
0.531440258026123,
0.13715671002864838,
-0.07496548444032669,
-0.3188748359680176,
0.101010762155056,
0.4308135211467743,
0.5080768465995789,
-0.07920154929161072,
-0.16101975739002228,
0.5062745809555054,
0.8112984299659729,
0.14370150864124298,
-0.3451773226261139,
-0.092207171022892,
-0.5958310961723328,
-0.3915626108646393,
-0.0749635174870491,
0.06353121250867844,
0.30328795313835144,
-0.30990245938301086,
-0.47365036606788635,
-0.24106307327747345,
-0.39663857221603394,
0.3532233238220215,
-0.1547291874885559,
-0.4475998282432556,
-0.14395536482334137,
0.4187201261520386,
-0.34008708596229553,
0.24618567526340485,
-0.1410888433456421,
0.22417420148849487,
-0.6340989470481873,
-0.37491941452026367,
-0.1648976057767868,
-0.04001104459166527,
-0.45842236280441284,
-0.05203518271446228,
-0.1372540146112442,
-0.08741551637649536,
-0.4357617497444153,
-0.3865324854850769,
-0.28160545229911804,
-0.4780508875846863,
0.022941870614886284,
0.40293988585472107,
0.49949711561203003,
-0.42873096466064453,
0.1927085667848587,
-0.27967914938926697,
-0.026407957077026367,
0.12066773325204849,
-0.18686611950397491,
-0.48420292139053345,
0.014164351858198643,
0.3529217541217804,
0.12230277061462402,
0.7571969032287598,
0.0734497532248497,
-0.563949704170227,
-0.018719308078289032,
0.18978926539421082,
-0.3229512572288513,
-0.09307477623224258,
0.4432467222213745,
0.19895413517951965,
-0.16705290973186493,
-0.027189278975129128,
-0.13687844574451447,
-0.4495317339897156,
-0.4396236836910248,
-0.3578556478023529,
-0.33548498153686523,
0.8401721119880676,
-0.03417536988854408,
-0.7017444968223572,
0.493534117937088,
0.9339008927345276,
0.12802833318710327,
-0.40938371419906616,
0.43790963292121887,
0.6998687982559204,
0.118146613240242,
-0.7001636624336243,
-0.04961491748690605,
0.11108046025037766,
0.12712791562080383,
0.15763446688652039,
0.0713886022567749,
-0.038927461951971054,
0.06530085951089859,
0.263666570186615,
-0.5046679377555847,
-0.3929467797279358,
0.013329039327800274,
-0.5959038138389587,
0.3855108916759491,
-0.0016427196096628904,
-0.744597852230072,
-0.4314516484737396,
-0.0849212035536766,
-0.5794445276260376,
0.052581992000341415,
0.4791910946369171,
1.0623393058776855,
-0.1670025885105133,
-0.16168664395809174,
-0.0901092141866684,
-0.49561670422554016,
-0.21191762387752533,
-0.11772187799215317,
0.13977700471878052,
-0.1380428671836853,
-0.2888442873954773,
0.041253868490457535,
0.24728229641914368,
-0.5261036157608032,
0.12244894355535507,
0.4671410918235779,
0.6511615514755249,
0.39623090624809265,
-0.5666326284408569,
-0.0001415133010596037,
0.22548028826713562,
-0.03705072030425072,
-0.2369396984577179,
0.12698066234588623,
-0.37890779972076416,
0.19862009584903717,
0.6184945702552795,
0.6120206117630005,
0.23173438012599945,
0.3406103849411011,
0.14411573112010956,
0.02229912392795086,
-0.42053934931755066,
-0.08156844228506088,
0.4304092526435852,
0.24680788815021515,
-0.3652746081352234,
-0.1243119016289711,
0.07748927921056747,
0.012669135816395283,
-0.3463379740715027,
-0.8691739439964294,
-0.2228497415781021,
-0.057690106332302094,
-0.1785876601934433,
0.39123496413230896,
0.8594974279403687,
0.17754803597927094,
-0.015449080616235733,
0.4837615191936493,
0.059075016528367996,
-0.30920836329460144,
-0.06346771866083145,
0.2230709195137024,
-0.32298412919044495,
-0.6017390489578247,
-0.17860494554042816,
0.16884499788284302,
-0.021945834159851074,
-0.46709078550338745,
-0.3386353850364685,
-0.09960541129112244,
0.4732515215873718,
-0.6694698929786682,
0.037049390375614166,
-0.06847268342971802,
0.25972071290016174,
0.6343598961830139,
-0.34452247619628906,
0.3399612605571747,
-0.41423535346984863,
0.5943126678466797,
0.20137463510036469,
0.5671868920326233,
-0.026806257665157318,
-0.5211027264595032,
-0.5083320736885071,
0.27907469868659973,
-0.24949893355369568,
-0.44574978947639465,
0.5986627340316772,
0.33470892906188965,
-0.2826019823551178,
-0.6241439580917358,
-5.806910991668701,
0.6027022004127502,
-0.15217168629169464,
-0.004963221028447151,
0.09033074229955673,
0.4568745493888855,
0.17792293429374695,
-0.43543678522109985,
-0.14147254824638367,
0.7817989587783813,
-0.3263588547706604,
0.10723008960485458,
-0.004726023878902197,
0.08367720246315002,
0.19248981773853302,
0.13995938003063202,
0.24003799259662628,
-0.771842896938324,
-0.3671157658100128,
0.05697370693087578,
0.12551645934581757,
0.48320695757865906,
0.12029743939638138,
0.8646301627159119,
0.40032148361206055,
0.5833414793014526,
-0.13332803547382355,
-0.12123692780733109,
-0.3256130516529083,
0.13458803296089172,
0.14255259931087494,
-0.5769623517990112,
0.250135600566864,
0.1140347272157669,
-0.6062168478965759,
-0.061986226588487625,
0.4129623472690582,
-0.18826924264431,
0.5225266814231873,
-0.050757549703121185,
-0.9078866839408875,
-0.0710856169462204,
-0.0699990913271904,
-0.30521300435066223,
0.1816488653421402,
0.025694942101836205,
-0.10230184346437454,
-0.24368828535079956,
-0.18825893104076385,
0.19820192456245422,
0.2928946912288666,
0.5318634510040283,
0.03336925432085991,
0.23264265060424805,
0.10395936667919159,
-0.2659051716327667,
0.1981583535671234,
-0.21682775020599365,
-0.5381568074226379,
-0.01436101645231247,
0.8115420937538147,
-0.44584763050079346,
-0.6516718864440918,
0.27830684185028076,
-0.0005931688356213272,
-0.3628765046596527,
-0.49784964323043823,
0.10703855752944946,
0.3442314863204956,
0.7476420402526855,
0.17153023183345795,
-0.32550719380378723,
0.39757975935935974,
-0.9084721207618713,
0.27308905124664307,
-0.27674955129623413,
-0.6384322047233582,
0.16808979213237762,
-0.17457498610019684,
0.4170452356338501,
-0.23646888136863708,
-0.7257567048072815,
-0.7210080623626709,
0.2256898581981659,
0.20677897334098816,
-0.3834323287010193,
-0.649266242980957,
0.09419389814138412,
-0.0721254050731659,
0.1525861620903015,
0.7225867509841919,
-0.2114122062921524,
0.10171292722225189,
0.4168505072593689,
-0.0775158628821373,
0.5322017073631287,
0.04247879236936569,
0.23597842454910278,
0.35559070110321045,
0.6069114804267883,
0.12153805792331696,
-0.10105355083942413,
0.4542520046234131,
0.010207769460976124,
0.49143803119659424,
-0.3035804331302643,
0.49552616477012634,
0.0437643863260746,
0.7434093356132507,
0.40842291712760925,
-0.38218384981155396,
-0.12295474112033844,
-0.7382755279541016,
0.4580215513706207,
0.30802127718925476,
-0.26157060265541077,
0.3266061246395111,
0.4242576062679291,
0.4564034342765808,
-0.2687693238258362,
0.13825558125972748,
-0.014789667911827564,
-0.22066068649291992,
-0.24732251465320587,
-0.7614089250564575,
0.052993156015872955,
0.33182695508003235,
0.03569289296865463,
0.2620028555393219,
-0.582257866859436,
-0.4992404878139496,
-0.09068157523870468,
0.16007058322429657,
0.07083500921726227,
0.056804757565259933,
0.11172802001237869,
-0.7561835050582886,
-0.5815924406051636,
0.2442031353712082,
0.01836932823061943,
-0.262606143951416,
-0.39259839057922363,
0.3973839282989502,
0.06722579151391983,
0.5837586522102356,
0.09512274712324142,
0.19684050977230072,
-0.8632885813713074,
-0.1381644457578659,
0.2722233533859253,
0.26601189374923706,
0.2809271216392517,
0.38847815990448,
0.2534792125225067,
-0.8131736516952515,
0.2632938325405121,
-0.037619009613990784,
-0.07602371275424957,
-0.11987486481666565,
-0.22546103596687317,
0.43965741991996765,
-0.5086498856544495,
-0.9869822859764099,
0.002276607556268573,
0.3447762131690979,
0.1942482888698578,
-0.012406541965901852,
-0.43079304695129395,
-0.07158178836107254,
0.3376248776912689,
0.19125308096408844,
0.0798906460404396,
-0.042584918439388275,
0.5896827578544617,
0.15758752822875977,
0.4754278361797333,
-0.10862130671739578,
-0.024710992351174355,
0.17418745160102844,
0.16695964336395264,
-0.022001663222908974,
-0.21790623664855957,
-0.22954171895980835,
0.11433017998933792,
-0.19570209085941315,
-0.39971742033958435,
-0.15400946140289307,
0.7628151774406433,
-0.3547610938549042,
0.2474798560142517,
0.14053848385810852,
0.5341928005218506,
0.4637252390384674,
0.2771362364292145,
-0.6696710586547852,
0.21974211931228638,
-0.16182731091976166,
0.14195853471755981,
0.06663581728935242,
-0.696899950504303,
0.06295163929462433,
-0.414017915725708,
0.16242115199565887,
-0.3243444263935089,
0.6098625063896179,
-0.8325713872909546,
-0.25984594225883484,
-0.18859036266803741,
-0.6278089880943298,
0.6199610829353333,
-0.030573654919862747,
-0.6642708778381348,
0.21174003183841705,
-0.1604674607515335,
0.16445402801036835,
0.3195524215698242,
0.007227009162306786,
-0.20926296710968018,
-0.0263888668268919,
-0.2663043737411499,
0.0963425487279892,
0.06898442655801773,
-0.21150583028793335,
-0.3803955316543579,
-0.5168129801750183,
-0.18648795783519745,
0.16816863417625427,
-0.8696622252464294,
0.5030882954597473,
-0.49716025590896606,
0.06374459713697433,
-0.08335418999195099,
0.2597571015357971,
0.7337998747825623,
-0.8009803295135498,
-0.05923217162489891,
0.007045586593449116,
0.267010897397995,
0.1920543909072876,
0.42673078179359436,
0.8241897225379944,
0.5851298570632935,
0.006424646358937025,
0.3941369950771332,
-0.2769917845726013,
0.5519276261329651,
0.27930718660354614,
-0.372008353471756,
-0.5193582773208618,
0.07556307315826416,
-0.197413831949234,
-0.4248568117618561,
-0.25500091910362244,
0.36386728286743164,
0.6038364768028259,
-0.3676527142524719,
0.11056962609291077,
0.19322092831134796,
-0.10710561275482178,
-0.061686500906944275,
-0.04918725788593292,
0.594598650932312,
-0.9142000675201416,
0.401949018239975,
-0.27591732144355774,
0.24876463413238525,
0.4664134383201599,
0.3327743113040924,
0.0343116894364357,
-0.2903880178928375,
0.38001856207847595,
0.2890702188014984,
0.2397364377975464,
0.6163126826286316,
0.45864105224609375,
-0.08689885586500168,
-0.02838027849793434,
-0.4908049404621124,
0.09782302379608154,
-0.3934814929962158,
-0.5763799548149109,
0.33327633142471313,
0.28148961067199707,
-0.7222332954406738,
-0.6680629253387451,
-0.12358544021844864,
-0.10978937149047852,
-0.14622236788272858,
0.37947165966033936,
-0.4354774057865143,
-0.6269693970680237,
-0.0020656250417232513,
0.5628439784049988,
0.22262467443943024,
0.3502361476421356,
-0.11576499044895172,
-0.19394639134407043,
-0.2641461491584778,
0.33911728858947754,
-0.17159487307071686,
-1.0186108350753784,
1.147519826889038,
0.050068847835063934,
-0.29242557287216187,
-0.10141250491142273,
0.06142615154385567,
0.08491992205381393,
0.3048690855503082,
-0.8293610215187073,
0.01174826081842184,
0.5421947836875916,
-0.46378886699676514,
-0.32690292596817017,
0.44384562969207764,
-0.1218564584851265,
-0.1840553879737854,
0.5998442769050598,
0.294452965259552,
-0.05696965381503105,
0.30265694856643677,
0.26210612058639526,
-0.35192447900772095,
0.7992784976959229,
-0.26054927706718445,
-0.7332934737205505,
-0.08776827156543732,
-0.24976098537445068,
-0.1176467016339302,
0.29802247881889343,
0.052348751574754715,
0.7026744484901428,
-0.40360352396965027,
-0.4593724012374878,
0.5357679128646851,
-0.27180543541908264,
-0.41948020458221436,
-0.2923174798488617,
-0.3476901948451996,
-0.18350091576576233,
0.6085667014122009,
0.8825826048851013,
0.03341029956936836,
-0.3866933584213257,
-0.005723579786717892,
0.20906740427017212,
-0.11515100300312042,
0.39651668071746826,
-0.3568185269832611,
-0.20393426716327667,
-0.25380954146385193,
-0.16392792761325836,
0.5334020256996155,
0.4629423916339874,
-0.8196460008621216,
1.126436471939087,
-0.31679463386535645,
-0.005674409680068493,
0.09138600528240204,
-0.3952767550945282,
0.10497026145458221,
-0.4273182451725006,
0.26780176162719727,
0.5873097777366638,
-0.5060975551605225,
-0.0430728942155838,
0.47214242815971375,
-0.3619309067726135,
0.18685387074947357,
-0.11519554257392883,
-0.06204688921570778,
0.26229774951934814,
-0.3162234127521515,
-0.36175477504730225,
-0.10800536721944809,
-0.06979849189519882,
-0.0726671889424324,
0.003034095512703061,
0.2770785689353943,
0.5050230622291565,
0.18376275897026062,
-0.0429459847509861,
-0.43361595273017883,
-0.2566378712654114,
-0.5982043147087097,
0.8924801349639893,
-0.1732655018568039,
0.19162234663963318,
-0.10648967325687408,
-0.09501524269580841,
-0.12675538659095764,
0.196732759475708,
-1.0182831287384033,
-0.2362741380929947,
0.10315389186143875,
-0.10828594863414764,
-0.6259098649024963,
-0.18518371880054474,
0.6043267846107483,
-0.2957278788089752,
-0.13161295652389526,
0.7783944010734558,
0.2947104275226593,
0.2491222769021988,
-0.0890606939792633,
-0.4456159770488739,
0.059150103479623795,
-0.545222818851471,
-0.4952976405620575,
-0.7400638461112976,
0.6056649684906006,
0.5561972260475159,
-0.06248584762215614,
-0.06871671974658966,
-0.17929452657699585,
-0.44214487075805664,
-0.39052614569664,
0.1632445901632309,
-0.42803218960762024,
0.0025411550886929035,
-0.14913348853588104,
-0.06758973747491837,
-0.011971932835876942,
-0.22191044688224792,
0.4048970639705658,
-0.3102528750896454,
-0.008676331490278244,
0.6885862946510315,
-0.49033984541893005,
-0.32142236828804016,
0.27564942836761475,
-0.21905574202537537,
0.24397984147071838,
0.15204931795597076,
-0.08479293435811996,
-0.05536544695496559,
-0.7409006357192993,
0.5976985692977905,
0.6830688714981079,
0.19090811908245087,
-0.46252453327178955,
0.2803875207901001,
0.5288400053977966,
0.24407370388507843,
-0.14099791646003723,
0.21740490198135376,
-0.4734503924846649,
0.19308842718601227,
-0.43635496497154236,
-0.0034741105046123266,
0.9815563559532166,
0.07179555296897888,
0.5155812501907349,
0.2218034565448761,
-0.4811256229877472,
0.056801069527864456,
-0.40646547079086304,
0.11761470884084702,
-0.13737620413303375,
0.5815414190292358,
-0.12050015479326248
] |
213170
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totally%20Minnie
|
Totally Minnie
|
Totally Minnie is a 1988 musical television special on NBC hosted by Suzanne Somers and starring Minnie Mouse. It was the first film to feature Minnie Mouse in the lead role, and, until the premiere of Mickey Mouse Works in 1999, this was the only time Minnie had any starring role. Russi Taylor, the voice of Minnie at the time, actually met her future husband, Wayne Allwine, then voicing Mickey, while recording this special.
Plot
The film centers on nerd Maxwell Dweeb (Robert Carradine), who is a loner with no friends. While watching television, he sees an advertisement for the Minnie Mouse Center for the Totally Unhip, named after its owner, Minnie Mouse. Dweeb, in an effort to improve himself socially, decides to attend.
After being welcomed by the Director (Suzanne Somers), Dweeb is taken on a tour of the centre, where other Disney characters run various courses: Goofy is a fitness instructor, Donald Duck is a wardrobe manager, and Pluto is a messenger boy. After finally meeting Minnie Mouse, Dweeb is taken on by the Director. After seeing Elton John sing a duet with Minnie in "Don't Go Breaking My Heart", Maxwell feels he has it figured out and displays his new hip personality with clothes akin to Elton's, but the Director stops him saying that it is just not him, and that hipness does not equal emulation of another's style. Minnie takes Maxwell on a shopping spree; then the Director, impressed by a newly madeover Maxwell Dweeb, decides to date him.
The film is intershot with various musical numbers (including the duet "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" by Minnie Mouse and Elton John) and excerpts from early Disney shorts, including a D-TV number of Janet Jackson's "Nasty" with a montage of male Disney villains such as Black Pete and Captain Hook shown.
Main cast
Voices
Russi Taylor - Minnie Mouse (voice)
Wayne Allwine - Mickey Mouse (voice)
Tony Anselmo - Donald Duck (voice)
Will Ryan - Goofy/Pete (voice)
Don Pardo - Announcer (voice)
Actors
Robert Carradine - Maxwell Dweeb
Suzanne Somers - The Director
Elton John - Himself
Vanna White - Herself
Philip Michael Thomas - Himself
Minor cast
Eddie Murphy (uncredited, was seen in a photo during the commercial for Minnie Mouse's Center for the Totally Unhip)
Tina Turner (uncredited, was seen on the wall of Minnie's Center)
References
External links
Totally Minnie at the Internet Movie Data Base
Totally Minnie at the Big Cartoon Data Base
1988 television films
1988 films
1980s American television specials
Films with live action and animation
1988 television specials
English-language films
Disney television specials
|
[
-0.21285568177700043,
-0.08517228811979294,
-0.11325764656066895,
0.1338016390800476,
0.5477483868598938,
-0.2514081299304962,
0.13117742538452148,
0.4402714669704437,
-0.19030973315238953,
0.933195173740387,
-0.31413158774375916,
0.48280543088912964,
-0.12332776188850403,
-0.05258847773075104,
-0.5426260232925415,
0.2669050395488739,
0.13105034828186035,
0.4103471338748932,
-0.11763447523117065,
-0.38070157170295715,
-0.11753909289836884,
-0.5440197587013245,
0.18259330093860626,
-0.161480113863945,
-0.3255287706851959,
-0.05736014246940613,
0.35743144154548645,
0.15007951855659485,
0.3359651267528534,
0.36270663142204285,
-0.08349751681089401,
-0.32201895117759705,
0.5566949248313904,
-0.2262425422668457,
-0.1436711847782135,
0.13807621598243713,
-0.2732864320278168,
0.22345852851867676,
-0.1843896359205246,
0.038797810673713684,
0.15558980405330658,
0.17514696717262268,
0.18531085550785065,
0.062159281224012375,
-0.030649380758404732,
-0.31325796246528625,
-1.7876253128051758,
0.059265196323394775,
0.37908148765563965,
-0.6019169092178345,
0.021471794694662094,
0.5068292021751404,
0.1227366030216217,
0.6398318409919739,
-0.09835147857666016,
0.654303789138794,
-0.003673597238957882,
-0.06753436475992203,
-0.393433153629303,
0.06224588677287102,
0.31676048040390015,
0.36743736267089844,
0.0913744568824768,
-0.449104905128479,
0.13252326846122742,
-0.17763859033584595,
-0.3360626995563507,
0.4807317554950714,
-0.022347290068864822,
-0.339581161737442,
0.28851836919784546,
-0.06733152270317078,
-0.028589805588126183,
-0.4088778495788574,
-0.17842459678649902,
-0.14376237988471985,
0.6872643232345581,
-0.1085081472992897,
0.6392538547515869,
0.37412115931510925,
-0.09284355491399765,
-0.19627141952514648,
0.8068488240242004,
1.089395523071289,
0.1370541751384735,
0.15298303961753845,
0.155100017786026,
-0.1775529831647873,
-0.662896990776062,
0.4797033369541168,
-0.9107726812362671,
-0.08315511792898178,
0.5036494135856628,
0.16324980556964874,
-0.025189464911818504,
-0.32573238015174866,
0.18372537195682526,
-0.1483069807291031,
0.41081517934799194,
-0.35013604164123535,
-0.9369441866874695,
-0.09593208879232407,
-0.32727357745170593,
-0.38792380690574646,
-0.9929141998291016,
0.05110321566462517,
0.11768800020217896,
-0.8881058692932129,
0.5160292387008667,
0.9803473949432373,
-0.26489168405532837,
-0.08742737025022507,
0.3300681412220001,
-0.2369038164615631,
-0.039160385727882385,
0.792034387588501,
0.08669210225343704,
-0.04905693978071213,
-0.5004864931106567,
0.6576107144355774,
0.34936797618865967,
-0.10695776343345642,
-0.138433039188385,
-0.24519531428813934,
0.2620357573032379,
0.5320038795471191,
0.21563148498535156,
0.3938797116279602,
0.24406960606575012,
-0.21525774896144867,
0.0998925119638443,
0.25068211555480957,
-0.10796704143285751,
-0.05860938876867294,
-0.16505767405033112,
-0.07923553884029388,
0.4346224367618561,
-0.33184853196144104,
-0.03155742585659027,
-0.1276940554380417,
-0.2691054046154022,
0.5851261019706726,
-0.5581872463226318,
-0.026010479778051376,
0.2817014157772064,
-0.03604952618479729,
-0.17603208124637604,
0.4841996729373932,
-0.7064659595489502,
-0.6475045084953308,
-0.05293114483356476,
-0.34777766466140747,
0.08700060099363327,
-0.9622239470481873,
-0.2865082323551178,
0.18095487356185913,
-0.18992288410663605,
-0.12245200574398041,
-0.4658292531967163,
-0.010133123956620693,
-0.0047298031859099865,
-0.2753913998603821,
-0.07662230730056763,
-0.15212371945381165,
0.12458041310310364,
-0.06480579078197479,
0.08715136349201202,
0.23091228306293488,
-0.2521703243255615,
0.3825194239616394,
-0.14675627648830414,
0.7625038623809814,
0.53316730260849,
0.3119351267814636,
-0.18569929897785187,
0.4652405083179474,
1.0654264688491821,
0.2139790654182434,
0.4358308017253876,
-0.17311710119247437,
-0.4771897792816162,
-0.1879081279039383,
0.3808026611804962,
-0.19606082141399384,
0.6308079957962036,
0.04482550173997879,
0.25420016050338745,
-0.20924800634384155,
0.3851867914199829,
0.22091248631477356,
-0.3917990028858185,
-0.08113378286361694,
-0.041828226298093796,
-0.09127980470657349,
0.2931247651576996,
0.0643623024225235,
-0.5146672129631042,
-0.14609435200691223,
0.5673163533210754,
0.4949377179145813,
-0.6600033640861511,
0.2128724455833435,
0.810227632522583,
0.1499214768409729,
-0.11730403453111649,
0.27765336632728577,
-0.28837212920188904,
0.13968221843242645,
0.47691985964775085,
0.7084473967552185,
-0.32118239998817444,
0.10020391643047333,
0.5230949521064758,
0.09443356841802597,
-0.25543662905693054,
-0.16101700067520142,
-0.7529493570327759,
0.31881052255630493,
-0.15058982372283936,
0.08444347232580185,
0.10305449366569519,
0.44525131583213806,
-0.5252587795257568,
-0.28393563628196716,
0.15245112776756287,
0.8021814227104187,
0.13975532352924347,
-0.11588019132614136,
0.8154162764549255,
0.10700508207082748,
-0.6770789623260498,
0.018963566049933434,
0.1767682135105133,
-0.12038417905569077,
-0.13525450229644775,
0.4792513847351074,
0.4262348413467407,
-0.17165029048919678,
0.24073632061481476,
-0.021249782294034958,
0.24598312377929688,
0.16594071686267853,
-0.6389882564544678,
0.347329705953598,
-0.74850994348526,
0.37374868988990784,
-0.14601732790470123,
0.28979453444480896,
-0.29733389616012573,
-0.28026580810546875,
0.33257314562797546,
0.0664484053850174,
0.31631550192832947,
0.23225319385528564,
-0.04431860148906708,
-0.005577899049967527,
-0.5009442567825317,
-0.20843057334423065,
0.6061581969261169,
0.13597196340560913,
0.6395583152770996,
0.04701181873679161,
0.2596321702003479,
0.29537251591682434,
0.2112773060798645,
-0.811290979385376,
-0.5492404699325562,
-0.07321543991565704,
-0.20320354402065277,
0.26035892963409424,
0.18414099514484406,
0.2645949423313141,
0.14723575115203857,
0.38744810223579407,
0.43468818068504333,
-0.11107678711414337,
-0.4942435920238495,
0.5989903211593628,
-0.124061219394207,
-0.5202521681785583,
-0.10903328657150269,
0.49683037400245667,
-0.4069056808948517,
-0.04028083011507988,
-0.5038157105445862,
0.3161916732788086,
0.1137617826461792,
-0.41081103682518005,
-0.3155665397644043,
-0.3421221077442169,
0.20467866957187653,
0.038296449929475784,
-0.20691491663455963,
-0.2734030485153198,
0.3325886130332947,
-0.025482093915343285,
-0.15035830438137054,
0.9306413531303406,
-0.23502129316329956,
0.6065768003463745,
0.0076365480199456215,
0.61388099193573,
-0.15203401446342468,
-0.31580615043640137,
0.3828616142272949,
0.25463324785232544,
-0.10008495301008224,
-0.32164645195007324,
-5.927898406982422,
0.20280231535434723,
-0.3501008450984955,
-0.005226965062320232,
0.47226962447166443,
-0.40850120782852173,
0.3852345049381256,
-0.26977166533470154,
-0.1730775684118271,
0.6240863800048828,
-0.06968306005001068,
-0.072396419942379,
-0.7506290674209595,
0.5226216912269592,
0.4029395580291748,
-0.4260140657424927,
0.7240073680877686,
-0.853834331035614,
0.2919165790081024,
0.35655704140663147,
-0.27415552735328674,
-0.3355334997177124,
-0.3731481432914734,
0.30946075916290283,
0.3344506323337555,
0.5604245066642761,
-0.05156399682164192,
0.12968704104423523,
-0.3022922873497009,
-0.1023111417889595,
-0.3157334625720978,
-0.37505587935447693,
-0.547566831111908,
-0.02785835601389408,
-0.13091619312763214,
0.4954488277435303,
0.18278661370277405,
-0.4147811830043793,
0.8353674411773682,
-0.16310571134090424,
0.14462746679782867,
0.21595537662506104,
-0.2866077125072479,
0.001881541684269905,
0.4406096339225769,
-0.5837939977645874,
-0.23024882376194,
-0.3918134570121765,
-0.1158391684293747,
0.06945524364709854,
0.7580618858337402,
0.03860730305314064,
0.2535463273525238,
0.07955718785524368,
0.32587847113609314,
-0.5914903283119202,
-0.05382321774959564,
0.19798897206783295,
-0.3999033272266388,
-0.28616461157798767,
0.6630839109420776,
0.208579421043396,
0.05292755737900734,
-0.5017921924591064,
0.03809184953570366,
-0.3047688603401184,
-0.47573408484458923,
-0.0943557471036911,
-0.02819990925490856,
0.28427696228027344,
0.10088175535202026,
-0.24637065827846527,
-0.2329505980014801,
-0.7782948017120361,
0.029744813218712807,
0.06168415769934654,
-0.3889104127883911,
-0.2913024425506592,
0.24597585201263428,
-0.3493846654891968,
0.23329955339431763,
0.14503562450408936,
-0.033638931810855865,
0.4255378842353821,
-0.5832321643829346,
-0.8695493936538696,
-0.06015808507800102,
-0.10061101615428925,
-0.13035133481025696,
-0.12182236462831497,
0.3113650977611542,
-0.41695502400398254,
-0.5742682814598083,
0.7607727646827698,
0.00020036926434841007,
0.08979734033346176,
0.12334698438644409,
0.22634772956371307,
0.22949519753456116,
0.03471623361110687,
-0.2952277660369873,
-0.5533014535903931,
0.3717518150806427,
0.0377800352871418,
-0.1349126696586609,
-0.3527388572692871,
0.02981267124414444,
-0.2167651206254959,
0.7546706795692444,
-0.09629619866609573,
-0.591410219669342,
0.5042442679405212,
-0.5420275926589966,
-0.39120709896087646,
0.4989677965641022,
0.3881154954433441,
0.16843809187412262,
-0.35098546743392944,
0.6819286942481995,
0.47931164503097534,
0.2261074334383011,
-0.0481003113090992,
0.028737638145685196,
-0.10839122533798218,
-0.5652450919151306,
0.5835164189338684,
0.20684729516506195,
0.016169877722859383,
0.09004786610603333,
-0.1301598846912384,
-0.12229062616825104,
0.1047256588935852,
0.14060111343860626,
0.31346064805984497,
0.9547346234321594,
-0.24373045563697815,
0.06765146553516388,
-0.22265711426734924,
-0.44061505794525146,
-0.3626370131969452,
-0.4172399044036865,
-0.31075599789619446,
-0.15890061855316162,
0.20350487530231476,
-0.004288638010621071,
0.04723091796040535,
0.2877999544143677,
-0.3408709168434143,
-0.10597929358482361,
0.47054994106292725,
-0.1631687581539154,
-0.785354733467102,
0.30684688687324524,
-0.2050456553697586,
-0.04149912670254707,
-0.08151232451200485,
0.08336483687162399,
0.2536132037639618,
0.3741995692253113,
-0.169936403632164,
0.09460244327783585,
-0.5672618746757507,
-0.8880205154418945,
-0.2591201066970825,
0.09263123571872711,
-0.018185831606388092,
0.03773680329322815,
-0.5495179891586304,
-0.45672115683555603,
0.5218304395675659,
0.3347390294075012,
0.4900965094566345,
-0.12387550622224808,
0.06487170606851578,
0.38777053356170654,
0.5038888454437256,
-0.04044600576162338,
-0.6699908971786499,
-0.09126226603984833,
-0.2866436541080475,
0.33917656540870667,
-0.7559286952018738,
-0.24641595780849457,
-0.5058557987213135,
0.31836313009262085,
-0.31246307492256165,
-0.2475695163011551,
0.4617016315460205,
0.39624401926994324,
0.4107784330844879,
-0.20763298869132996,
0.36186841130256653,
0.4438290297985077,
-0.20727357268333435,
-1.1826788187026978,
0.06855159997940063,
-0.09409426897764206,
0.6195948123931885,
-0.28543615341186523,
-0.23076270520687103,
-0.5786277651786804,
-0.17093630135059357,
-0.582114040851593,
0.29191720485687256,
0.707897424697876,
-0.6794368028640747,
0.26349902153015137,
0.5913702845573425,
-0.21886423230171204,
0.5662407279014587,
0.04483674094080925,
-0.6010347604751587,
-0.0009557390585541725,
-0.1875779926776886,
-0.1907210350036621,
0.32285982370376587,
-0.26707831025123596,
0.034047070890665054,
0.11072303354740143,
-0.3565749526023865,
-0.5914567112922668,
-0.4219604730606079,
-0.39910435676574707,
-0.05605960264801979,
-0.45780715346336365,
-0.20746417343616486,
0.3108615279197693,
-0.0830349549651146,
0.17266102135181427,
-0.5823466777801514,
0.02061115764081478,
0.17466367781162262,
0.30538463592529297,
0.18638476729393005,
-0.17471355199813843,
-0.34480589628219604,
0.08250679075717926,
0.5274065732955933,
-0.5617842674255371,
0.20492355525493622,
0.5523304343223572,
0.09930416196584702,
-0.34690529108047485,
0.06858708709478378,
0.059119731187820435,
-0.2573467195034027,
-0.43758299946784973,
-0.17225824296474457,
-0.3288532793521881,
-0.49880465865135193,
0.1280285269021988,
-0.32684317231178284,
-0.4214157164096832,
-0.3188788890838623,
0.42732521891593933,
-0.9556275010108948,
-0.1092531606554985,
0.06759979575872421,
-0.11095540970563889,
-0.3327604830265045,
-0.007904569618403912,
0.40750762820243835,
-0.8409312963485718,
0.224175825715065,
0.1832212656736374,
0.126578688621521,
0.28359732031822205,
-0.10152291506528854,
-0.18322591483592987,
0.20289906859397888,
0.34986162185668945,
0.32799336314201355,
0.05913296341896057,
0.34541991353034973,
0.33187270164489746,
0.10190827399492264,
0.3159712553024292,
-0.8654471635818481,
-0.06769075989723206,
-0.25970733165740967,
-0.6922857165336609,
0.516173243522644,
-0.5406236052513123,
-0.14723403751850128,
0.2991456985473633,
-0.830706775188446,
-0.21952776610851288,
0.08721882849931717,
-0.28561946749687195,
0.5075857043266296,
-0.45338141918182373,
0.858135461807251,
-0.570377767086029,
-0.16927455365657806,
0.08904334157705307,
-0.10827574878931046,
0.20991991460323334,
0.26885658502578735,
0.357263445854187,
-0.40131670236587524,
-0.4252166450023651,
0.16630764305591583,
0.33149877190589905,
0.12644723057746887,
-0.08187749981880188,
-0.1917668879032135,
-0.24492037296295166,
-0.05628813058137894,
-0.30126163363456726,
0.54107666015625,
-0.2064228057861328,
-0.2816818654537201,
0.20790956914424896,
0.6658274531364441,
-0.27108606696128845,
-0.05178936570882797,
0.7178093791007996,
-0.34265634417533875,
-0.09542369842529297,
0.1684226393699646,
-0.28061726689338684,
-0.2839464843273163,
0.014675837010145187,
0.35971471667289734,
-0.6672919988632202,
0.13089260458946228,
-0.19170142710208893,
0.443383127450943,
0.7351290583610535,
0.27401286363601685,
0.604542076587677,
0.1580144464969635,
0.4316374659538269,
0.2911156415939331,
0.07899454236030579,
-0.4755662977695465,
0.06942075490951538,
-0.36733222007751465,
0.14916642010211945,
0.40939635038375854,
0.21601569652557373,
0.14713522791862488,
-0.17346781492233276,
-0.10911523550748825,
-0.22232186794281006,
0.5044729113578796,
0.06260604411363602,
-0.36382099986076355,
-0.3616318106651306,
0.01025618240237236,
0.35823583602905273,
0.12172834575176239,
-0.2780371904373169,
-0.7041470408439636,
0.9943950176239014,
-0.13963556289672852,
0.6957167983055115,
-0.6978971362113953,
0.11865659058094025,
0.10462610423564911,
-0.07735537737607956,
-0.1507643610239029,
0.24488769471645355,
0.31779131293296814,
0.16863057017326355,
0.04761191084980965,
-0.10376881808042526,
-0.24973422288894653,
0.81080561876297,
0.3290247917175293,
-0.07729082554578781,
0.12107862532138824,
-0.04015703126788139,
-0.13916873931884766,
0.04770979657769203,
0.5038801431655884,
0.16466586291790009,
0.2397128939628601,
0.03615483641624451,
0.33248913288116455,
-0.40307745337486267,
0.12769131362438202,
-0.5257825255393982,
0.05262547731399536,
-0.033441875129938126,
0.55209881067276,
0.21879065036773682,
-0.0003555272123776376,
0.11182917654514313,
-0.5631493926048279,
0.1941191852092743,
-0.9424401521682739,
-0.30585017800331116,
-0.0023123538121581078,
-0.4839523136615753,
-0.2507604658603668,
-0.08147098869085312,
0.05879963934421539,
0.013528181239962578,
0.09893754124641418,
0.4738139808177948,
0.41712403297424316,
-0.12667155265808105,
0.4525458514690399,
-0.3068012595176697,
0.331575870513916,
-0.3886619210243225,
-0.619666337966919,
-0.3213227093219757,
0.14904460310935974,
-0.0985257625579834,
0.30862799286842346,
-0.21335431933403015,
-0.18699876964092255,
-0.0024411650374531746,
-0.06370063871145248,
0.755438506603241,
0.11423242092132568,
0.018800392746925354,
-0.14593787491321564,
-0.20735016465187073,
-0.46020153164863586,
-0.01485589612275362,
0.21141208708286285,
-0.13350319862365723,
0.22516876459121704,
-0.09768955409526825,
-0.7542787790298462,
-0.3596269488334656,
0.044134147465229034,
-0.11431822925806046,
0.043575070798397064,
-0.4906372129917145,
0.11596204340457916,
-0.06822676956653595,
-0.52837735414505,
0.6170130968093872,
0.20573967695236206,
0.822857677936554,
-0.4626414179801941,
-0.25173741579055786,
0.3243083655834198,
-0.021961484104394913,
0.1020461767911911,
-0.1257881075143814,
-0.02740505523979664,
0.5794575810432434,
-0.17311722040176392,
-0.5287534594535828,
-0.17353738844394684,
-0.8277226686477661,
0.266415536403656,
-0.08020658046007156,
-0.42209750413894653,
-0.2818751633167267,
-0.14107616245746613,
0.5287144780158997,
-0.6826613545417786,
0.34052765369415283,
0.9187508821487427
] |
213171
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolatry
|
Monolatry
|
Monolatry (Greek: μόνος [monos] = single, and λατρεία [latreia] = worship) is the belief in the existence of many gods, but with the consistent worship of only one deity. The term "monolatry" was perhaps first used by Julius Wellhausen.
Monolatry is distinguished from monotheism, which asserts the existence of only one god, and henotheism, a religious system in which the believer worships one god without denying that others may worship different gods with equal validity.
Atenism
The pharaoh Akhenaten, who was initially enthroned as Amenhotep IV, initially introduced Atenism in year five of his reign (1348–1346 BCE) during the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. He raised Aten, once a relatively obscure solar deity representing the disk of the Sun, to the status of supreme deity in ancient Egyptian religion.
Year five marked the beginning of his construction of a new capital, Akhetaten (Horizon of the Aten), at the site known today as "Amarna". Amenhotep IV officially changed his name to "Akhenaten" (Agreeable to the Aten) as evidence of his new worship. In addition to constructing a new capital in honor of Aten, Akhenaten also oversaw the construction of some of the most massive temple complexes of ancient Egypt, including one at Karnak and one at Thebes, close to the old temple of Amun.
In his ninth year of rule (1344–1342 BCE), Akhenaten declared a more radical version of his new religion, declaring Aten not merely the supreme god of the Egyptian pantheon but the only god of Egypt, with himself as the sole intermediary between the Aten and the Egyptian people. Key features of Atenism included a ban on idols and other images of the Aten, with the exception of a rayed solar disc in which the rays (commonly depicted ending in hands) appear to represent the unseen spirit of Aten. Aten was addressed by Akhenaten in prayers, such as the Great Hymn to the Aten.
The details of Atenist theology are still unclear. The exclusion of all but one god and the prohibition of idols was a radical departure from Egyptian tradition, but most scholars see Akhenaten as a practitioner of monolatry rather than monotheism, as he did not actively deny the existence of other gods; he simply refrained from worshiping any but Aten. It is known that Atenism did not solely attribute divinity to the Aten. Akhenaten continued the imperial cult, proclaiming himself the son of Aten and encouraging the people to worship him. The people were to worship Akhenaten; only Akhenaten and the pharaoh's wife Nefertiti could worship Aten directly.
Under Akhenaten's successors, Egypt reverted to its traditional religion, and Akhenaten himself came to be reviled as a heretic.
In ancient Israel
Some historians have argued that ancient Israel originally practiced a form of monolatry or henotheism. John Day suggests that angels are what became of the other gods once monotheism took over Israel. John McKenzie has stated: "In the ancient Near East the existence of divine beings was universally accepted without questions. ... The question was not whether there is only one elohim, but whether there is any elohim like Yahweh."
Some scholars claim the Torah (Pentateuch) shows evidence of monolatry in some passages. The argument is normally based on references to other gods, such as the "gods of the Egyptians" in the Book of Exodus (). The Egyptians are also attributed powers that suggest the existence of their gods; in , after Aaron transforms his staff into a snake, Pharaoh's sorcerers do likewise. In the ancient Near East, magic was generally believed to exist, although the Israelites viewed magic as being malign in origin and were forbidden from it.
The Ten Commandments have been interpreted by some as evidence that the Israelites originally practiced monolatry. reads "Thou shalt have no other gods before me", (Hebrew:לא יהיה־לך אלהים אחרים על־פני), and they argue that the addition of "before me" at the end of the commandment indicates that not only other gods may exist but that they may be respected and worshiped so long as less than Yahweh. In the creation story of Genesis, Yahweh says "The man has now become like one of us, knowing good and evil. He must not be allowed to reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever."
There is evidence that the Israelites before the Babylonian captivity in the 6th century BCE did not adhere to monotheism. Much of this evidence comes from the Bible itself, which records that many Israelites chose to worship foreign gods and idols rather than Yahweh.
During the 8th century BCE, the monotheistic worship of Yahweh in Israel was in competition with many other cults, described by the Yahwist faction collectively as Baals. The oldest books of the Hebrew Bible reflect this competition, as in the books of Hosea and Nahum, whose authors lament the "apostasy" of the people of Israel and threaten them with the wrath of God if they do not give up their polytheistic cults.
On the other hand, medieval Jewish scholars often interpreted ancient texts to argue that the ancient Israelites were monotheistic. The Shema Yisrael is often cited as proof that the Israelites practiced monotheism. It was recognized by Rashi in his 11th century commentary to that the declaration of the Shema accepts belief in one god as being only a part of Jewish faith at the time of Moses but would eventually be accepted by all humanity.
A similar statement occurs in Maimonides' Thirteen Principles of Faith's second principle:
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) teaches that God the Father, Jesus Christ and the Holy Ghost are three distinct beings belonging to one Godhead: "All three are united in their thoughts, actions, and purpose, with each having a fullness of knowledge, truth, and power." Latter-day Saints further believe that prayer should be directed to only God the Father in the name of Jesus Christ.
Jeffrey R. Holland has stated: We believe these three divine persons constituting a single Godhead are united in purpose, in manner, in testimony, in mission. We believe Them to be filled with the same godly sense of mercy and love, justice and grace, patience, forgiveness, and redemption. I think it is accurate to say we believe They are one in every significant and eternal aspect imaginable except believing Them to be three persons combined in one substance.Latter-day Saints interpret Jesus' prayer in , "Holy Father, keep through thine own name those whom thou hast given me, that they may be one, as we are" to refer to the characteristics, attributes and purpose that the Son shares with the Father in the hope that people can someday share in those as well. In Mormonism, being one with God means gaining immortality, perfection, eternal life, and the highest level in his kingdom. As D. Todd Christofferson states, "we may become one with God" as Jesus did.
Joseph Smith taught that humans can become joint-heirs with Christ and thereby inherit from God all that Christ inherits if they are proven worthy by following the laws and ordinances of the gospel. This process of exaltation means that humans can literally become gods through the atonement; thus, "god" is a term for an inheritor of the highest kingdom of God. That allows for the existence of many gods in the future, but only one as ruler over life in this universe.
To the extent that monolatry is not considered monotheism, the classification of Mormonism as monolatrous is strongly disputed among Latter-day Saints. Bruce R. McConkie stated that "if [monotheism] is properly interpreted to mean that the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost—each of whom is a separate and distinct godly personage—are one God, meaning one Godhead, then true saints are monotheists."
References
Further reading
Robert Needham Cust (1895). Essay on the Common Features which Appear in All Forms of Religious Belief. Luzac & Co.
Robert Wright (journalist), The Evolution of God (2009) (esp. pages 132 et seq discussing conflict between Elijah and Jezebel).
Mike Schroeder, author of 85 Pages In The Bible; Llumina Press 2005
External links
Moses and Monotheism by Jeffrey Tigay
The Biblical Idea of Idolatry by Jose Faur, differentiating the monolatry authorized by the Bible from the idolatry/iconolatry which is proscribed therein
Polytheism
Monotheism
Theism
Religion in ancient Israel and Judah
|
[
0.5431503653526306,
0.6675547361373901,
-0.8126797080039978,
0.38030189275741577,
-0.2972232699394226,
0.6843422055244446,
0.4615862965583801,
0.15935517847537994,
-0.39629998803138733,
-0.058175358921289444,
-0.899318516254425,
0.3809787929058075,
-0.6727385520935059,
0.23125062882900238,
-0.3515024483203888,
0.12460093945264816,
0.8989677429199219,
0.7356693148612976,
-0.2029494047164917,
0.12496691942214966,
-0.16516068577766418,
0.38395681977272034,
-0.09927994757890701,
-0.4120442867279053,
-0.07355111092329025,
0.08455146104097366,
0.49901533126831055,
-0.009618094190955162,
-0.13664546608924866,
0.20077766478061676,
0.08551927655935287,
0.7955845594406128,
-0.025628503412008286,
-0.1426219791173935,
0.12912939488887787,
-0.1387251764535904,
0.33867204189300537,
-0.5242066979408264,
0.005939144175499678,
-0.3854138255119324,
0.8417244553565979,
-0.395271360874176,
0.5372331738471985,
0.09280473738908768,
-0.777662992477417,
-0.35789987444877625,
-1.57724928855896,
0.791608452796936,
-1.04936683177948,
0.4098779261112213,
-0.35472536087036133,
-0.027684183791279793,
-0.31823205947875977,
0.5819560289382935,
0.026300033554434776,
1.115848422050476,
-0.5929293632507324,
0.16191591322422028,
0.43105748295783997,
-0.40117231011390686,
0.16154272854328156,
0.36576059460639954,
0.26869070529937744,
-0.3237108290195465,
0.49683400988578796,
-0.08503232896327972,
-0.07206854969263077,
0.25902363657951355,
-0.600501298904419,
-0.5522829294204712,
-0.6290539503097534,
-0.22879834473133087,
-0.3768174648284912,
0.25460299849510193,
-0.8159739375114441,
-0.27835917472839355,
0.20493154227733612,
-0.2278800755739212,
0.392311692237854,
-0.32817959785461426,
-0.3840961754322052,
0.9004152417182922,
0.39062124490737915,
0.3036966621875763,
-0.03788655623793602,
-0.32638248801231384,
-0.16671235859394073,
0.3806977868080139,
-0.0434502474963665,
0.18558508157730103,
0.3512302041053772,
-0.16146521270275116,
0.7517910003662109,
0.058688756078481674,
-0.18699920177459717,
-0.018764419481158257,
0.37658876180648804,
-0.35723617672920227,
-0.1507408171892166,
-0.3867201507091522,
-0.02176506258547306,
-0.3785610496997833,
0.06719673424959183,
-0.481059193611145,
-0.2162235677242279,
-0.2647205889225006,
0.21023331582546234,
-0.3078474998474121,
0.16675248742103577,
0.39623916149139404,
-0.9501149654388428,
0.7374935150146484,
0.11013169586658478,
0.2787448465824127,
-0.536688506603241,
-0.07508662343025208,
0.08299035578966141,
0.00446446193382144,
-0.27397584915161133,
-0.20683759450912476,
0.2966407239437103,
0.5543399453163147,
0.3268139362335205,
-0.6088365912437439,
0.13908404111862183,
-0.4209671914577484,
0.2034003883600235,
0.6719434261322021,
-1.0036954879760742,
0.06219300627708435,
0.4367365539073944,
0.5213279128074646,
-0.1887519508600235,
-0.011976729147136211,
-0.012922897934913635,
-0.2714572548866272,
0.4441836476325989,
-0.44073283672332764,
0.6100523471832275,
0.4298402965068817,
-0.7837238907814026,
-0.5611259341239929,
-0.44830647110939026,
0.254044771194458,
0.5933247804641724,
-0.16511407494544983,
0.7358598113059998,
0.3694443702697754,
-0.449400395154953,
-0.22454218566417694,
-0.3631278872489929,
0.05686500668525696,
0.22386828064918518,
-0.33951374888420105,
0.3768308460712433,
0.2716248035430908,
0.6958175897598267,
-0.2724159359931946,
-0.41214337944984436,
0.18171006441116333,
0.004470225423574448,
-0.5115070939064026,
-0.47364944219589233,
-0.5638281106948853,
0.041694652289152145,
-0.22702479362487793,
0.3446354866027832,
0.8350242972373962,
0.21009069681167603,
0.4004840850830078,
0.054189469665288925,
-0.41464266180992126,
0.21846988797187805,
0.4270978271961212,
-0.3582358658313751,
0.08337084949016571,
1.1260629892349243,
0.09582293033599854,
0.8565089702606201,
-0.09054399281740189,
-0.8180685639381409,
-0.08052677661180496,
-0.027244949713349342,
0.10039340704679489,
0.40935859084129333,
-0.14909450709819794,
0.17125022411346436,
-0.03260960429906845,
-0.18538427352905273,
-0.5264796614646912,
-0.6346604824066162,
-0.30290740728378296,
-0.32710790634155273,
-0.49149423837661743,
1.1450737714767456,
-0.44599834084510803,
-1.3259376287460327,
0.4851740598678589,
0.5283373594284058,
0.21535281836986542,
-0.1595829427242279,
-0.014793245121836662,
-0.4381607174873352,
0.13218161463737488,
-0.4314580261707306,
0.6354527473449707,
0.037885867059230804,
0.4809982478618622,
0.11405998468399048,
-0.30323895812034607,
0.40056413412094116,
-0.678386926651001,
0.66410231590271,
-0.24154019355773926,
-0.004682300612330437,
-0.027717310935258865,
-0.7975714802742004,
0.3929077088832855,
-0.31681889295578003,
0.12690579891204834,
0.47066065669059753,
-0.6167424917221069,
-0.527948260307312,
-0.4413457214832306,
0.30194929242134094,
0.38706761598587036,
-0.02697421796619892,
-0.2414265275001526,
0.4280596673488617,
-0.47838667035102844,
-0.06374042481184006,
0.21130545437335968,
0.6032208800315857,
-0.4085984528064728,
-0.6438018083572388,
0.12276819348335266,
0.5157458782196045,
-0.520837128162384,
0.4664570093154907,
-0.48577335476875305,
-0.8722931742668152,
0.11849474906921387,
-0.5227697491645813,
-0.20676550269126892,
0.26773592829704285,
0.03830326721072197,
-0.42647475004196167,
-0.19180810451507568,
-0.14775623381137848,
0.47689440846443176,
-0.17451149225234985,
-0.2508010268211365,
0.0009720107191242278,
-0.06494739651679993,
0.7183064222335815,
-0.3430761694908142,
0.413839191198349,
0.180582657456398,
-0.036636821925640106,
-0.08488833904266357,
-0.7904701828956604,
0.08883378654718399,
0.1536308079957962,
-0.6019923686981201,
-0.3008246421813965,
-0.3658526837825775,
-0.031458333134651184,
0.7260088920593262,
0.33579063415527344,
0.7026261687278748,
0.8216913342475891,
-0.35265690088272095,
-0.970659613609314,
0.3929833769798279,
-0.16508138179779053,
-0.5723367929458618,
0.43958812952041626,
0.13172587752342224,
-0.023342031985521317,
-0.7818424105644226,
-0.15998496115207672,
0.5415199995040894,
0.11093609035015106,
-0.47814249992370605,
-0.041289135813713074,
-0.36197081208229065,
0.3814968168735504,
-0.41474220156669617,
0.5495079159736633,
-0.34754326939582825,
-0.11541824042797089,
0.666654109954834,
0.059911467134952545,
-0.4116862714290619,
0.656419038772583,
0.7389304637908936,
-0.19676202535629272,
0.1748763918876648,
-0.1645287275314331,
-0.15258415043354034,
-0.3580189645290375,
-0.1216072142124176,
0.058127593249082565,
0.055993661284446716,
0.5996500253677368,
0.007913826033473015,
0.11138540506362915,
0.3751368522644043,
-5.509084701538086,
-0.06725284457206726,
-0.006331306416541338,
-0.23707129061222076,
0.2320525348186493,
0.5100246071815491,
0.15952515602111816,
0.042087968438863754,
-0.014099560678005219,
0.05614222586154938,
-0.40767601132392883,
-0.32644540071487427,
-0.21150900423526764,
0.5505717992782593,
0.985344648361206,
0.11623859405517578,
0.4621340334415436,
0.35575059056282043,
0.02818978950381279,
0.3723664879798889,
0.16841112077236176,
0.10664840787649155,
-0.06799493730068207,
0.9281960725784302,
0.039023444056510925,
-0.46638011932373047,
-0.061513133347034454,
0.19806040823459625,
-0.24378666281700134,
-0.1867629438638687,
0.33757391571998596,
-0.22846412658691406,
0.04582969844341278,
-0.7371015548706055,
0.37684622406959534,
0.48023131489753723,
0.19969290494918823,
-0.5742577314376831,
0.22899232804775238,
-0.13353180885314941,
-0.1424427479505539,
0.11601129174232483,
0.30917948484420776,
-0.511616587638855,
0.3824567198753357,
-0.22991959750652313,
-0.41733360290527344,
0.06294191628694534,
-0.3938460946083069,
0.39571675658226013,
-0.03852218762040138,
-0.25412049889564514,
0.38371893763542175,
-0.4114762842655182,
0.23783829808235168,
-0.06122881546616554,
0.8990200757980347,
0.03210325166583061,
-0.7115941643714905,
0.039074722677469254,
0.6450162529945374,
-0.43292248249053955,
0.07757759094238281,
-0.17639441788196564,
0.1714400351047516,
-0.17005272209644318,
-0.7734128832817078,
-0.2099923938512802,
0.7291512489318848,
0.19826801121234894,
-0.8555287718772888,
0.5291754603385925,
-0.1357795149087906,
-0.7138457894325256,
0.3396371304988861,
0.17657549679279327,
-0.108270063996315,
0.08606898039579391,
0.40178826451301575,
0.3086453080177307,
-0.5438172221183777,
-0.4173162877559662,
-0.3009645938873291,
-0.033069610595703125,
0.5433910489082336,
0.1947665959596634,
-0.5926191210746765,
0.23965248465538025,
-0.7359763383865356,
0.11102594435214996,
0.8322988748550415,
-0.11500861495733261,
0.40957358479499817,
0.7742766737937927,
0.5729498863220215,
0.45235535502433777,
0.046063248068094254,
-0.2489820122718811,
1.0109827518463135,
0.30034971237182617,
-0.1768818199634552,
-0.34150099754333496,
0.33805108070373535,
0.14173853397369385,
-0.06744096428155899,
0.13138160109519958,
-0.7343682646751404,
0.31792283058166504,
0.5424619317054749,
-0.2856181859970093,
0.2944425642490387,
0.760916531085968,
0.1565018594264984,
-0.24854694306850433,
0.5222384929656982,
0.46840521693229675,
-0.02935551479458809,
0.5665073394775391,
0.4827244281768799,
0.10281991213560104,
-0.03129208832979202,
0.20044764876365662,
-0.11428868770599365,
-0.22359396517276764,
-0.4929502010345459,
0.05497713387012482,
-0.29039162397384644,
-0.06696903705596924,
-0.2172078639268875,
-0.4092249572277069,
0.8540721535682678,
0.22677478194236755,
0.06366465985774994,
0.11636639386415482,
-0.15074944496154785,
-0.4345744252204895,
0.3811092972755432,
0.4082674980163574,
-0.6945116519927979,
-0.5307092070579529,
0.2950502932071686,
-0.6469575762748718,
0.12774808704853058,
0.6203075647354126,
0.23211261630058289,
-0.13274800777435303,
-0.061664726585149765,
-0.1205134242773056,
0.4514288306236267,
1.0240367650985718,
0.19103878736495972,
-0.13195283710956573,
0.9393601417541504,
-0.47590652108192444,
0.08758196234703064,
0.06538286060094833,
0.31021440029144287,
0.10421865433454514,
0.03038671612739563,
-0.9912256002426147,
-0.39714452624320984,
-0.5205312371253967,
-0.6643262505531311,
-0.4749559164047241,
-0.3537779748439789,
-0.20143960416316986,
-0.9369291067123413,
-0.15193171799182892,
-0.0611673966050148,
0.552688479423523,
0.08064321428537369,
0.20703694224357605,
-0.3560754060745239,
-0.011027705855667591,
0.06601149588823318,
-0.13713912665843964,
-0.11827399581670761,
0.298959344625473,
-0.364497572183609,
-0.38282930850982666,
-0.18852312862873077,
-0.11064944416284561,
-0.01238255761563778,
-0.367069274187088,
0.7659335136413574,
-0.4747098982334137,
-0.048598021268844604,
0.11677148193120956,
-0.3734980523586273,
-0.45885077118873596,
-0.5663491487503052,
0.03471720591187477,
0.24642299115657806,
-0.10064826160669327,
-0.12675587832927704,
0.043290965259075165,
0.14049068093299866,
0.4121648669242859,
-0.37475448846817017,
-0.13137300312519073,
-0.21212705969810486,
0.18923377990722656,
-0.9206607937812805,
-0.28246650099754333,
0.612324059009552,
-0.6398106813430786,
0.8917146325111389,
-0.17779190838336945,
0.05093289539217949,
0.5262510776519775,
-0.8770555257797241,
-0.13563492894172668,
-0.6819066405296326,
0.000399230484617874,
-0.40053999423980713,
0.2909250855445862,
-0.045585621148347855,
-0.10394130647182465,
-0.5471366047859192,
-0.9004604816436768,
0.8245607614517212,
-0.11853715777397156,
0.36376288533210754,
0.13073386251926422,
-0.013599779456853867,
-0.5101204514503479,
0.4912671446800232,
-0.04151865839958191,
0.09415318816900253,
-0.08113585412502289,
-0.19029314815998077,
-0.12178173661231995,
-0.6861164569854736,
0.0011037070071324706,
-0.3623884618282318,
-0.37119847536087036,
0.3869725167751312,
0.051579371094703674,
-0.3203940689563751,
-0.43069276213645935,
-0.016946354880928993,
0.27915772795677185,
0.0937374010682106,
0.2828112542629242,
-0.6695177555084229,
0.44983047246932983,
-0.07195226103067398,
-0.6068394184112549,
-0.46126994490623474,
-0.2801475524902344,
0.22154895961284637,
-0.11157690733671188,
-0.1698443740606308,
-0.4639403820037842,
0.0998745784163475,
0.07047339528799057,
0.0021695641335099936,
-0.46322834491729736,
0.20871004462242126,
0.39439260959625244,
0.5525537133216858,
-0.4964388608932495,
-0.15825968980789185,
-0.36150264739990234,
-0.15236106514930725,
0.13060212135314941,
-0.12645433843135834,
0.6090184450149536,
0.6498878002166748,
-0.5435275435447693,
0.5934913158416748,
0.1055058017373085,
-0.1978425234556198,
0.003089155303314328,
-0.08918939530849457,
0.11426950991153717,
-0.264541894197464,
-0.682256281375885,
0.23030567169189453,
-0.07736051082611084,
-0.39210864901542664,
-0.03897242248058319,
0.11374681442975998,
0.07246828079223633,
0.05120308697223663,
-0.6127437949180603,
0.36239445209503174,
0.11981596797704697,
-0.2708057463169098,
-0.1852315217256546,
-0.6040214896202087,
0.1590585857629776,
0.21204881370067596,
0.3440501391887665,
0.12395764887332916,
-0.5530611276626587,
0.14308176934719086,
0.34578657150268555,
0.2719151973724365,
-0.4219590127468109,
-0.8082180023193359,
-0.3559616804122925,
0.1999148279428482,
-0.6500169634819031,
0.22967396676540375,
0.13794150948524475,
-0.055692389607429504,
-0.8981464505195618,
-0.3536485731601715,
-0.1250896155834198,
0.42961040139198303,
-0.017538907006382942,
0.3957483470439911,
0.48511946201324463,
-0.3462234437465668,
-0.036620721220970154,
0.33880314230918884,
-0.3573576509952545,
0.43908265233039856,
0.9542450308799744,
0.04635457322001457,
-0.426222562789917,
0.2428770363330841,
-0.39426013827323914,
0.24162457883358002,
-0.11518566310405731,
0.16130508482456207,
-0.11624779552221298,
0.14213578402996063,
0.5838234424591064,
0.5113199353218079,
0.34434664249420166,
-0.27921584248542786,
0.026541471481323242,
-0.006940185558050871,
-0.8933032751083374,
-0.07513459026813507,
-0.4382580816745758,
-0.6768967509269714,
0.8829005360603333,
0.14728882908821106,
0.0010258153779432178,
-0.25209200382232666,
0.31819164752960205,
0.06430407613515854,
0.5298642516136169,
0.3197096288204193,
0.17086631059646606,
-0.37830212712287903,
0.7193334698677063,
0.3281865119934082,
-0.11775273084640503,
0.383139431476593,
-0.39764001965522766,
0.1214180439710617,
-0.4110643267631531,
0.8249101638793945,
-0.014587435871362686,
-0.26025235652923584,
0.10961758345365524,
0.013150901533663273,
0.5834839344024658,
0.36151352524757385,
0.03381013870239258,
0.07370806485414505,
-0.03484772518277168,
0.11729935556650162,
-0.42325085401535034,
0.06363680958747864,
-0.148928701877594,
0.16152285039424896,
0.6775889992713928,
-0.4569794535636902,
0.7063631415367126,
0.1506914347410202,
0.10437015444040298,
0.8489028811454773,
0.36187273263931274,
-0.28781858086586,
-0.7960972785949707,
-0.09101632237434387,
-0.24943064153194427,
0.10535306483507156,
-0.8539705276489258,
0.33679187297821045,
0.35198646783828735,
0.8395130634307861,
0.2560209631919861,
-0.16351798176765442,
0.44012439250946045,
-0.02434319071471691,
-0.1538647562265396,
0.05310865491628647,
0.2787826955318451,
-0.4773954451084137,
0.03356838971376419,
-0.4076153039932251,
0.5166724920272827,
-0.08929360657930374,
-0.14244528114795685,
0.2342159003019333,
0.07575996965169907,
0.5136929750442505,
-0.09811848402023315,
-0.46782010793685913,
-0.32278358936309814,
-0.033266741782426834,
-0.6458752751350403,
-1.1457197666168213,
0.10673164576292038,
0.20819590985774994,
-0.2769831418991089,
0.22693486511707306,
0.3256654441356659,
0.007295379415154457,
-0.12031672149896622,
0.5362075567245483,
-0.04634428024291992,
0.20476990938186646,
0.06150733307003975,
0.1804180145263672,
-0.19416166841983795,
0.2476593554019928,
0.4451521337032318,
-0.546245276927948,
-0.4234587848186493,
0.5271308422088623,
0.09329011291265488,
-0.7976820468902588,
0.2976607382297516,
-0.7327327728271484,
0.4360004961490631,
-0.30125319957733154,
0.19714151322841644,
-0.22155457735061646,
-0.7405595779418945,
0.20302605628967285,
-0.10380060225725174,
-0.14980344474315643,
-0.8975357413291931,
-0.069246806204319,
0.12607890367507935,
-0.2323606312274933,
0.01299910806119442,
-0.34431764483451843,
0.08559968322515488,
-0.20194999873638153,
0.3649391531944275,
-0.07166192680597305,
0.02593158930540085,
0.14299720525741577,
-0.25763434171676636,
0.1377490609884262,
-0.34351304173469543,
-0.10036803781986237,
0.42412614822387695,
0.5684612989425659,
-0.16705282032489777,
0.15400263667106628,
0.7868605852127075
] |
213172
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pied-billed%20grebe
|
Pied-billed grebe
|
The pied-billed grebe (Podilymbus podiceps) is a species of the grebe family of water birds. Because the Atitlán grebe (Podilymbus gigas) has become extinct, the Pied-Billed Grebe is now the sole extant member of the genus Podilymbus. The pied-billed grebe is primarily found in ponds throughout the Americas. Other names of this grebe include American dabchick, rail, dabchick, Carolina grebe, devil-diver, dive-dapper, dipper, hell-diver, pied-billed dabchick, pied-bill, thick-billed grebe, and water witch.
Taxonomy and name
The pied-billed grebe was described by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Colymbus podiceps. The binomial name is derived from Latin Podilymbus, a contraction of podicipes ("feet at the buttocks", from podici-, "rump-" + pes, "foot")—the origin of the name of the grebe order—and Ancient Greek kolymbos, "diver", and podiceps, "rump-headed", from podici- + New Latin ceps.
Outside its own genus, the closest relatives of the pied-billed grebe are the small grebes of the genus Tachybaptus.
Subspecies
P. p. podiceps, (Linnaeus, 1758), North America to Panama & Cuba.
P. p. antillarum, (Bangs, 1913), Greater & Lesser Antilles.
P. p. antarcticus, (Lesson, 1842), South America to central Chile & Argentina.
Description
Pied-billed grebes are small, stocky, and short-necked. They are in length, with a wingspan of and weigh . They are mainly brown, with a darker crown and back. Their brown color serves as camouflage in the marshes they live in. They do not have white visible under their wings when flying, like other grebes. Their undertail is white and they have a short, blunt chicken-like bill that is a light grey color, which in summer is encircled by a broad black band (hence the name). In the summer, its throat is black. There is no sexual dimorphism. Juveniles have black and white stripes and look more like winter adults. This grebe does not have webbed feet. Its toes have lobes that come out of the side of each toe. These lobes allow for easy paddling. When flying, the feet appear behind the body due to the feet's placement in the far back of the body.
It may be confused with the least grebe, although that species is much smaller and has a thinner bill. Other similarly sized grebes are very distinct in plumage, i.e. the eared grebe and horned grebe. Both species bear much more colorful breeding plumage, with rufous sides, golden crests along the side of the head against contrasting slaty color (also a rufous neck in the horned); while in winter, both the eared and horned grebes are pied with slaty and cream color and have red eyes.
Vocalization
Its call is unique, loud and sounds like a "whooping kuk-kuk-cow-cow-cow-cowp-cowp." Its call is similar to the yellow-billed cuckoo.
Distribution and habitat
They are most commonly found throughout North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America year round. During the summer breeding season, they are most prevalent in central, northern and northeastern Canada. If they live in an area where the water freezes in the winter they will migrate. Migrating birds generally meet with year-round birds in September and October. They migrate at night. Most migratory birds leave in March or April. They make occasional appearances in Europe and Hawaii. In the United Kingdom, pied-billed grebe visits have numbered 45 sightings as of 2019, appearing generally in October to January. One bird in England bred with a little grebe, producing hybrid young. It is the only grebe on record to have visited the Galapagos Islands.
Pied-billed grebes are found in freshwater wetlands with emergent vegetation, such as cattails. They are occasionally found in salt water. When breeding they are found in emergent vegetation near open water, and in the winter they are primarily found in open water due to the lack of nests to maintain. They may live near rivers, but prefer still water. They may be found in higher elevations when migrating. They will breed in restored and man-made wetlands.
Pied-billed grebes live approximately 10–12 years.
Behaviour
Pied-billed grebes rarely fly. They make a slow dive frequently, especially when in danger, diving to about or less. They dive for about 30 seconds and may move to a more secluded area of the water, allowing only the head to be visible to watch the danger dissipate. This frequency in diving has earned them the description of being reclusive or shy in nature. It has also earned them nicknames like "hell-diver." They rarely spend time in flocks. Their courtship include calling and sometimes duets. Males will show territorial behaviour if another male is at the edge of his territory. They face each other and then turn their heads and bills up. Then they turn away and start calling. Then they turn back around to look at one another.
Breeding
The pied-billed grebe breeds in south-central Canada, throughout the United States, Central America, the Caribbean, and temperate South America. These grebes may lay up to two sets of eggs a year. Their nests sit on top of the water, their eggs sitting in vegetation that resides in the water. Grebes lay between three and ten bluish white smooth elliptical eggs with the female starting the incubation process. They are incubated for around 23 days by both parents, with the female taking over incubation duties towards the end of that time period. They will cover the nest with nesting material if they have to leave it for an extended period of time.
Young grebes may leave the nest within one day of hatching. They are downy at birth. Yellow skin is seen between the lore and top of the head. They do not swim well and stay out of the water. They sleep on their parents' backs. Within four weeks they start swimming. When alerted they will climb on the back of a parent grebe and eventually mature to dive under the water like their parents. Both parents share the role of raising the young – both feeding and carrying them on their backs. Sometimes the parents will dive underwater to get food with the chicks on their backs.
Diet
Pied-billed grebes feed mainly on aquatic invertebrates, and also on small fish and amphibians (frogs, tadpoles). They dive to obtain food. Their bills allow them to crush crustaceans, like crawfish. They may also eat plants. They have been shown to eat their own feathers, like other grebes, to aid in digestion (prevent injury from small bones). They will also feed their feathers to their young.
Threats
They are extremely sensitive to disturbances, especially by humans. While breeding, if scared, adults may abandon their nests without protecting the eggs. The waves from boats can destroy the nests and their sounds easily frighten the birds.
In culture
Pied-billed grebe feathers are thick and soft. Their feathers were formerly used as decorations on hats and earmuffs and they were hunted in the eastern United States, in the 19th century.
Status
The grebes are declining in New England. The reasons are unknown. The states of Connecticut and New Hampshire have declared the pied-billed grebe as endangered. In New Jersey and Massachusetts, they have been declared threatened. In Vermont they are of "special concern." In Rhode Island they are locally extinct.
Habitat loss is the grebe's biggest threat. The draining, filling, and general destruction of wetlands causes a loss in their breeding habitats. However, they are still common in the majority of their distribution areas.
References
External links
Pied-billed Grebe Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
pied-billed grebe
Birds of the Americas
pied-billed grebe
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
|
[
-0.4615546464920044,
0.5349997282028198,
-0.6895469427108765,
-0.013361409306526184,
-0.42800337076187134,
1.056911587715149,
0.2517920732498169,
0.5555773377418518,
-0.4249821603298187,
-0.5329983234405518,
0.06893207877874374,
0.14941595494747162,
-0.4289546012878418,
0.1329781711101532,
0.19695766270160675,
0.6406365036964417,
0.6802619099617004,
-0.055116403847932816,
0.5845600962638855,
-0.6691405177116394,
-0.2539827525615692,
-0.5362060070037842,
0.49784740805625916,
-0.6567226052284241,
0.4955720603466034,
0.40447402000427246,
0.47895944118499756,
0.9156492352485657,
-0.208736389875412,
0.014514679089188576,
-0.10018488764762878,
1.261210560798645,
0.8534265756607056,
0.386257529258728,
-0.2050797939300537,
-0.21007061004638672,
-0.4804445207118988,
-0.52674800157547,
0.20878665149211884,
-0.8049392700195312,
0.6680233478546143,
-0.13713018596172333,
0.372816264629364,
0.06437821686267853,
-0.5184125304222107,
-0.19534151256084442,
-1.829992413520813,
-0.19067338109016418,
-0.992690920829773,
-0.12987716495990753,
-0.22835500538349152,
0.7423312067985535,
-0.22162272036075592,
0.501503586769104,
0.20447564125061035,
0.3628022372722626,
-0.9607346057891846,
-0.11479382961988449,
0.12183268368244171,
-0.02858590893447399,
-0.27040600776672363,
0.38979166746139526,
-0.431240439414978,
0.07519977539777756,
0.29883167147636414,
0.7027499079704285,
0.18303412199020386,
0.27336353063583374,
-0.8360870480537415,
0.05979861319065094,
-0.12391020357608795,
-0.38956159353256226,
0.08209312707185745,
0.5554434657096863,
-0.5629815459251404,
-0.23496441543102264,
-0.02862599492073059,
0.25789162516593933,
0.4219544231891632,
-0.1569880247116089,
0.3368346691131592,
0.4378250539302826,
0.6961991190910339,
0.2639578580856323,
-0.24225834012031555,
0.03700554370880127,
-0.6215853691101074,
0.28326907753944397,
-0.8514410257339478,
0.639362633228302,
-0.5142409205436707,
-0.1477804332971573,
0.020329579710960388,
0.2890882194042206,
-0.43110889196395874,
-0.9053935408592224,
-0.19445273280143738,
0.014748637564480305,
0.80286705493927,
-0.005170013755559921,
-0.4659881293773651,
-0.3301999866962433,
0.7967929840087891,
0.6746039986610413,
-0.4839583933353424,
-0.061544205993413925,
-0.4929511547088623,
-0.4991549551486969,
-0.3009326756000519,
0.3889336884021759,
-0.4211641550064087,
0.4428263306617737,
-0.14376278221607208,
0.24039167165756226,
0.2766442596912384,
1.006080150604248,
0.3003140091896057,
-0.5289628505706787,
-0.5835908651351929,
-0.47731322050094604,
0.7950722575187683,
0.428357869386673,
-0.027823621407151222,
0.05648495629429817,
-0.02084464393556118,
0.33926311135292053,
0.2635410726070404,
0.7219247221946716,
-0.2830979526042938,
0.6412636637687683,
0.7004751563072205,
1.1611158847808838,
0.00017425468831788749,
0.09778536111116409,
-0.2803055942058563,
-0.058637991547584534,
-0.20580478012561798,
-0.7297840118408203,
0.12026707828044891,
0.620398998260498,
-0.8840938210487366,
0.03168026730418205,
-0.7676175236701965,
-0.33979469537734985,
0.3569905459880829,
0.622624397277832,
0.35851019620895386,
-0.4262125492095947,
-0.5811241269111633,
-0.4538397490978241,
0.35588371753692627,
0.25499817728996277,
0.10351135581731796,
-0.12137433886528015,
-0.6328168511390686,
-0.4602169394493103,
0.48105481266975403,
-0.39151301980018616,
0.4137870967388153,
0.17675361037254333,
-0.2952008843421936,
0.16147328913211823,
-0.7199732065200806,
-0.009548882022500038,
0.009205023758113384,
-0.6977308392524719,
0.07399646192789078,
0.25533589720726013,
-0.4262164831161499,
0.7487291693687439,
-0.12244866788387299,
0.29439693689346313,
1.0437331199645996,
0.22425919771194458,
-0.034420374780893326,
-0.9168447256088257,
0.14583449065685272,
0.08318217098712921,
0.36128655076026917,
-0.006670503877103329,
-1.0611846446990967,
-0.010226706974208355,
0.20345330238342285,
-0.12145179510116577,
0.1372024267911911,
0.14417153596878052,
0.42556101083755493,
0.06999246776103973,
-0.029728926718235016,
-0.4782068431377411,
-1.0243483781814575,
-0.5883262753486633,
0.43750905990600586,
0.3325227200984955,
0.5836029052734375,
0.6611319184303284,
0.07406730949878693,
-0.376748651266098,
0.3520006537437439,
-0.26389840245246887,
-0.8386548757553101,
-0.1739926040172577,
0.5233815908432007,
-0.05801175534725189,
-1.354588508605957,
0.8035628199577332,
0.01072643045336008,
0.3404323160648346,
0.3605640232563019,
0.2209317535161972,
-0.08187568932771683,
-0.21629342436790466,
0.33806073665618896,
-0.09400132298469543,
-0.3091377913951874,
-0.3749348521232605,
0.0606156587600708,
-0.08012092113494873,
-0.3047323524951935,
-0.24205628037452698,
1.001749873161316,
0.0994587317109108,
-0.17751051485538483,
0.2279258370399475,
-0.10512793064117432,
0.6082960963249207,
0.13829156756401062,
-0.14971941709518433,
0.4731556475162506,
-0.09183806926012039,
-0.34661900997161865,
0.24816666543483734,
0.6337941884994507,
-1.0191971063613892,
-0.1072259247303009,
0.2915251553058624,
-0.08376611024141312,
-0.840864360332489,
0.7111397385597229,
0.3919094204902649,
0.03210854157805443,
-0.15296100080013275,
-0.16078688204288483,
0.6282426714897156,
0.38061150908470154,
-0.06624848395586014,
-0.15561169385910034,
0.7596709728240967,
-0.7937219738960266,
-0.27786222100257874,
0.21863986551761627,
0.841387152671814,
0.020603226497769356,
-0.3506641685962677,
0.03715244680643082,
0.7522616386413574,
0.03260500729084015,
-0.04755324870347977,
0.024376558139920235,
0.1338922530412674,
-0.8480363488197327,
0.44461342692375183,
0.06563675403594971,
0.31515711545944214,
-0.35410821437835693,
-0.3938022553920746,
-0.36176273226737976,
0.3939919173717499,
0.3618740737438202,
0.10041240602731705,
0.5718644261360168,
-0.13699331879615784,
-0.7717649936676025,
0.6090689301490784,
-0.3078157603740692,
-0.03246301785111427,
-0.08832647651433945,
-0.3133839964866638,
-0.6668016910552979,
-0.928331732749939,
0.09414367377758026,
1.2852762937545776,
-0.12647919356822968,
-0.2176685631275177,
0.1285172551870346,
-0.26017218828201294,
0.8116148114204407,
-0.5235827565193176,
-0.18401895463466644,
-1.1897211074829102,
-0.26034972071647644,
0.9000566601753235,
0.12591664493083954,
0.45459452271461487,
-0.4431019127368927,
0.15973038971424103,
0.16954590380191803,
0.7173855900764465,
0.6349866986274719,
-0.6219884157180786,
-0.1892276257276535,
0.035262349992990494,
0.2888966202735901,
0.002226914744824171,
0.4217279553413391,
-0.6647584438323975,
0.2803318500518799,
0.5108098387718201,
-4.8166584968566895,
0.3884173333644867,
0.21618956327438354,
0.06186865642666817,
0.6914921402931213,
0.5416841506958008,
0.36356762051582336,
-0.6942963600158691,
-0.2110167294740677,
-0.3062814176082611,
0.5978100895881653,
-0.018807167187333107,
0.0024160693865269423,
0.0751861110329628,
0.7400367856025696,
-0.5909461379051208,
0.17527104914188385,
0.022049421444535255,
0.06753076612949371,
-0.017779268324375153,
0.3697010576725006,
-0.07168058305978775,
0.22409513592720032,
0.11734537035226822,
0.16154049336910248,
0.02757740579545498,
-0.09087028354406357,
-0.3048939108848572,
-0.23324941098690033,
-0.36769020557403564,
0.23972314596176147,
-0.2857862710952759,
0.0032279929146170616,
0.03429972380399704,
0.3180670142173767,
-0.5802821516990662,
0.3664032220840454,
0.6931862235069275,
0.2160048633813858,
-0.4418940246105194,
-0.5539783239364624,
0.11111874133348465,
-0.09577853232622147,
-0.23862643539905548,
0.4262891113758087,
-0.05293743684887886,
0.0740789845585823,
-0.6488016843795776,
0.4040061831474304,
0.4610557556152344,
0.18258802592754364,
-0.22955799102783203,
0.032055921852588654,
0.6376903653144836,
0.3575820326805115,
-0.10313382744789124,
-0.44793981313705444,
0.1868998408317566,
-0.7519506216049194,
0.5231326818466187,
0.6860329508781433,
-0.6024510860443115,
-0.37134626507759094,
-0.8766264915466309,
-0.17764344811439514,
-0.032312605530023575,
-0.8969336152076721,
0.6679226160049438,
0.4773877263069153,
-0.15621362626552582,
0.03699934110045433,
0.3086016774177551,
-0.2746773958206177,
-0.8757776618003845,
0.6452219486236572,
-0.6755432486534119,
0.13296514749526978,
-0.310200959444046,
-0.29061657190322876,
0.19551251828670502,
0.282576322555542,
-0.8152055144309998,
0.016680408269166946,
0.10515560209751129,
0.3967418968677521,
-1.2249910831451416,
-0.972592830657959,
-0.007291080430150032,
-0.1241687461733818,
-1.003093957901001,
-0.03212495148181915,
-0.8847813010215759,
0.123586505651474,
0.26299628615379333,
0.6576899886131287,
0.562330424785614,
0.1559581160545349,
0.13626763224601746,
0.21268844604492188,
0.11100849509239197,
0.5680562257766724,
-0.284065306186676,
-0.13844138383865356,
-0.17571671307086945,
0.378354549407959,
-0.9032031297683716,
0.014653894118964672,
0.5971527695655823,
0.576461672782898,
-0.27770301699638367,
0.6864768266677856,
-0.40518680214881897,
-0.6466954946517944,
-0.10953634232282639,
0.2082005888223648,
0.4596170485019684,
-0.19761337339878082,
-0.49485746026039124,
0.8398942947387695,
0.5127646923065186,
0.7874230742454529,
0.20126543939113617,
-0.2308826595544815,
-0.34299781918525696,
-0.8250024318695068,
-0.4052399694919586,
0.4484161138534546,
-0.061188019812107086,
-1.1920866966247559,
-0.6624577641487122,
0.1986374855041504,
0.08900421112775803,
-0.39675599336624146,
-0.5783731937408447,
0.16527649760246277,
0.1265198290348053,
-0.040369149297475815,
0.49877867102622986,
0.18949201703071594,
-0.15046218037605286,
-0.3224165439605713,
-0.7213655710220337,
-0.022732067853212357,
-0.23617815971374512,
0.7322095632553101,
0.22479812800884247,
-0.44557058811187744,
-0.676533043384552,
-0.054689474403858185,
0.4383396804332733,
-0.1318761110305786,
-0.18266120553016663,
-0.010215547867119312,
-0.6815888285636902,
0.6992992758750916,
-0.208560511469841,
0.1132984608411789,
0.1957678645849228,
0.33637160062789917,
-0.8894420266151428,
0.03136155754327774,
-0.4762466847896576,
-0.7635791301727295,
-0.28103694319725037,
0.0830257385969162,
-0.04495770111680031,
-0.5066100358963013,
-0.1569918990135193,
0.2766434848308563,
0.0545232854783535,
0.5205007791519165,
0.258368581533432,
-0.4831730127334595,
0.7250686883926392,
-0.42613446712493896,
-0.13592010736465454,
-0.45878252387046814,
0.3765030801296234,
-0.0210858266800642,
-0.3335357904434204,
-0.523019552230835,
0.5852201581001282,
0.1922236829996109,
-0.21956180036067963,
0.3285294473171234,
-0.7453725337982178,
-0.09557688236236572,
0.7382718920707703,
-0.3026420772075653,
-0.3545222878456116,
0.4399024546146393,
0.05182242393493652,
0.5863664746284485,
0.520903468132019,
-0.37358540296554565,
-0.5869615077972412,
-0.2902233600616455,
1.093213677406311,
-0.20080013573169708,
-0.8620421290397644,
-0.4053601920604706,
0.09093811362981796,
0.0961635485291481,
-0.08387932181358337,
0.10726040601730347,
-0.7563278675079346,
0.7066068649291992,
-0.48179540038108826,
-0.9953857660293579,
0.5167129635810852,
-0.025460952892899513,
-0.6784470081329346,
-0.09357665479183197,
1.2284761667251587,
-0.40859994292259216,
-0.6196860074996948,
0.4046781361103058,
0.6646077632904053,
0.07313845306634903,
0.16055722534656525,
-0.37662097811698914,
-0.17081664502620697,
0.0159642044454813,
-0.3555920720100403,
-1.1324489116668701,
-0.10966281592845917,
-0.04405694827437401,
0.10587760806083679,
0.5072275400161743,
-0.8788442015647888,
-0.08131130039691925,
-0.09930634498596191,
0.9087978601455688,
-0.13009633123874664,
-0.24497969448566437,
-0.06963037699460983,
0.06511006504297256,
-0.056925758719444275,
-0.2649235725402832,
0.4565519094467163,
0.8406107425689697,
0.8933840990066528,
0.4811762273311615,
0.17377132177352905,
-0.40102818608283997,
0.3877326548099518,
-0.07383967936038971,
0.33703747391700745,
-0.8504579663276672,
-0.12983350455760956,
0.639153242111206,
0.4074828624725342,
-0.17077262699604034,
0.6764012575149536,
0.7753626108169556,
-0.2275085300207138,
-0.33952924609184265,
-0.46446266770362854,
0.03521616756916046,
0.5927307605743408,
0.5014400482177734,
0.3317568898200989,
-0.4240190386772156,
0.7008309364318848,
-0.16322575509548187,
-0.28913894295692444,
-0.665817141532898,
0.13030260801315308,
0.10238536447286606,
0.01895846799015999,
0.02432483620941639,
-0.06531944125890732,
-0.09410255402326584,
0.16611693799495697,
0.06272424012422562,
0.41456279158592224,
-0.11706214398145676,
-1.469085931777954,
-0.15421076118946075,
0.35539451241493225,
-0.503473162651062,
-0.20943480730056763,
0.27515530586242676,
-0.3564930260181427,
-0.6151052713394165,
-0.45485925674438477,
-0.44487228989601135,
0.026118511334061623,
-0.021014977246522903,
-0.7363712191581726,
-0.5525038242340088,
-0.19869044423103333,
-0.7729203701019287,
0.021950554102659225,
0.21116654574871063,
-0.022974133491516113,
-0.18333561718463898,
0.5719656944274902,
0.1232108622789383,
0.14197412133216858,
-1.0012342929840088,
0.13929703831672668,
0.20153793692588806,
-0.5107985138893127,
0.8165380954742432,
0.06696582585573196,
-0.4457770586013794,
0.11590929329395294,
0.010547026991844177,
-0.6135016679763794,
0.7363842725753784,
-0.4946131408214569,
-0.1017572432756424,
0.7351878881454468,
-0.17734049260616302,
0.14661365747451782,
0.020844433456659317,
-0.5398931503295898,
0.2753423750400543,
1.2206733226776123,
0.09875848889350891,
-0.2675965130329132,
1.0392884016036987,
0.7387881875038147,
-0.37422648072242737,
0.48041409254074097,
-0.785819411277771,
-0.46177393198013306,
0.9409528374671936,
0.6852885484695435,
0.16850422322750092,
0.328257292509079,
-0.2989429831504822,
-0.16088901460170746,
0.12208248674869537,
0.2587127089500427,
-0.44386714696884155,
-0.31776419281959534,
-0.0679720863699913,
1.0026570558547974,
0.4640095829963684,
0.002285214839503169,
0.1206054538488388,
0.4428882598876953,
-0.031195271760225296,
0.3550076186656952,
-0.7390826344490051,
0.13432711362838745,
0.15241765975952148,
-0.17676681280136108,
-0.05305164307355881,
-0.07683824747800827,
0.14566656947135925,
-0.37202778458595276,
0.2431555688381195,
0.056216225028038025,
0.13608895242214203,
0.26422062516212463,
-0.7190261483192444,
0.38378724455833435,
-0.07926283031702042,
0.22737456858158112,
-0.45424842834472656,
0.08605418354272842,
-1.471571922302246,
0.46432560682296753,
-0.05478687956929207,
-0.5960811376571655,
-0.06764394789934158,
-0.055955566465854645,
-0.17901763319969177,
0.14825771749019623,
-0.1478220820426941,
-0.027472637593746185,
0.3136928379535675,
0.29543599486351013,
-0.09536600857973099,
0.2446625828742981,
-0.01732441410422325,
0.030577827244997025,
-0.49476000666618347,
0.08079542964696884,
0.3886505365371704,
-0.8344740867614746,
0.25969499349594116,
0.1369808167219162,
0.08820872753858566,
-0.621985912322998,
-0.049410369247198105,
-0.2675478756427765,
-0.4873907268047333,
-1.2577641010284424,
0.015557034872472286,
0.23375672101974487,
-0.21101753413677216,
-0.9903758764266968,
0.590271532535553,
0.9175459146499634,
0.35285818576812744,
-0.252834677696228,
0.2972797751426697,
0.09229840338230133,
-0.17050446569919586,
0.31331828236579895,
-0.11560693383216858,
0.38652944564819336,
-0.43674302101135254,
0.676066517829895,
-0.26357653737068176,
0.6231457591056824,
1.0380840301513672,
0.42485758662223816,
-0.25320708751678467,
0.251976877450943,
-0.08486253023147583,
0.024720193818211555,
0.509066641330719,
0.10087715834379196,
-0.21633115410804749,
0.13917984068393707,
-0.06240994855761528,
-0.022070158272981644,
0.4513852000236511,
-0.24522177875041962,
0.5461164116859436,
0.14001309871673584,
0.07085702568292618,
-0.09147284179925919,
-0.7396101951599121,
0.2742990255355835,
-0.6081357598304749,
0.690254271030426,
-0.9608420133590698,
0.06930329650640488,
-0.35975244641304016,
-0.42644473910331726,
0.5984825491905212,
0.07947635650634766,
-0.617078423500061,
-0.42395561933517456,
0.359785258769989,
-0.38572385907173157,
0.832257866859436,
-0.4425382614135742,
-0.2743878662586212,
0.14695405960083008,
0.15790680050849915,
-0.6877444982528687,
-0.9415515065193176,
-0.23706509172916412,
0.6849080324172974,
-0.16905158758163452,
0.36207127571105957,
-0.02261384390294552,
0.1120247095823288,
0.1445194035768509,
-0.12350860983133316,
0.05951232090592384,
0.26343172788619995,
0.009480212815105915
] |
213176
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20Duck%20Finds%20Pirate%20Gold
|
Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold
|
"Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold" is a Disney comics story starring Donald Duck that was originally printed in Four Color #9 (the first Four Color issue titled "Donald Duck") in October 1942. The script was by Bob Karp and illustrated by Carl Barks and Jack Hannah. The story is significant for launching the first American Donald Duck adventure comic series, and for being Barks' first duck comics work.
The storyline was originally developed for a Mickey Mouse feature cartoon (under the title "Morgan's Ghost") in which Mickey Mouse, Donald, and Goofy meet Yellow Beak and encounter Pete, but the cartoon was never produced.
Plot
In this story, Donald and his three nephews meet a parrot named Yellow Beak and they wind up searching for the lost treasure of Henry Morgan. Unfortunately for them, Black Pete wants the treasure too.
Production
Disney historian Jim Korkis reports the notion of taking the unmade feature and adapting the storyline for publication as a comic book occurred when Dell Comics editor Oskar Lebeck "was given permission to look through the Disney files of cartoon ideas that were shelved. He found the over 800 numbered sketches for "Morgan's Ghost" and was instantly struck that most of the work had already been done in terms of visualizing the story. Lebeck felt it could easily be adapted into a Donald Duck comic book story."
Bob Karp, who wrote the script, was a gag writer for the Donald Duck newspaper comic strip.
Hannah recalled John Clarke Rose, Story Research Director at the Disney Studio, "took us to meet Eleanor Packer who I believe was in charge of Whitman/Western Publishing. They wanted us to draw 64 pages of a Donald Duck story. I suspect the reason we were chosen for this assignment was that it was a more story related project. We were doing all the Donald Duck stories for the shorts and doing all the story sketches at the time so I'm just guessing that they probably felt we could work out this story as well, maybe even add in a few touches to help it flow properly."
In 1993, Barks recalled, "Jack and I looked the script over and decided which pages we would like to draw. After we had drawn a few pages, we decided that I should draw all of the stuff that was involved with the ducks outside on the deck of the boat or on the island, and Jack would take care of the inside stuff." The two artists inked their own work.
Almost half of the story's pages have no words, relying instead on the visual style preferred for animation. "That's why there's so little dialogue in Pirate Gold," Barks said in 1983. "Bob took it from the storyboards. In animation they wanted things moving on the screen: they didn't want characters in held positions moving their lips."
Before this story, the first Donald Duck adventure comics had so far only appeared in Italy, in the 1937–1940 Italian Disney comics magazine Paperino e altre avventure by Federico Pedrocchi.
Sequels
Two sequels to this story were published.
"Donald Duck and the Pirates" (Cheerios Giveaway #W1, 1947) by Chase Craig and Jack Hannah, has Yellow Beak accompany Donald and his nephews to an island to find buried treasure. This story was reprinted in the US in Donald Duck #365 (2011).
In "Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold... Again!" (originally titled "Bacicin riprende il mare" in Almanacco Topolino #71, Nov 1962), by Abramo Barosso, Giampaolo Barosso, and Giovan Battista Carpi, Bacicin Parodi (Yellow Beak) comes out of retirement to tempt Donald, his nephews and Uncle Scrooge on another treasure hunt, followed by the Beagle Boys. This story was reprinted in the US in Donald Duck #366 (2011).
Yellow Beak also appeared in two more Disney comics stories:
"The Seven Dwarfs and the Pirate" in Four Color #229 (May 1949), by Tony Strobl
"Captain Hook and the Buried Treasure" in Peter Pan Treasure Chest #1 (Jan 1953), by Del Connell and Dick Moores
See also
List of Disney comics by Carl Barks
Donald Duck in comics
References
External links
Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold in Carl Barks guidebook
Disney comics stories
Donald Duck comics by Carl Barks
1942 in comics
Cultural depictions of Henry Morgan
Pirate comics
|
[
-0.39701423048973083,
0.596535861492157,
0.11157585680484772,
0.23107653856277466,
0.4779652953147888,
-0.33760422468185425,
-0.1444784253835678,
0.03412605822086334,
-0.5637538433074951,
0.5834203362464905,
-0.6691448092460632,
0.22820474207401276,
-0.13119478523731232,
0.13863448798656464,
0.32118797302246094,
0.31574681401252747,
0.33274996280670166,
0.2029099464416504,
-0.4259662628173828,
-0.3410496413707733,
0.11958327144384384,
-0.30899369716644287,
0.4239007532596588,
-0.6208494901657104,
0.10439974814653397,
-0.16272738575935364,
0.15139615535736084,
0.38712137937545776,
-0.26638031005859375,
0.21115481853485107,
-0.38227251172065735,
0.11051298677921295,
0.31920483708381653,
0.0005843881517648697,
-0.6623679399490356,
-0.021901175379753113,
-0.16849318146705627,
-0.593744695186615,
-0.24733293056488037,
-0.3658624589443207,
0.28212323784828186,
0.2760491967201233,
0.1694563925266266,
0.08032960444688797,
-0.05371778458356857,
-0.26731938123703003,
-1.5204821825027466,
-0.2864680588245392,
-0.6393163800239563,
-0.07692112773656845,
-0.10527373850345612,
0.9950785040855408,
-0.654300332069397,
-0.09887942671775818,
-0.26519545912742615,
1.4785151481628418,
-0.4744687080383301,
0.13088852167129517,
-0.41306355595588684,
-0.08483555912971497,
0.4848702549934387,
-0.21080242097377777,
0.5136276483535767,
0.444261372089386,
0.41338154673576355,
0.5836097002029419,
-0.10249980539083481,
0.7529804706573486,
0.6267092823982239,
-0.30901971459388733,
0.5247138142585754,
0.32990309596061707,
0.169676274061203,
0.49075445532798767,
0.071285180747509,
0.47341230511665344,
-0.06962819397449493,
-0.4778873920440674,
0.24173714220523834,
0.41999202966690063,
-0.4180898368358612,
-0.021381273865699768,
0.959115207195282,
0.3383496403694153,
-0.11704778671264648,
-0.43849360942840576,
-0.03207654878497124,
0.3603372275829315,
-0.000568909221328795,
1.075240135192871,
-0.3429599404335022,
-0.492083340883255,
0.6152618527412415,
0.318448007106781,
0.18873447179794312,
-0.9034270644187927,
-0.41815653443336487,
0.35750019550323486,
-0.2834150195121765,
-0.3442549705505371,
-0.16923272609710693,
0.46653032302856445,
0.23850607872009277,
0.26215818524360657,
-0.9862849712371826,
0.5542023777961731,
0.15221673250198364,
-0.4490152597427368,
0.1393522173166275,
0.18837560713291168,
-0.09511556476354599,
-0.07222110778093338,
-0.06534022092819214,
0.21901480853557587,
-0.17599886655807495,
0.271783709526062,
0.5121750831604004,
-0.45274990797042847,
-0.3346027731895447,
-0.06492799520492554,
0.13654710352420807,
0.48103466629981995,
0.3104178011417389,
-0.2140183299779892,
0.5619965195655823,
0.14927048981189728,
-0.022364970296621323,
0.48735538125038147,
-0.26955416798591614,
0.5434155464172363,
0.11780046671628952,
0.3152412176132202,
-0.04325900226831436,
-0.2597287893295288,
0.01921391487121582,
0.2419053167104721,
0.09613257646560669,
-0.006276210304349661,
-0.37474632263183594,
0.02598186954855919,
-0.433602511882782,
0.48742660880088806,
-0.7149720788002014,
0.18069085478782654,
0.15223735570907593,
-0.3218432366847992,
0.06432842463254929,
-0.43277424573898315,
-0.472248375415802,
-0.037253089249134064,
0.025286782532930374,
-0.6091161370277405,
0.18080762028694153,
-0.600009024143219,
-0.4353329837322235,
0.5600290298461914,
0.419313907623291,
0.44403859972953796,
0.08863579481840134,
-0.18582917749881744,
0.1275891214609146,
0.29029184579849243,
-0.09113503247499466,
-0.05451895296573639,
-0.19835801422595978,
-0.1651185303926468,
0.6200206279754639,
0.41389957070350647,
-0.17253106832504272,
0.23604127764701843,
-0.2854733467102051,
0.05643439292907715,
0.6857957243919373,
0.2572132647037506,
0.2316322773694992,
0.1328989416360855,
1.2338950634002686,
0.762836754322052,
0.5715634226799011,
-0.6121031045913696,
-0.4574502408504486,
0.14778576791286469,
-0.10257065296173096,
-0.20154190063476562,
0.46365728974342346,
0.15609999001026154,
0.18193036317825317,
-0.11535051465034485,
-0.15191829204559326,
-0.01492293830960989,
-0.8646488189697266,
-0.6865924596786499,
0.5106256604194641,
-0.556498646736145,
0.9098005294799805,
0.28300729393959045,
-0.5796642303466797,
0.5918664932250977,
0.22022274136543274,
0.5233380794525146,
-0.3719756007194519,
0.36057248711586,
0.40958288311958313,
0.298480361700058,
-0.45637235045433044,
0.21741853654384613,
-0.1813199669122696,
0.49075794219970703,
0.6239133477210999,
0.2378602772951126,
0.04824936389923096,
0.39153429865837097,
0.15851451456546783,
0.0440916009247303,
0.24141979217529297,
0.16605353355407715,
-0.21733267605304718,
-0.007993635721504688,
0.1258239895105362,
-0.08889025449752808,
0.0501018762588501,
0.053035516291856766,
-0.6502602100372314,
0.4139130711555481,
0.020591607317328453,
0.9391871690750122,
0.035148490220308304,
-0.44554582238197327,
0.5254651308059692,
0.027628503739833832,
-0.5190226435661316,
0.1392536163330078,
0.06481807678937912,
-0.4522736668586731,
-0.31503814458847046,
0.3845590054988861,
0.20510923862457275,
-0.184467151761055,
0.4187086224555969,
0.5023287534713745,
0.711269199848175,
0.10629516839981079,
-0.5151296257972717,
0.6313261985778809,
0.2191157341003418,
0.34531840682029724,
0.011160528287291527,
-0.026115305721759796,
0.09040719270706177,
-0.6549519896507263,
0.38831353187561035,
0.788159191608429,
-0.39596882462501526,
0.05410642549395561,
0.18392843008041382,
-0.14428986608982086,
-0.7687782049179077,
-0.24765323102474213,
0.32314783334732056,
0.010442808270454407,
0.4182557761669159,
0.05228583887219429,
-0.09037692099809647,
0.23537537455558777,
0.12508466839790344,
-0.804500162601471,
-0.5563624501228333,
-0.19910603761672974,
0.3473549485206604,
0.44020876288414,
-0.39646250009536743,
0.6567894816398621,
-0.7966819405555725,
0.5568760633468628,
0.7143059968948364,
-0.31229567527770996,
0.1270856410264969,
-0.24966782331466675,
-0.18144290149211884,
-0.8373273015022278,
0.10543771088123322,
0.8968630433082581,
-0.04846252501010895,
-0.3482041656970978,
-0.2790706157684326,
-0.41114699840545654,
0.29814741015434265,
0.17161066830158234,
-0.07521393895149231,
0.026154598221182823,
-0.46230247616767883,
-0.3803171217441559,
-0.40821167826652527,
0.017443595454096794,
-0.4204564094543457,
0.9016239643096924,
-0.41700446605682373,
0.4805501401424408,
-0.06253872811794281,
-0.06401380151510239,
-0.22742967307567596,
0.04497891291975975,
-0.5927240252494812,
-0.5638974905014038,
0.7318984866142273,
-0.08864261955022812,
-0.10819490253925323,
0.007955769076943398,
-5.555842876434326,
0.8020913600921631,
-0.3037019968032837,
-0.5808340907096863,
-0.5501576066017151,
0.2778891623020172,
0.11587822437286377,
-0.04365497827529907,
0.3169070780277252,
-0.12600736320018768,
-0.4132862985134125,
-0.4267503619194031,
0.09329884499311447,
0.4965853989124298,
0.008617352694272995,
0.05166874825954437,
0.4429498314857483,
0.04750172793865204,
-0.5780414938926697,
-0.01416781172156334,
-0.18718664348125458,
-0.16672345995903015,
0.06006033718585968,
0.4545910358428955,
0.5263171792030334,
1.3106971979141235,
-0.24356089532375336,
0.34737586975097656,
0.11926528066396713,
0.41602852940559387,
0.1804451197385788,
-0.093391053378582,
-0.050251979380846024,
-0.26610317826271057,
-0.19045035541057587,
-0.057635776698589325,
0.06598284840583801,
-0.1436007171869278,
0.6946526765823364,
0.23313793540000916,
-0.26274991035461426,
0.1892520636320114,
-0.41376885771751404,
-0.31992343068122864,
0.39249610900878906,
-0.5358421802520752,
-0.0784098207950592,
-0.17950963973999023,
0.2834923565387726,
0.26865309476852417,
0.1361638456583023,
-0.3724216818809509,
-0.27394822239875793,
-0.26523357629776,
0.010216507129371166,
-0.28190356492996216,
-0.7671857476234436,
0.05526837706565857,
-0.47156161069869995,
0.13800080120563507,
0.4827384352684021,
-0.11326471716165543,
0.1778813749551773,
-0.12350836396217346,
-0.2124064862728119,
-0.1590205281972885,
-0.11019915342330933,
-0.047662097960710526,
0.3281254172325134,
0.30258721113204956,
-0.3989589810371399,
1.0555241107940674,
-0.24940744042396545,
-1.0552363395690918,
-0.30119386315345764,
-0.2652857005596161,
-0.4519389569759369,
-0.1481080800294876,
0.16393069922924042,
-0.6253568530082703,
0.0799155905842781,
-0.21978507936000824,
-0.8344775438308716,
0.8030954003334045,
-0.327825665473938,
-1.1772692203521729,
-0.4533853232860565,
-0.19381704926490784,
-0.2599457800388336,
0.01520912628620863,
0.9801613688468933,
-0.1937236487865448,
0.22699998319149017,
0.13319671154022217,
0.09913070499897003,
0.07638134062290192,
0.19326820969581604,
-0.09540252387523651,
0.2671474516391754,
0.13454273343086243,
0.067404605448246,
-0.43760520219802856,
-0.012958486564457417,
-0.6903567314147949,
-0.6560688614845276,
-0.24659104645252228,
-0.12815946340560913,
0.05507030710577965,
0.2940131425857544,
0.1473502814769745,
-0.30851811170578003,
-0.11059723794460297,
-0.5143206119537354,
0.17422984540462494,
0.9269416928291321,
-0.3489919900894165,
0.4608493447303772,
0.033615630120038986,
0.38270601630210876,
-0.25677743554115295,
0.3452111780643463,
0.05649145692586899,
0.06939101219177246,
-0.753279447555542,
-0.3963477909564972,
-0.17814457416534424,
0.9591159224510193,
-0.22239543497562408,
0.6052119731903076,
-0.174249067902565,
0.19528570771217346,
0.0639200359582901,
0.031623393297195435,
-0.11780361831188202,
0.13258522748947144,
-0.5444959402084351,
-0.4308120012283325,
-0.5655461549758911,
-0.37767845392227173,
-0.1553022712469101,
-0.22308793663978577,
-0.38008829951286316,
0.08415918052196503,
0.7116641998291016,
-0.15872201323509216,
-0.19601397216320038,
0.5310506224632263,
0.22278571128845215,
-0.41067591309547424,
0.5202863812446594,
-0.6335885524749756,
-0.10573651641607285,
0.8196545839309692,
-0.3425154685974121,
-0.167301207780838,
-0.0291901882737875,
0.027866439893841743,
0.42849913239479065,
0.05076250806450844,
-0.15285071730613708,
0.17082259058952332,
0.04763380065560341,
-0.6029149889945984,
0.15430423617362976,
-0.4480005204677582,
0.13407869637012482,
-0.5965355634689331,
-0.29753461480140686,
0.06935033947229385,
0.6981116533279419,
0.16964761912822723,
-0.13590964674949646,
0.02556859515607357,
0.002387724816799164,
0.46794745326042175,
0.11806708574295044,
-0.6859209537506104,
-0.11448638141155243,
0.16315913200378418,
-0.5612750053405762,
-0.3456292748451233,
-0.33794283866882324,
-0.10957667976617813,
-0.13775524497032166,
1.0774941444396973,
-0.6543823480606079,
-0.5330948829650879,
-0.08461617678403854,
-0.4663776159286499,
0.29948630928993225,
0.0073339915834367275,
0.9229650497436523,
0.5800113677978516,
0.6273339986801147,
-0.8431783318519592,
-0.031526729464530945,
-0.21103106439113617,
0.8110859394073486,
-0.027214283123612404,
-0.22619609534740448,
-0.4267139732837677,
-0.2841760516166687,
-0.2410157024860382,
0.07922586053609848,
-0.1157665103673935,
-0.4848969578742981,
0.6079464554786682,
0.11398737132549286,
-0.5352588295936584,
0.8490645885467529,
-0.15151961147785187,
-0.3117939829826355,
0.6855167150497437,
0.46446529030799866,
0.061142198741436005,
0.24799956381320953,
0.043869514018297195,
-0.41393038630485535,
-0.07334506511688232,
-0.3074169456958771,
-0.3352479636669159,
-0.21686877310276031,
-0.3565846085548401,
0.16875141859054565,
-0.35311034321784973,
-0.09207469969987869,
0.5257869958877563,
-0.26087021827697754,
0.07291882485151291,
-0.388616681098938,
0.5070829391479492,
-0.5688474178314209,
0.10999402403831482,
0.174551859498024,
-0.09534108638763428,
0.7291615605354309,
0.27336791157722473,
0.09965256601572037,
0.21329370141029358,
-0.22445271909236908,
0.3873973488807678,
0.4243580996990204,
-0.06645791977643967,
0.15919089317321777,
-0.13338713347911835,
-0.18191494047641754,
0.08021123707294464,
-0.20855572819709778,
-0.49323537945747375,
0.18308672308921814,
0.33421334624290466,
-0.4210483729839325,
-0.28419163823127747,
-0.03845755755901337,
0.4402325749397278,
-0.3205409348011017,
-0.5354567170143127,
0.05423574149608612,
-0.46872031688690186,
0.16431553661823273,
0.5091589093208313,
1.0925854444503784,
-0.840643048286438,
-0.35127100348472595,
0.63197261095047,
0.26237350702285767,
-0.3202821612358093,
-0.3992565870285034,
-0.07728292047977448,
0.0185635294765234,
-0.20244555175304413,
-0.4824587404727936,
0.06886198371648788,
0.5552446842193604,
-0.17285332083702087,
0.3811497688293457,
0.20052695274353027,
-0.8181800842285156,
-0.5816581845283508,
-0.009733558632433414,
-1.3699634075164795,
0.3224906921386719,
-0.4537208378314972,
-0.6300128102302551,
-0.2598673403263092,
-0.5687604546546936,
-0.3984401822090149,
-0.04350052401423454,
-0.12072443217039108,
0.05441702902317047,
-0.07990773767232895,
0.6037313938140869,
-0.38986942172050476,
-1.1099894046783447,
0.5292936563491821,
-0.19118188321590424,
0.20326653122901917,
0.4684444069862366,
-0.05663957819342613,
0.2700478434562683,
-0.1937159150838852,
0.8197234272956848,
0.13874219357967377,
-0.6384972929954529,
0.7854212522506714,
-0.306600421667099,
-0.10334742814302444,
0.7728207111358643,
-0.35760241746902466,
-0.009186235256493092,
-0.04778335243463516,
-0.2982337474822998,
-0.7455742955207825,
0.3954983055591583,
-0.7749119997024536,
-0.5420264601707458,
0.5479583144187927,
-0.6289253234863281,
0.212990403175354,
0.6424598693847656,
-0.03731738030910492,
0.14530502259731293,
0.07871269434690475,
0.24634352326393127,
-0.7441032528877258,
0.04885230213403702,
-0.9038167595863342,
0.4608231484889984,
0.7280693650245667,
0.09854313731193542,
-0.006450331304222345,
0.020986407995224,
0.06760600209236145,
0.25316154956817627,
-0.13455817103385925,
0.14981244504451752,
-0.24290722608566284,
-0.6273894309997559,
0.16291195154190063,
0.7406200766563416,
0.2340068221092224,
-0.3220842480659485,
-0.2838405668735504,
-0.6316877007484436,
-0.11126566678285599,
0.19558539986610413,
-0.17466063797473907,
-0.47432130575180054,
0.5079116821289062,
0.1690404862165451,
0.34379348158836365,
0.4278441369533539,
0.15362223982810974,
-0.8159360289573669,
0.5374883413314819,
-0.7369561791419983,
-0.7675290107727051,
0.1895890235900879,
-0.37604132294654846,
-0.06289736926555634,
0.022514957934617996,
0.15646758675575256,
0.5023425221443176,
0.2378578931093216,
-0.07068460434675217,
0.29200026392936707,
0.17330071330070496,
0.13006684184074402,
0.5203340649604797,
0.5466268062591553,
0.0038732264656573534,
-0.13308577239513397,
0.03260607272386551,
0.34288397431373596,
-0.2685920000076294,
0.25303274393081665,
0.12247335910797119,
0.39534637331962585,
-0.0548672191798687,
0.2136446237564087,
-0.7302601337432861,
0.6496907472610474,
-0.8136002421379089,
-0.15065144002437592,
0.07092610001564026,
-0.18645638227462769,
0.35681402683258057,
0.1321609914302826,
0.07152165472507477,
-0.5750426054000854,
0.2787536680698395,
-0.9989041090011597,
-0.2894713580608368,
0.41513779759407043,
-0.21898800134658813,
-0.6286678910255432,
-0.024395449087023735,
0.8458300828933716,
-0.269220769405365,
0.35979321599006653,
-0.11090762168169022,
-0.09673960506916046,
0.5050660371780396,
0.9916203618049622,
-0.7002562880516052,
0.2314745932817459,
-0.5425629615783691,
0.1241893470287323,
-0.3491658866405487,
0.06304600834846497,
-0.3944832682609558,
0.7596174478530884,
-0.10121463984251022,
0.24322660267353058,
-0.07057935744524002,
-1.1552218198776245,
0.49500808119773865,
-0.03189858794212341,
-0.10404190421104431,
-0.03727763146162033,
-0.48935991525650024,
-0.336988240480423,
-0.2810455560684204,
0.3554480969905853,
-0.437660813331604,
-0.1878364384174347,
-0.21674345433712006,
-0.17800801992416382,
-0.3300776779651642,
0.18396516144275665,
-0.03725990280508995,
-0.3301844298839569,
-0.7976829409599304,
0.014819245785474777,
-0.24279937148094177,
-0.5584573149681091,
0.2517281174659729,
0.0010905411327257752,
-0.09931893646717072,
-0.33053892850875854,
0.5107625126838684,
-0.41787540912628174,
0.3964286148548126,
0.09740132093429565,
0.10200321674346924,
-0.07400169968605042,
0.5516765713691711,
0.3592717945575714,
-0.5317081809043884,
0.3961220979690552,
0.10448521375656128,
0.4324793517589569,
-0.20991435647010803,
-0.455279678106308,
-0.02799689956009388,
0.4239064157009125,
0.3895070552825928,
-0.0026747281663119793,
0.15376193821430206,
0.23799985647201538
] |
213177
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Hannah
|
Jack Hannah
|
John Frederick Hannah (January 5, 1913 – June 11, 1994) was an American animator, writer and director of animated shorts.
Biography
Hannah was born on January 5, 1913, in Nogales, Arizona. He moved to Los Angeles in 1931 to study at the Art Guild Academy. One of his first jobs was designing movie posters for Hollywood theaters. In 1933, during the Great Depression, Hannah dropped off his portfolio at Walt Disney Studios, and soon afterward was hired as an in-between and clean-up artist, working on Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, and Silly Symphony cartoons.
Hannah's career as an animator commenced with the short Modern Inventions (released on May 29, 1937). After thirteen films in that capacity, he was assigned to the story department writing cartoon short continuities, beginning with Donald's Nephews (released on April 15, 1938). He received writing credit on 21 Disney cartoon shorts.
In 1942 he collaborated with Carl Barks on the first two comic books Barks worked on, Pluto Saves the Ship and Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold. Hannah in subsequent years did a handful of other Donald Duck comic book stories but, unlike Barks, he stayed at the studio and eventually was given a chance to be a director. The short Donald's Off Day (released on December 8, 1944) was the first of 94 films he would direct. These include most of the shorts featuring Donald Duck in the post-war era along with all starring Chip 'n Dale and Humphrey the Bear; he also directed some shorts starring Goofy, Mickey Mouse, Pluto and some minor Disney characters such as Lambert the Sheepish Lion.
After Disney stopped producing animated shorts, Hannah did 14 episodes of the Walt Disney anthology television series (composed of footage from the classic cartoons along with new linking material) and fulfilled his ambition to direct live-action by handling Walt Disney's introductions for the episodes. Hannah hoped to segue into a career in live-action but "Walt had me pegged as an animation director so he balked at the suggestion. We had a few heated discussions and I became aware that I had come to an impasse."
Hannah then went to Walter Lantz Productions and directed a number of films featuring Woody Woodpecker and some minor characters. Besides directing shorts, Hannah also was assistant director for the television series The Woody Woodpecker Show, which began airing on October 3, 1957. "I did more or less the same thing that I did with Walt Disney in directing live-action except Lantz was better at taking direction." His last directing effort was the short Charlie's Mother-In-Law (released on April 16, 1963). He retired shortly thereafter.
In 1975, Hannah was one of the co-founders, along with T. Hee, of the Character Animation program at the California Institute of the Arts.
Hannah was honored as a "Disney Legend" in 1992. Jack Hannah is often credited with developing, if not creating, the personality of the animated version of Donald Duck. It is for this reason Disney historian Jim Korkis has dubbed him "Donald Duck's Other Daddy." Despite that, Hannah has often been noted for being responsible for Donald's most formulaic period, where constantly paired Donald with pint-sized antagonists. The most famous of these antagonists are Chip 'n Dale, but other characters included Spike the Bee, Bootle Beetle and a colony of ants. These vermin became the focus of their shorts, relegating Donald to a supporting foil role with a consequent personality diminution.
Hannah died in Burbank, California on June 11, 1994, at age 81.
Filmography
Films
TV series
Disneyland (1954–79)
The Donald Duck Story (director and story; 1954)
Adventures of Mickey Mouse (director; 1955)
At Home with Donald Duck (director; 1956)
The Great Cat Family (segment director; 1956)
Where Do the Stories Come From? (director; 1956)
On Vacation (director; 1956)
A Day in the Life of Donald Duck (director;1956)
Duck for Hire (director; 1957)
Donald's Award (director; 1957)
All About Magic (sequence director; 1957)
Your Host, Donald Duck (director;1957)
From All of Us to All of You (director; 1958)
Four Tales on a Mouse (director: Christmas sequence; 1958)
Donald's Weekend (director; 1958)
Highway to Trouble (director;1959)
Duck Flies Coop (director; 1959)
Two Happy Amigos (director;1960)
This Is Your Life Donald Duck (director;1960)
Kids Is Kids (segment director; 1961)
A Square Peg in a Round Hole (segment director; 1963)
The Ranger of Brownstone (sequence director; 1968)
Baseball Fever (director; 1979)
The Woody Woodpecker Show (1957–58)
Matty's Funday Funnies (TV Series) (1962; story)
References
External links
Jack Hannah Remembers Pirate Gold at Mouse Planet
Donald Duck's Other Daddy (Part One)
1913 births
1994 deaths
Walt Disney Animation Studios people
Animators from Arizona
American male writers
American animated film directors
American film directors
American screenwriters
Animation screenwriters
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
California Institute of the Arts faculty
People from Nogales, Arizona
Walter Lantz Productions people
20th-century American screenwriters
|
[
0.6207644939422607,
0.3222656846046448,
-0.8189957737922668,
0.542833685874939,
0.49230173230171204,
0.4623185098171234,
0.4039173424243927,
0.15907609462738037,
-0.13774053752422333,
-0.2918294072151184,
-0.551174521446228,
-0.3069792091846466,
-0.35515061020851135,
0.3656565845012665,
-0.2168067842721939,
0.022691551595926285,
-0.3825548589229584,
0.06296316534280777,
-0.35573309659957886,
0.04973401874303818,
-0.7486785054206848,
-0.654265820980072,
0.16788750886917114,
0.26489588618278503,
-0.6862753629684448,
0.24214860796928406,
-0.007975419983267784,
-0.2864062190055847,
-0.0002941869606729597,
0.5035325288772583,
-0.11522599309682846,
-0.10828358680009842,
0.6456635594367981,
-0.38836345076560974,
-0.8473144769668579,
-0.19693970680236816,
-0.8626999258995056,
-0.160129576921463,
-0.20281803607940674,
-0.031247006729245186,
-0.2743173837661743,
0.31816330552101135,
0.5056405067443848,
-0.771934986114502,
0.09276469796895981,
0.013782382011413574,
-1.8140045404434204,
0.008599268272519112,
-0.4390888810157776,
-0.18454428017139435,
-0.5162572264671326,
0.3119535744190216,
0.304496169090271,
0.1818980872631073,
0.07636996358633041,
0.364357590675354,
0.04026520997285843,
0.07958799600601196,
-0.4126531183719635,
-0.02088620886206627,
-0.09146783500909805,
-0.4040786027908325,
0.3671662211418152,
0.05813032016158104,
0.26900428533554077,
0.5626397728919983,
-0.07142271846532822,
0.32363638281822205,
0.055677227675914764,
0.0363500714302063,
0.5370713472366333,
0.1414586305618286,
0.31133824586868286,
-0.1470973789691925,
0.302109032869339,
-0.5355920195579529,
0.23881135880947113,
-0.17674966156482697,
-0.09080952405929565,
-0.07616809755563736,
-0.28943565487861633,
-0.09990086406469345,
0.5611909031867981,
0.9612541198730469,
-0.21753090620040894,
0.34243687987327576,
-0.3461930751800537,
0.16959378123283386,
-0.5678497552871704,
0.23495610058307648,
-0.6012266278266907,
-0.11757355183362961,
0.023491021245718002,
-0.44940176606178284,
0.01165434718132019,
-0.4809713065624237,
-0.478529691696167,
0.4529060125350952,
0.12464575469493866,
0.05798289552330971,
0.0633358582854271,
-0.09450663626194,
0.3132578730583191,
0.2553892433643341,
-0.38284581899642944,
-0.21989859640598297,
0.3097587525844574,
-0.2882661819458008,
0.21720264852046967,
0.7135870456695557,
0.030613655224442482,
0.18536381423473358,
0.21464264392852783,
0.1589706391096115,
0.3703281879425049,
0.27206066250801086,
-0.08102195709943771,
-0.577376663684845,
-0.8430121541023254,
-0.0599471777677536,
-0.21309828758239746,
-0.04188333824276924,
0.09869257360696793,
0.06724748015403748,
-0.6079214215278625,
0.14943881332874298,
-0.04162508249282837,
0.3245936334133148,
-0.25851699709892273,
-0.35479363799095154,
0.5397424697875977,
0.8726397156715393,
-0.10849656909704208,
-0.5222076773643494,
-0.41607317328453064,
0.2795660197734833,
-0.2567194402217865,
-0.23255221545696259,
-0.8675649762153625,
0.020480087026953697,
-0.16433323919773102,
0.08133533596992493,
-0.46094727516174316,
-0.1591169834136963,
-0.14174239337444305,
-0.10044924914836884,
-0.09714411199092865,
-0.06862758845090866,
-0.36081627011299133,
0.18097084760665894,
-0.018252553418278694,
0.3318195044994354,
0.07644468545913696,
-0.7753592133522034,
-0.5132349133491516,
0.09808141738176346,
0.5241138339042664,
0.3206147849559784,
0.3108676075935364,
-0.44037961959838867,
-0.25082412362098694,
0.15064004063606262,
-0.1939861923456192,
0.12683038413524628,
0.2587987184524536,
-0.3450649380683899,
0.6005106568336487,
-0.678988516330719,
-0.4264313876628876,
0.6091716885566711,
0.2764033079147339,
0.5424729585647583,
0.4557904601097107,
0.255418062210083,
0.0645555779337883,
-0.16523590683937073,
1.0706238746643066,
0.830131471157074,
0.4347008764743805,
-0.45453405380249023,
-0.5535190105438232,
-0.3819257915019989,
-0.06569233536720276,
0.10642720758914948,
0.03769075870513916,
0.055140525102615356,
0.39751747250556946,
-0.24037909507751465,
0.2830294072628021,
-0.09735079109668732,
-0.38845181465148926,
-0.8176679611206055,
-0.49786704778671265,
-0.38910967111587524,
0.8523603081703186,
0.021060902625322342,
-0.5068789720535278,
0.3168396055698395,
0.26041847467422485,
0.3623672425746918,
-0.13941700756549835,
-0.06276069581508636,
-0.03157179057598114,
-0.01022751722484827,
-0.4943726360797882,
0.26774680614471436,
0.38899046182632446,
0.40263283252716064,
0.43748337030410767,
0.49068892002105713,
0.10286232084035873,
-0.24172699451446533,
0.44715064764022827,
0.5607272982597351,
-0.3116402328014374,
-0.4556673765182495,
-0.5856698751449585,
-0.1601182371377945,
0.4702661633491516,
-0.3315126299858093,
0.0637272521853447,
0.17261898517608643,
-0.4089350700378418,
0.2771819829940796,
0.3427252173423767,
0.7689343690872192,
-0.0008349469280801713,
-0.14039136469364166,
0.28134119510650635,
-0.3232385814189911,
-0.19480544328689575,
0.3123164176940918,
-0.18600603938102722,
-0.2064850926399231,
0.29209068417549133,
0.3390030264854431,
0.19592970609664917,
-0.1963263303041458,
-0.16591046750545502,
-0.13666562736034393,
0.10197222977876663,
0.19941744208335876,
-0.2475249022245407,
-0.23889975249767303,
0.5134879946708679,
-0.15103845298290253,
0.38404524326324463,
0.11578118056058884,
-0.4665259122848511,
0.23391680419445038,
0.13709381222724915,
0.4170447587966919,
0.32119593024253845,
-0.03176439180970192,
-0.10114210844039917,
-0.18605518341064453,
0.026684090495109558,
-0.5688063502311707,
0.5871272683143616,
0.12919124960899353,
0.8901429176330566,
0.24461987614631653,
0.041197195649147034,
-0.1933918446302414,
0.14929915964603424,
-0.424877792596817,
-0.3230552077293396,
-0.2408629208803177,
-0.3148718774318695,
0.3811154067516327,
0.4034377336502075,
0.36054539680480957,
0.06484310328960419,
0.07604790478944778,
0.3980671763420105,
0.1358407437801361,
0.19128865003585815,
0.1625494807958603,
-0.25680050253868103,
-0.5490769743919373,
0.4667954742908478,
0.6482976078987122,
-0.9274448156356812,
-0.0387062132358551,
0.0485805943608284,
-0.26849567890167236,
-0.3343411087989807,
-0.3825784921646118,
-0.1300344467163086,
-0.32841068506240845,
-0.14452441036701202,
0.7707476615905762,
-0.5158986449241638,
0.3100229501724243,
-0.37270525097846985,
0.6047554016113281,
-0.5234208703041077,
-0.3918517827987671,
-0.16297553479671478,
-0.20491251349449158,
-0.16355003416538239,
-0.03300704434514046,
0.1916327178478241,
-0.14864979684352875,
0.16096103191375732,
0.6325628757476807,
-0.1516154706478119,
-0.7805901169776917,
-5.7796759605407715,
0.2990957796573639,
-0.3420954942703247,
-0.08772188425064087,
0.5655813217163086,
0.05414453148841858,
0.1601133495569229,
0.05940874293446541,
0.6195442080497742,
0.017892880365252495,
-0.08440668135881424,
-0.12346885353326797,
-0.16036483645439148,
0.6762505769729614,
0.5683301091194153,
0.2443348616361618,
0.5165770649909973,
-0.07592269033193588,
-0.2586926817893982,
0.23581568896770477,
-0.3249507546424866,
-0.44964465498924255,
0.025648275390267372,
0.36823299527168274,
0.14035774767398834,
-0.2641843259334564,
-0.7115936279296875,
0.19410739839076996,
-0.38859331607818604,
-0.5177766680717468,
-0.19744428992271423,
-0.5806959867477417,
-0.6057437062263489,
-0.03454207256436348,
0.4704095125198364,
-0.08630121499300003,
0.7853739857673645,
0.7887093424797058,
0.32410430908203125,
0.03544304519891739,
0.226059228181839,
0.08278575539588928,
-1.145174264907837,
-0.3096939027309418,
-0.0823119506239891,
-0.09153659641742706,
-0.2260669320821762,
-0.18145523965358734,
-0.4452781081199646,
0.23050932586193085,
0.7668523192405701,
0.13920634984970093,
0.4056081175804138,
0.21889503300189972,
0.10061925649642944,
-0.10912086814641953,
-0.0041503021493554115,
-0.23184344172477722,
-1.1154425144195557,
-0.011580482125282288,
0.5744494199752808,
-0.1932673305273056,
-0.11904828250408173,
0.11465935409069061,
0.19640551507472992,
-0.3569289445877075,
-0.5061875581741333,
0.07457714527845383,
-0.406748503446579,
-0.5365592837333679,
-0.10958417505025864,
0.4852944016456604,
0.5265188217163086,
-1.1154428720474243,
0.1595919281244278,
-0.14993806183338165,
-0.07027191668748856,
-0.21385633945465088,
-0.8357108235359192,
-0.24915683269500732,
-0.002238325774669647,
-0.5522561073303223,
0.3239809572696686,
0.8796801567077637,
0.49413514137268066,
0.07101020961999893,
-0.3048194348812103,
0.07771047204732895,
-0.09286828339099884,
-0.15400321781635284,
0.26026514172554016,
-0.09687501192092896,
-0.053353823721408844,
0.22705799341201782,
0.20181803405284882,
-0.3350146412849426,
0.4437629282474518,
0.34693896770477295,
0.23146404325962067,
0.3154260218143463,
-0.6785203218460083,
-0.08381425589323044,
-0.12631045281887054,
-0.6037856340408325,
0.6296695470809937,
0.17280252277851105,
0.18169797956943512,
0.1361905336380005,
0.6692905426025391,
0.27382132411003113,
-0.19341091811656952,
0.2783679962158203,
-0.7395738363265991,
0.24718953669071198,
0.08992811292409897,
-0.08280444145202637,
0.13042795658111572,
0.17660686373710632,
0.2321535348892212,
-0.009411749430000782,
-0.27463459968566895,
0.5048707723617554,
0.1375143826007843,
-0.049060020595788956,
0.2178393304347992,
-0.5105222463607788,
0.10820066183805466,
-0.3043177127838135,
0.2601618468761444,
0.43744543194770813,
-0.19771049916744232,
1.0409125089645386,
-0.24794098734855652,
0.2951783239841461,
-0.007170439697802067,
0.014435751363635063,
-0.5322839617729187,
-0.5461267232894897,
-0.5537702441215515,
-0.058636266738176346,
-0.19118699431419373,
-0.1447107344865799,
0.5948591232299805,
0.2525954246520996,
0.5007290244102478,
0.031101349741220474,
-0.008054040372371674,
0.07852144539356232,
-0.08106838911771774,
0.05357104912400246,
-0.19982631504535675,
-0.4883808493614197,
0.13123907148838043,
-0.07580447196960449,
-0.5747441053390503,
0.13062191009521484,
-0.5134204030036926,
-0.06459060311317444,
0.03840203955769539,
-0.21291926503181458,
0.34898921847343445,
-0.2820976972579956,
-1.3775709867477417,
-0.1849251091480255,
-0.23380905389785767,
0.3952127695083618,
-0.24319298565387726,
-0.21623052656650543,
0.2623210549354553,
0.14404891431331635,
0.33958229422569275,
0.13384510576725006,
-0.33662962913513184,
0.060889944434165955,
0.06094251945614815,
0.33734139800071716,
-0.5039923787117004,
-0.39683449268341064,
-0.1583702117204666,
-0.05451066419482231,
0.2026197761297226,
-0.11576609313488007,
-0.5130400061607361,
-0.5063602924346924,
0.01859177276492119,
-0.4199213981628418,
-0.4272013008594513,
-0.22360628843307495,
-0.42641371488571167,
0.18251948058605194,
-0.045610200613737106,
-0.11193260550498962,
0.6270920038223267,
1.210399866104126,
-0.36180874705314636,
0.12136923521757126,
0.2300344705581665,
0.20826740562915802,
-0.11562736332416534,
-0.2896701395511627,
-0.6828615665435791,
-0.27140241861343384,
-0.4576724171638489,
-0.29940661787986755,
0.15619654953479767,
-0.64991694688797,
-0.1838499754667282,
0.5246302485466003,
0.10537534207105637,
0.2914860248565674,
-0.33612605929374695,
-0.33406031131744385,
-0.3150281012058258,
0.052027661353349686,
-0.009780239313840866,
0.31989264488220215,
0.47391656041145325,
0.22931428253650665,
0.05909407138824463,
-0.6583665013313293,
-0.44838935136795044,
0.0033629434183239937,
-0.3317019045352936,
0.07756398618221283,
-0.14482182264328003,
-0.4657962918281555,
0.19292399287223816,
0.36449360847473145,
0.15930408239364624,
-0.36778223514556885,
0.27051347494125366,
-0.07439572364091873,
0.08013956248760223,
0.5111541152000427,
0.09442750364542007,
-0.25800085067749023,
0.19942566752433777,
0.26740866899490356,
-0.0461043156683445,
-0.18996287882328033,
0.38756197690963745,
1.0466954708099365,
0.5128609538078308,
0.23034892976284027,
0.4349149763584137,
-0.0028624164406210184,
-0.10635818541049957,
-0.4543471336364746,
-0.18043066561222076,
0.08654557913541794,
0.5828738212585449,
-0.05503443256020546,
-0.13431783020496368,
0.04757540673017502,
0.6793668270111084,
-0.2235126793384552,
-0.09817472845315933,
0.19126956164836884,
0.05170232430100441,
0.1742398887872696,
-0.13281294703483582,
0.1415117233991623,
0.030561842024326324,
0.2123325914144516,
-0.3923254609107971,
0.21574798226356506,
-0.3623422384262085,
-0.06534413248300552,
-0.30414432287216187,
-0.43274444341659546,
0.11919531226158142,
0.26163315773010254,
-0.29105785489082336,
0.5522356033325195,
0.17378343641757965,
0.5528447031974792,
0.2615892291069031,
-0.6526003479957581,
-0.08504510670900345,
-0.5627064108848572,
-0.7461034059524536,
0.2844882607460022,
-0.28441178798675537,
-0.4298667013645172,
-0.6017826199531555,
-0.29531779885292053,
0.036711256951093674,
-0.1826058030128479,
-0.13959896564483643,
0.12973015010356903,
-0.6031374931335449,
0.6184825301170349,
-0.5217283368110657,
-0.16943740844726562,
-0.1754438281059265,
-0.3343713581562042,
-0.11105293780565262,
0.6638144254684448,
0.1752903312444687,
-0.35904860496520996,
-0.03879827260971069,
0.5585827827453613,
0.6884796023368835,
0.21069000661373138,
0.31269773840904236,
0.23935680091381073,
-0.4289464056491852,
-0.3477136492729187,
-0.6904263496398926,
0.43063884973526,
0.41434842348098755,
-0.25478100776672363,
0.21847675740718842,
0.4477934241294861,
-0.383141428232193,
0.1166570857167244,
0.7919957637786865,
-0.45075666904449463,
-0.24841827154159546,
-0.18466341495513916,
0.19917163252830505,
-0.2702067494392395,
0.2913086414337158,
-0.6707837581634521,
-0.19011174142360687,
0.20604629814624786,
0.24820825457572937,
0.28749963641166687,
-0.1369595229625702,
0.5662233233451843,
0.19949400424957275,
-0.6818280816078186,
0.08457472175359726,
0.4903790354728699,
0.22812528908252716,
-0.007329374551773071,
-0.23363995552062988,
0.05701605975627899,
-0.027661899104714394,
0.2746664881706238,
0.02527681738138199,
0.9550907015800476,
0.3470923900604248,
0.3355194628238678,
0.5563331842422485,
-0.1494823694229126,
0.06261305510997772,
-0.056714754551649094,
-0.2980383038520813,
0.011411183513700962,
0.5879701972007751,
-0.10641889274120331,
0.036631811410188675,
-0.02362421341240406,
0.7050219178199768,
-0.01951393485069275,
1.0000114440917969,
-0.20390915870666504,
0.337787389755249,
0.3984626829624176,
-0.21675032377243042,
-0.5799978375434875,
0.6687371730804443,
-0.16216713190078735,
0.21575187146663666,
0.02408304437994957,
0.028126345947384834,
-0.9310962557792664,
-0.00830133631825447,
-0.0024116539862006903,
0.21647444367408752,
0.004864612128585577,
-0.0728481337428093,
0.5796495676040649,
0.31333649158477783,
0.6013541221618652,
0.7210256457328796,
-0.00902582984417677,
-0.001965396571904421,
-0.2206116020679474,
-0.11318757385015488,
0.18987354636192322,
-0.2371494024991989,
-0.4321153163909912,
-0.074295774102211,
-0.06261684745550156,
-0.1284060776233673,
0.10004976391792297,
0.20278815925121307,
-0.7726880311965942,
-0.1001192033290863,
-0.8667917847633362,
-0.03732840344309807,
0.18364699184894562,
-0.24604840576648712,
0.0015012770891189575,
-0.3812940716743469,
0.9411281943321228,
0.5429872274398804,
0.28964540362358093,
0.030677445232868195,
-0.11010414361953735,
0.1785077452659607,
0.17098388075828552,
-0.04336840659379959,
0.041199635714292526,
-0.3389420509338379,
-0.17614644765853882,
-0.23620159924030304,
0.637404203414917,
0.027691014111042023,
0.43670615553855896,
-0.3322660028934479,
-0.13494162261486053,
-0.27447235584259033,
-0.2648313641548157,
1.053101897239685,
-0.09759849309921265,
-0.009864234365522861,
-0.6344645023345947,
0.39816921949386597,
-0.6308931708335876,
-0.14540040493011475,
-0.22855360805988312,
-0.21981118619441986,
0.15811467170715332,
0.3618740737438202,
-0.397682249546051,
-0.24846656620502472,
0.26124870777130127,
-0.5567988157272339,
0.06617575138807297,
-0.2969163656234741,
0.5041546821594238,
-0.6929042935371399,
-0.32999148964881897,
0.3276714086532593,
1.2505342960357666,
0.6834366321563721,
-1.1458698511123657,
0.2647377848625183,
0.32203537225723267,
-0.43439406156539917,
-0.41208529472351074,
0.4650701582431793,
0.24543096125125885,
0.05336781218647957,
0.30703338980674744,
-0.23326252400875092,
0.5610611438751221,
-0.5313578248023987,
-0.3318632245063782,
0.029195748269557953,
-0.17013654112815857,
0.6695064306259155,
0.435552179813385,
-0.12809455394744873,
0.028360117226839066,
0.6848639249801636,
-0.1333373636007309
] |
213179
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Victory%20Garden%20%28comics%29
|
The Victory Garden (comics)
|
"The Victory Garden" is the first 10-page Disney comics story written, drawn, and lettered by Carl Barks starring Donald Duck. It was originally published in Walt Disney's Comics and Stories #31 (April 1943). The story has been reprinted many times.
Plot
Donald tries to grow a victory garden, but three pesky crows keep eating his seeds. After many failed attempts to outwit the crows, Donald's nephews give Donald a victory garden in his own bedroom with the aid of invisible seeds.
Production
Barks was given a script by the studio, accompanied by the following note: "Here is a 10-page story for Donald Duck. Hope that you like it. You are to stage it, of course. And if you see that it can be strengthened, or that it deviates from Donald either in narration or action, please make the improvements."
In a 1973 interview, Barks said, "It was a rather indefinite sort of script. I worked it over and made more sense out of it. It was one of those things they dashed out real fast. I think Eleanor Packer, who was the editor down there, just did it with her left hand while she was doing something else with her right hand. She was one of those geniuses in a way. She could think real fast and put her stuff right through without ever second-guessing it. She expected me to turn out stories like that. She was quite surprised when I turned in the next story — the one about the "rabbit's foot" — she was quite surprised that I could just go ahead and do something like that without doing it her way."
From then on, Barks both scripted and illustrated his stories, with few exceptions.
See also
List of Disney comics by Carl Barks
References
External links
The Victory Garden in Carl Barks guidebook
Disney comics stories
Donald Duck comics by Carl Barks
1943 in comics
|
[
-0.13012349605560303,
0.3168434500694275,
0.23048335313796997,
0.2954724133014679,
0.10561542958021164,
0.07940465956926346,
-0.10460205376148224,
0.1959276795387268,
-0.3722412586212158,
0.020911959931254387,
-0.7860121130943298,
0.16654589772224426,
0.06968539953231812,
-0.10985971987247467,
-0.14546285569667816,
0.2450486272573471,
-0.4599957764148712,
0.21688450872898102,
0.12696143984794617,
-0.7225924134254456,
-0.16480199992656708,
-0.9108140468597412,
0.33040985465049744,
-0.6402159929275513,
0.3031265139579773,
-0.135041743516922,
0.45620325207710266,
0.2922791838645935,
0.0019067281391471624,
0.5133413672447205,
-0.18444015085697174,
-0.15395477414131165,
0.4038539528846741,
-0.5288615226745605,
-0.6254932284355164,
-0.281729131937027,
-0.26692867279052734,
-0.30341219902038574,
0.05375548452138901,
-0.47625023126602173,
0.44612568616867065,
-0.04469877481460571,
0.43548280000686646,
-0.24113227427005768,
0.09020765870809555,
-0.18072731792926788,
-1.2834326028823853,
0.10761956870555878,
-0.6796801686286926,
-0.04607698693871498,
-0.26734110713005066,
0.7011414766311646,
-0.3306525647640228,
0.2709401249885559,
0.055219464004039764,
1.010235071182251,
-0.3334113359451294,
0.07534787803888321,
-0.3328109383583069,
-0.31408223509788513,
0.05494282394647598,
0.3260181248188019,
0.5527196526527405,
0.495248407125473,
0.12580785155296326,
0.09397351741790771,
-0.15407370030879974,
0.39804306626319885,
0.25481611490249634,
-0.35205426812171936,
0.4613806903362274,
0.2557174265384674,
-0.009123945608735085,
0.41858381032943726,
0.13337688148021698,
0.13993500173091888,
0.17889784276485443,
0.17808127403259277,
0.1541060209274292,
0.4163820743560791,
0.012073188088834286,
-0.03986378386616707,
0.8718311786651611,
0.5139577984809875,
0.04623771831393242,
0.22654183208942413,
0.16016259789466858,
-0.295450359582901,
-0.008940648287534714,
0.035665277391672134,
-0.46765199303627014,
-0.35931462049484253,
-0.025756413117051125,
-0.058209653943777084,
0.12408965826034546,
-0.7694950699806213,
0.02064405381679535,
0.13912223279476166,
-0.45440927147865295,
-0.019610077142715454,
-0.23899656534194946,
0.5375847816467285,
-0.0995979905128479,
-0.3218977749347687,
-0.9027604460716248,
-0.10596974939107895,
0.5210807919502258,
-0.43805792927742004,
0.29078540205955505,
0.25783443450927734,
-0.3965146243572235,
-0.12488395720720291,
0.2811211943626404,
-0.23046140372753143,
0.07863496243953705,
0.18879258632659912,
0.5198152661323547,
-0.44242915511131287,
-0.10951029509305954,
0.3970562219619751,
0.1962059885263443,
0.4169701039791107,
0.40677034854888916,
-0.06709703803062439,
0.14917577803134918,
-0.27843910455703735,
-0.1952265053987503,
0.42444735765457153,
-0.4924823045730591,
0.13757207989692688,
0.15801659226417542,
0.15596401691436768,
-0.10429152846336365,
-0.16491833329200745,
0.48549917340278625,
-0.2308218777179718,
0.22110044956207275,
0.0389077290892601,
0.17222143709659576,
0.15492652356624603,
-0.618687629699707,
0.000723779434338212,
-0.5650913715362549,
-0.381030410528183,
0.047287438064813614,
-0.38793662190437317,
0.26390841603279114,
-0.480135977268219,
-0.12908054888248444,
-0.39229997992515564,
0.14177009463310242,
-0.3774895966053009,
-0.15682899951934814,
0.2911970913410187,
-0.03544918820261955,
0.5284284949302673,
0.520555317401886,
0.05874856188893318,
0.06630707532167435,
0.2673092484474182,
0.48867812752723694,
0.2674560546875,
-0.28862670063972473,
0.4159312844276428,
0.17145881056785583,
-0.23163890838623047,
0.01091317180544138,
0.00453385291621089,
-0.37668025493621826,
-0.07677149772644043,
-0.25138723850250244,
0.10852134972810745,
0.3472820818424225,
-0.22497351467609406,
0.5521295666694641,
0.41149571537971497,
1.0929661989212036,
0.39005833864212036,
0.41748982667922974,
-0.40728849172592163,
-0.3799591660499573,
0.399101585149765,
-0.02127261832356453,
-0.07864905893802643,
0.4473802149295807,
-0.008032471872866154,
0.4065130949020386,
0.010008644312620163,
0.14594383537769318,
0.21346193552017212,
-1.0233430862426758,
-0.6268414855003357,
0.348725289106369,
-0.3607388138771057,
0.6396011114120483,
-0.011607951484620571,
-0.8407855033874512,
0.3293304741382599,
0.2734554708003998,
0.6200171709060669,
0.051876332610845566,
-0.08867546170949936,
0.6606240272521973,
-0.11058174818754196,
-0.5136561393737793,
-0.09377541393041611,
-0.15235255658626556,
0.16378112137317657,
0.6096607446670532,
0.6725926399230957,
0.14306040108203888,
0.19220685958862305,
0.14095033705234528,
-0.10154407471418381,
-0.11305245757102966,
-0.30375057458877563,
-0.469461053609848,
-0.3238587975502014,
0.08953423798084259,
-0.15462473034858704,
0.04626709595322609,
0.5481040477752686,
-0.42628687620162964,
0.32422247529029846,
0.0074669793248176575,
0.6363029479980469,
0.12393046170473099,
-0.14325803518295288,
0.11483369022607803,
-0.4858892560005188,
-0.5033626556396484,
0.17526623606681824,
-0.1787198781967163,
-0.41581180691719055,
0.41364145278930664,
-0.26775693893432617,
0.41547006368637085,
-0.29409894347190857,
0.5415406823158264,
0.09298987686634064,
0.20459291338920593,
-0.3696439266204834,
-0.3635929822921753,
0.20923367142677307,
-0.06077026203274727,
0.35499173402786255,
-0.1867203563451767,
0.5120806694030762,
0.10359297692775726,
-0.6906037330627441,
0.012648161500692368,
0.6836344599723816,
0.1547161042690277,
0.2984917461872101,
0.25512367486953735,
0.24324756860733032,
-0.3473803997039795,
-0.23351486027240753,
0.14094007015228271,
0.16521304845809937,
-0.20712335407733917,
0.047687631100416183,
-0.2790542244911194,
0.2982681691646576,
0.23510396480560303,
-0.7226176261901855,
-0.7777479887008667,
-0.5003958344459534,
0.1507718712091446,
0.326481431722641,
0.021782193332910538,
0.4561174809932709,
-0.7149980664253235,
-0.016211871057748795,
0.25349146127700806,
-0.4914301931858063,
-0.13411037623882294,
-0.17558665573596954,
-0.31089431047439575,
-0.7412108778953552,
0.2474939376115799,
0.26880455017089844,
0.162166565656662,
-0.3152962923049927,
-0.11983776092529297,
-0.07361167669296265,
0.5152000188827515,
-0.12837408483028412,
-0.11401993036270142,
-0.00043479292071424425,
-0.013566357083618641,
0.31919994950294495,
0.03435679152607918,
0.22051432728767395,
0.011022085323929787,
0.3917666971683502,
-0.0036529945209622383,
-0.02957232855260372,
0.014447693713009357,
0.4243294298648834,
-0.0566248819231987,
0.02066326141357422,
-0.2004510760307312,
-0.45149341225624084,
0.43204712867736816,
0.04277115315198898,
-0.003929832484573126,
-0.12434220314025879,
-6.118289470672607,
0.03607144579291344,
-0.22814258933067322,
-0.09348052740097046,
-0.36781665682792664,
0.1036669909954071,
0.3758506774902344,
-0.26939451694488525,
-0.12696349620819092,
-0.43114805221557617,
-0.7328066825866699,
-0.6409041881561279,
0.36745738983154297,
0.1301710158586502,
0.38842302560806274,
-0.05611800029873848,
0.6128700971603394,
-0.45530518889427185,
0.2537316679954529,
0.1836906373500824,
-0.24167199432849884,
-0.384938508272171,
0.06943746656179428,
0.34032100439071655,
0.6279825568199158,
0.799358606338501,
-0.027495376765727997,
-0.14614832401275635,
-0.3119581937789917,
0.36179056763648987,
0.36573728919029236,
-0.20486317574977875,
-0.014403585344552994,
0.1301596462726593,
-0.2326529175043106,
-0.4167836010456085,
0.36579543352127075,
-0.4222120940685272,
0.6302464604377747,
0.01226077787578106,
0.04407358542084694,
-0.4069443941116333,
-0.06585467606782913,
-0.3572373390197754,
0.1253662407398224,
-0.4648139774799347,
-0.3215135931968689,
-0.03107568807899952,
-0.057741209864616394,
0.5510099530220032,
0.8655024766921997,
0.18252941966056824,
0.4294876456260681,
-0.1380065679550171,
0.055286407470703125,
-0.04668227210640907,
0.058774400502443314,
-0.16602244973182678,
-0.560600996017456,
-0.2435750514268875,
0.734740674495697,
-0.36938899755477905,
-0.03971059247851372,
-0.15751075744628906,
0.11525362730026245,
-0.13964411616325378,
0.06642681360244751,
-0.04086467623710632,
0.0753716379404068,
0.5977591276168823,
-0.14811410009860992,
0.5638753771781921,
-0.49018728733062744,
-1.1640578508377075,
-0.1419845074415207,
-0.15085244178771973,
-0.5421125888824463,
-0.14037004113197327,
0.5940553545951843,
-0.2885590195655823,
0.02123028039932251,
-0.43119290471076965,
-0.46820688247680664,
0.22682489454746246,
-0.19043877720832825,
-0.6434512138366699,
-0.3559974431991577,
0.03935253992676735,
-0.16987352073192596,
-0.07739153504371643,
0.840970516204834,
-0.013974277302622795,
0.11817965656518936,
0.057303283363580704,
0.2437533140182495,
0.20668679475784302,
0.3961559534072876,
0.23788297176361084,
0.18357035517692566,
0.12774492800235748,
-0.03151937201619148,
0.3361135721206665,
0.5234890580177307,
-0.3234012722969055,
-0.381343275308609,
-0.2876318097114563,
-0.09073089063167572,
-0.12341479957103729,
0.43222638964653015,
-0.16185428202152252,
-0.4162300229072571,
-0.49191877245903015,
-0.0790679082274437,
-0.3116954267024994,
0.6172186136245728,
0.12139282375574112,
0.4319835603237152,
0.46261388063430786,
0.43755674362182617,
-0.08992943167686462,
0.0469951331615448,
0.13455693423748016,
-0.24692599475383759,
-0.7466127872467041,
0.04335559159517288,
0.4030430316925049,
0.056428421288728714,
-0.19233553111553192,
0.5434303283691406,
0.02769213542342186,
-0.22758527100086212,
-0.16181319952011108,
0.19945721328258514,
-0.10198283940553665,
0.04424985125660896,
-0.16983184218406677,
-0.2725411057472229,
-0.7502924799919128,
-0.28179821372032166,
-0.18316678702831268,
-0.06859109550714493,
-0.10504922270774841,
0.029293242841959,
0.3076522946357727,
0.4066005051136017,
-0.14167417585849762,
0.2172422707080841,
0.02522546984255314,
0.43758124113082886,
0.4705822467803955,
-0.07029280811548233,
0.02126758173108101,
0.9693693518638611,
-0.41034814715385437,
-0.293493390083313,
-0.1949489563703537,
-0.6357478499412537,
0.028297442942857742,
0.0973871499300003,
0.2217361181974411,
0.21640515327453613,
-0.3584710657596588,
-1.0276368856430054,
-0.14393754303455353,
-0.16460786759853363,
-0.015595871955156326,
0.14573048055171967,
-0.7899158000946045,
-0.47453030943870544,
0.12573233246803284,
0.08341211825609207,
0.17936088144779205,
-0.288352370262146,
0.6455547213554382,
0.10490437597036362,
0.2284291833639145,
0.021572446450591087,
0.13201801478862762,
0.5645359754562378,
-0.7182435393333435,
-0.3852202892303467,
-0.1085057482123375,
0.08845754712820053,
0.1821739226579666,
0.45663344860076904,
-0.59623122215271,
-0.5776487588882446,
0.04250677675008774,
-0.4879401922225952,
0.4426877796649933,
-0.055529456585645676,
0.44519346952438354,
0.7038568258285522,
0.1374480277299881,
-0.9727275371551514,
0.29055386781692505,
-0.19354365766048431,
0.6131570339202881,
0.022044137120246887,
-0.347456693649292,
-0.4392886459827423,
-0.07526320964097977,
-0.5095691680908203,
-0.06254517287015915,
0.1522817462682724,
-0.4142415225505829,
0.40400582551956177,
0.3004218339920044,
-0.2294652909040451,
0.5833930969238281,
0.447897344827652,
-0.47025009989738464,
-0.13480819761753082,
-0.25437429547309875,
-0.12070155888795853,
-0.029299253597855568,
-0.1632542461156845,
-0.1396319568157196,
-0.22138658165931702,
0.03232036158442497,
0.006556092295795679,
-0.592288613319397,
-0.2605677843093872,
0.17230220139026642,
-0.337342232465744,
-0.042233262211084366,
0.07578299194574356,
-0.6285136342048645,
0.1548740267753601,
-0.4294244647026062,
0.07538874447345734,
-0.04071934521198273,
0.4986576437950134,
0.33808764815330505,
0.0032897472847253084,
0.4752810597419739,
0.13309992849826813,
0.3251071274280548,
-0.17933322489261627,
0.12092900276184082,
0.5020188689231873,
0.45997747778892517,
-0.14174485206604004,
0.009364660829305649,
0.14816853404045105,
-0.04617214575409889,
0.24537011981010437,
-0.38471996784210205,
-0.1991417109966278,
0.08843930065631866,
0.3642518222332001,
-0.22063957154750824,
-0.12147799879312515,
0.15687306225299835,
0.4485260546207428,
-0.27681684494018555,
-0.672400712966919,
0.30652716755867004,
-0.345025897026062,
0.10705405473709106,
0.14229051768779755,
1.0064480304718018,
-0.6008206605911255,
0.34512248635292053,
0.5313017964363098,
0.26109516620635986,
0.03526349738240242,
-0.017350126057863235,
-0.04856666922569275,
0.016359947621822357,
-0.29448437690734863,
-0.14860954880714417,
0.17225462198257446,
0.5826477408409119,
0.25044748187065125,
-0.16247807443141937,
-0.20320764183998108,
-0.618198812007904,
0.1280543953180313,
-0.293734073638916,
-0.6012282371520996,
0.27695053815841675,
-0.2591879665851593,
-0.5855894088745117,
-0.16271501779556274,
-0.38328731060028076,
-0.43175238370895386,
0.2642601430416107,
0.39097321033477783,
0.591350257396698,
-0.3322681188583374,
0.5987314581871033,
0.20736442506313324,
-0.27175372838974,
0.2875281572341919,
0.04200359061360359,
0.5685485601425171,
-0.12298030406236649,
-0.22498676180839539,
-0.15357272326946259,
-0.5021949410438538,
0.720653235912323,
0.3382517993450165,
-0.632904052734375,
0.39312744140625,
0.3282249867916107,
0.13324785232543945,
-0.14895863831043243,
-0.6117962598800659,
0.15048840641975403,
0.21681582927703857,
-0.40172523260116577,
-0.7613376975059509,
0.16671423614025116,
-0.46688124537467957,
-0.27821967005729675,
0.5281120538711548,
-0.15188202261924744,
-0.4981154799461365,
0.2799035906791687,
-0.013042384758591652,
0.16960746049880981,
-0.06014987453818321,
-0.20230832695960999,
-0.999265193939209,
0.12877796590328217,
-0.2737213969230652,
-0.09271923452615738,
0.7592675089836121,
-0.017562640830874443,
0.14416295289993286,
0.10255227237939835,
-0.2211604118347168,
0.3098112642765045,
-0.14277605712413788,
-0.22378501296043396,
-0.3309468626976013,
-0.567471981048584,
0.04577655345201492,
0.230009064078331,
0.038284480571746826,
0.17570039629936218,
0.06895633786916733,
-0.1869526207447052,
0.22520700097084045,
-0.1302826851606369,
0.3253838121891022,
0.3046203851699829,
0.16456487774848938,
0.4903121590614319,
-0.04357533156871796,
0.10943208634853363,
0.011800832115113735,
-1.0621724128723145,
0.45059147477149963,
-0.7241974472999573,
-0.4806804060935974,
-0.16575802862644196,
0.11396677047014236,
-0.12497968226671219,
-0.2756751477718353,
0.11438784003257751,
0.3916323482990265,
-0.35933244228363037,
-0.1989249587059021,
0.5523836612701416,
0.19406558573246002,
0.07415757328271866,
0.20427492260932922,
0.38602733612060547,
-0.122451052069664,
-0.058239154517650604,
-0.2248731255531311,
0.19640760123729706,
-0.32657694816589355,
0.03738681226968765,
0.7858304977416992,
0.2998146712779999,
-0.30564045906066895,
0.5296471118927002,
-0.3435656726360321,
0.19514165818691254,
-0.4757533371448517,
0.4086993336677551,
0.36620470881462097,
0.1496398150920868,
0.14467431604862213,
-0.23069743812084198,
0.22487513720989227,
-0.5156481862068176,
0.39099228382110596,
-0.7583541870117188,
-0.2753154933452606,
0.4570450782775879,
0.10386455059051514,
-0.008245248347520828,
-0.4683384597301483,
0.677584171295166,
0.1501976102590561,
-0.01856202818453312,
0.069785475730896,
0.13107189536094666,
0.38631564378738403,
0.11419709771871567,
0.039019424468278885,
0.1516025960445404,
-0.0829155370593071,
-0.47691625356674194,
-0.5496959090232849,
0.5212020874023438,
-0.33466780185699463,
0.5095351934432983,
-0.021104898303747177,
0.4320347309112549,
-0.5401089191436768,
-1.0497158765792847,
0.33151984214782715,
0.11963975429534912,
0.445773720741272,
-0.5867239236831665,
-0.05510483682155609,
-0.30083104968070984,
-0.26227182149887085,
0.015360540710389614,
-0.2702134847640991,
-0.23874936997890472,
-0.20674706995487213,
-0.002157305832952261,
0.04688677191734314,
0.0316525474190712,
0.34639936685562134,
-0.2968459129333496,
-0.05108603090047836,
0.2608664333820343,
-0.4108058214187622,
0.1270289272069931,
0.6607358455657959,
0.45477426052093506,
-0.3628845512866974,
-0.6701228022575378,
0.08067851513624191,
-0.04115932062268257,
0.32639870047569275,
0.4394412636756897,
0.16734598577022552,
-0.37558284401893616,
0.3136545717716217,
0.10826968401670456,
-0.5716986060142517,
0.29190683364868164,
0.10255780071020126,
0.5129966735839844,
0.2694244980812073,
-0.3985869884490967,
-0.23342424631118774,
0.07492604106664658,
-0.26897042989730835,
0.2066134363412857,
-0.020303502678871155,
0.4947458505630493
] |
213181
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20III%20of%20Sicily
|
William III of Sicily
|
William III (; c. 1186 c. 1198), a scion of the Hauteville dynasty, was the last Norman King of Sicily, who reigned briefly for ten months in 1194. He was overthrown by his great-aunt Constance and her husband Emperor Henry VI.
Life and reign
He was the second son of Count Tancred of Lecce and his wife Sibylla of Acerra. When in 1189 King William II of Sicily died childless, Tancred, an illegitimate son of the Norman duke Roger III of Apulia gained the support of Pope Clement III to be crowned King of Sicily, denying the rights of his aunt Constance, daughter of late King Roger II.
At the age of four, shortly after the death of his older brother Roger and, a few weeks later, of his father (February 20, 1194), William was crowned king by Pope Celestine III in Palermo. His mother Sibylla acted as his regent.
However, Constance's husband, the Hohenstaufen emperor Henry VI claimed the throne of Sicily in right of his wife. Even before Tancred's death he had been laying plans to invade, and his resources had been further augmented by the ransom he had received for the release of King Richard I of England.
Overthrow and death
In August 1194 Henry marched against Sicily. Sibylla was unable to organize much effective resistance. By the end of October Henry had conquered all the mainland parts of the kingdom and crossed over into the island of Sicily. On November 20 Palermo fell, William and his mother fled to Caltabellotta Castle.
Henry offered Sibylla generous terms: William was to retain the County of Lecce, the home territory of his father before he had become king, and was also to retain the Principality of Taranto in turn for renouncing the royal crown. With that agreement reached, William, his mother and his sisters watched while Henry was crowned King of Sicily on December 25 (Constance was not crowned due to being in labour with Henry's son Frederick II in Iesi). Nevertheless, four days later, an alleged conspiracy against the new king was uncovered, and many of the leading Italo-Norman political figures were arrested and sent to prison in Germany, including William and his family.
While his mother and sisters were eventually released and lived in obscurity in France, nothing is known for certain of William's subsequent fate. He is said to have been blinded, castrated, or both. According to some sources he died in captivity at Alt-Ems Castle a few years later, others claim that he was released and became a monk. Another theory is that he later returned to Sicily under the alias Tancredi Palamara. Henry's son, Emperor Frederick II (who was also king of Sicily) discovered Tancredi Palamara in Messina and had him executed in 1232. However, referring to several letters by Pope Celestine III, the date generally accepted for his death is 1198. William's heir was his younger sister, whose precise name is unclear but has been given variously as Mary, Elvira, Albinia or Blanche.
References
|-
1190 births
1198 deaths
12th-century Kings of Sicily
Rulers deposed as children
Medieval child rulers
Italo-Normans
Sicilian people of Norman descent
Counts of Lecce
Nobility from Palermo
Dethroned monarchs
|
[
-0.17861109972000122,
-0.22583962976932526,
0.002716894494369626,
-0.08709246665239334,
-0.5076155066490173,
0.3117077648639679,
0.13235245645046234,
-0.007733700331300497,
-0.8141664266586304,
-0.35395416617393494,
0.3355075716972351,
-0.03258131444454193,
-0.40763959288597107,
0.18826690316200256,
-0.2031286358833313,
0.7180625200271606,
0.2366737276315689,
0.09505289047956467,
0.12245218455791473,
-0.7716383337974548,
0.41630473732948303,
0.0151079585775733,
-0.3902837634086609,
-0.09542469680309296,
0.1859130859375,
0.3029458224773407,
0.7029331922531128,
0.23409123718738556,
-0.18123748898506165,
-0.47489839792251587,
-0.056527432054281235,
0.005039020907133818,
0.0888943076133728,
-0.08781559020280838,
-0.06053490936756134,
-0.31315550208091736,
0.04880869388580322,
-0.3384838402271271,
-0.28936126828193665,
-0.04184208810329437,
-0.7349538803100586,
0.15258851647377014,
0.6959561109542847,
0.5077463388442993,
-0.18586482107639313,
0.20941534638404846,
-1.5728157758712769,
0.28893330693244934,
-0.05820329114794731,
0.31223252415657043,
0.4345950782299042,
0.2934582829475403,
-0.1650243103504181,
0.03585260733962059,
0.8273963332176208,
0.35678139328956604,
-1.1312824487686157,
-0.2997938394546509,
0.26577216386795044,
0.4369196891784668,
1.1065425872802734,
0.383858859539032,
0.6558758616447449,
0.26529818773269653,
0.25437867641448975,
0.10201441496610641,
-0.010660914704203606,
1.1915065050125122,
-0.5625070333480835,
-0.1254914253950119,
0.20906145870685577,
0.32991331815719604,
-0.21842671930789948,
0.03856215253472328,
-0.018922239542007446,
-0.6754282116889954,
-0.11226865649223328,
0.3372909426689148,
0.4654611647129059,
-0.15106162428855896,
0.054571159183979034,
-0.5187495946884155,
0.8986533284187317,
0.22893042862415314,
0.6598882675170898,
0.6230039596557617,
-0.08871237188577652,
0.08612643927335739,
-0.4011901617050171,
-0.21802961826324463,
-0.31817612051963806,
0.24161191284656525,
0.27402201294898987,
-0.0038030296564102173,
-0.671471893787384,
0.17292925715446472,
-0.6851553916931152,
0.12368437647819519,
0.07030625641345978,
-0.12698811292648315,
-0.47933560609817505,
0.46652543544769287,
-0.15185017883777618,
-0.44601204991340637,
-0.6182692050933838,
0.18806444108486176,
-0.4498032331466675,
-0.0006159084150567651,
-1.0266125202178955,
-0.3663651645183563,
-0.24390161037445068,
0.19739387929439545,
0.10748081654310226,
-0.5491479635238647,
-0.42629626393318176,
0.45378366112709045,
0.2545013725757599,
-0.15201455354690552,
-0.5104047656059265,
0.022650735452771187,
0.24992087483406067,
0.5598258376121521,
-0.9375169277191162,
0.5044761300086975,
0.39635026454925537,
0.004372609779238701,
0.6486865878105164,
0.3864443004131317,
0.39944303035736084,
0.3480328321456909,
0.4400571584701538,
1.0158320665359497,
-0.5910471081733704,
-0.11822926253080368,
0.6282645463943481,
-0.39557307958602905,
-0.3792608678340912,
0.7599559426307678,
0.39692842960357666,
-0.6739758253097534,
-1.4662762880325317,
-0.3837635815143585,
-0.6924170851707458,
0.27188533544540405,
-0.011355608701705933,
0.4475002884864807,
0.14002355933189392,
0.6231533288955688,
0.27136924862861633,
0.2626316547393799,
-0.2651292085647583,
-0.023026471957564354,
-0.35295403003692627,
-0.1093536987900734,
-0.1087147668004036,
0.09561210125684738,
0.1703827828168869,
-0.3241671323776245,
0.5044502019882202,
0.537553608417511,
-0.1529521346092224,
0.21611927449703217,
-0.1371402144432068,
-0.11460177600383759,
0.5241747498512268,
0.10358129441738129,
-0.04590144008398056,
-0.24486909806728363,
-0.20499242842197418,
0.04213516414165497,
-0.8492915034294128,
0.46479886770248413,
-0.6477150917053223,
-0.390698105096817,
0.16100548207759857,
0.12387620657682419,
0.7543537616729736,
-0.2544066607952118,
0.06857020407915115,
-0.04550424963235855,
-0.35494497418403625,
-0.5618041753768921,
-0.05463871359825134,
-0.33557242155075073,
0.17814581096172333,
0.031182613223791122,
0.24443186819553375,
-0.6150110363960266,
0.20210127532482147,
-0.11130168288946152,
0.24596236646175385,
-0.05926336348056793,
-0.3880501389503479,
-0.312502384185791,
0.3499622344970703,
-0.14146851003170013,
-0.58956378698349,
0.15437361598014832,
0.34101244807243347,
0.47143569588661194,
-0.09766478091478348,
-0.29032275080680847,
0.43667730689048767,
0.440936416387558,
0.16963085532188416,
0.9088799953460693,
0.2933020293712616,
0.0960393100976944,
0.7325616478919983,
0.7939227819442749,
0.2702202796936035,
-0.2567124366760254,
-0.2137131243944168,
-0.05383053421974182,
-0.004130264278501272,
0.03126111626625061,
0.15582764148712158,
0.08867248892784119,
0.14028918743133545,
0.09632733464241028,
0.6228786706924438,
-0.013610314577817917,
-0.840363621711731,
0.1783466935157776,
-0.30240321159362793,
1.2055426836013794,
-0.46023768186569214,
-0.11138173192739487,
-0.6968485713005066,
-0.626072883605957,
-0.47042304277420044,
-0.04717186465859413,
-0.2851679027080536,
-0.40752220153808594,
0.1997261941432953,
0.1995295286178589,
-0.5635311007499695,
0.21457204222679138,
0.14322291314601898,
0.01154317520558834,
0.4138975143432617,
0.20169565081596375,
-0.15942329168319702,
0.09080404043197632,
-0.2949865758419037,
0.859738826751709,
0.28859058022499084,
-0.049854379147291183,
0.13594800233840942,
-0.1422560214996338,
0.48388567566871643,
-0.06973181664943695,
0.010143596678972244,
-0.514450192451477,
0.5008320212364197,
-0.6065325736999512,
-0.01532423123717308,
-0.2260010838508606,
0.1487261950969696,
0.48317834734916687,
-0.2043953239917755,
0.34982830286026,
0.27255600690841675,
0.326815128326416,
0.5816666483879089,
-0.3180334270000458,
-0.48914167284965515,
-0.600382387638092,
0.12272851169109344,
0.1550961583852768,
0.5018827319145203,
-0.5383875966072083,
-0.8220944404602051,
-1.2194867134094238,
0.030981607735157013,
-0.06868965178728104,
-0.3146257698535919,
0.3620101511478424,
-0.290556401014328,
-0.47208383679389954,
0.24865169823169708,
0.11312489956617355,
-0.19583263993263245,
-0.19002769887447357,
-0.2909196615219116,
0.5342046618461609,
0.6871790289878845,
-0.1478274166584015,
-0.0989752933382988,
-0.3966136872768402,
-0.016090145334601402,
-0.10707902908325195,
-0.16713634133338928,
0.24978981912136078,
0.09801559150218964,
0.262888640165329,
-0.3291979134082794,
0.004805890843272209,
-0.12240060418844223,
-0.5405593514442444,
-0.6392096877098083,
0.34575796127319336,
0.028136849403381348,
-0.14048919081687927,
0.5729345679283142,
-0.1699569672346115,
-0.27918341755867004,
0.4087636470794678,
-5.240761756896973,
0.4207405149936676,
-0.034900400787591934,
0.6096391677856445,
0.22551286220550537,
0.08489806950092316,
0.6864476799964905,
-0.26405882835388184,
0.8185210227966309,
-0.3709152340888977,
0.24441172182559967,
-0.17844532430171967,
0.05791420862078667,
0.3891488313674927,
0.5730111598968506,
0.15204039216041565,
0.3851529359817505,
-0.5738226175308228,
0.42865416407585144,
0.26545870304107666,
-0.19676262140274048,
0.3138849437236786,
-0.36185669898986816,
-0.04132682457566261,
0.11178655922412872,
0.2765800654888153,
0.18854361772537231,
-0.47584670782089233,
-1.3079447746276855,
-0.28626689314842224,
-0.361863911151886,
-0.1921961009502411,
0.6615838408470154,
-0.1735324263572693,
-1.0949238538742065,
-0.3424140512943268,
0.6239768266677856,
0.4329133629798889,
0.14329510927200317,
-0.60541170835495,
-0.23225057125091553,
0.3859991729259491,
-0.4685055613517761,
0.7800800800323486,
0.4586471617221832,
-0.32355383038520813,
-1.149487018585205,
0.4635488986968994,
-0.04533751681447029,
0.4539833068847656,
0.1696024239063263,
-0.31654593348503113,
0.4945406913757324,
0.20182670652866364,
0.3058319091796875,
0.0130456006154418,
-0.4394623935222626,
0.32257330417633057,
-0.6056941151618958,
0.4896237254142761,
1.1461719274520874,
-0.34682950377464294,
0.5038887858390808,
0.1431962251663208,
0.09528037160634995,
-0.3312619924545288,
0.08309824019670486,
0.2932819724082947,
0.49478283524513245,
0.11294455081224442,
-0.14717543125152588,
0.06430958211421967,
0.1448621153831482,
-0.6513399481773376,
0.8616121411323547,
-0.09303530305624008,
-0.8054205775260925,
-0.2268695831298828,
0.30985161662101746,
-0.20145076513290405,
-0.10382422804832458,
0.03660401329398155,
-0.30256763100624084,
0.3913615643978119,
-0.1893129199743271,
0.22002649307250977,
0.4448937475681305,
0.08527033030986786,
-0.31819915771484375,
-0.16795921325683594,
0.33213692903518677,
0.07980421930551529,
0.13803961873054504,
0.7266977429389954,
-0.6346058249473572,
0.28928786516189575,
-0.04236391559243202,
-0.2855244278907776,
0.9454267621040344,
0.1497434824705124,
-0.16053849458694458,
-0.40952610969543457,
-0.21736258268356323,
-0.5321265459060669,
-0.2685854434967041,
-0.11537596583366394,
0.03820573911070824,
0.27075067162513733,
0.3169501721858978,
-0.002196602988988161,
0.5542492866516113,
0.1516687572002411,
-0.228865385055542,
-0.780632734298706,
0.9338532090187073,
-0.49960777163505554,
-0.5657811760902405,
0.10829467326402664,
0.7253252863883972,
-0.17409199476242065,
0.05466511845588684,
0.43574121594429016,
0.10794851183891296,
0.06111456826329231,
-0.049350276589393616,
0.14113624393939972,
0.5163582563400269,
0.07100660353899002,
-0.46199655532836914,
0.0551878847181797,
0.029057374224066734,
0.0013950971188023686,
-0.1679943948984146,
0.4424067735671997,
-0.19678142666816711,
-0.8761929273605347,
-0.4208587408065796,
-0.4531918168067932,
0.22824542224407196,
-0.43836265802383423,
-0.32710182666778564,
-0.11620937287807465,
-0.16418494284152985,
0.41498908400535583,
-0.1602834016084671,
0.3897745907306671,
0.2473619133234024,
0.5256757736206055,
0.03325098380446434,
0.544593870639801,
0.26412826776504517,
-0.2758786082267761,
1.0947102308273315,
0.01625916361808777,
-1.0446960926055908,
-0.37887775897979736,
0.36659613251686096,
0.017746707424521446,
0.025290708988904953,
-0.8092718124389648,
-0.3226611018180847,
0.15093645453453064,
-0.9153744578361511,
0.6649336218833923,
0.519558310508728,
-0.14452801644802094,
-0.4783634543418884,
-0.7000588178634644,
0.04776362329721451,
0.6902717351913452,
-0.3288082480430603,
-0.5262327790260315,
-0.3434526324272156,
0.01927034929394722,
0.33687862753868103,
-0.4463862180709839,
0.21460407972335815,
0.30805838108062744,
-0.08397725969552994,
-0.1582982987165451,
0.2501927614212036,
-0.3998865485191345,
-0.35734260082244873,
0.6829633116722107,
0.7075657248497009,
-0.6492272615432739,
-0.5020307302474976,
-0.6213074922561646,
-0.38576313853263855,
-0.1890965849161148,
-0.45292994379997253,
0.2178105115890503,
0.39195525646209717,
0.666389524936676,
-0.9131466746330261,
-0.5937413573265076,
0.5319826602935791,
0.5244097113609314,
0.19267132878303528,
-0.11729554831981659,
-0.32607200741767883,
0.445272296667099,
-0.3247102200984955,
0.06770437210798264,
0.04403210058808327,
-0.5051995515823364,
0.5605244636535645,
-0.07905035465955734,
-0.38954177498817444,
0.2342231273651123,
0.14764651656150818,
-0.8395689129829407,
-0.08492521941661835,
0.6677544713020325,
-0.2995624542236328,
0.4598618447780609,
-0.40511271357536316,
-0.39210033416748047,
0.044994812458753586,
-0.5354446768760681,
0.5424196720123291,
-0.5393889546394348,
0.06294276565313339,
0.0942925363779068,
-0.029213378205895424,
0.7943153977394104,
-0.011886613443493843,
-0.2131398320198059,
0.8265369534492493,
-0.06989359855651855,
0.18223612010478973,
0.3738311231136322,
-0.16352565586566925,
0.6192223429679871,
-0.5826558470726013,
-0.3384905755519867,
0.4071000814437866,
-0.2467934638261795,
-0.34877049922943115,
0.4420018792152405,
0.7295073866844177,
1.119368314743042,
-0.07093405723571777,
-0.45013201236724854,
0.37702617049217224,
-0.2983805537223816,
-0.5438253879547119,
-0.2676062285900116,
0.46538519859313965,
0.0036649287212640047,
0.0027836740482598543,
-0.4638756811618805,
-0.6980990767478943,
-0.32932141423225403,
0.9686559438705444,
0.08780709654092789,
0.033183757215738297,
-0.29798194766044617,
0.044861551374197006,
-0.2752891182899475,
-0.09400837868452072,
1.1440238952636719,
0.05622037872672081,
0.4007968306541443,
0.084502212703228,
-0.25758540630340576,
-0.21451705694198608,
0.032997265458106995,
0.4034900963306427,
0.03620622679591179,
-1.242891550064087,
-0.6737182140350342,
-0.08454481512308121,
0.47916609048843384,
0.011613523587584496,
-0.15168017148971558,
0.44927549362182617,
-0.6121199727058411,
0.8532047867774963,
0.19552788138389587,
-1.2287979125976562,
0.21849079430103302,
0.42684364318847656,
-0.5896315574645996,
-0.11478621512651443,
0.12689684331417084,
-0.8136306405067444,
0.21379031240940094,
-0.35548079013824463,
0.29673895239830017,
0.32479915022850037,
-0.5305328369140625,
0.22543194890022278,
0.1613996922969818,
0.002990610897541046,
-0.058160845190286636,
-0.6102597117424011,
0.17667725682258606,
0.2223491221666336,
-0.35647720098495483,
-1.0644367933273315,
0.7752000093460083,
0.3288157880306244,
0.36690467596054077,
0.16347500681877136,
0.07961610704660416,
0.19738680124282837,
-0.8930772542953491,
-0.20914629101753235,
0.15897439420223236,
0.1636444330215454,
-0.376115620136261,
0.33740657567977905,
-0.03054899163544178,
-0.18653534352779388,
-0.12984198331832886,
0.28960371017456055,
-0.5168492794036865,
-0.3643685281276703,
-0.21748049557209015,
0.24661687016487122,
-0.10221519321203232,
0.18341651558876038,
0.29243892431259155,
0.33842217922210693,
0.3766060471534729,
-0.47676941752433777,
-0.2902601957321167,
0.24933403730392456,
-0.4630593955516815,
0.32914116978645325,
0.33870628476142883,
-0.9579107165336609,
1.3299264907836914,
-0.5161368250846863,
-0.16006186604499817,
0.657328188419342,
-0.6514527797698975,
0.3403427004814148,
0.289833664894104,
0.4767301082611084,
0.7397534251213074,
-0.7333921790122986,
-0.33226707577705383,
-0.2870817482471466,
0.24511852860450745,
-0.9621372222900391,
-0.08535544574260712,
0.6204767823219299,
-0.13460500538349152,
0.1963275521993637,
-0.09736679494380951,
0.28896817564964294,
-0.7104758024215698,
-0.16485115885734558,
0.682898998260498,
0.5157167911529541,
0.03803521767258644,
-0.14648205041885376,
-1.1233879327774048,
-0.15940698981285095,
-0.20022951066493988,
1.0119614601135254,
0.12925143539905548,
-0.3070749342441559,
-0.21037064492702484,
0.5515933036804199,
0.14643873274326324,
0.08532369881868362,
-0.13345366716384888,
0.8531391024589539,
-0.4116303026676178,
-0.3317026197910309,
-0.08603567630052567,
0.29796329140663147,
0.5229361057281494,
-0.05175196751952171,
-0.10436110943555832,
-0.10036618262529373,
-0.5087074637413025,
-0.6285923719406128,
-0.5120999813079834,
-0.4203324317932129,
-0.7328059673309326,
-0.5116361975669861,
0.1908397227525711,
-0.08896805346012115,
-0.011576012708246708,
-0.2481490522623062,
0.0064689964056015015,
-0.46276116371154785,
-0.4096759855747223,
-0.02929077297449112,
0.2966288924217224,
-0.9013200998306274,
0.14327514171600342,
-0.40222907066345215,
0.6550485491752625,
0.6552898287773132,
0.012217414565384388,
-0.012188463471829891,
0.5135028958320618,
-0.24870838224887848,
0.27212807536125183,
0.30936384201049805,
0.7736212611198425,
-0.04394014924764633,
-0.23116286098957062,
-0.697813093662262,
0.6473178267478943,
0.014140686020255089,
0.05102619156241417,
-0.14090079069137573,
0.8776044845581055,
0.036463662981987,
0.34932518005371094,
0.5368979573249817,
-0.4582546651363373,
-0.40616127848625183,
-0.04063396528363228,
0.11350516974925995,
-0.33552125096321106,
0.24620124697685242,
0.0016992174787446856,
0.016121000051498413,
0.13126659393310547,
0.4083949625492096,
0.3473765552043915,
-0.8404484987258911,
0.07945848256349564,
0.17752833664417267,
-0.058488879352808,
-0.09191586822271347,
-0.238788902759552,
-0.18220606446266174,
0.05791214480996132,
1.0240205526351929,
0.26794862747192383,
-0.18600024282932281,
-0.008035676553845406,
-0.19776466488838196,
0.2645814120769501,
0.5299534201622009,
-0.15357960760593414,
-1.6045598983764648,
-0.9158303141593933,
0.012970703653991222,
-0.6071906089782715,
0.10555697977542877,
0.193266361951828,
0.045980729162693024,
0.30131858587265015,
0.3609772026538849,
-0.4760424792766571,
0.10098365694284439,
-0.07651503384113312,
-0.10808736085891724,
-0.5110894441604614,
-0.30650755763053894,
0.17766642570495605
] |
213183
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe%20Siri
|
Giuseppe Siri
|
Giuseppe Siri (20 May 1906 – 2 May 1989) was an Italian Cardinal of the Catholic Church who served as Archbishop of Genoa from 1946 to 1987, and was elevated to the rank of cardinal in 1953 by Pope Pius XII. He was a protege of Pope Pius XII. He was considered a likely candidate to succeed Pius XII, John XXIII, Paul VI, and John Paul I.
Early life and ministry
Siri was born in Genoa to Nicolò and Giulia (née Bellavista) Siri. He entered the minor seminary of Genoa on 16 October 1916, and attended the major seminary from 1917 to 1926. Siri then studied at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, and was ordained to the priesthood by Archbishop Carlo Minoretti on 22 September 1928. Finishing his studies at the Gregorian, he earned his doctorate in theology summa cum laude and also did pastoral work in Rome until autumn 1929.
Upon returning to Genoa, he served as a chaplain until he became a professor of dogmatic theology at the major seminary in 1930, also teaching fundamental theology for a year. In addition to his academic duties, Siri was a preacher, public speaker, and professor of religion at the classical lyceums named to Andrea Doria and Giuseppe Mazzini from 1931 to 1936. He was named prosynodal examiner in the archdiocesan curia in 1936 and rector of Collegio Teologico S. Tommaso d'Aquino in 1937.
Episcopal career
On 14 March 1944, Siri was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Genoa and Titular Bishop of Livias by Pope Pius XII. He received his episcopal consecration on the following 7 May from Cardinal Pietro Boetto at the St. Lawrence Cathedral. He became vicar general for the archdiocese on 8 September 1944. During his tenure as an auxiliary, he was a member of the Italian resistance movement in World War II. He negotiated with the Nazi forces surrounding Genoa and met secretly with partisan leaders, eventually arranging a Nazi surrender that avoided further bombardment of the city.
Following the death of Cardinal Boetto, Siri was named Archbishop of Genoa on 14 May 1946, and installed on 29 May of that year. Pius XII created him Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome, in the consistory of 12 January 1953. At the time of his elevation, he was the youngest member of the College of Cardinals. He became known as the "minestrone cardinal" for his relief work in soup kitchens.
Siri was noted for his staunchly conservative views. At the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), he sat on its Board of Presidency and, alongside Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre and Cardinals Alfredo Ottaviani and Thomas Cooray, he was part of the association of traditionalist Council fathers named Coetus Internationalis Patrum. However, Siri once said, "I would describe myself as an independent, a man who walks alone and is not a member of any group." He was opposed to collegiality and innovation.
Pope John XXIII named Siri the first president of the Italian Episcopal Conference on 12 October 1959. He remained in that post until 1965. Siri, who had voted in the conclaves of 1958 and 1963, was also one of the cardinal electors in the August and October 1978 conclaves. He was a strong candidate for the papacy, or papabile, in all four conclaves, in which his support lay mostly with Curialists and other conservative cardinals. Media reports suggested that Siri in fact topped the first count of votes in the August 1978 conclave before losing to Albino Luciani, who became Pope John Paul I. Following John Paul I's death, Siri was the leading conservative candidate in opposition to Cardinal Giovanni Benelli, the Archbishop of Florence and leading liberal candidate. Vaticanologists suggested that the eventual winner, Cardinal Wojtyła, who became Pope John Paul II, was chosen as a compromise candidate between the two. Shortly afterwards, Siri implied that he disapproved of Wojtyła's election.
In a biography of Siri, Nicla Buonasorte reports that Siri was a friend of Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, but disapproved of his reported schismatic activities. But even until the last minute, Siri begged him ("on his knees") not to break with Rome. In the end, Siri resigned himself to the inevitability of his friend's excommunication.
Buonasorte commented: "In all probability, it is due to Siri that Lefebvre had no significant following in Italy".
The same book indicates that Siri seemed to have turned a blind eye to the assistance given by one or two of his clergy to members of the German National Socialist Party, including Adolf Eichmann, fleeing to South America after the Second World War. The author stresses, however, that this was out of compassion for people in difficulties, and completely unconnected with his well-known conservative views. Siri during the war had supported Christian-Democrat Italian resistance financially and morally. He also aided and sheltered some of his priests who tried to help rescue threatened Jews to safety in Franco's neutral Spain.
Siri reached age 80 in 1986 and thus lost the right to participate in future conclaves; he was the last remaining cardinal elector who had been elevated by Pope Pius XII. Siri resigned from his post in Genoa on 6 July 1987, after 41 years of service. He died in Villa Campostano, Genoa, at age 82, and was buried at San Lorenzo metropolitan cathedral in Genoa.
Conclave speculation
Siri was considered a strong candidate in the 1958 papal conclave held to elect a successor to replace Pius XII On the evening of 26 October, the first day of the conclave, apparent white smoke was seen coming from the chimney of the Sistine Chapel, a traditional signal to the crowds in the square outside that a pope has been elected. No announcement was made, however, and after about half an hour, the smoke turned black, indicating that there was no result. Vatican Radio corrected its report.
Sometime in the late 1980s, an American traditionalist Catholic named Gary Giuffre began to expound the belief that Siri was the true pope, and that he was held captive in a monastery in Rome. According to Giuffre and his followers, the white smoke that was seen on 26 October 1958 did indeed mean that a pope had been elected, and that pope was Siri, but Siri was forced to reject the papacy because of threats from outside the conclave. Roncalli, who they claimed was a Freemason, was elected instead as Pope John XXIII. It was also claimed that this occurred during the 1963 conclave that elected Giovanni Battista Montini as Pope Paul VI.
Siri himself never made these claims, and accepted the authority of all popes in his lifetime. He was appointed president of the Italian Episcopal Conference by Pope John in 1959, and remained in the post under Pope Paul until 1964. He was a candidate for pope in the 1978 conclave that followed the death of Paul VI, where he is thought to have led in the early ballot, but the conclave eventually elected Albino Luciani as Pope John Paul I, and again two months later in the October 1978 conclave, where he is also thought to have come within a few votes of election before the eventual election of Karol Wojtyła as Pope John Paul II. Siri never made any reference to the "Siri thesis", nor was there any mention of it in his New York Times obituary, in the biography written by Raimondo Spiazzi, or in a speech given by Giulio Andreotti on the centenary of Siri's birth in 2006.
See also
Cardinal electors in Papal conclave, 1958
Cardinal electors in Papal conclave, 1963
Cardinal electors in Papal conclaves, August and October 1978
References
Sources
External links
Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church
Main website propounding the Siri Theory
Book, "Mio Padre" (My Father) By Giuseppe Siri, 1975 in English.
Discussions about the Siri Theory
1906 births
1989 deaths
Cardinals created by Pope Pius XII
20th-century Italian cardinals
Roman Catholic archbishops of Genoa
20th-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops
Italian resistance movement members
Participants in the Second Vatican Council
Coetus Internationalis Patrum
Pontifical Gregorian University alumni
Italian anti-communists
Anti-Masonry
Livias
|
[
-0.5824605822563171,
-0.23518791794776917,
0.01996266469359398,
-0.14762254059314728,
-0.5563281178474426,
0.7877717018127441,
0.4404195249080658,
0.488987535238266,
-0.3613305389881134,
-0.3177201747894287,
-0.2760760188102722,
0.4761407971382141,
-0.6048777103424072,
0.417856365442276,
0.4728350043296814,
-0.2719108760356903,
0.23130294680595398,
-0.1246662437915802,
-0.8226350545883179,
0.043455470353364944,
-0.10474345088005066,
0.1969289779663086,
0.25905242562294006,
0.40670108795166016,
-0.3448242247104645,
0.5766587853431702,
-0.10572687536478043,
0.6772586107254028,
0.3824022710323334,
-0.24922087788581848,
0.69413161277771,
0.4802863299846649,
-0.1457369029521942,
-0.2995607554912567,
-0.7181754112243652,
-0.09675727784633636,
0.24196657538414001,
-0.724172830581665,
-0.6323793530464172,
0.47657421231269836,
-0.23056566715240479,
0.20702043175697327,
-0.1238715648651123,
0.08883609622716904,
-0.03884076699614525,
-0.3088793158531189,
-1.0428833961486816,
0.01595752313733101,
-0.3885043263435364,
-0.019042357802391052,
0.31531405448913574,
-0.6009238958358765,
0.0753113254904747,
0.44974368810653687,
-0.006332302000373602,
0.12765052914619446,
-0.7259834408760071,
0.025757895782589912,
-0.5055422782897949,
-1.1666678190231323,
-0.0895913764834404,
0.11821144074201584,
0.5715478658676147,
0.042407430708408356,
0.21992041170597076,
0.051256995648145676,
0.39448487758636475,
0.2831057012081146,
-0.3761700987815857,
-0.3395182192325592,
-0.19699330627918243,
0.21230216324329376,
0.17399443686008453,
0.5566034913063049,
0.423709899187088,
-0.6822673082351685,
-0.42054834961891174,
0.10549723356962204,
-0.03179746866226196,
0.2742931544780731,
0.05354004353284836,
-0.36889028549194336,
0.8522945046424866,
0.3322291076183319,
0.3403826057910919,
-0.22564397752285004,
-0.4376189410686493,
0.3751201331615448,
-0.30478331446647644,
0.512549638748169,
-0.25036656856536865,
-0.5417808890342712,
0.5750150680541992,
-0.18377235531806946,
0.0984334647655487,
0.19011586904525757,
-0.12298030406236649,
0.08641622960567474,
-0.36750438809394836,
-0.0022152394521981478,
-0.33659419417381287,
0.6610379219055176,
-0.08601775020360947,
-0.4419989585876465,
-0.38690057396888733,
0.052816130220890045,
-0.03179500252008438,
0.22801610827445984,
-0.5181084275245667,
0.2916628122329712,
-0.8719687461853027,
-0.11445167660713196,
-0.20926378667354584,
0.3154554069042206,
-0.17328490316867828,
-0.032451167702674866,
0.09052674472332001,
-0.33421018719673157,
-0.7854340672492981,
-0.40537479519844055,
0.11073169857263565,
0.24310502409934998,
0.28222545981407166,
-0.21324168145656586,
0.030471321195364,
-0.2581096589565277,
0.5204415321350098,
0.4862932860851288,
-0.17482349276542664,
0.6298892498016357,
0.48063215613365173,
0.8125117421150208,
-0.6478721499443054,
0.05686841905117035,
-0.08203252404928207,
-0.3190504014492035,
-0.3181835412979126,
0.13502070307731628,
-0.3730678856372833,
-0.06714458763599396,
-0.6447929739952087,
0.22832350432872772,
-0.09681522846221924,
0.044527217745780945,
-0.0401284359395504,
-0.2074439823627472,
-0.038354963064193726,
0.1266658455133438,
0.10770273953676224,
-0.1904565989971161,
-0.004104397725313902,
-0.18780598044395447,
0.0004132624017074704,
-0.3675612211227417,
-0.18899476528167725,
0.6602667570114136,
0.4367760419845581,
0.1269463449716568,
0.005880734417587519,
0.08654364198446274,
0.3818237781524658,
-0.3338286578655243,
-0.32926201820373535,
0.19125503301620483,
0.5587174892425537,
0.0003896568377967924,
0.2149864286184311,
0.2769401967525482,
-0.04579246789216995,
-0.18610809743404388,
-0.18410979211330414,
-0.025698048993945122,
-0.005096273962408304,
-0.17908014357089996,
-0.24962471425533295,
0.4181743860244751,
0.5786277055740356,
-0.584540069103241,
0.021660219877958298,
-0.897483229637146,
-0.5342711806297302,
-0.727578341960907,
0.03245154768228531,
0.868618369102478,
0.37864288687705994,
-0.14227791130542755,
0.3162664771080017,
-0.20415513217449188,
0.5068179368972778,
-0.5304161310195923,
-0.3969425559043884,
-0.4157421588897705,
0.031868867576122284,
-0.36704570055007935,
0.6675130724906921,
0.33284246921539307,
-0.4560704231262207,
0.6612836122512817,
0.19017772376537323,
0.7148358225822449,
-0.4391229748725891,
-0.11608050018548965,
0.2717345654964447,
0.2421698421239853,
0.03242984786629677,
0.6897788643836975,
0.19528315961360931,
0.5553426146507263,
0.4358866810798645,
1.2109299898147583,
0.2770886719226837,
-0.5438305139541626,
0.04549237713217735,
0.06273403018712997,
-0.3531859815120697,
-0.5676794648170471,
-0.5981073975563049,
0.11107923090457916,
0.046794336289167404,
-0.2948141098022461,
0.7165131568908691,
0.11316148936748505,
-0.016581550240516663,
0.9089378118515015,
0.1776784211397171,
1.2114956378936768,
0.2262321263551712,
0.04708186164498329,
0.10189510136842728,
-0.19057288765907288,
0.1218261793255806,
-0.06788738816976547,
0.557633638381958,
-0.27744272351264954,
0.10905053466558456,
0.314841628074646,
0.1985546350479126,
-0.5925994515419006,
-0.25313469767570496,
-0.23894065618515015,
0.6552587747573853,
0.42333269119262695,
-0.4112858474254608,
0.28631719946861267,
0.4426000416278839,
0.30974918603897095,
0.023629870265722275,
0.12316200882196426,
-0.13189038634300232,
0.2820861041545868,
0.20786981284618378,
-0.21033358573913574,
0.5481073260307312,
-0.10292109102010727,
0.3404068946838379,
-0.38759586215019226,
0.19292618334293365,
0.3019482493400574,
-0.01208680309355259,
0.178904727101326,
-0.06014266982674599,
-0.5306283831596375,
0.35139474272727966,
0.16637282073497772,
-0.06841184198856354,
0.08146253228187561,
0.19056670367717743,
0.060359690338373184,
0.11884967237710953,
-0.2555146813392639,
0.02924223616719246,
-0.29345470666885376,
-0.30325403809547424,
0.29481416940689087,
-0.2764233648777008,
-0.39810410141944885,
-0.5516936779022217,
0.3539279103279114,
-0.6039259433746338,
-0.5329849123954773,
0.19862058758735657,
0.14875148236751556,
-0.4086976945400238,
-0.01091394666582346,
-0.8751829266548157,
0.38472646474838257,
-0.44738948345184326,
-0.8167873620986938,
-0.07505669444799423,
0.042474549263715744,
-0.3556042015552521,
0.19790346920490265,
-0.3561144471168518,
0.10060639679431915,
-0.6513383984565735,
-0.11457797139883041,
-0.5841516256332397,
-0.41904333233833313,
0.2533321678638458,
-0.6094372272491455,
-0.6022007465362549,
0.12207167595624924,
0.36819103360176086,
0.5015824437141418,
0.6202034950256348,
0.11527897417545319,
-0.23857778310775757,
0.05504816025495529,
-5.750108242034912,
0.27200379967689514,
-0.06615650653839111,
0.25952476263046265,
-0.030153222382068634,
0.125381737947464,
0.5016913414001465,
-0.4361751973628998,
0.9783017635345459,
-0.061609022319316864,
-0.007160073146224022,
0.3012685775756836,
-0.3296050727367401,
0.9926013350486755,
0.3642081618309021,
0.5311063528060913,
0.07351360470056534,
-0.4144349694252014,
0.2103634774684906,
0.2266874611377716,
0.03633253276348114,
0.32230642437934875,
-0.05135967582464218,
0.5597065091133118,
-0.0017379159107804298,
0.39516574144363403,
-0.31712865829467773,
0.43574807047843933,
-0.9699001312255859,
0.1170678436756134,
-0.08354199677705765,
-0.1552717089653015,
-0.3882368803024292,
0.2731409966945648,
-0.7625442743301392,
-0.5217746496200562,
0.702226996421814,
0.16883569955825806,
0.02037130855023861,
0.09583481401205063,
0.16409516334533691,
-0.1659700721502304,
-0.5637384057044983,
-0.2110026329755783,
0.032751746475696564,
-0.4518837630748749,
-0.9875497221946716,
0.005897763650864363,
0.078277587890625,
0.7274665832519531,
-0.11375728994607925,
0.1390054076910019,
-0.20456205308437347,
0.09885017573833466,
0.35179686546325684,
-0.032025258988142014,
0.598568856716156,
-0.2911141514778137,
-0.9558815360069275,
0.6928799152374268,
0.057061173021793365,
0.0003871977096423507,
-0.17682398855686188,
-0.12941357493400574,
-0.09423113614320755,
0.9931581020355225,
-0.004040747880935669,
-0.1659761369228363,
-0.15993547439575195,
0.007763058412820101,
-0.3362172544002533,
0.6019075512886047,
-0.2795937657356262,
-1.0608516931533813,
0.3194597661495209,
-0.39905473589897156,
-0.27150893211364746,
0.13976657390594482,
-0.2722429633140564,
0.018142934888601303,
-0.01933952420949936,
-0.48224472999572754,
-0.08946128934621811,
0.18952006101608276,
0.12479627132415771,
0.4728884696960449,
0.17745167016983032,
-0.13908785581588745,
0.32424578070640564,
-0.2765233516693115,
0.654188334941864,
-0.825568675994873,
0.2230236530303955,
0.22530587017536163,
-0.07876866310834885,
0.41468149423599243,
-0.7132264375686646,
0.7204283475875854,
0.4858631491661072,
0.32002222537994385,
-0.06286101788282394,
-0.46079879999160767,
-0.14482341706752777,
0.23050539195537567,
0.2280254065990448,
0.038234151899814606,
-0.041909974068403244,
0.09822946786880493,
0.13260872662067413,
0.17297953367233276,
0.33946487307548523,
0.53366619348526,
-0.5151829123497009,
0.19591844081878662,
0.3912239968776703,
-0.21631421148777008,
0.20376437902450562,
0.3627709448337555,
0.3180282413959503,
0.016725370660424232,
0.19043497741222382,
-0.5310018062591553,
-0.362583726644516,
-0.22838985919952393,
-0.38337910175323486,
0.051834385842084885,
0.08322756737470627,
0.36430758237838745,
0.2237253487110138,
0.32492461800575256,
-0.19904281198978424,
0.6600311994552612,
0.39632245898246765,
-0.013359161093831062,
0.41825270652770996,
-0.36372625827789307,
-0.45169585943222046,
-0.923068106174469,
-0.13898250460624695,
0.14120230078697205,
0.22596199810504913,
-0.02366505190730095,
-0.23755449056625366,
0.22920189797878265,
0.20619334280490875,
0.0839448943734169,
-0.27414411306381226,
0.0344819575548172,
-0.2027440369129181,
0.6008560657501221,
-0.11382265388965607,
-0.4726530611515045,
0.4054134786128998,
-0.14551250636577606,
-0.6975833177566528,
0.5879195928573608,
-0.09061038494110107,
0.46804279088974,
-0.34002357721328735,
0.28989291191101074,
0.14481867849826813,
-0.24017482995986938,
-1.079573154449463,
-0.10370109975337982,
0.29045045375823975,
0.04320571571588516,
-0.44457149505615234,
-0.6901160478591919,
-0.1881934255361557,
0.7818372845649719,
0.2823635935783386,
-0.4780983030796051,
-0.1265115886926651,
-0.42842966318130493,
-0.019602468237280846,
-0.3532513678073883,
0.09595509618520737,
-0.01739347353577614,
-0.8045760989189148,
0.2331840544939041,
0.38188380002975464,
0.1259448230266571,
-0.46481776237487793,
0.24594658613204956,
0.5460323691368103,
-0.14745785295963287,
-0.43846410512924194,
-0.5983520150184631,
-0.12694428861141205,
-0.05111760273575783,
-0.22857338190078735,
0.08947612345218658,
-0.4026777446269989,
0.2796194851398468,
0.3197033703327179,
-0.8269191384315491,
0.0634482353925705,
-0.2519119083881378,
-0.15136589109897614,
-0.547408938407898,
-0.045202869921922684,
-0.1860344558954239,
-0.1527939885854721,
-0.34652867913246155,
-0.3892019987106323,
-0.5419163107872009,
0.7486756443977356,
-0.029374824836850166,
0.004017931874841452,
0.5252261757850647,
-0.4447677433490753,
-0.6601040363311768,
0.47264042496681213,
0.48876243829727173,
-0.2605055868625641,
0.19096796214580536,
-0.5352380275726318,
0.3249070346355438,
-0.5974788069725037,
-0.7378137111663818,
-0.536129355430603,
-0.4787057936191559,
-0.2196682095527649,
-0.2732759416103363,
-0.29872927069664,
-0.2438722550868988,
0.730903685092926,
-0.567493736743927,
0.5104596018791199,
-0.11485765129327774,
0.67896968126297,
-0.0843871459364891,
-0.5097446441650391,
0.20742100477218628,
-0.29722678661346436,
0.04762430116534233,
0.41552969813346863,
0.4158754050731659,
-0.4818563163280487,
0.08748746663331985,
0.44308698177337646,
0.8560587763786316,
0.0745910108089447,
-0.42987385392189026,
0.47550809383392334,
0.03562603145837784,
0.16244760155677795,
-0.2109258770942688,
0.08584382385015488,
0.26044514775276184,
-0.24924205243587494,
0.3980741798877716,
-0.4809277355670929,
-0.5540136098861694,
0.29905539751052856,
-0.5473629236221313,
-0.14968377351760864,
0.037337061017751694,
0.16770495474338531,
0.34989550709724426,
-0.11053692549467087,
0.40372002124786377,
0.4020412266254425,
-0.05621796101331711,
0.32377874851226807,
0.014454993419349194,
0.23192302882671356,
0.07582180947065353,
0.11751452088356018,
-0.07361254841089249,
-0.47162961959838867,
-0.2091788500547409,
0.10181189328432083,
0.28332313895225525,
-0.9113070964813232,
0.19982808828353882,
0.03392849490046501,
0.05813933536410332,
0.8110695481300354,
-0.08736596256494522,
-0.955085813999176,
-0.373345285654068,
0.19765223562717438,
-0.20193170011043549,
-0.7360625863075256,
-0.4117760956287384,
0.12235169857740402,
0.6181904673576355,
-0.17123141884803772,
0.6675016283988953,
-0.0775037407875061,
-0.2402479201555252,
-0.2091563194990158,
0.04336441308259964,
-0.20028941333293915,
0.04934868961572647,
-0.21270529925823212,
0.7744731903076172,
-0.6613967418670654,
-0.25466373562812805,
-0.4391462504863739,
0.32158756256103516,
0.5731447339057922,
-0.15127035975456238,
-0.2107217013835907,
-0.011028449051082134,
-0.038889531046152115,
-0.23605220019817352,
-0.2638890743255615,
-0.37300699949264526,
-0.060986120253801346,
-0.019774438813328743,
-0.00014588035992346704,
0.08961014449596405,
-0.6406453847885132,
0.43274369835853577,
0.4485206604003906,
-0.1180962324142456,
-0.7570622563362122,
-0.2454916089773178,
0.5071642994880676,
0.26233404874801636,
-0.14140979945659637,
-0.22967669367790222,
-0.029618458822369576,
0.3502599000930786,
0.055739447474479675,
0.08545899391174316,
-0.014722433872520924,
0.46466997265815735,
-0.017417922616004944,
-0.23089632391929626,
-0.6707006096839905,
0.49092069268226624,
0.1699424684047699,
-0.5249816179275513,
0.31341060996055603,
-0.8010507822036743,
0.3446556329727173,
0.14553137123584747,
0.6653101444244385,
1.2588441371917725,
-0.4015032947063446,
0.15921835601329803,
-0.09659483283758163,
0.38001736998558044,
-0.4940151572227478,
0.49525153636932373,
0.20433716475963593,
0.17952197790145874,
0.26077762246131897,
0.2136177122592926,
0.20990820229053497,
-0.5015192627906799,
-0.11836884915828705,
0.13315483927726746,
0.36296772956848145,
-0.1969822347164154,
-0.44478240609169006,
-0.1685509979724884,
0.11706717312335968,
-0.11421728879213333,
0.47797438502311707,
0.481919527053833,
0.007984296418726444,
0.6172568798065186,
-0.11291831731796265,
-0.44506409764289856,
0.20859278738498688,
0.09689663350582123,
-0.21803909540176392,
-0.5120558738708496,
-0.39138466119766235,
0.7546077370643616,
0.7023774981498718,
0.25395095348358154,
0.3546220660209656,
0.5892452001571655,
-0.2587738633155823,
0.08294136077165604,
-0.8515130281448364,
-0.11063455045223236,
-0.27148863673210144,
-0.22334912419319153,
-0.05308707058429718,
-0.1768273562192917,
0.021749766543507576,
0.11218980699777603,
0.02608420141041279,
0.113808274269104,
0.18729668855667114,
-0.321302592754364,
-0.1691562682390213,
0.6200076937675476,
-0.2667199373245239,
-0.20097355544567108,
-0.0961119532585144,
0.052917152643203735,
0.8806957602500916,
-0.35885533690452576,
0.153274267911911,
-0.35001957416534424,
0.03902227804064751,
-0.08933068811893463,
-0.1883683204650879,
-0.15319661796092987,
0.28999605774879456,
-0.491201788187027,
-0.5353750586509705,
0.06274008005857468,
0.1582304984331131,
0.454213410615921,
-0.6831670999526978,
0.31304410099983215,
0.05528832599520683,
0.1442585289478302,
0.2581474483013153,
-0.08270656317472458,
0.16569356620311737,
0.16917450726032257,
-0.18097002804279327,
-0.9231603741645813,
0.14996233582496643,
0.7714546918869019,
0.40287265181541443,
0.06858444958925247,
0.03795452415943146,
0.1680649220943451,
-0.529371976852417,
0.37197405099868774,
-0.02960260584950447,
0.38476768136024475,
-0.07041876018047333,
0.07415147870779037,
0.12614326179027557,
-0.04550597071647644,
0.5657747983932495,
-0.5073462128639221,
0.4084261357784271,
-0.094782754778862,
0.30029603838920593,
0.2814112603664398,
-0.08968550711870193,
0.034359708428382874,
0.40687504410743713,
0.22066229581832886,
-0.4071250855922699,
-0.4818812310695648,
0.11195866763591766,
0.278766006231308,
0.060072146356105804,
0.07055950164794922,
0.8233628273010254,
-0.49401870369911194,
0.2015324980020523,
-0.4497729241847992,
-0.06600186228752136,
-0.26275521516799927,
0.16647285223007202,
0.04613310471177101
] |
213188
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DuckTales%20the%20Movie%3A%20Treasure%20of%20the%20Lost%20Lamp
|
DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp
|
DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp (also known as DuckTales: The Movie) is a 1990 American animated adventure fantasy film based on the animated television series DuckTales. Directed by Bob Hathcock and Jean-Pierre Quenet from a screenplay by Alan Burnett, the film features the series' cast of Alan Young, Terrence McGovern, Russi Taylor, and Chuck McCann, with Richard Libertini, Rip Taylor and Christopher Lloyd voicing new characters. The events of the film take place between the third and fourth seasons of DuckTales.
The film was released to theaters by Walt Disney Pictures on August 3, 1990, and marked the first time Disney distributed an animated film that was not produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation. It was the first Disney animated film to be produced by Walt Disney Television Animation under the banner of Disney MovieToons and animated by Walt Disney Animation France S.A. The film was paired with the 1951 Donald Duck short Dude Duck for its theatrical release. A comic book adaption was released at the same time, with a cover identical to the theatrical poster.
Though it received positive reviews from critics, the film underperformed at the box office, earning only $18.1 million on a $20 million budget, resulting in several planned DuckTales films being scrapped.
Plot
Scrooge McDuck travels to the Middle East to inspect a recently discovered treasure chest he is certain contains the treasure of the great thief Collie Baba, accompanied by Huey, Dewey and Louie, Webby Vanderquack, and Launchpad McQuack. Although initially disappointed when the chest seems to contain only old clothes, Scrooge is excited when an ancient treasure map is found in the pocket of an old robe. Guided by the thief Dijon, they set out to find the lost treasure, unaware that Dijon actually works for the evil wolf sorcerer Merlock, who desires something Collie Baba owned. The group discovers Collie Baba's treasure in a sand-covered pyramid. Webby sees a lamp in the treasure, which Scrooge lets her keep since it does not retain any value.
After packing up the treasure for transport, Scrooge and his group are trapped in a room full of monstrous scorpions by Merlock and Dijon, who steal the treasure. However, Merlock discovers that the lamp has been stolen; he drags Dijon with him to locate it. Scrooge and his friends manage to escape from the pyramid and, with nothing more than Webby's lamp, depart for Duckburg.
Days later, the children discover the lamp holds a Genie. Ecstatic about his freedom, the Genie grants the four children 3 wishes each; to trick Scrooge, he poses as the boys' Woodchuck scout friend Gene. Their wishes include a baby elephant (which runs amok through Scrooge's mansion) and a giant ice cream sundae, among other things. Fearful of a bird flying by at night, Genie tells them about Merlock, who used his wishes for eternal life and the destruction of Atlantis and Pompeii, which were both popular vacation spots; Merlock's magic talisman, which allows him to take various animal forms, also overrides the lamp's rules, granting him unlimited wishes. Collie Baba stole the lamp from Merlock and hid it away with his treasure, and Merlock has spent the centuries since searching for it. The children suggest that they wish for the talisman, but Genie says that this is the only wish he is unable to grant. They must prevent Merlock from obtaining the lamp or the world will suffer.
The next day, Webby uses her last wish to bring all her toys to life, which forces the children to reveal the Genie's true identity to Scrooge. Wishing to impress the Archeological Society at their annual ball, Scrooge wishes for the treasure of Collie Baba, and brings the lamp and the Genie with him to the ball. He is followed by Merlock and Dijon, who violently ambush Scrooge. In the ensuing struggle, Scrooge mistakes a gravy boat for the lamp and leaves the lamp and the Genie behind, after which they both fall into the hands of Dijon, who is convinced by the Genie to keep the lamp instead of giving it to Merlock.
Having wished for Scrooge's fortune, Dijon takes possession of the Money Bin and has Scrooge arrested for trespassing. However, Scrooge is immediately bailed out by Launchpad, his nephews, Webby, Mrs. Beakley and Duckworth, who agree to help Scrooge set things right. Scrooge, the nephews and Webby infiltrate the Money Bin in an attempt to steal the lamp, but are stopped by Merlock, who recovers the lamp. With the Genie under his control again, Merlock wishes for Dijon to be turned into a pig for his disloyalty and then for the Money Bin to become a fortress, which flies into the air high above Duckburg. When an indignant Scrooge threatens him, Merlock wishes him "out of my house", and Genie reluctantly raises the wind to send Scrooge to the edge of the fortress, hanging on for dear life. The nephews use a slingshot to knock the lamp out of Merlock's hands, tossing it to Scrooge, who loses his grip and falls towards the earth. Merlock recovers his talisman and pursues as a griffin, grappling with Scrooge in the air, but Scrooge knocks the talisman from Merlock's hand, causing the sorcerer to lose his power and fall to his death.
Recovering the lamp, Scrooge uses his second wish to return himself, his family, and his Money Bin back to Duckburg. Back in the Money Bin, Scrooge declares that he has had "enough of all this wishing" and threatens to use his final wish to bury the lamp where it would never be found again. After protestations from Genie and the children, he instead wishes for Genie to become a real boy. Without the Genie, the lamp disintegrates and crumbles to dust, and thus removing its magic forever. While the children play with their newest friend, Scrooge discovers Dijon, recovered from Merlock's wish, stuffing his trousers with his money. Scrooge chases him outside and down the street while yelling "Somebody, stop those pants!" as the DuckTales theme song is heard, and the screen fades to black, and the credits roll.
Cast
Alan Young as Scrooge McDuck
Russi Taylor as Huey Duck, Dewey Duck, Louie Duck, and Webby Vanderquack
Terrence McGovern as Launchpad McQuack
Richard Libertini as the thief Dijon
Christopher Lloyd as the sorcerer Merlock
June Foray as Mrs. Featherby
Chuck McCann as Duckworth
Joan Gerber as Mrs. Beakley
Rip Taylor as Genie
Additional voices
Charlie Adler
Jack Angel
Steve Bulen
Sherry Lynn
Mickie T. McGowan
Patrick Pinney
Frank Welker
Production
Animator Larry Ruppel shared his experience during the film's production:
Director/producer Bob Hathcock revealed in an interview that the film began as a five-part episode for the TV series, adding: "Our first idea was to see if there was a way to release that as a feature." An initial treatment for the film centered on the Philosopher's stone, but the idea was later dropped. Due to the success of Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988), several animators who worked on the film were stationed at Disney's newly founded London studio and another location was established in Paris (under the supervision of Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi). The Disney studio in Burbank designed the characters and storyboards, then the materials were sent to Europe. Hathcock spent most of his time between London and Paris, while ink/paint/camera work was done in China, and additional work in Spain. The film was the last Disney feature to use cel-animation.
The initial voice-overs took one year, and another six months were spent on re-takes, and although Alan Young had never worked with Christopher Lloyd or Rip Taylor before, he said he would "'sit there in awe' watching them at work." In addition to working with Alan Young and Russi Taylor, Rip Taylor spent three six-hour stints by himself to record new lines, and at one point even phoned in some of his lines: "I was in Atlantic City ... when they called me and said they needed to change some dialogue ... I found a phone in a radio studio and phoned in six or seven pages of dialogue. I had to do it seven times ... because they kept changing the dialogue."
During the film's opening credits, the title's typeface is similar to that of the Indiana Jones films. Another homage to the Indiana Jones films comes later in the movie when someone looking like Indiana Jones can be seen briefly when Scrooge and Genie visit the Explorer's Club. These references to Indiana Jones were thanks to Gary Krisel, then president of Disney Television Animation, who had an "obsessive fascination" with the series.
Release
Box office
With a gross of $18.1 million on a $20 million budget, the film was not a financial success, having to face competition from other summer releases such as Jetsons: The Movie, though the latter also underperformed at the box office.
Critical reception
The film received generally positive reviews since its original release. Common Sense Media rated the movie a 3 out of 5 stars. Chris Hicks of Deseret News claimed he went in "with very low expectations ... I was pleasantly surprised at how clever and funny the film is." Reviewing it for TV, ABC's Joel Siegel said: "Here is a movie you can take the kids to you'll all enjoy." Variety called the film a "lushly animated, smartly scripted, wise-quacking adventure."
Detractors included Richard Harrington of The Washington Post, who criticized the film for its predictable plot twists, while Dave Kehr of the Chicago Tribune noted the lack of credit for Carl Barks, adding: "'DuckTales' is not a movie that the founding father would have been proud to put his name on." Charles Solomon of the Los Angeles Times faulted the lack of backstory, and regarded the character Dijon as a "cringing stereotype." The film holds an 88% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 8 reviews.
Accolades
Home media
The movie was released on VHS on March 15, 1991, followed by a Laserdisc release on April 26, 1991. The video sold 2.3 million units generating revenue of $32 million in the United States. On January 16, 2006, the region 1 DVD of DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp was released as an exclusive to the Disney Movie Club and the Disney Movie Rewards program. The first release of the DVD to the general public was announced for January 13, 2015. Ahead of this, DVDs were available in Canada in October 2014, apparently as a Wal-Mart Exclusive. In addition, there was a DVD release also ahead of the general release date that was issued in the United States as a Wal-Mart Exclusive on October 14, 2014. Disney has given the DVD wide release in Europe and other parts of the world. The DVD release is in widescreen presentation (1.66:1) in region 1.
The film is available to rent and purchase (including in HD) on iTunes.
The HD version of DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp is available on Movies Anywhere and Disney+.
Music
A soundtrack album was released by Intrada Records in 2017, including David Newman's score, but not the film's end title version of the TV series theme.
Cancelled sequels
Treasure of the Lost Lamp was originally supposed to be the first in a series of DuckTales films. However, after the film performed below expectations, all sequels were scrapped. When asked about the possibility of a sequel, Bob Hathcock answered:
References
External links
1990 animated films
1990 comedy films
1990 directorial debut films
1990 films
1990s adventure comedy films
1990s American animated films
1990s fantasy adventure films
1990s English-language films
American films
American adventure comedy films
American children's animated adventure films
American children's animated fantasy films
American children's animated comedy films
American fantasy adventure films
Animated films based on animated television series
DisneyToon Studios animated films
Disney Television Animation films
DuckTales
Films about ducks
Films about shapeshifting
Films about wish fulfillment
Films about wizards
Films scored by David Newman
Genies in film
Walt Disney Pictures films
|
[
-0.27316126227378845,
0.33275875449180603,
0.15328329801559448,
0.40809568762779236,
0.6707771420478821,
-0.5097755789756775,
0.24281036853790283,
-0.41916707158088684,
-0.23216673731803894,
0.4810447096824646,
-0.6585162878036499,
0.7903085350990295,
0.024333296343684196,
0.6123210787773132,
-0.20231324434280396,
0.034560561180114746,
0.6513513922691345,
0.3690994679927826,
0.07758379727602005,
-0.8479869961738586,
-0.3393474519252777,
-0.29959386587142944,
0.48067420721054077,
-0.28676649928092957,
-0.6619417071342468,
0.3663831651210785,
0.16638043522834778,
0.4491649270057678,
0.05101776123046875,
0.4123257100582123,
-0.09342394769191742,
-0.14999137818813324,
0.3915976881980896,
-0.7299941182136536,
-0.2966820299625397,
0.08769163489341736,
0.24853156507015228,
-0.3969491124153137,
-0.16005386412143707,
-0.4341866374015808,
0.7066988945007324,
0.4771798253059387,
0.23255929350852966,
0.3844781816005707,
-0.01730731502175331,
-0.06406530737876892,
-1.4774975776672363,
-0.6685360074043274,
-0.1636914610862732,
-0.3460341989994049,
-0.1413508504629135,
0.42440083622932434,
0.3134711682796478,
0.17123962938785553,
0.4976653456687927,
0.938497006893158,
-0.9606567025184631,
0.16780133545398712,
-0.4145803153514862,
-0.05882036313414574,
0.1678539365530014,
0.2650507688522339,
0.2147640734910965,
0.22037141025066376,
-0.24992488324642181,
0.12050130218267441,
0.0545249804854393,
0.5335274338722229,
0.4284740090370178,
-0.47434040904045105,
0.7569677233695984,
0.09077949076890945,
-0.13414904475212097,
0.15551243722438812,
0.05991538241505623,
0.4567338228225708,
0.4016181528568268,
-0.05433173105120659,
0.256455659866333,
0.26524022221565247,
-0.44416508078575134,
-0.011859391815960407,
1.1887238025665283,
0.09645122289657593,
-0.2680971026420593,
-0.2996842563152313,
0.33653101325035095,
0.43611863255500793,
-0.36261487007141113,
0.9967756867408752,
-0.8856791853904724,
-0.9985991716384888,
0.10672155767679214,
0.4762241244316101,
-0.2021350860595703,
-0.6136319041252136,
-0.3494897484779358,
0.23185811936855316,
0.41324615478515625,
0.4543607532978058,
-0.09208283573389053,
0.38152846693992615,
0.15116997063159943,
-0.3478870093822479,
-1.2945071458816528,
-0.18825535476207733,
-0.11039348691701889,
-0.5700341463088989,
-0.0892569050192833,
0.5028111934661865,
-0.5746235251426697,
0.5415644645690918,
0.04617239162325859,
-0.18321436643600464,
0.03882185369729996,
0.5247253179550171,
0.426299124956131,
-0.45451194047927856,
-0.6191703081130981,
0.6654974818229675,
0.5636423826217651,
-0.019052358344197273,
0.1569322943687439,
0.263136088848114,
0.4922610819339752,
0.7570438981056213,
0.4480781853199005,
0.4255741536617279,
-0.4113343060016632,
0.08192980289459229,
0.6720787286758423,
0.8037500977516174,
-0.5030771493911743,
-0.6149919033050537,
0.027306588366627693,
-0.10792969167232513,
0.7218785881996155,
0.07641724497079849,
0.05969003587961197,
0.03908786550164223,
-0.28982821106910706,
0.1590053141117096,
-0.9238214492797852,
-0.04915695637464523,
-0.037311386317014694,
-0.12399666011333466,
-0.2650664448738098,
-0.05501314625144005,
-0.2988848388195038,
-0.11351019889116287,
0.1640518307685852,
-0.1349273920059204,
0.09209514409303665,
-0.5879316329956055,
-0.799553632736206,
0.6152945160865784,
0.11904105544090271,
-0.14892666041851044,
0.029071571305394173,
0.2533538341522217,
0.06894920766353607,
-0.03783642500638962,
-0.5069482922554016,
0.0963171049952507,
-0.06497365236282349,
0.11148037016391754,
0.6467029452323914,
0.2160618007183075,
0.04406978189945221,
0.31124159693717957,
-0.7825638055801392,
0.5243474841117859,
0.08379267156124115,
-0.05000670254230499,
0.475932776927948,
-0.1127389520406723,
0.908297061920166,
1.0497424602508545,
0.44006675481796265,
-0.4694238007068634,
-0.6652721762657166,
-0.29834112524986267,
-0.06187291815876961,
-0.46410542726516724,
0.7018016576766968,
0.24567264318466187,
0.28627750277519226,
-0.1375386118888855,
0.09192513674497604,
-0.44000065326690674,
-0.6889724731445312,
-0.6791539788246155,
0.5366902351379395,
-0.71492600440979,
1.171756625175476,
0.4051581025123596,
-0.6840775012969971,
0.5796617269515991,
0.21702709794044495,
0.6419229507446289,
-0.1829209327697754,
0.25682392716407776,
0.8014797568321228,
0.5771118998527527,
-0.324659138917923,
-0.11227218806743622,
-0.3798027038574219,
0.32827481627464294,
0.664415717124939,
0.22633053362369537,
0.2371734082698822,
0.2684767544269562,
-0.3359506130218506,
0.3280862271785736,
0.2626892924308777,
-0.16099444031715393,
-0.5914320349693298,
-0.3528638482093811,
0.2535116374492645,
-0.3003946542739868,
0.09313584119081497,
0.06183474510908127,
-0.626153290271759,
0.02918240800499916,
-0.37020787596702576,
1.2735490798950195,
0.1860407143831253,
0.017346510663628578,
0.8162922859191895,
0.10651624202728271,
-0.9022290706634521,
0.3187845051288605,
-0.2478666454553604,
-0.44602930545806885,
0.2910447418689728,
0.08162205666303635,
0.1635318249464035,
-0.5345404148101807,
0.23296129703521729,
0.1697099208831787,
0.9162296056747437,
-0.36264482140541077,
-0.7517122626304626,
0.5838403105735779,
0.43521448969841003,
0.08437987416982651,
-0.17003726959228516,
0.1030333936214447,
-0.2951807379722595,
-0.8263053297996521,
0.18466055393218994,
0.5450202822685242,
0.1875656098127365,
-0.12419502437114716,
0.5521271824836731,
0.27183809876441956,
-0.7528124451637268,
-0.551375150680542,
0.09168622642755508,
0.2991386353969574,
0.5891573429107666,
0.7506377100944519,
0.1986307054758072,
0.1335744857788086,
-0.06462655961513519,
-0.5214442014694214,
-0.7636119723320007,
-0.21655811369419098,
0.16795964539051056,
0.7507907152175903,
-0.40038001537323,
0.27213630080223083,
-0.6224683523178101,
0.3824620544910431,
0.22788800299167633,
-0.33733218908309937,
-0.4625556468963623,
0.09721466153860092,
-0.43604668974876404,
-0.6709461808204651,
0.5244447588920593,
0.7823117971420288,
0.0287175253033638,
-0.033814333379268646,
-0.8131298422813416,
0.44524478912353516,
0.46563225984573364,
-0.29817458987236023,
-0.429882287979126,
-0.18738290667533875,
-0.4091360569000244,
-0.2631666660308838,
-0.21953703463077545,
-0.20294605195522308,
-0.8061067461967468,
0.31396540999412537,
-0.8519107103347778,
0.39931830763816833,
0.4495537579059601,
0.2500951290130615,
-0.2223706990480423,
0.6751465797424316,
-0.5467268824577332,
-0.20827169716358185,
0.2617725729942322,
-0.1431449055671692,
-0.12146967649459839,
-0.23225760459899902,
-5.2122602462768555,
0.14742375910282135,
-0.07555978000164032,
0.12128615379333496,
0.0621650293469429,
0.2081567794084549,
0.10370907187461853,
-0.4372199475765228,
0.22117723524570465,
0.16758444905281067,
0.034555744379758835,
-0.2455066591501236,
0.3746831715106964,
0.4698517620563507,
0.3587116301059723,
-0.5977229475975037,
0.5194152593612671,
0.3497905433177948,
-0.06423217803239822,
-0.11540102958679199,
-0.25451087951660156,
-0.15374237298965454,
-0.089508056640625,
0.48396578431129456,
0.06422632187604904,
1.0631948709487915,
-0.11737293750047684,
0.010736091993749142,
-0.6252381801605225,
-0.18006417155265808,
0.17235977947711945,
-0.12526915967464447,
-0.193341925740242,
-0.05882265418767929,
-0.4245834946632385,
0.006333283614367247,
-0.07471849769353867,
-0.3072706162929535,
0.8154411315917969,
-0.6197054982185364,
-0.5220320224761963,
-0.11245648562908173,
-0.5277923345565796,
-0.24582548439502716,
0.5914831757545471,
-0.5958608984947205,
-0.457055926322937,
-0.3843687176704407,
0.3686905801296234,
0.6779584884643555,
0.416251003742218,
-0.08802137523889542,
0.5416242480278015,
0.29369431734085083,
0.1369231939315796,
-0.16159754991531372,
-0.4262942373752594,
0.002751763444393873,
0.04805530607700348,
0.18850339949131012,
0.6517397165298462,
-0.24064603447914124,
-0.08261576294898987,
-0.4611319899559021,
-0.2582602798938751,
-0.4516032934188843,
-0.42760252952575684,
-0.38037729263305664,
0.285486102104187,
0.5489448308944702,
-0.6997605562210083,
0.08334889262914658,
-0.2769831418991089,
-1.1102272272109985,
0.45175954699516296,
0.18565286695957184,
-0.7786660194396973,
-0.34011512994766235,
0.024306591600179672,
-0.37884271144866943,
0.4802495241165161,
-0.06822308897972107,
0.0022575969342142344,
0.6635005474090576,
-0.188158318400383,
-0.7791733145713806,
-0.542926013469696,
-0.43241697549819946,
0.017631489783525467,
-0.05446186661720276,
0.9036334753036499,
0.037693269550800323,
-0.5150880813598633,
0.4216656982898712,
-0.09639625251293182,
0.33117300271987915,
0.4780222177505493,
0.10044683516025543,
0.3725854158401489,
-0.013977223075926304,
-0.23803791403770447,
-0.5745921730995178,
0.6787025332450867,
-0.2881556451320648,
-0.4355884790420532,
-0.5882306694984436,
-0.061179019510746,
0.18761932849884033,
0.4833389222621918,
-0.277802050113678,
-0.5247569680213928,
-0.35771679878234863,
-0.224401593208313,
-0.15603719651699066,
0.22370415925979614,
-0.4846126139163971,
0.42701706290245056,
0.054274361580610275,
0.26644080877304077,
0.21019089221954346,
0.15033413469791412,
0.430368036031723,
0.35962578654289246,
-0.7160987854003906,
-0.3097235858440399,
-0.24028076231479645,
0.8440500497817993,
0.25794515013694763,
0.39560386538505554,
-0.1682591587305069,
-0.10521690547466278,
0.12471283972263336,
0.2694707214832306,
0.20550906658172607,
0.0459148995578289,
-0.8480859398841858,
-0.46297281980514526,
-0.5153312683105469,
-0.1165768951177597,
0.0996718481183052,
-0.10414621233940125,
-0.5090651512145996,
-0.043650005012750626,
0.4120829999446869,
0.19541127979755402,
-0.14386717975139618,
0.6962772607803345,
-0.2853401303291321,
-0.18646329641342163,
0.7372452020645142,
-0.41212594509124756,
-0.46236586570739746,
1.5579886436462402,
-0.5155519247055054,
-0.049352843314409256,
0.3292142152786255,
-0.05416833981871605,
0.35295453667640686,
-0.11467062681913376,
-0.7645224332809448,
0.44731849431991577,
-0.08679784089326859,
-0.4694490432739258,
0.4281814992427826,
-0.25654491782188416,
0.08933483809232712,
-0.4102626442909241,
-0.6686657667160034,
-0.03611753508448601,
0.44124364852905273,
0.3704829812049866,
0.504888117313385,
-0.35602301359176636,
0.6108072996139526,
0.6427894234657288,
-0.05641673877835274,
-0.49967464804649353,
0.2293650358915329,
0.032607551664114,
-0.7127311825752258,
0.13309986889362335,
-0.42840081453323364,
-0.299571692943573,
-0.564158022403717,
0.412801593542099,
-0.5463581681251526,
-0.43011441826820374,
-0.39258986711502075,
-0.6671748757362366,
-0.04070279374718666,
0.34260597825050354,
0.8180539608001709,
0.8851092457771301,
0.012545735575258732,
-1.1755598783493042,
-0.25963467359542847,
0.02711695432662964,
0.78510981798172,
0.09349314123392105,
-0.5626727938652039,
0.08937837183475494,
0.3486765921115875,
-0.5958119034767151,
0.3771558701992035,
0.4606897830963135,
-1.1570427417755127,
0.3795544505119324,
0.31144464015960693,
-0.09275653958320618,
0.981761634349823,
-0.09737316519021988,
-0.26939064264297485,
0.3490965664386749,
0.10930478572845459,
-0.17858733236789703,
0.017536865547299385,
0.4388337731361389,
-0.3412734568119049,
0.07767844200134277,
-0.4283137023448944,
-0.38030806183815,
-0.46129703521728516,
-0.20877376198768616,
-0.13994987308979034,
-1.2456237077713013,
-0.25105902552604675,
0.5032193660736084,
-0.6983394622802734,
-0.09177643060684204,
-0.44446930289268494,
0.11057011783123016,
-0.07366256415843964,
0.362439900636673,
0.04848220944404602,
-0.26859089732170105,
0.4366275370121002,
0.08633659780025482,
0.14908526837825775,
0.31111451983451843,
0.20955289900302887,
0.341715544462204,
0.9399009346961975,
0.4487691819667816,
-0.19946901500225067,
-0.000639903882984072,
0.12577246129512787,
-0.16684940457344055,
-0.5090005993843079,
-0.6381438970565796,
0.1891385316848755,
0.34777572751045227,
-0.3855798542499542,
0.19328880310058594,
-0.7094895243644714,
0.6287274360656738,
-0.5484866499900818,
-0.1732766181230545,
0.0883215069770813,
-0.09397730231285095,
0.16071560978889465,
0.10415109992027283,
0.47036781907081604,
-0.8159381747245789,
-0.2510387599468231,
0.38799020648002625,
0.1436317414045334,
0.3185024857521057,
-0.5286484956741333,
0.020673181861639023,
-0.5275564193725586,
0.21849425137043,
0.12353893369436264,
0.17131264507770538,
0.5445145964622498,
0.06843174248933792,
0.07378800958395004,
-0.23036248981952667,
-1.4782055616378784,
-0.014862684532999992,
-0.2577764391899109,
-0.6802342534065247,
0.40192556381225586,
-0.2835976779460907,
-0.37276560068130493,
-0.3560776114463806,
-0.4352860748767853,
-0.36953648924827576,
0.045187097042798996,
-0.1376732438802719,
0.19207699596881866,
-0.6360346674919128,
0.23287145793437958,
-0.39758753776550293,
-0.1905480921268463,
0.7717833518981934,
-0.1668788343667984,
0.1514062136411667,
0.5041604042053223,
-0.5536046028137207,
-0.1804053634405136,
-0.1006767675280571,
0.35996225476264954,
-0.005592867732048035,
-0.20794682204723358,
0.7121977806091309,
-0.0816025361418724,
-0.029575901105999947,
0.04927617311477661,
-0.5618975162506104,
0.20874853432178497,
0.21443504095077515,
-0.3287324905395508,
-0.34846410155296326,
0.8027044534683228,
-0.34123605489730835,
-0.0151975704357028,
0.39811795949935913,
-0.2742522656917572,
-0.05408083647489548,
0.39396601915359497,
0.21199791133403778,
0.2182287722826004,
0.6245377063751221,
0.06796236336231232,
-0.8571540117263794,
0.5714201927185059,
-0.4945168197154999,
0.2794884443283081,
0.9877483248710632,
-0.5504293441772461,
0.7028537392616272,
0.04526205360889435,
0.2880796194076538,
0.5293452739715576,
-0.24138237535953522,
-0.05177443102002144,
0.040517162531614304,
-0.5825211405754089,
0.2879013121128082,
0.41039159893989563,
0.18514207005500793,
0.08134474605321884,
0.3354015648365021,
-0.6181461811065674,
-0.02854291722178459,
0.5179693102836609,
0.13784052431583405,
-0.27402397990226746,
0.3987125754356384,
-0.12059906125068665,
-0.2585453689098358,
0.20117764174938202,
-0.017162157222628593,
-0.9689887166023254,
0.7480367422103882,
0.0005021695396862924,
-0.13904230296611786,
-0.11179670691490173,
0.48626846075057983,
0.6094970107078552,
-0.08448304235935211,
-0.21266095340251923,
-0.30510014295578003,
0.45957696437835693,
0.32759374380111694,
0.03193327784538269,
-0.5316317677497864,
0.28025010228157043,
0.42549628019332886,
-0.004065897315740585,
-0.06626522541046143,
0.2616514265537262,
-0.19170497357845306,
-0.013597973622381687,
0.43983978033065796,
0.33826157450675964,
-0.002089984714984894,
-0.023333275690674782,
-0.34545740485191345,
0.36342379450798035,
-0.48157042264938354,
0.3841261863708496,
-0.6410467624664307,
-0.4208027422428131,
0.2383582890033722,
0.4773806035518646,
0.09856493771076202,
0.21233844757080078,
0.44805827736854553,
-0.9739781618118286,
0.2803560197353363,
-1.1280728578567505,
-0.45248979330062866,
-0.39808860421180725,
-0.38729459047317505,
-0.19009214639663696,
0.18188539147377014,
0.20238898694515228,
-0.17823226749897003,
0.029342863708734512,
0.031279306858778,
0.008829688653349876,
0.3213046193122864,
0.8836414813995361,
-0.5085123181343079,
0.06530575454235077,
-1.0762797594070435,
-0.33005109429359436,
-0.9022999405860901,
0.5859335660934448,
-0.19035209715366364,
0.660906195640564,
0.1838163435459137,
0.27979275584220886,
-0.3712386190891266,
-1.1266745328903198,
0.8825724124908447,
0.024707941338419914,
0.0792987048625946,
-0.10928180813789368,
-0.5114299058914185,
-0.857703685760498,
-0.3080291450023651,
-0.053296979516744614,
-0.32892411947250366,
-1.1788047552108765,
0.3039845824241638,
0.3380495309829712,
-0.5840880870819092,
0.0926719605922699,
-0.2536720931529999,
-0.2129642367362976,
-0.2176382690668106,
0.06721118092536926,
-0.3198999762535095,
-0.544366180896759,
0.4160938262939453,
0.7637813687324524,
0.6944751143455505,
-0.48296692967414856,
-0.14928516745567322,
-0.49457839131355286,
0.7399131655693054,
0.29225262999534607,
0.08507178723812103,
-0.6441728472709656,
0.4858042299747467,
0.07262177020311356,
-0.5749022960662842,
0.23169244825839996,
-0.10223325341939926,
0.13738715648651123,
-0.0750952735543251,
-0.7145286798477173,
-0.3132355511188507,
0.6794759035110474,
0.3441968262195587,
-0.1692393720149994,
-0.04772837832570076,
0.2765723168849945
] |
213191
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chip%20%27n%20Dale%3A%20Rescue%20Rangers%20%28TV%20series%29
|
Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers (TV series)
|
Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers is an American animated adventure comedy television series produced by Walt Disney Television Animation. Created by Tad Stones and Alan Zaslove, it featured the established Disney characters Chip 'n' Dale in a new setting. The series premiered on The Disney Channel on March 4, 1989, after a preview episode ("Catteries Not Included") was aired on August 27, 1988. The series continued in September with a two-hour movie special, Rescue Rangers: To the Rescue, which was later broken up into five parts to air as part of the weekday run. The final episode aired on November 19, 1990.
On September 18, 1989, the series entered national syndication. It aired afternoons along with and following DuckTales on a channel that would later become Fox before moving to a new channel. An additional cartoon called TaleSpin was added to the line up, just before the Disney Afternoon aired on this new channel, following Rescue Rangers. From 1990 to 1993 reruns of the show were aired as a part of the Disney Afternoon lineup. Reruns were later shown on Toon Disney when the channel launched in 1998 but were removed in August 2008. The series' entire run is available (as one season) as part of Disney+ as of its launch on November 12, 2019, fully remastered in high definition. The series was initially released on Blu-ray on January 25th, 2022 via Disney Movie Club, then everywhere else on February 15th, 2022. It was the first Disney Afternoon series to receive a Blu-ray release.
Synopsis
Chip and Dale are two chipmunks who start a detective agency, Rescue Rangers, along with their friends Gadget Hackwrench, Monterey Jack, and Zipper. The pint-sized detectives deal with crimes that are often "too small" for the police to handle, usually with other animals as their clients. The gang frequently find themselves going up against two particular arch-villains: Mafia-style tabby cat Fat Cat and mad scientist Norton Nimnul.
Episodes
Except for the five-part set of episodes made from the pilot movie, each 22-minute episode of the series was self-contained. Plot points introduced in each episode stayed in the episode and any character development did not appear to continue through to future episodes. Most of the episodes followed a similar format, wherein the next case was presented at the start of the episode, then the bulk of the episode had the sleuths gathering clues and investigating the situation. In the last few minutes of the episode, the case was resolved, usually in dramatic fashion and the final moments would have a humorous wrap-up scene between the Rangers.
Characters
Main
Chip (voiced by Tress MacNeille) is the leader of the Rescue Rangers. Similar to Indiana Jones, he wears a fedora and a bomber jacket and frequently uses a rope to lasso or swing to other spots. Chip is fearless, optimistic, and mature and has a strong sense of moral standards, to the point that he is sometimes accused of not knowing how to have fun. He can be opinionated and often ends up in arguments with Dale over his best friend's more lackluster approach. However, deep down, Chip does care for Dale and, at times, he also lets himself go and joins Dale in some mischief. He and Dale have a crush on Gadget.
Dale (voiced by Corey Burton) is the co-founder of the Rescue Rangers. He wears a red and yellow Hawaiian shirt reminiscent of Thomas Magnum in Magnum, P.I. Though passionate about the job, he is a happy-go-lucky, free-spirited, genial hotshot who is sometimes immature and forgets to think before he acts. He spends his free time reading comic books and playing video games. A known candy addict, Dale has "chocolate attacks" similar to Monterey Jack's cheese attacks (ironically, Monty finds it disgusting that Dale can't control himself over candy). He frequently finds himself being knocked on the head and insulted by Chip when he says or does something foolish, but despite that, Dale still cares deeply for Chip and never holds a grudge against him. Dale is largely a friendly and easy-going character, though he is just as willing to get serious when the situation calls for it. Dale has also shown some remarkable creativity, as he is depicted constructing several gadgets of his own based on one of his favorite movie characters in the episode Double O Chipmunk, seemingly in only a few hours, despite seeming to have little to no technological background.
Monterey Jack (voiced by Peter Cullen and Jim Cummings), known as "Monty" to his friends and called "Cheeser" by his mother, is an adventure-loving, red-haired and luxuriantly mustachioed Australian mouse who spent years traveling the world before a chance meeting with Chip and Dale during their first case. After Fat Cat destroyed his home, Monty and his sidekick Zipper decided to join the group in their detective work. Stronger and larger than the others—indeed, he has demonstrated feats of strength that some humans would be hardpressed to match—Monty can be quick to anger if he, or his friends, has been offended. This trait sometimes leaves him ready to do battle with a much larger opponent, and the others having to calm him down. Monty has an overpowering addiction to cheese, and the sight or smell of cheese causes him to be almost hypnotically drawn to it in a mustache-twisting, spiraling-eyed "cheese attack". Monty loves to tell stories of his travels, even if the others often stop his reminiscing, and he often uses colorful "pseudo-Australianisms" while talking, such as "Strike me starkers." Monterey Jack is the only Rescue Ranger known to have two living parents, Cheddarhead Charlie and Camembert Kate, who are also travelers. Also, names of his entire family, including his own, have references to various types of cheese. Monty is most frequently found in the company of either Zipper or Dale, whose fun-loving nature matches his own. He also seems to consider Gadget to be something of a surrogate daughter, most likely due to his long friendship with her late father. Due to his traveling experience, Monty often handles the traveling arrangements for the group. Cullen voiced Monterey Jack in season 1, along with 20 of the first episodes of season 2 excluding the five-episode pilot. Cummings voiced him in the pilot, along with 22 episodes of season 2, and season 3.
Gadget Hackwrench (voiced by Tress MacNeille) is a young blond-haired female mouse who is the team's pilot, mechanic and inventor who wears a purple jumpsuit with blue goggles on her head. The daughter of deceased inventor and aviator Geegaw Hackwrench, who was a good friend of Monterey Jack, she first met Chip and Dale when Monty brought them to Geegaw's in search of an airplane. At loose ends since her father's death and eager to help, she joins the team. Known to say "Golly" whenever she's surprised by something, Gadget moves, thinks, and talks quickly, sometimes leaving the others looking dazed and confused. In addition to building and maintaining the Ranger Plane, Gadget is the one responsible for the various technological items used by the team, and is regularly inventing new vehicles and tools for the team's use. She has the uncanny ability to take discarded and unrelated items and invent nearly anything with them, which she attributes to the fact that she has a "mind-bashingly high IQ" and is easily bored. Unfortunately, her creations don't always work the way she intends, and have sometimes failed at just the wrong moment to cause the team trouble. Both Chip and Dale are attracted to Gadget, and often compete for her attention, but she doesn't seem to notice in many cases. Gadget's personality was based upon the inventive female character Jordan in the 1985 movie Real Genius.
Zipper (voiced by Burton) is a tiny bluish-green housefly and a long time friend and sidekick of Monterey Jack. With his tiny size and flying abilities, Zipper often handles little jobs that the rest of the Rescue Rangers cannot. He speaks in unintelligible buzzes that only Monty and other insects are able to understand, although, in later episodes, he talks more clearly. Despite his tiny size, Zipper occasionally has impressive displays of strength which are matched only by his unwavering loyalty to his friends.
Antagonists
Fat Cat (voiced by Cummings) is a felonious, obese grey tabby cat and one of the Rescue Rangers' most frequent antagonists. Formerly owned by criminal Aldrin Klordane, in which capacity the Rangers first encountered him, Fat Cat became an independent agent and animal world crime boss after Klordane's incarceration. Inordinately proud of his appearance, he keeps his whiskers clean, wears a purple business suit, and has a taste for expensive things. Fat Cat is a ruthless criminal mastermind, and his plans, though sometimes bizarre, are nevertheless dangerous and sadistic. He hates dogs and several of his schemes have been attacks against them. The only thing he hates more than dogs are the Rescue Rangers, which he always tries to get rid of using elaborate and slow methods, rather than killing them immediately. The complexity of his plans usually ends up being his downfall. He has a cousin who lives in Paris, France. Voice actor Jim Cummings described Fat Cat as a combination of Zero Mostel and Dom DeLuise. Fat Cat is usually accompanied by four henchmen. In spite of their combined stupidity, Fat Cat almost always sends them out to do his dirty work for him, as he is too smart, or too lazy, to get his paws dirty, and they are too stupid and intimidated by him to do anything less than follow his exact orders.
Wart (voiced by Cummings) is a lizard henchman of Fat Cat who dresses in a gangster-style suit and hat similar to his boss.
Mole (voiced by Burton) is an overweight mole henchman of Fat Cat who is slow witted but cheerful, and wears an undersized red T-shirt and a yellow hat. When plans go wrong, Mole usually is the one who Fat Cat chooses to use as a punching bag.
Mepps (voiced by Cullen) is a thin, yellow alley cat henchman of Fat Cat who is dressed in a ratty blue vest and toboggan, and who speaks with a whiny voice.
Snout (voiced by Burton) is a rat henchman of Fat Cat who wears a short sleeved red turtle neck with a black vest and a dark blue hat that covers his eyes. He is seen the least of Fat Cat's henchmen.
Professor Norton Nimnul (voiced by Cummings) is the Rangers' other major enemy and a mad scientist who once worked for Aldrin Klordane, which, as with Fat Cat, is how the Rangers first encountered him. Though Nimnul is an intelligent and creative scientist, his plans often lack any trace of logic and tend to be extremely convoluted. For example, he kidnapped all the cats in the city to make an immense amount of static electricity, and in his appearance in the pilot he constructed a laser cannon designed to create a giant gelatin mold which would be used to cause an earthquake under the United States Gold Reserve. Nimnul has receding red hair (and similarly colored, bushy moustache), wears very thick glasses, and a high-pitched laugh. Unlike other humans in the series, Nimnul is aware of the Rescue Rangers' activities, and even that they have human-level intelligence, due to their constant interference in his plans; this became even more explicit in "A Fly in the Ointment" when his malfunctioning teleporter caused him to swap heads with Zipper, allowing him to understand the Rangers when forced to work with them to rescue Zipper from the hospital and put everyone back to normal (the same 'glitch' in his teleporter causing Chip/Monty and Dale/Gadget, respectively, to switch heads). He is physically modeled on Disney animator Bruce Talkington.
Production
Rescue Rangers was originally conceived as the first of three new companion shows to Disney's popular DuckTales series, which had more than doubled the ratings among child audiences in its time slots after its debut in the fall of 1987. Disney had originally invested $20,000,000 in DuckTales and then invested $28,000,000 in Chip 'n' Dale's Rescue Rangers.
It, along with TaleSpin and a third series, Double-O Duck (which ultimately became Darkwing Duck), would round out a programming block later known as "The Disney Afternoon" along with the previously established Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears to capitalize on DuckTales''' success.
When Tad Stones first came up with the idea for the Rescue Rangers series, Chip and Dale were not part of the show. He initially pitched doing a TV series based on The Rescuers, but Disney rejected that idea as a sequel to that film was already in production. He created a new concept with the working title of Metro Mice. In the original draft, the main character was an Indiana Jones-type mouse named Kit Colby who sported a fedora and a fluffy collared leather jacket, and the rest of the team included a chameleon, an earlier version of Gadget, and a character resembling Monterey Jack with a different name. When he proposed the show in a meeting with Michael Eisner and Jeffrey Katzenberg, the idea was well received except for the character of Kit. At Eisner's suggestion, they replaced him with the chipmunk duo to give the show some established Disney characters to work with. By late 1987, two years before its television debut, the show was announced under its original proposed title of "Chip 'n Dale and the Rescue Rangers".
While Chip and Dale were established characters, in order to bring them into the series only their general appearance and basic personality traits were kept. Unlike their appearances in Disney shorts, in the Rescue Rangers the chipmunk duo are very verbal, with Chip voiced by Tress MacNeille and Dale voiced by Corey Burton. Audio processing was used to speed up the voice recordings and give the voices a higher pitch, particularly Chip's. The pair were given clothes—Chip the clothing of the original-concept Kit, while the goofier Dale was reminiscent of, but not specifically modeled after, Thomas Magnum from Magnum, P.I. with his Hawaiian shirt.
The series premiered in 1989 on The Disney Channel before moving into a regular slot in syndication the following fall. In 1990, the series premiered as part of the Disney Afternoon line up, where it aired until 1993. On October 2, 1995, Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers began reruns on The Disney Channel as part of a two-hour programming block called "Block Party" which aired on weekdays in the late afternoon/early evening and which also included Darkwing Duck, TaleSpin, and DuckTales.
The show's opening theme was written (listed in the end credits as words & music) by Mark Mueller, an ASCAP Award-winning pop music songwriter who also wrote the popular theme song for DuckTales, and produced by Alf Clausen. The song performed over the title credits is sung by Jeff Pescetto (who also performed the DuckTales theme song). A full-length version of the theme song was later recorded by the pop group The Jets.
Home media
United Kingdom VHS releases
On November 6, 1989, Walt Disney Home Video released episodes from the series on video, containing a pair of episodes each.
United States VHS releases
On February 22, 1991, Walt Disney Home Video released 10 episodes from the series on five VHS cassettes in the United States, containing a pair of episodes each.
Additionally, on December 14, 1994, the episode "Ghost of a Chance" was released together with the Goof Troop episode "Hallow-Weenies" on one VHS cassette as a special release called Boo-Busters. On September 3, 1996, the episode "Good Times, Bat Times" was released together with the Darkwing Duck episode "Ghoul of My Dreams" on one VHS cassette as a special release called Witcheroo!Several other episodes were available on international releases.
Australia and New Zealand releases
Eleven VHS cassettes containing 23 episodes of the series were released in Australia and New Zealand.
DVD releases
North America (Region 1)
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment has released some of the series on DVD-Video; two volumes have been released in Region 1 thus far, featuring the first 51 episodes of the series. The first was released on November 8, 2005 (containing episodes 1–27) and the second on November 14, 2006 (containing episodes 28–51). The episodes on the first volume are arranged in production order, while the episodes on the second volume are arranged by original air date. The sets were originally packaged in a box containing 3 slipcases, one for each disc. Both volumes were reissued in standard-sized DVD cases in 2013. There has yet to be any word from Disney regarding the release of a third volume set for episodes 52–65. In 2022 the complete show was released on Blu-ray.
International (Region 2)
In the United Kingdom, Disney released one Region 2 volume in 2007, titled Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers First Collection. Despite the set being similar to the US version, the DVD contained only 20 episodes, while having 6 language tracks: English, French, Dutch, German, Spanish and Italian. Several other similar releases were then made to other countries, but only going up to episode #20. On December 5, 2012, a second DVD set of the series was released in the UK, but as a Region 2 version of Volume 2, titled Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers Season 2. Unlike the first DVD, this 3-disc set includes a Fastplay mode and only two language tracks: English and German, but subtitles have not been added. As of yet, there are no plans to release the rest of the series, or the seven episodes missing between the first two sets.
Video on demand
The series was released on Amazon Video in 2013 and was free for Amazon Prime members. However, it was unavailable for some time. The series was brought back to Amazon Instant Video in the United States in 2016, being currently available for purchase in SD and HD.
The complete series is also currently available for purchase in SD and HD on iTunes and Google Play (Volume 2 on Google Play is only available in SD), also released in 2016.
The complete series was released alongside the release of Disney's streaming service Disney+ on November 12, 2019. There, it is cropped to 16:9 widescreen format, unlike the Blu-ray release (which retains its original aspect ratio).
Reception and legacy
The show was nominated at the 17th Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program.
In January 2009, IGN named Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers as the 60th-best in the Top 100 Animated TV Shows. Hal Erickson, author of Television Cartoon Shows, An Illustrated Encyclopedia compared the show to DuckTales, stating that it was "consummately produced and written" and its animation "succeeded in putting most other overseas output to shame."
Other media
Television
Darkwing Duck (1991–1992): In the episode "Twitching Channels," the voices of Monterey Jack and Chip are briefly heard through an audio-reception helmet-device that can tune into sounds from other universes.
Raw Toonage (1992–1993): In the episode hosted by Jitters A. Dog, Jitters serves as Dale's stunt double.
Bonkers (1993–1995): In the episode "I Oughta Be in Toons", Bonkers mentions the Rescue Rangers.
Aladdin (1994–1995): In the episode "Strike Up the Sand," the Genie transformed into Zipper.
Robot Chicken (2012): In the episode "Disemboweled by an Orphan", Gadget goes without pants to challenge the double standard of the males going without pants.
DuckTales (2017): At the 2019 San Diego Comic-Con, it was confirmed that Chip, Dale, Gadget, Monty and Zipper would appear in the show's third season. In the episode, "Double-O-Duck in You Only Crash Twice!" (S3E3), the Rescue Rangers are first introduced as super-evolved lab animals created by F.O.W.L. agent Black Heron. They escaped from their captivity and later helped Launchpad McQuack defeat F.O.W.L. agent Steelbeak. They also make a cameo appearance in the series finale "The Last Adventure!".
Merchandise
In fall of 1989, McDonald's produced a series of Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers themed Happy Meal that included toy versions of the main characters riding small vehicles. Scenes from the series were incorporated into the TV commercials advertising the Happy Meals. Ice cream versions of Chip 'n Dale were made by Good Humor.
Theme parks
In 1989, Disneyland presented a parade called Hooray For Disney Stars Parade.
From 1990 to 1993, Walt Disney World presented a show called Mickey's Magical TV World, featuring Chip and Dale in their Rescue Rangers outfits.
In 1990, Chip and Dale appeared in the Disney on Ice show Walt Disney's World on Ice: 10th Anniversary in their Rescue Rangers outfits.
In 1991, Disneyland presented a Disney Afternoon-themed stage show called Plane Crazy featuring Chip and Dale in their Rescue Rangers outfits, as part of the park's Disney Afternoon Avenue. In addition, cut-outs of Gadget, Chip and Dale were featured in the Rescue Rangers Raceway re-theme of the Fantasyland Autopia.
In January 1993, a junior roller coaster called Gadget's Go Coaster debuted as part of Mickey's Toontown in Disneyland. In April 1996, a similar attraction opened in Tokyo Disneyland.
Gadget and Monterey made appearances in Disney's Party Express and a few New Year's Eve countdown parades at Tokyo Disneyland.
In December 2010, Gadget appeared in the stage show Disney's Twelve Days of Christmas.
In addition, Chip and Dale in their Rescue Rangers outfits were featured to meet fans at the Fall Back to Fun Event in September 2014, along with other Disney characters.
In 2018, Chip and Dale wore their Rescue Rangers outfits in FanDaze at Walt Disney Studios Park at Disneyland Paris and other events as well.
Comic books
A monthly comic book based on the show was published by Disney Comics in 1990, that ran for 19 issues. Subsequent comic stories were printed in Disney Adventures from 1990 to 1995, as well as in the Disney Afternoon comic book published by Marvel Comics. They also had a series from Boom Studios that was published for 8 issues from December 2010 to June 2011.
Cameo appearances
In the first Darkwing Duck comic story from KaBoom!, Gadget makes a cameo gag.
BOOM! revival
From September 2010, Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers was revived by comics publisher Boom! Studios, as an ongoing monthly series slated to begin in December of the same year. This choice was based on the extreme and unexpected popularity of Darkwing Duck, another Disney Afternoon property which BOOM! revived earlier in 2010. The series featured comics writer Ian Brill, and artist Leonel Castellani.
Eight issues were published, collecting the two 4-part stories into two trade paperback books. The comic series was cancelled May 2011, to be replaced by the launch of DuckTales.
The Boom! Studios series will be reprinted in IDW Publishing's Disney's Afternoon Giant in October 2018.
Video games
In 1990, Capcom released a video game based on the show called Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers for Nintendo Entertainment System. It is a platform game distinguishable by the player needing to grab boxes, carry them on top and throwing to attack enemies and sometimes clear or form the path. It features a 2-player cooperative mode, and allows some non-linearity in choosing levels on a map. Each level is a various location of the city. In the story the Rangers must stop another of Fat Cat's schemes. The ongoing is described by dialogues between levels.
A second NES game, Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers 2, was released by Capcom in 1993. The sequel is the same in the principle of picking and throwing boxes, features additional incentives for cooperative play such as mini-games, that can only be played by two players, and the ability to throw the partner as a weapon.
An unofficial Mega Drive sequel to these games, titled Squirrel King, was produced by the Taiwanese developer Gamtec. This game was later the basis of the unofficial Mega Drive Super Mario World game.
Also released in 1990, Hi Tech Expressions' PC game Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers: The Adventures in Nimnul's Castle saw the Rangers having to rescue Monterey Jack, who is caught in a mousetrap in Professor Norton Nimnul's castle. To rescue him, the chipmunks must infiltrate the castle to collect various parts so Gadget can build a flying machine to reach Monterey Jack.
A Disney's Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers hand-held LCD game was released by Tiger Electronics.
In May 2010, Dynamic Pixels Ltd. released a mobile game Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers, where Fat Cat kidnapped Zipper and imprisoned him on a distant island. The team have to repair their legendary plane to get it but, unfortunately, they have no spare parts so the Rescue Rangers have to use their investigating skills together with enterprising skills as only their plane will help them to get to Fat Cat's den. The story is divided into 27 non-linear missions that can be reached via a city map. Every mission is one of 3 different mini-games. The game can be downloaded free of charge and players use micro transactions to purchase in game money to spend it on different in game content like upgrades, additional equipment, power-ups, bonuses etc. if needed.
Other games
Chip, Dale, Gadget and Zipper appeared on cards which were in the 1993's puzzle game Mickey's Memory Challenge.
Chip and Dale (in their Rescue Rangers outfits) are playable characters in the 2000's racing game Walt Disney World Quest: Magical Racing Tour.
The Rescue Rangers are playable characters in the mobile games Disney Emoji Blitz and Disney Sorcerer's Arena.
Gadget Hackwrench makes a only-playable character in the game Disney Tsum Tsum and Disney Heroes: Battle Mode.
Film
In January 2014, it was announced that The Walt Disney Company is developing a live-action feature-length film, with use of CGI special effects, similar to 20th Century Fox's Alvin & the Chipmunks'' film series. Robert Rugan was hired to write and direct the film.
By May 2019, Akiva Schaffer was hired as the director, replacing Rugan. The script is now set to be co-written by Dan Gregor and Doug Mand, from a previous draft by Barry Schwartz. David Hoberman and Todd Lieberman will serve as producers. The film will be a co-production between Walt Disney Pictures and Mandeville Films. On October 19, 2020, it was reported that the film will be released on Disney+, with filming set to begin in early 2021 in Los Angeles, California. In November 2020, Larry Fong was hired as the film's cinematographer and Corey Burton was announced to reprise the role of Zipper. Chip will be voiced by John Mulaney and Andy Samberg will provide the voice of Dale. Filming officially began on March 16, 2021. The film is set for release on May 20, 2022.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
1980s American animated television series
1989 American television series debuts
1990 American television series endings
1990 comics debuts
1990s American animated television series
American Broadcasting Company original programming
American children's animated adventure television series
American children's animated comedy television series
American children's animated fantasy television series
American children's animated mystery television series
Animated television series about brothers
Animated television series about mice and rats
The Disney Afternoon
Disney Channel original programming
Disney Comics titles
Disney comics titles
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
ITV children's television shows
Seven Network original programming
Television shows adapted into comics
Television shows adapted into films
Television shows adapted into video games
Television series by Disney Television Animation
Three (TV channel) original programming
|
[
-0.3008858561515808,
0.06412555277347565,
0.15107472240924835,
0.16255253553390503,
0.48053863644599915,
-0.1788848489522934,
0.21969754993915558,
0.2867051661014557,
-0.20913065969944,
0.26085683703422546,
-0.67911297082901,
0.3110874593257904,
-0.0534539595246315,
-0.19550757110118866,
-0.8267736434936523,
0.21814724802970886,
0.4328249394893646,
0.43278592824935913,
-0.20788821578025818,
-0.9355036616325378,
-0.16395783424377441,
-0.26878422498703003,
0.8144795894622803,
-0.21886825561523438,
-0.4984610974788666,
0.44176310300827026,
0.10862462967634201,
0.335866779088974,
0.23744943737983704,
0.2911570966243744,
-0.02126043289899826,
0.10097559541463852,
0.3864147961139679,
-0.3699420392513275,
-0.29026204347610474,
0.4479731321334839,
-0.11539263278245926,
0.30744436383247375,
-0.14406272768974304,
-0.14387045800685883,
0.8068022727966309,
-0.3332870602607727,
-0.3364088535308838,
0.18123961985111237,
0.059465643018484116,
-0.12477713078260422,
-1.4259099960327148,
-0.030948346480727196,
-0.707859992980957,
-0.3866041898727417,
-0.34681445360183716,
0.8508791327476501,
0.09244860708713531,
-0.0704730972647667,
0.40082040429115295,
0.8860728740692139,
-0.13650047779083252,
-0.10932561010122299,
-0.14498870074748993,
0.2506474554538727,
0.16456149518489838,
-0.04917922243475914,
-0.18492460250854492,
-0.4957510530948639,
-0.42416220903396606,
-0.2987251579761505,
0.052028559148311615,
0.7479043006896973,
0.29645460844039917,
-0.668276309967041,
0.5192244052886963,
-0.14825817942619324,
-0.15117324888706207,
0.37872469425201416,
0.4116314947605133,
0.1465577781200409,
0.5371479988098145,
0.03839016333222389,
0.260184109210968,
-0.020137351006269455,
0.07435314357280731,
0.2745133936405182,
0.6491063833236694,
0.6566787958145142,
-0.08711566776037216,
0.006100625731050968,
-0.011701910756528378,
-0.1770196408033371,
-0.41280561685562134,
0.5465304255485535,
-0.804014265537262,
-0.49744608998298645,
0.4953063428401947,
0.32725080847740173,
0.056251462548971176,
-0.34322988986968994,
-0.3091121315956116,
0.060053810477256775,
0.8370122909545898,
-0.07640280574560165,
-0.1492045521736145,
0.24552303552627563,
0.33528727293014526,
-0.1476830542087555,
-0.5860375761985779,
-0.12433306872844696,
0.4239561855792999,
-0.7357821464538574,
-0.3856784701347351,
0.41917508840560913,
-0.620018482208252,
0.18813163042068481,
-0.050130877643823624,
0.04494689032435417,
0.016189156100153923,
0.5251555442810059,
-0.028317254036664963,
-0.8869229555130005,
-1.0872803926467896,
0.4740074872970581,
0.3618602156639099,
0.33370429277420044,
-0.2848336100578308,
0.11030249297618866,
0.3914192020893097,
0.6645622849464417,
0.1777617335319519,
0.4364975690841675,
-0.10459642857313156,
0.0974469929933548,
0.1653447449207306,
0.44978711009025574,
-0.5801345109939575,
0.019475193694233894,
0.12559251487255096,
-0.21845084428787231,
0.35033488273620605,
-0.23035269975662231,
-0.24857985973358154,
-0.1169758066534996,
-1.015505313873291,
0.25945401191711426,
-0.34313124418258667,
-0.5832216143608093,
0.20815011858940125,
-0.04048634693026543,
0.04064908251166344,
-0.09693588316440582,
-0.3366037905216217,
-0.04079972952604294,
0.26199454069137573,
-0.295977920293808,
-0.2305624932050705,
-0.5088684558868408,
-0.39040589332580566,
0.7845733165740967,
0.36146318912506104,
0.022699715569615364,
0.0814082995057106,
0.16613197326660156,
-0.007164157927036285,
-0.11630476266145706,
-0.3135375380516052,
-0.25487229228019714,
0.09348276257514954,
-0.28175240755081177,
0.36528581380844116,
-0.3384097218513489,
0.40691450238227844,
0.6993643045425415,
-0.3155492842197418,
0.49764397740364075,
0.44971564412117004,
0.26193568110466003,
0.6510799527168274,
-0.3464619815349579,
0.8830181956291199,
0.6897038817405701,
0.31548595428466797,
-0.18558825552463531,
-0.7037613987922668,
0.20865847170352936,
0.4058570861816406,
-0.4759626090526581,
0.6358188390731812,
-0.17453913390636444,
0.856109082698822,
-0.07486679404973984,
-0.16879242658615112,
0.06258843094110489,
-0.7287052273750305,
-0.3324967324733734,
0.7004713416099548,
-0.3621788024902344,
0.9444472789764404,
0.1539904624223709,
-0.40928855538368225,
0.1833663284778595,
0.30953511595726013,
0.45985573530197144,
-0.05964145064353943,
0.05215384438633919,
0.4799525737762451,
0.3348747491836548,
-0.7072867751121521,
0.3124845027923584,
-0.12554429471492767,
-0.30997899174690247,
0.3646419048309326,
0.0645199865102768,
0.32547029852867126,
-0.18708112835884094,
-0.09754495322704315,
-0.0459774024784565,
0.030927157029509544,
0.2297728806734085,
-0.6800282001495361,
-0.08181782811880112,
0.17895716428756714,
-0.159230574965477,
0.18539948761463165,
0.294696569442749,
-0.14284640550613403,
0.09924045205116272,
-0.08107553422451019,
0.8939248919487,
0.0163064394146204,
0.03204500675201416,
0.6859066486358643,
0.31747204065322876,
-0.31540587544441223,
0.28581827878952026,
-0.5203916430473328,
-0.7259584665298462,
-0.09387942403554916,
-0.1745923012495041,
0.18111009895801544,
-0.4687446057796478,
0.5049293041229248,
0.12417728453874588,
-0.10574320703744888,
-0.05210427567362785,
-0.8695021867752075,
-0.01381723303347826,
0.13153091073036194,
0.16367951035499573,
-0.45200687646865845,
-0.0068776109255850315,
-0.02414005994796753,
-0.7377651333808899,
0.1610105037689209,
-0.04637061059474945,
0.2836380898952484,
-0.04340168833732605,
0.2902734875679016,
0.27778226137161255,
-0.5341551899909973,
-0.2769591212272644,
0.2828366160392761,
0.04070337861776352,
0.08579006791114807,
-0.03618105500936508,
0.05627668648958206,
-0.23468416929244995,
-0.3026687800884247,
-1.1073850393295288,
-0.5521033406257629,
-0.5374467372894287,
-0.05365128815174103,
-0.00201970967464149,
-0.13123644888401031,
0.11592523008584976,
-0.3788832724094391,
0.035479236394166946,
0.30541667342185974,
-0.29882436990737915,
-0.12342756241559982,
0.10925328731536865,
-0.3728869557380676,
-0.6140098571777344,
0.2664147913455963,
0.7098217606544495,
0.3543756604194641,
0.09360907226800919,
-0.7151173949241638,
0.2781592607498169,
0.1984439492225647,
-0.4577440619468689,
-0.3183614909648895,
-0.21115237474441528,
0.22695881128311157,
-0.34740087389945984,
-0.3097929060459137,
0.3245778977870941,
0.28001123666763306,
0.4117223620414734,
0.3718501031398773,
0.3244454264640808,
0.20698842406272888,
0.27272266149520874,
0.11015167832374573,
0.3002016544342041,
-0.3834511637687683,
-0.3038358986377716,
-0.017062071710824966,
-0.13132263720035553,
-0.2378297597169876,
-0.3541038930416107,
-5.658539295196533,
-0.0751054510474205,
-0.7655745148658752,
0.28604400157928467,
0.3901461958885193,
-0.0675569698214531,
0.45249539613723755,
-0.14438387751579285,
0.5046677589416504,
0.40909624099731445,
-0.02240576595067978,
-0.32798680663108826,
0.047254640609025955,
0.17388854920864105,
0.2897721827030182,
-0.4950230121612549,
0.8689634799957275,
0.2348749339580536,
0.49114325642585754,
0.10460343211889267,
0.3085559010505676,
-0.8638888001441956,
0.05941758304834366,
0.276062548160553,
0.12793193757534027,
1.1639925241470337,
-0.034623678773641586,
0.37186989188194275,
-0.5216057300567627,
0.23665931820869446,
-0.23019178211688995,
-0.39441558718681335,
-0.1712786704301834,
-0.5970215797424316,
-0.11627155542373657,
0.1593383252620697,
0.9919846057891846,
0.07340698689222336,
0.9675619006156921,
-0.5988872647285461,
-0.35563740134239197,
-0.3173660933971405,
-0.28728818893432617,
-0.016443463042378426,
0.7499008774757385,
-0.1118636503815651,
-0.14130297303199768,
-0.2241228222846985,
0.17605583369731903,
0.8159305453300476,
0.8339207172393799,
0.513214111328125,
0.19298313558101654,
0.286419540643692,
0.07468579709529877,
-0.43883952498435974,
-0.33667391538619995,
0.47982314229011536,
-0.16528327763080597,
0.203963503241539,
0.5678759813308716,
-0.14852920174598694,
-0.49381837248802185,
-0.8660010695457458,
0.0658770501613617,
-0.3468901216983795,
-0.0892881453037262,
-0.18506860733032227,
0.23319102823734283,
-0.319651335477829,
-0.12623625993728638,
0.41665253043174744,
-0.22649933397769928,
-0.9251681566238403,
0.25170832872390747,
-0.25700172781944275,
-0.028032012283802032,
0.30895936489105225,
-0.3851504623889923,
-0.012424343265593052,
-0.3101181089878082,
-0.3129270076751709,
-0.17629355192184448,
0.5022584199905396,
-0.23488250374794006,
-0.5351762771606445,
-0.5092025399208069,
-0.1743258535861969,
-0.19512249529361725,
0.02377026155591011,
0.5550743937492371,
-0.2884601950645447,
-0.11140252649784088,
0.6688439249992371,
0.2868821918964386,
0.3680224120616913,
0.8657339215278625,
0.47150763869285583,
0.13483372330665588,
-0.528659999370575,
-0.36263400316238403,
-0.19986194372177124,
0.8454452753067017,
-0.723630964756012,
-0.5438095331192017,
-0.7613841891288757,
0.25333818793296814,
0.30597442388534546,
0.473960280418396,
-0.03165661171078682,
-0.407752126455307,
-0.599522054195404,
-0.7926012873649597,
-0.07157257944345474,
0.49873799085617065,
0.4064735174179077,
0.10103753954172134,
0.2086210548877716,
0.37900233268737793,
0.5316264033317566,
-0.5443543195724487,
0.09994099289178848,
0.4713917076587677,
-0.48952704668045044,
0.09283743053674698,
-0.19951319694519043,
0.04234028235077858,
0.6511344313621521,
0.5156562924385071,
0.03186502307653427,
-0.13567472994327545,
0.5891772508621216,
0.11209111660718918,
0.321434885263443,
0.009043915197253227,
-0.47629791498184204,
-0.3896063268184662,
0.11818743497133255,
0.10564498603343964,
-0.17625759541988373,
0.24327024817466736,
-0.17052903771400452,
-0.05496338754892349,
0.36934277415275574,
0.10602640360593796,
-0.2656807601451874,
0.2565354108810425,
-0.07645627856254578,
0.15218612551689148,
0.3598758578300476,
-0.13319537043571472,
-0.3040049970149994,
0.837351381778717,
-0.8369288444519043,
0.4194914996623993,
-0.0026839689817279577,
-0.45493119955062866,
-0.3326098918914795,
0.37144848704338074,
-0.20992740988731384,
0.41454392671585083,
-0.2562128007411957,
-0.4602309763431549,
0.26552414894104004,
-0.017213808372616768,
0.4365716576576233,
-0.3397831618785858,
-1.012434482574463,
-0.24098260700702667,
0.4704481363296509,
0.07953692227602005,
0.3914259672164917,
-0.7125741839408875,
0.39313286542892456,
0.6167862415313721,
-0.029808711260557175,
-0.2942001521587372,
-0.5557435750961304,
0.024076955392956734,
-0.4117446541786194,
-0.2320447862148285,
-0.379504919052124,
-0.3332769274711609,
0.3211531341075897,
0.40513381361961365,
-0.5834906101226807,
-0.36700868606567383,
0.11759468168020248,
0.037114862352609634,
-0.1250506341457367,
0.11472181975841522,
0.12694793939590454,
0.5650638937950134,
0.1666102260351181,
-0.6021105647087097,
0.14314769208431244,
0.13177788257598877,
0.7338134050369263,
-0.2530941665172577,
-0.5255710482597351,
-0.40543681383132935,
0.12880712747573853,
-0.23517543077468872,
0.15989860892295837,
0.45670682191848755,
-0.7618050575256348,
-0.011377787217497826,
0.2740821838378906,
-0.5548321008682251,
0.4067727029323578,
-0.10687299817800522,
-0.41667088866233826,
0.1631244570016861,
-0.18583901226520538,
-0.5209726691246033,
-0.2007906138896942,
0.10604789108037949,
-0.22524945437908173,
0.12248016893863678,
-0.48864859342575073,
-0.7003298997879028,
-0.4719032943248749,
-0.33517810702323914,
-0.2624050974845886,
-0.5959713459014893,
-0.326038658618927,
0.3436239957809448,
-0.38788852095603943,
-0.2707758843898773,
-0.5156539082527161,
-0.10157117992639542,
-0.07578316330909729,
-0.19252242147922516,
-0.023050375282764435,
0.36644884943962097,
0.901256799697876,
-0.02623617649078369,
0.7047972679138184,
0.38984376192092896,
0.37037429213523865,
0.5005038380622864,
0.6505287289619446,
0.07323697954416275,
-0.38573479652404785,
0.16635775566101074,
0.20059789717197418,
0.6213838458061218,
-0.4484626352787018,
-0.4729291796684265,
0.4738929867744446,
0.6414042711257935,
-0.29295748472213745,
-0.45249587297439575,
0.023140138015151024,
0.70933997631073,
-1.2736269235610962,
-0.2511511445045471,
-0.34682977199554443,
-0.055396534502506256,
-0.11940943449735641,
0.019273964688181877,
0.1995110660791397,
-0.9070608019828796,
-0.09001149237155914,
0.2710043489933014,
0.3125925064086914,
-0.27512839436531067,
-0.4691871702671051,
0.2464819997549057,
-0.4384053349494934,
-0.2108672559261322,
-0.30068644881248474,
0.23629885911941528,
0.9296380281448364,
0.14678795635700226,
0.08162622898817062,
0.6738319993019104,
-0.8442809581756592,
-0.4539644420146942,
-0.30128562450408936,
-0.5156193375587463,
0.9532092213630676,
-0.452605664730072,
-0.2502993643283844,
-0.008667687885463238,
-1.1357471942901611,
-0.1945512741804123,
0.405077189207077,
0.2509656250476837,
0.40988174080848694,
-0.8052622079849243,
0.7039635181427002,
-0.5955449342727661,
-0.320681095123291,
0.2600855827331543,
-0.44855383038520813,
0.5032966732978821,
-0.03439975529909134,
-0.207078218460083,
-0.021898698061704636,
-0.2599530816078186,
0.48651325702667236,
-0.22703073918819427,
-0.5984290242195129,
0.47276827692985535,
0.5240613222122192,
-0.2919941246509552,
0.07127079367637634,
0.016988998278975487,
0.27257728576660156,
0.08028016984462738,
-0.8148852586746216,
-0.20659500360488892,
1.3315880298614502,
-0.2656402289867401,
-0.0649331584572792,
0.4268682599067688,
-0.7281314134597778,
-0.36344480514526367,
0.2306625097990036,
-0.05417892336845398,
0.4521692097187042,
0.06807854771614075,
0.1443278193473816,
-0.4351956844329834,
0.5718914866447449,
-0.22955039143562317,
-0.399854451417923,
0.8389264345169067,
0.29380717873573303,
0.40670791268348694,
-0.12681953608989716,
-0.3095090687274933,
0.32371294498443604,
-0.22839859127998352,
-0.3023345172405243,
0.19574806094169617,
-0.025009628385305405,
0.3199843764305115,
0.600814938545227,
-0.541815996170044,
-0.18646395206451416,
0.237186461687088,
-0.2996755540370941,
-0.09920371323823929,
0.3984326720237732,
0.31121590733528137,
-0.7117829918861389,
0.611389696598053,
0.06944967806339264,
-0.07066645473241806,
-0.0071194772608578205,
-0.18545643985271454,
-0.3619830310344696,
0.22965317964553833,
-0.4163658320903778,
-0.4635230302810669,
-0.30186912417411804,
0.42873820662498474,
0.08134352415800095,
0.3051569163799286,
-0.29992225766181946,
-0.10006453841924667,
0.15040487051010132,
0.1688513159751892,
-0.009784877300262451,
0.33007198572158813,
-0.26573747396469116,
0.7599360942840576,
0.5151644945144653,
-0.191968634724617,
0.5852022171020508,
0.013357602059841156,
0.27965253591537476,
-0.04049872234463692,
0.0020901476964354515,
0.7715159058570862,
0.36463260650634766,
-0.19248434901237488,
0.2726961076259613,
-0.26178136467933655,
0.46483901143074036,
-0.7608305811882019,
-0.4657984972000122,
-0.0339713916182518,
0.14512938261032104,
0.32007601857185364,
0.15612362325191498,
0.2215171754360199,
-0.23332545161247253,
0.05887068808078766,
-0.9425771236419678,
-0.7375428080558777,
0.18765069544315338,
0.08479659259319305,
-0.3887856900691986,
-0.02735157124698162,
0.515321671962738,
0.22828128933906555,
0.22346490621566772,
0.19959473609924316,
-0.06893128156661987,
0.5508308410644531,
0.37186193466186523,
-0.020820768550038338,
-0.08114311844110489,
-0.16072247922420502,
-0.4402219355106354,
-0.667803168296814,
0.06211593747138977,
0.5417247414588928,
0.6208218336105347,
0.19348733127117157,
0.25144562125205994,
0.1458674520254135,
-0.5711947083473206,
0.6617929935455322,
-0.1998981088399887,
0.014498859643936157,
-0.5541911125183105,
0.06897752732038498,
-0.13049112260341644,
0.12816351652145386,
0.4080958962440491,
-0.23072955012321472,
-0.5695874691009521,
-0.05050079897046089,
-0.570532500743866,
-0.49564695358276367,
0.7397365570068359,
-0.39792925119400024,
0.07946664094924927,
-0.6161039471626282,
0.1743876338005066,
-0.20582883059978485,
-0.845881998538971,
0.3212565779685974,
0.10187811404466629,
0.7104659676551819,
-0.5586427450180054,
-0.009203026071190834,
-0.508871853351593,
0.10850346833467484,
0.3587246537208557,
-0.20026178658008575,
0.04794347286224365,
0.4997328817844391,
-0.001728715724311769,
-0.5379387140274048,
0.07526867836713791,
-0.5087586641311646,
0.02144409343600273,
-0.00760317500680685,
-0.2893759310245514,
-0.330487459897995,
-0.11574452370405197,
0.3314489722251892,
0.0166590828448534,
0.023063575848937035,
-0.019379964098334312
] |
213194
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20grebe
|
Western grebe
|
The western grebe (Aechmophorus occidentalis) is a species in the grebe family of water birds. Folk names include "dabchick", "swan grebe" and "swan-necked grebe".
Western grebe fossils from the Late Pleistocene of southwest North America were described as a distinct species, but later ranked as a paleosubspecies Aechmophorus occidentalis lucasi. More recent study found them to fall within the variation now known to exist in today's birds.
Description
The western grebe is the largest North American grebe. It is long, weighs and measures across the wings. It is black-and-white, with a long, slender, swan-like neck and red eyes. It is easily confused with Clark's grebe, which shares similar features, body size, behavior and habitat, and hybrids are known. Western grebes nest in colonies on lakes that are mixed with marsh vegetation and open water. Western Grebe nests are made of plant debris and sodden materials, and the nest-building begins roughly around late April through June. The construction is done by both sexes and is continued on throughout laying and incubation. This species of waterbirds is widespread in western North America, so there is no specific place of abundance. Its subspecies, Clark's grebe generally populate more of the southern part of North America Other differences are whiter flanks and paler gray backs when comparing A.o.clarkii to A.o.occidentalis.
The western grebe has black around the eyes and a straight greenish-yellow bill whereas the Clark's grebe has white around the eyes and an up-turned bright yellow bill. The downy young of Western are grey; Clark's downy young are white.
Subspecies
In 1858 George Newbold Lawrence recognised Podiceps occidentalis based on darker coloured specimens, and P. clarkii based on three paler coloured specimens -two from California and one from Chihuahua. These two colour morphs were found to occur, roost and even interbreed together, and were long regarded to be synonyms (although it is unclear why P. clarkii was regarded as the junior synonym, coming alphabetically first). Deignan designated the Mexican specimen as the holotype of the taxon P. clarkii in 1961. In 1963 Dickerman reinstated the taxon as Aechmophorus clarkii, which he defined as the smaller birds, both dark and pale coloured, from Mexico. In 1979 a comprehensive study by Ratti demonstrated the apparent existence of reproductive barriers between different phases of the grebes. In 1986 Dickerman recognised the taxonomic significance of the distinctions between the dark and pale phase, and classified these phases as different subspecies:
A. occidentalis ssp. occidentalis, (Lawrence, 1858), large, dark morph, from western Canada & United States (California, Utah)
A. occidentalis ssp. ephemeralis, Dickerman, 1986, large, pale morph, from western Canada & United States (California, Utah)
A. clarkii ssp. clarkii, (Lawrence, 1858) Dickerman, 1963 - Small, pale morph, from north & central Mexico.
A. clarkii ssp. transitionalis, Dickerman, 1986 - Smaller than the western grebe, dark morph, from north & central Mexico.
Multiple lines of evidence suggest that the differently colored western grebes (darker and lighter) are different taxa -in a single population in which sympatric speciation somehow persists. These forms were reported to mate according to their own colors and the mixing between dark and light-faced individuals is rare. This type of assortative mating derives from possible isolating mechanisms such as differential responses to advertising calls and spatial distribution. Each of the forms tended to stay closer to their own type, thus making their colony nesting be non-randomly distributed.
By 1992 Storer & Nuechterlein were promoting another concept to the taxon A. clarkii, now regarding the pale morphs from the US and Canada to be this taxon (Dickerman's A. occidentalis ssp. ephemeralis).
Breeding
Western grebes nest in colonies of hundreds on large inland lakes, sometimes using coastal marshes, in western North America. It has a spectacular courtship display; two birds will rear up and patter across the water's surface. Northern birds migrate west to coastal ocean in winter; birds in the southwest and Mexico may be permanent residents. During the breeding season, the birds advertise themselves through ceremonies. Rushing Ceremony, which can be also called as water dance, race or run, is a ceremony that is the most frequent display to form a pair-bond. This is performed in pairs of either both male Western grebes or one male and one female. One of two individuals initiates Rushing, and the paired individual follows immediately and performs in synchrony. The birds lift their wings stiffly to the side and run in an upright position with its head held forward and neck curved. The males seem to perform the rushing together to attract the attention of females, and when one of two males attracts a female from his rushing behavior, a competition arises between males to get the female. One out of two withdraw and the "winning" male mates with the female by performing Rushing together and continue to perform Weed Ceremony.
Weed Ceremony usually precedes the acts of mating and nest building. It is done after the pair is formed, and the ceremony begins as the mates bob their heads in water. Then they dive in place and come back up to surface while holding weed on their beaks. This ceremony is continued until one of the pair flips away its weeds and drops to a normal position in water. They continue their mating with Greeting Ceremony. Greeting ceremony is similar to the form of rushing ceremony and involves dip-shaking, bob-shaking, bob-preening and arch-clucking. Dip-shaking consists of dipping the head in the water and raising it up while rapidly waggling the bill side to side. This involves a low neck posture and conspicuous water splash while bob-shaking does not. These breeding dances are known to be the most elaborated dances in the waterbird species.
After the breeding, the male Western Grebes feed their mate, thus performing mate feeding behavior. The feeding resembles the feeding of the young by parents, and through the feeding they obtain, females are able to have enough energy to form their eggs. During the incubation period, male and female Western Grebes trade places to incubate their eggs for weeks, and those that are not incubating feed their mate.
Communication style
When tending their young, Western grebe parents use different types of vocalization to communicate. Ticking is one of the two and is used as an alarm signal. Parents carry their newly hatched young on their backs, and when the parents make a ticking sound, this is used as a signal for their chicks to hide their heads beneath the back of their parents and be silent. If chicks are greater than 4 weeks of age, they respond to the ticking by swimming or diving away on their own. When making a ticking sound, the callers do not open their mouths, so it is hard to distinguish who is the maker of the sound. The parent who carries the chicks tend to make the ticking sound more often than those that do not, and both of male and female parents are equally likely to tick. Another vocalization noise is clucking, and this signals for food. When a parent clucks, the young respond to it by poking their head out of their parent back where they are on to receive food.
Reproduction and survival
The clutch size decreases as the mating season progresses, meaning if the mating is done at the last of days in mating season, the number of offspring produced is smaller. However it is also stated brood size of nests that hatched later in the season is larger than those from earlier, which contradicts previous findings. This may be due to ecological constraints. Ecological constraints also pressure the young, and this may lead to siblicide in the first weeks after hatching, which may explain the brooding differences. Also, Western grebes are sensitive to humans, such that when there is human disturbance near them, the parents leave their nest, leaving their unhatched eggs vulnerable to attacks by predators. This shows the predation or even the seemingly threatening acts result in a decrease of reproduction and survival of the young. Because they are so sensitive, there have been restoration efforts to rebuild the Western grebes' native habitats, so that they have greater opportunity to reproduce and raise their young without disturbance or threat. The number of Grebes has been slowly declining in the last two decades, not only because of predation, but also because of habitat destruction, with oil spillage being one of the major causes.
Food and feeding
This bird dives for carp, herring, mollusks, crabs, and amphibians, such as salamanders. It often peers below the water before diving. Recent observations suggest that the grebe dives at the bottom of the lake. Some smaller fish are impaled much like herons, with the bill, but others are grasped. Most are swallowed underwater, but some are brought to the surface, pinched, and swallowed.
References
Further reading
External links
Western Grebe Species Account - Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Western Grebe - Aechmophorus occidentalis - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Stamps (for Canada) at bird-stamps.org
Aechmophorus
Podicipedidae
Grebe, Western
Grebe, Western
Grebe, Western
Grebe, Western
Birds described in 1858
Taxa named by George Newbold Lawrence
|
[
-0.24581250548362732,
0.5083951354026794,
-0.8267850875854492,
-0.13952136039733887,
-0.08150430768728256,
0.6091703176498413,
0.5470247864723206,
0.7212192416191101,
-0.15364229679107666,
-0.7038127183914185,
-0.2236771434545517,
0.40183523297309875,
-0.19612091779708862,
0.21425113081932068,
0.275473028421402,
0.38761261105537415,
0.27295157313346863,
0.03824687376618385,
0.6400526762008667,
-0.5111414790153503,
-0.3957594037055969,
-0.5630002021789551,
0.09540067613124847,
-0.822757363319397,
0.6103643178939819,
-0.024926092475652695,
0.4859335422515869,
0.5504529476165771,
-0.17203868925571442,
-0.01213846355676651,
-0.40250352025032043,
1.3578039407730103,
0.09925919771194458,
0.3199308514595032,
-0.2656858265399933,
-0.0034630759619176388,
-0.19218085706233978,
-0.6999523639678955,
-0.1530137062072754,
-0.5631693601608276,
0.5984206199645996,
-0.15400613844394684,
0.283875972032547,
0.20154353976249695,
-0.5042979121208191,
-0.4968414604663849,
-1.7604314088821411,
-0.22052432596683502,
-0.7511986494064331,
-0.35860875248908997,
-0.47304901480674744,
0.9205628633499146,
-0.452928364276886,
0.4279976487159729,
0.0672084167599678,
0.2823428213596344,
-0.6785434484481812,
-0.1999751329421997,
0.22021743655204773,
-0.011418192647397518,
-0.17569367587566376,
0.448616623878479,
-0.4158530533313751,
0.5924153923988342,
0.29135093092918396,
0.6429750919342041,
0.1607474386692047,
0.0033324037212878466,
-0.4292577803134918,
0.006750507280230522,
-0.2743676006793976,
-0.2682499587535858,
-0.21884974837303162,
0.2358585000038147,
-0.3256068825721741,
-0.10168072581291199,
0.17354166507720947,
0.07736794650554657,
0.0018933754181489348,
-0.08778403699398041,
-0.13318809866905212,
0.3381001055240631,
0.6776049137115479,
0.08008156716823578,
0.14491403102874756,
0.026213234290480614,
-0.3059522211551666,
-0.015171500854194164,
-0.5658011436462402,
0.4724377989768982,
-0.41082268953323364,
-0.16197025775909424,
-0.17059214413166046,
0.02286463789641857,
-0.15911167860031128,
-0.9565008878707886,
-0.25584784150123596,
0.13586314022541046,
0.478739857673645,
-0.37454572319984436,
-0.574648916721344,
-0.33922210335731506,
0.7452641129493713,
0.40250808000564575,
-0.37717151641845703,
0.013497491367161274,
-0.4793579578399658,
-0.39418527483940125,
-0.1185997948050499,
0.26810121536254883,
0.0405297614634037,
0.27512264251708984,
-0.1209733709692955,
0.26060351729393005,
0.3239196240901947,
0.602154552936554,
0.24565336108207703,
-0.40835726261138916,
-0.14800864458084106,
-0.3285371661186218,
0.7869948744773865,
0.33655640482902527,
0.07830684632062912,
-0.008658625185489655,
-0.25498253107070923,
0.2606479227542877,
0.32495638728141785,
0.09774595499038696,
-0.4310196042060852,
0.4222380518913269,
0.5658378005027771,
1.102371335029602,
0.14089734852313995,
0.22715073823928833,
-0.5761517882347107,
0.11580813676118851,
-0.13171832263469696,
-0.49234262108802795,
-0.011284376494586468,
0.39671799540519714,
-0.7238339781761169,
0.19458088278770447,
-0.9807960391044617,
-0.33221885561943054,
0.35005563497543335,
0.5846124291419983,
0.557755172252655,
-0.4266815483570099,
-0.17424160242080688,
-0.33628982305526733,
0.34972143173217773,
-0.09759952127933502,
-0.15669281780719757,
0.017129603773355484,
-0.2753964960575104,
-0.31269970536231995,
0.687986433506012,
-0.17957383394241333,
0.22644339501857758,
-0.07926534861326218,
-0.304578572511673,
0.34412360191345215,
0.000032652420486556366,
-0.06559975445270538,
-0.2327936291694641,
-0.7887076139450073,
-0.24927234649658203,
0.0038937239442020655,
-0.48924288153648376,
0.3245905041694641,
0.10787319391965866,
0.26495519280433655,
1.0993900299072266,
0.31575140357017517,
-0.1436125487089157,
-0.7402479648590088,
0.36674362421035767,
0.29473215341567993,
0.3416142761707306,
0.17430566251277924,
-0.6812425851821899,
-0.03734184429049492,
0.27137142419815063,
0.05355533957481384,
0.4486769735813141,
0.17815351486206055,
0.5113233923912048,
0.27345070242881775,
-0.1604558378458023,
-0.5722228288650513,
-0.9178968071937561,
-1.021040678024292,
0.3333847224712372,
0.3109387755393982,
0.4758753776550293,
0.38441336154937744,
0.016491031274199486,
-0.059381499886512756,
0.24180151522159576,
-0.22731414437294006,
-0.6435829401016235,
-0.2604144215583801,
0.23696735501289368,
0.13840022683143616,
-0.951015830039978,
1.0406880378723145,
-0.01509487722069025,
0.5180110931396484,
0.2710203528404236,
0.3549397587776184,
-0.23664186894893646,
-0.11242414265871048,
-0.06231514737010002,
0.1780996173620224,
-0.1927000880241394,
-0.21141622960567474,
0.2405441403388977,
0.026683544740080833,
-0.27180400490760803,
-0.17857776582241058,
0.80039381980896,
0.07617521286010742,
-0.2996280789375305,
0.09449338912963867,
-0.326711505651474,
0.2761153280735016,
0.2601383924484253,
0.08126724511384964,
0.24558499455451965,
-0.20941752195358276,
-0.12078732997179031,
0.018593529239296913,
0.5380005240440369,
-0.7372620701789856,
-0.26157549023628235,
0.09774694591760635,
-0.025739703327417374,
-0.6874921917915344,
0.42710989713668823,
0.1964709311723709,
0.01637897454202175,
0.128292977809906,
-0.12923124432563782,
0.7472924590110779,
0.23912504315376282,
-0.10826509445905685,
-0.023733926936984062,
0.839961051940918,
-0.5009953379631042,
-0.16454429924488068,
0.28621506690979004,
0.5150637030601501,
0.11636221408843994,
0.18343211710453033,
-0.03974034637212753,
0.42628780007362366,
0.36679399013519287,
0.00008511507621733472,
0.3569274842739105,
0.1210431233048439,
-0.6641133427619934,
0.27246835827827454,
0.033259641379117966,
0.4566848874092102,
-0.29088088870048523,
-0.3881659507751465,
-0.24417370557785034,
-0.05496792495250702,
0.02982482872903347,
0.2807551920413971,
0.3191909193992615,
0.34010687470436096,
-0.7284949421882629,
0.44580894708633423,
0.07967379689216614,
-0.23008152842521667,
0.22014059126377106,
-0.19245298206806183,
-0.533161461353302,
-0.8276731371879578,
0.2314789593219757,
0.8462266325950623,
0.060883522033691406,
-0.10468973964452744,
0.09020281583070755,
-0.5488801598548889,
0.6033859252929688,
-0.23120544850826263,
-0.19606712460517883,
-0.6914465427398682,
-0.02667594701051712,
0.7979632019996643,
0.2680772542953491,
0.41344591975212097,
-0.748839259147644,
0.11657168716192245,
0.25969398021698,
0.6211680769920349,
0.5480232238769531,
-0.6695497632026672,
-0.157457634806633,
0.19293111562728882,
0.041047073900699615,
0.4543202519416809,
0.6010578870773315,
-0.48904576897621155,
-0.19117268919944763,
0.2353220283985138,
-5.336857318878174,
0.31000813841819763,
0.10343772172927856,
-0.11064829677343369,
0.6911539435386658,
0.14485794305801392,
0.22249151766300201,
-0.45114561915397644,
-0.21092921495437622,
0.07399551570415497,
0.6666613817214966,
0.033544350415468216,
0.08080044388771057,
0.060562100261449814,
0.5482429265975952,
-0.40710753202438354,
-0.061411302536726,
0.16404712200164795,
-0.22389662265777588,
0.14168819785118103,
0.41850465536117554,
-0.04831484332680702,
0.019560780376195908,
0.2964661717414856,
0.08419495820999146,
-0.007974978536367416,
0.017398225143551826,
-0.49760523438453674,
-0.31737905740737915,
-0.1157536655664444,
0.19819048047065735,
-0.3078323006629944,
0.1570306271314621,
0.24089021980762482,
0.41972336173057556,
-0.4490181505680084,
0.5736582279205322,
0.4763011932373047,
0.6193604469299316,
-0.09105567634105682,
-0.42783552408218384,
0.35340309143066406,
0.05861485004425049,
0.061225224286317825,
-0.24094566702842712,
0.17382195591926575,
0.16859495639801025,
-0.4000037610530853,
0.6176696419715881,
0.6409294009208679,
-0.04144291579723358,
0.14619259536266327,
-0.0030050852801650763,
0.3851851522922516,
0.46120524406433105,
0.028764396905899048,
-0.47924038767814636,
0.47227632999420166,
-0.4346076548099518,
0.34393373131752014,
0.6724451780319214,
-0.3110453486442566,
-0.46213480830192566,
-0.9295479655265808,
-0.27586644887924194,
-0.11761867254972458,
-0.9176540374755859,
0.5358368754386902,
0.7223073244094849,
-0.1161954253911972,
0.09877129644155502,
-0.022382253780961037,
-0.28151360154151917,
-0.743615984916687,
0.28145235776901245,
-0.5107161998748779,
-0.0011362748919054866,
-0.3108249306678772,
-0.14896023273468018,
-0.2140081524848938,
-0.24073603749275208,
-0.3476051688194275,
0.30102500319480896,
-0.0595693476498127,
0.3285048305988312,
-0.8690543174743652,
-0.6082912087440491,
0.16339439153671265,
-0.12326560914516449,
-1.1525423526763916,
0.23132410645484924,
-0.7630009055137634,
0.14331237971782684,
0.34071215987205505,
0.41962486505508423,
0.5014934539794922,
-0.09478921443223953,
0.1334136426448822,
0.40228497982025146,
-0.08111395686864853,
0.5970199704170227,
-0.39018186926841736,
0.033483169972896576,
-0.3333453834056854,
-0.23867197334766388,
-0.5625587701797485,
0.14181475341320038,
0.6121231317520142,
1.063386082649231,
-0.4480557143688202,
0.5307459831237793,
-0.1044524759054184,
-0.5416371822357178,
0.14575405418872833,
-0.017758788540959358,
0.5200836658477783,
-0.24166856706142426,
-0.3144914209842682,
0.6370810270309448,
0.7337743043899536,
0.7348028421401978,
0.0009016728727146983,
-0.3977075219154358,
-0.2803380787372589,
-0.5494202375411987,
-0.12026519328355789,
0.544638991355896,
-0.04539094492793083,
-1.4300189018249512,
-0.5724747776985168,
0.1663028746843338,
-0.2934543490409851,
0.2750324308872223,
-0.6651213765144348,
0.4208175837993622,
-0.034190818667411804,
-0.30997082591056824,
0.3949512243270874,
0.22731968760490417,
-0.10627519339323044,
-0.5336166024208069,
-0.7444218993186951,
-0.08246109634637833,
-0.03251495584845543,
0.4972338378429413,
-0.050088562071323395,
-0.3457743227481842,
-0.8462226986885071,
-0.4198153018951416,
0.5531527996063232,
0.22325751185417175,
-0.1554606854915619,
-0.20926426351070404,
-0.3589935600757599,
0.4521218538284302,
-0.15898624062538147,
0.328421950340271,
-0.19296447932720184,
0.2769825756549835,
-0.752395510673523,
-0.23277217149734497,
-0.08324325084686279,
-1.034454107284546,
0.09443587809801102,
0.36023738980293274,
-0.2687084972858429,
-0.3461286723613739,
-0.7057052850723267,
0.35086342692375183,
0.5716053247451782,
0.42367488145828247,
0.1063627228140831,
-0.24929243326187134,
0.3822389543056488,
-0.31500452756881714,
0.0018688287818804383,
-0.436688631772995,
0.3002605438232422,
0.12730969488620758,
0.04034670069813728,
-0.4274193048477173,
0.22153165936470032,
-0.18003633618354797,
-0.45353713631629944,
-0.04328349232673645,
-0.7820714712142944,
-0.22118179500102997,
0.487751841545105,
-0.13150641322135925,
-0.4472584128379822,
0.39327841997146606,
0.22167041897773743,
0.453193724155426,
0.5357717275619507,
-0.6240198612213135,
-0.08679716289043427,
-0.09010886400938034,
1.0166471004486084,
0.014476064592599869,
-0.3183456063270569,
0.0029676835983991623,
-0.19577567279338837,
-0.054303936660289764,
-0.1305537074804306,
-0.041257720440626144,
-0.9571579694747925,
0.5497478246688843,
-0.4334719479084015,
-0.9093316197395325,
0.3795076906681061,
-0.5816898941993713,
-0.6725696325302124,
0.13654132187366486,
1.2740659713745117,
-0.1028892919421196,
-0.5209230780601501,
0.2382597029209137,
0.2742978632450104,
-0.1868119239807129,
0.29877787828445435,
-0.6237416863441467,
0.012750514782965183,
-0.22689463198184967,
-0.36481714248657227,
-0.8439496159553528,
-0.09278497844934464,
0.24670326709747314,
-0.03708226606249809,
0.41397973895072937,
-0.5479785799980164,
-0.07195068895816803,
-0.15868590772151947,
0.9103729128837585,
0.017598651349544525,
-0.10094743967056274,
0.2238227128982544,
0.14865702390670776,
-0.30789169669151306,
0.1385105401277542,
0.3803515136241913,
0.8539463877677917,
0.8169993162155151,
0.6230353713035583,
-0.06359165906906128,
-0.5010660290718079,
0.5440253019332886,
-0.3412342965602875,
0.12532687187194824,
-0.762280285358429,
-0.10389295965433121,
0.866859495639801,
0.05607694387435913,
-0.4199868142604828,
0.816981852054596,
0.7018721699714661,
0.08206427097320557,
-0.5147418975830078,
0.05935525894165039,
-0.3184373080730438,
0.4279267191886902,
0.6357142329216003,
0.31834328174591064,
-0.09563695639371872,
0.5707412958145142,
-0.3487650156021118,
-0.38023877143859863,
-0.4228397309780121,
0.22896334528923035,
0.25277048349380493,
-0.07341925799846649,
0.19259725511074066,
-0.15267497301101685,
-0.03716326504945755,
-0.050577130168676376,
0.017926761880517006,
0.037662193179130554,
-0.4476976692676544,
-1.3704687356948853,
-0.16955968737602234,
0.17788492143154144,
-0.4866253733634949,
-0.15777282416820526,
0.1387086808681488,
-0.3782501220703125,
-0.435520738363266,
-0.31609177589416504,
-0.5740851759910583,
-0.24281194806098938,
-0.23491795361042023,
-0.6082718968391418,
-0.25458085536956787,
-0.36589914560317993,
-0.9781810641288757,
0.05740274861454964,
-0.18048357963562012,
0.12350494414567947,
-0.2957887649536133,
0.435344934463501,
-0.22898292541503906,
0.12868256866931915,
-1.2139952182769775,
0.44983288645744324,
0.20309463143348694,
-0.5311004519462585,
0.39014217257499695,
-0.028859106823801994,
-0.6034997701644897,
0.2674998939037323,
-0.20366691052913666,
-0.5369526743888855,
0.7037400603294373,
-0.7178031206130981,
-0.1263098120689392,
0.8770055770874023,
-0.10442228615283966,
0.09121797978878021,
-0.005482502747327089,
-0.6034988164901733,
0.7805910110473633,
0.9345749616622925,
0.2510961592197418,
0.12918706238269806,
0.8263521790504456,
0.611150860786438,
-0.22018127143383026,
0.7881699204444885,
-0.8087683916091919,
0.04850761592388153,
0.9455909132957458,
0.39295294880867004,
0.003506149398162961,
-0.2012074887752533,
-0.3769826889038086,
-0.27360185980796814,
-0.10367975383996964,
0.05254625901579857,
0.3293532729148865,
-0.46511390805244446,
-0.09536776691675186,
0.829336941242218,
0.5440921187400818,
0.14249809086322784,
0.2261522114276886,
0.18309363722801208,
-0.07899392396211624,
0.13055528700351715,
-0.24173478782176971,
0.21698711812496185,
0.011032117530703545,
-0.3424464464187622,
0.21873004734516144,
-0.2728026807308197,
0.494400292634964,
-0.6453329920768738,
0.5047903060913086,
0.02122308313846588,
0.21698617935180664,
0.42617467045783997,
-0.8543349504470825,
0.15170273184776306,
0.21485978364944458,
0.42288851737976074,
0.1627614051103592,
-0.14888030290603638,
-0.9114823937416077,
0.11354448646306992,
-0.14355114102363586,
-0.6406168937683105,
-0.36040493845939636,
0.19517818093299866,
-0.14834819734096527,
0.22420240938663483,
0.03733941912651062,
-0.024525223299860954,
0.38237541913986206,
0.15896861255168915,
0.12235116213560104,
0.1694113165140152,
0.15319375693798065,
0.2672618627548218,
-0.2341468334197998,
0.05277860909700394,
0.4042637348175049,
-0.8855777382850647,
0.12600919604301453,
-0.12022940069437027,
0.23521897196769714,
-0.647466242313385,
-0.30769723653793335,
-0.3343280851840973,
-0.2943650186061859,
-0.945713222026825,
-0.08946723490953445,
0.054697658866643906,
-0.030396493151783943,
-1.0185757875442505,
0.512767493724823,
1.4617035388946533,
-0.22434808313846588,
-0.12407557666301727,
0.6725513339042664,
0.1815861463546753,
-0.18238486349582672,
0.06224442273378372,
-0.11858797818422318,
0.21522438526153564,
-0.11895058304071426,
0.6562261581420898,
-0.34131890535354614,
0.6177404522895813,
0.8806514143943787,
0.23890753090381622,
-0.1741839051246643,
0.05529379844665527,
0.019532140344381332,
-0.025802476331591606,
0.46115928888320923,
0.09679708629846573,
0.243430957198143,
0.04854849353432655,
0.03755864500999451,
0.09531515836715698,
0.21576739847660065,
-0.1558128446340561,
0.16176313161849976,
0.29358869791030884,
0.42770856618881226,
0.19121089577674866,
-0.6415759325027466,
0.6692911386489868,
-0.43990176916122437,
0.2794956564903259,
-1.2430788278579712,
0.12919221818447113,
-0.4883803129196167,
-0.27430418133735657,
0.2664596438407898,
0.14466503262519836,
-0.22826287150382996,
0.11289310455322266,
0.5669179558753967,
-0.3794362545013428,
0.5670777559280396,
-0.03129605948925018,
-0.8843743205070496,
-0.19468821585178375,
-0.25357767939567566,
-0.9087114930152893,
-0.7735795378684998,
0.1494615077972412,
0.28402647376060486,
-0.3031391203403473,
-0.05370686203241348,
0.11089654266834259,
0.14869265258312225,
-0.030230816453695297,
0.23778578639030457,
-0.2762383222579956,
0.4252277910709381,
0.027601011097431183
] |
213197
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan%20Zittrain
|
Jonathan Zittrain
|
Jonathan L. Zittrain (born 24 December 1969) is an American professor of Internet law and the George Bemis Professor of International Law at Harvard Law School. He is also a professor at the Harvard Kennedy School, a professor of computer science at the Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, and co-founder and director of Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society. Previously, Zittrain was Professor of Internet Governance and Regulation at the Oxford Internet Institute of the University of Oxford and visiting professor at the New York University School of Law and Stanford Law School. He is the author of The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It as well as co-editor of the books, Access Denied (MIT Press, 2008), Access Controlled (MIT Press, 2010), and Access Contested (MIT Press, 2011).
Zittrain works in several intersections of the Internet with law and policy including intellectual property, censorship and filtering for content control, and computer security. He founded a project at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society that develops classroom tools. In 2001 he helped found Chilling Effects, a collaborative archive created by Wendy Seltzer to protect lawful online activity from legal threats. He also served as vice dean for Library and Information Resources at Harvard.
Family and education
Zittrain is the son of two attorneys, Ruth A. Zittrain and Lester E. Zittrain. In 2004 with Jennifer K. Harrison, Zittrain published The Torts Game: Defending Mean Joe Greene, a book the authors dedicated to their parents. His brother, Jeff, is an established Bay Area musician. His sister, Laurie Zittrain Eisenberg, is a scholar of the Arab and Israeli conflict and teaches at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh.
Zittrain, who grew up in the suburb of Churchill outside of Pittsburgh, graduated in 1987 from Shady Side Academy, a private school in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He holds a bachelor's summa cum laude in cognitive science and artificial intelligence from Yale University, 1991, where he was a member of the Yale Political Union, Manuscript Society and Davenport College, a JD magna cum laude from Harvard Law School, 1995, where he was the winner of the Williston Negotiation Competition, and a master of public administration from Harvard's John F. Kennedy School of Government, 1995.
He was law clerk for Stephen F. Williams of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit and served with the U.S. Department of Justice and, in 1991, with the Department of State, as well as at the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence in 1992 and 1994. He was a longtime forum administrator, or sysop, for the online service CompuServe, serving for many years as the chief administrator for its private forum for all of its forum administrators.
Later career
Zittrain joined the staff of the University of Oxford in Oxford in the United Kingdom as of September 2005. He held the Chair in Internet Governance and Regulation, was a principal of the Oxford Internet Institute, and was a Professorial Fellow of Keble College, which has developed a particular interest in computer science and public policy. In the United States, he was also the Jack N. & Lillian R. Berkman Visiting Professor for Entrepreneurial Legal Studies at Harvard Law School in Cambridge, Massachusetts and director and founder with Charles Nesson of its Berkman Center for Internet & Society. Zittrain was a visiting professor at the Stanford Law School in 2007 and was a visiting professor at New York University School of Law in Manhattan for the spring 2008 semester.
Zittrain taught, or taught with others, Harvard's courses on Cyberlaw: Internet Points of Control, The Exploding Internet: Building A Global Commons in Cyberspace, Torts, Internet & Society: The Technologies and Politics of Control, The Law of Cyberspace, The Law of Cyberspace: Social Protocols, Privacy Policy, The Microsoft Case, and The High Tech Entrepreneur. He searched for novel ways to use technology unobtrusively in the classroom at Harvard, founded H2O and used the system to teach his classes. Students are polled, assigned opposing arguments, and use H2O to develop their writing skills. Students enrolled in his The Internet and Society class could participate both orally and via the Internet. A teaching fellow seated in the classroom supplied Zittrain with the comments received from students in real time via e-mail as well as through "chat" or "instant message" from students participating in the class while logged into Second Life. (www.secondlife.com)
He has been critical of the process used by ICANN, the International Telecommunication Union and the World Summit on the Information Society. Although he describes their approach as, in some ways, simple and naïve, Zittrain sees more hope in the open Internet Engineering Task Force model and in the ethical code and assumption of good faith that govern Wikipedia. He wrote in 2008, "Wikipedia—with the cooperation of many Wikipedians—has developed a system of self-governance that has many indicia of the rule of law without heavy reliance on outside authority or boundary."
In 2009 Zittrain was elected to the Internet Society's board of trustees for a four-year term. In February 2011 he joined the board of the Electronic Frontier Foundation. In May 2011 Zittrain was made for Federal Communications Commission Distinguished Scholar. In May 2012 he was made for Chair at Federal Communications Commission Open Internet Advisory Committee.
Internet filtering
The OpenNet Initiative (ONI) monitors Internet censorship by national governments. Between 2001 and 2003 at Harvard's Berkman Center, Zittrain and Benjamin Edelman studied Internet filtering. In their tests during 2002, when Google had indexed almost 2.5 billion pages, they found sites blocked, from approximately 100 in France and Germany to 2,000 in Saudi Arabia, and 20,000 in the People's Republic of China. The authors published a statement of issues and a call for data that year.
Building on the work completed at the Berkman Center, ONI published special reports, case studies, and bulletins beginning in 2004, and as of 2008, offered research on filtering in 40 countries as well as by regions of the world. As of 2016, Zittrain remains a principal investigator at ONI, together with Ronald Deibert of the University of Toronto, John Palfrey, who was previously the executive director of the Berkman Center (now the head of School at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts), and Rafal Rohozinski of the University of Cambridge.
In 2001, Zittrain cofounded Chilling Effects with his students and former students, including its creator and leader, Wendy Seltzer. It monitors cease and desist letters. Google directs its users to Chilling Effects when its search results have been altered at the request of a national government. Since 2002, researchers have been using the clearinghouse (renamed "Lumen" in 2015) to study the use of cease-and-desist letters, primarily looking at DMCA 512 takedown notices, non-DMCA copyright, and trademark claims.
Copyright
On October 9, 2002, Zittrain and Lawrence Lessig argued a landmark case, known as Eldred v. Ashcroft, before the United States Supreme Court. As co-counsel for the plaintiff, they argued that the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act (CTEA) was unconstitutional. The court ruled 7–2 on January 15, 2003 to uphold the CTEA which extended existing copyrights 20 years, from the life of the author plus 50 years, to plus 70 years. In the words of Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, the petitioners did "not challenge the CTEA's 'life-plus-70-years' time span itself. They maintain that Congress went awry not with respect to newly created works, but in enlarging the term for published works with existing copyrights." The court found that the act did "not exceed Congress' power" and that "CTEA's extension of existing and future copyrights does not violate the First Amendment". In 2003 Zittrain said he was concerned that Congress will hear the same arguments after the 20-year extension passes, and that the Internet is causing a "cultural reassessment of the meaning of copyright".
Security
After Zittrain joined the staff at Oxford, Zittrain and John Palfrey at the Berkman Center founded StopBadware.org in 2006 to function as a clearinghouse for what has become proliferation of malware. Borrowing Wikipedia's "ethical code that encourages users to do the right thing rather than the required thing", the organization wished to assign the task of data collection—and not analysis—about malware to Internet users at large. When its scans find dangerous code, Google places StopBadware alerts in its search results and rescans later to determine whether a site thereafter had been cleaned.
One of StopBadware's goals is to "preempt" the stifling of the Internet. The founders think that centralized regulation could follow a serious Internet security breach, and that consumers might then choose to purchase closed, centrally managed solutions like tethered appliances that are modified by their vendor rather than owner, or might flee to services in walled gardens. In Zittrain's word, "generative" devices and platforms, including the Internet itself, offer an opening forward. In 2007, he cautioned, "...we're moving to software-as-service, which can be yanked or transformed at any moment. The ability of your PC to run independent code is an important safety valve."
Reactions in the Boston Review accompanied the publication of his book, The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It, in 2008. Support came from David D. Clark and Susan P. Crawford. Criticism ranged from Richard Stallman's finding no evidence of a flight to closed systems and his message that software developers need control and software patents must end, to a request for cost-benefit analysis, to the belief that netizenship won't scale to the business world to faith that consumers will buy only open, non-proprietary systems.
Directed by Palfrey and Zittrain, StopBadware receives high-level guidance from its advisory board: Vint Cerf of Google, Esther Dyson, George He of Lenovo, Greg Papadopoulos (formerly CTO of Sun Microsystems), and Ari Schwartz of the Center for Democracy and Technology. The working group, which has included Ben Adida, Scott Bradner, Beau Brendler, Jerry Gregoire, Eric L. Howes, and Nart Villeneuve at various times, frames the project's research agenda and methodology and is the body which helps to inform the public about StopBadware's work. StopBadware has been supported by AOL, Google, eBay/PayPal, Lenovo, Trend Micro, and VeriSign and its use has been advised by Consumer Reports WebWatch.
Stock markets and spam
Writing with Laura Freider of Purdue University, in 2008 Zittrain published Spam Works: Evidence from Stock Touts and Corresponding Market Activity, in the Hastings Communications and Entertainment Law Journal to document the manipulation of stock prices via spam e-mail. They found evidence that "stocks experience a significantly positive return on days prior to heavy touting via spam" and that "prolific spamming greatly affects the trading volume of a targeted stock". Apart from transaction costs, in some circumstances the spammer earned over 4% while the average investor who bought on the day of receipt of the spam would lose more than 5% if they sold two days later. Frieder said in 2006 that she knew of no other explanation for their results, but that people do follow the stock tips in their spam e-mail.
Facebook
In February 2019, Zittrain interviewed Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg as part of a seminar for students at Harvard.
Recent publications
(online book)
Notes
External links
Home pages
Media coverage
1969 births
Living people
American legal scholars
Fellows of Keble College, Oxford
Harvard Law School alumni
Harvard Law School faculty
Harvard Kennedy School alumni
New York University faculty
Lawyers from Pittsburgh
Stanford Law School faculty
Yale University alumni
Shady Side Academy alumni
|
[
-0.5294185876846313,
0.4701474905014038,
-0.46951526403427124,
-0.5287522077560425,
-0.031167924404144287,
0.2459779679775238,
0.5703433156013489,
0.5092403888702393,
-0.522361159324646,
-0.7116804122924805,
-0.6522992253303528,
-0.059294141829013824,
0.05620662868022919,
0.004546001553535461,
0.4397592842578888,
0.2452591508626938,
0.21345095336437225,
0.21943409740924835,
-0.4188040494918823,
-0.5910407304763794,
0.11173122376203537,
-0.27264145016670227,
0.2018975466489792,
-0.45856866240501404,
0.1886005699634552,
-0.3607729971408844,
0.4061012864112854,
-0.27093788981437683,
-0.2969091534614563,
0.016732215881347656,
-0.356533408164978,
0.30057504773139954,
0.07097011059522629,
-0.13943932950496674,
0.22334198653697968,
-0.47652173042297363,
0.22656376659870148,
-0.5675677061080933,
0.35393062233924866,
-0.07422909885644913,
0.2592441737651825,
0.14352427423000336,
0.4047311544418335,
0.12860748171806335,
0.22910544276237488,
-0.020845193415880203,
-2.3644299507141113,
-0.059396520256996155,
-0.5747196674346924,
0.3887861371040344,
0.02410980314016342,
0.24334090948104858,
0.7593598961830139,
0.6742774844169617,
-0.008213430643081665,
0.521231472492218,
-0.7013383507728577,
0.32139405608177185,
0.5947897434234619,
0.09378854185342789,
0.1927090585231781,
0.2664351463317871,
-0.14053887128829956,
0.45848190784454346,
-0.09931021183729172,
0.27484989166259766,
-0.7197864651679993,
0.34418147802352905,
-0.0072326366789639,
-0.011718527413904667,
0.06969095021486282,
0.012195564806461334,
0.12305957078933716,
0.5374547243118286,
-0.5766528248786926,
0.21582718193531036,
0.3477359116077423,
-0.2809016704559326,
-0.37593895196914673,
0.29899564385414124,
-0.15796257555484772,
0.31541648507118225,
1.266823172569275,
0.03352922201156616,
0.2960246205329895,
0.261672705411911,
-0.42018622159957886,
-0.3892933130264282,
0.5997400283813477,
0.25350913405418396,
0.3564739227294922,
-0.26346835494041443,
-0.5283874869346619,
0.044245101511478424,
0.4598837196826935,
-0.17014767229557037,
-0.04713102802634239,
0.4752977192401886,
-0.27910852432250977,
-0.07325417548418045,
-0.3384832739830017,
0.3696884214878082,
0.2625468671321869,
-0.23684027791023254,
-0.4878234565258026,
0.297482430934906,
-0.06883571296930313,
-0.1958213746547699,
0.6645893454551697,
-1.7396106719970703,
-0.010664296336472034,
0.5541028380393982,
-0.06910666823387146,
-0.5044535994529724,
0.0056132785975933075,
0.008185909129679203,
0.7610694169998169,
0.1308775544166565,
-0.31636562943458557,
-0.018522942438721657,
0.06096171960234642,
0.4435481131076813,
0.04434816911816597,
-0.0041011059656739235,
-0.2920204997062683,
0.31606417894363403,
0.266073614358902,
0.3312714397907257,
0.0738118439912796,
-0.017288265749812126,
0.021219119429588318,
1.0760575532913208,
-0.05684168264269829,
-0.6717222929000854,
-0.2870562672615051,
0.21427947282791138,
0.37824225425720215,
0.3237275779247284,
-0.13920237123966217,
-0.04554201662540436,
-0.4011492431163788,
-0.23977130651474,
-2.9482884407043457,
0.04825643077492714,
0.28860029578208923,
-0.02848909981548786,
0.08165077120065689,
-0.38445401191711426,
0.12184487283229828,
0.4330073893070221,
0.032414212822914124,
-0.1606900542974472,
-0.3604872524738312,
0.11308034509420395,
-0.40538695454597473,
-0.34925469756126404,
0.33947139978408813,
0.4566906690597534,
0.3834606111049652,
0.10537202656269073,
0.046561963856220245,
0.23372025787830353,
0.006536558736115694,
-0.14399737119674683,
-0.02062937058508396,
0.02869109809398651,
-0.14662395417690277,
-0.0718972235918045,
0.12811221182346344,
-0.4659442603588104,
-0.556695818901062,
-0.1841696947813034,
0.00015393907960969955,
-0.3267990052700043,
0.4539570212364197,
0.29382243752479553,
0.9605461359024048,
0.6976041197776794,
0.12084153294563293,
-0.4383062720298767,
-0.6872029900550842,
0.16220717132091522,
-0.15474458038806915,
-0.4426088035106659,
0.14059093594551086,
0.21999314427375793,
0.5302150249481201,
0.48023805022239685,
0.19163116812705994,
0.4294065237045288,
-0.40684524178504944,
-0.1274985522031784,
0.4258682131767273,
-0.19802400469779968,
0.7003030776977539,
0.1648123562335968,
-0.4092200696468353,
0.7894916534423828,
0.15798792243003845,
0.45075881481170654,
-0.2666206955909729,
-0.5738595724105835,
0.21189197897911072,
-0.07814425230026245,
-0.11782379448413849,
2.4027810096740723,
0.03128243610262871,
-0.05389867350459099,
0.02843649499118328,
0.6784203052520752,
0.8724680542945862,
-0.4612703025341034,
0.10527940839529037,
0.030191728845238686,
-0.07390143722295761,
-0.2529093325138092,
-0.11893495917320251,
-0.3816310465335846,
-0.38925084471702576,
-0.00253632222302258,
0.7406972646713257,
-0.21206972002983093,
0.2896885573863983,
0.5279337763786316,
-0.06216723471879959,
1.2212527990341187,
0.12052904069423676,
0.11244778335094452,
0.185869961977005,
-0.3972302973270416,
-0.2601574957370758,
-0.17029358446598053,
-0.4252588152885437,
-0.4465447664260864,
0.2917914092540741,
0.25795626640319824,
0.09785790741443634,
-0.6854749321937561,
0.6550493240356445,
0.17707838118076324,
0.7952358722686768,
-0.18360313773155212,
0.4132954776287079,
0.07525674998760223,
-0.3154516816139221,
0.42216023802757263,
-0.06299608200788498,
0.20542342960834503,
-0.06850828230381012,
-0.5417803525924683,
0.4510968327522278,
0.0409516878426075,
-0.1358598917722702,
-0.2298405021429062,
-0.38927656412124634,
0.1272832155227661,
0.1574232131242752,
0.11995260417461395,
0.1332668662071228,
-0.1264294981956482,
-0.2550639808177948,
-0.027157196775078773,
0.2938082814216614,
0.06258407235145569,
-0.363439679145813,
-0.4337518513202667,
-0.10062071681022644,
-0.8759065866470337,
0.014472722075879574,
0.17796555161476135,
0.08448333293199539,
-0.007748243398964405,
-0.6065643429756165,
-2.547473907470703,
-0.09161867946386337,
0.6888788342475891,
0.18605011701583862,
0.4497498571872711,
-0.1213718131184578,
-0.134116068482399,
0.09525931626558304,
0.37189769744873047,
0.08762060105800629,
0.02140354923903942,
-0.3829309046268463,
-0.315204381942749,
0.40138059854507446,
0.00485359039157629,
-0.08199510723352432,
-0.05809670686721802,
-0.0031854973640292883,
0.21880540251731873,
0.26391085982322693,
0.08875337243080139,
-0.05039830133318901,
0.49337348341941833,
-0.12667924165725708,
-0.16812191903591156,
-0.266311377286911,
-0.21836990118026733,
-0.009846835397183895,
0.3545885980129242,
-0.48981600999832153,
0.6083283424377441,
0.44421324133872986,
0.08845707029104233,
-0.2318938970565796,
0.053372085094451904,
-4.393727779388428,
0.012633983977138996,
-0.243739515542984,
0.0587095208466053,
-0.5025867819786072,
-0.2990739941596985,
0.5133548974990845,
-0.13747091591358185,
-0.32568487524986267,
-0.18709152936935425,
-0.03827871009707451,
-0.3477332293987274,
0.19487066566944122,
0.41133347153663635,
0.2489400953054428,
0.5315738320350647,
0.3245559334754944,
0.2009231448173523,
-0.10490939021110535,
0.3298225402832031,
-0.37478092312812805,
-0.20113100111484528,
-0.0914413183927536,
-0.4561631977558136,
0.6966874599456787,
0.2692616581916809,
-0.13953137397766113,
-0.022984351962804794,
-0.7326557040214539,
0.2186977118253708,
-0.4807278513908386,
-0.8499819040298462,
-0.24667781591415405,
-0.3642994463443756,
-0.24738571047782898,
-0.22285184264183044,
0.3509937822818756,
0.2931152284145355,
0.6476497650146484,
-0.10043254494667053,
-0.20163245499134064,
0.6934691071510315,
-0.4308822751045227,
0.41452693939208984,
0.11747819930315018,
-0.1574176847934723,
-0.7825839519500732,
-0.13997696340084076,
-0.2015421837568283,
0.28472664952278137,
-0.31551113724708557,
-0.5261533260345459,
1.0245447158813477,
0.3128431439399719,
0.16472949087619781,
-0.5906155705451965,
0.2717667818069458,
-0.48667848110198975,
-0.4821738302707672,
-0.27957314252853394,
0.6408169269561768,
-0.12640541791915894,
0.6388866305351257,
0.20008869469165802,
-0.1404763162136078,
-0.6179132461547852,
-0.013215197250247002,
-0.6352887153625488,
0.1682511866092682,
0.23683473467826843,
-0.27926817536354065,
0.4154932498931885,
0.39256751537323,
-0.706020176410675,
-0.3413181006908417,
-0.26706650853157043,
-0.5436921119689941,
-0.21382252871990204,
0.1801936775445938,
-0.3775804340839386,
-0.2352750152349472,
-0.05989503860473633,
-0.10034824162721634,
0.8385931849479675,
0.06940392404794693,
-0.4489358961582184,
-0.6381148099899292,
-0.07451408356428146,
-0.7965232729911804,
-0.30985620617866516,
0.11226413398981094,
-0.05636308714747429,
-0.09511848539113998,
0.27346280217170715,
-0.029863975942134857,
-0.4094386696815491,
1.0499318838119507,
-0.20034745335578918,
0.42797166109085083,
-0.05211155116558075,
0.1502719670534134,
-0.35677680373191833,
-0.5329911708831787,
-0.4543471038341522,
-0.11885218322277069,
0.10764432698488235,
-0.5934718251228333,
0.20220786333084106,
0.2937249541282654,
-0.1327780932188034,
-0.17130379378795624,
-0.26530221104621887,
-0.30228033661842346,
-0.10374631732702255,
0.6713401079177856,
-0.40831419825553894,
-0.014825228601694107,
-0.1361125409603119,
0.19902333617210388,
0.0816466435790062,
0.08736450225114822,
0.5809959173202515,
0.3631279170513153,
-0.153508722782135,
0.5849993228912354,
-0.048413779586553574,
0.2891111969947815,
-0.4289799928665161,
-0.6165825724601746,
0.039986055344343185,
0.13843879103660583,
0.26403090357780457,
-0.11652158200740814,
-0.4500238299369812,
-0.5132125616073608,
-0.3964623212814331,
-0.5341049432754517,
-0.32762467861175537,
0.2033427506685257,
0.5441950559616089,
0.2098473757505417,
0.19913096725940704,
-0.18647460639476776,
0.7871599793434143,
0.14360831677913666,
0.42683127522468567,
0.09542177617549896,
-0.23395270109176636,
-0.729616105556488,
0.2464584857225418,
-0.45492812991142273,
-0.6599785685539246,
0.4787904918193817,
0.39860478043556213,
0.37263649702072144,
-0.14595280587673187,
-0.6021724939346313,
0.4533013701438904,
-0.5688456296920776,
0.2964549958705902,
-0.001280496479012072,
-0.11007507890462875,
-0.8697693347930908,
0.28280478715896606,
0.43643784523010254,
-0.924571692943573,
0.4141315817832947,
-0.11013930290937424,
-0.2735631465911865,
0.2725091278553009,
-0.0672110766172409,
-0.16223815083503723,
0.09607940912246704,
-0.18421483039855957,
0.23289602994918823,
0.23435017466545105,
-0.002570222830399871,
0.23054103553295135,
0.32780346274375916,
0.04066010192036629,
0.4433054029941559,
0.028461620211601257,
0.35681819915771484,
0.8131246566772461,
0.6216591000556946,
-0.4635547399520874,
-0.17855387926101685,
-0.19872495532035828,
-0.43625062704086304,
0.5171566009521484,
0.06296733766794205,
0.2854037284851074,
0.8004773259162903,
0.8455662131309509,
-0.41601306200027466,
-0.44635310769081116,
0.5488458275794983,
-0.32465580105781555,
0.05326594039797783,
0.017708074301481247,
0.17104126513004303,
0.5554981231689453,
-0.5978328585624695,
0.39894887804985046,
-0.17686329782009125,
-0.7433992028236389,
0.4698849022388458,
-0.1991182267665863,
-0.6068422198295593,
0.44299450516700745,
-0.13170672953128815,
-0.2573208808898926,
0.2646237015724182,
0.3416097164154053,
-0.32482969760894775,
0.058370962738990784,
0.6928263902664185,
0.08841699361801147,
-0.4930221140384674,
-0.2467654049396515,
0.5298361778259277,
-0.25076109170913696,
-0.4013851583003998,
-0.03607633709907532,
-0.03791504725813866,
0.938904881477356,
0.011180187575519085,
-0.41091978549957275,
0.4738822877407074,
-0.15073174238204956,
-0.0002941683924291283,
-0.13400807976722717,
0.07070083916187286,
0.03429511934518814,
0.24103018641471863,
-0.18719302117824554,
-0.13409282267093658,
-0.06835401803255081,
-0.20170751214027405,
0.04391483962535858,
0.13742592930793762,
-0.04290192201733589,
0.23110567033290863,
-0.04318607598543167,
-0.5559706091880798,
0.0005840138765051961,
-0.20912352204322815,
-0.04875717684626579,
-0.5228768587112427,
0.4646107852458954,
-0.008240547962486744,
-0.7313668727874756,
-0.0820305272936821,
-0.8051881790161133,
1.0762317180633545,
0.3640980124473572,
-0.25342148542404175,
0.0392586812376976,
0.007835631258785725,
0.09186005592346191,
-0.04754485934972763,
0.006689010187983513,
-0.13545723259449005,
0.48116201162338257,
0.03462548926472664,
0.2482425421476364,
0.12572592496871948,
-0.0657074972987175,
0.09608247876167297,
-0.33410340547561646,
-0.8652735948562622,
-0.2941695749759674,
-0.21443124115467072,
0.416878342628479,
0.08253653347492218,
0.32217830419540405,
-0.3697095215320587,
-0.14291906356811523,
0.2083933800458908,
-0.5427202582359314,
0.8409773111343384,
0.1702394187450409,
-0.07137022167444229,
-0.1298685520887375,
0.18262548744678497,
-0.02268442139029503,
-0.045564278960227966,
0.09122255444526672,
-0.12092389166355133,
-0.05781430006027222,
0.17062868177890778,
-0.16715431213378906,
-0.04795194789767265,
-0.06937722861766815,
0.18881191313266754,
0.7781983613967896,
0.13230213522911072,
-0.261566162109375,
0.08206071704626083,
0.18751169741153717,
-0.45012354850769043,
0.3831063508987427,
0.7738129496574402,
0.25897493958473206,
0.8742314577102661,
-0.14336691796779633,
-0.24509763717651367,
-0.3357841968536377,
0.01776072196662426,
-0.19271789491176605,
0.4234982132911682,
0.038909174501895905,
-0.04172341898083687,
0.3601384162902832,
0.024005964398384094,
0.0199674591422081,
0.3665618896484375,
-0.6469974517822266,
0.23080001771450043,
0.020515386015176773,
-0.2057729959487915,
-0.18586663901805878,
0.8937731385231018,
0.17191492021083832,
-0.39908352494239807,
0.6194919347763062,
-0.5752400755882263,
0.057402193546295166,
0.2986606955528259,
-0.24984925985336304,
0.263608455657959,
-0.18540892004966736,
-0.9202949404716492,
0.5047809481620789,
0.1888784021139145,
0.2194129079580307,
-0.1351367086172104,
-0.3057437241077423,
-0.5356537699699402,
0.15560810267925262,
-0.09676714241504669,
0.7633723616600037,
-0.02849259041249752,
-0.09008792787790298,
-0.2002595067024231,
-0.18935970962047577,
-0.11105644702911377,
0.2026781439781189,
-0.1286207139492035,
0.21542181074619293,
0.4288094639778137,
0.5622538924217224,
0.3610785901546478,
-0.0072444104589521885,
-0.42340588569641113,
-0.27805131673812866,
0.5698703527450562,
-0.11002976447343826,
-0.19756962358951569,
-2.227792739868164,
0.02607717551290989,
0.123267762362957,
0.033480238169431686,
-0.2718161940574646,
0.08845973759889603,
-0.027930973097682,
0.3764914870262146,
-0.43567904829978943,
-0.1968573033809662,
-0.07785293459892273,
0.20894955098628998,
0.09733478724956512,
0.09558865427970886,
0.22871573269367218,
0.23487474024295807,
0.440666526556015,
0.7166639566421509,
0.20574545860290527,
0.13919073343276978,
0.35253095626831055,
-0.4422949552536011,
-0.32467302680015564,
-0.3618810474872589,
0.16110293567180634,
0.6790457367897034,
-0.18428592383861542,
-0.21743133664131165,
0.3576875627040863,
-0.4019092917442322,
-0.3656221628189087,
0.31096184253692627,
-0.05953851714730263,
0.2562267780303955,
0.02470884472131729,
-0.6758253574371338,
0.004528668709099293,
-0.6304553747177124,
1.0728687047958374,
-0.47260257601737976,
-0.2263464629650116,
-0.046926502138376236,
0.002490335376933217,
0.28716734051704407,
0.07417542487382889,
-0.43392080068588257,
0.19889101386070251,
-0.47417616844177246,
0.469342440366745,
-0.5527411699295044,
0.5087543725967407,
-0.12761202454566956,
0.5190600752830505,
-0.33419865369796753,
0.5313592553138733,
0.1565205305814743,
-0.14157232642173767,
0.26510563492774963,
-0.24923139810562134,
-0.2114158272743225,
0.24701514840126038,
0.21141529083251953,
0.2597959041595459,
-0.005110895726829767,
0.1384892463684082,
-0.3390207886695862,
-0.01045336201786995,
-0.3498975932598114,
0.17055650055408478,
0.4277819097042084,
0.1778464913368225,
-0.04292544350028038,
0.2690460979938507,
-0.4134047329425812,
0.30610963702201843,
-0.29071423411369324,
0.14044709503650665,
0.5872990489006042,
0.5069648027420044,
-0.07621584832668304,
-0.4170375168323517,
-0.7152861952781677,
-0.1620347797870636,
-0.6187126636505127,
0.4523085057735443,
-5.536102771759033,
0.022284578531980515,
-0.2823246717453003,
-0.017810938879847527,
-0.43892398476600647,
0.4343831241130829,
0.2799533009529114,
-0.01064158882945776,
-0.13020145893096924,
0.44314438104629517,
0.06525663286447525,
0.04795549437403679,
-0.08521872013807297,
-0.5686904788017273,
0.7057148218154907,
0.27838432788848877
] |
213199
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heather%20Mills
|
Heather Mills
|
Heather Anne Mills (born 12 January 1968) is an English former model, businesswoman and activist.
Mills first came to public attention in 1993, when she was a model and was involved in a traffic collision with a police motorcycle in London. The accident resulted in the amputation of her left leg below the knee, but she continued to model by using a prosthetic limb and later sold her story to the tabloid journal News of the World.
She was in a relationship with Paul McCartney from 2000 onwards. The couple married in June 2002 and Mills gave birth to Beatrice Milly McCartney on 28 October 2003. The couple separated in 2006, and finalised their divorce in 2008.
After her marriage to McCartney, Mills became involved in animal rights advocacy and as of 2012 is a patron of Viva! (Vegetarians' International Voice for Animals) and the Vegetarian and Vegan Foundation. She is also vice-president of the Limbless Association.
Early life
Mills was born in Aldershot, Hampshire, to John 'Mark' Francis Mills, a former British paratrooper, and his wife, Beatrice Mary Mills (née Finlay), who was the daughter of a colonel in the British Army. John was adopted at the age of seven and grew up in Brighton, where his adoptive parents had a grocery shop. His adoptive father also worked as a mechanic for a Grand Prix racing team. Beatrice was born in India during World War II, and was educated at English boarding schools. John and Beatrice met at Newcastle University, and were married against the wishes of her father, who did not attend the wedding and only saw his daughter once more before he died.
Beatrice spoke several languages and played the piano, while Mark played banjo and guitar, liked photography (winning an Evening Standard award) and took part in numerous sports. He was very fond of animals (working for the RSPCA for a time), and Heather remembered her family always having a dog and a cat, as well as once having a pet goose and a white nanny goat that was allowed to roam the house owned by Mark's parents in Libanus, near Brecon.
The Mills family spent their holidays in Libanus, and also lived there for a time. When Heather was six years old, the family moved north to Alnwick, in Northumberland, but relocated shortly afterwards to a block of flats in Washington, Tyne and Wear, and then on to Cockshott Farm, in Rothbury, Northumberland. Heather attended Usworth Grange Primary school, and then Usworth Comprehensive School in Washington. She visited Usworth Comprehensive in 2003, as guest of honour at a prize-giving event, and to support the school against plans for its closure.
Heather later wrote that, when she was eight years old, she and her next-door neighbour were kidnapped and sexually assaulted by a swimming pool attendant. But her neighbour, Margaret Ambler, alleged that Heather's story was "nothing what she made it out to be", that Heather was never a victim, and the pool attendant did not commit suicide, as she had written. Although having received a letter from Heather offering £10,000 to stop a court case, Ambler complained that the story had caused her deep discomfort by bringing the incident to national attention, so she sued for breach of privacy, accepting an out-of-court settlement of £5,000 in compensation, and £54,000 legal costs.
Beatrice left home when Heather was nine years old, to live with Crossroads actor Charles Stapley, which left her, her older brother Shane, and her younger sister Fiona, in the care of their father John. Heather once said that John threw Shane against a window for making a mess on the carpet with crayons; the window broke and Shane had to be taken to hospital, where John explained that the boy had fallen on some glass in the garden. Fiona said: "Our family were always short of money and our father demanded that we find food and clothes so we turned to shoplifting, learnt to hide from the bailiffs and became experts at domestic duties. I'm not ashamed to say that we were forced to steal because when you are a young child, you'd rather do that than face a beating from your father." John disputed his daughters' allegations that he was violent towards them, later releasing home movies of family holidays in Wales, showing Mills playing happily.
London and modelling
When Heather's father was jailed for 18 months after being convicted of fraud, she left home with her sister Fiona to live with their mother and her partner in Clapham, London. Shane went to Brighton to live with his paternal grandparents. Heather later wrote that at the age of 15, she ran away to join a funfair, and lived in a cardboard box under Waterloo station for four months, although Stapley denied this by saying that she occasionally left home at weekends to travel with a young man who worked for a funfair in London. During Heather's stated period of homelessness, her school records indicated that she and Fiona were both enrolled at Usworth comprehensive in Tyne and Wear until April 1983, and at Hydeburn Comprehensive, in Balham, on 6 June that year, where they both stayed until 2 July 1984. Heather remembered that a teacher at the Hydeburn once said, "there's no hope for her at all", and that she left school with no academic qualifications. In the same year, her father had another daughter, Claire Mills, with a new partner. Mills worked for a croissant shop, but was sacked, and vowed "never to work for anyone else again". She later wrote in her autobiography that the owner of a jewellery shop in Clapham gave her a job on Saturdays, but Jim Guy, the owner of Penrose Jewellers, later stated: "Everything she wrote about me was lies, I never gave her a job; she just hung around and made tea. She told me her father was dead. The only thing that was true was she nicked stuff from the shop", which Guy said was worth £20,000. Heather admitted that she had stolen some gold chains and sold them to buy a moped, and when Guy reported the theft, she was put on probation.
Alfie Karmal, the son of a Palestinian father and Greek mother, was ten years older than Mills when they met in 1986. Karmal bought her new clothes and Cartier jewellery, and paid for cosmetic surgery to her breasts. Karmal, who had moved into the computer industry, set up a model agency for her, ExSell Management, although it was not successful. In 1987, Mills went to live in Paris, telling Karmal that a cosmetics company had given her a modelling contract, but instead she became the mistress of millionaire Lebanese businessman George Kazan for two years and took part in a nude photo session for a stills-only German sex education manual called Die Freuden der Liebe (The Joys of Love).
After returning to London, Mills asked Karmal to marry her. Karmal said yes, but on one condition: "I told her I couldn't marry her until she did something about her compulsive lying, and she agreed to see a psychiatrist for eight weeks. She admitted she had a problem and said it was because she'd been forced to lie as a child by her father." Although Mills proposed to Karmal, she later said that every man she has been out with "has asked me to marry him within a week". The couple married on 6 May 1989. While married to Karmal, she suffered two ectopic pregnancies, so in 1990, Karmal paid for her to go on holiday to Croatia with his children and ex-wife (with whom Mills had become friends), but Mills ended up living with her Slovenian ski instructor, Miloš Pogačar, shortly before the Croatian War began. Mills set up a refugee crisis centre in London, helping over 20 people to escape the war. She drove to deliver donations to Croatia, taking modelling assignments in Austria on the way to pay for the trip, later saying that she "worked on the front line in a war zone in the former Yugoslavia for two years where there were mines everywhere that weren't marked." Karmal and Mills were divorced in 1991, and Mills was later engaged to Raffaele Mincione (a bond dealer for the Industrial Bank of Japan) in 1993.
Accident and amputees
On 8 August 1993, Mills and Mincione walked to the corner of De Vere Gardens and Kensington Road, London, but while crossing Kensington Road, Mills was knocked down by a police motorcycle, the last in a convoy of three, which was responding to an emergency call. Mills suffered crushed ribs, a punctured lung, and the loss of her left leg below the knee; a metal plate was later attached to her pelvis. In October 1993, she had another operation that further shortened her leg. Mills was awarded £200,000 by the police authority as recompense for her injuries, () even though the police motorcyclist was later cleared by magistrates of driving without due care and attention. After the accident, Mills sold her story to the News of the World, and gave other interviews, saying she earned £180,000. She used the money to set up the Heather Mills Health Trust, which existed from 2000 to 2004 and delivered prosthetic limbs to people (particularly children) who had lost limbs after stepping on landmines. Mills often shows people her prosthetic leg, once taking it off during an interview on the American talk show Larry King Live, in 2002.
Mills booked herself into the Hippocrates Health Institute in Florida, which put her on a raw food vegan diet, using wheat grass and garlic poultices to heal her wound. After an operation, Mills discovered that she had been previously identified as having an O rhesus negative blood type, when in fact she was A rhesus negative, which had interfered with her attempts to follow the so-called blood type diet. As her prosthetic leg had to be replaced on a regular basis, and because the size of the amputated stump kept changing as it healed, she had the idea to collect thousands of discarded prosthetic limbs for amputees in Croatia. Mills persuaded the Brixton prison governor to get inmates to dismantle and pack the prosthetic limbs before being transported, which resulted in 22,000 amputees obtaining limbs in addition to the Croatian citizens who were already supplied with prosthetic limbs by the Croatian Institute for Health Insurance, which paid for the fitting of limbs and rehabilitation of patients. The first convoy of limbs arrived in Zagreb in October 1994, and Mills travelled with the convoy to film interviews with some of the recipients for the daytime television programme Good Morning with Anne and Nick. She received an award in 2001 from Croatia's prime minister, Ivica Račan for the money she raised to help clear that country of landmines.
With the help of ghostwriter Pamela Cockerill, Mills wrote a book about her experience, entitled Out on a Limb (1995), which was republished in the United States as A Single Step (2002). Extracts from Out on a Limb were serialised in the Daily Mail in March 2000. Mills handed all the proceeds from the book to Adopt-A-Minefield, and stated that it was one of 'the few charities where 100% of their donations goes to clear minefields and survivor assistance'. In 1995, Mills became engaged to British media executive Marcus Stapleton, after being together for 16 days; and was then engaged to documentary filmmaker Chris Terrill in 1999, after 12 days in Cambodia, where they were making a film about landmines. Mills ended their relationship five days before their planned wedding day, later telling friends in the media that she had called the wedding off because Terrill was gay, an MI6 agent, and that his mission was to sabotage her anti-landmine work. Terrill had once told Mills that he had been interviewed by the intelligence services when he was thinking of a career with the Foreign Office, but later said: "I soon realised that Heather had a somewhat elastic relationship with the truth, which she was able to stretch impressively sometimes." Terrill also claims that although Mills said she was a vegetarian at the time, she often cooked her speciality dish, Lancashire hotpot, (which contains lamb) for him; and her former sister-in-law, Dianna Karmal, claims that Mills became a vegetarian after meeting McCartney.
In 2003, the Open University awarded Mills an honorary doctorate for her philanthropic work on behalf of amputees. She continues to campaign, in addition to promoting the distribution of prostheses around the world, and has been involved with the development of the Heather Mills McCartney Cosmesis, which gives amputees in America the chance to wear a Dorset Orthopaedic cosmesis without having to travel to the UK. Mills is also vice-president of the Limbless Association. In 2004, Mills received a "Children in Need" award from the annual International Charity Gala in Düsseldorf; and in the same year, the University of California, Irvine gave her their 2004 Human Security Award and created the Heather Mills McCartney Fellowship in Human Security to support graduate students conducting research on pressing human security issues. She is a former Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations Association Adopt-A-Minefield programme.
Relationship with Paul McCartney
Mills met McCartney at the Dorchester Hotel, during the Pride of Britain Awards event on 20 May 1999, which McCartney had attended to present an award to an animal rights activist. Mills presented the Outstanding Bravery Award to Helen Smith, also making an appeal on behalf of the Heather Mills Health Trust. McCartney also presented an award dedicated to his late wife, Linda McCartney, and later talked to Mills about donating to her charity, later giving her £150,000 (). In the autumn of 1999, Mills and her sister Fiona recorded "VO!CE", a song they wrote to raise funds for Mills's charity. After recording the song in Greece, where Fiona lived, running the independent label Coda Records, the sisters stayed overnight at McCartney's estate in Peasmarsh, Sussex, in early November, where McCartney added vocals to the song.
Having sparked the interest of the tabloids about his appearances with Mills at events, McCartney appeared publicly beside her at a party in January 2000 to celebrate her 32nd birthday. While on holiday in the Lake District, McCartney proposed to Mills on 23 July 2001, giving her a £15,000 diamond and sapphire ring he had purchased in Jaipur, India, while they were there on holiday.
Marriage
Mills and McCartney were married on 11 June 2002, four years after his first wife Linda had died of breast cancer. The McCartney–Mills wedding was an elaborate ceremony at Castle Leslie, in the village of Glaslough in County Monaghan, Ireland. A song specially composed by McCartney, called "Heather", was played; this had been included on the 2001 album Driving Rain.
Mills said that she liked to cook traditional vegetarian Christmas dinners for McCartney and as many of his family as possible, and that McCartney had encouraged her to give up her self-confessed addiction to chocolate and Snickers bars. When asked by chat-show host Larry King in 2003, how life was with McCartney, Mills replied "Great, really great", but also said that she was surprised at how tidy McCartney was: "He always cleans up before the cleaner comes. So I said for a while that's crazy, but what's good is if I cook the dinner, he'll clean everything up."
In 2003, McCartney played a concert in Red Square, Russia. Vladimir Putin gave the couple a tour of the Kremlin. McCartney later said that Mills's contribution was giving him an acrylic fingernail to protect a finger on his left hand that often bled after playing guitar. McCartney stated that he felt inspired by Mills, as "Being in love with her makes me want to write songs", such as "Too Much Rain" for the album Chaos and Creation in the Backyard (2005), and "See Your Sunshine" ('She makes me feel glad/I want her so bad') for his album Memory Almost Full (2007). Another composition inspired by Mills was used as the bridal march at their wedding.
Parenthood
During an appearance on the chat show Parkinson, on 22 February 2003, host Michael Parkinson asked if it was because of McCartney that Mills did not give any interviews, and she replied that she wanted to protect McCartney, his children, and their privacy. At the same time, she said that her previous ectopic pregnancies had damaged her fertility, and that her chances of getting pregnant were small, although the couple announced in May that they were expecting their first child. Mills gave birth to Beatrice Milly McCartney on 28 October at Hospital of St John and St Elizabeth in St John's Wood, who was named after Mills's mother and McCartney's aunt. It was later revealed that Mills had suffered a miscarriage in the first year of her being married to McCartney. Mills was invited by Larry King to interview Paul Newman, which was broadcast by CNN on 17 April 2004. McCartney had arranged for Newman to be interviewed by Mills, but critical reactions were mixed. Mills appeared on other television programmes, such as BBC One's Question Time and ITV's GMTV, and persuaded McCartney to join her on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?
Separation
After some time apart, Mills and McCartney separated on 17 May 2006. In November 2007, Mills gave a number of interviews, saying that the breakdown of the marriage was caused by her husband's daughter, Stella, whom she described as "jealous" and "evil". Mills had previously talked with New York magazine, saying Stella had once issued a press release confirming how much she liked her new stepmother, although Stella's publicist denied that such a statement had ever been issued.
After dismissing Anthony Julius, a Mishcon de Reya lawyer, Mills stated she would represent herself in the upcoming divorce hearing, with help from her sister Fiona, David Rosen, a solicitor-advocate, and Michael Shilub, an American attorney. In leaked documents, Mills complained that McCartney was often drunk, smoked cannabis, stabbed her with a broken wine glass, pushed her over a table, and pushed her into a bathtub when she was pregnant. Referring to her part in the marriage, Mills said that she had been a full-time wife, mother, lover, confidante, business partner, and psychologist to McCartney. McCartney's lawyers studied Mills's book: Life Balance: The Essential Keys to a Lifetime of Wellbeing (2006), as it contradicted many of her claims, such as when she praised McCartney for "Bringing me breakfast in bed every morning, no matter how he feels, and I do the dinner, so we've got that agreement. It's thoughtfulness." Mills's father reconciled with her, after meeting her and McCartney when they introduced him to his granddaughter, Beatrice. After their separation, he said that it "took guts to represent yourself at the High Court", and that he was proud of his daughter, even though he thought she would be "torn to shreds" by McCartney's lawyers.
Divorce
The case was heard in court 34 at the Royal Courts of Justice in London. At the start of the proceedings Mills asked for £125 million, but McCartney offered £15.8 million. Before the court case, Mills had employed the accountancy firm Lee and Allen to examine McCartney's publishing company, business assets, and properties, claiming that she had a tape recording of McCartney admitting his true worth, but the presiding judge, Mr Justice Bennett, based his decision on a forensic valuation of McCartney's finances completed by accounting firm Ernst & Young.
The hearing took six days, finishing on 18 February 2008, with the judgement being made public on 17 March that year. Mills was eventually awarded a lump sum of £16.5m (), together with assets of £7.8m, which included the properties she owned at the time. The total was £24.3 million plus payments of £35,000 per annum, for a nanny and school costs for their child. In his judgement, Mr Justice Bennett stated:
Mr Justice Bennett said In his ruling that there was no evidence of Mills's "charitable giving" in her tax returns, ridiculed her claim to have been McCartney's business partner as "make believe" and said she was a "volatile and explosive" personality who could be her "own worst enemy". He also rejected her argument that she had rekindled McCartney's "professional flame" after he had lost his first wife, Linda, to cancer.
Regarding her career, the judge said:
In anger at the judgement, Mills poured a jug of water on the head of Fiona Shackleton, McCartney's solicitor, in the courtroom.
The divorce was granted on 12 May, and the preliminary divorce decree was finalised six weeks later.
During their marriage, Mills was known as Heather Mills McCartney, but after her divorce, she reverted to Heather Mills, although as the former wife of a knight she is entitled to the title "Lady McCartney" unless she remarries. In 2012, she was called "Heather Mills" and "Ms Mills" in her testimony to the Leveson Inquiry and its subsequent report, though Lord Justice Leveson had referred to "Lady McCartney" earlier in the proceedings.
Following her divorce from Paul McCartney, Mills bought a house in Robertsbridge, East Sussex, in 2007.
Media image and criticism
Mills's relationship with McCartney triggered considerable media interest. After her divorce, the attitude of the British media was hostile. Mills frequently accused the press of misquoting her and of using material out of context to give a negative impression of her, telling the Evening Standard that the claims that she had married McCartney for his money were more hurtful than losing her leg. Mills has been accused by several newspapers of having embellished her life story. A journalist with the same name, Heather Mills, at that time working for The Observer, accused Mills of impersonating her for over a year in the late 1990s, showing people cuttings of articles the journalist had written, which helped Mills secure a job presenting The General, a BBC television programme about Southampton General Hospital. There were also doubts about Mills's claim that she had been nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, because the Heather Mills Health Trust had given away thousands of prosthetic limbs to landmine victims, but the nomination cannot yet be proven because the identities of all nominees remain secret for 50 years.
Mills's stepfather disputed her statement that her mother had nearly lost a leg in a car crash, after Mills said: "her leg was only hanging on by a tiny flap of skin and flesh...miraculously the surgeons managed to insert a metal plate and re-attach it". Stapely said that Mills's mother had suffered a leg injury after a car crash, but recovered and was "a keen tennis player" and that Mills "is simply a very confused woman for whom reality and fantasy have become blurred".
Mills said that she had once been asked to stand for parliament by the three main political parties, and had been offered a peerage in 2001 (to become Baroness Mills) by the then British Prime Minister, Tony Blair, and a certain 'Lord MacDonald'. An ITV documentary (McCartney vs McCartney: The Ex Files) interviewed three men named Lord MacDonald, but not one of them could remember ever meeting Mills. British journalist Jasper Gerard, to whom Mills made the claims, also says she told him that she had cancelled a meeting with US president Bill Clinton in case her endorsement affected a US election outcome. Mills stated that she was once awarded the title of Outstanding Young Person of the Year by the British Chambers of Commerce, but did not challenge newspapers after they discovered there was no such award.
In October 2006, Mills announced her intention to sue the Daily Mail, The Sun and the Evening Standard newspapers. All the newspapers said that their stories "were obtained by proper methods and in accordance with good journalistic practice". The Sun, which regularly refers to Mills as "Mucca" – a play on McCartney's nickname "Macca" – responded by asking her to "tick the boxes" on a series of allegations the newspaper had made, stating: "It is not clear what exactly she plans to sue us about". Underneath the questions, The Sun listed six allegations about her, with a blank box beside each of them. The words beside the boxes read: "Hooker, Liar, Porn Star, Fantasist, Trouble Maker, Shoplifter".
Later that year, Mills told the BBC that she had received death threats, and on 17 December, police stated that a "non-specific threat" had been made to her safety. This led to more criticism that she was calling out the emergency services too often. Three months later, Chief Superintendent Kevin Moore of Sussex Police, said that Mills was running "the risk of being treated as the little boy who cried wolf", and added, "We do have to respond to a disproportionate high volume of calls from Heather Mills McCartney because of the situations she finds herself in, and this is regrettable as it takes officers away from other policing matters." Mills responded that the police had told her to contact them whenever she was being harassed.
During a five-day trial in July 2007, it was revealed that Mills had been physically assaulted in Brighton, by Jay Kaycappa, a notorious paparazzo trying to photograph Mills while on shifts for a national newspaper and a regional press agency. Kaycappa, who had 132 previous criminal convictions (including perverting the course of justice, obtaining property by deception, driving offences and using ten aliases), was found guilty and sentenced to a 140-hour community order and ordered to pay Mills £100, plus £1,000 court costs.
During several interviews in October that year, Mills accused the media of giving her "worse press than a paedophile or a murderer". She also criticised the media over the treatment of Diana, Princess of Wales – who, according to Mills, was "chased and killed" by paparazzi – and of Kate McCann. Immediately before her giving these interviews, Phil Hall (a former News of the World editor), quit as her PR adviser.
In 2008, a survey commissioned by Marketing magazine showed Mills as one of the top five most hated celebrity women, along with Amy Winehouse, Victoria Beckham and Kerry Katona. In December of that year, the Channel 4 television comedy Star Stories broadcast a satirical mockumentary of Mills's life story from her point of view. In 2009, after petitioning the Press Complaints Commission in the UK about being lied about in the press, five British tabloids (The Sun, Daily Express, News of the World, Sunday Mirror and Daily Mirror) publicly apologised to Mills about printing false, hurtful or defamatory stories about her. Another tabloid (Daily Mail), sent a private letter of apology. Mills has complained that over 4,400 abusive articles about her have been published.
Criticism of press coverage
In 2002, Mills accepted damages of £50,000 plus costs from the Sunday Mirror, after a false report that the Charity Commission had investigated her about the money she raised for the Indian Earthquake Victims Appeal in 2001. The extent and nature of the British press coverage of Mills has been criticised, as in May 2003, when The Guardian columnist Matt Seaton wrote a piece declaring: "There is little that is edifying in the symbolic lynching of Heather. The poisonous judgmentalism that drives it, is in the worst tradition of small town gossip. It is prurient, spiteful, hypocritical, and we should cry 'shame' on it." Publicist Mark Borkowski wrote in The Independent on Sunday, on 23 March 2008: "Not since the cult of Myra Hindley have we encountered so much vitriol aimed at one woman." Feminist writer Natasha Walter has compared the coverage to that of Britney Spears. Terence Blacker wrote that public figures who are young, female, pretty and fair-haired, are often subjected to public bullying, which is explained as "intense media interest", such as Diana, Princess of Wales, Paula Yates, Ulrika Jonsson and Mills.
Kira Cochrane, in The Guardian, wrote of "every misogynist epithet available" being used against Mills. "She has somehow become the vessel through which it is acceptable for both pundits and the public to express their very worst feelings about women." Joan Smith, writing in The Independent, said that newspaper "bullies love a weakling", quoting the front-page headline of the British tabloid newspaper Daily Mirror which read "Lady Liar", and The Sun newspaper writing "Pornocchio" over Mills's face (in reference to Mills's past saucy photographs, and the nose of Pinocchio getting longer when he lied). Smith further said Mills had "dreamt of becoming the wife of a famous man, but did not realise that he had fantasies of his own, marrying an attractive younger woman when he hadn't got over the loss of his first wife. Mills behaved foolishly when the marriage failed, but she does not deserve the treatment she has had in the mass-market press. It is merciless bullying of an unstable, vulnerable woman." In 2009, Mills reported that a bogus charity had been set up to extract information about her marriage. News Corp, owned by Rupert Murdoch, is alleged to have set up the sting. The Daily Mirror ran the headline "Macca marriage to Heather was mistake of the decade", following an interview that McCartney gave to Q magazine. McCartney immediately moved to deny this statement, and then went on to publicly print the original transcript on his official website to prove that the article in the Daily Mirror was false.
Celia Larkin, writing on 12 February 2012 in the Irish Sunday Independent, wrote: "There was something very satisfying about Heather Mills finally having her voice heard above the roar of the Red Tops. If you actually take the time to listen to Mills, I mean listen, not just read what's written about her, you'll see she is a strong, sincere, independent woman. She didn't lie down under the weight of McCartney's fame and wealth, she continued to plough her own furrow, campaigning for her charities, maintaining a strong individuality. And that, it seems, is the greatest sin of all. Is it any wonder she was reduced to tears in the October 2007 GMTV interview? Did we feel sympathy for her then? No. 'Heather Mills has Melt Down' screamed the headlines, so now she had lost her marbles to boot. And if that wasn't enough, Carole Malone of the Sunday Mirror, one of the papers that was relentless in its attacks on Mills, accused her of staging an act on live television, in order to further her cause in the upcoming divorce hearing. How cruel can you get?"
Phone hacking and Leveson Inquiry
On 5 May 2011, The Guardian reported that Mills had met with officers from the London Metropolitan Police who showed her evidence, seized from private investigator Glenn Mulcaire, which could form the basis of a claim against the News of The World for breach of privacy over alleged phone-hacking. Mills's name and private mobile phone number were listed in Mulcaire's notes, along with those of her friends and associates. Mills later alleged that a journalist working for the Mirror Group had admitted to her in 2001 that he had hacked her phone.
Appearing as a witness at the Leveson Inquiry on 9 February 2012, Mills was asked under oath if she had ever made a recording of McCartney's phone calls or answerphone messages, and had ever played it to Piers Morgan or "anybody else"; she replied, "Never ever." Giving evidence in December 2011, Morgan - who bragged in a newspaper column for the Daily Mail in 2006 about hearing the message - refused to say who had played him the recorded message of the call, saying he was protecting a source. Mills told the inquiry that Morgan was "a man that has written nothing but awful things about me for years and would have relished telling the inquiry if I had played a personal voicemail message to him".
In the official findings of his Inquiry, Lord Justice Leveson said Morgan's testimony under oath on phone-hacking was "utterly unpersuasive. This was not, in any sense at all, a convincing answer", adding "what it does, however, clearly prove is that he was aware that it was taking place in the press as a whole and that he was sufficiently unembarrassed by what was criminal behaviour that he was prepared to joke about it". (see the testimony: )
Activism
In 2005, Mills became a patron of the British animal rights organisation Viva!, and the Vegetarian and Vegan Foundation, which are both run by Juliet Gellatley.
In March 2006, McCartney and Mills travelled to Canada to bring attention to the country's annual seal hunt. Sponsored by the Humane Society of the United States, they complained that the hunt was inhumane, and called on the Canadian government to put an end to it. Their arrival on the floes sparked much attention in Newfoundland and Labrador, where 90 per cent of the sealers live. McCartney and Mills protested against seals being clubbed to death, pierced with boat hooks and sometimes skinned alive. Newfoundland and Labrador's Premier, Danny Williams, debated the issue with them on Larry King Live, the issue being that seals are no longer hunted that way, and have not been for a while. Mills joined a Viva! film team at a pig farm in Somerset, in February 2007, to publicise the use of restrictive farrowing crates, which are used for sows who are suckling piglets. A video of the investigation was made available on the Internet.
Mills's relationship with PETA ended in 2007, when McCartney's daughter Mary was chosen in her place.
In 2008, an old video surfaced of Mills wearing a mink coat that she had owned in 1989, but explained to reporters that she had bought it years before becoming involved in animal rights organisations or vegetarianism. Although she had separated from McCartney, Mills said: "It's only since I met Paul [McCartney] that I really got to understand how vegetarianism not only benefits your health massively but also makes a huge difference to the planet, to animals, and to feeding the world." In August 2008, she was honoured by the organisation Farm Animal Rights Movement (FARM), with the Celebrity Animal Activist Award, presented at the Animal Rights National Conference.
After her divorce, Mills pledged to give a 'large portion' of her £24.3 million divorce settlement to Adopt-A-Minefield, but as of September 2008, the charity had not received any of this money.
In June 2008, Mills was asked to talk at a New York party about the cruelty of puppy farms and to promote her book about animals, but was angry about the guests talking during her speech, saying: 'Listen up at the back. I haven't been up for 24 hours and flown here from London to be ignored.' Mills's publicist of four years, Michele Elyzabeth, stopped representing her on 25 July that year.
Commercial interests
On 4 July 2009, Mills opened a vegan restaurant called VBites at Hove Lagoon, East Sussex. Mills was quoted as saying that she intended it to be the first in a worldwide chain of vegan restaurants. While promoting the restaurant, Mills gave an interview to the BBC, stating that she had been very proactive in the building stages and that now it was open, would give as much time to it as she could – working it around her charity work. In May 2013, she sold the restaurant premises to local musician Norman Cook - known as Fatboy Slim - and opened a new, enlarged VBites in East Street in Brighton which closed in September 2017.
Also in 2009, Mills bought the vegan food company Redwood Foods, which she would rename to VBites Foods. The company in Corby, Northamptonshire, sells 50 meat-free products under the brand names Cheatin', VegiDeli and Cheezly. In 2014, products sold under the brand 'Wot no Dairy' were recalled, because it was revealed that they contained traces of dairy products and consequently could possibly cause adverse effects for those with dairy product intolerance.
In 2019, Mills launched a 55-acre site in Northumberland providing manufacturing, storage and business space exclusively to vegan enterprises. It has been referred to as a 'vegan Silicon Valley'. Also in 2019, she bought the 200,000 ft Walkers PepsiCo factory in Peterlee.
Mills was one of the celebrity performers competing on the US television series Dancing with the Stars in 2007, with dancing partner Jonathan Roberts. On 21 December 2009, she was revealed as one of the contestants on the fifth series of Dancing on Ice, being paired with Matt Evers.
Participation in modern art
Mills was part of a series of body cast sculptures by the contemporary British sculptor, Louise Giblin in 2012.
British Paralympic ski team
In May 2011, Hello! magazine ran an article about Mills's ambitions for the 2014 Paralympic Games, as well as her efforts to stay fit and healthy with her vegan lifestyle following her accident.
On 17 December 2013, it was announced that Mills would miss the 2014 Olympics in Sochi, Russia. She was asked to leave due to a fallout and complaints about her behaviour towards officials.
Awards
1996 Gold Award for Outstanding Achievement
1996 Human Achievement Award – The Times
1999 Pride of Britain Awards
2001 Croatian Humanitarian Award
2003 Open University Sesame Honorary Graduate
2003 Melvin Jones Fellow Lion Award
2004 Inaugural UNESCO Children in Need Award
2004 UCI University of California Irvine Fellowship Award in Human Security
2004 Honorary Open University Doctorate
2005 PETA Humanitarian Award
2006 Graduate Fellowship in Human Security, UCI
2007 Vegan Society Achievement Award
2008 Animal Activist of the Year
2009 VegNews Person of the Year
2010 Mercy For Animals Compassionate Visionary Award
2010 Easter Seals Lilli and Allan Shedlin Award
See also
List of animal rights advocates
Citations
General references
External links
Limbless Association – official website
V Bites – official website
1968 births
Living people
English female alpine skiers
English amputees
English businesspeople
English expatriates in Austria
English female models
McCartney family
People from Aldershot
People from Robertsbridge
People from Washington, Tyne and Wear
People named in the Panama Papers
Veganism activists
Wives of knights
Wives of the Beatles
|
[
0.31890952587127686,
-0.1886737048625946,
-0.002924844389781356,
-0.2925519347190857,
0.29130566120147705,
0.8898938894271851,
0.098650261759758,
-0.08961743116378784,
-0.438446581363678,
0.8814186453819275,
-0.03907773271203041,
0.2907940149307251,
0.334712952375412,
-0.11392954736948013,
-0.23837368190288544,
0.054507676512002945,
-0.29083251953125,
0.2929565906524658,
-0.40019944310188293,
-0.05937787517905235,
-0.024125348776578903,
-0.08673365414142609,
-0.06958966702222824,
0.47498926520347595,
-0.3733592629432678,
0.5989552736282349,
0.3656662404537201,
-0.504472017288208,
0.15784013271331787,
-0.19468481838703156,
0.05046449974179268,
0.2894726097583771,
0.6323157548904419,
0.17419156432151794,
0.3277168273925781,
0.5524092316627502,
-0.3731613755226135,
0.2131202071905136,
-0.8044126629829407,
-0.07102455198764801,
-0.6522933840751648,
-0.11178214848041534,
-0.016129590570926666,
0.26753735542297363,
-0.3990509808063507,
0.1310596913099289,
-1.6899081468582153,
0.16821804642677307,
-0.6627283692359924,
-0.11734746396541595,
-0.4522170126438141,
0.4810006320476532,
0.3372388780117035,
-0.014807389117777348,
0.6051202416419983,
-0.03659340366721153,
-0.4353650212287903,
-0.3978056311607361,
0.1889244019985199,
-0.3132580816745758,
0.38159820437431335,
-0.42363736033439636,
0.01652122102677822,
-0.65134197473526,
0.4899440109729767,
-0.23925842344760895,
0.4902274012565613,
0.4803692102432251,
-0.3433312177658081,
-0.5377377271652222,
-0.05335450544953346,
-0.0757642313838005,
0.49597376585006714,
0.2454570084810257,
-0.3289264738559723,
-0.29446694254875183,
0.527748167514801,
-0.060857705771923065,
0.9318355917930603,
0.17972047626972198,
0.5231571197509766,
0.29450473189353943,
0.37718135118484497,
0.6604644060134888,
0.6171255707740784,
-0.24825747311115265,
-0.24708718061447144,
0.19865061342716217,
-0.6063457131385803,
0.5502598285675049,
-0.6682201623916626,
-0.05273287370800972,
0.18767495453357697,
0.4151061177253723,
0.25550681352615356,
-0.3837607800960541,
-0.1202961876988411,
-0.036660753190517426,
0.7908138036727905,
-0.3152203857898712,
-0.23600997030735016,
-0.2532738149166107,
-0.20338764786720276,
-0.4515111744403839,
-0.21610283851623535,
-0.2855481505393982,
-0.06957835704088211,
-0.5636118054389954,
0.19372372329235077,
-0.10157027840614319,
-0.3751978278160095,
0.2229810655117035,
-0.35737717151641846,
-0.09579970687627792,
0.10285747796297073,
0.5546310544013977,
0.14564619958400726,
-0.4883655309677124,
-0.7162076830863953,
0.1100827008485794,
-0.02393100969493389,
-0.136747807264328,
0.10218808799982071,
0.34553262591362,
-0.22535793483257294,
-0.0032574841752648354,
0.14719218015670776,
0.18011388182640076,
-0.7025317549705505,
0.6776434183120728,
-0.20927317440509796,
0.8882930874824524,
-0.838704526424408,
-0.1035270243883133,
-0.5234466791152954,
0.1134568303823471,
0.3858204185962677,
0.06317376345396042,
0.5619982481002808,
0.2561754584312439,
-0.2890664339065552,
0.5020629167556763,
-0.35026371479034424,
-0.014566062018275261,
0.3256126046180725,
-0.5289300680160522,
0.027358217164874077,
0.03614373505115509,
-0.320722758769989,
-0.13293340802192688,
-0.24826529622077942,
0.2494785040616989,
0.24567236006259918,
-0.9968727827072144,
-0.2987668812274933,
0.6726273894309998,
0.7800710797309875,
0.13105729222297668,
-0.27757924795150757,
0.2626537084579468,
0.5390796065330505,
0.10855858027935028,
-0.04154343158006668,
0.07323325425386429,
0.24525295197963715,
0.1337100863456726,
0.2894188165664673,
0.09775525331497192,
0.06967001408338547,
0.5477274656295776,
-0.5274578928947449,
-0.1482725441455841,
0.1508946269750595,
0.3248900771141052,
-0.41887640953063965,
0.42471620440483093,
-0.20093943178653717,
0.320530503988266,
-0.38227447867393494,
0.2680429518222809,
-0.37249600887298584,
0.050786636769771576,
0.2672666907310486,
-0.007574759423732758,
0.6160722374916077,
-0.17232908308506012,
0.3188759386539459,
0.06004955247044563,
0.71482253074646,
0.3639502227306366,
-0.4464986026287079,
-0.25069016218185425,
0.4200066030025482,
0.1448276937007904,
0.1461082398891449,
-0.015640929341316223,
-0.19135339558124542,
0.17833437025547028,
0.006795273628085852,
0.7362657785415649,
-0.18963690102100372,
-0.24561889469623566,
0.07337558269500732,
-0.41037142276763916,
-0.23896434903144836,
0.4307520389556885,
1.1429253816604614,
-0.07364991307258606,
-0.32942965626716614,
0.8174031376838684,
-0.4424443244934082,
-0.6732472777366638,
0.1415266990661621,
0.7569007873535156,
-0.0772733986377716,
-0.5888406038284302,
-0.044195543974637985,
-0.04373085871338844,
0.3642982244491577,
-0.5750658512115479,
0.526144802570343,
0.682745099067688,
-0.24694637954235077,
-0.005214485805481672,
-0.21135567128658295,
0.3184972405433655,
-0.3432369530200958,
-0.25982174277305603,
0.4919808804988861,
-0.8880388736724854,
-0.12047610431909561,
0.8312867283821106,
0.03242262452840805,
-0.6259140968322754,
-0.11995784938335419,
0.09792426228523254,
0.38343146443367004,
-0.4742843806743622,
0.11862684786319733,
-0.955141544342041,
0.30299970507621765,
0.26233744621276855,
-0.5755602717399597,
-0.12121666967868805,
-0.4853478670120239,
0.24596646428108215,
-0.2225673496723175,
0.029089082032442093,
0.19707150757312775,
-0.0686793327331543,
0.33034369349479675,
0.3146711587905884,
0.5467217564582825,
0.1457868367433548,
0.07276635617017746,
-0.07188428193330765,
-0.27601051330566406,
0.4351525604724884,
1.1775840520858765,
0.3796462416648865,
0.4570230543613434,
-0.13926254212856293,
0.07463439553976059,
0.19697478413581848,
-0.112284354865551,
-0.20875594019889832,
-0.42534998059272766,
-0.6165083646774292,
0.551042914390564,
-0.05583325773477554,
0.48792940378189087,
-0.41061699390411377,
-0.2677905559539795,
0.014682586304843426,
0.2679356038570404,
-0.10901190340518951,
0.09636753797531128,
0.3494535982608795,
-0.45721644163131714,
-1.1571660041809082,
0.508041262626648,
0.6978294253349304,
0.2151668220758438,
-0.4392295181751251,
0.2576006352901459,
0.20378375053405762,
-0.3630412518978119,
0.3867657780647278,
-0.49109870195388794,
-0.11207127571105957,
0.17007170617580414,
0.6157341599464417,
-0.6597863435745239,
0.08625629544258118,
0.30552348494529724,
0.4821902811527252,
-0.45050859451293945,
-0.23717963695526123,
-0.20553569495677948,
0.4538012444972992,
0.3138161599636078,
0.7109549045562744,
-0.006065512541681528,
0.06280427426099777,
0.27570781111717224,
0.04066837951540947,
0.05628717690706253,
-0.5104095935821533,
-5.665893077850342,
0.04611566662788391,
0.26413166522979736,
0.14009928703308105,
-0.2740213871002197,
0.17850036919116974,
0.06162089854478836,
0.19807203114032745,
-0.06493217498064041,
-0.06627032905817032,
0.14385472238063812,
0.31303560733795166,
-0.8805974721908569,
0.22487321496009827,
0.8815008997917175,
0.7908825278282166,
0.5122826099395752,
-0.4738069772720337,
0.20774371922016144,
0.6517525315284729,
-0.10112296044826508,
-0.2931237518787384,
-0.32511335611343384,
-0.021062282845377922,
-0.6590259075164795,
-0.09597081691026688,
-0.2755664885044098,
-0.33954545855522156,
-0.6474053859710693,
-0.3538053333759308,
-0.08592281490564346,
-0.06631031632423401,
-0.612684965133667,
0.002608867362141609,
0.1802796572446823,
-0.10473218560218811,
0.4900420904159546,
-0.31701841950416565,
-0.20386219024658203,
-1.262596845626831,
0.08793474733829498,
0.4694841206073761,
-0.4817730486392975,
0.4665202498435974,
0.927752673625946,
-0.23703637719154358,
-0.34294018149375916,
-0.33486032485961914,
-0.5298869609832764,
0.399045467376709,
0.006118551827967167,
0.1581934541463852,
0.1695910096168518,
0.19584321975708008,
0.06105835363268852,
0.06497115641832352,
0.12671160697937012,
-0.27936914563179016,
-0.8770623207092285,
0.28051552176475525,
-0.00351854064501822,
-0.3619787096977234,
0.5011749267578125,
-0.2759154140949249,
-0.0762781947851181,
-0.3541141450405121,
0.19250085949897766,
-0.04656810685992241,
-0.08878614753484726,
-0.8386295437812805,
-0.25983649492263794,
-0.12589110434055328,
0.06483148038387299,
-1.1693737506866455,
-0.08891148120164871,
-0.7130793929100037,
0.406421422958374,
0.18348188698291779,
-0.5357702374458313,
-0.3418498635292053,
0.5547031760215759,
-0.5842041969299316,
0.6173924207687378,
0.5988740921020508,
-0.06375162303447723,
-0.21840305626392365,
0.07053850591182709,
0.3671444356441498,
-0.24289782345294952,
0.23569218814373016,
-0.31747981905937195,
0.0991811752319336,
-0.24488407373428345,
0.8566853404045105,
0.6932377815246582,
-0.07770760357379913,
0.46989864110946655,
-0.17771489918231964,
0.03041846863925457,
0.1728959083557129,
-0.7082229852676392,
-0.3481188118457794,
-0.4513744115829468,
-0.5881074666976929,
-0.1267693191766739,
-0.22635680437088013,
-0.18591535091400146,
-0.19350697100162506,
0.6014121770858765,
-0.5709254145622253,
0.3258965313434601,
0.43310362100601196,
-0.2879093289375305,
-0.1852010041475296,
-0.38551241159439087,
0.0040632812306284904,
-0.2962837517261505,
0.16926048696041107,
0.37200748920440674,
0.31488853693008423,
0.18156765401363373,
0.06111133471131325,
-0.3805909752845764,
-0.009838546626269817,
0.22815638780593872,
-0.446294367313385,
0.46166789531707764,
-0.2615996301174164,
-0.5186944007873535,
0.6338117718696594,
-0.3497905433177948,
0.2203182578086853,
-0.07621125131845474,
-0.40851297974586487,
-0.12374379485845566,
0.3990226089954376,
-0.4329072833061218,
0.06677334010601044,
-0.19995364546775818,
0.29371803998947144,
0.18134921789169312,
0.09932588785886765,
-0.06850901246070862,
0.6355594396591187,
0.5753586888313293,
0.13928227126598358,
0.024530313909053802,
0.217955082654953,
-0.16859430074691772,
0.7304973006248474,
0.17620286345481873,
0.17275209724903107,
0.17394107580184937,
-1.01694917678833,
0.17918279767036438,
-0.029802508652210236,
-0.11136865615844727,
0.06329759955406189,
0.10202307254076004,
-0.18754032254219055,
0.016228362917900085,
-0.2353065460920334,
-1.3591957092285156,
0.21116691827774048,
0.047380249947309494,
0.07378479093313217,
-0.5684139132499695,
-0.645898699760437,
-0.3762584328651428,
0.3743232488632202,
-0.07474145293235779,
-0.8404508233070374,
-0.12221113592386246,
0.047243911772966385,
0.015362785197794437,
0.08691205829381943,
0.03243657946586609,
-0.06296558678150177,
-0.2542453408241272,
0.43503716588020325,
-0.14346636831760406,
-0.0936926007270813,
-0.40973442792892456,
-0.29792848229408264,
0.3705803155899048,
0.19326414167881012,
-0.5433452129364014,
-0.007820363156497478,
-0.4690175950527191,
0.08383282274007797,
-0.20747718214988708,
0.19059839844703674,
0.1458335816860199,
1.0868314504623413,
-0.3576662540435791,
-0.04610570892691612,
0.19787415862083435,
0.14930376410484314,
0.050894033163785934,
-0.47149935364723206,
-0.44644197821617126,
0.3440879285335541,
-0.4979557693004608,
0.09599288552999496,
0.3578013479709625,
-0.6571144461631775,
-0.34588849544525146,
0.1100238636136055,
0.28159666061401367,
0.6478519439697266,
-0.21164430677890778,
0.3573742210865021,
0.008816036395728588,
0.7388265132904053,
-0.5891674160957336,
-0.03538621589541435,
-0.11186166107654572,
-0.17364606261253357,
-0.42363789677619934,
-0.5199626088142395,
-0.34953171014785767,
-0.47734031081199646,
-0.5927146077156067,
0.02144123613834381,
-0.2814987301826477,
0.232032909989357,
0.3821529150009155,
-0.22565844655036926,
0.5469209551811218,
0.056969087570905685,
-0.5229932069778442,
-0.2864300608634949,
-0.021284496411681175,
0.06420525908470154,
0.008257288485765457,
-0.3159480690956116,
0.043839287012815475,
0.6730105876922607,
-0.12074258923530579,
-0.15927766263484955,
0.6994104981422424,
0.38959842920303345,
-0.07213223725557327,
-0.4376038610935211,
0.16440048813819885,
0.7417957186698914,
0.18312713503837585,
-0.41642871499061584,
-0.5176776647567749,
0.3344120681285858,
0.38606342673301697,
-0.023213962092995644,
-0.5437008142471313,
0.28915709257125854,
0.34448859095573425,
-0.7611734867095947,
0.12499227374792099,
-0.6421234607696533,
0.14383646845817566,
-0.4714871644973755,
0.5122112035751343,
-0.11613229662179947,
-0.34660422801971436,
-0.11575311422348022,
0.12876339256763458,
0.5077338218688965,
0.09903914481401443,
-0.2660099267959595,
-0.25004854798316956,
-0.7426202893257141,
0.01543940044939518,
0.24074013531208038,
-0.5617319941520691,
0.6116719841957092,
0.06176099181175232,
0.21630939841270447,
0.237362340092659,
-0.5047544240951538,
0.7216564416885376,
-0.12205140292644501,
-0.23772159218788147,
0.12635034322738647,
-0.18894672393798828,
-0.38359302282333374,
0.5442999601364136,
-0.7258491516113281,
0.3814999759197235,
-0.19883456826210022,
-0.10013432055711746,
0.008749336935579777,
-0.00847629550844431,
0.09964830428361893,
-0.5637255907058716,
-0.16524691879749298,
-0.043807342648506165,
-0.06167836859822273,
-0.26340243220329285,
-0.03335745632648468,
-0.03484388068318367,
-0.21411390602588654,
-0.59806889295578,
0.40078502893447876,
0.13663023710250854,
-0.3421129286289215,
-0.1741829514503479,
-0.20531179010868073,
-0.28445690870285034,
-0.8026893138885498,
0.1044532060623169,
0.3394339680671692,
-0.05333511158823967,
-0.20646636188030243,
0.5081751942634583,
0.0543365515768528,
-0.35283297300338745,
-0.3499968349933624,
0.4043685495853424,
-0.7670461535453796,
0.2502180337905884,
0.26287996768951416,
-0.3744347095489502,
0.1725011169910431,
0.39836832880973816,
-0.14595891535282135,
0.6043713092803955,
0.5989755392074585,
0.042677149176597595,
0.42383673787117004,
-0.18196870386600494,
0.4804920256137848,
-0.0569339245557785,
0.11661311239004135,
0.08858020603656769,
0.5478957295417786,
0.35599586367607117,
-0.7935812473297119,
0.06039915978908539,
0.33392563462257385,
0.6242766976356506,
0.4273475408554077,
-0.1392504870891571,
0.7059564590454102,
-0.11353641748428345,
0.05983371660113335,
-0.15460027754306793,
0.2412397414445877,
-0.0005426642019301653,
0.013557739555835724,
-0.39874377846717834,
-0.14410187304019928,
0.10277634859085083,
-0.37032124400138855,
0.08673013746738434,
-0.640789270401001,
0.34813085198402405,
-0.5620461702346802,
0.39452457427978516,
-0.6702917814254761,
-0.6001140475273132,
0.1637406349182129,
-0.32476186752319336,
-0.6900073289871216,
0.24287927150726318,
0.7187681198120117,
-0.677130937576294,
-0.48937276005744934,
0.1993567794561386,
-0.5203583240509033,
-0.06504974514245987,
0.4323507845401764,
0.6754915118217468,
0.3579794764518738,
-0.4134673476219177,
0.5053331255912781,
0.07701894640922546,
-0.037661049515008926,
0.3814661204814911,
-0.36818504333496094,
-0.514393150806427,
-0.3555818498134613,
-0.34908363223075867,
-0.4081690013408661,
0.31345850229263306,
0.21349407732486725,
0.2272406369447708,
-0.7285931706428528,
0.060086771845817566,
0.3997212052345276,
-0.18441608548164368,
0.07535990327596664,
0.2279934138059616,
-0.20707282423973083,
-0.17195317149162292,
0.4612897038459778,
-1.0373700857162476,
0.5141671895980835,
-0.4518691599369049,
0.9658348560333252,
0.8843245506286621,
0.20674560964107513,
-0.33626484870910645,
0.9720413684844971,
-0.3642643988132477,
0.3284115791320801,
-0.42978230118751526,
0.2004460096359253,
-0.07878311723470688,
0.19179408252239227,
-0.2205071896314621,
0.3029087781906128,
0.40373703837394714,
-0.13925740122795105,
-0.058923568576574326,
0.2800558805465698,
-0.5149482488632202,
0.8125241994857788,
0.6559019684791565,
0.2693316638469696,
0.38447195291519165,
-0.0496978759765625,
-0.30392593145370483,
0.40947937965393066,
-0.008342575281858444,
-0.09766872227191925,
0.06563723832368851,
0.5060768127441406,
-0.07496455311775208,
-0.15932154655456543,
-0.1318504810333252,
0.26812732219696045,
-0.6940708160400391,
0.3852739930152893,
-0.45651882886886597,
0.31235700845718384,
-0.3535301089286804,
-0.12137535959482193,
0.4495832622051239,
0.9035289287567139,
0.6737162470817566,
0.06843800097703934,
0.23086975514888763,
0.23112928867340088,
0.06443804502487183,
-0.1015726774930954,
-0.43377605080604553,
0.36886823177337646,
0.08467650413513184,
-0.0054138158448040485,
0.20182187855243683,
-0.2637227177619934,
0.1697360873222351,
-0.7112399935722351,
0.10804282873868942,
-0.9444307684898376,
0.022472424432635307,
-0.3379141092300415,
0.036390770226716995,
-0.7046158313751221,
-0.01603693701326847,
0.09265627712011337
] |
213201
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eton%20Fives
|
Eton Fives
|
Eton Fives, a derivative of the British game of fives, is a handball game, similar to Rugby Fives, played as doubles in a three-sided court. The object is to force the other team to fail to hit the ball 'up' off the front wall, using any variety of wall or ledge combinations as long as the ball is played 'up' before it bounces twice. Eton Fives is an uncommon sport, with only a few courts, most of them as part of the facilities of the independent schools in the United Kingdom.
The origins
Eton Fives is a sport developed in the late 19th century at Eton College. The shape of the court used now is taken from the chapel at Eton College, where A. C. Ainger and some of his friends developed a simple set of rules in 1877. The rules have been modified since that time to those seen now, but the essential components are still the same and are described below in the 'Rules' section.
Much earlier than the formalisation of Eton Fives, a court was built in the grounds of Lord Weymouth's Grammar School, now Warminster School, in 1787, the School's 80th year. It is claimed that Thomas Arnold a pupil here took the game with him to Rugby School leading to Rugby Fives. The court at Warminster School survives but is rarely used.
City of Norwich School (formerly Eaton (City of Norwich) School) is possibly unique in being a state run comprehensive school which houses two fives courts. Matches have been undertaken on the courts between Eaton & Eton, but in the 1990s the courts were used as car parks for teaching staff, however since 2013 one of the courts is being used for fives, whilst the other is now a boiler room.
Dale Vargas, a retired teacher at Harrow School where he was master in charge of Fives, has written and published a history of Eton Fives. The book is titled "Eton Fives: A History." The co-author is Peter Knowles.
The court
An Eton Fives court consists of three walls, with the left-hand wall interrupted by a buttress approximately halfway up the court. There are also two levels to the court, the front being around six inches higher than the back half of the playing area. On the front wall is a vertical black line about three-quarters of a metre from the right wall; this is used during the serve and return process detailed later. There is a diagonal ledge that circumvents the entire 'top-step' at about chest height; it is this ledge which the ball has to hit or go above to be 'up'. Below this ledge, at knee height, is a horizontal ledge about two inches wide, and which is only present on the 'top-step'. This is merely here because of the origins of Eton Fives as the ledge is present at the chapel in Eton College.
The diagonal ledge drops vertically at the edge of the 'top-step' and then returns to normal at a slightly lower height on the bottom step, running to the back of the court. At the back are brick columns that jut out slightly into the court, which vary in width from school to school, these "buttresses" are usually anywhere from 2 – 10 inches in width. Shots very rarely hit this part of the court, but once they do it is usually very effective for winning a point. Between the buttress and the top step is a small rectangular area about 10cm sq, often referred to as the 'pepper pot'. If the ball is hit into the pepper pot it is almost always point-winning. Each of the courts at varying schools differ in some way, leaving room to modify how your school's courts are built to a certain extent. In this way the 'home team' will often have an advantage over a visiting side because of their knowledge of the court's characteristics and layout.
The rules
Fives has many rules that are similar to other court type games, such as Tennis or Squash:
The ball is only allowed to hit the floor once (note: it can bounce off as many ledges or hit the walls any number of times).
The pair whose turn it is to hit the ball 'up' must do so without the ball hitting the ground.
You can only use your gloves to return the ball, no legs, arms, wrists, feet or any other appendages can be utilised in this way (similar to tennis and squash where you can only use your racket).
You can only hit the ball once before it must go up, and therefore only one member of the pair is able to hit the ball during the return of a shot (i.e., no Volleyball style 'set-ups' can be used).
A pair can only score when it is their serve.
However, there are a large number of rules unique to the game of Eton Fives:
All games are played to 12. However, if the score is 10–10, or 11–11 the game can be 'set' so that you play to a higher number.
The start of a point comes from a serve, and then a shot called a 'cut' is used to try and stop the server or his/her partner being able to hit the ball back.
The cut must go to the right of the black line on the front wall (note: if the ball hits the right hand wall and then hits the front wall to the left of the black line this is regarded as 'in'). If the ball goes to the left of the black line a 'Black Guard' is in effect and if the serving pair hit the ball down they do not lose the point; it is treated as a 'let'.
When a pair reaches 11 points, the server must stand with at least one foot on the bottom step when they serve. From that point they cannot move until the 'cutter' has hit to ball. This is called 'step'.
On 'step' the cutter can hit the ball anywhere on the front wall, it does not have to go to the right of the black line.
A point
A point operates thus: At the start of the play, the server stands between the buttress and the front wall. The receiver, known as a 'cutter', stands in the backcourt, along with the other two players (the cutter's partner stands behind him, with the server's partner in the bottom right corner). The server throws the ball high so it bounces off the front and right wall, landing after the step and roughly in the middle of the court (note: different players like the ball to bounce at different points in order to get varying types of spin on their 'cuts'). There are no rules about the serve but as a cutter can reject any serve, there is little benefit in a serve which can not be easily hit. The cutter will then often play the ball overarm so that it is 'up', usually into the corner, so that the ball hits the right then the front wall and goes straight back at the server. The best way to follow up this 'cut' is to follow the ball in and stand on the step, ready for a volley if the server returns it high. From here the cutter and the server will try to volley the ball, while the other two players will sweep up anything that they miss. This continues until the ball is either hit 'down' or out of the court.
Competitions
There are now a huge number of Championships and tournaments that take place at various times throughout the fives season.
The Kinnaird Cup is an open tournament for any age. Over the years it has become more and more competitive, and is now the most sought after trophy of them all. Other tournaments include the Northern Championships and the Eton Fives Association (EFA) Trophy, where teams of 6 players (3 pairs) compete against one another in one-set matches.
The Schools National Championships are the highlight of the season for school players across the country. The location of the championships changes every year between Eton and Shrewsbury. There are championships for every age group, ranging from the Under 10s to the Open (Under 18s). Within these championships are the Main Tournament, Plate A and Plate B.
Kinnaird winners
The following have won eight or more Kinnairds:
16 – Tom Dunbar (Harrovian): 2002–04, 06–07, 09, 11–20
11 – John Reynolds (Citizen): 1981–91
10 – Brian Matthews (Citizen): 1981–90
10 – Seb Cooley (Olavian): 2011–20
9 – Tony Hughes (Edwardian): 1958, 63, 65–68, 71, 73, 75
8 – Robin Mason (Edwardian): 1993–95, 98–99, 2002–04
8 – Gordon Campbell (Edwardian): 1958, 65–68, 71, 73, 75
Keepers of Fives
The "Keeper of Fives" is the equivalent to the captain of any particular sport at any particular establishment the sport is played at. It is one of a number of minor officer positions to be held at Eton College.
List of courts
Royal Grammar School, High Wycombe, St Bartholomews School, Newbury, St Olave's Grammar School, City of Norwich School and Queen Elizabeth's School, Barnet enjoy being the only non-private schools with Eton Fives courts in the UK. Other schools with Fives courts include Alleyns School, Aldenham School, Shrewsbury School, Highgate School, Harrow, Berkhamsted School, Sunningdale School, Eton College, King Edward's School, Birmingham, Wolverhampton Grammar School, Marlborough College, Oswestry School, Wrekin College, Repton School and Ipswich School; consequently, it has been primarily the preserve of their students and alumni.
The only known court to be owned by a private individual in the UK is on the Torry Hill estate in Kent.
Cambridge University, St Olave's Grammar School, Bryanston School, Charterhouse School, Lancing College, Emanuel School and Summerfields Prep school house the only indoor Eton Fives courts in England, with four courts being part of an Eton Fives and Squash Court complex (consisting of four top quality courts for both sports) at the former. However, the first real public courts have recently opened in the Westway Sports & Fitness Centre in London's White City, marking a possible change in fortunes for Eton Fives as a minor sport.
Public school Rydal Penrhos currently boasts the only Eton Fives courts in Wales.
Only a few courts exist outside Britain, most notably at Geelong Grammar School in Australia (the school is often referred to as the 'Eton of Australia'); there are also courts in Geneva, Zurich, Lyceum Alpinum Zuoz, Switzerland, St. Paul's School, Darjeeling, India (the school is often referred to as the 'Eton of the East') and Malay College Kuala Kangsar, Malaysia, while two brand-new courts have recently been completed in the South of France, in the village of Grillon, Provence.
References
External links
The Eton Fives Association website
Encyclopædia Britannica article on Fives in general
1877 establishments in England
School sport in the United Kingdom
Fives
Team sports
Ball games
Fives
1877 in English sport
Youth sport in England
Sports originating in England
|
[
0.06678453087806702,
-0.19557516276836395,
-0.35410386323928833,
-0.0774032324552536,
-0.5117444396018982,
0.018706606701016426,
0.3302111029624939,
-0.49610647559165955,
-0.7826545238494873,
-0.317143052816391,
0.05306169018149376,
-0.004125033039599657,
0.0662878155708313,
0.22608910501003265,
-0.15747317671775818,
0.43469926714897156,
0.8197942972183228,
0.21116407215595245,
0.05875619873404503,
-0.7378920316696167,
-0.29175329208374023,
-0.20697622001171112,
-0.26582974195480347,
0.02601969800889492,
-0.13853876292705536,
0.14644603431224823,
0.29707351326942444,
0.30488327145576477,
0.5224323868751526,
0.07573658972978592,
0.6748283505439758,
0.9362440705299377,
0.6403552293777466,
-0.3696073889732361,
-0.0978306457400322,
-0.7357990741729736,
-0.0072221821174025536,
-0.3882157802581787,
-0.2004946768283844,
-0.8117903470993042,
0.1890651434659958,
-0.1972389966249466,
0.533799409866333,
0.4114025831222534,
-0.00823515560477972,
-0.09775558859109879,
-1.1773558855056763,
0.2777255177497864,
-0.627943217754364,
0.3629313111305237,
-0.19350647926330566,
0.6534102559089661,
0.31888604164123535,
0.3652450740337372,
0.06579423695802689,
0.5696227550506592,
-0.39578214287757874,
0.5162984132766724,
0.49194103479385376,
-0.5031424760818481,
0.1867274045944214,
0.026059750467538834,
0.5424357652664185,
0.42645975947380066,
-0.06913480907678604,
0.42609748244285583,
-0.000014504923456115648,
-0.08780857175588608,
0.28968486189842224,
-0.044734079390764236,
-0.20308518409729004,
-0.25393787026405334,
0.011824412271380424,
-0.15568403899669647,
0.18495512008666992,
-0.3151102662086487,
-0.01592475175857544,
-0.04699118807911873,
1.07260262966156,
0.026287203654646873,
0.02683059312403202,
-0.29235196113586426,
0.01334057841449976,
0.2389802634716034,
0.3087676465511322,
0.36318695545196533,
-0.502751886844635,
-0.17227792739868164,
-0.057462383061647415,
0.9698479771614075,
-0.028218599036335945,
-0.18761038780212402,
0.38755765557289124,
0.12313400208950043,
-0.37268272042274475,
0.20761030912399292,
0.6789356470108032,
-0.28405651450157166,
0.5697045922279358,
0.24681976437568665,
0.12628893554210663,
0.05084622651338577,
0.6984911561012268,
0.15417121350765228,
-0.6964854598045349,
-0.5316624641418457,
-0.7004255652427673,
-0.7149977087974548,
0.12087494134902954,
0.2325495034456253,
-0.46451693773269653,
-0.26951268315315247,
0.5045124888420105,
0.09902389347553253,
-0.35806891322135925,
-0.24707596004009247,
0.2555445432662964,
-0.0858396366238594,
-0.1664157211780548,
0.25212597846984863,
-0.13864825665950775,
0.7295347452163696,
0.21803683042526245,
0.32084375619888306,
0.4529648721218109,
-0.09594490379095078,
0.11763901263475418,
0.4581315815448761,
-0.2329697459936142,
-0.741054117679596,
0.33826497197151184,
0.33772972226142883,
-0.055703021585941315,
-0.029210899025201797,
-0.4203004240989685,
-0.260212779045105,
0.4374323785305023,
-0.06228642538189888,
0.271640807390213,
0.4960799813270569,
-0.5946526527404785,
-0.12205812335014343,
-0.01984223537147045,
-0.18620410561561584,
0.8452711701393127,
0.03229784220457077,
-0.23131206631660461,
-0.32939139008522034,
-0.17362470924854279,
0.12355335801839828,
-0.2791939973831177,
0.19287030398845673,
0.5899913907051086,
-0.6632286310195923,
-0.357183575630188,
0.5289473533630371,
0.11402790248394012,
-0.624233067035675,
0.29839691519737244,
-0.10671108216047287,
-0.35524851083755493,
-0.05888448283076286,
-0.11289694160223007,
-0.11489441990852356,
0.19468151032924652,
-0.13789550960063934,
0.3726290166378021,
-0.04423476755619049,
-0.45980000495910645,
0.38404449820518494,
-0.26258111000061035,
0.41253262758255005,
0.9063059687614441,
-0.7912603616714478,
-0.04839333891868591,
-0.41344353556632996,
-0.027418334037065506,
0.398240864276886,
1.1066426038742065,
-0.584507942199707,
-0.5198327898979187,
-0.5841476321220398,
0.5882765650749207,
-0.5672452449798584,
-0.01783379353582859,
0.6470034122467041,
-0.2508465647697449,
-0.19093634188175201,
-0.04933493956923485,
0.30961865186691284,
-0.154214546084404,
-0.4973231852054596,
0.23338526487350464,
0.03047662042081356,
1.1520169973373413,
-0.6067186594009399,
0.01957869715988636,
0.6673740744590759,
0.1141204982995987,
-0.25560158491134644,
-0.14277003705501556,
0.6497167348861694,
0.09341375529766083,
0.7325459122657776,
-0.906751811504364,
-0.061805497854948044,
-0.036192815750837326,
0.057459376752376556,
-0.20842833817005157,
0.21792079508304596,
-0.26211678981781006,
-0.6880964636802673,
0.13997894525527954,
-0.569763720035553,
-0.34100601077079773,
0.5691286325454712,
-0.5056981444358826,
0.6875103116035461,
-0.19587396085262299,
-0.34272971749305725,
0.4538620412349701,
0.03884618729352951,
-0.029744930565357208,
0.13979274034500122,
0.065070241689682,
0.06620915979146957,
-0.04269874095916748,
0.5147889852523804,
-0.2547791302204132,
-0.4652724862098694,
0.10958831757307053,
0.32476234436035156,
-0.06294660270214081,
-0.25716304779052734,
-0.13978351652622223,
-0.3320235311985016,
-0.15823698043823242,
-0.5782236456871033,
0.7752377986907959,
-0.3333350718021393,
-0.2715986371040344,
-0.21923622488975525,
0.03600465506315231,
0.0870027095079422,
0.2687881290912628,
0.16343960165977478,
-0.16216392815113068,
0.404057115316391,
0.02776261419057846,
-0.2850269377231598,
0.18834324181079865,
0.24705053865909576,
0.5673756003379822,
0.06905435770750046,
0.23584944009780884,
-0.04327978193759918,
0.10047879815101624,
0.18693871796131134,
-0.09718218445777893,
0.006630673073232174,
-0.061993565410375595,
0.25698426365852356,
0.12932088971138,
-0.3352219760417938,
-0.0025415057316422462,
-0.7436689734458923,
-0.3016238212585449,
-0.25829437375068665,
0.6814038753509521,
0.21462902426719666,
0.11095499247312546,
0.06337232887744904,
-0.5454934239387512,
-0.5296679735183716,
-0.24606986343860626,
-0.1494380533695221,
0.2067151963710785,
-0.11696942150592804,
-0.44560256600379944,
-0.5005437135696411,
-0.021467193961143494,
0.5041034817695618,
0.017379894852638245,
-0.5244513750076294,
-0.14950677752494812,
-0.1334298849105835,
-0.044281601905822754,
-0.3456301987171173,
0.34077751636505127,
-0.5717014670372009,
0.2078012377023697,
0.6686805486679077,
-0.18101118505001068,
-0.08140315115451813,
0.26581984758377075,
0.36249929666519165,
-1.1161175966262817,
0.5152299404144287,
0.22548581659793854,
0.1332789808511734,
-0.1713332086801529,
0.3940519690513611,
-0.158282071352005,
-0.4911193251609802,
0.42560023069381714,
-0.3633243143558502,
0.1415920853614807,
0.2410898059606552,
-5.943506240844727,
-0.4033758342266083,
-0.5113170146942139,
0.3904353976249695,
0.20721130073070526,
0.1567944586277008,
0.143978089094162,
-0.2645761966705322,
-0.5000115036964417,
0.26355597376823425,
-0.05568375810980797,
0.0687117949128151,
-0.04209849238395691,
-0.10228662192821503,
0.32815712690353394,
0.31038546562194824,
0.3080706000328064,
-0.19141463935375214,
0.4380226731300354,
-0.06130516156554222,
-0.27218127250671387,
0.6436861753463745,
0.2859154939651489,
0.36425337195396423,
0.14269371330738068,
0.1696511209011078,
0.06669639050960541,
-0.5578955411911011,
-0.7967696189880371,
-0.1796848475933075,
-0.18434596061706543,
0.3014218509197235,
0.05672672018408775,
-0.05491669848561287,
-0.18637865781784058,
-0.052230626344680786,
0.4295685291290283,
-0.071868397295475,
0.1091625988483429,
0.18507200479507446,
-0.6545768976211548,
0.5439328551292419,
0.27147242426872253,
-0.19250911474227905,
0.33703190088272095,
0.06790509074926376,
0.0022694594226777554,
-0.023776141926646233,
0.03804164379835129,
0.3319198787212372,
0.12299826741218567,
0.29173544049263,
0.32461854815483093,
0.15628966689109802,
-0.1670265644788742,
-0.22172564268112183,
0.17949652671813965,
-0.4707777798175812,
0.028577951714396477,
-0.12297552824020386,
0.4540558159351349,
-0.6655077338218689,
-0.03175610303878784,
0.035505130887031555,
0.6443871259689331,
-0.6602488160133362,
-0.18317106366157532,
0.22412291169166565,
0.2931310832500458,
0.2869553864002228,
-0.16602826118469238,
0.5181742906570435,
0.23341499269008636,
-1.0534167289733887,
0.1769038885831833,
0.062225960195064545,
-0.22121913731098175,
0.19808387756347656,
0.7322132587432861,
0.7458268404006958,
-0.06842274963855743,
-0.47942596673965454,
-0.30479103326797485,
0.511684000492096,
0.010607716627418995,
-1.224714756011963,
-0.5364794731140137,
0.23504149913787842,
-0.2522737383842468,
0.1949053406715393,
0.28616514801979065,
-0.3645808696746826,
0.18777628242969513,
0.2675668001174927,
0.2782023549079895,
0.7173727750778198,
-0.4109804630279541,
0.21919763088226318,
0.4133410155773163,
-0.02179066091775894,
-0.23839271068572998,
-0.16428352892398834,
0.19875234365463257,
-0.159682959318161,
0.3076651990413666,
-0.004973623435944319,
0.2105279117822647,
0.4444331228733063,
0.5952476859092712,
0.10322193801403046,
0.24077767133712769,
-0.45047760009765625,
-0.5754942297935486,
0.36552926898002625,
0.532612144947052,
-0.4838985800743103,
0.16465222835540771,
0.3688264489173889,
-0.10961484909057617,
0.06849990040063858,
-0.1902289241552353,
0.7247492074966431,
-0.13618242740631104,
0.0030414212960749865,
-0.20971527695655823,
-0.4897339940071106,
-0.085067979991436,
-0.5072553753852844,
-0.3793807625770569,
0.21303914487361908,
0.3202214539051056,
0.17841693758964539,
0.25976186990737915,
-0.0934998095035553,
-0.0190866831690073,
-0.1363847851753235,
-0.5067213773727417,
-0.03360438346862793,
-0.47782471776008606,
-0.1682158261537552,
0.17906557023525238,
-0.35194727778434753,
0.08125291764736176,
0.5130929946899414,
0.8088045716285706,
0.44065871834754944,
0.16568326950073242,
-0.20174911618232727,
-0.30593034625053406,
0.9718461632728577,
-0.1255895346403122,
-0.21921667456626892,
0.6756008863449097,
-0.5259726047515869,
0.08894062042236328,
-0.32667797803878784,
-0.11699023097753525,
0.12220326066017151,
-0.14560194313526154,
-0.1011912152171135,
-0.097284235060215,
0.08875618129968643,
-0.8783007264137268,
-0.2699536681175232,
0.3335901200771332,
0.44450464844703674,
-0.553532063961029,
-0.2326434850692749,
-0.21969084441661835,
0.29338130354881287,
0.08579134941101074,
-0.5929933190345764,
-0.43410786986351013,
0.12340807169675827,
0.3278793692588806,
0.3522839844226837,
-0.1476038545370102,
-0.029703861102461815,
0.013688145205378532,
-0.24700170755386353,
0.0819154605269432,
-0.20285993814468384,
0.1360156536102295,
0.6800684332847595,
0.21897314488887787,
-0.07949839532375336,
-0.3890026807785034,
0.1244836375117302,
0.1023099422454834,
0.03163602203130722,
0.2502787113189697,
0.06964565068483353,
0.7393654584884644,
0.3598982095718384,
-0.5523731708526611,
-0.045643892139196396,
0.1908877193927765,
0.41537243127822876,
-0.3538420498371124,
-0.3033859133720398,
0.3472369611263275,
0.03231664374470711,
-0.46255478262901306,
-0.10879595577716827,
0.6586449146270752,
-0.8709127306938171,
0.23648159205913544,
0.15186354517936707,
-0.12471553683280945,
0.22378437221050262,
0.06290477514266968,
-0.9050901532173157,
-0.24745547771453857,
0.11827069520950317,
-0.3668302595615387,
-0.2715771198272705,
0.08840401470661163,
-0.5897154211997986,
-0.09143105894327164,
-0.5780916810035706,
0.2727515697479248,
-0.3470260500907898,
-0.8348193764686584,
-0.516136884689331,
-1.1040998697280884,
-0.5252469182014465,
0.27298465371131897,
-0.34001755714416504,
0.8113690614700317,
0.025657622143626213,
-0.11902563273906708,
-0.3349936902523041,
0.3647502362728119,
0.2758548855781555,
0.12273385375738144,
-0.12941382825374603,
-0.258349746465683,
0.036281194537878036,
0.5220036506652832,
-0.22570277750492096,
0.305385023355484,
0.8425624966621399,
0.4793764352798462,
-0.22028030455112457,
-0.4772716462612152,
-0.19356852769851685,
0.4974357783794403,
-0.8811363577842712,
-0.39727967977523804,
0.48184698820114136,
0.27732717990875244,
-0.6066973209381104,
-0.0642930343747139,
-0.5317245125770569,
-0.046728625893592834,
-0.2009580433368683,
0.3643665313720703,
-0.10490106791257858,
0.09718901664018631,
0.5927895903587341,
-0.3103352189064026,
0.01793810725212097,
-0.9231307506561279,
-0.07182209193706512,
-0.022987255826592445,
0.08951736241579056,
0.03644378483295441,
-0.36488187313079834,
-0.14044497907161713,
-0.4668632447719574,
0.48919323086738586,
-0.11174425482749939,
0.2633278965950012,
0.5946502685546875,
0.32411491870880127,
0.06807970255613327,
-0.19469061493873596,
-0.28712037205696106,
0.44034090638160706,
-0.3685433864593506,
-0.05904581770300865,
0.5175837278366089,
-0.15664951503276825,
-0.018539000302553177,
-0.13359560072422028,
-0.08720692247152328,
-0.39748573303222656,
-0.42185747623443604,
0.37506237626075745,
0.16061952710151672,
-0.524893045425415,
-0.033985406160354614,
-0.07761403173208237,
0.4139152467250824,
0.03214409947395325,
0.09202684462070465,
-0.17480352520942688,
-0.4300704002380371,
0.2234969288110733,
0.0683804303407669,
-0.35807567834854126,
0.9307068586349487,
-0.3290199041366577,
-0.6459341645240784,
0.3136421740055084,
-0.007168944459408522,
-0.09949802607297897,
-0.4951499402523041,
-0.13672605156898499,
0.6843021512031555,
0.6159868836402893,
0.08482640981674194,
-0.0042067333124578,
0.6114754676818848,
-0.45506760478019714,
-0.20539574325084686,
0.5287017822265625,
-0.42204028367996216,
-0.0444849357008934,
0.35335901379585266,
0.0907648429274559,
0.10922770947217941,
0.7583532929420471,
-0.13335615396499634,
-0.7218596935272217,
-0.2110205441713333,
-0.07123447209596634,
-0.46245676279067993,
0.21477536857128143,
0.9734930396080017,
0.24538573622703552,
0.04529315605759621,
-0.49301499128341675,
0.05411122739315033,
-0.11277252435684204,
-0.6207897067070007,
-0.2578040063381195,
-0.2968331277370453,
0.1492118537425995,
0.5712214112281799,
0.6013646721839905,
-0.04065665602684021,
-0.04094591364264488,
-0.23896828293800354,
-0.06587354093790054,
0.4441204071044922,
0.6142746806144714,
0.12378867715597153,
0.12332155555486679,
0.18981534242630005,
0.4149594306945801,
0.3845252990722656,
0.6586384177207947,
-0.45517006516456604,
0.047874901443719864,
0.1990644931793213,
-0.13198156654834747,
-0.28332293033599854,
-0.3240159749984741,
-0.16525733470916748,
-0.033204335719347,
-0.4986962676048279,
0.014318326488137245,
-0.6098448634147644,
-0.1987116038799286,
0.13500729203224182,
0.4964386224746704,
-0.12825845181941986,
-0.056562066078186035,
-0.0018175753066316247,
-0.3319980800151825,
0.029033098369836807,
-0.15238094329833984,
0.1889687031507492,
-0.18244409561157227,
-0.3235369920730591,
-0.14328442513942719,
0.20386317372322083,
0.4744952917098999,
0.20932412147521973,
0.3894824683666229,
-0.19105976819992065,
-0.4717876613140106,
-0.2947070598602295,
-0.10484884679317474,
-0.05184601992368698,
0.12755727767944336,
0.8085072636604309,
-0.5548639297485352,
0.016799507662653923,
-0.37421634793281555,
-0.6683110594749451,
-0.2709558606147766,
0.055136438459157944,
-0.40039172768592834,
-0.3624718487262726,
0.03862150385975838,
0.9471471905708313,
0.4473840892314911,
0.4367634952068329,
-0.12798435986042023,
0.26662176847457886,
0.1560238003730774,
-0.12733548879623413,
-0.39938345551490784,
0.06301163136959076,
-0.4780985713005066,
-0.3516558110713959,
-0.3316766917705536,
0.22076651453971863,
0.7106333374977112,
-0.39589250087738037,
-0.13010935485363007,
0.04505496472120285,
-0.3465341627597809,
0.3766898512840271,
0.3284088671207428,
-0.3900708854198456,
-0.07715759426355362,
-0.4327443242073059,
-0.1875372976064682,
0.5588961243629456,
0.19311299920082092,
0.01973465457558632,
-0.4533518850803375,
0.010197947733104229,
0.30277374386787415,
-0.6964878439903259,
-0.44160693883895874,
0.4980788826942444,
-0.6656063199043274,
0.2012811154127121,
-0.6519156694412231,
0.11051502823829651,
-0.4789844751358032,
-0.55830317735672,
0.4485009014606476,
0.8953568339347839,
0.3228031396865845,
-0.21469126641750336,
-0.18463796377182007,
0.17071621119976044,
0.25768914818763733,
0.033403124660253525,
-0.2924033999443054,
0.056708045303821564,
-0.29827582836151123,
-0.19063334167003632,
-0.16851426661014557,
0.1669013798236847,
0.5214545726776123,
-0.026442918926477432,
0.2832849621772766,
-0.12527304887771606,
0.3142879903316498,
-0.5429412722587585,
-0.16187380254268646,
-0.2277694195508957,
0.16602253913879395,
0.010851315222680569
] |
213202
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monterey%20Jack
|
Monterey Jack
|
Monterey Jack, sometimes shortened to Jack, is a Californian white, semi-hard cheese made using cow's milk. It is noted for its mild flavor and slight sweetness. It has been called "an American original" and "as a vestige of Spanish rule in the early nineteenth century, derives from a Franciscan monastic style of farmer's cheese."
In addition to being eaten by itself, it is frequently marbled with Colby to produce Colby-Jack, or with yellow cheddar to produce cheddar-Jack. Pepper Jack is a version flavored with chili peppers and herbs. Dry Jack is a harder cheese with a longer aging time.
Origins
In its earliest form, Monterey Jack was made by 18th-century Franciscan friars of Monterey, Alta California. California businessman David Jacks sold the cheese commercially. He produced a mild white cheese that came to be known eponymously as "Jacks' Cheese" and eventually "Monterey Jack". Other ranchers in the area likewise produced the cheese, among them Andrew Molera, who built a successful dairy operation in Big Sur and whose Monterey Jack was especially well regarded.
Aging
Although most of the softer varieties found in American supermarkets are aged for only one month, "dry Jack" is a harder variety aged for up to six months.
Uses
The cheese is commonly used as an interior melting cheese for California-style burritos, but also some Mexican-style burritos ("bean and cheese"). It can also be used on cheeseburgers or for grilled cheese sandwiches. It has a mild flavor and good melting quality for some pasta dishes.
Variants
Dry Jack
Dry Jack was created by accident in 1915, when a San Francisco wholesaler forgot about a number of wheels of fresh Jack he had stored. As World War I intensified and shipments of hard cheese from Europe were interrupted, he rediscovered the wheels, which had aged into a product his customers found to be a good substitute for classic hard cheeses like Parmesan.
Pepper Jack
Pepper Jack is a derivative of Monterey Jack flavored with spicy chili peppers, bell peppers, and herbs.
Blends
Additional flavor and visual appeal is created by marbling with Colby (making Colby-Jack) or a yellow cheddar cheese.
Headaches
Because of its low content of tyramine, an organic compound thought to be associated with headaches, Monterey Jack is frequently recommended as one of the few cheeses that is safe to eat for migraine sufferers.
See also
Mallorca cheese
Mahón cheese
List of cheeses
References
External links
Bibliography of Dairying in California 1770 to 1945
Archival Materials - Dairying In California 1770 to 1945
American cheeses
Cow's-milk cheeses
Tex-Mex cuisine
Agriculture in California
|
[
0.19736771285533905,
0.36940819025039673,
-0.013105093501508236,
0.12846921384334564,
0.6167498230934143,
0.349759042263031,
-0.26690441370010376,
0.8024793863296509,
-0.24231718480587006,
0.21786148846149445,
-0.02827746979892254,
0.6328461170196533,
0.4307344853878021,
0.36274969577789307,
-0.48790282011032104,
0.4011212885379791,
1.3352887630462646,
0.3543660640716553,
0.07758418470621109,
-0.4899325668811798,
-0.1561065912246704,
-0.8397967219352722,
-0.17836891114711761,
-0.0078988466411829,
-0.24259479343891144,
-0.15755656361579895,
-0.01180599071085453,
-0.17845545709133148,
0.3405287265777588,
0.49750781059265137,
-0.22022956609725952,
0.5268213152885437,
0.45706143975257874,
-0.24856220185756683,
-0.19703112542629242,
-0.004967461805790663,
0.25887683033943176,
-0.654304027557373,
-0.4594736397266388,
-0.10314242541790009,
0.21049754321575165,
-0.3094029426574707,
0.8127008676528931,
0.3621545732021332,
0.05727432668209076,
0.04828932136297226,
-0.8806344270706177,
-0.23421522974967957,
-0.2647094130516052,
0.21146780252456665,
-0.43074414134025574,
0.499254047870636,
-0.5660955905914307,
0.03953482210636139,
0.09212404489517212,
0.6141133904457092,
-0.7528224587440491,
-0.1845870018005371,
0.20804676413536072,
-0.4283066987991333,
-0.5190072059631348,
0.4035656452178955,
0.0908890888094902,
-0.07526584714651108,
-0.18603432178497314,
-0.14960134029388428,
0.3921221196651459,
0.4481649696826935,
-0.17328636348247528,
0.01787061244249344,
-0.8937432169914246,
-0.30202317237854004,
0.26448363065719604,
-0.8095186948776245,
0.09615062177181244,
-0.012892860919237137,
-0.550661027431488,
-0.04037770256400108,
-0.19624049961566925,
0.23918108642101288,
-0.1773696392774582,
-0.2879194915294647,
0.9435521364212036,
0.1820230633020401,
-0.009128059260547161,
0.254711389541626,
-0.2738268971443176,
-0.004679001402109861,
-0.21682482957839966,
1.0140607357025146,
-0.95095294713974,
0.4571199417114258,
0.9438998699188232,
0.03066328354179859,
-0.359822154045105,
-0.2592596113681793,
0.13553497195243835,
0.43993079662323,
0.49205082654953003,
0.34646567702293396,
-0.33114445209503174,
0.8329810500144958,
0.7190997004508972,
0.2664509117603302,
-1.0132195949554443,
-0.35655462741851807,
-0.6025789380073547,
-0.007233938667923212,
-0.06895209848880768,
0.26021865010261536,
0.07020314782857895,
0.14536015689373016,
0.6504442095756531,
0.6948404908180237,
0.19247087836265564,
0.38762858510017395,
0.19286085665225983,
-0.28645268082618713,
-0.45375576615333557,
-0.5773764252662659,
0.12142314016819,
0.564690887928009,
-0.39968234300613403,
-0.10023641586303711,
0.4772081673145294,
-0.11857538670301437,
0.16246573626995087,
0.2809150516986847,
-0.001416776212863624,
-0.15496361255645752,
-0.0778857171535492,
0.006883944850414991,
0.011370230466127396,
0.15458376705646515,
-0.14333735406398773,
-0.042495954781770706,
-0.35573598742485046,
-0.4488218426704407,
0.3691461682319641,
0.5089279413223267,
-0.8920504450798035,
0.3663221299648285,
-0.1324310600757599,
-0.0019020247273147106,
0.18457594513893127,
0.3660430610179901,
0.012940013781189919,
-0.42785608768463135,
-0.7498400211334229,
0.18404647707939148,
0.4866032600402832,
0.27314937114715576,
0.05503284931182861,
-0.6537691950798035,
0.23994946479797363,
0.2880233824253082,
-0.21057066321372986,
-0.20474004745483398,
0.5058057308197021,
-0.30039116740226746,
-0.6141999959945679,
-0.008718996308743954,
0.2863178849220276,
-0.22822798788547516,
-0.2514405846595764,
-0.21590842306613922,
0.9059335589408875,
-0.07114698737859726,
-0.40402331948280334,
0.8106561303138733,
0.10752714425325394,
0.32876622676849365,
0.6880924701690674,
-0.2186129242181778,
-0.6035033464431763,
-0.3358086049556732,
0.515686571598053,
0.6229737401008606,
0.4120447039604187,
0.2221461981534958,
-0.4415670931339264,
0.17956523597240448,
0.058665186166763306,
-0.2793208062648773,
-0.3534339964389801,
-0.5318294763565063,
0.30213019251823425,
-0.35828152298927307,
0.30530786514282227,
-0.19931408762931824,
-0.37634751200675964,
-0.03193693235516548,
-0.26900622248649597,
-0.2825647294521332,
0.8573009967803955,
-0.2560109794139862,
-0.6045425534248352,
0.4813581705093384,
0.30810773372650146,
0.5030508637428284,
-0.32701489329338074,
0.3050745129585266,
0.5883573293685913,
0.17072591185569763,
-0.7026259899139404,
0.17839175462722778,
0.38051697611808777,
-0.06950266659259796,
0.8313552737236023,
0.14627838134765625,
-0.1780422329902649,
-0.07208386063575745,
0.6124018430709839,
-0.05274871364235878,
-0.20696744322776794,
0.2242569923400879,
0.5245572924613953,
0.2795923352241516,
0.18560610711574554,
-0.7909166812896729,
0.8537219762802124,
-0.18014119565486908,
-0.29630422592163086,
0.512884259223938,
-0.21943899989128113,
0.3875505328178406,
-0.33877453207969666,
-0.14151187241077423,
0.18145506083965302,
0.6781015992164612,
-0.2080552726984024,
-0.5223610997200012,
-0.044428691267967224,
-0.06779024004936218,
0.20497199892997742,
0.5734243392944336,
0.11509828269481659,
-0.1399027556180954,
-0.013843109831213951,
-0.11384198069572449,
0.30831900238990784,
0.2834520637989044,
-0.13923098146915436,
0.14601700007915497,
0.5375401377677917,
0.06530369073152542,
-0.1015041172504425,
0.6115459203720093,
-0.4651614725589752,
-0.5380202531814575,
0.1044563576579094,
0.44635915756225586,
0.016745153814554214,
-0.0010432753479108214,
-0.22445133328437805,
-0.43932077288627625,
-0.22828324139118195,
-0.0019294865196570754,
0.2487388402223587,
0.2435791939496994,
0.12415532022714615,
0.19780747592449188,
0.2545362710952759,
-0.17234329879283905,
-0.06963475048542023,
-0.10703040659427643,
-0.06901412457227707,
-0.15702129900455475,
-0.2989315986633301,
-0.16121727228164673,
-0.21938437223434448,
0.4096333980560303,
-0.5108383297920227,
-0.11334463953971863,
-0.0259562898427248,
-0.05310840904712677,
-0.7504705190658569,
-0.2934155762195587,
-0.26302313804626465,
0.026019824668765068,
0.34416934847831726,
-0.128599151968956,
-0.016044393181800842,
-0.13954280316829681,
-0.3750660717487335,
-1.0506854057312012,
-0.3861546516418457,
-1.0695096254348755,
-0.5022212266921997,
-0.7024139165878296,
-0.37324392795562744,
0.07158741354942322,
0.1019534319639206,
-0.035558316856622696,
-0.6454833149909973,
-0.18076586723327637,
0.2834395170211792,
0.27013787627220154,
0.4849270284175873,
-0.455083966255188,
0.11421027034521103,
-0.2957843840122223,
0.6765555143356323,
0.3876616954803467,
0.5158112049102783,
0.34667399525642395,
-0.10289905965328217,
-0.33763575553894043,
-5.522963523864746,
0.17762640118598938,
-0.46955305337905884,
0.11141117662191391,
0.6609203219413757,
0.06914035975933075,
0.02631143294274807,
-1.0009455680847168,
0.8137837052345276,
0.1018027737736702,
-0.3173709511756897,
0.38184964656829834,
-0.32595205307006836,
0.25992435216903687,
0.023871222510933876,
0.16537101566791534,
0.1339900940656662,
-0.18505921959877014,
0.10189784318208694,
-0.17296187579631805,
0.19580459594726562,
0.09295298159122467,
0.10213100165128708,
0.8812704086303711,
-0.03597551956772804,
1.1294364929199219,
-0.504245400428772,
-0.21948347985744476,
-0.2875401973724365,
0.3146332800388336,
-0.6177303194999695,
-0.5548654198646545,
0.10740351676940918,
-0.12165194749832153,
0.2867445647716522,
0.37763917446136475,
-0.06839482486248016,
0.19786107540130615,
0.0824393704533577,
-0.3829706907272339,
0.05370371788740158,
0.4907272458076477,
0.09307333827018738,
-0.4911370873451233,
0.42349833250045776,
0.16711460053920746,
0.18280337750911713,
-0.21635110676288605,
-0.07588273286819458,
0.48827221989631653,
-0.0681193396449089,
-0.3524313271045685,
0.4705163538455963,
-0.1840536892414093,
0.3713723421096802,
0.5747819542884827,
0.8246469497680664,
0.07019129395484924,
-0.48777899146080017,
-0.02954445593059063,
0.33144626021385193,
-0.26941391825675964,
-0.3659411370754242,
-0.04035365954041481,
-0.3163038492202759,
-0.13416922092437744,
-0.2516216039657593,
0.6677497029304504,
0.7464235424995422,
0.05756073445081711,
-0.21067441999912262,
0.4161776900291443,
0.1053127646446228,
-0.9410178661346436,
0.5498483777046204,
-0.6162254810333252,
-0.8861832022666931,
0.004120432306081057,
-0.7911334037780762,
0.682694137096405,
0.13178661465644836,
0.09508829563856125,
-0.018878260627388954,
0.10943936556577682,
0.09217467159032822,
-0.47314321994781494,
-0.09381541609764099,
0.052389178425073624,
-0.3055095374584198,
-0.2241138219833374,
0.21941900253295898,
-0.4879148304462433,
0.040712397545576096,
-0.1942255198955536,
0.2572387754917145,
0.24454186856746674,
-0.19840669631958008,
0.578366219997406,
-0.24942323565483093,
-0.3284611999988556,
0.6973963975906372,
-0.28595834970474243,
0.3509860634803772,
-0.6889490485191345,
-0.27932775020599365,
0.08355940878391266,
0.15699034929275513,
0.6894832253456116,
0.45696350932121277,
0.4108322262763977,
0.32334083318710327,
0.36656326055526733,
-0.5633783936500549,
-0.8146985769271851,
0.3393774628639221,
0.15344911813735962,
-0.09339046478271484,
0.33551275730133057,
0.5244829058647156,
-0.40364566445350647,
0.49572986364364624,
-0.1053764596581459,
-0.09069005399942398,
-0.22273652255535126,
0.14577393233776093,
-0.4031035006046295,
0.5610294342041016,
-0.020976819097995758,
-0.1455768495798111,
0.8116001486778259,
-0.11640007048845291,
0.14988690614700317,
0.002932571806013584,
0.19180966913700104,
-0.20157721638679504,
0.14679838716983795,
-0.6746499538421631,
-0.47212648391723633,
-0.47876453399658203,
0.015471655875444412,
-0.22450129687786102,
-0.1322183758020401,
0.28475531935691833,
0.1911250650882721,
-0.3544453978538513,
0.8240207433700562,
-0.6323441863059998,
-0.34998640418052673,
-0.3744584619998932,
0.5178980231285095,
0.3279668092727661,
0.5943433046340942,
-0.7307510375976562,
0.016335759311914444,
-0.12019925564527512,
-0.6969927549362183,
-0.07387440651655197,
0.7427131533622742,
-0.2797112464904785,
-0.1837843656539917,
0.12784747779369354,
-0.5913864970207214,
-0.931415319442749,
-0.31224024295806885,
0.24172727763652802,
-0.025622501969337463,
-0.339408814907074,
-0.40347978472709656,
0.10800232738256454,
1.34127938747406,
-0.14287598431110382,
-0.27324146032333374,
-0.46664857864379883,
0.03572864457964897,
0.49660319089889526,
-0.11195994913578033,
0.10782942920923233,
0.07017584145069122,
0.197960764169693,
0.16831374168395996,
0.5894318222999573,
-0.03205886110663414,
0.3818035423755646,
-0.16746053099632263,
0.23643141984939575,
-1.2844234704971313,
-0.3486328125,
-0.011197419837117195,
0.22737368941307068,
0.7401636242866516,
-0.24010437726974487,
0.13659727573394775,
0.5608586072921753,
0.5965434312820435,
-0.6740687489509583,
-0.027078699320554733,
-0.45194756984710693,
0.8037070631980896,
-0.06604763120412827,
-0.43767234683036804,
-0.4157600998878479,
-0.16155263781547546,
-0.6406996250152588,
0.32687944173812866,
0.5393024682998657,
-0.2078554481267929,
0.6739571690559387,
0.006060813087970018,
-0.14632084965705872,
0.4289803206920624,
-0.5646452903747559,
-0.8965697884559631,
0.37233370542526245,
0.5116677284240723,
0.17762191593647003,
0.28982725739479065,
-0.1978062242269516,
-0.5341391563415527,
-0.22516679763793945,
-0.6408674120903015,
-0.1494305580854416,
-0.35929733514785767,
-0.1794911026954651,
0.012583516538143158,
-0.12514647841453552,
0.39447325468063354,
0.21071414649486542,
-0.3291308283805847,
0.28733453154563904,
-0.27395063638687134,
0.6058794856071472,
-0.7584360837936401,
-0.3458075225353241,
0.6829093098640442,
0.03774586319923401,
0.3912161886692047,
0.006484819110482931,
-0.2420109659433365,
0.17500387132167816,
0.5916872620582581,
0.6339757442474365,
0.9893940091133118,
-0.16692128777503967,
0.04162094369530678,
-1.03981614112854,
0.08075042068958282,
0.33713170886039734,
-0.3899366855621338,
0.11176291853189468,
0.4410415589809418,
0.17320728302001953,
-1.152424693107605,
0.020877664908766747,
-0.28050345182418823,
0.6102561950683594,
-1.1644222736358643,
0.10429968684911728,
0.12603376805782318,
-0.6028327345848083,
-0.21367225050926208,
-0.0959610566496849,
0.07767918705940247,
-0.042630214244127274,
0.3018825650215149,
-0.0848793089389801,
-0.3349570631980896,
-0.3013611137866974,
-0.1629229187965393,
0.11116721481084824,
0.20758028328418732,
0.315569132566452,
-0.06398911774158478,
0.5739496946334839,
0.896305501461029,
-0.0998566523194313,
0.41296622157096863,
-0.32830244302749634,
-0.9871124029159546,
0.366225004196167,
-0.07732157409191132,
-0.8433906435966492,
0.20903116464614868,
-0.4226524233818054,
-0.09881844371557236,
-0.40205129981040955,
-0.24607647955417633,
-0.42521417140960693,
-0.44221431016921997,
-0.017673341557383537,
0.5829992294311523,
-0.0038377458695322275,
0.05673821270465851,
0.36839762330055237,
-0.6484187245368958,
-0.09445200115442276,
-0.12132447957992554,
0.2543799579143524,
0.48352107405662537,
-0.5598111152648926,
0.5148240923881531,
-0.6689988970756531,
0.9667426347732544,
0.11275837570428848,
-0.2898787260055542,
0.20223206281661987,
-0.05109161138534546,
-0.37804535031318665,
0.06212562322616577,
-0.3688221573829651,
-0.35290271043777466,
0.39959269762039185,
-0.15325014293193817,
-0.20984789729118347,
0.569518506526947,
-0.3187728524208069,
0.11173642426729202,
0.3324800431728363,
-0.29962390661239624,
-0.31254130601882935,
0.942786693572998,
0.5884469747543335,
-0.040631718933582306,
0.0887109786272049,
-0.2274787724018097,
0.06854869425296783,
0.38060811161994934,
-1.0186885595321655,
-0.5051580667495728,
0.17457687854766846,
0.17171339690685272,
0.1478249877691269,
-0.15943092107772827,
-0.3609244227409363,
-0.4113980233669281,
0.11831754446029663,
-0.1346587985754013,
-0.4792967140674591,
-0.47080689668655396,
-0.18536227941513062,
0.7474718689918518,
0.46222203969955444,
0.3832756280899048,
-0.2525591254234314,
-0.1305769681930542,
0.7842637896537781,
0.0655495747923851,
-0.01755295880138874,
-0.6895557641983032,
0.49245190620422363,
-0.40079736709594727,
0.3538292348384857,
-0.3491988182067871,
0.8227269053459167,
-0.07263325899839401,
0.17265477776527405,
0.0916614904999733,
-0.519591748714447,
-0.3078393340110779,
-0.6538122892379761,
0.06441989541053772,
-0.29275405406951904,
-0.12034686654806137,
0.3559204936027527,
-0.22421370446681976,
0.36537057161331177,
-0.012737608514726162,
-0.09552792459726334,
-0.45405271649360657,
-0.22232772409915924,
0.401675820350647,
0.047323908656835556,
0.030635524541139603,
-0.13668027520179749,
-0.025028152391314507,
0.16382071375846863,
0.8110365271568298,
0.2081129550933838,
0.6718875765800476,
-0.244828462600708,
0.4725913107395172,
-0.7263819575309753,
-0.14878207445144653,
-0.42338404059410095,
-0.40965309739112854,
-0.16814669966697693,
0.08084835857152939,
-0.09244294464588165,
0.05180253088474274,
-0.7537264227867126,
-0.11473673582077026,
-0.3977034389972687,
-0.4884225130081177,
-0.1373106837272644,
-0.139100581407547,
0.20564734935760498,
-0.39231786131858826,
0.25394803285598755,
0.6185182332992554,
0.08496963977813721,
0.36136165261268616,
-0.02807021699845791,
-0.1236286535859108,
-0.1261138767004013,
0.2085287719964981,
-0.45229625701904297,
-0.32052022218704224,
-0.5972284078598022,
0.17879268527030945,
-0.10068058222532272,
0.6090369820594788,
-0.12728165090084076,
0.10183705389499664,
-0.31845924258232117,
0.23188674449920654,
-1.1348806619644165,
0.5208917856216431,
1.383332371711731,
-0.018945958465337753,
0.1881312131881714,
-0.9235786199569702,
-0.49168625473976135,
-0.3378722369670868,
0.17649857699871063,
0.9749102592468262,
0.41115355491638184,
0.09769358485937119,
0.7766412496566772,
-0.1094515323638916,
-0.8668312430381775,
0.07456456124782562,
-0.3443397581577301,
0.38941192626953125,
-0.3600984513759613,
0.445800244808197,
-0.630686342716217,
-0.8085130453109741,
0.22790458798408508,
0.325899600982666,
-0.04963124543428421,
-0.1533796489238739,
0.41321608424186707,
-0.1950284093618393,
-0.5348490476608276,
-0.2774490714073181,
-0.07837691903114319,
-0.572542130947113,
0.2788219749927521,
-0.30450528860092163,
-0.3561232089996338,
0.2920103669166565,
0.11152226477861404,
-0.6127769947052002,
0.3053974509239197,
-0.34906819462776184,
0.5610535144805908,
0.2503620982170105,
0.33538734912872314,
-0.24605169892311096,
0.2822125554084778,
-0.5430276393890381
] |
213204
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Chip%20%27n%20Dale%3A%20Rescue%20Rangers%20merchandise
|
List of Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers merchandise
|
Much merchandise has arisen from the Disney animated TV series Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers starting in 1989 with various types of stickers, figurines, McDonald's Happy Meal toys, plush toys and Disney Tsum Tsum toys. In between these years there have been a myriad of different types of merchandise including VHS tapes, DVDs, video games, books, albums, kitchenware, clothes, pins and other various knick knacks.
Home media
VHS releases
On February 22, 1991, Walt Disney Home Video released 10 select episodes from the series on five VHS cassettes in the United States, containing a pair of episodes each.
On October 5, 1993 Disney released a VHS containing Halloween specials, for the upcoming holiday season. The specials it featured were from the company's four arguably most popular series at the time, Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers, Darkwing Duck, DuckTales and Goof Troop.
The Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers episode "Ghost of a Chance" was released together with the Goof Troop episode "Hallow-Weenies" on one VHS cassette as a special release called Boo-Busters. And the Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers episode "Good Times, Bat Times" was released together with the Darkwing Duck episode "Ghoul of My Dreams" on one VHS cassette as a special release called Witcheroo!
Several other episodes were available on international releases.
UK, Australia & New Zealand releases
Eleven VHS cassettes containing 23 episodes of the series were released in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand.
DVD releases
US (Region 1)
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment has released some of the series on DVD; two volumes have been released in Region 1 thus far featuring the first 51 episodes of the series. The first was released on November 8, 2005 (containing episodes 1-27) and the second on November 14, 2006 (containing episodes 28-51). The episodes on the first volume are arranged by production date, while the episodes on the second volume are arranged by original air date. The sets were packaged in a box containing 3 slipcases, one for each disc. There has yet to be any word from Disney regarding the release of a third volume set for episodes 52–65.
International (Region 2)
In the United Kingdom, Disney released one Region 2 volume in 2007, titled Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers First Collection. Despite the set being similar to the US version, the DVD contained only 20 episodes, while having 6 language tracks: English, French, Dutch, German, Spanish and Italian. Several other similar releases were then made to other countries, but only going up to episode #20. On December 5, 2012, a second DVD set of the series was released in the UK, but as a Region 2 version of Volume 2, titled Chip n Dale Rescue Rangers Season 2. Unlike the first DVD, this 3-disc set includes a Fastplay mode and only two language tracks: English and German, but subtitles have not been added. As of yet, there are no plans to release the rest of the series, or the seven episodes missing between the first two sets.
Video games
Books
Single books
Periodical publications
Albums
House Stuff
Dishes and kitchenware
Oven Mitts (By Applause) - 1990
Dish Set (By Applause) - 1990
Mugs and Glasses
Disney Afternoon Mugs (Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers) (by Disney Store) - 2018
Disney Store Glasses (Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers) - 2019)
Party Stuffs
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Invitations and Cards) by Unique Techniques - 1989
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Party Pak) by Unique - 1989
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Valentine Cards) by Cleo - 1990
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Valentine Decoration) by Eureka - 1991
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Halloween Decoration) by Eureka - 1991
School Supplies
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Lunchbox by Aladdin Industries Inc.) - 1990
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Crayons by Disney) - 1990
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Pencil case by Popout) - 1991
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (School folder by Kellogg's) - 1991
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Pencils and Toppers by Disney) - 1991
Cnip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Pencil Case by Disney Store Japan) - 2019
Backpacks
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Backpack by Loungefly) - 2021
Clothing
Chip 'n Dale RR (Adventure Tales) - 1990
Gadget y Zipper (Disney Store) - 1990
Stickers
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Panini's stickers) - 1989
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Puffy stick-ems) - 1989
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (Froot Loops Stickers) - 1990
Pins
Disney Afternoon (Pin Versions):
Pin 8119: 100 Years of Dreams N°66: Chip 'n' Dale Rescue Rangers (Disney Store Usa) - 1989
Pin 13823: Disney Afternoon with Baloo, Scrooge, Cubbi, Chip 'n' Dale - 1990
Pin 4287: Chip de Chip 'n' Dale Rescue Rangers - Mid 90
Pin 17447: Disney Afternoon Button - 1990
Pin 39275: DLR - Magical Milestones (Disney Afternoon Avenue Opens, Spiiner) - 1991
Pin 17597 Disney Afternoon Live! Button - 1991
Pin 91451 Walt Disney's World On Ice Afternoon Button - 1991
Pin 19782: DLR - Mickey's ToonTown (Gadget Go Coaster) - 1993
Pin 75314: Disney Store Europe - Rescue Rangers (Dangle) - February 2010
Disney Afternoon Pins Collection (Disney Park) - December 2012
Mobile phone accessories
In November 2018, Disney Store Japan releases Case Cover was designed by Disney Characters, like Chip, Dale and Gadget by Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers.
Toys
1989
McDonald's release as Happy Meals, a 4 Toy sets from Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers.
Applause releases a figurines of Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers.
Golden releases a Frame-Tray puzzle based on the Disney's Rescue Rangers.
1990
Kellogg's Apple Jack releases a Rescue Rangers Decoder.
Milton Bradley releases a Lite Brite, contains a 12 pictures of Rescue Rangers characters.
Golden releases a Puzzle 60-piece based on the Disney's Rescue Rangers.
Hope Industries Inc. releases a Real Digital Watch, based on the Rescue Rangers.
1991
Golden releases a Puzzle 100-piece based on the Disney's Rescue Rangers.
Kellogg's Froot Loops releases a Stickers based on the Disney's Rescue Rangers.
Kellog's Frosted Flakes releases a Figurines based on the Disney Afternoon characters, including a Rescue Rangers.
Bend'Ems releases a PVC Figures based on DuckTales and Rescue Rangers.
Milton Bradley releases a Board Game of Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers.
The Walt Disney Company releases a Magic Slate, featuring a Rescue Rangers.
Tyco releases a View-Master's 3 Reels based on the Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers.
1993
In 1993, Sonrics releasing as Sonric's Meal, an Figurines basing on Disney characters, including a Rescue Rangers (6 Different Toys).
1996
In March 1996, Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers along with Goof Troop, DuckTales and The New Adventures of Winnie Pooh, is based for Esplashers Figurines by Sonrics.
2013
The Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers Figures was a part for Disney Vinilmation.
2017
Gadget Hackwrench is Badge Plush Toy in the 34th Anniversary Tokyo Disneyland.
Zipper, Gadget, Monterey, Chip and Dale from Rescue Rangers was a set and it is part of the Disney Tsum Tsum on July 16.
2019
Disney Store Japan releases a Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers figurine in March 2019.
References
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers merchandise
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers
|
[
0.3259938061237335,
0.5398675799369812,
-0.2117275446653366,
0.17352227866649628,
-0.13243965804576874,
-0.1811845749616623,
0.13184437155723572,
0.7037855386734009,
-0.2800128161907196,
0.29366564750671387,
-0.2805544435977936,
0.14758874475955963,
0.17837108671665192,
0.13868780434131622,
-0.5166953206062317,
0.3664722144603729,
0.14622759819030762,
0.870582640171051,
-0.22339068353176117,
-0.36016687750816345,
-0.0149071104824543,
-0.44286882877349854,
0.9724870920181274,
-0.5736513137817383,
-0.5590442419052124,
0.3195715844631195,
0.7858580946922302,
-0.1434033066034317,
0.18034455180168152,
0.31265854835510254,
-0.13233298063278198,
0.9782693386077881,
0.21936264634132385,
-0.04173089191317558,
-0.20706069469451904,
-0.003409560536965728,
-0.09431570768356323,
-0.09727951884269714,
0.1984725445508957,
-0.6381469964981079,
0.7234818339347839,
-0.29320240020751953,
0.011500581167638302,
0.4275479316711426,
0.14551793038845062,
-0.35747623443603516,
-1.6297534704208374,
0.06284831464290619,
-0.8689592480659485,
-0.044866375625133514,
-0.09400810301303864,
0.22149203717708588,
-0.05496203526854515,
0.07438776642084122,
0.5092397928237915,
0.9171865582466125,
-0.5592797994613647,
-0.25508803129196167,
0.15239806473255157,
0.4367329180240631,
0.2402789294719696,
0.3695383369922638,
0.13058879971504211,
-0.45681068301200867,
-0.12214978039264679,
0.050735361874103546,
-0.20597593486309052,
1.1946643590927124,
-0.05512932315468788,
-0.9465699791908264,
0.3401351869106293,
-0.6522033214569092,
-0.050686124712228775,
0.1080484390258789,
0.5682021975517273,
0.22088415920734406,
0.47051337361335754,
0.14895109832286835,
0.20967084169387817,
-0.26583409309387207,
-0.016452454030513763,
0.5947017669677734,
0.7564922571182251,
0.41236647963523865,
0.09538234025239944,
0.120565265417099,
-0.012419015169143677,
0.03233380615711212,
-0.08049128204584122,
1.2240475416183472,
-0.4418885409832001,
-0.40582045912742615,
0.936476469039917,
0.387096643447876,
-0.12066787481307983,
-0.526570737361908,
-0.1732858270406723,
0.09048255532979965,
0.9390761852264404,
0.26267296075820923,
-0.19164587557315826,
0.41720569133758545,
0.34970149397850037,
-0.09732044488191605,
-0.4583438038825989,
-0.5825263261795044,
0.5132312774658203,
-0.5670204758644104,
0.38155120611190796,
-0.004946788772940636,
-0.48869359493255615,
0.36545297503471375,
-0.09526064246892929,
0.8649583458900452,
-0.029539626091718674,
0.7103626132011414,
0.0366893969476223,
-0.5381931066513062,
-1.5826585292816162,
0.4025416076183319,
0.24427840113639832,
0.21308931708335876,
-0.23514558374881744,
-0.5768119692802429,
0.789722740650177,
0.9557262063026428,
0.3662068545818329,
0.5192384123802185,
0.1752975583076477,
0.33470115065574646,
0.047693680971860886,
0.8307909965515137,
-0.4366624653339386,
-0.29619693756103516,
-0.33117204904556274,
-0.28598153591156006,
0.763655960559845,
-0.1972104012966156,
-0.06233750283718109,
-0.20575042068958282,
-0.8159420490264893,
0.18748024106025696,
-0.9426972270011902,
-0.47912368178367615,
0.03326316550374031,
0.21682147681713104,
-0.25007328391075134,
-0.1708964854478836,
-0.2888549566268921,
0.03607619181275368,
0.42001962661743164,
-1.1618824005126953,
0.021653464064002037,
-0.2445370852947235,
-0.2592805027961731,
0.4448799192905426,
0.025443237274885178,
0.06855691224336624,
-0.10419485718011856,
-0.08890777081251144,
0.35579004883766174,
0.12741422653198242,
-0.6396441459655762,
-0.05206237733364105,
-0.1854192614555359,
0.3198475241661072,
-0.0027763880789279938,
0.24402444064617157,
0.14142046868801117,
0.34061893820762634,
-0.2210751622915268,
0.42878079414367676,
-0.13786981999874115,
0.2225271463394165,
0.041741080582141876,
-0.027442853897809982,
0.9336004853248596,
0.8750293850898743,
0.5246390104293823,
-0.1868385225534439,
-0.7372360229492188,
0.047819118946790695,
0.3926208019256592,
-0.39842888712882996,
0.4249202311038971,
-0.19938136637210846,
0.6831167936325073,
0.01399126835167408,
-0.1401049643754959,
-0.19989575445652008,
-0.6132112741470337,
-0.5040146708488464,
0.9855077862739563,
-0.5625665187835693,
0.8590749502182007,
0.6552659869194031,
-0.5776618719100952,
0.23022685945034027,
0.36638209223747253,
0.40553954243659973,
-0.08481599390506744,
0.31662678718566895,
0.08120227605104446,
0.17761152982711792,
-1.2050023078918457,
0.3088324964046478,
-0.13538776338100433,
-0.24693797528743744,
0.5956436395645142,
0.08982785791158676,
1.0246821641921997,
-0.2442755550146103,
-0.05906950682401657,
-0.3298206925392151,
0.07857856899499893,
0.40427184104919434,
-0.34281444549560547,
0.4231254756450653,
-0.12491104006767273,
-0.63633131980896,
-0.11130047589540482,
0.4264955520629883,
-0.36476922035217285,
0.25089603662490845,
-0.05229122191667557,
0.961387038230896,
-0.5761651396751404,
-0.4273977279663086,
0.356138676404953,
0.024538148194551468,
0.4174656569957733,
0.043071866035461426,
-0.3293638229370117,
-0.3665230870246887,
-0.37414655089378357,
-0.20383132994174957,
0.07665153592824936,
-0.5879254341125488,
0.013230234384536743,
0.3117220103740692,
0.08328622579574585,
0.08634395897388458,
-0.6963170170783997,
-0.11741276830434799,
0.297051340341568,
0.015064403414726257,
-0.7791836261749268,
-0.2322607785463333,
-0.06497783958911896,
-1.1107877492904663,
0.27491918206214905,
0.1697709858417511,
0.26257839798927307,
0.22092479467391968,
0.5823298096656799,
0.19614091515541077,
-0.5441765189170837,
-0.11579054594039917,
0.22702795267105103,
0.1580074578523636,
0.10305438190698624,
-0.001910151680931449,
-0.19126971065998077,
0.2926083505153656,
-0.733656644821167,
-0.9045761823654175,
-0.49450093507766724,
-0.2511167824268341,
0.11717195808887482,
-0.09939447790384293,
-0.0025757472030818462,
-0.08928275853395462,
-0.9223390221595764,
-0.1196034774184227,
0.26816773414611816,
-0.4519324004650116,
-0.1910068392753601,
0.12968900799751282,
-0.17982839047908783,
-0.8641158938407898,
0.04425162449479103,
1.122107744216919,
0.4012746810913086,
-0.24344266951084137,
-0.6436708569526672,
-0.0031323146540671587,
0.3526495397090912,
-0.1387181133031845,
-0.11249836534261703,
-0.012756421230733395,
0.18158212304115295,
0.0337538905441761,
-0.7210882306098938,
0.19342733919620514,
0.2246936708688736,
0.44581371545791626,
-0.21307209134101868,
0.3905850648880005,
0.33428406715393066,
-0.31055766344070435,
0.02435917779803276,
0.07325026392936707,
-0.6108672618865967,
-0.2052880972623825,
0.243649423122406,
-0.34741154313087463,
-0.22525444626808167,
-0.622692346572876,
-5.030725479125977,
0.19003987312316895,
-0.7698688507080078,
-0.2972164452075958,
0.20430581271648407,
0.27960172295570374,
0.6819541454315186,
-0.31649717688560486,
0.4257066547870636,
-0.02727227285504341,
0.20406308770179749,
-0.2627558708190918,
0.12866224348545074,
0.24219638109207153,
0.38490551710128784,
0.025650501251220703,
1.2887728214263916,
0.31260284781455994,
0.6015902757644653,
-0.3215690851211548,
0.44094809889793396,
-0.4660152494907379,
-0.2147751897573471,
0.3977759778499603,
-0.0573769249022007,
1.24696946144104,
-0.07823629677295685,
0.3074456453323364,
-0.3013099431991577,
0.22413980960845947,
-0.017083531245589256,
-0.2724458873271942,
-0.4447055459022522,
-0.69324791431427,
-0.3700793981552124,
0.03149927034974098,
0.4459305703639984,
-0.15215694904327393,
0.8668234348297119,
-0.8728222250938416,
-0.22215673327445984,
0.6030552983283997,
0.24362899363040924,
-0.1370127946138382,
0.7969985008239746,
-0.09334363043308258,
-0.2929588556289673,
-0.24237211048603058,
-0.06107712537050247,
0.8950594663619995,
0.7602390050888062,
-0.3357970714569092,
0.17810457944869995,
0.42850351333618164,
0.2969599962234497,
-0.22806261479854584,
-0.08363194018602371,
0.38906329870224,
-0.6442727446556091,
0.5339847207069397,
0.4830980598926544,
-0.20440773665905,
-0.6715941429138184,
-0.5409432649612427,
-0.5935563445091248,
-0.5543219447135925,
-0.5268904566764832,
-0.5322431921958923,
-0.44528791308403015,
-0.3607334792613983,
-0.7913327217102051,
0.3534756004810333,
-0.9355190396308899,
-0.6315051317214966,
0.5302344560623169,
-0.12833338975906372,
-0.25312861800193787,
0.7735393047332764,
-0.07991150766611099,
0.24160312116146088,
-0.36529630422592163,
-0.36677953600883484,
-0.13068188726902008,
0.5692399144172668,
-0.5475978851318359,
-0.781022846698761,
-0.6864213347434998,
-0.466124564409256,
-0.4359494745731354,
-0.09221943467855453,
0.8814457654953003,
0.11897799372673035,
-0.13103002309799194,
0.5023554563522339,
0.01007042732089758,
0.05219081789255142,
1.2168599367141724,
0.41606199741363525,
-0.004320589825510979,
-0.7146260738372803,
-0.029445597901940346,
-0.25165849924087524,
0.543706476688385,
-0.8134724497795105,
-0.5570201873779297,
-0.584465742111206,
-0.31429266929626465,
0.03705482929944992,
0.7813088297843933,
-0.39447373151779175,
-0.011632086709141731,
-1.208034873008728,
-0.7938560247421265,
-0.39970144629478455,
0.40672358870506287,
0.15306000411510468,
0.6651416420936584,
0.6974301934242249,
0.6505277752876282,
-0.04968435689806938,
0.029232269152998924,
-0.08890573680400848,
-0.1339462399482727,
-0.737375020980835,
0.006854044273495674,
-0.500582218170166,
0.03937689587473869,
0.4966337978839874,
0.14769533276557922,
-0.03606858104467392,
0.5598495602607727,
0.41775545477867126,
0.10931557416915894,
0.20848053693771362,
0.2002265900373459,
-0.20787985622882843,
-0.32928797602653503,
-0.7826492786407471,
-0.10641265660524368,
-0.5865730047225952,
0.37817198038101196,
-0.1669463962316513,
0.03519975766539574,
0.331604540348053,
0.245103657245636,
0.3715897798538208,
0.48608076572418213,
-0.15959033370018005,
-0.08342709392309189,
0.589084804058075,
-0.21856291592121124,
-0.23989610373973846,
0.49881711602211,
-0.17119817435741425,
0.4118031859397888,
0.13606269657611847,
-0.21231794357299805,
0.2561609148979187,
-0.279786080121994,
-0.5016617774963379,
0.47885727882385254,
-0.32308489084243774,
-0.5545632243156433,
0.834318995475769,
0.12055325508117676,
0.267440527677536,
-0.358707994222641,
-0.7694924473762512,
0.020254235714673996,
0.7990624308586121,
0.15955999493598938,
0.24388042092323303,
-0.9178093075752258,
0.39704349637031555,
0.6343969106674194,
-0.24967074394226074,
-0.038791220635175705,
-0.7153856754302979,
0.06946790963411331,
-0.8945276141166687,
-0.38884663581848145,
-0.5020359754562378,
-0.34095853567123413,
-0.09841177612543106,
0.5636904835700989,
-0.6245415210723877,
-0.43541818857192993,
0.11375405639410019,
-0.37327975034713745,
-0.29010382294654846,
-0.3461223542690277,
0.4685271680355072,
0.3714140057563782,
0.09845680743455887,
-0.7811153531074524,
-0.059495847672224045,
-0.02243763394653797,
0.3549036979675293,
-0.31941431760787964,
-0.7525854110717773,
0.1314999908208847,
0.1946784257888794,
-0.1741200089454651,
-0.09594238549470901,
0.30161336064338684,
-0.6750102043151855,
0.22710101306438446,
0.5936358571052551,
-0.6000161170959473,
0.14191411435604095,
-0.4641917943954468,
-0.2600176930427551,
0.21027235686779022,
0.32744115591049194,
-0.4267098605632782,
-0.31337735056877136,
-0.14784662425518036,
-0.05028596892952919,
-0.08156178891658783,
-0.3274442255496979,
-0.321664035320282,
-0.2082173079252243,
-0.7734481692314148,
-0.4381043314933777,
-0.40291324257850647,
0.11394952237606049,
0.7443781495094299,
-0.8785079121589661,
0.3390783965587616,
-0.46114447712898254,
-0.31444302201271057,
-0.18045678734779358,
-0.10681573301553726,
0.09040026366710663,
0.4543198049068451,
1.289696216583252,
0.06111253798007965,
0.49559423327445984,
0.3684549331665039,
0.40043067932128906,
-0.1068032905459404,
0.43656641244888306,
-0.1555645763874054,
-0.569779098033905,
-0.3104076087474823,
0.0377860926091671,
0.4464447498321533,
-0.3837588429450989,
-0.7532927393913269,
0.5735393762588501,
-0.17747274041175842,
-0.33284440636634827,
-0.6408751010894775,
-0.39498206973075867,
0.81936115026474,
-0.7495025992393494,
-0.7052708864212036,
0.035217177122831345,
0.08849164843559265,
0.14552080631256104,
0.046776529401540756,
0.33907103538513184,
-0.8335873484611511,
0.1238969936966896,
0.5195952653884888,
0.411209374666214,
-0.5200421810150146,
-0.22829456627368927,
0.27321866154670715,
-0.16783945262432098,
-0.13530412316322327,
-0.11845353245735168,
0.5998653173446655,
0.8212655186653137,
0.00003226490298402496,
-0.1901678889989853,
0.8882047533988953,
-0.9715280532836914,
-0.695293664932251,
-0.5027195811271667,
-0.5440449118614197,
0.33477529883384705,
0.22334693372249603,
-0.03393988311290741,
0.35299152135849,
-1.1251963376998901,
-0.6451219916343689,
0.19685353338718414,
-0.16447429358959198,
-0.10787101835012436,
-0.3744616210460663,
0.5003917813301086,
-0.6237900257110596,
-0.39108866453170776,
0.2533531188964844,
0.25427302718162537,
0.5557281970977783,
-0.3539120554924011,
-0.1281307190656662,
0.15641917288303375,
-0.6556056141853333,
0.5344454050064087,
0.2662348449230194,
-0.5442381501197815,
0.507851779460907,
1.1729968786239624,
-0.0563482828438282,
-0.06154245510697365,
-0.3372329771518707,
0.3567065894603729,
0.4656757116317749,
-0.49190768599510193,
-0.06072177365422249,
1.0025660991668701,
-0.17899440228939056,
-0.21878081560134888,
0.6219820380210876,
-1.1559404134750366,
-0.28965887427330017,
0.6233397126197815,
0.3223855793476105,
0.3529041111469269,
0.4663557708263397,
0.33999940752983093,
-0.878822386264801,
0.5205528140068054,
-0.07598976790904999,
-0.6760315895080566,
1.1421988010406494,
0.14840167760849,
0.18327029049396515,
-0.13149447739124298,
-0.39592716097831726,
0.29306313395500183,
-0.07404974102973938,
-0.29040998220443726,
0.17842531204223633,
-0.4310753345489502,
-0.2948780059814453,
1.4368340969085693,
-0.34975141286849976,
-0.12595270574092865,
0.03960660845041275,
-0.3236808478832245,
0.27462807297706604,
0.4344941973686218,
0.13647371530532837,
-0.3779969811439514,
1.043465495109558,
-0.18224216997623444,
-0.10865607112646103,
-0.01970461942255497,
-0.051687486469745636,
-0.11026593297719955,
0.42621707916259766,
-0.35666927695274353,
-0.2335369884967804,
-0.3532240688800812,
-0.133180633187294,
-0.46372777223587036,
0.46416592597961426,
0.3290639817714691,
-0.1010301262140274,
-0.12234771251678467,
0.3060813844203949,
0.01614106446504593,
-0.1797240972518921,
-0.18720592558383942,
0.6070050001144409,
0.54482102394104,
-0.06249816715717316,
1.0658400058746338,
-0.3658648133277893,
0.24219994246959686,
-0.2497951239347458,
0.1524360477924347,
0.6932267546653748,
0.26194894313812256,
0.06484460085630417,
0.25649741291999817,
-0.23900580406188965,
0.18762901425361633,
-0.6564163565635681,
-0.4207506775856018,
0.4835768938064575,
-0.005350211635231972,
0.12932728230953217,
0.1774214655160904,
0.1682060956954956,
-0.10818637907505035,
0.03143259137868881,
-0.39472106099128723,
-0.4906155467033386,
0.1652228981256485,
0.10342176258563995,
-0.2508780062198639,
-0.14403176307678223,
0.8818531632423401,
-0.46316081285476685,
-0.42514264583587646,
0.2448108047246933,
0.17223188281059265,
0.10084380209445953,
0.47191503643989563,
-0.09466767311096191,
0.45078399777412415,
-0.7530666589736938,
-0.04597564786672592,
-0.391105979681015,
0.3961632549762726,
0.25609850883483887,
0.3480164408683777,
0.35826805233955383,
-0.16886697709560394,
-0.32809221744537354,
-1.0710176229476929,
0.41141873598098755,
-0.08223197609186172,
-0.24848029017448425,
-0.072874516248703,
0.3403664529323578,
-0.41680946946144104,
0.32502108812332153,
0.7682481408119202,
-0.6176918745040894,
-0.6749774813652039,
0.18680615723133087,
-0.06727034598588943,
-0.695269763469696,
0.6590955257415771,
-0.4720158576965332,
0.030707145109772682,
-0.535637617111206,
-0.33390313386917114,
-0.4570211172103882,
-0.5313054919242859,
0.5787062048912048,
0.4012136459350586,
0.7347862720489502,
-0.14532774686813354,
-0.10035057365894318,
-0.48117056488990784,
0.6543669104576111,
0.6293411254882812,
-0.5507679581642151,
-0.11799951642751694,
0.2935933470726013,
0.07991525530815125,
-1.0475341081619263,
0.4084722697734833,
-0.6216837763786316,
0.15913471579551697,
0.01059185154736042,
-0.05924659222364426,
0.286323606967926,
0.017060965299606323,
0.2772727906703949,
0.04407082498073578,
-0.14424251019954681,
0.19099032878875732
] |
213207
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tung%20Chao-yung
|
Tung Chao-yung
|
Tung Chao-yung or C. Y. Tung (; 28 September 1912 – 15 April 1982), also known as Tung Hao-yun, ), was a Chinese shipping magnate, the founder of the Orient Overseas Line (now Orient Overseas Container Line or OOCL). He was the father of Tung Chee Hwa, the first chief executive of the Hong Kong SAR.
At the peak of his career, he owned a shipping fleet with over 150 freight ships; his fleet's cargo capacity exceeded 10 million tons.
Career
Tung was born in Dinghai, Zhejiang, on Zhoushan Island. He spent his early business years in Tianjin and Shanghai.
In 1945 Tung bought an old boat, The Heavenly Dragon, which would become his company's flagship and the first Chinese boat to drop anchor at European ports. He moved to Taiwan with the KMT in 1949 and diversified his investments in Hong Kong with the companies Maritime Transport Limited, the Oriental Overseas Container Line, Island Navigation Corporation.
Tung accumulated his fleet of ships over the next few years. In 1959 he built the largest tanker in the world, the 70,000 tonne Oriental Giant, followed by his first new boat in France. In 1973 he purchased the Queen Elizabeth, which he wanted to make into a floating university, an endeavour to later inspire the Semester at Sea programme.
Tung believed in the importance of education. In September 1970, he bought the Cunard ocean liner RMS Queen Elizabeth to convert it into a floating university S.S. Seawise University to keep the World Campus Afloat programme alive. His goal was to help the UN train maritime specialists. On 9 January 1972, the ship caught fire during refurbishing and sank into Victoria Harbor in Hong Kong on the eve of her inaugural voyage. He did not give up the plan because of this setback. He bought a smaller ocean liner, SS Atlantic, to complete the plan. He cooperated with various universities (e.g. University of Pittsburgh) to run the academic sea programme with the Institute of Shipboard Education entitled Semester at Sea. In 1979, Tung received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
Politically, Tung was aligned with Kuomintang regime of the Republic of China on Taiwan; indeed the company emblem of the OOCL is a plum blossom, the national flower of the Republic of China, and Tung Group was considered the national merchant shipping company of the ROC. However, when the OOCL experienced financial trouble after his death the government of the People's Republic of China rescued the company. This paved the way for C.Y. Tung's son, Tung Chee Hwa, to become the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China in 1997.
References
External links
Tung Chao Yung's biography
1912 births
1982 deaths
Hong Kong shipping businesspeople
Hong Kong billionaires
People from Zhoushan
Billionaires from Zhejiang
Businesspeople from Ningbo
Chinese emigrants to Hong Kong
Chinese diarists
20th-century diarists
|
[
-0.3815280497074127,
0.6538425087928772,
-0.1898493766784668,
-0.5188378691673279,
-0.8902396559715271,
0.4051947295665741,
0.14264796674251556,
0.3954617381095886,
-0.36476820707321167,
0.10033334046602249,
-0.22620344161987305,
-0.17518052458763123,
0.16591867804527283,
0.28893429040908813,
0.025208530947566032,
0.45816493034362793,
-0.03249729052186012,
0.5597496032714844,
-0.030885877087712288,
-0.18630753457546234,
-0.16109248995780945,
-0.8834617137908936,
0.19570496678352356,
-0.3438915014266968,
0.025415008887648582,
-0.004740915261209011,
0.165373757481575,
0.32255882024765015,
0.06675355136394501,
-0.2716597020626068,
-0.26585206389427185,
0.8591750860214233,
0.027263743802905083,
-0.19704873859882355,
-0.0007256380631588399,
0.10159388184547424,
-0.10073814541101456,
-0.08403906226158142,
0.25893640518188477,
-0.40206071734428406,
0.10164422541856766,
-0.049427665770053864,
0.5933512449264526,
0.629909336566925,
-0.26847580075263977,
-0.6812536716461182,
-1.685233235359192,
-0.16874200105667114,
-0.756853461265564,
-0.2180960774421692,
-0.3490986227989197,
0.3163421154022217,
0.20404662191867828,
0.059183090925216675,
-0.24821792542934418,
1.113251805305481,
-0.9889433979988098,
-0.16660137474536896,
0.07191921770572662,
0.5075427889823914,
0.25751546025276184,
-0.293695867061615,
0.18298202753067017,
0.34747159481048584,
0.1574813723564148,
0.5902703404426575,
-0.9288012385368347,
0.8290263414382935,
-0.7111631631851196,
0.208864226937294,
0.01854373887181282,
0.3587929606437683,
0.703622043132782,
0.7404460310935974,
-0.8424769639968872,
0.43069425225257874,
-0.33781126141548157,
-0.41910573840141296,
-0.10808441042900085,
0.06958821415901184,
-0.07880645245313644,
-0.6247382760047913,
0.7782042026519775,
0.3267830014228821,
0.6789891719818115,
0.3332269787788391,
-0.46579617261886597,
-0.3107167184352875,
-0.19796979427337646,
1.0249656438827515,
-0.2215438038110733,
0.266630083322525,
-0.015326800756156445,
0.4049159288406372,
-0.6666263937950134,
0.0966300517320633,
-0.03764747828245163,
0.12015586346387863,
0.0034376243129372597,
-0.3144099712371826,
0.06495601683855057,
0.33598342537879944,
0.7541125416755676,
0.0395037904381752,
-1.0113633871078491,
-0.045369505882263184,
-0.9602618217468262,
-0.010171816684305668,
-0.061166588217020035,
-1.4904731512069702,
-0.6023758053779602,
0.34077179431915283,
-0.308745414018631,
0.2801389694213867,
-0.030493583530187607,
0.3379646837711334,
0.09303489327430725,
-0.5282159447669983,
0.14592058956623077,
-0.18199199438095093,
0.2631237804889679,
0.7527134418487549,
-0.7288443446159363,
0.03247569501399994,
0.44080451130867004,
0.7690407037734985,
0.1083630919456482,
0.3334631621837616,
0.5883308053016663,
0.3620286285877228,
0.134811133146286,
0.9361352324485779,
-0.21054330468177795,
-0.785534679889679,
-0.073032908141613,
-0.5156588554382324,
0.6924830675125122,
0.42904770374298096,
0.2962648570537567,
-0.19635847210884094,
-1.1106946468353271,
-0.06174561008810997,
-0.9668802618980408,
0.017122868448495865,
0.7074907422065735,
0.7972555160522461,
-0.9643049240112305,
-0.3791239559650421,
0.21730706095695496,
-0.04419728368520737,
0.023779164999723434,
-0.43853381276130676,
0.07004162669181824,
0.14817604422569275,
-0.4954342842102051,
0.7654332518577576,
0.34311187267303467,
-0.16200748085975647,
0.31995877623558044,
0.5883427858352661,
0.16739073395729065,
0.10618217289447784,
-0.3724004924297333,
0.06597090512514114,
0.1499297320842743,
-0.21330921351909637,
0.20016220211982727,
0.3171456754207611,
-1.058663010597229,
0.29106366634368896,
-0.6270584464073181,
-0.12281592190265656,
0.18048082292079926,
-0.45700520277023315,
0.34309306740760803,
-0.10713163018226624,
-0.0046017952263355255,
0.16307850182056427,
0.08492438495159149,
-0.3329419791698456,
-0.7353416681289673,
0.967542290687561,
0.5002359747886658,
-0.2567712068557739,
0.13001053035259247,
-0.006064258981496096,
0.5340731143951416,
0.025328783318400383,
0.21509093046188354,
0.5988092422485352,
-0.6594467759132385,
-0.15889932215213776,
0.5935946702957153,
-0.161419078707695,
0.22742919623851776,
0.1921897828578949,
0.3740333020687103,
0.393526166677475,
0.31367915868759155,
1.0265085697174072,
-0.19573424756526947,
-0.4182434678077698,
0.4290117025375366,
-0.35325101017951965,
-0.8644232153892517,
1.854257345199585,
0.3397365212440491,
0.23326820135116577,
0.6913533806800842,
0.09509867429733276,
0.6665505170822144,
-0.204189732670784,
0.18188893795013428,
-0.06029992923140526,
-0.17784205079078674,
-0.3526184856891632,
0.11417779326438904,
-0.18814007937908173,
-0.31370440125465393,
-0.2537626326084137,
0.24775943160057068,
-0.19003354012966156,
-0.2380051463842392,
0.8310378789901733,
0.15409456193447113,
1.2219159603118896,
0.06993763148784637,
0.025860706344246864,
0.033987998962402344,
-0.41146695613861084,
0.17747659981250763,
0.11726422607898712,
-0.3322845697402954,
0.13286079466342926,
-0.46239128708839417,
-0.10656210780143738,
-0.1060110479593277,
-0.6084175109863281,
0.49855902791023254,
-0.2985670268535614,
0.2575210928916931,
0.3145432770252228,
-0.9646977782249451,
0.13954414427280426,
-0.33855369687080383,
0.027179470285773277,
-0.7042433023452759,
-0.08408012241125107,
-0.08395520597696304,
-0.09787321835756302,
0.7091000080108643,
0.7373049855232239,
-0.0999704897403717,
-0.34144362807273865,
0.080129474401474,
-0.22734592854976654,
-0.31073498725891113,
0.0489894300699234,
-0.3721370995044708,
-0.26578065752983093,
-0.4503340721130371,
0.5197269916534424,
0.38410061597824097,
0.19598457217216492,
-0.2765476107597351,
-0.7017821073532104,
-0.032423682510852814,
-0.44967320561408997,
0.4162712097167969,
-0.07756736874580383,
-0.21003076434135437,
-0.5304003953933716,
-0.35695311427116394,
-1.532744288444519,
-0.34769245982170105,
-0.6276881098747253,
-0.1750350296497345,
0.17133840918540955,
-1.3398207426071167,
-0.6953116059303284,
0.43187323212623596,
0.8717100024223328,
-0.01668737083673477,
-0.5153205990791321,
-0.24310658872127533,
-0.14986614882946014,
-0.32176703214645386,
0.21028602123260498,
0.08509457111358643,
-0.2385578751564026,
-0.0912659615278244,
0.13575538992881775,
0.3034999966621399,
-0.2514435052871704,
-0.231520876288414,
-0.08889690786600113,
-0.19110041856765747,
-0.10258792340755463,
0.14346368610858917,
-0.22863614559173584,
-0.4210195541381836,
0.39329296350479126,
-0.15263794362545013,
-0.4976905584335327,
-0.1038721352815628,
0.20236708223819733,
-0.3449087142944336,
0.2553931772708893,
-4.881955623626709,
0.29693326354026794,
-0.09057815372943878,
-0.34664809703826904,
0.21999239921569824,
-0.3676784336566925,
0.8081681132316589,
-0.44564905762672424,
-0.05073247477412224,
-0.07710441946983337,
-0.17575159668922424,
0.10506780445575714,
0.0365523025393486,
0.21066966652870178,
0.38876762986183167,
0.7072395086288452,
0.3145747482776642,
0.15393275022506714,
0.5701191425323486,
-0.37253305315971375,
0.0236872099339962,
0.410651832818985,
-0.169449120759964,
0.6303585171699524,
0.1062096357345581,
1.2072336673736572,
0.10622821003198624,
-0.044155023992061615,
-1.220680594444275,
-0.16330599784851074,
-0.14148499071598053,
0.14354851841926575,
0.45209750533103943,
-0.014581464231014252,
-0.8317953944206238,
-0.3475629687309265,
0.6011427044868469,
0.5983845591545105,
0.44758257269859314,
-0.2644997835159302,
-0.3140178322792053,
0.01910402625799179,
-0.33618828654289246,
0.4333171546459198,
0.15695421397686005,
-0.40372171998023987,
-0.6052716970443726,
-0.3935965597629547,
-0.04142001271247864,
0.3189235031604767,
-0.0802718847990036,
-0.23609419167041779,
0.6992524862289429,
-0.3299786448478699,
0.3587024211883545,
0.15704259276390076,
0.5478168725967407,
-0.1148470789194107,
-0.5225841403007507,
-0.0270838662981987,
0.8545716404914856,
-0.3820052742958069,
0.023330561816692352,
-0.043397195637226105,
0.33819684386253357,
-0.5190064907073975,
0.003857091534882784,
-0.8634287118911743,
0.026544781401753426,
0.30675795674324036,
-0.4098857641220093,
0.5832966566085815,
0.02408553846180439,
-0.7287752628326416,
-0.12554362416267395,
-0.5930019021034241,
-0.41005975008010864,
0.7887063026428223,
0.40601876378059387,
-0.07944371551275253,
-0.2439885288476944,
-0.15957334637641907,
-0.19636864960193634,
1.002140760421753,
0.018891138955950737,
0.04768938571214676,
-0.3103190064430237,
0.5890109539031982,
0.3780866861343384,
0.7031601667404175,
0.24038296937942505,
-0.40976274013519287,
0.47392988204956055,
0.6199613809585571,
-0.06574665009975433,
0.13406451046466827,
0.7402851581573486,
-0.35920876264572144,
0.456360399723053,
-0.5322669744491577,
0.4014246463775635,
-0.4366903305053711,
-0.6120921969413757,
-0.38309141993522644,
-0.14592576026916504,
-0.5588725209236145,
-0.07680176198482513,
0.5371264219284058,
0.47079697251319885,
0.3104676604270935,
-0.1466158926486969,
-0.2060040533542633,
0.05506633222103119,
-0.08161875605583191,
1.1731147766113281,
-0.2060910314321518,
-0.3900231122970581,
0.230859637260437,
0.35644248127937317,
0.34304940700531006,
0.4437289535999298,
0.42779433727264404,
0.10642335563898087,
-0.2979643940925598,
0.2082788050174713,
0.010850891470909119,
0.49578857421875,
0.24462613463401794,
-0.8795897364616394,
0.1891361027956009,
-0.46677765250205994,
-0.833790123462677,
0.4109063148498535,
-0.09112726897001266,
-0.15017682313919067,
-0.3437826335430145,
-0.6615346074104309,
-0.11592967063188553,
0.26344332098960876,
-0.2771187126636505,
0.09862277656793594,
0.3726198375225067,
-0.40421435236930847,
0.4401244819164276,
-0.17769160866737366,
0.6159496903419495,
0.1406124383211136,
0.07300298660993576,
-0.6233118176460266,
0.5434328317642212,
0.16931390762329102,
-0.9424797296524048,
0.5456939339637756,
-0.8710646629333496,
-0.6108776330947876,
0.19699808955192566,
-0.5138517022132874,
0.15123635530471802,
0.3944299817085266,
0.1017778217792511,
0.2731177508831024,
-0.24072672426700592,
-1.0456651449203491,
0.17904098331928253,
0.13136565685272217,
-1.0669984817504883,
0.3510425388813019,
0.11209271848201752,
-0.6030860543251038,
0.784769594669342,
-0.1964438259601593,
-0.15136851370334625,
-0.6513183116912842,
-0.34826895594596863,
0.7063237428665161,
-0.41800421476364136,
0.2879451513290405,
0.5568011403083801,
0.5839142799377441,
-0.38565486669540405,
-0.4444890320301056,
0.19974736869335175,
-0.15576128661632538,
0.9316701292991638,
0.5627129673957825,
0.05199635773897171,
-0.175332173705101,
-0.16416069865226746,
-0.6774861216545105,
0.5602098703384399,
0.4390772879123688,
0.3936690092086792,
0.4553934633731842,
0.5202704071998596,
-0.25544315576553345,
-0.5683183670043945,
0.046440497040748596,
0.8972768783569336,
0.20012570917606354,
-0.3960981070995331,
0.6464967727661133,
0.8285732865333557,
0.05848684534430504,
0.2391718029975891,
0.4988815486431122,
-0.9087453484535217,
0.3216182291507721,
0.5431377291679382,
-0.8454522490501404,
0.25275981426239014,
0.43456143140792847,
-1.3934375047683716,
0.6850798726081848,
0.25531354546546936,
-0.38948553800582886,
-0.35185596346855164,
0.7297387719154358,
-0.4269377887248993,
0.16267304122447968,
-0.6164677143096924,
-0.04270613193511963,
-0.3713969588279724,
-0.48234128952026367,
-0.39834722876548767,
-0.28871801495552063,
0.5209007263183594,
-0.32636338472366333,
-0.14070862531661987,
0.3685671091079712,
-1.0283268690109253,
-0.571139931678772,
0.12055888772010803,
0.7727364897727966,
0.4858987629413605,
-0.1539323478937149,
0.02343725599348545,
-0.721747100353241,
0.8616008758544922,
-0.10782467573881149,
-0.015091344714164734,
0.266208678483963,
0.5648752450942993,
0.3949038088321686,
-0.46127355098724365,
-0.2890329658985138,
0.5467529892921448,
0.15117014944553375,
-0.24354904890060425,
-0.5673038363456726,
0.32521766424179077,
0.45103007555007935,
-0.5979844331741333,
-0.9509214758872986,
-0.6012449860572815,
0.2561102509498596,
-0.44891902804374695,
0.13102898001670837,
-0.013235281221568584,
0.4587940573692322,
0.04238336905837059,
-0.3097195029258728,
0.4974459409713745,
0.19594016671180725,
0.06938344985246658,
0.2180284708738327,
0.9565592408180237,
-0.44767478108406067,
0.11861413717269897,
0.6186153292655945,
-0.06725078076124191,
-0.49907711148262024,
-0.8587914705276489,
0.6759960651397705,
0.09023024141788483,
-0.4655391275882721,
-0.24957990646362305,
-0.24584414064884186,
-0.0639893040060997,
-0.514479398727417,
-0.7219387888908386,
0.3202495574951172,
0.13794218003749847,
0.45055511593818665,
-0.16074524819850922,
-0.020930370315909386,
-0.41696929931640625,
-0.13837109506130219,
-0.0543026477098465,
-0.12735870480537415,
0.0942462608218193,
-0.8258955478668213,
0.1745634377002716,
-0.37293246388435364,
0.10144215077161789,
0.19221964478492737,
0.33994412422180176,
-0.07837871462106705,
0.2565910816192627,
-0.32014912366867065,
0.10308562964200974,
-0.9362211227416992,
0.7543411254882812,
0.2153552621603012,
-0.02058359980583191,
0.7349827289581299,
0.35961630940437317,
0.5147945880889893,
-0.7698937654495239,
0.18441034853458405,
0.21630313992500305,
0.05227244645357132,
0.6078685522079468,
0.011982136406004429,
0.5702551603317261,
-0.19182844460010529,
-0.0924396812915802,
0.511530876159668,
-0.37977081537246704,
0.1296284943819046,
0.7146355509757996,
0.3672753870487213,
-0.41574156284332275,
1.1482830047607422,
0.5494803190231323,
-0.21103578805923462,
0.39229169487953186,
-0.46304720640182495,
-0.32042819261550903,
0.7064599990844727,
-0.2813117206096649,
-0.10626441240310669,
0.14793099462985992,
-0.07509691268205643,
0.2816924452781677,
-0.2133537232875824,
0.023377565667033195,
0.030260004103183746,
-0.9702593684196472,
-0.1732369065284729,
0.27551838755607605,
0.049228426069021225,
0.5710329413414001,
-0.18326358497142792,
-0.38405781984329224,
0.19032208621501923,
-0.13530735671520233,
-0.4722388982772827,
0.01600153185427189,
0.21108393371105194,
-0.29406729340553284,
0.7645998001098633,
0.4108140170574188,
-0.11564777791500092,
-0.8751182556152344,
0.1948152482509613,
0.2581152021884918,
-0.9062813520431519,
-0.13727542757987976,
-0.017660990357398987,
-0.8376393914222717,
-0.664203405380249,
0.23055122792720795,
0.0051515428349375725,
0.14970655739307404,
0.07196098566055298,
-0.36579686403274536,
0.1882726550102234,
-0.22344203293323517,
-0.45858481526374817,
1.034633994102478,
0.15298128128051758,
-0.09398724883794785,
0.2872064709663391,
0.7396103739738464,
0.18308719992637634,
-0.37532445788383484,
0.2752130329608917,
0.04920456185936928,
-0.2757325768470764,
-0.12065571546554565,
-0.5567278861999512,
-0.06550948321819305,
0.02209765650331974,
-0.26976659893989563,
0.525360107421875,
-0.06253008544445038,
-0.8440758585929871,
0.31237444281578064,
0.08488541841506958,
0.29251620173454285,
0.3649088144302368,
0.4691965878009796,
0.2259754091501236,
0.270359069108963,
-0.3144840896129608,
-0.12586261332035065,
-0.870690643787384,
-0.06692282110452652,
0.12989458441734314,
0.5003795623779297,
-0.45292767882347107,
0.49858033657073975,
0.3211708664894104,
0.3757653534412384,
-0.03334757685661316,
0.3217400014400482,
-0.18880678713321686,
1.034024953842163,
-0.7509897947311401,
0.4397708773612976,
-0.46244698762893677,
0.01488904096186161,
-0.29471129179000854,
0.7581648230552673,
-0.4537583589553833,
-0.3448144197463989,
0.4366458058357239,
-0.49495795369148254,
-0.36104968190193176,
-0.2537629306316376,
-0.29142311215400696,
-0.5443460941314697,
0.18997804820537567,
0.5632771849632263,
-0.026912672445178032,
-0.39915937185287476,
-0.38786035776138306,
0.2111598700284958,
-0.5016727447509766,
0.1752253621816635,
0.08735062181949615,
0.7512152194976807,
-0.36911582946777344,
-0.5722174644470215,
0.08775819092988968,
0.06124509125947952,
0.14650194346904755,
0.5901143550872803,
-0.05179477855563164,
-0.21779058873653412,
0.19617334008216858,
-0.4425804316997528,
0.2512188255786896,
0.3302205801010132,
-2.3334012031555176,
-0.17965173721313477,
0.22867584228515625,
-0.6810309886932373,
-0.5977338552474976,
0.40898436307907104,
0.19588018953800201,
-0.29530856013298035,
0.17911650240421295,
-0.09561185538768768,
-0.1258055567741394,
-0.32796382904052734,
-0.2693224847316742,
-0.6166355013847351,
0.25019755959510803,
0.4699903428554535
] |
213211
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midge%20Klump
|
Midge Klump
|
Midge Klump is a fictional character appearing in Archie Comics. She frequently appears as the girlfriend of Moose Mason and the unrequited crush of Reggie Mantle. The live-action version of Midge was portrayed by Emilija Baranac in Riverdale.
History
Midge was created to serve as Moose's girlfriend, simultaneously debuting in both Betty and Veronica #4 and Jughead #5. Her birthday is said to be on July 4.
Like certain other characters, Midge evolved from a similar but different character. Originally, Moose dated a blonde girl named Lottie Little, who was replaced by Midge. For many years, Midge had a more petite build than the other girls in the comics, sharpening the contrast between herself and Moose. In later stories, however, she was portrayed as tall as her friends, with only her short dark hair to make her identifiable.
It was revealed in a story in the late 1980s that Midge's parents were getting divorced. Originally, she blamed herself, but Betty convinced her otherwise. It is implied that due to some counselling, the Klumps were resolving their issue, though whether or not the divorce was finalized was not revealed.
Relationships
Midge is Moose Mason's longtime girlfriend. Mostly, they are romantically devoted to each other. However, Moose is deeply protective of Midge, and if he feels the slightest bit threatened about their relationship, any boy seen talking to her will end up enduring his wrath. Midge's reactions to this varies from story to story.
She is occasionally annoyed by his violent jealousy and dislikes being avoided by all of Riverdale's boys because of this. However, because of Moose's possessiveness over her, she has a "taboo" appeal to her that many of the boys in Riverdale find irresistible. Despite her aggravation with Moose's overprotection of her, whenever another girl shows interest in Moose she reacts with the same jealousy.
At other times, Midge also gets Moose Mason jealous by flirting with or dating other boys. Originally she flirted with all of them equally, but by the late 1960s Reggie Mantle was the most frequent. However, Midge usually inadvertently, though thoughtlessly, sets Reggie up to be beaten up by Moose when she flirts with him. Occasionally Midge herself loses patience with Reggie. At such times, when Reggie shows up with a black eye or other evidence of having been harmed, Moose sees this and denies attacking Reggie—it turns out Midge did it.
Her closest friends are Betty Cooper and Veronica Lodge. Other girls she is friends with include Nancy Woods and Big Ethel. Her relationship with them is much more stable than with the boys, though Veronica's constant bragging gets on her nerves.
In the Archie Marries Betty storyline, which takes place in a possible future, Midge finally tires of Moose's jealousy and breaks up with him for good. She subsequently becomes close to Jughead (who now owns the Chock'lit Shoppe), and they soon fall in love. Later in the story, it's revealed that they're now married, and Midge is pregnant with their first child.
In the Riverdale Rescue game, Midge is one of a few main characters that can form romantic relationships with both boys and girls.
Interests
Few of Midge's interests are mentioned in the comics. However, she is known to have athletic skills, and plays on the Riverdale softball team in addition to being a cheerleader. Midge and her girlfriends enjoy activities together, such as shopping at the Riverdale Mall. In an episode of Archie's Weird Mysteries, Midge revealed that she wants to be a stuntwoman; in the TV movie Archie: To Riverdale and Back Again, she became a chiropractor, and shares a practice with Moose. The comics, however, show no basis for an interest in either career.
Alternate versions
In Afterlife with Archie, Midge attends the school Halloween dance when the zombie apocalypse starts. When a zombified Jughead attacks the school dance, she and the others escape to Veronica Lodge's home. They decide to go swimming to take their mind off of things. In private, Midge confides in Moose that she got a cut on her hand during the confusion at the school dance, although she doesn't know from whom. She disinfects the wound and when Moose tries to convince her to tell the others she reassures his fears that she'll turn by saying it would've already happened by now. She curls up with Moose and tells him that she loves him.
When next they are seen, Midge and Moose have both turned into zombies and attack their friends who are in the pool. Smithers activates the aluminium pool cover, trapping the two zombified lovers in there.
Reggie Mantle later revealed to Kevin Keller the reason he hit Hot Dog in the first place is because he was distracted and frustrated about Midge asking him for money so she could get an abortion.
In other media
Television
Animated
Midge appeared briefly in an episode segment of Sabrina the Teenage Witch (1970 TV series) as a cheerleader.
Midge appeared in Archie's Weird Mysteries voiced by Jill Anderson.
Live action
Midge appears in The Archie Situation Comedy and Musical Variety Show (1978), portrayed by Susan Blu. She is a keyboardist for The Archies.
Midge appears in the TV movie Archie: To Riverdale and Back Again portrayed by Debi Derryberry. She and Moose are married, having a son and a successful chiropractic business.
Midge appears in season 2 of Riverdale, a drama series for The CW portrayed by Emilija Baranac. Midge was killed by the villainous Black Hood at the end of "Chapter Thirty-One: A Night to Remember".
Film
Midge appeared in The Archies in Jugman, voiced by Jill Anderson. The film was released direct-to-video and takes place after Archie's Weird Mysteries.
References
Comics characters introduced in 1951
Characters created by Dan DeCarlo
Archie Comics characters
Fictional baseball players
Fictional cheerleaders
Fictional physicians
Fictional stunt performers
Animated human characters
Female characters in animation
Female characters in comics
Female characters in television
Teenage characters in comics
Teenage characters in television
|
[
-0.45457422733306885,
0.5072619915008545,
-0.2732616662979126,
-0.469407320022583,
0.12372560799121857,
0.4349495470523834,
0.5050089359283447,
0.7167546153068542,
-0.5063481330871582,
0.2690904438495636,
-0.4003147482872009,
0.3567233681678772,
-0.2961335778236389,
0.6236356496810913,
0.35648149251937866,
0.1963389664888382,
-0.10041103512048721,
0.5943493247032166,
-0.2721719741821289,
-0.11944324523210526,
-0.0915873721241951,
-0.6290777921676636,
0.30822327733039856,
-0.6953430771827698,
0.5155763030052185,
-0.14529860019683838,
0.18375760316848755,
0.011529108509421349,
0.3002925515174866,
0.4290180504322052,
-0.16989818215370178,
0.4806978106498718,
0.5854463577270508,
-0.21372807025909424,
-0.256399929523468,
-0.2764977514743805,
-0.2640160918235779,
0.0927528589963913,
0.3391232192516327,
-0.15950222313404083,
0.011693360283970833,
0.048068076372146606,
0.42937687039375305,
-0.039344023913145065,
-0.574637234210968,
-0.7884237170219421,
-2.2472727298736572,
-0.12231312692165375,
-0.38819095492362976,
-0.2700901925563812,
-0.34883859753608704,
0.3610704243183136,
0.25898978114128113,
0.3486303389072418,
0.24766966700553894,
0.6100613474845886,
-0.47687864303588867,
-0.27654656767845154,
-0.00058558932505548,
0.13721683621406555,
0.5910627841949463,
-0.2944038510322571,
0.30124226212501526,
-0.21922439336776733,
-0.46047064661979675,
0.7172151207923889,
-0.424750417470932,
-0.06959754973649979,
-0.560137927532196,
-0.6359481811523438,
-0.03840974345803261,
0.14035923779010773,
0.36390259861946106,
0.11496467143297195,
0.17184214293956757,
0.22404827177524567,
0.5555290579795837,
0.029603544622659683,
0.2877969741821289,
0.41333073377609253,
-0.34979039430618286,
0.48401063680648804,
0.7653874754905701,
1.0108636617660522,
0.20198509097099304,
-0.401863694190979,
-0.5671557188034058,
0.41440579295158386,
-0.25615084171295166,
0.7144080400466919,
-0.3204090893268585,
-0.7099182605743408,
-0.29260045289993286,
0.3638552725315094,
0.2987786531448364,
-0.5282224416732788,
0.41917189955711365,
-0.11083315312862396,
-0.2663336396217346,
0.2051270455121994,
-0.004690603353083134,
0.5645071268081665,
-0.1591368466615677,
-0.44224098324775696,
-0.7275009155273438,
0.2423049956560135,
0.33447182178497314,
-0.26294130086898804,
-0.346319317817688,
-0.2195163518190384,
-0.8451724648475647,
0.26427558064460754,
-0.03231385722756386,
-0.20659831166267395,
-0.07410836964845657,
0.5730960369110107,
0.47666803002357483,
-0.6064192056655884,
-0.009368897415697575,
0.8220212459564209,
0.25607559084892273,
-0.08895527571439743,
0.5150503516197205,
0.017923396080732346,
0.06720071285963058,
0.13515274226665497,
0.30393776297569275,
0.56095290184021,
-0.3633231222629547,
0.15762171149253845,
0.35642287135124207,
0.7822489738464355,
0.24842076003551483,
-0.30797794461250305,
0.017346711829304695,
-0.20990869402885437,
0.37045228481292725,
0.4624926745891571,
0.36159470677375793,
0.1918710619211197,
0.003673624712973833,
-0.10162454098463058,
-1.5867183208465576,
-0.4393508732318878,
0.49448317289352417,
-0.43611836433410645,
-0.03297959268093109,
0.10652584582567215,
-0.1649288684129715,
-0.009916311129927635,
0.1145353689789772,
-0.1146310418844223,
-0.17794518172740936,
-0.2965966761112213,
-0.17514878511428833,
-0.4576301872730255,
0.4484007954597473,
-0.08874037116765976,
0.5041041970252991,
-0.0751517117023468,
-0.19652587175369263,
0.21029207110404968,
-0.7347014546394348,
-0.23342835903167725,
0.07548682391643524,
0.03775880113244057,
0.07037501782178879,
-0.8021399974822998,
-0.08596675843000412,
0.49103930592536926,
-0.43512454628944397,
1.088310718536377,
0.9525470733642578,
-0.07459113746881485,
0.5516672134399414,
0.11804916709661484,
1.105726718902588,
0.252311110496521,
-0.013215281069278717,
-0.6219210028648376,
-0.5847351551055908,
-0.44655928015708923,
0.35636794567108154,
-0.025134868919849396,
0.13530483841896057,
-0.04157870635390282,
0.5460970997810364,
-0.013527335599064827,
0.34206026792526245,
-0.1780160814523697,
-1.0960724353790283,
-0.39719417691230774,
0.8462842106819153,
0.20011846721172333,
1.372111439704895,
0.2703079581260681,
-0.5753936767578125,
-0.458279550075531,
0.05460294336080551,
0.3362642526626587,
-0.3193548023700714,
-0.6546458601951599,
0.7065418362617493,
-0.010042075999081135,
-0.7942258715629578,
0.18821240961551666,
0.0016493812436237931,
0.28769102692604065,
0.26173174381256104,
0.8253341913223267,
0.44890591502189636,
-0.18262776732444763,
0.11737556755542755,
-0.23921425640583038,
-0.13414837419986725,
-0.39574533700942993,
-0.2899377942085266,
-0.2477738857269287,
-0.29177969694137573,
-0.3825854957103729,
0.28468531370162964,
0.13664953410625458,
-0.9273104071617126,
0.017129648476839066,
-0.30952978134155273,
0.748866856098175,
0.2028399109840393,
-0.3655724823474884,
0.5050801634788513,
-0.13242317736148834,
0.16029147803783417,
0.16029003262519836,
-0.03457293659448624,
-0.6067585349082947,
-0.5474485158920288,
0.14886219799518585,
0.31169718503952026,
0.22277463972568512,
-0.2688484787940979,
-0.7561445236206055,
0.4694516956806183,
0.4421752095222473,
-1.2698479890823364,
0.5237856507301331,
0.05465094372630119,
0.31289976835250854,
-0.4713241457939148,
0.48367738723754883,
-0.16610769927501678,
-0.10435162484645844,
0.15321548283100128,
0.9369233846664429,
0.1167934313416481,
-0.2997487485408783,
0.6837933659553528,
0.15923281013965607,
-0.24492649734020233,
0.3486182391643524,
0.3843539357185364,
0.24576248228549957,
-0.2174529731273651,
0.21696576476097107,
-0.05179661139845848,
0.411054402589798,
-0.19470883905887604,
-0.46182987093925476,
-0.10196829587221146,
-0.44670236110687256,
-0.07462573796510696,
0.5233693718910217,
0.45645052194595337,
0.20112143456935883,
-0.3064352571964264,
-0.270925909280777,
0.1882162094116211,
0.026579724624753,
0.1254400908946991,
0.1066957339644432,
-0.13919153809547424,
-0.45847654342651367,
-0.020851336419582367,
1.1299012899398804,
-0.34916767477989197,
-0.5227631330490112,
-0.36299869418144226,
0.004080343991518021,
0.18137049674987793,
0.059278298169374466,
0.041845645755529404,
-0.4257256090641022,
-0.7221513986587524,
0.24516750872135162,
-0.8635236024856567,
0.4703487753868103,
-0.8397030234336853,
0.20620614290237427,
-0.2415260374546051,
0.49954304099082947,
-0.05348852649331093,
-0.23025046288967133,
-0.14349664747714996,
0.6296505928039551,
-0.26178446412086487,
-0.0632966086268425,
0.11708691716194153,
0.10505644977092743,
-0.5529608726501465,
-0.18689149618148804,
-5.3444695472717285,
0.5710451602935791,
-0.11461178213357925,
-0.7743481993675232,
0.5214290618896484,
0.7487954497337341,
-0.02818119525909424,
-0.49678662419319153,
0.01564278081059456,
-0.11172094941139221,
-0.27882158756256104,
0.3141012191772461,
-0.24220168590545654,
0.4199308156967163,
0.17191825807094574,
0.082099050283432,
0.3207014203071594,
-0.21803802251815796,
-0.3215946555137634,
-0.0962582677602768,
-0.22003941237926483,
-0.26605701446533203,
-0.5984876751899719,
0.3471580743789673,
0.6199371814727783,
0.5199351906776428,
-0.8722807168960571,
-0.405432790517807,
-0.4614798426628113,
0.427081435918808,
0.11907018721103668,
0.3517031669616699,
-0.5688765048980713,
-0.14088891446590424,
-0.22834980487823486,
0.20453189313411713,
0.4264623820781708,
0.004268586169928312,
0.7701911330223083,
-0.20187492668628693,
-0.10031972080469131,
0.14267419278621674,
-0.7153152823448181,
0.039015818387269974,
0.7005196809768677,
0.12917427718639374,
-0.6494113206863403,
-1.0459308624267578,
0.32514315843582153,
0.36900800466537476,
0.1947491616010666,
-0.5226103663444519,
-0.3584929406642914,
0.0015684784157201648,
1.024564504623413,
-0.3936599791049957,
-0.43692877888679504,
0.17185550928115845,
-0.5590113997459412,
-0.3441281020641327,
0.6496259570121765,
-0.48125895857810974,
-0.0499909445643425,
-0.11614799499511719,
-0.583557665348053,
-0.44816187024116516,
-0.06319070607423782,
0.13287663459777832,
0.7969347834587097,
-0.2955237030982971,
0.11104530096054077,
0.7995125651359558,
-0.3225887417793274,
-1.3327707052230835,
0.19425708055496216,
-0.1224597692489624,
-0.5373404622077942,
-0.1598535031080246,
0.03975049778819084,
-0.4611648917198181,
-0.14282450079917908,
0.06293576210737228,
-0.3639613091945648,
0.19298043847084045,
-0.33484145998954773,
-1.1260229349136353,
-0.705659806728363,
-0.35516557097435,
-0.21492822468280792,
-0.11039543151855469,
-0.2080232799053192,
-1.0015794038772583,
-0.05087072774767876,
0.19567279517650604,
0.6032520532608032,
0.014349529519677162,
0.5180548429489136,
0.5119608044624329,
-0.00039325308171100914,
0.05385388061404228,
0.46888914704322815,
-0.1362452507019043,
-0.046510081738233566,
0.01709422841668129,
0.13008379936218262,
-0.3370993733406067,
0.20648489892482758,
0.1886533945798874,
0.6556419134140015,
-0.28119030594825745,
-0.36239415407180786,
-0.09061039984226227,
-0.29695048928260803,
-0.3354710340499878,
0.6018257737159729,
0.2088741511106491,
-0.06758034229278564,
0.8087025880813599,
0.1611800342798233,
0.05115656182169914,
-0.026069236919283867,
0.12233105301856995,
-0.19076219201087952,
-0.6730488538742065,
-0.23916898667812347,
0.37083899974823,
0.549811601638794,
0.032443415373563766,
0.014961335808038712,
0.685512900352478,
-0.4080904722213745,
0.4732031524181366,
-0.03380189090967178,
-0.5099515318870544,
0.39567142724990845,
-0.3965672254562378,
-0.32446950674057007,
-0.11796548962593079,
-0.07763556391000748,
-0.1534513235092163,
0.2320588380098343,
-0.4201817214488983,
0.22560550272464752,
0.4836677610874176,
0.40818965435028076,
-0.2759755253791809,
0.6590752601623535,
-0.07474483549594879,
-0.12748749554157257,
0.08808340132236481,
-0.11638295650482178,
-0.010223373770713806,
0.9639636874198914,
-0.9266358017921448,
0.23591433465480804,
-0.35932737588882446,
0.10459797084331512,
0.21312355995178223,
-0.32210373878479004,
0.0006673855823464692,
0.12068244814872742,
-0.3369022607803345,
-1.3210915327072144,
0.10171506553888321,
-0.17582178115844727,
-0.5780522227287292,
-0.06859716773033142,
-0.22430983185768127,
-0.23597918450832367,
0.763022243976593,
-0.41327041387557983,
-0.047730449587106705,
-0.35167938470840454,
0.23214633762836456,
0.48821836709976196,
0.2846876382827759,
-0.3620944023132324,
0.2737223505973816,
0.42246729135513306,
-0.39624640345573425,
-0.28598347306251526,
0.01784500665962696,
-0.2873009741306305,
0.13213926553726196,
0.4427039921283722,
-0.5583643913269043,
-0.41964495182037354,
-0.1433774083852768,
-0.5365554690361023,
0.1079503744840622,
0.18839053809642792,
0.36877888441085815,
0.06994187831878662,
0.7275518774986267,
-1.1897971630096436,
-0.007473214063793421,
-0.5174309611320496,
0.5828099250793457,
0.6507223844528198,
-0.5305835604667664,
0.19160526990890503,
0.6459647417068481,
-0.4546942412853241,
0.0928899422287941,
0.9664552211761475,
-0.7948688864707947,
0.1757243275642395,
-0.06554760783910751,
-0.427222341299057,
1.1520808935165405,
-0.13627839088439941,
-0.19475261867046356,
0.45209386944770813,
0.6016072034835815,
0.09290184080600739,
0.06837297976016998,
0.19726884365081787,
0.18824750185012817,
-0.15883435308933258,
-0.13899259269237518,
-0.3929345905780792,
-0.4436744451522827,
-0.3508816063404083,
0.30534827709198,
-0.5001946687698364,
0.10009657591581345,
0.49636587500572205,
-0.4653398096561432,
0.3542136251926422,
-0.2280965894460678,
0.6497731804847717,
0.04164402186870575,
0.4995069205760956,
-0.13894861936569214,
0.027973245829343796,
-0.18140172958374023,
0.6132359504699707,
0.8497834801673889,
0.35844871401786804,
0.19831383228302002,
0.9547421336174011,
0.4233642518520355,
-0.07863849401473999,
-0.3367149233818054,
0.12423519045114517,
-0.027833348140120506,
0.18790100514888763,
-0.7413259744644165,
-0.779937744140625,
0.36292698979377747,
0.2638983130455017,
-0.518642008304596,
-0.4192650616168976,
0.026081552729010582,
0.9926815629005432,
0.01965951733291149,
-0.35943856835365295,
0.26790544390678406,
-0.29185065627098083,
-0.15895651280879974,
0.04783982038497925,
0.6367334127426147,
-0.9674720764160156,
0.7066742181777954,
0.12976527214050293,
-0.22848264873027802,
-0.594624400138855,
-0.07095177471637726,
0.7768802642822266,
-0.45987555384635925,
-0.6984384059906006,
-0.12839211523532867,
0.8101515769958496,
0.20103652775287628,
-0.04198320955038071,
0.28028619289398193,
-0.04467401280999184,
-0.8023413419723511,
-0.24383074045181274,
-0.18405815958976746,
-0.420665442943573,
0.6553477644920349,
0.010847527533769608,
-0.6338184475898743,
0.41340172290802,
-0.5941446423530579,
0.04140171408653259,
-0.2741435170173645,
0.15876367688179016,
-0.16305029392242432,
-0.3405190408229828,
0.4666043221950531,
-0.08238113671541214,
0.3301370143890381,
0.3215652108192444,
0.34519022703170776,
-0.015444225631654263,
0.1875033676624298,
0.18724317848682404,
-0.3001820743083954,
-0.35483992099761963,
0.4437938928604126,
0.4370635151863098,
-0.4066317677497864,
0.7803670763969421,
-0.3803800046443939,
-0.37236925959587097,
0.2782171070575714,
-0.15616419911384583,
-0.03800145909190178,
-0.44247421622276306,
0.15303011238574982,
-0.6379446387290955,
0.726020336151123,
-0.5242407917976379,
-0.446654349565506,
0.4795946478843689,
-0.2537631392478943,
0.07933741062879562,
0.48231998085975647,
0.10235191136598587,
-0.4330834448337555,
0.2305002361536026,
0.17647451162338257,
-0.8577309250831604,
0.7394819259643555,
0.2860631048679352,
0.4945729672908783,
0.4294736981391907,
-0.25474295020103455,
0.2836105227470398,
-1.041196584701538,
0.1645859330892563,
0.531391978263855,
0.04917054623365402,
-0.1836240291595459,
0.15032868087291718,
0.13998690247535706,
-0.17191645503044128,
0.6815983653068542,
-0.31547266244888306,
0.4026969373226166,
-0.2751788794994354,
0.12746796011924744,
-0.3012823760509491,
0.10787160694599152,
0.10588857531547546,
0.29267746210098267,
0.5385554432868958,
0.04704098775982857,
0.12718574702739716,
-0.08328869938850403,
-0.10855945199728012,
-0.7304655313491821,
1.057569980621338,
-0.17939475178718567,
0.49530309438705444,
-0.7618038654327393,
-0.7167702317237854,
-0.44145727157592773,
-0.02367650903761387,
-0.2903349995613098,
0.4490896761417389,
0.32007333636283875,
0.46250197291374207,
0.1671413779258728,
-0.8253217339515686,
-0.7440399527549744,
0.09997081011533737,
-0.2266790270805359,
0.40377697348594666,
0.032443128526210785,
0.12422206997871399,
0.38772088289260864,
0.33580517768859863,
0.4293592870235443,
0.6840804219245911,
-0.0584929995238781,
-0.3232961595058441,
-0.014022880233824253,
-0.6478480100631714,
0.12213838845491409,
0.04768401011824608,
-0.26041272282600403,
0.8538041710853577,
0.44694945216178894,
0.22865018248558044,
0.16702701151371002,
0.2301100194454193,
-0.1051655262708664,
0.4920700490474701,
-0.14288805425167084,
0.11444537341594696,
0.06028597056865692,
0.012648256495594978,
-0.23360994458198547,
-0.3575063943862915,
0.3438146114349365,
-0.0005115782842040062,
-0.3119218647480011,
-0.05738871544599533,
0.3068009614944458,
-0.20726485550403595,
0.3153111934661865,
-0.6855469942092896,
-0.3434002995491028,
-0.14807510375976562,
-0.4408174753189087,
-0.43321505188941956,
0.932625412940979,
0.19158220291137695,
0.16472183167934418,
-0.16598138213157654,
0.08433573693037033,
-0.3603850305080414,
-0.17098242044448853,
0.1656082421541214,
-0.038872651755809784,
-0.2521960735321045,
-0.08849195390939713,
0.4224088191986084,
0.19350752234458923,
-0.5197798013687134,
0.30436229705810547,
-0.41764330863952637,
-0.11457692086696625,
-0.14098933339118958,
-0.5580150485038757,
0.12758812308311462,
0.02018296718597412,
-0.23425769805908203,
0.37827202677726746,
-0.32494407892227173,
0.161876380443573,
-0.04993835836648941,
0.10840359330177307,
0.09727954864501953,
0.5940312743186951,
0.5018937587738037,
-0.19630099833011627,
0.0006150344852358103,
-0.7875037789344788,
0.08473792672157288,
-0.1976730078458786,
-0.5461360812187195,
-0.058589786291122437,
0.09129811078310013,
-0.5378321409225464,
-0.08221296966075897,
0.14691311120986938,
-0.2256072610616684,
-0.3423216640949249,
0.07420659810304642,
-0.10812100768089294,
-0.020859990268945694,
-0.01596781611442566,
0.10986246913671494,
-0.3572128117084503,
0.4587251543998718,
-0.16589823365211487
] |
213214
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early%20stopping
|
Early stopping
|
In machine learning, early stopping is a form of regularization used to avoid overfitting when training a learner with an iterative method, such as gradient descent. Such methods update the learner so as to make it better fit the training data with each iteration. Up to a point, this improves the learner's performance on data outside of the training set. Past that point, however, improving the learner's fit to the training data comes at the expense of increased generalization error. Early stopping rules provide guidance as to how many iterations can be run before the learner begins to over-fit. Early stopping rules have been employed in many different machine learning methods, with varying amounts of theoretical foundation.
Background
This section presents some of the basic machine-learning concepts required for a description of early stopping methods.
Overfitting
Machine learning algorithms train a model based on a finite set of training data. During this training, the model is evaluated based on how well it predicts the observations contained in the training set. In general, however, the goal of a machine learning scheme is to produce a model that generalizes, that is, that predicts previously unseen observations. Overfitting occurs when a model fits the data in the training set well, while incurring larger generalization error.
Regularization
Regularization, in the context of machine learning, refers to the process of modifying a learning algorithm so as to prevent overfitting. This generally involves imposing some sort of smoothness constraint on the learned model.
This smoothness may be enforced explicitly, by fixing the number of parameters in the model, or by augmenting the cost function as in Tikhonov regularization. Tikhonov regularization, along with principal component regression and many other regularization schemes, fall under the umbrella of spectral regularization, regularization characterized by the application of a filter. Early stopping also belongs to this class of methods.
Gradient descent methods
Gradient descent methods are first-order, iterative, optimization methods. Each iteration updates an approximate solution to the optimization problem by taking a step in the direction of the negative of the gradient of the objective function. By choosing the step-size appropriately, such a method can be made to converge to a local minimum of the objective function. Gradient descent is used in machine-learning by defining a loss function that reflects the error of the learner on the training set and then minimizing that function.
Early stopping based on analytical results
Early stopping in statistical learning theory
Early-stopping can be used to regularize non-parametric regression problems encountered in machine learning. For a given input space, , output space, , and samples drawn from an unknown probability measure, , on , the goal of such problems is to approximate a regression function, , given by
where is the conditional distribution at induced by .
One common choice for approximating the regression function is to use functions from a reproducing kernel Hilbert space. These spaces can be infinite dimensional, in which they can supply solutions that overfit training sets of arbitrary size. Regularization is, therefore, especially important for these methods. One way to regularize non-parametric regression problems is to apply an early stopping rule to an iterative procedure such as gradient descent.
The early stopping rules proposed for these problems are based on analysis of upper bounds on the generalization error as a function of the iteration number. They yield prescriptions for the number of iterations to run that can be computed prior to starting the solution process.
Example: Least-squares loss
(Adapted from Yao, Rosasco and Caponnetto, 2007)
Let and Given a set of samples
drawn independently from , minimize the functional
where, is a member of the reproducing kernel Hilbert space . That is, minimize the expected risk for a Least-squares loss function. Since depends on the unknown probability measure , it cannot be used for computation. Instead, consider the following empirical risk
Let and be the t-th iterates of gradient descent applied to the expected and empirical risks, respectively, where both iterations are initialized at the origin, and both use the step size . The form the population iteration, which converges to , but cannot be used in computation, while the form the sample iteration which usually converges to an overfitting solution.
We want to control the difference between the expected risk of the sample iteration and the minimum expected risk, that is, the expected risk of the regression function:
This difference can be rewritten as the sum of two terms: the difference in expected risk between the sample and population iterations and that between the population iteration and the regression function:
This equation presents a bias-variance tradeoff, which is then solved to give an optimal stopping rule that may depend on the unknown probability distribution. That rule has associated probabilistic bounds on the generalization error. For the analysis leading to the early stopping rule and bounds, the reader is referred to the original article. In practice, data-driven methods, e.g. cross-validation can be used to obtain an adaptive stopping rule.
Early stopping in boosting
Boosting refers to a family of algorithms in which a set of weak learners (learners that are only slightly correlated with the true process) are combined to produce a strong learner. It has been shown, for several boosting algorithms (including AdaBoost), that regularization via early stopping can provide guarantees of consistency, that is, that the result of the algorithm approaches the true solution as the number of samples goes to infinity.
L-boosting
Boosting methods have close ties to the gradient descent methods described above can be regarded as a boosting method based on the loss: LBoost.
Validation-based early stopping
These early stopping rules work by splitting the original training set into a new training set and a validation set. The error on the validation set is used as a proxy for the generalization error in determining when overfitting has begun. These methods are most commonly employed in the training of neural networks. Prechelt gives the following summary of a naive implementation of holdout-based early stopping as follows:
More sophisticated forms use cross-validation – multiple partitions of the data into training set and validation set – instead of a single partition into a training set and validation set. Even this simple procedure is complicated in practice by the fact that the validation error may fluctuate during training, producing multiple local minima. This complication has led to the creation of many ad hoc rules for deciding when overfitting has truly begun.
See also
Overfitting, early stopping is one of methods used to prevent overfitting
Generalization error
Regularization (mathematics)
Statistical learning theory
Boosting (machine learning)
Cross-validation, in particular using a "validation set"
Neural networks
References
Machine learning
Artificial neural networks
|
[
-0.15118643641471863,
-0.19668862223625183,
-0.733005166053772,
0.19616667926311493,
0.08997713029384613,
0.2977244257926941,
0.4462234079837799,
0.22824862599372864,
0.07091920077800751,
-0.4923707842826843,
-0.44706934690475464,
0.4367229640483856,
-0.17258067429065704,
-0.2582712173461914,
-0.4907207489013672,
-0.025295814499258995,
0.23102426528930664,
0.08690086007118225,
0.06681592017412186,
-0.10723593086004257,
0.08261267840862274,
-0.06080057471990585,
0.060752253979444504,
-0.2692118287086487,
0.35008010268211365,
-0.31947991251945496,
-0.5184906125068665,
-0.22090351581573486,
-0.46060094237327576,
-0.43242350220680237,
-0.3052324056625366,
0.47108709812164307,
0.15069590508937836,
-0.1357123702764511,
0.016882434487342834,
0.1882491260766983,
0.16581465303897858,
-0.4029412865638733,
-0.0686912089586258,
-0.23860172927379608,
-0.25186288356781006,
-0.047685910016298294,
-0.21297751367092133,
0.06994325667619705,
0.09870924800634384,
-0.47470974922180176,
-1.5649086236953735,
-0.4720054864883423,
-0.31678298115730286,
-0.7502999901771545,
-1.1413333415985107,
0.5062140822410583,
0.6219772100448608,
0.007558904588222504,
0.06061457842588425,
0.25355064868927,
-0.20921534299850464,
-0.6646294593811035,
0.29200804233551025,
-0.17861095070838928,
-0.0035658597480505705,
-0.06701647490262985,
0.04439474269747734,
0.35872015357017517,
0.1922614723443985,
-0.046940483152866364,
-0.29065924882888794,
0.35429081320762634,
-0.16438204050064087,
-0.6636236310005188,
-0.4471187889575958,
-0.4855283200740814,
-0.46970850229263306,
0.4575945734977722,
-0.39615190029144287,
0.008413497358560562,
0.10846704989671707,
-0.11547950655221939,
-0.08369825035333633,
-0.07177258282899857,
-0.23736973106861115,
0.6260372400283813,
0.566447913646698,
-0.13071735203266144,
0.49566638469696045,
-0.014461246319115162,
-0.2025040090084076,
0.4199425280094147,
0.2629137933254242,
0.22224120795726776,
-0.19118526577949524,
-0.6529290676116943,
0.21481801569461823,
-0.15282802283763885,
-0.1500418484210968,
0.14796552062034607,
-0.11085892468690872,
0.38613924384117126,
0.36912697553634644,
0.3965441584587097,
-0.10327479243278503,
-0.5384859442710876,
0.6896767020225525,
0.26547545194625854,
-0.13437047600746155,
-0.2680574655532837,
0.34210896492004395,
0.14090122282505035,
0.052759263664484024,
-0.34922125935554504,
-0.3105621039867401,
0.4290364682674408,
-0.07327080518007278,
0.3212968409061432,
-0.39520642161369324,
0.18895842134952545,
-0.09243244677782059,
0.3883916735649109,
-0.7103403806686401,
-0.048009369522333145,
-0.3135208785533905,
0.8892331719398499,
0.3743932247161865,
0.05704741179943085,
-0.3770771026611328,
0.5459283590316772,
0.5180515646934509,
0.8840005993843079,
-0.36183157563209534,
-0.0631701722741127,
0.24754096567630768,
0.7261734008789062,
0.11555283516645432,
-0.2613701820373535,
-0.548814594745636,
0.03189537674188614,
0.17405658960342407,
0.21325619518756866,
0.13767875730991364,
0.18035784363746643,
-0.5040209293365479,
-0.07642721384763718,
-0.010828986763954163,
0.10207049548625946,
0.579789936542511,
-0.002094457158818841,
-0.2002401500940323,
-0.43483206629753113,
0.09239082783460617,
-0.010146887972950935,
0.17677398025989532,
0.05620715022087097,
-0.8663368821144104,
0.20164380967617035,
-0.16243132948875427,
0.45065227150917053,
-0.08786754310131073,
-0.5225568413734436,
-0.6222312450408936,
0.532846212387085,
-0.1952134668827057,
0.3040364384651184,
-0.5704915523529053,
-0.06074783205986023,
0.43456602096557617,
-0.5506500005722046,
0.6844063401222229,
0.12614047527313232,
0.5823144316673279,
0.3259512186050415,
-0.5395069718360901,
0.20138336718082428,
0.1659173220396042,
-0.6626416444778442,
0.026789113879203796,
0.46427422761917114,
0.32313570380210876,
0.19352291524410248,
0.6513683795928955,
-0.14464175701141357,
-0.8081543445587158,
0.5265506505966187,
0.5988638401031494,
-0.2504751980304718,
-0.27826961874961853,
-0.32167279720306396,
0.5887768864631653,
-0.4052193760871887,
-0.8134400248527527,
-0.2643357217311859,
-0.36621493101119995,
0.3467591404914856,
0.08343826234340668,
-0.6259873509407043,
1.0767872333526611,
0.22543494403362274,
-0.1288481205701828,
0.8832603096961975,
-0.21004994213581085,
0.6937626004219055,
0.3754740059375763,
-0.31270888447761536,
0.017520740628242493,
0.1500425487756729,
-0.409987211227417,
0.8004012107849121,
0.11638537049293518,
-0.18938840925693512,
-0.171274334192276,
0.1975192129611969,
0.21668630838394165,
0.2756847143173218,
0.0527743436396122,
0.2972601056098938,
-0.09750684350728989,
-0.006104609463363886,
-0.0552547462284565,
0.09242141991853714,
0.33800289034843445,
-0.6197304725646973,
0.1799212247133255,
0.08704027533531189,
0.004596850834786892,
0.6158544421195984,
0.028356850147247314,
0.2908393442630768,
0.6766210794448853,
0.47627463936805725,
0.7111988663673401,
-0.47993430495262146,
0.13929221034049988,
-0.016535084694623947,
-0.42666247487068176,
0.02274540811777115,
-0.11113956570625305,
0.16653458774089813,
0.20123477280139923,
-0.7277687788009644,
0.031928110867738724,
-0.3799106180667877,
-0.07867497205734253,
0.21306714415550232,
-0.18875457346439362,
0.3697865605354309,
0.6168641448020935,
-0.19365854561328888,
0.08161895722150803,
0.8369181156158447,
-0.14268723130226135,
-0.10733761638402939,
-0.08333208411931992,
0.5035395622253418,
0.2970251441001892,
-1.089476466178894,
-0.5529539585113525,
-0.0982014387845993,
-0.2992926239967346,
0.04675985127687454,
0.347195029258728,
0.35930243134498596,
0.3843177258968353,
0.3590218126773834,
0.01959463395178318,
0.29624587297439575,
0.12847894430160522,
-0.8109554052352905,
-0.24922548234462738,
-0.22595258057117462,
0.2972719669342041,
-0.10281787812709808,
-0.16060100495815277,
-0.6448092460632324,
-0.5054566264152527,
-0.3133493661880493,
-0.4546782970428467,
-0.8562874794006348,
0.354914128780365,
0.6774290800094604,
-0.41725894808769226,
-0.1365603804588318,
0.1454225331544876,
0.5866067409515381,
0.09121587872505188,
-0.3676469922065735,
-0.50868821144104,
-0.576025128364563,
-0.24306076765060425,
-0.0843917727470398,
-0.28218886256217957,
-0.095217265188694,
-0.34607547521591187,
0.7629927396774292,
-0.32069534063339233,
0.49652159214019775,
0.5885380506515503,
0.4390648603439331,
-0.11301404982805252,
-0.12126666307449341,
0.5183519721031189,
0.004308344796299934,
-0.4725320637226105,
0.06222116947174072,
0.2969847321510315,
-0.34735724329948425,
-0.5535688400268555,
0.02334769442677498,
-0.12758769094944,
-0.15814010798931122,
-5.797277450561523,
-0.07902637124061584,
0.1448742002248764,
-0.24923071265220642,
-0.4461865723133087,
-0.13306377828121185,
0.9998840689659119,
0.08712591975927353,
-0.3068128824234009,
0.4121984541416168,
-0.3162505626678467,
0.08235324174165726,
-0.36400076746940613,
0.6110813021659851,
0.06935013830661774,
0.23927932977676392,
0.5468763113021851,
0.1808861345052719,
0.17702560126781464,
0.5389513969421387,
-0.4310530424118042,
-0.3087714612483978,
-0.05193043500185013,
0.6938647627830505,
-0.11278165876865387,
0.2973234951496124,
-0.12644661962985992,
0.843783438205719,
-0.6752367615699768,
0.019739599898457527,
0.4996607005596161,
-0.6462182402610779,
-0.012356804683804512,
-0.4659288227558136,
-0.4436652362346649,
0.396422415971756,
0.574009120464325,
0.5002508759498596,
0.30056658387184143,
0.1130199134349823,
-0.1254744678735733,
0.21922481060028076,
0.38261863589286804,
0.11529766768217087,
0.3497765064239502,
0.6036781668663025,
0.0900760293006897,
-0.5016684532165527,
-0.15348868072032928,
0.5148698687553406,
-0.028163045644760132,
-0.034389469772577286,
0.21607865393161774,
0.08777794986963272,
0.20836903154850006,
-0.05566433444619179,
0.27579620480537415,
-0.30266138911247253,
-0.05337533727288246,
0.5278404355049133,
0.42076241970062256,
-0.47145703434944153,
-0.3982493579387665,
-0.6852685213088989,
0.3262045979499817,
-0.30484986305236816,
0.02728426270186901,
-0.41875705122947693,
-0.01829397678375244,
0.45914217829704285,
-0.061616238206624985,
0.3365561366081238,
0.3902018368244171,
-0.7295798659324646,
-0.029244501143693924,
-0.4851073920726776,
0.27268505096435547,
0.3815753161907196,
0.4727618098258972,
0.20051367580890656,
-0.24885135889053345,
-0.3082781434059143,
-0.2988480031490326,
-0.08320896327495575,
0.5828955173492432,
0.3103909194469452,
0.09466087818145752,
0.2175782322883606,
-0.08472178876399994,
0.24932394921779633,
0.731315016746521,
0.26459887623786926,
-0.09122403711080551,
-0.37989237904548645,
0.1868845522403717,
0.5227345824241638,
0.17725884914398193,
0.17628410458564758,
0.12614929676055908,
-0.29527074098587036,
0.09063468873500824,
-0.2157350480556488,
0.06513916701078415,
-0.34180137515068054,
0.10159820318222046,
0.23765809834003448,
-0.6988488435745239,
0.28101328015327454,
0.6859882473945618,
-0.03708512708544731,
-0.25585952401161194,
0.3698338270187378,
-0.41436338424682617,
-0.03910765051841736,
-0.4390440285205841,
0.45643994212150574,
-0.3874744474887848,
-0.005196879617869854,
0.3783966898918152,
-0.12195159494876862,
-0.6980847120285034,
-0.29840192198753357,
-0.35154858231544495,
0.11371218413114548,
0.6636191010475159,
-0.5029122233390808,
0.16928952932357788,
0.3024442791938782,
0.37046119570732117,
-0.14056459069252014,
0.3935844600200653,
0.5322235822677612,
-0.5703440308570862,
0.19987653195858002,
0.12346464395523071,
-1.0430337190628052,
0.09588645398616791,
0.4985860586166382,
-0.07971876859664917,
-0.28579795360565186,
0.1165311262011528,
-0.13610787689685822,
0.11077795922756195,
-0.018714696168899536,
1.1158477067947388,
0.06763452291488647,
0.2176225781440735,
-0.6937087178230286,
-0.6441020369529724,
0.23316572606563568,
0.49813586473464966,
-0.5534067749977112,
-0.03491848707199097,
-0.3557460606098175,
0.047308869659900665,
0.3660357892513275,
0.22229509055614471,
-0.04957994818687439,
-0.06137409433722496,
-0.27392202615737915,
0.457425594329834,
-0.10141143202781677,
-0.8959686756134033,
-0.37284955382347107,
-0.04796307161450386,
-0.08488133549690247,
-0.4410925507545471,
-0.6510071754455566,
-0.09438059478998184,
0.12310100346803665,
-0.38160303235054016,
-0.6490792036056519,
-0.5039651989936829,
-0.3834347724914551,
0.7337039113044739,
-0.3717249929904938,
0.06125088781118393,
-0.1949189156293869,
-0.22274985909461975,
-0.7283878922462463,
-0.19200646877288818,
-0.4417572319507599,
0.0492742620408535,
0.1377672553062439,
0.6095224618911743,
-0.5714444518089294,
0.3359123766422272,
0.4262973666191101,
-0.681011438369751,
-0.4385085999965668,
0.03632860258221626,
0.17565640807151794,
0.6373152136802673,
-0.052268579602241516,
0.2896672487258911,
-0.5722577571868896,
0.1271895170211792,
0.8171885013580322,
-0.08889759331941605,
-0.5216652154922485,
0.06175224110484123,
-0.16357122361660004,
-0.449546217918396,
0.35615238547325134,
0.6455495357513428,
-0.1673775166273117,
-0.28749990463256836,
0.2257757931947708,
-0.6100944876670837,
0.19952893257141113,
-0.5249480605125427,
-0.8595747947692871,
-0.36973607540130615,
-0.010141788981854916,
0.019717127084732056,
0.07438628375530243,
0.43481019139289856,
-0.42561739683151245,
-0.11400682479143143,
0.2505785822868347,
0.26110684871673584,
-0.1108943298459053,
-0.3547058403491974,
0.056858669966459274,
-0.07272396981716156,
-0.026971573010087013,
0.13110622763633728,
-0.43136242032051086,
0.4582256078720093,
-0.06571976095438004,
-0.17490802705287933,
-0.6441331505775452,
0.38471412658691406,
0.3501816391944885,
-0.14598283171653748,
0.011717447079718113,
-0.6765793561935425,
0.5747610330581665,
0.1412460058927536,
-0.2522423565387726,
0.12145870178937912,
0.9315637350082397,
-0.018643813207745552,
0.08973698318004608,
-0.1881183683872223,
0.5091551542282104,
-0.29272881150245667,
-0.5318629145622253,
-0.3603878319263458,
0.564124584197998,
0.584164023399353,
0.5023214817047119,
-0.05780677869915962,
0.26391053199768066,
-0.03503959998488426,
-0.28668397665023804,
-0.33053362369537354,
-0.4318332374095917,
0.22090058028697968,
0.559616208076477,
0.3189423382282257,
-0.711364209651947,
0.26752203702926636,
0.11087556183338165,
0.2193511575460434,
0.46418333053588867,
-0.18784844875335693,
0.04670678451657295,
0.35741376876831055,
-0.4438859522342682,
0.09275496006011963,
-0.9071403741836548,
0.2526434361934662,
0.45732173323631287,
0.09646011143922806,
-0.2950189411640167,
-0.12869048118591309,
-0.07464790344238281,
-0.21291229128837585,
0.011664933525025845,
-0.1833868771791458,
-0.13721400499343872,
0.043016981333494186,
-0.8134198784828186,
0.06268981099128723,
-0.7210858464241028,
0.26702171564102173,
0.12366685271263123,
-0.39871746301651,
0.0599711537361145,
-1.2465986013412476,
0.38826626539230347,
-0.2958517372608185,
0.37003928422927856,
-0.4166390299797058,
-0.05810160934925079,
0.1585637480020523,
0.42252084612846375,
-0.8056545853614807,
-0.08228302747011185,
0.07160194963216782,
0.5738563537597656,
0.24867187440395355,
-0.5871220231056213,
0.10745984315872192,
0.23603951930999756,
-0.08178851753473282,
-0.4644226133823395,
-0.07931166887283325,
-0.23433130979537964,
-0.23978036642074585,
0.15057715773582458,
0.1780422329902649,
0.8682726621627808,
-0.284052312374115,
-0.04075925424695015,
0.08297665417194366,
-0.5025917887687683,
-0.04296751692891121,
0.2948831617832184,
-0.4182070791721344,
-0.34095990657806396,
0.6225433945655823,
-0.6321608424186707,
-0.3317892253398895,
0.27560877799987793,
0.20545969903469086,
0.003941775299608707,
-0.06274361163377762,
0.6160595417022705,
0.18607057631015778,
0.2239600270986557,
0.20359644293785095,
0.49840986728668213,
-0.24325360357761383,
-0.10464328527450562,
0.8492757678031921,
-0.8145495653152466,
-0.1802472174167633,
-0.16614753007888794,
1.0489798784255981,
0.354948490858078,
0.1371571123600006,
0.3070943057537079,
-0.15481644868850708,
0.06766203790903091,
0.8000553846359253,
0.5971471071243286,
-0.10893354564905167,
0.5966450572013855,
-0.09976796805858612,
-0.2026512175798416,
0.4856070876121521,
-0.08944207429885864,
0.008477892726659775,
-0.47255590558052063,
0.42644748091697693,
0.05566074699163437,
-0.10084753483533859,
-0.44892582297325134,
0.32372772693634033,
0.01252081897109747,
0.4700217545032501,
-0.19274264574050903,
0.329725980758667,
-0.07811177521944046,
0.9516811966896057,
0.12726826965808868,
0.0838456079363823,
0.5313066840171814,
-0.40382763743400574,
0.7117620706558228,
0.09805431962013245,
0.007824784144759178,
0.496381938457489,
-0.5967861413955688,
0.4202556312084198,
0.2897239327430725,
0.5136114358901978,
0.03930166736245155,
0.2814237177371979,
0.09139761328697205,
0.03976565599441528,
-0.37532415986061096,
-0.17693603038787842,
-0.5331180691719055,
-0.27375391125679016,
-0.15611472725868225,
-0.368723064661026,
0.10540758818387985,
-0.4851546287536621,
-0.2700502574443817,
-0.07583286613225937,
0.07692653685808182,
-0.23535902798175812,
-0.11518914252519608,
-0.1944124698638916,
0.8668575882911682,
0.3925354778766632,
0.14532026648521423,
0.03937157988548279,
-0.03700486570596695,
0.09876110404729843,
0.08022546023130417,
-0.37016990780830383,
0.4334786832332611,
-0.38177192211151123,
0.2662237286567688,
-0.3270924687385559,
0.2540673613548279,
0.7889522314071655,
0.16616638004779816,
-0.2226962149143219,
0.4461718201637268,
0.04442829638719559,
-0.23409800231456757,
0.2970733940601349,
-0.2894126772880554,
-0.0919949859380722,
-0.8332727551460266,
-0.03791303187608719,
0.3401060700416565,
0.418681800365448,
0.03732423856854439,
-0.21210484206676483,
0.0687665268778801,
0.0788193866610527,
0.19785617291927338,
-0.22894872725009918,
0.31412839889526367,
-0.4542815685272217,
-0.7464838027954102,
-0.5739709734916687,
0.4448297917842865,
-0.08992091566324234,
-0.31913211941719055,
0.1773131787776947,
0.3588896691799164,
0.4879677891731262,
-0.289036363363266,
0.3578595221042633,
0.0164495799690485,
-0.23751512169837952,
0.609849750995636,
-0.9749813079833984,
0.4459361433982849,
-0.44546741247177124,
-0.18807919323444366,
-0.46533653140068054,
0.057391513139009476,
0.37607818841934204,
-0.24345676600933075,
-0.3454946279525757,
0.0830167904496193,
-0.399385541677475,
0.05431452766060829,
-0.12835782766342163,
-0.48757973313331604,
-0.8878355622291565,
0.17057795822620392
] |
213216
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Calder
|
Alexander Calder
|
Alexander Calder (; July 22, 1898 – November 11, 1976) was an American sculptor known both for his innovative mobiles (kinetic sculptures powered by motors or air currents) that embrace chance in their aesthetic, his static "stabiles", and his monumental public sculptures. Calder preferred not to analyze his work, saying, "Theories may be all very well for the artist himself, but they shouldn't be broadcast to other people."
Early life
Alexander "Sandy" Calder was born in 1898 in Lawnton, Pennsylvania. His actual birthdate remains a source of confusion. According to Calder's mother, Nanette (née Lederer), Calder was born on August 22, yet his birth certificate at Philadelphia City Hall, based on a hand-written ledger, stated July 22. When Calder's family learned of the birth certificate, they asserted with certainty that city officials had made a mistake.
Calder's grandfather, sculptor Alexander Milne Calder, was born in Scotland, had immigrated to Philadelphia in 1868, and is best known for the colossal statue of William Penn on Philadelphia City Hall's tower. His father, Alexander Stirling Calder, was a well-known sculptor who created many public installations, a majority of them in Philadelphia. Calder's mother was a professional portrait artist, who had studied at the Académie Julian and the Sorbonne in Paris from around 1888 until 1893. She moved to Philadelphia, where she met Stirling Calder while studying at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Calder's parents married on February 22, 1895. Alexander Calder's sister, Margaret Calder Hayes, was instrumental in the development of the UC Berkeley Art Museum.
Four-year-old Calder posed nude for his father's sculpture The Man Cub, a cast of which is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. In 1902 he also completed his earliest sculpture, a clay elephant. In 1905 his father contracted tuberculosis, and Calder's parents moved to a ranch in Oracle, Arizona, leaving the children in the care of family friends for a year. The children were reunited with their parents in March 1906 and stayed at the Arizona ranch during that summer.
The Calder family moved from Arizona to Pasadena, California. The windowed cellar of the family home became Calder's first studio and he received his first set of tools. He used scraps of copper wire to make jewelry for his sister's dolls. On January 1, 1907, Nanette Calder took her son to the Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, where he observed a four-horse-chariot race. This style of event later became the finale of Calder's miniature circus performances.
In late 1909 the family returned to Philadelphia, where Calder briefly attended Germantown Academy, then they moved to Croton-on-Hudson, New York. That Christmas, he sculpted a dog and a duck out of sheet brass as gifts for his parents. The sculptures are three-dimensional and the duck is kinetic because it rocks when gently tapped. In Croton, during his high school years, Calder was befriended by his father's painter friend Everett Shinn with whom he built a gravity-powered system of mechanical trains. Calder described it, "We ran the train on wooden rails held by spikes; a chunk of iron racing down the incline speeded the cars. We even lit up some cars with candle lights". After Croton, the Calders moved to Spuyten Duyvil to be closer to New York City, where Stirling Calder rented a studio. While living in Spuyten Duyvil, Calder attended high school in nearby Yonkers. In 1912, Calder's father was appointed acting chief of the Department of Sculpture of the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco, California, and began work on sculptures for the exposition that was held in 1915.
During Calder's high school years (1912–1915), the family moved back and forth between New York and California. In each new location, Calder's parents reserved cellar space as a studio for their son. Near the end of this period, Calder stayed with friends in California while his parents moved back to New York, so that he could graduate from Lowell High School in San Francisco. Calder graduated with the class of 1915.
Life and career
Alexander Calder's parents did not want him to be an artist, so he decided to study mechanical engineering. An intuitive engineer since childhood, Calder did not even know what mechanical engineering was. "I was not very sure what this term meant, but I thought I'd better adopt it," he later wrote. He enrolled at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey, in 1915. When asked why he decided to study mechanical engineering instead of art Calder said, "I wanted to be an engineer because some guy I rather liked was a mechanical engineer, that's all". At Stevens, Calder was a member of the Delta Tau Delta fraternity and excelled in mathematics. He was well-liked and the class yearbook contained the following description, "Sandy is evidently always happy, or perhaps up to some joke, for his face is always wrapped up in that same mischievous, juvenile grin. This is certainly the index to the man's character in this case, for he is one of the best natured fellows there is."
In the summer of 1916, Calder spent five weeks training at the Plattsburg Civilian Military Training Camp. In 1918, he joined the Student's Army Training Corps, Naval Section, at Stevens and was made guide of the battalion.
Calder received a degree from Stevens in 1919. He held a variety of jobs including hydraulic engineer and draughtsman for the New York Edison Company. In June 1922, Calder took a mechanic position on the passenger ship H. F. Alexander. While sailing from San Francisco to New York City, Calder slept on deck and awoke one early morning off the Guatemalan Coast and witnessed both the sun rising and the full moon setting on opposite horizons. He described in his autobiography, "It was early one morning on a calm sea, off Guatemala, when over my couch—a coil of rope—I saw the beginning of a fiery red sunrise on one side and the moon looking like a silver coin on the other."
The H.F. Alexander docked in San Francisco and Calder traveled to Aberdeen, Washington, where his sister and her husband, Kenneth Hayes resided. Calder took a job as a timekeeper at a logging camp. The mountain scenery inspired him to write home to request paints and brushes. Shortly after this, Calder decided to move back to New York to pursue a career as an artist.
In New York City, Calder enrolled at the Art Students League, studying briefly with George Luks, Boardman Robinson, and John Sloan. While a student, he worked for the National Police Gazette where, in 1925, one of his assignments was sketching the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus. Calder became fascinated with the circus action, a theme that would reappear in his later work.
In 1926, Calder moved to Paris, enrolled in the Académie de la Grande Chaumière, and established a studio at 22 rue Daguerre in the Montparnasse Quarter. In June 1929, while traveling by boat from Paris to New York, Calder met his future wife, Louisa James (1905–1996), grandniece of author Henry James and philosopher William James. They married in 1931. While in Paris, Calder befriended a number of avant-garde artists, including Fernand Léger, Jean Arp, and Marcel Duchamp. Leger wrote a preface for the catalogue of Calder's first exhibition of abstract constructions held at the Galerie Percier in 1931. Calder and Louisa returned to America in 1933 to a farmhouse they purchased in Roxbury, Connecticut, where they raised a family (Sandra born 1935, Mary born 1939). During World War II, Calder attempted to join the Marines as a camofleur, but was rejected. In 1955 he and Louisa traveled through India for three months, where Calder produced nine sculptures as well as some jewelry.
In 1963, Calder settled into a new workshop, overlooking the valley of the Lower Chevrière to Saché in Indre-et-Loire (France). He donated to the town a sculpture, which since 1974 has been situated in the town square. Throughout his artistic career, Calder named many of his works in French, regardless of where they were destined for eventual display.
In 1966, Calder published his Autobiography with Pictures with the help of his son-in-law, Jean Davidson.
Calder died unexpectedly in November 1976 of a heart attack, shortly after the opening of a major retrospective show at the Whitney Museum in New York.
Artistic work
Sculpture
In Paris in 1926, Calder began to create his Cirque Calder, a miniature circus fashioned from wire, cloth, string, rubber, cork, and other found objects. Designed to be transportable (it grew to fill five large suitcases), the circus was presented on both sides of the Atlantic. Soon, his Cirque Calder (on view at the Whitney Museum of American Art at present) became popular with the Parisian avant-garde. He also invented wire sculpture, or "drawing in space", and in 1929 had his first solo show of these sculptures in Paris at Galerie Billiet. Hi!, in the collection of the Honolulu Museum of Art, is an early example of the artist's wire sculpture. The painter Jules Pascin, a friend from the cafes of Montparnasse, wrote the preface to the catalog.
A visit to Piet Mondrian's studio in 1930, where he was impressed by the environment-as-installation, "shocked" him into fully embracing abstract art, toward which he had already been tending.
It was the mixture of his experiments to develop purely abstract sculpture following his visit with Mondrian that led to his first truly kinetic sculptures, actuated by motors, that would become his signature artworks. Calder's kinetic sculptures are regarded as being amongst the earliest manifestations of an art that consciously departed from the traditional notion of the art work as a static object and integrated the ideas of gesture and immateriality as aesthetic factors.
Dating from 1931, Calder's abstract sculptures of discrete movable parts powered by motors were christened "mobiles" by Marcel Duchamp, a French pun meaning both "motion" and "motive". However, Calder found that the motorized works sometimes became monotonous in their prescribed movements. His solution, arrived at by 1932, was hanging sculptures that derived their motion from touch or air currents. The earliest of these were made of wire, found objects, and wood, a material that Calder used since the 1920s. The hanging mobiles were followed in 1934 by outdoor standing mobiles in industrial materials, which were set in motion by the open air. The wind mobiles featured abstract shapes delicately balanced on pivoting rods that moved with the slightest current of air, allowing for a natural shifting play of forms and spatial relationships. Calder was also experimenting with self-supporting, static, abstract sculptures, dubbed "stabiles" by Jean Arp in 1932 to differentiate them from mobiles. At Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937), the Spanish pavilion included Calder's sculpture Mercury Fountain.
During World War II, Calder continued to sculpt, adapting to a scarcity of aluminum during the war by returning to carved wood in a new open form of sculpture called "constellations". Postwar, Calder began to cut shapes from sheet metal into evocative forms and hand-paint them in his characteristically bold hues. Calder created a small group of works from around this period with a hanging base-plate, for example Lily of Force (1945), Baby Flat Top (1946), and Red is Dominant (1947). He also made works such as Seven Horizontal Discs (1946), which, like Lily of Force (1945) and Baby Flat Top (1946), he was able to dismantle and send by mail for his upcoming show at Galerie Louis Carré in Paris, despite the stringent size restrictions imposed by the postal service at the time. His 1946 show at Carré, which was organized by Duchamp, was composed mainly of hanging and standing mobiles, and it made a huge impact, as did the essay for the catalogue by French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1951, Calder devised a new kind of sculpture, related structurally to his constellations. These "towers", affixed to the wall with a nail, consist of wire struts and beams that jut from the wall, with moving objects suspended from their armatures.
While not denying Calder's power as a sculptor, an alternate view of the history of twentieth-century art cites Calder's turning away in the early 1930s from his motor-powered works in favor of the wind-driven mobile as marking a decisive moment in Modernism's abandonment of its earlier commitment to the machine as a critical and potentially expressive new element in human affairs. According to this viewpoint, the mobile also marked an abandonment of Modernism's larger goal of a rapprochement with science and engineering, and with unfortunate long-term implications for contemporary art.
Monumental sculptures
In 1934, Calder made his first outdoor works in his Roxbury, Connecticut studio, using the same techniques and materials as his smaller works. Exhibited outside, Calder's initial standing mobiles moved elegantly in the breeze, bobbing and swirling in natural, spontaneous rhythms. The first few outdoor works were too delicate for strong winds, which forced Calder to rethink his fabrication process. By 1936 he changed his working methods and began to create smaller-scale maquettes that he then enlarged to monumental size. The small maquette, the first step in the production of a monumental sculpture, was considered by Calder a sculpture in its own right. Larger works used the classic enlargement techniques of traditional sculptors, including his father and grandfather. Drawing his designs on craft paper, he enlarged them using a grid. His large-scale works were created according to his exact specifications, while also allowing him the liberty to adjust or correct a shape or line if necessary.
In the 1950s, Calder concentrated more on producing monumental sculptures (his agrandissements period), and public commissions increasingly came his way in the 1960s. Notable examples are .125 (1957) for JFK Airport in New York, Spirale (1958) for UNESCO in Paris, and Trois disques, commissioned for Expo 67 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Calder's largest sculpture, at 25.7 meters high, was El Sol Rojo, constructed outside the Estadio Azteca for the 1968 Summer Olympics "Cultural Olympiad" events in Mexico City. Many of his public artworks were commissioned by renowned architects; for example, I.M. Pei commissioned La Grande Voile, a 25-ton, 40-foot high stabile sculpture for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1966.
Most of Calder's monumental stationery and mobile sculptures were made after 1962 at Etablissements Biémont in Tours, France. He would create a model of his work, the engineering department would scale it up under Calder's direction, and technicians would complete the actual metalwork — all under Calder's watchful eye. Stabiles were made in steel plate, then painted. An exception was Trois disques, in stainless steel at 24 meters tall, commissioned by International Nickel Company of Canada.
In 1958, Calder asked Jean Prouvé to construct the steel base of Spirale in France, a monumental mobile for the UNESCO site in Paris, while the top was fabricated in Connecticut.
In June 1969, Calder attended the dedication of his monumental "stabile" sculpture La Grande Vitesse in Grand Rapids, Michigan. This sculpture is notable for being the first civic sculpture in the United States to receive funding from the National Endowment for the Arts.
In 1971, Calder created his Bent Propeller which was installed at the entrance of the World Trade Center's North Tower in New York City. When Battery Park City opened, the sculpture was moved to Vesey and Church Streets. The sculpture stood in front of 7 World Trade Center until it was destroyed on September 11, 2001.
In 1973, the 63-foot tall vermillion-colored public art sculpture Four Arches was installed on Bunker Hill, Los Angeles to serve as "a distinctive landmark." The plaza site was designed in tiers to maximize the sculpture's visual effects.
In 1974, Calder unveiled two sculptures, Flamingo at Federal Plaza, and Universe at Sears Tower, in Chicago, Illinois, accompanied by the exhibition Alexander Calder: A Retrospective Exhibition, at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago which opened simultaneously with the unveiling of the sculptures.
Originally meant to be constructed in 1977 for the Hart Senate Office Building, Mountains and Clouds was not built until 1985 due to government budget cuts. The massive sheet-metal project, weighing 35 tons, spans the nine-story height of the building's atrium in Washington, D.C. Calder designed the maquette for the United States Senate in the last year of his life.
Theatrical productions
Calder created stage sets for more than a dozen theatrical productions, including Nucléa, Horizon, and most notably, Martha Graham's Panorama (1935), a production of the Erik Satie symphonic drama Socrate (1936), and later, Works in Progress (1968). Works in Progress was a "ballet" conceived by Calder himself and produced at the Rome Opera House, featuring an array of mobiles, stabiles, and large painted backdrops. Calder would describe some of his stage sets as dancers performing a choreography due to their rhythmic movement.
Painting and printmaking
In addition to sculptures, Calder painted throughout his career, beginning in the early 1920s. He picked up his study of printmaking in 1925, and continued to produce illustrations for books and journals. His projects from this period include pen-and-ink line drawings of animals for a 1931 publication of Aesop's fables. As Calder's sculpture moved into the realm of pure abstraction in the early 1930s, so did his prints. The thin lines used to define figures in the earlier prints and drawings began delineating groups of geometric shapes, often in motion. Calder also used prints for advocacy, as in poster prints from 1967 and 1969 protesting the Vietnam War.
As Calder's professional reputation expanded in the late 1940s and 1950s, so did his production of prints. Masses of lithographs based on his gouache paintings were marketed, and deluxe editions of plays, poems, and short stories illustrated with fine art prints by Calder became available.
Painted aircraft and automobile
One of Calder's more unusual undertakings was a commission from Dallas-based Braniff International Airways to paint a full-size Douglas DC-8-62 four-engined jet as a "flying canvas". George Stanley Gordon, founder of the New York City advertising agency Gordon and Shortt, approached Calder with the idea of painting a jet in 1972, but Calder responded that he did not paint toys. When Gordon told him it was a real, full-sized airliner he was proposing, the artist immediately gave his approval. Gordon felt that Braniff, known for melding the worlds of fashion and design with the world of aviation, would be the perfect company to carry out the idea. Braniff Chairman Harding Lawrence was highly receptive and a contract was drawn up in 1973 calling for the painting of one Douglas DC-8-62 jet liner, dubbed Flying Colors, and 50 gouaches for a total price of $100,000. Two years later, Braniff asked Calder to design a flagship for their fleet celebrating the U.S. Bicentennial. That piece, a Boeing 727-291 jet N408BN called the Flying Colors of the United States, and nicknamed the 'Sneaky Snake' by its pilots (based on quirky flight tendencies), featured a rippled image of red, white and blue echoing a waving American flag. A third design, to be dubbed Salute to Mexico, was commissioned but went uncompleted following his death.
In 1975 Calder was commissioned to paint a BMW 3.0 CSL automobile, which would be the first vehicle in the BMW Art Car Project.
Jewelry
Calder created over 2,000 pieces of jewelry over the course of his career, many as gifts for friends. Several pieces reflect his fascination with art from Africa and other continents. They were mostly made of brass and steel, with bits of ceramic, wood and glass. Calder rarely used solder; when he needed to join strips of metal, he linked them with loops, bound them with snippets of wire or fashioned rivets. Calder created his first pieces in 1906 at the age of eight for his sister's dolls using copper wire that he found in the street.
For his lifelong friend Joan Miró, Calder set a shard of a broken porcelain vessel in a brass ring. Peggy Guggenheim received enormous silver mobile earrings and later commissioned a hammered silver headboard that shimmered with dangling fish. In 1942, Guggenheim wore one Calder earring and one by Yves Tanguy to the opening of her New York gallery, The Art of This Century, to demonstrate her equal loyalty to Surrealist and abstract art, examples of which she displayed in separate galleries. Others who were presented with Calder's pieces were the artist's close friend, Georgia O'Keeffe; Teeny Duchamp, wife of Marcel Duchamp; Jeanne Rucar, wife of the filmmaker Luis Buñuel; and Bella Rosenfeld, wife of Marc Chagall.
Exhibitions
Calder's first solo exhibition was in 1927 at the Gallery of Jacques Seligmann in Paris. His first solo show in a US commercial gallery was in 1928 at the Weyhe Gallery in New York City. He exhibited with the Abstraction-Création group in Paris in 1933.
In 1935, he had his first solo museum exhibition in the United States at The Renaissance Society at the University of Chicago. In New York, he was championed from the early 1930s by the Museum of Modern Art, and was one of three Americans to be included in Alfred H. Barr Jr.'s 1936 exhibition Cubism and Abstract Art.
Calder's first retrospective was held in 1938 at George Walter Vincent Smith Gallery in Springfield, Massachusetts. In 1943, the Museum of Modern Art hosted a Calder retrospective, curated by James Johnson Sweeney and Marcel Duchamp; the show had to be extended due to the number of visitors. Calder was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the 3rd Sculpture International held at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in the summer of 1949. His mobile, International Mobile was the centerpiece of the exhibition. Calder also participated in documentas I (1955), II (1959), III (1964). Major retrospectives of his work were held at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (1964), the Fondation Maeght in Saint-Paul-de-Vence, France (1969), and the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago (1974). In addition, both of Calder's dealers, Galerie Maeght in Paris and the Perls Galleries in New York, averaged about one Calder show each per year.
Collections
Calder's work is in many permanent collections across the world. The Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, has the largest body of work by Alexander Calder. Other museum collections include the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; the Museum of Modern Art, New York; the Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris; the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid; and the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. There are two pieces on display in the Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza Art Collection in Albany, NY.
The Philadelphia Museum of Art offers a view of works by three generations of Alexander Calders. From the second floor window on the east side of the Great Stair Hall (on the opposite side from the armor collection) there is behind the viewer the Ghost mobile from the 3rd generation (born 1898), ahead on the street is the Swann Memorial Fountain by the 2nd generation (born 1870), and beyond that the statue of William Penn atop City Hall from the 1st generation (born 1846).
Recognition and awards
1939 – First prize in the Museum of Modern Art, New York, competition for Plexiglas sculpture
1952 – Represented the United States at the Venice Biennale and was awarded the main prize for sculpture
1955 – Philadelphia Art Festival, for Pre-eminence in Art
1957 – Stevens Institute of Technology Honor Award for Notable Achievement
1958 – First Prize for Sculpture at the Pittsburgh International
1958 – First Prize for Sculpture in Carnegie Prize
1959 – Award with Carlos Raúl Villanueva at IV Bienal, Museu de Arte Moderna, Exposição Internacional de Arquitetura
1960 – National Institute of Arts and Letters, insignia
1960 – Gold Medal of Honor, the Architectural League of New York, for sculpture at UNESCO
1961 – Fine Arts Gold Medal for a Master of Sculpture at the American Institute of Architects
1962 – Art in America Annual Award for Outstanding Contribution to American Art (shared with Alfred H. Barr, Jr.)
1962 – Creative Arts Award for Sculpture at Brandeis University
1963 – President's Medal, Art Director's Club
1963 – Edward MacDowell Medal for Outstanding Contribution to the Arts from The MacDowell Colony
1964 – Elected to American Academy of Arts and Letters
1966 – St. Botolph Distinguished Artist Award
1966 – Honorary Degree, Doctor of Arts, Harvard University
1967 – Honorary Sponsor, Philadelphia International Festival of Short Films
1968 – Officier de la Légion d'honneur, Ministry of Culture, France
1968 – New York State Award
1969 – Honorary Degree of Doctor of Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology
1969 – Key to the City of Grand Rapids, Michigan
1969 – Granted the same droit de suite rights as French authors
1969 – Honorary Degree of Doctor of Arts, Grand Valley State College
c.1970 – Monnaie de Paris, 2 Calder coins
1971 – The Gold Medal for Sculpture, National Institute of Arts and Letters and the American Academy of Arts and Letters
1973 – Honorary Degree, Doctor of Fine Arts, University of Hartford
1974 – Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur, Ministry of Culture, France
1974 – Saint Pierre des Corps
1974 – Citoyen d'Honneur, Commune de Sáche, France
1974 – Official Mayoral Decree of "Alexander Calder Day in Chicago" (October 25, 1974)
1974 – Honorary Citizen of Chicago
1974 – Grand Prix National des Art et Lettres, Ministry of Culture, France
1975 – U.N. Peace Medal
1975 – Liberty Bell, City of Philadelphia
1975 – United Nations Peace Medal
1976 – Official Cachet, presented to Calder as designer of the WFUNA Cachet on the first day of issue
1977 – Posthumously awarded Presidential Medal of Freedom
1977 – Goslar Award for Modern Art
1983 – United States Mint issues a half-ounce gold medallion honoring Calder
1998 – US Postal Service issues a set of five 32-cent stamps honoring Calder
Art market
In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Calder's works were not highly sought after, and when they sold, it was often for relatively little money. A copy of a Pierre Matisse sales ledger in the foundation's files shows that only a few pieces in the 1941 show found buyers, one of whom, Solomon R. Guggenheim, paid only $233.34 () for a work. The Museum of Modern Art had bought its first Calder in 1934 for $60, after talking Calder down from $100. And yet by 1948 Calder nearly sold out an entire solo show in Rio de Janeiro, becoming the first internationally renowned sculptor. Galerie Maeght in Paris became Calder's exclusive Parisian dealer in 1950 and for the rest of Calder's life. After his New York dealer Curt Valentin died unexpectedly in 1954, Calder selected the Perls Galleries in New York as his new American dealer, and this alliance lasted until Calder's death.
In 2010, his metal mobile Untitled (Autumn Leaves), sold at Sotheby's New York for $3.7 million. Another mobile brought $6.35 million at Christie's later that year. Also at Christie's, a standing mobile called Lily of Force (1945), which was expected to sell for $8 to $12 million, was bought for $18.5 million in 2012. Calder's 7.5-foot-long hanging mobile Poisson volant (Flying Fish) (1957) fetched $25.9 million, setting an auction record for the sculptor at Christie's New York in 2014.
Legacy
Beginning in 1966, winners of the National Magazine Awards are awarded an "Ellie", a copper-colored stabile resembling an elephant, which was designed by Calder. Two months after his death, the artist was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honor, by President Gerald Ford. However, representatives of the Calder family boycotted the January 10, 1977, ceremony "to make a statement favoring amnesty for Vietnam War draft resisters".
Calder Foundation
In 1987, the Calder Foundation was established by Calder's family, "dedicated to collecting, exhibiting, preserving, and interpreting the art and archives of Alexander Calder and [is] charged with an unmatched collection of his works". The foundation has large holdings, with some works owned by family members and others by foundation supporters. The art includes more than 600 sculptures including mobiles, stabiles, standing mobiles, and wire sculptures, and 22 monumental outdoor works, as well as thousands of oil paintings, works on paper, toys, pieces of jewelry, and domestic objects.
After having worked mainly on cataloging Calder's works, the Calder Foundation is now focusing on organizing global exhibitions for the artist. One of Calder's grandsons, Alexander S. C. "Sandy" Rower, is the president of the foundation and other family members are on the board of trustees.
Authenticity issues
The Calder Foundation does not authenticate artworks; rather, owners can submit their works for registration in the Foundation's archive and for examination. The committee that performs examinations includes experts, scholars, museum curators, and members of the Calder family. The Calder Foundation's website provides details on the current policies and guidelines governing examination procedures.
In 1993, the owners of Rio Nero (1959), a sheet-metal and steel-wire mobile ostensibly by Calder, went to the United States District Court for the District of Columbia charging that it was not by Alexander Calder, as claimed by its seller. That same year, a federal judge ruled that for Rio Nero the burden of proof had not been fulfilled. Despite the decision, the owners of the mobile could not sell it because the recognized expert, Klaus Perls, had declared it a copy. The judge recognized the problem at the time, noting that Perls' pronouncement would make Rio Nero unsellable. In 1994, the Calder Foundation declined to include the mobile in the catalogue raisonné on the artist.
Referring to the Rio Nero case, the Appellate Division of the New York Supreme Court in 2009 rejected the appeal of an art collector who wished to sell a couple of stage sets that Calder had designed but did not live to see completed, which had been unsuccessfully submitted to the Calder Foundation for authentication. The court found that it did not have the power to declare the purported Calder work authentic, nor to order the Calder Foundation to include it in the catalogue raisonné.
In 1995, questions arose about another purported Calder, Two White Dots (not to be confused with the similarly named piece, Two White Dots in the Air, which Calder created in 1958). In 1973, Calder had created a -high sheet metal maquette for an unrealized stabile he called Two White Dots. He gave this maquette to Carmen Segretario, founder and owner of the Segré Foundry of Waterbury, Connecticut. For decades, Calder had utilized the services of Segré Foundry in manufacturing his mobiles and stabiles. Each piece (no matter how many copies were made) would be initialed personally by Calder in white chalk, after which a welder would follow the chalk marks to burn the initials into the work. Calder died in 1976, without a full-size version of Two White Dots having been made. In 1982, Segretario constructed a full-size version of Two White Dots, and sold it in 1983 to art dealer Shirley Teplitz for $70,000. Segetario's documentation claimed that the work had been fabricated around 1974 "under the supervision and direction of Artist". Two White Dots was then sold at auction in May 1984 for $187,000. Over the next decade, the piece was sold repeatedly. In 1995, Jon Shirley (the former president of Microsoft and a Calder collector) purchased Two White Dots for $1 million. When Shirley submitted the work to the Calder Foundation for inclusion in their catalogue raisonné, the Foundation contested the work's authenticity. The André Emmerich Gallery refunded Shirley's money, and sued the Segré Foundry, which sought bankruptcy protection. The suit was settled out of court in the late 1990s. Two White Dots now resides outdoors on a farm near a river outside the small town of Washington, Connecticut.
In 2013 the Calder Estate filed a lawsuit against the estate of his former dealer, Klaus Perls, alleging that Perls had sold fake Calders as well as concealing the ownership of 679 works by the artist. After a high-profile battle with much press coverage, the lawsuit was dismissed by judge Judge Shirley Werner Kornreich in the New York State Supreme Court.
Personal life
Calder and his wife, Louisa, were the parents of two daughters, Sandra (born 1935) and Mary (1939-2011). Mary's husband, Howard Rower (1939-2000), had been chairman of the board of the Alexander and Louisa Calder Foundation. Mary and Howard's two sons are Alexander S. C. "Sandy" Rower (1963), president of the Calder Foundation, and Holton Rower (1962), a vice president of the Foundation. Alexander Rower established the Foundation in 1987 with the support of the Calder family. He has four children, including Gryphon Rower-Upjohn, a sound experimentalist, composer-performer, and curator in the field of audiovisual culture, who is also known as Gryphon Rue.
Sandra Calder Davidson and her late husband, Jean Davidson, have a son, Shawn (1956), and a daughter, Andréa (1961). Sandra, Shawn and Andréa are vice presidents of the Calder Foundation. Jean Davidson was the son of artist Jo Davidson. Sandra is an illustrator of children's books. She caricatured her family and friends as animals in the 2013 book The Calder Family and Other Critters: Portraits and Reflections.
The Calder family has a long-standing connection with the Putney School, a progressive co-ed boarding school in Vermont. Calder's daughters attended the school as did several of his grandchildren and great-grandchildren. Around 2007, the Rower family donated a standing mobile (a mobile that stands on its own fixed base) to Putney. A 13-foot mobile hangs in Calder Hall in the Michael S. Currier Center on campus.
Gallery
Selected works
Dog (1909), folded brass sheet, made as a present for Calder's parents
The Flying Trapeze (1925), oil on canvas, 36 x 42 in.
Elephant (c. 1928), wire and wood, 11½ x 5¾ x 29.2 in.
Hi! (ca. 1928), brass wire, painted wood base, Honolulu Museum of Art
Policeman (ca. 1928) wire and wood.
Aztec Josephine Baker (1930), wire, 53" x 10" x 9". A representation of Josephine Baker, the exuberant lead dancer from La revue nègre at the Folies Bergère.
Untitled (1931), wire, wood and motor; one of the first kinetic mobiles
Small Feathers (1931), wire, wood and paint; first true mobile, although designed to stand on a desktop
Cône d'ébène (1933), ebony, metal bar and wire; early suspended mobile (first was made in 1932)
Object with Yellow Background (1936), painted wood, metal, string, Honolulu Museum of Art
Mercury Fountain (1937), sheet metal and liquid mercury metal
Devil Fish (1937), sheet metal, bolts and paint; first piece made from a model
1939 New York World's Fair (maquette) (1938), sheet metal, wire, wood, string and paint
Necklace (c. 1938), brass wire, glass and mirror
Sphere Pierced by Cylinders (1939), wire and paint; the first of many floor-standing, lifesize "stabiles" (predating Anthony Caro's "plinthless" sculptures by two decades)
Lobster Trap and Fish Tail (1939), sheet metal, wire and paint (suspended mobile); design for the stairwell of the Museum of Modern Art, New York
Black Beast (1940), sheet metal, bolts and paint (freestanding plinthless stabile)
S-Shaped Vine (1946), sheet metal, wire and paint (suspended mobile)
Sword Plant (1947) sheet metal, wire and paint (standing mobile)
Snow Flurry (1948), sheet metal, wire and paint (suspended mobile)
Stillman House Mural (1952), View of pool at Stillman House
.125 (1957), steel plate, rods and paint
Spirale (1958), steel plate, rod and paint, 360" high; public monumental mobile for Maison de l'UNESCO, Paris
Guillotine pour huit (Guillotine for eight), (1962), at the LaM, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
Teodelapio (1962), steel plate and paint, monumental stabile, Spoleto, Italy
Sky Hooks (1962)
La Grande voile (1966), a 33-ton metal sculpture composed of five intersecting forms, four planes, and one curve. It stands tall, on the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Trois disques (1967) stainless steel plate, bolts and paint, 65' x 83' x 53', monumental stabile, Montreal Canada
Gwenfritz (1968) National Museum of American History
Spinal Column (1968), San Diego Museum of Art
La Grande Vitesse, (1969), steel plate, bolts and paint, 43' x 55' x 25', Grand Rapids, Michigan
Bent Propeller, [destroyed in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001] 1970–71, 7 World Trade Center, New York City
Peau Rouge Indiana (Red Skin Indiana) (1970), steel plate, bolts and paint, 40' x 32' x 33', Bloomington, Indiana
Reims, Croix du Sud (Reims, Cross of the South) (1970), at the LaM, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
Eagle (1971), steel plate, bolts and paint, 38'9" x 32'8" x 32'8", Olympic Sculpture Park, Seattle, Washington
White and Red Boomerang (1971), Painted metal, wire, Honolulu Museum of Art
"Four Arches" (1973), red painted steel plate, 63' tall Los Angeles, California
Stegosaurus (1973), steel plate, bolts and paint, 50' tall, Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut
Cheval Rouge (Red Horse) (1974), red painted sheet metal, at the National Gallery, Washington, D.C.
Flamingo (1974), red painted steel, at the Federal Plaza, Chicago, Illinois
Universe (1974), motorized "wallmobile", black, red, yellow, and blue painted steel, Willis Tower, Chicago, Illinois
Black Flag (1974), black painted steel, Storm King Art Center, New York State
Tripes (1974), black painted steel, Storm King Art Center
The Arch (1975), black painted steel, Storm King Art Center
The Red Feather (1975), black and red painted steel, 11' x 6'3" x 11'2", The Kentucky Center
Flying Dragon (1975), red painted steel, believed to be the final stabile personally created by Alexander Calder, Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
Untitled (1976), aluminum honeycomb, tubing and paint, 358½ x 912", National Gallery of Art Washington, D.C.
L'Araignée Rouge (The Red Spider) (1976), 15m tall, monumental sculpture, Paris La Défense France
Mountains and Clouds (1976), painted aluminum and steel, 612 inches x 900 inches, Hart Senate Office Building
Calder's set for Socrate (1976), Pivotal stage sets presented in New York on the first anniversary of Calder's death
Five Swords (1976), red painted steel, Storm King Art Center
Notes
References
Baal-Teshuva, Jacob. Alexander Calder 1898–1976. Taschen, Cologne 2002, .
Calder, Alexander. An Autobiography With Pictures. Pantheon Books, 1966,
Calder Hayes, Margaret. Three Alexander Calders: A Family Memoir. Paul S. Eriksson, 1977, .
Guerrero, Pedro E. Calder at Home. The Joyous Environment of Alexander Calder. Stewart, Tabori & Chang, New York, 1998,
Prather, Marla. Alexander Calder 1898–1976. National Gallery of Art, Washington DC, 1998, ,
Rosenthal, Mark, and Alexander S. C. Rower. The Surreal Calder. The Menil Collection, Houston, 2005,
Rower, Alexander S. C. Calder Sculpture. Universe Publishing, 1998,
Barbara Zabel, Calder's Portraits 'A New Language''' (Washington, Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2012).
Thalacker, Donald W. The Place of Art in the World of Architecture. Chelsea House Publishers, New York, 1980.
December 19, 2014. "Famous Artists Send Greeting Cards: An exhibit in New York showcases nearly 60 holiday cards from major artists", The Wall Street Journal. By Alexandra Wolfe.
Further reading
Jed Perl: Calder : the conquest of time : the early years, 1898–1940'', New York : Alfred A. Knopf, 2017,
External links
List of Alexander Calder public artworks
Calder Foundation website
Atelier Calder website
National Gallery of Art – Alexander Calder
Smithsonian holdings of artworks by Alexander Calder
Guggenheim collection Alexander Calder bio.
Alexander Calder toys at the Berkshire Museum in Pittsfield, MA
A finding aid to the Alexander Calder papers in the Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution
Guide to the Calder-Hayes Family Papers at The Bancroft Library
Calder and Braniff Airways
Braniff Flying Colors Historical Page
American abstract artists
Modern sculptors
01
1898 births
1976 deaths
American male sculptors
Lowell High School (San Francisco) alumni
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Sculptors from Connecticut
Sculptors from New York (state)
Sculptors from Pennsylvania
Art Students League of New York alumni
Stevens Institute of Technology alumni
Alumni of the Académie de la Grande Chaumière
American people of Scottish descent
People from Dauphin County, Pennsylvania
People from Pasadena, California
People from Croton-on-Hudson, New York
|
[
0.1988316774368286,
0.22194069623947144,
-0.25506582856178284,
0.3338819146156311,
0.46457821130752563,
0.9632230997085571,
-0.1891189068555832,
-0.21169957518577576,
-0.23299762606620789,
-0.6160174012184143,
-0.1244889572262764,
-0.20929862558841705,
-0.3508996069431305,
0.2658638656139374,
0.06995700299739838,
-0.394016832113266,
-0.5829806327819824,
-0.21789097785949707,
-0.25556033849716187,
0.4315754473209381,
-0.52488112449646,
-0.30264976620674133,
0.6793016195297241,
-0.2838299870491028,
-0.0799674466252327,
0.3252369165420532,
0.13431958854198456,
-0.3521546423435211,
0.08422312885522842,
0.7070435881614685,
-0.00735342176631093,
0.1562889665365219,
-0.19650596380233765,
-0.4022444486618042,
-0.4932820796966553,
-0.4381640553474426,
-0.7292720079421997,
-0.3134637773036957,
-0.40038150548934937,
0.12065529078245163,
0.15497341752052307,
-0.00970694050192833,
0.5396163463592529,
-0.14307847619056702,
-0.20338045060634613,
0.17855823040008545,
-1.7277737855911255,
0.474440336227417,
-0.7507731914520264,
0.33628973364830017,
-0.5348662734031677,
0.42153552174568176,
0.3544604182243347,
0.33477628231048584,
-0.013770338147878647,
0.3404272794723511,
-0.05316862836480141,
0.0030445039737969637,
-0.1445726454257965,
-0.8827294707298279,
0.5549077391624451,
0.24265538156032562,
0.6966134309768677,
0.017580298706889153,
-0.032793086022138596,
0.19108520448207855,
0.39871343970298767,
0.20731128752231598,
0.2709631323814392,
-0.2306876927614212,
0.10606759041547775,
0.5456792116165161,
0.0406782291829586,
0.08904393762350082,
0.15505649149417877,
-0.15359294414520264,
0.48679086565971375,
0.011966715566813946,
0.04357273876667023,
0.28650033473968506,
0.16498050093650818,
-0.39886608719825745,
0.7067956328392029,
0.73305743932724,
0.07691992074251175,
-0.14809733629226685,
-0.4795988202095032,
0.2890949845314026,
-0.148923859000206,
0.2422807514667511,
-0.1268845647573471,
-0.5837926864624023,
0.5779754519462585,
-0.10239153355360031,
0.047315701842308044,
0.08547165989875793,
0.346098393201828,
-0.09830702096223831,
0.06655463576316833,
-0.1880141645669937,
0.01610196940600872,
-0.5350503325462341,
-0.10455019772052765,
-0.48415255546569824,
0.23779886960983276,
0.16025033593177795,
-0.05250820890069008,
-0.46866294741630554,
0.07008977979421616,
0.04475351795554161,
-0.2531532645225525,
-0.13871683180332184,
0.35810670256614685,
-0.23050683736801147,
0.2549469470977783,
0.32669517397880554,
0.10846550017595291,
0.03949393704533577,
-0.23871144652366638,
-0.34272336959838867,
0.6191681623458862,
-0.20430654287338257,
-0.31845661997795105,
-0.5668225884437561,
-0.45055320858955383,
-0.1962364912033081,
0.16296237707138062,
0.7155459523200989,
-0.8333204388618469,
-0.2840825319290161,
-0.12590357661247253,
0.490925133228302,
-0.08383995294570923,
-0.4225086569786072,
-0.08145180344581604,
-0.6127259135246277,
-0.01677524670958519,
-0.5429137349128723,
-0.08445524424314499,
0.5498241186141968,
-0.4828304648399353,
-0.3832399547100067,
-0.07207217067480087,
0.00529217766597867,
0.33873945474624634,
-0.23088610172271729,
0.7755803465843201,
-0.09121314436197281,
-0.13328894972801208,
-0.3109414577484131,
-0.32805463671684265,
-0.16169193387031555,
-0.034462179988622665,
-0.18545693159103394,
0.3455333709716797,
0.14541146159172058,
0.5206125974655151,
0.28469765186309814,
0.17692990601062775,
-0.354247510433197,
0.6223430633544922,
0.27150142192840576,
-0.20564502477645874,
0.022207483649253845,
0.3235470652580261,
-0.25399401783943176,
0.441959023475647,
-0.04946345090866089,
-0.5200883150100708,
0.21166664361953735,
0.2431545853614807,
-0.12909476459026337,
0.4626588225364685,
0.1605428159236908,
-0.8641842007637024,
0.0009083644254133105,
0.41413331031799316,
0.13331957161426544,
0.5566051602363586,
-0.025342732667922974,
-0.45185497403144836,
-0.3334195911884308,
0.3634023666381836,
0.5074801445007324,
0.4158366322517395,
-0.5486712455749512,
0.010542242787778378,
-0.14417709410190582,
0.055795490741729736,
-0.034400660544633865,
-0.47976112365722656,
-0.46535399556159973,
-0.2988000810146332,
-0.4014045000076294,
1.0447258949279785,
-0.3245484232902527,
-0.28749626874923706,
0.21901576220989227,
0.49729040265083313,
0.6421430110931396,
-0.005618713330477476,
-0.28165334463119507,
0.049173031002283096,
-0.6147040724754333,
0.4299975335597992,
0.029256364330649376,
0.43976059556007385,
-0.06488718837499619,
0.02637958899140358,
0.0880182608962059,
0.1670890599489212,
-1.0040079355239868,
0.6882972121238708,
0.040979400277137756,
-0.5235099196434021,
-0.34928756952285767,
-0.7376844882965088,
0.07729227095842361,
-0.7904612421989441,
0.05355984717607498,
0.69696044921875,
0.5790179371833801,
-0.5069767236709595,
0.44837847352027893,
0.1345721334218979,
0.5706233382225037,
0.07288647443056107,
-0.5268347263336182,
-0.12359218299388885,
0.15855750441551208,
0.12199515849351883,
0.1561376303434372,
-0.27738749980926514,
-0.5620926022529602,
0.665278971195221,
0.036780890077352524,
0.6900162696838379,
-0.27339059114456177,
0.8089371919631958,
-0.26578250527381897,
0.20301061868667603,
0.3506568372249603,
-0.4985525608062744,
-0.09430836141109467,
0.1417550891637802,
0.05357035994529724,
0.06763681024312973,
-0.09912777692079544,
-0.002545843366533518,
0.028706740587949753,
-0.8790575861930847,
0.3491646945476532,
0.4612070322036743,
0.7501932382583618,
-0.08504661917686462,
0.07165148854255676,
0.0989484116435051,
-0.13027647137641907,
0.6710877418518066,
0.022830722853541374,
0.33189088106155396,
-0.19362933933734894,
0.38989925384521484,
0.27514517307281494,
-0.01605641469359398,
-0.770130455493927,
-0.021142538636922836,
-0.469491183757782,
-0.019533807411789894,
0.771392285823822,
0.853310763835907,
0.08899910002946854,
-0.04864930734038353,
0.4125139117240906,
0.0944346934556961,
-0.22730104625225067,
0.04600522667169571,
0.2050965130329132,
-0.4220939576625824,
-0.3740069568157196,
0.22429749369621277,
0.8865442276000977,
-0.23199418187141418,
-0.7890204787254333,
0.7812156677246094,
-0.12310177087783813,
-0.04601755738258362,
-0.022253282368183136,
-0.047054532915353775,
0.13320524990558624,
-0.5212886929512024,
0.7742500901222229,
0.1955670416355133,
0.020244015380740166,
-0.15301723778247833,
0.9060906767845154,
-0.2049853652715683,
-0.4145129323005676,
0.12005320936441422,
0.06481579691171646,
-0.23672717809677124,
0.24254761636257172,
0.030056731775403023,
-0.09989641606807709,
0.36348387598991394,
0.33516690135002136,
0.10001053661108017,
0.40027347207069397,
-5.748246192932129,
0.20104621350765228,
0.04679742455482483,
-0.07258082926273346,
-0.30809423327445984,
0.5024850964546204,
0.2561561167240143,
0.5713363289833069,
0.34370994567871094,
-0.6514914631843567,
0.31706327199935913,
-0.2809607982635498,
-0.1491490751504898,
0.41185182332992554,
0.3715725243091583,
0.175751194357872,
0.13393241167068481,
-0.037617530673742294,
-0.1484258472919464,
0.07865531742572784,
-0.11894220113754272,
-0.853868842124939,
-0.11201220005750656,
0.44922053813934326,
-0.024935077875852585,
-0.4811719059944153,
-0.6200070381164551,
-0.3327057659626007,
-0.321979284286499,
-0.0864144116640091,
-0.1283683180809021,
-0.4545729458332062,
-0.5563714504241943,
-0.09934762120246887,
0.5250985622406006,
0.25559836626052856,
0.7176563143730164,
-0.2997487783432007,
0.014627574943006039,
-0.33376437425613403,
0.181130051612854,
0.15771569311618805,
-0.24071726202964783,
0.3974151909351349,
0.7809766530990601,
-0.8528366684913635,
-0.1694866418838501,
0.4822813868522644,
-0.29162541031837463,
-0.06907341629266739,
0.3848441541194916,
0.6759701371192932,
0.3721594214439392,
-0.5274026393890381,
0.23678280413150787,
0.5709050893783569,
-0.11461526155471802,
-0.14991247653961182,
-0.6605746746063232,
0.26139357686042786,
0.24112577736377716,
0.14120648801326752,
-0.10532095283269882,
0.10431114584207535,
-0.07455288618803024,
-0.25810205936431885,
0.1043277382850647,
0.05059374123811722,
0.03254736587405205,
0.1790386438369751,
0.32630085945129395,
1.1729191541671753,
-0.12741687893867493,
-1.3576234579086304,
-0.06415507197380066,
0.1869150549173355,
0.777449369430542,
-0.16653625667095184,
-0.21417281031608582,
0.15951618552207947,
-0.5659794807434082,
-0.3737703263759613,
-0.444710373878479,
0.6557401418685913,
0.21211491525173187,
0.2061438411474228,
-0.637077271938324,
0.2408629208803177,
-0.46724504232406616,
0.1686123013496399,
0.9634112119674683,
0.19649462401866913,
0.18573309481143951,
-0.5075689554214478,
0.6150282621383667,
-0.13012808561325073,
-0.028037475422024727,
0.2864437401294708,
0.3572064936161041,
0.576169490814209,
-0.01435503177344799,
0.17257417738437653,
-0.5705792903900146,
-0.1817350536584854,
-0.060663025826215744,
-0.009185786359012127,
-0.33160024881362915,
0.5998343825340271,
0.5073608756065369,
0.06620455533266068,
-0.2941890358924866,
0.19653822481632233,
-0.075655996799469,
-0.5411598682403564,
0.3204666078090668,
0.10621839016675949,
0.058868445456027985,
0.3875468075275421,
0.5164026618003845,
-0.3194436728954315,
-0.2961015999317169,
0.6611053347587585,
-0.2815331518650055,
-0.25925639271736145,
0.16039560735225677,
0.0056633963249623775,
-0.24117398262023926,
0.09027519077062607,
-0.06695593893527985,
-0.04973745718598366,
0.20043595135211945,
1.0470308065414429,
-0.3685533404350281,
0.3758239448070526,
0.13016963005065918,
0.17264960706233978,
-0.024188382551074028,
-0.41678884625434875,
-0.12454557418823242,
-0.15081802010536194,
0.4178512394428253,
-0.09418033063411713,
0.44227540493011475,
-0.06178969144821167,
0.11332093179225922,
0.1534423977136612,
-0.19869130849838257,
0.27125313878059387,
0.07946373522281647,
0.23354920744895935,
-0.1437324583530426,
-0.20824657380580902,
0.11602462828159332,
-0.3573179244995117,
-0.2992980182170868,
-0.007790606468915939,
-0.5830481052398682,
-0.6509026288986206,
-0.0067117889411747456,
0.03927527368068695,
0.1735866367816925,
0.3238286077976227,
-1.1652774810791016,
-0.8100860714912415,
-0.6329469084739685,
0.03171009197831154,
-0.355310320854187,
-0.46228495240211487,
-0.16458594799041748,
0.01352158933877945,
0.19341404736042023,
-0.8864582180976868,
0.056382957845926285,
-0.5519291162490845,
0.09870104491710663,
-0.08817604184150696,
-0.6649401187896729,
-0.49313607811927795,
-0.1332523673772812,
-0.4110731780529022,
-0.034171655774116516,
0.3161371052265167,
0.03970218077301979,
0.07428131997585297,
0.22991731762886047,
-0.4109794795513153,
-0.43698763847351074,
0.2670457363128662,
0.021011915057897568,
0.2896791696548462,
-0.436951607465744,
-0.016694316640496254,
0.3714372515678406,
0.007230950053781271,
-0.048875924199819565,
0.06076989322900772,
0.019885636866092682,
0.32051876187324524,
-0.762824296951294,
-0.1541425883769989,
-0.5149041414260864,
-0.30287250876426697,
-0.9139276146888733,
-0.37959060072898865,
0.2994247376918793,
-0.48017531633377075,
0.06838209927082062,
0.20506924390792847,
0.2519127428531647,
0.3538692891597748,
-0.6750761866569519,
-0.20167484879493713,
-0.37143486738204956,
-0.16483618319034576,
-0.5590631365776062,
0.6237969398498535,
-0.1051773726940155,
-0.3167823553085327,
-0.6168602108955383,
0.03701357543468475,
-0.18355277180671692,
0.400048166513443,
-0.5235646367073059,
-0.2431543916463852,
-0.3467835783958435,
0.19357161223888397,
-0.2038993537425995,
0.27411696314811707,
0.3554547131061554,
-0.28446534276008606,
-0.540543794631958,
-0.05068187788128853,
-0.366834819316864,
0.07898113876581192,
-0.08067172020673752,
-0.18641884624958038,
0.27980837225914,
-0.09790875762701035,
-0.6480008363723755,
0.6314945816993713,
0.3866071105003357,
0.29098910093307495,
-0.05519954115152359,
0.4187021255493164,
0.3180602192878723,
0.49334168434143066,
0.3016766607761383,
-0.32544389367103577,
-0.3191995918750763,
0.1487138569355011,
0.2615419626235962,
-0.3666274845600128,
-0.48156657814979553,
-0.4062947630882263,
0.11956089735031128,
-0.46700233221054077,
0.3063652217388153,
0.0630858987569809,
0.08619436621665955,
-0.30834683775901794,
-0.0589713491499424,
0.4558755159378052,
-0.24127858877182007,
-0.2692282795906067,
-0.42685577273368835,
0.51767498254776,
0.1222362220287323,
0.03996669128537178,
0.6056596636772156,
-0.40662863850593567,
0.9820994138717651,
0.5446925163269043,
0.09608009457588196,
0.43144917488098145,
-1.0315066576004028,
0.1877913475036621,
0.08504490554332733,
0.1767980307340622,
0.17328403890132904,
-0.7674983143806458,
-0.7415053844451904,
0.5565851926803589,
-0.028350427746772766,
-0.4064450263977051,
0.03344862535595894,
-0.4927259385585785,
0.07890962809324265,
-0.4135015904903412,
-0.09257545322179794,
0.07821167260408401,
-0.34059596061706543,
0.35051336884498596,
-0.19947366416454315,
0.02075321041047573,
-0.44954004883766174,
0.4460446238517761,
0.04877564683556557,
0.5498389005661011,
-0.10205075889825821,
0.11403006315231323,
-0.5934664011001587,
0.42447972297668457,
0.03670967370271683,
-0.6105509400367737,
-0.3065118193626404,
-0.21283870935440063,
0.13759344816207886,
-0.3794926702976227,
-0.13985419273376465,
0.12983107566833496,
0.2449186146259308,
-0.16259148716926575,
-0.13655704259872437,
0.7214577198028564,
-0.6911810636520386,
-0.12009092420339584,
0.5283240675926208,
-0.08125215768814087,
-0.3745570778846741,
0.3756099343299866,
-0.6256493926048279,
0.11423122137784958,
0.21948955953121185,
-0.9051233530044556,
0.29082217812538147,
0.01472473330795765,
0.1354500949382782,
0.2905082404613495,
-0.2197357714176178,
0.9108866453170776,
0.5646814107894897,
-0.29122093319892883,
-0.27655285596847534,
0.5745740532875061,
0.22578942775726318,
-0.1698431670665741,
0.07040376961231232,
-0.6866447329521179,
-0.2675777077674866,
-0.11580676585435867,
-0.47092223167419434,
0.3870237469673157,
0.1390826255083084,
0.24151329696178436,
-0.3197517693042755,
-0.0022454916033893824,
0.4020633101463318,
1.2489919662475586,
-0.3675447106361389,
0.4045218527317047,
0.5795955061912537,
-0.2706798315048218,
-0.06961718946695328,
-0.16019847989082336,
-0.05550314486026764,
-0.4801134765148163,
0.5418902635574341,
-0.06254410743713379,
0.0739414244890213,
0.4866154193878174,
-0.09956411272287369,
0.28467488288879395,
0.7987555265426636,
-0.7632372379302979,
-0.26336127519607544,
0.26397642493247986,
0.11335813999176025,
-0.7329782247543335,
0.2960137128829956,
-0.4024909734725952,
0.08933915197849274,
0.7143381237983704,
-0.4023420810699463,
0.664964497089386,
0.07119031995534897,
0.8849891424179077,
0.40022584795951843,
0.4613163471221924,
-0.2516530752182007,
0.1753905713558197,
-0.4902108907699585,
-0.15876491367816925,
-0.3595247268676758,
0.04195893555879593,
-0.3343092203140259,
-0.4647361934185028,
0.464523583650589,
0.3941604793071747,
0.09883282333612442,
0.23044338822364807,
0.41849491000175476,
-0.23093345761299133,
0.1007535308599472,
0.5500906705856323,
-0.11503679305315018,
-0.30994150042533875,
-0.45007792115211487,
0.034013595432043076,
0.039114776998758316,
0.012163061648607254,
0.14238899946212769,
0.2119942009449005,
0.6504424214363098,
-0.2763572335243225,
-0.02867325022816658,
0.1953982263803482,
0.048629287630319595,
-0.412746399641037,
-0.42113929986953735,
0.506128191947937,
-0.07040712982416153,
-0.6906446218490601,
-0.2909053564071655,
0.287154883146286,
-0.4257066249847412,
0.404240220785141,
0.44088783860206604,
-0.20811529457569122,
0.2536500096321106,
-1.0173417329788208,
0.4287204146385193,
-0.17938755452632904,
0.06034838780760765,
0.25542792677879333,
-0.5672677159309387,
0.2523854374885559,
0.09943999350070953,
-0.8307543396949768,
0.2514241635799408,
0.6259727478027344,
-0.1203097328543663,
0.2526487410068512,
-0.4072737991809845,
0.12188128381967545,
-0.4833430051803589,
-0.456521600484848,
0.24622122943401337,
0.4456048011779785,
0.2526039779186249,
-0.8072444200515747,
0.37002503871917725,
0.44368454813957214,
-0.23964759707450867,
-0.017698882147669792,
0.089431032538414,
0.3917941749095917,
-0.4780173599720001,
-0.34193992614746094,
0.26452207565307617,
0.35932862758636475,
0.22905832529067993,
0.05249880999326706,
0.32326361536979675,
-0.3606325089931488,
-0.13158851861953735,
-0.3327823579311371,
-0.0013732635416090488,
-0.692490816116333,
0.23567847907543182,
0.23738513886928558
] |
213219
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Chinese%20immigration%20to%20Canada
|
History of Chinese immigration to Canada
|
There has been a significant history of Chinese immigration to Canada, with the first settlement of Chinese people in Canada being in the 1780s. The major periods of Chinese immigration would take place from 1858 to 1923 and 1947 to the present day, reflecting changes in the Canadian government's immigration policy.
Chinese immigrants were originally considered an expendable source of cheap labour due to their economic depression and acceptance of death from Canadian employers. Between 1880 and 1885, the primary work for Chinese labourers in Canada was on the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR).
Nootka Sound, 1770s
In 1788, some 120 Chinese contract labourers arrived at Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island. British fur trader John Meares recruited an initial group of 50 sailors and artisans from Canton (Guangzhou) and Macao, China, hoping to build a trading post and encourage trade in sea otter pelts between Nootka Sound and Canton. At Nootka Sound, the Chinese workers built a dockyard, a fort, and a sailing ship, named the North West America. Regarding this journey and the future prospects of Chinese settlement in colonial North America, Meares wrote:
The next year, Meares had another 70 Chinese brought in from Canton. However, shortly after the arrival of this second group, the settlement was seized by the Spanish in what became known as the Nootka Crisis. Seeking to establish a trade monopoly on the West Coast, the Spanish imprisoned the Chinese men. It is unclear what became of them, but likely some returned to China while others were put to work in a nearby mine and later taken to Mexico. No other Chinese people are known to have arrived in western North America until the gold rush of the 1850s.
Gold Rush, 1858
The Chinese first appeared in large numbers in the Colony of Vancouver Island in 1858 as part of a huge migration from California during the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in the newly declared Colony of British Columbia. Although the first wave arrived in May from California, news of the gold rush eventually attracted many Chinese from China. As result, Barkerville, British Columbia—located in the Cariboo—became Canada's first Chinese community, where more than half of the town's population was estimated to be Chinese. Several other BC towns also had significant Chinatowns, including Richfield, Stanley, Van Winkle, Quesnellemouthe (modern-day Quesnel), Antler, and Quesnelle Forks.
In the goldfields, Chinese mining techniques and knowledge turned in to be better than those of other miners. They employed hydraulic techniques, such as the use of 'rockers', and a technique whereby blankets were used to filter alluvial sand and then burned, resulting in the gold melting into lumps in the fire. In the Fraser Canyon, Chinese miners stayed on long after all others had left for the Cariboo Gold Rush or other goldfields elsewhere in BC or the United States. They continued hydraulic mining and farming, and owned the majority of land in the Fraser and Thompson canyons for many years afterward.
There was no shortage of successful Chinese miners: by 1860, the Chinese population of Vancouver Island and British Columbia was estimated to be 7,000. Moreover, Lillooet's Chinatown lasted until the 1930s.
Immigration for the railway, 1871–82
When British Columbia agreed to join Confederation in 1871, one of its conditions was that the Dominion government build a railway linking BC to Eastern Canada within 10 years. British Columbian politicians and their electorate agitated for a settlement-immigration program for workers from the British Isles to provide this railway labor; however, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, along with investors and other Canadian politicians, said such would be too expensive.
In opposition, however, the Workingmen's Protective Association was established in 1878 in Victoria with the following purpose:The objects of this society shall be the mutual protection of the working classes of British Columbia against the great influx of Chinese; to use all legitimate means for the suppression of their immigration; to assist each other in the obtaining of employment, and to devise means for the amelioration of the condition of the working classes of the Province in general.Insisting that the project cut costs by employing Chinese workers to build the railway, Prime Minister MacDonald told Parliament in 1882: "It is simply a question of alternatives: either you must have this labour or you can't have the railway."
In 1880, Andrew Onderdonk—an American who was one of the main construction contractors in British Columbia for the Canadian Pacific Railway—originally recruited Chinese laborers from California. When most of them deserted the railway workings for the more lucrative goldfields, Onderdonk and his agents signed several agreements with Chinese contractors in China's Guangdong province and Taiwan, as well as via Chinese companies in Victoria. These Chinese railway workers would be hired for the 200 miles of the CPR considered to be among the more difficult segments of the projected railway, particularly the area that goes through the Fraser Canyon.
Chinese-Canadian labor was characterized by low wages (usually receiving less than 50% of what Caucasian workers were paid for the same work) and high levels of volatility. Through Onderdonk's contracts, more than 5,000 laborers were sent as "guest workers" from China by ship, in addition to over 7,000 Chinese railway workers from California whom Onderdonk also recruited. These two groups of workers, who were willing to accept $1 a day for their labor, were the main force for the building of Onderdonk's 7% of the railway's mileage.
Between 1880 and 1885, 17,000 Chinese laborers completed the British Columbia section of the CPR, with more than 700 perishing due to appalling working conditions. As was the case with non-Chinese workers, some of the laborers fell ill during construction, or died while planting explosives or in other construction accidents.
As with railway workers on other parts of the line in the Prairies and Northern Ontario, most of the Chinese workers lived in canvas tents. These tents were often unsafe and did not provide adequate protection against falling rocks or severe weather in areas of steep terrain. Such tents were typical of working-class accommodations on the frontier for all immigrant workers although (non-Chinese) foremen, shift bosses, and trained railwaymen recruited from the UK were housed in sleeping cars and railway-built houses in Yale and the other railway towns. Chinese railway workers also established transient Chinatowns along the rail line, with housing at the largest consisting of log-houses half dug into the ground, which was a common housing style for natives as well as other frontier settlers, because of the insulating effect of the ground in an area of extreme temperatures.
Largely because of the Trans-Canada railway, Chinese communities developed across the nation, with the vast majority of Chinese Canadians lived in British Columbia during the 1880s.
After completion of the CPR, 1885–1947
From the completion of the CPR to the end of the Exclusion Era (1923–1947), Chinese in Canada lived in mainly a "bachelors of the backpack society" since most Chinese families could not pay the expensive head tax to send their daughters to Canada. Chinese settlers began moving eastward after the completion of the CPR, although Chinese numbers in BC continued to grow.
As with many other groups of immigrants, the Chinese initially found it hard to adjust and assimilate into life in Canada. As a result, they formed ethnic enclaves known as "Chinatowns" where they could live alongside fellow Chinese immigrants, with the vast majority of Chinese Canadians lived in BC during the 1880s. Originally, the Chinese were often stereotyped as , meaning temporary. Especially during the 19th century, the white society in British Columbia perceived the Chinese as people who could not be assimilated. In 1885, the Qing Dynasty Consul General Huang Zunxian told a Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration:[I]t is charged that the Chinese do not emigrate to foreign countries to remain, but only to earn a sum of money and return to their homes in China. It is only about thirty years since our people commenced emigrating to other lands. A large number have gone to the Straits' Settlements, Manila, Cochin China, and the West India Islands, and are permanently settled there with their families. In Cuba, fully seventy-five percent have married native women and adopted those Islands as their future homes. Many of those living in the Sandwich Islands have done the same.... You must recollect that the Chinese immigrant coming to this country is denied all the rights and privileges extended to others in the way of citizenship; the laws compel them to remain aliens. I know a great many Chinese will be glad to remain here permanently with their families if they are allowed to be naturalized and can enjoy privileges and rights.By 1886, the population of Victoria Chinatown had increased tenfold from the completion of the CPR to over 17,000; and at the turn of the 20th century, there were 17,312 Chinese settlers in Canada. By the 1940s, almost 50% of the Chinese-Canadian population lived on the West Coast. Until the 1960s, there were no significant populations of Chinese in any other province.
Immigration Acts and Exclusion Era, 1885–1947
In 1885, the Government of Canada passed The Chinese Immigration Act, 1885, levying a 'Head Tax' of $50 on any Chinese coming to Canada, thereby making Chinese people the only ethnic group to pay a tax in order to enter Canada. What's more is that, well before the 1885 Act, a series of Chinese tax acts were passed in British Columbia. After the 1885 legislation failed to deter Chinese immigration, the Canadian government passed the Chinese Immigration Act, 1900 to increase the tax to $100. The Chinese had no choice but to pay it even though it was worth two years' salary of a railway worker.
Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, 1885
Soon afterwards, Chinese merchants among larger Chinese communities formed the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (CCBA), which was registered as a charitable organization in August 1884, but effectively served as an "internal administrative institution" in the Chinese-Canadian community. The CCBA opened their first branch in Victoria in 1885 and a second in Vancouver in 1895. The Association was mandatory for all Chinese in the area to join and would do everything from representing members in legal disputes to sending the remains of a members who died back to their ancestral homelands in China.
Huang Zunxian, the Chinese Consulate in San-Francisco, played an integral role in the establishment of CCBA:Now the Honorable Huang Zun Xian permitted to forward our case to the Chinese Ambassador to England to send again an official protest to the British Government. He also instructed that we raise funds, firstly, to hire lawyers for the case, and secondly, to be prepared for the establishment of The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association. This Chinese representative body could, therefore, address all the issues concerning the Westerners, and do benevolence by taking care of the sick and the poor Chinese.With the large extent of discriminatory legislation against Chinese immigrants, CCBA worked actively in seeking external support, for instance, by sending letters to the Chinese Ambassador to England and the Chinese Foreign Minister, as well as corresponding with the Chinese Consul in San-Francisco. CCBA would also send petitions to local administrations. In 1909, in response to the City of Victoria's policy of segregating Chinese children in public schools, CCBA constructed the Chinese Public School.
In addition, during the early 20th century, fraternal-political associations such as the Guomindang and the Freemasons were involved in Chinatown politics and community issues, adjudicating disputes within the community and speaking for the community to the non-Chinese world. After legislation in 1896 that stripped Chinese of voting rights in municipal elections in BC, Chinese people in BC became completely disenfranchised. The electors list in federal elections came from the provincial electors list, and the provincial ones came from the municipal one.
Royal Commission and Chinese professions, 1902–07
In 1902, the federal government appointed a Royal Commission on Chinese and Japanese Immigration, which concluded that "the Chinese are more unhealthy as a class than the same class of white people," and that they were "unfit for full citizenship...obnoxious to a free community and dangerous to the state." Through the Chinese Immigration Act, 1903, the Government would further increase the landing fees to $500 (equivalent to CA$10,336.27 in 2021) following demand by B.C. politicians. Following the 1903 legislation of $500, the number of Chinese who paid the fee in the first fiscal year dropped from 4,719 to 8.
In addition to federal legislation, municipal ordinances restricted employment opportunities. In BC, Chinese professionals were prohibited from practicing such professions as law, pharmacy, and accountancy. During the next 40 years after 1885, following the completion of the CPR, Chinese persons became involved in the labour behind an industrializing economy. With legislation banning Chinese from many professions, Chinese entered those that non-Chinese Canadians did not want to do, such as laundry shops or salmon processing. Skilled or semi-skilled, Chinese Canadians laboured in British Columbia sawmills and canneries; others became market gardeners or grocers, pedlars, shopkeepers, and restaurateurs. A "credit-ticket" system evolved in this time whereby Chinese lenders in China or North America would agree to pay the travel expenses of a migrant who was then bound to the lender until the debt was repaid, despite the fact that such contracts would not be legally enforceable in Canada. Chinese workers opened grocery stores and restaurants that served the whole population, including non-Chinese, and Chinese cooks became the mainstay in the restaurant and hotel industries as well as in private service. Chinese success at market gardening led to a continuing prominent role in the produce industry in British Columbia. Ethnic discrimination was rampant during these times, as evidenced by large scale Anti-Asian Riots in Vancouver in 1907.
Exclusion Act, 1923
The Chinese Immigration Act, 1923, better known as the Chinese Exclusion Act, replaced prohibitive fees with an outright ban on Chinese immigration to Canada with the exceptions of merchants, diplomats, students, and "special circumstances" cases. (Ethnic Chinese people with British nationality were also restricted from entering Canada.) The Chinese who entered Canada prior to 1924 had to register with the local authorities and could leave Canada only for two years or less.
Just before the enactment of the Exclusion Act, the Chinese Association of Canada went to Ottawa to lobby against the bill. Since the Act went into effect on 1 July 1923, Chinese people at the time referred to Dominion Day as "Humiliation Day" and refused to celebrate Dominion Day until after the act was repealed in 1947. Vancouver's Chinatown during the exclusion era became a thriving economic and social destination that was home to many Chinese Canadians on the West Coast.
The discriminatory laws also gave way to a gender imbalance among Chinese immigrants. Primarily due to the head tax, the cost of bringing a dependent, such as a wife or aged parents, to Canada became prohibitive. As such, Chinese men typically came alone, living as bachelors in Canada. In 1886, there were only 119 females among a total population of 1680; in 1931, only 3,648 were women among a total Chinese population of 46,519. A survey done in 1922 by Republican China's Overseas Chinese Bureau showed that, among Victoria Chinatown's whole population of 3,681, only 456 were females. In the late 1920s, it was estimated that there were only 5 married Chinese women in Calgary and 6 in Edmonton.
World War II, 1939–46
After Canada entered World War II on 10 September 1939, Chinese communities greatly contributed to Canada's war effort, mainly in an attempt to persuade Canada to intervene against Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War, which had started in 1937 (although Canada did not declare war on Japan until the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941). The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association requested its members to purchase Canadian and Chinese war bonds and to boycott Japanese goods.
Many Chinese also enlisted in the Canadian forces, despite Ottawa and the BC government being unwilling to send Chinese-Canadian recruits into action, since they did not want Chinese to ask for enfranchisement after the war. However, with 90,000 British troops captured in the Battles of Malaya and Singapore in February 1942, Ottawa decided to send Chinese-Canadian forces in as spies to train the local guerrillas to resist the Japanese Imperial Forces in 1944. These spies were nevertheless little more than a token gesture, as the outcome of World War II had been more or less decided by that time.
Post-war period, 1947–99
With the Exclusion Act of 1923 being repealed in 1947, the majority of immigrants in Canada emigrated from the People's Republic of China, including Hong Kong, and the Republic of China (Taiwan). Other Chinese immigrants have come from South Asia, Southeast Asia, South Africa, the Caribbean, and South America. From 1947 to the early 1970s, Chinese immigrants to Canada came mostly from Hong Kong, Taiwan, or Southeast Asia. Also following the abolishment of the Exclusion Act, Chinese-Canadians gained the vote federally and provincially in 1947.
The experiences of the Holocaust made racial discrimination against Chinese-Canadians unacceptable in Canada, at least from the standpoint of government policy. With the aim of defeating Nazism and its extreme discrimination, Canada could not maintain its racial legislation without looking hypocritical. Moreover, with Chinese Canadian contributions in World War II, and also because the anti-Chinese legislation violated the UN Charter, the government of Canada repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act and gave Chinese Canadians full citizenship rights in 1947. Chinese immigration, still, was limited only to the spouse of a Chinese who had Canadian citizenship and his dependants.
After the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in October 1949 and its support for the communist North in the Korean War, Chinese in Canada faced another wave of resentment, as Chinese were viewed as communist agents from the PRC. Moreover, those from mainland China who were eligible in the family reunification program had to visit the Canadian High Commission in Hong Kong, as Canada and the PRC did not have diplomatic relations until 1970.
Chinese Adjustment Statement Program and other policies, 1960–73
In 1959, the Department of Citizenship and Immigration discovered a problem with immigration papers used by Chinese immigrants to enter Canada, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police were brought in to investigate. Evidently, some Chinese had been entering Canada by purchasing real or fake birth certificates of Chinese-Canadian children bought and sold in Hong Kong. These children carrying false identity papers were referred to as paper sons. In response, Minister of Citizenship and Immigration Ellen Fairclough announced the "Chinese Adjustment Statement Program" on 9 June 1960, which granted amnesty for paper sons or daughters if they confessed to the government. As a result, about 12,000 paper sons came forward, until the amnesty period ended in October 1973.
Independent Chinese immigration in Canada came after Canada eliminated race and the "place of origin" section from its immigration policy in 1967. Four years later, in 1971, an official policy of multiculturalism was implemented in efforts to tackle institutional racism.
Late 1970s
A turning point for Chinese in Canada was an incident in September 1979 involving a W5 feature report, which stated that foreign Chinese were taking away opportunities from Canadian citizens for university educations. In response, Chinese communities nationwide united to fight anti-Chinese sentiments.
The report, suggesting that there were 100,000 foreign students, featured a girl complaining that her high marks had not allowed her into the University of Toronto's pharmacy program because seats had been taken up by foreign students.
The data used in the report, however, proved inaccurate. The Canadian Bureau for International Education revealed that there were only 55,000 foreign students in Canada at all levels of education, and only 20,000 full-time foreign university students. Historian Anthony B. Chan devoted an entire chapter of his 1983 book Gold Mountain to the incident, and found that, contrary to the claims of the prospective pharmacy student, there were no foreign students in Toronto's program that year. Chan emphasized the anger that the Chinese-Canadian community had about the images of anonymous Chinese people in the feature was because they felt the "implication was that all students of Chinese origin were foreigners, and that Canadian taxpayers were subsidizing Chinese students—regardless of citizenship."
Chinese communities nationwide staged protests against CTV Television, the network that airs W5. Initially, CTV would only offer a "statement of regret" but the protests continued until an apology was made in 1980. Network executive Murray Chercover acknowledged the inaccuracy of a great deal of the program's information, adding that the network "sincerely apologize[s] for the fact Chinese-Canadians were depicted as foreigners, and for whatever distress this stereotyping may have caused them in the context of our multicultural society." The protesters met in Toronto in 1980 and agreed to form the Chinese Canadian National Council (CCNC) to better represent Chinese Canadians on a national level.
1980s–90s
The 1980s saw movement of Chinese in Canada from the ethnic enclaves of Chinatowns to outlying suburbs of major Canadian cities. This movement was seen by some as changing the fabric of some communities with the establishment of new ethnic enclaves, commercial areas, and use of Chinese-language signage. Carole Bell, Deputy Mayor of Markham, Ontario, expressed that the overwhelming Chinese presence in the city was causing other residents to move out of Markham. Additionally during the 1980s, local communities in Toronto and Vancouver have accused the Chinese immigrants for hyperinflating property prices.
During the mid-1980s and early 1990s, Canada's recession and growth of the Chinese economy resulted in a shift in Chinese migration in Canada. Attracted by the employment opportunities back home, some newer immigrants moved back, with many retaining their Canadian citizenship. This resulted in the phenomenon of astronaut families, whereby the husband, being the money-earner, would only visit Canada once or twice a year, usually during December or the summer months, but the rest of his family would live in Canada.
The Chinese community also sought redress for past injustices done against them. Since the early 1980s, there has been a campaign to redress the Head Tax paid by Chinese entering Canada from 1885 to 1923, led by the CCNC. However, the movement did not gather enough support to be noticed by the government until the 1990s. Still, the government was largely resistant to the calls of apologizing and refunding the head tax to the payers or their descendants. Canadian courts also ruled that while the government had no legal obligation to redress the head tax, it had a moral obligation to do so. The Liberal governments of the 1990s adopted the position of "no apology, no compensation" as the basis of negotiating with the Chinese groups and were criticized for stonewalling the Chinese community.
Immigrants from Hong Kong, late 1990s
With the political uncertainties as Hong Kong headed towards 1997, many residents of Hong Kong chose to immigrate to Canada, as it was relatively easier for them to enter the country due to their Commonwealth of Nations connections. It was also relatively easier for Hong Kongers to migrate to Canada than to the US, as the latter set fixed quotas for different nationalities, while Canada ran on a "points" system, allowing immigrants to arrive if they have desirable factors such as graduate degrees, training, funds to start new businesses and language abilities.
According to statistics compiled by the Canadian Consulate in Hong Kong, from 1991 to 1996, "about 30,000 Hong Kongers emigrated annually to Canada, comprising over half of all Hong Kong emigration and about 20% of the total number of immigrants to Canada." The great majority of these people settled in the Toronto and Vancouver areas, as there are well-established Chinese communities in those cities. After the Handover, there was a sharp decline in immigration numbers, possibly indicating a smooth transition towards political stability. In the years to come, the unemployment and underemployment of many Hong Kong immigrants in Canada prompted a stream of returning migrants.
Immigration in the 21st century
Today, Mainland China has taken over from Hong Kong as the largest source of Chinese immigration. A great number of immigrants have been Cantonese speakers, and a disproportionate representation of Cantonese over other Chinese immigrants is prevalent in many Chinese communities in Canada. The Peoples Republic of China (PRC) has also taken over from all countries and regions as the country sending the most immigrants to Canada.
According to statistics from Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC), between 1999 and 2009 the largest number of immigrants to Canada came from the PRC. CIC statistics for 2002 showed that the Canadian immigrants from the PRC averaged well over 30,000 immigrants per year, totaling an average of 15% of all immigrants to Canada. This trend showed no sign of slowing down, with an all-time high of 42,295 reached in 2005. By 2010, 36,580 immigrants from the Philippines surpassed the 30,195 from the PRC. Filipinos retained their status as the number one immigrant group to Canada in 2011 with 34,991. The PRC lagged behind with 28,696.
Chinese-Canadians have become more involved in politics, both provincially and federally. Douglas Jung (1957–1962) not only became the first Canadian Member of Parliament (MP) of Chinese and Asian descent in the House of Commons, but also the first member of a visible minority elected to the Parliament of Canada. In 1993, Raymond Chan became the first ethnic Chinese to be appointed into the cabinet, after winning the riding of Richmond in the 1993 federal election. Many Chinese-Canadians have run for office in subsequent federal elections:
after two failed attempts, New Democratic Party candidate Olivia Chow (wife of NDP leader Jack Layton) was elected in the 2006 federal election, representing the riding of Trinity—Spadina;
Alan Lowe became the first Chinese-Canadian Mayor of Victoria BC (1999–2008);
Ida Chong was a Saanich municipal councilor in the Victoria BC region before being elected in 2001 as a BC provincial cabinet minister in Liberal Premier Gordon Campbell's administration;
the Bloc Québécois had an ethnic-Chinese candidate, May Chiu, running in the riding of LaSalle—Émard against Liberal Party leader Paul Martin during the 2006 election;
Philip Lee became the first Asian Lieutenant-Governor in Manitoba;
Norman Kwong, Canada's first professional Chinese-Canadian football player, also became Alberta's first Chinese Lieutenant-Governor.
Because of the influx of Chinese emigrants from the global diaspora, community organizations reflecting Chinese people from Cuba, India, Jamaica, Mauritius, Peru, and so on, have established a considerable presence in Canada. Immigrants from the PRC have organized into many associations. The Chinese Professionals Association of Canada (CPAC) reported having a membership of over 30,000 in 2019. In terms of education, the Chinese Canadian Historical Society of British Columbia was created in 2004 to educate the general public about Chinese people in Canada; the University of Toronto's Richard Charles Lee Canada-Hong Kong Library is a dedicated resource centre for Chinese-Canadian studies; the Toronto-based Chinese Culture and Education Society of Canada teaches Chinese and aims to develop education and cultural exchanges between Canada and China.
Apology and redress, 2004–06
As the nature of parliament headed towards a minority situation, all political parties needed votes from all sectors of the Canadian electorates. During the 2004 federal election campaign, NDP leader Jack Layton pledged to issue an apology and compensation for the Exclusion-Era head tax. After the 2006 election, the newly elected Conservative Party indicated in its Throne Speech that it would provide a formal apology and appropriate redress to families affected by racist policies of the past. It concluded a series of National Consultations across Canada in 2006, from April 21–30, in Halifax, Vancouver, Toronto, Edmonton, Montreal, and Winnipeg.
The Liberal Party, who lost the 2006 election (as the outgoing government) changed their positions and were accused of "flip-flopping" on the issue during the election campaign as well as being questioned about their sincerity. Many Chinese, particularly the surviving head-tax payers and their descendants have criticized Raymond Chan, the Chinese-Canadian cabinet minister who was left in charge of settling the matter, for compromising the Chinese community in favour of the government and misleading the public.
On 22 June 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper delivered a message of redress in the House of Commons, offering an apology in Cantonese and compensation for the head tax once paid by Chinese immigrants. Survivors or their spouses were paid approximately $20,000 CAD in compensation. Although their children will not be offered this payment, Chinese Canadian leaders like Joseph Wong regarded it as an important and significant move in Chinese Canadian history. There were about 20 people who paid the tax still alive in 2006.
The Chinese Canadian Community circa 2021
In modern Canada, Chinese Canadian immigrants tend to be treated as if they belong to a single cultural or ethnic community with common interests and common spokesmen. Nothing could be further from the truth. China, like India, is not one homogeneous nation, rather it is a federation of as many nations as make up Western Europe, each with populations in the hundreds of millions and traditionally speaking distinctive languages which, while often mutually unintelligible in speech, are mutually intelligible when written, thanks to a unique innovation made by an early Qin emperor. In the interests of nation building, the current government is hastening the demise of these languages in favour of the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. Members of each of these different nations emigrated at different times, and in numbers completely disproportionate to their relative numbers in China. So from an ethno-cultural point of view, treating all of these groups as one, called Chinese-Canadians, who somehow reflect the makeup of modern China, is analogous to treating Canadians of French, Spanish, Latin American, Portuguese and Italian heritage, as one group that reflect modern Europe. One hears the term "Han Chinese" used as a racial indicator of "true" Chinese vs Mongolian, Manchurian, Tibetan, or other subgroups of people who have inhabited or even ruled large parts of China historically. That term could be interpreted as being analogous to "Western European" when used to describe the racial groups that make up Eurasia.
The imperative to emigrate from China was different for different groups at different times, so the composition of the Canadian population of Chinese descent bears analyzing from the perspective of when they came to Canada. This will also explain how and how much Chinese Canadians as a group differ from Chinese in China.
The initial migrations (1850 - 1923) were from the poorest classes of China who were willing to accept the risk, pay the Head Tax, and put in the hard work in search of economic survival and then prosperity. In the Nineteenth Century, the poorest migratory groups lived in the farthest south of China, hence formed the emigrating classes. Those from Fujian province and south coast groups such as the Hakka migrated primarily south west to Southeast Asia, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia and Vietnam (more about them later), and even across the Indian Ocean to South Africa through British Empire connections. The group that colonized North America, both Canada and the US, during the Gold Rushes and railroad building years, were largely from rural villages in the hilly counties (the "Four Counties", Sze Yap in Wade-Giles Cantonese, Xi Yi in Pinyin Mandarin) to the west of Guangzhou (Canton), who were speakers of a sister language of Cantonese called Toi-san (Tai Shan in Pinyin). This group came to North America largely with the intent of sending money home to amass enough for a comfortable retirement, since they were quickly denied political, familial migratory, educational and economic rights in Canada. With the passage of the restrictive travel and family unification laws, the society in Canada was overwhelmingly a bachelor one interspersed with 2 year long conjugal visits if affluent enough. The relatively few women and families were still enough to establish small communities of Canadian born Chinese, and their descendants can claim up to five and six generations of being Canadian born. Toisan-ese was the primary spoken language of North American Chinatowns until well after the Second World War (1960's). One curiosity of this group is that Canadian immigration officials of the Victorian era did not realize that Chinese three syllable names start with the surname, with a generational name in the middle, and the given name at the end. So official English names were often registered backwards (eg) Wong Wai Kwong, who in Canada is known as Mr. W. W. Kwong, but in China is Mr. Wong, and belongs to the Wong family association. As well, names that were Anglicized in this era used the Wade-Giles phonetic system, with the result of names spelled Lee, Wong and Chan, instead of the Pinyin system adopted by the People's Republic of China which would Anglicize those same names as Li, Huang and Jian.
After 1947 and the loosening of restrictions to Chinese immigration, family reunification commenced and continued for the next four decades. But because of place-of-origin restrictions, immigration from China would remain limited until the immigration policy change of 1967. While the US saw the influx of Mandarin speaking Nationalist Chinese allies after the Communist victory in China in 1949, Chinese Canadians remained overwhelmingly of Toisanese descent. A few politically connected Mandarin speakers, as well as Shanghainese speakers from the business capital of China, and Cantonese speakers from the British colony of Hong Kong, came to Canada in those years, but not in as great numbers. In Canadian immigration statistics, all would be listed as simply Chinese.
In the 1960's, China rationed water to Hong Kong as it flexed its muscles to remind the UK that the lease would be up in 1997, precipitating the next chapter in Chinese immigration to Canada, but this time by urban Cantonese speakers from Hong Kong. This group was generally well educated, entrepreneurial, and more affluent, compared to the uneducated hard working labourers of a century earlier. Old downtown Toisanese Chinatowns were superseded by new suburban Cantonese speaking ones, and the affluence of the Cantonese migrants was felt in business and property development. Over a decade or two, Cantonese speakers became more numerous than Toisanese speakers, most of whose descendants had become English speakers. This was also the era of "astronaut" families, where wives and/or children were settled in Canada but businessmen stayed in Hong Kong due to more favourable business and tax laws. During the latter years of the 20th century, Cantonese speakers, despite being 5% of Chinese in China, constituted the majority of Chinese Canadians.
People of Chinese descent also immigrated to Canada after having spent many years or generations in many other countries. For example, in 1979-80, ethnic Chinese who had immigrated to Vietnam over preceding centuries were forced to flee Vietnam and tens of thousands arrived in Canada during those years as refugees known as the "boat people", not to be confused with ethnic Vietnamese refugees who came earlier after the end of the Vietnam War. During the Apartheid Era in South Africa, South Africans of Chinese descent came to Canada. Surnames from this group can sometimes be identified because the immigration officials in South Africa in bygone days registered their Anglicized names using two or all three of the Chinese names, resulting in polysyllabic surnames.
It is worth emphasizing that none of the foregoing immigrants nor their descendants ever lived in Communist China, nor under any Communist government. Most came to Canada by choice and became productive Canadians. Most of their descendants fully embraced and integrated with Canadian ethical, cultural and social mores. Historically, these Canadian Chinese were often fleeing the government of China at the time, as in the anti-Qing dynasty supporters of the nineteenth century, or refugees from Communism in 1949
The most current wave of Chinese immigration, since the turn of the century, have been Mandarin speakers who were born and raised in the People's Republic of China. It is probably redundant to point out that this most recent group has very little in common with the previously discussed groups, in fact could be treated as a completely separate ethnic group. The Anglicization of their names will use the Pinyin system, and will have Mandarin pronunciation (eg) Sung vs Song or Soong, of Jian vs Chan. However, Mandarin speakers from Taiwan, which make up yet another group of Chinese Canadians, will spell their names the same way.
In summary, there is no "Chinese Canadian" cultural entity per se, rather a rather splintered group of people who "look Chinese" from various backgrounds and histories, of which the three largest groups are largely assimilated fourth and fifth generation descendants of Toisanese speakers, first and second generation Cantonese speakers with ties to Hong Kong, and Mandarin speakers born and educated in the People's Republic of China.
It is hard to quote references as there aren't any and this is fairly common knowledge among Chinese Canadians.
See also
Chinese head tax in Canada
Chinese Immigration Act, 1923
Immigration to Canada
Chinese Canadians in British Columbia
Chinese Canadians in Ontario
Asiatic Exclusion League
Lost Years: A People's Struggle for Justice
References
Further reading
Anthony B. Chan. The Chinese in the New World Vancouver, BC: New Star, 1983.
Stephanie D. Bangarth. "'We are not asking you to open the gates for Chinese immigration': The Committee for the Repeal of the Chinese Immigration Act and Early Human Rights Activism in Canada." Canadian Historical Review 84, 3 (September 2003): 395–442.
Historica Canada. "Nitro." Heritage Minutes.
Hoong, Ng Weng. 2013 November 27. "New B.C. book unearths Chinese labourers' secret role in First World War." The Georgia Straight.
Peter S. Li. Chinese in Canada (Second Edition). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Peter S. Li. "Chinese." Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontario, 1999.
Janet Lum. "Recognition and the Toronto Chinese Community" in Reluctant Adversaries: Canada and the People's Republic of China, 1949-1970. Edited by Paul M. Evans and B. Michael Frolic, 217–239. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, 1991. (It is a discussion on the Toronto Chinese's view on Canada recognizing the PRC in 1969-1970).
James Morton. In the Sea of Sterile Mountains: The Chinese in British Columbia. Vancouver, BC: J.J. Douglas, 1974. (A thorough discussion of Chinese immigration and life in BC, railway politics and a detailed profile of the political agendas and personalities of the time)
Patricia Roy. "A white man's province : British Columbia politicians and Chinese and Japanese immigrants, 1858-1914" Vancouver : UBC Press, 1989.
Patricia Roy. "The Oriental question : Consolidating a white man's province, 1914-41" Vancouver : UBC Press, 2003.
Lloyd Sciban. Important Events in the History of the Chinese in Canada.
Wing Chung Ng. "The Chinese in Vancouver, 1945-80: The Pursuit of Identity and Power." Vancouver: UBC Press, 1999.
British Columbia from the earliest times to the present, Vol 2, Chapter XXXII - Chinese and Japanese Immigration, E.O.S. Scholefield & Frederic William Howay, S.J. Clarke Pub. Co., Vancouver, British Columbia, 1914
"Victoria Chinese Canadian Veterans Association: Veteran fighters for Canada and Chinese Canadian Citizenship." Victoria Chinatown.
External links
Lost Years
Chinese Canadian Redress
Chinese Canadian National Council
Historica's Heritage Minute video docudrama "Nitro." (Adobe Flash Player)
Library resources
Chinese Canadian Genealogy at the Vancouver Public Library
Chinese-Canadians: Profiles from a Community - Vancouver Public Library wiki
Chinese Immigration in BC - An archival collection from the UBC Library Digital Collections documenting Chinese settlement in British Columbia
Historic Chinese Language Materials in British Columbia, Asian Library and the Centre for Chinese Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver
Multicultural Canada website - includes eight full-text searchable Chinese newspapers from B.C. and Ontario, publications relating to immigration, photographs, and the records of Victoria's Chinese Benevolent Association and the Cheekungtong (Chinese Freemasons) of Victoria and Vancouver
The Early Chinese Canadians 1858-1947, Library and Archives Canada
History of Chinese Canadians
History of immigration to Canada
Political history of Canada
|
[
0.3848477900028229,
0.8039407730102539,
-0.886054277420044,
0.20882168412208557,
0.060104187577962875,
0.5661147832870483,
0.07035752385854721,
1.1372109651565552,
-0.28271719813346863,
-0.4135388433933258,
0.09873577952384949,
-0.5227410197257996,
-0.17426374554634094,
0.28609105944633484,
-0.7395438551902771,
0.3098069429397583,
-0.12189192324876785,
0.4226447343826294,
-0.011493390426039696,
-0.4014553725719452,
-0.42690154910087585,
-0.40885570645332336,
0.6635102033615112,
0.8553258776664734,
0.25323110818862915,
-0.3214796483516693,
0.99739009141922,
-0.02119130641222,
-0.19653792679309845,
-0.3625129461288452,
-0.05688171833753586,
0.4657372534275055,
0.4754713475704193,
0.1412115842103958,
-0.2718406319618225,
0.08395212888717651,
-0.20660097897052765,
0.05319035425782204,
-0.20588499307632446,
-0.1877233237028122,
-0.11066054552793503,
-0.0026300738099962473,
0.43627840280532837,
0.6100326180458069,
0.9289024472236633,
-0.01155012845993042,
-0.9464573264122009,
0.5647819638252258,
-0.489383727312088,
0.007010292261838913,
-0.5440208911895752,
-0.06261137127876282,
0.30527105927467346,
0.18855318427085876,
0.14452514052391052,
0.352631151676178,
-0.8404596447944641,
-0.18425613641738892,
0.039857856929302216,
0.24323754012584686,
0.7119452953338623,
0.5433370471000671,
-0.0437752865254879,
-0.19199435412883759,
0.4757177531719208,
0.16953565180301666,
0.18315744400024414,
0.5683539509773254,
0.3511497378349304,
-1.0398213863372803,
-0.03161656856536865,
-0.3693421185016632,
0.03249335661530495,
-0.21701395511627197,
0.059457872062921524,
0.008152512833476067,
0.20202341675758362,
0.12216430902481079,
0.3887427747249603,
0.26800137758255005,
-0.22447195649147034,
0.013242574408650398,
0.13649460673332214,
-0.19710589945316315,
0.37557291984558105,
-0.008542249910533428,
-0.32363930344581604,
-0.2712777256965637,
0.27445676922798157,
0.0500396303832531,
-0.610636830329895,
0.040665846318006516,
0.6098069548606873,
0.05131450295448303,
-0.45557907223701477,
-0.0016651669284328818,
0.1964951902627945,
0.24038968980312347,
0.32286494970321655,
0.3937307596206665,
-0.29710978269577026,
0.15529777109622955,
0.8670023679733276,
0.3834211826324463,
-0.5406829714775085,
-0.3416517376899719,
-0.29078686237335205,
0.6873140335083008,
-0.3941005766391754,
-0.36323583126068115,
0.04989345744252205,
0.16811537742614746,
-0.4436649978160858,
0.2512759566307068,
0.03149713948369026,
0.22506961226463318,
0.17256726324558258,
-0.8649896383285522,
0.13159038126468658,
0.08427037298679352,
-0.3489064872264862,
0.3432370126247406,
-0.7514280080795288,
-0.2157953679561615,
-0.35768961906433105,
0.5760617256164551,
0.09087571501731873,
-0.10852692276239395,
-0.03283626213669777,
-0.0017749395919963717,
0.08946990966796875,
1.0537424087524414,
0.4098362326622009,
-0.5367732644081116,
0.10268976539373398,
0.145565465092659,
0.25536659359931946,
0.034649766981601715,
0.09231288731098175,
-0.605864405632019,
-1.1679296493530273,
-0.4270106554031372,
0.035957880318164825,
-0.136037215590477,
0.1496950387954712,
0.12883783876895905,
-0.5472564697265625,
-0.9385415315628052,
-0.4399612545967102,
-0.5166572332382202,
-0.0335078239440918,
-0.4821186065673828,
0.13339315354824066,
-0.15199975669384003,
-0.007776870392262936,
0.6246262192726135,
0.024627314880490303,
0.1907554268836975,
0.32941290736198425,
0.4159694314002991,
0.35993266105651855,
-0.25435641407966614,
0.5366813540458679,
-0.4211829900741577,
0.45193570852279663,
0.336929589509964,
0.1708340048789978,
0.13975420594215393,
0.0036157567519694567,
0.20342250168323517,
-0.2544892728328705,
0.22408227622509003,
0.23439492285251617,
-0.33387139439582825,
-0.7739730477333069,
-0.3518737256526947,
-0.04093221575021744,
0.3826584815979004,
-0.12602569162845612,
0.26367056369781494,
-0.7027953863143921,
0.5271276235580444,
-0.02666085585951805,
-0.0529407262802124,
0.16732467710971832,
0.343767911195755,
0.4206128716468811,
-0.27131012082099915,
-0.3074616491794586,
0.21463799476623535,
0.32991382479667664,
-0.7887717485427856,
0.4188484251499176,
-0.92117840051651,
1.0364282131195068,
0.005805176217108965,
-0.44768455624580383,
0.8639145493507385,
-0.3058742880821228,
0.5944707989692688,
-0.7450616955757141,
0.07035210728645325,
0.9376850128173828,
0.32217931747436523,
-1.0784672498703003,
0.36332201957702637,
0.3944931924343109,
0.7775428891181946,
0.5789805054664612,
0.15999795496463776,
0.1658599078655243,
0.032946132123470306,
0.15301181375980377,
0.8230983018875122,
-0.37583696842193604,
-0.09009841084480286,
-0.5076956152915955,
-0.35925987362861633,
-0.3907979726791382,
-0.7296640872955322,
0.3343965709209442,
-0.04233475401997566,
0.009140160866081715,
-0.08480210602283478,
0.27692747116088867,
1.0053681135177612,
0.3325463533401489,
0.20896503329277039,
0.7114708423614502,
-0.20373322069644928,
0.31330981850624084,
0.1505070924758911,
0.6409807801246643,
-0.8172768950462341,
-0.4961591958999634,
-0.44025981426239014,
0.5066357254981995,
-0.4121497869491577,
-0.014468368142843246,
0.7230265736579895,
0.36944955587387085,
0.05981597304344177,
-1.014540672302246,
-0.3569064438343048,
-0.07014866173267365,
-0.015611057169735432,
-0.06836839020252228,
-0.2693812847137451,
0.6439144611358643,
-0.4885290265083313,
0.8870914578437805,
0.48784980177879333,
0.5047618746757507,
-0.048921212553977966,
0.5105045437812805,
-0.07224024087190628,
-0.028426069766283035,
-0.7292231917381287,
0.6258394718170166,
-0.031271014362573624,
0.05373448133468628,
0.14516331255435944,
-0.3575395345687866,
0.39357879757881165,
0.039833515882492065,
-0.3765813410282135,
-0.5156072974205017,
0.12858793139457703,
-0.49529609084129333,
0.050655514001846313,
0.6330459117889404,
-0.17711330950260162,
-0.23896417021751404,
-0.25216028094291687,
0.5979037880897522,
0.24664075672626495,
-0.7496330738067627,
-0.20796528458595276,
-0.61048823595047,
-0.5252766013145447,
-0.45256099104881287,
0.9168105721473694,
-0.4464954435825348,
-0.7241458892822266,
-0.050609052181243896,
-0.13301829993724823,
-0.5375268459320068,
0.011311379261314869,
0.22902528941631317,
-0.07069101184606552,
0.24003583192825317,
-0.6140629053115845,
-0.48569515347480774,
-0.07212971150875092,
0.32723692059516907,
0.06177432835102081,
0.2983244061470032,
0.3285501003265381,
0.4711209237575531,
-0.29578208923339844,
0.05575808510184288,
0.007687660399824381,
-0.6726359724998474,
0.03537609055638313,
-0.1163950264453888,
-0.15852411091327667,
-0.22084853053092957,
-0.20502136647701263,
-5.368633270263672,
-0.1799290031194687,
-0.508146345615387,
-0.5419110655784607,
-0.027032339945435524,
-0.37324127554893494,
0.47175848484039307,
-0.43147969245910645,
0.06172682344913483,
0.14649944007396698,
-0.35209745168685913,
0.18060524761676788,
-0.5743147730827332,
0.1145181804895401,
0.03423643857240677,
0.9296653270721436,
0.35191261768341064,
0.03152433782815933,
-0.044657185673713684,
0.5685620903968811,
-0.03894142061471939,
0.2817150950431824,
-0.032756201922893524,
0.2952287197113037,
0.9580278396606445,
0.34713107347488403,
0.03596024587750435,
0.23453059792518616,
-0.3752584755420685,
-0.15448914468288422,
-0.2573978304862976,
-0.33871370553970337,
0.8401727676391602,
-0.8862720727920532,
-0.5113999247550964,
-0.2819700241088867,
0.5746541619300842,
0.45550402998924255,
0.6777278780937195,
-0.10896407067775726,
-0.7045140266418457,
-0.4068482220172882,
-0.2928593158721924,
0.02019532211124897,
0.39206385612487793,
-0.5122858881950378,
-0.4785447120666504,
0.31806719303131104,
-0.36428362131118774,
0.8078533411026001,
0.3249853551387787,
0.6175901293754578,
0.43828657269477844,
0.058978818356990814,
-0.03411427512764931,
-0.0273904986679554,
0.3110366761684418,
-0.213171124458313,
-0.7150061130523682,
0.1874576359987259,
0.3408115804195404,
-0.2696017622947693,
-0.3795320689678192,
-0.28174176812171936,
0.17079712450504303,
-0.5362247824668884,
-0.8669952750205994,
0.27737900614738464,
0.0723923072218895,
0.0228391382843256,
0.06133105978369713,
0.2080582082271576,
-0.08674387633800507,
-1.090964674949646,
-0.18014416098594666,
-0.43213045597076416,
-0.6406828165054321,
0.5319780707359314,
0.11501744389533997,
0.1929035782814026,
0.11933129280805588,
0.40042683482170105,
-0.38400998711586,
0.5369659662246704,
0.14895784854888916,
0.12228812277317047,
-0.39019975066185,
0.27164891362190247,
-0.8779810070991516,
-0.42655038833618164,
0.542019248008728,
-0.15584194660186768,
0.20037825405597687,
0.20997126400470734,
0.35043570399284363,
0.022709429264068604,
1.0018852949142456,
-0.5022546052932739,
0.20149365067481995,
-0.9058995246887207,
0.5583269596099854,
0.09084026515483856,
-1.082415223121643,
-0.9510530829429626,
-0.369042307138443,
-0.7763597369194031,
-0.4996100068092346,
0.7479147911071777,
0.3552442193031311,
0.03185364976525307,
-0.22457683086395264,
-0.2609862685203552,
-0.6839398741722107,
0.12032921612262726,
0.5318302512168884,
0.17909401655197144,
-0.45619136095046997,
-0.30138859152793884,
1.043774127960205,
-0.008460338227450848,
0.1842341125011444,
-0.42515870928764343,
-0.47885408997535706,
0.9810608625411987,
0.7396354675292969,
0.09509634971618652,
0.17575235664844513,
0.5259326100349426,
-0.9429957866668701,
0.07789590954780579,
-0.07868392765522003,
-0.5324668288230896,
0.03182196617126465,
0.05881233140826225,
-0.2626834511756897,
0.289359986782074,
-0.5030520558357239,
-0.5292919874191284,
0.0686318427324295,
-0.06510154902935028,
0.010302811861038208,
-0.148498073220253,
0.11749916523694992,
0.25234973430633545,
0.09562423080205917,
1.0306280851364136,
-0.27696526050567627,
0.13219599425792694,
-0.347981333732605,
0.15139460563659668,
-0.19954857230186462,
-0.6762574315071106,
0.6221943497657776,
0.04304832965135574,
0.34587302803993225,
-0.13478811085224152,
0.5496048331260681,
0.5920617580413818,
0.07022742927074432,
-0.7078206539154053,
1.0785564184188843,
-0.15309259295463562,
0.012131616473197937,
0.28931963443756104,
0.12211854755878448,
-0.06134345009922981,
-0.027085790410637856,
0.2553534209728241,
-0.3893769383430481,
0.9989806413650513,
0.5725929737091064,
-0.25119316577911377,
-0.4842124283313751,
0.35177284479141235,
0.9285266399383545,
-0.5100352764129639,
-0.3027894198894501,
0.1047513410449028,
-0.28712934255599976,
-0.4815812110900879,
-0.233054056763649,
-0.16596701741218567,
-0.24678698182106018,
0.7104332447052002,
0.4753338396549225,
-0.022306863218545914,
-0.3252427577972412,
-0.41948115825653076,
-0.24848200380802155,
-0.06563561409711838,
0.2279832512140274,
0.4513583779335022,
-0.12906047701835632,
0.47570571303367615,
-0.6734730005264282,
-0.2954721748828888,
0.2881019115447998,
0.04710574448108673,
-0.6035443544387817,
-0.20156888663768768,
0.5845916271209717,
0.4575673043727875,
0.22360362112522125,
-0.0951032042503357,
0.7157100439071655,
0.059210579842329025,
0.23804272711277008,
-0.09600084275007248,
-1.0362043380737305,
0.6209490895271301,
0.45248138904571533,
-0.3496983051300049,
0.10806763172149658,
0.5204858779907227,
-0.6943126916885376,
0.021246301010251045,
0.6503235101699829,
-0.0021386584267020226,
-0.31027108430862427,
0.004725601989775896,
-0.41600993275642395,
0.036251798272132874,
-0.535973072052002,
-0.7189191579818726,
-0.34899699687957764,
0.4553651213645935,
-0.04738258197903633,
-0.0659748762845993,
-0.06288925558328629,
-0.3625950515270233,
-0.36485961079597473,
-0.5552727580070496,
-0.07828445732593536,
-0.006096603814512491,
0.41480398178100586,
0.7145625352859497,
0.6274821162223816,
0.15821298956871033,
0.32435843348503113,
0.7099973559379578,
0.8100183010101318,
0.8542742729187012,
0.40575847029685974,
-0.7304964661598206,
-0.3989676237106323,
0.43452003598213196,
-0.43460842967033386,
-0.3399047255516052,
-0.7933334708213806,
0.17142778635025024,
-0.1261257529258728,
-0.8411545157432556,
-0.5458260774612427,
-0.41554996371269226,
0.14424987137317657,
-0.17706167697906494,
0.06568586081266403,
0.5071786642074585,
-0.18658748269081116,
-0.15835106372833252,
0.16079288721084595,
0.009557701647281647,
-0.6116939187049866,
0.13443350791931152,
0.4435734748840332,
-0.07122625410556793,
0.048203062266111374,
0.3843141496181488,
0.21745014190673828,
-0.31214162707328796,
-0.4013637900352478,
-0.7209873199462891,
0.5017319321632385,
0.15591762959957123,
-0.11960215121507645,
-0.41917359828948975,
-0.016130788251757622,
-0.10832811146974564,
0.09657598286867142,
-0.4926261901855469,
-0.40985897183418274,
-0.4450843930244446,
0.2924351096153259,
-0.12978500127792358,
0.48263782262802124,
-0.7597128748893738,
-0.39882829785346985,
0.3595569133758545,
0.022020241245627403,
0.08994431048631668,
-0.20025098323822021,
-0.4067361354827881,
-0.13284504413604736,
0.33872881531715393,
0.29600536823272705,
-0.27104657888412476,
-0.2240176647901535,
0.14228305220603943,
0.006113588344305754,
0.07663961499929428,
-0.8192939758300781,
1.0833656787872314,
0.019256966188549995,
-0.4057433307170868,
0.3320213556289673,
0.24895307421684265,
0.22529739141464233,
-0.197599858045578,
-0.4742691218852997,
0.030124951153993607,
0.766055703163147,
0.07542409002780914,
-0.47508442401885986,
0.1870545744895935,
-0.6077767610549927,
-0.3626116216182709,
0.5233861804008484,
-1.0138596296310425,
0.3722616136074066,
-0.0662672147154808,
-0.17717790603637695,
0.23587659001350403,
0.5342603921890259,
0.14781072735786438,
0.16721384227275848,
0.1416446417570114,
-0.25519272685050964,
-0.07864712178707123,
-0.4519042670726776,
0.2106054723262787,
-0.15528002381324768,
0.26067739725112915,
-0.44047144055366516,
0.216922327876091,
-0.5726196765899658,
-0.23810803890228271,
-0.07952696084976196,
-0.4869987368583679,
-0.05247355252504349,
0.8240025639533997,
0.19692106544971466,
0.5312459468841553,
-0.45962297916412354,
-0.26499035954475403,
0.3769882321357727,
0.43196120858192444,
-0.031355805695056915,
-0.145813450217247,
0.5743638277053833,
-0.038178928196430206,
0.7178219556808472,
-0.2089022397994995,
0.22815732657909393,
0.26631057262420654,
-0.7325567603111267,
-0.02257811464369297,
-0.1583789885044098,
-0.39698830246925354,
-0.29308900237083435,
0.16441147029399872,
0.3397649824619293,
-0.2953682243824005,
0.47716689109802246,
-0.18167714774608612,
0.09942740201950073,
-0.09990216791629791,
0.280286967754364,
-0.5576388835906982,
-0.18632002174854279,
-0.1408306211233139,
0.0120773334056139,
0.20710904896259308,
-0.5252474546432495,
-0.2758503556251526,
0.15235726535320282,
0.024657627567648888,
-0.23384492099285126,
0.10164383798837662,
-0.012778346426784992,
0.033808935433626175,
0.15559644997119904,
0.3637767732143402,
-0.0071534812450408936,
-0.7901225686073303,
0.6390058398246765,
-0.2485019415616989,
-0.0986153706908226,
0.6564136147499084,
-0.5467860698699951,
0.18712064623832703,
-0.29491525888442993,
-0.7729331254959106,
0.44711562991142273,
0.11136536300182343,
-0.2604837119579315,
-0.6848677396774292,
-0.7295412421226501,
-0.09953130036592484,
0.2762798070907593,
0.32715487480163574,
0.3555980622768402,
0.5534936189651489,
0.19547004997730255,
-0.23208008706569672,
-0.5027063488960266,
1.2937260866165161,
-0.7577015161514282,
0.11188900470733643,
-0.31394457817077637,
0.7962394952774048,
-0.006674118340015411,
0.3099333345890045,
-0.5574300289154053,
-0.012343574315309525,
-0.09074266254901886,
0.5185173749923706,
0.6486250162124634,
-0.2642676532268524,
-0.5524062514305115,
-0.2309163212776184,
-0.6080901026725769,
-0.3948456645011902,
0.4257085621356964,
0.4974524676799774,
-0.25378960371017456,
-0.44315940141677856,
-0.5257766246795654,
-0.11261427402496338,
-0.20957139134407043,
0.7776411771774292,
-0.23768433928489685,
0.09978239238262177,
-0.41940703988075256,
0.2946695387363434,
0.5944279432296753,
-0.23716123402118683,
0.7237820029258728,
0.314085453748703,
0.3415991961956024,
-0.32147514820098877,
0.6471704244613647,
-0.21400824189186096,
0.1668735295534134,
0.04974430054426193,
-0.05098789930343628,
-0.10255489498376846,
0.05326961353421211,
-0.4601844847202301,
-0.7338553071022034,
0.2620241641998291,
0.09179279208183289,
-0.19875586032867432,
-0.1427338868379593,
-0.321733683347702,
0.00792254414409399,
-0.3836292326450348,
0.14355334639549255,
-0.552949845790863,
-0.1383867710828781,
-0.11121837794780731
] |
213220
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiche
|
Quiche
|
Quiche ( ) is a French tart consisting of pastry crust filled with savoury custard and pieces of cheese, meat, seafood or vegetables. The best-known variant is quiche Lorraine, which includes lardons or bacon. Quiche can be served hot or cold. It is popular worldwide.
Overview
Etymology
The word is first attested in French in 1805, and in 1605 in Lorrain patois. The first English usage—"quiche Lorraine"—was recorded in 1925. The further etymology is uncertain but it may be related to the German meaning "cake" or "tart".
History
Quiche is considered a French dish; however, using eggs and cream in pastry was practised in English cuisine at least as early as the 14th century and Italian cuisine at least as early as the 13th century. Recipes for eggs and cream baked in pastry containing meat, fish and fruit are referred to Crustardes of flesh and Crustade in the 14th-century The Forme of Cury and in 15th-century cookbooks, such as the Italian .
Varieties
Quiche has a pastry crust and a filling of eggs and milk and/or cream. It can be made with vegetables, meat, seafood and some may be made without crust.
Quiche lorraine (named after the Lorraine region of France) is a popular variant that was originally an open pie with eggs, cream and lardons. In English-speaking countries, modern preparations of the dish usually include mature cheese (Cheddar cheese often being used in British varieties), and the lardons are replaced by bacon.
There are many variants of quiche, using a wide variety of ingredients. Variants may be named descriptively, often in French, e.g. (quiche with cheese) and (quiche with mushrooms) or conventionally, e.g. (spinach) and (tomatoes).
See also
Pie
Bacon and egg pie
List of pies, tarts and flans
References
Further reading
Ange, E., & Aratow, P. (2005). : the original companion for French home cooking. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press.
Nathan, J. (2010). Quiches, Kugels, and Couscous: my search for Jewish cooking in France. New York: Alfred A. Knopf
External links
Classic Quiche Lorraine at cooks.com
Savoury pies
French cuisine
Egg dishes
French words and phrases
|
[
-0.19635066390037537,
0.04515053331851959,
-0.42842310667037964,
0.3048856556415558,
-0.03831801563501358,
0.7970695495605469,
-0.06743896752595901,
1.1918426752090454,
-0.2427259087562561,
-0.30441048741340637,
-0.13102027773857117,
0.44917193055152893,
-0.11827407777309418,
0.4841720759868622,
-0.5216282606124878,
0.13781754672527313,
0.7624983191490173,
0.23000916838645935,
-0.31317195296287537,
-0.4450324475765228,
-0.3990468382835388,
-0.5891960263252258,
0.06887221336364746,
-0.5489444732666016,
0.6111529469490051,
0.1696813404560089,
-0.3764594793319702,
0.13863448798656464,
0.1496519297361374,
0.09724561870098114,
-0.09886348247528076,
0.563883900642395,
0.4875054955482483,
-0.7259807586669922,
-0.1548163741827011,
0.3381109833717346,
0.0895460993051529,
-0.3796444535255432,
-0.010291686281561852,
-0.37299126386642456,
0.6312907934188843,
-0.26592937111854553,
0.6833450794219971,
0.4278932511806488,
-0.3386468291282654,
-0.2901584208011627,
-1.1734025478363037,
0.7402323484420776,
-0.7105096578598022,
0.4388331174850464,
-0.10977838188409805,
0.11265790462493896,
0.4619511663913727,
-0.0698881447315216,
0.19614049792289734,
0.5944588780403137,
-0.8546597957611084,
0.2676265835762024,
0.053621016442775726,
-0.21586835384368896,
-0.20341019332408905,
0.8517410755157471,
0.6438528299331665,
-0.26774126291275024,
-0.24802635610103607,
0.20970840752124786,
0.10950738191604614,
0.5070245862007141,
-0.6506496667861938,
0.015153683722019196,
0.2684301435947418,
-0.24593840539455414,
-0.43190208077430725,
0.14574411511421204,
-0.2483677715063095,
-0.2761614918708801,
-0.24304385483264923,
-0.03277008235454559,
0.4232257902622223,
0.90664142370224,
-0.5499677062034607,
-0.07855004817247391,
0.882257342338562,
-0.24699847400188446,
0.34014126658439636,
0.7259722948074341,
-0.44888928532600403,
0.27084872126579285,
-0.5600550174713135,
-0.026398485526442528,
-0.47686928510665894,
-0.8212561011314392,
0.4907000660896301,
0.15630872547626495,
-0.5723288655281067,
-0.15466411411762238,
0.5726352334022522,
0.09947073459625244,
0.08906309306621552,
0.40105071663856506,
0.0032684688922017813,
0.08579570055007935,
0.4665784239768982,
0.027094556018710136,
-1.1099112033843994,
0.5019026398658752,
-0.5888572335243225,
-0.620663583278656,
0.020785199478268623,
-0.18268530070781708,
-0.3691085875034332,
0.0790257453918457,
0.026807930320501328,
0.913193941116333,
-0.08253694325685501,
-0.07667277008295059,
0.3101455271244049,
0.0980713739991188,
-0.4152231812477112,
-0.6035759449005127,
0.11300896108150482,
-0.11890555173158646,
0.408596396446228,
-0.08769948035478592,
0.5130748748779297,
-0.29006054997444153,
0.3222436308860779,
0.5207603573799133,
0.5761070251464844,
-0.18847571313381195,
0.6138776540756226,
0.5162590146064758,
-0.25061357021331787,
-0.6584678292274475,
-0.15668721497058868,
-0.25926533341407776,
-0.07431663572788239,
-0.07505292445421219,
0.7131927013397217,
0.3322243094444275,
-1.1279512643814087,
0.2658686339855194,
-0.48712024092674255,
-0.136712908744812,
-0.2628156244754791,
-0.303860604763031,
-0.579243004322052,
-0.14810599386692047,
-0.009390466846525669,
-0.3492112159729004,
-0.12640637159347534,
0.011768737807869911,
-0.13825537264347076,
-0.06074577942490578,
-0.07863808423280716,
-0.2423371523618698,
-0.694433331489563,
-0.006997962482273579,
0.279847115278244,
-0.3827674686908722,
0.17679230868816376,
0.2496882528066635,
0.191624715924263,
-0.5364876389503479,
0.26932504773139954,
-0.214243084192276,
0.16737596690654755,
0.3758837878704071,
-0.5821305513381958,
0.5229015350341797,
-0.01908109150826931,
0.05157870799303055,
0.888908326625824,
-0.5272925496101379,
-0.595847487449646,
0.3227815330028534,
0.1791473627090454,
-0.02111479640007019,
0.7041608095169067,
0.3487369418144226,
-0.6173648834228516,
0.10405324399471283,
0.7172424793243408,
-0.8162055611610413,
-0.12599976360797882,
-0.21280039846897125,
0.4476238191127777,
-0.3006449043750763,
-0.10568339377641678,
0.3734457194805145,
-1.0373977422714233,
0.08127952367067337,
0.009726129472255707,
-0.5827124714851379,
0.6775631904602051,
-0.1455848515033722,
-0.4535232186317444,
0.9183439016342163,
0.4643195867538452,
-0.48093080520629883,
-0.6800978183746338,
-0.01575334556400776,
0.6490072011947632,
-0.44150510430336,
-0.7475433349609375,
0.33135122060775757,
0.021021557971835136,
0.1804761439561844,
0.450378954410553,
0.0846598744392395,
0.34136486053466797,
-0.6028470993041992,
1.0604045391082764,
-0.37579458951950073,
-0.7476052641868591,
0.11826426535844803,
-0.18241845071315765,
-0.1815149188041687,
0.30459150671958923,
-0.6260611414909363,
0.23707327246665955,
0.02332736738026142,
-0.26775234937667847,
0.5039171576499939,
-0.28647470474243164,
0.6050031781196594,
-0.168806791305542,
0.3040427565574646,
0.5485528707504272,
0.0009584275539964437,
-0.359020471572876,
-0.6248000264167786,
0.142709419131279,
-0.7092365622520447,
-0.2555442750453949,
0.057412635535001755,
0.6225873827934265,
0.21697230637073517,
0.5176254510879517,
-0.26861223578453064,
0.55904620885849,
0.22635671496391296,
-0.5063905119895935,
0.11030375212430954,
0.42728665471076965,
-0.027968330308794975,
-0.5255707502365112,
0.6845687627792358,
0.3023052215576172,
-0.2645966410636902,
0.23328569531440735,
0.7582178711891174,
0.300621896982193,
-0.19826024770736694,
-0.12200453877449036,
-0.6212740540504456,
0.3509405553340912,
0.2573931813240051,
-0.029458558186888695,
0.5596029758453369,
-0.5061329007148743,
-0.09438344836235046,
-0.055803339928388596,
-0.18918955326080322,
0.11180933564901352,
-0.1770225465297699,
-0.12235849350690842,
-0.5499301552772522,
0.7679374814033508,
0.14006856083869934,
0.3027161955833435,
0.21750634908676147,
-0.6841275691986084,
0.14978256821632385,
0.23869867622852325,
-0.34024423360824585,
-0.19232642650604248,
0.36408576369285583,
-0.9017701745033264,
-0.40700578689575195,
0.13044452667236328,
0.32144641876220703,
-0.06783389300107956,
-0.19590051472187042,
-0.37267884612083435,
-0.33742955327033997,
0.38159334659576416,
-1.05587899684906,
-0.5041524171829224,
-0.17926089465618134,
-0.12916330993175507,
0.43595826625823975,
-0.5820125341415405,
-0.5764801502227783,
0.026392986997961998,
-0.9014885425567627,
0.25660082697868347,
0.6349617838859558,
0.24045109748840332,
-0.2712135314941406,
0.8780307173728943,
0.24260853230953217,
0.1012645810842514,
0.3176681101322174,
0.10197172313928604,
0.03882823511958122,
0.22398141026496887,
-0.08958474546670914,
-5.678454399108887,
-0.27783188223838806,
-0.33151888847351074,
-0.14622586965560913,
-0.2821185886859894,
0.16074272990226746,
0.268968403339386,
-0.27906012535095215,
0.0692121759057045,
-0.21152719855308533,
-0.46249744296073914,
-0.3468371331691742,
-0.04001595452427864,
0.06472446024417877,
0.1394517570734024,
0.07284742593765259,
-0.4286248981952667,
-0.5482609272003174,
0.1512419581413269,
0.2970065176486969,
0.019374096766114235,
0.3413233458995819,
0.09585758298635483,
0.723236620426178,
-0.16750068962574005,
-0.37427449226379395,
-0.39598003029823303,
-0.3038407564163208,
-0.6875255703926086,
-0.2997560203075409,
-0.12456902116537094,
-0.032549869269132614,
0.5992326736450195,
-0.2838124632835388,
0.07625867426395416,
-0.19809284806251526,
-0.09768563508987427,
-0.14060594141483307,
0.26167893409729004,
0.024645963683724403,
-0.5120903253555298,
0.6451436877250671,
0.31424400210380554,
-0.6324878931045532,
0.9097104668617249,
-0.5715349912643433,
-0.22644367814064026,
-0.8653817772865295,
-0.3753378391265869,
0.40670132637023926,
0.36535221338272095,
-0.41482648253440857,
0.23783966898918152,
-0.06764984875917435,
0.5519407987594604,
-0.07945089042186737,
0.36393433809280396,
0.2843983471393585,
-0.44610387086868286,
-0.12151603400707245,
0.6894550919532776,
0.05651148781180382,
-0.16780483722686768,
-0.44124794006347656,
-0.2994306981563568,
-0.04733690991997719,
-0.06776295602321625,
0.8091543316841125,
0.3092087209224701,
0.17434881627559662,
-0.0029428256675601006,
-0.1790812909603119,
0.22674012184143066,
-0.8035511374473572,
0.23437251150608063,
-0.25659891963005066,
-0.37496915459632874,
0.3274960517883301,
-0.012160059995949268,
0.41646039485931396,
-0.3773822784423828,
-0.3067294955253601,
-0.44848620891571045,
0.044596582651138306,
0.08532416820526123,
-0.774796187877655,
-0.43721339106559753,
0.019487300887703896,
-0.573585033416748,
0.2035440355539322,
0.6578606963157654,
-0.17120610177516937,
0.33655279874801636,
0.32403239607810974,
0.24590447545051575,
0.6242769360542297,
0.4546683728694916,
0.43415841460227966,
-0.21422961354255676,
-0.12186407297849655,
0.3028517961502075,
0.03849141672253609,
0.7223888039588928,
0.045069847255945206,
0.5656377673149109,
-0.2240513563156128,
0.015164629556238651,
0.1636965125799179,
1.0567128658294678,
0.0945320874452591,
-0.12815336883068085,
0.09163271635770798,
-0.7153811454772949,
-0.309248149394989,
-0.03886822238564491,
-0.009999054484069347,
-0.013895651325583458,
-0.009073435328900814,
0.36727607250213623,
-0.32083049416542053,
0.07845854759216309,
0.21899928152561188,
-0.5682429075241089,
-0.11683692783117294,
-0.3437255322933197,
-0.3730098307132721,
0.17647720873355865,
0.09525024145841599,
0.2987777590751648,
0.689153254032135,
-0.23684893548488617,
0.11360982805490494,
-0.0597650445997715,
-0.3644406497478485,
0.06900519877672195,
-0.11614353954792023,
-0.1154763400554657,
-0.4624354839324951,
-0.5492064356803894,
-0.6491905450820923,
0.12693405151367188,
-0.25134357810020447,
0.00027292282902635634,
0.46068593859672546,
-0.019921325147151947,
0.6798573136329651,
-0.5995742678642273,
0.2616497576236725,
-0.3376326262950897,
0.9387962222099304,
0.07692791521549225,
0.5319112539291382,
0.3075943887233734,
0.17966164648532867,
0.04476965218782425,
-0.1248229593038559,
0.12089761346578598,
0.255238801240921,
0.2261395901441574,
0.1313299536705017,
0.22994261980056763,
-0.6991377472877502,
-0.5205456614494324,
0.3003931939601898,
-0.4376406669616699,
0.17942826449871063,
-0.4490629732608795,
-0.5786141753196716,
-0.5768424868583679,
0.4757210314273834,
-0.36298272013664246,
-0.0007735327817499638,
-0.0020190195646137,
0.18103738129138947,
0.09395762532949448,
-0.4215222895145416,
0.3506465256214142,
0.10876091569662094,
-0.39970076084136963,
-0.44239506125450134,
0.18538418412208557,
-0.18521268665790558,
0.4046710729598999,
0.5567893385887146,
0.4568634331226349,
-0.7122329473495483,
-0.13263043761253357,
0.49515682458877563,
-0.09482679516077042,
0.5300885438919067,
-0.12581951916217804,
0.35747504234313965,
-0.19553858041763306,
0.6750678420066833,
-0.45975732803344727,
0.12523935735225677,
-0.3707795739173889,
0.45379143953323364,
0.2857653796672821,
-0.3546622693538666,
0.015509791672229767,
0.0374520942568779,
-0.3439949154853821,
0.4882262349128723,
0.4731345474720001,
-0.359925240278244,
0.38369765877723694,
-0.2480417788028717,
-0.18501229584217072,
-0.19502775371074677,
-0.4869231581687927,
-0.746635377407074,
0.7073063850402832,
0.17696569859981537,
-0.03804536163806915,
0.336217999458313,
0.1876404881477356,
-0.11371622234582901,
0.04095621779561043,
-0.41126349568367004,
0.07040038704872131,
-0.45106539130210876,
-0.09226366877555847,
0.08446966856718063,
-0.09004499018192291,
0.3568587899208069,
0.3180180788040161,
-0.08649010956287384,
0.3545602560043335,
-0.2337750941514969,
0.5463558435440063,
-0.0067606121301651,
-0.05438483506441116,
0.3018743395805359,
0.26311585307121277,
0.011656326241791248,
0.17559115588665009,
0.1081651821732521,
0.21161875128746033,
0.3591408431529999,
0.5460647344589233,
0.6188672780990601,
-0.14247667789459229,
-0.1349211484193802,
-0.6715965270996094,
0.40395185351371765,
0.02692839503288269,
-0.5943022966384888,
-0.7532097101211548,
0.2988413870334625,
-0.25774621963500977,
-0.03376183286309242,
-0.17626768350601196,
-0.5978779196739197,
0.3960070013999939,
-0.3911650776863098,
0.08546560257673264,
0.499868780374527,
-0.3436611592769623,
0.41405001282691956,
-0.12771278619766235,
0.24852891266345978,
-0.08964835852384567,
0.6880522966384888,
0.19165895879268646,
0.11943080276250839,
-0.5650557279586792,
-0.4225884974002838,
0.07032173871994019,
-0.4527522325515747,
0.2505061626434326,
-0.039201557636260986,
0.6398867964744568,
0.46975982189178467,
0.1849188655614853,
0.19908028841018677,
0.15356025099754333,
-0.5547265410423279,
0.27171146869659424,
0.018283212557435036,
-0.1044040322303772,
0.2613981366157532,
-0.19214484095573425,
0.35690560936927795,
0.2444472312927246,
-0.4800984263420105,
0.0011135053355246782,
0.133239284157753,
-0.7194892168045044,
0.005113040562719107,
0.03737340494990349,
0.5305014252662659,
0.29342299699783325,
0.6687970161437988,
0.1309536099433899,
0.4712626338005066,
0.397482693195343,
0.061058301478624344,
0.2581368386745453,
0.44888681173324585,
-0.7610037326812744,
-0.09376657009124756,
0.5173263549804688,
-0.8119794726371765,
-0.14397478103637695,
0.12440862506628036,
-0.16530956327915192,
0.1008797213435173,
-0.5341402888298035,
-0.020557472482323647,
0.49042391777038574,
0.09078523516654968,
-0.34469279646873474,
0.07063118368387222,
0.3415927290916443,
-0.08521445095539093,
0.07818503677845001,
-0.4905520975589752,
0.019022516906261444,
0.9257940649986267,
0.5558763742446899,
-0.3627461791038513,
0.11659012734889984,
0.44889160990715027,
-0.004475815687328577,
0.2674189507961273,
-0.5037471055984497,
-0.1816340535879135,
-0.16221366822719574,
0.12045997381210327,
0.37125837802886963,
0.7206300497055054,
-0.4363159239292145,
-0.029463471844792366,
-0.03739620000123978,
-0.42769017815589905,
-0.5058307647705078,
-0.24399249255657196,
-0.02023695781826973,
0.5865398645401001,
0.6541188955307007,
0.13346001505851746,
-0.33660194277763367,
-0.017596637830138206,
0.20700639486312866,
0.5655388832092285,
0.14972196519374847,
-0.23748838901519775,
-0.1248403936624527,
0.4166642129421234,
0.5780205726623535,
0.4010930359363556,
0.2976890802383423,
-0.4715445637702942,
0.5282277464866638,
0.11889920383691788,
-0.6453268527984619,
-0.21812361478805542,
-0.5464208126068115,
0.5895412564277649,
-0.24777275323867798,
0.13585726916790009,
0.48094120621681213,
-0.47862187027931213,
-0.6045272350311279,
0.2846096456050873,
-0.534745991230011,
-0.5725788474082947,
-0.3124139904975891,
0.48473480343818665,
0.3451043665409088,
-0.1287924200296402,
-0.4419713318347931,
0.3698497414588928,
-0.20151424407958984,
-0.15369591116905212,
0.13175494968891144,
1.1221708059310913,
-0.3767699897289276,
-0.0031577444169670343,
-0.9070932865142822,
0.12092062830924988,
-0.7699348330497742,
-0.10778714716434479,
-0.28090962767601013,
0.48286816477775574,
-0.6884508728981018,
0.2774936854839325,
-0.614021897315979,
0.3460177183151245,
-0.0702657625079155,
-0.48682066798210144,
0.014527702704071999,
-0.5917340517044067,
-0.18564988672733307,
-0.15538868308067322,
-0.13377399742603302,
0.6887631416320801,
-0.19269771873950958,
-0.11035655438899994,
-0.10218974947929382,
0.1845885068178177,
-0.09023687988519669,
-0.5148735046386719,
-0.2618670165538788,
0.4170355796813965,
0.1791275590658188,
0.2358081340789795,
-0.6612066030502319,
-0.3832932114601135,
0.2848234176635742,
-0.2819846570491791,
-0.26959943771362305,
0.29943713545799255,
0.0008884177077561617,
-0.34912019968032837,
0.5732260346412659,
0.18356379866600037,
0.20119157433509827,
-0.9753513336181641,
0.1060456857085228,
0.12755590677261353,
0.36964917182922363,
0.07603330910205841,
-0.3915270268917084,
0.180135115981102,
-0.07783050835132599,
-0.14558754861354828,
-0.44258546829223633,
0.31425604224205017,
-0.35450589656829834,
0.7393519282341003,
-0.1741217076778412,
0.0019457695307210088,
-0.2830565869808197,
-0.34553787112236023,
0.7955923080444336,
0.12604522705078125,
0.033617034554481506,
0.15238307416439056,
0.03681664168834686,
-0.23108480870723724,
-0.38459286093711853,
-0.06698235124349594,
-0.5884827971458435,
0.2544087767601013,
0.5666571259498596,
-0.07795381546020508,
-0.6926860809326172,
0.02645242027938366,
-0.21299640834331512,
-0.3421790897846222,
0.02876727655529976,
-0.2478226125240326,
-0.2541554272174835,
-0.39814138412475586,
0.717626690864563,
-0.2854144871234894,
0.23955132067203522,
0.001384023460559547
] |
213224
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow%20of%20the%20Vampire
|
Shadow of the Vampire
|
Shadow of the Vampire is a 2000 metafiction horror film directed by E. Elias Merhige, written by Steven Katz, and starring John Malkovich and Willem Dafoe. The film is a fictionalized account of the making of the classic vampire film Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens, directed by F. W. Murnau, during which the film crew began to have disturbing suspicions about their lead actor.
The film borrows the techniques of silent films, including the use of intertitles to explain elided action, and iris lenses. The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Makeup, losing to How the Grinch Stole Christmas. For his performance, Dafoe was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.
Plot
In 1921, German director F. W. Murnau is shooting Nosferatu, an unauthorized version of Bram Stoker's novel Dracula. Murnau keeps his team in the dark about their schedule and the actor playing the vampire Count Orlok. It is left to the film's other main actor, Gustav von Wangenheim, to explain that the lead is an obscure German theater performer named Max Schreck, who is a character actor. To involve himself fully in his role, Schreck will only appear amongst the cast and crew in makeup, will only be filmed at night, and will never break character.
After filming scenes in a studio with leading actress Greta Schröder, who is displeased about leaving Berlin, Murnau takes his cast and crew to a remote inn in Czechoslovakia to film on-location. The landlady becomes distressed at Murnau removing crucifixes around the inn, and the cameraman, Wolfgang Muller, falls into a strange, hypnotic state. Gustav discovers a bottle of blood amongst the team's food supplies, and someone delivers a caged ferret in the night to a not yet fully revealed Shreck.
One night, Murnau rushes his team up to a nearby, old Slovak castle for the first scene with the vampire. Schreck appears for the first time, and his appearance and behavior impress and disturb them. The film's producer, Albin Grau, is confused when Murnau tells him that he originally found Schreck in the castle. Soon after the completion of the scene, Wolfgang is found collapsed in the tunnel into which Schreck had receded.
Whilst filming a dinner scene between Gustav and Orlok, Gustav accidentally cuts his finger. Schreck reacts wildly and tries drinking from Gustav's wound. The lights fail and when they return, Schreck is at Wolfgang's neck. Albin orders filming ended for the night, and the crew rushes from the castle, leaving Schreck behind. Alone, Schreck examines the camera equipment, fascinated by footage of a sunrise. With Wolfgang near death, Murnau is forced to bring in another cinematographer, Fritz Arno Wagner, after chastising Schreck in private for attacking his crew members and threatening him with harm if he does not control himself in Murnau's absence—a threat that Schreck challenges due to his immortality.
While Murnau returns to Berlin to calm financiers of the film, Schreck approaches Albin and the screenwriter, Henrik Galeen. They believe he is still in character, and Schreck points out Dracula's loneliness and the sadness of him trying to remember how to do otherwise mundane chores that he has not needed to perform for centuries. When they ask how he became a vampire, Schreck says it was a woman. Schreck snatches a bat and viciously sucks its blood. Grau and Galeen, thanks to their drunkenness on schnapps, are impressed by what they assume is talented acting. Later that night, Schreck attacks and kills a crew member on the film's set.
The production moves to the island of Heligoland to film the final scenes, and Murnau, in a laudanum-induced stupor, admits to Albin and Fritz that Schreck is an actual vampire, and in return for his cooperation, Murnau has promised him Greta. The two realize they are trapped on the island, leaving no choice but to complete the film that night.
On set Greta becomes hysterical after noticing Schreck casts no reflection. Murnau, Albin and Fritz drug her with Murnau's laudanum, and film as Schreck feeds on Greta, with the laudanum in her blood putting Schreck to sleep. At dawn, the three attempt to open a door and let in sunlight to destroy Schreck, but discover that the vampire had previously cut the chain to the mechanism, trapping them in the process. Fritz and Albin attack Schreck, only to be killed. Murnau, meanwhile, resumes filming, and, crazed, completely ignores the deaths of his colleagues and the malicious glare Schreck is giving him. Instead, he instructs Schreck to return to his mark for another take. Schreck is told, "If it's not in frame, it doesn't exist". Schreck returns to feed on Greta, as Murnau films. Galeen and the crew arrive and lift the door, destroying Schreck with the sunlight. Having become completely obsessed with the film, Murnau asks for an end slate to his rattled crew. After they oblige, he stops the camera and calmly states, "I think we have it."
Cast
John Malkovich as Frederich Wilhelm Murnau, the director of Nosferatu
Willem Dafoe as Max Schreck, who plays Count Orlok
Cary Elwes as Fritz Arno Wagner, the cinematographer
John Aden Gillet as Henrik Galeen, the screenwriter
Eddie Izzard as Gustav von Wangenheim, who plays Thomas Hutter/Jonathan Harker
Udo Kier as Albin Grau, occultist; the producer, art director, and costume designer
Catherine McCormack as Greta Schroeder, who plays Ellen Hutter/Mina Harker
Ronan Vibert as Wolfgang Muller
Nicholas Elliott as Paul
Sophie Langevin as Elke
Myriam Muller as Maria
The film depicts several of the major characters as being killed by the vampire; however, historically these individuals continued to live long lives after the film's production. Fritz Wagner and Albin Grau, who are shown having their necks snapped by Count Orlok, lived to the 1950s and 1970s respectively. Greta Schroeder, who also did not actually die, continued to have a film career until the 1950s and died in 1980. She is also depicted as being a famous actress, but in fact, she was little known, and by the 1930s her roles had diminished to only occasional appearances. Of all the characters, Murnau died the soonest after the production of Nosferatu, killed in a car crash in California in 1931. The film's depiction of Murnau as ruthless and dictatorial is also inaccurate. He was known as a director with rare sensitivity.
Production
The film's working title was Burned to Light, but Merhige decided to change the name of the film when Dafoe asked, "Who's Ed?"; the actor thought the title was Burn Ed to Light.
The film was produced by Nicolas Cage's Saturn Films. Cage originally intended to play Schreck, but later cast Dafoe when he expressed interest in the role. Cage stated he always wanted Malkovich as Murnau. Members of the online community "The HollyWood Stock Exchange" were able to donate a small sum towards the film's production in exchange for listing their names on the DVD release of the film as "virtual producers".
Producer Cage has previously acted with Malkovich and Dafoe in Con Air (1997) and Wild at Heart (1990) respectively.
To create the aesthetic of old film, cinematographer Lou Bogue shot much of the film with Kodak Vision 800T film stock - a high speed specialty stock with very coarse grain - in Super 35mm format, which further enhanced the effect when cropped and enlarged to anamorphic.
Reception
Critical reaction has been mostly positive with Dafoe's performance as Schreck/Orlok receiving particular praise. The film holds an 82% approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes based on 138 reviews, with an average rating of 7/10. The site's critical consensus states: "Shadow of the Vampire is frightening, compelling, and funny, and features an excellent performance by Willem Dafoe." On Metacritic, the film has a 71 out of 100 rating, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Roger Ebert gave the film 3½ stars out of 4, writing that "director E. Elias Merhige and his writer, Steven Katz, do two things at the same time. They make a vampire movie of their own, and they tell a backstage story about the measures that a director will take to realize his vision", and that Dafoe "embodies the Schreck of Nosferatu so uncannily that when real scenes from the silent classic are slipped into the frame, we don't notice a difference." Ebert later awarded the film his Special Jury Prize on his list of "The Best 10 Movies of 2000", writing of Dafoe's "astonishing performance" and of the film, "Avoiding the pitfall of irony; it plays the material straight, which is truly scary."
A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote, "You can find diversion in an improbable blend of behind-the-scenes satire and art-house fright-fest, anchored by Willem Dafoe's creepy, comical and oddly moving performance as the blood-sucking Schreck."
Dafoe won the LAFCA Award and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.
Awards
Shadow of the Vampire won several awards:
Prix Tournage
Saturn Award
Gran Angular Award
International Fantasy Film Award
President Award
Golden Satellite Award
Independent Spirit Award
LAFCA Award for Willem Dafoe
Bram Stoker Award for Steven Katz
See also
Vampire films
"Flicker", an episode of American Horror Story: Hotel in which Murnau was actually a vampire while filming Nosferatu.
References
External links
Learn about the real F.W. Murnau, Max Schreck and the silent film Nosferatu, featured in Shadow of the Vampire
2000 comedy horror films
2000 films
2000 horror films
American films
American multilingual films
American supernatural horror films
American vampire films
BBC Film films
Biographical films about actors
British comedy films
British films
British supernatural horror films
British vampire films
Cultural depictions of actors
Cultural depictions of film directors
Cultural depictions of German men
Dracula films
English-language films
English-language Luxembourgian films
F. W. Murnau
Films about filmmaking
Films about films
Films about snuff films
Films based on urban legends
Films directed by E. Elias Merhige
Films produced by Nicolas Cage
Films set in 1921
Films set in Berlin
Films set in castles
Films set in Czechoslovakia
Films set in Poland
Films set in Slovakia
Films shot in Luxembourg
German-language films
Gothic horror films
Luxembourgian films
Luxembourgian horror films
Luxembourgian LGBT-related films
Luxembourgish-language films
Nosferatu
Period horror films
Saturn Films films
|
[
0.06165200471878052,
0.43268370628356934,
-0.12553244829177856,
-0.03144366666674614,
-0.1124444231390953,
-0.007975527085363865,
0.2734169065952301,
-0.4096909463405609,
-0.03232688829302788,
0.05042128637433052,
0.11525876820087433,
0.5139557123184204,
-0.26146024465560913,
0.4079035222530365,
0.20268620550632477,
0.0877266377210617,
0.08074606955051422,
0.21545951068401337,
0.24922165274620056,
-0.7674256563186646,
-0.5203059315681458,
-0.3574605882167816,
0.6664053797721863,
-0.03887083753943443,
-0.4714871644973755,
0.37425002455711365,
0.17681048810482025,
0.6478337049484253,
0.2893768846988678,
-0.013315089978277683,
0.4511880576610565,
-0.11129360646009445,
-0.2746250629425049,
-0.46309754252433777,
0.0683581605553627,
-0.3015805184841156,
-0.4715992212295532,
-0.17241550981998444,
-0.259831964969635,
-0.5815638899803162,
-0.1712065488100052,
0.2885993421077728,
-0.0383010171353817,
0.33029723167419434,
-0.29328271746635437,
-0.4706912636756897,
-1.475027084350586,
0.18392464518547058,
-0.7561819553375244,
-0.05911724641919136,
0.1820581555366516,
0.6773377060890198,
0.7666673064231873,
0.14269542694091797,
-0.09596842527389526,
1.0808119773864746,
-0.7278357148170471,
0.32486918568611145,
-0.1346309781074524,
-0.11760099977254868,
0.6379456520080566,
0.18700775504112244,
0.34804487228393555,
0.11585041135549545,
-0.22087246179580688,
0.33341526985168457,
0.4605322480201721,
0.20679819583892822,
0.41522833704948425,
0.020905504003167152,
-0.015294029377400875,
-0.053423162549734116,
0.012071333825588226,
0.17946836352348328,
-0.4508063793182373,
-0.13635990023612976,
0.49249568581581116,
-0.0806652382016182,
0.48352840542793274,
0.37727418541908264,
0.33889245986938477,
0.1903681457042694,
0.7891237139701843,
0.35451391339302063,
-0.12437944114208221,
0.06590555608272552,
0.2619018852710724,
0.1033707782626152,
0.09572994709014893,
0.2969902753829956,
-0.6965217590332031,
-0.6882303357124329,
-0.04470331221818924,
0.8906400203704834,
0.14149777591228485,
-0.7442519664764404,
0.05036928504705429,
-0.14776664972305298,
0.09516026079654694,
0.48396793007850647,
-0.21533063054084778,
0.24949324131011963,
0.2825920283794403,
-0.5758925676345825,
-0.4449813663959503,
-0.020244939252734184,
-0.3247356116771698,
0.11448584496974945,
0.017975730821490288,
-0.3051438331604004,
-0.1849357932806015,
0.5974994897842407,
-0.6092548370361328,
0.04274018108844757,
-0.08994819968938828,
0.4614179730415344,
0.22686652839183807,
-0.22801098227500916,
-0.5498994588851929,
0.36598828434944153,
0.20751607418060303,
0.31663838028907776,
0.43240272998809814,
0.8124865293502808,
0.056932125240564346,
0.5648334622383118,
0.3096725642681122,
0.05180449038743973,
-0.6599466800689697,
-0.001964602153748274,
0.7588590979576111,
0.9939008355140686,
-0.16166377067565918,
-0.15936243534088135,
0.07929624617099762,
-0.35333287715911865,
0.4464304745197296,
0.1673697829246521,
0.02432742342352867,
0.012727881781756878,
-0.6337981224060059,
-0.7152097821235657,
-1.1373257637023926,
0.037555087357759476,
0.43185049295425415,
-0.23095065355300903,
-0.140642911195755,
-0.2744545340538025,
-0.3867397904396057,
-0.3509390354156494,
0.1773008108139038,
0.28500738739967346,
-0.5499498248100281,
-0.3175637423992157,
0.007112833671271801,
0.1790972650051117,
0.22205807268619537,
-0.2632984220981598,
0.3311397433280945,
-0.030044494196772575,
-0.01714838668704033,
0.05499639734625816,
-0.3786007761955261,
-0.04775545001029968,
0.3579420745372772,
-0.2712205946445465,
0.033837150782346725,
-0.426199734210968,
0.25596868991851807,
0.025583548471331596,
-0.8150255680084229,
0.4666784703731537,
-0.07088495790958405,
-0.7752727270126343,
0.07599874585866928,
0.023389676585793495,
0.6002988815307617,
0.6400460600852966,
-0.06081174314022064,
-0.3064420521259308,
-0.6019653081893921,
-0.31781089305877686,
-0.3156285583972931,
-0.5995938181877136,
-0.26016777753829956,
0.21501222252845764,
0.12365397810935974,
0.28551924228668213,
-0.32712772488594055,
0.05787670612335205,
-0.7063460350036621,
-0.14080268144607544,
0.534710168838501,
-0.12632185220718384,
1.229789137840271,
-0.19253842532634735,
-0.8882817029953003,
0.6913471817970276,
-0.06876738369464874,
0.36035406589508057,
-0.3952986001968384,
-0.4879670739173889,
0.7808588147163391,
0.012895692139863968,
-0.28393247723579407,
0.10759767889976501,
-0.2003641575574875,
0.12953542172908783,
0.6529818177223206,
0.33593928813934326,
0.307699054479599,
0.17440389096736908,
-0.11728955060243607,
0.442385196685791,
0.3613501787185669,
0.05451500043272972,
-0.7285250425338745,
-0.2249871790409088,
0.1833837628364563,
-0.3066178262233734,
0.36580535769462585,
-0.10158968716859818,
-0.3378426432609558,
0.0888485461473465,
-0.389863520860672,
0.7730609774589539,
0.21025040745735168,
-0.5042327642440796,
0.35559314489364624,
-0.5829818844795227,
-0.38963279128074646,
0.6567721962928772,
-0.10937416553497314,
-0.4240594208240509,
-0.06250116974115372,
-0.17013968527317047,
0.054266687482595444,
-0.4606340229511261,
0.3543526530265808,
-0.2027251273393631,
0.8169762492179871,
-0.22073741257190704,
-0.30077770352363586,
0.5195550322532654,
0.668484091758728,
0.15612302720546722,
0.18542702496051788,
0.5837352275848389,
-0.5988181233406067,
-0.09325695037841797,
-0.17432723939418793,
0.5012398362159729,
0.24265648424625397,
-0.29278045892715454,
0.5536409616470337,
0.33612287044525146,
-0.24530141055583954,
-0.8798959851264954,
0.34910762310028076,
0.10791988670825958,
-0.0381300263106823,
0.5113798379898071,
0.47156015038490295,
0.261779248714447,
0.46295785903930664,
0.045372847467660904,
-0.3548673391342163,
-1.0635528564453125,
0.459431529045105,
0.8323988914489746,
0.1561361700296402,
-0.32879912853240967,
-0.30436670780181885,
-0.41471758484840393,
0.25372079014778137,
-0.046424612402915955,
0.003371864091604948,
0.04076069965958595,
-0.1669495701789856,
-0.291461318731308,
0.36326977610588074,
0.6453073024749756,
0.5711939334869385,
-0.21875587105751038,
-0.7624770402908325,
-0.19863136112689972,
0.38403183221817017,
-0.5556343197822571,
-0.15541459619998932,
-0.4059726893901825,
-0.3106996715068817,
0.27374112606048584,
-0.06583034992218018,
-0.09819000959396362,
-0.8388538956642151,
-0.1655060052871704,
-0.49037110805511475,
0.09031141549348831,
0.2589483857154846,
-0.41706138849258423,
0.08670251071453094,
0.08534541726112366,
-0.5465592741966248,
-0.12091891467571259,
-0.02399503067135811,
-0.033793166279792786,
-0.20648720860481262,
0.02094867452979088,
-5.738290309906006,
-0.05758284777402878,
0.22123683989048004,
0.0033778527285903692,
0.17900589108467102,
0.07606976479291916,
0.2678871154785156,
-0.5283154845237732,
-0.128596693277359,
-0.475546658039093,
-0.14668354392051697,
0.181991308927536,
0.45843762159347534,
-0.08149658888578415,
-0.027818715199828148,
0.01243001688271761,
0.008821544237434864,
-0.03014177642762661,
-0.11928445845842361,
0.397950142621994,
-0.33627909421920776,
-0.006048600655049086,
-0.34113502502441406,
-0.203097864985466,
0.3914544880390167,
0.926367461681366,
-0.8360027074813843,
-0.2168281376361847,
-0.19190141558647156,
0.21069593727588654,
-0.15633663535118103,
-0.38423609733581543,
-0.3589079976081848,
-0.20762063562870026,
-0.33488407731056213,
0.03870970383286476,
0.790687620639801,
0.12759090960025787,
0.6882277727127075,
-0.13217589259147644,
-0.6876226663589478,
0.2099485695362091,
-0.4524933397769928,
-0.03432370722293854,
0.766811192035675,
-0.31883370876312256,
-0.35828784108161926,
-0.4247448444366455,
-0.0273175947368145,
0.5345298647880554,
0.3954326808452606,
-0.2769791781902313,
0.18244503438472748,
0.40844643115997314,
0.5147002935409546,
-0.051838792860507965,
-0.32744812965393066,
-0.12685991823673248,
-0.04043494537472725,
0.5634660124778748,
0.16196119785308838,
-0.7120555639266968,
0.00996371265500784,
0.0025555368047207594,
0.29618504643440247,
0.07295189797878265,
0.12482787668704987,
-0.33342811465263367,
0.250319242477417,
0.0334116593003273,
0.31159624457359314,
-0.2352883368730545,
0.019762471318244934,
-0.9705483317375183,
0.19250942766666412,
0.16444344818592072,
-0.2200733870267868,
-0.35817164182662964,
-0.30791062116622925,
-0.07838169485330582,
0.13545313477516174,
-0.17653898894786835,
-0.3191257417201996,
-0.03702302277088165,
-0.3850356936454773,
-0.6607518196105957,
0.20107729732990265,
-0.09161769598722458,
-0.4476085305213928,
-0.49180474877357483,
0.15367180109024048,
-0.5886233448982239,
-0.10714408755302429,
0.4802221655845642,
0.3258019685745239,
0.317036896944046,
0.8712689280509949,
0.005010116379708052,
0.46378228068351746,
0.027269413694739342,
0.45252540707588196,
-0.3766610324382782,
0.1809341013431549,
-0.39757657051086426,
-0.2927532494068146,
-0.7094357013702393,
0.30776453018188477,
1.0416828393936157,
0.18346965312957764,
-0.49597108364105225,
-0.5350775122642517,
-0.14029811322689056,
-0.29114261269569397,
0.18085578083992004,
0.5872446298599243,
-0.2111571878194809,
-0.17467352747917175,
0.08862645924091339,
0.20790670812129974,
0.010404393076896667,
-0.3343676030635834,
0.37175193428993225,
-0.2021784782409668,
-0.08109648525714874,
0.06026974320411682,
0.12214170396327972,
0.2927245795726776,
0.31534963846206665,
0.14151115715503693,
-0.039943285286426544,
-0.10394927114248276,
0.012714824639260769,
0.13268433511257172,
-0.3386085033416748,
-0.026999356225132942,
-0.3640269339084625,
-0.3562459349632263,
-0.5271101593971252,
0.2804241478443146,
-0.016866140067577362,
-0.028459865599870682,
-0.28340861201286316,
0.21787820756435394,
0.3424409031867981,
0.5495967864990234,
-0.2269236445426941,
0.21428295969963074,
-0.2611594796180725,
-0.20049284398555756,
0.45521557331085205,
-0.1858275830745697,
0.27237406373023987,
1.2158641815185547,
-0.1540161818265915,
-0.25709059834480286,
-0.051621634513139725,
0.3791138231754303,
0.03194012492895126,
-0.4412152171134949,
-0.6696693897247314,
0.4742070734500885,
-0.28986936807632446,
-0.8263970613479614,
0.1693112552165985,
-0.2502594292163849,
-0.09704309701919556,
-0.44679075479507446,
-0.4969254732131958,
-0.24005325138568878,
0.04515687748789787,
0.15367235243320465,
0.2338152974843979,
-0.37109917402267456,
0.3194679617881775,
0.40515637397766113,
0.015944546088576317,
-0.7361869812011719,
0.3456479609012604,
-0.4184204339981079,
-0.3105495274066925,
0.20858067274093628,
0.5223996639251709,
-0.33860155940055847,
-0.32764536142349243,
0.565148115158081,
-0.05091444030404091,
-0.6217543482780457,
-0.3261163830757141,
-0.6174373626708984,
0.23865121603012085,
0.31936222314834595,
0.4808359444141388,
0.7701809406280518,
-0.26571592688560486,
-0.6394030451774597,
-0.42760223150253296,
-0.0013442332856357098,
0.2891395688056946,
0.13031156361103058,
-0.20904630422592163,
0.45912107825279236,
0.9111475348472595,
-0.18266572058200836,
0.3896089792251587,
0.6285706162452698,
-0.546985924243927,
-0.037381626665592194,
-0.1290377974510193,
-0.581693708896637,
0.5668689608573914,
0.20958155393600464,
0.3718649446964264,
-0.3095334768295288,
0.1364438384771347,
-0.18327341973781586,
-0.020270289853215218,
0.47786206007003784,
0.042262014001607895,
-0.07553471624851227,
-0.3795931935310364,
0.10660720616579056,
-0.3102271556854248,
-0.3749667704105377,
-0.27112913131713867,
-1.0542503595352173,
-0.10529763251543045,
0.8524670600891113,
-0.8218273520469666,
0.05049974098801613,
0.5470850467681885,
0.058357808738946915,
0.06834989786148071,
-0.0004518281784839928,
-0.4521864950656891,
-0.16845577955245972,
0.3255993723869324,
0.2681528925895691,
0.1315518319606781,
0.1222282126545906,
0.45533105731010437,
0.2790926992893219,
1.1344133615493774,
0.3625161051750183,
-0.0592627078294754,
0.5102680921554565,
0.8574100136756897,
-0.44218909740448,
-0.43048298358917236,
-0.7160722017288208,
0.04080206900835037,
-0.11673334240913391,
-0.26622799038887024,
0.28512027859687805,
-0.24243482947349548,
0.7985077500343323,
-0.5709614753723145,
0.5621868968009949,
0.0866146981716156,
-0.3128921091556549,
-0.20309260487556458,
-0.04891430586576462,
-0.18101359903812408,
-0.7941374182701111,
-0.03260258957743645,
0.03747967258095741,
0.19100479781627655,
0.41078075766563416,
-0.2632291913032532,
0.1724037379026413,
-0.05268988013267517,
0.26537609100341797,
0.43086493015289307,
0.2097996324300766,
0.3939596712589264,
-0.019110674038529396,
0.16813842952251434,
-0.8080112934112549,
-0.4740661382675171,
-0.6144908666610718,
-0.21873460710048676,
0.14542876183986664,
0.4224516451358795,
0.00433390075340867,
-0.4925362467765808,
-0.24479195475578308,
-0.14249396324157715,
0.6825289726257324,
-0.015995429828763008,
0.2626684010028839,
-0.23338691890239716,
-0.14489318430423737,
-0.4279646575450897,
0.22814543545246124,
0.30494073033332825,
0.8191887736320496,
0.4329736828804016,
-0.3040425777435303,
-0.045896757394075394,
-0.18866252899169922,
-0.3786866068840027,
0.08500642329454422,
0.5427236557006836,
0.49009260535240173,
0.15846237540245056,
0.4365881085395813,
-0.12465191632509232,
0.26080429553985596,
0.25326046347618103,
-0.1267256885766983,
0.0256345234811306,
0.45535025000572205,
-0.0803716704249382,
-0.28599512577056885,
0.6438137888908386,
-0.3057442009449005,
0.3139466345310211,
0.3316175937652588,
-0.17625504732131958,
-0.08341661095619202,
-0.24856621026992798,
0.19237765669822693,
0.24360108375549316,
0.6946411728858948,
-0.3021199405193329,
-0.331073522567749,
0.5361388325691223,
-0.4323183298110962,
0.8963313102722168,
0.2386491745710373,
-0.4425986409187317,
0.838810920715332,
0.1241489127278328,
-0.5362176299095154,
0.4263341724872589,
-0.3060280978679657,
0.17502933740615845,
0.41841232776641846,
-0.21541661024093628,
0.04694081097841263,
0.47512245178222656,
0.5807198286056519,
0.2891108989715576,
-0.1670805811882019,
-0.10784977674484253,
-0.10013315081596375,
0.2414574772119522,
0.6095805168151855,
-0.13655683398246765,
0.2717720568180084,
0.4772509038448334,
-0.1286051720380783,
0.016941925510764122,
0.01034548506140709,
-0.10954203456640244,
0.644820511341095,
0.007092809770256281,
0.26476386189460754,
-0.10448666661977768,
0.03772353380918503,
-0.5770237445831299,
-0.2087588757276535,
-0.3428815007209778,
0.19861997663974762,
0.2691177725791931,
-0.26502367854118347,
0.48548200726509094,
-0.5368022322654724,
-0.26075950264930725,
-0.32186928391456604,
-0.5545780062675476,
-0.04545172303915024,
0.22931799292564392,
0.0017538307001814246,
-0.17563962936401367,
0.34986260533332825,
0.2777561545372009,
0.2244361788034439,
0.1052430272102356,
-0.09819352626800537,
0.3375721275806427,
-0.4722919166088104,
-0.31795087456703186,
0.017993327230215073,
-0.3638789653778076,
0.5240644216537476,
0.1353924423456192,
0.002666666405275464,
0.025511614978313446,
0.28070732951164246,
-0.9348855018615723,
0.3842783272266388,
-0.3983840048313141,
0.22999820113182068,
-0.22816036641597748,
-0.4687475562095642,
0.11893612891435623,
-0.08049851655960083,
0.1267569363117218,
-0.30760133266448975,
0.14206412434577942,
0.0251231137663126,
0.29601746797561646,
0.03531212732195854,
0.6179574131965637,
-0.4535108804702759,
0.6267452836036682,
-1.1461563110351562,
-0.10440166294574738,
-1.1920957565307617,
0.3359910547733307,
0.2178916484117508,
-0.24001532793045044,
0.19636261463165283,
0.20804452896118164,
-0.2852357029914856,
-0.29968729615211487,
0.1822497546672821,
0.21996600925922394,
-0.1547701209783554,
0.09911703318357468,
-0.7114605903625488,
-0.00018022838048636913,
-0.043585892766714096,
0.02478470839560032,
-0.0962596982717514,
-0.12209191173315048,
0.08766501396894455,
-0.02632334642112255,
-0.13801328837871552,
0.14963924884796143,
-0.11841259151697159,
-0.10254830867052078,
-0.12535390257835388,
0.703173816204071,
-0.11423845589160919,
-0.1832914799451828,
0.6842092871665955,
0.9217479228973389,
0.6789352297782898,
-0.2602577805519104,
-0.48300841450691223,
-0.32364946603775024,
0.027023904025554657,
-0.06840523332357407,
-1.5653713941574097,
-0.5613507628440857,
-0.24308717250823975,
-0.9362120032310486,
-0.12009964883327484,
-0.10407818853855133,
0.07862737029790878,
-0.22978585958480835,
-0.1677074283361435,
-0.4882403016090393,
-0.5727741718292236,
0.7137758135795593,
0.11105922609567642,
-0.6753289103507996,
0.23244182765483856,
0.01452206913381815
] |
213225
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eldon%20C.%20Hall
|
Eldon C. Hall
|
Eldon Hall was the leader of hardware design efforts for the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) at MIT, and advocated the use of integrated circuits for this task. He has written extensively of the development of the AGC, culminating in his 1996 book, Journey to the Moon: The History of the Apollo Guidance Computer ()
He pursued his undergraduate education at the Eastern Nazarene College in Quincy, Massachusetts, his graduate education at Boston University in Boston, and his doctoral degree at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Publications
Eldon C. Hall (2000). From the Farm to Pioneering with Digital Computers: An Autobiography.
Eldon C. Hall (1996). Journey to the Moon: The History of the Apollo Guidance Computer
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American academics
American computer scientists
American technology writers
Eastern Nazarene College alumni
Harvard University alumni
Boston University alumni
|
[
-0.26027005910873413,
1.2666094303131104,
-0.18872427940368652,
0.05839173495769501,
-0.006200037430971861,
0.46330490708351135,
-0.26822757720947266,
-0.21312639117240906,
-0.17172057926654816,
0.12612846493721008,
-0.3018844723701477,
0.5595055222511292,
-0.004368889145553112,
-0.038867153227329254,
-0.5005991458892822,
0.44314607977867126,
-0.03914599493145943,
-0.1813153475522995,
-0.4646766483783722,
-0.04468163847923279,
-0.05065556615591049,
-0.5597022771835327,
0.19425608217716217,
0.1194266602396965,
-0.08084017038345337,
0.05329218879342079,
0.08983362466096878,
-0.32408076524734497,
0.1348067671060562,
0.49627551436424255,
0.2268332839012146,
0.45899343490600586,
0.37327736616134644,
-0.7170524001121521,
-0.40646037459373474,
0.33756789565086365,
0.10631386190652847,
0.04447130486369133,
0.0745403990149498,
0.3841414749622345,
0.19846372306346893,
0.024454576894640923,
-0.02117265574634075,
0.09780910611152649,
-0.06786084920167923,
-0.5145200490951538,
-1.8793210983276367,
-0.04473277926445007,
-0.8231786489486694,
-0.28797265887260437,
-0.6462172269821167,
0.2453811764717102,
0.09144895523786545,
-0.17981579899787903,
0.2215360701084137,
0.5191447734832764,
-0.12002086639404297,
-0.2394603043794632,
0.25944122672080994,
-0.3162895143032074,
0.6719164848327637,
0.13163749873638153,
0.4344797730445862,
-0.06876605749130249,
0.10742538422346115,
0.8497917056083679,
0.22859355807304382,
-0.26458075642585754,
-0.35966962575912476,
0.3043834865093231,
-0.49506738781929016,
0.0939142256975174,
-0.08463221043348312,
-0.011469382792711258,
-0.13149875402450562,
-0.3349688947200775,
0.45655128359794617,
-0.04227450117468834,
-0.14601688086986542,
-0.13421475887298584,
0.21899858117103577,
0.24623213708400726,
0.7056634426116943,
0.27305006980895996,
0.4285601079463959,
0.13108137249946594,
-1.056943416595459,
0.023374656215310097,
-0.046336688101291656,
0.052884992212057114,
-0.6123496294021606,
-0.11174112558364868,
0.1641308069229126,
0.9005905985832214,
0.28140726685523987,
-0.340760201215744,
0.35424482822418213,
0.42179518938064575,
-0.6643307209014893,
0.4323728084564209,
0.2663334906101227,
0.3535335958003998,
0.2092183232307434,
-0.17319412529468536,
-0.16707858443260193,
0.24259920418262482,
-0.23669219017028809,
-0.44151726365089417,
-0.1290615051984787,
-0.2973060607910156,
-0.6895519495010376,
-0.054847557097673416,
0.08717601001262665,
-0.3817210793495178,
-0.049314338713884354,
1.028551459312439,
0.5389299988746643,
-0.4126947820186615,
-0.14566092193126678,
-0.006070111412554979,
-0.21133600175380707,
1.1975520849227905,
-0.4117755591869354,
-0.012292709201574326,
-0.37287357449531555,
0.4854567050933838,
0.34226104617118835,
0.45672059059143066,
-0.8920400738716125,
0.06739276647567749,
-0.04396815970540047,
0.13818864524364471,
0.10163960605859756,
-0.28056517243385315,
-0.4118584096431732,
-0.017915954813361168,
0.5942543745040894,
0.030541598796844482,
-0.3357451558113098,
0.5823461413383484,
-0.2888340353965759,
-1.0765355825424194,
-0.520255446434021,
-0.28138673305511475,
0.5312234163284302,
0.0499618835747242,
0.19439151883125305,
-0.07651471346616745,
-0.22199828922748566,
0.38047656416893005,
0.26862287521362305,
-0.30442675948143005,
-0.08047941327095032,
0.20219150185585022,
0.05580521747469902,
0.5277864933013916,
0.05062130466103554,
0.44732698798179626,
0.2837534546852112,
0.45619991421699524,
-0.05442375689744949,
-0.21834668517112732,
-0.6504278182983398,
-0.171157106757164,
-0.08271132409572601,
0.22784622013568878,
0.13421232998371124,
-0.4946359395980835,
0.14255619049072266,
0.31217315793037415,
-0.2828778922557831,
-0.4584444463253021,
-0.05176462605595589,
-0.4674658477306366,
0.07697973400354385,
0.17671984434127808,
1.2033748626708984,
0.6776623725891113,
0.21147681772708893,
-0.21869328618049622,
-0.5502679347991943,
-0.5307020545005798,
-0.031462959945201874,
-0.16926372051239014,
0.285603404045105,
0.11694344133138657,
0.27153703570365906,
-0.3078816533088684,
0.04849180206656456,
-0.1590682417154312,
-0.17958728969097137,
-0.7583898305892944,
0.07360401749610901,
-0.3617965281009674,
0.9704064130783081,
0.253800630569458,
-0.19476786255836487,
0.503702700138092,
0.14699974656105042,
1.0410857200622559,
-0.05315728113055229,
0.18049722909927368,
0.16674967110157013,
-0.06828457862138748,
0.29116642475128174,
0.43291276693344116,
0.3052714169025421,
0.11740756779909134,
0.45006364583969116,
0.5239510536193848,
0.554305911064148,
-0.12693490087985992,
-0.10609745979309082,
0.07314372807741165,
-0.33144575357437134,
-0.3067270815372467,
-0.009661123156547546,
0.3160445988178253,
0.07281836867332458,
-0.5392526984214783,
0.9863954782485962,
0.4045875370502472,
0.04001985862851143,
0.4317792057991028,
0.3710040748119354,
0.7267298698425293,
0.15442834794521332,
-0.0676153376698494,
-0.032957155257463455,
0.17829953134059906,
0.3659072518348694,
-0.048542220145463943,
0.3356458842754364,
-0.6363127827644348,
-0.0729023665189743,
-0.38854238390922546,
-0.18410930037498474,
-0.2551378607749939,
0.148298442363739,
0.1344480663537979,
-0.09520488977432251,
0.41682904958724976,
-0.6816132664680481,
0.15547682344913483,
-0.42246726155281067,
-0.31149664521217346,
0.10263562202453613,
0.11728266626596451,
-0.07611449807882309,
0.1575077474117279,
-0.15066683292388916,
0.31150588393211365,
0.6519027352333069,
-0.17189352214336395,
-0.3193453550338745,
0.40296781063079834,
-0.15018248558044434,
-0.388330340385437,
-0.17737805843353271,
0.22607190907001495,
-0.06001661345362663,
0.23774152994155884,
0.4067937135696411,
-0.2651461958885193,
-0.13597017526626587,
-1.0338603258132935,
0.08457338064908981,
-0.26379185914993286,
-0.20398904383182526,
0.14700563251972198,
0.28956687450408936,
-0.43165475130081177,
-0.38695454597473145,
-0.18848074972629547,
0.023700179532170296,
-0.4841447174549103,
-0.12585505843162537,
0.1939866989850998,
-0.8245676755905151,
-0.4952690303325653,
1.0617362260818481,
1.3149280548095703,
-0.404037743806839,
-0.3253842294216156,
-0.415602445602417,
0.187575101852417,
-0.4536110758781433,
-0.5889849066734314,
0.07630659639835358,
-0.020958231762051582,
-0.12609487771987915,
0.4977242350578308,
-0.5562620759010315,
0.11036630719900131,
0.17772234976291656,
0.977196991443634,
0.05128536745905876,
-0.8241423964500427,
0.4166473150253296,
0.04970372095704079,
-0.4732200503349304,
0.551853597164154,
-0.5537249445915222,
0.13961052894592285,
0.15577079355716705,
-0.2783565819263458,
-0.27030476927757263,
-0.1244627833366394,
-5.596335411071777,
-0.11507059633731842,
-0.31142503023147583,
-0.3858632445335388,
0.5509352087974548,
0.48265090584754944,
0.43036317825317383,
-0.2716235816478729,
0.21269425749778748,
-0.4638669788837433,
-0.19521090388298035,
-0.2826444208621979,
0.16587910056114197,
0.9738436341285706,
0.41238006949424744,
0.550448477268219,
0.8712881207466125,
-0.15199220180511475,
0.5218766927719116,
0.1478843241930008,
0.19789043068885803,
-0.7092634439468384,
-0.3850579261779785,
0.36410704255104065,
0.09651608020067215,
-0.22194382548332214,
-0.5540017485618591,
0.3244207799434662,
-0.9291251301765442,
0.04091633856296539,
0.19923290610313416,
0.0980294793844223,
-0.6377506852149963,
-0.6125413179397583,
-0.28533118963241577,
0.3509312868118286,
0.7729995846748352,
0.3640598654747009,
0.39141350984573364,
-0.20110438764095306,
0.2832411229610443,
0.09676595032215118,
-0.041824739426374435,
-0.0951300635933876,
0.29384416341781616,
0.019034385681152344,
-0.45156431198120117,
0.11989230662584305,
0.005125055089592934,
0.3689366281032562,
0.23860280215740204,
0.4373510777950287,
0.8393661379814148,
-0.004783248528838158,
-0.2703073024749756,
-0.29764479398727417,
0.8203139901161194,
0.015454635955393314,
-0.6892769932746887,
-0.2943394184112549,
0.48097148537635803,
-0.5160859227180481,
-0.282426118850708,
-0.5084149241447449,
-0.42413100600242615,
-0.5195848941802979,
0.42042276263237,
-0.23499959707260132,
-0.11897381395101547,
-0.005753616336733103,
-0.22011597454547882,
1.320756435394287,
-0.37712258100509644,
-1.0689836740493774,
0.13302847743034363,
-0.030472785234451294,
0.1794598549604416,
0.09653878957033157,
0.1794964075088501,
-0.04758843407034874,
0.0599873848259449,
-0.28252631425857544,
-0.4509435296058655,
0.6854775547981262,
-0.05336339399218559,
-0.11372171342372894,
-0.29234811663627625,
0.1844773143529892,
-0.4247913360595703,
0.015965396538376808,
0.3505454361438751,
-0.054186273366212845,
0.40946313738822937,
0.141963392496109,
0.6733609437942505,
-0.39606696367263794,
0.13884486258029938,
0.5493441820144653,
1.0113991498947144,
-0.33441197872161865,
-0.48375803232192993,
-0.247423455119133,
-0.34018850326538086,
-0.6386616826057434,
-0.36496078968048096,
-0.2545587122440338,
-0.3019684851169586,
-0.46377795934677124,
0.40745797753334045,
0.5174509882926941,
-0.3527551293373108,
-0.06466129422187805,
-0.6583324670791626,
-0.13553130626678467,
0.47661569714546204,
0.17247489094734192,
0.18148693442344666,
0.40985018014907837,
-0.016489947214722633,
-0.17367994785308838,
-0.46319371461868286,
0.03732968121767044,
0.35355061292648315,
0.24455995857715607,
0.6620736122131348,
-0.4334302544593811,
0.45589521527290344,
0.4727272093296051,
-0.46574318408966064,
0.24419306218624115,
0.03461972624063492,
1.0349353551864624,
-0.04477231949567795,
0.3934657871723175,
-0.328338086605072,
-0.3185117244720459,
-0.5213467478752136,
-0.07936073839664459,
0.020919781178236008,
-0.10076765716075897,
0.3878689706325531,
-0.06548554450273514,
0.2645747661590576,
0.32775741815567017,
0.3428229093551636,
0.3905883729457855,
0.2525999844074249,
0.22331878542900085,
-0.3258303999900818,
0.08719562739133835,
-0.15410654246807098,
-0.9495688676834106,
0.3194383382797241,
-0.20255732536315918,
-0.2838239073753357,
-0.16956093907356262,
-0.12272677570581436,
-0.013978277333080769,
-0.3493070602416992,
-0.10713376849889755,
-0.2335738241672516,
-0.05427595227956772,
-0.8361036777496338,
-0.2585463225841522,
0.1460779756307602,
0.1683245301246643,
-0.33382105827331543,
-0.45990732312202454,
-0.3383844196796417,
0.7460562586784363,
0.13273274898529053,
0.019433552399277687,
-0.6816583275794983,
-0.5267655253410339,
0.42607057094573975,
0.27626949548721313,
0.08203166723251343,
-0.6768976449966431,
0.16631025075912476,
-0.6056316494941711,
0.039364296942949295,
0.04356689751148224,
-0.6849083304405212,
0.3552197813987732,
0.527786374092102,
-0.7296239137649536,
-1.1297388076782227,
-0.3350493907928467,
-0.14938096702098846,
-0.3906826674938202,
-0.021189628168940544,
-0.42938482761383057,
0.4519517719745636,
0.25002986192703247,
-0.38945063948631287,
0.371214896440506,
0.2675953805446625,
-0.03100590780377388,
-0.63950514793396,
-0.5842793583869934,
-0.2371770590543747,
-0.11034823954105377,
-0.3698176443576813,
0.6204718947410583,
0.25391891598701477,
-1.149282455444336,
0.11912085115909576,
-0.01625937409698963,
-0.27248162031173706,
0.7639517188072205,
-0.29998940229415894,
-0.4491209387779236,
-0.0441458635032177,
0.158098965883255,
-0.392442911863327,
0.22268100082874298,
0.5086264610290527,
0.4323230981826782,
-0.4803802967071533,
-0.18543729186058044,
-0.19776108860969543,
-0.2112683653831482,
-0.15971596539020538,
0.12109807878732681,
-0.700412929058075,
0.44173145294189453,
0.48046553134918213,
-0.039018817245960236,
1.2460237741470337,
-0.6383774876594543,
-0.18781371414661407,
-0.043466489762067795,
0.03763232380151749,
0.25019657611846924,
0.0653945803642273,
-0.3513667583465576,
-0.4106420576572418,
0.5098360776901245,
-0.3547665774822235,
0.25683969259262085,
-0.17110282182693481,
0.7058632969856262,
0.07276958227157593,
-0.065009206533432,
-0.20517165958881378,
-0.4503536522388458,
0.3451400101184845,
-0.46172896027565,
0.010747324675321579,
0.04662067070603371,
0.20891404151916504,
-0.31546714901924133,
-0.12739722430706024,
-0.14613626897335052,
1.1337708234786987,
0.174263596534729,
-0.6657989621162415,
-0.09222400188446045,
0.3044073283672333,
-0.47177261114120483,
-0.23977218568325043,
0.15645082294940948,
-0.9942938089370728,
0.29652196168899536,
-0.35169827938079834,
0.6012547612190247,
-0.09396430104970932,
-0.6441535353660583,
0.8140612244606018,
-0.6185251474380493,
-0.06279399245977402,
-0.44625401496887207,
0.23548893630504608,
0.7377248406410217,
-0.22589972615242004,
0.12088135629892349,
0.44819876551628113,
-0.2282951921224594,
0.6660377979278564,
-0.3840373158454895,
-0.29231348633766174,
0.6439154744148254,
0.5336135625839233,
-0.4009648263454437,
0.5025635957717896,
-0.3933200240135193,
-0.4904244840145111,
-0.45884978771209717,
0.05756903439760208,
-0.242410346865654,
-0.8024570941925049,
0.5579904913902283,
-0.5791083574295044,
0.12839022278785706,
-0.5554106831550598,
0.0018233670853078365,
0.3719048500061035,
0.22682960331439972,
-0.2700480818748474,
0.25735852122306824,
-0.52535080909729,
0.21561820805072784,
0.1273873746395111,
0.08260203897953033,
0.1914324015378952,
-0.13957419991493225,
0.3361360728740692,
0.028149308636784554,
-0.5543908476829529,
0.26774659752845764,
0.03197278454899788,
-0.5352284908294678,
-0.14517147839069366,
0.9064827561378479,
-1.0661207437515259,
-0.4244176149368286,
0.6241902112960815,
-0.38817697763442993,
0.19537097215652466,
0.28251492977142334,
-0.2236323356628418,
-0.10125766694545746,
0.5501362085342407,
0.010336059145629406,
-0.31746023893356323,
0.6149567365646362,
0.24257278442382812,
-0.09755848348140717,
-0.4832502603530884,
0.01956465281546116,
0.24895498156547546,
-0.029328348115086555,
-0.18459072709083557,
0.5967390537261963,
-0.18580378592014313,
0.2013309895992279,
-0.15238700807094574,
-0.578580379486084,
-0.5508021116256714,
0.6628990769386292,
-0.25336754322052,
0.8870905041694641,
0.11977671086788177,
0.20943477749824524,
-0.12145856767892838,
0.1026792898774147,
-0.16334250569343567,
0.8681066036224365,
0.009271660819649696,
0.08629264682531357,
-0.18507133424282074,
-0.0979263111948967,
0.3843806982040405,
-0.649164617061615,
-0.06895206868648529,
-0.25867563486099243,
0.5375942587852478,
-0.19429634511470795,
0.2483403980731964,
-0.08274522423744202,
-0.24319233000278473,
-0.24892911314964294,
0.9020894169807434,
-0.27157360315322876,
-0.013601736165583134,
-0.22292757034301758,
-0.32272058725357056,
-0.8482156991958618,
0.10321781784296036,
0.2950971722602844,
-0.014999793842434883,
0.01682109571993351,
-0.37181520462036133,
0.6472874879837036,
-0.28817659616470337,
-0.1554795801639557,
0.7298274636268616,
-0.04142386093735695,
-0.041401006281375885,
-0.08393310755491257,
0.046174511313438416,
-0.1709858626127243,
-0.4076770842075348,
-0.6062456965446472,
0.0011106675956398249,
0.35322168469429016,
0.1422281116247177,
1.0617954730987549,
0.7295787334442139,
-0.17358817160129547,
0.5900872945785522,
-0.7956467270851135,
-0.05853858217597008,
0.17129510641098022,
-0.4071634113788605,
0.2695036828517914,
-0.2765013873577118,
0.30140650272369385,
0.5713735818862915,
-0.2279171645641327,
0.08443963527679443,
0.3043031692504883,
0.05466309189796448,
-0.10875954478979111,
0.08629975467920303,
0.05570748820900917,
-0.45543548464775085,
-0.1250806599855423,
-0.49579930305480957,
0.5478708744049072,
-0.5661422610282898,
0.38350221514701843,
-0.36622655391693115,
0.6096898913383484,
-0.12030575424432755,
-0.1489693522453308,
0.41075795888900757,
-0.41386014223098755,
-0.22386108338832855,
0.08488145470619202,
-0.01907540112733841,
0.15487273037433624,
-0.014092651195824146,
0.10371296107769012,
0.21495191752910614,
-0.3471986949443817,
0.03395320847630501,
-0.018066029995679855,
0.32299530506134033,
0.269437313079834,
0.7548794150352478,
-0.2551780045032501,
-0.6109015941619873,
-0.20576705038547516,
-0.2620965540409088,
-0.32722780108451843,
0.11561950296163559,
0.5377181172370911,
0.348715603351593,
-0.6994114518165588,
-0.28238916397094727,
-0.07604753971099854,
0.09985119104385376,
0.02998141199350357,
-0.6632270216941833,
0.03753871098160744,
-0.013300701044499874,
-0.8056988716125488,
0.3753141462802887,
0.7565349340438843,
-0.054049212485551834,
-0.41485360264778137,
0.08473406732082367,
-0.3923414945602417,
0.2947806715965271,
0.27630841732025146,
0.12063831090927124,
-0.10367655754089355,
0.33333075046539307,
0.32426032423973083
] |
213227
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Tennessee%20%28ACR-10%29
|
USS Tennessee (ACR-10)
|
The second USS Tennessee (ACR-10), also referred to as "Armored Cruiser No. 10", and later renamed Memphis, was a United States Navy armored cruiser, the lead ship of her class.
She was laid down by the Cramp Shipbuilding Company of Philadelphia on 20 June 1903, launched on 3 December 1904, sponsored by Ms. Annie K. Frazier (daughter of Governor James B. Frazier of Tennessee and later the foundress of the Society of Sponsors of the United States Navy), and commissioned at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on 17 July 1906, Captain Albert Gleaves Berry in command.
Operational career
The new armored cruiser departed Hampton Roads on 8 November 1906 as escort for in which President Theodore Roosevelt had embarked for a cruise to Panama to check on the progress of work constructing the Panama Canal. After a brief visit to Puerto Rico on the return voyage, the warships arrived back at Hampton Roads on 26 November.
Following a yard period for repairs, Tennessee left Hampton Roads on 16 April 1907 for the Jamestown Exposition, held from 7 to 11 June 1907, to commemorate the tricentennial of the founding of the first English settlement in America.
On 14 June, Tennessee sailed for Europe in company with and reached Royan, France on the 23rd for duty with the Special Service Squadron. She returned home in August but departed Hampton Roads on 12 October for the Pacific, where she became flagship for the second division of the Pacific Fleet.
Tennessee then patrolled off the California coast until 24 August 1908 but suffered a boiler tube explosion on 5 June, which killed seven men, while steaming at full speed. The explosion occurred just after the rear admiral in charge of the squadron had visited on a tour of inspection; had the explosion taken place a few minutes earlier, he might have been among the casualties. Since the ship's 16 boilers were sub-divided into separate watertight compartments, the rest of the engineering section was not affected. Once repairs had been made and her tour had ended, Tennessee sailed for Samoa, arriving at Pago Pago on 23 September to resume service with the Pacific Fleet. On 15 May 1910, she arrived at Bahía Blanca to represent the United States at the centenary celebration of the independence of Argentina. On 8 November, the armored cruiser departed Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and proceeded to Charleston, South Carolina, to embark President William Howard Taft for a round trip voyage to Panama to inspect further progress on the canal. She returned to Hampton Roads on 22 November and then engaged in battle practice off the Virginia coast into February 1911. Following a Mardi Gras visit to New Orleans and a visit to New York City early in March, the ship steamed to Cuban waters for two months of operations out of Guantanamo Bay.
Placed in reserve at the Portsmouth Navy Yard on 15 June 1911, she remained on the east coast for 18 months before departing Philadelphia on 12 November 1912 for the Mediterranean. Arriving off Smyrna (now İzmir), Turkey on 1 December, she remained there protecting American citizens and property during the First Balkan War until 3 May 1913, when she headed home. After reaching Hampton Roads on the 23rd, Tennessee operated on the East Coast until entering the Atlantic Reserve Fleet at Philadelphia on 23 October. On 2 May 1914, she became receiving ship at the New York Navy Yard.
On 4 November, Tennessee arrived in Beirut, what was then Syria, to protect the Christian population there in case of attack by Syrian Muslims.
On 6 August, Tennessee sailed from New York for duty in Europe through the first half of 1915 supporting the American Relief Expedition by carrying gold bullion and other resources to assist in the extraction of American refugees from war-ravaged Europe. In August, she transported the 1st Regiment, Marine Expeditionary Force, and the Marine Artillery Battalion to Haiti. From 28 January-24 February 1916, the cruiser served as flagship of a cruiser squadron off Port-au-Prince, Haiti. In March, she embarked a group of dignitaries at Hampton Roads for a two-month, round trip cruise to Montevideo, Uruguay.
On 25 May 1916, Tennessee was renamed Memphis, honoring the city of Memphis, Tennessee, so that the name "Tennessee" could be reassigned to the new battleship .
In July 1916, under the command of Captain Edward L. Beach, Sr., the ship got underway for the Caribbean arriving at Santo Domingo on 23 July for peace-keeping patrol off the rebellion-torn Dominican Republic.
Loss
Memphis was at anchor off a rocky beach in of water in the harbor of Santo Domingo on the afternoon of 29 August 1916 with two of her 16 boilers operating in case she needed to get underway; the gunboat also was anchored in the harbor. Shortly after 12:00, Memphis began to roll heavily and Captain Beach observed an unexpected heavy swell developing. Memphis and Castine both made preparations to leave the harbor and began to raise steam; Memphis expected to be able to get underway at about 16:35.
Conditions in the harbor had deteriorated badly by 15:45, when Memphis sighted an approaching wave of yellow water stretching along the entire horizon. By 16:00, the wave was closer, had turned ochre in color, and had reached about in height; at the same time, Memphis was rolling 45°, so heavily that large amounts of water cascaded into the ship via her gun ports and water even was entering the ship via ventilators above the waterline. By 16:25, water began to enter the ship via her funnels, above the waterline, putting out the fires in her boilers and preventing her from raising enough steam to get underway. She began to strike the rocky harbor bottom at 16:40, damaging her propellers just as she was raising enough steam to begin moving, and her engines lost steam pressure.
At about this time, the giant wave Memphis had seen approaching over the past hour arrived; she rolled into a deep trough and was struck immediately by what proved to be three very large waves in rapid succession, the highest of them estimated by the crew to have been in height, completely swamping her except for her highest points, and washing crewmen overboard. The waves rolled her heavily, caused her to strike the harbor bottom, then pushed her to the beach away. By 17:00, she had been driven under cliffs along the coast of the harbor and was resting on the harbor bottom. She was battered into a complete wreck in 90 minutes. Castine, meanwhile, managed to reach safer waters by getting underway and putting to sea through the large waves, although damaged by them and at times in danger of capsizing.
Memphiss casualties numbered 43 men dead or missing – 10 of them washed overboard by the waves or killed by steam as the ship's powerplant broke up, another 25 lost as they returned from shore leave in the ship's motor launch and were caught in the harbor by the huge breakers, and eight more lost in three boats wrecked after dark as they attempted to reach shore – and 204 badly injured. Due to their heroic actions during this incident, Chief Machinist's Mate George William Rud, Lieutenant Claud Ashton Jones, and Machinist Charles H. Willey were awarded the Medal of Honor.
Alternative explanations for the wreck
In his 1966 account of the incident, The Wreck of the Memphis, Captain Beachs son, Edward L. Beach Jr., ascribed her loss to an unexpected tsunami exceeding in height, and this explanation has been carried forward by most sources discussing her loss. More recent research, however, has called this explanation into question. No record of any seismic event in the Caribbean on 29 August 1916 that could have triggered a tsunami has been found, and the rate of advance of the large wave Memphis reported – about an hour to cross the distance from the horizon to the ship – matches that of a wind-generated ocean wave (possibly a rogue wave); a tsunami, in contrast, would have covered the distance in only a few minutes. The periods of the three large waves that struck Memphis also are characteristic of large wind-generated waves rather than tsunamis.
A likely source for such large, wind-generated waves in Santo Domingo Harbor on 29 August 1916 does exist, in that three hurricanes active in the Caribbean between 12 August and 2 September 1916 passed westward just to the south. Waves generated from these storms could well have combined to create a large wave like those that struck and wrecked Memphis. Such a circumstance appears to explain the loss of the ship better than the tsunami theory. Oceanographer Dr. George Pararas-Carayannis in particular published an extensively detailed rebuttal demonstrating that a tsunami could not have caused the foundering of Memphis, but that the last of the three hurricanes, category 1 Hurricane Eight, likely did, creating a wave that reached a breaker height of as it approached Memphis. This swamped the cruiser, anchored in only of water, and would have done so even had the ship been at full maneuvering power. Pararas-Carayannis concluded that had Memphis been anchored in of water, she would have ridden out the swells, including the killer wave.
Salvage efforts
Although Memphis came to rest upright and appeared relatively undamaged above the waterline, it was apparent as early as the day after the disaster that she was not worth repairing; she was outdated by 1916, she had suffered the destruction of her propulsion plant and severe distortion of her hull structure, and her bottom had been driven in. Accordingly, the United States Department of the Navy assigned the crew of the battleship , or the wrecking vessel Henlopen, to strip her of her guns, supplies, and equipment for use on other ships. New Hampshires crew left Memphis without her guns, with much of her topside gear missing, and with her gun turrets rotated off the centerline.
Memphiss ship's bell was presented to a local church as a gesture of thanks to citizens of Santo Domingo who had helped to rescue the ship's crew.
Final disposition
Memphis was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 17 December 1917 and sold to the A. H. Radetsky Iron and Metal Company of Denver, Colorado, on 17 January 1922 for scrapping for the sum of $3,000 (US$ in ). Scrapped on site, her wreck proved difficult to dismantle, and the last of it did not disappear from the Santo Domingo shoreline until 1938.
Her bronze bow scrollwork, removed approximately 1909, is on display on a concrete mockup of her bow in Nashville, Tennessee's Centennial Park.
References
Author not listed, "The Tennessee Accident." In "Service Items," The Navy (Washington DC: Navy Publishing Company), June 1908. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
Alden, John D. American Steel Navy: A Photographic History of the U.S. Navy from the Introduction of the Steel Hull in 1883 to the Cruise of the Great White Fleet. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989.
Beach, Edward L., Jr. The Wreck of the Memphis. New York, New York: Holt, Rinear, and Wiston, 1966. Naval Institute Press Classics of Naval Literature 1998 re-print
Friedman, Norman. U.S. Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1984.
Musicant, Ivan. U.S. Armored Cruisers: A Design and Operational History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985.
Smith, Craig B. Extreme Waves. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press, 2006. .
External links
USS Tennessee (Armored Cruiser # 10), 1906–1916. Renamed Memphis in May 1916
Tennessee-class cruisers
Ships built by William Cramp & Sons
1904 ships
Shipwrecks in the Caribbean Sea
United States Navy Tennessee-related ships
Maritime incidents in 1916
Rogue wave incidents
|
[
-1.0428158044815063,
0.12962432205677032,
-0.4275907576084137,
0.2579320967197418,
0.08098596334457397,
0.8309396505355835,
0.00532484520226717,
-0.18526789546012878,
-0.48696979880332947,
-0.04933367669582367,
0.18422740697860718,
0.8369272947311401,
-0.1011926606297493,
0.02443479374051094,
0.08162428438663483,
0.2603689134120941,
0.10926714539527893,
0.5171669125556946,
-0.21704497933387756,
-0.4688085615634918,
-0.22852762043476105,
-0.3576759099960327,
0.574209451675415,
-0.042708296328783035,
0.03419356793165207,
0.021213222295045853,
0.7905364632606506,
0.28044918179512024,
0.6930542588233948,
0.1878824681043625,
-0.4280940890312195,
0.8063328862190247,
0.14819633960723877,
-0.10841242969036102,
-0.07093983143568039,
0.0024819145910441875,
0.30367788672447205,
-0.32286593317985535,
0.29725563526153564,
-0.22502194344997406,
-0.7118977308273315,
-0.04206652194261551,
-0.010163123719394207,
0.34084102511405945,
0.07562702149152756,
0.08096490800380707,
-2.256700277328491,
-0.4760299623012543,
-0.0646914690732956,
-0.29240694642066956,
0.07430242002010345,
0.14613819122314453,
0.5596958994865417,
0.3250472843647003,
0.14571671187877655,
0.7820767164230347,
-1.1854327917099,
0.07111620157957077,
-0.04146692156791687,
-0.1210649237036705,
0.20085088908672333,
0.17803896963596344,
0.4247899055480957,
-0.0026085220742970705,
0.00744804460555315,
0.2779260277748108,
-0.6512665748596191,
0.5705373287200928,
-0.10833722352981567,
0.33971652388572693,
-0.11178356409072876,
-0.7320900559425354,
0.23765595257282257,
0.2860618829727173,
-0.6784957647323608,
0.11772587895393372,
-0.30338218808174133,
-0.2904701828956604,
0.016925573348999023,
0.0990566834807396,
0.16000615060329437,
0.6430021524429321,
0.8774466514587402,
-0.198799267411232,
-0.2583473324775696,
0.19490385055541992,
-0.6506231427192688,
-0.4767719507217407,
-0.5063871145248413,
0.5625576972961426,
-0.9589117169380188,
0.038918785750865936,
-0.16094179451465607,
1.0504952669143677,
0.19975179433822632,
0.07652763277292252,
-0.3596777021884918,
-0.09363098442554474,
0.12077835947275162,
0.851112961769104,
0.20082710683345795,
0.42819270491600037,
0.925355076789856,
0.011604302562773228,
-0.6198991537094116,
-0.2380942404270172,
-0.5519880056381226,
-0.20946380496025085,
-0.510225772857666,
-0.5629600882530212,
-0.4018382430076599,
0.718338668346405,
-0.2777103781700134,
-0.2326759546995163,
-0.5324742794036865,
0.534725546836853,
0.3095618486404419,
-0.5877407789230347,
0.19461210072040558,
-0.19716618955135345,
0.3658641576766968,
1.2279855012893677,
-0.7716494798660278,
-0.057325202971696854,
0.28135302662849426,
0.34192153811454773,
0.46504369378089905,
0.28440460562705994,
-0.15433785319328308,
0.6660046577453613,
0.2980900704860687,
0.6976096034049988,
-0.30953726172447205,
0.0739026889204979,
-0.16318270564079285,
-0.6469860672950745,
0.18766939640045166,
0.5205639004707336,
0.7366980910301208,
0.7170438766479492,
-0.9161651134490967,
-0.5271263122558594,
-0.9835113286972046,
-0.6982999444007874,
0.5208520293235779,
-0.06892678886651993,
-0.05717488378286362,
0.09744682163000107,
-0.45894572138786316,
-0.012994016520678997,
0.3288080394268036,
-0.7123789191246033,
0.07828743010759354,
0.392570823431015,
-0.352154403924942,
-0.10403279960155487,
0.35440564155578613,
-0.6058108806610107,
0.4109620153903961,
0.7624815106391907,
-0.4961080253124237,
0.22872528433799744,
0.05846567451953888,
0.033029261976480484,
-0.03410479798913002,
0.2274755984544754,
0.5106273293495178,
-0.4378754198551178,
0.4115867018699646,
-0.18175563216209412,
-0.38457247614860535,
-0.1252799928188324,
0.5705283284187317,
-0.13116496801376343,
0.36961933970451355,
0.09869513660669327,
0.9470569491386414,
0.1057942733168602,
0.4139499068260193,
-0.5079745054244995,
-0.6673272848129272,
0.0894680917263031,
0.7827498316764832,
-0.05104604363441467,
0.3205423355102539,
-0.12107774615287781,
0.4014468193054199,
0.15092182159423828,
-0.24055904150009155,
0.0703459307551384,
-0.27894794940948486,
-0.08997740596532822,
0.037617817521095276,
0.3195820748806,
1.2098034620285034,
0.1811773180961609,
-0.3777658939361572,
-0.44770511984825134,
0.4196776747703552,
0.7344788908958435,
0.7169436812400818,
-0.5129111409187317,
0.5015959143638611,
-0.06121949478983879,
-0.8284717202186584,
0.502925455570221,
-0.11248600482940674,
0.40316078066825867,
0.500790536403656,
1.0818015336990356,
-0.08943834900856018,
-0.5362901091575623,
-0.2046908140182495,
-0.29666727781295776,
0.10622512549161911,
-0.14310312271118164,
0.47285109758377075,
-0.41442766785621643,
-0.25147077441215515,
-0.5304149389266968,
0.7385823726654053,
0.04646199941635132,
0.023391572758555412,
-0.2527342140674591,
-0.1503438651561737,
0.01990756206214428,
-0.4554010033607483,
0.5905397534370422,
-0.5063148736953735,
-0.30237966775894165,
0.8680828213691711,
0.3163796365261078,
-0.9085190296173096,
-0.8597633838653564,
0.46916621923446655,
0.2431611567735672,
-0.4522162675857544,
-0.6007937788963318,
0.6166209578514099,
-0.2638903260231018,
-0.4250638782978058,
0.7137467265129089,
-0.8345855474472046,
0.38934874534606934,
-0.030015351250767708,
-0.7840719819068909,
0.45902952551841736,
0.19591176509857178,
-0.05118120461702347,
-0.9060450792312622,
-0.0696326419711113,
0.4540104866027832,
0.5944464802742004,
-0.5525485277175903,
-0.3925759792327881,
0.3235725164413452,
-0.077146515250206,
0.1881416141986847,
0.362537145614624,
-0.35363516211509705,
-0.3855535089969635,
0.5791767835617065,
0.238156259059906,
0.3012874722480774,
0.3603838086128235,
-0.3958137631416321,
-0.2916826903820038,
0.0773799866437912,
0.0951937660574913,
-0.15837769210338593,
0.5169280171394348,
-0.2876019775867462,
0.4696997106075287,
-1.5986735820770264,
0.24042384326457977,
0.0013123992830514908,
-0.20707380771636963,
0.6839303374290466,
-0.9506440758705139,
-0.6234086751937866,
0.8658269643783569,
1.3828654289245605,
0.4367128610610962,
-0.30524715781211853,
-0.31366947293281555,
-0.21732811629772186,
0.1658795326948166,
-0.3164440989494324,
-0.27885112166404724,
-0.32069694995880127,
-0.3590650260448456,
-0.3613978922367096,
-0.7686231136322021,
0.3417465388774872,
0.07850795984268188,
0.5178347229957581,
0.060542911291122437,
0.32227566838264465,
0.02603304386138916,
0.04525528475642204,
-0.7275850176811218,
-0.017122091725468636,
-0.5874376893043518,
-0.005635833367705345,
-0.22189904749393463,
-0.3383958339691162,
-0.4418642520904541,
0.4508010745048523,
-4.983526706695557,
0.013131750747561455,
-0.6715661287307739,
-0.11482628434896469,
0.16427560150623322,
0.30907729268074036,
-0.05724519491195679,
0.022001948207616806,
-0.468511164188385,
0.02587485872209072,
0.4084688127040863,
0.23311930894851685,
-0.13835138082504272,
-0.04518778622150421,
0.018579009920358658,
0.6245778203010559,
0.4492386281490326,
-0.24144349992275238,
0.3701593279838562,
0.09045039862394333,
0.21115699410438538,
-0.3820391297340393,
-0.32856956124305725,
0.08645924925804138,
0.64936363697052,
0.011140730232000351,
-0.46494293212890625,
0.21945777535438538,
-0.8336641192436218,
-0.2049420177936554,
0.17774131894111633,
-0.3296482264995575,
0.3664328157901764,
-0.2103428840637207,
0.2328312247991562,
-0.5880287885665894,
0.5678582787513733,
0.04116553068161011,
0.3351234495639801,
-0.7418919801712036,
-0.7422394156455994,
-0.2141607105731964,
0.1033555343747139,
0.7149702906608582,
0.32167449593544006,
-0.002504618838429451,
0.13824445009231567,
-0.34412139654159546,
0.5559014081954956,
1.192423701286316,
0.1676294505596161,
0.07435765862464905,
0.5068216919898987,
0.4663345515727997,
0.42342904210090637,
-0.32718366384506226,
0.2746257185935974,
-0.06762409210205078,
0.07883307337760925,
-0.322466105222702,
0.305207222700119,
-0.2695561349391937,
-0.39295828342437744,
-0.5066499710083008,
0.03925946727395058,
-0.48981738090515137,
0.22539307177066803,
0.4249016344547272,
0.8733420968055725,
-0.3129217326641083,
-0.32521528005599976,
1.2648452520370483,
-0.29843491315841675,
-0.888140082359314,
0.2996596097946167,
-0.3271963596343994,
-0.3990207612514496,
-0.15174537897109985,
-0.8117398619651794,
0.038503702729940414,
0.09459995478391647,
-0.15519779920578003,
-0.1193518415093422,
0.5760495662689209,
0.23142431676387787,
-0.4752757251262665,
-0.7258127331733704,
0.28937453031539917,
-0.14585691690444946,
0.04566727206110954,
0.018671821802854538,
-0.5116464495658875,
0.48731961846351624,
0.05161542072892189,
0.46620479226112366,
-0.7705726027488708,
0.37019017338752747,
0.5078067779541016,
0.774075984954834,
-0.4897277057170868,
0.03909435495734215,
-0.6555155515670776,
0.272519588470459,
0.2827427387237549,
-0.701760470867157,
-0.487322062253952,
-0.371888667345047,
-0.021509205922484398,
0.8201502561569214,
-0.028454836457967758,
-0.06749992817640305,
-0.89109206199646,
0.13862396776676178,
-0.7514123320579529,
0.8575677871704102,
0.48663973808288574,
0.09377213567495346,
0.4875865876674652,
0.6398217082023621,
0.573142945766449,
0.008988727815449238,
0.6242746710777283,
-0.45830196142196655,
-0.2818155586719513,
-0.17860974371433258,
-0.6426888704299927,
0.3048267364501953,
0.2610207796096802,
-0.8023362755775452,
0.004086238797754049,
0.21425212919712067,
0.14259073138237,
-0.5530755519866943,
0.165082186460495,
-0.31247636675834656,
-0.6857112646102905,
0.14541003108024597,
0.01801939867436886,
0.5633493065834045,
-0.2830370366573334,
-0.4651196300983429,
-0.166093111038208,
-0.4440985321998596,
0.020081263035535812,
0.9387413859367371,
0.6578794121742249,
0.6819247007369995,
-0.1457875818014145,
-0.6323485970497131,
0.2712201178073883,
-0.16059370338916779,
-0.8220365643501282,
0.06706840544939041,
-0.7965582013130188,
-0.22963456809520721,
0.29425814747810364,
0.13222526013851166,
0.05344846099615097,
-0.3369183838367462,
-0.21697543561458588,
0.27771881222724915,
0.10789966583251953,
-0.320096492767334,
-0.9136437773704529,
0.6325355768203735,
0.30759942531585693,
0.017247021198272705,
-1.1536835432052612,
-0.30332082509994507,
0.6236752271652222,
0.18264976143836975,
-0.5525175333023071,
-0.6280568838119507,
-0.08186810463666916,
0.5589014887809753,
-0.019941721111536026,
-0.06220192462205887,
-0.08529585599899292,
0.2100263088941574,
-0.16081036627292633,
-0.27278077602386475,
-0.22067394852638245,
0.05362609401345253,
0.3155100345611572,
0.22773727774620056,
0.13133688271045685,
-0.5636494755744934,
0.3970726728439331,
-0.5657179951667786,
-0.15603922307491302,
-0.023762479424476624,
-0.7041072845458984,
0.4579455554485321,
0.24569502472877502,
-0.7461539506912231,
0.320919930934906,
0.13778017461299896,
0.18577024340629578,
0.6611701846122742,
-0.8987197279930115,
0.20465552806854248,
0.6698493957519531,
-0.8415566086769104,
0.8219263553619385,
0.09489015489816666,
-0.2558423578739166,
0.4973085820674896,
-0.08551377803087234,
-0.3958979845046997,
0.44404834508895874,
0.4343212842941284,
-0.94346022605896,
0.31183838844299316,
0.9414719343185425,
-0.21279942989349365,
-0.21790683269500732,
0.1977391541004181,
0.3503773510456085,
-0.39491358399391174,
-0.6658610701560974,
-0.46857553720474243,
-0.508117139339447,
-0.15955014526844025,
-0.3939574658870697,
-0.9075354337692261,
0.4355531632900238,
0.10757456719875336,
-0.8424351811408997,
0.39203375577926636,
-0.4951929748058319,
-0.32186779379844666,
0.396318644285202,
0.08160778135061264,
-0.14574244618415833,
0.3520815372467041,
-0.07446976751089096,
-0.18934407830238342,
-0.04605726897716522,
0.020142121240496635,
0.6004660129547119,
0.554701566696167,
0.7676548957824707,
-0.015715427696704865,
-0.37128984928131104,
-0.7827857732772827,
-0.011498868465423584,
0.19184336066246033,
-0.41442322731018066,
-0.18795132637023926,
0.28940099477767944,
0.36301955580711365,
-0.8513448238372803,
-0.9985056519508362,
-0.3083495795726776,
0.9859256744384766,
-0.8368509411811829,
-0.7244542837142944,
-0.03759999945759773,
-0.41372108459472656,
-0.1346094310283661,
-0.33115118741989136,
0.4086672067642212,
-0.7412878274917603,
0.24364343285560608,
0.5362989902496338,
0.419917494058609,
-0.12399761378765106,
-0.5357416868209839,
0.5959967374801636,
-0.3317243754863739,
-0.09619372338056564,
0.4942874014377594,
0.7194022536277771,
0.35678258538246155,
-0.2023807168006897,
-0.05800923332571983,
0.27007439732551575,
-0.4013865888118744,
0.8583487272262573,
-0.0846889540553093,
0.38690462708473206,
0.44301384687423706,
-0.08526841551065445,
-0.24744679033756256,
0.29120564460754395,
-0.5921450257301331,
-0.5633293390274048,
-0.6939349174499512,
-0.1942649632692337,
0.2646050751209259,
0.642738938331604,
-0.08122514188289642,
-0.4801231920719147,
-0.050115711987018585,
0.06728380173444748,
0.5026258826255798,
-0.05230331048369408,
-0.4694964289665222,
-0.1270473450422287,
0.518272340297699,
-0.5192431211471558,
1.2357380390167236,
-0.270332008600235,
0.06398256868124008,
0.21973292529582977,
0.16432437300682068,
0.2902977466583252,
-0.0085154939442873,
-0.3071567714214325,
-0.21293425559997559,
-0.35576140880584717,
-0.5804738402366638,
0.09070072323083878,
0.9274136424064636,
-0.4919632077217102,
-0.13460773229599,
0.4189598858356476,
-0.27091357111930847,
-0.09602843970060349,
0.020447229966521263,
-0.3641805648803711,
-0.018429839983582497,
0.3140190541744232,
0.9370787739753723,
-0.13117268681526184,
0.6686810255050659,
-0.7489708662033081,
-0.41165077686309814,
0.5410900115966797,
0.6648765206336975,
0.18044497072696686,
-0.3541453778743744,
-0.5367283821105957,
0.7449161410331726,
-0.05709495767951012,
0.43072935938835144,
0.8387314677238464,
-0.47744712233543396,
-0.26956602931022644,
0.9101853370666504,
-0.3097412586212158,
0.335196852684021,
0.04807358607649803,
-0.04474528506398201,
-0.09423992782831192,
0.1508038491010666,
-0.2609217166900635,
0.29031315445899963,
0.49832287430763245,
0.02347422204911709,
-0.17571547627449036,
0.4719241261482239,
0.11755187064409256,
0.02213292010128498,
-0.3328048288822174,
0.35187873244285583,
0.22123441100120544,
-0.7455531358718872,
-0.3647468090057373,
-0.35587450861930847,
-0.45692044496536255,
0.5695574283599854,
0.4415522515773773,
-0.04599999636411667,
-0.18773628771305084,
-0.3224814236164093,
-0.4584413170814514,
0.05635371804237366,
-0.00870495941489935,
0.5819544792175293,
0.21162284910678864,
0.3409207761287689,
-0.07974588871002197,
-0.22643572092056274,
0.8082817196846008,
0.49598434567451477,
0.03596016764640808,
-0.609607994556427,
0.2100348025560379,
0.39268118143081665,
-0.39027777314186096,
0.40064671635627747,
-0.05376520752906799,
-1.124332308769226,
0.100185826420784,
0.19068846106529236,
-0.38443368673324585,
0.35883617401123047,
0.41881701350212097,
-0.09398201107978821,
-0.13050785660743713,
-0.681303083896637,
-0.05531376600265503,
-0.21896322071552277,
-0.5423260927200317,
0.21698080003261566,
-0.0168524868786335,
0.0696866363286972,
0.04934015870094299,
0.4155137240886688,
-0.2751207947731018,
0.3710550367832184,
0.004564183764159679,
0.4520886540412903,
-0.40711846947669983,
0.32167869806289673,
-0.39846131205558777,
0.4863940477371216,
-0.3311675786972046,
0.11902771890163422,
-0.3302170932292938,
0.1818820834159851,
-0.18715357780456543,
0.47998443245887756,
0.006330419797450304,
0.12274350225925446,
0.7704721093177795,
-0.697645366191864,
-0.4410684108734131,
-0.5149857997894287,
0.332589328289032,
-0.5976244211196899,
0.08665751665830612,
0.6331181526184082,
-0.5494401454925537,
-0.77625572681427,
0.10928847640752792,
-0.34334883093833923,
0.1723042130470276,
0.06290688365697861,
0.1929640769958496,
0.3476165533065796,
-0.7498781681060791,
-0.2495678961277008,
-0.24807916581630707,
0.02706143818795681,
0.15481847524642944,
0.47685933113098145,
0.7585909962654114,
0.33012887835502625,
0.06005174294114113,
-0.5271116495132446,
0.7744634747505188,
0.18639861047267914,
-1.411887288093567,
-0.32138970494270325,
-0.21783049404621124,
-0.5691034197807312,
0.08884044736623764,
0.6416563987731934,
-0.03021879680454731,
-0.6424235105514526,
0.10391233116388321,
-0.11128362268209457,
0.18146133422851562,
-0.08493697643280029,
0.41741669178009033,
-0.07030440866947174,
0.04565872997045517,
-0.23986826837062836
] |
213233
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Redstone%203
|
Mercury-Redstone 3
|
Mercury-Redstone 3, or Freedom 7, was the first United States human spaceflight, on May 5, 1961, piloted by astronaut Alan Shepard. It was the first crewed flight of Project Mercury. The project had the ultimate objective of putting an astronaut into orbit around the Earth and return him safely. Shepard's mission was a 15-minute suborbital flight with the primary objective of demonstrating his ability to withstand the high g-forces of launch and atmospheric re-entry.
Shepard named his space capsule Freedom 7, setting a precedent for the remaining six Mercury astronauts naming their spacecraft. The number 7 was included in all the crewed Mercury spacecraft names to honor NASA's first group of seven astronauts. His spacecraft reached an altitude of 101.2 nautical miles (116.5 statute miles, 187.5 km) and traveled a downrange distance of 263.1 nautical miles (302.8 statute miles, 487.3 km). It was the fourth Mercury flight launched with the Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle, from Cape Canaveral, Florida, close to the Atlantic Ocean.
During the flight, Shepard observed the Earth and tested the capsule's attitude control system, turning the capsule around to face its blunt heat shield forward for atmospheric re-entry. He also tested the retrorockets which would return later missions from orbit, though the capsule did not have enough energy to remain in orbit. After re-entry, the capsule landed by parachute on the North Atlantic Ocean off the Bahamas. Shepard and the capsule were picked up by helicopter and brought to U.S. Navy aircraft carrier USS Lake Champlain.
The mission was a technical success, though American pride in the accomplishment was damped by the fact that just three weeks before, the Soviet Union had launched the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin, who completed one orbit on Vostok 1 (but was controversial in that Gagarin had violated FAI rules that stated the pilot had to remain in the spacecraft, as he had ejected prior to landing, in violation of FAI rules ). In 2017 the first National Astronaut Day was held on May 5 to pay tribute to this first U.S. flight, and the first legally completed human spaceflight in history.
Preparation
The Freedom 7 spacecraft, Mercury capsule #7, was delivered to Cape Canaveral on December 9, 1960. It had originally been expected that a mission could be launched soon after the spacecraft was available, but Capsule #7 turned out to require extensive development and testing work before it was deemed safe for flight. However, as it had been earmarked since the summer as the first crewed spacecraft, the decision was taken to delay the mission until this particular capsule was ready, with a tentative launch date of March 6, rather than use an alternative capsule. The booster originally intended for the flight, Redstone #3, had been delivered to the Cape in early December; however, it was then used on the MR-1A test flight on December 19. The replacement, Redstone #7, did not arrive at the Cape until late March; by this time, however, the mission had already been postponed to await the results of another test flight.
In late 1960, there had been a growing number of concerns about the standards of the Redstone launch vehicle; the MR-2 test flight, 'piloted' by Ham (chimpanzee), had experienced technical problems during the launch leading to the spacecraft flying too high, too far and too fast. As a result, the mission was two minutes longer than planned, and the re-entry subjected Ham to 14.7g rather than the planned figure of approximately 12g. The splashdown point was sixty miles from the nearest recovery ship, and it was over two and a half hours before a helicopter could recover the capsule and its passenger – by which time it had almost sunk. As a result, NASA was unwilling to launch the MR-3 mission without further development work; by late February, there were still seven major alterations they had made to the booster which required testing. An additional testing flight was accordingly added to the schedule, MR-BD (for "Booster Development"; it was originally known as MR-2A). This would launch on March 28, pushing the MR-3 flight back a month to April 25. The MR-BD flight was almost completely successful, ensuring that the crewed MR-3 flight could proceed without further significant delay.
The pilot for MR-3 had been chosen several months in advance, in early January, by the head of the program, Robert R. Gilruth. He had selected Alan Shepard (Navy) as the primary pilot, with John Glenn (Marine) and Gus Grissom (Air Force) as his backups; the other members of the Mercury Seven continued to train for later missions. The three names were announced to the press on February 22 without any indication as to which of the three was expected to fly the mission. Shepard's name was only announced publicly after the initial launch attempt had been canceled, as Gilruth wished to keep his options open in the event that last-minute personnel changes were required. Glenn served as Shepard's backup on launch day, with Grissom focusing on training for MR-4, the next suborbital mission.
The initial launch attempt, on May 2, was canceled due to weather problems two hours and 20 minutes before the launch time, with Shepard waiting in a hangar already suited and prepared. The flight was rescheduled for two days later, when it was delayed one more day due to inclement weather conditions, until 5 May, with an expected launch time of 7:20 am. EST.
Crew
Flight
The countdown began at 8:30 p.m. the previous night, with Shepard waking up and eating a breakfast of steak and eggs with toast, coffee, and orange juice (the steak and eggs breakfast would soon become a tradition for astronauts the morning of a launch). He entered the spacecraft at 5:15 am. ET, just over two hours before the planned 7:20 launch time. At 7:05 am, the launch was held for an hour to let cloud cover clear – good visibility would be essential for photographs of the Earth – and fix a power supply unit; shortly after the count restarted, another hold was called in order to reboot a computer at Goddard Space Flight Center. The count was eventually resumed, after slightly over two and a half hours of unplanned holds, and continued with no further faults. All of the delays resulted in Shepard lying on his back in the capsule for almost three hours, by which point he complained to the blockhouse crew that he had a severe need to urinate (because the mission would last under 20 minutes, nobody had thought to equip the Mercury with a urine collection device). The crew told him that this was impossible as they would have to set the White Room back up and waste considerable amounts of time removing the Mercury's heavily bolted hatch. An irate Shepard then announced that if he could not get out for a bathroom trip, he would simply urinate in his suit. When the blockhouse protested that that would short out the medical electrodes on his body, he told them to simply turn the power off. They complied, and Shepard emptied his bladder. Because of the position he was sitting in, the urine pooled somewhat underneath his back and with oxygen flowing through the spacesuit, he was soon dried out, and the countdown resumed.
Mercury-Redstone 3 finally lifted off at 9:34 am. ET, watched by an estimated 45 million television viewers in the United States. Shepard was subjected to a maximum acceleration of 6.3g just before the Redstone engine shut down, two minutes and 22 seconds after launch. Freedom 7's space-fixed velocity was , close to the planned value. Upon shutdown of the booster, the escape tower was jettisoned. Ten seconds later came capsule separation: the capsule detonated the explosive bolts on the Marman clamping ring that joined it to the booster and fired its posigrade rockets to gain distance. After capsule separation, the automated attitude control system (the Automatic Stabilization Control System, or ASCS) damped out any residual tumbling motions and then yawed Freedom 7 around 180 degrees, so the retrorockets would face forward ready for firing.
Shepard now began testing manual control of the spacecraft's orientation. For redundancy purposes, the Mercury spacecraft's manual attitude control system used a different set of control jets than the automatic system and had its own fuel supply; when the system was activated, moving the three-axis control stick proportionally opened valves to the manual jets. The system could be selectively enabled on each axis, with ASCS automatically controlling the non-enabled axes. Shepard gradually assumed manual control, one axis at a time, leaving the remaining axes to ASCS. First he took manual control of pitch, reorienting the spacecraft from its "orbit attitude" of 14 degrees nose-down pitch to the retrofire attitude of 34 degrees nose-down pitch, then returning to orbit attitude. He then took manual control of yaw along with pitch, yawing the spacecraft to the left and then to the right to bring it back in line. Finally he assumed control of roll as well, testing it and then restoring the spacecraft's roll to normal. Once Shepard had taken control of all three axes, he found that the spacecraft's manual response was about the same as that of the Mercury simulator; however, he could not hear the jets firing, as he could on the ground, due to the levels of background noise.This New Ocean, p. 353
Shepard's next task was to make observations of the ground from the spacecraft's periscope, which extended through the "bottom" of the hull beneath his feet. Shepard's craft, an earlier version of the Mercury capsule, also had two small round viewing windows, one on each side, but the periscope was its primary means for observing. The periscope could be set either to a low-magnification wide-angle view or to a high-magnification narrow-angle view, and different optical filters could be inserted by turning a knob. During his long wait on the launch pad, Shepard had inserted a medium-gray filter in the periscope to cut down on sun glare, but he had not had time to undo this before launch. He found that when he tried to reach the filter knob to change it, the wrist of his spacesuit would bump the handle by his left hand that would manually activate the launch escape system. Even though the escape tower was long gone, Shepard gave up on trying to change the filter out of caution, leaving it in for the rest of the flight. Although the gray filter washed out colors, Shepard was still easily able to distinguish major land masses from clouds. He reported identifying major features such as the east coast of Florida, Lake Okeechobee, and Andros Island, the largest island of the Bahamas, but cloud cover made it difficult for him to make out other Bahamian islands.
With the spacecraft still under manual control, but now using the periscope rather than the panel instruments for his attitude reference, Shepard had maintained his roll and yaw attitude, but he had inadvertently let the spacecraft drift in pitch. As the spacecraft approached the highest point of its suborbital arc, the "start retro sequence" light came on, alerting Shepard that the three retrorockets were about to fire. They would do this in sequence five seconds apart, burning for ten seconds each. Shepard began adjusting his pitch nose downward toward the proper retrofire attitude of –34 degrees, but he only got to around orbit attitude (–14 degrees) before the first retrorocket fired. He then got his pitch further down to about –25 degrees in time for the second and third retrorockets. This pitch discrepancy was not critical for this flight, because Shepard's suborbital trajectory would lead to reentry anyway, and the difference in pitch wouldn't affect Shepard's landing location much; Shepard was only testing the pilot's ability to manually control the spacecraft's attitude during retrofire. In his initial postflight debriefing, Shepard reported that he must have somehow gotten confused about his pitch attitude, but as it turned out he was the victim of a misunderstanding. This particular spacecraft's pitch indicator had originally been set so that its reference position for retrofire attitude, which was the "nine o'clock" position on the indicator, was at –43 degrees pitch, rather than the –34 degrees later decided upon for retrofire. Shepard had assumed it was still set that way and deliberately adjusted his pitch high to compensate. But in fact the indicator had been changed, with the "nine o'clock" reference position being updated to the correct –34 degrees. Somehow Shepard had not been informed, so his compensation made his pitch too high.
Just after retrofire, Shepard switched into the "fly-by-wire" control mode, where the pilot's motions of the three-axis control stick electrically triggered the control jets of the automatic system to fire for the desired positioning, rather than proportionally opening the manual system's control jets. Soon afterward, the retrorocket pack was automatically jettisoned. This pack was attached over the heatshield by straps and so was normally released before reentry. Shepard heard the noise of the jettison and saw one of the straps fly past a window, but the confirmation light did not turn on. However, fellow Mercury astronaut Deke Slayton, who was acting as capsule communicator ("CAPCOM") in the Mercury Control Center, confirmed to Shepard that the pack had jettisoned, so Shepard activated the manual override for the jettison system to trigger the light.This New Ocean, p. 355 It was later determined that the retro-jettison light hadn't activated because of an issue with the electrically-triggered pyrotechnic "squibs" that were fired to release the retrorocket pack. These squibs, when triggered, could draw excessive current from the electrical system, dropping its voltage to the point that the timer which was supposed to activate the retro-jettison light got reset. The squibs were modified to prevent this problem in future missions.
Shepard reported that fly-by-wire felt smooth and gave the sensation of being fully in command of the craft, before letting the automatic systems briefly take over to reorient the capsule for reentry. He then kept control until the g-forces peaked at 11.6g during re-entry; he held the capsule until it had stabilized and then relinquished control to the automated system. The descent was faster than anticipated, but the parachutes deployed as planned, a drogue at and a main parachute at .
Splashdown occurred with an impact comparable to landing a jet aircraft on an aircraft carrier. Freedom 7 tilted over on its right side about 60 degrees from an upright position, but did not show any signs of leaking; it gently righted itself after a minute, and Shepard was able to report to the circling aircraft that he had landed safely and was ready to be recovered. A recovery helicopter arrived after a few minutes, and after a brief problem with the spacecraft antenna, the capsule was lifted partly out of the water in order to allow Shepard to leave by the main hatch. He squeezed out of the door and into a sling hoist, and was pulled into the helicopter, which flew both the astronaut and his spacecraft to a waiting aircraft carrier, . The whole recovery process had taken only eleven minutes, from splashdown to arriving aboard.
The flight lasted 15 minutes, 22 seconds and the spacecraft traveled from its launch point, ascending to . Freedom 7 landed at these coordinates: . It reached a speed of .
Following the flight the spacecraft was examined by engineers and found to be in excellent shape, so much so that they decided it could have been safely used again in another launch. Given to the Smithsonian Institution by NASA, Freedom 7 was previously displayed at the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland until 2012. Since 2012, it has been on display at the John F. Kennedy Library in Boston, Massachusetts. Beginning May 5, 2021, the 60th Anniversary of the First American in Space, the Mercury-Redstone (MR-3) spacecraft Freedom 7 will be on display and exhibited at the Smithsonian's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center located in Chantilly, Virginia.
Depiction in popular culture
In June 1961, Laurie Records issued a 45 rpm single featuring William Allen and Orchestra entitled "Space Flight Freedom 7." It consisted of recreations of the tower to astronaut communications spoken over an instrumental backing.
The Mercury-Redstone 3 mission was dramatized in Tom Wolfe's 1979 book The Right Stuff, Philip Kaufman's 1983 film The Right Stuff based on the book (Scott Glenn plays Shepard), the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode "Can We Do This?" (starring Ted Levine as Shepard) and the 2016 film Hidden Figures (Dane Davenport plays Shepard). In the 2020 mini-series The Right Stuff, Jake McDorman plays Shepard.
In the 2008 video game Fallout 3, the player can visit the Museum of Technology in the ruins of Washington D.C., two centuries after a nuclear war. The game takes place in an alternate timeline that diverges from reality after World War II. In the museum is an exhibit about a slightly different version of Mercury-Redstone 3/Freedom 7 called Defiance 7 that launched on May 5, 1961 (the day Freedom 7'' was launched) and was piloted by fictional astronaut Carl Bell. The exhibit states that Bell was the first human in space in this timeline and did not survive the space flight, having died in a crash landing. His skeleton and space suit were donated to the museum and are on display there.
Flight events
See also
Vostok 1 and Yuri Gagarin, the first human space flight (April 12, 1961)
Mercury Seven, the Mercury Astronauts
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
HTML copy
HTML copy
External links
Presskit released by NASA to the media prior to the May 5 launch of Mercury-Redstone 3
NASA NSSDC Master Catalog
NASA 40th anniversary of the Mercury 7 — Alan B. Shepard, Jr.
NASA Mercury MR3 press kit – Apr 26, 1961
Mercury-Redstone 3 transcripts on Spacelog
Computer animation of full flight using soundtrack recording of dialogue between Shepard and Mission Control
Project Mercury
Suborbital human spaceflights
Spacecraft launched in 1961
Spacecraft which reentered in 1961
1961 in the United States
May 1961 events
Alan Shepard
|
[
-0.40231072902679443,
0.44313111901283264,
-0.049065325409173965,
0.15710057318210602,
0.19121766090393066,
0.1204773560166359,
0.2657703459262848,
-0.021923817694187164,
-0.21993860602378845,
0.26563090085983276,
-0.41859593987464905,
0.6064795255661011,
-0.622580349445343,
0.2161712348461151,
0.024236641824245453,
-0.16138961911201477,
0.8148661851882935,
-0.4650568962097168,
0.20223742723464966,
-0.3697625696659088,
-0.07125840336084366,
0.2173822671175003,
0.8068440556526184,
-0.6538733243942261,
0.20419912040233612,
-0.20560875535011292,
0.014334199018776417,
0.25227445363998413,
0.2928173243999481,
0.978573203086853,
-0.0097489720210433,
-0.0021070486400276423,
0.5730385184288025,
-0.35660073161125183,
0.11390548199415207,
0.7015115022659302,
0.032713428139686584,
0.40789270401000977,
-0.11873023957014084,
0.09221180528402328,
-0.3214546740055084,
-0.6192272901535034,
0.2842033803462982,
-0.5317372679710388,
-0.06543557345867157,
0.08036143332719803,
-0.9775205850601196,
0.2401294708251953,
-0.28169822692871094,
0.21227268874645233,
-0.2392241209745407,
0.2038557082414627,
-0.23651409149169922,
0.29684340953826904,
0.31363242864608765,
0.6204337477684021,
-0.2380414754152298,
-0.23960544168949127,
-0.756047248840332,
0.13008399307727814,
0.170125350356102,
0.22415472567081451,
-0.05372535437345505,
0.20693190395832062,
-0.13524629175662994,
0.08863873034715652,
-0.0164014995098114,
0.037572961300611496,
-0.7812713980674744,
-0.29550155997276306,
0.5013393759727478,
-0.3692121207714081,
-0.4787245988845825,
0.19227610528469086,
0.14412404596805573,
-0.579195499420166,
0.05272123962640762,
-0.12349322438240051,
0.13068991899490356,
0.15444611012935638,
0.16209560632705688,
0.4374856650829315,
0.6168951392173767,
0.7352412343025208,
-0.662459671497345,
0.18015819787979126,
-0.07076580077409744,
0.06755717098712921,
0.0926784798502922,
0.29595446586608887,
-0.8002185821533203,
-0.1811646670103073,
0.40581074357032776,
0.45866715908050537,
0.22360379993915558,
-0.46015259623527527,
-0.3301156163215637,
0.05054350942373276,
0.026506921276450157,
-0.4978109300136566,
-0.046456173062324524,
0.03579091653227806,
0.41325217485427856,
-0.11120057851076126,
-0.2984524965286255,
0.19116559624671936,
0.23118899762630463,
-0.2873457074165344,
-0.7322295904159546,
0.2404797226190567,
-0.3012131452560425,
0.23104731738567352,
-0.08524414896965027,
0.0572844073176384,
-0.9385259747505188,
0.5159656405448914,
0.5322076082229614,
-0.5096733570098877,
0.6410509347915649,
-0.17542313039302826,
0.4004250466823578,
0.705594003200531,
0.010073798708617687,
-0.2441089004278183,
-0.12358164042234421,
0.3911408483982086,
0.3376182019710541,
0.3006480932235718,
-0.2948417365550995,
0.05464869737625122,
0.5009657144546509,
0.3612825572490692,
-0.0948682576417923,
0.39400142431259155,
-0.26206910610198975,
-0.06650112569332123,
0.629880964756012,
-0.02319754660129547,
-0.019694285467267036,
0.20846883952617645,
-0.20842806994915009,
-0.2639109492301941,
-0.5356627106666565,
-0.014001978561282158,
0.6485868096351624,
0.5214638710021973,
0.5568962693214417,
0.11113280802965164,
-1.0122205018997192,
-0.04907938838005066,
-0.15159770846366882,
-0.7675766944885254,
0.34883931279182434,
0.2529820203781128,
0.14587195217609406,
-0.14427171647548676,
0.12830844521522522,
0.3912755846977234,
-0.7880169153213501,
0.5027090907096863,
0.24958114326000214,
0.40682172775268555,
0.3525518774986267,
0.11827695369720459,
0.4938088059425354,
-0.14181828498840332,
0.19501592218875885,
0.15073853731155396,
0.3653789162635803,
-0.3231390416622162,
0.4163089394569397,
-0.3437492251396179,
0.455051064491272,
-0.07566988468170166,
-0.13341639935970306,
-0.586653470993042,
1.0150781869888306,
0.25644734501838684,
0.2486221194267273,
-0.24151617288589478,
-0.48529815673828125,
-0.23134568333625793,
-0.22231993079185486,
-0.09460116922855377,
0.31230053305625916,
-0.2628509998321533,
0.4795026481151581,
0.3667907118797302,
-0.21190401911735535,
0.22235828638076782,
-0.9283199310302734,
-0.11884108185768127,
0.3857348561286926,
-0.4067882001399994,
0.7154078483581543,
-0.12595948576927185,
-0.558054506778717,
0.5104442238807678,
-0.08781365305185318,
1.1344163417816162,
-0.13847678899765015,
-0.0600028820335865,
0.5071121454238892,
-0.6621080636978149,
-0.029826367273926735,
0.09892984479665756,
0.0016519998898729682,
0.24570034444332123,
-0.11993984133005142,
0.41629600524902344,
-0.02724156342446804,
0.1695091426372528,
-0.23752962052822113,
0.5152658820152283,
0.49259909987449646,
-0.05762346461415291,
-0.4489072561264038,
0.1394035518169403,
0.0212705098092556,
0.3619915843009949,
0.034517802298069,
-0.08817509561777115,
-0.09014761447906494,
-0.65037602186203,
0.025474855676293373,
1.007606863975525,
-0.36398038268089294,
-0.2614406645298004,
-0.21974563598632812,
0.8639437556266785,
-0.6313873529434204,
-0.24426349997520447,
-0.07163896411657333,
0.06486812978982925,
0.256045401096344,
0.062158454209566116,
-0.13868609070777893,
-0.4166625142097473,
0.5377321243286133,
-0.23176684975624084,
0.553467869758606,
0.18574176728725433,
-0.8100172877311707,
0.4917844831943512,
-0.6968609094619751,
0.36314812302589417,
0.8435332775115967,
-0.02025817520916462,
0.08865796774625778,
-0.19799844920635223,
-0.4392413794994354,
0.3526867926120758,
-0.029629601165652275,
0.1632230281829834,
-0.1107877567410469,
0.593839704990387,
-0.7971197962760925,
0.24818383157253265,
-0.0552617572247982,
0.19820117950439453,
-0.4594454765319824,
0.6543639898300171,
0.38161221146583557,
0.1464744210243225,
0.10380912572145462,
-0.7744179964065552,
-0.7713959217071533,
0.0548674575984478,
0.6185464859008789,
-0.03981323167681694,
0.2876516282558441,
-0.4310569763183594,
-0.18033695220947266,
0.2168334275484085,
-0.20449547469615936,
-0.3916190266609192,
-0.33248627185821533,
0.2226802259683609,
-0.9010172486305237,
-0.5250661969184875,
0.7256682515144348,
0.3975159525871277,
0.5365564227104187,
-0.4555867314338684,
0.08413881063461304,
0.5913781523704529,
0.07142047584056854,
-0.21679095923900604,
-0.19465361535549164,
-0.3247489929199219,
-0.39472347497940063,
-0.3659166693687439,
-0.5321420431137085,
-0.39274561405181885,
-0.2305346578359604,
0.3546457290649414,
0.3222762644290924,
0.47634533047676086,
0.7417152523994446,
0.721265971660614,
0.2575222849845886,
0.25387391448020935,
-0.9212055802345276,
-0.5902910828590393,
0.6856314539909363,
0.049710750579833984,
0.18697227537631989,
0.24599483609199524,
-5.556440353393555,
0.07276445627212524,
-0.22964680194854736,
-0.3348834216594696,
0.8602710962295532,
0.2585163414478302,
0.3603481352329254,
-0.2554168701171875,
0.10976577550172806,
-0.7092410326004028,
-0.11962266266345978,
-0.5016312599182129,
-0.2130441963672638,
0.0056329453364014626,
-0.01649017632007599,
-0.10421955585479736,
0.33636027574539185,
-0.6193695068359375,
0.43671494722366333,
0.4879826009273529,
0.6688655614852905,
-0.447790265083313,
-0.22954659163951874,
-0.2336614429950714,
-0.2215118259191513,
0.2122206687927246,
-0.016785437241196632,
0.362554669380188,
-0.09816181659698486,
0.10968917608261108,
-0.13762637972831726,
0.0578850656747818,
-0.2372666895389557,
-1.0902655124664307,
0.036528002470731735,
-0.13630038499832153,
0.18658918142318726,
-0.6074036955833435,
0.7503406405448914,
-0.290816068649292,
-0.22497081756591797,
-0.3228609561920166,
-0.2292114645242691,
-0.44198518991470337,
-0.034197285771369934,
-0.09576176851987839,
0.009827882051467896,
-0.10796908289194107,
0.577508807182312,
0.34140637516975403,
0.47243866324424744,
0.4938929080963135,
0.07452848553657532,
-0.5248068571090698,
0.10198717564344406,
0.18304061889648438,
-0.4094947576522827,
0.47206246852874756,
-0.332795649766922,
0.21451398730278015,
0.3301412761211395,
0.4453428387641907,
-0.1563570201396942,
-0.7816368341445923,
-0.1607176810503006,
-0.44603195786476135,
0.5503994226455688,
0.3109929859638214,
-0.05197662487626076,
0.21299509704113007,
-0.17331752181053162,
1.0960487127304077,
-0.769770622253418,
-1.1856571435928345,
0.6794372200965881,
-0.4834141433238983,
-0.16148881614208221,
-0.6507886052131653,
-0.19670738279819489,
-0.25867724418640137,
0.049884118139743805,
-0.6667758226394653,
0.06156575679779053,
-0.3203529119491577,
0.09204117953777313,
-0.3056064248085022,
-0.3829954266548157,
-0.0004759463481605053,
0.054885007441043854,
0.02622147463262081,
0.396540105342865,
-0.8361724615097046,
-0.12000756710767746,
0.5777069926261902,
0.22945444285869598,
-0.4880014657974243,
-0.19604691863059998,
0.3193649351596832,
0.8017294406890869,
0.25064152479171753,
-0.22826920449733734,
-0.5331286191940308,
0.006229576654732227,
-0.7277525663375854,
-0.7472054958343506,
-0.5195114612579346,
-0.5311540365219116,
-0.09723221510648727,
0.2571413815021515,
0.20617151260375977,
0.4439028203487396,
-0.08407553285360336,
-0.4449775815010071,
-0.43935427069664,
0.9198582768440247,
-0.03119189664721489,
0.1066729798913002,
0.32113486528396606,
-0.15285447239875793,
-0.13286900520324707,
-0.3276078701019287,
-0.049638256430625916,
-0.17938916385173798,
-0.19700385630130768,
0.37461400032043457,
-0.22926104068756104,
-0.02305539883673191,
0.22167974710464478,
-0.13684378564357758,
0.21579836308956146,
-0.08158945292234421,
0.38395434617996216,
-0.4124489724636078,
0.02283155359327793,
0.451646625995636,
-0.11461082845926285,
-0.5614645481109619,
0.2846592962741852,
0.1424686759710312,
0.07957983762025833,
-0.5332546830177307,
0.05673268437385559,
-0.09985273331403732,
0.12048433721065521,
0.5105124711990356,
0.5358757376670837,
0.5741047263145447,
-0.13150040805339813,
0.10175560414791107,
0.48685896396636963,
0.2602463662624359,
-0.2683676481246948,
0.022867532446980476,
-0.17339012026786804,
-0.10761433094739914,
-0.3356633186340332,
0.5664442181587219,
-0.3985678553581238,
-0.23697905242443085,
-0.35646963119506836,
0.09590014070272446,
0.10411657392978668,
-0.9307805299758911,
0.07591865956783295,
-0.10926525294780731,
-0.14320561289787292,
-0.27553504705429077,
-0.050608474761247635,
0.24691912531852722,
-0.08832725137472153,
0.16891635954380035,
-0.6737223863601685,
-0.351203590631485,
0.1977139562368393,
0.6045593023300171,
0.2620949447154999,
-0.6162787675857544,
-0.5696903467178345,
-0.002633871743455529,
-0.30354881286621094,
-0.3226882815361023,
0.12633615732192993,
-0.7170576453208923,
0.3078433871269226,
-0.13585898280143738,
-0.942669153213501,
-0.7281587719917297,
-0.35661086440086365,
-0.07339658588171005,
-0.1421232968568802,
-0.030015846714377403,
0.2435891330242157,
0.1317494660615921,
0.3657649755477905,
-0.4003150165081024,
-0.3531799912452698,
-0.545251727104187,
0.9866772294044495,
0.31855323910713196,
0.5491985082626343,
-0.6435495018959045,
-0.11185888200998306,
0.4977293610572815,
-0.09762118756771088,
0.09612525254487991,
-0.6361581683158875,
0.035812314599752426,
0.5325251221656799,
0.6259603500366211,
0.05912715196609497,
0.3578295111656189,
-1.0280001163482666,
0.39920133352279663,
0.39498642086982727,
-0.03232569992542267,
0.1709325611591339,
-0.2615966498851776,
0.008916933089494705,
0.1578083038330078,
-0.6472244262695312,
-0.1420215517282486,
-0.025331497192382812,
-0.10731380432844162,
-0.26179713010787964,
-0.24202081561088562,
0.38375887274742126,
-0.19493722915649414,
-0.35034945607185364,
0.5272389650344849,
-0.8181771039962769,
-0.19791874289512634,
0.13166514039039612,
-0.5666278004646301,
0.66029953956604,
-0.13047310709953308,
-0.047043442726135254,
-0.30100393295288086,
0.20936845242977142,
-0.1044834777712822,
0.01979924365878105,
0.3175942301750183,
0.2906981408596039,
0.33237072825431824,
-0.6049433350563049,
-0.23388485610485077,
-0.42699742317199707,
0.8157824277877808,
0.13208496570587158,
0.1375523954629898,
-0.47205716371536255,
0.1319386214017868,
-0.24946221709251404,
-0.4735737144947052,
-0.1922726333141327,
0.6897815465927124,
-0.1862466186285019,
-0.47545522451400757,
-1.3815135955810547,
-0.20063604414463043,
-0.022175248712301254,
0.33869069814682007,
0.5820919871330261,
-0.9169486165046692,
-0.024407025426626205,
-0.11910856515169144,
0.21099139750003815,
-0.14239588379859924,
-0.15710331499576569,
0.24434974789619446,
-0.29933300614356995,
-0.20452409982681274,
-0.15852482616901398,
-0.4791882336139679,
0.6257623434066772,
-0.43219366669654846,
0.5458741784095764,
0.5352811813354492,
-0.3989994525909424,
-0.1538677215576172,
0.3279922902584076,
-0.8340889811515808,
0.46757927536964417,
-0.3536547124385834,
0.01595252752304077,
-0.08513271063566208,
-0.493569552898407,
-0.41352224349975586,
-0.260846346616745,
-0.6944993138313293,
0.08555386960506439,
-0.02649274468421936,
0.5925138592720032,
-0.92442387342453,
-0.4853385388851166,
-0.6428671479225159,
0.02112572267651558,
0.1873459666967392,
0.48047178983688354,
-0.3852487802505493,
0.38651803135871887,
-0.7157573103904724,
0.22391977906227112,
0.5200225114822388,
-0.12853120267391205,
-0.07338683307170868,
-0.06095077842473984,
0.66895592212677,
-0.22309370338916779,
-0.08584543317556381,
0.7595188617706299,
0.4124777317047119,
-0.2879630923271179,
-0.30603858828544617,
0.5309785008430481,
-1.3099892139434814,
0.17154310643672943,
0.9072736501693726,
-0.07540713995695114,
-0.02508394606411457,
0.6064589619636536,
0.03296954557299614,
0.5650273561477661,
0.29146358370780945,
-0.12010426074266434,
-0.96689772605896,
0.2696259319782257,
-0.2997814118862152,
0.033957820385694504,
-0.3874557316303253,
0.6204517483711243,
0.6660038828849792,
0.08065050095319748,
0.48947325348854065,
0.2934477925300598,
-0.41217201948165894,
-0.18770815432071686,
-0.11595113575458527,
-0.7311124801635742,
-0.09575103223323822,
0.2541765868663788,
-0.08237522095441818,
0.45073840022087097,
0.7847129702568054,
-0.19454151391983032,
0.567895233631134,
0.13586710393428802,
-0.12462882697582245,
0.29514840245246887,
0.3925238251686096,
-0.12435676902532578,
0.34984657168388367,
0.34666937589645386,
0.38839036226272583,
-0.27937570214271545,
0.22880466282367706,
-0.037652548402547836,
0.4503754675388336,
-0.06480840593576431,
-0.5039769411087036,
-0.012211249209940434,
0.48368459939956665,
0.6302152276039124,
0.9768306612968445,
0.0840054452419281,
-0.5697542428970337,
-0.14286693930625916,
-0.20368121564388275,
-0.2843831479549408,
0.4308498799800873,
0.1197584867477417,
0.31676211953163147,
0.6539146900177002,
-0.9051260352134705,
0.4155530333518982,
0.16986580193042755,
0.3402916491031647,
0.7294691801071167,
-0.05325145646929741,
-0.04958484321832657,
-0.2550862431526184,
-0.2793389558792114,
-0.25546059012413025,
-0.3967489004135132,
0.15001988410949707,
-1.105303406715393,
0.29753729701042175,
0.2763877809047699,
-0.15835930407047272,
0.9460602402687073,
-0.36112090945243835,
0.45827868580818176,
-0.5256890058517456,
-0.05354546383023262,
0.042530301958322525,
-0.6927410364151001,
0.20509468019008636,
0.5609706044197083,
0.06236811354756355,
-0.1640702188014984,
0.6778116226196289,
0.4094972014427185,
0.0014721471816301346,
0.21572065353393555,
0.3396419286727905,
-0.29962053894996643,
0.2100793421268463,
-0.5899506211280823,
0.0012939079897478223,
-0.4406329095363617,
0.4825601577758789,
0.06592920422554016,
-0.04842478781938553,
-0.0428927056491375,
0.39970606565475464,
0.022860174998641014,
-0.6427302956581116,
0.5378087162971497,
0.07688624411821365,
0.15853232145309448,
-0.07954426109790802,
-0.24799801409244537,
0.2022099643945694,
-0.8037843108177185,
-0.34060391783714294,
-0.9142471551895142,
-0.4140322804450989,
-0.28172871470451355,
0.16616788506507874,
-0.3847607672214508,
0.1685580462217331,
0.3741529881954193,
-0.3210069239139557,
0.001008087769150734,
0.016630472615361214,
-0.6574593782424927,
-0.8024839162826538,
0.15158501267433167,
0.49884510040283203,
0.2303161323070526,
-0.3352811932563782,
-0.08876890689134598,
0.367713987827301,
0.326276570558548,
0.042706288397312164,
0.35926249623298645,
-0.07705574482679367,
0.49382150173187256,
-0.27387502789497375,
-0.16741445660591125,
0.41195282340049744,
-0.1743483543395996,
0.7071163058280945,
-0.4095103144645691,
-0.4383375942707062,
0.5382454991340637,
-0.7172635197639465,
0.42273104190826416,
-0.008007883094251156,
0.586289644241333,
0.07486807554960251
] |
213236
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Redstone%204
|
Mercury-Redstone 4
|
Mercury-Redstone 4 was the second United States human spaceflight, on July 21, 1961. The suborbital Project Mercury flight was launched with a Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle, MRLV-8. The spacecraft, Mercury capsule #11, was nicknamed the Liberty Bell 7. It was piloted by astronaut Virgil "Gus" Grissom.
The spaceflight lasted 15 minutes 30 seconds, reached an altitude of more than , and flew downrange, landing in the Atlantic Ocean. The flight went as expected until just after splashdown, when the hatch cover, designed to release explosively in the event of an emergency, accidentally blew. Grissom was at risk of drowning, but was recovered safely via a U.S. Navy helicopter. The spacecraft sank into the Atlantic and was not recovered until 1999.
Crew
Backup crew
Mission parameters
Mass: 1 286 kg
Maximum altitude: 190.39 km
Range: 486.15 km
Launch vehicle: Redstone rocket
Spacecraft
The Liberty Bell 7 spacecraft, Mercury spacecraft #11, was designated to fly the second crewed suborbital flight in October 1960. It came off McDonnell's St. Louis production line in May 1960. Liberty Bell 7 was the first Mercury operational spacecraft with a centerline window instead of two portholes. It was closer to the final orbital version than was Alan Shepard's Freedom 7. Dubbed Liberty Bell 7, it featured a white, diagonal, irregular paint stripe starting at the base of the capsule and extending about two-thirds toward the nose, emulating the crack in the famed Liberty Bell in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Explosive hatch
Liberty Bell 7 also had a new explosive hatch release. This would allow an astronaut to exit the spacecraft quickly in the event of an emergency. Emergency personnel could also trigger the explosive hatch from outside the spacecraft by pulling on an external lanyard. Both the pop-off hatch and the lanyard are standard features of ejection seats used in military aircraft, but in the Mercury design, the pilot still had to exit the craft himself, or be removed by emergency personnel. The original exit procedure was to climb out through the antenna compartment, after removing a small pressure bulkhead. This was a difficult and slow procedure. Removal of an injured or unconscious astronaut through the top hatch would be nearly impossible. The original side hatch was bolted shut with 70 bolts and covered with several spacecraft shingles, making it a slow process to open the original hatch.
McDonnell Aircraft engineers devised two different quick release hatches for the Mercury spacecraft. The first had a latch, and was used on Ham's (a chimpanzee) MR-2 and Shepard's MR-3 missions. The second design was an explosive release hatch. The quick release latching hatch weighed 69 lb (31 kg), too much of a weight addition to use on the orbital version of the spacecraft. The explosive hatch design used the 70 bolts of the original design, but each quarter-inch (6.35 mm) titanium bolt had a hole bored into it to provide a weak point. A mild detonating fuse (MDF) was installed in a channel between the inner and outer seal around the periphery of the hatch. When the MDF was ignited, the resulting gas pressure between the inner and outer seal would cause the bolts to fail in tension.
There were two ways to fire the explosive hatch during recovery. On the inside of the hatch was a knobbed plunger. The pilot could remove a pin and press the plunger with a force of 5 or 6 lbf (25 N). This would detonate the explosive charge, which would shear off the 70 bolts and propel the hatch away in one second. If the pin was left in place, a force of 40 lbf (180 N) was required to detonate the bolts. An outside rescuer could blow open the hatch by removing a small panel near the hatch and pulling a lanyard. The explosive hatch weighed .
Window
The new trapezoidal window on Liberty Bell 7 replaced the two side portholes that were on Freedom 7. The Corning Glass Works of Corning, New York designed and developed the multilayered panes that comprised the new window. The outer pane was thick Vycor glass. It could withstand temperatures of . The inner pane was made of three inner glass panels bonded to form a single inner pane. One panel was a thick sheet of Vycor, while the others were tempered glass. This new window assembly was as strong as any part of the spacecraft pressure vessel.
Controls
The manual controls of Liberty Bell 7 incorporated a new rate stabilization control system. This allowed fine control of spacecraft attitude movements by small turns of the hand controller. Previously a lot of jockeying of the device was needed to maintain the desired attitude. This rate damping, or rate augmentation system, gave finer and easier handling qualities and a redundant means of firing the pitch, yaw, and roll thrusters.
Before the Mercury-Redstone 4 mission, Lewis Research Center and Space Task Group engineers had determined that firing the posigrade rockets into the booster-spacecraft adapter, rather than in the open, developed 78 percent greater thrust. This achieved a greater spacecraft-booster separation through a kind of "pop-gun" effect. By using this technique, the spacecraft separated at velocity of about rather than using the old procedure. The Mercury-Redstone 4/Liberty Bell 7 mission would take advantage of this new procedure.
Additional hardware changes to Liberty Bell 7 were a redesigned fairing for the spacecraft-Redstone adapter clamp-ring and additional foam padding added to the head area of the contour couch. The fairing changes and additional foam were used to reduce vibrations the pilot experienced during the boost phase of flight. The spacecraft instrument panel was rearranged to provide a better eye scan pattern.
Mission description
In January 1961, NASA's Director of the Space Task Group, Robert Gilruth, told Gus Grissom that he would be the primary pilot for Mercury 4. John Glenn was the backup pilot for the mission.
Redstone launch vehicle MRLV-8 arrived at Cape Canaveral on June 8, 1961. A mission review on July 15, 1961, pronounced Redstone MRLV-8 and Mercury spacecraft #11 ready to go for the Mercury 4 mission.
Also, on July 15, 1961, Gus Grissom announced he would name Mercury 4, Liberty Bell 7. Grissom said the name was an appropriate call-sign for the bell-shaped spacecraft. He also said the name was synonymous with "freedom". As a tribute to the original Liberty Bell, a "crack" was painted on the side of the spacecraft.
The Mercury 4 mission was planned as a repeat of MR-3. It was to reach an apogee of . The planned range was . Grissom would experience a maximum acceleration of 6.33 g (62 m/s) and deceleration of 10.96 g (107 m/s).
The launch of Liberty Bell 7 was first planned for July 16. The cloud cover was too thick and the launch was postponed until July 18. On July 18, it was again postponed due to weather. Both times, the pilot had not yet boarded the spacecraft. On July 19, 1961, Grissom was on board when the flight was delayed again due to weather. At that point, it had just 10 minutes 30 seconds to go before launch.
On the morning of July 21, 1961, Gus Grissom entered the Liberty Bell 7 at 8:58 UTC and the 70 hatch bolts were put in place. At 45 minutes prior to the scheduled launch, a pad technician discovered that one of the hatch bolts was misaligned. During a 30-minute hold that was called, McDonnell and NASA Space Task Group engineers decided that the 69 remaining bolts should be sufficient to hold the hatch in place and blow it at the appropriate time. The misaligned bolt was not replaced.
Liberty Bell 7 was launched at 12:20:36 UTC, July 21, 1961.
Launch
Grissom later admitted at the postflight debriefing that he was "a bit scared" at liftoff, but he added that he soon gained confidence along with the acceleration increase. Hearing the engine roar at the pedestal, he thought that his elapsed-time clock had started late. Like Shepard, he was amazed at the smooth quality of the liftoff, but then he noticed gradually more severe vibrations. These were never violent enough to impair his vision.
Grissom's cabin pressure sealed off at the proper altitude, about , and he felt elated that the environmental control system was in good working order. The cabin and suit temperatures, respectively about were quite comfortable. Watching his instruments for the pitch rate of the Redstone, Grissom saw it follow directions as programmed, tilting over at about one deg/s.
During a 3 g (29 m/s) acceleration on the up-leg of his flight, Grissom noticed a sudden change in the color of the horizon from light blue to jet black. His attention was distracted by the noise of the tower-jettison rocket firing on schedule. Grissom felt the separation, and he watched the tower through the window as it drifted off, trailing smoke, to his right. At two minutes and 22 seconds after launch, the Redstone's Rocketdyne engine cut off after building a speed of . Grissom had a strong sensation of tumbling during the transition from high to zero acceleration, and, while he had become familiar with this sensation in centrifuge training, for a moment he lost his bearings.
The Redstone coasted for 10 seconds after its engine cut off; then a sharp report signaled that the posigrade rockets were popping the spacecraft loose from the booster. Although Grissom peered out his window throughout his ship's turnaround maneuver, he never caught sight of his booster.
Ballistic flight
With turnaround accomplished, the Air Force jet pilot for the first time became a space pilot, assuming manual-proportional control. A constant urge to look out the window made concentrating on his control tasks difficult. He told Shepard back in Mercury Control that the panorama of Earth's horizon, presenting an arc at peak altitude, was fascinating. His instruments rated a poor second to the spectacle below.
Turning reluctantly to his dials and control stick, Grissom made a pitch movement change, but was past his desired mark. He jockeyed the handcontroller stick for position, trying to damp out all oscillations, then made a yaw movement and went too far in that direction. By the time the proper attitude was attained, the short time allocated for these maneuvers had been used, so he omitted the roll movement altogether. Grissom found the manual controls very sluggish when compared to the Mercury procedures trainer. He then switched to the new rate command control system and found perfect response, although fuel consumption was high.
After the pitch and yaw maneuvers, Grissom made a roll-over movement so he could see the ground from his window. Some land beneath the clouds (later determined to be western Florida around the Apalachicola area) appeared in the hazy distance, but the pilot was unable to identify it. Suddenly Cape Canaveral came into view so clearly that Grissom found it hard to believe that his slant-range was over .
He saw Merritt Island, the Banana River, the Indian River, and what appeared to be a large airport runway. South of Cape Canaveral, he saw what he believed to be West Palm Beach.
Reentry
With Liberty Bell 7 at an altitude of , it was now time to position the spacecraft in its reentry attitude. Grissom had initiated the retrorocket sequence and the spacecraft was arcing downward. His pulse reached 171 beats per minute. Retrofire gave him the distinct and peculiar feeling that he had reversed his backward flight through space and was actually moving face forward. As he plummeted downward, he saw what appeared to be two of the spent retrorockets pass across the periscope view after the retrorocket package had been jettisoned.
Pitching the spacecraft over into a reentry attitude of 14 degrees from Earth-vertical, the pilot tried to see the stars out his observation window. Instead the glare of sunlight filled his cabin, making it difficult to read the panel dials, particularly those with blue lights. Grissom thought that he would not have noticed the 0.05 g (0.5 m/s) light if he had not known it was about to flash on.
Reentry presented no problem. Grissom could not feel the oscillations following the acceleration buildup; he could only read them on the rate indicators. Meanwhile, he continued to report to the Mercury Control Center on his electric current reading, fuel quantity, acceleration, and other instrument indications. Condensation and smoke trailed off the heatshield at about as Liberty Bell 7 plunged back into the atmosphere.
The drogue parachute deployed on schedule at . Grissom said he saw the deployment and felt some resulting pulsating motion, but not enough to worry him. Main parachute deployment occurred at , which was about higher than the design nominal altitude. Watching the main chute unfurl, Grissom spotted a L-shaped tear and another puncture in the canopy. Although he worried about them, the holes grew no bigger and his rate of descent soon slowed to about . Dumping his peroxide control fuel, the pilot began transmitting his panel readings.
Splashdown
A "clunk" confirmed that the landing bag had dropped in preparation for impact. Grissom then removed his oxygen hose and opened his visor, but deliberately left the suit ventilation hose attached. Impact was milder than he had expected, although the spacecraft heeled over in the water until Grissom was lying on his left side. He thought he was facing downward. The spacecraft gradually righted itself, and, as the window cleared the water, Grissom jettisoned the reserve parachute and activated the rescue aids switch. Liberty Bell 7 still appeared to be watertight, although it was rolling badly with the swells.
Preparing for recovery, he disconnected his helmet and checked himself for debarkation. The neck dam did not unroll easily; Grissom tinkered with his suit collar to ensure his buoyancy in the event that he had to get out of the spacecraft quickly. When the recovery helicopters, which had taken to the air at launch time and visually followed the contrails and parachute descent, were still about from the impact point, which was only beyond the bullseye, Lieutenant James L. Lewis, the pilot of the primary recovery helicopter, radioed Grissom to ask if he was ready for pickup. He replied that he wanted them to wait five minutes while he recorded his cockpit panel data. Using a grease pencil with the pressure suit gloves was awkward, and several times the suit ventilation caused the neck dam to balloon, but Grissom simply placed his finger between neck and dam to allow the air to escape.
Hatch blows open
After logging the panel data, Grissom asked the helicopters to begin the approach for pickup. He removed the pin from the hatch-cover detonator and lay back in the couch. "I was lying there, minding my own business," he said afterward, "when I heard a dull thud." The hatch cover blew away, and salt water splashed into the spacecraft as it bobbed in the ocean. The capsule began taking on water and started to sink.
Grissom had difficulty recollecting his actions at this point, but he was certain that he had not touched the hatch-activation plunger. He had earlier unbuckled himself from most of his harness; he now removed his helmet, grasped the instrument panel with his right hand, and climbed though the hatchway.
The copilot of the nearest recovery helicopter said that as he was preparing, per procedure, to cut off the spacecraft's antenna whip with a squib-actuated cutter at the end of a pole, the hatch cover flew off, struck the water about away, then skipped over the waves. Next he saw Grissom climb through the hatch and swim away.
Failed spacecraft recovery
Leaving aside the swimming astronaut, Lewis completed his approach to the sinking spacecraft, as both he and Reinhard were intent on spacecraft recovery. This action was a conditioned reflex based on past training experience. While training off the Virginia beaches the helicopter pilots had noted that the astronauts seemed at home in and to enjoy the water. So Reinhard quickly cut the high-frequency antenna as soon as the helicopter reached Liberty Bell 7. Throwing aside the antenna cutting device, Reinhard picked up the shepherd's-hook recovery pole and carefully threaded the crook through the recovery loop on top of the spacecraft. By this time Lewis had lowered the helicopter to assist Reinhard in his task to a point that the helicopter's three wheels were in the water. The capsule sank out of sight, but the pickup pole tangled as the attached cable went taut, indicating to the helicopter pilots that they had made the catch.
Reinhard immediately prepared to pass the floating astronaut the personnel hoist, but at that moment Lewis called a warning that a detector light had flashed on the instrument panel, indicating that metal chips were in the oil sump because of engine strain. Considering the implication of impending engine failure, Lewis told Reinhard to retract the personnel hoist while he called the second helicopter to retrieve Grissom.
Meanwhile, Grissom, having made certain that he was not snared by any lines, noticed that the primary helicopter was having trouble raising the submerged spacecraft. He swam back to the spacecraft to see if he could assist, but found the cable properly attached. When he looked up for the personnel line, he saw the helicopter start to move away.
Suddenly, Grissom realized that he was not riding as high in the water as he had been. All the time he had been in the water he kept feeling air escape through the neck dam. The more air he lost, the less buoyancy he had. Moreover, he had forgotten to secure his suit inlet valve. Swimming was becoming difficult, and now with the second helicopter moving in he found the rotor wash between the two aircraft was making swimming more difficult. Bobbing under the waves, Grissom was scared, angry, and looking for a swimmer from one of the helicopters to help him tread water. Then he caught sight of a familiar face, that of George Cox, aboard the second helicopter. Cox was the copilot who had retrieved both the chimpanzee Ham and Shepard on the first Mercury flight. With his head barely above water, Grissom found the sight of Cox heartening.
Cox tossed the "horse-collar" lifeline straight to Grissom, who immediately wrapped himself into the sling backwards. Lack of orthodoxy mattered little to Grissom now, for he was on his way to the safety of the helicopter, even though swells dunked him twice more before he got aboard. His first thought was to get a life preserver on. Grissom had been either swimming or floating for a period of only four or five minutes, "although it seemed like an eternity to me," as he said afterward.
As the first helicopter moved away from Grissom, it struggled to raise the spacecraft high enough to drain the water from the impact bag. At one point the spacecraft was almost clear of the water, but like an anchor it prevented the helicopter from moving forward. The flooded capsule weighed over , beyond the helicopter's lifting capacity. The pilot, watching his insistent red warning light, decided not to chance losing two craft in one day. He finally cast loose, allowing the spacecraft to sink swiftly. Martin Byrnes, aboard the carrier, suggested that a marker be placed at the point so that the spacecraft might be recovered later. Rear Admiral J. E. Clark advised Byrnes that in that area the depth was about .
Aftermath
Substantial controversy ensued, as Grissom reported that the hatch had blown prematurely without his authorization. An independent technical review of the incident between August and October 1961 raised doubts regarding the theory that Grissom had blown the hatch and was responsible for the loss of the spacecraft. There is strong evidence that the Astronaut Office did not accept Grissom's guilt in the fact that he was maintained in the prime rotation spot for future flights, commanding the first Gemini flight, and the first planned Apollo flight.
Three Mercury flights later, Astronaut Wally Schirra manually blew Sigma 7'''s hatch after recovery when his spacecraft was on the deck of the recovery ship, in a deliberate attempt to dispel the rumor that Grissom might have blown the capsule's hatch deliberately. As anticipated, the kickback from the manual trigger left Schirra with a visible injury to his right hand. Grissom was uninjured when he exited the spacecraft, as documented by his postflight physical. This strongly supports his assertion that he did not accidentally hit the trigger, since in that case he would have been even more likely to injure himself than with intentional activation.
In a 1965 interview, Grissom said that he believed the external release lanyard came loose, triggering the hatch release. On the Liberty Bell 7, this release lanyard was held in place by only one screw. This theory was accepted by Guenter Wendt, the Pad Leader for most early American crewed spaceflights.
During a launch simulation on Apollo 1 in 1967, the combination of a cabin fire and an inward-opening hatch contributed to the death of Grissom, as well as that of the astronauts Ed White and Roger B. Chaffee in a launch-pad fire. Use of an explosive hatch had been rejected following the discovery by engineers that, in fact, an explosive egress system on a spacecraft could inadvertently fire without being triggered. Following the Apollo fire, Block II Apollo spacecraft were equipped with rapid-opening systems.
In 2021, analysis of video of the recovery suggested that static electricity may have caused the premature detonation of the hatch bolts. Helicopters are known to build up a charge of static electricity due to the rotors moving through the air. Marine Corps Lt. John Reinhard, the crewman aboard the helicopter who used a set of shears containing explosive charges to snip off the antenna on the floating spacecraft (to allow the helicopter to go lower) reported that “when I touched the antenna there was an arc, and both cutters fired. At the same time, the hatch came off. It could be that some static charge set [the hatch] off.”
Recovery of Liberty Bell 7
After several unsuccessful attempts in 1992 and 1993, Oceaneering International, Inc. lifted the Liberty Bell 7 off the floor of the Atlantic Ocean and onto the deck of a recovery ship on July 20, 1999, the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 lunar landing. The team was led by Curt Newport and financed by the Discovery Channel.
The spacecraft was found after a 14-year effort by Newport at a depth of nearly , east-southeast of Cape Canaveral. Among the items found within were part of the flight gear and several Mercury dimes which were taken to space to be souvenirs of the flight.
After Liberty Bell 7 was secured on the deck of the recovery ship, the "Ocean Project", experts removed and disposed of an explosive device (SOFAR bomb) that was supposed to detonate in the event of the spacecraft's sinking, but which failed to explode. The spacecraft was then placed in a container filled with seawater to prevent further corrosion. The Cosmosphere, in Hutchinson, Kansas, disassembled and cleaned the spacecraft, and it was released for a national tour through September 15, 2006. The spacecraft was then returned to the Cosmosphere where it is on permanent display. In 2016, it was temporarily lent to The Children's Museum of Indianapolis.
Dramatization in film
Philip Kaufman's 1983 film The Right Stuff includes a dramatization of the Liberty Bell 7 mission in which Fred Ward played Gus Grissom.
Additional fictional representations also occur in HBO's 1998 From the Earth to the Moon with Mark Rolston as Gus Grissom and 2016's Hidden Figures movie with Devin McGee as Gus Grissom.
Timeline
See also
Splashdown
Notes
References
Mercury-Redstone 4 transcripts on Spacelog
This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury - NASA SP-4201
NASA MR-4 News Conference July 22, 1961, Cocoa Beach, FL
Results Of The Second U.S. Manned Suborbital Spaceflight July 21, 1961 (NASA)
Liberty Bell 7 Recovery Evaluation and Nondestructive Testing - NASA - December 1999 (PDF format)
NASA Mercury MR4 press kit - July 13, 1961
External links
Field Guide to American Spacecraft Pictures of Liberty Bell 7'' on display after recovery and restoration.
1961 in spaceflight
Project Mercury
Suborbital human spaceflights
1961 in Florida
July 1961 events
Gus Grissom
|
[
-0.6367385983467102,
0.848467230796814,
-0.11929178982973099,
0.37243208289146423,
-0.0666324719786644,
0.019264839589595795,
0.38177719712257385,
-0.07439585030078888,
-0.3601587414741516,
0.11699356883764267,
-0.13753154873847961,
0.30665454268455505,
-0.45380476117134094,
0.35302457213401794,
-0.15170709788799286,
-0.0228225477039814,
0.9167815446853638,
-0.300895094871521,
0.1062045469880104,
-0.5599979758262634,
-0.17334607243537903,
0.11976882070302963,
0.893744707107544,
-0.057786449790000916,
0.16910575330257416,
0.043786775320768356,
-0.2655125856399536,
0.01571056805551052,
0.15213753283023834,
0.6492664813995361,
-0.2461824268102646,
0.21954461932182312,
0.47059565782546997,
-0.11978582292795181,
0.052275799214839935,
0.25885751843452454,
-0.1948682814836502,
0.08143939822912216,
0.17158398032188416,
0.07737106829881668,
-0.2844116687774658,
-0.0550231896340847,
0.059249281883239746,
-0.2118302881717682,
-0.1232246458530426,
0.25577008724212646,
-1.54123854637146,
0.2754349112510681,
0.03949005901813507,
0.31360647082328796,
0.19235782325267792,
0.23538167774677277,
-0.02681896463036537,
0.3434729278087616,
0.13318532705307007,
0.9578254222869873,
-0.22498571872711182,
-0.3815029561519623,
-0.6061601042747498,
0.3058694303035736,
-0.16248413920402527,
0.308037668466568,
-0.22375322878360748,
-0.017244968563318253,
0.23449815809726715,
-0.11880531907081604,
0.21598339080810547,
0.17965461313724518,
-0.4447837471961975,
-0.1448826938867569,
0.08718302100896835,
-0.38015812635421753,
-0.15940213203430176,
0.11494605988264084,
0.04934012144804001,
-0.6153452396392822,
0.30897030234336853,
-0.19520051777362823,
0.08162035048007965,
0.20726026594638824,
0.1606859564781189,
0.12058677524328232,
0.17991013824939728,
0.5229829549789429,
-0.5394909977912903,
0.14894133806228638,
-0.3652029037475586,
-0.003605322213843465,
0.24116989970207214,
0.27049073576927185,
-0.670076310634613,
-0.3119466304779053,
0.29184505343437195,
0.5126494765281677,
-0.032787978649139404,
-0.48182234168052673,
-0.22937510907649994,
0.06541560590267181,
-0.13995960354804993,
-0.48743748664855957,
-0.06725168973207474,
-0.04819852486252785,
0.4120653569698334,
0.02258211374282837,
-0.2928174138069153,
-0.22573384642601013,
0.03713655471801758,
-0.3916826844215393,
-0.35263311862945557,
-0.0009299442172050476,
-0.06838466972112656,
0.4122156798839569,
-0.5702707767486572,
0.4572907090187073,
-0.7700194120407104,
0.6421117186546326,
0.6959925293922424,
-0.8177379369735718,
0.55327969789505,
-0.138091579079628,
-0.037496257573366165,
1.2002378702163696,
-0.00901875551789999,
-0.1273689866065979,
-0.21035681664943695,
0.4422399699687958,
0.5185993313789368,
0.30055326223373413,
-0.2366793155670166,
0.10761362314224243,
0.42440855503082275,
0.4618232846260071,
0.006195408757776022,
0.32325538992881775,
-0.20009107887744904,
-0.48303964734077454,
0.7751131057739258,
0.29404929280281067,
-0.2691817581653595,
0.12749111652374268,
-0.1996656209230423,
-0.40202754735946655,
-0.5282592177391052,
0.2034139484167099,
1.0002671480178833,
0.6966561079025269,
0.32865235209465027,
0.06740306317806244,
-0.9621320962905884,
0.2132171094417572,
0.17950432002544403,
-0.6108378767967224,
-0.10891644656658173,
0.056220654398202896,
0.05063307285308838,
-0.12935376167297363,
-0.16070985794067383,
0.17116519808769226,
-0.7022905349731445,
0.37990686297416687,
0.3211665451526642,
0.15449325740337372,
-0.033905889838933945,
-0.0545041561126709,
0.6886278390884399,
-0.12191077321767807,
0.3088403344154358,
0.1679268181324005,
0.21159543097019196,
-0.18740214407444,
0.2679447829723358,
-0.3326348066329956,
-0.02382604591548443,
-0.31514424085617065,
-0.012224966660141945,
-0.6405866742134094,
0.8962244391441345,
0.4231477677822113,
0.6497917771339417,
-0.11466263234615326,
-0.4233928918838501,
-0.26512235403060913,
-0.40041986107826233,
-0.48726484179496765,
0.29131650924682617,
-0.018300212919712067,
0.6030537486076355,
0.09934919327497482,
-0.12978748977184296,
0.3355673849582672,
-0.6791968941688538,
-0.5578223466873169,
0.4811435043811798,
-0.26655080914497375,
1.253746747970581,
-0.027398817241191864,
-0.06755302101373672,
0.11516259610652924,
-0.29131773114204407,
0.6994234919548035,
-0.3177250921726227,
0.3535417914390564,
0.7190622091293335,
-0.4517544209957123,
-0.04205316677689552,
0.10165685415267944,
0.06019327789545059,
-0.10493385791778564,
0.09129320830106735,
0.636689305305481,
-0.0365913026034832,
0.24196454882621765,
-0.046587131917476654,
0.55045485496521,
0.6186141967773438,
0.2796509265899658,
-0.3457190990447998,
0.08098714053630829,
0.15140500664710999,
0.28041407465934753,
-0.31455332040786743,
0.09619186818599701,
0.4382988214492798,
-0.49058064818382263,
0.048525482416152954,
1.132456660270691,
-0.22259436547756195,
-0.21177199482917786,
-0.37259534001350403,
0.7493035197257996,
-0.38659486174583435,
0.05305344611406326,
0.0391506627202034,
-0.4604055881500244,
0.04815176501870155,
0.09702526777982712,
0.033827394247055054,
-0.7483543753623962,
0.8473586440086365,
-0.060237493366003036,
0.45284512639045715,
0.10716012120246887,
-0.7715310454368591,
0.7195154428482056,
-0.6435927748680115,
0.2976236939430237,
0.6951332092285156,
-0.01811196468770504,
0.1448485404253006,
-0.3891283869743347,
-0.1285504251718521,
0.31977128982543945,
-0.13337208330631256,
-0.46875399351119995,
-0.058081675320863724,
0.2475554645061493,
-0.7616026401519775,
-0.14915385842323303,
-0.18212924897670746,
0.1481466144323349,
-0.3301185369491577,
0.5646412372589111,
0.43995633721351624,
-0.1713353395462036,
0.5877581238746643,
-0.569263219833374,
-0.9274638295173645,
-0.12572239339351654,
0.27545100450515747,
-0.11497171968221664,
-0.029171502217650414,
-0.3751717507839203,
-0.1743403524160385,
0.17954066395759583,
-0.007504548877477646,
0.1581338793039322,
-0.759957492351532,
0.519106388092041,
-0.9402932524681091,
-0.5295693278312683,
0.664330780506134,
0.5241055488586426,
0.4201827049255371,
-0.37383124232292175,
-0.03906583413481712,
0.6214661598205566,
0.053164850920438766,
-0.8902894854545593,
-0.20701925456523895,
-0.8063175082206726,
-0.19671180844306946,
-0.23079504072666168,
-0.33099856972694397,
0.19587445259094238,
0.04337645322084427,
0.6453137993812561,
0.014034607447683811,
0.5889958143234253,
0.7094944715499878,
0.5273427963256836,
0.4816363751888275,
0.06501681357622147,
-0.9788985848426819,
-0.5664900541305542,
0.5552109479904175,
-0.19324539601802826,
-0.06864943355321884,
0.06094679608941078,
-5.543166160583496,
-0.045969631522893906,
-0.3050886392593384,
-0.12732836604118347,
0.4801337718963623,
0.38185378909111023,
0.37526068091392517,
-0.3050895929336548,
0.21423295140266418,
-0.3913397490978241,
-0.00190176151227206,
-0.38456112146377563,
-0.3313775658607483,
0.2018498033285141,
0.055353034287691116,
0.30624154210090637,
0.569216251373291,
-0.651801586151123,
0.37534451484680176,
0.42509838938713074,
0.7643652558326721,
-0.16946227848529816,
-0.38086292147636414,
-0.32712510228157043,
0.2357453554868698,
0.027670249342918396,
0.0810626745223999,
0.51007080078125,
-0.263913631439209,
0.23703151941299438,
0.09432671219110489,
0.3551875948905945,
0.032067980617284775,
-0.8311644196510315,
-0.09088504314422607,
0.20172637701034546,
-0.11214927583932877,
-0.6365659832954407,
0.825714111328125,
0.20740659534931183,
-0.39091840386390686,
-0.4647139012813568,
-0.3491147458553314,
-0.3582545518875122,
-0.048563193529844284,
-0.23383302986621857,
0.23909148573875427,
-0.401700496673584,
0.6958181858062744,
0.283855140209198,
0.5467838644981384,
0.38198575377464294,
0.052475228905677795,
-0.4638163447380066,
0.24044039845466614,
-0.04401828721165657,
-0.2618064880371094,
0.31141677498817444,
-0.2881185710430145,
0.08320913463830948,
-0.02917415276169777,
0.27893054485321045,
-0.37883639335632324,
-0.8673399090766907,
-0.29115161299705505,
-0.18099656701087952,
0.4403810203075409,
0.07116696238517761,
-0.07299986481666565,
0.12714633345603943,
-0.33833038806915283,
1.1271852254867554,
-0.757041871547699,
-1.166290521621704,
0.41518309712409973,
-0.5207451581954956,
-0.4974696934223175,
-0.2527921199798584,
-0.35774731636047363,
-0.07395550608634949,
-0.22290752828121185,
-0.47432518005371094,
-0.1959790140390396,
0.010624319314956665,
0.2475196123123169,
-0.08348353207111359,
-0.33149102330207825,
-0.0934138149023056,
-0.22517339885234833,
-0.02941286191344261,
0.42604392766952515,
-0.9805293679237366,
-0.014328530989587307,
0.7393374443054199,
0.02640296146273613,
-0.2482294738292694,
-0.28697848320007324,
0.1678992062807083,
0.6582818627357483,
0.12653054296970367,
-0.09463585913181305,
-0.25083139538764954,
-0.2459753304719925,
-0.5233411192893982,
-0.8201704621315002,
-0.6681837439537048,
-0.4915560781955719,
0.08033809810876846,
0.07572714239358902,
0.31697535514831543,
0.22496023774147034,
-0.13677643239498138,
-0.5647624731063843,
-0.5791501998901367,
0.9507544040679932,
0.18735069036483765,
0.42261484265327454,
-0.008423026651144028,
0.28758952021598816,
-0.4041805863380432,
-0.38066431879997253,
0.4556974470615387,
-0.24413534998893738,
-0.028797173872590065,
0.16900403797626495,
-0.36354172229766846,
-0.12465497106313705,
0.24011586606502533,
-0.20779451727867126,
0.5096213221549988,
-0.12819579243659973,
0.7047476172447205,
-0.2087823897600174,
0.02433992736041546,
0.36423763632774353,
-0.2234657108783722,
-0.2455262541770935,
0.1055140271782875,
0.08368942886590958,
-0.07234488427639008,
-0.4616307318210602,
0.08010160177946091,
-0.33458977937698364,
-0.28656601905822754,
0.36874207854270935,
0.6331602931022644,
0.5541289448738098,
-0.32342445850372314,
-0.15006044507026672,
0.7200783491134644,
0.28219500184059143,
-0.11866394430398941,
0.04915093258023262,
0.1287318766117096,
0.14075374603271484,
-0.5042299628257751,
0.6769251823425293,
-0.3004538118839264,
-0.22318056225776672,
-0.2669657766819,
0.41998204588890076,
-0.20196731388568878,
-0.2863737642765045,
-0.1348695605993271,
-0.24278579652309418,
-0.38514086604118347,
-0.2766113579273224,
-0.30746880173683167,
-0.0439167357981205,
0.3378383219242096,
0.09961187094449997,
-0.8581904172897339,
-0.34443992376327515,
0.3971584737300873,
0.6163970232009888,
0.24733106791973114,
-0.48557013273239136,
-0.6195913553237915,
-0.10619999468326569,
-0.606768786907196,
-0.3060153126716614,
-0.3612763285636902,
-0.7632443308830261,
0.48653414845466614,
-0.2478923499584198,
-0.6526700258255005,
-0.7013659477233887,
-0.260864794254303,
0.030815642327070236,
-0.17131732404232025,
0.18580180406570435,
-0.0838971734046936,
0.05647338554263115,
0.39783719182014465,
-0.20668059587478638,
-0.33641356229782104,
-0.22157016396522522,
0.6431214213371277,
0.2973840832710266,
0.36103805899620056,
-0.6695612668991089,
0.20303969085216522,
0.4235557019710541,
0.013560185208916664,
0.19060276448726654,
-0.5661314129829407,
-0.06059115007519722,
0.79061359167099,
0.3677377700805664,
0.12836238741874695,
0.5093990564346313,
-1.0144397020339966,
0.2736950218677521,
0.30707913637161255,
-0.2534395754337311,
0.5227903723716736,
-0.05154535919427872,
0.543243944644928,
0.20715543627738953,
-0.524791419506073,
-0.2614498436450958,
0.09528887271881104,
-0.22625181078910828,
-0.6034271121025085,
-0.38792064785957336,
0.5003150701522827,
-0.09725333750247955,
-0.24094238877296448,
0.4517948627471924,
-0.6801459789276123,
-0.2526644170284271,
-0.1927717626094818,
-0.5536326169967651,
0.20656085014343262,
0.179335817694664,
0.096184641122818,
-0.04851808771491051,
0.24022266268730164,
0.3645315170288086,
0.16064824163913727,
0.37092238664627075,
0.4146111309528351,
0.3981914520263672,
-0.11619266867637634,
-0.29052719473838806,
0.001176470541395247,
0.4685226380825043,
-0.08718850463628769,
-0.13645532727241516,
-0.5256812572479248,
0.09352948516607285,
-0.4306068420410156,
-0.6138431429862976,
-0.4516143500804901,
0.41602733731269836,
-0.11018169671297073,
-0.7441127300262451,
-1.1810871362686157,
-0.2901473343372345,
0.13541091978549957,
0.1580061912536621,
0.5174726843833923,
-1.0974979400634766,
0.03884871304035187,
0.04943457990884781,
0.5615928173065186,
0.013524401932954788,
-0.22349770367145538,
0.007729270961135626,
-0.11966568976640701,
0.03408321738243103,
0.05681265890598297,
-0.6400496959686279,
0.5281001925468445,
-0.27415651082992554,
0.563832700252533,
0.12366311252117157,
-0.28090590238571167,
-0.2890080213546753,
0.23775209486484528,
-0.41812315583229065,
0.46839725971221924,
-0.23566536605358124,
-0.24421574175357819,
-0.0746951475739479,
-0.33382540941238403,
-0.7954561114311218,
-0.04410768672823906,
-0.46721166372299194,
0.013556822203099728,
0.05843089893460274,
0.3807469606399536,
-1.022059679031372,
-0.5540953278541565,
-0.23175489902496338,
0.05775608494877815,
-0.1356620490550995,
0.5581278204917908,
-0.25716373324394226,
0.3934765160083771,
-0.9621177315711975,
0.8038047552108765,
0.25275689363479614,
-0.3407573103904724,
-0.06151838228106499,
0.009342752397060394,
0.8525323867797852,
-0.2711290419101715,
-0.11419887095689774,
0.4211800992488861,
0.7164880633354187,
-0.5309978723526001,
-0.28382256627082825,
0.6189987659454346,
-1.6081372499465942,
0.2395927459001541,
0.6335674524307251,
-0.10493025928735733,
-0.33961546421051025,
0.436974436044693,
-0.12394257634878159,
0.296443372964859,
0.6163360476493835,
-0.06856967508792877,
-0.8444390892982483,
0.13457487523555756,
-0.3808104395866394,
-0.009356698021292686,
-0.4223268926143646,
0.3856208622455597,
0.8520129323005676,
0.13159310817718506,
0.4078843593597412,
0.4680781960487366,
-0.31477120518684387,
0.11207791417837143,
-0.1797548532485962,
-0.5924428105354309,
0.004250901751220226,
0.4535548985004425,
-0.326145738363266,
0.29202356934547424,
0.6297110319137573,
-0.1026441752910614,
0.30244380235671997,
0.3682202100753784,
-0.13218462467193604,
-0.04186563938856125,
0.7054072022438049,
0.19474844634532928,
0.06629433482885361,
0.39206060767173767,
-0.07191848754882812,
-0.4607390761375427,
-0.11493842303752899,
-0.026266297325491905,
0.6981772184371948,
0.10320691019296646,
-0.6626304984092712,
0.02802882343530655,
0.49088796973228455,
0.463710755109787,
0.8156822323799133,
0.22635968029499054,
-0.5681156516075134,
-0.25829800963401794,
-0.1724209189414978,
-0.23633140325546265,
0.4563184976577759,
-0.2268100529909134,
-0.09251090884208679,
0.25366613268852234,
-0.700191855430603,
0.1242416501045227,
0.450867235660553,
0.07077384740114212,
0.4634022116661072,
-0.07753206044435501,
0.08337903022766113,
-0.13577871024608612,
0.0315096452832222,
-0.13819922506809235,
-0.6576701402664185,
-0.27243950963020325,
-0.9123284816741943,
0.6987178325653076,
0.10126543790102005,
0.3164944052696228,
1.2106541395187378,
-0.5341465473175049,
0.6467757225036621,
-0.5986899733543396,
-0.1305614709854126,
0.20351049304008484,
-1.0698806047439575,
-0.087736114859581,
0.5570067763328552,
0.2080755978822708,
-0.02840569242835045,
0.5507549047470093,
0.2628999650478363,
-0.3349860608577728,
-0.20544394850730896,
0.5737490653991699,
-0.28056851029396057,
0.7014946937561035,
-0.8736103773117065,
0.030953479930758476,
-0.12903305888175964,
0.6408717036247253,
-0.08676403015851974,
-0.040297187864780426,
-0.09803247451782227,
0.4616633951663971,
0.3688935935497284,
-0.6051530838012695,
0.263834685087204,
0.15101143717765808,
-0.06853776425123215,
-0.16986390948295593,
-0.13787873089313507,
0.2501137852668762,
-0.7804424166679382,
-0.24260486662387848,
-0.4321567118167877,
-0.44426557421684265,
-0.058728866279125214,
-0.1738949865102768,
0.09333914518356323,
-0.03794840723276138,
0.378557026386261,
0.25692054629325867,
-0.10875698924064636,
0.08321274071931839,
-0.35596778988838196,
-0.8791094422340393,
0.3356683552265167,
0.46046069264411926,
0.5648686289787292,
-0.21011874079704285,
-0.2475445568561554,
0.011815477162599564,
0.37837114930152893,
-0.0015432968502864242,
0.3391381502151489,
-0.32094547152519226,
0.49462926387786865,
-0.7204612493515015,
-0.12955698370933533,
0.2310536801815033,
-0.01919713243842125,
0.8828532695770264,
-0.37159493565559387,
-0.2537066638469696,
0.21042464673519135,
-0.8632897734642029,
0.29691052436828613,
-0.3666194975376129,
0.9380130767822266,
0.2186589539051056
] |
213237
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem%20Dafoe
|
Willem Dafoe
|
William James "Willem" Dafoe (; born July 22, 1955) is an American actor. He is the recipient of various accolades, including the Volpi Cup for Best Actor, in addition to receiving nominations for four Academy Awards, four Screen Actors Guild Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and a British Academy Film Award. He frequently collaborates with filmmakers Paul Schrader, Abel Ferrara, Lars von Trier, Julian Schnabel, and Wes Anderson.
Dafoe was an early member of experimental theater company The Wooster Group. He made his film debut in Heaven's Gate (1980), but was fired during production. He had his first leading role in the outlaw biker film The Loveless (1982) and then played the main antagonist in Streets of Fire (1984) and To Live and Die in L.A. (1985). He received his first Academy Award nomination (as Best Supporting Actor) for his role as Sergeant Elias Grodin in Oliver Stone's war film Platoon (1986). In 1988, Dafoe played Jesus in Martin Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ and costarred in Mississippi Burning, both of which were controversial.
After receiving his second Academy Award nomination (as Best Supporting Actor) for portraying Max Schreck in Shadow of the Vampire (2000), Dafoe portrayed the supervillain Norman Osborn / Green Goblin in the superhero film Spider-Man (2002), a role he reprised in its sequels Spider-Man 2 (2004) and Spider-Man 3 (2007), and the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021) earning him the Guinness World Record for the "longest career as a live-action Marvel character". He also portrayed the villains in Once Upon a Time in Mexico (2003) and XXX: State of the Union (2005), as well as Carson Clay in the film Mr. Bean's Holiday (2007). In 2009, he starred in the experimental film Antichrist, one of his three films with Lars von Trier. Dafoe then appeared in The Fault in Our Stars, John Wick, The Grand Budapest Hotel (all 2014), The Great Wall (2016), Murder on the Orient Express (2017), The Florida Project (2017) (for which he received his third Academy Award nomination in the Best Supporting Actor category), The Lighthouse (2019), The French Dispatch, and Nightmare Alley (both 2021). He portrayed Nuidis Vulko in the DC Extended Universe films Aquaman (2018), Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) and Aquaman and the Lost Kingdom (2022).
Dafoe has portrayed several real-life figures, including T. S. Eliot in Tom & Viv (1994), Pier Paolo Pasolini in Pasolini (2014), Vincent van Gogh in At Eternity's Gate (2018) (for which he received an Academy Award for Best Actor nomination, his first in that category), and Leonhard Seppala in Togo (2019).
Early life and education
William James Dafoe was born on July 22, 1955, in Appleton, Wisconsin. One of eight children of Muriel Isabel (née Sprissler) (November 29, 1921 – September 2012) and Dr. William Alfred Dafoe (July 21, 1917 – November 21, 2014), he recalled in 2009: "My five sisters raised me because my father was a surgeon, my mother was a nurse and they worked together, so I didn't see either of them much." His brother, Donald Dafoe, is a transplant surgeon and researcher. He has English, French, German, Irish, and Scottish ancestry. His surname, Dafoe, is the Anglicized version of the Swiss Thévou. In high school, he acquired the nickname Willem, which is the Dutch version of the name William. During an interview he explained that about half of the Dafoe family puts the emphasis on the first syllable of their surname, and the other half on the second. Only after becoming an actor, he took the second interpretation as his stage name.
After attending Appleton East High School, Dafoe studied drama at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, but left after a year and a half to join the experimental theater company Theatre X in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, before moving to New York City in 1976. There he apprenticed under Richard Schechner, director of the avant-garde theater troupe The Performance Group, where he met and became romantically involved with Elizabeth LeCompte. She, with her former romantic partner Spalding Gray and others, edged out Schechner and created the Wooster Group. Within a year Dafoe was part of the company. Dafoe would continue with the Wooster Group into the 2000s.
Career
1980s
Dafoe began his film career in 1979, when he was cast in a supporting role in Michael Cimino's epic Western film Heaven's Gate. Dafoe was only present for the first three months of an eight-month shoot. His role, that of a cockfighter who works for Jeff Bridges' character, was removed from a majority of the film during editing but was visible during a cockfight scene. Dafoe did not receive a credit for his work on the film. In 1982, Dafoe starred as the leader of an outlaw motorcycle club in the drama The Loveless, his first role as a leading man. The film was co-directed by Kathryn Bigelow and Monty Montgomery and paid homage to 1953 film The Wild One, starring Marlon Brando in a similar role.
Following a brief appearance in the horror film The Hunger (1983), Dafoe again played the leader of a biker gang in Walter Hill's 1984 action film Streets of Fire. His character in the film served as the main antagonist, who captures the ex-girlfriend of a mercenary, played by Diane Lane and Michael Paré, respectively. Janet Maslin of The New York Times felt there were no great performances in the film, but praised Dafoe's "perfectly villainous" face. Dafoe starred alongside Judge Reinhold in Roadhouse 66 (1985) as a pair of yuppies who become stranded in a town on U.S. Route 66. Later in 1985, Dafoe starred with William Petersen and John Pankow in William Friedkin's thriller To Live and Die in L.A., in which Dafoe portrays a counterfeiter named Rick Masters who is being tracked by two Secret Service agents. Film critic Roger Ebert commended his "strong" performance in the film.
Dafoe's sole film release of 1986 was Oliver Stone's Vietnam War film Platoon, gaining him his widest exposure up to that point for playing the compassionate Sergeant Elias Grodin. He enjoyed the opportunity to play a heroic role and said the film gave him a chance to display his versatility, saying "I think all characters live in you. You just frame them, give them circumstances, and that character will happen." Principal photography for the film took place in the Philippines and required Dafoe to undergo boot camp training. Los Angeles Times writer Sheila Benson praised his performance and found it to be "particularly fine" to see Dafoe play "something other than a psychopath". At the 59th Academy Awards, Dafoe was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, but the statuette was awarded to Michael Caine (for the 1986 film Hannah and Her Sisters). Dafoe provided his voice to the documentary Dear America: Letters Home from Vietnam (1987) and, in 1988, Dafoe starred in another film set during the Vietnam War, this time as Criminal Investigation Command Agent Buck McGriff in the action thriller Off Limits. His second release of 1988 was Martin Scorsese's epic drama The Last Temptation of Christ, in which Dafoe portrayed Jesus. The film was adapted from the novel of the same name and depicts his struggle with various forms of temptation throughout his life. Like the novel, the film sparked controversy for departing from the biblical portrayal of Jesus and was branded as being blasphemous. Dafoe's performance in the film was widely praised, however, with Janet Maslin opining that Dafoe brought a "gleaming intensity" to the role.
In his final release of 1988, Dafoe starred opposite Gene Hackman in the crime thriller Mississippi Burning as a pair of FBI agents investigating the disappearance of three civil rights workers in fictional Jessup County, Mississippi during the civil rights movement. Variety praised Dafoe's performance, writing, "Dafoe gives a disciplined and noteworthy portrayal of Ward", although they felt it was Hackman "who steals the picture". As with The Last Temptation of Christ, the film was the subject of controversy, this time among African-American activists who criticized its fictionalization of events. Dafoe was briefly considered for the role of the super-villain the Joker in the Tim Burton-directed superhero film Batman (1989), as screenwriter Sam Hamm noticed physical similarities, but was never offered the part that eventually went to Jack Nicholson. Dafoe starred in the drama Triumph of the Spirit in 1989 as Jewish Greek boxer Salamo Arouch, an Auschwitz concentration camp inmate who was forced to fight other internees to death for the Nazi officers' entertainment. It was filmed on location at Auschwitz, the first major film to do so. While the film was negatively received, Dafoe's performance was lauded by some critics; Peter Travers of Rolling Stone felt he gave a "disciplined performance" and Janet Maslin thought he was "harrowingly good". Dafoe reunited with Platoon director Oliver Stone for a small appearance in the biographical war drama Born on the Fourth of July (1989). Dafoe played a paraplegic, wheelchair-using Vietnam veteran who befriends the film's subject Ron Kovic (played by Tom Cruise), another paraplegic veteran.
1990s
Dafoe made a cameo appearance in John Waters' musical comedy Cry-Baby (1990) as a prison guard who gives a brief lecture on values to the title character, who is played by Johnny Depp. Rita Kempley of The Washington Post found the scene to be one of the film's highlights. In the same year, Dafoe co-starred in David Lynch's crime film Wild at Heart with Nicolas Cage and Laura Dern. Dafoe played a criminal who engages in a robbery with Cage's character before demonstrating his dark side. He wore fake, corroded teeth and grew a pencil moustache that bore resemblance to his previous collaborator, John Waters. Entertainment Weekly critic Owen Gleiberman felt the role proved Dafoe as a "master of leering, fish-faced villainy". In 1991, Dafoe starred with Danny Glover and Brad Johnson in the action film Flight of the Intruder. The film follows a pair of United States Navy pilots, played by Dafoe and Johnson, who scheme and participate in an unauthorized air strike on Hanoi. Directed by John Millius, the film received negative reviews. He was due to star opposite Joan Cusack in the comedy Arrive Alive in 1991, but the film was cancelled during production. Dafoe had two lead roles in 1992. The first to be released, White Sands, saw Dafoe a play small-town sheriff who impersonates a dead man after finding his dead body and a suitcase containing $500,000 to solve the case, resulting in an FBI investigation. In his next starring role, Paul Schrader's drama Light Sleeper, Dafoe played John LeTour, a lonely, insomniac, New Yorker working as a delivery man for a drug supplier, who is played by Susan Sarandon. Roger Ebert praised Dafoe's "gifted" portrayal of LeTour and Owen Gleiberman opined that "even when the film doesn't gel, one is held by Willem Dafoe's grimly compelling performance."
Dafoe next starred in the erotic thriller Body of Evidence (1993) with Madonna. The story concerns a lawyer, played by Dafoe, who engages in a sadomasochistic sexual relationship with the woman he is representing in a murder case. The film was panned by critics and performed poorly at the box office, with some audience members laughing during the sex scenes. In his review of the film, Vincent Canby felt that Dafoe lacked sensuality in the role. Later in 1993, Dafoe appeared in a supporting role as Emit Flesti (an anagram of Time Itself) in the German fantasy film Faraway, So Close!, directed by Wim Wenders. Dafoe then co-starred in the spy thriller Clear and Present Danger (1994), an adaptation of the Tom Clancy novel of the name starring Harrison Ford as CIA operative Jack Ryan. Dafoe played John Clark, a CIA agent conducting a covert operation against a drug cartel in Colombia with Jack Ryan. Dafoe portrayed the poet T. S. Eliot in the drama Tom & Viv (also in 1994), which tells the story of Eliot and his first wife, Vivienne Haigh-Wood Eliot, who was played by Miranda Richardson. The film was met with a mixed reception from critics, although Caryn James of The New York Times felt that Dafoe's "stunningly sharp, sympathetic portrait raises the film above a script that is full of serious holes and stilted dialogue". In 1995, he played an 18th-century writer in the period drama The Night and the Moment.
In his first of three film appearances in 1996, Dafoe made a cameo appearance as an electrician in the biographical drama Basquiat. Next, he played a Canadian Intelligence Corps operative in the romantic war drama The English Patient, which starred Ralph Fiennes as desert explorer Count László Almásy. The English Patient was filmed in Tuscany, where Dafoe said he particularly enjoyed the "quiet moments in the monastery between shoots". In the period drama Victory—which was filmed in 1994 and premiered in Europe in 1996, but was not released until 1998—Dafoe played a European living on an island in the Southeast Asia who becomes the target of redemption after preventing a woman, played by Irène Jacob, from being raped. In 1997, Dafoe returned to playing a villainous role in the action thriller Speed 2: Cruise Control, expressing the necessity of appearing in both independent and blockbuster films. The film starred Sandra Bullock and Jason Patric as a couple vacationing on a luxury cruise that has been hijacked by Dafoe's character, Geiger, a hacker that has programmed the ship to crash into an oil tanker. Speed 2 was met with overwhelmingly negative reviews from critics, with Dafoe himself receiving a Razzie Award nomination for Worst Supporting Actor. For his next film, Affliction (1997), Dafoe worked with Paul Schrader for a second time, playing the brother of Nick Nolte's character and served as the film's narrator. Also in 1997, Dafoe took on a voice acting role in an episode of the animated sitcom The Simpsons titled "The Secret War of Lisa Simpson", voicing the commandant of a military academy that Bart and Lisa Simpson are attending. Following a villainous supporting role in the romantic mystery drama Lulu on the Bridge, Dafoe starred alongside Christopher Walken and Asia Argento in Abel Ferrara's cyberpunk drama New Rose Hotel in 1998. It follows X (Dafoe) and Fox (Walken), a pair of corporate raiders attempting to lure a Japanese scientist from one megacorporation to another. Although the film was largely dismissed by critics, critic David Stratton found there to be "compensation" in the performances.
In 1999, Dafoe gave a supporting performance in David Cronenberg's Existenz, a science fiction thriller in which he played a gas station owner named Gas. Later in the year, Dafoe starred in the action film The Boondock Saints. He played an eccentric, gay FBI agent assigned with investigating a series of murders committed by the MacManus twins (played by Sean Patrick Flanery and Norman Reedus) who are acting as vigilantes in Boston, Massachusetts after an act of self-defense. The Boondock Saints was negatively received by film critics, largely for its extreme violence and lack of emotional depth, though some critics praised Dafoe's role in the film. The film performed poorly at the box office, but has since been branded as being a cult film.
2000s
In his first film of the 2000s, Dafoe was featured in a supporting role in American Psycho (2000) as a private investigator investigating the disappearance of a co-worker of Patrick Bateman (played by Christian Bale), an investment banker who leads a double life as a serial killer. His next film of 2000, Steve Buscemi's crime drama Animal Factory, starred as Dafoe an incarcerated veteran con-man who takes a young inmate (played by Edward Furlong) under his wing and introduces to him to his gang. The film was positively received by critics and Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times wrote that "Dafoe steals the picture with his comic timing". Shadow of the Vampire, his final film of the year, saw him portray a fictionalized version of the German actor Max Schreck during the production of the 1922 horror film Nosferatu, in which Schreck starred as the vampire Count Orlok. Dafoe's co-star John Malkovich portrayed the film's director, F. W. Murnau. The film delves into fiction when, over the course of Nosferatus production, the cast and crew come to discover that Schreck is actually a vampire himself. Much of the film's critical praise went to Dafoe; Roger Ebert wrote that Dafoe "embodies the Schreck of Nosferatu so uncannily that when real scenes from the silent classic are slipped into the frame, we don't notice a difference". The Chicago Reader critic Jonathan Rosenbaum opined felt the film's "only redeeming quality" was Dafoe's "enjoyably over-the-top, eye-rolling performance". Dafoe received numerous awards and nominations for his performance, including his second Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor nomination.
Dafoe took on two leading roles in 2001, both of which were as priests. In the drama Pavilion of Women, he played an American priest living in China who falls in love with a local married woman (played by the film's screenwriter Luo Yan) while giving her son a Western education. He then starred opposite Haley Joel Osment in Edges of the Lord, playing a compassionate priest helping a young Jewish boy pose as a Catholic to protect him during Nazi Germany's occupation of Poland. Dafoe played the supervillain the Green Goblin in Sam Raimi's 2002 superhero film Spider-Man, starring Tobey Maguire as the titular Marvel Comics superhero. Dafoe played the Norman Osborn incarnation of the Green Goblin, the billionaire founder and owner of the corporation Oscorp, becoming the Green Goblin after testing an unstable strength enhancer on himself, turning him insane and making him extremely powerful. Osborn is a family friend of Spider-Man's secret identity Peter Parker as Osborn's son, Harry Osborn (played by James Franco), is a close friend of Parker. The role required Dafoe to wear an uncomfortable costume and mask that made it impossible to emote using his face, confining Dafoe to convey emotion through his voice and head movements. Dafoe also had to wear a prosthetic teeth for his part as Norman whereas the hallucinations of the character had Dafoe in his natural teeth. Dafoe's role in the film was generally well-received, including a New York Daily News reviewer who felt he put "the scare in archvillain" and Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian who deemed him "strong support". Conversely, critic A. O. Scott wrote that his performance was "uninspired and secondhand".
Later in 2002, Dafoe starred with Greg Kinnear in Paul Schrader's biographical film Auto Focus, Dafoe's third collaboration with Schrader. Dafoe portrayed John Henry Carpenter, an electronics expert who develops a strange friendship with the actor Bob Crane, leading Crane into a downward spiral. Dafoe provided his voice to the computer-animated Pixar film Finding Nemo in 2003. Dafoe voiced Gill, a moorish idol fish who helps Nemo, a clownfish, in his struggle to find his parents. In the same year, Dafoe appeared in a small but pivotal role as a drug cartel kingpin planning a coup d'état against the President of Mexico in Robert Rodriguez's action film Once Upon a Time in Mexico. The murder mystery The Reckoning was Dafoe's final film of 2003, in which he starred with Paul Bettany. The film takes place during the Middle Ages and saw Dafoe play the leader of acting troupe that recreate the events surrounding a woman accused of witchcraft and murder, who they believe is innocent. Dafoe lent his voice and likeness to the James Bond video game James Bond 007: Everything or Nothing (2004) as the villain Nikolai Diavolo.
The following year, Dafoe took on another villainous role in The Clearing, albeit with a more sympathetic approach. Dafoe co-starred as a man who kidnaps his former boss (played by Robert Redford) in exchange for a ransom. The film received mixed reviews, although Peter Travers felt that he added a note of "vulnerability to the menace he has made his stock in trade". Dafoe reprised his role as Norman Osborn in Spider-Man 2 (2004), appearing to his son Harry in an hallucination. The cameo was suggested by Dafoe, comparing it to the ghost of Hamlet's father visiting his son to ask him to avenge his death. Dafoe was next seen in the comedy-drama The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004), his first of three films with director Wes Anderson. He played the "hilariously doltish" German first mate of a research vessel owned by the eponymous lead character, who is played by Bill Murray. Dafoe then had a small role as a tabloid magazine editor in Martin Scorsese's The Aviator (2004), a biographical film about Howard Hughes starring Leonardo DiCaprio. Also in 2004, Dafoe narrated the documentary Final Cut: The Making and Unmaking of Heaven's Gate, chronicling the production of Heaven's Gate and co-starred as a neuropharmacologist in the direct-to-video thriller Control (2004) alongside Ray Liotta and Michelle Rodriguez. Dafoe co-starred in XXX: State of the Union (2005), an action film sequel starring Ice Cube in which Dafoe played a US Secretary of Defense attempting a coup d'état against the President of the United States. It was largely panned by critics, although Dafoe stated he did not regret appearing in the film.
With the avant-garde drama Manderlay in 2005, Dafoe began another actor-director collaboration, this time with Danish filmmaker Lars von Trier. Dafoe co-starred in the film as the father of Bryce Dallas Howard's character, a woman who discovers a plantation still thriving as if slavery had never been abolished. Along with his wife Giada Colagrande, Dafoe co-wrote and starred in Before It Had a Name (2005), which Colagrande directed. Dafoe played the caretaker of a house that is inherited by the lover of its deceased owner, engaging in a sexual relationship with her. The film was excoriated by a Variety reviewer as a "wannabe haunted house tale laced with silly sex scenes" and an "embarrassment". His fourth and final film appearance of 2005 was the crime thriller Ripley Under Ground, in which he played a museum curator. Dafoe had a supporting role in Spike Lee's 2006 crime thriller Inside Man, playing a veteran captain of the NYPD Emergency Services Unit helping with a hostage negotiation during a bank heist on Wall Street. Dafoe co-starred as the White House Chief of Staff in American Dreamz, a comedy satirizing both popular entertainment and American politics. His character was described as a "diminutive version of Dick Cheney, with wire-rimmed glasses and a fringe of white hair" by The Times writer Caryn James. He starred with Juliette Binoche in a short film directed by Nobuhiro Suwa as part of the 2006 anthology film Paris, je t'aime.
In 2007, Dafoe played a pretentious film director in the British comedy film Mr. Bean's Holiday, starring Rowan Atkinson as Mr. Bean. The Hollywood Reporter thought that Dafoe appeared to think he was "in a pantomime", while a New York Times reviewer felt he was "amusing" in the role. Dafoe starred as the owner of a strip club in Abel Ferrara's Go Go Tales (2007); Manohla Dargis praised his "twitchy, sympathetic performance" in the film. In the same year, Dafoe voiced the main villain, an evil wizard, in the English dub of the Japanese animated fantasy film Tales from Earthsea, had a supporting role as a US Senator in the drama The Walker, his fourth collaboration with Paul Schrader, and took on the lead role in the psychological thriller Anamorph, in which Dafoe played a detective who notices the case he is investigating bears similarities to a previous case of his. He also reprised his role again as Norman Osborn in Spider-Man 3 (2007) in a brief cameo. Dafoe starred with Ryan Reynolds, Julia Roberts, and Emily Watson in the drama Fireflies in the Garden, which premiered at Berlinale in 2008 but was not released theatrically until 2011. Dafoe played a cold, domineering English professor who has a strained relationship with his family. The film received mostly negative reviews, although the performances were generally praised. Roger Ebert thought that Dafoe was "fearsome" in the role, while Manohla Dargis felt he and Roberts were "awkwardly matched" as a married couple. Dafoe co-starred as SS Nazi officer in Paul Schrader's Adam Resurrected (2008), which starred Jeff Goldblum as a concentration camp internee. In his final release of 2008, Dafoe starred in the Greek drama The Dust of Time as an American film director of Greek descent making a film his mother's (played by Irène Jacob) life. The critic Peter Brunette felt the cast's performances, especially Dafoe's, were unconvincing.
Dafoe appeared in seven films in 2009, the first of which was in Lars von Trier's experimental film Antichrist. Dafoe and Charlotte Gainsbourg played a couple whose relationship becomes increasingly sexually violent and sadomasochistic after retreating to a cabin in the woods following the death of their child. The film received a polarized response from critics and audiences, receiving both applause and boos at the Cannes Film Festival and was called the "most shocking movie" to be shown at the festival because of its graphic sex scenes. Roger Ebert commended Dafoe's and Gainsbourg's performances as being "heroic and fearless". During an interview with L Magazine, it was revealed Dafoe had a stand in for scenes where his character's penis was on screen as his own was too big. Dafoe next had a small role in the French thriller Farewell as the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency and co-starred opposite Michael Shannon in Werner Herzog's My Son, My Son, What Have Ye Done?, in which he played a detective attempting to figure out why a troubled man killed his own mother. Dafoe played a former vampire who has a cure that can save the human species in the science fiction horror film Daybreakers, which starred Ethan Hawke as a vampire hematologist. Richard Corliss of Time magazine wrote that Dafoe "triumphs over some awful dialogue by giving the role his nutsy-greatsy weirdness". Dafoe had a voice role in Wes Anderson's stop-motion animated film Fantastic Mr. Fox starring George Clooney as the titular Roald Dahl character. Fresh Air critic David Edelstein felt Dafoe was one of the film's highlights as a "hep-cat, knife-wielding rat security guard". Dafoe reprised his role from The Boondock Saints in The Boondock Saints II: All Saints Day, making a brief cameo appearance. His final appearance of the year was in Cirque du Freak: The Vampire's Assistant, another film centring around vampires in which Dafoe played the foppish vampire Gavner Purl. Between October and December 2009, Dafoe appeared in Richard Foreman's surrealist play Idiot Savant at The Public Theater.
2010s
Dafoe appeared in two films that premiered at the Venice International Film Festival in 2010, making a brief appearance in Julian Schnabel's political thriller Miral, which some reviewers found to be distracting. and starred in his wife Giada Colagrande's film A Woman. Also in 2010, Dafoe began voicing Clarence, the Birds Eye polar bear mascot in the company's television commercials in the United Kingdom, and narrated Into the Deep: America, Whaling & the World, a Ric Burns documentary about the history of the whaling industry in the United States.
Dafoe's first of two leading roles in 2011 was in Abel Ferrara's apocalyptic drama 4:44 Last Day on Earth, his third film with Ferrara. He played an actor spending his last hours on Earth before the end of the world with his much-younger lover (played by Shanyn Leigh). The film garnered a poor reaction critics, with a reviewer for Paste stating "there's only so much depth [Dafoe] can bring to such a shallow character". Dafoe then starred in the Australian drama The Hunter, playing a professional hunter who travels to Tasmania to hunt down the world's only remaining thylacine. Critic Stephen Holden wrote in his review of the film, "Even in the "toughest, most macho roles... [Dafoe] retains a tinge of Christ-like sweetness and vulnerability". In 2011, Dafoe began narrating a series of television commercials for the Greek yogurt company Fage and starred in a Jim Beam commercial titled "Bold Choices". Dafoe starred alongside Marina Abramović and Gretchen Mol in the play The Life and Death of Marina Abramović, which premiered at The Lowry in 2011. Dafoe played Martian chieftain Tars Tarkas in the Disney film John Carter (2012), using motion capture to portray the multi-limbed character. The film was a box office failure and ranks among the biggest box-office bombs of all time. Later in 2012, Dafoe co-starred in the low-budget crime thriller Tomorrow You're Gone with Stephen Dorff and Michelle Monaghan.
In 2013, Dafoe played a police officer in the supernatural thriller Odd Thomas, starring Anton Yelchin as the titular character that possesses supernatural powers to see the dead. Using motion-capture acting technology, Dafoe co-starred alongside Elliot Page in David Cage's video game Beyond: Two Souls (2013) as a paranormal activity researcher who acts as the surrogate-father-figure to a girl who possesses supernatural powers. The game polarized reviewers, although Dafoe and Page's performance were widely praised. In Scott Cooper's Out of the Furnace (2013), starring Christian Bale, Dafoe played the supporting role of a bookmaker running an illegal gambling operation. Dafoe next appeared in Lars von Trier's two-part erotic art film Nymphomaniac, his third and final film release of 2013. In the film, Dafoe played a perverse businessman who hires Charlotte Gainsbourg's character to work as a debt collector using sex and sadomasochism. Also in 2013, Dafoe played the devil in a Mercedes-Benz Super Bowl commercial and starred in three short student films as part of a competition sponsored by Jameson Irish Whiskey. In 2014, Dafoe portrayed a wealthy private banker with connections to the Russia mafia opposite Philip Seymour Hoffman in Anton Corbijn's espionage thriller A Most Wanted Man. Dafoe worked with Wes Anderson for a third time with the comedy The Grand Budapest Hotel (also 2014), featuring as the henchman of Adrien Brody's character alongside an ensemble cast led by Ralph Fiennes. Dafoe next starred alongside Matt Dillon as a detective in the crime thriller Bad Country, which critic Justin Chang dismissed as being "blandly constructed".
In May 2014, Dafoe served as member of the main competition jury at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival. He was next featured in a supporting role as a mean-spirited, alcoholic author who is visited by a pair of cancer patients, who are played by Shailene Woodley and Ansel Elgort, in the romantic drama The Fault in Our Stars. Dafoe once again collaborated with Ferrara on the drama Pasolini, in which he played Italian filmmaker Pier Paolo Pasolini during his last days before his murder in 1975. Film critic Peter Bradshaw noted the physical similarities between Dafoe and Pasolini, although felt Dafoe had too little screen time in the film. His final film of 2014 was the action thriller John Wick starring Keanu Reeves, in which Dafoe appeared as the mentor to the titular character, a former hitman who is forced out of retirement to seek vengeance for the killing of his puppy. Dafoe stated he found the use of gun fu combat created an interesting mix of action, stating "you have the grace of martial arts, but then the bang of the gun". His performance in the film was generally well received by critics, including Peter Travers who felt he provided "ample compensation". Dafoe made his second guest appearance in the animated sitcom The Simpsons in November 2014, voicing a new school teacher who bullies Bart Simpson profusely. Dafoe starred in the late Brazilian director's Héctor Babenco's final film My Hindu Friend (2015) as a film director close to death who befriends a Hindu 8-year-old boy while hospitalized.
The black comedy Dog Eat Dog (2016), Dafoe's sixth film with Paul Schrader, starred Dafoe and Nicolas Cage as a pair of ex-convicts hired to kidnap a baby. In the same year, Dafoe reprised his voice role as Gill, a Moorish idol fish, from Finding Nemo in its sequel Finding Dory. He next played the boss of Gerard Butler's character in the drama A Family Man and starred in Loris Gréaud's arthouse science fiction film Sculpt, which was only screened at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art for one person at a time. His final film of the year was the monster film The Great Wall, a Chinese-American co-production directed by Zhang Yimou starring Matt Damon as a European mercenary in China defending the Great Wall of China from a horde of monsters, in which Dafoe played a former adventurer working as a teacher in China. Also in 2016, Dafoe appeared in another Super Bowl commercial, this time for Snickers, recreating Marilyn Monroe's iconic white dress scene from the film The Seven Year Itch.
In 2017, Dafoe co-starred in Sean Baker's drama The Florida Project as the manager of a motel in Kissimmee, Florida who houses a toxic mother and her six-year-old daughter. The film and his performance received enormous critical acclaim, with The Washington Post critic Ann Hornaday writing that "Dafoe delivers his finest performance in recent memory, bringing to levelheaded, unsanctimonious life a character who offers a glimmer of hope and caring within a world markedly short on both". Dafoe earned his third Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor nomination, as well as nominations at the Golden Globes, SAG Awards, and BAFTA Awards. In 2017, Dafoe also played and voiced the character of Ryuk, a demonic death god from Japanese mythology, in Netflix's Death Note, and adaptation of the Japanese supernatural-thriller manga of the same name. He then narrated Australian documentarian Jennifer Peedom's documentary Mountain. Also that year, he co-starred as Gerhard Hardman in a film adaptation of Agatha Christie's detective novel Murder on the Orient Express, directed by and starring Kenneth Branagh; and played Atlantean scientist Nuidis Vulko in a deleted role in Zack Snyder's Justice League. He later played Nuidis Vulko in a leading role in James Wan's 2018 film Aquaman. The same year, Dafoe played Vincent van Gogh in the biographical drama At Eternity's Gate, for which he received the Volpi Cup for Best Actor and an Academy Award for Best Actor nomination among other awards and accolades. His performance drew raves from film critics. Peter Keough of Boston Globe said Dafoe "may be the best actor around for expressing an inner life in extremis."
In 2019, he had a supporting role in Edward Norton's period crime drama Motherless Brooklyn where he played powerful developer Moses Randolph's "beaten and broken" brother. In the same year, he played a lighthouse keeper on a storm-swept island in Robert Eggers' psychological horror The Lighthouse opposite Robert Pattinson. It had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival, where the film and Dafoe's performance received high praise. Owen Gleiberman of Variety said "Both actors are sensational (and they work together like one), but in terms of sheer showboating power it’s Dafoe’s movie." Dafoe portrayed sled dog breeder, trainer, and musher Leonhard Seppala in Togo.
2020s
Dafoe appears in Wes Anderson's ensemble period comedy The French Dispatch and Guillermo del Toro's neo-noir psychological thriller Nightmare Alley, which were both released in 2021, and Robert Eggers's historical thriller The Northman, set for a 2022 release date. All projects pushed their release dates due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
In 2020, The New York Times ranked him No. 18 in its list of the 25 Greatest Actors of the 21st Century.
In February 2021, it was announced that Dafoe will be co-starring alongside Emma Stone and Mark Ruffalo in Yorgos Lanthimos's Poor Things.
Dafoe reprised his role as Green Goblin from Sam Raimi's Spider-Man trilogy in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Spider-Man: No Way Home, released on 17 December 2021. In order to avoid having his role in the film prematurely revealed, Dafoe wore a cloak on-set to conceal his appearance from being outed publicly. The star of the film, Tom Holland, said that he got scared after bumping into Dafoe by accident one day on set and only then found out about his role in the film. Also, like Alfred Molina (who reprised his role as Otto Octavius/Doctor Octopus in the film), Dafoe was digitally de-aged for the character's 2002 self.
On January 18, 2022, it was announced that Dafoe will host Saturday Night Live on January 29, 2022, with musical guest singer Katy Perry.
Personal life
In 1977, Dafoe began a relationship with director Elizabeth LeCompte. Their son, Jack, was born in 1982. They separated in 2004 and were never married because "to her, marriage represented ownership".
Dafoe married Italian actress, director, and screenwriter Giada Colagrande on March 25, 2005, a year after the two had met in Rome at the premiere of one of her films. Dafoe said in 2010, "We were having lunch and I said: 'Do you want to get married tomorrow?'" They did so the following afternoon at a small ceremony with two friends as witnesses. The couple worked together on her films Before It Had a Name and A Woman. They divide their time between Rome, New York City, and Los Angeles. He now holds dual American and Italian citizenship.
Dafoe is a pescetarian and avoids eating meat, believing "animal farms are one of the main causes of the destruction of the planet". He practices ashtanga yoga every day.
Awards and honors
References
External links
Willem Dafoe Biography
The Onion A.V. Club interview
1955 births
Living people
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American expatriates in Italy
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male video game actors
American male voice actors
American people of English descent
American people of French descent
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Canadian descent
Appleton East High School alumni
Audiobook narrators
Best Actor Bodil Award winners
Honorary Golden Bear recipients
Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male winners
Internet memes
Male actors from Wisconsin
People from Appleton, Wisconsin
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee alumni
Volpi Cup for Best Actor winners
|
[
-0.2786374092102051,
-0.28313398361206055,
-0.6275119185447693,
-0.4865093529224396,
0.5123412013053894,
0.5074530243873596,
-0.08090788125991821,
0.06540670245885849,
-0.1808193176984787,
0.06878399103879929,
-0.37458106875419617,
0.651750922203064,
-0.4106941223144531,
-0.21958094835281372,
0.22712348401546478,
0.033165398985147476,
0.3727143108844757,
0.20344838500022888,
-0.0012701450614258647,
-0.8157591819763184,
-0.9320070147514343,
0.026981953531503677,
0.27311769127845764,
0.275332510471344,
-0.4416119456291199,
0.5008012652397156,
-0.1387384980916977,
0.2889533042907715,
0.07122047245502472,
0.03325773775577545,
0.3133276104927063,
0.22084885835647583,
0.4369860291481018,
0.030880043283104897,
-0.8032155632972717,
0.2926250994205475,
-0.6176666021347046,
-0.4062784016132355,
-0.060563597828149796,
0.1265217661857605,
-0.6907383799552917,
0.035782624036073685,
-0.06337245553731918,
-0.3608761727809906,
-0.3372596204280853,
-0.700253963470459,
-1.3556581735610962,
0.38805100321769714,
-0.4513958990573883,
-0.3106813430786133,
-0.18987005949020386,
-0.031126240268349648,
0.2487567812204361,
0.21539939939975739,
0.4733430743217468,
-0.2240794152021408,
-0.7873089909553528,
0.2052667737007141,
-0.04062587022781372,
-0.16096147894859314,
0.5580901503562927,
-0.5027161836624146,
0.31673261523246765,
-0.8929553031921387,
-0.13016733527183533,
-0.03202103078365326,
0.5454912781715393,
0.4502306580543518,
-0.0014188071945682168,
-0.16774922609329224,
0.2108231484889984,
0.8939268589019775,
0.15837189555168152,
-0.37832552194595337,
0.2878032624721527,
-0.10253593325614929,
0.3384118676185608,
0.4714256823062897,
-0.4738340377807617,
0.44229960441589355,
0.05906342715024948,
-0.4762890040874481,
0.9690278768539429,
0.49072176218032837,
0.0022865349892526865,
-0.13916340470314026,
-0.3663181960582733,
0.09811575710773468,
-0.3325354754924774,
-0.023189518600702286,
-0.526890218257904,
-0.43629947304725647,
-0.15302278101444244,
0.30470049381256104,
0.19977061450481415,
-0.4304463267326355,
-0.4162849187850952,
0.6615352034568787,
0.3753783404827118,
-0.30803805589675903,
-0.5606862902641296,
-0.4234525263309479,
0.49704110622406006,
-0.9534248113632202,
-0.43076321482658386,
-0.28437739610671997,
0.7215384244918823,
0.03577927127480507,
-0.5739895105361938,
-0.15371114015579224,
-0.062059853225946426,
0.0959901437163353,
0.1855764389038086,
-0.0839291512966156,
-0.1996527910232544,
0.2602364718914032,
0.1420336216688156,
-0.1369115263223648,
-0.6287624835968018,
-0.020085163414478302,
0.6521005630493164,
0.29288461804389954,
-0.06831274181604385,
0.39721983671188354,
-0.8244237303733826,
-0.03621486574411392,
-0.0404224693775177,
0.07366906106472015,
-0.3095290958881378,
0.18152789771556854,
0.34910017251968384,
0.9317318201065063,
-0.46075260639190674,
-0.16191476583480835,
-0.7006664872169495,
0.3039611279964447,
0.09862105548381805,
0.5515294671058655,
0.5393013954162598,
-0.4014231860637665,
-0.7774723768234253,
-0.30192217230796814,
-0.3287571370601654,
0.4953097403049469,
0.3441624343395233,
0.29972684383392334,
0.3187205195426941,
-0.1516546607017517,
-0.3074994683265686,
-0.46822628378868103,
-0.5744761824607849,
0.009198245592415333,
0.030650125816464424,
-0.5718669891357422,
-0.8226580619812012,
0.16079480946063995,
1.3006035089492798,
-0.2976416051387787,
0.29073280096054077,
-0.03541462495923042,
0.6564615368843079,
-0.715954601764679,
0.02177964150905609,
-0.03987738862633705,
0.793866753578186,
-0.4973038136959076,
-0.0038926582783460617,
0.015061921440064907,
-0.2758524417877197,
0.38584306836128235,
0.029910728335380554,
0.11961836367845535,
0.4890553951263428,
-0.2151535451412201,
-0.4853646457195282,
0.5496122241020203,
-0.041927456855773926,
-0.0952266976237297,
-0.14315500855445862,
0.1354433000087738,
-0.5728932023048401,
-0.431369811296463,
0.5640182495117188,
-0.13972251117229462,
0.9781762957572937,
0.018218886107206345,
0.2206270843744278,
-0.34796205163002014,
0.5785821676254272,
0.2434850037097931,
-0.9025618433952332,
-0.3370768427848816,
0.6439527273178101,
0.1801341325044632,
0.09645641595125198,
-0.13855357468128204,
-0.14396430552005768,
-0.01995687372982502,
0.6654665470123291,
0.22016337513923645,
-0.376539409160614,
-0.672404944896698,
0.3840831220149994,
0.19503411650657654,
-0.22986409068107605,
0.4451613128185272,
0.5767387747764587,
-0.051360294222831726,
0.4169878363609314,
0.3824880123138428,
0.32278409600257874,
-0.41633379459381104,
0.24968856573104858,
0.5987951159477234,
0.1820717751979828,
-0.9821921586990356,
-0.9259751439094543,
-0.4137439727783203,
-0.2323634773492813,
-0.3037842810153961,
-0.024844354018568993,
0.8349897861480713,
-0.6549414992332458,
0.300335556268692,
0.21918047964572906,
0.7781670093536377,
-0.02027846872806549,
-0.5282866954803467,
0.42340362071990967,
-0.14119307696819305,
-0.275502473115921,
-0.10285808145999908,
-0.4563903212547302,
-1.0372257232666016,
0.09437345713376999,
-0.219009667634964,
0.6829538941383362,
-0.28979095816612244,
0.0023123137652873993,
-0.5059162378311157,
0.8276963829994202,
0.6972329616546631,
-0.9566109776496887,
-0.046633031219244,
0.2061266303062439,
0.5906700491905212,
0.4689392149448395,
0.15591087937355042,
-0.6140106320381165,
-0.21661193668842316,
0.05123599246144295,
0.5243122577667236,
0.36374431848526,
-0.38343778252601624,
-0.03825213387608528,
-0.12046283483505249,
0.054167769849300385,
0.20227885246276855,
0.7164424061775208,
-0.30895406007766724,
-0.012454732321202755,
-0.27849239110946655,
0.024851758033037186,
-0.12792056798934937,
-0.4409889578819275,
-0.16260594129562378,
-0.2390567660331726,
-0.9032939672470093,
0.7503371834754944,
0.21178461611270905,
0.4652598202228546,
-0.6752304434776306,
-0.03457963094115257,
0.14584504067897797,
0.02585459128022194,
0.003096895758062601,
0.03039773739874363,
-0.14242564141750336,
-0.21682842075824738,
-0.8044872879981995,
0.43026480078697205,
1.120572805404663,
0.09260958433151245,
-0.46969980001449585,
0.42089003324508667,
-0.3904508948326111,
0.23911207914352417,
0.20757146179676056,
0.17790353298187256,
0.1616707742214203,
-0.05807596072554588,
0.6296449303627014,
0.09558030217885971,
0.5266435742378235,
-0.3697444498538971,
-0.3269420564174652,
0.2716302275657654,
0.6962683200836182,
-0.23337379097938538,
0.05205412954092026,
-0.03615350276231766,
0.061535123735666275,
-0.06230219081044197,
-0.15594874322414398,
0.6858111023902893,
0.3555825352668762,
-0.32500261068344116,
0.20433732867240906,
-5.315150737762451,
0.0338083952665329,
0.4698134660720825,
0.14725452661514282,
0.23300206661224365,
-0.3589033782482147,
0.2486693263053894,
0.05813766270875931,
0.185784712433815,
-0.07296250015497208,
-0.23480850458145142,
-0.5158786177635193,
0.24198855459690094,
0.33863094449043274,
0.03582252562046051,
0.018994802609086037,
0.42280322313308716,
-0.4979346692562103,
0.12360621988773346,
1.1970137357711792,
-0.3711163103580475,
-0.24966399371623993,
-0.3479386270046234,
0.04736752063035965,
-0.19715236127376556,
0.4131454825401306,
-0.5051472783088684,
-0.021393772214651108,
-0.811497151851654,
-0.6426294445991516,
-0.11846180260181427,
-0.26956474781036377,
-0.34344911575317383,
0.34884849190711975,
-0.464336097240448,
-0.26149284839630127,
0.6743058562278748,
-0.1337212324142456,
-0.10187283158302307,
-0.2635246217250824,
0.16299372911453247,
-0.002080487320199609,
-1.6586856842041016,
0.3790209889411926,
0.20204287767410278,
-0.09466180205345154,
-0.8956056833267212,
0.05385111644864082,
0.629883885383606,
0.21794524788856506,
0.5733640789985657,
0.3517347276210785,
-0.20953096449375153,
-0.4007444381713867,
0.9744762778282166,
0.24760204553604126,
-0.24107931554317474,
0.46478527784347534,
-0.6252613663673401,
0.22234691679477692,
0.10429365187883377,
-0.24613599479198456,
-0.38118013739585876,
0.5253626108169556,
0.15457619726657867,
-0.05144283175468445,
0.6510173678398132,
-0.2447373867034912,
0.4726410508155823,
-0.7260736227035522,
0.19105401635169983,
0.3372513949871063,
0.47077101469039917,
-1.2249443531036377,
-0.14399310946464539,
-0.7991941571235657,
0.25469112396240234,
-0.42003488540649414,
-0.22924087941646576,
-0.7618167996406555,
-0.10609733313322067,
-0.42434895038604736,
0.38903650641441345,
0.2701692283153534,
0.3678611218929291,
-0.44947686791419983,
-0.5831244587898254,
0.572964072227478,
-0.10343613475561142,
-0.2920101284980774,
0.3762022852897644,
-0.04208095744252205,
-0.24340376257896423,
0.5637399554252625,
0.48833557963371277,
0.056259941309690475,
0.37215617299079895,
0.6915450096130371,
0.08425190299749374,
0.3147587180137634,
0.2069501131772995,
-0.4292733669281006,
-0.26238444447517395,
-0.6450533866882324,
0.37037599086761475,
0.1380222588777542,
0.4350985884666443,
0.2818853259086609,
0.9348675608634949,
0.02307848073542118,
0.23479345440864563,
0.351181298494339,
-0.15265537798404694,
-0.40502551198005676,
0.3055869936943054,
0.010984518565237522,
0.016837889328598976,
0.24772070348262787,
0.2492455542087555,
0.23694416880607605,
-0.0855790376663208,
0.4456787705421448,
-0.214511901140213,
0.07148116827011108,
0.07641416043043137,
0.2215324491262436,
-0.27975988388061523,
-0.42672592401504517,
-0.2453504502773285,
-0.4162025451660156,
-0.8325577974319458,
0.41816744208335876,
-0.09337169677019119,
-0.12979595363140106,
0.6939589381217957,
-0.8504554033279419,
-0.2808662950992584,
-0.34215933084487915,
0.4731687307357788,
0.025728443637490273,
-0.3198545277118683,
-0.26916152238845825,
0.030000854283571243,
0.058151766657829285,
-0.05221320688724518,
-0.5167442560195923,
0.17789101600646973,
0.2963617742061615,
0.3604006767272949,
0.3553299307823181,
0.576054036617279,
0.1784038096666336,
0.5914800763130188,
-0.6725637912750244,
-0.8297470808029175,
-0.04416321963071823,
-0.3354903757572174,
-0.8262752890586853,
0.40688446164131165,
-0.06788230687379837,
0.32172271609306335,
-0.5214681029319763,
-0.5219793915748596,
-0.35588324069976807,
-0.1923491209745407,
-0.39317846298217773,
0.07722299546003342,
-0.3210269510746002,
-1.0898725986480713,
0.056364767253398895,
-0.1624017357826233,
-0.9393985271453857,
-0.410639226436615,
0.20274479687213898,
-0.2111026793718338,
0.032103076577186584,
-0.32585760951042175,
0.011921675875782967,
-0.2034512758255005,
0.2380577027797699,
-0.4856075644493103,
0.38976746797561646,
-0.9555628299713135,
0.13418029248714447,
-0.0044382852502167225,
-0.27366092801094055,
-0.26123806834220886,
-0.04393268749117851,
-0.3506948947906494,
0.0950358510017395,
-0.07563301175832748,
0.25017762184143066,
0.30369874835014343,
0.40331020951271057,
-0.4782695770263672,
-0.2755589485168457,
-0.06636494398117065,
-0.1615903377532959,
0.2791692614555359,
0.058091674000024796,
-0.06910773366689682,
0.18096671998500824,
-0.4578568935394287,
-0.5058457255363464,
0.13890030980110168,
-0.4533737897872925,
-0.21954794228076935,
0.5339902639389038,
0.1586262583732605,
0.3503255546092987,
-0.35070857405662537,
-0.6412504315376282,
-0.09351662546396255,
-0.1855478286743164,
-0.18869362771511078,
0.41939717531204224,
0.7328608632087708,
-0.27576854825019836,
0.2933987081050873,
-0.5776538252830505,
-0.5260941982269287,
-0.6689493656158447,
-0.2941224277019501,
-0.21234510838985443,
-0.47543105483055115,
0.33134156465530396,
0.3959037959575653,
-0.23003198206424713,
0.5163280963897705,
0.08760807663202286,
-0.5236138701438904,
0.10626401007175446,
0.43348604440689087,
0.808485209941864,
-0.7293757796287537,
-0.18934082984924316,
0.2788375914096832,
0.39139193296432495,
-0.23459620773792267,
0.43511712551116943,
0.7319527268409729,
0.8491746187210083,
-0.47044724225997925,
0.11791674792766571,
0.2735673189163208,
0.5509817004203796,
0.3077280521392822,
-0.6459951996803284,
-0.5336469411849976,
-0.17165414988994598,
0.6279571652412415,
0.1767078936100006,
-0.605924665927887,
0.44526150822639465,
0.3241255581378937,
-0.2825649380683899,
0.5791034698486328,
0.10346906632184982,
-0.30128854513168335,
-0.0027613628190010786,
0.0993598997592926,
0.2166365534067154,
-0.057676371186971664,
0.07622358947992325,
-0.07631026208400726,
-0.027905266731977463,
-0.35767224431037903,
0.3191913664340973,
0.34993040561676025,
-0.4087950885295868,
-0.12850238382816315,
-0.40557214617729187,
0.18996678292751312,
0.7182822227478027,
0.0509624257683754,
0.6325117349624634,
0.3952524960041046,
-0.11639208346605301,
-0.4535561800003052,
0.009312543086707592,
-0.5921239852905273,
0.5407906174659729,
-0.1826864331960678,
-1.0292868614196777,
-0.14480382204055786,
-0.5874062180519104,
0.16829365491867065,
-0.6122748255729675,
-0.29601261019706726,
-0.1789887696504593,
0.04630827158689499,
0.3619365692138672,
-0.6904070377349854,
-0.3706808388233185,
0.07976417243480682,
0.15413936972618103,
-0.4301970899105072,
1.030527114868164,
-0.027197757735848427,
-0.045374758541584015,
-0.3509399890899658,
0.570862889289856,
0.3733648657798767,
-0.1189238429069519,
0.12521496415138245,
-0.11509586125612259,
0.0030387714505195618,
-0.7332018613815308,
-0.2518330216407776,
0.7537752985954285,
0.37582600116729736,
-0.4798226058483124,
0.11716928333044052,
0.5788063406944275,
-0.38581106066703796,
0.22456005215644836,
0.5732873678207397,
-0.00031584050157107413,
-0.1057422086596489,
-0.26292774081230164,
-0.47654828429222107,
-0.31682780385017395,
0.7958332896232605,
-0.39537540078163147,
0.22805391252040863,
0.935248851776123,
0.6743581295013428,
0.02521936222910881,
0.5091518759727478,
0.31306013464927673,
0.1759098619222641,
0.024659326300024986,
0.4610939919948578,
0.6346150636672974,
0.09125517308712006,
-0.945070743560791,
0.43491417169570923,
0.10590892285108566,
0.49654099345207214,
0.2510535717010498,
-0.4219938814640045,
0.4809075891971588,
0.3890140652656555,
0.16565242409706116,
0.06505442410707474,
-0.3881506323814392,
0.07884367555379868,
0.9414314031600952,
-0.607759952545166,
-0.24730785191059113,
0.1136074811220169,
0.36359018087387085,
0.30576932430267334,
-0.17413614690303802,
0.623458743095398,
-0.3674434423446655,
0.12695257365703583,
0.19287894666194916,
0.00602696044370532,
0.14029182493686676,
0.12194980680942535,
0.0599648617208004,
1.1731483936309814,
0.8056425452232361,
0.08969897776842117,
0.16225044429302216,
-0.42592546343803406,
-0.6444440484046936,
0.1308240443468094,
-0.05175017565488815,
0.3152099847793579,
0.40538474917411804,
-0.02169402502477169,
0.49316009879112244,
0.2605164349079132,
0.5077024698257446,
-0.03259526193141937,
-0.9222878217697144,
-0.4704800844192505,
-0.00791405513882637,
-0.7340647578239441,
-0.012105400674045086,
-0.18963463604450226,
0.18502725660800934,
0.46934154629707336,
-0.4402182102203369,
-0.23843872547149658,
0.0100379828363657,
0.08276873826980591,
-0.17041032016277313,
0.6328030824661255,
-0.7934445738792419,
-0.335237979888916,
0.3146398067474365,
-0.22643521428108215,
0.23743581771850586,
-0.3771492540836334,
0.7490060329437256,
0.06535124778747559,
-0.014404218643903732,
0.49144500494003296,
0.6036028861999512,
0.261187881231308,
-0.33971792459487915,
0.15728577971458435,
-0.058423422276973724,
-0.3519299328327179,
0.00026338917086832225,
-1.1257723569869995,
0.40234890580177307,
0.31535881757736206,
-0.3549472689628601,
-0.2162569761276245,
0.3340698480606079,
0.38645491003990173,
0.6128915548324585,
0.31047293543815613,
0.28772151470184326,
0.0571572408080101,
0.1026744619011879,
-0.008642966859042645,
0.7099340558052063,
-0.24013328552246094,
0.062441207468509674,
-0.5472724437713623,
0.6444858312606812,
-0.3126826882362366,
0.40442463755607605,
-0.3374171853065491,
0.17764812707901,
-0.42494308948516846,
0.15075093507766724,
-0.7221344113349915,
-0.18478405475616455,
-0.8634542226791382,
-0.7653719782829285,
0.9391738772392273,
0.5903010964393616,
0.1265673041343689,
-0.8855085372924805,
0.6358240246772766,
0.3853391408920288,
0.4672546684741974,
0.07105276733636856,
-0.20965994894504547,
-0.5581770539283752,
-0.4961172640323639,
-0.005781395826488733,
0.14378756284713745,
0.3874232769012451,
0.3116706907749176,
-0.41438034176826477,
0.31441783905029297,
-0.6718463897705078,
-0.6151941418647766,
0.590324878692627,
0.01626293547451496,
0.3849904239177704,
0.7730796933174133,
-0.2973257601261139
] |
213238
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Atlas%206
|
Mercury-Atlas 6
|
Mercury-Atlas 6 (MA-6) was the first American orbital spaceflight, which took place on February 20, 1962. Piloted by astronaut John Glenn and operated by NASA as part of Project Mercury, it was the fifth human spaceflight, preceded by Soviet orbital flights Vostok 1 and 2 and American sub-orbital flights Mercury-Redstone 3 and 4.
The Mercury spacecraft, named Friendship 7, was carried to orbit by an Atlas LV-3B launch vehicle lifting off from Launch Complex 14 at Cape Canaveral, Florida. After three orbits, the spacecraft re-entered the Earth's atmosphere, splashed down in the North Atlantic Ocean, and was safely taken aboard . Total mission flight time was four hours 55 minutes and 23 seconds.
The event was named an IEEE Milestone in 2011.
Crew
Backup crew
Preparation
After the successful completion of the Mercury-Atlas 5 flight that carried Enos, a chimpanzee, in late November 1961, a press conference was held in early December. Reporters asked NASA's Robert Gilruth who would be the first U.S. astronaut in orbit, piloting M-A6. He then announced the team members for the next two Mercury missions. John H. Glenn was selected as prime pilot for the first mission (M-A6), with M. Scott Carpenter as his backup. Donald K. Slayton and Walter M. Schirra were pilot and backup, respectively, for the second mission, Mercury-Atlas 7.
The MA-6 launch vehicle, Atlas #109-D, arrived at Cape Canaveral the evening of November 30, 1961. NASA had wanted to launch M-A6 in 1961 (hoping to orbit an astronaut in the same calendar year as the Soviets did), but by early December it was apparent that the mission hardware would not be ready for launch until early 1962.
Mercury spacecraft #13 began taking form on McDonnell's St. Louis, Missouri assembly line in May 1960. It was chosen for the MA-6 mission in October 1960 and delivered to Cape Canaveral on August 27, 1961. Mercury spacecraft #13 and Atlas #109-D were stacked on the pad at Launch Complex 14 on January 2, 1962.
As the effects of orbital space flight on humans were unknown except to the Soviets, who were keeping whatever knowledge they had a secret, Glenn was prepared with an onboard medical kit consisting of morphine for pain relief, mephentermine sulfate to treat any shock symptoms, benzylamine hydrochloride to counter motion sickness and racemic amphetamine sulfate, a stimulant. A survival kit was also placed on board to assist Glenn while waiting for recovery after splashdown, including desalter kits, dye marker, distress signal, signal mirrors, signal whistle, first aid kits, shark chaser, a PK-2 raft, survival rations, matches, and a radio transceiver.
Prior to MA-6, there had been a reluctance on the part of NASA to permit the use of cameras by astronauts, as it was feared these might prove an unnecessary distraction. Glenn, however, was successful in persuading NASA that he should be allowed to take one on the mission, and a Minolta Hi-Matic 35mm film camera (which he purchased himself at a local drug store) duly made the trip into orbit. This was modified to be used with pressure suit gloves, although changing the film in a weightless environment proved a difficult operation and during the flight Glenn knocked a film canister which then floated away, ending up behind the instrument panel.
Flight
Delays
The launch date was first announced as January 16, 1962, then postponed to January 20 because of problems with the Atlas rocket fuel tanks. The launch then slipped day by day to January 27 due to unfavorable winter weather. On that day, Glenn was on board Mercury 6 and ready to launch, when, at T-29 minutes, the flight director called off the launch because of thick clouds that would have made it impossible to photograph or film the launch vehicle after the first 20 seconds of the mission (the inability of launch crews to film the failed Mercury-Atlas 1 launch 16 months earlier had proven the importance of flying only in clear skies). The large crowd of reporters gathered at Cape Canaveral for the launch went home, disappointed. Mission Director Walter Williams felt a sense of relief at the bad weather, as there was still a general sense that the spacecraft and booster were not ready to fly yet.
NASA informed the anxious public that the mission would take time to get ready since crewed launches required a high degree of preparation and safety standards. The launch was postponed until February 1, but when technicians began to fuel the Atlas on January 30, they discovered a fuel leak had soaked an internal insulation blanket between the RP-1 and LOX tanks. This caused a two-week delay while necessary repairs were made. On February 14, the launch was again postponed due to weather, which started to break on February 18, and it appeared that February 20 would be a favorable day to attempt a launch.
Launch
Glenn boarded the Friendship 7 spacecraft at 11:03 UTC on February 20 following an hour-and-a-half delay to replace a faulty component in the Atlas's guidance system. The hatch was bolted in place at 12:10 UTC. Most of the 70 hatch bolts had been secured, when one was discovered to be broken. This caused a 42-minute delay while all the bolts were removed, the defective bolt was replaced and the hatch was re-bolted in place. The count was resumed at 11:25 UTC, and the gantry was rolled back at 13:20 UTC. At 13:58 UTC the count was held for 25 minutes while a liquid oxygen propellant valve was repaired.
At 14:47 UTC, after two hours and 17 minutes of holds and three hours and 44 minutes after Glenn entered Friendship 7, engineer T. J. O'Malley pressed the button in the blockhouse launching the spacecraft. O'Malley said, "the good Lord ride all the way," and then capsule communicator Scott Carpenter uttered the famous phrase "Godspeed, John Glenn." Due to a glitch in Glenn's radio, he did not hear the Carpenter phrase during launch. At liftoff Glenn's pulse rate climbed to 110 beats per minute.
Thirty seconds after liftoff, the General Electric-Burroughs designed guidance system locked onto a radio transponder in the booster to guide the vehicle to orbit. As the Atlas and Friendship 7 passed through max Q Glenn reported, "Have some vibration area coming up here now." After max Q the flight smoothed out. At two minutes and 14 seconds after launch, the booster engines cut off and dropped away. Then at two minutes and twenty-four seconds, the escape tower was jettisoned, right on schedule.
After the tower was jettisoned, the Atlas and spacecraft pitched over still further, giving Glenn his first view of the horizon. He described the view as "a beautiful sight, looking eastward across the Atlantic". Vibration increased as the last of the fuel supply was used up. Booster performance had been nearly flawless through the entire powered flight. At sustainer engine cut-off, it was found that the Atlas had accelerated the capsule to a speed only 7 ft/s (2 m/s) below nominal. At 14:52 UTC, Friendship 7 was in orbit. Glenn received word that the Atlas had boosted the MA-6 into a trajectory that would stay up for at least seven orbits. Meanwhile, computers at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland indicated that the MA-6 orbital parameters appeared good enough for almost 100 orbits.
First orbit
When the posigrade rockets fired and separated the capsule from the booster, the five-second rate-damping operation started two and a half seconds late. This caused a substantial roll error as the capsule began its turnaround. The automatic attitude control system took 38 seconds to place Friendship 7 into its proper orbital attitude. The turnaround maneuver used of fuel from a total supply of : for automatic and for manual control system. The spacecraft then settled into orbital flight with a velocity of .
Friendship 7 began its first orbit with all systems go. It crossed the Atlantic and passed over the Canary Islands. Controllers there reported all capsule systems in perfect working order. Looking at the African coastline, and later the interior over Kano, Nigeria, Glenn told the tracking station team that he could see a dust storm. Kano flight communicators replied that the winds had been quite heavy for the past week.
Over Kano, Glenn took control of the spacecraft and started a major yaw adjustment. He allowed the spacecraft to continue the yaw maneuver until it was facing into its flight path. Glenn noticed that the attitude indicators disagreed with what he observed was the true spacecraft attitude. Even with the incorrect instrument readouts, he was pleased to be facing forward instead of backward on his orbital path.
Over the Indian Ocean, Glenn observed his first sunset from orbit. He described the moment of twilight as "beautiful". The sky in space was very black, he said, with a thin band of blue along the horizon. He said the sun set fast, but not as quickly as he had expected. For five or six minutes there was a slow reduction in light intensity. Brilliant orange and blue layers spread out 45 to 60 degrees on either side of the sun, tapering gradually toward the horizon. Clouds prevented him from seeing a mortar flare fired by the Indian Ocean tracking ship as part of a pilot observation experiment.
Continuing his journey on the night side of Earth, nearing the Australian coastline, Glenn made star, weather, and landmark observations. He looked for but failed to see the dim light phenomenon known as the zodiacal light; his eyes had insufficient time to adapt to the darkness.
The spacecraft came into radio range of Muchea, Australia. At the Mercury Tracking Station there, Gordon Cooper was the capsule communicator. Glenn reported that he felt fine and had no problems. He saw a very bright light and what appeared to be the outline of a city. Cooper said that he probably was looking at the lights of Perth and its satellite town of Rockingham. This turned out to be correct; many people in Perth turned on their lights so as to be visible to Glenn as he passed over. "That sure was a short day," he excitedly told Cooper. "That was about the shortest day I've ever run into."
The spacecraft moved across Australia and across the Pacific to Canton Island. Glenn experienced a short 45 minute night and prepared the periscope for viewing his first sunrise from orbit. As the sun rose over the island, he saw thousands of "little specks, brilliant specks, floating around outside the capsule"; he momentarily felt that the spacecraft was tumbling or that he was looking into a star field. A quick hard look out of the spacecraft window corrected the illusion and Glenn was sure that the "fireflies", as he called them, were streaming past his spacecraft from ahead. They seemed to flow by slowly but did not seem to be coming from any part of the spacecraft, and they disappeared as Friendship 7 moved into brighter sunlight. It was later determined that they were probably small ice crystals venting from onboard spacecraft systems.
"I am in a big mass of some very small particles, they're brilliantly lit up like they're luminescent. I never saw anything like it. They round a little: they're coming by the capsule and they look like little stars. A whole shower of them coming by. They swirl around the capsule and go in front of the window and they're all brilliantly lighted." Glenn started banging the capsule wall and watched the "fireflies" come off, just as Alan Shepard did.
As the spacecraft crossed the Kauai, Hawaii tracking station, Glenn noticed a lot of interference on the HF radio band. As he crossed the Pacific coast of North America, the tracking station at Guaymas, Mexico, informed Mercury Control in Florida that a yaw thruster was causing attitude control problems. Glenn later recalled, this problem "was to stick with me for the rest of the flight".
Glenn noticed the control problem when the automatic stabilization and control system allowed the spacecraft to drift about a degree and a half per second to the right. Glenn switched control to manual-proportional control mode and moved Friendship 7 back to the proper attitude. He tried different control modes to see which used the least fuel to maintain attitude. The manual fly-by-wire combination used the least fuel. After about twenty minutes, the yaw thruster began working again and Glenn switched back to the automatic control system. It worked for a short time and then began having problems again, this time with the opposite yaw thruster. He then switched back to the manual fly-by-wire system and flew the spacecraft in that mode for the remainder of the flight.
Second orbit
As Friendship 7 crossed Cape Canaveral at the start of its second orbit, flight systems controller Don Arabian noticed that "Segment 51", a sensor providing data on the spacecraft landing system, was giving a strange reading. According to the reading, the heat shield and landing bag were no longer locked in position. If this were the case, the heat shield was only being held against the spacecraft by the straps of the retro package. Mercury Control ordered all tracking sites to monitor "Segment 51" closely and advise Glenn that the landing-bag deploy switch should be in the "off" position.
Glenn was not immediately aware of the problem, but he became suspicious when site after site asked him to make sure that the landing-bag deploy switch was off. Meanwhile, Friendship 7 was crossing the Atlantic for the second time. Glenn was busy manually keeping the spacecraft attitude correct and also trying to accomplish as many of the flight plan tasks as he could.
Crossing over the Canary Islands, Glenn observed that the "fireflies" outside the spacecraft had no connection with gas from the reaction control jets. His suit temperature felt too warm, but he did not take time to adjust it. The Kano, Nigeria and Zanzibar sites suddenly noticed a 12 percent drop in the spacecraft secondary oxygen supply.
During his second pass over the Indian Ocean, Glenn found that the Indian Ocean tracking ship was in heavy weather. The tracking station had planned to release balloons for a pilot observation experiment, but instead the ship fired star-shell parachute flares as Friendship 7 passed overhead. Glenn was able to observe the flashes of lightning from storms in the area but was unable to see the flares.
The temperature in Glenn's spacesuit was too warm. It had been since he passed over the Canary Islands, earlier in the second orbit. As he crossed the Indian Ocean, he tried to adjust the suit temperature. As he approached Woomera, Australia, a signal light came on warning him of excess cabin humidity. For the rest of the flight, Glenn had to carefully balance suit cooling against the cabin humidity.
While he was still over Australia, another warning light came on, indicating that the fuel supply for the automatic control system was down to 62%. Mercury Control recommended that Glenn let the spacecraft attitude drift to conserve fuel.
There were no more problems for Friendship 7 during the remainder of the second orbit. Glenn continued to manually control the spacecraft attitude, not allowing it to drift too far out of alignment. In doing so, he consumed more fuel than a functioning automatic system would have used. Fuel consumption was 6 pounds (2.7 kg) from the automatic tank and 11.8 pounds (5.4 kg) from the manual tank during the second orbit. This amounted to almost 30% of the total fuel supply.
Third orbit
On the third orbit of Friendship 7, the Indian Ocean tracking ship did not attempt to launch any objects for pilot observation experiments, as the cloud coverage was still too thick. When the spacecraft came across Australia for the third time, Glenn joked with Cooper at the Muchea Tracking Station. Glenn asked Cooper to notify General Shoup, Commandant of the Marine Corps, that three orbits should meet the minimum monthly requirement of four hours' flying time. He also asked to be certified as eligible for his regular flight pay.
Reentry
During Glenn's orbits, Mercury Control had been monitoring the problem with "Segment 51". The Hawaiian tracking station asked Glenn to toggle the landing bag deploy switch into the automatic position. If a light came on, reentry should take place while retaining the retro pack. Given the earlier questions about the landing bag switch, Glenn realized the controllers must have found a possible problem with a loose heat shield. The test was run but no light appeared. Glenn also reported there were no bumping noises during spacecraft maneuvers.
Mercury Control was still undecided on the course of action to take. Some controllers thought the retrorocket pack should be jettisoned after retrofire, while other controllers thought the retro pack should be retained, as added assurance that the heat shield would stay in place. Flight Director Chris Kraft and Mission Director Walter C. Williams decided to keep the retro pack in place during reentry. Walter Schirra, the California communicator at Point Arguello, relayed the instructions to Glenn: the retro pack should be retained until the spacecraft was over the Texas tracking station. After the mission was over, the "Segment 51" warning light problem was later determined to be a faulty sensor switch, meaning that the heat shield and landing bag were in fact secure during reentry.
Glenn was now preparing for reentry. Retaining the retro package meant he would have to retract the periscope manually. He would also have to activate the 0.05-g sequence by pushing the override switch. Friendship 7 neared the California coast. It had been four hours and 33 minutes since launch. The spacecraft was maneuvered into retrofire attitude and the first retrorocket fired. "Roger. Retros are firing. ... Are they ever. It feels like I'm going back toward Hawaii.", Glenn radioed. The second and then the third retros fired at five-second intervals. The spacecraft attitude was steady during retrofire. Six minutes after retrofire, Glenn maneuvered the spacecraft into a 14-degree nose up pitch attitude for reentry.
Friendship 7 lost altitude in its reentry glide over the continental United States, and headed toward splashdown in the Atlantic. The Texas tracking station told Glenn to retain the retro pack until the accelerometer read 1.5 g (14.7 m/s2). Glenn reported as he crossed Cape Canaveral that he had been controlling the spacecraft manually and would use the fly-by-wire mode as a backup. Mercury Control then gave him the 0.05 g (0.49 m/s2) mark, and he pressed the override button. About the same time, Glenn heard noises that sounded like "small things brushing against the capsule". "This is Friendship 7 – a real fireball outside," he radioed Mercury Control. A strap from the retro package broke partially loose and hung over the spacecraft window as it was consumed in the reentry plasma stream. The spacecraft control system was working well but the manual fuel supply was down to 15 percent. The peak of reentry deceleration was still to come. Glenn switched to fly-by-wire and the automatic tank supply. This combination had more available fuel.
The spacecraft now experienced peak reentry heating. Glenn later reported, "I thought the retro pack had jettisoned and saw chunks coming off and flying by the window." He feared the chunks were pieces of his heat shield that might be disintegrating. The chunks were pieces of the retro package breaking up in the reentry fireball.
After passing the peak g region, Friendship 7 began oscillating severely. The astronaut could not control the ship manually. The spacecraft was oscillating past 10 degrees on both sides of the vertical zero-degree point. "I felt like a falling leaf," Glenn later said. He activated the auxiliary damping system, which helped to stabilize the large yaw and roll rates. Fuel in the automatic tanks was getting low. Glenn wondered if the spacecraft would retain stability until it was low enough to deploy the drogue parachute.
The automatic fuel supply ran out at 1 minute and 51 seconds, and manual fuel ran out at 51 seconds, before drogue chute deployment. The oscillations resumed. At 35,000 feet (10 km), Glenn decided to deploy the drogue chute manually to regain attitude stability. Just before he reached the switch, the drogue chute opened automatically at 28,000 feet (8.5 km) instead of the programmed 21,000 feet (6.4 km). The spacecraft regained stability and Glenn reported, "everything was in good shape."
At 17,000 feet (5 km) the periscope opened and was available for the astronaut to use. Glenn tried to look out the overhead window instead, but it was coated with so much smoke and film that he could see very little. The spacecraft continued to descend on the drogue chute. The antenna section jettisoned and the main chute deployed and opened to its full diameter. Mercury Control reminded Glenn to manually deploy the landing bag. He toggled the switch and the green light confirmation came on. A "clunk" could be heard as the heat shield and landing bag dropped into place, four feet (1.2 m) below the capsule.
Splashdown
The spacecraft splashed down in the North Atlantic at coordinates near , short of the planned landing zone. Retrofire calculations had not taken into account spacecraft weight loss due to use of onboard consumables. , a destroyer code-named "Steelhead", had spotted the spacecraft when it was descending on its parachute. The destroyer was about away when it radioed Glenn that it would reach him shortly. Noa came alongside Friendship 7 seventeen minutes later.
One crewman cleared the spacecraft antenna and another crewman attached a line to hoist Friendship 7 aboard. After being pulled from the water, the spacecraft bumped against the side of the destroyer. Once Friendship 7 was on deck, Glenn intended to leave the capsule through the upper hatch, but it was too hot in the spacecraft and Glenn decided to blow the side hatch instead. He told the ship's crew to stand clear and hit the hatch detonator plunger with the back of his hand. The detonator plunger recoiled, and slightly cut the astronaut's knuckles through his glove. With a loud bang, the hatch was off. Harry Beal, the first U.S Navy Seal, pulled Glenn out of Friendship 7. A smiling Glenn got out of Friendship 7 and stood on the deck of Noa. His first words were, "It was hot in there."
The astronaut and spacecraft came through the mission in good shape.
"The Fourth Orbit"
After the return of Friendship 7, NASA announced on April 19, 1962 that the spacecraft would be lent to the United States Information Agency for a world tour. The tour included more than 20 stops, becoming known as the "Fourth orbit of Friendship 7".
Spacecraft location
Mercury spacecraft # 13 – Friendship 7 – is currently displayed at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, VA.
Timeline and parameters
Launch
Flight
Parameters
Mass of spacecraft:
Perigee of orbit:
Apogee of orbit:
Inclination of orbit: 32.5°
Orbital period: 88.5 min
Dramatization in film
Philip Kaufman's 1983 film The Right Stuff includes a dramatization of the Friendship 7 mission in which Ed Harris plays Glenn. The sequence depicts the spacecraft's three orbits and Glenn's responses to what he saw, sometimes quoted verbatim, as well as the concerns over the heat shield during reentry. The mysterious "fireflies" are also shown, but their true explanation is not revealed; instead they are depicted as magical protection summoned by Australian Aborigines at the Muchea Tracking Station.
The 2016 film Hidden Figures features the Friendship 7 mission in the climax of the movie, focusing on Katherine Johnson's calculations of the landing.
Anniversary commemoration
To commemorate the 50th anniversary of the flight in 2012, Glenn was surprised with the opportunity to speak with the orbiting crew of the International Space Station while Glenn was on-stage with NASA Administrator Charlie Bolden at Ohio State University, where the public affairs school is named in honor of Glenn.
See also
Devil's Cigarette Lighter, a gas well fire reportedly seen from orbit by Glenn
Space capsule
Space exploration
Splashdown
U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps
Notes
References
External links
Mercury-Atlas 6 Radio Transcripts on spacelog.org
NASA Mercury MA6 press kit - Jan 21, 1962
Results of the first U.S. crewed orbital space flight - Feb 20, 1962 (Friendship 7) NASA report - (PDF format)
Spacecraft launched in 1962
Human spaceflights
Project Mercury
John Glenn
Individual spacecraft in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution
Spacecraft which reentered in 1962
Articles containing video clips
Spacecraft launched by Atlas rockets
|
[
-0.30881625413894653,
0.751022219657898,
0.24312318861484528,
0.495374470949173,
0.08656873553991318,
0.356372207403183,
0.18495754897594452,
0.1388464719057083,
-0.13853365182876587,
-0.05549851432442665,
0.18258914351463318,
0.44301146268844604,
-0.25853419303894043,
0.3697246313095093,
-0.23726484179496765,
0.049179557710886,
0.6428259015083313,
-0.3601483702659607,
-0.19876009225845337,
-0.5263305902481079,
-0.025585267692804337,
-0.21067796647548676,
0.9151809811592102,
-0.4642540514469147,
-0.07843631505966187,
0.0028133289888501167,
0.16800160706043243,
0.09404189139604568,
0.30976951122283936,
0.8629629611968994,
-0.19241876900196075,
0.09930767118930817,
0.47779950499534607,
0.0005694012506864965,
-0.018426358699798584,
0.22363829612731934,
-0.21816407144069672,
0.2129005342721939,
-0.12382242828607559,
0.047207072377204895,
-0.1842418611049652,
-0.10440380126237869,
-0.014111381024122238,
-0.16006053984165192,
0.041424382477998734,
0.014153790660202503,
-1.2647104263305664,
0.049717292189598083,
-0.007962440140545368,
-0.2161908745765686,
0.24556615948677063,
0.5114218592643738,
-0.24980823695659637,
0.6388177871704102,
0.30031847953796387,
0.8348674178123474,
-0.02547476999461651,
-0.5901158452033997,
-0.6906806826591492,
0.5235370993614197,
-0.011696536093950272,
0.620241641998291,
0.08213542401790619,
0.370789110660553,
0.28117090463638306,
-0.0852775052189827,
0.3420254588127136,
0.23700889945030212,
-0.15260103344917297,
-0.2023545801639557,
-0.4440282881259918,
-0.5207602977752686,
-0.2768794000148773,
0.029535165056586266,
-0.07145033031702042,
-0.7773210406303406,
0.6962782740592957,
-0.37903979420661926,
0.13332806527614594,
0.3068126440048218,
-0.07159275561571121,
0.24244390428066254,
0.12540583312511444,
0.8250810503959656,
-0.2556777000427246,
-0.01582980528473854,
-0.3875442445278168,
-0.062084123492240906,
-0.11386630684137344,
0.21788054704666138,
-0.7281754016876221,
-0.2155006378889084,
0.2512595057487488,
0.5089173316955566,
0.03341955319046974,
-0.28481099009513855,
-0.6268060803413391,
0.2544180452823639,
-0.04544440656900406,
-0.6577687859535217,
-0.21981678903102875,
0.28766342997550964,
0.528073787689209,
0.09388647973537445,
-0.022431977093219757,
-0.7697657346725464,
0.4385845363140106,
-0.35555368661880493,
-0.17354877293109894,
-0.03872385993599892,
0.09282304346561432,
0.1938522309064865,
-0.03548178821802139,
0.15772397816181183,
-0.38448265194892883,
0.8353695273399353,
0.43211641907691956,
-1.0219371318817139,
0.22283552587032318,
-0.20667032897472382,
0.06631951779127121,
1.1303631067276,
-0.2322969287633896,
-0.08256591856479645,
-0.1455399990081787,
0.44493499398231506,
0.7266940474510193,
0.3765324652194977,
-0.46510225534439087,
0.10719272494316101,
0.17515794932842255,
0.3506491184234619,
-0.23791170120239258,
0.4090058505535126,
-0.356947124004364,
0.28594985604286194,
0.8574264049530029,
0.18518920242786407,
0.10471470654010773,
0.05348872393369675,
-0.40141817927360535,
-0.45187103748321533,
-0.4210415184497833,
0.13348084688186646,
0.7292231917381287,
0.5549726486206055,
0.754710853099823,
-0.01814751885831356,
-1.2838983535766602,
0.23731449246406555,
0.26362138986587524,
-0.630103349685669,
0.12315964698791504,
0.15350289642810822,
0.15849970281124115,
-0.01129182055592537,
0.191377192735672,
0.48983412981033325,
-0.861554741859436,
0.38918793201446533,
0.28823935985565186,
0.26289084553718567,
-0.21250669658184052,
-0.2547735869884491,
0.18688525259494781,
-0.10868177562952042,
0.476799875497818,
-0.17195424437522888,
0.5287817120552063,
-0.3436715304851532,
0.2643897831439972,
-0.4280465245246887,
-0.09319263696670532,
-0.04313888028264046,
-0.14442887902259827,
-0.7728049755096436,
1.2194929122924805,
0.4780727028846741,
0.4952012300491333,
0.07874234765768051,
-0.42366668581962585,
-0.12602916359901428,
-0.2830258905887604,
-0.3252808153629303,
0.6380251049995422,
0.16364097595214844,
0.44321495294570923,
0.3020264506340027,
-0.21162711083889008,
-0.01884360983967781,
-0.5888988375663757,
-0.3523627817630768,
0.5038438439369202,
-0.2696110010147095,
1.0288373231887817,
0.04669869691133499,
-0.37792426347732544,
0.22959332168102264,
-0.21709324419498444,
1.1032342910766602,
-0.37463080883026123,
0.6397165656089783,
0.4394245445728302,
-0.351373553276062,
-0.23349909484386444,
-0.14466965198516846,
-0.1492825597524643,
-0.12640519440174103,
0.14295171201229095,
0.8267533183097839,
-0.3988715708255768,
-0.3718894124031067,
-0.08095410466194153,
0.505814254283905,
0.5373033285140991,
0.18874385952949524,
-0.05584704875946045,
0.21744626760482788,
0.20638073980808258,
0.007122355978935957,
0.3050667643547058,
-0.2777968943119049,
0.05255073681473732,
-0.6209980249404907,
-0.11072063446044922,
1.045299768447876,
-0.23776333034038544,
-0.28335824608802795,
-0.2017894983291626,
0.4177325665950775,
-0.5247184038162231,
0.19276341795921326,
-0.10770224034786224,
-0.49585339426994324,
-0.02576686441898346,
-0.0263079721480608,
0.04122012481093407,
-0.92388516664505,
0.44123467803001404,
0.24891223013401031,
0.27052220702171326,
0.4900544285774231,
-0.5645819306373596,
0.2263050377368927,
-0.5252642035484314,
0.05813863128423691,
0.6037208437919617,
-0.1631614863872528,
0.3034745156764984,
0.05149621516466141,
-0.6188581585884094,
0.17079651355743408,
0.005000741221010685,
-0.4114980399608612,
-0.784696102142334,
0.44924214482307434,
-0.8911610245704651,
-0.5879290103912354,
0.20537182688713074,
-0.015643727034330368,
-0.5507689118385315,
0.4741104543209076,
0.26319342851638794,
-0.270374059677124,
0.6835616827011108,
-0.9585436582565308,
-0.554705023765564,
0.1642897129058838,
-0.10856808722019196,
0.045612141489982605,
0.2894940972328186,
-0.5443195700645447,
-0.016750680282711983,
-0.10659962892532349,
0.25468358397483826,
-0.054648507386446,
-0.5595936179161072,
0.3557741343975067,
-0.5481472015380859,
-0.8221832513809204,
0.8038772940635681,
0.7424085140228271,
0.4455276131629944,
-0.18618206679821014,
0.17278927564620972,
0.7051475048065186,
0.0873010903596878,
-0.7375842928886414,
-0.11146952211856842,
-0.7481485605239868,
0.18559934198856354,
0.13456590473651886,
-0.6927502751350403,
-0.11937861144542694,
0.3618447780609131,
0.746395468711853,
0.08573702722787857,
0.062860868871212,
0.5729804039001465,
0.34198883175849915,
0.19934730231761932,
-0.04785684496164322,
-1.0965425968170166,
-0.5217545032501221,
0.9477636218070984,
-0.20825503766536713,
-0.19223946332931519,
-0.09283623099327087,
-5.339583873748779,
-0.37301549315452576,
-0.5550154447555542,
-0.13505756855010986,
0.4522794485092163,
0.3837498426437378,
0.4434675872325897,
-0.16458788514137268,
0.21875371038913727,
-0.3783980906009674,
-0.0030526495538651943,
-0.5459856986999512,
-0.22926457226276398,
0.2702522277832031,
0.2483413815498352,
0.2710975706577301,
0.1439751386642456,
-0.6513860821723938,
0.7986323237419128,
0.04344905540347099,
1.0990378856658936,
-0.6876873970031738,
-0.7745829224586487,
-0.1839902698993683,
0.2130710482597351,
0.2525354325771332,
0.005344849079847336,
0.6454174518585205,
-0.4179505407810211,
0.44709512591362,
0.002245033625513315,
-0.1614389419555664,
-0.301133394241333,
-0.5162633657455444,
0.014000454917550087,
-0.09609725326299667,
0.2427593469619751,
-0.4662821292877197,
0.4925599694252014,
0.2404303252696991,
0.03630872443318367,
-0.4459370970726013,
-0.3450746536254883,
-0.24998240172863007,
-0.27172204852104187,
-0.2963251769542694,
-0.00184434128459543,
-0.32170161604881287,
0.6578612923622131,
0.38604074716567993,
0.6125862002372742,
0.6134470701217651,
-0.06822096556425095,
-0.2743157148361206,
-0.014218980446457863,
-0.06648212671279907,
-0.1184796467423439,
0.02347247116267681,
-0.628589928150177,
0.08620458096265793,
0.3052354156970978,
-0.062098439782857895,
-0.1392335146665573,
-1.4497579336166382,
-0.3077352046966553,
-0.24063031375408173,
0.29237276315689087,
-0.09316421300172806,
0.1853480190038681,
0.18625514209270477,
-0.29806679487228394,
1.1239917278289795,
-0.924977719783783,
-0.8827680349349976,
0.5959911942481995,
-0.3967404365539551,
-0.05923245847225189,
-0.20264342427253723,
-0.5756440162658691,
-0.3902572691440582,
-0.022559406235814095,
-0.5190384984016418,
0.07566313445568085,
-0.13532261550426483,
-0.13212467730045319,
-0.15491177141666412,
-0.21150921285152435,
0.319364994764328,
-0.632091760635376,
0.06343251466751099,
1.0274615287780762,
-0.7483649849891663,
0.22952409088611603,
0.6367512345314026,
0.6680915355682373,
-0.35754701495170593,
-0.3607642650604248,
0.060517534613609314,
0.7123568058013916,
0.07008889317512512,
-0.6386971473693848,
-0.31485435366630554,
-0.05209480971097946,
-0.5093410611152649,
-0.8357445597648621,
-0.4436229467391968,
-0.2623494863510132,
-0.1909874826669693,
0.4429064095020294,
0.6271219849586487,
0.02495815046131611,
-0.4396817088127136,
-0.2870166003704071,
-0.6692194938659668,
0.6609883904457092,
0.04986722394824028,
0.13025280833244324,
0.19025714695453644,
0.23393359780311584,
-0.24440248310565948,
-0.47296640276908875,
0.21119581162929535,
-0.18045969307422638,
0.011587017215788364,
0.1802280843257904,
-0.7645625472068787,
0.05577270686626434,
0.8219548463821411,
-0.028616340830922127,
0.5339181423187256,
0.15699166059494019,
0.6760432720184326,
-0.27718469500541687,
0.14246948063373566,
0.190658837556839,
-0.05662468448281288,
-0.27110669016838074,
-0.042049895972013474,
0.23884549736976624,
-0.06163260340690613,
-0.8130371570587158,
0.17066001892089844,
-0.23801343142986298,
-0.13229280710220337,
0.4262021780014038,
0.37106436491012573,
0.29950347542762756,
-0.1981198638677597,
-0.0006245920085348189,
0.549254298210144,
0.060695551335811615,
-0.3644896447658539,
-0.12299375981092453,
0.4712003469467163,
-0.04370379075407982,
-0.4097311496734619,
0.5606045722961426,
-0.5354119539260864,
-0.06448155641555786,
-0.21079126000404358,
0.1491330862045288,
-0.30680638551712036,
-0.37634894251823425,
-0.02800351195037365,
-0.08698152005672455,
-0.23200644552707672,
-0.01382698118686676,
-0.8683295249938965,
0.08859331905841827,
0.663532018661499,
0.7395856380462646,
-0.9830675721168518,
0.1646973043680191,
0.12562662363052368,
0.5450733304023743,
0.16422055661678314,
-0.19721795618534088,
-0.6187959313392639,
-0.4096280336380005,
-0.4779714047908783,
-0.5657476186752319,
-0.36341437697410583,
-0.6338381767272949,
0.34392157196998596,
-0.2890661954879761,
-0.5569773316383362,
-0.7928164601325989,
-0.16765713691711426,
-0.2576717436313629,
-0.30407607555389404,
-0.22285038232803345,
0.017070142552256584,
0.22028809785842896,
0.4435292184352875,
-0.20596309006214142,
0.12442395836114883,
0.10019461810588837,
0.8428694009780884,
0.12054552137851715,
0.12179528176784515,
-0.5171703696250916,
0.2031000703573227,
0.20586054027080536,
0.18311287462711334,
0.2038787305355072,
-0.8979629874229431,
0.033191435039043427,
0.4143192768096924,
0.38205280900001526,
-0.007990268059074879,
0.09550194442272186,
-0.6202667951583862,
0.01032558735460043,
0.47843924164772034,
-0.3423369526863098,
0.1509302258491516,
0.2525058686733246,
0.6537211537361145,
0.1618436872959137,
-0.5384986400604248,
-0.1062907725572586,
0.35466164350509644,
-0.7843944430351257,
-0.5825986862182617,
-0.5454294085502625,
0.7107992768287659,
0.1993405818939209,
-0.524595320224762,
0.37861427664756775,
-0.5874595046043396,
-0.12897413969039917,
-0.10579404979944229,
-0.7800681591033936,
0.21751625835895538,
0.20511461794376373,
-0.5248070955276489,
-0.10192447900772095,
-0.10812599956989288,
0.3106206953525543,
0.326985627412796,
0.4181959927082062,
0.581283688545227,
0.3650696575641632,
-0.17272645235061646,
-0.3280358910560608,
-0.17137137055397034,
0.6178683042526245,
-0.39289331436157227,
-0.14624916017055511,
-0.2760847806930542,
0.15280838310718536,
-0.8740010261535645,
-0.7798541188240051,
-0.36170005798339844,
0.8596394062042236,
0.21952106058597565,
-0.8402329087257385,
-0.7725125551223755,
-0.39425644278526306,
0.06506021320819855,
0.06960177421569824,
0.3555724322795868,
-1.5841083526611328,
-0.13951075077056885,
-0.0250173918902874,
0.5500275492668152,
-0.02500179596245289,
0.008186929859220982,
0.13249383866786957,
-0.06419063359498978,
0.21448056399822235,
0.14530174434185028,
-0.3124319911003113,
0.3420826196670532,
-0.20590931177139282,
-0.004724000580608845,
0.12188828736543655,
-0.5596460700035095,
0.2751367688179016,
0.35720035433769226,
-0.6901983618736267,
0.37395790219306946,
0.03599514812231064,
-0.29094192385673523,
-0.08473094552755356,
-0.20630989968776703,
-0.49376916885375977,
-0.15484613180160522,
-0.16281384229660034,
0.19962723553180695,
0.21438071131706238,
0.31067365407943726,
-1.0620225667953491,
-0.34313875436782837,
-0.6912281513214111,
0.021220194175839424,
0.22100472450256348,
0.4367845952510834,
0.1000618264079094,
0.5713847875595093,
-0.8193699717521667,
0.5994823575019836,
0.1504833847284317,
-0.27372536063194275,
0.08744463324546814,
-0.046738822013139725,
0.6145031452178955,
0.1839691698551178,
-0.17635490000247955,
0.5883534550666809,
0.5687699317932129,
-0.81406170129776,
0.1879405677318573,
0.6983103156089783,
-1.8305163383483887,
0.2981092631816864,
0.7155601382255554,
-0.20834705233573914,
-0.29583969712257385,
-0.022309955209493637,
-0.002139056334272027,
0.7702091932296753,
0.39209240674972534,
0.0005076306406408548,
-0.6024876236915588,
-0.009985351003706455,
-0.6927629709243774,
-0.08388195186853409,
-0.34339725971221924,
0.20566514134407043,
0.7606344819068909,
-0.10813144594430923,
0.26955631375312805,
0.13461756706237793,
-0.09596878290176392,
0.37875455617904663,
-0.19678044319152832,
-1.092375636100769,
-0.21895329654216766,
0.3549112379550934,
-0.23206983506679535,
0.1488579660654068,
0.4045824408531189,
-0.21867084503173828,
0.06673261523246765,
0.24396754801273346,
-0.038832250982522964,
-0.12492111325263977,
0.6296742558479309,
0.2318882942199707,
-0.20968638360500336,
0.27938079833984375,
0.04720032960176468,
-0.5589531064033508,
0.04046463966369629,
-0.26436010003089905,
0.7332024574279785,
0.3649752736091614,
-0.6854957342147827,
0.21479415893554688,
0.26636308431625366,
0.773198664188385,
0.9074121713638306,
0.007736833766102791,
-0.7042967677116394,
-0.0010412242263555527,
0.22957055270671844,
-0.5085771679878235,
0.5991683602333069,
-0.14345675706863403,
0.2829913794994354,
0.5827696323394775,
-0.5698158740997314,
0.6985689401626587,
0.3064572811126709,
0.3487605154514313,
0.6953743696212769,
-0.2923177182674408,
-0.07424173504114151,
-0.39876455068588257,
0.12437757849693298,
-0.1984698474407196,
-0.35684603452682495,
-0.3469489514827728,
-0.729799211025238,
0.5143710970878601,
0.41821515560150146,
0.24420994520187378,
1.053332805633545,
-0.518332839012146,
0.3611563742160797,
-0.4457177221775055,
0.1694381982088089,
0.03285786509513855,
-0.8593915104866028,
0.2261257916688919,
-0.13450650870800018,
0.23428085446357727,
-0.14446228742599487,
0.6012861132621765,
0.38599681854248047,
-0.271611750125885,
-0.27436012029647827,
0.5979300737380981,
0.11379102617502213,
0.31456732749938965,
-0.5801286101341248,
0.006483436096459627,
-0.5539137125015259,
0.6779201030731201,
0.1697985678911209,
-0.07595445960760117,
0.16105632483959198,
0.3212459683418274,
0.7128871083259583,
-0.4083632230758667,
0.47185659408569336,
0.05117105320096016,
-0.11793553829193115,
-0.1497080773115158,
-0.015935102477669716,
-0.23094584047794342,
-0.8763616681098938,
-0.012135679833590984,
-0.30661192536354065,
-0.5603381991386414,
0.45400068163871765,
-0.4086436629295349,
-0.03319993242621422,
0.0748632550239563,
0.6392551064491272,
0.10610003769397736,
-0.5247789025306702,
0.4305601119995117,
-0.32870131731033325,
-0.6031140685081482,
0.6344974040985107,
0.6822195649147034,
0.7998896241188049,
-0.40254172682762146,
-0.2858763337135315,
-0.09712731838226318,
0.490079402923584,
0.10169464349746704,
0.16295143961906433,
-0.6494526267051697,
0.30739521980285645,
-0.4424493908882141,
-0.5493998527526855,
0.7433210015296936,
-0.260064035654068,
0.8400468826293945,
-0.5739651322364807,
-0.26346355676651,
0.3556983470916748,
-0.6109908819198608,
0.23618225753307343,
-0.481614887714386,
0.36449816823005676,
0.22907768189907074
] |
213240
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Atlas%207
|
Mercury-Atlas 7
|
Mercury-Atlas 7, launched May 24, 1962, was the fourth crewed flight of Project Mercury. The spacecraft, named Aurora 7, was piloted by astronaut Scott Carpenter. He was the sixth human to fly in space. The mission used Mercury spacecraft No. 18 and Atlas launch vehicle No. 107-D.
The flight was for three Earth orbits, essentially a repeat of John Glenn's Mercury-Atlas 6. However, a targeting error during reentry took the spacecraft off-course, delaying recovery of Carpenter and the spacecraft for an hour. Carpenter was held responsible, at least in part, for the landing error. Carpenter left NASA for the Navy SEALAB program in 1964.
Crew
Backup crew
Crew notes
The original prime crew for Mercury Atlas-7 was to have been Deke Slayton, with Schirra as his back-up. However Slayton was removed from all flight crew availability after the discovery of cardiac dysrhythmia during a training run in the g-loading centrifuge. Slayton had chosen the name Delta 7 for the spacecraft, as this would have been the fourth crewed flight and Delta (Δ) is the fourth letter in the Greek alphabet. Instead of using Schirra who was backup, it was decided to give the mission to Carpenter, who was the backup crew for Mercury-Atlas 6, had trained with John Glenn, and was considered the best-prepared astronaut. When Carpenter was given the mission, he renamed it Aurora 7 for the open sky and the dawn, symbolizing the dawn of the new age. The number Seven was also chosen for the Mercury 7 astronauts. In addition, Carpenter's home address in his childhood was the corner of Aurora and Seventh avenues in Boulder, Colorado, although at a talk he gave at the Boulder Theater in 2003, Carpenter admitted that he never made the connection between the Aurora 7 spacecraft and his old address until friends pointed it out to him after he made the flight.
Mission parameters
Mass: 2975 lb (1350 kg)
Perigee: 96 mi (154 km)
Apogee: 162 mi (260 km)
Eccentricity: 0.00804
Inclination: 32.5°
Period: 88.3 min
Fuel:
for the automatic system
for the manual system
Mission highlights
Preparation
Mercury spacecraft No. 18 was delivered to Cape Canaveral, Florida on November 15, 1961. While under checkout, the crew changed the periscope and also worked on the drogue parachute to prevent it from firing prematurely as happened during the previous flight. In addition, a device known as a "low-level commutator" was added, to measure the temperature around the capsule, recording temperature data from 28 positions on the spacecraft.
The Atlas vehicle 107D was rolled out of the Convair factory in San Diego, California on February 25, 1962. It was delivered to Cape Canaveral on March 6, 1962.
Changes made to Atlas 107D over Glenn's booster were minor. It had been agreed that the insulation blanket in the tank bulkhead was unnecessary and would be removed on subsequent Mercury-Atlas vehicles, although MA-7 would still retain it. The LOX tank skin was thickened still further due to the growing weight of the Mercury capsule as missions grew longer and more ambitious. A meeting of the Flight Safety Review Board on May 16 discussed the 12 Atlas flights since Glenn's launch and any anomalies on them that were of concern. There had been four major Atlas in-flight malfunctions during this stretch, but three were caused by random quality control defects unlikely to be a concern in the much more tightly supervised Mercury program. More concerning was Atlas 11F, which had exploded almost immediately at liftoff on April 9 and the static firing test of Atlas 1F, which exploded at Sycamore Canyon on May 13. The cause of these two mishaps was as yet unclear, but assumed to be the result of rough combustion, an old problem that had destroyed several previous Atlas vehicles. NASA ultimately decided a rough combustion failure was unlikely to be a concern as Mercury-Atlas vehicles had a three-second hold down prior to launcher release and a different engine start sequence than the Atlas F (as it turned out, the failures on 11F and 1F had an entirely different cause).
The temperature sensor installation and the correction of the drogue parachute circuit delayed the launch until May.
A network of ground stations and ships, called the "Mercury network" was arranged around the globe to provide continuous coverage of the spacecraft. On Mercury-Atlas 7, the network consisted of 15 Mercury sites supplemented by several Atlantic Missile Range (AMR) stations, and the Goddard Space Flight Center. CAPCOMs were operating from different stations around the world to communicate with Carpenter. Gus Grissom was the CAPCOM at Cape Canaveral. Alan Shepard was the CAPCOM at California.
Scientific experiments
The focus of Carpenter's five-hour mission was scientific. The full flight plan included the first study of liquids in weightlessness, Earth photography, and an unsuccessful attempt to observe a flare fired from the ground.
One of the experiments would include releasing a multi-colored balloon that would remain tethered to the capsule, observing the behavior of liquid in a weightless state inside a closed glass bottle, using a special light meter to determine the visibility of a ground flare, making weather photographs with hand-held cameras, and studying the airglow layer - for which Carpenter would receive special training. The tethered balloon was a 30-inch mylar inflatable sphere, which was folded, packaged, and housed with its gas expansion bottle in the antenna canister. The whole balloon package weighed two pounds. Divided into five sections of different colors - uncolored aluminum, yellow, orange, white, and a phosphorescent coating that appeared white by day and blue by night - the balloon was to be cast off near perigee after the first orbital pass to float freely at the end of a 100-foot nylon line. The purposes of the balloon experiment were to study the effects of space on the reflection properties of colored surfaces through visual observation and photographic studies and to obtain aerodynamic drag measurements by use of a strain gauge.
During flight
Carpenter was awakened at 1:15 AM on the morning of the flight and ate a breakfast of orange juice, filet mignon, eggs, toast, and coffee. Prior to insertion in the capsule, he was administered a hydration regimen of water, juice, coffee, and sweet tea. He ascended into the gantry at 4:36 AM, and entered the spacecraft at 4:43 AM. Unlike Mercury-Atlas 6, there was no problem with the sealing bolts.
Launch occurred at 7:45 AM (Florida time) on 24 May 1962.
Launch vehicle performance was overall excellent with one small anomaly in that one of the sustainer engine's hydraulic switches registered a loss of sustainer hydraulic pressure and moved to the abort position at T+265 seconds. Normal hydraulic system performance was substantiated by other flight data and as two hydraulic switches had to be tripped to signal an abort to the ASIS system, nothing happened and the flight proceeded as planned. The malfunction of the hydraulic switch was believed to be the result of cold temperatures due to nearby LOX lines; on subsequent flights thermal insulation would be added to prevent a recurrence. BECO was affected at T+124 seconds and SECO at T+305 seconds. The Atlas's flight path was so accurate that Aurora 7 reached almost the exact orbital parameters planned for the mission.
Carpenter had solid food items for the first time, in the form of freeze-dried cubes in a plastic bag, instead of paste squeezed out of a tube, which produced problems with loose crumbs floating inside the cabin. The food cubes had been coated with an anti-crumbling agent, but may have accidentally been crushed prior to launch, breaking the coating. Carpenter expressed concern about crumbs being sucked into ventilation intakes in the capsule in addition to posing a possible choking hazard if ingested. In addition, a candy bar included in the food supply melted from high cabin temperatures (up to 102 °F). By the end of the second orbit, he informed Mercury Control that most of the food was a mess and he would avoid touching it for the rest of the flight aside from taking a xylose capsule.
With each orbit sunrise, Carpenter also saw the "fireflies", though he observed them to be more like snowflakes. He also noted that the particles did not seem to be truly luminous, and varied in size, brightness, and color. Some were gray, some were white, and one in particular, said Carpenter, looked like a helical shaving from a lathe. Although they seemed to travel at different speeds, they did not move out and away from the spacecraft as the confetti had in the balloon experiment.
Carpenter also took 19 photos of the flattened Sun at orbit sunset.
At dawn of the third and final orbit, Carpenter inadvertently bumped his hand against the inside wall of the cabin and solved a mystery from the previous flight. The resulting bright shower of particles outside the spacecraft - what John Glenn had called "fireflies" - turned out to be ice particles shaken loose from the spacecraft's exterior. Near the end of the flight, Carpenter found that by banging his hand against the wall of the capsule, he could shake more "fireflies" loose. At first, it was thought that the particles could be marker dye or shark repellent, both green-colored, however, testing confirmed that neither of those were likely to escape from their packages in zero gravity.
It was then suspected that the fireflies were either steam from the life support system turning into the snow when exposed to open space or debris on the exterior of the spacecraft being shaken loose, however, the former was considered the more probable explanation. Steam generated by the life support system formed condensation between the spacecraft bulkhead and the heat shield which then escaped into space and froze.
Like Glenn, Carpenter circled the Earth three times, with the total time spent weightless at 4 hours, 39 minutes, and 32 seconds. The performance of the Mercury spacecraft and Atlas launch vehicle was excellent in nearly every respect. All primary mission objectives were achieved. The single mission-critical malfunction which occurred involved a failure in the spacecraft pitch horizon scanner, a component of the automatic control system. This anomaly was adequately compensated for by the pilot in subsequent in-flight operations so that the success of the mission was not compromised. A modification of the spacecraft control-system thrust units was effective. Cabin and pressure-suit temperatures were high but not intolerable. Some uncertainties in the data telemetered from the bioinstrumentation prevailed at times during the flight; however, associated information was available which indicated continued well-being of the astronaut.
Carpenter was unable to spot many landmarks due to heavy cloud cover across much of the orbital path. The Southwestern US and Western Africa were clear and he could not see Florida at all.
Equipment was included in the spacecraft which provided valuable scientific information--notably that regarding liquid behavior in a weightless state, identification of the airglow layer observed by Glenn, and photography of terrestrial features and meteorological phenomena. An experiment which was to provide atmospheric drag and color visibility data in space through the deployment of an inflatable sphere was partially successful. The flight further qualified the Mercury spacecraft systems for crewed orbital operations and provided evidence for progressing into missions of extended duration and consequently more demanding systems requirements.
Landing
Passing over Hawaii during the final orbit, flight director Chris Kraft told Carpenter to begin his retrofire countdown and to shift from manual control to the automatic attitude control. Partly because he had been distracted watching the fireflies, Carpenter noted that he had begun his landing preparations late. As he started to align the spacecraft he found that the automatic stabilization system would not hold the required 34-degree pitch and zero-degree yaw attitude. While trying to determine the source of the trouble, he fell behind in his check of other items. When he switched to the fly-by-wire control mode, he forgot to switch off the manual system. As a result, both systems were used together for 10 minutes, and fuel was wasted.
In addition to the attitude error, Carpenter also activated the retrorockets three seconds late, adding another 15 miles (24 km) or so to the trajectory error. Due to lack of fuel, Carpenter overshot his planned reentry mark and splashed down from the target.
After nearly an hour of searching, Carpenter was located in an area northeast of Puerto Rico. USS Farragut was the first ship to arrive at the spacecraft nearly forty minutes after splashdown had occurred. Two helicopters dispatched from the aircraft carrier reached the scene and transported Carpenter back to Intrepid and over the next several hours Farragut remained on the scene watching the spacecraft until USS John R. Pierce arrived, which was equipped with special equipment enabling her to tow Aurora 7 to Roosevelt Roads Puerto Rico where it was then flown back to Cape Canaveral.
Other than slight exhaustion, Carpenter was in good health and spirits and post-flight medical exams did not find any significant physical changes or anomalies. Kraft, however, was unhappy with the astronaut's performance due to his needlessly high expenditure of attitude control fuel, which resulted in reentry and landing taking place well off-course. As a result, Carpenter was sidelined for future missions. He left the space program in 1964 to participate in the Navy's SEALAB program.
Aurora 7 is displayed at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois.
Mercury-Atlas three-orbit flight events
See also
Splashdown
References
External links
Results of the Second U.S. Manned Orbital Space Flight, May 24, 1962 NASA report - (PDF format)
This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury - NASA report (PDF format)
Project Mercury: A Chronology - NASA report (PDF format)
NASA NSSDC Spacecraft Details
Spacecraft launched in 1962
Human spaceflights
Project Mercury
Scott Carpenter
Spacecraft which reentered in 1962
Spacecraft launched by Atlas rockets
|
[
-0.4169287085533142,
0.4912284314632416,
0.36736568808555603,
0.41683176159858704,
0.02103150263428688,
0.41050463914871216,
0.32427850365638733,
0.4052938222885132,
-0.3747437596321106,
0.2348218709230423,
-0.1672285795211792,
0.6250780820846558,
-0.2775513231754303,
0.3132683336734772,
0.10561896860599518,
-0.034604791551828384,
0.7286756038665771,
-0.2502109706401825,
0.09630989283323288,
-0.38184723258018494,
-0.018636619672179222,
0.12642015516757965,
0.8207025527954102,
-0.4831501841545105,
-0.28194889426231384,
-0.2545119524002075,
0.3272296190261841,
0.4537566900253296,
0.30958688259124756,
0.7893776893615723,
-0.08482308685779572,
0.27880018949508667,
0.5164147019386292,
0.015839938074350357,
0.05982358381152153,
0.009009374305605888,
0.059424906969070435,
0.39736080169677734,
-0.02490975335240364,
-0.2135489135980606,
-0.26136863231658936,
-0.49521172046661377,
0.10170117765665054,
-0.24681591987609863,
-0.07582781463861465,
0.11611692607402802,
-0.6849896907806396,
-0.19570274651050568,
0.03015436790883541,
-0.1051577776670456,
-0.3209746479988098,
0.4979950487613678,
-0.1650262176990509,
0.36712098121643066,
0.35553866624832153,
0.8372244238853455,
-0.226997509598732,
-0.1641436368227005,
-0.8515604138374329,
0.6251539587974548,
0.2868867516517639,
0.1880517154932022,
-0.11808077245950699,
0.707196056842804,
-0.005933293607085943,
0.02703632228076458,
0.17883902788162231,
0.30255988240242004,
-0.35944053530693054,
-0.07753822952508926,
-0.46095597743988037,
-0.3683008849620819,
-0.6141525506973267,
-0.2947534918785095,
0.041987527161836624,
-0.5879719257354736,
0.19448775053024292,
-0.2275829017162323,
0.22089694440364838,
0.3196236491203308,
0.2792196571826935,
0.21622803807258606,
0.5451686382293701,
0.5994850397109985,
-0.452722430229187,
0.1708957701921463,
-0.15832911431789398,
-0.04357844591140747,
-0.07567890733480453,
0.37457358837127686,
-0.9584700465202332,
-0.2327837347984314,
0.446452260017395,
0.5102317333221436,
-0.24242547154426575,
-0.5052780508995056,
-0.5029485821723938,
0.1897161453962326,
0.3450813591480255,
-0.6750277876853943,
-0.049879319965839386,
0.2661343812942505,
0.3246194124221802,
-0.15027135610580444,
-0.31608831882476807,
-0.4466431140899658,
0.1877237856388092,
-0.5954405069351196,
-0.6536118388175964,
0.0664977878332138,
-0.24521762132644653,
-0.1961660236120224,
-0.22910626232624054,
0.02514002099633217,
-0.6332608461380005,
0.595981776714325,
0.13003429770469666,
-0.8814703822135925,
0.3826137185096741,
-0.12719625234603882,
0.5667490363121033,
0.6799734830856323,
0.0926327183842659,
0.08570066094398499,
0.012485207989811897,
0.5930181741714478,
0.6898040771484375,
0.1771390736103058,
-0.09979453682899475,
0.3505289554595947,
0.11171705275774002,
0.4308549761772156,
-0.3070727586746216,
0.3279876112937927,
-0.24630725383758545,
0.18010196089744568,
0.9378682971000671,
0.24395446479320526,
0.3751831352710724,
0.005293210968375206,
-0.40768423676490784,
-0.26365694403648376,
-0.29523423314094543,
0.044396888464689255,
0.8932363986968994,
0.8065968751907349,
0.6823233962059021,
-0.10839856415987015,
-1.0458483695983887,
-0.07285551726818085,
-0.023221231997013092,
-0.9347465634346008,
0.1767147332429886,
0.14190474152565002,
-0.2183796912431717,
-0.1902763396501541,
0.20177814364433289,
0.6112474799156189,
-0.9111295342445374,
0.4233080744743347,
0.5651970505714417,
0.4207955598831177,
0.18902094662189484,
0.03663176670670509,
0.5099644660949707,
-0.019353682175278664,
0.047870293259620667,
-0.21536341309547424,
0.7409022450447083,
-0.3664119839668274,
0.0382191464304924,
-0.16040436923503876,
0.16215749084949493,
-0.2821401357650757,
-0.31927481293678284,
-0.4554193615913391,
1.3889340162277222,
0.9074723124504089,
0.24722546339035034,
-0.13485507667064667,
-0.30941012501716614,
0.09637150168418884,
-0.3796578049659729,
0.03686125576496124,
0.5812718868255615,
0.39263850450515747,
0.3102734088897705,
0.24449898302555084,
-0.3988628387451172,
-0.05412532016634941,
-0.9643974304199219,
-0.18251816928386688,
0.4771364629268646,
-0.3667951822280884,
0.7929013967514038,
-0.17343056201934814,
-0.19010287523269653,
0.2538358271121979,
0.005182545632123947,
1.0160572528839111,
-0.1343165785074234,
0.2610327899456024,
0.3927830159664154,
-0.31090790033340454,
-0.07507937401533127,
0.1550726294517517,
-0.4808003604412079,
-0.27792465686798096,
0.015187358483672142,
0.9261950254440308,
-0.44201594591140747,
-0.20681479573249817,
-0.22458286583423615,
0.5879908204078674,
0.49604764580726624,
0.1593075543642044,
-0.35405176877975464,
0.0015053823590278625,
0.06257810443639755,
-0.007213648408651352,
-0.08839129656553268,
-0.17842024564743042,
0.010186375118792057,
-0.5736168622970581,
-0.22618387639522552,
0.7923731207847595,
-0.492817223072052,
-0.3989521861076355,
-0.08430414646863937,
0.5666597485542297,
-0.7816226482391357,
0.46176692843437195,
0.05300876498222351,
-0.22441042959690094,
0.30729034543037415,
0.0008814039756543934,
-0.12531742453575134,
-0.7002590298652649,
0.3952827751636505,
0.06643038988113403,
0.3160196840763092,
0.2253461629152298,
-0.5707027912139893,
0.7792754173278809,
-0.5851969718933105,
0.2799476087093353,
0.5490808486938477,
-0.11118434369564056,
-0.12285876274108887,
-0.19007553160190582,
-0.4485492706298828,
0.044321224093437195,
-0.14593888819217682,
0.05339374020695686,
-0.8181708455085754,
0.3411312997341156,
-0.6598851680755615,
-0.0720486268401146,
-0.015627525746822357,
0.043968040496110916,
-0.5754813551902771,
0.35499927401542664,
0.3619585633277893,
0.12239916622638702,
0.6288275718688965,
-0.9901995658874512,
-0.8176350593566895,
-0.1817958950996399,
-0.09160400182008743,
-0.010722075589001179,
0.22327694296836853,
-0.7405740022659302,
-0.2814962863922119,
0.08678346872329712,
0.13809895515441895,
-0.012231236323714256,
-0.5527923703193665,
0.5116965770721436,
-0.3231262266635895,
-0.4866826832294464,
0.6606179475784302,
0.7629215121269226,
0.46991485357284546,
-0.23300455510616302,
-0.07601749897003174,
0.3642374873161316,
0.051362358033657074,
-0.41793084144592285,
-0.18161359429359436,
-0.6665974259376526,
0.12149987369775772,
0.08889873325824738,
-0.4406803846359253,
-0.40461355447769165,
-0.43815624713897705,
0.6023090481758118,
0.07199203968048096,
0.5338605642318726,
0.8347453474998474,
0.47432246804237366,
0.3437202274799347,
0.19461946189403534,
-0.9052155613899231,
-0.37758636474609375,
0.7332059144973755,
-0.25432056188583374,
-0.35454681515693665,
-0.06717652082443237,
-5.3616623878479,
-0.4084493815898895,
-0.39582762122154236,
-0.36614933609962463,
0.6735965013504028,
-0.036412518471479416,
0.5733774900436401,
-0.1693773865699768,
0.007350193336606026,
-0.6649308204650879,
0.40124034881591797,
-0.48968058824539185,
-0.18186010420322418,
0.23337684571743011,
0.27006232738494873,
0.13328780233860016,
0.5852184295654297,
-0.8961501717567444,
1.1959819793701172,
-0.11209534853696823,
0.8292196989059448,
-0.690285861492157,
-0.32421875,
-0.29374778270721436,
0.04517766460776329,
0.6736801266670227,
-0.21767427027225494,
0.33456093072891235,
-0.49750974774360657,
0.8479904532432556,
0.030843932181596756,
-0.1257632076740265,
-0.4797961711883545,
-0.7360716462135315,
0.24830998480319977,
-0.20355923473834991,
0.24896329641342163,
-0.5493513941764832,
0.3591582179069519,
0.10719869285821915,
-0.11539800465106964,
-0.31163570284843445,
-0.3784986436367035,
-0.018717791885137558,
-0.39887693524360657,
0.15530557930469513,
-0.048692911863327026,
-0.32461822032928467,
0.7385928630828857,
0.4867221415042877,
0.66556715965271,
0.4847833812236786,
-0.1503729224205017,
-0.5393652319908142,
0.15476977825164795,
0.15034860372543335,
-0.1607615053653717,
0.16982124745845795,
-0.48354730010032654,
0.4045686721801758,
0.1908828169107437,
0.22059078514575958,
0.051787376403808594,
-1.2250782251358032,
-0.10896605253219604,
-0.12921570241451263,
0.48585668206214905,
-0.09127510339021683,
0.43896493315696716,
0.011087208054959774,
-0.48202043771743774,
0.8633542060852051,
-0.655916690826416,
-0.9460219144821167,
0.7712255716323853,
-0.3236084580421448,
-0.2804383933544159,
-0.1594524383544922,
-0.1639557033777237,
-0.8009114861488342,
0.1802203506231308,
-0.680709958076477,
-0.05449771136045456,
-0.5089959502220154,
-0.16346214711666107,
-0.5613196492195129,
-0.2723254859447479,
0.17604675889015198,
-0.01721113733947277,
-0.08413336426019669,
0.7919082641601562,
-1.0420162677764893,
0.3456878364086151,
0.8101623058319092,
0.4731330871582031,
0.16466039419174194,
-0.16612446308135986,
0.18544113636016846,
0.5870890617370605,
-0.08549686521291733,
-0.7144495248794556,
-0.4827108681201935,
0.24635346233844757,
-0.5662342309951782,
-0.9253436326980591,
-0.43398088216781616,
-0.41822001338005066,
-0.44577112793922424,
0.17209576070308685,
0.20281189680099487,
0.3789962828159332,
-0.30237820744514465,
-0.46648257970809937,
-0.8269104361534119,
0.8093025088310242,
-0.07854868471622467,
-0.15081025660037994,
0.491886705160141,
0.03814304247498512,
0.07321928441524506,
-0.5611604452133179,
-0.03490079194307327,
-0.25756341218948364,
-0.1138521358370781,
0.05431438237428665,
-0.18667472898960114,
0.2208927571773529,
0.19659076631069183,
0.10167988389730453,
0.14469730854034424,
-0.11325957626104355,
0.2421586960554123,
-0.34488019347190857,
0.1385555863380432,
0.5098211765289307,
-0.06449919193983078,
-0.3556670844554901,
0.2561618983745575,
0.03898404911160469,
0.10498474538326263,
-0.9358645677566528,
0.492001473903656,
-0.2097063958644867,
0.2263963371515274,
0.4816116690635681,
0.35647091269493103,
0.6152158379554749,
-0.30064842104911804,
0.4886627495288849,
0.9297528266906738,
0.31304270029067993,
-0.11556535214185715,
0.17014864087104797,
0.2578521966934204,
-0.02658774144947529,
-0.2727372646331787,
0.4631444811820984,
-0.490635484457016,
-0.3738752007484436,
-0.398145854473114,
0.06464558839797974,
-0.40945374965667725,
-0.6282056570053101,
0.40417635440826416,
0.22552300989627838,
-0.2145540565252304,
-0.1353306919336319,
-0.5705398917198181,
0.09839941561222076,
0.4332779049873352,
0.32699277997016907,
-0.6365005373954773,
0.0051987990736961365,
0.4967139959335327,
0.6211608052253723,
0.19099849462509155,
-0.5826128125190735,
-0.43384137749671936,
0.020366717129945755,
-0.3824756443500519,
-0.7170193791389465,
0.07936325669288635,
-0.716567873954773,
0.38280853629112244,
-0.2618084251880646,
-0.7184604406356812,
-1.0550779104232788,
-0.37428170442581177,
0.01792221888899803,
-0.21194107830524445,
0.21396282315254211,
0.2992781400680542,
0.2398834377527237,
0.29058346152305603,
-0.212825208902359,
-0.29283982515335083,
-0.14872829616069794,
0.643988847732544,
0.19831174612045288,
0.27146655321121216,
-0.46315914392471313,
0.2707361578941345,
0.03611934930086136,
0.18521179258823395,
0.05166967213153839,
-0.7543560862541199,
0.13478267192840576,
0.31895899772644043,
0.26384851336479187,
0.05648083612322807,
0.36797192692756653,
-0.8911029100418091,
0.04722670838236809,
1.0212527513504028,
0.00597025454044342,
0.023063676431775093,
0.19861319661140442,
0.3360688388347626,
0.29467448592185974,
-0.4549854099750519,
-0.2349078208208084,
-0.0822053849697113,
-0.8381374478340149,
-0.8016979694366455,
-0.6203148365020752,
0.640809953212738,
0.5742542147636414,
-0.6938034892082214,
0.3871651589870453,
-0.5610948204994202,
-0.15552595257759094,
0.0202835351228714,
-0.3620634377002716,
0.28138452768325806,
0.007456448394805193,
-0.3447479009628296,
-0.2002009153366089,
-0.1342771202325821,
0.15435801446437836,
-0.03061750717461109,
0.08692584931850433,
0.24971508979797363,
0.3457798361778259,
-0.6150392889976501,
-0.2961803674697876,
-0.2979331612586975,
1.1426422595977783,
-0.7435145378112793,
-0.004971437621861696,
-0.37255755066871643,
-0.10009203106164932,
-0.7793046236038208,
-0.5174335837364197,
-0.48984113335609436,
0.529365062713623,
0.15242090821266174,
-0.6018792986869812,
-0.9112380146980286,
-0.20398034155368805,
-0.2958557903766632,
0.23243795335292816,
0.23601028323173523,
-1.4786750078201294,
-0.0009315750794485211,
-0.10389583557844162,
0.40167373418807983,
0.03431444242596626,
0.06742152571678162,
0.07258834689855576,
0.14999589323997498,
-0.2685585618019104,
-0.41628631949424744,
-0.22639711201190948,
0.5414555072784424,
-0.20658203959465027,
-0.05798668786883354,
0.01471426710486412,
-0.6349086165428162,
-0.04025104641914368,
0.6888810396194458,
-0.674717128276825,
0.42628514766693115,
-0.12504880130290985,
-0.14856211841106415,
-0.14276304841041565,
-0.42802026867866516,
-0.48919758200645447,
-0.24982395768165588,
-0.32160866260528564,
0.05367886647582054,
0.038034502416849136,
0.28758367896080017,
-0.7197854518890381,
-0.5933384895324707,
-0.43294262886047363,
0.035709358751773834,
0.011771216057240963,
0.5627483129501343,
-0.28912264108657837,
0.7168050408363342,
-0.5726107358932495,
0.5501296520233154,
0.381539911031723,
0.14696422219276428,
0.28936976194381714,
0.1340482085943222,
0.5253686904907227,
-0.23515847325325012,
-0.04814130812883377,
0.7013133764266968,
0.5618484020233154,
-0.44497817754745483,
0.04121559113264084,
0.6039401292800903,
-1.5710152387619019,
0.020430510863661766,
0.8694881796836853,
-0.2888546288013458,
-0.15383297204971313,
0.19753676652908325,
0.09953775256872177,
0.6831310987472534,
0.5293286442756653,
-0.12328924238681793,
-0.8434900045394897,
0.30290487408638,
-0.7181817889213562,
-0.1641804426908493,
-0.0942099541425705,
0.31601962447166443,
0.7957780957221985,
0.04960010573267937,
0.3095497190952301,
0.0625467374920845,
-0.6552672386169434,
0.19290708005428314,
-0.1069827452301979,
-0.7840427160263062,
-0.09580378234386444,
0.30645689368247986,
0.1150580570101738,
0.11021965742111206,
0.5124327540397644,
-0.26535865664482117,
0.1768011599779129,
0.1475168615579605,
0.34654778242111206,
-0.09138984233140945,
0.5847232341766357,
0.11184857040643692,
-0.22490748763084412,
0.12904778122901917,
0.3551189601421356,
-0.30860891938209534,
0.04559904336929321,
-0.1534658521413803,
0.25059881806373596,
0.47151073813438416,
-0.46318337321281433,
0.015294867567718029,
0.22577588260173798,
0.7962987422943115,
0.8086158037185669,
0.12692035734653473,
-0.8833360075950623,
0.1242801696062088,
0.1569059044122696,
-0.3341574966907501,
0.6664466857910156,
0.0031392639502882957,
0.3671397268772125,
0.42917513847351074,
-0.3573877513408661,
0.4884152114391327,
0.12422406673431396,
0.2644331157207489,
0.7825310230255127,
-0.1329299509525299,
-0.045751407742500305,
-0.02309502847492695,
-0.219882532954216,
-0.3238416016101837,
-0.18931825459003448,
-0.18705087900161743,
-0.8106139302253723,
0.8045377731323242,
0.05914594978094101,
0.2437489926815033,
0.7824997305870056,
-0.5297127366065979,
0.4114551842212677,
-0.30327022075653076,
0.2658376395702362,
-0.10688789188861847,
-0.48620203137397766,
0.2761661112308502,
0.08350420743227005,
0.12595556676387787,
-0.09123978018760681,
0.5397871732711792,
0.4123542010784149,
0.06904716789722443,
-0.15072831511497498,
0.7529364824295044,
0.1370861530303955,
0.09331607818603516,
-0.5397499203681946,
0.32424354553222656,
-0.8179356455802917,
0.3065880537033081,
-0.17516829073429108,
-0.2249978929758072,
0.27072444558143616,
0.15149477124214172,
0.23629294335842133,
-0.7361413240432739,
0.47977691888809204,
-0.13642112910747528,
-0.2775612771511078,
0.33515849709510803,
-0.15550167858600616,
-0.20730318129062653,
-0.6034479141235352,
-0.057093847543001175,
-0.6217299699783325,
-0.6276347041130066,
0.0965999960899353,
-0.33961233496665955,
-0.260496586561203,
0.26024213433265686,
0.6134664416313171,
-0.20101267099380493,
-0.24908733367919922,
0.01568392850458622,
-0.5505587458610535,
-0.8515991568565369,
0.5211296677589417,
0.5297822952270508,
0.6836665868759155,
-0.35702428221702576,
-0.08258096873760223,
0.06026364862918854,
0.5634698867797852,
0.11319659650325775,
0.1179596334695816,
-0.8818869590759277,
0.40901410579681396,
-0.6801822781562805,
-0.49277564883232117,
0.4577363431453705,
0.1631617546081543,
0.7265205383300781,
-0.48164984583854675,
-0.673971951007843,
0.7002586126327515,
-0.7895593047142029,
0.6609442830085754,
-0.26843711733818054,
0.36810171604156494,
0.3184945583343506
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.