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216601	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble%20Deep%20Field	Hubble Deep Field	The Hubble Deep Field (HDF) is an image of a small region in the constellation Ursa Major, constructed from a series of observations by the Hubble Space Telescope. It covers an area about 2.6 arcminutes on a side, about one 24-millionth of the whole sky, which is equivalent in angular size to a tennis ball at a distance of 100 metres. The image was assembled from 342 separate exposures taken with the Space Telescope's Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 over ten consecutive days between December 18 and 28, 1995. The field is so small that only a few foreground stars in the Milky Way lie within it; thus, almost all of the 3,000 objects in the image are galaxies, some of which are among the youngest and most distant known. By revealing such large numbers of very young galaxies, the HDF has become a landmark image in the study of the early universe. Three years after the HDF observations were taken, a region in the south celestial hemisphere was imaged in a similar way and named the Hubble Deep Field South. The similarities between the two regions strengthened the belief that the universe is uniform over large scales and that the Earth occupies a typical region in the Universe (the cosmological principle). A wider but shallower survey was also made as part of the Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey. In 2004 a deeper image, known as the Hubble Ultra-Deep Field (HUDF), was constructed from a few months of light exposure. The HUDF image was at the time the most sensitive astronomical image ever made at visible wavelengths, and it remained so until the Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF) was released in 2012. Conception One of the key aims of the astronomers who designed the Hubble Space Telescope was to use its high optical resolution to study distant galaxies to a level of detail that was not possible from the ground. Positioned above the atmosphere, Hubble avoids atmospheric airglow allowing it to take more sensitive visible and ultraviolet light images than can be obtained with seeing-limited ground-based telescopes (when good adaptive optics correction at visible wavelengths becomes possible, 10 m ground-based telescopes may become competitive). Although the telescope's mirror suffered from spherical aberration when the telescope was launched in 1990, it could still be used to take images of more distant galaxies than had previously been obtainable. Because light takes billions of years to reach Earth from very distant galaxies, we see them as they were billions of years ago; thus, extending the scope of such research to increasingly distant galaxies allows a better understanding of how they evolve. After the spherical aberration was corrected during Space Shuttle mission STS-61 in 1993, the improved imaging capabilities of the telescope were used to study increasingly distant and faint galaxies. The Medium Deep Survey (MDS) used the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) to take deep images of random fields while other instruments were being used for scheduled observations. At the same time, other dedicated programs focused on galaxies that were already known through ground-based observation. All of these studies revealed substantial differences between the properties of galaxies today and those that existed several billion years ago. Up to 10% of the HST's observation time is designated as Director's Discretionary (DD) Time, and is typically awarded to astronomers who wish to study unexpected transient phenomena, such as supernovae. Once Hubble's corrective optics were shown to be performing well, Robert Williams, the then-director of the Space Telescope Science Institute, decided to devote a substantial fraction of his DD time during 1995 to the study of distant galaxies. A special Institute Advisory Committee recommended that the WFPC2 be used to image a "typical" patch of sky at a high galactic latitude, using several optical filters. A working group was set up to develop and implement the project. Target selection The field selected for the observations needed to fulfill several criteria. It had to be at a high galactic latitude because dust and obscuring matter in the plane of the Milky Way's disc prevents observations of distant galaxies at low galactic latitudes. The target field had to avoid known bright sources of visible light (such as foreground stars), and infrared, ultraviolet and X-ray emissions, to facilitate later studies at many wavelengths of the objects in the deep field, and also needed to be in a region with a low background infrared 'cirrus', the diffuse, wispy infrared emission believed to be caused by warm dust grains in cool clouds of hydrogen gas (H I regions). These criteria restricted the field of potential target areas. It was decided that the target should be in Hubble's 'continuous viewing zones' (CVZs)—the areas of sky which are not occulted by the Earth or the moon during Hubble's orbit. The working group decided to concentrate on the northern CVZ, so that northern-hemisphere telescopes such as the Keck telescopes, the Kitt Peak National Observatory telescopes and the Very Large Array (VLA) could conduct follow-up observations. Twenty fields satisfying these criteria were initially identified, from which three optimal candidate fields were selected, all within the constellation of Ursa Major. Radio snapshot observations with the VLA ruled out one of these fields because it contained a bright radio source, and the final decision between the other two was made on the basis of the availability of guide stars near the field: Hubble observations normally require a pair of nearby stars on which the telescope's Fine Guidance Sensors can lock during an exposure, but given the importance of the HDF observations, the working group required a second set of back-up guide stars. The field that was eventually selected is located at a right ascension of and a declination of ; it is approximately 2.6 arcminutes in width, or 1/12 the width of the Moon. The area is approximately 1/24,000,000 of the total area of the sky. Observations Once a field had been selected, an observing strategy had to be developed. An important decision was to determine which filters the observations would use; WFPC2 is equipped with forty-eight filters, including narrowband filters isolating particular emission lines of astrophysical interest, and broadband filters useful for the study of the colours of stars and galaxies. The choice of filters to be used for the HDF depended on the 'throughput' of each filter—the total proportion of light that it allows through—and the spectral coverage available. Filters with bandpasses overlapping as little as possible were desirable. In the end, four broadband filters were chosen, centred at wavelengths of 300 nm (near-ultraviolet), 450 nm (blue light), 606 nm (red light) and 814 nm (near-infrared). Because the quantum efficiency of Hubble's detectors at 300 nm wavelength is quite low, the noise in observations at this wavelength is primarily due to CCD noise rather than sky background; thus, these observations could be conducted at times when high background noise would have harmed the efficiency of observations in other passbands. Between December 18 and 28, 1995—during which time Hubble orbited the Earth about 150 times—342 images of the target area in the chosen filters were taken. The total exposure times at each wavelength were 42.7 hours (300 nm), 33.5 hours (450 nm), 30.3 hours (606 nm) and 34.3 hours (814 nm), divided into 342 individual exposures to prevent significant damage to individual images by cosmic rays, which cause bright streaks to appear when they strike CCD detectors. A further 10 Hubble orbits were used to make short exposures of flanking fields to aid follow-up observations by other instruments. Data processing The production of a final combined image at each wavelength was a complex process. Bright pixels caused by cosmic ray impacts during exposures were removed by comparing exposures of equal length taken one after the other, and identifying pixels that were affected by cosmic rays in one exposure but not the other. Trails of space debris and artificial satellites were present in the original images, and were carefully removed. Scattered light from the Earth was evident in about a quarter of the data frames, creating a visible "X" pattern on the images. This was removed by taking an image affected by scattered light, aligning it with an unaffected image, and subtracting the unaffected image from the affected one. The resulting image was smoothed, and could then be subtracted from the bright frame. This procedure removed almost all of the scattered light from the affected images. Once the 342 individual images were cleaned of cosmic-ray hits and corrected for scattered light, they had to be combined. Scientists involved in the HDF observations pioneered a technique called 'drizzling', in which the pointing of the telescope was varied minutely between sets of exposures. Each pixel on the WFPC2 CCD chips recorded an area of sky 0.09 arcseconds across, but by changing the direction in which the telescope was pointing by less than that between exposures, the resulting images were combined using sophisticated image-processing techniques to yield a final angular resolution better than this value. The HDF images produced at each wavelength had final pixel sizes of 0.03985 arcseconds. The data processing yielded four monochrome images (at 300 nm, 450 nm, 606 nm and 814 nm), one at each wavelength. One image was designated as red (814 nm), the second as green (606 nm) and the third as blue (450 nm), and the three images were combined to give a colour image. Because the wavelengths at which the images were taken do not correspond to the wavelengths of red, green and blue light, the colours in the final image only give an approximate representation of the actual colours of the galaxies in the image; the choice of filters for the HDF (and the majority of Hubble images) was primarily designed to maximize the scientific utility of the observations rather than to create colours corresponding to what the human eye would actually perceive. Contents The final images were released at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society in January 1996, and revealed a plethora of distant, faint galaxies. About 3,000 distinct galaxies could be identified in the images, with both irregular and spiral galaxies clearly visible, although some galaxies in the field are only a few pixels across. In all, the HDF is thought to contain fewer than twenty galactic foreground stars; by far the majority of objects in the field are distant galaxies. There are about fifty blue point-like objects in the HDF. Many seem to be associated with nearby galaxies, which together form chains and arcs: these are likely to be regions of intense star formation. Others may be distant quasars. Astronomers initially ruled out the possibility that some of the point-like objects are white dwarfs, because they are too blue to be consistent with theories of white dwarf evolution prevalent at the time. However, more recent work has found that many white dwarfs become bluer as they age, lending support to the idea that the HDF might contain white dwarfs. Scientific results The HDF data provided extremely rich material for cosmologists to analyse and by late 2014 the associated scientific paper for the image had received over 900 citations. One of the most fundamental findings was the discovery of large numbers of galaxies with high redshift values. As the Universe expands, more distant objects recede from the Earth faster, in what is called the Hubble Flow. The light from very distant galaxies is significantly affected by the cosmological redshift. While quasars with high redshifts were known, very few galaxies with redshifts greater than one were known before the HDF images were produced. The HDF, however, contained many galaxies with redshifts as high as six, corresponding to distances of about 12 billion light-years. Due to redshift the most distant objects in the HDF (Lyman-break galaxies) are not actually visible in the Hubble images; they can only be detected in images of the HDF taken at longer wavelengths by ground-based telescopes. One of the first observations planned for the James Webb Space Telescope is a mid-infrared image of the Hubble Ultra-Deep Field. The HDF galaxies contained a considerably larger proportion of disturbed and irregular galaxies than the local universe; galaxy collisions and mergers were more common in the young universe as it was much smaller than today. It is believed that giant elliptical galaxies form when spirals and irregular galaxies collide. The wealth of galaxies at different stages of their evolution also allowed astronomers to estimate the variation in the rate of star formation over the lifetime of the Universe. While estimates of the redshifts of HDF galaxies are somewhat crude, astronomers believe that star formation was occurring at its maximum rate 8–10 billion years ago, and has decreased by a factor of about 10 since then. Another important result from the HDF was the very small number of foreground stars present. For years astronomers had been puzzling over the nature of dark matter, mass which seems to be undetectable but which observations implied made up about 85% of all matter in the Universe by mass. One theory was that dark matter might consist of Massive Astrophysical Compact Halo Objects (MACHOs)—faint but massive objects such as red dwarfs and planets in the outer regions of galaxies. The HDF showed, however, that there were not significant numbers of red dwarfs in the outer parts of our galaxy. Multifrequency followup Very-high redshift objects (Lyman-break galaxies) cannot be seen in visible light and generally are detected in infrared or submillimetre wavelength surveys of the HDF instead. Observations with the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) indicated infrared emission from 13 galaxies visible in the optical images, attributed to large quantities of dust associated with intense star formation. Infrared observations have also been made with the Spitzer Space Telescope. Submillimeter observations of the field have been made with SCUBA on the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, initially detecting 5 sources, although with very low resolution. Observations have also been made with the Subaru telescope in Hawaii. X-ray observations by the Chandra X-ray Observatory revealed six sources in the HDF, which were found to correspond to three elliptical galaxies, one spiral galaxy, one active galactic nucleus and one extremely red object, thought to be a distant galaxy containing a large amount of dust absorbing its blue light emissions. Ground-based radio images taken using the VLA revealed seven radio sources in the HDF, all of which correspond to galaxies visible in the optical images. The field has also been surveyed with the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope and the MERLIN array of radio telescopes at 1.4 GHz; the combination of VLA and MERLIN maps made at wavelengths of 3.5 and 20 cm have located 16 radio sources in the HDF-N field, with many more in the flanking fields. Radio images of some individual sources in the field have been made with the European VLBI Network at 1.6 GHz with a higher resolution than the Hubble maps. Subsequent HST observations An HDF counterpart in the southern celestial hemisphere was created in 1998: the HDF-South (HDF-S). Created using a similar observing strategy, the HDF-S was very similar in appearance to the original HDF. This supports the cosmological principle that at its largest scale the Universe is homogeneous. The HDF-S survey used the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) and the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) instruments installed on the HST in 1997; the region of the original Hubble Deep Field (HDF-N) has since been re-observed several times using WFPC2, as well as by the NICMOS and STIS instruments. Several supernova events were detected by comparing the first and second epoch observations of the HDF-N. A wider survey, but less sensitive, was carried out as part of the Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey; a section of this was then observed for longer to create the Hubble Ultra-Deep Field, which was the most sensitive optical deep field image for years until the Hubble eXtreme Deep Field was completed in 2012. Images from the Extreme Deep Field, or XDF, were released on September 26, 2012 to a number of media agencies. Images released in the XDF show galaxies which are now believed to have formed in the first 500 million years following the Big Bang. See also List of deep fields Notes and references Bibliography ; also published in Nature 394: 860 . External links Main Hubble Deep Field website. NASA's original press release. 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216603	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutt%20Valley%20campaign	Hutt Valley campaign	The Hutt Valley campaign is an armed conflict in the lower North Island of New Zealand between indigenous Māori and British settlers and military forces in 1846. The campaign was among the earliest of the 19th century New Zealand Wars that were fought over issues of land and sovereignty. It was preceded by the Wairau affray (June 1843) and followed by the Wanganui campaign (April–July 1847) and was triggered by much the same pressures—the careless land purchasing practices of the New Zealand Company, armed government support for settler land claims, and complex intertribal tensions between local Māori. The three conflicts also shared many of the same combatants. The campaign's most notable clashes were the Māori dawn raid on an imperial stockade at Boulcott's Farm in the Hutt Valley on 16 May 1846 in which eight British soldiers and at least two Māori died, and the Battle of Battle Hill from 6–13 August as British troops, local militia and kūpapa Māori pursued a Ngāti Toa force led by chief Te Rangihaeata through steep and dense bushland. Ngāti Toa chief Te Rauparaha was taken into custody during the campaign; he was detained without charge in Auckland for two years. A 2003 report by the Waitangi Tribunal concluded the New Zealand Company's 1839 land purchases were invalid and that the Crown committed a number of breaches of the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi in subsequent dealings with Māori in the area. Background to war Tensions rose in the mid-1840s as settlers and Māori were left to deal with the consequences of haphazard and often dubious land purchases by the New Zealand Company. The boundaries of purchased land and Māori reserves were often only vaguely indicated, creating confusion and conflict. The company's purchasing agents seldom questioned the right of vendors to sell the land, whose possession even Māori disputed among themselves and Māori who lived in the Hutt Valley under customary rights were forcefully evicted by the government with little or no compensation for their homes and extensive cultivations. New Zealand Company land dealings The Heretaunga (Hutt Valley) area had been lightly and sporadically populated until the 1830s by a number of small tribes (or hapu), which were driven out during successive waves of migration from northern invaders, ultimately leaving the area in the control of Te Rauparaha of Ngati Toa, who in turn had granted rights of occupation to Ngāti Rangatahi. Ngāti Mutunga had established ahi kā, or a long historical association with the area and was therefore in a position to sell land, but had departed by September 1839, when the New Zealand Company vessel Tory arrived at Port Nicholson to purchase land for its settlements. Unaware of these complexities, and disregarding advice that Te Rauparaha had conquered all the land around Cook Strait and was widely accepted by those who lived on the land as the final owner, the New Zealand Company distributed payment to six chiefs for vast, but poorly defined expanses of land in the Port Nicholson (Wellington) area. Among the recipients was Ngāti Tama chief Te Kaeaea (also known as Taringa Kuri, or "Dog's Ear"), then living at Kaiwharawhara in subservience to Te Rauparaha. Ngāti Rangatahi, although it had been in the Heretaunga district seasonally since the early 1830s, was offered nothing, although its territory was included in the purchase. Te Rauparaha, who also saw himself as the owner by right of conquest, objected strongly to the purchases. New Zealand Company settlers began arriving at Port Nicholson from January 1840 in numbers that shocked Māori, who soon found Pakeha trampling over their homes, gardens and cemeteries, and in places sticking survey pegs in the ground. Taringa Kuri and his Ngati Tama people moved to the Hutt Valley because of incursions on their cultivation land at Kaiwharawhara by settlers and their cattle, while in Porirua Te Rauparaha's nephew and fellow Ngāti Toa chief Te Rangihaeata menaced surveyors and settlers who attempted to take possession of land there. Spain commission In January 1841 Secretary of State for War and the Colonies Lord John Russell appointed lawyer William Spain as Land Claims Commissioner to investigate and determine the validity of the New Zealand Company purchases. Spain arrived in Auckland in December and began his hearings into the Port Nicholson dealings in May 1842. The New Zealand Company frustrated Spain's efforts to make a full investigation of its entitlement to land and in June 1843 it pushed ahead with surveying of the disputed Wairau Plains in the South Island, despite requests by Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata to halt pending Spain's decision on the legality of the purchase. An abortive bid by settlers and company representatives to arrest the two chiefs for impeding them resulted in the bloody Wairau Affray. In a preliminary report in 1843 Spain stated that many of the Māori taking part in the original Port Nicholson transaction in 1839 would not have understood that by signing the deed they were selling their land, including pā and cultivations. He noted that "the greater portion of the land claimed by the Company in the Port Nicholson district, and also in the district between Port Nicholson and Wanganui, including the latter place, has not been alienated by the natives to the New Zealand Company; and that the other portions of the same districts have been only partially alienated by the natives to that body". Despite the company's inability to prove it had made a valid purchase of land—and the Treaty of Waitangi's guarantee that Māori would have undisturbed possession of their lands so long as they wished to retain them—Spain in early 1843 ceased public hearings and began serving as an arbitrator or umpire in negotiations between the New Zealand Company and Protector of Aborigines George Clarke Junior on how Māori should be "compensated" for the alienation of their land. Without consulting Māori, the two sides agreed on 29 January 1844 that the New Zealand Company would make a further £1500 payment as compensation "to natives who may be entitled to receive it" for about 67,000 acres, including surveyed sections in the Hutt Valley. Spain convened a special sitting of the Court of Land Claims at Te Aro pā on 23 February where he informed its occupants of the agreement and asked them to sign deeds of release in exchange for payment. The deeds indicated acceptance of "an absolute surrender of all our title to all our claims in all our lands which are written in the Document" except pā, cultivations, sacred places and reserves. Te Aro Māori demanded further payment, but relented four days later when Ngāti Mutunga chief Pōmare—visiting the area from his new home in the Chatham Islands—advised them to accept the offer. Te Aro gave a third of their £300 payment to Pōmare, who then returned to the Chatham Islands. Another £530 was distributed to Māori of Kumutoto, Pipitea and Tiakiwai pā the same day. Spain, who in early February had gained in-principle agreement from Te Rauparaha about compensating Ngāti Toa for land at Port Nicholson, met the chief again on 8 and 9 March 1844 at Porirua, this time also with Te Rangihaeata. When he attempted to secure their signatures to a deed of release for their interest in land at Port Nicholson, Te Rauparaha claimed he had previously been unaware it would include payment for Heretaunga, which he now refused to relinquish. Te Rauparaha said he considered "Port Nicholson" to mean all the land seaward of the Rotokakahi Stream, about 2 km up the Heretaunga (Hutt) River. Spain raised his cash offer, offering Te Rauparaha another £100 to compensate for lost crops if he ensured Taringa Kuri left the valley immediately. Taringa Kuri then began cutting a line through bush at Rotokakahi, warning government officials it was the northern boundary of "Port Nicholson" land for which the New Zealand Company had secured its deeds of settlement. On 12 November, Clarke wrote a document acknowledging the receipt by Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata of the £400 for the "surrender" of Heretaunga. The Waitangi Tribunal noted that the document did not define the boundaries of the land that had been surrendered and gave Ngāti Toa no guarantee of reserves. It said the document was not signed by Te Rangihaeata, who received no share of the money until March 1845. The tribunal said there was no indication Ngāti Tama received any of the £100 compensation for their crops, nor was Ngāti Rangatahi offered or given compensation for being ousted from their land. From November 1844 the government intensified its efforts to oust Ngāti Tama and Ngāti Rangatahi from the Hutt Valley, for the first time gaining support from Te Rauparaha, who agreed they should leave. But the Hutt Valley Māori reacted with a display of defiance to both Te Rauparaha and the government, expanding their bush clearings and cultivations and protesting that they had never been compensated for their loss of land. Government officials now began to suggest that force might be required to remove them to make way for European settlers. Tensions escalate Fearing a new outbreak of violence and conscious of the parallels between Hutt Valley land tensions and those that had resulted in bloodshed at Wairau two years earlier—in both cases Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata were the chief Māori protagonists in a struggle over dubious land sales to settlers—a militia force was formed in Wellington in 1845, with about 220 men mustering daily for military drill series of stockades. A series of redoubts and stockades were built in the Wellington area, including "Fort Richmond" beside the Hutt River, with further small outposts at Boulcott's Farm and Taita. All were manned by militia until the steady arrival of almost 800 British troops from Auckland and the Bay of Islands. Governor George Grey arrived in New Zealand in November 1845 and began to adopt a more aggressive approach than his predecessor, Robert Fitzroy, to resolve the land issues. In mid-February 1846 he visited the Hutt Valley and secured a commitment from Taringa Kuri that Ngāti Tama would quit the area within a week, abandoning the 120 hectares of potatoes they had been growing. Grey refused to compensate them for crops and houses, claiming their occupation had been illegal. When settlers began moving on to the vacated land and met resistance from some remaining Māori, Grey sent a 340-strong military force into the valley on 24 February. He then sent a message to Ngāti Rangatahi chief Kaparatehau, demanding that he abandon the village of Maraenuku, beside the Hutt River, and threatened an immediate attack if they had not left by noon the next day, 25 February. Kaparatehau agreed. Houses in the village were ransacked by Europeans the night they left and on 27 February British troops marched into the village and burned what remained, desecrating the village chapel and burial place in the process. Aggrieved Ngāti Rangatahi retaliated on 1 and 3 March by raiding nearby settlers’ farms, destroying furniture, smashing windows, killing pigs and threatening the settlers with death if they raised an alarm. Ignoring Crown law advice that his expulsion of Ngāti Rangatahi had been illegal because FitzRoy's deeds of settlements had excluded native cultivations and homes—and that Māori had been justified in resorting to arms to resist eviction—Grey declared martial law on 3 March in the Wellington District, south of Paekakariki. The same morning a party of Māori fired several volleys at troops near Boulcott's Farm, 3 km north of Fort Richmond but was repulsed when troops returned fire. Grey ordered HMS Driver to take reinforcements to Petone. In late March two Māori were arrested and put on trial for taking part in the plundering of settlers' homes at the beginning of the month; days later, on 2 April, farmer Andrew Gillespie and his son were fatally attacked by tomahawk on vacated land on which Gillespie's family had newly settled. Te Rauparaha sent word to Grey that the killers were Whanganui Māori unconnected with Ngāti Toa and could be found at Porirua. The suspects fled into bushland when a police party was sent from Wellington to capture them. Troops discovered a newly built stockaded and entrenched stronghold at the head of the Pauatahanui inlet in Porirua Harbour occupied by Te Rangihaeata and Grey responded by dispatching 250 troops to establish a garrison at present-day Plimmerton and starting work on a military road from Wellington to Porirua. Boulcott's Farm Ignoring warnings from Te Rauparaha and Te Āti Awa chief Te Puni that an armed strike was imminent, Port Nicholson police magistrate Major M. Richmond disbanded the militia in Wellington and reduced the strength of his Hutt Valley forces. But at daybreak on 16 May 1846 a force of 200 Ngāti Toa and Ngāti-Hāua-te-Rangi warriors, led by Upper Whanganui chief Topine Te Mamaku, launched an attack on the imperial outpost at Boulcott's Farm. Two volleys were fired at the four-man English picket, or advance position. Te Mamaku's fighters rushed the tents with tomahawks, killing the survivors, then turned their attention on the remaining 45 men in the Boulcott's garrison. Lieutenant Page and two men, armed with sword and pistol, fought their way from the house in which they were besieged to a barn, where half the force were quartered. Page ordered his men to advance in the open with fixed bayonets and were reinforced by a party of seven Hutt Militia, who arrived during the battle and joined against Te Mamaku's forces about 90 minutes after the attack began. Six soldiers were killed in the battle and one soldier and a settler, who were severely wounded, also died some days later. Māori losses were thought to be two dead and 10 or more wounded. The scare prompted military authorities to arm 250 kūpapa, or "friendly", Te Āti Awa Māori who served under chief Te Puni to protect settlers, while Te Aro settlers formed a volunteer force that began nightly patrols of the settlement, guarding against an expected hostile Māori attack. A second settler, Richard Rush, was killed in a tomahawk attack on 15 June and the following day a 74-strong composite force of Regular troops, Hutt Militia and Te Āti Awa Māori marched north from Boulcott's Farm and became involved in a skirmish with hostile Māori near Taita, resulting in several of the imperial forces being wounded. A memorial stone at the corner of High Street and Military Road in Lower Hutt lists the names of eight soldiers from the British 58th and 99th Regiments who were killed in action or died of wounds following the attack at Boulcott's Farm. There is a stone in the cemetery at St James's Church, Lower Hutt. Capture of Te Rauparaha Warned that a large war party of Upper Whanganui Māori led by warrior chiefs Ngapara and Maketu was on the march down the west coast to reinforce Te Rangihaeata and Te Mamaku, Grey on 18 June extended martial law northwards to Whanganui. The reinforcements were reported to have been summoned by Te Rauparaha in a letter that had been sighted by a Whanganui settler. Grey gained the agreement of Te Āti Awa chief Wiremu Kīngi, based near Waikanae, that he would block and attack the Upper Whanganui taua'''s advance if it passed along the coast through his territory. The Governor then launched a dawn raid on Te Rauparaha's village of Taupo, near present-day Plimmerton, on 23 July, arresting the chief on the basis that he had committed treason by supplying arms, ammunition and provisions to Te Rangihaeata, who was in rebellion against the government. Several other chiefs were seized and homes in surrounding villages searched for weapons and ammunition. When news of the arrests reached Te Rangihaeata, a rescue attempt by 50 warriors was mounted but easily driven off. Grey's prisoners were transferred to HMS Calliope, which sailed to Auckland, and they were detained without charge as prisoners of war for ten months. Te Rauparaha remained under detention in Auckland until 1848. Battle Hill On 31 July 1846 a 213-strong combined force of Hutt militia, armed police and 150 Te Āti Awa set off overland to launch a surprise rear attack on Te Rangihaeta's stronghold at Pauatahanui. But the occupants of the pā were alerted as the forces approached early the next day and were able to flee. The Pauatahanui pā was commandeered as an imperial military post to help guard construction work on the main road northwards. Two days later, on 3 August, Major Edward Last began to lead the government force north through the heavily forested Horokiri ranges in pursuit of Te Rangihaeata and Te Mamaku. The force comprised Regulars, seaman from the Calliope, militia, armed police and several hundred Māori allies from Te Āti Awa and Ngāti Toa, supported by a detachment of Pioneers armed with axes and other cutting tools to cut through the bush. Te Rangihaeata's stronghold was discovered on 6 August at the crest of a steep ridge, surrounded by strong fortifications and three of the British force were killed in an exchange of fire that lasted several hours until nightfall. The force withdrew from the hill and a detachment of seamen were sent back to Pauatahanui to bring up two mortars. The weapons were carried in on 7 August and about 80 shells were fired throughout 8 August from a range of about 1200 metres. Some of the force also skirmished with Te Rangihaeata's warriors in the bush near the pā. By 10 August, Last had concluded a decisive victory was unattainable and the majority of the force was withdrawn, leaving a Māori attack force to maintain fire. Three days later they discovered Te Rangihaeata and his entire force had evacuated under cover of darkness and rain. Delayed by storms, the kūpapa Māori, including a Ngãti Toa detachment led by Rawiri Puaha, began a pursuit on 17 August through heavy bush across steep ridges, deep valleys and rocky streams, with both sides suffering casualties in sporadic exchanges of gunfire. Te Rangihaeata finally entrenched himself with about 100 men at a pā named Poroutawhao in swampland between Horowhenua and the Manawatu, while Te Mamaku returned with his force to his Whanganui River base. The site of the 6–10 August battle has been preserved as a recreational area named Battle Hill Farm Forest Park. Waitangi Tribunal The Waitangi Tribunal issued a report in 2003 on 13 claims relating to the area covered by the New Zealand Company's 1839 Port Nicholson deed of purchase, as extended in 1844 to the southwest coast. It identified Māori groups with ahi ka rights in the Port Nicholson block in 1840, which included Ngāti Toa in the Heretaunga and concluded that the Crown had failed to adequately compensate Ngāti Toa, Ngāti Rangatahi and Ngāti Tama for their loss of lands and cultivations. The tribunal found that the 1839 Port Nicholson deed of purchase was invalid and conferred no rights to either the New Zealand Company or those to whom it on-sold its land. It found that the Crown had failed to protect the treaty rights of Māori to sell their land at a fair price and it was critical of the decision to switch from proceeding with Spain's inquiry to implementing a form of arbitration without the informed consent of Māori. Notes References Further reading Barthorp, Michael (1979). To Face the Daring Māori. Hodder and Stoughton. Belich, James (1988). The New Zealand Wars. Penguin. Belich, James (1996) Making Peoples. Penguin Press. Cowan, James (1922). The New Zealand Wars: The Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period. Simpson, Tony (1979). Te Riri Pakeha. Hodder and Stoughton. Sinclair, Keith (ed.) (1996). The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand (2nd ed.) Wellington: Oxford University Press. "The People of Many Peaks: The Māori Biographies". (1990). From The Dictionary of New Zealand Biographies, Vol. 1, 1769-1869''. Bridget Williams Books and Department of Internal Affairs, New Zealand. Moon, Paul (2007) "The Newest Country on Earth". Penguin. External links Te Whanganui a Tara me ona Takiwa: Report on the Wellington District, Waitangi Tribunal, 2003. 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216604	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boffius	Boffius	Boffius is a genus of mammal from the Paleocene of Europe, which was named by Vianey-Liaud M. in 1979. It is a member of the extinct order of Multituberculata. Boffius lies within the suborder Cimolodonta and is the only known member of the family Boffiidae (Hahn & Hahn, 1983). The species Boffius splendidus is known from the Lower Paleocene Hainin Formation found in Hainaut, Belgium. It was a relatively large multituberculate. References Further reading Vianey-Liaud (1979), "Les Mammifères montiens de Hainin (Paléocene moyen de Belgique). Part I, Multituberculés". Palaeovertebrata 9, p. 117-131. Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429. Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; 'basal' Cimolodonta, Cimolomyidae, Boffiidae and Kogaionidae, an Internet directory. E. De Bast, B. Sigé, and T. Smith. 2012. Diversity of the adapisoriculid mammals from the early Palaeocene of Hainin, Belgium. 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216611	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%27s%20Get%20Free	Let's Get Free	Let's Get Free is the debut studio album by hip-hop duo dead prez. It was released February 8, 2000 on Loud Records. Critical reception Although the production was derided by some critics as a "dull musical backdrop", Let's Get Free was called a "return to politically conscious rap". Rolling Stone gave the album four stars and lauded its equation of "classrooms with jail cells, the projects with killing fields and everything from water to television with conduits for brainwashing by the system". Track listing Album singles Personnel stic.man – lead vocals, production, executive producer, art direction M-1 – lead vocals, production, executive producer, art direction Hedrush – production, drum programming Lord Jamar – production Kanye West – production Tahir (of Hedrush) – vocals Maintain (of Illegal Tendencies) – vocals Indo (of People's Army) – additional vocals Abu (of People's Army) – additional vocals Keanna Henson – additional vocals Ness (of A-Alikes) – additional vocals Toya (of People's Army) – additional vocals Divine (of People's Army) – additional vocals Umi – additional vocals Becca's Smoke and Candy Store – additional vocals, keyboards Abiodun Oyewole (of The Last Poets) – additional vocals Prodigy (of Mobb Deep) – additional vocals Dedan (of Illegal Tendencies) – additional vocals Nimrod (of Illegal Tendencies) – additional vocals True Image – additional vocals Mark Batson – keyboards Christos Tsantilios – recording, mixing Blair Wells – recording Nastee – recording Doug Wilson – mixing Bernard Grubman – guitar Pressure of Fambase – keyboards Melvin Gibbs – bass Laura J. Seaton-Finn – strings Joshua – horns Mista Sinista (of The X-Ecutioners) – scratching Sean Cane – drums, executive producer Matt Life – executive producer Schott Free – executive producer Stuart "Kamau" Lyle – cover concept Kerry DeBruce – art direction, design Lorraine West – illustration Anthony Cutajar – album photography Saba – road photography Corbis – archival images Charts Album Singles References Dead Prez albums Loud Records albums 2000 debut albums Albums produced by Kanye West Political music albums by American artists	[ 1.2572559118270874, -0.2685585916042328, 0.18751971423625946, 0.5598068833351135, -0.3134656846523285, -0.5692451000213623, 1.025229573249817, 0.10226275771856308, -0.15211094915866852, 0.042282216250896454, 0.10335230827331543, 0.4012323319911957, -0.6193850636482239, 0.20655563473701477, 0.12502267956733704, -0.28218600153923035, -0.26608139276504517, -0.26475176215171814, 0.2391650676727295, -0.5952122211456299, 0.0013617465738207102, 0.06593523919582367, 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216612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Wilhelm%20Ludwig%20Gleim	Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim	Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim (2 April 1719 – 18 February 1803) was a German poet, commonly associated with the Enlightenment movement. Life Gleim was born at the small town of Ermsleben in the Principality of Halberstadt, then part of Prussia. His father, a tax collector, and his mother died early. He attended school in Wernigerode and from 1738 onwards studied law at the University of Halle, where he established a circle of young poets together with his friends Johann Uz and Johann Nikolaus Götz. Having obtained his final degree, he worked as a tutor in Berlin, where in 1743–44 he became secretary to the Hohenzollern prince Frederick William of Brandenburg-Schwedt. Gleim accompanied his employer in the Second Silesian War and made the acquaintance of Ewald Christian von Kleist, whose devoted friend he became. When the prince was killed during the Prussian siege of Prague, Gleim became secretary to Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau; but he soon gave up his position, not being able to bear the roughness of the "Old Dessauer". In 1747, after again living in Berlin for a few years, he was appointed secretary of the Halberstadt Cathedral chapter. From 1756 he also served as a canon at the nearby Walbeck monastery. He became known as "Father Gleim" throughout all literary Germany on account of his kind-hearted though inconsiderate and undiscriminating patronage alike of the poets and poetasters of the period. He died at the age of 83 in Halberstadt, then completely blind, but a wealthy and respected citizen. He was buried in his garden on the Holtemme river. Work Gleim's Collected Works appeared in 7 volumes in the 1811–13; a reprint of the Lieder eines Grenadiers was published by A. Sauer in 1882. A good selection of Gleim's poetry will be found in Franz Muncker's Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker (1894) and Friedrich Wilhelm Körte's Gleims Leben aus seinen Briefen und Schriften (1811). His correspondence with Johann Jakob Wilhelm Heinse was published in 2 volumes (1894/1896), with Johann Uz (1889), in both cases edited by C. Schüddekopf. Influenced by the aesthetic writings of Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten and Georg Friedrich Meier, both lecturers at the Halle university, Gleim attempted to cultivate the Anacreontic tradition of short lyrical pieces of an easy kind. He wrote a large number of imitations of Anacreon, Horace and the minnesingers, a didactic poem inspired from his reading in the Quran entitled Halladat oder das rote Buch (1774), and collections of fables and romances. Many of his poems were set to music: C.P.E. Bach, Beethoven, Joseph Haydn, Reichardt, Schubart, and Spohr all set some of his Anacreontic poems. Of higher merit are his Preussische Kriegslieder von einem Grenadier (1758). Inspired by the Prussian campaigns of King Frederick the Great in the Seven Years' War, they are often distinguished by genuine feeling and vigorous force of expression. They are also noteworthy as being the first of that long series of noble political songs in which later German literature is so rich. Written in a Chevy Chase tune and first set to music by Christian Gottfried Krause, the Kriegslieder attracted wide attention in a poetry collection edited by Lessing in 1758, and later were also set by Telemann and Schubart. Compared to this collection, Gleim's other writings, though also very popular in his day, were for the most part considered commonplace in thought and expression by later generations. Only recently, a revaluation of his work in the context of 18th century literary history has taken place. Significant contributions of Gleim include the establishment of German as literary language and his promotion of young talents such as Heinse, Johann Heinrich Voss, Seume, or Jean Paul. Gleimhaus After Gleim's death in Halberstadt, his personal effects were carefully looked after by his great-nephew, Friedrich Wilhelm Körte (1776–1846). In 1862, Gleim's library of 12,000 books (including 50 incunabula) and the huge collection of letters, manuscripts and documents in his estate were used as the kernel of a museums of 18th century literary life in Halberstadt and beyond. Augmented by the collection of the local poet Christian Friedrich Bernhard Augustin (1771–1856) and still in operation, the Gleimhaus is one of the oldest literary museums in Germany. Temple of Friendship At his house near Halberstadt Cathedral, Gleim created a "Temple of Friendship" (Freundschaftstempel), regular meetings of poets and intellectuals including Johann Georg Jacobi, Heinse, Christoph August Tiedge, Leopold Friedrich Günther von Goeckingk and many others. Two rooms he devoted to a collection of portraits of friends, which numbered more than 120 by the time of his death. Artists commissioned by Gleim included Anton Graff, various members of the Tischbein family, Bernhard Rode and Benjamin Calau. Gleim Prize The Gleim Prize for Literature (Gleim-Literaturpreis), awarded for outstanding non-fiction on the subject of 18th century literature, was established in 1995. 1995 Heinz Dieter Kittsteiner 1997 Gudrun Gersmann 1999 Jürgen Osterhammel 2001 Martin Geck 2003 Christoph Schulte 2005 Angela Steidele 2007 Günter de Bruyn 2009 Mark-Georg Dehrmann Notes References External links Website of the Gleimhaus Gleim Prize for Literature 1719 births 1803 deaths German poets People from Halberstadt People from the Principality of Halberstadt University of Halle alumni German male poets German-language poets	[ -0.43599361181259155, 0.5793701410293579, -0.31898248195648193, 0.2375946044921875, 0.08363713324069977, 0.6609505414962769, 1.2593564987182617, 0.161966010928154, -0.2242688536643982, -0.8476986289024353, -0.4673145115375519, 0.10608208924531937, -0.15064510703086853, 0.19743914902210236, -0.09638413786888123, 0.13057777285575867, 0.1353863775730133, -0.530366837978363, 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216613	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible%20Pink%20Unicorn	Invisible Pink Unicorn	The Invisible Pink Unicorn (IPU) is the goddess of a parody religion used to satirize theistic beliefs, taking the form of a unicorn that is paradoxically both invisible and pink. She is a rhetorical illustration used by atheists and other religious skeptics as a contemporary version of Russell's teapot, sometimes mentioned in conjunction with the Flying Spaghetti Monster. The IPU is used to argue that supernatural beliefs are arbitrary by, for example, replacing the word God in any theistic statement with Invisible Pink Unicorn. The mutually exclusive attributes of pinkness and invisibility, coupled with the inability to disprove the IPU's existence, satirize properties that some theists attribute to a theistic deity. History Russell's teapot is an analogy first coined by the philosopher Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) to illustrate that the philosophic burden of proof lies upon a person making scientifically unfalsifiable claims rather than shifting the burden of proof to others, specifically in the case of religion. Russell wrote that, if he claims that a teapot orbits the Sun somewhere in space between the Earth and Mars, it is nonsensical for him to expect others to believe him on the ground that they cannot prove him wrong. Russell's teapot is still referred to in discussions concerning the existence of God. The IPU seems to have become notable primarily through online culture: in addition to alt.atheism, where IPU frequently came up in discussions, there are now a number of web sites dedicated to her. An early documented reference to the IPU was on July 7, 1990, on the Usenet discussion group alt.atheism. Other sources concerning IPU state that she was "revealed to us" on alt.atheism. The concept was further developed by a group of college students from 1994 to 1995 on the ISCA Telnet-based BBS. The students created a manifesto that detailed a nonsensical (yet internally consistent) religion based on a multitude of invisible pink unicorns. It is from this document that the most famous quotation concerning IPUs originated: Concepts It is common when discussing the Invisible Pink Unicorn to point out that because she is invisible, no one can prove that she does not exist (or indeed that she is not pink). This is a parody of similar theistic claims about God: that God, as creator of the universe, is not subject to its laws and thus not physically detecting him tells us nothing about his existence or lack thereof. The Invisible Pink Unicorn is an illustration which attempts to demonstrate the absurdity of citing attributes and a lack of evidence as proof of a deity's existence. Her two defining attributes, invisibility and color (pink), are inconsistent and contradictory; this is part of the satire. The paradox of something being invisible yet having visible characteristics (color) is reflected in some East Asian cultures, wherein an invisible red string is said to connect people who have a shared or linked destiny. There are humorous mock debates amongst her "followers" concerning her other attributes, such as whether she is completely invisible or invisible to most, but visible only to those who have faith in her (bearing similarities to "The Emperor's New Clothes"). Some arguments are quite elaborate and tortuous, satirizing the disputatiousness and intricacy of the theological debates that occur in many religions. The Invisible Pink Unicorn is also used to de-deify religious texts. The goal is to have the reader experience the text without heavily loaded concepts that many readers will associate with omnipotence, or will read with an unquestioned faith. It is argued that when someone re-reads the same text with all direct references to God replaced with the Invisible Pink Unicorn, the reader may see the text in a new and more critical way: Similar concepts In 1996, a unicorn that no one can see was adapted as a teaching device at Camp Quest, the first free-thought summer camp for children established in the United States, by Dr. L. Wilson. As reported years later in the July 21, 2006 Cincinnati Enquirer, "Campers must try to prove that imaginary unicorns—as a metaphor for God—don't exist." Richard Dawkins alluded to unicorns in this connection in his 2006 book The God Delusion, writing that "Russell's teapot, of course, stands for an infinite number of things whose existence is conceivable and cannot be disproved. [...] A philosophical favorite is the invisible, intangible, inaudible unicorn." In the essay The Dragon in my Garage from the book The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle In the Dark, Carl Sagan uses the example of an invisible dragon breathing heatless fire that someone claims lives in his garage. The supposed dragon cannot be seen, heard, or sensed in any way, nor does it leave footprints; thus, there is no reason to believe this purported dragon exists. In the South Park episode "The Poor Kid", a strict agnostic couple tell their foster children that God might exist, but then again, it's equally possible that there might be a "giant reptilian bird in charge of everything". At the end of the episode, the bird actually does appear and eats Kenny. Religious commentary The Church of the Invisible Pink Unicorn often faces criticism from monotheistic religions for comparing their sacred beings with a fantastic invented character as well as trying to masquerade it as a religion while lacking the scripture, principles, ideologies, and broader social community necessary to be considered a legitimate religion. Many followers have responded to these critiques by improvising new literature, rituals, and customs, frequently written as farcical narrative that parodies not only scripture and rites itself but also the perceived importance or relevance of such scripture and customs. Invisible Pink Unicorn scripture and customs seek to evoke the mysticism of the unicorn and to simultaneously lampoon similar literature in other faiths per the IPU's main tenet. See also Church of the SubGenius Discordianism Dudeism Evolution as fact and theory Existence of God Fideism Flying Spaghetti Monster Intelligent falling Out Campaign Parody religion Reductio ad absurdum Religious satire Theological noncognitivism References External links Agnosticism Atheism Works about unicorns Freethought Humour Religious parodies and satires Criticism of religion Nontheism Internet memes introduced in the 1990s Pink symbols Parody religion deities	[ 0.11858635395765305, 0.1588454395532608, -0.7834078073501587, 0.1899353712797165, -0.954905092716217, 0.5422139167785645, 0.5178540945053101, 0.7498464584350586, -0.5586963891983032, 0.32028928399086, -0.4498240351676941, -0.04204711690545082, -0.3026440739631653, 0.38555002212524414, -0.4578196108341217, -0.040217138826847076, 0.19424112141132355, 1.064582347869873, -0.30810150504112244, 0.10570228099822998, -0.15441428124904633, -0.051781632006168365, -0.28976938128471375, -0.6180024743080139, -0.1679248809814453, 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216615	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Hoffmann	Friedrich Hoffmann	Friedrich Hoffmann (19 February 1660 – 12 November 1742) was a German physician and chemist. Life and career His family had been connected with medicine for 200 years before him. Born in Halle, he attended the local gymnasium where he acquired that taste for and skill in mathematics to which he attributed much of his later success. Beginning at age 18, he studied medicine at the University of Jena. From there, in 1680, he went to Erfurt, to attend Kasper Cramer's lectures on chemistry. Next year, returning to Jena, he received his doctor's diploma, and, after publishing a thesis, was permitted to teach. Constant study then began to tell on his health, and in 1682, leaving his already numerous pupils, he opened a practice in Minden at the request of a relative who held a high position in that town. After practising at Minden for two years, Hoffmann made a journey to Holland and England, where he formed the acquaintance of many illustrious chemists and physicians. Towards the end of 1684, he returned to Minden, and during the next three years he received many flattering appointments. In 1688 he moved to the more promising sphere of Halberstadt, with the title of physician to the principality of Halberstadt. In 1693, shortly after the establishment of the University of Halle, he was appointed primary professor of medicine and natural philosophy. During his career there, he held the position of rector three times. With the exception of four years (1708–1712), which he passed at Berlin in the capacity of royal physician, Hoffmann spent the rest of his life at Halle in instruction, practice and study, interrupted now and again by visits to different courts of Germany, where his services procured him honours and rewards. His fame became European. He was enrolled a member of many learned societies in different foreign countries (including being elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1720), while in his own he became privy councillor. Hoffmann died on 12 November 1742 in Halle. Work Of his numerous writings a catalogue is to be found in Haller's Bibliotheca medicinae practicae. The chief is Medicina rationalis systematica, undertaken at the age of sixty, and published in 1730. It was translated into French in 1739, under the title of Médecine raisonnée d'Hoffmann. A complete edition of Hoffmann's works, with a life of the author, was published at Geneva in 1740, to which supplements were added in 1753 and 1760. Editions appeared also at Venice in 1745 and at Naples in 1753 and 1793. At the instigation of Robert Boyle, he turned to the analysis and uses of mineral waters and became a pioneer and chief promoter of their study, gave prescriptions for their use, taught how they could be imitated artificially, and analyzed many German springs. He concluded that solid constituents, such as lime, magnesia, etc., in the form of an alkali and carbonic acid, existed in almost all mineral springs. He wrote on healing springs as early as 1684. Georg Ernst Stahl opposed the general employment of mineral waters recommended by Hoffmann, though he did not question their utility in certain cases. Hoffman is credited with conducting the first scientific investigation into carbon monoxide poisoning caused by burning charcoal. He rejected superstition that had attributed the death of several treasure seekers to paranormal activity and published "Considerations on the Fatal Effects of the Vapor from Burning Charcoal" in 1716 which characterized inhalation of polluted air from charcoal vapor causing suffocation similar to strangulation or drowning. Publications Friderici Hoffmanni Clavis pharmaceutica Schröderiana, seu Animadversiones cum Annotationibus in Pharmacopoeiam Schröderianam : Baconianis, Cartesianis, & Helmontianis Principiis illustratae & Johannis Michaelis p.m. & aliorum celeberrimorum Medicorum Arcanis concinnatae . Mylius, Halae Saxonum 1675 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf Friderici Hoffmanni Thesaurus pharmaceuticus Medicorum nostri Seculi principum . Mylius, Halae Saxonum 1675 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf D. Johann Schröders vollständige und nutz-reiche Apotheke/ Oder: Trefflich versehener Medicin-Chymischer höchstkostbarer Artzney-Schatz : Nebst D. Friedrich Hoffmanns darüber verfasseten herrlichen Anmerckungen ; in fünff Bücher eingetheilt ... . Hoffmann & Streck, Franckfurt [u.a.] Nun aber bey dieser Zweyten Edition Um ein merckliches vermehret und verbessert 1709 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf Johann Schröders vollständige und nutzreiche Apotheke oder trefflich versehener medicin-chymischer höchst-kostbarer Artzney-Schatz : nebst Friedrich Hoffmanns darüber verfasseten herrlichen Anmerckungen ; in fünff Bücher eingetheilt . Hoffmann, Franckfurt Nun aber bey dieser dritten Edition um ein merckliches vermehret, verbessert 1718 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf Friderici Hoffmanni Observationum physico-chemicarum selectiorum libri III . Renger, Halae 1722 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf De Potentia Diaboli in Corpore, a witchcraft book for his student Gottfried Büching. Notes References External links http://www.manchester.edu/kant/Bio/FullBio/HoffmannF.html 1660 births 1742 deaths People from Halle (Saale) 17th-century German physicians 18th-century German physicians Occult writers Witchcraft in Germany University of Jena alumni University of Halle faculty Fellows of the Royal Society 17th-century German writers 17th-century German male writers 18th-century German writers 18th-century German male writers	[ 0.07887258380651474, 0.8013336062431335, -0.45464688539505005, 0.20328491926193237, -0.26931703090667725, 0.8081499934196472, 1.4482295513153076, -0.6595215797424316, -0.006624905858188868, -0.48575201630592346, 0.24757295846939087, 0.07220108062028885, 0.03374822065234184, 0.5827750563621521, -0.25954940915107727, 0.3226624131202698, 0.2267303764820099, -0.39800727367401123, -0.312560498714447, -0.3934709131717682, 0.14344990253448486, -0.4614827036857605, 0.4027542471885681, 0.3053475618362427, -0.3522299528121948, 0.05167040973901749, 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216616	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie%20Wood	Ronnie Wood	Ronald David Wood (born 1 June 1947) is an English rock musician, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, artist, author, and radio personality best known as a member of the Rolling Stones since 1975, as well as a member of Faces and the Jeff Beck Group. Wood began his career in 1964, when he joined the Birds on guitar. He then joined the mod group the Creation, but remained with the group only for a short time and appeared on only a few of their singles. He joined the Jeff Beck Group in 1967 as a bass player. Their two albums, Truth and Beck-Ola, are both highly praised. The group split in 1969 and Wood departed along with lead vocalist Rod Stewart to join former Small Faces members Ronnie Lane, Ian McLagan, and Kenney Jones in a new group named Faces. The group found great success in the UK and mainland Europe, though achieved only cult status in the US. Wood sang and co-wrote the popular title track from their final LP, Ooh La La, released in 1973. As the group began to split he began several solo projects, eventually recording his first solo LP, I've Got My Own Album to Do, in 1974. The album featured bandmate McLagan as well as former Beatle George Harrison and Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones, a longtime friend of Wood. After the departure of Mick Taylor from the Stones, Richards soon invited Wood to join them; he did so in 1975, initially on a temporary basis, but became an official member in 1976; however, he was not officially inducted as a financial partner until bassist Bill Wyman's departure in 1993. Besides I've Got My Own Album to Do, Wood has recorded several other solo efforts. Now Look was released in 1975, and peaked at No. 118 on Billboard; he also collaborated with Ronnie Lane for the soundtrack album Mahoney's Last Stand. Wood also released Gimme Some Neck in 1979, which hit No. 45 in the US; 1234 was released in 1981, peaking at No. 164. He released Slide on This in 1992, Not for Beginners came out in 2002. and I Feel Like Playing in 2010. As a member of the Rolling Stones, Wood was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989, and was inducted a second time, as a member of Faces, in April 2012. Music career 1960s Wood began his career as a professional musician in 1964 as a guitarist with the Birds, a R&B band based in Yiewsley, Middlesex. A popular live act with a considerable fan base, the Birds released several singles in the mid-1960s; Wood wrote or co-wrote nearly half the songs the group recorded. By 1967 the Birds had disbanded, and Wood briefly took part in a project called Santa Barbara Machine Head which included later Deep Purple co-founder Jon Lord, before joining the Jeff Beck Group as a bassist. Along with vocalist Rod Stewart, Wood did several tours with Beck and recorded two albums: Truth in 1968 and Beck-Ola in 1969. In between Jeff Beck Group projects, Wood also worked with the Creation. In Wood's radioshow of 14 November 2011, both Wood and Alice Cooper claimed that Wood performed the bass on The Crazy World Of Arthur Brown's number one hit "Fire"; however, Polly Marshall's biography of Arthur Brown states that "According to the-faces.com, Ronnie claims he played on the Track Records studio sessions recording Fire, but he must have confused it with the BBC session [of 8 April 1968]." There is no bass guitar on the recording, only bass pedals. In 1969, after Steve Marriott left the Small Faces, Wood began working with the remaining members of that group, returning to his instrument of choice, the guitar. This line-up, plus Rod Stewart and former Bird Kim Gardner, teamed up with Wood's brother Art Wood in a formation called Quiet Melon, making a handful of recordings in May 1969. After the Jeff Beck Group's fifth US tour in July, Wood and Stewart joined the former Small Faces full-time, and the band's name was changed to Faces. During the summer of 1969, Stewart and Wood also set the template for what would become Faces on An Old Raincoat Won't Ever Let You Down, Stewart's first solo album (known as The Rod Stewart Album in the US). The backing band on the album also included Ian McLagan, Keith Emerson, Micky Waller and guitarists Martin Pugh (of Steamhammer and later Armageddon and 7th Order), and Martin Quittenton (also from Steamhammer). 1970s In the first half of the 1970s, Faces released four studio albums and were among the top-grossing live acts of the period. Besides his distinctive guitar work, Wood contributed harmonica, vocals and bass to the band's recordings, and co-wrote many of their songs, including "Stay With Me" and "Ooh La La". He also played on bandmate Stewart's first few solo albums, and is co-writer of the Rod Stewart songs "Gasoline Alley" and "Every Picture Tells a Story", as well as several songs on Never a Dull Moment. In 1972, Wood and Faces bassist Ronnie Lane composed the soundtrack to the film Mahoney's Last Stand; the soundtrack, which was released as an LP in 1976, also features Faces bandmates Ian McLagan and Kenney Jones, along with contributions from Pete Townshend and Ric Grech. Wood also performed with Townshend, Grech, Steve Winwood, Jim Capaldi and Eric Clapton at Clapton's Rainbow Concert in 1973. In 1973 Wood asked his old friend Mick Taylor, whom he had known since the early 1960s, to help out with his first solo album. In December 1973, Wood collaborated with Mick Jagger on the song "It's Only Rock'n Roll (But I Like It)". Eventually, Jagger and Keith Richards also contributed to Wood's solo LP. I've Got My Own Album to Do was released in 1974, having been recorded at Wood's private studio in the basement of the Wick, his home near London. Following Taylor's departure from the Rolling Stones in December 1974, Wood participated in the band's March 1975 recording sessions for their forthcoming album Black and Blue. Although still a member of Faces, he toured North America with the Rolling Stones in 1975; Faces announced their break-up in December of that year, and Wood was officially declared a member of the Rolling Stones on 23 April 1976. In the Rolling Stones, Wood plays the slide guitar as Taylor and Brian Jones had done before him, adding both lap steel and pedal steel guitar. In addition, Wood, as did his predecessors, exchanges roles on the guitar with Richards, often blurring the boundaries between rhythm and lead, even within a particular song. He also occasionally plays bass guitar, as seen during 1975 concert performances of "Fingerprint File", when Mick Jagger played rhythm guitar and bassist Bill Wyman moved to synthesizer. The Rolling Stones single "Emotional Rescue" also features Wood on bass. He has been given credit as a co-writer for a dozen songs, including "Dance", "Black Limousine", "One Hit (to the Body)" and "Had It With You". In 1975, Wood released his second solo album, Now Look; his third, Gimme Some Neck, came out in 1979. To promote it, Wood formed and toured with the New Barbarians, playing 20 concerts in Canada and the US in April/May and the Knebworth Festival in the UK in August. 1980s Throughout the 1980s, Wood played as an official member of the Rolling Stones; continued his solo career, releasing the album 1234 in 1981; painted; and collaborated with a number of other artists, including Prince, Bob Dylan, David Bowie, Eric Clapton, Bo Diddley, Ringo Starr and Aretha Franklin. At the 1985 Live Aid Concert in Philadelphia, Wood along with Keith Richards performed in the penultimate set with Bob Dylan. During the performance of "Blowin' in the Wind", one of Dylan's guitar strings broke. Wood gave Dylan his guitar to keep the performance seamless and played air guitar until a stagehand brought him a replacement. 1990s–2010s Wood was made a fully fledged partner in the Rolling Stones' financial organisation in 1990. During the 1990s the Rolling Stones released two studio albums and three concert albums, as well as touring in 1990, 1994–95 and 1997–99. In addition, Wood released his seventh solo album, Slide on This, in 1992; he toured to promote this album in North America and Japan. His appearance in 1993 with former bandmate Rod Stewart on MTV Unplugged resulted in a hit album titled Unplugged...and Seated; the concert album that Wood released in 1993 from his own tour was called Slide on Live: Plugged in and Standing. Wood also contributed to Bo Diddley's 1996 album A Man Amongst Men, playing slide guitar on the tracks "Hey Baby", "A Man Amongst Men" and "Oops! Bo Diddley", and guitar on "I Can't Stand It". Since 2000, Wood has continued to combine solo work with his Rolling Stones schedule. After the 2001 release of his album Not For Beginners, Wood toured England and Ireland in 2001 and 2002 with his own group, the Ronnie Wood Band. The band included members of his family, Slash and Andrea Corr. After the tour, a DVD called Far East Man was released. Wood toured with the Rolling Stones in 2002 and 2003; in 2004 he performed several one-off concerts and guest appearances, including a number of appearances with Rod Stewart. Later in the year the two expressed intentions to finish the studio work on a collaborative album, to be titled You Strum and I'll Sing. In 2005, however, Wood was again busy with the Rolling Stones as the band recorded their A Bigger Bang album—although he played on only 10 of the album's 16 tracks. He took part in the accompanying tour, which lasted until August 2007. In 2005 Wood launched his own record company, Wooden Records, which has released recordings by his daughter Leah, the New Barbarians and others. In November 2006, during a break in the Rolling Stones' A Bigger Bang Tour, Wood played guitar on three tracks for British soul artist Beverley Knight's album Music City Soul, released in 2007. On 9 May 2009, Wood along with Red Hot Chili Peppers members Anthony Kiedis, Michael "Flea" Balzary, Chad Smith and musician Ivan Neville performed under the name "the Insects" at the fifth annual MusiCares event honouring Kiedis. On 11 August 2009, Wood joined Pearl Jam on the stage of Shepherd's Bush Empire in London for a performance of "All Along the Watchtower". On 25 October 2009, Wood, Ian McLagan and Kenney Jones joined forces for a Faces performance at London's Royal Albert Hall on behalf of the Performing Rights Society's Music Members' Benevolent Fund. Bill Wyman played bass and lead vocals were shared by several performers, notably Mick Hucknall. Rod Stewart, who had earlier denied rumours of plans for a Faces reunion in 2009, was not present. On 2 November 2009, Wood was given an "Outstanding Contribution" award at the Classic Rock Roll of Honour ceremony in London. Pete Townshend presented the award. Since 9 April 2010, Wood has presented his own radio show on Absolute Radio. Airing on Saturday night at 10 pm, the one-hour show consists of Wood playing tracks by artists he has worked with and other personal favourites. In May 2011 Wood won the Sony Radio Personality of the Year award for The Ronnie Wood Show. Personal life Wood was born in Hillingdon, west London, into a family of English "bargees" (river or canal barge operators, sometimes called "water gypsies"). He has said that his generation was the first in the family to be born on dry land. He grew up in Yiewsley and attended St Stephen's Infant School, St Matthew's Church of England Primary School and St Martin's C of E Secondary Modern School West Drayton. His elder brothers, Art and Ted, were graphic artists as well as musicians; Ted Wood died in 2004 and Art Wood in 2006. Wood has six children. Jesse is his son with his first wife, Krissy (née Findlay), a former model to whom he was married from 1971 to 1978. During this time he had an affair with George Harrison's former wife, Pattie Boyd. Findlay died in 2005. In 1985 Wood married his second wife, Jo Wood (née Karslake), mother of his daughter Leah and son Tyrone. He also adopted Jamie, Jo Wood's son from a previous relationship. In addition to his six children, Wood has six grandchildren. Wood has been frank about his struggle with alcoholism; although reports between 2003 and 2006 had indicated that he had been sober since the Rolling Stones' 2002–03 tour, in June 2006 it was reported that he was entering rehab following a spell of increased alcohol abuse. By July 2008, ITN reported that Wood had checked himself into rehab a total of six times, the last time being before the wedding of his daughter, Leah. He had plans once again for a seventh admission. Wood also took up stamp collecting as part of his alcoholism rehab. In July 2008 he left his wife for Katia Ivanova, whom he had met in a London club. Wood checked into rehab again on 16 July 2008. Jo Wood filed for divorce, which was granted in 2009. On 3 December 2009, Wood was arrested over assault "in connection with a domestic incident". He was cautioned for this offence on 22 December 2009. On 21 December 2012, Wood married Sally Humphreys, the owner of a theatre production company, 31 years his junior. Their twin girls, named Gracie Jane and Alice Rose, were born on Monday 30 May 2016, just before Ronnie Wood's 69th birthday on 1 June 2016. Wood was diagnosed with lung cancer in 2017, necessitating the partial removal of his lung. He said he refused chemotherapy because he did not want to lose his hair. In April 2021, Wood announced that he had been diagnosed with a small-cell cancer but that he had been deemed "all-clear" by his doctors following treatment. In 2021, Wood stated that he had been sober for 10 years. He is a fan of English EFL Championship football club West Bromwich Albion. Thoroughbred racing Wood has a long-standing interest in thoroughbred breeding and racing. One of his best-known horses, of which he is the breeder, is Sandymount Duke, who has competed in both flat and jump racing under trainer Jessica Harrington. In January 2019, it was announced that Sandymount Duke was being aimed at the Grand National at Aintree racecourse. However, a setback in training prevented the horse from taking its place in the field. Artwork Wood is a well-known visual artist. When he was a child his drawings were featured on the BBC television programme Sketch Club; he won one of that programme's competitions, an achievement he refers to as his "awakening to art". He went on to train at the Ealing Art College, as had both his brothers. Other notable musicians, Freddie Mercury of Queen and Pete Townshend of the Who, also attended that college in the 1960s. Wood's paintings, drawings and prints frequently feature icons of popular culture and have been exhibited all over the world. He did the cover artwork to Eric Clapton's 1988 box set Crossroads. Several of his paintings, including a work commissioned by Andrew Lloyd Webber, are displayed at London's Drury Lane Theatre. Art critic Brian Sewell has called Wood "an accomplished and respectable artist"; and the South Bank Show has devoted an entire program to his artwork. Wood has maintained a long-standing relationship with the San Francisco Art Exchange, which first exhibited his work in 1987. Wood is also co-owner (along with sons Jamie and Tyrone) of a London art gallery called Scream. Books, films, and television appearances To date, Wood has three books to his credit: a short collection of autobiographical anecdotes titled The Works, illustrated with Wood's artwork, co-authored by Bill German and published in 1988; a limited-edition art book titled Wood on Canvas: Every Picture Tells a Story, published in 1998 by Genesis Publications; and his 2007 autobiography Ronnie, written in collaboration with his son-in-law Jack MacDonald and Jeffrey Robinson. In addition to numerous Faces and Rolling Stones concert films, broadcasts and documentaries, Wood performed alongside the Band, Bob Dylan, and many others in the finale of the documentary The Last Waltz, filmed in 1976. He has made cameo appearances in feature films, including The Deadly Bees (1967), The Wild Life (1984) and 9½ Weeks (1986), as well as on television programs including The Rutles: All You Need Is Cash (1978). In October 2007, Wood appeared on the television motor show Top Gear, achieving a celebrity lap time of 1:49.4. On 17 October 2017, his autobiography Ronnie Wood: Artist was published. Discography Studio albums I've Got My Own Album to Do (1974/Warner Bros.) Now Look (1975/Warner Bros.) US No. 118 Gimme Some Neck (1979/Columbia) US No. 45 1234 (1981/Columbia) US No. 164 Slide on This (1992/Continuum) Not for Beginners (2001/SPV) I Feel Like Playing (2010/Eagle) UK No. 164 Original soundtrack album Mahoney's Last Stand (1976/Warner Bros.) with Ronnie Lane Live albums Live at the Ritz (1988/Victor) with Bo Diddley Slide on Live: Plugged in and Standing (1993/Continuum) Live and Eclectic (2000/SPV) (reissued in 2002 as Live at Electric Ladyland) Buried Alive: Live in Maryland (2006/Wooden) with the New Barbarians The First Barbarians: Live from Kilburn (2007/Wooden) Live in London: Ambassadors Theatre (2010/SHProds) Mad Lad: A Live Tribute to Chuck Berry (2019/BMG) Mr. Luck – A Tribute to Jimmy Reed: Live at the Royal Albert Hall (2021/BMG) Compilation Always Wanted More (2001/SPV) Ronnie Wood Anthology: The Essential Crossexion (2006/Virgin) With the Jeff Beck Group Truth (1968) Beck-Ola (1969) With the Faces Studio albums First Step (1970) Long Player (1971) A Nod Is As Good As a Wink... to a Blind Horse (1971) Ooh La La (1973) Live albums Coast To Coast: Overture And Beginners (1974) With the Rolling Stones Studio albums Black and Blue (1976/Atlantic) Some Girls (1978/Atlantic) Emotional Rescue (1980/Atlantic) Tattoo You (1981/Atlantic) Undercover (1983/Atlantic) Dirty Work (1986/Columbia) Steel Wheels (1989/Columbia) Voodoo Lounge (1994/Virgin) Bridges to Babylon (1997/Virgin) A Bigger Bang (2005/Virgin) Blue & Lonesome (2016/Polydor) Live albums Love You Live (1977/Atlantic) Still Life (1982/Atlantic) Flashpoint (1991/Virgin) Stripped (1995/Virgin) No Security (1998/Virgin) Live Licks (2004/Virgin) Shine a Light (2008/Polydor) As session musician An Old Raincoat Won't Ever Let You Down - Rod Stewart (1969) Barabajagal - Donovan (1969) Gasoline Alley - Rod Stewart (1970) Every Picture Tells a Story - Rod Stewart (1971) Never a Dull Moment - Rod Stewart (1972) Dark Horse - George Harrison (1974) Smiler - Rod Stewart (1974) It's Only Rock 'n Roll - The Rolling Stones (1974) Shot of Love - Bob Dylan (1981) Stop and Smell the Roses - Ringo Starr (1981) Aretha - Aretha Franklin (1986) Knocked Out Loaded - Bob Dylan (1986) Desire - Toyah (1987) Down in the Groove - Bob Dylan (1988) Thanks - Ivan Neville (1995) Deuces Wild - B.B. King (1997) Music City Soul - Beverley Knight (2007) 11 Past the Hour - Imelda May (2021) References External links Ronnie Wood.co.uk Ronnie Wood's Twitter Ronnie Wood YouTube – Wood's official YouTube channel, where he interviews Rock'N'Roll personalities and occasionally presents video clips of his on-stage performances. 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216619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekbaatar	Uzbekbaatar	Uzbekbaatar is a genus of extinct mammal from the Upper Cretaceous of Uzbekistan. It was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata within the suborder Cimolodonta, though its further affinities are unclear. The genus was named by Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Nesov L.A. in 1992 and means "Uzbek hero". The one species named by Kielan-Jaworowska and Nesov is Uzbekbaatar kizylkumensis, found in the Upper Cretaceous strata of Uzbekistan. A second species was also apparently described by Averianov in 1999. References Further reading Kielan-Jaworowska and Nesov (1992), "Multituberculate mammals from the Cretaceous of Uzbekistan", Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 37, p. 1-17. Kielan-Jaworowska, Z. & Hurum, J.H. (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals", Paleontology 44, p. 389-429. Much of this information has been derived from : Mesozoic Mammals: "basal" Cimolodonta, Cimolomyidae, Boffiidae and Kogaionidae, an Internet directory. Cimolodonts Turonian life Late Cretaceous mammals of Asia Fossils of Uzbekistan Bissekty Formation Fossil taxa described in 1992 Taxa named by Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska Prehistoric mammal genera	[ -0.7096688151359558, 0.44301456212997437, -0.805613100528717, -0.35338693857192993, -0.2798202633857727, 0.8961361646652222, 0.0004958456847816706, 0.32112762331962585, -0.1113709881901741, 0.05227137356996536, -0.14415641129016876, -0.021655650809407234, -1.1656761169433594, -0.10451729595661163, -0.33701565861701965, 0.6446079015731812, -0.024242425337433815, 0.2429007589817047, -0.07553721964359283, 0.06351637095212936, 0.609729528427124, -0.6312494874000549, 0.2780207693576813, -0.22614452242851257, 0.25654277205467224, -0.35864025354385376, 0.5722906589508057, 0.8345238566398621, 0.10174749046564102, 0.030031736940145493, -1.127319097518921, 0.5724037289619446, 0.14784878492355347, -0.3174416124820709, -0.027181001380085945, 0.39500892162323, -0.6582950353622437, 0.11956366151571274, 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216621	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viridomys	Viridomys	Viridomys is a genus of extinct mammal from the Upper Cretaceous of North America. It was a member of the extinct order of Multituberculata, and lived during the Mesozoic, also known as the "age of the dinosaurs." It's within the suborder of Cimolodonta, though its further affinities are unclear. The primary species, Viridomys orbatus, is known from fossils found in Campanian (Upper Cretaceous)-aged strata of the Upper Milk River Formation in Alberta, Canada. Possible remains have also been found in Dogie Mountain, Texas (United States). The Texas site is believed to be Paleocene in age. References Fox (1971), "Early Campanian multituberculates (Mammalia: Allotheria) from the upper Milk River Formation, Alberta", Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 8, p. 916-938. Kielan-Jaworowska, Z. & Hurum, J.H. (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals", Paleontology 44, p. 389-429. Much of this information has been derived from Mesozoic Mammals: "basal" Cimolodonta, Cimolomyidae, Boffiidae and Kogaionidae, an Internet directory. Cimolodonts Late Cretaceous mammals of North America Extinct mammals of North America Late Cretaceous mammals Milk River Formation Prehistoric mammal genera	[ -0.20208868384361267, 0.4366200864315033, -0.35330018401145935, -0.3099808692932129, -0.23462414741516113, 0.5806143879890442, 1.0365315675735474, 0.2673947811126709, 0.2333274483680725, -0.49187806248664856, 0.8127110004425049, 0.26026254892349243, -0.572994589805603, 0.06521257758140564, -0.11026859283447266, 0.5975357890129089, -0.24083776772022247, 0.44077810645103455, 0.22586770355701447, -0.3364945650100708, -0.00780893350020051, -0.7779499292373657, 0.6188278198242188, -0.5071500539779663, -0.17722570896148682, -0.11120855063199997, 0.09738273918628693, 0.5470775365829468, 0.687761664390564, -0.25219041109085083, -0.2821364104747772, 0.4292435944080353, -0.05140677094459534, -0.48108547925949097, -0.15122713148593903, 0.16715581715106964, -0.4008946418762207, -0.41835203766822815, -0.16143083572387695, -0.3059438169002533, 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216628	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/222%20%28number%29	222 (number)	222 (two hundred [and] twenty-two) is the natural number following 221 and preceding 223. In mathematics It is a decimal repdigit and a strobogrammatic number (meaning that it looks the same turned upside down on a calculator display). It is one of the numbers whose digit sum in decimal is the same as it is in binary. 222 is a noncototient, meaning that it cannot be written in the form n − φ(n) where φ is Euler's totient function counting the number of values that are smaller than n and relatively prime to it. There are exactly 222 distinct ways of assigning a meet and join operation to a set of ten unlabelled elements in order to give them the structure of a lattice, and exactly 222 different six-edge polysticks. 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216629	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Maximilian%20von%20Klinger	Friedrich Maximilian von Klinger	Friedrich Maximilian von Klinger (17 February 1752 – 9 March 1831) was a German dramatist and novelist. His play Sturm und Drang (1776) gave its name to the Sturm und Drang artistic epoch. He was a childhood friend of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and is often closely associated with Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz. Klinger worked as a playwright for the Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft for two years, but eventually left the Kingdom of Prussia to become a General in the Imperial Russian Army. Biography One of the few eighteenth-century authors from the lower social class, Klinger was born in Frankfurt am Main. His father, Johannes Klinger (1719–1760), was a town constable in Frankfurt who came from Pfaffen-Beerfurth in the Odenwald where he was born as the son of the mill owner, blacksmith and schoolmaster Johannes Klinger (1671–1743), who was married to Anna Barabra Boßler (1674–1747) since January 17, 1695. His father died when Klinger was eight years old, forcing his mother Cornelia Fuchs Klinger, a sergeant's daughter, to support her son and two daughters by washing laundry from the Frankfurt eliteincluding, perhaps, Klinger's future friends and patrons, the Goethes of Hirschgrabenallee. In spite of this misfortune, Klinger excelled in his studies and win a scholarship to study at the gymnasium, where he also worked as a tutor to earn money for his family. Though there is little documentation of Klinger's earliest interactions with Goethe during their Frankfurt years, they appear to have made acquaintance by 1773, as Klinger had begun work on his first dramas, Otto and Das leidende Weib (The Suffering Wife) which, according to his Leipzig publisher, owe a great debt to Goethe's then-unpublished Götz von Berlichingen mit der eisernen Hand. Weygand released the collection at its Easter book fair of 1775, calling them "plays in the Goethean/Lenzian Manner." Additionally, it was only with Goethe's financial assistance that Klinger was able to enroll at the University of Gießen in 1774 where he briefly studied to be a legal clerk. In 1776, Klinger submitted his tragedy Die Zwillinge (The Twins) to a contest hosted by the Hamburg theatre under the auspices of the actress Sophie Charlotte Ackermann and her son, the famous actor and playwright Friedrich Ludwig Schröder. The play took first prize, earning Klinger enough critical acclaim to be appointed Theaterdichter to the Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft headed by Abel Seyler and held this post for two years. In 1778, he joined the Austrian military and fought in the War of the Bavarian Succession. In 1780, he went to Saint Petersburg, became an officer in the Imperial Russian Army, was ennobled and attached to the Grand Duke Paul, whom he accompanied on a journey to Italy and France. In 1785, he was appointed director of the corps of cadets, and after marrying Elizaveta Alekseyeva (rumored to be a natural daughter of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Orlov), was made praeses of the Academy of Knights in 1799. In 1803, Klinger was nominated by Emperor Alexander curator of the Universität Dorpat, an office he held until 1817. In 1811, he became lieutenant-general. He then gradually gave up his official posts, and after living for many years in retirement, died in the imperial city of Dorpat in present-day Estonia. Klinger was a man of vigorous moral character and full of fine feeling, though the bitter experiences and deprivations of his youth are largely reflected in his dramas. It was one of his earliest works, Sturm und Drang (1776), which gave its name to this artistic epoch. In addition to this tragedy and Die Zwillinge (1776), the chief plays of his early period of passionate fervour and restless "storm and stress" are Die neue Arria (1776), Simsone Grisaldo (1776) and Stilpo und seine Kinder (1780). To a later period belongs the fine double tragedy of Medea in Korinth and Medea auf dem Kaukasos (1791). In Russia, he devoted himself mainly to the writing of philosophical romances, of which the best known are Fausts Leben, Taten und Höllenfahrt (1791), Geschichte Giafars des Barmeciden (1792) and Geschichte Raphaeis de Aquillas (1793). This series was closed in 1803 with Betrachtungen und Gedanken über verschiedene Gegenstände der Welt und der Literatur. In these works, Klinger gives calm and dignified expression to the leading ideas which the period of Sturm und Drang had bequeathed to German classical literature. Works Faustus Review of Klinger's Faust 1890 Sturm und Drang Bibliography Klingers works were published in twelve volumes (1809–1815), also 1832–1833 and 1842. The most recent edition is in eight volumes (1878–1880); but none of these is complete. A selection will be found in A. Sauer, Stürmer und Dränger, vol. 1. (1883). See E. Schmidt, Lenz und Klinger (1878); M. Rieger, Klinger in der Sturm-und Drangperiode (1880); and Klinger in seiner Reife (1896). 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216631	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby%20bottle	Baby bottle	A baby bottle, nursing bottle, or feeding bottle is a bottle with an attached teat (also called a nipple in the US) on the top opening, on which can be suckled, and from thereby drank directly. It is typically used by infants and young children, or if someone cannot (without difficulty) drink from a cup, for feeding oneself or being fed. It can also be used to feed non-human mammals. Hard plastic is the most common material used, being transparent, light-weight, and resistant to breakage. Glass bottles have been recommended as being easier to clean, less likely to retain formula residues, and relatively chemically inert. Hybrid bottles using plastic on the outside and glass inside have also been developed. Other materials used for baby bottles include food-grade stainless steel and silicone rubber. Baby bottles can be used to feed expressed breast milk, infant formula, or pediatric electrolyte solution. A 2020 review reports that healthy term infants, when breastfeeding or bottle‐feeding, "use similar tongue and jaw movements, can create suction and sequentially use teat compression to obtain milk, with minimal differences in oxygen saturation and SSB patterns" (suck–swallow–breath patterns). Sick or pre-term babies may not be able to breastfeed or take a bottle effectively and may need specialized care. The design characteristics of the bottle and teat have been found to affect infant feeding and milk intake. Interactions between the infant and the caregiver feeding them affect the infant's milk intake during feeding. Whether the caregiver or the infant controls the feeding appears to affect the infant's ability to learn to self‐regulate their milk intake. Proper cleaning and sterilization of bottles are recommended to avoid bacterial contamination and illness, particularly in areas where water quality and sanitary conditions are not good. Design considerations A typical baby bottle typically has four components: the first is the main container or body of the bottle. A teat, or nipple, is the flexible part of the bottle that the baby will suck from, and contains a hole through which the milk will flow. The collar goes over the nipple and typically screws onto the neck of the bottle, forming a seal. Most, but not all baby bottles will also have a cap or travel cover that goes over the teat to keep it clean and to prevent small spills. Some bottles may optionally have a disposable liner. Design concerns for the making of baby bottles often reflect safety or comfort. A safe baby bottle should not break, should not come apart easily into small or potentially harmful components, should not be made of materials that pose a health risk, and should be easy to clean so as to avoid bacterial contamination and illness. A bottle should also be comfortable for both caregiver and baby to use. Bottles that are lightweight and easy to hold can be desired by both babies and mothers. A variety of shapes are available. The design of containers, nipples or teats may mimic the shape of the mother's breast. Designers may try to mimic the flow rate of breastfeeding: the baby should be able to get enough nourishment, but at the same time not be overwhelmed or overfed. Materials Over time a wide variety of materials have been used for infant feeding vessels (see History). The materials now most commonly used in baby bottle containers are glass and some types of plastics. Food-grade stainless steel and silicone rubber are also used. Each of these four materials—plastic, glass, silicone and stainless steel—has advantages and disadvantages. The standard materials used in teats/nipples are latex rubber and silicone. A number of countries have regulations about allowable food contact materials. Ideally, the material making up the bottle should react as little as possible with the material in the bottle. No material is completely inert, but glass and stainless steel are relatively neutral materials which tend to remain stable and not interact with foods. The disadvantages of glass are that it tends to be heavy and can break more easily. Plastics are lightweight and resistant to breaking. Manufacturers find them easy to form into a variety of shapes. A wide variety of plastics have been developed, some of which are not well understood in terms of reactivity. Some plastics have been found to be reactive with fluids such as breast milk and infant formula. Chemicals may "leach" from a bottle into the substance it holds. In addition, plastics may be more likely to break down when heated or cooled, for example, when being heated in a microwave or being boiled to sterilize them. Polycarbonate plastic was frequently used in baby bottles before 2011, and is still used in some countries. Polycarbonates contain Bisphenol A. Since 2008, at least 40 countries have banned the use of plastics containing Bisphenol A in baby bottles due to safety concerns (see Regulation). Bottles made of polycarbonate may be marked as "#7 PC". Bisphenol S (BPS) and Bisphenol F (BPF) have been used as substitutes for BPA. They are structurally similar. Comparisons of BPA, BPS and BPF have found that these chemicals have similar potency and action to BPA and may pose similar dangers in terms of endocrine-disrupting effects. This has led to criticisms of the chemical industry and for calls to deal with bisphenols in groups, not individually. In 2021, the Canadian government agencies Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) and Health Canada (HC) held consultations with the goal of grouping 343 known BPA analogs and functional alternatives. Polyethersulfone plastic (PES) does not contain BPA but does include Bisphenol S (BPS). An assessment of a variety of different baby bottles in use in 2016, reported 4 bottles to be of “high concern”, 14 bottles to be of “concern”; and only 6 bottles to be of “no concern” These of "no concern" included two polyamide (PA) and two polyethersulfone (PES) bottles, a stainless steel bottle, and one of the 17 polypropylene (PP) bottles tested. Phthalates, found in polyvinyl chloride (PVC), are another area of concern. Referred to as “everywhere chemicals” because they are so common, phthalates make plastic more flexible, and have been used in pacifiers and nipples or teats for bottles. Phthalates have been banned from use in feeding bottles in the EU. In the USA, there have been repeated calls for the removal of phthalates by the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) and others. Their use in children's toys and products was somewhat restricted by the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008. Plastics labeled #3 may leach phthalates. Latex rubber nipples may contain phthalates, so silicone nipples may be recommended instead. Packaging may indicate whether a product is "BPA-free" or "phthalate-free". Plastics may degrade over time in other ways, There are concerns that small beads of plastic may be released into fluids from some types of plastic bottles. In 2020 researchers reported that infant feeding bottles made out of polypropylene caused microplastics exposure to infants ranging from 14,600 to 4,550,000 particles per capita per day in 48 regions with contemporary preparation procedures. Microplastics release is higher with warmer liquids and similar with other polypropylene products such as lunchboxes. Medical experts have suggested reducing exposure to microplastics by not shaking plastic bottles or exposing them to high temperatures. Some recommend using alternative materials such as glass, silicone, or stainless steel. For nipples, silicone is clear, durable and slightly harder than latex. Natural rubber latex teats are elastic, tear resistant and may feel softer. Latex can absorb odors, while silicone does not. Latex can break down if exposed to sunlight. Some people have allergies to latex. Size Bottles tend to come in standard sizes, often and . Smaller bottles may be lighter and easier to hold and are often used with younger, smaller infants. There are concerns that larger bottles may lead to over-feeding, since parents are likely to encourage a baby to "finish" a bottle during a feeding. The height-to-width ratio of bottles is high (relative to adult cups) because it is needed to ensure the contents flood the teat when used at normal angles; otherwise the baby will drink air. However, if the bottle is too tall, it easily tips. There are asymmetric bottles that ensure the contents flood the teat if the bottle is held at a certain direction. Shape The shape of the bottle is related to both ease of use and ease of cleaning (see History). Designers sometimes suggest that naturalistic designs will mean that babies can transition between breast or bottle without issues. Other bottles have been invented with unique shapes designed to speed up the warming and cooling of breast milk, saving time, reducing bacterial growth, and reducing exposure to temperatures that can damage the nutrients in breast milk. "Anti-colic" bottles have been put forward with the goal of reducing "gassiness" and distress when feeding. Designs often seek to minimize the sucking in of air by the baby while feeding. Some bottles try to minimize the mixing of air into the milk within the bottle. At the same time, it is desirable to avoid creating an internal vacuum as the infant sucks out fluids, since this will make it harder to feed. Designs may rely on the bottle's shape or incorporate different types of "venting". Some vented bottles, as well as bottles which use a collapsible liner collapses as the formula is drained, have been assessed favorably. They were reported to be comparable to a breastfeeding group in terms of milk intake, sucking patterns, and oxygenation. A 2012 study comparing two types of vented bottles with anti-vacuum features found no differences in infant growth between randomized groups. "Bottle A", a partial anti-vacuum design, was rated by parents as easier to assemble and clean. Infants fed using "Bottle A" were reported to engage in less "fussing", but no difference were found in "crying" or "colic" or in rates of ear infection. Health recommendations for the storage and handling of human milk typically focus on preventing the growth of dangerous bacteria, but some research is also being done on nutrition. Experimental studies have shown a degradation of retinol (Vitamin A) and α-Tocopherol (Vitamin E) content dependent upon the formation of bubbles in expressed breast milk and in formula. Seven models of bottles were studied, from six companies. Less degradation occurred when using a bottle feeding system designed to minimize the mixing of air with the bottle's contents. Teat flow rate Teat characteristics can also have important implications for infant's sucking pattern and milk intake. Milk flow rate is defined as "the rate at which milk moves from the bottle nipple into the infant’s mouth during bottle-feeding." Characteristics such as the shape of the nipple and the way it is perforated may impact flow rate and the coordination of sucking, swallowing and breathing during feeding. Unfortunately, categorization and labeling of teats to indicate flow rate is neither standardized nor consistent. There is significant variability between and within brands and models. In one study, nipples labeled “Slow” or “Newborn” (0–3 months) had flow rates ranging from 1.68 mL/min to 15.12 mL/min."The name assigned to the nipple type does not provide clear information to parents attempting to choose a nipple". This may be of extra concern in the case of fragile infants. Specialized teats are available for infants with cleft palate. Variations and accessories Bottles may be designed to attach directly to a breast pump for a complete "feeding system" that maximizes the reuse of the components. Such systems include a variety of drinking spouts for when the child is older. This converts the bottle into a sippy cup, a cup with lid and spout for toddlers, which is intermediate between a baby bottle and an open top cup. Bottles that are part of a feeding system may include handles that can be attached. The ring and teat may be replaced by a storage lid. Accessories for bottles include cleaning brushes, or bottle brushes, sterilizers, and drying racks. Brushes may be specially designed for a specific manufacturer's bottles and teats. Bottle sterilizers use different techniques for sterilization, including ultraviolet light, boiling water, and hot steam. Bottle warmers warm previously made and refrigerated formula. Coolers designed to fit a specific manufacturer's bottles are available to keep refrigerated formula cold. Special formula powder containers are available to store pre-measured amounts of formula so that caregivers can pre-fill bottles with sterile water and mix in the powder easily. The containers are typically designed to stack together so that multiple pre-measured amounts of formula powder may be transported as a unit. Institutions can purchase ready-to-feed formula in containers that can be used as baby bottles. The lid screws off and is replaced by a disposable teat when the formula is ready to be used. This avoids storing the formula with the teat and possibly clogging the teat holes when formula is splashed within the bottle and dries. Use Cleaning and sterilization Sterilization is a standard practice to prevent development of bacteria and resulting illness, that is more effective than sanitization. The Australian government and the United Kingdom's National Health Service guidelines recommend sterilization of baby bottles and other equipment either by using a cold water sterilizing solution such as by Milton sterilizing fluid, by steam sterilizing, or by boiling. It is important to clean and sterilize all parts of a bottle including containers, teats, and screw caps. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, suggests that it may be sufficient to clean bottles with soap and water, in a dishwasher or by hand. This recommendation is based on the assumption that water supplies are clean and sanitation standards are high. Some states, such as Illinois, continue to recommend sterilization in addition to washing. Alberta, Canada recommends sterilizing bottles until an infant is at least 4 months old. However, there is evidence that bacteria such as E. coli can thrive in biofilms which form on the interior walls of the bottles. Gentle rinsing is not enough to prevent this. Even in developed areas, contamination continues to be a concern. In 2009 in the United Kingdom, researchers found contamination with Staphylococcus aureus in 4% of the baby bottles that parents reported were ready to fill after cleaning and disinfecting. In lower-resource settings, risks of exposure to dangerous respiratory and enteric infections are higher. A study of children admitted to hospital in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, found that 52.1% of the bottles their caregivers considered clean were actually contaminated. This occurred even though caregivers reportedly followed many of the recommended cleaning practices for cleaning and sterilizing bottles. The most common mistake was to boil the bottles for less than the minimum time recommended by WHO. Research into the preparation of infant formula in South Korea indicates significant levels of contamination can be transmitted through the handling of spoons and other utensils. Spoons, after being touched, were often left in the formula container, allowing bacteria to spread to the formula in the container. C. sakazakii, S. enterica, and S. aureus, all of which are potentially fatal, were able to surviving for weeks in contaminated infant formula. Understanding how recommendations are interpreted is important: in one study, leaving a bottle in water that had been previously boiled in a kettle was believed to be "boiling" the bottle. Researchers emphasize that health providers need to better educate caregivers; and that practical methods of bottle hygiene need to be suited to use in field settings. For example, in Peru, easy-to-adopt practices like using a bottle brush and detergent gave greater advantages than difficult-to-achieve procedures like boiling a bottle. WHO (which strongly recommends breastfeeding) notes that in cases where bottle feeding is to occur, much better education is needed on how to use bottles. Age-appropriate use Nipples (teats) are typically subdivided by flow rate, with the slowest flow rate recommended for premature infants and infants with feeding difficulties. However, flow rates are not standardised and vary considerably between brands. The NHS recommends a sippy cup or beaker be introduced by 6 months and the use of bottles discontinued by 1 year. The AAP recommends that the cup be introduced by one year of age and that the use of the bottle by discontinued by 18 months. The use of bottles is discouraged beyond two years of age by most health organisations as prolonged use can cause tooth decay. Early childhood caries (ECC) is also a concern when considering how long breastfeeding should continue. Regulation While infant formula is highly regulated in many countries, baby bottles are not. Only the materials of the teat and bottle itself are specifically regulated in some countries (e.g. British Standards BS 7368:1990 "Specification for babies' elastomeric feeding bottle teats"). In the USA, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates teats and the bottle materials. In 1985 the FDA restricted allowable levels of nitrosamines (many of which are carcinogens) released from bottle teats. Tests of bottle nipples available in the USA, Singapore, West Germany, England, Japan and Korea suggest that levels of nitrosamines in most rubber baby bottle teats are within recommended standards. Another chemical that has been regulated is Bisphenol A (BPA), described as an endocrine disruptor in 1991. Ongoing research into the possible effects of BPA at levels of exposure far below the U.S. government's BPA safety standards has led to concerns about the safety of plastics, including baby bottles. A 1999 Consumer Reports study showed that some polycarbonate baby bottles released unsafe amounts of BPA. Concerns about BPA have been supported by further work. (Research into the effects of BPA has frequently been hotly contested and controversial and issues have been raised over research biases due to industry funding and conflicts of interest due to close ties between government consultants and BPA manufacturers.) One result has been proposals to change the testing paradigm for assessment of endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Research and public pressure have led to bans on the use of Bisphenol A in bottles and cups to be used by children. In 2008 Walmart announced that it would stop selling baby bottles and food containers containing BPA. As of 2017, these were applied in at least 40 countries. Canada classified BPA as "toxic" in 2008 under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act. In 2011 use of bisphenol A in baby bottles was forbidden in all EU countries, in China, in Malaysia, and South Africa. In July 2012, the FDA stated that BPA would no longer used in baby bottles and sippy cups, in response to a petition from the American Chemistry Council stating that this was now in line with industry practice. Other countries such as Argentina and Brazil followed suit by prohibiting bisphenol A in baby bottles. Korea has extended its BPA ban to include all children's utensils, containers and packaging as of January 2020. There are calls for increased regulation of BPA in India. History Throughout most of human history, infant nutrition has primarily depended on the availability of the child's mother or a wet nurse to breastfeed the infant. Beliefs and behaviors relating to infant feeding also vary widely across countries, cultures and times. Mothers and caregivers have also sought additional ways to feed children, sometimes referred to as "hand feeding". As early as , Egyptian pottery shows images of women breastfeeding their babies and also using animal horns to feed them. Containers with hard spouts date to early in recorded time, as evidence by archeological finds (see image). The first vessels known to be used for feeding infants had an opening at one end for filling the bottle, and a second at the other to be put into the baby's mouth. Examination of the organic residues on ancient ceramic baby bottles shows that they were used as early as to feed babies with animal milk. Around to the Egyptians developed the ability to blow glass and the Romans blew clear feeding bottles of glass, but these did not retain obtain long-term popularity. Leather and wood were also used. By the 1700s infant-feeding vessels such as the feeding-cups, bubby-pots, and sucking-pots were also being made from materials that included pewter, tin, and silver. In the 19th century, artificial feeding begin to replace wet nursing, and by 1900, wet nursing no longer existed as an organized profession. Changes to the feeding of infants were both socially and technologically driven. With industrialization, more mothers worked outside the home and could less easily breastfeed their children. Technological changes including the design of artificial feeding methods and the preparation of animal milks and other milk substitutes supported a transition to artificial feeding. but with mixed success. Understanding of both nutrition and sanitation lagged behind the introduction of artificial feeding methods, contributing to extremely high infant mortality rates in the Victorian era. In the United States, the first glass nursing bottle was patented by C.M. Windship in 1841. It was intentionally shaped like the mother's breast. In 1845 the Alexandra Feeder was marketed in England. In Paris, the "Biberon" was introduced by M. Darbo: it was reported to be quite popular in a review from 1851. As the group American Collectors of Infant Feeders notes, by "the late 1800s a large variety of glass nursing bottles were produced in the United States", and the U.S. Patent Office had issued more than 200 patents for various designs of nursing bottles by the 1940s—designed to lie flat or stand up straight, with openings on their sides or ends, with detachable or permanently attached nipples, etc. The design of baby bottles and particularly the ease of cleaning them had potentially serious consequences for the health of the children using them. Estimates of infant mortality suggest that 20-30% of infants died in the first year of life during the late Victorian era. During the 1890s, at a time when England's childhood mortality rates (ages 1-5) were declining, infant mortality rates actually rose. A bottle with a long Indian rubber tube ending in a teat remained popular until the 1920s because even very young babies could feed independently. The feeding tubes could be bought separately and were sometimes used with empty whiskey or medicine bottles. Almost impossible to keep clean, this type has been nicknamed the "murder bottle". Allen and Hanbury introduced a new bottle design with a removable valve and teat on the two ends in 1894, and an improved model, the Allenbury, in 1900. This "banana" bottle was easier to clean. Sometimes referred to as the "hygienic bottle", it helped to improve survival rates. Similar bottles were introduced by other manufacturers and remained popular from the 1900s to the 1950s. Eventually increased understanding of the causes and transmission of disease and improvements in medicine and public health began to reduce infant mortality. Heat-resistant Pyrex bottles were introduced to the American and British markets at different times. Pyrex bottles were first introduced in the United States by Corning Inc. in 1922. They were offered in three shapes (narrow neck, wide mouth, and flat) and multiple sizes, for a total of ten varieties. By 1925, the product line had been limited to a small subset of the original shapes and sizes. In the 1950s a upright Pyrex bottle with a narrow neck was introduced. In the 1960s a wide-neck version was finally introduced to the UK market. The design of upright bottles with a wider mouth meant that they could be more easily cleaned, and sterilized in batches. Soft nipples of various materials were introduced early in the history of feeding (e.g., leather, cork, sponge, dried cow's teat filled with cloth). Many were very difficult to clean and when unsanitary could pose a serious threat to infant health. Although Elijah Pratt of New York patented the first rubber nipple in 1845, it took until the 20th century before materials and technology improved sufficiently to allow manufacture of a soft nipple that was practical for use. The invention of rubber (1840s) provided a material that was soft. Early black Indian rubber "had a very strong pungent smell", and did not survive repeated exposures to hot water. However, by the early 1900s more pleasing rubber nipples could be manufactured in volume and could withstand the heat of sterilization. During the 1940s nurse Adda M. Allen filed for multiple patents relating to the design of baby bottles, including the first disposable collapsible liner for a baby bottle. Her patent was one of many attempts to design a bottle to limit swallowing of air during feeding, and reduce gastric upset and spitting up. A plastic bottle with a disposable liner was eventually tested at George Washington University Hospital and marketed by Playtex. Innovations such as the introduction of a working check valve in the nipple (to provide unidirectional flow of the liquid food) appeared as early as 1948 in a patent to J.W. Less. This technology was picked up by others including Owens-Illinois Glass, eventually making its way into Gerber and all modern pressure-balancing bottle designs. It is also used for adult drinking cups and various other products requiring fluid flow under vacuum. The modern business of producing bottles in the developed world is substantial. For 2018, the global baby bottle market was valued at 2.6 billion USD. In 1999 it was reported that the UK "feeding and sterilising equipment sector ... stands at £49m… [where] [s]ales of feeding bottles account for 39%" or £19.1m of that market. Controversy The 2014 summary policy statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) makes no specific mention of bottle feeding, but makes clear that "[b]reastfeeding and human milk are the normative standards for infant feeding and nutrition", and refers to decisions regarding the supply of infant nutrition as "a public health issue and not only a lifestyle choice… [g]iven the documented short- and long-term medical and neurodevelopmental advantages of breastfeeding". The AAP policy recommends breastfeeding exclusively for six months, continuing it with introduction of complementary foods, with an overall duration of "1 year or longer as mutually desired by mother and infant". The body of the policy statement notes and cites literature indicating that, in addition to the importance of mother's milk, the manner of the food delivery has implications: that "breastfed infants self-regulate intake volume", whereas bottle-fed infants receiving expressed breast milk or formula have "increased bottle emptying, poorer self-regulation, and excessive weight gain in late infancy", and that such early practice of self-regulation correlate with adult patterns of weight gain (ibid.). The AAP policy notes that "[m]edical contraindications to breastfeeding are rare". The transmission of some viral diseases through breastfeeding is reportedly preventable, e.g., by expressing breast milk and subjecting it to Holder pasteurization. In response to public pressure felt from policies de-emphasizing bottle- and formula-feeding, efforts have arisen to support mothers experiencing physiologic or other difficulties in breastfeeding, and sites include individual views that attempt to weaken the scientific case of the AAP policy; a book of the personal experiences and views of one mother committed to bottle/formula feeding, Bottled Up, by Suzanne Barston, has appeared. See also Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative Breastfeeding promotion Breastfeeding contraindications Haberman Feeder Infant formula International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes List of bottle types, brands and companies References External links Bottles Bottles Infancy Infant feeding	[ 0.47661545872688293, 0.2992071509361267, -0.11403258144855499, 0.3415544331073761, 0.27680790424346924, 0.3079530596733093, -0.45712408423423767, 0.2624639868736267, -0.02005280926823616, -0.13045914471149445, -0.4044095575809479, 0.44480445981025696, 0.008532573468983173, 0.8734487295150757, -0.33159971237182617, 0.4189211428165436, 0.6441619992256165, 0.8212524056434631, 0.16675224900245667, -0.6191208958625793, -0.6658994555473328, -0.7061769962310791, -0.13237117230892181, 0.0048004514537751675, 0.2705605924129486, 0.1435341238975525, 0.06396392732858658, -0.46398186683654785, 0.2225310206413269, -0.08671138435602188, -0.11477001011371613, 0.2849830090999603, 0.3636252284049988, 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216635	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Plain%20Dealer%20%28play%29	The Plain Dealer (play)	The Plain Dealer is a Restoration comedy by William Wycherley, first performed on 11 December 1676. The play is based on Molière's Le Misanthrope, and is generally considered Wycherley's finest work along with The Country Wife. The play was highly praised by John Dryden and John Dennis, though it was equally condemned for its obscenity by many. Throughout the eighteenth century it was performed in a bowdlerised version by Isaac Bickerstaffe. The title character is Captain Manly, a sailor who doubts the motives of everyone he meets except for his sweetheart, Olivia, and his friend, Vernish. When Olivia jilts him and marries Vernish, he attempts to gain revenge by sending a pageboy (who, unknown to him, is a girl in disguise and is in love with him) to seduce Olivia. When the truth of the page's identity is discovered, Manly marries her instead. The French philosopher, historian, and dramatist Voltaire adapted The Plain Dealer to make his own play, titled La Prude (The Prude). Comments from 1911 Britannica: Scarcely inferior to The Country Wife is The Plain Dealer — a play of which Voltaire said, "Je ne connais point de comédie chez les anciens ni chez les modernes où il y ait autant d'esprit." ("I know not of a single comedy of either the ancients or the moderns where there is so much wit.") This comedy had an immense influence, as regards manipulation of dialogue, upon all subsequent English comedies of repartee, and he who wants to trace the ancestry of Tony Lumpkin and Mrs Hardcastle (in She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith) has only to turn to Jerry Blackacre and his mother, while Manly (for whom Wycherley's early patron, the Duke of Montausier, sat), though he is perhaps overdone, has dominated this kind of stage character ever since. If but few readers know how constantly the blunt sententious utterances of this character are reappearing, not on the stage alone, but in the novel and even in poetry, it is because a play whose motive is monstrous and intolerable can only live in a monstrous and intolerable state of society; it is because Wycherley's genius was followed by Nemesis, who always dogs the footsteps of the denier of literary art. When Burns said: "The rank is but the guinea stamp, The man's the gowd for a' that"; when Sterne, in Tristram Shandy, said, "Honours, like impressions upon coin, may give an ideal and local value to a bit of base metal, but gold and silver will pass all the world over without any other recommendation than their own weight," what did these writers do but adopt—adopt without improving—Manly's fine saying to Freeman, in the first act: "I weigh the man, not his title; 'tis not the king's stamp can make the metal better or heavier"? And yet it is in the fourth and fifth acts that the coruscations of Wycherley's comic genius are the most dazzling; also, it is there that the licentiousness is the most astonishing. Not that the worst scenes in this play are really more wicked than the worst scenes in Vanbrugh's Relapse, but they are more seriously imagined. Being less humorous than Vanbrugh's scenes, they are more terribly and earnestly realistic; therefore they seem more wicked. They form indeed a striking instance of the folly of the artist who selects a story which cannot be actualized without hurting the finer instincts of human nature. References Restoration comedy Plays by William Wycherley 1676 plays Plays set in the 17th century Adaptations of works by Molière	[ -0.6691006422042847, -0.031182896345853806, 0.09028729051351547, -0.47297707200050354, 0.31817641854286194, 0.5759024620056152, 0.07948034256696701, 0.3076060712337494, -0.46061795949935913, -0.22642236948013306, 0.15474669635295868, 0.7196311950683594, -0.6655102372169495, -0.23785848915576935, -0.08431578427553177, 0.5566958785057068, 0.4873336851596832, -0.2763357162475586, -0.2530306875705719, -0.6266651153564453, -0.38279998302459717, -0.4471879005432129, 0.4356939494609833, -0.3024716377258301, -0.06414200365543365, -0.000896788842510432, 0.5156463384628296, 0.08664170652627945, 0.0515306256711483, -0.18943579494953156, -0.04582942649722099, 0.06913566589355469, 0.6176901459693909, -0.699491560459137, -0.5450345873832703, -0.01847817748785019, -0.44067054986953735, -0.4332158863544464, -0.46471521258354187, -0.2929316759109497, 0.033518705517053604, 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216637	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EYP	EYP	EYP may refer to: Early Years Professional Status El Alcaraván Airport in Yopal, Colombia European Youth Parliament Export Yellow Pages Hellenic National Intelligence Service (Greek: )	[ 0.549929141998291, 0.3323029577732086, 0.10244791209697723, 0.04210056737065315, 0.6375027298927307, -0.2417074292898178, 0.025922508910298347, 0.35321351885795593, -0.5524423122406006, -0.3756008744239807, -0.43056628108024597, 0.20321419835090637, -0.13054919242858887, -0.27062514424324036, 0.11945495754480362, -0.3112224340438843, 0.11292249709367752, 0.9535173773765564, -0.033116064965724945, -0.644064724445343, -0.43039053678512573, -0.006585309281945229, 0.26555919647216797, -0.19686421751976013, 0.371385395526886, -0.14892540872097015, -0.2523419260978699, 0.010844381526112556, -0.07974807173013687, -0.1447860449552536, 0.12302970141172409, -0.07099980115890503, 0.3419747054576874, -0.1912987381219864, 0.10355785489082336, 0.2379576414823532, 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216638	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Cornell	Joseph Cornell	Joseph Cornell (December 24, 1903 – December 29, 1972) was an American visual artist and film-maker, one of the pioneers and most celebrated exponents of assemblage. Influenced by the Surrealists, he was also an avant-garde experimental filmmaker. He was largely self-taught in his artistic efforts, and improvised his own original style incorporating cast-off and discarded artifacts. He lived most of his life in relative physical isolation, caring for his mother and his disabled brother at home, but remained aware of and in contact with other contemporary artists. Life Joseph Cornell was born in Nyack, New York, to Joseph Cornell, a textiles industry executive, and Helen Ten Broeck Storms Cornell, who had trained as a nursery teacher. Both parents came from socially prominent families of Dutch ancestry, long-established in New York State. Cornell's father died April 30, 1917, leaving the family in strained circumstances. Following the elder Cornell's death, his wife and children moved to the borough of Queens in New York City. Cornell attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, in the class of 1921. While he reached the senior year, he did not graduate. Following this, he returned to live with his family. Except for the three-and-a-half years he spent at Phillips, he lived for most of his life in a small, wooden-frame house on Utopia Parkway in a working-class area of Flushing, along with his mother and his brother Robert, whom cerebral palsy had rendered physically disabled. Aside from the period he spent at the academy in Andover, Cornell never traveled beyond the New York City area. Art practice Sculpture and collage Cornell's most characteristic art works were boxed assemblages created from found objects. These are simple shadow boxes, usually fronted with a glass pane, in which he arranged eclectic fragments of photographs or Victorian bric-a-brac, in a way that combines the formal austerity of Constructivism with the lively fantasy of Surrealism. Many of his boxes, such as the famous Medici Slot Machine boxes, are interactive and are meant to be handled. Like Kurt Schwitters, Cornell could create poetry from the commonplace. Unlike Schwitters, however, he was fascinated not by refuse, garbage, and the discarded, but by fragments of once beautiful and precious objects he found on his frequent trips to the bookshops and thrift stores of New York. His boxes relied on the Surrealist use of irrational juxtaposition, and on the evocation of nostalgia, for their appeal. Cornell never regarded himself as a Surrealist; although he admired the work and technique of Surrealists like Max Ernst and René Magritte, he disavowed the Surrealists' "black magic", claiming that he only wished to make white magic with his art. Cornell's fame as the leading American "Surrealist" allowed him to befriend several members of the Surrealist movement when they settled in the United States during the Second World War. Later he was claimed as a herald of pop art and installation art. Cornell often made series of boxed assemblages that reflected his various interests: the Soap Bubble Sets, the Medici Slot Machine series, the Pink Palace series, the Hotel series, the Observatory series, and the Space Object Boxes, among others. Also captivated with birds, Cornell created an Aviary series of boxes, in which colorful images of various birds were mounted on wood, cut out, and set against harsh white backgrounds. In addition to creating boxes and flat collages and making short art films, Cornell also kept a filing system of over 160 visual-documentary "dossiers" on themes that interested him; the dossiers served as repositories from which Cornell drew material and inspiration for boxes like his "penny arcade" portrait of Lauren Bacall. He had no formal training in art, although he was extremely well-read and was conversant with the New York art scene from the 1940s through to the 1960s. His methodology is described in a monograph by Charles Simic as: Cornell was heavily influenced by the American Transcendentalists, Hollywood starlets (to whom he sent boxes he had dedicated to them), the French Symbolists such as Stéphane Mallarmé and Gérard de Nerval, and 19th-century ballet dancers such as Marie Taglioni and Fanny Cerrito. Experimental film Joseph Cornell's 1936 found-film montage Rose Hobart was made entirely from splicing together existing film stock that Cornell had found in New Jersey warehouses, mostly derived from a 1931 "B" film entitled East of Borneo. Cornell would play Nestor Amaral's record Holiday in Brazil during its rare screenings, as well as projecting the film through a deep blue glass or filter, giving the film a dreamlike effect. Focusing mainly on the gestures and expressions made by Rose Hobart (the original film's starlet), this dreamscape of Cornell's seems to exist in a kind of suspension until the film's most arresting sequence toward the end, when footage of a solar eclipse is juxtaposed with a white ball falling into a pool of water in slow motion. Cornell premiered the film at the Julien Levy Gallery in December 1936 during the first Surrealist exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York. Salvador Dalí, who was in New York to attend the MoMA opening, was present at its first screening. During the screening, Dalí became outraged at Cornell's movie, claiming he had just had the same idea of applying collage techniques to film. After the screening, Dalí remarked to Cornell that he should stick to making boxes and stop making films. Traumatized by this event, the shy, retiring Cornell showed his films rarely thereafter. Joseph Cornell continued to experiment with film until his death in 1972. While his earlier films were often collages of found short films, his later ones montaged together footage he expressly commissioned from the professional filmmakers with whom he collaborated. These latter films were often set in some of Cornell's favorite neighborhoods and landmarks in New York City: Mulberry Street, Bryant Park, Union Square Park, and the Third Avenue Elevated Railway, among others. In 1969 Cornell gave a collection of both his own films and the works of others to Anthology Film Archives in New York City. Selected filmography Rose Hobart (1936) Children's Party (c. 1940) Cotillion (c. 1940) The Midnight Party (c. 1940) The Aviary (1955) Gnir Rednow (1956) (made with Stan Brakhage) Mulberry Street (1957) Boys' Games (1957) Centuries of June (1955) (made with Stan Brakhage) Nymphlight (1957) Flushing Meadows (c. 1965) (made with Larry Jordan) A Legend for Fountains (1957–1965) Bookstalls (1973) By Night with Torch and Spear (1979) Exhibitions Cornell’s first major museum retrospective, entitled An Exhibition of Works by Joseph Cornell opened at the Pasadena Art Museum (now the Norton Simon Museum) in December 1966, curated by legendary museum director Walter Hopps which traveled to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York. In 1970, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York mounted the second major museum retrospective of his collages, curated by the well-known Henry Geldzahler. In 1972, A Joseph Cornell Exhibition for Children was held at a gallery at Cooper Union which was a show he arranged especially for children, with the boxes displayed at child height and with the opening party serving soft drinks and cake. Another retrospective was held at the Albright-Knox in 1972. In 1980, Cornell was subject to his fourth major museum retrospective at MoMA as part of a series of exhibitions celebrating its 50th Anniversary. In 2007, Cornell was subject to his fifth major museum retrospective at SFMOMA which traveled to the Smithsonian American Art Museum and the Peabody Essex Museum. In 2015, Cornell was subject to his sixth major museum retrospective at the Royal Academy of Arts in London which traveled to Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. Collections Museum of Modern Art, New York Guggenheim Museum, New York Smithsonian American Art Museum Menil Collection Art Institute of Chicago San Francisco Museum of Modern Art Whitney Museum of American Art Tate Museum, London Philadelphia Museum of Art Museo Reina Sofia, Madrid Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art Albright-Knox Art Gallery LACMA, Los Angeles Art market Sold from the estate of Edwin and Lindy Bergman, Chicago-based collectors and art patrons, Cornell's Untitled (Penny Arcade Portrait of Lauren Bacall) (1946) fetched $5.3 million at Christie's New York, setting an auction record for the artist. The jewel-like box, with images of Bacall on blue background, was inspired by To Have and Have Not, a film starring Bacall and Humphrey Bogart. Personal life Cornell was wary of strangers. This led him to isolate himself and become a self-taught artist. Although he expressed attraction to unattainable women like Lauren Bacall, his shyness made romantic relationships almost impossible. In later life his bashfulness verged toward reclusiveness, and he rarely left the state of New York. However, he preferred talking with women, and often made their husbands wait in the next room when he discussed business with them. He also had numerous friendships with ballerinas, who found him unique, but too eccentric to be a romantic partner. He devoted his life to caring for his younger brother Robert, who was disabled and lived with cerebral palsy, which was another factor in his lack of relationships. At some point in the 1920s, or possibly earlier, he read the writings of Mary Baker Eddy, including Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. Cornell considered Eddy's works to be among the most important books ever published after the Bible, and he became a lifelong Christian Science adherent. Christian Science belief and practice informed Cornell's art deeply, as art historian Sandra Leonard Starr has shown. He was also rather poor for most of his life, working during the 1920s as a wholesale fabric salesman to support his family. As a result of the American Great Depression, Cornell lost his textile industry job in 1931, and worked for a short time thereafter as a door-to-door appliance salesman. During this time, through her friendship with Ethel Traphagen, Cornell's mother secured him a part-time position designing textiles. In the 1940s, Cornell also worked in a plant nursery (which would figure in his famous dossier "GC44") and briefly in a defense plant, and designed covers and feature layouts for Harper's Bazaar, View, Dance Index, and other magazines. He only really began to sell his boxes for significant sums after his 1949 solo show at the Charles Egan Gallery. Cornell eventually began a passionate, but platonic, relationship with Japanese artist Yayoi Kusama while she was living in New York in the mid-1960s. She was twenty-six years his junior; they would call each other daily, sketch each other, and he would send personalized collages to her. Their lengthy association lasted even after her return to Japan, ending only with his death in 1972. Death Cornell's brother Robert died in 1965, and his mother in 1966. Joseph Cornell died of apparent heart failure on December 29, 1972, a few days after his sixty-ninth birthday. The executors of his estate were Richard Ader and Wayne Andrews, as represented by the art dealers Leo Castelli, Richard Feigen, and James Corcoran. Later, the Joseph and Robert Cornell Memorial Foundation was established, which administers the copyrights of Cornell's works and represents the interests of his heirs. Currently, the Foundation is administered by Trustees, Richard Ader, and Joseph Erdman. Popular culture references Anne Tyler's Celestial Navigation (1974) is a fictional riff on being Joseph Cornell. The cyberpunk novelist William Gibson uses the finding of mysterious boxes similar to those by Joseph Cornell as a narrative element in his novel Count Zero (1984). The Dutch pop band The Nits releases a song, "Soap Bubble Box", on their 1992 album Ting, about seeing some of Cornell's boxes in the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. The song was a minor hit in the Netherlands. Scholarship on Joseph Cornell’s art and life led to Michael Brayndick’s dissertation Joseph Cornell and the Dialectics of Human Time (OCLC World Cat Dissertation/Thesis database, OCLC Number: 26696670, University of Iowa, July 1987); and inspired Brayndick's 1999 play, How to Make a Rainbow with workshop performances in: New York (1998), Connecticut (2000), and the UK (2003), and the world premiere production by On the Spot Theatre at the Greenhouse Theater Center in Chicago (2013).https://onthespottheatrecompany.weebly.com/how-to-make-a-rainbow.html In 1992, poet Charles Simic published a prose collection inspired by and with images of the work of Joseph Cornell: Dime-Store Alchemy, The Art of Joseph Cornell (published by New York Review Books, originally published by Hopewell, N.J.: Ecco Press). Singer-songwriter Mary Chapin Carpenter imagines Cornell going about his creative life in the song "Ideas are like stars", found on her 1996 album A Place in the World. The English band The Clientele has a song titled "Joseph Cornell" on the group's 2001 album Suburban Light. Jonathan Safran Foer's anthology A Convergence of Birds (2001) is a collection of fiction and poetry inspired by Cornell's work. Foer, then an undergraduate, solicits all of his favorite authors to contribute to the collection by sending each of them a print of one of Cornell's bird boxes, and an explanation of the project. He is surprised when well-known authors such as Joyce Carol Oates, Rick Moody and Barry Lopez respond to his prompts with Cornell-inspired works. The American novelist and short story writer Robert Coover published a series of stories entitled The Grand Hotels (of Joseph Cornell) in 2002. Akin to short fables, the stories refer to various themes and images in Cornell's Hotel series of boxes. Charles L. Mee's play Hotel Cassiopeia (2006) is based on the life of Joseph Cornell. Singer/songwriter Thomas Comerford released the album Archive + Spiral in 2011 which contains the song titled "Joseph Cornell". The song is described as less of an homage and more of a meditation on the mood the artist invokes. See also Haptic poetry Bricolage Notes Further reading Ashton, Dore. A Joseph Cornell Album. New York: Viking Press, 1974. Blair, Lindsay. The Working Method of Joseph Cornell. Reaktion Books; Illustrated edition, April 1, 1998. Bonk, Ecke; Davidson, Susan; d'Harnoncourt, Anne; Hartigan, Lydia Roscoe; Hopps, Walter; Temkin, Ann. Joseph Cornell/Marcel Duchamp ... in resonance. Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 1998. Caws, Mary Ann. Joseph Cornell's Theater of the Mind: Selected Diaries, Letters, and Files. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2000. Corman, Catherine. Joseph Cornell's Dreams. Cambridge: Exact Change, 2007. Foer, Jonathan Safran (ed.). A Convergence of Birds: Original Fiction and Poetry Inspired by the Work of Joseph Cornell. New York: Distributed Art Publishers, 2001. Hartigan, Lydia Roscoe. Joseph Cornell: Navigating the Imagination. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007. Hartigan, Lydia Roscoe; Vine, Richard; Lehrman, Robert; Hopps, Walter. Joseph Cornell: Shadowplay Eterniday. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2003. Leppanen-Guerra, Analisa; Tashjian, Dickran. Joseph Cornell's Manual of Marvels. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2012. McShine, Kynaston (ed.). Joseph Cornell. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1980. Rogers, Holly and Jeremy Barham (ed.). The Music and Sound of Experimental Film. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017. Schaffner, Ingrid. The Essential Joseph Cornell. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2003. Starr, Sandra Leonard. Joseph Cornell: Art and Metaphysics. New York: Castelli Corcoran Feigen, 1982. LC Catalogue Card Number 82-71787 Tashjian, Dickran. Joseph Cornell: Gifts of Desire. Miami Beach: Grassfield Press, 1992. External links Joseph Cornell letters and papers, Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, Accession No. 2014.M.30. 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216639	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwanatheria	Gondwanatheria	Gondwanatheria is an extinct group of mammaliaforms that lived in parts of Gondwana, including Madagascar, India, South America, and Africa during the Upper Cretaceous through the Miocene (and possibly much earlier, if Allostaffia is a member of this group). Until recently, they were known only from isolated teeth, a few lower jaws, two partial skulls and one complete cranium. Because of this fragmentary knowledge, their placement is not clear, although more details have emerged from newer finds and studies. Classification For several decades the affinities of the group were not clear, being first interpreted as early xenarthrans, or "toothless" mammals similar to the modern anteater. A variety of studies have placed them as allotheres related to multituberculates, possibly even true multituberculates, closer to cimolodonts than "plagiaulacidans" are. However, a more recent study recovered them as nested among haramiyidans, rendering them as non-mammalian cynodonts. A more recently described specimen has since recovered them as allotheres closely related to multituberculates, but this was soon after followed by a study recovering them as part of Euharamiyida, remaining inconclusive as to whether they belong in crown-group Mammalia. There are three known families within Gondwanatheria. The family Sudamericidae was named by Scillato-Yané and Pascual in 1984, and includes the vast majority of named taxa. The family Ferugliotheriidae was named by José Bonaparte in 1986, and includes one genus, Ferugliotherium, and possibly a few other forms like Trapalcotherium. Groeberiidae, originally interpreted as paucituberculate marsupials, has since been understood as gondwanatherians, though only the type genus, Groeberia, has been examined as such. Further fossils have come from India, Madagascar and Antarctica. A possible Ferugliotherium-like species occurs in Maastrichtian deposits of Mexico, extending the clade to North America. The Miocene (Colhuehuapian) genus Patagonia is the youngest known representative. Biology Gondwanatheres known from cranial remains almost universally have deep, robust snouts, as befitting their specialised herbivorous lifestyle. Groeberia and Vintana both possess bizarre jugal flanges similar to those of xenarthrans like ground sloths, though they had a palinal (front-to-back) chewing method as in most allotheres and unlike almost any therian. Most gondwanatheres are specialised grazers, even being among the first mammals to have specialised for grass-eating long before any therians did, with the exceptions of Groeberidae and Ferugliotheriidae, which lack hypsodont teeth and therefore had more generalistic herbivorous habits. An articulated specimen found in the Maevarano Formation offers insight to the postcranial skeleton of these animals. Among the bizarre and unique features are a mediolaterally compressed and antero-posteriorly bowed tibia, a double trochlea (grooved structure) on the talus bone, a fully developed humeral trochlea, and an unusually high number of trunk vertebrae. The new taxon has at least 19 rib-bearing (thoracic) and 11 non-rib-bearing (lumbar) vertebrae. Aside from these derived features, the Malagasy mammal has a mosaic pectoral girdle morphology: the procoracoid is lost, the coracoid is extremely well developed (into an enlarged process that contributes to half of the glenoid fossa), the interclavicle is small, and the sternoclavicular joint appears mobile. A ventrally-facing glenoid and the well-developed humeral trochlea suggest a relatively parasagittal posture for the forelimbs. Remarkable features of the hind limb and pelvic girdle include a large obturator foramen similar in size to that of therians, a large parafibula, and the presence of an epipubic bone. The fully described animal, now named Adalatherium hui, is a comparatively large sized mammal, compared in size to a large cat. It has more erect limbs than other allotheres. Taxonomy Order †Gondwanatheria McKenna 1971 [Gondwanatheroidea Krause & Bonaparte 1993] ?†Allostaffia †Adalatherium ?Family †Groeberiidae Patterson, 1952 †Groeberia minoprioi Ryan Patterson, 1952 †Groeberia pattersoni G. G. Simpson, 1970 Family †Ferugliotheriidae Bonaparte 1986 †Ferugliotherium windhauseni Bonaparte 1986a [Vucetichia Bonaparte 1990; Vucetichia gracilis Bonaparte 1990] †Trapalcotherium matuastensis Rougier et al. 2008 ? †Magallanodon baikashkenke Goin et al. 2020 Family †Sudamericidae Scillato-Yané & Pascual 1984 [Gondwanatheridae Bonaparte 1986] †Greniodon sylvanicum Goin et al. 2012 †Vintana sertichi Krause et al. 2014 †Dakshina jederi Wilson, Das Sarama & Anantharaman 2007 †Gondwanatherium patagonicum Bonaparte 1986 †Sudamerica ameghinoi Scillato-Yané & Pascual 1984 †Lavanify miolaka Krause et al. 1997 †Bharattherium bonapartei Prasad et al. 2007 †Patagonia peregrina Pascual & Carlini 1987 †Galulatherium O'Connor et al. 2019 References External links Mesozoic Mammals - Gondwanatheria Burdigalian extinctions Extinct animals of Antarctica Fossil taxa described in 1987 Taxa named by Álvaro Mones Maastrichtian first appearances	[ -0.10692412406206131, -0.06825315952301025, 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216641	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan%20Opera	Metropolitan Opera	The Metropolitan Opera (commonly known as the Met) is an American opera company based in New York City, resident at the Metropolitan Opera House at Lincoln Center. The company is operated by the non-profit Metropolitan Opera Association, with Peter Gelb as general manager. As of 2018, the company's current music director is Yannick Nézet-Séguin. The Met was founded in 1883 as an alternative to the previously established Academy of Music opera house, and debuted the same year in a new building on 39th and Broadway (now known as the "Old Met"). It moved to the new Lincoln Center location in 1966. The Metropolitan Opera is the largest classical music organization in North America. Until 2019, it presented about 27 different operas each year from late September through May. The operas are presented in a rotating repertory schedule, with up to seven performances of four different works staged each week. Performances are given in the evening Monday through Saturday with a matinée on Saturday. Several operas are presented in new productions each season. Sometimes these are borrowed from or shared with other opera companies. The rest of the year's operas are given in revivals of productions from previous seasons. The 2015–16 season comprised 227 performances of 25 operas. The operas in the Met's repertoire consist of a wide range of works, from 18th-century Baroque and 19th-century Bel canto to the Minimalism of the late 20th and 21st century. These operas are presented in staged productions that range in style from those with elaborate traditional decors to others that feature modern conceptual designs. The Met's performing company consists of a large symphony orchestra, a chorus, children's choir, and many supporting and leading solo singers. The company also employs numerous free-lance dancers, actors, musicians and other performers throughout the season. The Met's roster of singers includes both international and American artists, some of whose careers have been developed through the Met's young artists programs. While many singers appear periodically as guests with the company, others maintain a close long-standing association with the Met, appearing many times each season until they retire. History Origins The Metropolitan Opera Company was founded in 1883 as an alternative to New York's old established Academy of Music opera house. The subscribers to the Academy's limited number of private boxes represented the highest stratum in New York society. By 1880, these "old money" families were loath to admit New York's newly wealthy industrialists into their long-established social circle. Frustrated with being excluded, the Metropolitan Opera's founding subscribers determined to build a new opera house that would outshine the old Academy in every way. A group of 22 men assembled at Delmonico's restaurant on April 28, 1880. They elected officers and established subscriptions for ownership in the new company. The new theater, built at 39th and Broadway, would include three tiers of private boxes in which the scions of New York's powerful new industrial families could display their wealth and establish their social prominence. The first Met subscribers included members of the Morgan, Roosevelt, and Vanderbilt families, all of whom had been excluded from the Academy. The new Metropolitan Opera House opened on October 22, 1883, and was an immediate success, both socially and artistically. The Academy of Music's opera season folded just three years after the Met opened. Inaugural season In its early decades the Met did not produce the opera performances itself but hired prominent manager/impresarios to stage a season of opera at the new Metropolitan Opera House. Henry Abbey served as manager for the inaugural season, 1883–84, which opened with a performance of Charles Gounod's Faust starring the brilliant Swedish soprano Christina Nilsson. Abbey's company that first season featured an ensemble of artists led by sopranos Nilsson and Marcella Sembrich; mezzo-soprano Sofia Scalchi; tenors Italo Campanini and Roberto Stagno; baritone Giuseppe Del Puente; and bass Franco Novara. They gave 150 performances of 20 different operas by Gounod, Meyerbeer, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi, Wagner, Mozart, Thomas, Bizet, Flotow, and Ponchielli. All performances were sung in Italian and were conducted either by music director Auguste Vianesi or Cleofonte Campanini (the tenor Italo's brother). The company performed not only in the new Manhattan opera house, but also started a long tradition of touring throughout the country. In the winter and spring of 1884 the Met presented opera in theaters in Brooklyn, Boston, Philadelphia (see below), Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Washington D.C., and Baltimore. Back in New York, the last night of the season featured a long gala performance to benefit Mr. Abbey. The special program consisted not only of various scenes from opera, but also offered Marcella Sembrich playing the violin and the piano, as well as the famed stage actors Henry Irving and Ellen Terry in a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. Abbey's inaugural season resulted in very large financial deficits. The Met in Philadelphia The Metropolitan Opera began a long history of performing in Philadelphia during its first season, presenting its entire repertoire in the city during January and April 1884. The company's first Philadelphia performance was of Faust (with Christina Nilsson) on January 14, 1884, at the Chestnut Street Opera House. The Met continued to perform annually in Philadelphia for nearly eighty years, taking the entire company to the city on selected Tuesday nights throughout the opera season. Performances were usually held at Philadelphia's Academy of Music, with the company presenting close to 900 performances in the city by 1961 when the Met's regular visits ceased. On April 26, 1910, the Met purchased the Philadelphia Opera House from Oscar Hammerstein I. The company renamed the house the Metropolitan Opera House and performed all of their Philadelphia performances there until 1920, when the company sold the theater and resumed performing at the Academy of Music. During the Met's early years, the company annually presented a dozen or more opera performances in Philadelphia throughout the season. Over the years the number of performances was gradually reduced until the final Philadelphia season in 1961 consisted of only four operas. The final performance of that last season was on March 21, 1961, with Birgit Nilsson and Franco Corelli in Turandot. After the Tuesday night visits were ended, the Met still returned to Philadelphia on its spring tours in 1967, 1968, 1978, and 1979. German seasons For its second season, the Met's directors turned to Leopold Damrosch as general manager. The revered conductor of the New York Symphony Orchestra was engaged to lead the opera company in an all German language repertory and serve as its chief conductor. Under Damrosch, the company consisted of some the most celebrated singers from Europe's German-language opera houses. The new German Met found great popular and critical success in the works of Wagner and other German composers as well as in Italian and French operas sung in German. Damrosch died only months into his first season at the Met. Edmund Stanton replaced Damrosch the following year and served as general manager through the 1890–91 season. The Met's six German seasons were especially noted for performances by the celebrated conductor Anton Seidl whose Wagner interpretations were noted for their almost mystical intensity. The conductor Walter Damrosch, Leopold's son, also initiated a long relationship with the Met during this period. Mapleson Cylinders From 1900 to 1904, Lionel Mapleson (1865–1937) made a series of sound recordings at the Met. Mapleson, the nephew of the opera impresario James Henry Mapleson, was employed by the Met as a violinist and music librarian. He used an Edison cylinder phonograph set-up near the stage to capture short, one- to five-minute recordings of the soloists, chorus and orchestra during performances. These unique acoustic documents, known as the Mapleson Cylinders, preserve an audio picture of the early Met, and are the only known extant recordings of some performers, including the tenor Jean de Reszke and the dramatic soprano Milka Ternina. The recordings were later issued on a series of LPs and, in 2002, were included in the National Recording Registry. Annual spring tour Beginning in 1898, the Metropolitan Opera company of singers and musicians undertook a six-week tour of American cities following its season in New York. These annual spring tours brought the company and its stars to cities throughout the U.S., most of which had no opera company of their own. The Met's national tours continued until 1986. Administrations Abbey, Schoeffel, and Grau Italian opera returned to the Met in 1891 in a glittering season of stars organized by the returning Henry E. Abbey, John B. Schoeffel and Maurice Grau as Abbey, Schoeffel and Grau. After missing a season to rebuild the opera house following a fire in August 1892 which destroyed most of the theater, Abbey and Grau continued as co-managers along with John Schoeffel as the business partner, initiating the so-called "Golden Age of Opera". Most of the greatest operatic artists in the world then graced the stage of the Metropolitan Opera House in Italian as well as German and French repertory. Notable among them were the brothers Jean and Édouard de Reszke, Lilli Lehmann, Emma Calvé, Lillian Nordica, Nellie Melba, Marcella Sembrich, Milka Ternina, Emma Eames, Sofia Scalchi, Ernestine Schumann-Heink, Francesco Tamagno, Francesc Viñas, Jean Lassalle, Mario Ancona, Victor Maurel, Antonio Scotti and Pol Plançon. Henry Abbey died in 1896, and Maurice Grau continued as sole manager of the Met from 1896 to 1903. The early 1900s saw the development of distinct Italian, German and later French "wings" within the Met's roster of artists including separate German and Italian choruses. This division of the company's forces faded after World War II when solo artists spent less time engaged at any one company. Heinrich Conried The administration of Heinrich Conried in 1903–08 was distinguished especially by the arrival of the Neapolitan tenor Enrico Caruso, the most celebrated singer who ever appeared at the old Metropolitan. He was also instrumental in hiring conductor Arturo Vigna. Giulio Gatti-Casazza Conried was followed by Giulio Gatti-Casazza, who held a 27-year tenure from 1908 to 1935. Gatti-Casazza had been lured by the Met from a celebrated tenure as director of Milan's La Scala Opera House. His model planning, authoritative organizational skills and brilliant casts raised the Metropolitan Opera to a prolonged era of artistic innovation and musical excellence. He brought with him the fiery and brilliant conductor Arturo Toscanini, the music director from his seasons at La Scala. Many of the most noted singers of the era appeared at the Met under Gatti-Casazza's leadership, including sopranos Rosa Ponselle, Elisabeth Rethberg, Maria Jeritza, Emmy Destinn, Frances Alda, Frida Leider, Amelita Galli-Curci, Bernice de Pasquali, and Lily Pons; tenors Jacques Urlus, Giovanni Martinelli, Beniamino Gigli, Giacomo Lauri-Volpi, and Lauritz Melchior; baritones Titta Ruffo, Giuseppe De Luca, Pasquale Amato, and Lawrence Tibbett; and basses Friedrich Schorr, Feodor Chaliapin, Jose Mardones, Tancredi Pasero and Ezio Pinza—among many others. Toscanini served as the Met's principal conductor (but with no official title) from 1908 to 1915, leading the company in performances of Verdi, Wagner and others that set standards for the company for decades to come. The Viennese composer Gustav Mahler also was a Met conductor during Gatti-Casazza's first two seasons and in later years conductors Tullio Serafin and Artur Bodanzky led the company in the Italian and German repertories respectively. Following Toscanini's departure, Gatti-Casazza successfully guided the company through the years of World War I into another decade of premieres, new productions and popular success in the 1920s. The 1930s, however, brought new financial and organizational challenges for the company. In 1931, Otto Kahn, the noted financier, resigned as head of the Met's board of directors and president of the Metropolitan Opera Company. He had been responsible for engaging Gatti-Casazza and had held the position of president since the beginning of Gatti-Casazza's term as manager. The new chair, prominent lawyer Paul Cravath, had served as the board's legal counsel. Retaining Gatti-Casazza as manager, Cravath focused his attention on managing the business affairs of the company. In 1926, as part of the construction of Rockefeller Center, a plan was floated to move the opera from the building on 39th Street to the new Rockefeller Center. The plan was dropped in 1929 when it became apparent that it would produce no savings, and because the Met did not have enough money to move to a new opera house. It soon became apparent that the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and subsequent depression had resulted in a dangerously large deficit in the company's accounts. Between 1929 and 1931 ticket sales remained robust, but subsidies from the Met's wealthy supporters had significantly declined. Soon after his appointment, Cravath obtained new revenue through a contract with the National Broadcasting Company for weekly radio broadcasts of Met performances. The first national broadcast took place December 25, 1931, when Hansel and Gretel was aired. With Gatti's support, Cravath also obtained a ten percent reduction in the pay of all salaried employees beginning with the opera season of 1931/32. Cravath also engineered a reorganization of the management company by which it was transformed from a corporation, in which all participants were stockholders, to an association, whose members need not have a financial interest in operations. Apart from this change, the new Metropolitan Opera Association was virtually identical to the old Metropolitan Opera Company. It was hoped the association would be able to save money as it renegotiated contracts which the company had made. During this period there was no change in the organization of the Metropolitan Real Estate Opera Company which owned the opera house. It remained in the hands of the society families who owned its stock, yet the subsidies that the house and its owners had given the producing company fell off. In March 1932, Cravath found that income resulting from the broadcasts and savings from both salary cuts and reorganization were not sufficient to cover the company's deficits. Representatives of the opera house, the producing company, and the artists formed a committee for fundraising among the public at large. Mainly though appeals made to radio audiences during the weekly broadcasts, the committee was able to obtain enough money to assure continuation of opera for the 1933–34 season. Called the committee to Save Metropolitan Opera, the group was headed by the well-loved leading soprano, Lucrezia Bori. Bori not only led the committee, but also personally carried out much of its work and within a few months her fundraising efforts produced the $300,000 that were needed for the coming season. Edward Johnson In April 1935, Gatti stepped down after 27 years as general manager. His immediate successor, the former Met bass Herbert Witherspoon, died of a heart attack barely six weeks into his term of office. This opened the way for the Canadian tenor and former Met artist Edward Johnson to be appointed general manager. Johnson served the company for the next 15 years, guiding the Met through the remaining years of the depression and the World War II era. The producing company's financial difficulties continued in the years immediately following the desperate season of 1933–34. To meet budget shortfalls, fundraising continued and the number of performances was curtailed. Still, on given nights the brilliant Wagner pairing of the Norwegian soprano Kirsten Flagstad with the great heldentenor Lauritz Melchior proved irresistible to audiences even in such troubled times. To expand the Met's support among its national radio audience, the Met board's Eleanor Robson Belmont, the former actress and wife to industrialist August Belmont, was appointed head of a new organization—the Metropolitan Opera Guild—as successor to a women's club Belmont had set up. The Guild supported the producing company through subscriptions to its magazine, Opera News, and through Mrs. Belmont's weekly appeals on the Met's radio broadcasts. In 1940 ownership of the performing company and the opera house was transferred to the non-profit Metropolitan Opera Association from the company's original partnership of New York society families. Zinka Milanov, Jussi Björling, and Alexander Kipnis were first heard at the Met under Johnson's management. During World War II when many European artists were unavailable, the Met recruited American singers as never before. Eleanor Steber, Dorothy Kirsten, Helen Traubel (Flagstad's successor as Wagner's heroines), Jan Peerce, Richard Tucker, Leonard Warren and Robert Merrill were among the many home grown artists to become stars at the Met in the 1940s. Ettore Panizza, Sir Thomas Beecham, George Szell and Bruno Walter were among the leading conductors engaged during Johnson's tenure. Kurt Adler began his long tenure as chorus master and staff conductor in 1943. Rudolf Bing Succeeding Johnson in 1950 was the Austrian-born Rudolf Bing who had most recently created and served as director of the Edinburgh Festival. Serving from 1950 to 1972, Bing became one of the Met's most influential and reformist leaders. Bing modernized the administration of the company, ended an archaic ticket sales system, and brought an end to the company's Tuesday night performances in Philadelphia. He presided over an era of fine singing and glittering new productions, while guiding the company's move to a new home in Lincoln Center. While many outstanding singers debuted at the Met under Bing's guiding hand, music critics complained of a lack of great conducting during his regime, even though such eminent conductors as Fritz Stiedry, Dimitri Mitropoulos, Erich Leinsdorf, Fritz Reiner, and Karl Böhm appeared frequently in the 1950s and '60s. Among the most significant achievements of Bing's tenure was the opening of the Met's artistic roster to include singers of color. Marian Anderson's historic 1955 debut was followed by the introduction of a gifted generation of African American artists led by Leontyne Price (who inaugurated the new house at Lincoln Center), Reri Grist, Grace Bumbry, Shirley Verrett, Martina Arroyo, George Shirley, Robert McFerrin, and many others. Other celebrated singers who debuted at the Met during Bing's tenure include: Roberta Peters, Victoria de los Ángeles, Renata Tebaldi, Maria Callas, who had a bitter falling out with Bing over repertoire,, Birgit Nilsson, Joan Sutherland, Régine Crespin, Mirella Freni, Renata Scotto, Montserrat Caballé, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Anna Moffo, James McCracken, Carlo Bergonzi, Franco Corelli, Alfredo Kraus, Plácido Domingo, Nicolai Gedda, Luciano Pavarotti, Jon Vickers, Tito Gobbi, Sherrill Milnes, and Cesare Siepi. The Met's 1961 production of Turandot, with Leopold Stokowski conducting, Birgit Nilsson in the title role, and Franco Corelli as Calàf, was by May called the Met's "Biggest hit in 10 years." For the 1962/1963 season, Renata Tebaldi, popular with Met audiences, convinced a reluctant Bing to stage a revival of Adriana Lecouvreur, an opera last presented at the Met in 1907. In 1963 Anthony Bliss, a prominent New York lawyer and president of the Metropolitan Opera Association (MOA), convinced the MOA to create the Metropolitan Opera National Company (MONC); a second touring company that would present operas nationally with young operatic talent. Supported by President John F. Kennedy and funded largely by donations given by philanthropist and publisher Lila Acheson Wallace, the company presented two seasons of operas in 1965-1966 and 1966–1967 in which hundreds of performances were given in hundreds of cities throughout the United States. Bing publicly supported the organization, but privately detested the idea and actively worked to dismantle the company which he ultimately achieved in a vote of the board in December 1966. The MONC's directors were mezzo-soprano Risë Stevens and Michael Manuel, a long time stage manager and director at the Met. Several well known opera singers performed with the MONC, including sopranos Clarice Carson, Maralin Niska, Mary Beth Peil, Francesca Roberto, and Marilyn Zschau; mezzo-sopranos Joy Davidson, Sylvia Friederich, Dorothy Krebill, and Huguette Tourangeau; tenors Enrico Di Giuseppe, Chris Lachona, Nicholas di Virgilio, and Harry Theyard; baritones Ron Bottcher, John Fiorito, Thomas Jamerson, Julian Patrick, and Vern Shinall; bass-baritones Andrij Dobriansky, Ronald Hedlund, and Arnold Voketaitis; and bass Paul Plishka. During Bing's tenure, the officers of the Met joined forces with the officers of the New York Philharmonic to build the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, where the new Metropolitan Opera House building opened in 1966. The Met's first season at Lincoln Center featured nine new productions, including the world premiere of Marvin David Levy’s Mourning Becomes Electra. However, the company would not premiere any new operas for decades afterwards, until 1991's The Ghosts of Versailles by John Corigliano. One critic described the period as "a quarter-century in which the notion of commissioned work reminded Met administrators of the emblematic failure of Samuel Barber's Antony and Cleopatra and the lukewarm reception of Marvin David Levy's Mourning Becomes Electra." Gentele to Southern Following Bing's retirement in 1972, the Met's management was overseen by a succession of executives and artists in shared authority. Bing's intended successor, the Swedish opera manager Göran Gentele, died in an auto accident before the start of his first season. Following Gentele's tragic loss came Schuyler Chapin, who served as general manager for three seasons. The greatest achievement of his tenure was the Met's first tour to Japan for three weeks in May–June 1975 which was the brainchild of impresario Kazuko Hillyer. The tour played a significant role in popularizing opera in Japan, and boasted an impressive line-up of artists in productions of La traviata, Carmen, and La bohème; including Marilyn Horne as Carmen, Joan Sutherland as Violetta, and tenors Franco Corelli and Luciano Pavarotti alternating as Rodolfo. Soprano Renata Tebaldi retired from the Met in 1973 as Desdemona in Verdi's Otello, the same role she debuted there in 1955. From 1975 to 1981 the Met was guided by a triumvirate of directors: the General Manager (Anthony A. Bliss), Artistic Director (James Levine), and Director of Production (English stage director John Dexter). Bliss was followed by Bruce Crawford and Hugh Southern. Through this period the constant figure was James Levine. Engaged by Bing in 1971, Levine became Principal Conductor in 1973 and emerged as the Met's principal artistic leader through the last third of the 20th century. During the 1983–84 season the Met celebrated its 100th anniversary with an opening night revival of Berlioz's mammoth opera Les Troyens, with soprano Jessye Norman making her Met debut in the roles of both Cassandra and Dido. An eight-hour Centennial Gala concert in two parts followed on October 22, 1983, broadcast on PBS. The gala featured all of the Met's current stars as well as appearances by 26 veteran stars of the Met's the past. Among the artists, Leonard Bernstein and Birgit Nilsson gave their last performances with the company at the concert. The immediate post-Bing era saw a continuing addition of African-Americans to the roster of leading artists. Kathleen Battle, who in 1977 made her Met debut as the Shepherd in Wagner's Tannhäuser, became an important star in lyric soprano roles. Bass-baritone Simon Estes began a prominent Met career with his 1982 debut as Hermann, also in Tannhäuser. Joseph Volpe The model of General Manager as the leading authority in the company returned in 1990 when the company appointed Joseph Volpe. He was the Met's third-longest serving manager, and was the first head of the Met to advance from within the ranks of the company after having started his career there as a carpenter in 1964. During his tenure the Met's international touring activities were expanded and Levine focused on expanding and building the Met's orchestra into a world-class symphonic ensemble with its own Carnegie Hall concert series. Under Volpe the Met considerably expanded its repertory, offering four world premiers and 22 Met premiers, more new works than under any manager since Gatti-Casazza. Volpe chose Valery Gergiev, who was then the chief conductor and artistic director of the Mariinsky Theatre, as Principal Guest Conductor in 1997 and broadened the Met's Russian repertory. Marcelo Álvarez, Gabriela Beňačková, Diana Damrau, Natalie Dessay, Renée Fleming, Juan Diego Flórez, Marcello Giordani, Angela Gheorghiu, Susan Graham, Ben Heppner, Dmitri Hvorostovsky, Salvatore Licitra, Anna Netrebko, René Pape, Neil Rosenshein, Bryn Terfel, and Deborah Voigt were among the artists first heard at the Met under his management. He retired as general manager in 2006. Peter Gelb Joseph Volpe's post was given to Peter Gelb, formerly a record producer. Gelb began outlining his plans in April 2006; these included more new productions each year, ideas for shaving staging costs, and attracting new audiences without deterring existing opera-lovers. Gelb saw these issues as crucial for an organization which is dependent on private financing. Gelb began his tenure by opening the 2006–07 season with a production of Madama Butterfly by the English director Anthony Minghella originally staged for English National Opera. Minghella's highly theatrical concept featured vividly colored banners on a spare stage, allowing the focus to be on the detailed acting of the singers. The abstract concept included casting the son of Cio-Cio San as a bunraku-style puppet, operated in plain sight by three puppeteers clothed in black. Gelb focused on expanding the Met's audience through a number of fronts. Increasing the number of new productions every season to keep the Met's stagings fresh and noteworthy, Gelb partnered with other opera companies to import productions and engaged directors from theater, circus, and film to produce the Met's own original productions. Theater directors Bartlett Sher, Mary Zimmerman, and Jack O'Brien joined the list of the Met's directors along with Stephen Wadsworth, Willy Decker, Laurent Pelly, Luc Bondy and other opera directors to create new stagings for the company. Robert Lepage, the Canadian director of Cirque du Soleil, was engaged by the Met to direct a revival of Der Ring des Nibelungen using hydraulic stage platforms and projected 3D imagery. To further engage new audiences Gelb initiated live high-definition video transmissions to cinemas worldwide, and regular live satellite radio broadcasts on the Met's own SiriusXM radio channel. New stars that emerged during Gelb's tenure include Piotr Beczała, Lawrence Brownlee, Joseph Calleja, Elīna Garanča, Jonas Kaufmann, Mariusz Kwiecień. Debuting conductors included Yannick Nézet-Séguin, Andris Nelsons, and Fabio Luisi. Luisi was named Principal Guest Conductor in 2010 and Principal Conductor in 2011, filling a void created by James Levine's two-year absence due to illness. In 2013, following the severance of the dancers' contracts, Gelb announced that the resident ballet company at the Met would cease to exist. In 2014, Gelb and the Met found new controversy with a production of John Adams's opera The Death of Klinghoffer, due to criticism that the work was antisemitic. In response to the controversy Gelb canceled the scheduled worldwide HD video presentation of a performance, but refused demands to cancel the live performances scheduled for October and November 2014. Demonstrators held signs and chanted "Shame on Gelb". On April 14, 2016, the company announced the conclusion of James Levine's tenure as music director at the conclusion of the 2015–16 season. Gelb announced that Levine would also become Music Director Emeritus. On June 2, the Met board announced the appointment of Yannick Nézet-Séguin, who was then the music director of the Philadelphia Orchestra, as the company's next music director, as of the 2020–2021 season, conducting five productions each season. He took the title of music director-designate, conducting two productions a year, as of the 2017–2018 season. In February 2018, Nézet-Séguin succeeded Levine as music director of the Metropolitan Opera. James Levine controversy In response to a December 2017 news article, the Met announced that it would investigate James Levine with regard to sexual abuse allegations dating back to the 1980s, suspended its ties with Levine, and canceled all upcoming engagements with him. Gelb had been contacted directly by a police detective in October 2016 about allegations of sexual abuse of a minor by Levine, had been aware of the accuser's abuse allegations since they were made in a 2016 police report and of the attendant police investigation, but did not suspend Levine or launch an investigation until over a year later. Following the investigations in March 2018, the Met stated that there was conclusive evidence for "sexually abusive and harassing conduct" by Levine. On March 12, 2018, the company announced the full termination of its relationship with Levine, including the rescinding of his title of music director emeritus and dismissal of him as artistic director of its young artists program. On March 15, 2018, Levine filed suit against the company with the New York State Supreme Court, for breach of contract and defamation, and continued to deny the allegations. In response to the suit, the company has stated: "It is shocking that Mr. Levine has refused to accept responsibility for his actions, and has today instead decided to lash out at the Met with a suit riddled with untruths." On August 7, 2019, The New York Times reported that the Metropolitan Opera and Levine both privately settled their lawsuits. Continuing with the lawsuits "could have put into the public record more details of accusations..." The MET Orchestra Musicians In 2015, The Metropolitan Opera Orchestra Committee formed a separate 501(c)3 organization which does business as 'MET Orchestra Musicians'. When the Metropolitan Opera furloughed its orchestra on April 1, 2020, the orchestra used this organization to fundraise with a goal to give out needs-based grants to its members, associates, music librarians and assistant conductors affiliated with The Metropolitan Opera. As of October 19, 2020, 30% of the orchestra has been forced to move out of New York City due to not being able to afford living costs. Technological innovations Met Titles In 1995, under general manager Joseph Volpe, the Met installed its own system of presenting a scripted version of opera texts designed for the particular needs of the Met and its audiences. Called "Met Titles", the $2.7 million system provides the audience with a script of the opera's text in English on individual screens which face each seat. This system was the first in the world to be placed in an opera house with "each screen (having) a switch to turn it on, a privacy filter to prevent the dim, yellow dot-matrix characters from disturbing nearby viewers and the option to display texts in multiple languages for all productions, (currently German and Spanish) . The custom-designed system features rails of different heights for various sections of the house, individually designed displays for some box seats and commissioned scripts costing up to $8,000 apiece." Owing to the height of the Met's proscenium, it was not feasible to have surtitles displayed above the stage, as is done in most other opera houses. The idea of above-stage titles had been vehemently opposed by then music director James Levine, but the "Met Titles" system has since been acknowledged as an ideal solution, offering texts to only those members of the Met audience who desire them. Surtitlers at the Met have included Sonya Haddad, whose 2004 obituary called her "one of the country's leading practitioners of her art", Cori Ellison and Sonya Friedman. Tessitura software In 1998, Volpe initiated the development of a new software application, now called Tessitura. Tessitura uses a single database of information to record, track and manage all contacts with the Met's constituents, conduct targeted marketing and fund raising appeals, handle all ticketing and membership transactions, and provide detailed and flexible performance reports. Beginning in 2000, Tessitura was offered to other arts organizations under license, and it is now used by a cooperative network of more than 200 opera companies, symphony orchestras, ballet companies, theater companies, performing arts centers, and museums in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland. At the Opera Conference 2016 in Montreal Gelb announced that the Met had commissioned a new ticketing system that would be made available to other institutions. Multimedia Broadcast radio Outside of New York the Met has been known to audiences in large measure through its many years of live radio broadcasts. The Met's broadcast history goes back to January 1910 when radio pioneer Lee de Forest broadcast experimentally, with erratic signal, two live performances from the stage of the Met that were reportedly heard as far away as Newark, New Jersey. Today the annual Met broadcast season typically begins the first week of December and offers twenty live Saturday matinée performances through May. The first network broadcast was heard on December 25, 1931, a performance of Engelbert Humperdinck's Hänsel und Gretel. The series came about as the Met, financially endangered in the early years of the Great Depression, sought to enlarge its audience and support through national exposure on network radio. Initially, those broadcasts featured only parts of operas, being limited to selected acts. Regular broadcasts of complete operas began March 11, 1933, with the transmission of Tristan und Isolde with Frida Leider and Lauritz Melchior. The live broadcasts were originally heard on NBC Radio's Blue Network and continued on the Blue Network's successor, ABC, into the 1960s. As network radio waned, the Met founded its own Metropolitan Opera Radio Network which is now heard on radio stations around the world. In Canada the live broadcasts have been heard since December 1933 first on the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission and, since 1934, on its successor, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation where they are currently heard on CBC Music. Technical quality of the broadcasts steadily improved over the years. FM broadcasts were added in the 1950s, transmitted to stations via telephone lines. Starting with the 1973–74 season, all broadcasts were offered in FM stereo. Satellite technology later allowed uniformly excellent broadcast sound to be sent live worldwide. Sponsorship of the Met broadcasts during the Depression years of the 1930s was sporadic. Early sponsors included the American Tobacco Company, and the Lambert Pharmaceutical Company, but frequently the broadcasts were presented by NBC itself with no commercial sponsor. Sponsorship of the Saturday afternoon broadcasts by The Texas Company (Texaco) began on December 7, 1940, with Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro. Texaco's support continued for 63 years, the longest continuous sponsorship in broadcast history and included the first PBS television broadcasts. After its merger with Chevron, however, the combined company ChevronTexaco ended its sponsorship of the Met's radio network in April 2004. Emergency grants allowed the broadcasts to continue through 2005 when the home building company Toll Brothers became primary sponsor. In the seven decades of its Saturday broadcasts, the Met has been introduced by the voices of only four permanent announcers. Milton Cross served from the inaugural 1931 broadcast until his death in 1975. He was succeeded by Peter Allen, who served for 29 years, through the 2003–04 season. Margaret Juntwait began her tenure as host the following season. From September 2006 through December 2014, Juntwait also served as host for all of the live and recorded broadcasts on the Met's Sirius XM satellite radio channel, Metropolitan Opera Radio. Beginning in January 2015, producer Mary Jo Heath filled in for Juntwait, who was being treated for cancer and died in June 2015. In September 2015 Heath took over as the new permanent host. Opera singer and director Ira Siff has for several years been the commentator along with Juntwait or Heath. Satellite radio Metropolitan Opera Radio is a 24-hour opera channel on Sirius XM Radio, which presents three to four live opera broadcasts each week during the Met's performing season. During other hours it also offers past broadcasts from the Metropolitan Opera radio broadcast archives. The channel was created in September 2006, when the Met initiated a multi-year relationship with Sirius. Margaret Juntwait is the main host and announcer, with William Berger as writer and co-host. Television The Met's experiments with television go back to 1948 when a complete performance of Verdi's Otello was broadcast live on ABC-TV with Ramón Vinay, Licia Albanese, and Leonard Warren. The 1949 season opening night Der Rosenkavalier was also telecast. In the early 1950s the Met tried a short-lived experiment with live closed-circuit television transmissions to movie theaters. The first of these was a performance of Carmen with Risë Stevens which was sent to 31 theaters in 27 US cities on December 11, 1952. Beyond these experiments, however, and an occasional gala or special, the Met did not become a regular presence on television until 1977. In that year the company began a series of live television broadcasts on public television with a wildly successful live telecast of La bohème with Renata Scotto and Luciano Pavarotti. The new series of opera on PBS was called Live from the Metropolitan Opera. This series remained on the air until the early 2000s, although the live broadcasts gave way to taped performances and in 1988 the title was changed to The Metropolitan Opera Presents. Dozens of televised performances were broadcast during the life of the series including an historic complete telecast of Wagner's Ring Cycle in 1989. In 2007 another Met television series debuted on PBS, Great Performances at the Met. This series airs repeat showings of the high-definition video performances produced for the Metropolitan Opera Live in HD cinema series. In addition to complete operas and gala concerts, television programs produced at the Met have included: an episode of Omnibus with Leonard Bernstein (NBC, 1958); Danny Kaye's Look-In at the Metropolitan Opera (CBS, 1975); Sills and Burnett at the Met (CBS, 1976); and the MTV Video Music Awards (1999 and 2001). High-definition video Beginning on December 30, 2006, as part of the company's effort to build revenues and attract new audiences, the Met (along with NCM Fathom) broadcast a series of six performances live via satellite into movie theaters called "Metropolitan Opera: Live in HD". The first broadcast was the Saturday matinee live performance of the 110-minute version of Julie Taymor's production of The Magic Flute. The series was carried in over 100 movie theaters across North America, Japan, Britain and several other European countries. During the 2006–07 season, the series included live HD transmissions of I puritani, The First Emperor, Eugene Onegin, The Barber of Seville, and Il trittico. In addition, limited repeat showings of the operas were offered in most of the presenting cities. Digital sound for the performances was provided by Sirius Satellite Radio. These movie transmissions have received wide and generally favorable press coverage. The Met reports that 91% of available seats were sold for the HD performances. According to General Manager Peter Gelb, there were 60,000 people in cinemas around the world watching the March 24 transmission of The Barber of Seville. The New York Times reported that 324,000 tickets were sold worldwide for the 2006/07 season, while each simulcast cost $850,000 to $1 million to produce. The 2007/08 season began on December 15, 2007, and featured eight of the Met's productions starting with Roméo et Juliette and ending with La fille du régiment on April 26, 2008. The Met planned to broadcast to double the number of theaters in the US as the previous season, as well as to additional countries such as Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. The number of participating venues in the US, which includes movie theatre chains as well as independent theatres and some college campus venues, is 343. while "the scope of the series expands to include more than 700 locations across North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia". By the end of the season 920,000 people—exceeding the total number of people who attended live performances at the Met over the entire season—attended the 8 screenings bringing in a gross of $13.3 million from North America and $5 million from overseas. Internet Year-round, online video and audio of hundreds of complete operas and excerpts are available to viewers via Met Player, the Met Opera's own online archive of recorded performances. Complete operas and selections are also available on the online music service Rhapsody, and for purchase on iTunes. The Metropolitan Opera Radio channel on Sirius XM Radio (see above) is available to listeners via the internet in addition to satellite broadcast. The Met's official site also provides complete composer and background information, detailed plot summaries, and cast and characters for all current and upcoming opera broadcasts, as well as for every opera broadcast since 2000. The Met's online archive database provides links to all Rhapsody, Sirius XM, and Met Player operas, with complete program and cast information. The online archive also provides an exhaustive searchable list of every performance and performer in the Metropolitan Opera's history. COVID-19 pandemic When people's movements were heavily restricted in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Met cancelled the season's remaining performances but live streamed free of charge an opera every day, normally available on paid subscription. On September 23, 2020, the Met announced the cancellation of its entire 2020–2021 season. Opera houses Metropolitan Opera House, Broadway The first Metropolitan Opera House opened on October 22, 1883, with a performance of Faust. It was located at 1411 Broadway between 39th and 40th Streets and was designed by J. Cleaveland Cady. Gutted by fire on August 27, 1892, the theater was immediately rebuilt, reopening in the fall of 1893. Another major renovation was completed in 1903. The theater's interior was extensively redesigned by the architects Carrère and Hastings. The familiar red and gold interior associated with the house dates from this time. The old Met had a seating capacity of 3,625 with an additional 224 standing room places. The theater was noted for its elegance and excellent acoustics and it provided a glamorous home for the company. Its stage facilities, however, were found to be severely inadequate from its earliest days. Over the years many plans for a new opera house were explored and abandoned, including a proposal to incorporate a new Metropolitan Opera House into the construction of Rockefeller Center. It was only with the development of Lincoln Center that the Met was able to build itself a new home. The Met held a lavish farewell gala performance for the old house on April 16, 1966. The theater closed after a short season of ballet later in the spring of 1966 and was demolished in 1967. Metropolitan Opera House, Lincoln Center The present Metropolitan Opera House is located in Lincoln Center at Lincoln Square in the Upper West Side and was designed by architect Wallace K. Harrison. It has a seating capacity of approximately 3,732 with an additional 245 standing room places at the rear of the main floor and the top balcony. As needed, the size of the orchestra pit can be decreased and another row of 35 seats added at the front of the auditorium. The lobby is adorned with two famous murals by Marc Chagall, The Triumph of Music and The Sources of Music. Each of these gigantic paintings measures 30 by 36 feet. After numerous revisions to its design, the new building opened September 16, 1966, with the world premiere of Samuel Barber's Antony and Cleopatra. The theater, while large, is noted for its excellent acoustics. The stage facilities, state of the art when the theater was built, continue to be updated technically and are capable of handling multiple large complex opera productions simultaneously. When the opera company is on hiatus, the Opera House is annually home to the spring season of American Ballet Theatre. It has also hosted visits from other noted opera and ballet companies. Metropolitan Opera House, Philadelphia To provide a home for its regular Tuesday night performances in Philadelphia, the Met purchased an opera house originally built in 1908 by Oscar Hammerstein I, the Philadelphia Opera House at North Broad and Poplar Streets. Renamed the Metropolitan Opera House, the theater was operated by the Met from 1910 until it sold the house in April 1920. The Met debuted at its new Philadelphia home on December 13, 1910, with a performance of Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser starring Leo Slezak and Olive Fremstad. The Philadelphia Met was designed by noted theater architect William H. McElfatrick and had a seating capacity of approximately 4,000. The theater still stands and currently functions as a church and community arts center. Principal conductors In the Met's inaugural season of 1883–1884, Auguste Vianesi, who conducted most of the performances that season including the opening night, was listed in the playbills as "Musical Director and Conductor"; thereafter, the Met did not have another officially designated "music director" until Rafael Kubelík in 1973. However, a number of the Met's conductors have assumed a strong leadership role at different times in the company's history. They set artistic standards and influenced the quality and performance style of the orchestra, but without any official title. The Met has also had many famed guest conductors who are not listed here. Anton Seidl (1885–97) Walter Damrosch (1884–1902) Alfred Hertz (1902–15, leading conductor of German repertory) Gustav Mahler (1908–10) Arturo Toscanini (1908–15) Artur Bodanzky (1915–39, leading conductor of German repertory) Tullio Serafin (1924–34) Fausto Cleva (1931–71) Bruno Walter (1941–51, 1956, 1959) Ettore Panizza (1934–42, leading conductor of Italian repertory) Erich Leinsdorf (1938–42, leading conductor of German repertory) George Szell (1942–46) Cesare Sodero (1942–47) Fritz Busch (1945–49) Fritz Reiner (1949–53) Dimitri Mitropoulos (1954–60) Erich Leinsdorf (1957–62) Kurt Adler (1943–73, chorus master and conductor) Rafael Kubelík (music director 1973–74) James Levine (music director 1976–2016; artistic director 1986–2004; music director emeritus 2016–2017) Valery Gergiev (principal guest conductor 1997–2008) Fabio Luisi (principal guest conductor 2010–2011; principal conductor 2011–2017) Yannick Nézet-Séguin (music director 2018–) Deaths at the Met Over the years, a number of deaths have occurred at the Metropolitan Opera House. On February 10, 1897, French bass Armand Castelmary suffered a heart attack onstage in the finale of act one of Flotow's Martha. He died in the arms of his friend, tenor Jean de Reszke, after the curtain was brought down. The performance resumed with Giuseppe Cernusco substituting in the role of Sir Tristram. On May 10, 1935, Herbert Witherspoon, the incoming General Manager suffered a heart attack and died at his desk. On March 4, 1960, leading baritone Leonard Warren died of a heart attack onstage after completing the aria "Urna fatale" in act two of Verdi's La forza del destino. On April 30, 1977, Betty Stone, a member of the Met chorus, was killed in an accident offstage during a tour performance of Il trovatore in Cleveland. On July 23, 1980, Helen Hagnes Mintiks, a 30-year-old Canadian-born violinist, was murdered by Met stagehand Craig Crimmins during the intermission of a performance of the Berlin Ballet. The event was cited by numerous publications as "The Phantom of the Opera" murder. On January 5, 1996, tenor Richard Versalle died while playing the role of Vitek during the production of Leoš Janáček's The Makropulos Case. Versalle was climbing a ladder in the opening scene when he suffered a heart attack and fell to the stage. In addition, several audience members have died at the Met. The most widely known incident was the suicide of operagoer Bantcho Bantchevsky on January 23, 1988, during an intermission of Verdi's Macbeth. Finances and marketing The company's annual operating budget for the 2011–12 season was $325 million, of which $182 million (43%) comes from private donations. The total potential audience across a season is 800,000 seats. The average audience rate for the 3800-seat theater in 2011 was 79.2%, down from a peak of 88% in 2009. Beyond performing in the opera house in New York, the Met has gradually expanded its audience over the years through technology. It has broadcast regularly on radio since 1931 and on television since 1977. In 2006, the Met began live satellite radio and internet broadcasts as well as live high-definition video transmissions presented in cinemas throughout the world. In 2011, the total HD audience reached 3 million through 1600 theaters worldwide. In 2014, according to Wheeler Winston Dixon, high ticket prices are making it difficult for average people to attend performances. Notes References Further reading External links Metropolitan Opera Association History of Metropolitan Opera Association Vintage postcards of the Met Metropolitan Opera History Met Opera Radio on Sirius XM The Metropolitan Opera at Google Arts & Culture "The New Stage of the Metropolitan Opera House, Rebuilt for the Production of Parsifal" Scientific American (1904). 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216644	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleurothallis	Pleurothallis	Pleurothallis is a genus of orchids commonly called bonnet orchids. The genus name is derived from the Greek word , meaning "riblike branches". This refers to the rib-like stems of many species. The genus is often abbreviated as "Pths" in horticultural trade. This was a huge genus, which used to contain more than 1,200 species - the second largest in the Orchidaceae after Bulbophyllum. In 2004, it decreased by more than half when many species were moved into new genera. Distribution Pleurothallis is a completely New World group, widespread across much of Mexico, Central America, South America and the West Indies. Flora of North America lists one species in Florida (P. gelina) but this has now been transferred to a different genus, Stelis. The center of diversity of the genus is in the high Andes, especially in the chain of cloud forests in Colombia. Pleurothallis grows in dry or wet, tropical or temperate climates. Description As a group they show a huge range in vegetative form, terrestrial or epiphytic, and can be found as tall cane-like plants a metre or so high, clumped or trailing, pendent or climbing, erect or creeping, tufted and tiny, delicate moss-like species that can grow on the thinnest of twigs. But they have one common denominator: they all have two pollinia. They have reduced their pseudobulbs and instead, some species have thick succulent leaves. Their flowers are among the most diverse and unusual, although often very small, and specialize in using tiny insects such as gnats or small wasps for pollination. Taxonomy To bring some order in this extremely diverse genus, 29 subgenera and 25 sections had been created. Much of this work has been done by Dr. C. Luer of the Missouri Botanical Garden. A new analysis, based on DNA testing, confirmed on the whole the classification of the subtribe Pleurothallidinae, with however Pleurothallis as the main difference. New genetic insight broke up this huge genus and made it more consistent with the principles of monophyletic genera and evolutionary relationships. Several times before, a splitting up has been attempted, but there were always too many intermediate forms. In 2004 the genera Acianthera, Ancipitia, Antilla, Apoda-prorepentia, Areldia, Atopoglossum, Brenesia, Crocodeilanthe were created, incorporating a large number of former Pleurothallis species. The subgenera Pleurothallis and Specklinia are becoming separate genera, and the subgenus Acuminatae might become the proposed genus Anathallis. Other allied genera include Dracula, Masdevallia, Restrepia, and Stelis. Species , Kew's Plants of the World Online listed around 540 species in the genus. Selected species include: References Luer, Carlyle; 1986 - Icones Pleurothallidinarum III: Systematics of Pleurothallis (Orchidaceae); Missouri Botanical Garden Press. 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216646	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasin%20al-Hashimi	Yasin al-Hashimi	Yasin al-Hashimi, born Yasin Hilmi Salman (‎; 1884–21 January 1937), was an Iraqi politician who twice served as the prime minister. Like many of Iraq's early leaders, al-Hashimi served as a military officer during Ottoman control of the country. He made his political debut under the government of his predecessor, Jafar al-Askari, and replaced him as prime minister shortly after, in August 1924. Al-Hashimi served for ten months before he was replaced, in turn by Abd al-Muhsin as-Sa'dun. Over the next ten years he filled a variety of governmental positions finally returning to the office of prime minister in March 1935. On 30 October 1936, Hashimi became the first Iraqi prime minister to be deposed in a coup, which was led by General Bakr Sidqi and a coalition of ethnic minorities. Unlike al-Askari, who was then his minister of defense, al-Hashimi survived the coup and made his way to Damascus, Syria, where he died three months later. His older brother and close ally, Taha al-Hashimi, served as Prime Minister of Iraq in 1941. Early life and family Al-Hashimi was born as "Yasin Hilmi" in Baghdad in 1884, during Ottoman rule. His father, Sayyid Salman, was the mukhtar (headman) of the Barudiyya Quarter of Baghdad and claimed descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The family was middle class, Sunni Muslim and ethnically Arab, although the family's claim of Arab descent has been disputed. According to historian Muhammad Y. Muslih, the family were descendants of the Turkish Karawiyya tribe that settled in Iraq in the 17th century. Military career Ottoman service He enrolled into the Ottoman Military Academy of Istanbul and graduated in 1902. During his time in the academy, he adopted the nisba (surname) "al-Hashimi" in reference to the religiously prestigious Banu Hashim tribe of Muhammad, from which his family claimed descent. He performed well at the academy and was recognized for his military skills. In 1913 he was stationed in Mosul and joined al-Ahd, an underground Arab nationalist society composed of Ottoman Arab officers. The branch in Mosul had been founded by al-Hashimi's brother Taha and was led by al-Hashimi. Among the officers under al-Hashimi's command were future Iraqi statesmen and military figures, including Mawlad Mukhlis, Ali Jawdat al-Aiyubi and Jamil al-Midfai. Through al-Hashimi as a liaison, al-Ahd developed relations with al-Fatat, an underground Arab nationalist society based in Damascus, which al-Hashimi joined in 1915 during a trip to Syria following the outbreak of World War I. Al-Fatat was allied with Emir Faisal, a leader of the Sharifian Army and a contender for establishing a monarchy over a united state consisting of the Ottomans' Arab territories. He was loyal to the Ottomans throughout World War I, during which the Ottomans were part of the Central Powers alliance. While he was based in Tulkarm, al-Hashimi was asked by Faisal to join the Sharifian Army, but he refused, stating he could not abandon his military duties. Despite his Arab nationalist affiliations, he opposed a plot by the nationalists to kill Jamal Pasha, despite his awareness that Jamal Pasha was intent on crushing the Arab nationalist movement. In 1917, he commanded an Ottoman division at Galicia during the Russian offensive. He was recognized for his successes against the Russians during that campaign, including by German Emperor Wilhelm II, and subsequently promoted to major general. In 1918 al-Hashimi was assigned as the commander of the Ottoman Fourth Army garrison in Tulkarm. That year, in the spring, he commanded Ottoman troops against the British-led offensive in Amman and al-Salt. He was wounded during these battles and sent to Damascus to recover. The British and their Arab allies in the Sharifian Army defeated the Ottomans and an armistice was concluded in October 1918. He attempted to resume his service in the Ottoman Army, but was refused because he did not apply for readmission within a year of the armistice. Chief of Staff of the Arab Army Al-Hashimi's refusal to join Faisal's army came despite promises of support he gave to Faisal in 1915. Of all the personalities Faisal met in his 1915 Damascus trip, it was al-Hashimi's assertion of support at the home of Nasib al-Bakri that convinced Faisal to launch the revolt. As the chief of staff of mostly Arab units in the Ottomans' Arab provinces, al-Hashimi's word carried weight and when Faisal offered to support al-Hashimi's units with Hejazi tribal fighters, al-Hashimi replied that he had "no need of them", but just wanted Faisal "to lead us and be in the vanguard". After Faisal's entry into Damascus in October 1918 and the setting up of a provisional Arab government under his leadership, Faisal appointed al-Hashimi as President of the Military Council. He was also given the additional office of Secretary of Military Affairs and was charged with the recruitment of volunteers into the newly formed Arab Army to counter potential challenges by the French, who sought to rule Syria. At this time al-Hashimi assumed leadership over al-Ahd's Iraqi-dominated wing, which gave him further control over many Iraqi ex-Ottoman officers. Under his leadership, al-Ahd began a vociferous campaign opposed to French and British rule in Syria and Mesopotamia, respectively. Without coordinating with Faisal and after the latter left for Europe for negotiations with the European powers, al-Hashimi launched a mass conscription campaign aimed at adding 12,000 new troops to the Arab Army. The French requested al-Hashimi's arrest for his recruitment drive, but the British refused. However, British General Edmund Allenby managed to end al-Hashimi's efforts, which were disavowed by Faisal's government. Al-Hashimi soon re-launched efforts to recruit Arab soldiers, but at a more clandestine level, and was boosted by Sheikh Kamil al-Qassab's drive to create popular militias in Damascus and throughout the country. Al-Hashimi's actions were driven by a desire to boost his nationalist credentials to compensate for his previous hesitance to join Faisal's army, and as a means to gain more power. He became the clear leader of the ardent Arab nationalist camp and was accused by the British of coordinating with Turkish General Mustafa Kemal on ending European control in Syria in pursuit of personal power. Arrest by the British and return to Syria In late November 1919, al-Hashimi was arrested by the British military for recruiting soldiers to resist the French in the Beqaa Valley, suspicions that he was in contact with Mustafa Kemal, who was fighting the French in Turkey, and for leading an anti-British propaganda campaign in Iraq. Al-Hashimi's arrest was not formal; rather, he was kidnapped by British authorities after being invited to the British military headquarters in Mezzeh for a meeting and then taken to Haifa, after which he was moved to different places in Palestine under strict British supervision. His arrest precipitated a crisis in Faisal's government and provoked protests and riots in Damascus. The British military had been present in Syria since October 1918, but after agreements with the French, who were to assume a mandate over Syria, the British withdrew in December 1919. The loss of British protection left Faisal's government more vulnerable to a French takeover. War Minister Yusuf al-'Azma replaced al-Hashimi following his arrest. The British authorities informed Faisal that they arrested al-Hashimi for attempting to create a republic and overthrow Faisal and his government; al-Hashimi had grown powerful and had wielded more influence over the army than Faisal. The Syrian National Congress condemned al-Hashimi's arrest and condemned Prime Minister Ali Rida al-Rikabi for his apparent apathetic attitude to the arrest. Al-Rikabi held a more conciliatory view toward the European powers and was ultimately pressured to resign on 10 December. Al-Hashimi was allowed to return to Syria via Egypt in early May 1920. By then, a French offensive to capture Damascus was impending. Al-Hashimi was tasked by Faisal, who declared himself King of the Arab Kingdom of Syria in March 1920, with inspecting the state of the Arab Army under al-'Azma's command. Upon inspecting the Arab troops, al-Hashimi concluded that they were not prepared to confront an invasion by the militarily superior French forces. Al-Hashimi particularly noted the lack of arms and that the Arab Army's soldiers only possessed enough ammunition to fight for two hours. He refused an assignment by Faisal to command the Arab Army's post at Majdal Anjar in the Beqaa Valley and also turned down a request to resume his position as chief-of-staff due to the precarious position of the army. In response to Faisal's inquiry about the cause of the lack of arms and ammunition, al-Hashimi responded that the French were in control of Syria's ports, the British controlled Palestine, the Transjordan region, and Iraq, and the Turks were occupied by their war in Anatolia, and thus Syria was effectively blocked from importing weaponry. In a meeting of the army's General Staff, al-'Azma rejected al-Hashimi's assessment and accused him of bitterness as a result of his secondary role in the army. Ultimately, however, al-'Azma and the General Staff officers understood the weak state of the army. French forces launched their offensive in mid-July, and al-'Azma decided to rally whatever troops and local volunteers he could assemble to confront the French. Al-Hashimi, firmly believing that the Arab Army could not hold out against the French, remained in Damascus, while al-'Azma's forces encountered the French in what became known as the Battle of Maysalun. The Arabs were decisively defeated, al-'Azma was killed and the French entered Damascus on 25 July. Political career in Iraq Governor of Muntafiq In March 1922, al-Hashimi arrived in Baghdad, where Faisal had been relocated and assumed power as King of Iraq. In June 1922, Faisal assigned al-Hashimi as Mutassarif (Governor) of Liwa Muntafiq (Muntafiq Province). He was subsequently posted at the capital of the province, an-Nasiriyah. Al-Hashimi was offered a position in Prime Minister Ja'far al-'Askari's cabinet in October 1923, but after he stated that he could not guarantee his support for the 1922 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, the offer was withdrawn. Al-Hashimi ultimately agreed to recognize the treaty and was appointed to the cabinet in November. First premiership During the 25 January 1924 constituent assembly election, al-Hashimi won a seat in the assembly. Opposition to the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty became evident in the constituent assembly and protests by Iraqi lawyers were held opposing the treaty. According to Gertrude Bell, al-Hashimi, who chaired a special committee to examine and publish an opinion about the treaty, instigated the protests. According to historian Ali al-Allawi, al-Hashimi used his position on the committee "to undermine al-'Askari's cabinet and show it up as a feeble and incompetent government, unable to shepherd the country through trying times." The constituent assembly was dissolved on 24 August 1924, following the completion of its main mission, the negotiation and passing of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty. Al-'Askari's cabinet resigned on the same day and Faisal appointed al-Hashimi as prime minister. Although Faisal's British advisors were wary of al-Hashimi and his loyalties, they acceded to Faisal's decision, which was partly motivated by a desire to keep an influential figure like al-Hashimi in Faisal's governing party instead of in the opposition. As prime minister, al-Hashimi appointed himself the defense minister and foreign affairs minister. Faisal, as commander-in-chief of the military, countered al-Hashimi's appointment to the defense ministry, by assigning loyalist Nuri as-Said as deputy commander of the military. Another of Faisal's motivations in appointing al-Hashimi was his view that al-Hashimi's ardent nationalist position made him well-suited to handle the Turkish-Iraqi territorial dispute over the former Mosul Vilayet. At the time of al-Hashimi's appointment, the Turkish government agreed to allow the League of Nations to send a commission to then-British-held Mosul to determine which country its inhabitants favored joining and to make recommendations regarding a final settlement of the territorial dispute. The commission decided in July 1925 that Mosul should remain part of Iraq, that Iraq should remain under British Mandatory rule for 25 years and that Kurdish cultural rights and self-administration be recognized by the Iraqi state. Al-Hashimi was replaced by Abd al-Muhsin as-Sa'dun in June. Al-Hashimi opposed as-Sa'dun's government and in November 1925 founded the People's Party (hizb ash-sha'b) to garner opposition to the administration. The People's Party opposed British Mandatory rule and pressed for independence and reform. Formation of National Brotherhood Party In 1930, the Iraqi and British governments began the renegotiation of the Anglo-Iraqi treaty and as a result, the political climate in Iraq became highly charged between the faction calling for gradual independence and cooperation with Britain and those who favored swift independence from Britain. Al-Hashimi was among the principal leaders of the latter camp, while Prime Minister as-Said led the former. As-Said formed the Covenant Party (hizb al-ahd), a symbolic nod to the al-Ahd society, to rally support for his policies. Al-Hashimi, meanwhile, sought to muster opposition against as-Said and British rule, establishing the National Brotherhood Party (hizb al-ikha' al-watani) after uniting his People's Party with Ja'far Abu Timman's National Party (hizb al-watani). According to historian Charles Tripp, the party was formed as an "alliance between two disparate personalities [al-Hashimi and Abu Timman] and linked two parties which drew on different sections of Iraqi society for their support"; the People's Party was largely composed of Sunni Muslim Arabs who had work experience in the Ottoman and Iraqi states, while the National Party mostly consisted of educated, urban Shia Muslim Arab laymen with links to the rural Shia tribal sheikhs. Subsequent to Iraq's accession to the League of Nations, King Faisal, in pursuit of domestic reform and consolidation, tried to give opposition groups greater voice in the parliament and cabinet. Thus, the National Brotherhood Party was allowed into power. However, its forfeiture of demands concerning the Ango-Iraqi Treaty and callous management of the Assyrian Affair lost it credence with other reformist groups—particularly many from the National Party. In 1932 Iraq gained its independence from Great Britain and about a year later King Faisal died and was replaced by his son Ghazi. Al-Hashimi's party lost power with Ghazi's accession, and owing to the failure of traditional methods. In succession, he appointed Rashid Ali al-Gaylani, al-Midfai and al-Aiyubi as prime ministers between 1933 and 1935. During al-Aiyubi's premiership, he successfully lobbied King Ghazi to dismiss parliament and he then rigged the parliamentary elections and significantly reduced the National Brotherhood Party's representation. In January 1935, a series of Shia tribal uprisings against the government began. Part of the tribesmen's demands were that al-Aiyubi resign, which he did when Hikmat Sulayman of the National Brotherhood instructed his ally, General Bakr Sidqi, to withhold military action against the tribesmen. Afterward, al-Hashimi lent his support to the Shia tribal rebellion in Diwaniya against al-Aiyubi's successor, al-Midfai. Al-Hashimi instructed his brother and the army chief of staff, Taha, to not suppress the revolts. Second premiership With Taha's withholding of action against the tribal rebels, al-Midfai became convinced that Taha and al-Hashimi had conspired against the government and he consequently resigned. With the uprisings in full swing, King Ghazi appointed al-Hashimi, who was seen as the only person who could stabilize the country, as prime minister in March 1935. The uprisings largely dissipated a week into al-Hashimi's appointment. In April, the National Brotherhood Party dissolved itself. In order to coopt the tribal sheikhs who participated in the uprising, al-Hashimi maneuvered to guarantee many of the sheikhs entry into parliament in the August 1935 elections. Thereafter, the sheikhs became key supporters of al-Hashimi as he became their political patron. Tensions between the government and the tribes remained regarding the issue of conscription, which the latter opposed and the former strongly advocated. When al-Hashimi had the conscription law passed, a Yazidi revolt broke out in Jabal Sinjar against the measure in October. Al-Hashimi declared martial law in Jabal Sinjar and had the revolt suppressed, resulting in the deaths or imprisonment of hundreds of Yazidis and the destruction of several villages. Despite the revolt's suppression, the Yazidi population continued to evade conscription orders. Prior to the Yazidi revolt, armed disturbances in the Kurdish-dominated north of the country in August related to intra-tribal divisions and opposition to conscription was ordered to be quelled by al-Hashimi. The Kurdish rising would come to an end in March 1936. A similar uprising by Shia tribes in the lower Euphrates region was also quelled at roughly the same time. According to Tripp, under the leadership of al-Hashimi and General Sidqi, the Iraqi army "crush[ed] the rebellions with a now characteristic ruthlessness". Al-Hashimi's Arab nationalist credentials during his second premiership were strong enough that he became known as the "Bismark of the Arabs" in Arab nationalist circles. Al-Hashimi's tenure as prime minister, particularly in 1936, led to growing dissent and resentment among the ruling elite, including King Ghazi and his former ally Hikmat Sulayman. During the course of 1936, al-Hashimi largely ruled by decree, expanded the police forces and intelligence agencies, and repressed any public disapproval of his government. To the latter end, he shut down the Al-Ahali newspaper for publishing criticism of his premiership and prevented demonstrations against his government in Baghdad. He also believed that tribal revolts in some of the country's provinces were being coordinated with his political opponents, and used General Sidqi to harshly put them down. Al-Hashimi's actions and method of rule fueled disaffection within the army's ranks. By late 1936, General Sidqi, frustrated at not being promoted, also grew resentful of al-Hashimi and attributed his lack of hierarchical elevation to al-Hashimi's brother, Chief of Staff Taha. Sidqi and Sulaymani conspired to topple al-Hashimi. They made their move when Taha left for a visit to Turkey and appointed Sidqi as acting chief of staff. Using his interim position, Sidqi had his army units enter Baghdad in a show of force under the banner of the "National Reform Force", while having leaflets dropped over the city informing residents that the Iraqi Army had instructed King Ghazi to dismiss al-Hashimi and replace him with Sulayman. King Ghazi had likely been informed of the impending coup d'état against al-Hashimi and lent his quiet support by forbidding any resistance against the army. He did not dismiss al-Hashimi until the latter submitted his resignation following air force bombardment in the vicinity of his office. Sulayman was then appointed by King Ghazi as prime minister. Death Al-Hashimi was exiled from Iraq following the 1936 Bakr Sidqi coup and moved to Lebanon, then under French Mandatory rule. On the morning of 21 January 1937, al-Hashimi died in a Beirut hospital in the presence of his brother Taha after experiencing two heart attacks. Immediately after his death, his doctor sent telegrams informing numerous Arab leaders and organizations, including King Ghazi, Emir Abdullah I of Transjordan, Amin al-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, the government of Egypt and the National Bloc of Syria. The al-Hashimi family requested from King Ghazi that al-Hashimi be buried in Iraq, but after initial hesitation from the Iraqi government, a group of Lebanese dignitaries advised the family to instead have al-Hashimi buried in Damascus. Doctors from the American University in Beirut (AUB) embalmed al-Hashimi's body and the Syrian authorities prepared a burial plot for the body adjacent to the Mausoleum of Saladin. Funeral On the morning of 22 January, the first leg of al-Hashimi's funeral procession began, with his Arab flag-draped coffin being carried by students of the AUB from his home in Ras Beirut toward the Omari Mosque in the city. The procession in Lebanon was led by the Muslim Boy Scouts and the Lebanese police force and included Lebanese dignitaries, Taha al-Hashimi, the consuls of Iraq and Saudi Arabia, and a Damascene delegation led by parliament member Fakhri al-Barudi. A prayer was then held at the Omari Mosque and an AUB student read a poem dedicated to al-Hashimi. Non-Muslim Lebanese dignitaries also attended the prayer, including former Prime Minister Beshara al-Khoury. From the Omari Mosque, al-Hashimi's body was transported to Damascus. Prior to its arrival to the city, the funeral cortege made a symbolic stop in Maysalun, at the tomb of Yusuf al-Azma, to commemorate the fallen Arab soldiers and volunteers who died in the battle against the French. Al-Hashimi's cortege was greeted by thousands of spectators once it arrived in Damascus, with reports from the local Al-Qabas newspaper reporting that the number of participants in the city was unprecedented. Participants in the procession, included Boy Scouts, Orthodox Boy Scouts, Kurdish Boy Scouts, Iron Shirts (a youth movement affiliated with the National Bloc founded by al-Barudi), the youth movement of the League of National Action, students from the Syrian University and Damascene secondary schools, police units, and large crowds of residents. Also in attendance was Prime Minister Jamil Mardam Bey, the British vice consul, the Saudi consul, representatives of the various Christian patriarchates, the leader of the Damascene Jewish community, Palestinian leaders Izzat Darwaza and Akram Zuaiter. Prior to the Damascus procession, the Iraqi government communicated its approval of interring al-Hashimi's body in Baghdad after mourning ceremonies in Beirut and Damascus, but forbade Taha's participation in the final funeral procession. The al-Hashimi family accepted the Iraqi government's conditions. However, following the funeral procession in Damascus, disagreements between the Iraqi and Syrian governments prevented al-Hashimi's body from being transported to its intended final resting place in Baghdad. The Syrian government denied that there was a conflict with the Iraqi government and cited unsuitable road conditions due to heavy rainfall as the reason al-Hashimi's body could not be transported to Baghdad, but it is well known that the mutual antagonism between the two governments precluded the al-Hashimi family's initial wishes for al-Hashimi's burial. Al-Hashimi was laid in state at the shrine of Husayn ibn Ali in the courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. On 27 January, al-Hashimi's family agreed to have him buried at the Mausoleum of Saladin, adjacent to the Umayyad Mosque. References Bibliography 1884 births 1937 deaths Iraqi Arab nationalists Leaders ousted by a coup Ottoman Arab nationalists Arabs of the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Army generals Ottoman Military Academy alumni Ottoman Military College alumni Ottoman military personnel of World War I Pashas Party of National Brotherhood politicians People from Baghdad Prime Ministers of Iraq Finance ministers of Iraq	[ -0.11325497925281525, 0.5686935782432556, -0.7874438166618347, -0.174531489610672, -0.9140040278434753, 0.4747445285320282, 0.2422814667224884, -0.20251792669296265, -0.19462008774280548, -0.2028523087501526, -0.3828640282154083, 0.40288442373275757, -0.7761671543121338, 0.6644856333732605, 0.11640291661024094, -0.13876518607139587, -0.14089426398277283, 0.3061481714248657, -0.6565035581588745, 0.5950710773468018, -0.0659620612859726, 0.16264575719833374, 0.33394908905029297, -0.2811840772628784, -0.025023220106959343, 0.3683309555053711, 0.6108405590057373, -0.010274363681674004, 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216650	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrimagnetism	Ferrimagnetism	A ferrimagnetic material is a material that has populations of atoms with opposing magnetic moments, as in antiferromagnetism. For ferrimagnetic materials, these moments are unequal in magnitude so a spontaneous magnetization remains. This can for example occur when the populations consist of different atoms or ions (such as Fe2+ and Fe3+). Ferrimagnetism has often been confused with ferromagnetism. The oldest known magnetic substance, magnetite (Fe3O4), was classified as a ferromagnet before Louis Néel discovered ferrimagnetism in 1948. Since the discovery, numerous uses have been found for ferrimagnetic materials, such as hard drive platters and biomedical applications. History Until the twentieth century, all naturally occurring magnetic substances were called ferromagnets. In 1936, Louis Néel published a paper proposing the existence of a new form of cooperative magnetism he called antiferromagnetism. While working with Mn2Sb, French physicist Charles Guillaud discovered that the current theories on magnetism were not adequate to explain the behavior of the material, and made a model to explain the behavior. In 1948, Néel published a paper about a third type of cooperative magnetism, based on the assumptions in Guillaud's model. He called it ferrimagnetism. In 1970, Néels was awarded for his work in magnetism with the Nobel Prize in Physics. Physical origin Ferrimagnetism has the same physical origins as ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism. In ferrimagnetic materials the magnetization is also caused by a combination of dipole-dipole interactions and exchange interactions resulting from the Pauli exclusion principle. The main difference is that in ferrimagnetic materials there are different types of atoms in the material's unit cell. An example of this can be seen the figure on the right. Here the atoms with a smaller magnetic moment point in the opposite direction of the larger moments. This arrangement is similar to that present in antiferromagnetic materials, but in ferrimagnetic materials the net moment is nonzero because the opposed moments differ in magnitude. Ferrimagnets have a critical temperature above which they become paramagnetic just as ferromagnets do. At this temperature (called the Curie temperature) there is a second order phase transition and the system can no longer maintain a spontaneous magnetization. This is because at higher temperatures the thermal motion is strong enough that it exceeds the tendency of the dipoles to align. Derivation There are various ways to describe ferrimagnets, the simplest of which is with mean-field theory. In mean-field theory the field acting on the atoms can be written as: Where is the applied magnetic field field and is field caused by the interactions between the atoms. The following assumption then is: Here is the average magnetization of the lattice and is the molecular field coefficient. When we allow and to be position and orientation dependent we can then write it in the form: Here is the field acting on the ith substructure and is the molecular field coefficient between the ith and the kth substructure. For a diatomic lattice we can designate two types of sites, A and B. We can designate the number of magnetic ions per unit volume, the fraction of the magnetic ions on the A sites, and the fraction on the B sites. This then gives: It can be shown that and that unless the structures are identical. favors a parallel alignment of and , while favors an anti-parallel alignment. For ferrimagnets, , so it will be convenient to take as a positive quantity and write the minus sign explicitly in front of it. For the total fields on A and B this then gives: Furthermore we will introduce the parameters and which give the ratio between the strengths of the interactions. At last we will introduce the reduced magnetizations: with the spin of the ith element. This then gives for the fields: The solutions to these equations (omitted here) are then given by where is the Brillouin function. The simplest case to solve now is . Since . This then gives the following pair of equations: with and . These equations do not have a known analytical solution, so they must be solved numerically to find the temperature dependence of . Effects of temperature Unlike ferromagnetism, the shapes of the magnetization curves of ferrimagnetism can take many different shapes depending on the strength of the interactions and the relative abundance of atoms. The most notable instances of this property are that the direction of magnetization can reverse while heating a ferrimagnetic material from absolute zero to its critical temperature, and that strength of magnetization can increase while heating a ferrimagnetic material to the critical temperature, both of which cannot occur for ferromagnetic materials. These temperature dependencies have also been experimentally observed in NiFe2/5Cr8/5O4 and Li1/2Fe5/4Ce5/4O4. A temperature lower than the Curie temperature, but at which the opposing magnetic moments are equal (resulting in a net magnetic moment of zero) is called a magnetization compensation point. This compensation point is observed easily in garnets and rare-earth–transition-metal alloys (RE-TM). Furthermore, ferrimagnets may also have an angular momentum compensation point, at which the net angular momentum vanishes. This compensation point is a crucial point for achieving high speed magnetization reversal in magnetic memory devices. Effect of external fields When ferrimagnets are exposed to an external magnetic field, they display what is called magnetic hysteresis, where magnetic behavior depends on the history of the magnet. They also exhibit a saturation magnetization ; this magnetization is reached when the external field is strong enough to make all the moments align in the same direction. When this point is reached, the magnetization cannot increase as there are no more moments to align. When the external field is removed, the magnetization of the ferrimagnet will not disappear but a nonzero magnetization will remain. This is effect is often used in applications of magnets. If an external field in the opposite direction is applied subsequently, the magnet will demagnetize further until it eventually reaches a magnetization of . This behavior results in what is called a hysteresis loop. Properties and uses Ferrimagnetic materials have high resistivity and have anisotropic properties. The anisotropy is actually induced by an external applied field. When this applied field aligns with the magnetic dipoles, it causes a net magnetic dipole moment and causes the magnetic dipoles to precess at a frequency controlled by the applied field, called Larmor or precession frequency. As a particular example, a microwave signal circularly polarized in the same direction as this precession strongly interacts with the magnetic dipole moments; when it is polarized in the opposite direction, the interaction is very low. When the interaction is strong, the microwave signal can pass through the material. This directional property is used in the construction of microwave devices like isolators, circulators, and gyrators. Ferrimagnetic materials are also used to produce optical isolators and circulators. Ferrimagnetic minerals in various rock types are used to study ancient geomagnetic properties of Earth and other planets. That field of study is known as paleomagnetism. In addition, it has been shown that ferrimagnets such as magnetite can be used for thermal energy storage. Examples The oldest known magnetic material, magnetite, is a ferrimagnetic substance. The tetrahedral and octahedral sites of its crystal structure exhibit opposite spin. Other known ferrimagnetic materials include yttrium iron garnet (YIG); cubic ferrites composed of iron oxides with other elements such as aluminum, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and zinc; and hexagonal or spinel type ferrites, including Rhenium Ferrite, ReFe2O4, PbFe12O19 and BaFe12O19 and pyrrhotite, Fe1−xS. Ferrimagnetism can also occur in single-molecule magnets. A classic example is a dodecanuclear manganese molecule with an effective spin S = 10 derived from antiferromagnetic interaction on Mn(IV) metal centers with Mn(III) and Mn(II) metal centers. See also References External links Magnetic ordering Quantum phases	[ 0.3536151945590973, 0.27552300691604614, 0.002584784524515271, -0.01326694805175066, -0.7241988182067871, -0.36434853076934814, 0.20193278789520264, -0.42226290702819824, -0.2003040760755539, -0.5285009145736694, -0.5298194289207458, 0.33997905254364014, -0.5351850390434265, 0.6400740146636963, -0.04000179469585419, 0.6530072689056396, 0.36802777647972107, 0.6325291395187378, -0.6589717864990234, -0.3127981424331665, -0.03447526693344116, -0.016792628914117813, 0.7285388112068176, -0.2724283039569855, 0.17809726297855377, -0.5228381156921387, 0.16179919242858887, -0.06856624782085419, 0.5019823312759399, 0.49773645401000977, -0.246538445353508, 1.0915027856826782, -0.1905847191810608, 0.19126540422439575, 0.26178768277168274, 0.2712315320968628, 0.27285853028297424, -0.15286140143871307, 0.21171997487545013, -0.42300719022750854, 0.8538039326667786, -0.07766649127006531, 0.3892520070075989, 0.605956494808197, 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216655	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20universities%20and%20colleges%20in%20Sweden	List of universities and colleges in Sweden	This list of universities in Sweden is based on the Higher Education Ordinance of 1993 (as amended until January 2006). With few exceptions, all higher education in Sweden is publicly funded. The Swedish higher education system differentiates between universitet and högskola (university and university college respectively). The universities are research-oriented and may award Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctor's degrees in many academic fields, whereas the högskolor usually are more focused on applied sciences, and only have limited rights granting doctor's degrees. Note, however, that some universities still call themselves högskola in Swedish, mainly older specialised institutions in engineering and medicine (for instance KTH Royal Institute of Technology is called "Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan" and Chalmers University of Technology is called "Chalmers Tekniska Högskola"). Also, both proper universities and högskolor translate their official names to "university" in English, where in the latter case "university college" would be more correct. Public universities The order of precedence is based on their year of establishment as a university. Only Uppsala University (est. 1477) and Lund University (est. 1666) were actually founded as universities, whereas all the other universities were raised from högskola (university college) status to the higher university status after they had been founded. Two universities founded under Swedish rule, the University of Tartu from 1632 (now in Estonia) and the Royal Academy of Turku from 1640 (later established as University of Helsinki, now in Finland), as well as the University of Greifswald from 1456 (now in Germany but a fief held by Sweden 1631–1806, Swedish 1806–1815), are excluded from the list. Växjö University (1967-2009) was a university that has now merged with Kalmar University (1977-2009), becoming the Linnaeus University in 2010. Public university colleges A Högskola (= university college or college in English) is an institution of higher education, similar to a university but typically smaller. Unlike a full university, a högskola has limitations in awarding doctoral degrees (PhD). The Swedish government has granted the right to some högskola to award PhDs in some specific fields. Most of the 'högskola' have agreements with bigger universities to conduct joint doctoral programs. The public 'högskola' are: Gotland University College (1998 - 2013) was a "högskola" that has now merged with Uppsala university, becoming the Gotland campus of Uppsala university. Kalmar University (1977-2009) was a "högskola" that has now merged with Växjö University (1967-2009), becoming the Linnaeus University in 2010. Private universities and högskolor There are seven private institutions of higher education with the right to give post graduate degrees, namely Johannelund School of Theology in Uppsala, Chalmers University of Technology in Gothenburg, Stockholm School of Economics and Jönköping University Foundation, Ersta Sköndal Bräcke University College, Sophiahemmet University College and University College Stockholm (Enskilda Högskolan Stockholm). Recognised higher education institutions ARWU Ranking list according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities: In relation to their population size, Switzerland (first) and Sweden (second) are the two countries with the highest number of universities among the 100 best of the Academic Ranking of World Universities (2014-2015). QS World Ranked Swedish universities on QS World University Rankings (with the highest ranked for that year marked in blue): THE World Ranked Swedish institutes on Times Higher Education World University Rankings (with the highest ranked for that year marked in blue): THE-QS Ranking list according to the THE–QS World University Rankings (with the highest ranked for that year marked in blue): See also Education in Sweden Swedish National Agency for Higher Education, Swedish National Board of Student Aid Swedish Research Council Swedish Scholastic Aptitude Test Open access in Sweden List of universities and colleges by country Notes and references External links Swedish National Agency for Higher Education Study in Sweden Programme and course portal for Swedish universities & colleges Universities Sweden Sweden	[ 0.5299196243286133, 0.43881645798683167, 0.3250937759876251, -0.07877126336097717, -0.30574315786361694, 0.01922118291258812, 0.620204746723175, 1.0419394969940186, 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216657	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serco	Serco	Serco Group plc is a British company with headquarters based in Hook, Hampshire, England. Serco primarily derives income as a contractor for the provision of government services, most prominently in the sectors of law & order, health, transport, justice, immigration, defence and citizens services. The majority of Serco's turnover is generated from UK operations, but the company also operates in Continental Europe, the Middle East, the Asia Pacific region (including Australia), and North America. Serco manages over 500 contracts worldwide, employing over 50,000 people. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index. In July 2019, a fine of £19.2m was imposed on Serco for fraud and false accounting over its electronic tagging service for the Ministry of Justice. The company was also ordered to pay the Serious Fraud Office's investigative costs of £3.7 million. The company has also been accused of an extensive cover-up over sexual abuse of immigrants at Yarl's Wood Immigration Removal Centre in Bedfordshire, and, together with its consortium partners, failing to develop a strategy for managing higher-activity radioactive waste at the Atomic Weapons Establishment. History Serco was founded in 1929 as RCA Services Limited, a United Kingdom division of the Radio Corporation of America and initially provided services to the cinema industry. Following the takeover of RCA by General Electric in late 1985, RCA Services Limited was bought out by its local management. It changed its name to Serco in 1987 and has been a London Stock Exchange listed company since 1988. On 29 December 2008, Serco acquired SI International. In November 2014 its share price, which stood at 674p before the taxpayer scandal broke in 2013 collapsed to 218.7p, after four profit warnings. The new chief executive Rupert Soames sold off "scores of divisions". He said the company was suffering from ministers’ improved ability at driving a bargain, and claimed that “the Government has got much more adept at writing contracts and transferring risk to the private sector”. On 17 November 2014, it was announced that Alastair Lyons would resign from his position as chairman of Serco. Lyons referred to “operational mis-steps” for which he took “ultimate responsibility”, but said he had not been forced out. Serco made a loss of £991 million in 2014, reducing to a loss of £69.4 million in 2015. Sir Roy Gardner was appointed as Non-Executive Chairman on 28 May 2015: he is also a senior adviser to Credit Suisse Group AG. In September 2017, Serco announced that it would be combining its UK and Europe operations. UK operations Border security Serco operates the National Border Targeting Centre for UK Visas and Immigration and provides the carrier gateway, which is the interface between carriers and the agency. Work and pensions Serco is contracted to the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) to provide telephone advice on behalf of DWP to recipients of Support for Mortgage Interest (SMI), which ends in April 2018. Transport In London, Serco operates the London Cycle Hire Scheme for Transport for London and operated the Docklands Light Railway from 1997 until 2014. Serco has operated a number of train operating companies. It has a 50% shareholding in Serco-Abellio that has a concession to operate the Merseyrail franchise in Liverpool until 2028, and previously operated the Northern Rail franchise from December 2004 until March 2016. Serco has a contract in its own right to operate the Caledonian Sleeper between London and Scotland until 2030. In 1997 Serco purchased the Railtest business as part of the privatisation of British Rail. Included in the sale was a management contract for the Old Dalby Test Track. From 1997 until 2004, Serco operated the National Rail Enquiry Service under contract to the Association of Train Operating Companies. It maintains Network Rail's fleet of infrastructure and maintenance trains at the Railway Technical Centre. In Scotland, Serco has operated the NorthLink Ferries ferry service since July 2012. In September 2018 it commenced operating a bicycle-sharing system under contract to Transport for Edinburgh. Serco's Home Affairs division operates speed camera systems throughout the UK and, until November 2013, designed, wrote and tested the software that controls the matrix message signs, signals, emergency roadside telephones (SOS) and traffic monitoring on England's motorway network including, until 2011, the National Traffic Control Centre. Science Serco managed the UK's National Physical Laboratory until 2015 and also provides IT Services, Industrial Support and Cryogenic Operations Support and Maintenance at CERN. Serco also was part of a consortium running the UK's National Nuclear Laboratory under contract, until October 2013. Prisons and justice In Britain Serco supplies electronic tagging devices for offenders and asylum seekers. Serco, as well as its rival G4S, was accused of overcharging the Ministry of Justice on its contract to tag offenders. The firm issued a profit warning for 2014 as a result of the costs of becoming embroiled in an electronic tagging scandal. Serco repaid £68.5 million to the government for its overcharging on the contract. In May 2014 a Survation poll for campaign group We Own It, found that 63% of respondents thought Serco should be banned from bidding for any new public contracts after the firm was investigated for overcharging on government contracts. It runs four prisons, a Young Offenders Institution and a Secure Training Centre. It has also operated two Immigration Removal Centres since 2007. Serco is also responsible for the contracted-out court escort services in the south-east area (formerly a role undertaken by HM Prison Service). In September 2013, Serco was accused of an extensive cover-up over sexual abuse at Yarl's Wood Immigration Removal Centre in Bedfordshire, England In August 2014, Serco was criticised for using immigrant detainees as cheap labour, with some being paid as little as £1 per hour. The decision to give the firm a new £70 million eight-year contract to run Yarl's Wood has been criticised. Natasha Walter, of Women for Refugee Women, said "Serco is clearly unfit to manage a centre where vulnerable women are held and it is unacceptable the government continues to entrust Serco with the safety of women who are survivors of sexual violence." A fine of £19.2m was imposed on Serco following the delayed legal action that began in 2013, for fraud and false accounting over its electronic tagging service for the Ministry of Justice. Serco was also ordered to pay the full amount of the Serious Fraud Office's investigative costs (£3.7m). In his judgment, Mr Justice Davis said: “SGL (Serco Geografix Ltd) engaged in quite deliberate fraud against the Ministry of Justice in relation to the provision of services vital to the criminal justice system." Housing In Glasgow, in August 2018, it was disclosed that Serco had been planning to evict asylum seekers before their appeal procedure was completed. Lawyers questioned whether this was legal under Scottish law. Two asylum seekers started hunger striking. Serco confirmed that it was serving a notice of eviction on many tenants causing alarm and lawyers challenged one asylum seeker's eviction at the Scottish Court of Session. Councillor Jennifer Layden, equalities and human rights convener for Glasgow, said, "The lock change announcement by the Home Office and Serco has caused widespread fear and alarm among asylum seekers in Glasgow. There is confusion and panic among the community – some of whom have limited English and who may not be affected by Serco’s announcement. Both Serco and the Home Office have a responsibility to put this vulnerable group at ease". In January 2019, it was reported that Serco had lost the contract to provide housing to asylum seekers in Glasgow. A Freedom of Information request by the Scottish Refugee Council showed that Serco had been charged nearly £3m by the Home Office for repeatedly breaching its contract to house asylum seekers in Glasgow and Northern Ireland. Defence Serco held defence contracts in 2004, including the UK Government's contract for the maintenance of the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System at RAF Fylingdales; contracts are also held for the operation and maintenance of RAF Brize Norton, RAF Halton, RAF Northolt and RNAS Culdrose in the UK and RAF Ascension Island in the mid-Atlantic. Serco also provides support services to garrisons in Australia. Serco also manages many aspects of operations at the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom in Shrivenham. Serco is one of three partners in the consortium which manages the Atomic Weapons Establishment: in July 2015 the Office for Nuclear Regulation issued an improvement notice to the consortium demanding that it demonstrate that it has a long-term strategy for managing Higher Active radioactive Waste in order to reduce the risk to the public and its employees. Serco also has a 15-year contract worth £400 million to provide facilities management services to the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (Dstl). Serco is a major subcontractor to Airbus Defence and Space on the Skynet military communications satellites PFI contract. Serco Marine Services is responsible for fleet support at the three main UK naval bases, HMNB Portsmouth, HMNB Devonport and HMNB Clyde. Aviation Serco provides air traffic control services at international airports in the United Arab Emirates and at some smaller airports in the United States and Canada. Starting in 2004 Serco had a £5m a year contract from the US government to manage airports in Iraq for 18 months. Serco also operate Scatsta Airport in Shetland. In June 2010 Serco signed a £4 million contract to operate all air traffic control services for Coventry Airport. Health Serco provide facilities management services at the Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital, Leicester Royal Infirmary, and Wishaw General Hospital. The company had the contract for out-of-hours GP services in Cornwall from which it withdrew in December 2013 after the company left the county short of doctors. The company also said it would stop running Braintree hospital in Essex as it pulled out of managing GP services and large hospitals. In health services, Serco's failures include the poor handling of pathology labs and fatal errors in patient records. At St Thomas' Hospital, the increase in the number of clinical incidents arising from Serco non-clinical management has resulted in patients receiving incorrect and infected blood, as well as patients suffering kidney damage due to Serco providing incorrect data used for medical calculations. A Serco employee later revealed that the company had falsified 252 reports to the National Health Service regarding Serco health services in Cornwall. It emerged in November 2013, Serco, which won a contract for Suffolk Community Healthcare in 2012, had 72 vacancies after earlier cutting 137 posts. Problems identified by Ipswich and East Suffolk Clinical Commissioning Group include “staff capacity, skill mix, workload, succession planning and morale, training, communication, mobile working, care co-ordination centre processes, incidents and near miss incidents”. In April 2014 Serco revealed that it would lose almost £18 million on three of its NHS contracts. The firm has made provisions for losses in its Braintree and Cornwall contracts, which were cancelled early. It has also made provisions for losses in its contract for services in Suffolk. The company claims it will take longer to deliver the operational efficiencies it hoped for, despite saying in May 2013 that it expected to make a profit on the three-year, £140 million contract for community services. It said that staff had not recorded activity accurately on the Electronic health record and that activity had increased significantly during the course of the contract. In August 2014 it was reported that the company had decided to withdraw from the clinical health services market in the UK after a review of the cost of delivering “improved service levels” and meeting the performance requirements of several existing contracts. On 24 October 2017, it was reported that Serco was preparing to buy healthcare contracts from facilities management business Carillion. The deal included 15 contracts, with annual revenues of approximately £90m, for which Serco would pay £47.7m, with Carillion losing £1bn from the value of its order book. In May 2020, Serco accidentally shared the personal email addresses of nearly 300 trainee COVID-19 contact tracers. Education Serco held a ten-year contract with Bradford City Council between 2001 and 2011 to manage and operate the local education authority, providing education support services to the city's schools. This period was marked with "real problems" according to senior council officials and was taken back in house by the local authority after this period. Serco similarly manages and operates Walsall and Stoke-on-Trent local education authorities. Serco is one of Ofsted's three Regional Inspection Service Providers, responsible for school inspections in the English Midlands. Leisure Serco Leisure Operating Ltd works with clients throughout the UK, running gyms, swimming pools, cycle hire schemes and National Sports Centres. Information technology Serco administered the publicly funded UK Business Link website from 2005 until its closure in 2012. It won a five-year tender in 2007 to run the IT Infrastructure for the London Borough of Southwark. Waste and recycling services Serco also operates recycling and waste collection services for local councils. Outside the UK Drivers' licensing Serco, through a purpose-made division Serco DES, holds a ten-year, $114 million contract with the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario to operate the Ontario's DriveTest driver examination centres. These tests include vision, road, and knowledge tests for all persons seeking to become a licensed automobile driver in the province. Parking meter servicing Serco has a contract with the City of Chicago, Illinois, to enforce parking meter regulations. Health in the United States In July 2013 Serco was awarded a $1.25 billion contract to manage the implementation of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, which makes Serco one of the most highly paid government contractors in the US. Patent classification Serco does the classification for all incoming US patents. Prisons, justice and immigration Serco runs partly privatised Hünfeld Prison in Hesse, Germany. , Serco operates Acacia Prison in Western Australia, Australia's largest prison facility, as well as the Adelaide Remand Centre in South Australia. Serco and its subcontractor, MSS Security, have been criticised for abuses. It ran the Borallon Correctional Centre in Queensland for 22 years between 1990 and 2012, and Wandoo Reintegration Facility in Western Australia from 2012 to 2018. It has also had the national contract for various immigration detention centres since 2009, including Christmas Island and the Villawood detention centre in Sydney. The Union of Christmas Island Workers highlighted the systemic failure by Serco to manage the Christmas Island Immigration Reception and Processing Centre. The centre detained a large number of refugees at its peak around 2013, including 1,000 children. Under Serco, there was an increase of deaths in custody and self-harm in the years leading up to 2013, as well as a deterioration of facilities, leading to the decline of the physical and the mental health of detainees and of staff. Ombudsman Allan Asher said "In the first week of June when I visited Christmas Island, more than 30 incidents of self-harm by detainees held there were reported". Serco, in a staged memo leaked to The Australian, blamed the detainees for "creating a culture of self-harm", in order to use it as a "bargaining tool". The former manager of the detention centre stated the centre was grossly understaffed. In Auckland, New Zealand, Serco operated the Mount Eden remand prison and in March 2012 was awarded a contract to build and operate a 960-bed prison at Wiri. Serco was heavily criticized for the existence of 'fight clubs' within Mount Eden prison that were not investigated until after they became public knowledge on 16 July 2015 when footage emerged online and was reported by TVNZ. On 24 July 2015, Serco's contract to run the Mount Eden prison was revoked and operation was given back to the New Zealand Department of Corrections. Serco was ordered to pay $8 million to the New Zealand government as a result of problems at Mount Eden Prison while it was under Serco's management. The New Zealand government did not accept that this was a failure of governmental contracting and oversight. It brought in correctional officers from afar to provide adequate staffing at Mount Eden, and by December 2016 had spent NZ$2 million housing up to 40 of them in Auckland hotels. Transport Australia From 1996 until 2005, Serco operated TransAdelaide bus services in Adelaide. In November 1995 Serco commenced a contract to provide transport information services for Transperth and in May 1996, a contract to maintain all of its bus stations. From 1997 until 2015, Serco owned Great Southern Rail that operated The Ghan, Indian Pacific and The Overland passenger trains. In March 2015, the business was sold to Allegro Funds. In Sydney, Serco has operated transport information services for Transport for NSW since 1 July 2010. Denmark Serco formerly operated the Copenhagen Metro in Copenhagen, Denmark, with Ansaldo STS, until it sold its share with effect on 1 January 2008. Hong Kong Hong Kong's Cross-Harbour Tunnel operations has been contracted out to Serco since 2010. Middle East Serco operates the Dubai Metro and continues to operate the Dubai Tram and the Palm Jumeirah Monorail in Dubai. Sweden Serco secured an eight-year contract in 2013 with its Swedish joint venture partner Strömma Tourism & Maritime to operate four Djurgården ferries on behalf of Stockholm County Council and public ferry company Waxholms Ångfartygs. Offshore holdings in Mauritius The 2017 Paradise Papers revealed that Appleby carried out a risk assessment of Serco and noted it had a "history of problems, failures, fatal errors and overcharging" and had faced allegations of fraud and cover-ups. References External links Business services companies of the United Kingdom Companies based in Hampshire Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange Business services companies established in 1929 1929 establishments in the United Kingdom RCA Business services companies of England 1929 establishments in England Workfare in the United Kingdom Health care companies of the United Kingdom Private prisons in the United Kingdom Private providers of NHS services	[ -0.08081986755132675, 0.034831129014492035, 0.5241214632987976, -0.510323703289032, 0.15863089263439178, 0.6738684773445129, -0.3451312780380249, 0.07875194400548935, -0.3501220643520355, 0.2790711522102356, -0.42319488525390625, 0.09920825809240341, 0.011362125165760517, 0.7255696654319763, -0.05293964594602585, -0.0037270246539264917, -0.008076967671513557, 0.46440666913986206, -0.18577274680137634, -0.5297040343284607, -0.19277401268482208, 0.36038005352020264, 0.3530115485191345, -0.12657353281974792, 0.298261821269989, 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216658	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Southern%20Railway	Great Southern Railway	Great Southern Railway may refer to: Journey Beyond Rail Expeditions, previously known as Great Southern Rail, operator of The Ghan, Indian Pacific & The Overland interstate passenger trains in Australia Great Southern Railway (South Gippsland), former railway serving the South Gippsland region in Victoria, Australia Great Southern Railway (Western Australia), railway branch from Northam to Albany in Western Australia Great Southern Railways (Ireland) See also Great Southern (disambiguation) GSR (disambiguation) Southern Railway (disambiguation)	[ -0.2039039582014084, -0.37901511788368225, -0.29292866587638855, -0.0712728202342987, 0.4824138283729553, 0.04003218188881874, 0.991865873336792, 0.41560792922973633, -0.4554033875465393, 0.028024820610880852, -0.6502330303192139, 0.12671053409576416, 0.13766781985759735, 1.1330252885818481, -0.039431389421224594, 0.8289757966995239, 0.0557478629052639, 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216659	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potowomut%2C%20Rhode%20Island	Potowomut, Rhode Island	Potowomut is an isolated neighborhood and a peninsula in Warwick, Rhode Island. It is bordered by the Town of East Greenwich to the northwest, and by North Kingstown to the southeast. Greenwich Bay surrounds all other sides. Potowomut's name translates to "land of fires", the Narragansett Indian name for the neck of land. History It was originally a village in the Warwick Township of Kent County. It can be called an exclave, since there is no overland connection to the rest of the city of Warwick. Potowomut is often mistakenly thought to be part of the Town of East Greenwich because it shares the same ZIP code as all of East Greenwich and because East Greenwich is the preferred place name for postal purposes. Nathanael Greene, a general in the American Revolutionary War was born here on Forge Farm in 1742. When Warwick was settled, in the seventeenth century, travel by sea was often more convenient than travel over land. Thus, Potowomut's location would have allowed relatively easy travel across Greenwich Bay to Warwick Neck or Buttonwoods. In the 1680s, the first white settlers arrived with James Greene at what came to be known as Greene's River. Here, his son, Jabez, built a dam and a mill, later; his descendants established an anchor forge, now located at the foot of Old Forge Road. The Greene family mainly used the land to raise cattle and harvest hay, which was then shipped across Greenwich Bay to the wharf in Apponaug, Rhode Island. Upon James' death, the property passed to his son Richard. A fondness for lavish hospitality and fancy living plunged Richard Greene into deep debt. Geography To visit Potowomut by land, one must leave the City of Warwick. The most common route follows US Route 1 (Post Rd.), and entering East Greenwich, takes Forge Road. Emergency services Potowomut's Fire Fighting services were for a long time provided by the town of East Greenwich for a yearly fee. In December 2015, the City of Warwick opened a new fire station and the Warwick Fire Department assumed responsibility for providing Fire and EMS protection to the area. WFD Fire Station 10 houses Engine Co. 10. The station is affectionately known as "The Outpost" due to its seclusion from the rest of the Dept. Police Services are provided by the Warwick Police Department. Features and attractions Today, Potowomut is a reminder of Warwick's past. The peninsula's eastern tip gives a view of Greenwich Bay. The narrow streets have a mix of older and newer houses. Some were originally beach houses, closed in the winter months, now converted to full-time residences. Unique to Potowomut is Goddard Memorial State Park. Goddard Park attracts thousands of visitors each year as Rhode Island's most popular metropolitan park. Its facilities include a 9-hole golf course designed by Donald Ross, a horse barn where the public can rent and ride horses, a beach with bathhouse, sprawling open fields, and a carousel building for functions. Located next to the park is Potowomut Golf Club, a private club. Potowomut is a peninsula on Narragansett Bay which can only be accessed via East Greenwich and/or the town of North Kingstown, only East Greenwich has municipal sewer lines (North Kingstown is in the process of putting them in along Post Road and part of Camp Avenue only). Potowomut cannot be accessed regarding a municipal sewer line due to geography. The city has attempted numerous times to reach a viable agreement with both towns which would enable it to access either of both municipal sewer lines, upon a viable agreement. Potowomut, located on the Narragansett Bay, consists of multiple residential neighborhoods resulting in a catalyst of sewage over-spill into Narragansett Bay. There is no solution at this time. References Populated places in Kent County, Rhode Island Warwick, Rhode Island Neighborhoods in Rhode Island Peninsulas of Rhode Island Landforms of Washington County, Rhode Island Populated coastal places in Rhode Island	[ -0.5954318642616272, 0.5421080589294434, -0.35159069299697876, -0.6031178832054138, 0.4547382891178131, 0.6294448971748352, 0.7407513856887817, 0.5765763521194458, -0.5950624942779541, -0.6350981593132019, -0.5556051731109619, 0.19310903549194336, -0.3450515568256378, 0.6459575295448303, -0.9366683959960938, 0.47359785437583923, 0.5423334836959839, 1.0014818906784058, 0.07335499674081802, -0.35041213035583496, 0.14786866307258606, 0.03456750512123108, -0.22731982171535492, 0.31858113408088684, 0.01934775896370411, 0.22849993407726288, 1.1262375116348267, -0.10051670670509338, 0.15332382917404175, 0.462300568819046, -0.20014305412769318, 0.5681144595146179, 0.007711101323366165, -1.3080310821533203, 1.0236499309539795, -0.6234250068664551, 0.13497550785541534, 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216660	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross%20elasticity%20of%20demand	Cross elasticity of demand	In economics, the cross elasticity of demand or cross-price elasticity of demand measures the percentage change of the quantity demanded for a good to the percentage change in the price of another good, ceteris paribus. In real life, the quantity demanded of good is dependent on not only its own price (Price elasticity of demand) but also the price of other "related" products. The concept is used to identify the relationship between two goods, they can be: Complements Substitutes Unrelated A negative cross elasticity denotes two products that are complements, while a positive cross elasticity denotes two products are substitutes. If products A and B are complements, an increase in the price of B leads to a decrease in the quantity demanded for A, as A is used in conjunction with B. Equivalently, if the price of product B decreases, the demand curve for product A shifts to the right reflecting an increase in A's demand, resulting in a negative value for the cross elasticity of demand. If A and B are substitutes, an inclination in the price of B will increase the market demand for A, as customers would easily replacing B with A, like McDonald's and Domino's Pizza. For example, in response to a 10% increase in the price of printer's ink, the demand for printer would decreased by 20%, so the cross elasticity of demand would be: , which means an increase in the price of ink will decrease the demand for printer, so printer and ink are complements. History The concept of "price elasticity of demand" originated by Alfred Marshall predicted relative changes between price and quantity. In the Cellophane case, Professor Stocking believed that a change in the price of one product will induce a price change of its rivalry in the same direction, so he firstly regarded that movement of two prices in the same direction explicitly reflects a high cross-price elasticity. However, during 1924-1940, du Pont cellophane prices moved independently from its perceived competitors' (waxed paper, vegetable parchment, etc) price; independent price movements reflect noncompetitive pricing between cellophane and its rival products. Thus, Professor Stocking's emphasis on the same movement of prices was too rigid, as the price of cellophane changed induced by three factors: Change in demand due to price change of rival products The production function of the cellophane The slope and position of the cost curves of rival products. In other words, the competitive relationship between two goods (cross-price elasticity) can not be simply concluded by price change, as price change arises from both cost and demand factors. Furthermore, instead of a high positive or low positive elasticity concluded by observing respective price change, cross-elasticity of demand should be either positive or negative to represent if there is a complementary or substitutive relationship between two goods. Calculation and Interpretation Cross elasticity of demand of Product B with respect to Product A (ηBA): implies two goods are substitutes. Consumers purchase more B when the price of A increases. Example: the cross elasticity of demand of butter with respect to margarine is 0.81, so 1% increase in the price of margarine will increase the demand for butter by 0.81%. implies two goods are complements. Consumers purchase less B when the price of A increases. Example: the cross elasticity of demand of entertainment with respect to food is −0.72, so 1% increase in the price of food will decrease the demand for entertainment by 0.72%. implies two goods are independent (a price change of good A is unrelated to demand change of good B), so changes in the price of product A have no effect on the demand for Product B. Example: bread and cloths . The higher the positive cross elasticity of demand, the more substitutable two products are; thus, the more competition between them. Similarly, the lower the negative cross elasticity of demand, the more complementary two goods are. In general, monopolies usually possess a low-positive cross elasticity of demand with respect to their competitors. Degree of response The higher the positive cross elasticity of demand, the more substitutable two products are; thus, the more competition between them. Similarly, the lower the negative cross elasticity of demand, the more complementary two goods are. In general, monopolies usually possess a low-positive cross elasticity of demand with respect to their competitors. Elastic Demand If the absolute value of the cross elasticity of demand is greater than 1, the cross elasticity of demand is elastic, this means that a change in price of good A results in a more than proportionate change in quantity demanded for good B. In other words, a change in price of good A has a relatively high impact on the change in quantity demanded for good B. Inelastic Demand If the absolute value of the cross elasticity of demand between 1 and 0, the cross elasticity of demand is inelastic, this means that a change in price of good A results in a less than proportionate change in quantity demanded for good B. In other words, a change in price of good A has a relatively small impact on the change in quantity demanded for good B. Unitary Demand If the value of the cross elasticity of demand is 1, the cross elasticity of demand is unitary, this means that a change in price of good A results in an exactly proportionate change in quantity demanded for good B. Results for main types of goods For two goods, fuel and new cars (consists of fuel consumption), are complements; that is, one is used with the other. In these cases the cross elasticity of demand will be negative, as shown by the decrease in demand for cars when the price for fuel will rise. In the case of perfect substitutes, the cross elasticity of demand is equal to positive infinity (at the point when both goods can be consumed). Where the two goods are independent, or, as described in consumer theory, if a good is independent in demand then the demand of that good is independent of the quantity consumed of all other goods available to the consumer, the cross elasticity of demand will be zero i.e. if the price of one good changes, there will be no change in demand for the other good. When goods are substitutable, the diversion ratio, which quantifies how much of the displaced demand for product j switches to product i, is measured by the ratio of the cross-elasticity to the own-elasticity multiplied by the ratio of product is demand to product js demand. In the discrete case, the diversion ratio is naturally interpreted as the fraction of product j demand which treats product i as a second choice, measuring how much of the demand diverting from product j because of a price increase is diverted to product i can be written as the product of the ratio of the cross-elasticity to the own-elasticity and the ratio of the demand for product i to the demand for product j. In some cases, it has a natural interpretation as the proportion of people buying product j who would consider product i their "second choice". Approximate estimates of the cross price elasticities of preference-independent bundles of goods (e.g. food and education, healthcare and clothing, etc.) can be calculated from the income elasticities of demand and market shares of individual bundles, using established models of demand based on a differential approach. Selected cross price elasticities of demand Below are some examples of the cross-price elasticity of demand (XED) for various goods: Application and Implication An enterprise needs to understand the cross-elastic demand for a product or service. Cross-elastic demand can help enterprises set prices and identify the sensitivity of others to their products. For example, a strategic "loss leader" takes advantage of the negative cross elasticity of demand for complementary commodities to price in a counterintuitive way deliberately. A company can sell one of its goods for less than the cost of making it and thus promote sales of its complementary products. Large profits on complementary products can make up for net losses in the business of its main products. Many large companies use this strategy, such as Sony. Sony's PlayStation consoles are sold below the cost of making them encourage the sale of games. Games and consoles are almost perfectly complementary. The reduction in the price of consoles will significantly increase the demand for games. As a result, Sony can make up for its net losses in the console business by making big profits in games Besides, unique and irreplaceable products enable companies to sell their products at higher prices. Because of the uniqueness of the product, companies do not worry too much about consumers switching to other products. However, the specific price setting should also follow the demand curve of the commodity. Suppose the elasticity of demand for the product is greater than 1. In that case, it means that a slight change in the product's price will cause a significant reduction in the consumer demand for the product. Therefore, companies should first make a careful study of the elasticity of demand for their products before setting prices. It ensures a broader profit range for the company. A real-life example is Apple. Apple used iOS, which is different from Android, at the beginning of the launch of their phones. The clean and straightforward interface is an irreplaceable advantage of this system. Apple, meanwhile, has its unique text-message tone and call ringtone. In many small ways, Apple is building uniqueness. Phone users who are used to iOS develop a habit that makes it difficult to adapt to other systems, such as Android or Huawei HarmonyOS. Finally, the providers of substitutes need to be aware of the competitors of their products through detailed market research. The company can reduce the sensitivity of competitors' products by increasing customer loyalty. For example, the recently hot quality stars are invited to endorse their company's products. It can attract some of the star's loyal analysis to the product, thus increasing the overall loyalty. Alternatively, the company could spend more money on advertising to make consumers aware of the difference between its product and that of its competitors. Contribution to policy improvement The UK and Scottish governments intended to use price-based policy interventions, like setting minimum unit pricing and increasing taxation to reduce alcohol consumption and mediate the related harms among their population. Estimation of cross-price elasticities of alcohol in respect to other related beverages helps set price-based policy interventions, as it measures the percentage change in demand for one type of alcohol due to a 1% change in the price of another type of beverage. For example, the cross elasticity of demand for wine in respect to the price change of spirit is 0.05, which implies that a 1% price decrease for Spirit will reduce market demand for wine by 5%. Therefore, the cross elasticity of demand enables policymakers to take better control of the policy effects, thus, reducing the risk for mortality, morbidity, and other social harms caused by over-drinking. Contribution to the sustainable supply chain A high coefficient of negative cross-price elasticity implies that the sales of product A are decided by the sales of product B. If the demand of A significantly depends on the demand of B, there must be a reduction in the profit of A. In this case, the cross elasticity of demand is a reminder to the firms to cautiously selecting products with high dependence on complements. On the other hand, the high-positive cross elasticity of demand reflects high substitutability of goods, which means customers' demand can be fulfilled by other products easily. Businesses that understand the implications of high-positive cross elasticity of demand can reduce their operating risk by avoiding overstock, thus, maintaining a sustainable supply chain. Contribution to firm reactions Knowledge of a firm's cross elasticity of demand and their competitors' allows them to map out the market, enabling them to calculate the number of rivals and the importance of their complementary (and substitute) products relative to their own. Firms can develop strategies to reduce their exposure to the risks they are imposed to by price changes of other firms, such as an increase in the price of a complement or a decrease in the price of a substitute. Potential strategies Horizontal integration In markets with few competitors, cross elasticity between rivals are likely to be high, this makes firms in the market vulnerable to price competition. Horizontal integration, usually mergers, could reduce said risks by reducing competition in the market. For example, when Anheuser-Busch InBev (the world's biggest brewer at the time) acquired SABMiller (InBev's closest rival) in 2015, it was one of the biggest takeover of a British firm, creating the world's first global brewer. The takeover created a brewing empire that produces a third of the world's beer. Vertical integration Firms may gain better control of the market by merging with suppliers of complementary products. Developing their own complementary products is another possible solution. For example, Google developing Google Pixel is an attempt by Google to capture the smartphone market share by integrating both its software and hardware features for improved performance while being more resource efficient. Alliances and collusion Competitors may pool resources to create a joint alliance, such as Sony-Ericsson in October of 2001. Sony had a share of less than 1% in the mobile phone market; while Ericsson was the third largest market share holder. Unfortunately, Ericsson relied heavily on a single supplier, and when a fire broke out at a Phillips factory, Ericsson couldn't fulfill their orders. Sony wanted a greater market share and Ericsson wanted to avoid going out of business, hence the Sony-Ericsson joint venture was formed. Firms entering into a price fixing agreement in order to avoid price wars means they are involved in a collusion. The chances of collusion to occur is higher in markets with few competitors such as oligopolistic markets. It is illegal according to antitrust laws, even though collusive agreements may be implicit, its implication with cartels are the same. See also Economics Supply and demand Elasticity (economics) Price elasticity of demand Price elasticity of supply Income elasticity of demand Arc elasticity Yield elasticity of bond value Notes References External links Database for Commodity Elasticity at Food and Agricultural Policy Research Institute, University of Iowa Elasticity (economics) Demand	[ 0.0757630243897438, -0.3679233491420746, 0.149481862783432, 0.11031123250722885, -0.28885388374328613, 0.47065114974975586, -0.06885755062103271, 0.09956253319978714, -0.2390247881412506, -0.8783618807792664, -0.21378622949123383, 1.0584163665771484, -0.6120726466178894, 0.5836471915245056, -0.3229990005493164, 0.46177175641059875, 0.29810643196105957, 0.449683278799057, -0.03445035219192505, -0.436684787273407, 0.0657934918999672, 0.02603960409760475, 0.1988019049167633, -0.19795116782188416, 0.38669857382774353, -0.5464741587638855, -0.07631208747625351, 0.22789400815963745, 0.18780440092086792, 0.15366454422473907, 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216661	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Gottlieb%20Klopstock	Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock	Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (; 2 July 1724 – 14 March 1803) was a German poet. His best known work is the epic poem Der Messias ("The Messiah"). One of his major contributions to German literature was to open it up to exploration outside of French models. Biography Early life Klopstock was born at Quedlinburg, the eldest son of a lawyer. Both in his birthplace and on the estate of Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father later rented, he spent a happy childhood. Having been given more attention to his physical than to his mental development, he grew up strong and healthy and was considered an excellent horseman. In his thirteenth year, he returned to Quedlinburg and attended the gymnasium there, and in 1739 went on to the famous classical school named Schulpforta. Here he soon became adept in Greek and Latin versification, and wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in German. His original intention of making Henry the Fowler the hero of an epic was abandoned in favor of a religious epic, under the influence of Milton's Paradise Lost, with which he became acquainted through Bodmer's translation. While still at school, he had already drafted the plan of Der Messias on which most of his fame rests. On 21 September 1745 he delivered, on quitting school, a remarkable "departing oration" on epic poetry—Abschiedsrede über die epische Poesie, kultur- und literargeschichtlich erläutert—and next proceeded to Jena as a student of theology, where he drew up in prose the first three cantos of the Messias. Finding life at that university not to his liking, he transferred in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, where he joined a circle of young men of letters who contributed to the Bremer Beiträge. In this periodical the first three cantos of Der Messias were published anonymously in hexameter verse in 1748. Denmark and Germany A new era in German literature had commenced, and the identity of the author soon became known. In Leipzig he also wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is An meine Freunde (1747), afterwards recast as Wingolf (1767). He left the university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family of a relative at Langensalza, where unrequited love for a cousin (the "Fanny" of his odes) disturbed his peace of mind. For that reason he gladly accepted in 1750 an invitation from Bodmer, the translator of Paradise Lost, to visit him in Zürich, where Klopstock was initially treated with every kindness and respect and rapidly recovered his spirits. Bodmer, however, was disappointed to find in the young poet of the Messias a man of strong worldly interests, and a coolness sprang up between the two men. At this juncture Klopstock received from Frederick V of Denmark, on the recommendation of his minister Count von Bernstorff (1712–1772), an invitation to settle in Copenhagen with an annuity of 400 thalers, in the hope that he would complete Der Messias there. The offer was accepted. On his way to the Danish capital, Klopstock met in Hamburg the woman who later in 1754 became his wife, , the "Cidli" of his odes. She was the daughter of a Hamburg merchant and an enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short, as she died in 1758, leaving him broken-hearted. His grief at her loss finds pathetic expression in the fifteenth canto of the Messias. The poet subsequently published his wife's writings, Hinterlassene Werke von Margareta Klopstock (1759), which give evidence of a tender, sensitive and deeply religious spirit. See also Memoirs of Frederick and Margaret Klopstock (English translation by Elizabeth Smith, London, 1808) and her correspondence with Samuel Richardson, published 1818. Depression and Messias Klopstock now relapsed into melancholy; new ideas failed him, and his poetry became more introspective. He continued to live and work in Copenhagen, however, and next, following Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg, turned his attention to northern mythology, which in his view should replace classical subjects in a new school of German poetry. In 1770, when King Christian VII dismissed Count Bernstorff from office, he retired with the latter to Hamburg but retained his pension, together with the rank of councillor of legation. In 1773 were published the last five cantos of the Messias. In the following year he published a scheme for the regeneration of German letters, Die Gelehrtenrepublik (1774). In 1775 he traveled south, and making the acquaintance of Goethe on the way, spent a year at the court of the Margrave of Baden at Karlsruhe. Thence, in 1776, with the title of Hofrath and a pension from the Margrave, which he retained along with that from the king of Denmark, he returned to Hamburg where he spent the remainder of his life. Last years His latter years he passed, as had always been his inclination, in retirement, only occasionally relieved by socializing with his most intimate friends, occupied in philological studies and taking scant interest in the new developments in German literature. However, he was enthusiastic about the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. The French Republic sent him a diploma of honorary citizenship; but, horrified at the terrible scenes the Revolution had enacted in the name of liberty, he returned it. At the age of 67 he undertook a second marriage, to Johanna Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow and a niece of his late wife, who for many years had been one of his most intimate friends. He died in Hamburg on 14 March 1803, mourned throughout Germany, and was buried with great ceremony next to his first wife in the churchyard of the village of Ottensen. Works Der Messias The Messias follows from the aspirations to become an epic poet, which Klopstock nurtured in his early years. The leitmotif of the work is the Redemption, which is given an epic treatment. He resorted to Christian mythology in trying to circumscribe the subject-matter within the dogmas of the Church. Milton's Paradise Lost was one of the models Klopstock had in mind in giving form to his poem. The poem took twenty-five years to complete. The work aroused intense public enthusiasm at its commencement. It has been translated into seventeen languages, and led to numerous imitations. Odes and dramas In his odes Klopstock had more scope for his distinctive talent. Some have Nordic mythological inspiration, while others emphasize religious themes. Among the most celebrated and translated are An Fanny; Der Zürchersee; Die tote Klarissa; An Cidli; Die beiden Musen; Der Rheinwein; Die frühen Gräber, Mein Vaterland. His religious odes mostly take the form of hymns, of which the most beautiful is Die Frühlingsfeier.. In some of his dramas, notably Hermanns Schlacht (1769) and Hermann und die Fürsten (1784), Klopstock celebrated the deeds of the ancient German hero Arminius, and in others, Der Tod Adams (1757) and Salomo (1764), he took his materials from the Old Testament. These also represent an important part of his body of work. Composer Sigrid Henriette Wienecke used Klopstock's writings as the text for her musical drama Fader Vor. He immortalized his 1750s visit at the Swiss Au peninsula in his Ode an den Zürichsee (“Ode to Lake Zurich”). It has been said that Klopstock's hymn "Die Auferstehung" at the funeral of Hans von Bülow in 1894 gave Gustav Mahler the inspiration for the final movement of his Second Symphony. Mahler incorporated the hymn with extra verses he wrote himself to bring a personal resolution to this work. Klopstock published odes and hymns, including Der am Kreuz ist meine Liebe, which is in shortened and revised form part of the 2013 Catholic hymnal Gotteslob. Prose In addition to Die Gelehrtenrepublik, he was also the author of Fragmente über Sprache und Dichtkunst (1779) and Grammatische Gespräche (1794), works in which he made important contributions to philology and to the history of German poetry. Correspondence As was common in the period, Klopstock kept up an abundant correspondence with his contemporaries, friends, and colleagues, and this has been published in diverse collections. Some of them are listed below: K. Schmidt, Klopstock und seine Freunde (1810); this is the basis for Klopstock and his friends. A series of familiar letters, written between the years 1750 and 1803, translated and introduced by Elizabeth Benger (London, 1814) , Klopstocks Nachlass (1821) J. M. Lappenberg, Briefe von und an Klopstock (1867). Editions Klopstock's Werke first appeared in seven quarto volumes (1798–1809). At the same time a more complete edition in twelve octavo volumes was published (1798–1817), to which six additional volumes were added in 1830. Other nineteenth-century editions were published in 1844–1845, 1854–1855, 1879 (ed. by R. Boxberger), 1884 (ed. by R. Hamel) and 1893 (a selection edited by F. Muncker). A critical edition of the Odes was published by F. Muncker and J. Pawel in 1889; a commentary on these by H. Düntzer (1860; 2nd ed., 1878). Goethe's description Goethe in his autobiography recorded his personal impression of Klopstock: "He was of small stature, but well built. His manners were grave and decorous, but free from pedantry. His address was intelligent and pleasing. On the whole, one might have taken him for a diplomatist. He carried himself with the self-conscious dignity of a person who has a great moral mission to fulfil. He conversed with facility on various subjects, but rather avoided speaking of poetry and literary matters." Legacy Klopstock's enrichment of poetic vocabulary and attention to prosody did great service to the poets who immediately followed him. In freeing German poetry from its exclusive interest in Alexandrine verse, he became the founder of a new era in German literature, so that Schiller and Goethe were artistically indebted to him. An 800 year old oak tree where Klopstock spent time in Denmark was named after him. Notes Further reading Carl Friedrich Cramer, Klopstock, Er und über ihn (1780–1792) J.G. Gruber, Klopstocks Leben (1832) R. Hamel, Klopstock-Studien (1879–1880) F. Muncker, F. G. Klopstock, the most authoritative biography, (1888) E. Bailly, Étude sur la vie et les œuvres de Klopstock (Paris, 1888) External links Klopstock's poems 1724 births 1803 deaths People from Quedlinburg German Lutherans German poets Writers from Saxony-Anhalt Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres University of Jena alumni Leipzig University alumni German male poets German-language poets 18th-century German poets	[ -0.28796353936195374, 0.5351050496101379, -0.26357898116111755, 0.2799510359764099, -0.3580029010772705, 0.8617553114891052, 1.4031648635864258, 0.21850800514221191, -0.2288748323917389, -0.6362146139144897, -0.05299973487854004, -0.056928567588329315, -0.23435929417610168, 0.3072851300239563, -0.3290477991104126, 0.2572759687900543, -0.1653740257024765, -0.29894569516181946, -0.3088781535625458, -0.4727453887462616, -0.3206280469894409, -0.4063747227191925, 0.5207213163375854, -0.16788873076438904, 0.04264552891254425, -0.1557214856147766, -0.09096173197031021, -0.025542451068758965, 0.3859213590621948, 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216663	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colley%20Cibber	Colley Cibber	Colley Cibber (6 November 1671 – 11 December 1757) was an English actor-manager, playwright and Poet Laureate. His colourful memoir Apology for the Life of Colley Cibber (1740) describes his life in a personal, anecdotal and even rambling style. He wrote 25 plays for his own company at Drury Lane, half of which were adapted from various sources, which led Robert Lowe and Alexander Pope, among others, to criticise his "miserable mutilation" of "crucified Molière [and] hapless Shakespeare". He regarded himself as first and foremost an actor and had great popular success in comical fop parts, while as a tragic actor he was persistent but much ridiculed. Cibber's brash, extroverted personality did not sit well with his contemporaries, and he was frequently accused of tasteless theatrical productions, shady business methods, and a social and political opportunism that was thought to have gained him the laureateship over far better poets. He rose to ignominious fame when he became the chief target, the head Dunce, of Alexander Pope's satirical poem The Dunciad. Cibber's poetical work was derided in his time, and has been remembered only for being poor. His importance in British theatre history rests on his being one of the first in a long line of actor-managers, on the interest of two of his comedies as documents of evolving early 18th-century taste and ideology, and on the value of his autobiography as a historical source. Life Cibber was born in Southampton Street, in Bloomsbury, London. He was the eldest child of Caius Gabriel Cibber, a distinguished sculptor originally from Denmark. His mother, Jane née Colley, came from a family of gentry from Glaston, Rutland. He was educated at the King's School, Grantham, from 1682 until the age of 16, but failed to win a place at Winchester College, which had been founded by his maternal ancestor William of Wykeham. In 1688, he joined the service of his father's patron, Lord Devonshire, who was one of the prime supporters of the Glorious Revolution. After the revolution, and at a loose end in London, he was attracted to the stage and in 1690 began work as an actor in Thomas Betterton's United Company at the Drury Lane Theatre. "Poor, at odds with his parents, and entering the theatrical world at a time when players were losing their power to businessmen-managers", on 6 May 1693 Cibber married Katherine Shore, the daughter of Matthias Shore, sergeant-trumpeter to the King, despite his poor prospects and insecure, socially inferior job. Cibber and Katherine had 12 children between 1694 and 1713. Six died in infancy, and most of the surviving children received short shrift in his will. Catherine, the eldest surviving daughter, married Colonel James Brown and seems to have been the dutiful one who looked after Cibber in old age following his wife's death in 1734. She was duly rewarded at his death with most of his estate. His middle daughters, Anne and Elizabeth, went into business. Anne had a shop that sold fine wares and foods, and married John Boultby. Elizabeth had a restaurant near Gray's Inn, and married firstly Dawson Brett, and secondly (after Brett's death) Joseph Marples. His only son to reach adulthood, Theophilus, became an actor at Drury Lane, and was an embarrassment to his father because of his scandalous private life. His other son to survive infancy, James, died in or after 1717, before reaching adulthood. Colley's youngest daughter Charlotte followed in her father's theatrical footsteps, but she fell out with him and her sister Catherine, and she was cut off by the family. After an inauspicious start as an actor, Cibber eventually became a popular comedian, wrote and adapted many plays, and rose to become one of the newly empowered businessmen-managers. He took over the management of Drury Lane in 1710 and took a highly commercial, if not artistically successful, line in the job. In 1730, he was made Poet Laureate, an appointment which attracted widespread scorn, particularly from Alexander Pope and other Tory satirists. Off-stage, he was a keen gambler, and was one of the investors in the South Sea Company. In the last two decades of his life, Cibber remained prominent in society, and summered in Georgian spas such as Tunbridge, Scarborough and Bath. He was friendly with the writer Samuel Richardson, the actress Margaret Woffington and the memoirist–poet Laetitia Pilkington. Aged 73 in 1745, he made his last appearance on the stage as Pandulph in his own "deservedly unsuccessful" Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John. In 1750, he fell seriously ill and recommended his friend and protégé Henry Jones as the next Poet Laureate. Cibber recovered and Jones passed into obscurity. Cibber died suddenly at his house in Berkeley Square, London, in December 1757, leaving small pecuniary legacies to four of his five surviving children, £1,000 each (the equivalent of approximately £180,000 in 2011) to his granddaughters Jane and Elizabeth (the daughters of Theophilus), and the residue of his estate to his eldest daughter Catherine. He was buried on 18 December, probably at the Grosvenor Chapel on South Audley Street. Autobiography Cibber's colourful autobiography An Apology for the Life of Colley Cibber, Comedian (1740) was chatty, meandering, anecdotal, vain, and occasionally inaccurate. At the time of writing the word "apology" meant an apologia, a statement in defence of one's actions rather than a statement of regret for having transgressed. The text virtually ignores his wife and family, but Cibber wrote in detail about his time in the theatre, especially his early years as a young actor at Drury Lane in the 1690s, giving a vivid account of the cut-throat theatre company rivalries and chicanery of the time, as well as providing pen portraits of the actors he knew. The Apology is vain and self-serving, as both his contemporaries and later commentators have pointed out, but it also serves as Cibber's rebuttal to his harshest critics, especially Pope. For the early part of Cibber's career, it is unreliable in respect of chronology and other hard facts, understandably, since it was written 50 years after the events, apparently without the help of a journal or notes. Nevertheless, it is an invaluable source for all aspects of the early 18th-century theatre in London, for which documentation is otherwise scanty. Because he worked with many actors from the early days of Restoration theatre, such as Thomas Betterton and Elizabeth Barry at the end of their careers, and lived to see David Garrick perform, he is a bridge between the earlier mannered and later more naturalistic styles of performance. The Apology was a popular work and gave Cibber a good return. Its complacency infuriated some of his contemporaries, notably Pope, but even the usually critical Samuel Johnson admitted it was "very entertaining and very well done". It went through four editions in his lifetime, and more after his death, and generations of readers have found it an amusing and engaging read, projecting an author always "happy in his own good opinion, the best of all others; teeming with animal spirits, and uniting the self-sufficiency of youth with the garrulity of age." Actor Cibber began his career as an actor at Drury Lane in 1690, and had little success for several years. "The first Thing that enters into the Head of a young Actor", he wrote in his autobiography half a century later, "is that of being a Hero: In this Ambition I was soon snubb'd by the Insufficiency of my Voice; to which might be added an uninform'd meagre Person ... with a dismal pale Complexion. Under these Disadvantages, I had but a melancholy Prospect of ever playing a Lover with Mrs. Bracegirdle, which I had flatter'd my Hopes that my Youth might one Day have recommended me to." At this time the London stage was in something of a slump after the glories of the early Restoration period. The King's and Duke's companies had merged into a monopoly, leaving actors in a weak negotiating position and much at the mercy of the dictatorial manager Christopher Rich. When the senior actors rebelled and established a cooperative company of their own in 1695, Cibber—"wisely", as the Biographical Dictionary of Actors puts it—stayed with the remnants of the old company, "where the competition was less keen". After five years, he had still not seen significant success in his chosen profession, and there had been no heroic parts and no love scenes. However, the return of two-company rivalry created a sudden demand for new plays, and Cibber seized this opportunity to launch his career by writing a comedy with a big, flamboyant part for himself to play. He scored a double triumph: his comedy Love's Last Shift, or The Fool in Fashion (1696) was a great success, and his own uninhibited performance as the Frenchified fop Sir Novelty Fashion ("a coxcomb that loves to be the first in all foppery") delighted the audiences. His name was made, both as playwright and as comedian. Later in life, when Cibber himself had the last word in casting at Drury Lane, he wrote, or patched together, several tragedies that were tailored to fit his continuing hankering after playing "a Hero". However, his performances of such parts never pleased audiences, which wanted to see him typecast as an affected fop, a kind of character that fitted both his private reputation as a vain man, his exaggerated, mannered style of acting, and his habit of ad libbing. His most famous part for the rest of his career remained that of Lord Foppington in The Relapse, a sequel to Cibber's own Love's Last Shift but written by John Vanbrugh, first performed in 1696 with Cibber reprising his performance as Sir Novelty Fashion in the newly ennobled guise of Lord Foppington. Pope mentions the audience jubilation that greeted the small-framed Cibber donning Lord Foppington's enormous wig, which would be ceremoniously carried on stage in its own sedan chair. Vanbrugh reputedly wrote the part of Lord Foppington deliberately "to suit the eccentricities of Cibber's acting style". His tragic efforts, however, were consistently ridiculed by contemporaries: when Cibber in the role of Richard III made love to Lady Anne, the Grub Street Journal wrote, "he looks like a pickpocket, with his shrugs and grimaces, that has more a design on her purse than her heart". Cibber was on the stage in every year but two (1727 and 1731) between his debut in 1690 and his retirement in 1732, playing more than 100 parts in all in nearly 3,000 documented performances. After he had sold his interest in Drury Lane in 1733 and was a wealthy man in his sixties, he returned to the stage occasionally to play the classic fop parts of Restoration comedy for which audiences appreciated him. His Lord Foppington in Vanbrugh's The Relapse, Sir Courtly Nice in John Crowne's Sir Courtly Nice, and Sir Fopling Flutter in George Etherege's Man of Mode were legendary. Critic John Hill in his 1775 work The actor, or, A treatise on the art of playing, described Cibber as "the best Lord Foppington who ever appeared, was in real life (with all due respect be it spoken by one who loves him) something of the coxcomb". These were the kind of comic parts where Cibber's affectation and mannerism were desirable. In 1738–39, he played Shallow in Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 2 to critical acclaim, but his Richard III (in his own version of the play) was not well received. In the middle of the play, he whispered to fellow actor Benjamin Victor that he wanted to go home, perhaps realising he was too old for the part and its physical demands. Cibber also essayed tragic parts in plays by Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, John Dryden and others, but with less success. By the end of his acting career, audiences were being entranced by the innovatively naturalistic acting of the rising star David Garrick, who made his London debut in the title part in a production of Cibber's adaptation of Richard III in 1741. He returned to the stage for a final time in 1745 as Cardinal Pandulph in his play Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John. Playwright Love's Last Shift Cibber's comedy Love's Last Shift (1696) is an early herald of a massive shift in audience taste, away from the intellectualism and sexual frankness of Restoration comedy and towards the conservative certainties and gender-role backlash of exemplary or sentimental comedy. According to Paul Parnell, Love's Last Shift illustrates Cibber's opportunism at a moment in time before the change was assured: fearless of self-contradiction, he puts something for everybody into his first play, combining the old outspokenness with the new preachiness. The central action of Love's Last Shift is a celebration of the power of a good woman, Amanda, to reform a rakish husband, Loveless, by means of sweet patience and a daring bed-trick. She masquerades as a prostitute and seduces Loveless without being recognised, and then confronts him with logical argument. Since he enjoyed the night with her while taking her for a stranger, a wife can be as good in bed as an illicit mistress. Loveless is convinced and stricken, and a rich choreography of mutual kneelings, risings and prostrations follows, generated by Loveless' penitence and Amanda's "submissive eloquence". The première audience is said to have wept at this climactic scene. The play was a great box-office success and was for a time the talk of the town, in both a positive and a negative sense. Some contemporaries regarded it as moving and amusing, others as a sentimental tear-jerker, incongruously interspersed with sexually explicit Restoration comedy jokes and semi-nude bedroom scenes. Love's Last Shift is today read mainly to gain a perspective on Vanbrugh's sequel The Relapse, which has by contrast remained a stage favourite. Modern scholars often endorse the criticism that was levelled at Love's Last Shift from the first, namely that it is a blatantly commercial combination of sex scenes and drawn-out sentimental reconciliations. Cibber's follow-up comedy Woman's Wit (1697) was produced under hasty and unpropitious circumstances and had no discernible theme; Cibber, not usually shy about any of his plays, even elided its name in the Apology. It was followed by the equally unsuccessful tragedy Xerxes (1699). Cibber reused parts of Woman's Wit for The School Boy (1702). Richard III Perhaps partly because of the failure of his previous two plays, Cibber's next effort was an adaptation of Shakespeare's Richard III. Neither Cibber's adaptations nor his own original plays have stood the test of time, and hardly any of them have been staged or reprinted after the early 18th century, but his popular adaptation of Richard III remained the standard stage version for 150 years. The American actor George Berrell wrote in the 1870s that Richard III was: Richard III was followed by another adaptation, the comedy Love Makes a Man, which was constructed by splicing together two plays by John Fletcher: The Elder Brother and The Custom of the Country. Cibber's confidence was apparently restored by the success of the two plays, and he returned to more original writing. The Careless Husband The comedy The Careless Husband (1704), generally considered to be Cibber's best play, is another example of the retrieval of a straying husband by means of outstanding wifely tact, this time in a more domestic and genteel register. The easy-going Sir Charles Easy is chronically unfaithful to his wife, seducing both ladies of quality and his own female servants with insouciant charm. The turning point of the action, known as "the Steinkirk scene", comes when his wife finds him and a maidservant asleep together in a chair, "as close an approximation to actual adultery as could be presented on the 18th-century stage". His periwig has fallen off, an obvious suggestion of intimacy and abandon, and an opening for Lady Easy's tact. Soliloquizing to herself about how sad it would be if he caught cold, she "takes a Steinkirk off her Neck, and lays it gently on his Head" (V.i.21). (A "steinkirk" was a loosely tied lace collar or scarf, named after the way the officers wore their cravats at the Battle of Steenkirk in 1692.) She steals away, Sir Charles wakes, notices the steinkirk on his head, marvels that his wife did not wake him and make a scene, and realises how wonderful she is. The Easys go on to have a reconciliation scene which is much more low-keyed and tasteful than that in Love's Last Shift, without kneelings and risings, and with Lady Easy shrinking with feminine delicacy from the coarse subjects that Amanda had broached without blinking. Paul Parnell has analysed the manipulative nature of Lady Easy's lines in this exchange, showing how they are directed towards the sentimentalist's goal of "ecstatic self-approval". The Careless Husband was a great success on the stage and remained a repertory play throughout the 18th century. Although it has now joined Love's Last Shift as a forgotten curiosity, it kept a respectable critical reputation into the 20th century, coming in for serious discussion both as an interesting example of doublethink, and as somewhat morally or emotionally insightful. In 1929, the well-known critic F. W. Bateson described the play's psychology as "mature", "plausible", "subtle", "natural", and "affecting". Other plays The Lady's Last Stake (1707) is a rather bad-tempered reply to critics of Lady Easy's wifely patience in The Careless Husband. It was coldly received, and its main interest lies in the glimpse the prologue gives of angry reactions to The Careless Husband, of which we would otherwise have known nothing (since all contemporary published reviews of The Careless Husband approve and endorse its message). Some, says Cibber sarcastically in the prologue, seem to think Lady Easy ought rather to have strangled her husband with her steinkirk: Many of Cibber's plays, listed below, were hastily cobbled together from borrowings. Alexander Pope said Cibber's drastic adaptations and patchwork plays were stolen from "crucified Molière" and "hapless Shakespeare". The Double Gallant (1707) was constructed from Burnaby's The Reformed Wife and The Lady's Visiting Day, and Centlivre's Love at a Venture. In the words of Leonard R. N. Ashley, Cibber took "what he could use from these old failures" to cook up "a palatable hash out of unpromising leftovers". The Comical Lovers (1707) was based on Dryden's Marriage à la Mode. The Rival Fools (1709) was based on Fletcher's Wit at Several Weapons. He rewrote Corneille's Le Cid with a happy ending as Ximena in 1712. The Provoked Husband (1728) was an unfinished fragment by John Vanbrugh that Cibber reworked and completed to great commercial success. The Non-Juror (1717) was adapted from Molière's Tartuffe, and features a Papist spy as a villain. Written just two years after the Jacobite rising of 1715, it was an obvious propaganda piece directed against Roman Catholics. The Refusal (1721) was based on Molière's Les Femmes Savantes. Cibber's last play, Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John was "a miserable mutilation of Shakespeare's King John". Heavily politicised, it caused such a storm of ridicule during its 1736 rehearsal that Cibber withdrew it. During the Jacobite Rising of 1745, when the nation was again in fear of a Popish pretender, it was finally acted, and this time accepted for patriotic reasons. Manager Cibber's career as both actor and theatre manager is important in the history of the British stage because he was one of the first in a long and illustrious line of actor-managers that would include Garrick, Henry Irving, and Herbert Beerbohm Tree. Rising from actor at Drury Lane to advisor to the manager Christopher Rich, Cibber worked himself by degrees into a position to take over the company, first taking many of its players—including Thomas Doggett, Robert Wilks, and Anne Oldfield—to form a new company at the Queen's Theatre at the Haymarket. The three actors squeezed out the previous owners in a series of lengthy and complex manoeuvres, but after Rich's letters patent were revoked, Cibber, Doggett and Wilks were able to buy the company outright and return to the Theatre Royal by 1711. After a few stormy years of power-struggle between the prudent Doggett and the extravagant Wilks, Doggett was replaced by the upcoming actor Barton Booth and Cibber became in practice sole manager of Drury Lane. He set a pattern for the line of more charismatic and successful actors that were to succeed him in this combination of roles. His near-contemporary Garrick, as well as the 19th-century actor-managers Irving and Tree, would later structure their careers, writing, and manager identity around their own striking stage personalities. Cibber's forte as actor-manager was, by contrast, the manager side. He was a clever, innovative, and unscrupulous businessman who retained all his life a love of appearing on the stage. His triumph was that he rose to a position where, in consequence of his sole power over production and casting at Drury Lane, London audiences had to put up with him as an actor. Cibber's one significant mistake as a theatre manager was to pass over John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, which became an outstanding success for John Rich's theatre at Lincoln's Inn Fields. When Cibber attempted to mimic Gay's success with his own ballad-opera—Love in a Riddle (1729)—it was shouted down by the audience and Cibber cancelled its run. He rescued its comic subplot as Damon and Phillida. Cibber had learned from the bad example of Christopher Rich to be a careful and approachable employer for his actors, and was not unpopular with them; however, he made enemies in the literary world because of the power he wielded over authors. Plays he considered non-commercial were rejected or ruthlessly reworked. Many were outraged by his sharp business methods, which may be exemplified by the characteristic way he abdicated as manager in the mid-1730s. In 1732, Booth sold his share to John Highmore, and Wilks' share fell into the hands of John Ellys after Wilks' death. Cibber leased his share in the company to his scapegrace son Theophilus for 442 pounds, but when Theophilus fell out with the other managers, they approached Cibber senior and offered to buy out his share. Without consulting Theophilus, Cibber sold his share for more than 3,000 pounds to the other managers, who promptly gave Theophilus his notice. According to one story, Cibber encouraged his son to lead the actors in a walkout and set up for themselves in the Haymarket, rendering worthless the commodity he had sold. On behalf of his son, Cibber applied for a letters patent to perform at the Haymarket, but it was refused by the Lord Chamberlain, who was "disgusted at Cibber's conduct". The Drury Lane managers attempted to shut down the rival Haymarket players by conspiring in the arrest of the lead actor, John Harper, on a charge of vagrancy, but the charge did not hold, and the attempt pushed public opinion to Theophilus' side. The Drury Lane managers were defeated, and Theophilus regained control of the company on his own terms. Poet Cibber's appointment as Poet Laureate in December 1730 was widely assumed to be a political rather than artistic honour, and a reward for his untiring support of the Whigs, the party of Prime Minister Robert Walpole. Most of the leading writers, such as Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope, were excluded from contention for the laureateship because they were Tories. Cibber's verses had few admirers even in his own time, and Cibber acknowledged cheerfully that he did not think much of them. His 30 birthday odes for the royal family and other duty pieces incumbent on him as Poet Laureate came in for particular scorn, and these offerings would regularly be followed by a flurry of anonymous parodies, some of which Cibber claimed in his Apology to have written himself. In the 20th century, D. B. Wyndham-Lewis and Charles Lee considered some of Cibber's laureate poems funny enough to be included in their classic "anthology of bad verse", The Stuffed Owl (1930). However, Cibber was at least as distinguished as his immediate four predecessors, three of whom were also playwrights rather than poets. Dunce Pamphlet wars From the beginning of the 18th century, when Cibber first rose to be Rich's right-hand man at Drury Lane, his perceived opportunism and brash, thick-skinned personality gave rise to many barbs in print, especially against his patchwork plays. The early attacks were mostly anonymous, but Daniel Defoe and Tom Brown are suggested as potential authors. Later, Jonathan Swift, John Dennis and Henry Fielding all lambasted Cibber in print. The most famous conflict Cibber had was with Alexander Pope. Pope's animosity began in 1717 when he helped John Arbuthnot and John Gay write a farce, Three Hours After Marriage, in which one of the characters, "Plotwell" was modelled on Cibber. Notwithstanding, Cibber put the play on at Drury Lane with himself playing the part of Plotwell, but the play was not well received. During the staging of a different play, Cibber introduced jokes at the expense of Three Hours After Marriage, while Pope was in the audience. Pope was infuriated, as was Gay who got into a physical fight with Cibber on a subsequent visit to the theatre. Pope published a pamphlet satirising Cibber, and continued his literary assault for the next 25 years. In the first version of his landmark literary satire Dunciad (1728), Pope referred contemptuously to Cibber's "past, vamp'd, future, old, reviv'd, new" plays, produced with "less human genius than God gives an ape". Cibber's elevation to laureateship in 1730 further inflamed Pope against him. Cibber was selected for political reasons, as he was a supporter of the Whig government of Robert Walpole, while Pope was a Tory. The selection of Cibber for this honour was widely seen as especially cynical coming at a time when Pope, Gay, Thomson, Ambrose Philips, and Edward Young were all in their prime. As one epigram of the time put it: Pope, mortified by the elevation of Cibber to laureateship and incredulous at what he held to be the vainglory of his Apology (1740), attacked Cibber extensively in his poetry. Cibber replied mostly with good humour to Pope's aspersions ("some of which are in conspicuously bad taste", as Lowe points out), until 1742 when he responded in kind in "A Letter from Mr. Cibber, to Mr. Pope, inquiring into the motives that might induce him in his Satyrical Works, to be so frequently fond of Mr. Cibber's name". In this pamphlet, Cibber's most effective ammunition came from a reference in Pope's Epistle to Arbuthnot (1735) to Cibber's "whore", which gave Cibber a pretext for retorting in kind with a scandalous anecdote about Pope in a brothel. "I must own", wrote Cibber, "that I believe I know more of your whoring than you do of mine; because I don't recollect that ever I made you the least Confidence of my Amours, though I have been very near an Eye-Witness of Yours." Since Pope was around four and a half feet tall and hunchbacked due to a tubercular infection of the spine he contracted when young, Cibber regarded the prospect of Pope with a woman as something humorous, and he speaks mockingly of the "little-tiny manhood" of Pope. For once the laughers were on Cibber's side, and the story "raised a universal shout of merriment at Pope's expense". Pope made no direct reply, but took one of the most famous revenges in literary history. In the revised Dunciad that appeared in 1743, he changed his hero, the King of Dunces, from Lewis Theobald to Colley Cibber. King of Dunces The derogatory allusions to Cibber in consecutive versions of Pope's mock-heroic Dunciad, from 1728 to 1743, became more elaborate as the conflict between the two men escalated, until, in the final version of the poem, Pope crowned Cibber King of Dunces. From being merely one symptom of the artistic decay of Britain, he was transformed into the demigod of stupidity, the true son of the goddess Dulness. Apart from the personal quarrel, Pope had reasons of literary appropriateness for letting Cibber take the place of his first choice of King, Lewis Theobald. Theobald, who had embarrassed Pope by contrasting Pope's impressionistic Shakespeare edition (1725) with Theobald's own scholarly edition (1726), also wrote Whig propaganda for hire, as well as dramatic productions which were to Pope abominations for their mixing of tragedy and comedy and for their "low" pantomime and opera. However, Cibber was an even better King in these respects, more high-profile both as a political opportunist and as the powerful manager of Drury Lane, and with the crowning circumstance that his political allegiances and theatrical successes had gained him the laureateship. To Pope this made him an epitome of all that was wrong with British letters. Pope explains in the "Hyper-critics of Ricardus Aristarchus" prefatory to the 1743 Dunciad that Cibber is the perfect hero for a mock-heroic parody, since his Apology exhibits every trait necessary for the inversion of an epic hero. An epic hero must have wisdom, courage, and chivalric love, says Pope, and the perfect hero for an anti-epic therefore should have vanity, impudence, and debauchery. As wisdom, courage, and love combine to create magnanimity in a hero, so vanity, impudence, and debauchery combine to make buffoonery for the satiric hero. His revisions, however, were considered too hasty by later critics who pointed out inconsistent passages that damaged his own poem for the sake of personal vindictiveness. Writing about the degradation of taste brought on by theatrical effects, Pope quotes Cibber's own confessio in the Apology: Pope's notes call Cibber a hypocrite, and in general the attacks on Cibber are conducted in the notes added to the Dunciad, and not in the body of the poem. As hero of the Dunciad, Cibber merely watches the events of Book II, dreams Book III, and sleeps through Book IV. Once Pope struck, Cibber became an easy target for other satirists. He was attacked as the epitome of morally and aesthetically bad writing, largely for the sins of his autobiography. In the Apology, Cibber speaks daringly in the first person and in his own praise. Although the major figures of the day were jealous of their fame, self-promotion of such an overt sort was shocking, and Cibber offended Christian humility as well as gentlemanly modesty. Additionally, Cibber consistently fails to see fault in his own character, praises his vices, and makes no apology for his misdeeds; so it was not merely the fact of the autobiography, but the manner of it that shocked contemporaries. His diffuse and chatty writing style, conventional in poetry and sometimes incoherent in prose, was bound to look even worse in contrast to stylists like Pope. Henry Fielding satirically tried Cibber for murder of the English language in the 17 May 1740 issue of The Champion. The Tory wits were altogether so successful in their satire of Cibber that the historical image of the man himself was almost obliterated, and it was as the King of Dunces that he came down to posterity. Plays The plays below were produced at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, unless otherwise stated. The dates given are of first known performance. Love's Last Shift or "The Fool in Fashion" (Comedy, January 1696) Woman's Wit (Comedy, 1697) Xerxes (Tragedy, Lincoln's Inn Fields, 1699) The Tragical History of King Richard III (Tragedy, 1699) Love Makes a Man or " The Fop's Fortune" (Comedy, December 1700) The School Boy (Comedy, advertised for 24 October 1702) She Would and She Would Not (Comedy, 26 November 1702) The Careless Husband (Comedy, 7 December 1704) Perolla and Izadora (Tragedy, 3 December 1705) The Comical Lovers (Comedy, Haymarket, 4 February 1707) The Double Gallant (Comedy, Haymarket, 1 November 1707) The Lady's Last Stake OR "The Wife's resentment" (Comedy, Haymarket, 13 December 1707) The Rival Fools oe "Wit, at several Weapons"(Comedy, 11 January 1709) The Rival Queans (Comical-Tragedy, Haymarket, 29 June 1710), a parody of Nathaniel Lee's The Rival Queens. Ximena or "The Heroic Daughter"(Tragedy, 28 November 1712) Venus and Adonis (Masque, 12 March 1715) Myrtillo (Pastoral, 5 November 1715) The Non-Juror (Comedy, 6 December 1717) The Refusal or " The Ladies Philosophy"(Comedy, 14 February 1721) Caesar in Egypt (Tragedy, 9 December 1724) The Provoked Husband (with Vanbrugh, comedy, 10 January 1728) Love in a Riddle (Pastoral, 7 January 1729) Damon and Phillida (Pastoral Farce, Haymarket, 16 August 1729) Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John (Tragedy, Covent Garden, 15 February 1745) Bulls and Bears, a farce performed at Drury Lane on 2 December 1715, was attributed to Cibber but was never published. The Dramatic Works of Colley Cibber, Esq. (London, 1777) includes a play called Flora, or Hob in the Well, but it is not by Cibber. Hob, or the Country Wake. A Farce. By Mr. Doggett was attributed to Cibber by William Chetwood in his General History of the Stage (1749), but John Genest in Some Account of the English Stage (1832) thought it was by Thomas Doggett. Other plays attributed to Cibber but probably not by him include Cinna's Conspiracy, performed at Drury Lane on 19 February 1713, and The Temple of Dullness of 1745. Notes References Further reading External links 1671 births 1757 deaths Actor-managers British Poets Laureate English male dramatists and playwrights English male poets English male stage actors English memoirists English theatre directors 18th-century English businesspeople 17th-century English male actors 18th-century English male actors 17th-century English male writers 18th-century English non-fiction writers 18th-century English male writers 17th-century English dramatists and playwrights 18th-century British dramatists and playwrights People educated at The King's School, Grantham English people of Danish descent English male non-fiction writers 17th-century theatre managers 18th-century theatre managers	[ -0.5413868427276611, -0.05529608950018883, -0.6469435691833496, -0.6468102931976318, 0.20694473385810852, 1.2333965301513672, 0.8542300462722778, 0.06925380975008011, -0.31998148560523987, 0.06810455769300461, -0.14082399010658264, 0.037469882518053055, -0.2906802296638489, 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216664	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic%20rent	Economic rent	In economics, economic rent is any payment (in the context of a market transaction) to an owner or factor of production in excess of the costs needed to bring that factor into production. In classical economics, economic rent is any payment made (including imputed value) or benefit received for non-produced inputs such as location (land) and for assets formed by creating official privilege over natural opportunities (e.g., patents). In the moral economy of neoclassical economics, economic rent includes income gained by labor or state beneficiaries of other "contrived" (assuming the market is natural, and does not come about by state and social contrivance) exclusivity, such as labor guilds and unofficial corruption. Overview In the moral economy of the economics tradition broadly, economic rent is opposed to producer surplus, or normal profit, both of which are theorized to involve productive human action. Economic rent is also independent of opportunity cost, unlike economic profit, where opportunity cost is an essential component. Economic rent is viewed as unearned revenue while economic profit is a narrower term describing surplus income earned by choosing between risk-adjusted alternatives. Unlike economic profit, economic rent cannot be theoretically eliminated by competition because any actions the recipient of the income may take such as improving the object to be rented will then change the total income to contract rent. Still, the total income is made up of economic profit (earned) plus economic rent (unearned). For a produced commodity, economic rent may be due to the legal ownership of a patent (a politically enforced right to the use of a process or ingredient). For education and occupational licensing, it is the knowledge, performance, and ethical standards, as well as the cost of permits and licenses that are collectively controlled as to their number, regardless of the competence and willingness of those who wish to compete on price alone in the area being licensed. In regard to labor, economic rent can be created by the existence of mass education, labor laws, state social reproduction supports, democracy, guilds, and labor unions (e.g., higher pay for some workers, where collective action creates a scarcity of such workers, as opposed to an ideal condition where labor competes with other factors of production on price alone). For most other production, including agriculture and extraction, economic rent is due to a scarcity (uneven distribution) of natural resources (e.g., land, oil, or minerals). When economic rent is privatized, the recipient of economic rent is referred to as a rentier. By contrast, in production theory, if there is no exclusivity and there is perfect competition, there are no economic rents, as competition drives prices down to their floor. Economic rent is different from other unearned and passive income, including contract rent. This distinction has important implications for public revenue and tax policy. As long as there is sufficient accounting profit, governments can collect a portion of economic rent for the purpose of public finance. For example, economic rent can be collected by a government as royalties or extraction fees in the case of resources such as minerals and oil and gas. Historically, theories of rent have typically applied to rent received by different factor owners within a single economy. Hossein Mahdavy was the first to introduce the concept of "external rent", whereby one economy received rent from other economies. Definitions According to Robert Tollison (1982), economic rents are "excess returns" above the "normal levels" that are generated in competitive markets. More specifically, a rent is "a return in excess of the resource owner's opportunity cost". Henry George, best known for his proposal for a single tax on land, defines rent as "the part of the produce that accrues to the owners of land (or other natural capabilities) by virtue of ownership" and as "the share of wealth given to landowners because they have an exclusive right to the use of those natural capabilities." The law professors Lucian Bebchuk and Jesse Fried define the term as "extra returns that firms or individuals obtain due to their positional advantages." In simple terms, economic rent is an excess where there is no enterprise or costs of production. Classical rent (land rent) In political economy, including physiocracy, classical economics, Georgism, and other schools of economic thought, land is recognized as an inelastic factor of production. Land, in this sense, means exclusive access rights to any natural opportunity. Rent is the share paid to freeholders for allowing production on the land they control. David Ricardo is credited with the first clear and comprehensive analysis of differential land rent and the associated economic relationships (law of rent). Johann Heinrich von Thünen was influential in developing the spatial analysis of rents, which highlighted the importance of centrality and transport. Simply put, it was density of population, increasing the profitability of commerce and providing for the division and specialization of labor, that commanded higher municipal rents. These high rents determined that land in a central city would not be allocated to farming but be allocated instead to more profitable residential or commercial uses. Observing that a tax on the unearned rent of land would not distort economic activities, Henry George proposed that publicly collected land rents (land value taxation) should be the primary (or only) source of public revenue, though he also advocated public ownership, taxation, and regulation of natural monopolies and monopolies of scale that cannot be eliminated by regulation. Neoclassical Paretian rent Neoclassical economics extends the concept of rent to include factors other than natural resource rents. "The excess earnings over the amount necessary to keep the factor in its current occupation." "The difference between what a factor of production is paid and how much it would need to be paid to remain in its current use." "A return over and above opportunity costs, or the normal return necessary to keep a resource in its current use." The labeling of this version of rent as "Paretian" may be a misnomer in that Vilfredo Pareto, the economist for whom this kind of rent was named, may or may not have proffered any conceptual formulation of rent. Monopoly rent Monopoly rent refers to those economic rents derived from monopolies, which can result from (1) denial of access to an asset or (2) the unique qualities of an asset. Examples of monopoly rent include: rents associated from legally enforced knowledge monopolies derived from intellectual property like patents or copyrights; rents associated with 'de facto' monopolies of companies like Microsoft and Intel who control the underlying standards in an industry or product line (e.g. Microsoft Office); rents associated with 'natural monopolies' of public or private utilities (e.g. telephone, electricity, railways, etc.); and rents associated with network effects of platform technologies controlled by companies like Facebook, Google, or Amazon. An antitrust probe described Google Play and Apple App Store fees as "monopoly rents". Labour The generalization of the concept of rent to include opportunity cost has served to highlight the role of political barriers in creating and privatizing rents. For example, a person seeking to become a member of a medieval guild makes a huge investment in training and education, which has limited potential application outside of that guild. In a competitive market, the wages of a member of the guild would be set so that the expected net return on the investment in training would be just enough to justify making the investment. In a sense, the required investment is a natural barrier to entry, discouraging some would-be members from making the necessary investment in training to enter the competitive market for the services of the guild. This is a natural "free market" self-limiting control on the number of guild members and/or the cost of training necessitated by certification. Some of those who would have opted for a particular guild may decide to join a different guild or occupation. However, a political restriction on the number of people entering into the competitive market for services of the guild has the effect of raising the return on investments in the guild's training, especially for those already practicing, by creating an artificial scarcity of guild members. To the extent that a constraint on entrants to the guild actually increases the returns to guild members as opposed to ensuring competence, then the practice of limiting entrants to the field is a rent-seeking activity, and the excess return realized by the guild members is economic rent. The same model explains the high wages in some modern professions that have been able to both obtain legal protection from competition and limit their membership, notably medical doctors, actuaries, and lawyers. In countries where the creation of new universities is limited by legal charter, such as the UK, it also applies to professors. It may also apply to careers that are inherently competitive in the sense that there is a fixed number of slots, such as football league positions, music charts, or urban territory for illegal drug selling. These jobs are characterised by the existence of a small number of rich members of the guild, along with a much larger surrounding of poor people competing against each other under very poor conditions as they "pay their dues" to try to join the guild. (Reference: "Freakonomics: Why do drug dealers live with their Moms?"). Terminology relating to rent Gross rent Gross rent refers to the rent paid for the services of land and the capital invested on it. It consists of economic rent, interest on capital invested for improvement of land, and reward for the risk taken by the landlord in investing his or her capital. Scarcity rent Scarcity rent refers to the price paid for the use of homogeneous land when its supply is limited in relation to demand. If all units of land are homogeneous but demand exceeds supply, all land will earn economic rent by virtue of its scarcity. Differential rent Differential rent refers to the rent that arises owing to differences in fertility of land. The surplus that arises due to difference between the marginal and intra-marginal land is the differential rent. It is generally accrued under conditions of extensive land cultivation. The term was first proposed by David Ricardo. Contract rent Contract rent refers to rent that is mutually agreed upon between the landowner and the user. It may be equal to the economic rent of the factor. Information rent Information rent is rent an agent derives from having information not provided to the principal. See also Georgism Ground rent Land (economics) List of economics topics Quasi-rent Rent seeking FIRE economy (finance, insurance and real estate) Rentier state Hotelling's rule Law of rent Schumpeterian rent Johann Heinrich von Thünen Differential and absolute ground rent Property income Unearned income References Further reading See also: External links Definition of economic rent at Economist.com The Art of Rent, a series of seminars at Queen Mary University of London. Rent-Seeking Network Rent-Seeking papers by Behrooz Hassani Agricultural economic rent Renting Public choice theory Scarcity	[ -0.19518999755382538, -0.3052499294281006, 0.21211591362953186, 0.20671413838863373, -0.029868606477975845, 0.31156986951828003, -0.22133280336856842, 0.07316876202821732, 0.021215802058577538, -0.5447869300842285, -0.5459655523300171, 1.0997846126556396, 0.0645122081041336, 0.4501986801624298, -0.2043352574110031, 0.41919854283332825, 0.43989098072052, 0.1722842901945114, -0.19145725667476654, -0.39748769998550415, -0.3182429075241089, 0.1354549080133438, 0.22615447640419006, -0.19698376953601837, 0.4130064845085144, -0.38325369358062744, 0.30553749203681946, 0.24056929349899292, -0.7442727088928223, 0.13004468381404877, -0.1954694390296936, 0.5760802030563354, -0.08871731907129288, 0.11427842080593109, 0.008353348821401596, -0.10091574490070343, -0.22083741426467896, -0.3887019455432892, -0.7413379549980164, -0.7782822847366333, 0.1321401298046112, 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216665	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasars%2C%20Redshifts%20and%20Controversies	Quasars, Redshifts and Controversies	Quasars, Redshifts and Controversies is a 1987 book by Halton Arp, an astronomer famous for his Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies (1966). Arp argued that many quasars with otherwise high redshift are somehow linked to close objects such as nearby galaxies. Arp also argued that some galaxies showed unusual redshifts, and that redshifts themselves could be quantized. These are controversial views which do not accord with the standard model of physical cosmology. It also contradicts the accepted model that quasars are bright nuclei of very distant galaxies. Most astronomers reject Arp's interpretation of the data since the anomalous observations could be explained by perspective effects. Reportedly, some of Arp's calculations seem to be simply "bad mathematics". Arp asserted that many questions he posed to the scientific establishment are still unanswered and that his requests for more observation time had been systematically rejected. Halton Arp's proposal was an idea based on analyses done before the sky surveys increased the number of measured redshifts by several orders of magnitude. The idea was that the cosmological redshift might be showing evidence of periodicity which would be difficult to explain in a Hubble's Law universe that had the feature of continuous expansion. However, most astronomers agree that the analysis suffers from poor methodology and small number statistics. Halton Arp continued to report the existence of apparently connected objects with very different redshifts. Arp has interpreted these connections to mean that these objects are in fact physically connected. He further hypothesized that the higher redshift objects are ejected from the lower redshift objects - which are usually active galactic nuclei (AGN)- and that the large observed redshifts of these "ejected" objects is dominated by a non-cosmological (intrinsic) component. The rest of the community regards these as chance alignments and Arp's hypothesis has very few supporters. The book has been translated into Italian and Spanish, as of 1998. His work is updated in his last book, Catalogue of Discordant Redshift Associations, C. Roy Keys Inc. (February, 2003), . See also Non-standard cosmology Notes External links and references Arp, Halton C., Quasars, Redshifts and Controversies. September 1988. Arp, Halton C., Seeing Red: Redshifts, Cosmology and Academic Science, Aperion (August, 1998), Rowan-Robinson, Michael, Arp's astronomical exotica, Nature vol. 336, (November 17, 1988) 1987 non-fiction books Astronomy books	[ -0.5175912976264954, 0.6109182238578796, -0.229439839720726, -0.03238389641046524, -0.6350312232971191, -0.32281985878944397, -0.35898908972740173, -0.11693120747804642, -0.33223795890808105, 0.13727879524230957, -0.3787420094013214, 0.36481544375419617, -0.07514255493879318, 0.3524381220340729, 0.11983337998390198, 0.28338921070098877, 0.1503317952156067, -0.2361384779214859, -0.668920636177063, -0.06575018167495728, 0.5803497433662415, 0.05102907493710518, 0.34689003229141235, -0.5547621250152588, 0.12833954393863678, 0.15878154337406158, -0.13930697739124298, -0.14161619544029236, -0.0926404520869255, 0.18424344062805176, -0.10203145444393158, 1.1152129173278809, -0.32295018434524536, -0.2452598363161087, -0.18712107837200165, -0.11952860653400421, 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216668	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvia%20Saint	Silvia Saint	Silvia Saint, born Silvie Tomčalová (born 12 February 1976) is a former Czech pornographic actress. In 1996 she was Penthouse Pet of the Year in the Czech edition of the magazine. She has appeared in over 300 pornographic movies. Early life Silvia Saint was born Silvia Tomcalova on February 12, 1976, in what is now the Czech Republic. She was an only child who faced many hardships in her life including poverty and the death of her father when she was young. Career Saint began as an erotic modeling, first lingerie, then nude in magazines and finally to pornographic films. She was Penthouse Pet of the Year in 1996 (Czech edition). After her introduction to the American porn industry she became the October 1998 Penthouse Pet of the Month (U.S. edition). Saint's early films were shot in Europe, many for Private Media Group. She performed in a Private Media Group space-themed pornographic film The Uranus Experiment: Part Two, which featured a brief scene filmed in a Russian aircraft flying a parabolic track (similar to NASA's Vomit Comet). The film featured around 20 seconds of Saint and Nick Lang (who both portray astronauts living on a space station) having penetrative sex in freefall. The scene was nominated for a Nebula Award, but it did not win. Saint was awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award at Torino Sex 2005, Turin's second annual Delta of Venus Fair. In 2006 she won the rights to the Internet domain name silviasaint.com from a cybersquatter in a Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy action. In 2007, the mobile game Sylvia Saint in Erotic Pool was released for Java ME-supported phones. Since 2007 she has only starred and performed in lesbian sex movies, while also taking care of the auditions as director and producer to her official website. Awards 1998 AVN Award – Best Tease Performance (Fresh Meat 4) 2000 Hot d'Or Award – Best European Supporting Actress (Le Contrat des Anges) 2000 FICEB Ninfa Award – Best Lesbian Scene (Alexia and Cie) with Nikki Anderson & Kate More 2004 FICEB Ninfa Award – Best Actress (Public) 2005 FICEB Ninfa Award – Best Actress (Public) 2012 AVN Hall of Fame inductee References External links 1976 births Living people People from Kyjov Czech pornographic film actresses Czech female adult models Penthouse Pets	[ -0.19458869099617004, -0.10829842835664749, 0.3402627408504486, -0.3568102717399597, -0.05488842353224754, 0.7679516673088074, 0.5816220045089722, -0.25874432921409607, -0.24487154185771942, 0.5085239410400391, 0.31837520003318787, 0.46543416380882263, -0.029767243191599846, -0.2539765238761902, 0.01797500252723694, 0.47588151693344116, 0.9347991943359375, 0.0971514955163002, -0.6015470027923584, -0.2350112795829773, -0.1879042685031891, -0.02408289723098278, 0.4071982502937317, 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216669	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Samuelson	Paul Samuelson	Paul Anthony Samuelson (May 15, 1915 – December 13, 2009) was an American economist, who was the first American to win the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. When awarding the prize in 1970, the Swedish Royal Academies stated that he "has done more than any other contemporary economist to raise the level of scientific analysis in economic theory". Economic historian Randall E. Parker has called him the "Father of Modern Economics", and The New York Times considers him to be the "foremost academic economist of the 20th century". Samuelson was likely the most influential economist of the later half of the 20th century. In 1996, when he was awarded the National Medal of Science, considered to be America's top science-honor, President Bill Clinton commended Samuelson for his "fundamental contributions to economic science" for over 60 years. Samuelson considered mathematics to be the "natural language" for economists and contributed significantly to the mathematical foundations of economics with his book Foundations of Economic Analysis. He was author of the best-selling economics textbook of all time: Economics: An Introductory Analysis, first published in 1948. It was the second American textbook that attempted to explain the principles of Keynesian economics. It is now in its 19th edition, having sold nearly 4 million copies in 40 languages. James Poterba, former head of MIT's Department of Economics, noted that by his book, Samuelson "leaves an immense legacy, as a researcher and a teacher, as one of the giants on whose shoulders every contemporary economist stands". He entered the University of Chicago at age 16, during the depths of the Great Depression, and received his PhD in economics from Harvard. After graduating, he became an assistant professor of economics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) when he was 25 years of age and a full professor at age 32. In 1966, he was named Institute Professor, MIT's highest faculty honor. He spent his career at MIT, where he was instrumental in turning its Department of Economics into a world-renowned institution by attracting other noted economists to join the faculty, including later winners of the Nobel Prize Robert Solow, Franco Modigliani, Robert C. Merton, Joseph Stiglitz, and Paul Krugman. He served as an advisor to Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, and was a consultant to the United States Treasury, the Bureau of the Budget and the President's Council of Economic Advisers. Samuelson wrote a weekly column for Newsweek magazine along with Chicago School economist Milton Friedman, where they represented opposing sides: Samuelson, as a self described "Cafeteria Keynesian", claimed taking the Keynesian perspective but only accepting what he felt was good in it. By contrast, Friedman represented the monetarist perspective. Together with Henry Wallich, their 1967 columns earned the magazine a Gerald Loeb Special Award in 1968. Samuelson worked in many theoretical fields, including: consumer theory; welfare economics; capital; finance, particularly the efficient-market hypothesis; public finance, particularly optimal allocation; international economics, particularly the Balassa–Samuelson effect and the Heckscher–Ohlin model; macroeconomics, particularly the overlapping generations model; and market economics. Biography Samuelson was born in Gary, Indiana, on May 15, 1915, to Frank Samuelson, a pharmacist, and Ella née Lipton. His family, he later said, was "made up of upwardly mobile Jewish immigrants from Poland who had prospered considerably in World War I, because Gary was a brand new steel-town when my family went there". In 1923, Samuelson moved to Chicago where he graduated from Hyde Park High School (now Hyde Park Career Academy). He then studied at the University of Chicago and received his Bachelor of Arts degree there in 1935. He said he was born as an economist, at 8.00am on January 2, 1932, in the University of Chicago classroom. The lecture mentioned as the cause was on the British economist Thomas Malthus, who most famously studied population growth and its effects. Samuelson felt there was a dissonance between neoclassical economics and the way the system seemed to behave; he said Henry Simons and Frank Knight were a big influence on him. He next completed his Master of Arts degree in 1936, and his Doctor of Philosophy in 1941 at Harvard University. He won the David A. Wells prize in 1941 for writing the best doctoral dissertation at Harvard University in economics, for a thesis titled "Foundations of Analytical Economics", which later turned into Foundations of Economic Analysis. As a graduate student at Harvard, Samuelson studied economics under Joseph Schumpeter, Wassily Leontief, Gottfried Haberler, and the "American Keynes" Alvin Hansen. Samuelson moved to MIT as an assistant professor in 1940 and remained there until his death. Samuelson's family included many well-known economists, including brother Robert Summers, sister-in-law Anita Summers, brother-in-law Kenneth Arrow and nephew Larry Summers. During his seven decades as an economist, Samuelson's professional positions included: Assistant professor of economics at MIT, 1940; associate professor, 1944. Member of the Radiation Laboratory 1944–45. Professor of international economic relations (part-time) at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy in 1945. Guggenheim Fellowship from 1948 to 1949 Professor of economics at MIT beginning in 1947 and Institute Professor beginning in 1962. Vernon F. Taylor Visiting Distinguished Professor at Trinity University (Texas) in spring 1989. Death Samuelson died after a brief illness on December 13, 2009, at the age of 94. His death was announced by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. James M. Poterba, an economics professor at MIT and the president of the National Bureau of Economic Research, commented that Samuelson "leaves an immense legacy, as a researcher and a teacher, as one of the giants on whose shoulders every contemporary economist stands". Susan Hockfield, the president of MIT, said that Samuelson "transformed everything he touched: the theoretical foundations of his field, the way economics was taught around the world, the ethos and stature of his department, the investment practices of MIT, and the lives of his colleagues and students". Fields of interest As professor of economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Samuelson worked in many fields, including: Consumer theory, where he pioneered the revealed preference approach, which is a method by which one can discern a consumer's utility function, by observing their behavior. Rather than postulate a utility function or a preference ordering, Samuelson imposed conditions directly on the choices made by individuals – their preferences as revealed by their choices. Welfare economics, in which he popularised the Lindahl–Bowen–Samuelson conditions (criteria for deciding whether an action will improve welfare) and demonstrated in 1950 the insufficiency of a national-income index to reveal which of two social options was uniformly outside the other's (feasible) possibility function (Collected Scientific Papers, v. 2, ch. 77; Fischer, 1987, p. 236). Capital theory, where he is known for 1958 consumption loans model and a variety of turnpike theorems and involved in Cambridge capital controversy. Finance theory, in which he is known for the efficient-market hypothesis. Public finance theory, in which he is particularly known for his work on determining the optimal allocation of resources in the presence of both public goods and private goods. International economics, where he influenced the development of two important international trade models: the Balassa–Samuelson effect, and the Heckscher–Ohlin model (with the Stolper–Samuelson theorem). Macroeconomics, where he popularized the overlapping generations model as a way to analyze economic agents' behavior across multiple periods of time (Collected Scientific Papers, v. 1, ch. 21) and contributed to formation of the neoclassical synthesis. Market economics: Samuelson believed unregulated markets have drawbacks, he stated, "free markets do not stabilise themselves. Zero regulating is vastly suboptimal to rational regulating. Libertarianism is its own worst enemy!" Samuelson strongly criticised Friedman and Friedrich Hayek, arguing their opposition to state intervention "tells us something about them rather than something about Genghis Khan or Franklin Roosevelt. It is paranoid to warn against inevitable slippery slopes ... once individual commercial freedoms are in any way infringed upon." Impact Samuelson is considered one of the founders of neo-Keynesian economics and a seminal figure in the development of neoclassical economics. In awarding him the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences the committee stated: He was also essential in creating the neoclassical synthesis, which ostensibly incorporated Keynesian and neoclassical principles and still dominates current mainstream economics. In 2003, Samuelson was one of the ten Nobel Prize–winning economists signing the Economists' statement opposing the Bush tax cuts. Aphorisms and quotations Stanislaw Ulam once challenged Samuelson to name one theory in all of the social sciences that is both true and nontrivial. Several years later, Samuelson responded with David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage: "That it is logically true need not be argued before a mathematician; that is not trivial is attested by the thousands of important and intelligent men who have never been able to grasp the doctrine for themselves or to believe it after it was explained to them." For many years, Samuelson wrote a column for Newsweek. One article included Samuelson's most quoted remark and a favorite economics joke: To prove that Wall Street is an early omen of movements still to come in GNP, commentators quote economic studies alleging that market downturns predicted four out of the last five recessions. That is an understatement. Wall Street indexes predicted nine out of the last five recessions! And its mistakes were beauties. In the early editions of his famous, bestselling economics textbook Paul Samuelson joked that GDP falls when a man "marries his maid". Publications Foundations of Economic Analysis Paul Samuelson's book Foundations of Economic Analysis (1946) is considered his magnum opus. It is derived from his doctoral dissertation, and was inspired by the classical thermodynamic methods. The book proposes to: examine underlying analogies between central features in theoretical and applied economics and study how operationally meaningful theorems can be derived with a small number of analogous methods (p. 3), in order to derive "a general theory of economic theories" (Samuelson, 1983, p. xxvi). The book showed how these goals could be parsimoniously and fruitfully achieved, using the language of the mathematics applied to diverse subfields of economics. The book proposes two general hypotheses as sufficient for its purposes: maximizing behavior of agents (including consumers as to utility and business firms as to profit) and economic systems (including a market and an economy) in stable equilibrium. In the first tenet, his views presented the idea that all actors, whether firms or consumers, are striving to maximize something. They could be attempting to maximize profits, utility, or wealth, but it did not matter because their efforts to improve their well-being would provide a basic model for all actors in an economic system. His second tenet was focused on providing insight on the workings of equilibrium in an economy. Generally in a market, supply would equal demand. However, he urged that this might not be the case and that the important thing to look at was a system's natural resting point. Foundations presents the question of how an equilibrium would react when it is moved from its optimal point. Samuelson was also influential in providing explanations on how the changes in certain factors can affect an economic system. For example, he could explain the economic effect of changes in taxes or new technologies. In the course of analysis, comparative statics, (the analysis of changes in equilibrium of the system that result from a parameter change of the system) is formalized and clearly stated. The chapter on welfare economics "attempt(s) to give a brief but fairly complete survey of the whole field of welfare economics" (Samuelson, 1947, p. 252). It also exposits on and develops what became commonly called the Bergson–Samuelson social welfare function. It shows how to represent (in the maximization calculus) all real-valued economic measures of any belief system that is required to rank consistently different feasible social configurations in an ethical sense as "better than", "worse than", or "indifferent to" each other (p. 221). Economics Samuelson is also author (and since 1985 co-author) of an influential principles textbook, Economics, first published in 1948 (19th ed. as of 2010; multiple reprints). The book sold more than 300,000 copies of each edition from 1961 through 1976 and was translated in the forty-one languages. As of 2018, it has sold over four million copies. William Nordhaus joined as co-author on the 12th edition (1985). Sometime before 1988, it had become the best-selling economics textbook of all time. Samuelson was once quoted as saying, "Let those who will write the nation's laws if I can write its textbooks." Written in the shadow of the Great Depression and the Second World War, it helped to popularize the insights of John Maynard Keynes. A main focus was how to avoid, or at least mitigate, the recurring slumps in economic activity. Samuelson wrote: "It is not too much to say that the widespread creation of dictatorships and the resulting World War II stemmed in no small measure from the world's failure to meet this basic economic problem [the Great Depression] adequately." This reflected the concern of Keynes himself with the economic causes of war and the importance of economic policy in promoting peace. Samuelson's book was the second to introduce Keynesian economics to a wide audience, and was by far the most successful. Canadian economist Lorie Tarshis, who had been a student attending Keynes's lectures at Harvard in the 1930s, published in 1947 an introductory textbook that incorporated his lecture notes, titled Elements of Economics. Other publications There are 388 papers in Samuelson's Collected Scientific Papers. Stanley Fischer (1987, p. 234) writes that taken together they are "unique in their verve, breadth of economic and general knowledge, mastery of setting, and generosity of allusions to predecessors". Samuelson was co-editor, along with William A. Barnett, of Inside the Economist's Mind: Conversations with Eminent Economists (Blackwell Publishing, 2007), a collection of interviews with notable economists of the 20th century. Criticisms Textbook influences in higher education Samuelson's textbook was a watershed in introducing a serious study of business cycles in the economics curriculum. It was particularly timely because it followed the Great Depression, which had only ended because of the fiscal stimulus of World War II. The study of business cycles along with the introduction of the Keynesian approach of aggregate demand set the stage for the macroeconomic revolution in America, which then diffused throughout the world through translations into every major language. Generations of students, who then became teachers, learned their first and most influential lessons from Samuelson's Economics. It attracted many imitators, who became successful in different niches of the college market. The text was not without criticism. While it praised the "mixed economy" of market and government, some found that too radical and attacked it as socialist. As a precursor to criticisms of Samuelson's Economics textbook, Lorie Tarshis's textbook was attacked by trustees of, and donors to, American colleges and universities as preaching a "socialist heresy". Piling on, William F. Buckley, Jr., in his 1951 book, God and Man at Yale, devoted an entire chapter, attacking both Samuelson's and Tarshis' textbooks. For Samuelson's book, Buckley drew from the Educational Examiner and credited it as an "excellent review of Samuelson's text." ("Note to Chapter Two." p. 234) For Tarshis' book, Buckley drew from Merwin K. Hart's organization : "I am also grateful to the National Economic Council for its telling analysis of the Tarshis." ("Note to Chapter Two." p. 234) Buckley essentially characterized both as – in the words of Paul Davidson – "communist inspired". Buckley, for the rest of his life, defended the criticisms set forth in his book. Economic growth of USSR One criticism – of a concept that Samuelson added to his Economics textbook – was the comparison of USA growth rates with those of the USSR, which, according to the criticism, was inconsistent with historical GNP differences. The textbook's 1967 edition (7th ed.) extrapolates (projects) the possibility of USSR/US real GNP parity between 1977 and 1995. Each subsequent edition extrapolates a date range further in the future until those graphs were dropped from the 1985 edition (12th ed.). Phillips Curve Samuelson, together with Robert Solow, helped develop and popularize the mathematics of the Phillips Curve. The curve suggested that unemployment and inflation were inversely related; with the advent of stagflation in the 1970s some economists including Milton Friedman and Friedrich Hayek attacked the economics based on the Phillips Curve as questionable or mistaken. Memberships Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Academy of Sciences, fellow of Royal Society of London Fellow of the American Philosophical Society and the British Academy; President (1965–68) of the International Economic Association Member and past president (1961) of the American Economic Association Member of the editorial board and past-president (1951) of the Econometric Society Fellow, council member and past vice-president of the Royal Economic Society. Member of Phi Beta Kappa. List of publications Samuelson, Paul A. (1947), Enlarged ed. 1983. Foundations of Economic Analysis, Harvard University Press. Samuelson, Paul A. (1948), Economics: An Introductory Analysis, ; with William D. Nordhaus (since 1985), 2009, 19th ed., McGraw–Hill. Samuelson, Paul A. (1952), "Economic Theory and Mathematics – An Appraisal", American Economic Review, 42(2), pp. 56–66. Samuelson, Paul A. (1958), Linear Programming and Economic Analysis with Robert Dorfman and Robert M. Solow, McGraw–Hill. Chapter-preview links. The Collected Scientific Papers of Paul A. Samuelson, MIT Press. Preview links for vol. 1–3 below. Contents links for vol. 4–7. . Samuelson, Paul A. (1966), Vol. 1 → via Google Books, 1937–mid-1964. Samuelson, Paul A. (1966), Vol. 2 → via Google Books, 1937–mid-1964. Samuelson, Paul A. (1972), Vol. 3 → via Google Books, mid-1964–1970. Samuelson, Paul A. (1977), Vol. 4 → via Internet Archive , 1971–76. Samuelson, Paul A. (1986), Vol. 5 → via Google Books, 1977–1985 Description → via Samuelson, Paul A. (2011), Vol. 6, 1986–2009. Description → via Wayback Machine Samuelson, Paul A. (2011), Vol. 7, 1986–2009. Paul A. Samuelson Papers, 1933–2010, Rubenstein Library, Duke University. . Samuelson, Paul A. (1983). "My Life Philosophy," The American Economist, 27(2), pp. 5-12. Samuelson, Paul A. (2007), Inside the Economist's Mind: Conversations with Eminent Economists with William A. Barnett, Blackwell Publishing, Samuelson, Paul A. (2002), Paul Samuelson and the Foundations of Modern Economics, Transaction Publishers, Samuelson, Paul A. (2004), Macroeconomics Samuelson, Paul A. (2004), Microeconomics See also Samuelson's inequality Samuelson's Iceberg transport cost model Keynesian economics New Keynesian economics Neo-Keynesian economics Neoclassical economics Paul Samuelson - Wikiquote Bibliography Annotations References Further reading Description & arrow-scrollable preview. . . . . External links Presentation Speech by Professor Assar Lindbeck, Stockholm School of Economics, Award Ceremony, The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, 1970 A History of Economic Thought biography, 2004 Paul Samuelson, Yale Honorands biography, May 2005 "Nobel-winning economist Paul A. Samuelson dies at age 94", MIT News, December 13, 2009 1915 births 2009 deaths Nobel laureates in Economics American Nobel laureates 20th-century American writers 21st-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American economists 21st-century American economists American people of Polish-Jewish descent Fellows of the Econometric Society Harvard University alumni Jewish American writers Jewish American social scientists Kennedy administration personnel MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences faculty Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences National Medal of Science laureates Writers from Gary, Indiana Trade economists University of Chicago alumni Neo-Keynesian economists Presidents of the Econometric Society People from Belmont, Massachusetts Presidents of the American Economic Association Economists from Massachusetts Economists from Indiana Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy Hyde Park Academy High School alumni Burials at Mount Auburn 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216670	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Cecil%20Pigou	Arthur Cecil Pigou	Arthur Cecil Pigou (; 18 November 1877 – 7 March 1959) was an English economist. As a teacher and builder of the School of Economics at the University of Cambridge, he trained and influenced many Cambridge economists who went on to take chairs of economics around the world. His work covered various fields of economics, particularly welfare economics, but also included Business cycle theory, unemployment, public finance, index numbers, and measurement of national output. His reputation was affected adversely by influential economic writers who used his work as the basis on which to define their own opposing views. He reluctantly served on several public committees, including the Cunliffe Committee and the 1919 Royal Commission on Income tax. Early life and education Pigou was born at Ryde on the Isle of Wight, the son of Clarence George Scott Pigou, an army officer, and his wife Nora Biddel Frances Sophia, daughter of Sir John Lees, 3rd Baronet. He won a scholarship to Harrow School, where he was in Newlands house and became the first modern head of school. The school's economics society is named The Pigou Society in his honour. In 1896 he was admitted as a history scholar to King's College, Cambridge, where he first read history under Oscar Browning. He won the Chancellor's Gold Medal for English Verse in 1899, and the Cobden (1901), Burney (1901), and Adam Smith Prizes (1903), and made his mark in the Cambridge Union Society, of which he was President in 1900. He came to economics through the study of philosophy and ethics under the Moral Science Tripos. He studied economics under Alfred Marshall, whom he later succeeded as professor of political economy. His first and unsuccessful attempt at a fellowship of King's was a thesis on "Browning as a Religious Teacher". Academic work Pigou began lecturing on economics in 1901 and started giving the course on advanced economics to second year students on which was based the education of many Cambridge economists over the next thirty years. In his early days he lectured on a variety of subjects outside economics. He became a Fellow of King's College on his second attempt in March 1902, and was appointed Girdler's Lecturer in the summer of 1904. He devoted himself to exploring the various departments of economic doctrine, and as a result published the works on which his worldwide reputation rests. He specifically studied under Alfred Marshall and focused on normative economics. He became intrigued by welfare economics, which examines the overall benefit to society that comes from all the decisions made: those that individuals make about buying, selling and working, and those that firms make about production and employment. His first work was more philosophical than his later work, as he expanded the essay which had won him the Adam Smith Prize in 1903 into Principles and Methods of Industrial Peace. In 1908 Pigou was elected Professor of Political Economy at the University of Cambridge in succession to Alfred Marshall. He held the post until 1943. In 1909 he wrote an essay in favour of Land Value Taxation, likely to be interpreted as support for Lloyd George's People's Budget. Marshall's views on the land value tax were the inspiration for his view on taxing negative externalities. Pigou's most enduring contribution was The Economics of Welfare, 1920, in which he introduced the concept of externality and the idea that externality problems could be corrected by the imposition of a Pigovian tax (also spelled "Pigouvian tax"). In The Economics of Welfare (initially called Wealth and Welfare), Pigou developed Marshall’s concept of externality, which is a cost imposed or benefit conferred on others that is not accounted for by the person who creates these costs or benefits. Pigou argued that negative externalities (costs imposed) should be offset by a tax, while positive externalities should be offset by a subsidy. In the early 1960s Pigou's analysis was criticised by Ronald Coase, who argued that taxes and subsidies are not necessary if the partners in the transaction can bargain over the transaction. The externality concept remains central to modern welfare economics and particularly to environmental economics. The Pigou Club, named in his honour, is an association of modern economists who support the idea of a carbon tax to address the problem of climate change. A neglected aspect of Pigou's work is his analysis of a range of labour-market phenomena studied by subsequent economists, including collective bargaining, wage rigidity, internal labour markets, segmented labour market, and human capital. Sticky wages are when workers’ earnings don’t adjust quickly to changes in labour market conditions. This can slow an economy's recovery from a recession. Pigou’s contributions to solving unemployment serve as a basic foundation for understanding the phenomena of labor market externalities. His Theory of Unemployment, first published in 1933, describe many of the factors that contribute to unemployment, such as sticky wages, and an unwillingness to work at the market price. Both of these are factors that were given by Alfred Marshall and reinforced by Pigou. Up until the post-World War One era, frictional unemployment was understood as part of a functional market. However, Pigou also notes that there is another type of unemployment that emerges not because people are unwilling to work at market wages but because employers have lower demand for labor. With the lack of employment that resulted from the devastation of four years of war, England suffered from an economic depression long before the Great Depression, due in part to the fact that employers were hesitant to continue to hire women and veterans. This new factor of unemployment, Pigou writes, could be solved with subsidies provided by the government to industries suffering the most, such as manufacturing. Keynes argues against several points that Pigou makes in his Theory of Unemployment, but the most visible is Pigou’s theory that unemployment is either frictional or voluntary. However, the separation between frictional and voluntary unemployment is the first foray into understanding the way unemployment impacts the labor market until the publishing of Keynes General Theory. One of his early acts was to provide private financial support for John Maynard Keynes to work on probability theory. Pigou and Keynes had great mutual affection and regard for each other, and their intellectual differences never put their personal friendship seriously in jeopardy. Pigou was generally critical of Keynesian macroeconomics and developed the idea of the Pigou effect on real money balances to argue that the economy would be more self-stabilizing than Keynes proposed. In a couple of lectures delivered in 1949 he made a more favourable, though still critical evaluation of Keynes' work: "I should say... that in setting out and developing his fundamental conception, Keynes made a very important, original and valuable addition to the armoury of economic analysis". He later said that he had come with the passage of time to feel that he had failed earlier to appreciate some of the important things that Keynes was trying to say. Keynes, in turn, was very critical of Pigou, mentioning Pigou at least 17 times in The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, usually disparagingly. Keynes states that "[Pigou] is unable to devise any satisfactory formula to evaluate new equipment against old when, owing to changes in technique, the two are not identical. I believe that the concept at which Professor Pigou is aiming is the right and appropriate concept for economic analysis. But, until a satisfactory system of units has been adopted, its precise definition is an impossible task." Personal life Pigou had strong principles, and these gave him some problems in World War I. He was a conscientious objector to military service when it required an obligation to destroy human life. He remained at Cambridge, but during the vacations was an ambulance driver at the front for the Friends' Ambulance Unit, and insisted on undertaking jobs of particular danger. Towards the end of the war he reluctantly accepted a post in the Board of Trade, but showed little aptitude for the work. He was a reluctant member of the Cunliffe Committee on the Currency and Foreign Exchange (1918–1919), the Royal Commission on the Income Tax (1919–1920), and the Chamberlain Committee on the Currency and Bank of England Note Issues (1924–1925). The report of the last body was the prelude to the much criticised restoration of the gold standard at the old parity of exchange. Pigou was elected to the British Academy in 1925, but resigned later in 1947. In later years he withdrew from national affairs and devoted himself to more academic economics and writing weighty letters to The Times on problems of the day. He was a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a foreign member of the Accademia dei Lincei, and an honorary resident of the International Economic Committee. He loved mountains and climbing, and introduced climbing to many friends, such as Wilfrid Noyce and others, who became far greater climbers. An illness affecting his heart developed in the early 1930s, however, and this affected his vigour, curtailing his climbing and leaving him with phases of debility for the rest of his life. Pigou gave up his professor's chair in 1943, but remained a Fellow of King's College until his death. In his later years he gradually became more of a recluse, emerging occasionally from his rooms to give lectures or to take a walk. Pigou never married. He had good friendships, particularly in his later years. He had a penchant for complaining about politicians. Major publications Browning as a Religious Teacher, 1901. The Riddle of the Tariff, 1903. "Monopoly and Consumers' Surplus", 1904, Economic Journal. Principles and Methods of Industrial Peace, 1905. "Review of the Fifth Edition of Marshall's Principles of Economics", 1907, Economic Journal. "Producers' and Consumers' Surplus", 1910, Economic Journal. Wealth and Welfare, 1912. Unemployment, 1914. Some Aspects of the Housing Problem, Warburton Lecture, 1914. "The Value of Money." 1917, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 32( 1), pp. 38– 65. — 4th ed. 1932: Pdf A Levy on Capital and a Levy on War Wealth, 1920 (London: Humphrey Milford) "Empty Economic Boxes: A reply", 1922, Economic Journal. The Political Economy of War, 1922. "Exchange Value of Legal Tender Money", 1922, in: Essays in Applied Economics. Essays in Applied Economics, 1923. Industrial Fluctuations, 1927. "The Law of Diminishing and Increasing Cost", 1927, Economic Journal. A Study in Public Finance, 1928. "An Analysis of Supply", 1928, Economic Journal. The Theory of Unemployment, 1933. The Economics of Stationary States, 1935. "Mr. J.M. Keynes' General Theory of Employment ...," 1936, Economica, N.S. 3(10), pp. 115–132. "Real and Money Wage Rates in Relation to Unemployment", 1937, Economic Journal. "Money Wages in Relation to Unemployment", 1938, Economic Journal. Employment and Equilibrium, 1941. "The Classical Stationary State", 1943, Economic Journal. Lapses from Full Employment, 1944. "Economic Progress in a Stable Environment", 1947, Economica. Aspects of British Economic History 1918-1925, 1947 (London: Macmillan) The Veil of Money, 1949. First-page chapter-preview links Keynes's General Theory: A retrospective view, 1951. Essays in Economics, 1952. See also Liberalism in the United Kingdom References Notes Sources Further reading External links 1877 births 1959 deaths English economists Environmental economists Welfare economists Neoclassical economists People educated at Harrow School Alumni of King's College, Cambridge Presidents of the Cambridge Union British conscientious objectors People associated with the Friends' Ambulance Unit English mountain climbers People from Ryde Academics of the University of Cambridge Fellows of the British Academy	[ 0.08373554795980453, 0.263334184885025, -0.9918656349182129, 0.050162553787231445, -0.09767090529203415, 1.3914906978607178, 0.1203591525554657, 0.15852423012256622, -0.22742518782615662, -0.14321766793727875, -0.27378690242767334, 0.4015180766582489, -0.1044098436832428, 0.2229863852262497, 0.46803754568099976, -0.4998699128627777, -0.2595931887626648, -0.6463338136672974, -0.13786809146404266, -0.24822193384170532, -0.10438055545091629, 0.16012156009674072, 0.20528283715248108, 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216672	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Draper	John Draper	John Thomas Draper (born March 11, 1943), also known as Captain Crunch, Crunch, or Crunchman (after the Cap'n Crunch breakfast cereal mascot), is an American computer programmer and legendary former phone phreak. He is a widely known figure within the computer programming world and the hacker and security community, and generally lives a nomadic lifestyle. Following the emergence of the Me Too movement in 2017, allegations against him dating back decades surfaced in media reports and in social media posts concerning claims of inappropriate sexual behavior with young men. Draper denied any sexual intent but did not address all of the allegations directly. Early life Draper is the son of a United States Air Force engineer. As a child, he built a home radio station from discarded military components. He was frequently bullied in school and briefly received psychological treatment. After taking college courses, Draper enlisted in the U.S. Air Force in 1964. While stationed in Alaska, he helped his fellow service members make free phone calls home by devising access to a local telephone switchboard. In 1967, while stationed at Charleston Air Force Station in Maine, he created WKOS (W-"chaos"), a pirate radio station in nearby Dover-Foxcroft, but shut it down after a legally-licensed radio station, WDME, objected. Draper was honorably discharged from the Air Force as an Airman First Class in 1968. He moved to Silicon Valley and briefly worked for National Semiconductor as an engineering technician and at Hugle International where he worked on early designs for a cordless telephone. He also attended De Anza College on a part-time basis through 1972. During this period, he also worked as an engineer and disc jockey for KKUP in Cupertino, California and adopted the countercultural styles of the time by wearing long hair and smoking marijuana. Career Phreaking While testing a pirate radio transmitter he had built, Draper broadcast a telephone number to listeners seeking feedback to gauge the station's reception. A call from Denny Teresi resulted in a meeting that led Draper into the world of "phone phreaks", people who study and experiment with telephone networks, and who sometimes use that knowledge to make free calls. Teresi and several other phone phreaks were blind. Learning of Draper's knowledge of electronic design, they asked him to build a multifrequency tone generator, known informally as a blue box, a device for emitting audio tones used to control the phone network. The group had previously used an organ and cassette recordings of tones to make free calls. Among the phone phreaks, one blind boy who had taken the moniker of Joybubbles had perfect pitch and was able to identify frequencies precisely. Draper learned that a toy whistle packaged in boxes of Cap'n Crunch cereal emitted a tone at precisely 2600 hertz—the same frequency that AT&T long lines used to indicate that a trunk line was available for routing a new call. The tone disconnected one end of the trunk while the still-connected side entered an operator mode. The vulnerability they had exploited was limited to call-routing switches that relied on in-band signaling. After 1980 and the introduction of Signalling System No. 7 most U.S. phone lines relied almost exclusively on out-of-band signaling. This change rendered the toy whistles and blue boxes useless for phreaking purposes. The whistles are considered collectible souvenirs of a bygone era, and the magazine 2600: The Hacker Quarterly is named after the audio frequency. Profile by Esquire In 1971, journalist Ron Rosenbaum wrote about phone phreaking for Esquire. The article relied heavily on interviews with Draper and conferred upon him a sort of celebrity status among people interested in the counterculture. When first contacted by Rosenbaum about the story, Draper was ambivalent about being interviewed, but also in the same breath explained his prevailing ethos: The notoriety from the article led to Draper's arrest in 1972 on charges of toll fraud, for which he was sentenced to five years' probation. However, it also caught the attention of University of California, Berkeley engineering student and future Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak, who located Draper while working as an engineer at the radio station KKUP. Wozniak and Draper met to compare techniques for building blue boxes. Also present was Wozniak's friend Steve Jobs. Wozniak and Jobs later set up a small business selling blue boxes. Hardware and software developer Apple Computer In 1977, Draper worked for Apple as an independent contractor, and was assigned by Wozniak to develop a device that could connect the Apple II computer to phone lines. Wozniak said he thought computers could act like an answering machine, and modems were not yet widely available. Draper designed an interface device dubbed the "Charlie Board," which was designed to dial toll-free telephone numbers used by many corporations, and to emit touch-tones that would grant access to the WATS lines in use by those companies. In theory, this would allow unlimited and free long-distance phone calls. "It was an incredible board. But no one at Apple liked Crunch. Only me. They wouldn't let his device become a product," Wozniak said of the episode. Some of its techniques would later be used in tone-activated calling menus, voicemail, and other services. Easywriter In 1976 and 1978, Draper served two prison sentences for phone fraud. While on a work-release program during a third period of incarceration in 1979, Draper wrote EasyWriter, the first word processor for the Apple II. Draper later ported EasyWriter to the IBM PC, and it was selected by IBM as the machine's official word processor, beating competing bids from Microsoft. Draper formed a software company called Capn' Software, but it booked less than $1 million in revenue over six years. Distributor Bill Baker also hired other programmers to create a follow-up program, Easywriter II, without Draper's knowledge. Draper sued and the case was later settled out-of-court. Autodesk and other ventures Draper joined Autodesk in 1986, designing video driver software in a role offered directly by co-founder John Walker. In 1987, Draper was charged in a scheme to forge tickets for the Bay Area Rapid Transit system. He pled guilty to lesser misdemeanor charges in 1988 and entered a diversion program. While facing prosecution, he remained on the Autodesk payroll but did no work for the company. Autodesk fired Draper in 1989. From 1999 to 2004, Draper was the Chief Technical Officer (CTO) for ShopIP, a computer security firm that designed The Crunchbox GE, a firewall device running OpenBSD. Despite endorsements from Wozniak, and publicity from media profiles, the product failed to achieve commercial success. In 2007, Draper was named Chief Technology Officer (CTO) at En2go, a software company that developed media delivery tools. The company had previously been named Medusa Style Corp. It is unclear when Draper's involvement in the company ceased; however, filings with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission document the resignations of several of its officers (including Wozniak) during the summer of 2009. En2Go never achieved commercial success. Allegations of sexually inappropriate behavior In 2017, organizers of at least four hacking and security-related conferences (including Def Con, HOPE, and ToorCon) said they had banned Draper from attending in the wake of allegations against him concerning unwanted sexual attention toward other attendees. The allegations were reported in two stories by BuzzFeed News. Further allegations against Draper emerged in reporting by The Parallax. In the story, University of Pennsylvania computer science professor Matt Blaze asserted that Draper subjected him to a stalking campaign in the 1970s when he was a teenager and when Draper would have been in his thirties. Additionally, Phil Lapsley alleged that Draper consented to an interview in exchange for a partially clothed piggyback ride. Draper denied some of the allegations in an interview with The Daily Dot and did not answer others. He denied any explicit sexual intent and instead described the encounters as an "energy workout" employing techniques of applied kinesiology, a discredited form of alternative medicine of which he claims to be an advocate. Draper conceded that in some instances he may have experienced an erection during some of the encounters which allegedly included massages of the leg and arm muscles as well as squats and pushups while carrying Draper's bodyweight. Describing one such workout with Draper in an authorized biography, the writer Craig Wilson Fraser wrote: "The first time I tried it, my drug-fueled paranoia went through the roof that it was about to turn sexual in some way, but of course nothing of that nature ever occurred." In popular culture In Chapter 23 of the novel Ready Player One by Ernest Cline, Draper's Cap'n Crunch pseudonym, the breakfast cereal of the same name, and a whistle are clues to unlocking one of the keys in the Easter Egg hunt. In scenes depicting his interactions with Wozniak and Jobs, Draper was portrayed by the actor Wayne Pére in the 1999 made-for-TV film Pirates of Silicon Valley. In the 2001 Cowboy Bebop movie, Knockin' On Heaven's Door, the hacker Lee Sampson makes a reference to Capt'n Crunch. References 1943 births Living people Phreaking Apple Inc. employees American computer programmers United States Air Force airmen Berkeley Macintosh Users Group members	[ -0.3647364377975464, -0.031134918332099915, -0.5061461329460144, 0.26296719908714294, 0.6290677189826965, 0.5538120865821838, -0.520482063293457, 1.015386939048767, -0.206776425242424, -0.284970760345459, -0.23810112476348877, 0.4332541227340698, -0.5878240466117859, 0.16673018038272858, 0.06776279956102371, 0.11904184520244598, -0.37940800189971924, 0.043403252959251404, -0.7692322134971619, -0.2972477376461029, -0.30938103795051575, -0.1433495730161667, 0.06695803999900818, 0.1829962134361267, 0.07942835241556168, 0.56025230884552, -0.3464010953903198, -0.15657976269721985, -0.13352467119693756, 0.6533287167549133, -0.06350847333669662, -0.3443630337715149, 0.8977067470550537, -0.18987782299518585, -0.3544873297214508, -0.13018855452537537, -0.94423907995224, 0.21213765442371368, -0.05767623335123062, 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216676	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutheria	Eutheria	Eutheria (; from Greek , 'good, right' and , 'beast'; ) is the clade consisting of all therian mammals that are more closely related to placentals than to marsupials. Eutherians are distinguished from noneutherians by various phenotypic traits of the feet, ankles, jaws and teeth. All extant eutherians lack epipubic bones, which are present in all other living mammals (marsupials and monotremes). This allows for expansion of the abdomen during pregnancy. The oldest-known eutherian species is Juramaia sinensis, dated at from the early Late Jurassic (Oxfordian) of China. Eutheria was named in 1872 by Theodore Gill; in 1880 Thomas Henry Huxley defined it to encompass a more broadly defined group than Placentalia. Characteristics Distinguishing features are: an enlarged malleolus ("little hammer") at the bottom of the tibia, the larger of the two shin bones the joint between the first metatarsal bone and the entocuneiform bone (the innermost of the three cuneiform bones) in the foot is offset farther back than the joint between the second metatarsal and middle cuneiform bones—in metatherians these joints are level with each other various features of jaws and teeth Evolutionary history Eutheria contains several extinct genera as well as larger groups, many with complicated taxonomic histories still not fully understood. Members of the Adapisoriculidae, Cimolesta and Leptictida have been previously placed within the out-dated placental group Insectivora, while Zhelestids have been considered primitive ungulates. However, more recent studies have suggested these enigmatic taxa represent stem group eutherians, more basal to Placentalia. The weakly favoured cladogram favours Boreoeuthearia as a basal eutherian clade as sister to the Atlantogenata. References Mammal taxonomy Oxfordian first appearances Extant Late Jurassic first appearances Taxa described in 1872	[ 0.47452425956726074, 0.06993862241506577, -0.2946297824382782, -0.07565514743328094, -0.06598451733589172, 0.6531959772109985, 0.43510574102401733, -0.05982359126210213, 0.3469388782978058, -0.48498037457466125, -0.09777647256851196, 0.5233907699584961, -0.15494148433208466, -0.20814868807792664, -0.22209519147872925, 0.4045697748661041, -0.37473639845848083, 0.7499226927757263, -0.16136033833026886, -0.24108922481536865, -0.50583815574646, -0.5716626644134521, 0.23088672757148743, -0.5596192479133606, 0.6331924200057983, 0.010530880652368069, 0.703726589679718, 0.6176419258117676, 0.2039186805486679, -0.07372993230819702, -0.023988528177142143, 0.5425373315811157, -0.3762950301170349, 0.17844367027282715, -0.1498250514268875, -0.14663876593112946, -0.42018425464630127, -0.4753826856613159, -0.216300830245018, -0.8348872065544128, 0.10105879604816437, 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216678	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diminished%20responsibility	Diminished responsibility	In criminal law, diminished responsibility (or diminished capacity) is a potential defense by excuse by which defendants argue that although they broke the law, they should not be held fully criminally liable for doing so, as their mental functions were "diminished" or impaired. Diminished capacity is a partial defense to charges that require that the defendant act with a particular state of mind. For example, if the felony murder rule does not apply, first degree murder requires that the state prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant acted with premeditation, deliberation, and the specific intent to kill—all three are necessary elements of the state's case. If evidence exists, sufficient to create a reasonable doubt as to whether the defendant because of mental illness or "defect" possessed the capacity to premeditate, deliberate or form the specific intent to kill then the state cannot convict the defendant of first degree murder. This does not mean that the defendant is entitled to an acquittal. The defendant still might be convicted of second-degree murder which only requires that the defendant act with general malice. The defense's acceptance in American jurisdictions varies considerably. The majority of states have adopted it by statute or case decision, and a minority even recognise broader defenses such as "irresistible impulse". Some U.S. states restrict the defense to the charge of murder only where a successful defense will result in a manslaughter conviction instead of murder. Until recently, the Republic of Ireland did not accept the partial defense. The Irish Supreme Court had rejected the existence of the defense in DPP v O'Mahony. The case was recently abrogated, however, by enactment of the Criminal Law (Insanity) Act 2006, effective June 1, 2006. The act, in pertinent part, specifically adopted the partial defense for the charge of murder where a successful defense will result in a manslaughter conviction instead of murder. The defense is to be contrasted with insanity which is a complete but affirmative defense. In most jurisdictions a defendant would be acquitted on the grounds of insanity if the defendant established to the satisfaction of the jury that he suffered from such a mental disease or defect that he was unable to appreciate the consequences of his actions or did not know what he was doing was wrong. As noted a successful insanity defense will result in acquittal although a number of jurisdictions have adopted the guilty but insane verdict. The defense of insanity and diminished capacity although clearly distinct are not inconsistent defenses and both may be at issue in the same case. The critical distinctions are that diminished capacity is a partial, negating defense (negates an element of the state's case) with the burden on the state to show that the defendant acted with the requisite state of mind while insanity is a complete but affirmative defense—the defendant bearing the burden of proving that he was legally insane. This is an aspect of a more general insanity defense (see the M'Naghten rules). The defense "was first recognized by Scottish common law to reduce the punishment of the partially insane." It developed from the practice of juries in the 19th century of returning verdicts of guilty with a recommendation as to mercy or mitigation of sentence to reflect any extenuating circumstances. In a series of decisions, given mainly by Lord Deas, a doctrine grew that various types of mental weakness could have the effect of reducing what would otherwise be a conviction for murder (which attracted capital punishment) to one for culpable homicide (where the courts had greater discretion in sentencing). An example of a "diminished capacity" might be extremely low intelligence. In the English case of R v Raven, a man who had a physical age of 22 years but a mental age of only 9 years felt provoked by homosexual advances and killed his perceived attacker. His mental deficiency was not in dispute and, since a child of 9 years would not have been criminally responsible (see s50 Children and Young Persons Act 1933), and his mental responsibility for his acts was substantially impaired, manslaughter was the only realistic verdict. The rationale of the defense is that, as a precondition to punishment, the criminal law requires conduct to be voluntary. If something interferes with the capacity of the individual to choose to break the law, this should be reflected by an excuse or exculpation. The law should balance the need to be fair to the individual wrongdoer, but equally offer some protection to society from a person who may not have complete control over their behavior. The effect of the defense varies between the jurisdictions. In some, it will result in full excuse and therefore produce a verdict of "not guilty". In others, it offers only exculpation to a degree, resulting in the substitution of a lesser offence (e.g., manslaughter instead of murder) or a mitigated sentence. English law Section 2 of the Homicide Act 1957 states: (1) Where a person kills or is party to a killing of another, he shall not be convicted of murder if he was suffering from an abnormality of mental functioning which - (a) arose from a medical condition (b) substantially impaired D's ability to do one or more of the things mentioned in subsection (1A), and (c) provides an explanation for D's acts and omissions in doing or being a party to the killing. (1A) Those things are - (a) to understand the nature of D's conduct; (b) to form a rational judgment; (c) to exercise self-control. (1B) For the purposes of subsection (1)(c), an abnormality of mental functioning provides and explanation of D's conduct if it causes, or is a significant contributory factor in causing, D to carry out that conduct. Scottish law Although the term is not used during the proceedings, the 1795 trial of Sir Archibald Gordon Kinloch for the murder of his brother Sir Francis Kinloch, 6th baronet of Gilmerton under Robert McQueen, Lord Braxfield is one of the earliest clear examples of recognition of diminished responsibility. Whilst found guilty, and usually expecting a death sentence, not only was Kinloch sentenced to life imprisonment instead, but two days after the judgement (17 July 1795) the accused was released into the care of a doctor (William Farquharson) on the understanding that Kinloch be kept in a secure environment (the doctor's own house). During the course of the 20th century the courts began to limit the mental conditions falling within diminished responsibility. In HM Advocate v Savage Lord Alness addressed the jury (at 51): It is very difficult to put it in a phrase, but it has been put in this way: that there must be aberration or weakness of mind; that there must be some form of mental unsoundness; that there must be a state of mind which is bordering on, though not amounting to, insanity; that there must be a mind so affected that responsibility is diminished from full responsibility to partial responsibility. In other words, the prisoner in question must be only partially accountable for his actions. And I think one can see running through the cases that there is implied ... that there must be some form of mental disease. This statement became the authoritative version of the test for diminished responsibility and the various factors mentioned by Lord Alness were regarded as being cumulative in nature. The effect was that the test became difficult to satisfy, and the courts adopted the position that the scope of the plea was not to be further widened (e.g. Carraher v HM Advocate) held that the plea was not available to a person suffering from psychopathic personality. But in Galbraith v HM Advocate it was held that the formula in Savage was not to be read in a narrow sense, and it was not necessary that all the criteria in that formula had to be present. Furthermore, although the plea had to be based on some form of mental abnormality, that condition need not be one bordering on insanity. Instead the court ruled that diminished responsibility required the existence of an abnormality of mind which had the effect that the accused's ability to determine or control his actings was substantially impaired. However, the Court excluded from the scope of the plea: any condition brought on by the consumption of drink or drugs, and psychopathic personality disorder. The Scottish Law Commission reported in 2004 proposing changes to the law on insanity and diminished responsibility. Australia At present, diminished responsibility exists as a statutory partial defence in most Australian jurisdictions. The defence is only available in cases of murder and serves to reduce the offence to manslaughter. In Australia it has been the subject of sentencing concerns specifically in relation to the weight attributed to protection of the community when sentencing offenders found guilty of manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility In NSW, the partial defence of 'diminished responsibility' was replaced by the partial defence of "substantial impairment" in 1998. The burden is on the defendant to prove the defence, on the balance of probabilities. There are three conditions that the defendant must prove. The first is the defendant must be suffering from an abnormality of the mind at the time of the acts/omissions causing death; see also the case of Byrne for the definition of ‘abnormality of the mind’. Second, the abnormality must be the result of an underlying condition. Third, the impairment must be so substantial as to warrant liability for murder being reduced to manslaughter. India Supreme Court of India bench headed by Justice Gogoi in a review petition upheld the principle of Diminished responsibility in the 2000 Dharmapuri bus burning and commuted to life imprisonment the death penalty given by the Salem district court and upheld by the Madras High Court and by another Supreme Court bench to three AIADMK party activists who had a set on fire a fully occupied bus with 44 girls and 2 lecturers of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University on an educational tour to protest Jayalalithaa's conviction in Pleasant Stay hotel case in this three college girls were burnt alive and 16 college girls suffered burn injuries were acting on mob frenzy and setting a legal precedent. United States Federal law The U.S. Sentencing Guidelines provide, "A downward departure may be warranted if (1) the defendant committed the offense while suffering from a significantly reduced mental capacity; and (2) the significantly reduced mental capacity contributed substantially to the commission of the offense." State law California was the first state in the U.S. to adopt the diminished capacity defense, beginning with People v. Wells and People v. Gorshen. The doctrine would soon be abolished by ballot initiative in 1982 following the negative publicity surrounding the case of Dan White, who had killed George Moscone and Harvey Milk. While White's defense team did argue successfully for a ruling of diminished capacity, resulting in a verdict of voluntary manslaughter rather than murder, an urban legend that the defense had blamed White's actions on the ingestion of sugar and junk food (the so-called "Twinkie defense") sprang up out of inaccurate media coverage. One participant in the debate over diminished capacity rulings waved a Twinkie in the air to make his point. Currently, the California Penal Code states (2002), "The defense of diminished capacity is hereby abolished ... there shall be no defense of diminished capacity, diminished responsibility, or irresistible impulse..." See also Insanity defense Intoxication defense Settled insanity Notes References Boland, F, Diminished Responsibility as a Defence in Irish Law, (1995) 5 Irish Criminal Law Journal 193. Boland, F, Diminished Responsibility as a Defence in Irish Law: Past English Mistakes and Future Irish Directions, (1996) 5 Irish Criminal Law Journal 19. Butler Committee (1975) The Butler Committee on Mentally Abnormal Offenders (London: HMSO) Cmnd 6244. Dell, S, Diminished Responsibility Reconsidered, (1982) CLR 809. Griew, E, Reducing Murder to Manslaughter: Whose Job? (1986) 12 Journal of Medical Ethics 18. Griew, E, The Future of Diminished Responsibility, (1988) CLR 75. Scottish Law Commission. Discussion Paper on Insanity and Diminished Responsibility. Discussion Paper No 122. (2003) Whelan, D, Mental Health Law and Practice: Civil and Criminal Aspects (Dublin: Thomson Round Hall, 2009) Further reading Criminal defenses Mental health law Forensic psychology de:Schuldunfähigkeit it:Imputabilità	[ -0.178361713886261, 0.323875367641449, -0.4144313335418701, -0.16562971472740173, -0.04938206076622009, 0.20036907494068146, 0.5679640769958496, -0.3950096666812897, -0.5395299792289734, 0.14669297635555267, -0.05618257075548172, 0.40966182947158813, -0.05102716013789177, 0.21595798432826996, -0.5962061285972595, 0.8084219694137573, 0.7057563662528992, 0.27632808685302734, -0.30771932005882263, -0.3513939380645752, 0.10094518959522247, -0.05167336389422417, -0.0034498311579227448, -0.37606459856033325, 0.30200040340423584, 0.024540407583117485, 0.3512660562992096, 0.09862951189279556, -0.4291335642337799, 0.24944116175174713, 0.038799162954092026, 0.33444005250930786, 0.021867210045456886, -0.0274294912815094, -0.19396966695785522, 0.2154930830001831, 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216680	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irresistible%20impulse	Irresistible impulse	In criminal law, irresistible impulse is a defense by excuse, in this case some sort of insanity, in which the defendant argues that they should not be held criminally liable for their actions that broke the law, because they could not control those actions, even if they knew them to be wrong. It was added to the M'Naghten rule as a basis for acquittal in the mid 20th century. In 1994, Lorena Bobbitt was found not guilty when her defense argued that an irresistible impulse led her to cut off her husband's penis. The Penal Code of the U.S. state of California states (2002), "The defense of diminished capacity is hereby abolished ... there shall be no defense of ... diminished responsibility or irresistible impulse..." The "policeman at the elbow" test is a test used by some courts to determine whether the defendant was insane when they committed a crime. It is a variant of the M'Naghten Rules that addresses the situation in which the defendant knew that what they were going to do was wrong, but had no ability to restrain themself from doing it. The test asks whether they would have done what they did even if a police officer were standing at their elbow, hence its name. Irresistible impulse in English law In English law the concept of "irresistible impulse" was developed in the 1960 case R v. Byrne. The appellant (described as a violent sexual psychopath) strangled then mutilated a young woman, it was alleged that Byrne suffered from violent and perverted sexual desires which he found impossible to control. Lord Parker C.J. broadened the definition of "abnormality of mind" to include those lacking "the ability to exercise will-power to control acts in accordance with [their] rational judgment". "Irresistible impulse" can be pleaded only under the defense of diminished responsibility, not under the defense of insanity. Thus it operates only as a partial defence to murder, reducing the charge to manslaughter, and giving the judge discretion as to length of sentence and whether committal would be more appropriate than incarceration. See also Impulse control disorder Anatomy of a Murder References External links Mental health law Criminal defenses	[ -0.15406182408332825, -0.08608108758926392, -0.42469003796577454, -0.23374563455581665, -0.21172204613685608, 0.3770153224468231, 0.6021332740783691, -0.2948967218399048, -0.44337019324302673, 0.05694350600242615, -0.2685704827308655, 0.3092133104801178, -0.5715930461883545, 0.2499406784772873, -0.41920357942581177, 0.5354676842689514, 0.6472922563552856, 0.03382923826575279, -0.20557168126106262, -0.25753554701805115, -0.05341604724526405, 0.3710929751396179, -0.025473281741142273, 0.052793558686971664, 0.6568413376808167, -0.2491452544927597, 0.09967642277479172, -0.1580944061279297, -0.12781432271003723, 0.17914579808712006, 0.1635037213563919, 0.4738716185092926, -0.23469384014606476, -0.3424074351787567, -0.2047020047903061, 0.028547223657369614, -0.2882901728153229, -0.6290740370750427, -0.4668169915676117, -0.36519885063171387, 0.2987701892852783, 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216683	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural%20defense	Procedural defense	In jurisprudence, procedural defenses are forms of defense challenging the legitimacy of the legal proceeding. A party argues that it should not be held liable for a legal charge or claim brought against them by some legal process, because it has been found such a process is illegitimate. Procedural defenses are built into legal systems as incentives for systems to follow their own rules. In common law jurisdictions the term has applications in both criminal law and civil law. Procedural defenses do not settle questions of guilt or innocence in a criminal proceeding, and are independent of substantive findings for or against a plaintiff or defendant in a civil proceeding. As examples: Defendants might claim there is something about the method of bringing them to be judged, that is unable to result in justice done to someone in their situation. They might claim the process is incompatible with the goals of the justice system. In the United States, procedural defenses include: collateral estoppel denial of a speedy trial double jeopardy entrapment prosecutorial misconduct selective prosecution exclusionary rule facts found by judge rather than jury denial or neglect of public counsel appointment no opportunity to impugn witnesses against you breaches of due process, such as precedent established in Rhode Island v. Innis (1980) or Miranda v. Arizona (1966) denial of a jury trial in a civil case Traditional procedural defenses in "equity" in the U.S. and other common law jurisdictions: laches estoppel See also legal technicality procedural justice Criminal defenses	[ 0.09827283769845963, 0.24316972494125366, -0.4025382101535797, 0.2975010573863983, 0.14547358453273773, 0.23414939641952515, 0.041987139731645584, -0.42567694187164307, -0.22410763800144196, -0.18675106763839722, 0.044325318187475204, 0.8607468605041504, 0.35869908332824707, 0.1083543598651886, -0.8594357967376709, 0.726615846157074, 0.22806434333324432, 0.07389960438013077, 0.2868102788925171, -0.5395827293395996, -0.17684529721736908, -0.08572424203157425, -0.29390496015548706, -0.33777132630348206, -0.1338590532541275, -0.09132896363735199, -0.09812140464782715, 0.11142228543758392, -0.6604864597320557, 0.32144811749458313, 0.14891332387924194, 0.1560431718826294, -0.48044827580451965, 0.024572398513555527, -0.2877578139305115, 0.29791995882987976, 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216685	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oghuz%20Turks	Oghuz Turks	The Oguz or Ghuzz Turks (Middle Turkic: ٱغُز, Oγuz, ) were a western Turkic people that spoke the Oghuz branch of the Turkic language family. In the 8th century, they formed a tribal confederation conventionally named the Oghuz Yabgu State in Central Asia. The name Oghuz is a Common Turkic word for "tribe". Byzantine sources call the Oghuz the Uzes (Οὐ̑ζοι, Ouzoi). By the 10th century, Islamic sources were calling them Muslim Turkmens, as opposed to Tengrist or Buddhist. By the 12th century, this term had passed into Byzantine usage and the Oghuzes were overwhelmingly Muslim. The term "Oghuz" was gradually supplanted among the Turks themselves by the terms Turkmen and Turcoman, ( or Türkmân) from the mid-10th century on, a process which was completed by the beginning of the 13th century. The Oghuz confederation migrated westward from the Jeti-su area after a conflict with the Karluk allies of the Uyghurs. Today, much of the populations of Turkey, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan are descendants of Oghuz Turks and their language belongs to the Oghuz group of the Turkic languages family. Kara-Khanid scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari wrote that of all the Turkic languages, that of the Oghuz was the simplest. He also observed that the Oghuz had been separated for so long from the eastern Turks, that the language of the Turks in the east could be clearly distinguished from the language of the Oghuz and Kipchak further west. In the 9th century, the Oghuzes from the Aral steppes drove Bechens from the Emba and Ural River region toward the west. In the 10th century, they inhabited the steppe of the rivers Sari-su, Turgai and Emba to the north of Lake Balkhash of modern-day Kazakhstan. A clan of this nation, the Seljuks, embraced Islam and in the 11th century entered Persia, where they founded the Great Seljuk Empire. Similarly in the 11th century, a Tengriist Oghuz clan, referred to as Uzes or Torks in the chronicles of Rurikid Kievan Rus', overthrew Pecheneg supremacy in the steppes of Rus' Khaganate. Harried by another Turkic people, the Kipchaks, these Oghuz penetrated as far as the lower Danube, crossed it and invaded the Balkans, where they were struck down by an outbreak of plague, causing the survivors either to flee or to join the Byzantine imperial forces as mercenaries (1065). The Oghuz seem to have been related to the Pechenegs, some of whom were clean-shaven and others of whom had small 'goatee' beards. According to the book Attila and the Nomad Hordes, "Like the Kimaks they set up many carved wooden funerary statues surrounded by simple stone balbal monoliths." The authors of the book go on to note that "Those Uzes or Torks who settled along the Russian frontier were gradually Slavicized, though they also played a leading role as cavalry in 1100- and early 1200-era Russian armies, where they were known as Black Hats... Oghuz warriors served in almost all Islamic armies of the Middle East from the 1000s onwards, in Byzantium from the 800s, and even in Spain and Morocco." In later centuries, they adapted and applied their own traditions and institutions to the ends of the Islamic world and emerged as empire-builders with a constructive sense of statecraft. Linguistically, the Oghuz belong to the Common Turkic speaking group, characterized by sound correspondences such as Common Turkic /-š/ versus Oghuric /-l/ and Common Turkic /-z/ versus Oghuric /-r/.Within the Common Turkic group, the Oghuz languages share these innovations: loss of Proto-Turkic gutturals in suffix anlaut, loss of /ɣ/ except after /a/, /g/ becoming either /j/ or lost, voicing of /t/ to /d/ and of /k/ to /g/, and /ð/ becomes /j/. Apart from the Seljuks, dynasties of Khwarazmians, Qara Qoyunlu, Aq Qoyunlu, Ottomans and Afsharids are also believed to descend from the Oghuz-Turkmen tribes of Begdili, Yiva, Bayandur, Kayi and Afshar respectively. The Ottoman dynasty, who gradually took over Anatolia after the fall of the Seljuks, toward the end of the 13th century, led an army that was also predominantly Oghuz. The Ottomans proved to be superior to other local Oghuz Turkish states. Ahmed Bican Yazıcıoğlu, in early 15th century, traced Osman's genealogy to Oghuz Khagan, the legendary ancient ancestor of Turkic people, through his eldest grandson of his eldest son, so giving the Ottoman sultans primacy among Turkish monarchs. Origins Turkologist Peter Benjamin Golden (2011) used Proto-Turkic lexical items about the climate, topography, flora, fauna, people's modes of subsistence in the Proto-Turkic Urheimat to locate it in the southern, taiga-steppe zone of the Sayan-Altay region. Recently, the early Turkic peoples are proposed to descend from agricultural communities in Northeast Asia who moved westwards into Mongolia in the late 3rd millennium BC, where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle. By the early 1st millennium BC, these peoples had become equestrian nomads. In subsequent centuries, the steppe populations of Central Asia appear to have been progressively replaced and Turkified by East Asian nomadic Turks, moving out of Mongolia. During the 2nd century BC, according to ancient Chinese sources, a steppe tribal confederation known as the Xiongnu and their allies, the Wusun (probably an Indo-European people) defeated the neighboring Indo-European-speaking Yuezhi and drove them out of western China and into Central Asia. Various scholarly theories link the Xiongnu to Turkic peoples and/or the Huns. Bichurin claimed that the first usage of the word Oghuz appears to have been the title of Oğuz Kağan, whose biography shares similarities with the biography, recorded by Han Chinese, of Xiongnu leader Modu Shanyu (or Mau-Tun), who founded the Xiongnu Empire. However, Oghuz Khan narratives were actually collected in Compendium of Chronicles by Ilkhanid scholar Rashid-al-Din in the early 14th century. Sima Qian recorded the name Wūjiē 烏揭 (LHC: ʔɔ-gɨat) or Hūjiē 呼揭 (LHC: xɔ-gɨat), of a people hostile to the Xiongnu and living immediately west of them, in the area of the Irtysh River, near Lake Zaysan. Golden suggests that these might be Chinese renditions of Ogur ~ Oguz, yet uncertainty remains. According to one theory, Hūjiē is just another transliteration of Yuezhi and may refer to the Turkic Uyghurs; however, this is controversial and has few scholarly adherents. Yury Zuev (1960) links the Oghuz to the Western Turkic tribe 姑蘇 Gūsū < (MC kuo-suo) in the 8th-century encyclopaedia Tongdian (or erroneously Shǐsū 始蘇 in the 11th century Zizhi Tongjian). Zuev also noted a parallel between two passages: one from the 8th-century Taibo Yinjing (太白陰經) "Venus's Secret Classic" by Li Quan (李筌) which mentioned the 三屈 "Three Qu" (< MC *k(h)ɨut̚) after the 十箭 Shí Jiàn "Ten Arrows" (OTrk 𐰆𐰣:𐰸 On Oq) and Jĭu Xìng "Nine Surnames" (OTrk 𐱃𐰸𐰆𐰔:𐰆𐰍𐰔 Toquz Oğuz); and another from al-Maṣudi's Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems, which mentioned the three hordes of the Turkic Ġuz Based on those sources, Zuev proposes that in the 8th century the Oghuzes were located outsides of the Ten Arrows' jurisdiction, west of the Altai mountains, near lake Issyk-Kul, Talas river's basin and seemingly around the Syr Darya basin, and near the Chumul, Karluks, Qays, Quns, Śari, etc. who were mentioned by al-Maṣudi and Sharaf al-Zaman al-Marwazi. Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos mentioned the Uzi and Mazari (Hungarians) as neighbours of the Pechenegs. By the time of the Orkhon inscriptions (8th century AD) "Oghuz" was being applied generically to all inhabitants of the Göktürk Khaganate. Within the khaganate, the Oghuz community gradually expanded, incorporating other tribes. A number of subsequent tribal confederations bore the name Oghuz, often affixed to a numeral indicating the number of united tribes. These include references to the simple Oguz, Üch-Oghuz ("three Oghuz"), Altï Oghuz ("six Oghuz"), possibly the Otuz Oghuz ("thirty Oghuz"), Sekiz-Oghuz ("eight Oghuz"), and the Tokuz-Oghuz ("nine Oghuz"), who originally occupied different areas in the vicinity of the Altai Mountains. Golden (2011) states Transoxanian Oghuz Turks who founded the Oghuz Yabgu State were not the same tribal confederation as the Toquz Oghuz from whom emerged the founders of Uyghur Khaganate. Istakhri and Muhammad ibn Muhmad al-Tusi kept the Toquz Oghuz and Oghuz distinct and Ibn al-Faqih mentioned: "the infidel Turk-Oghuz, the Toquz-Oghuz, and the Qarluq" Even so, Golden notes the confusion in Latter Göktürks' and Uyghurs' inscriptions, where Oghuz apparently referred to Toquz Oghuz or another tribal grouping, who were also named Oghuz without a prefixed numeral; this confusion is also reflected in Sharaf al-Zaman al-Marwazi, who listed 12 Oghuz tribes, who were ruled by a "Toquz Khaqan" and some of whom were Toquz-Oghuz, on the border of Transoxiana and Khwarazm. At most, the Oghuz were possibly led by a core group of Toquz Oghuz clans or tribes. Noting that the mid-8th-century Tariat inscriptions, in Uyghur khagan Bayanchur's honor, mentioned the rebellious Igdir tribe who'd revolted against him, Klyashtorny considers this as one piece of "direct evidence in favour of the existence of kindred relations between the Tokuz Oguzs of Mongolia, The Guzs of the Aral region, and modern Turkmens", besides the facts that Kashgari mentioned the Igdir as the 14th of 22 Oghuz tribes; and that Igdirs constitute part of the Turkmen tribe Chowdur. The Shine Usu inscription, also in Bayanchur's honor, mentioned the Nine-Oghuzes as "[his] people" and that he defeated the Eight-Oghuzes and their allies, the Nine Tatars, three times in 749.; according to Klyashtorny and Czeglédy, eight tribes of the Nine-Oghuzes revolted against the leading Uyghur tribe and renamed themselves Eight-Oghuzes. Ibn al-Athir, an Arab historian, claimed that the Oghuz Turks were settled mainly in Transoxiana, between the Caspian and Aral Seas, during the period of the caliph Al-Mahdi (after 775 AD). By 780, the eastern parts of the Syr Darya were ruled by the Karluk Turks and to their west were the Oghuz. Transoxiana, their main homeland in subsequent centuries became known as the "Oghuz Steppe". During the period of the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun (813–833), the name Oghuz starts to appear in the works of Islamic writers. The Book of Dede Korkut, a historical epic of the Oghuz, contains historical echoes of the 9th and 10th centuries but was likely written several centuries later. Physical Appearance Al-Masudi described Yangikent's Oghuz Turks as "distinguished from other Turks by their valour, their slanted eyes, and the smallness of their stature". Stone heads of Seljuq elites kept at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art displayed East Asian features. Over time, Oghuz Turks' physical appearance changed. Rashid al-Din Hamadani stated that "because of the climate their features gradually changed into those of Tajiks. Since they were not Tajiks, the Tajik peoples called them turkmān, i.e. Turk-like (Turk-mānand)" Ḥāfiẓ Tanīsh Mīr Muḥammad Bukhārī also related that the Oghuz' ‘Turkic face did not remain as it was’ after their migration into Transoxiana and Iran. Khiva khan Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur wrote in his Chagatai-language treatise Genealogy of the Turkmens that "their chin started to become narrow, their eyes started to become large, their faces started to become small, and their noses started to become big’ after five or six generations". Ottoman historian Mustafa Âlî commented in Künhüʾl-aḫbār that Anatolian Turks and Ottoman elites are ethnically mixed: "Most of the inhabitants of Rûm are of confused ethnic origin. Among its notables there are few whose lineage does not go back to a convert to Islam." Social units The militarism that the Oghuz empires were very well known for was rooted in their centuries-long nomadic lifestyle. In general, they were a herding society which possessed certain military advantages that sedentary societies did not have, particularly mobility. Alliances by marriage and kinship, and systems of "social distance" based on family relationships were the connective tissues of their society. In Oghuz traditions, "society was simply the result of the growth of individual families". But such a society also grew by alliances and the expansion of different groups, normally through marriages. The shelter of the Oghuz tribes was a tent-like dwelling, erected on wooden poles and covered with skin, felt, or hand-woven textiles, which is called a yurt. Their cuisine included yahni (stew), kebabs, Toyga soup (meaning "wedding soup"), Kımız (a traditional drink of the Turks, made from fermented horse milk), Pekmez (a syrup made of boiled grape juice) and helva made with wheat starch or rice flour, tutmac (noodle soup), yufka (flattened bread), katmer (layered pastry), chorek (ring-shaped buns), bread, clotted cream, cheese, yogurt, milk and ayran (diluted yogurt beverage), as well as wine. Social order was maintained by emphasizing "correctness in conduct as well as ritual and ceremony". Ceremonies brought together the scattered members of the society to celebrate birth, puberty, marriage, and death. Such ceremonies had the effect of minimizing social dangers and also of adjusting persons to each other under controlled emotional conditions. Patrilineally related men and their families were regarded as a group with rights over a particular territory and were distinguished from neighbours on a territorial basis. Marriages were often arranged among territorial groups so that neighbouring groups could become related, but this was the only organizing principle that extended territorial unity. Each community of the Oghuz Turks was thought of as part of a larger society composed of distant as well as close relatives. This signified "tribal allegiance". Wealth and materialistic objects were not commonly emphasized in Oghuz society and most remained herders, and when settled they would be active in agriculture. Status within the family was based on age, gender, relationships by blood, or marriageability. Males, as well as females, were active in society, yet men were the backbones of leadership and organization. According to the Book of Dede Korkut, which demonstrates the culture of the Oghuz Turks, women were "expert horse riders, archers, and athletes". The elders were respected as repositories of both "secular and spiritual wisdom". Homeland in Transoxiana In the 700s, the Oghuz Turks made a new home and domain for themselves in the area between the Caspian and Aral seas, a region that is often referred to as Transoxiana, the western portion of Turkestan. They had moved westward from the Altay mountains passing through the Siberian steppes and settled in this region, and also penetrated into southern Russia and the Volga from their bases in west China. In the 11th century, the Oghuz Turks adopted Arabic script, replacing the Old Turkic alphabet. In his accredited 11th-century treatise titled Diwan Lughat al-Turk, Karakhanid scholar Mahmud of Kashgar mentioned five Oghuz cities named Sabran, Sitkün, Qarnaq, Suğnaq, and Qaraçuq (the last of which was also known to Kashgari as Farab, now Otrar; situated near the Karachuk mountains to its east). The extension from the Karachuk Mountains towards the Caspian Sea (Transoxiana) was called the "Oghuz Steppe Lands" from where the Oghuz Turks established trading, religious and cultural contacts with the Abbasid Arab caliphate who ruled to the south. This is around the same time that they first converted to Islam and renounced their Tengriism belief system. The Arab historians mentioned that the Oghuz Turks in their domain in Transoxiana were ruled by a number of kings and chieftains. It was in this area that they later founded the Seljuk Empire, and it was from this area that they spread west into western Asia and eastern Europe during Turkic migrations from the 9th until the 12th century. The founders of the Ottoman Empire were also Oghuz Turks. Poetry and literature Oghuz Turkish literature includes the famous Book of Dede Korkut which was UNESCO's 2000 literary work of the year, as well as the Oghuzname, Battalname, Danishmendname, Köroğlu epics which are part of the literary history of Azerbaijanis, Turks of Turkey and Turkmens. The modern and classical literature of Azerbaijan, Turkey and Turkmenistan are also considered Oghuz literature since it was produced by their descendants. The Book of Dede Korkut is a valuable collection of epics and stories, bearing witness to the language, the way of life, religions, traditions, and social norms of the Oghuz Turks in Azerbaijan, Turkey, Iran (West Azerbaijan, Golestan) and parts of Central Asia including Turkmenistan. Oghuz and Yörüks Yörüks are an Oghuz ethnic group, some of whom are still semi-nomadic, primarily inhabiting the mountains of Anatolia and partly Balkan peninsula. Their name derives from the verb from Chagatai language, yörü- "yörümek" (to walk), but Western Turkic yürü- (yürümek in infinitive), which means "to walk", with the word Yörük or Yürük designating "those who walk, walkers". The Yörük to this day appear as a distinct segment of the population of Macedonia and Thrace where they settled as early as the 14th century. While today the Yörük are increasingly settled, many of them still maintain their nomadic lifestyle, breeding goats and sheep in the Taurus Mountains and further eastern parts of mediterranean regions (in southern Anatolia), in the Pindus (Epirus, Greece), the Šar Mountains (North Macedonia), the Pirin and Rhodope Mountains (Bulgaria) and Dobrudja. An earlier offshoot of the Yörüks, the Kailars or Kayılar Turks were amongst the first Turkish colonists in Europe, (Kailar or Kayılar being the Turkish name for the Greek town of Ptolemaida which took its current name in 1928) formerly inhabiting parts of the Greek regions of Thessaly and Macedonia. Settled Yörüks could be found until 1923, especially near and in the town of Kozani. List of Oghuz dynasties Oghuz Yabgu State Pechenegs Seljuks Zengid dynasty Anatolian beyliks Khwarazmian dynasty Ottomans Aq Qoyunlu Kara Koyunlu Safavids Afsharids Qajars Traditional tribal organization Mahmud al-Kashgari listed 22 Oghuz tribes in Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk. Kashgari further wrote that "In origin they are 24 tribes, but the two Khalajiyya tribes are distinguished from them [the twenty-two] in certain respects and so are not counted among them. This is the origin". Later, Charuklug from Kashgari's list would be omitted. Rashid-al-Din and Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur added three more: Kïzïk, Karkïn, and Yaparlï, to the list in Jami' al-tawarikh (Compendium of Chronicles) and Shajare-i Türk (Genealogy of the Turks), respectively. According to Selçukname , Oghuz Khagan had 6 children (Sun - Gün, Moon - Ay, Star - Yıldız, Sky - Gök, Mountain - Dağ, Sea - Diŋiz) , and all six would become Khans themselves, each leading four tribes. Bozoks (Gray Arrows) Gün Han Kayı (Ottomans, Jandarids and Chobanids) Bayat (Qajars, Dulkadirids, Fuzûlî) Alkaevli Karaevli Ay Han Yazır (disambiguation) Döger (Artuqids) Dodurga Yaparlı Yıldız Han Afshar (Afsharids and Zengids) Kızık (disambiguation) Begdili (Khwarazmian dynasty ) Kargın Üçoks (Three Arrows) Gök Han Bayandur (founders of the Ak Koyunlu) Pecheneg Çavuldur (Tzachas) Chepni (refer to Küresünni) Dağ Han Salur (Kadi Burhan al-Din, Salghurids and Karamanids; see also: Salars) Eymür Alayuntlu Yüreğir (Ramadanids) Diŋiz Han Iğdır Büğdüz Yıva (Qara Qoyunlu and Oghuz Yabgu State) Kınık (founders of the Seljuk Empire) List of Oghuz ethnic groups Azerbaijani people Qashqai people Gagauz people Turkish people Turkmen people Salar people Other Oghuz sub-ethnic groups and tribes Anatolia and Caucasus Anatolia Abdal of Turkey Yörüks Tahtacı Varsak Barak Karakeçili (Black Goat Turkomans) Manav Atçeken Küresünni Chepni Caucasus Azerbaijanis in Armenia Azerbaijanis in Turkey Azerbaijanis in Georgia Terekeme people Qarapapaq Karadaghis Javanshir clan Trukhmen Turks in Abkhazia Cyprus Cypriot Turks Balkans Turks in Bosnia Bulgarian Turks Turks in Croatia Dodecanese Turks Kosovan Turks Macedonian Turks Turks in Serbia Turks in Montenegro Romanian Turks Turks of Western Thrace Cretan Turks Karamanlides Central Asia Meskhetian Turks Iran and Greater Khorasan Iranian Azerbaijanis Shahsevan Qizilbash Padar tribe Khorasani Turks Iranian Turkmens Afghan Turkmens Qajars (tribe) Bichaghchi Turks in Afghanistan Arab world Turks in Libya Turks in Egypt Turks in Algeria Syrian Turkmen Iraqi Turkmen Turks in Lebanon Turks in Israel Turks in Jordan Turks in Tunisia Turks in Saudi Arabia Turks in Yemen See also Algoz Turkic migration List of Turkic dynasties and countries History of Turkic peoples Timeline of Turks (500-1300) Turkomans Notes References Sources Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Further reading Grousset, R., The Empire of the Steppes, 1991, Rutgers University Press Nicole, D., Attila and the Huns, 1990, Osprey Publishing Lewis, G., The Book of Dede Korkut, "Introduction", 1974, Penguin Books Minahan, James B. One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Greenwood Press, 2000. page 692 Aydın, Mehmet. Bayat-Bayat boyu ve Oğuzların tarihi. Hatiboğlu Yayınevi, 1984. web page External links The Book of Dede Korkut (pdf format) at the Uysal-Walker Archive of Turkish Oral Narrative Similarities between the epics of Dede Korkut and Alpamysh A page dedicated to Oguz Khan The Old Turkic Inscriptions. 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216686	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oghuz	Oghuz	Oghuz or Oğuz may refer to: an early Turkic word for "tribe", see Oghuz (tribe) Oghuz languages, southwestern branch of the Turkic language family Oghuz Turks, the Turkic groups speaking Oghuz languages Oghuz Khan, a legendary and semi-mythological Turkic khan Oğuz (name), a Turkish masculine given name Oghuz Rayon, an administrative district of Azerbaijan Oghuz (city), a city, municipality and capital of Oghuz Rayon, Azerbaijan Oğuz, Buldan See also Oğuzhan (disambiguation) Language and nationality disambiguation pages	[ -0.00911081861704588, 0.5976306796073914, -0.38686490058898926, -0.25235873460769653, -0.3794719874858856, 0.5753417611122131, 0.4856920838356018, 0.727403998374939, -0.09719261527061462, -0.2773207724094391, -0.8209829330444336, 0.12211760878562927, -1.1430001258850098, 0.4170515537261963, -0.2208855003118515, 0.7859305739402771, 0.32736268639564514, 0.44167155027389526, -0.5251126289367676, -0.4350101053714752, 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216687	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace%20Carothers	Wallace Carothers	Wallace Hume Carothers (; April 27, 1896 – April 29, 1937) was an American chemist, inventor and the leader of organic chemistry at DuPont, who was credited with the invention of nylon. Carothers was a group leader at the DuPont Experimental Station laboratory, near Wilmington, Delaware, where most polymer research was done. Carothers was an organic chemist who, in addition to first developing nylon, also helped lay the groundwork for neoprene. After receiving his Ph.D., he taught at several universities before he was hired by DuPont to work on fundamental research. He married Helen Sweetman on February 21, 1936. Carothers had been troubled by periods of depression since his youth. Despite his success with nylon, he felt that he had not accomplished much and had run out of ideas. His unhappiness was exacerbated by the death of his sister, and on April 28, 1937, he committed suicide by drinking potassium cyanide. His daughter, Jane, was born on November 27, 1937. Education and academic career Carothers was born on April 27, 1896, in Burlington, Iowa, to Ira and Mary Evalina Carothers. He was the oldest of four children. He had one brother and two sisters: John, Isobel and Elizabeth. As a youth, Carothers was fascinated by tools and mechanical devices and spent many hours experimenting. He attended public school in Des Moines, Iowa, where he was known as a conscientious student. After graduation, and under pressure from his father, Carothers enrolled in the Capital City Commercial College in Des Moines, where his father was vice-president, completing the accountancy and secretarial curriculum in July 1915. In September 1915, he entered Tarkio College in Missouri. Although he initially majored in English, he switched to chemistry under the influence of Arthur Pardee, head of that department. Carothers so excelled in chemistry that before graduation he was made a chemistry instructor and studied for as well as taught the senior course when Pardee left to become chairman of the chemistry department at the University of South Dakota. He graduated from Tarkio in 1920 at the age of 24 with a bachelor of science degree. Then he went to the University of Illinois for his master of arts degree, which he received in 1921 under the guidance of Professor Carl Marvel. During the 1921–22 school year, Carothers held a one-year appointment as a chemistry instructor at the University of South Dakota. It was at the University of South Dakota that he began his independent research that resulted in an article accepted by the Journal of the American Chemical Society. In this paper he measured physical properties of phenyl isocyanate and of diazobenzene-imide (now known as phenyl azide). The properties have very similar values, which led him to the conclusion that the structure of the second compound is C6H5-N=N=N, with the three nitrogen atoms in a linear chain rather than a ring as previously thought. He went back to the University of Illinois to study for his Ph.D. under Roger Adams. His degree was awarded in 1924. He specialized in organic chemistry and minored in physical chemistry and mathematics. He worked as a research assistant during 1922–1923 and received the Carr Fellowship for 1923–24. This was the most prestigious award offered by the university at that time. He was initiated into Alpha Chi Sigma in 1926 as a member of Zeta Chapter at the University of Illinois. After receiving his Ph.D., Carothers stayed at the University of Illinois for two years as an instructor in organic chemistry. In 1926, Carothers moved to Harvard University. Again he was an instructor in organic chemistry. James B. Conant, who became President of Harvard College in 1933, said of Carothers: In his research, Dr. Carothers showed even at this time the high degree of originality which marked his later work. He was never content to follow the beaten path or to accept the usual interpretations of organic reactions. His first thinking about polymerization and the structure of substances of high molecular weight began while he was at Harvard. In 1927, DuPont decided to fund fundamental, pure research: research not deliberately aimed at the development of a money-making product. Carothers traveled to Wilmington, Delaware, to discuss the possibility of being in charge of organic chemistry at the new DuPont laboratory for fundamental research. Move to DuPont The decision to leave academia was difficult for Carothers. At first he refused DuPont's offer of employment, explaining that "I suffer from neurotic spells of diminished capacity which might constitute a much more serious handicap there than here." In spite of this admission, a DuPont executive, Hamilton Bradshaw, traveled to Harvard and convinced Carothers to change his mind. His salary was $500 a month as compared with only $267 at Harvard ($3200 per year). Later in a letter to Wilko Machetanz, his Tarkio roommate, Carothers expanded on his feelings of depression: "I find myself, even now, accepting incalculable benefits proffered out of sheer magnanimity and good will and failing to make even such trivial return as circumstances permit and human feeling and decency demand, out of obtuseness or fear or selfishness or mere indifference and complete lack of feeling." Neoprene Carothers began working at the DuPont Experimental Station on February 6, 1928. The synthesis of a polymer with a molecular weight of more than 4,200, the mass achieved by Dr. Emil Fischer, was his primary goal. By the summer of 1928, Carothers had a small staff of Ph.D. chemists and two consultants: Dr. Roger Adams, his thesis advisor, and Dr. Carl Marvel, his instructor of organic chemistry at the University of Illinois. The laboratory where these top scientists worked became known as "Purity Hall". It was discouraging that by the middle of 1929, "Purity Hall" had not produced a polymer with a weight of much over 4,000. In January 1930, Dr. Elmer K. Bolton became assistant chemical director in the chemical department, and thus, Carothers' immediate boss. Bolton wanted practical results in 1930, and his wish was fulfilled. Bolton asked Carothers to examine the chemistry of an acetylene polymer with the goal of creating synthetic rubber. In April 1930, one of Carothers' staff, Dr. Arnold M. Collins, isolated chloroprene, a liquid which polymerized to produce a solid material that resembled rubber. This product was the first synthetic rubber and is known today as Neoprene. Polyesters In the same year, Dr. Julian W. Hill, another member of the Carothers team, began work again on attempting to produce a polyester with a molecular weight of above 4,000. His efforts were soon met with great success when he produced a synthetic polymer with a molecular weight of about 12,000. The high molecular weight allowed the melted polymer to be stretched out into strings of fiber. Thus was created the first synthetic silk, described by the chemists as a superpolyester. Polyesters and polyamides are examples of condensation polymers formed by step-growth polymerization. Carothers worked out the theory of step-growth polymerization and derived the Carothers equation which relates the average degree of polymerization to the fractional conversion (or yield) of monomer into polymer. This equation shows that for a high molecular weight, a very high fractional conversion is needed (for step-growth polymers only). Hill also produced a synthetic fiber that was elastic and strong by combining glycols and diacids and heating under reduced pressure, using a molecular still to remove the last traces of water produced in the condensation reaction. Unfortunately, the fiber produced could not be commercialized because it reverted to a sticky mass when placed in hot water. Carothers dropped his research on polymers for several years. Later career and depression In 1931, Carothers moved into a house in Wilmington, which became known as Whiskey Acres, with three other DuPont scientists. He was no recluse, but his depressive moods often prevented him from enjoying all the activities in which his roommates took part. In a letter to a close friend, Frances Spencer, he said, "There doesn't seem to be much to report concerning my experiences outside of chemistry. I'm living out in the country now with three other bachelors, and they being socially inclined have all gone out in tall hats and white ties, while I after my ancient custom sit sullenly at home." At about this time, Carothers showed Julian Hill that he kept a capsule of cyanide attached to his watch chain. Carothers hated the public speaking that was necessary to maintain his high-profile. In a letter to Frances Spencer in January 1932, he related, "I did go up to New Haven during the holidays and made a speech at the organic symposium. It was pretty well received but the prospect of having to make it ruined the preceding weeks and it was necessary to resort to considerable amounts of alcohol to quiet my nerves for the occasion. … My nervousness, moroseness and vacillation get worse as time goes on, and the frequent resort to drinking doesn't bring about any permanent improvement. 1932 looks pretty black to me just now." In 1932, the agreement under which Carothers was hired was modified by Dr. Bolton. "Purity Hall" would now focus on "effecting a closer relationship between the ultimate objectives of our work and the interests of the company." This meant that funds were shifted from pure research to practical research. Carothers did not see himself as a skilled commercial researcher. He proposed that fundamental work be limited to two or three proposals, which would be consistent with DuPont's interests. Carothers' personal life during this time was busy. He was having an affair with a married woman, Sylvia Moore, who with her husband filed for divorce in 1933. Concomitantly he worried about the financial problems of his parents and planned to bring them to Wilmington. With no thought of the possible emotional ramifications of this move, he bought a house in Arden about from the Experimental Station and moved into it with his parents. He was 37 at the time. Interactions with his parents soon became tense. Carothers was still seeing Sylvia Moore, who was now single, and his parents greatly disapproved of the relationship. Finding the tension in the household too wearing, his parents returned to Des Moines in the spring of 1934. Polyamides In 1934, Carothers turned his attention to fibers again. Now the team substituted diamines for glycols to produce a type of polymer called a polyamide. These substances were much more stable than the polyesters formed by using the glycols. The ability of polyamides to form crystalline domains through hydrogen bonding gives them increased mechanical properties. Therefore, they might produce a synthetic silk that would be practical for everyday use. His research resulted in the invention of a number of new polyamides. The lab work for this project was conducted by Dr. W. R. Peterson and Dr. Donald Coffman. In 1935, Dr. Gerard Berchet was assigned to this polyamide research. It was during this productive period of research, in the summer of 1934, before the eventual invention of nylon, that Carothers disappeared. He did not come into work, and no one knew where he was. He was found in a small psychiatric clinic, Pinel Clinic, near the famous Phipps Clinic associated with Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore. Apparently, he had become so depressed that he drove to Baltimore to consult a psychiatrist, who put him in the clinic. Nylon Shortly after his release from the clinic, Carothers returned to DuPont. Bolton instructed Carothers to work on polyamides. Carother's work in linear super-polymers began as an unrestricted foray into the unknown, with no practical objective in mind. But the research was in a new field in chemistry and Du Pont believed that any new chemical breakthrough would likely be of value to the company. In the course of research, Carothers obtained some super-polymers that became viscous solids at high temperatures, and the observation was made that filaments could be made from this material if a rod was dipped in the molten polymer and withdrawn. At this discovery, the focus of the project shifted to these filaments and 'Nylon' was the result. On February 28, 1935, Gerard Berchet, under the direction of Carothers, produced a half-ounce of polymer from hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid, creating polyamide 6-6, the substance that would come to be known as Nylon. It was difficult to work with because of its high melting point, but Bolton chose this polyamide as the one to develop commercially. He selected Dr. George Graves to work with Carothers on the project. Eventually, Graves supplanted Carothers as the leader of the polyamide project. In addition, dozens of chemists and engineers worked on refining polyamide 6-6 into a viable commercial product. Marriage and death On February 21, 1936, Carothers married Helen Sweetman, whom he had been dating since 1934. Sweetman had a bachelor's degree with a major in chemistry and worked for DuPont on the preparation of patent applications. Soon afterwards, on April 30, 1936, Carothers was elected to the National Academy of Sciences, a very high honor. Carothers was the first industrial organic chemist to receive this honor. Yet by June 1936, in spite of this honor which validated his contributions to science, Carothers could not shake the depression that prevented him from working. In early June, he was involuntarily admitted to the Philadelphia Institute of the Pennsylvania Hospital, a prestigious mental hospital, where his psychiatrist was Dr. Kenneth Appel. One month later, he was given permission to leave the institute to go hiking in the Tyrolean Alps with friends. The plan was for him to day hike with Dr. Roger Adams and Dr. John Flack for two weeks. After they left, he stayed on, hiking by himself, without sending word to anyone, even his wife. On September 14, he suddenly appeared at her desk at the Experimental Station. From that point on Carothers was not expected to perform any real work at the Experimental Station. He would often go in and visit. He began living in Whiskey Acres again, after his wife had agreed with Dr. Appel that she was not strong enough to watch over Carothers. On January 8, 1937, Carothers' sister Isobel died of pneumonia. Wallace and Helen Carothers traveled to Chicago to attend her funeral and then to Des Moines for her burial. He still traveled to Philadelphia to visit his psychiatrist, Dr. Appel, who told a friend of Carothers that he thought suicide was the likely outcome of Carothers' case. On April 28, 1937, Carothers went to the Experimental Station to work. He committed suicide in a hotel room in Philadelphia the next day by ingesting chemicals. No note was found. He was posthumously inducted into the Alpha Chi Sigma Hall of Fame in 1982. Patents "Alkylene Carbonate and Process of Making It", filed November 1929, issued March 1935 "Alkylene Ester of Polybasic Acids", filed August 1929, issued August 1935 "Linear Condensation Polymers", filed July 1931, issued February 1937 References External links Encyclopedia of World Biography on Wallace Hume Carothers National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir 1896 births 1937 suicides 20th-century American chemists DuPont people People from Burlington, Iowa Polymer scientists and engineers Suicides by cyanide poisoning Textile scientists Suicides in Pennsylvania University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign alumni Harvard University faculty Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences 20th-century American inventors	[ 0.24234646558761597, -0.04596502333879471, -0.4599902927875519, 0.12431470304727554, 0.04516327381134033, -0.22022117674350739, 0.17614251375198364, -0.5084872841835022, 0.04291689023375511, 0.2962077260017395, 0.010294339619576931, 0.3631628155708313, 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216694	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrapment	Entrapment	Entrapment is a practice in which a law enforcement agent or agent of the state induces a person to commit a "crime" that the person would have otherwise been unlikely or unwilling to commit. It "is the conception and planning of an offense by an officer or agent, and the procurement of its commission by one who would not have perpetrated it except for the trickery, persuasion or fraud of the officer or state agent". Police conduct rising to the level of entrapment is broadly discouraged and thus, in many jurisdictions, is available as a defense against criminal liability. Sting operations, through which police officers or agents engage in deception to try to catch persons who are committing crimes, raise concerns about possible entrapment. Depending on the law in the jurisdiction, the prosecution may be required to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant was not entrapped or the defendant may be required to prove that they were entrapped as an affirmative defense. Etymology and usage The word entrapment, from the verb "to entrap", meaning to catch in a trap, was first used in this sense in 1899 in the United States Federal Court case of People v Braisted. The 1828 edition of Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language defines entrap as: Canada The Supreme Court of Canada developed the doctrine of entrapment in three major decisions: R. v. Amato, [1982] 2 S.C.R. 418, R. v. Mack, [1988] 2 S.C.R. 903, and R. v. Barnes, [1991] 1 S.C.R. 449. There are two different forms of entrapment in Canadian law. Random virtue testing: This form of entrapment occurs when the police offer an individual the opportunity to commit a crime without reasonable suspicion that either that individual or where that individual is located is associated with the criminal activity under investigation. If police have such a reasonable suspicion, they are still limited to providing only an opportunity to commit the offence. Inducement of an offence: This form of entrapment occurs when the police go beyond merely providing an opportunity to commit an offence but actually induce the commission of the offense. Some factors a court may consider when deciding whether police have induced the offence include the type of crime being investigated, whether an average person would have been induced, the persistence and number of attempts made by the police, the type of inducement used (fraud, deceit, reward, etc.), and the existence of express or implied threats. The question of entrapment is considered only after there has been a finding of guilt. If, after finding the accused guilty, the court determines that the accused was entrapped, the court enters a judicial stay of proceedings. That is similar to an acquittal. History In 2013, a British Columbia couple were found guilty of attempting to blow up the British Columbia Parliament Buildings. In 2018, the verdict was overturned because the couple were found to have been entrapped into the plot by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. It was the first time entrapment had been successfully argued in a terrorism case. Three previous attempts failed. Germany In German law, it is normally forbidden to induce or persuade someone to commit a crime or to attempt to do so. However, the German Federal Court of Justice has held that entrapment by undercover police agents is not a reason to stay the case per se. If undercover agents have been used without proper justification, punishment for the committed offense may be reduced. In the case of persons who are not initially under suspicion and unlikely to commit a certain crime, a decision from 1999 stated that entrapment of such persons violates the right to a fair trial, and the punishment for the committed offence may thus be reduced. United Kingdom England and Wales The main authority on entrapment in England and Wales, held to be equally applicable in Scotland, is the decision of the House of Lords in R. v. Loosely (2001). A stay is granted if the conduct of the state was so seriously improper that the administration of justice was brought into disrepute. In deciding whether to grant a stay, the Court will consider, as a useful guide, whether the police did more than present the defendant with an unexceptional opportunity to commit a crime. In Loosely, Lords Hoffman and Hutton indicated certain factors that should be considered in deciding whether proceedings against a defendant should be stayed: Whether the police acted in good faith; Whether the police had good reason to suspect the accused of criminal activities; Whether the police suspected that crime was particularly prevalent in the area in which the investigation took place (Williams v. DPP); Whether pro-active investigatory techniques were necessary because of the secrecy and difficulty of detection of the criminal activity in question; The defendant's circumstances and vulnerability; and The nature of the offence. It has been held that it is generally acceptable for the police to conduct test purchases (DPP v. Marshall) or pose as passengers to catch unlicensed taxi drivers (Nottingham City Council v. Amin). Historically, entrapment was common in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, and was used frequently by the Bank of England and Royal Mint to catch people involved in currency crime during the Restriction Period of 1797–1820. Entrapment by plainclothes policemen was often used to prosecute gay men, even after the Sexual Offences Act 1967 exempted consensual gay sex in private from prosecution. Scotland In Scotland the main authority is the case of Brown v. HMA 2002 which stated that entrapment will occur when law enforcement officials cause an offense to be committed which would not have occurred had it not been for their involvement. The remedies available correspond with those in England and are considered to be either a plea in bar of trial or a challenge to the admissibility of evidence obtained through entrapment. United States In the United States, two competing tests exist for determining whether entrapment has taken place, known as the "subjective" and "objective" tests. The "subjective" test looks at the defendant's state of mind; entrapment can be claimed if the defendant had no "predisposition" to commit the crime. The "objective" test looks instead at the government's conduct; entrapment occurs when the actions of government officers would usually have caused a normally law-abiding person to commit a crime. Contrary to popular belief, the United States does not require police officers to identify themselves as police in the case of a sting or other undercover work, and police officers may lie when engaged in such work. The law of entrapment instead focuses on whether people were enticed to commit crimes they would not have otherwise considered in the normal course of events. History Entrapment defenses in the United States have evolved mainly through case law. Courts took a dim view of the defense at first. The New York Supreme Court said in 1864 that "[It] has never availed to shield crime or give indemnity to the culprit, and it is safe to say that under any code of civilized, not to say Christian, ethics, it never will".<ref group="Note">A fuller quote includes a reference to original sin. Even if inducements to commit crime could be assumed to exist in this case, the allegation of the defendant would be but the repetition of the plea as ancient as the world, and first interposed in Paradise: "The serpent beguiled me and I did eat." That defense was overruled by the great Lawgiver, and whatever estimate we may form, or whatever judgment pass upon the character or conduct of the tempter, this plea has never since availed to shield crime or give indemnity to the culprit, and it is safe to say that under any code of civilized, not to say Christian ethics, it never will.</ref> Forty years later, another judge in that state affirmed that rejection, arguing "[courts] should not hesitate to punish the crime actually committed by the defendant" when rejecting entrapment claimed in a grand larceny case. Other states, however, had already begun reversing convictions on entrapment grounds. Federal courts recognized entrapment as a defense starting with Woo Wai v. United States, . The U.S. Supreme Court declined to consider the question of entrapment in Casey v. United States, since the facts in the case were too vague to definitively rule on the question; but, four years later, it did. In Sorrells v. United States, the Supreme Court unanimously reversed the conviction of a North Carolina factory worker who gave in to an undercover Prohibition officer's repeated entreaties to get him some liquor. It identified the controlling question as "whether the defendant is a person otherwise innocent whom the government is seeking to punish for an alleged offense which is the product of the creative activity of its own officials". In Sherman v. United States, the Court considered a similar case in which one recovering drug addict working with agents of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (a predecessor agency to today's Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)) solicited another to sell him drugs on the premise that his own efforts were failing. Again unanimous, its opinion focused more clearly on the defendant's predisposition to commit the offense and, on that basis, overturned Sherman's conviction as well since, although he had two prior drug convictions, the most recent dated back five years. Furthermore, he was attempting to rehabilitate himself, he had made no profit on the sales, and no drugs were found in his apartment when it was searched, suggesting the absence of a predisposition to break drug laws. "To determine whether entrapment has been established", it said, "a line must be drawn between the trap for the unwary innocent and the trap for the unwary criminal". Prosecutors won the next two times entrapment came before the Court, in United States v. Russell and Hampton v. United States, albeit by narrow margins. In the former, the Court upheld the conviction of a Washington man for manufacturing methamphetamine even though an undercover agent had supplied some of the ingredients, and also pondered an "outrageous government conduct" defence, though it did not enable it. Hampton let stand, by a similar margin, the conviction of a Missouri man who had, upon seeing track marks on the arms of a DEA informant, expressed interest in obtaining heroin to sell. The DEA informant arranged a meeting between the Missouri man and undercover DEA agents in which the Missouri man sold a small quantity of heroin to agents and indicated that he could obtain larger quantities. After a second sale to the undercover agents, he was arrested. The defendant alleged that the informant supplied the drugs and that he had been led to believe, by the informant, that he was not selling heroin but a counterfeit with which he intended to defraud the buyers. Regardless, the Court found he was sufficiently predisposed to sell heroin so as to be criminally liable. The argument employed in the majority opinion on Hampton became known as the "subjective" test of entrapment, since it focused on the defendant's state of mind. However, in all cases, concurring opinions had advocated an "objective" test, focusing instead on whether the conduct of the police or other investigators would catch only those "ready and willing to commit crime". Under the objective approach the defendant's personality (i.e., his predisposition to commit the crime) would be immaterial, and the potential for the police conduct to induce a law-abiding person considered in the abstract would be the test. This, supporters argued, avoided the dubious issue of an unexpressed legislative intent on which the Sorrells court had relied and instead grounded the entrapment defence, like the exclusionary rule, in the court's supervisory role over law enforcement. And like the exclusionary rule, they would have had judges, not juries, decide whether a defendant had been entrapped as a matter of law. Since the subjective test focusing on predisposition had, unlike the exclusionary rule, not been applied to the states, they were free to follow it as they saw fit. The state courts or legislatures of 37 states have chosen the subjective test, while the others use the objective test. Some have allowed both the judge and the jury to rule on whether the defendant was entrapped. In the Supreme Court's last major ruling on entrapment, Jacobson v. United States, which overturned the conviction of a Nebraska man for receiving child pornography via the mail, the subjective vs. objective debate was completely absent. Both the majority and dissenting opinions focused solely on whether the prosecution had established that the defendant had a predisposition for purchasing such material (which had only recently been outlawed at the time of his arrest). Since no other material was found in his home save what he had purchased from the undercover postal inspectors, Justice Byron White believed the operation had implanted the idea in his mind through mailings decrying politicians for assaulting civil liberties by passing laws such as the one the inspectors hoped he would break. Justice Sandra Day O'Connor disagreed in her dissent, arguing that the record did indeed establish that Jacobson was interested in continuing the purchases. Entrapment by estoppel A subset of the entrapment defense was first recognized by the Supreme Court in Raley v. Ohio. There, four defendants were testifying before a committee of the Ohio State Legislature. The chairman of the committee told them that they could assert their right against self-incrimination. They asserted this right, and refused to answer questions. However, Ohio law provided them immunity from prosecution, so the right against self-incrimination was inapplicable, and they were subsequently prosecuted for their failure to answer questions. The Supreme Court overturned three of the four convictions based on the doctrine of entrapment by estoppel. (The fourth refused to state his address, at which point the committee expressed the view that the right against self-incrimination did not apply to that question.) As described in United States v. Howell, the defense "applies when, acting with actual or apparent authority, a government official affirmatively assures the defendant that certain conduct is legal and the defendant reasonably believes that official". The entrapment by estoppel defense exists in both federal and city jurisdictions; however, case law remains inconsistent as to whether the misleading advice of e.g. a state official provides protection against federal criminal charges. Examples exist of an appellate court failing to allow an entrapment by estoppel defense where a municipal official provided misleading instructions regarding a state law. Federal court Federal courts apply a subjective test for claims of entrapment. In federal criminal prosecutions, if a defendant proves entrapment the defendant may not be convicted of the underlying crime. A valid entrapment defense has two related elements: government inducement of the crime, and the defendant's lack of predisposition to engage in the criminal conduct. The federal entrapment defense is based upon statutory construction, the federal courts' interpretation of the will of Congress in passing the criminal statutes. As this is not a constitutional prohibition, Congress may change or override this interpretation by passing a law. State court Each state has its own case law and statutory law that defines when and how the entrapment defense is available, and states may choose to adopt either the subjective or objective test for what government action constitutes entrapment. The essential elements of an entrapment defense are: Improper inducement: the government induced the defendant to commit the crime; and Lack of predisposition: the defendant (or, under the objective test, an ordinary person in the position of the defendant) would not have committed the crime but for the government's inducement. See also Mr. Big (police procedure), a legal technique used in Canada, Australia and New Zealand, similar to entrapment Sting operation Agent provocateur DPP v Armstrong Frameup Abscam Provocatie (België) Notes References Further reading Gerald Dworkin, "Entrapment and the Creation of Crime", in Controversies in Criminal Law: Philosophical Essays on Responsibility and Procedure (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 220–231. Michael J. Gorr and Sterling Harwood, eds., Controversies in Criminal Law: Philosophical Essays on Responsibility and Procedure (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1992), 273pp. Daniel J. Hill, Stephen K. McLeod and Attila Tanyi, "The Concept of Entrapment", Criminal Law and Philosophy'', https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-017-9436-7. 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216698	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwanatherium	Gondwanatherium	Gondwanatherium is a genus of stem-mammal from the extinct suborder Gondwanatheria that lived in Patagonia, South America during the "Age of Dinosaurs", specifically during the Late Cretaceous (Campanian to Maastrichtian epochs). Description The genus and species were named by the Argentinian paleontologist José Bonaparte in 1986. Gondwanatherium means Gondwana beast. The position of gondwanatherians within class Mammalia is not yet clear. The type species Gondwanatherium patagonicum was discovered in Los Alamitos Formation, Río Negro Province, Patagonia, Argentina in deposits dating to the Upper Cretaceous period. Though earlier than Sudamerica, Gondwanatherium is considered more anatomically derived (advanced). Thus, an ancestral lineage outlived their later, more specialized descendants. Sources José F. Bonaparte. (1986) "Sobre Mesungulatum houssayi y nuevos mamíferos Cretácicos de Patagonia, Argentina." Actas Congr. Argent. Paleontol. Bioestratigr. 4, pages 48–61. (Spanish, with an English abstract) Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell. (1997) "Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level". Columbia University Press. () Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Gondwanatheria, an Internet directory. 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216700	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Col%20legno	Col legno	In music for bowed string instruments, , or more precisely (, ), is an instruction to strike the string with the stick of the bow, rather than by drawing the hair of the bow across the strings. History The earliest known use of in Western music is to be found in a piece entitled "Harke, harke," from the First Part of Ayres (1605) by Tobias Hume, where he instructs the gambist to "drum this with the backe of your bow". Sound The percussive sound of battuto has a clear pitch element determined by the distance of the bow from the bridge at the point of contact. As a group of players will never strike the string in exactly the same place, the sound of a section of violins playing is dramatically different from the sound of a single violin doing so. The wood of the bow can also be drawn across the string — a technique called ("with the wood drawn"). This is much less common, and the plain marking is invariably interpreted to mean battuto rather than tratto. The sound produced by is very quiet, with an overlay of white noise, but the pitch of the stopped note can be clearly heard. If the sound is too quiet, the bow can be slightly rolled so that a few bow hairs touch the string as well, leading to a slightly less "airy" sound. Equipment Some string players object to playing as it can damage the bow; many players have a cheaper bow which they use for such passages, or for pieces which require extended passages. Some players tap the strings with pencils instead of bows, producing a further percussive, lighter sound. Examples Some notable examples are: Joseph Haydn directs the strings to play at the end of the slow movement of his Symphony No. 67. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart uses this technique in the final movement of his Violin Concerto No. 5, where the low strings play accompanying the soloist in the "Turkish" section (which gave this concerto the nickname "The Turkish"). Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera L'Africain In Gioacchino Rossini's overture for the opera "Il Signor Bruschino", "The gay little overture has a special bustle and charm, effected by the violinists' playing (with the wood of the bows rapping the strings)." The "Dream of Witches' Sabbath" in the final movement of Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique, used notably in the score of the film Alien by Jerry Goldsmith. The final movement of the Piano Concerto No. 2 by Frédéric Chopin. Mussorgsky's Night on Bald Mountain The first movement of Mahler's Symphony No. 2 Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini by Sergei Rachmaninoff "Mars, the Bringer of War" from Holst's The Planets is used in the first and the third movements of Webern's Four Pieces for violin and piano, Op. 7, as well as in the opening of the second scene of Berg's opera Wozzeck. The Mexican dance in Aaron Copland's Billy the Kid, where it provides a joyful dance feeling to the music. Shostakovich's Symphony No. 7 where the violins have a counter melody with the winds, or in the fourth movement of his Piano Concerto No. 1, where strings maintain the background pulse while the trumpet carries out its solo. José Pablo Moncayo's symphonic Huapango asks the violins to exercise for a few bars. "Burn the Witch" from Radiohead's A Moon Shaped Pool. "Lion City" a modern string orchestra piece by Soon Hee Newbold References Extended techniques String performance techniques Italian words and phrases da:Col legno	[ 0.25728848576545715, -0.4146285355091095, 0.4198022782802582, -0.2346457690000534, 0.027376964688301086, 0.3158361315727234, -0.2817137539386749, -0.27481314539909363, -0.17860035598278046, -0.476379930973053, -0.1459108144044876, 0.7827712893486023, -0.04141687601804733, -0.30179083347320557, -0.7791008353233337, 0.5402103662490845, 0.5502632260322571, -0.6562407612800598, -0.46023881435394287, -0.5978105664253235, -0.13236843049526215, -0.1545735001564026, -0.03364195674657822, 0.12187619507312775, 0.6996274590492249, -0.029887869954109192, -0.11389587074518204, 0.5057197213172913, 0.07420169562101364, 0.23709993064403534, 0.08055685460567474, 0.1956140100955963, 0.1894504725933075, -0.7820128202438354, -0.7059015035629272, -0.11708292365074158, 0.3735766112804413, -0.3915356397628784, -0.15732213854789734, 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216702	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammered%20coinage	Hammered coinage	Hammered coinage is the most common form of coins produced since the invention of coins in the first millennium BC until the early modern period of c. the 15th–17th centuries, contrasting to the cast coinage and the later developed milled coinage. History Hammered coins were produced by placing a blank piece of metal (a planchet or flan) of the correct weight between two dies, and then striking the upper die with a hammer to produce the required image on both sides. The planchet was usually cast from a mold. The bottom die (sometimes called the anvil die) was usually counter sunk in a log or other sturdy surface and was called a pile. One of the minters held the die for the other side (called the trussel), in his hand while it was struck either by himself or an assistant. Experimental archeology suggests that a lower die could be expected to last for up to 10,000 strikes depending on the level of wear deemed acceptable. Upper dies seem to have a far greater range of lives with usable lives ranging from just over 100 strikes to nearly 8000 being reported. Combining archaeological evidence with historic records suggests ancient coin producers (in this case the Amphictions at Delphi) could get as many as 47,000 strikes out of an individual die. In later history, in order to increase the production of coins, hammered coins were sometimes produced from strips of metal of the correct thickness, from which the coins were subsequently cut out. Both methods of producing hammered coins meant that it was difficult to produce coins of a regular diameter. Coins were liable to suffer from "clipping" where unscrupulous people would remove slivers of precious metal since it was difficult to determine the correct diameter of the coin. Coins were also vulnerable to "sweating", which is when silver coins would be placed in a bag that would be vigorously shaken. This would produce silver dust, which could later be removed from the bag. Milled coins The ability to fashion coins from machines (milled coins) caused hammered coins to become gradually obsolete during the 17th century. They were still made in Venice until the 1770s. France became the first country to adopt a full machine-made coin in 1643. In England, the first non-hammered coins were produced in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in the 1560s, but while machine-produced coins were experimentally produced at intervals over the next century, the production of hammered coins did not finally end until 1662. Cast coins An alternative method of producing early coins, particularly found in Asia, especially in China, was to cast coins using molds. This method of coin production continued in China into the nineteenth century. Up to a couple of dozen coins could be produced at one time from a single mold, when a 'tree' of coins (which often contained features such as a square hole in the centre) would be produced and the individual coins (called cash) would then be broken off. Hammered coin production See also Milled coinage References External links Ancient Minting Process Numismatics Currency production methods	[ 0.37243637442588806, 0.31319576501846313, -0.7554800510406494, 0.38777172565460205, -0.3586682379245758, 0.6847801208496094, -0.30952945351600647, 0.7509028911590576, -0.2437644749879837, -0.2571711540222168, 0.17296041548252106, -0.042287953197956085, 0.1384335160255432, 0.45258620381355286, -0.585436224937439, 0.18126904964447021, 0.4205712080001831, -0.27239906787872314, -0.014093035832047462, 0.1611039936542511, -0.18670803308486938, 0.2038036584854126, 0.5406229496002197, 0.17544840276241302, -0.19530364871025085, 0.0837477371096611, 0.24255961179733276, -0.5128353834152222, -0.500232458114624, -0.0874260812997818, 0.061517488211393356, 0.7730118632316589, 0.05690161883831024, -0.28229114413261414, -0.3591848611831665, -0.5103214979171753, -0.16679008305072784, 0.020867859944701195, -0.006340470165014267, -0.6761777400970459, 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216704	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleichen	Gleichen	Gleichen is the name of two groups of castles in Germany, thus named from their resemblance to each other (). Castles in Thuringia between Gotha and Erfurt The first is a group of three (hence called “die drei [three] Gleichen”), each situated on a hill in Thuringia between Gotha and Erfurt. One of these called Gleichen, the Wanderslebener Gleiche (1221 ft. above the sea), was besieged unsuccessfully by the emperor Henry IV in 1088. It was the seat of a line of counts, one of whom, Ernest III, a crusader, is the subject of a romantic legend. Having been captured, he was released from his imprisonment by a Turkish woman, who returned with him to Germany and became his wife, a papal dispensation allowing him to live with two wives at the same time (see Reineck, Die Sage von der Doppelehe eines Grafen von Gleichen, 1891). After belonging to the elector of Mainz the castle became the property of Prussia in 1803. The second castle is called Mühlburg (1309 ft. above the sea). This existed as early as 704 and was besieged by Henry IV in 1087. It came into the hands of Prussia in 1803. The third castle, Wachsenburg (1358 ft.), was still inhabited in 1911 and contained a collection of weapons and pictures belonging to its owner, the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, whose family obtained possession of it in 1368. It was built about 935 (see Beyer, Die drei Gleichen, Erfurt, 1898). Castles near Göttingen The other group consists of two castles, Neuen-Gleichen and Alten-Gleichen. The former is in ruins, while the latter is barely discernible under the forest cover. They crown two hills south-east of Göttingen, over Bremke. The name of Gleichen The name of Gleichen is taken by the family descended from Prince Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg through his marriage with Laura Wilhelmina Seymour, sister of the 5th Marquess of Hertford and daughter of Admiral Sir George Francis Seymour, a branch of the Hohenlohe family having at one time owned part of the county of Gleichen. 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216707	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re-education%20through%20labor	Re-education through labor	Re-education through labor (RTL; ), abbreviated laojiao () was a system of administrative detention in Mainland China. Active from 1957 to 2013, the system was used to detain persons who were accused of minor crimes such as petty theft, prostitution, and trafficking illegal drugs, as well as political dissidents, petitioners, and Falun Gong followers. It was separate from the much larger laogai system of prison labor camps. Sentences under re-education through labor were typically for one to three years, with the possibility of an additional one-year extension. They were issued as a form of administrative punishment by police, rather than through the judicial system. While they were incarcerated, detainees were often subject to some form of political education. Estimates on the number of RTL detainees on any given year range from 190,000 to two million. In 2013, there were approximately 350 RTL camps in operation. On 28 December 2013, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress abolished the re-education through labor system and detainees were released. However, human rights groups have observed that other forms of extrajudicial detention have taken its place, with some former RTL camps being renamed as drug rehabilitation centers. In 2014, re-education facilities were created in Xinjiang targeting a wider context than minor crime and political dissidence. By 2017, these had become the massive Xinjiang internment camps holding 1–3 million people, utilizing forced labor, and now recognized as re-education camps by many nations, intergovernmental organizations such as the UN and EU, and human rights groups. Re-education through labor and the Chinese penal system The People's Republic of China employs several forms of corrections for people who have been arrested, of which re-education through labor was one. The Laogai Research Foundation classifies re-education through labor as a sub-component under the umbrella of the laogai ("reform through labor") criminal justice system, which generally refers to prisons, prison farms, and labor camps for convicted criminals. Re-education through labor, on the other hand, refers to detentions for persons who are not considered criminals or have only committed minor offenses. Persons detained under re-education through labor were detained in facilities which are separate from the general prison system; furthermore, detainees in these re-education facilities receive a small salary, which laogai detainees do not, and in theory have shorter work hours. The laogai system is much larger than the re-education through labor system, with the Laogai Research Foundation identifying 1,045 laogai camps in 2006 (compared to 346 re-education centers). Both systems, however, involve penal labor and often do not allow trials or judicial hearings. The term "reform through labor" or laogai was officially replaced with "prison" in 1994, and the term "re-education center" or láojiàosuǒ (劳教所) was replaced with "correctional center" in 2007. Other components of the prison system include detention centers for individuals awaiting sentence or execution, and juvenile detention camps for individuals under a minimum age (which has varied through the years, and may currently be under 14). The system formerly included components such as custody and repatriation for individuals without a residence permit; "forced job placement," which has not been widely practiced since the 1990s; and "shelter and investigation," a system of detentions for individuals under legal investigation, which was abolished in 1996. The Laogai Research Foundation also classifies psychiatric facilities, or ankang, as a form of detention for political dissidents, although it is not officially recognized as part of the laogai penal system. History Institutions similar to re-education through labor facilities, but called "new life schools" or "loafers' camps", existed in the early 1950s, although they did not become official until the anti-rightist campaigns in 1957 and 1958. A report by Human Rights in China (HRIC) states that re-education through labor was first used by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1955 to punish counter-revolutionaries, and in 1957 was officially adopted into law to be implemented by the Ministry of Public Security. The law allowed police to sentence both minor offenders and "counter-revolutionaries" or "anti-socialist elements" to incarceration in labor camps without the right to a judicial hearing or trial, and did not allow judicial review to take place until after the punishment was being enforced. In the beginning there were no limits to the length for which detainees could be sentenced, and it was not until 1979 that a maximum sentence of four years (three years' sentence plus one-year extension) was set. In 1983, the management and implementation of the re-education through labor system was passed from the Ministry of Public Security to the Ministry of Justice. When Falun Gong was banned in mainland China in 1999, re-education through labor became a common punishment for practitioners. Some human rights groups claim that as many as 10,000 Falun Gong members were detained in between 1999 and 2002, with as many as 5,000 detained in 2001. More recent estimates suggest that hundreds of thousands of Falun Gong adherents are imprisoned in China, with some sources estimating up to half of the official reeducation through labor camp population is Falun Gong practitioners. In some labor camps, Falun Gong practitioners make up the majority population. There have been numerous calls for the system to be reformed or replaced. As early as 1997, the United Nations Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (WGAD) called for China to allow judicial control over detentions; in 2000, the UN Committee Against Torture recommended that all forms of administrative detention, including re-education through labor, be abolished; in 2004, the WGAD called for the establishment of rights to due process and counsel for individuals detained; and in 2005, the Special Rapporteur on Torture called for the outright abolition of re-education through labor. The prominent deaths of two inmates in spring 2003 prompted many calls within China for reform of the system, but reform did not happen immediately, though The China Daily reported that there was "general consensus" that reform was needed. In March 2007, however, the Chinese government did announce that it would abolish the re-education through labor system and replace it with a more lenient set of laws. According to the proposal, the maximum sentence would be lowered from four years to 18 months; re-education centers would be renamed "correction centers" and have their fences and gates removed. A month later, Chongqing municipality passed a law allowing lawyers to offer legal counsel in re-education through labor cases. Many human rights groups, however, doubted the efficacy of the proposed reforms, saying that the new laws would only help minor criminals and not help political prisoners, and the reforms would not actually abolish the re-education through labor system. The Laogai Research Foundation stated that lowering the maximum length of detention and changing the names of the detention facilities would not constitute a "fundamental change". Nine months after the declaration that the laws would be rewritten, the re-education through labor system had not been abolished; in December 2007, a group of academics drafted an open letter to the government calling for an end to the system. During the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, there were reports that some individuals who applied for permits to protest were detained without trial; of these, some were sentenced to re-education through labor. In the United Nations Human Rights Council's September 2008 Universal Periodic Review of the People's Republic of China, re-education through labor was listed as an "urgent human rights concern," and as of February 2009, a large number of re-education through labor camps were still in operation. Statistics Reports on re-education through labor have found it difficult to estimate the number of people in re-education centers, and nationwide statistics were often unavailable in the past. What data have become available often vary widely. Of these detainees, 5 to 10 percent are estimated to be political prisoners, and as many as 40 percent are estimated to be drug offenders—in 1998, nearly one-third of the known re-education camps were specifically built for the purpose of holding drug offenders. The China Daily estimated that there were a total of 310 re-education centers in China in 2007. The 2008 edition of the Laogai Research Foundation's biennial report listed exactly 319 "confirmed" re-education centers in China, and 74 "unconfirmed" ones, but it also estimated that the actual number of such centers might be much higher. the provinces with the most centers being Guangdong (31), Heilongjiang (21), and Henan (21). In a February 2009 meeting of the United Nations Human Rights Council, the Chinese government stated that there are 320 centers. The provinces with the largest numbers of re-education centers include Guangdong, Liaoning, Heilongjiang, and Henan. At the end of 2008, there were 350 labor camps and 160,000 prisoners were being held in them. Detentions Conviction and detention Sentencing for re-education through labor is generally carried out by the police rather than by the judicial system, so individuals are rarely charged or tried before being detained. Public security bureaus (police offices) are able to carry out administrative detentions for "minor" infringements that are not considered criminal acts; at least one analyst has suggested that local public security bureaus often abuse their authority and detain individuals for things such as personal vendettas. Individuals may also be sentenced to re-education through labor by courts, but the proportion of individuals who receive trials rather than going directly into administrative detention is determined in part by how much capacity that province has for re-education detainees—provinces with large re-education through labor apparatus generally allow fewer detainees to have trials. Where detainees have been allowed a trial, their lawyers have faced "intimidation and abuse," according to some reports, and the individuals under trial have sometimes been convicted on the basis of confessions that were coerced through "torture and severe psychological pressure." In at least one instance, convicted individuals were sent to re-education through labor even after being found not guilty in a trial. Most detainees in re-education through labor facilities are reported to be drug users, petty criminals, and prostitutes, as well as some political prisoners; James Seymour has also claimed that most individuals sentenced to re-education through labor are from urban areas. Individuals who attempt to leave the country illegally have also been sentenced to re-education through labor upon their return. In periods leading up to visits from foreign dignitaries or politically sensitive anniversaries (such as the anniversary of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989), local authorities have supposedly detained "undesirables" such as the homeless, mentally or physically disabled individuals, and migrant workers. One China specialist at the RAND Corporation has claimed that the police, faced with a lack of "modern rehabilitation and treatment programs," use re-education through labor convictions to "warehouse" individuals for "an increasing number of social problems." Detainees can seek to have their detention repealed through an "administrative review" (xingzheng fuyi, 行政复议) of the decision or by filing an "administrative litigation" (xingzheng susong 行政诉讼) against the Re-education Through Labor Management Committee that detained them. According to the advocacy group Chinese Human Rights Defenders, however, these options are ineffective and the groups overseeing the reviews and litigations often have the same interests as the management committee that originally ordered the detention. Conditions in the facilities The United States Department of State called the conditions in prisons "harsh and frequently degrading," and said the conditions in re-education through labor facilities were similar, citing overcrowded living spaces, low-quality food, and poor or absent medical care. Detainees in camps are required to work for little or no pay; while Chinese law requires that prison laborers' workday be limited to 12 hours a day. In 2001, sociologist Dean Rojek estimated that detainees generally worked six days a week, "in total silence." Much of the labor done by re-education through labor detainees is geared towards agriculture or producing goods, many of which are sold internationally, since re-education through labor detainees are not counted as official "prisoners" and therefore not subject to international treaties. They also perform work ranging "from tending vegetables and emptying septic pits to cutting stone blocks and construction work." Although drug abusers are ostensibly placed in re-education through labor to be treated for their addictions, some testimonial evidence has suggested that little "meaningful treatment" takes place in at least some of the centers, and that drug abusers often relapse into addiction upon their release from detention. The facilities have been widely criticized for the physical abuse that is said to go on within them. Corporal punishment is commonly used, and torture and physical abuse are also thought to be widespread in the facilities. In April 2003, Zhang Bin, an inmate at the re-education facility Huludao City Correctional Camp, was beaten to death, reportedly by other inmates and by the labor supervisor. Zhang's death, along with the March 2003 death of inmate Sun Zhigang in a custody and repatriation prison, sparked calls within China for reform of the system, although reforms were not made immediately. Though most reports describe the conditions of re-education camps as "brutal," there are some claims of prisoners being well-treated. For example, when he was released from a three-year re-education sentence in 1999, dissident Liu Xiaobo said that he had been treated very mildly, that he had been allowed to spend time reading, and that the conditions had been "pretty good." Forced labor may include breaking rocks and assembling car seat covers, and even gold farming in World of Warcraft. According to Chinese state media Xinhua, slightly over 50% of detainees released from prison and re-education through labor in 2006 received government aid in the form of funds or assistance in finding jobs. Life after release Detainees who are released from re-education through labor camps may still be unable to travel or see other people freely. Individuals who remain in re-education through labor for 5 or more years may not be allowed to return to their homes, and those who do may be closely monitored and not permitted to leave certain areas. For example, in July 2003 a priest who had been released from detention was kept under house arrest, and five men who attempted to visit him were themselves detained. Criticism The re-education through labor system has been criticized by human rights groups, foreign governments and UN bodies, and Chinese rights lawyers. Some Chinese government agencies and reformers within government have likewise criticized the system as being unconstitutional, and advocated for its reform or abolition. Human Rights Watch has stated that the "re-education through labor" system violates international law, specifically Article 9 (4.)of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which provides that "Anyone who is deprived of his liberty by arrest or detention shall be entitled to take proceedings before a court, in order that the court may decide without delay on the lawfulness of his detention..." Re-education through labor has also been criticized by numerous human rights groups for not offering procedural guarantees for the accused, and for being used to detain political dissidents, teachers, Chinese house church leaders, and Falun Gong practitioners. Furthermore, even though the law up until 2007 specified a maximum length of detainment of four years, at least one source mentions a "retention for in-camp employment" system that allowed authorities to keep detainees in the camps for longer than their official sentences. Re-education through labor has been a focus of discussion not only among foreign human rights groups, but also among legal scholars in China, some of whom were involved in the drafting of the 2007 laws meant to replace the system. In addition to legal scholars, the Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China had criticized the system. In light of the widespread disapproval of the system, HRIC called in 2001 for the system to be abolished entirely. Among its criticisms it cited the fact that the wording of re-education through labor laws was excessively vague, allowing authorities to manipulate it; the fact that the punishment given in re-education centers was too severe for the crimes committed; the abusive conditions at re-education centers; and the variation of re-education through labor laws from one province to another. The Chinese Ministry of Justice, has also noted that the system violated items in the Chinese constitution. Wang Gongyi, vice-director of the Institute of Justice Research affiliated to the Ministry of Justice, said that the re-education through labor system contradicts several items in the Constitution, the Criminal Procedure Law, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which China signed in 1998. Although many human rights groups and legal scholars both within and without China called for the reform or total abolition of re-education through labor, China's security agencies have defended the use of the system as being necessary to maintain social stability. A 1997 report in China's Legal Daily hailed re-education through labor as a means to "maintain social peace and prevent and reduce crime." The Ministry of Public Security stated in 2005 that re-education through labor helped maintain rule of law and was mainly used for rehabilitating lawbreakers. In 2007, when new laws were drafted, the Ministry of Public Security was opposed to the proposal that would allowing judicial review before punishment was enforced. Profit opportunities The laojiao system employs tens of thousands of people. Profits are made through sale of the products of forced labor and through the collection of bribes received to reduce sentences or to ensure that relatives receive adequate food. Abolition During the Third Plenum of the 18th Party Congress in Beijing on 15 November 2013, Chinese officials announced that they planned to abolish the Re-education Through Labor system. The planned abolition of the system, however, has been criticised by human rights groups, with Amnesty International issuing a report titled "Changing the Soup but Not the Medicine." Amnesty's report concludes that the camp closures are a positive step forward for human rights, but the fundamental problems of arbitrary detention remain in China: Many of the policies and practices which resulted in individuals being punished for peacefully exercising their human rights by sending them to RTL have not fundamentally changed: quite the contrary. There is ample evidence that such policies and practices are continuing in full force. The latest anti-Falun Gong campaign, launched earlier this year and intended to operate for three years, shows that the CCP’s determination to rid China of this spiritual group has not abated. Falun Gong practitioners continue to be punished through criminal prosecution and being sent to "brainwashing centres" and other forms of arbitrary detention. Petitioners likewise continue to be subjected to harassment, forcibly committed to mental institutions and sent to "black jails" and other forms of arbitrary detention. Human rights defenders, democracy advocates, whistle-blowers and other political activists are also being increasingly targeted through criminal detention, "black jails", short-term administrative detention, and enforced disappearances, rather than RTL. On 28 December 2013, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress abolished the re-education through labor system. Detainees were released without finishing their sentences. See also Custody and repatriation Human rights in the People's Republic of China List of Re-education Through Labor camps in China Mao Hengfeng, a human rights activist, who has been repeatedly ill-treated and tortured in the RTL camps. 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216713	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresh%20Fruit%20for%20Rotting%20Vegetables	Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables	Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables is the debut studio album by the American punk rock band Dead Kennedys. It was first released on September 2, 1980, through Cherry Red Records in the United Kingdom, and later issued by Jello Biafra's own Alternative Tentacles label in the United States. It is the only Dead Kennedys album to feature drummer Bruce Slesinger and guitarist Carlos Cadona. Recording and release The photo on the front cover, showing several police cars on fire, was taken during the White Night riots of May 21, 1979, that resulted from the light sentence given to former San Francisco City Supervisor Dan White for the murder of Mayor George Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk. When Biafra ran for mayor, one of his policies had been for a statue to be erected to Dan White, and for eggs, tomatoes and stones to be available nearby for pelting it. Reception Among contemporary reviews, Jon Young of Trouser Press found that the style and content of the album derived from the Sex Pistols and "will sound dated to the trend-conscious", but concluded that the album "may be the only legitimate companion piece to the Pistols' Never Mind the Bollocks." Young concluded that the album "works largely because of Jello Biafra, a distinctive and remarkable singer" who "thrives on extreme attitudes." Andy Gill of NME compared the album to music by the British punk group U.K. Subs, writing that Dead Kennedys "hardly come across as anything but smarter, both musically and intellectually ... Despite [the Dead Kennedys'] grasp of dynamics and their highly-ordered arrangements, there's really only one track here which makes effective use of their mannerisms and devices, and that's 'Holiday in Cambodia', already available in single form, and probably the biggest (musical) reason for this album's presence in the charts." Robert Christgau of The Village Voice stated that he found Biafra poor as a vocalist, likening his singing to Tiny Tim's. The album was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. In 2013, NME ranked it at number 365 in its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. Release variations The original back cover featured a found photograph of an old lounge band called Sounds of Sunshine, with Dead Kennedys' logo pasted onto the drum kit and skulls and crossbones spliced onto their instruments. The original photograph, as found by Flouride at a garage sale, had no identifying remarks on it whatsoever, and was used because the band thought it was "hilarious". Somehow Warner Wilder, the former vocalist of the defunct lounge band learned of the photo and threatened to sue Dead Kennedys. The back cover was reprinted with the heads of the band members cut off, but this solution was found to be unsatisfactory to Sounds of Sunshine, forcing an entirely different photo of four old people in a living room (with the Alternative Tentacles bat mascot pasted over a picture frame). When Cleopatra Records reissued Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables in 2002, the original unbeheaded lounge band picture reappeared. The 25th Anniversary "Deluxe Reissue" co-released by Cherry Red Records and Manifesto Records in 2005 used the old people photograph, but with Dead Kennedys' logo substituted for the Alternative Tentacles Bat Early IRS pressings featured the cover tinted orange with black lettering. This cover variation was not authorized by the band. According to a late-80s interview with Goldmine magazine, IRS told the band they wanted to make the domestic version different from the Cherry Red import, to which Biafra claimed to have told IRS, "Yeah, inferior to the original — change it back!" During a 1981 performance at the 9:30 Club in Washington, D.C., Biafra mentions, "Some of you stooped so low as to buy our wonderful album, even with the shitty Disneyland orange cover which was not our idea." Post-IRS, pre-Alternative Tentacles pressings on IRS's Faulty Products subsidiary added "Police Truck" to the middle of the Side A sequence, between "Let's Lynch the Landlord" and "Drug Me". Some Cherry Red vinyl pressings added "Too Drunk to Fuck" to the end of Side A. Pirate pressings of Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables (as well as the next two Dead Kennedys releases, In God We Trust Inc. and Plastic Surgery Disasters) were manufactured in Italy, Spain and Portugal. According to Biafra, these pressings were manufactured by someone who retained the master parts from defunct Italian licensees and put out what Biafra described as "Clorox bottle-quality pressings". These pressings were sold by a cut-out distributor to record stores that were, in Biafra's words, "too snooty" to deal with the independent distributors that Alternative Tentacles dealt with. The run-out groove of the early Alternative Tentacles pressings as well as early Cherry Red pressings includes the text "Well?? Who are the Brain Police???" - a reference to the song "Who Are the Brain Police?" by the Mothers of Invention. Track listing Fresh Fruit for Rotting Eyeballs Fresh Fruit for Rotting Eyeballs is the accompanying 55-minute documentary, directed by Eric S. Goodfield, that is included with the Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables 25th Anniversary Edition. It features a brief history of Dead Kennedys' early years up to their first UK tour, never before seen live performances, interviews with Klaus Flouride and East Bay Ray, comments by music journalists, and insights from the key people involved with the recording of Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables. The video omits references to the origins of songs that would include a mention of Jello Biafra, although his 1979 run for mayor is highlighted. Personnel Dead Kennedys Jello Biafra – lead vocals East Bay Ray – guitar Klaus Flouride – bass, backing vocals Ted – drums Additional performers 6025 – rhythm guitar on "Ill in the Head" Paul Roessler – keyboards on "Drug Me" and "Stealing People's Mail" Ninotchka (Therese Soder) – keyboards on "Drug Me", backing vocals on "Chemical Warfare" Dirk Dirksen – backing vocals on "Chemical Warfare" Bobby Unrest – backing vocals on "Chemical Warfare" Michael Synder – backing vocals on "Chemical Warfare" Bruce Calderwood (Bruce Loose) – backing vocals on "Chemical Warfare" Barbara Hellbent – backing vocals on "Chemical Warfare" HyJean – backing vocals on "Chemical Warfare" Curt – backing vocals on "Chemical Warfare" Chi Chi – backing vocals on "Chemical Warfare" Production Norm – producer East Bay Ray - producer Oliver DiCicco and John Cuniberti – engineer, mixing Kevin Metcalfe; Paul Stubblebine - mastering Judith Calson - front cover photography Winston Smith – artwork Annie Horwood – artwork Jello Biafra - artwork Charts Sales In 2010, it was certified diamond by the Independent Music Companies Association which indicated sales of at least 250,000 copies throughout Europe. References External links Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables (Adobe Flash) at Radio3Net (streamed copy where licensed) Dead Kennedys albums Faulty Products albums 1980 debut albums Alternative Tentacles albums I.R.S. 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216714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Bungalow%20Mystery	The Bungalow Mystery	The Bungalow Mystery is the third volume in the Nancy Drew Mystery Stories series written under the pseudonym Carolyn Keene. It was the last of three books in the "breeder set" trilogy, released in 1930, to test-market the series. It was the final volume edited by Edward Stratemeyer before his death. His daughter, Harriet Stratemeyer Adams, extensively revised the novel in 1960. Plot summaries 1930 edition Laura Pendleton rescues Nancy Drew and her friend Helen, who can't swim, when their rowboat capsizes during a sudden, severe storm on Moon Lake. The girls from River Heights befriend the orphaned Laura, who has come to the area to meet her new guardian, Jacob Aborn. Mr. Aborn seems somewhat boorish to the River Heights girls, and Nancy, upon returning home, receives a phone call from Laura, who is desperate to escape from her "evil" guardian. He expects her to do household chores and cook, which seems natural, but when he demands her furs and jewels, she calls Nancy for help. Laura escapes, and this leads Nancy back to the Aborn house, spying on a mysterious bungalow in the woods that he frequents. Nancy eventually enters the bungalow but is quickly hit on the head and knocked unconscious. However, when Nancy comes to, she soon exposes an impostor, who had intended to steal all of Laura's stocks and investments, as well as her jewels. 1960 revision The plot is similar, but the mystery takes longer to develop; unusual, in that revised versions of Nancy Drew typically reduce detail and speed up the action. Nancy and Helen meet Laura after she rescues them on the lake; the girls are on vacation while Helen and her aunt plan the former's upcoming wedding. The girls meet Laura's guardians, Mr. and Mrs. Jacob Aborn, more dramatically: Bleached-haired Mrs. Aborn arrives at the hotel in disarray after having a flat tire in the same storm that caught the girls on the lake. Nancy finds the Aborns gauche but friendly. Nancy is called home to aid injured Hannah Gruen; as in the original, she encounters a tree on the road, but this time a brother and sister appear, and help her. Upon returning home, Nancy looks after Hannah and takes over the housekeeping chores. Carson Drew assigns her to investigate a long list of individuals suspected of involvement in investment-securities fraud. Nancy tackles this by dressing more maturely (the first time she implements an appearance change to sleuth in the series chronology) and going door-to-door for charity as a ruse to meet the suspects. This subplot adds time and depth to the story. Laura contacts Nancy surreptitiously to ask for her help, and then escapes from her locked room at the Aborn residence to seek refuge at the Drews'. Mrs. Aborn had ordered Laura to hand over valuable jewels, but she carried them to Nancy's house. The rest of the mystery unfolds similarly to the 1930 edition, although Nancy fixes Laura up on a date with her friend Don Cameron, and she goes to investigate the Aborn lake house under the ruse of being on vacation back at the same hotel from the opening chapters. A feature fixture that appears vaguely in other volumes is introduced here: Nancy carries a suitcase in her trunk that contains clothing appropriate for outdoor wear, an evening dress with accessories, and swimwear, plus cosmetics, etc. The main difference in the new edition's final chapters is that the Aborns are acting as impostors together as a couple; Jacob Aborn's wife was on vacation and Stumpy closely resembled Jacob Aborn, allowing for the substitution. They are the couple Nancy couldn't locate in River Heights, who committed the banking crimes her father was investigating. Laura discovers that the real Aborns are wonderful people who would be caring guardians. To reward Nancy for helping her and rescuing her valuables, Laura presents the sleuth with her mother's favorite ring—an aquamarine, a reminder that their friendship began on water. Artwork The original 1930 artwork—Nancy peeking into the abandoned bungalow—was created by Russell H. Tandy, who also designed the frontispiece and three internals for the original version. In 1937, the three internals were omitted. In 1943, Tandy executed a completely new pen-and-ink drawing for the frontispiece instead of updating earlier illustrations. In 1950, Bill Gillies created new cover artwork, showing Nancy spying on Stumpy Dowd. This artwork was retained for the 1960 revision, which also added a frontispiece and five pen-and-ink internal illustrations. In 1965, the cover was updated by Rudy Nappi to show Nancy dressed in a matronly dress, contrasting with the current "mod" look, and spying on the bungalow in the woods. These illustrations are all in print today. Reception By 2000, The Bungalow Mystery had sold 1.5 million copies in the US market. Adaptation The 12th installment in the Nancy Drew point-and-click adventure game series by Her Interactive, named Nancy Drew: Secret of the Old Clock, is loosely based on the novel and also incorporate elements from The Secret of the Old Clock, The Hidden Staircase, and The Mystery at Lilac Inn. References External links Nancy Drew books 1930 American novels 1930 children's books 1960 American novels 1960 children's books Grosset & Dunlap books Children's mystery novels Novels adapted into video games	[ -0.11641991883516312, 0.15381130576133728, 0.2891305088996887, -0.0647423192858696, 0.06926613301038742, 0.006844534073024988, 0.4479736089706421, -0.4647229015827179, -0.14062289893627167, 0.01656872220337391, 0.07595191150903702, 0.4926462769508362, -0.29650425910949707, 0.18980446457862854, -0.37830498814582825, 0.5652332901954651, 0.41829603910446167, 0.34581536054611206, -0.4152625799179077, -1.0206608772277832, -0.11811695992946625, -0.6594446897506714, 0.011574405245482922, -0.12440391629934311, -0.37729349732398987, 0.34099990129470825, 0.26102983951568604, -0.062406256794929504, 0.2825417220592499, 0.02526446059346199, 0.07097381353378296, 0.11818165332078934, 0.04085134342312813, -0.5731430053710938, -0.15317976474761963, 0.11338197439908981, -0.029899349436163902, 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216716	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gareth%20Williams%2C%20Baron%20Williams%20of%20Mostyn	Gareth Williams, Baron Williams of Mostyn	Gareth Wyn Williams, Baron Williams of Mostyn, (5 February 1941 – 20 September 2003), was a Welsh barrister and Labour politician who was Leader of the House of Lords, Lord President of the Council and a member of the Cabinet from 2001 until his sudden death in 2003. Early life Williams was born near Prestatyn, in North Wales, a son of Albert Thomas Williams and his wife Selina, née Evans. He was educated at Rhyl Grammar School and at Queens' College, Cambridge. Legal career He had an outstanding legal career. Called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1965, he took silk in 1978, was a Recorder from 1978, a Deputy High Court Judge, 1986-92, the Leader of the Wales and Chester Circuit, 1987–89, and a Member of the Bar Council, 1986-92 (Chairman, 1992). Political career He was created a life peer on 20 July 1992 as Baron Williams of Mostyn, of Great Tew in the County of Oxfordshire, and became an opposition spokesman in the House of Lords on Legal Affairs, and later Northern Ireland. After Labour's election victory he was appointed a Home Office minister, and in 1999 became Attorney General for England and Wales and Northern Ireland. He was appointed Leader of the House of Lords in 2001, initially with the sinecure office of Lord Privy Seal, for which Lord President of the Council was substituted in 2003. Reputation among his colleagues As part of the celebrations to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the Life Peerages Act, Lord Williams was voted by the current members of the House of Lords as the outstanding life peer since the creation of the life peerage. In his book A View from the Foothills Chris Mullin wrote that he thought that Gareth Williams was most likely to succeed Derry Irvine as Lord Chancellor; the position was next filled by Charles Falconer. Personal life Williams married, firstly, in 1962, Pauline Clarke, daughter of Ernest Clarke, and by her had two daughters, Martha (born 1973) and Emma (born 1976), and a son, Daniel (born 1981). They divorced, and he married, secondly, in 1994, Veena M. Russell, and by her had one daughter, Imogen. Death He collapsed and died suddenly at his home in Gloucestershire, at the age of 62. He was survived by his four children. References Bibliography Burke's Peerage & Baronetage (106th edition, 1999) edited by Charles Mosley External links "Interview: Lord Williams" - Guardian Unlimited Politics interview with Lord Williams by Julian Glover, dated Friday, 28 June 2002, giving the peer's views on reform of the House of Lords "" - Dictionary of Welsh Biography \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1941 births 2003 deaths Alumni of Queens' College, Cambridge Attorneys General for England and Wales Attorneys General for Northern Ireland Welsh barristers Welsh Queen's Counsel Labour Party (UK) life peers Leaders of the House of Lords Lord Presidents of the Council Lords Privy Seal Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Northern Ireland Government ministers Queen's Counsel 1901–2000 Welsh politicians Welsh socialists Members of Gray's Inn	[ -0.6565088629722595, 0.14313742518424988, -0.2488471418619156, -0.7328954935073853, -0.5262928605079651, 0.6762648820877075, 0.6161410808563232, -0.3008420169353485, 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216717	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferugliotherium	Ferugliotherium	Ferugliotherium is a genus of fossil mammals in the family Ferugliotheriidae from the Campanian and/or Maastrichtian period (Late Cretaceous; around 70 million years ago) of Argentina. It contains a single species, Ferugliotherium windhauseni, which was first described in 1986. Although originally interpreted on the basis of a single brachydont (low-crowned) molar as a member of Multituberculata, an extinct group of small, rodent-like mammals, it was recognized as related to the hypsodont (high-crowned) Sudamericidae following the discovery of additional material in the early 1990s. After a jaw of the sudamericid Sudamerica was described in 1999, these animals (collectively known as Gondwanatheria) were no longer considered to be multituberculates and a few fossils that were previously considered to be Ferugliotherium were assigned to unspecified multituberculates instead. Since 2005, a relationship between gondwanatheres and multituberculates has again received support. A closely related animal, Trapalcotherium, was described in 2009 on the basis of a single tooth. About twenty teeth and a jaw fragment have been referred to Ferugliotherium, but the assignment of many of these is controversial or has been superseded. The upper and lower incisors are long and rodent-like and have enamel on only one side of the crown. A fragment of the lower jaw shows that the tooth socket of the lower incisor was very long, extending below the fourth premolar (p4). The p4 is preserved in this fragment. It is blade-shaped and resembles multituberculate p4s. However, the determination of this fossil as Ferugliotherium is in question. The identity of a few additional isolated premolars assigned to Ferugliotherium, some resembling multituberculates, is also uncertain. The first lower molariform (molar-like tooth; mf1) is known from four examples, of which two were originally identified as upper molars of a different species (Vucetichia gracilis), which is now considered a synonym of Ferugliotherium. They bear two longitudinal rows of three or four cusps and transverse crests and furrows. A single example each of the second lower (mf2) and first upper molariform (MF1) show that these teeth also had longitudinal cusp rows and transverse furrows and crests, but the mf2 had only two or perhaps three cusps per row and the MF1 had three longitudinal rows. Although Ferugliotherium teeth are much lower-crowned than those of the Sudamericidae, they share an essentially similar pattern on the occlusal (chewing) surface of mf1 and mf2, similar incisors, backward jaw movement during chewing, and enamel with small prisms. Ferugliotherium is thought to have been a small animal, with a body mass of about 70 g (2.5 oz), and may have eaten insects and plant material. Its remains have been found in two geological formations of southern Argentina, where it is part of a mammal fauna that also includes the sudamericid Gondwanatherium and a variety of dryolestoids. Taxonomy Ferugliotherium windhauseni was named in 1986 by Argentinean paleontologist José Bonaparte on the basis of a single second lower molar (m2) from the Late Cretaceous Los Alamitos Formation of Argentina. Both the generic name, Ferugliotherium, and the specific name, windhauseni, honor geologists who studied the geology of Patagonia: Egidio Feruglio and Anselmo Windhausen, respectively. Bonaparte created a new family, Ferugliotheriidae, for the new species and tentatively assigned it to Multituberculata, an extinct group of mammals that was diverse during the late Cretaceous, mostly in the northern continents (Laurasia). In subsequent years, other finds permitted a more confident assignment to Multituberculata. In 1990, Bonaparte described Vucetichia gracilis on the basis of what he interpreted as two upper molars of a relative of Gondwanatherium within the order Gondwanatheria, a small mammalian group that was at the time known only from Argentinean fossils and thought to be related to xenarthrans as part of a now-discarded group called Paratheria. The generic name, Vucetichia, commemorates Argentinean paleontologist Guiomar Vucetich, and the specific name, gracilis (Latin for "slender"), refers to the animal's small size. However, in 1990 David W. Krause and Bonaparte argued that Gondwanatheria, including Ferugliotherium (family Ferugliotheriidae), Gondwanatherium, and Sudamerica (family Sudamericidae), should be placed within Multituberculata. Two years later, Krause, Bonaparte, and Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska described additional material of Ferugliotherium (which they tentatively placed in the multituberculate suborder Plagiaulacoidea) and suggested that the supposed upper molars of Vucetichia were in fact heavily worn first lower molariforms (mf1) of Ferugliotherium. In 1993, Krause described an unworn mf1 of Ferugliotherium and confirmed that Vucetichia was based on worn specimens of Ferugliotherium and therefore a synonym of the latter. In the same year, he and Bonaparte argued once again that Ferugliotherium, Gondwanatherium, and Sudamerica formed a closely related group of multituberculates, which they called the superfamily Gondwanatherioidea. Kielan-Jaworowska and Bonaparte described a lower jaw fragment with a multituberculate-like lower fourth premolar (p4) from Los Alamitos in 1996 and tentatively identified it as Ferugliotherium. On the basis of the morphological features of the jaw fragment, they argued that gondwanatherians were not closely related to any other multituberculate group, and consequently placed them in a suborder of their own, Gondwanatheria. In 1999, Rosendo Pascual and colleagues described a jaw of Sudamerica. Because some of this jaw's features were thought to be incompatible with a multituberculate identity, they regarded gondwanatheres (including Ferugliotherium) as Mammalia incertae sedis. However, in 2009 Yamila Gurovich and Robin Beck argued in favor of a close relationship between gondwanatheres (including Ferugliotherium) and multituberculates. The controversy is partially due to disagreement over the assignment of two upper premolars and the jaw fragment described by Kielan-Jaworowska and Bonaparte in 1996; Gurovich and Beck identify these as Ferugliotherium, while Kielan-Jaworowska and others regard them as indeterminate multituberculates. In the 2000s, some possible close relatives of Ferugliotherium were discovered. An enigmatic tooth from the Paleogene of Peru, LACM 149371, was described in 2004 as possibly related to the family Ferugliotheriidae. Kielan-Jaworowska and colleagues described a p4 from the La Colonia Formation (Late Cretaceous of Argentina) as a new multituberculate genus, Argentodites, in 2007, but Gurovich and Beck noted close similarities between this p4 and the p4 in the possible jaw fragment of Ferugliotherium and suggested that it represented Ferugliotherium or a closely related species. A single mf1 from the Allen Formation (Late Cretaceous of Argentina) was described as another ferugliotheriid genus, Trapalcotherium, in 2009. Description Ferugliotherium is known from isolated teeth, the assignment of some of which is controversial. The material from the Los Alamitos Formation, which is mostly in the Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales Bernardino Rivadavia (MACN) in Buenos Aires, with one tooth in the Museo de La Plata (MLP) in La Plata, Argentina, has been thoroughly described; while there are additional Ferugliotherium fossils from the La Colonia Formation, they have not been described in detail. Although the fragmentary nature of the known fossils of Ferugliotherium makes it impossible to determine its dental formula with certainty, Gurovich suggested that it had one incisor (possibly two in the upper jaw), no canines, one or two premolars, and two molars on each side of the lower and upper jaws. However, on the basis of comparisons with Sudamerica, which is known to have had four lower molariforms (molar-like teeth, either premolars or molars) in its lower jaw, Pascual and Ortiz-Jaureguizar suggested in 2007 that Ferugliotherium may also have had four lower molars. Ferugliotherium was much smaller than the sudamericids Gondwanatherium and Sudamerica, and its body mass is estimated to have been about 70 g (2.5 oz). Unlike the hypsodont (high-crowned) sudamericids, Ferugliotherium has brachydont (low-crowned) molariform teeth that are supported by at least two roots, not a single massive root. The direction of wear on the teeth indicates that Ferugliotherium, Gondwanatherium, and Sudamerica all had palinal jaw movement (i.e., the lower jaw moved backwards during the power stroke of chewing)—a feature otherwise only seen in multituberculates among mammals. Incisors Three fragmentary Ferugliotherium lower incisors (MACN Pv-RN 701A, 701B, and 701C) are known from the Los Alamitos Formation. Another incisor, MACN Pv-RN 970, was assigned to Ferugliotherium by Bonaparte in 1990, but it is much larger than the other three incisors, which are otherwise similar, and probably represents Gondwanatherium instead. Only the tips of the three incisors are preserved. They are laterally compressed, with an estimated width of 1.3 mm and height of 2.4 mm in 701A. The medial side (towards the middle of the mouth) is flat, but the lateral side (towards the sides) is convex. There is enamel only on the lower (ventral) side. A large wear facet is present at the tip, forming an angle of about 35° with the ventral margin in 701A. The three incisor fragments are identified as Ferugliotherium because of their size and provenance and the presence of a restricted enamel band. They show features, such as lateral compression, an acute angle at the tip, small curvature, and an irregular cross section, that are usually seen in lower, not upper incisors in mammals with procumbent incisors, such as rodents and taeniolabidoid multituberculates. Four specimens (MACN Pv-RN 702A through 702D) are thought to represent second upper incisors (I2) of Ferugliotherium. 702A (height 1.5 mm; width 1.1 mm) and 702B are slightly larger than 702C (height 1.2 mm; width 0.9 mm) and 702D. The smaller incisors cannot be lateral incisors (I3), because 702C's wear facet is stronger than would be expected in an I3; therefore, all four upper incisors are identified as central incisors (I2). To explain the size difference, Krause and colleagues suggested that Ferugliotherium was variable in size or that the smaller incisors were deciduous precursors of the larger permanent tooth. They considered it less likely that multiple species with similar incisors were present. The upper incisors have enamel only on the dorsal side. The wear facet at the tip is preserved only in 702C, forming an angle of 52° with the dorsal side, and is more concave than the facet in the lower incisors. 702A–D are recognizable as upper incisors because they have a less acute angle at the tip and are less laterally compressed, more curved, and elliptical in cross section. Incisors of Ferugliotherium and Gondwanatherium are similar in overall shape and share a restricted band of enamel—a feature otherwise seen only in multituberculates among Mesozoic mammals. The incisors of Sudamerica are also similar. Mandible with lower premolar MACN Pv-RN 975, a fragment of the mandible (lower jaw) preserving one premolar, was discovered in 1991 and tentatively identified as Ferugliotherium by Kielan-Jaworowska and Bonaparte in 1996, but this assignment remains controversial. The poorly preserved and worn premolar is a bladelike tooth, resembling multituberculate fourth lower premolars (p4). The premolar is 4.8 mm long and bears eight faint ridges on both the labial (towards the lips) and lingual (towards the tongue) sides. On the labial side, the four ridges at the back are more widely separated than the four in front of them. The back and front margins of the tooth are parallel and there is no small cusp on the labial side. There are two roots; the one at the front is larger than the one at the back and bears a furrow. The lower border of the enamel cover is marked by two semicircular extensions of the enamel on the front side, but there is only one such extension at the back. By its size, the number of ridges, and apparently greater length than height, it differs from all known multituberculate first, second, and third lower premolars, indicating that it is a p4. The dentary (lower jaw bone) itself is robust and short. The length axis of the p4 makes an angle of about 58° with the length axis of the jawbone. The bone is concave on the lingual, but convex on the labial side. There is a diastema (gap) between the p4 and the incisor that would have been in front of it, as in the jaw of Sudamerica. Gurovich estimated the length of the diastema as 2.5 mm. There is a rounded mental foramen (an opening in the labial side of the jawbone), with a diameter of 0.7 mm, located about 0.8 mm below the dorsal margin of the bone and 1.5 mm in front of the p4. Although the incisor itself is not preserved, its alveolus (the housing of the root) is in part. As in Sudamerica, it extends far into the dentary, passing below p4. The alveolus is 1.5 mm wide below the front root of p4 and 1.4 mm at the back of the jaw fragment. Although the height of the alveolus cannot be determined because the lower side is broken away, the incisor must have been quite deep. When it was discovered that Sudamerica had four molariform teeth and no bladelike premolar in its lower jaw, Pascual, Kielan-Jaworowska, and colleagues removed MACN Pv-RN 975 from Ferugliotherium, which they expected to have the same dental formula as its fellow gondwanathere Sudamerica, and identified it as an indeterminate multituberculate instead. Pascual and colleagues argued that molariform teeth as seen in Sudamerica could not have evolved from the bladelike p4 of Ferugliotherium, and that it was unlikely that additional molars had been added in Sudamerica. In 2004 and 2007, Kielan-Jaworowska and colleagues aligned the dentary with the multituberculate suborder "Plagiaulacida" because the p4 is rectangular in labial view, not curved as in the suborder Cimolodonta. This feature was also used to distinguish MACN Pv-RN 975 from the single p4 assigned to Argentodites, which was tentatively placed in Cimolodonta. Gurovich, Guillermo Rougier, and colleagues, on the other hand, maintain that the dentary is referable to Ferugliotherium and that the p4s of Argentodites and MACN Pv-RN 975 are very similar. The alveolus of MACN Pv-RN 975 fits the lower incisors attributed to Ferugliotherium in size and the blade-like premolar is of the size expected for an animal with molariforms the size of Ferugliotherium teeth. If the dentary and premolars (whose identification has been similarly controversial; see below) do not belong to Ferugliotherium, then, Gurovich and Beck argue, the Los Alamitos Formation would contain two mammals (Ferugliotherium and a multituberculate) similar in size and morphology, and therefore presumably occupying similar ecological niches—and one of those would be represented only by molariforms and incisors and the other only by premolars and a jaw fragment among the available fossils. Furthermore, they noted that the transition from blade-like to molariform premolars had actually been observed in the fossil record of the extinct sthenurine kangaroos, and that the first molariform in Sudamerica and Gondwanatherium is laterally compressed, suggesting that it may have derived from a blade-like tooth. Gurovich and Beck attributed the difference in shape between the MACN Pv-RN 975 and Argentodites p4s to the extensive wear of the former, and suggested that the two are similar enough that they probably represent at least closely related species. Other premolars Krause and colleagues identified a single tooth, MACN Pv-RN 251, as a possible deciduous anterior (i.e., not p4 or dp4, the deciduous version of p4) lower premolar of Ferugliotherium. It is minuscule, with a length of 0.85 mm and width of 0.5 mm (assuming the tooth is oriented correctly). It bears two serrations (small projections) at the tip of the crown—one around the middle of the crown and the other at what may be the back of the crown, where it is highest. Two prominent ridges descend from each serration towards the front down the sides of the tooth. No roots are preserved, but the rounded surface of the lower side of the tooth suggests they may have been resorbed, which would indicate that the tooth is deciduous. Krause and colleagues suggested that the tooth may have been the frontmost premolar, whether deciduous or permanent. However, Kielan-Jaworowska and Bonaparte wrote that this tooth does not match the partial jaw MACN Pv-RN 975, which has no alveoli in front of p4, and Pascual and colleagues agreed in 1999 that the tooth probably does not belong to Ferugliotherium. Bonaparte had identified another tooth, MACN Pv-RN 252, as a possible Ferugliotherium lower premolar in 1990, but this fossil is very fragmentary and according to Krause and colleagues, it cannot even be proven to be a mammalian tooth. Krause and colleagues identified two teeth, MACN Pv-RN 249 and 250, as anterior upper premolars. 249 bears two longitudinal rows of cusps. One row (row A; possibly the lingual one) includes four cusps, the other (row B) includes at least two, but is damaged. In row A, there are three ridges (at the front, middle, and back) extending from the tip of the base of each cusp. The second and third cusps are largest and most widely separated from each other. In row B, one cusp bears three ridges, of which one extends towards the other cusp in the row and the two others towards row A) and the other cusp is damaged. 250 is more fragmentary, but bears at least five cusps and may represent the same tooth position as 249, though it would come from the opposite side of the mouth. The microstructure of the enamel of this tooth has been studied. With a width of about 55 μm near the tip of a cusp, the enamel is thin. The enamel prisms are straight, small, and rounded and there is little material between the prisms. Small, rounded prisms are also seen in Gondwanatherium, Sudamerica, and other gondwanatheres, but in few multituberculates. Even in those multituberculates that do have small prisms, the prism sheath is closed, but the sheath is incomplete in Gondwanatherium and possibly Ferugliotherium. Krause and colleagues wrote that these two teeth resemble multituberculate deciduous anterior upper premolars, particularly second and third premolars (P2 and P3), and used this as one of their arguments for identifying Ferugliotherium as a multituberculate. However, as with the dentary MACN Pv-RN 975, the two upper premolars were excluded from Ferugliotherium and identified as multituberculates by Kielan-Jaworowska and colleagues after the discovery of the jaw of Sudamerica. Gurovich continues to identify them as Ferugliotherium on the basis of their size and provenance and other similarities between Ferugliotherium and multituberculates. Lower molariforms Five putative lower molariforms of Ferugliotherium are known from the Los Alamitos Formation (MACN Pv-RN 20, 174, 175, and 253 and MLP 88-III-28-1). These teeth include the holotypes of Ferugliotherium windhauseni (MACN Pv-RN 20, the only second lower molariform, or m2) and Vucetichia gracilis (MACN Pv-RN 174). The best-preserved mf1 is MLP 88-III-28-1. The crown is unworn and complete and there are no roots, suggesting that the tooth had not yet erupted when its owner died. Krause, who first described the tooth in 1993, identified it as a right molar, but the subsequent discovery of the jaw of Sudamerica made it clear that Ferugliotherium molariforms had been reversed, and MLP 88-III-28-1 is actually from the left side of the jaw. The tooth is 2.2 mm long and 1.5 mm wide. The crown is roughly rectangular, with rounded corners, and bears two longitudinal rows of cusps. The lingual row consists of four cusps, which are smaller and lower than the three labial ones. The cusps in this row become smaller and lower from the front to the back. Two ridges descend from the tip of each cusp to the lingual and labial sides. The labial ridges on the first and fourth cusp only reach the base of the cusp, but those on the second and third cusps join ridges descending from the first and second labial cusp. In the first three cusps, the lingual ridge extends to near the lingual margin of the tooth and then turns backward; the end of the ridge is lingual to the next cusp. In the fourth cusp, the ridge hardly extends posteriorly, but rather labially, forming the posterior margin of the tooth and joining a ridge descending from the last labial cusp. The labial cusp row includes three, larger cusps, each of which bears two ridges that descend lingually into the valley between the two cusp rows. The front ridge of each pair ends in the central valley, and the back ridge joins a ridge from a lingual cusp. The ridge pattern results in the presence of three transverse furrows between the main cusps. Another mf1, MACN Pv-RN 253, is almost unworn, but damaged: only the front two lingual cusps and the first two cusps and part of the third in the labial row are preserved. This tooth is similar to MLP 88-III-28-1 in all respects. However, Gurovich suggests that it may also be an m2. MACN Pv-RN 174, which is heavily worn, and MACN Pv-RN 175, which is not only heavily worn but has also undergone severe abrasion, were originally identified as upper molars of Vucetichia gracilis by Bonaparte in 1990. The roots of MACN Pv-RN 174 are preserved; at the front and back of the tooth, there is a pair of roots, which are fused near their bases. It has small enamel prisms. Krause and colleagues suggested in 1992 that 174 and 175 were mf1s of Ferugliotherium on the basis of similarities with 253, and Krause confirmed this in 1993 by describing the complete mf1 MLP 88-III-28-1. The related ferugliotheriid genus Trapalcotherium is known from a single mf1, which is similar to Ferugliotherium mf1s but different in some morphological details (see Trapalcotherium: Relationships). The holotype, MACN Pv-RN 20, is a right mf2 according to both Krause and colleagues (1992) and Gurovich (2005), but Gurovich considered the side that Krause and colleagues thought was lingual to be labial, and vice versa. The latter interpretation is used in the following description. It is almost square, but at the front it is slightly narrower than at the back. The labial side of the tooth is taller and less worn than the lingual side. There are two rows of cusps, and each lingual cusp is connected to each labial cusp by a broad crest, with one or more fossas in the middle. One of the two labial cusps may have been divided into two smaller cusps. The two crests are separated by a deep furrow. The enamel prisms of this tooth are small, like those of the premolar MACN Pv-RN 250. Transverse ridges between the cusps, as seen in Ferugliotherium, are known in only one multituberculate, Essonodon, but the ridge pattern in Essonodon is more complicated and the animal lacks the prominent furrows of Ferugliotherium and differs in numerous other features. On the other hand, overall patterns of cusps and ridges are essentially similar among Ferugliotherium, Gondwanatherium, and Sudamerica, indicating that the three are closely related. Upper molariforms A single tooth, MACN Pv-RN 248, is currently identified as a Ferugliotherium upper molariform. In 1992, Krause and colleagues labeled it as a right MF1, but Gurovich identifies it as a left MF1 or possibly even a right mf1. LACM 149371, an enigmatic tooth from the Paleogene of Santa Rosa, Peru, may represent an upper molar of an animal related to Ferugliotherium. Like the latter, it has cusps that are compressed from front to back and that are connected to the center of the crown by low crests. MACN Pv-RN 248 is somewhat damaged and almost rectangular, but slightly narrower at the back than at the front. The tooth bears three longitudinal rows of cusps. The middle row consists of five cusps, the labial row (assuming it is a left M1; if it is from the right, "lingual" and "labial" should be reversed) includes two or perhaps three cusps, and the lingual row includes probably four cusps. The lingual and middle rows extend across the entire length of the tooth, but the labial row is shorter, extending across about 70% of the length. The middle row is oriented obliquely with respect to the length axis of the tooth, so that it converges with the lingual row towards the back of the tooth. The front lingual corner of the tooth is missing, but it appears that the first cusps in the lingual and middle rows are connected by two ridges, one at the front margin of the tooth and one at the back of the cusps. A deep fossa (basin) lies between the two cusps and their connecting ridges. Behind these two cusps, a transverse furrow extends across the width of the tooth. The second lingual and middle cusps are also connected by a crest, which is somewhat weaker than those connecting the first cusps. Another transverse furrow extends behind the second cusps and also separates the second middle cusp from the labial row. A third furrow, behind the third lingual and middle cusps, also separates the first from the second labial cusp. Three ridges descend from the fourth lingual cusp: one connects to the fourth middle cusp, one ends blindly between the fourth lingual and middle cusps, and one connects to the fifth middle cusp. The second labial cusp, which is larger than the first one, is superficially divided into two smaller cusps by an indentation on its lingual side. There are vertical grooves at the bases of the cusps. Range and ecology Remains of Ferugliotherium come from two formations in the Late Cretaceous of southern Argentina, the Los Alamitos and La Colonia Formations. These and the Allen Formation (which has yielded Trapalcotherium) are all dated to the Campanian (84–71 million years ago) and/or Maastrichtian (71–66 million years ago), the penultimate and ultimate stages of the Cretaceous. The La Colonia Formation may be somewhat younger than the other two, while the Los Alamitos Formation has been considered Campanian, and can be dated to the Campanian or Maastrichtian on the basis of palynology. The Allen Formation is likely Maastrichtian, but not latest Maastrichtian. The Los Alamitos Formation is located in southeastern Río Negro Province, in the vicinity of the town of Cona Niyeu and was probably deposited in a marshy environment. In 1983, it yielded the first Mesozoic mammal to be found in Argentina, Mesungulatum houssayi, and since then, the mammalian fauna has expanded to 14 species. Most of those belong to the archaic mammalian group Dryolestoidea, but the fauna also includes the gondwanatheres Ferugliotherium and Gondwanatherium. The dryolestoids Mesungulatum houssayi and Groebertherium novasi and the two gondwanatheres are the most common mammals. Other fossils found in the Los Alamitos Formation include fish, frogs, turtles, madtsoiid snakes, dinosaurs such as Secernosaurus, gastropods, and other invertebrates. The La Colonia Formation outcrops in north-central Chubut Province, and the mammalian fossils come from the Mirasol Chico valley. The formation includes fluvial (river), deep-sea, and near-shore deposits, and the mammalian fauna probably comes from an estuary, tidal flat, or coastal plain. The La Colonia Formation also contains dryolestoids, such as Coloniatherium and Reigitherium, as well as a ferugliotheriid and the putative multituberculate Argentodites. In addition, the La Colonia Formation has yielded fossils of a wide array of other animals, including crocodiles, plesiosaurs, lungfish (Ceratodus), and dinosaurs (including Carnotaurus). The high-crowned sudamericids were probably herbivores, but the lower-crowned Ferugliotherium was more probably an insectivore or omnivore, like similar multituberculates such as Mesodma, which is thought to have eaten insects, other arthropods, seeds, and/or nuts. It may have used its incisors for gnawing or slicing, and the blade-like p4 may also have been used for slicing hard plant parts, such as seeds. The wear patterns on Ferugliotherium teeth independently suggest that the animal may have eaten some plant material. References Literature cited External links Gondwanatheres Campanian life Maastrichtian life Late Cretaceous mammals Cretaceous mammals of South America Late Cretaceous tetrapods of South America Cretaceous Argentina Fossils of Argentina Los Alamitos Formation Fossil taxa described in 1986 Mammals described in 1986 Taxa named by José Bonaparte	[ -0.2553311586380005, 0.3603886067867279, 0.3911018371582031, 0.19191858172416687, -0.42659181356430054, 0.3930474519729614, 0.7960836887359619, -0.21771757304668427, 0.4206724166870117, -0.12297683954238892, 0.6184018850326538, 0.18220649659633636, -0.36782339215278625, 0.4447041153907776, -0.34362703561782837, 0.5764052867889404, -0.5334712862968445, 0.600803017616272, -0.060279481112957, -0.3119875490665436, 0.1725846230983734, -0.9963624477386475, 0.577705442905426, -0.42507895827293396, 0.16129088401794434, -0.15505371987819672, 0.6939228177070618, 0.5716692805290222, 0.6407124400138855, 0.2416580319404602, -0.10249259322881699, 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216721	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wardriving	Wardriving	Wardriving is the act of searching for Wi-Fi wireless networks, usually from a moving vehicle, using a laptop or smartphone. Software for wardriving is freely available on the internet. Warbiking, warcycling, warwalking and similar use the same approach but with other modes of transportation. Etymology War driving originated from wardialing, a method popularized by a character played by Matthew Broderick in the film WarGames, and named after that film. War dialing consists of dialing every phone number in a specific sequence in search of modems. Variants Warbiking or warcycling is similar to wardriving, but is done from a moving bicycle or motorcycle. This practice is sometimes facilitated by mounting a Wi-Fi enabled device on the vehicle. Warwalking, or warjogging, is similar to wardriving, but is done on foot rather than from a moving vehicle. The disadvantages of this method are slower speed of travel (but leading to discovery of more infrequently discovered networks) and the absence of a convenient computing environment. Consequently, handheld devices such as pocket computers, which can perform such tasks while users are walking or standing, have dominated this practice. Technology advances and developments in the early 2000s expanded the extent of this practice. Advances include computers with integrated Wi-Fi, rather than CompactFlash (CF) or PC Card (PCMCIA) add-in cards in computers such as Dell Axim, Compaq iPAQ and Toshiba pocket computers starting in 2002. Later, the active Nintendo DS and Sony PSP enthusiast communities gained Wi-Fi abilities on these devices. Further, nearly all modern smartphones integrate Wi-Fi and Global Positioning System (GPS). Warrailing, or Wartraining, is similar to wardriving, but is done on a train or tram rather than from a slower more controllable vehicle. The disadvantages of this method are higher speed of travel (resulting in less discovery of more infrequently discovered networks) and often limited to major roads with a higher traffic. Warkitting is a combination of wardriving and rootkitting. In a warkitting attack, a hacker replaces the firmware of an attacked router. This allows them to control all traffic for the victim, and could even permit them to disable TLS by replacing HTML content as it is being downloaded. Warkitting was identified by Tsow, Jakobsson, Yang, and Wetzel. Mapping Wardrivers use a Wi-Fi-equipped device together with a GPS device to record the location of wireless networks. The results can then be uploaded to websites like WiGLE, or Geomena where the data is processed to form maps of the network neighborhood. There are also clients available for smartphones running Android that can upload data directly. For better range and sensitivity, antennas are built or bought, and vary from omnidirectional to highly directional. The maps of known network IDs can then be used as a geolocation system—an alternative to GPS—by triangulating the current position from the signal strengths of known network IDs. Examples include Place Lab by Intel, Skyhook, Navizon by Cyril Houri, SeekerLocate from Seeker Wireless, and Geomena. Navizon and combines information from Wi-Fi and cell phone tower maps contributed by users from Wi-Fi-equipped cell phones. In addition to location finding, this provides navigation information, and allows for the tracking of the position of friends, and geotagging. In December 2004, a class of 100 undergraduates worked to map the city of Seattle, Washington over several weeks. They found 5,225 access points; 44% were secured with WEP encryption, 52% were open, and 3% were pay-for-access. They noticed trends in the frequency and security of the networks depending on location. Many of the open networks were clearly intended to be used by the general public, with network names like "Open to share, no porn please" or "Free access, be nice." The information was collected into high-resolution maps, which were published online. Previous efforts had mapped cities such as Dublin. Legal and ethical considerations Some portray wardriving as a questionable practice (typically from its association with piggybacking), though, from a technical viewpoint, everything is working as designed: many access points broadcast identifying data accessible to anyone with a suitable receiver. It could be compared to making a map of a neighborhood's house numbers and mail box labels. While some may claim that wardriving is illegal, there are no laws that specifically prohibit or allow wardriving, though many localities have laws forbidding unauthorized access of computer networks and protecting personal privacy. Google created a privacy storm in some countries after it eventually admitted systematically but surreptitiously gathering Wi-Fi data while capturing video footage and mapping data for its Street View service. It has since been using Android-based mobile devices to gather this data. Passive, listen-only wardriving (with programs like Kismet or KisMAC) does not communicate at all with the networks, merely logging broadcast addresses. This can be likened to listening to a radio station that happens to be broadcasting in the area or with other forms of DXing. With other types of software, such as NetStumbler, the wardriver actively sends probe messages, and the access point responds per design. The legality of active wardriving is less certain, since the wardriver temporarily becomes "associated" with the network, even though no data is transferred. Most access points, when using default "out of the box" security settings, are intended to provide wireless access to all who request it. The war driver's liability may be reduced by setting the computer to a static IP, instead of using DHCP, preventing the network from granting the computer an IP address or logging the connection. In the United States, the case that is usually referenced in determining whether a network has been "accessed" is State v. Allen. In this case, Allen had been wardialing in an attempt to get free long-distance calling through Southwestern Bell's computer systems. When presented with a password protection screen, however, he did not attempt to bypass it. The court ruled that although he had "contacted" or "approached" the computer system, this did not constitute "access" of the company's network. Software iStumbler InSSIDer Kismet KisMAC NetSpot NetStumbler WiFi-Where WiGLE for Android There are also homebrew wardriving applications for handheld game consoles that support Wi-Fi, such as sniff for the Nintendo DS/Android, Road Dog for the Sony PSP, WiFi-Where for the iPhone, G-MoN, Wardrive, Wigle Wifi for Android, and WlanPollution for Symbian NokiaS60 devices. There also exists a mode within Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops for the Sony PSP (wherein the player is able to find new comrades by searching for wireless access points) which can be used to wardrive. Treasure World for the DS is a commercial game in which gameplay wholly revolves around wardriving. See also Honeypot (computing) Hotspot Warchalking Warshipping References External links Computer security exploits Wireless networking	[ 0.35811370611190796, -0.4361233413219452, 0.2330368459224701, 0.4641423523426056, 0.45785054564476013, -0.2448059767484665, 0.07339942455291748, -0.19362981617450714, -0.22681531310081482, -0.5504270195960999, -0.40804556012153625, 0.4005095362663269, -0.13069817423820496, -0.3825453519821167, -0.41140565276145935, 0.3668411672115326, 0.6094850301742554, 0.2592751979827881, 0.0940411388874054, -0.3048466444015503, -0.4238187372684479, -0.04983168840408325, -0.14538972079753876, -0.1770644634962082, 0.19347670674324036, -0.03274597227573395, 0.09491462260484695, 0.3102272152900696, -0.39731842279434204, -0.18191717565059662, 0.83913254737854, 0.23296397924423218, 0.4618377387523651, 0.036277249455451965, 0.5061020255088806, -0.26090773940086365, 0.03631775826215744, -0.4829072952270508, -0.5855228304862976, -0.40102219581604004, -0.2111397087574005, 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216722	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible%20conspiracy%20theory	Bible conspiracy theory	A Bible conspiracy theory is any conspiracy theory that posits that much of what is believed about the Bible is a deception created to suppress some secret, ancient truth. Some of these theories claim that Jesus really had a wife and children, or that a group such as the Priory of Sion has secret information about the true descendants of Jesus; some claim that there was a secret movement to censor books that truly belonged in the Bible, etc. This subject should not be confused with deliberately fictional Bible conspiracy theories. A number of bestselling modern novels, the most popular of which was The Da Vinci Code, have incorporated elements of Bible conspiracy theories to flesh out their storylines, rather than to push these theories as actual suggestions. Common theories Jesus-myth theory Some proponents of the Jesus-myth or Christ-myth theory consider that the whole of Christianity is a conspiracy. American author Acharya S (Dorothy Murdock) in The Christ Conspiracy: The Greatest Story Ever Sold (1999) argues that Jesus and Christianity were created by members of various secret societies, mystery schools, and religions, that these people drew on numerous myths and rituals which existed previously, and that the church then constructed these ideas into Christianity by suppressing the originally intended understanding. In the 1930s British spiritualist Hannen Swaffer's home circle, following the teachings of the native-American spirit "Silver Birch", also claimed a Jesus-myth. Church suppression of reincarnation conspiracy Some New Age believers consider that Jesus taught reincarnation but the Christian Church suppressed it. Geddes MacGregor in Reincarnation in Christianity (1978) suggests that Origen's texts written in support of the belief in reincarnation somehow disappeared or were suppressed. Jesus, Mary Magdalene and the Holy Grail Some common hypotheses are that: Mary Magdalene was one of the apostles of Jesus, possibly even the only disciple, but this was suppressed by the early Church. Jesus had an intimate relationship with Mary Magdalene which may or may not have resulted in marriage, and/or children; their continued bloodline is then said to be Christianity's deepest secret. The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail, by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln (1982) is seen by many as the source of that plotline in The Da Vinci Code. Books The Jesus Papers: Exposing the Greatest Cover-Up in History, Michael Baigent (2006) Jesus the Magician: Charlatan or Son of God?, Morton Smith (1978) The Jesus Dynasty, James Tabor (2006) Jesus the Man: New Interpretations from the Dead Sea Scrolls, Barbara Thiering (1993) The Jesus Scroll, Donovan Joyce (1972) Holy Blood, Holy Grail, Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln (1982) The Templar Revelation, Lynn Picknett and Clive Prince (1997) The Jesus Mysteries: Was the "Original Jesus" a Pagan God?, Timothy Freke and Peter Gandy (1999) The Jesus Conspiracy: The Turin Shroud and the Truth About the Resurrection, Holger Kersten and Elmar R. Gruber (1994) History of the First Council of Nice: A World's Christian Convention, A.D. 325; With a Life of Constantine, Dean Dudley (1880) See also Constantinian shift Criticism of the Bible Forged: Writing in the Name of God – Why the Bible's Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are Gospel of Judas Holy Grail Islamic view of the Christian Bible Panbabylonism The True Word The Two Babylons Tiberius Julius Abdes Pantera Toledot Yeshu Zeitgeist (film series) References Further reading External links History of the First Council of Nicea: A World's Christian Convention, A.D. 325; With a Life of Constantine by Dean Dudley, via Internet Archive. 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216731	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawfeeq%20Al-Suwaidi	Tawfeeq Al-Suwaidi	Tawfiq al-Suwaidi (; May 11, 1892 – October 15, 1968) was an Iraqi politician who served as the prime minister of Iraq on three occasions stretching from 1929 to 1950. Early life and education Al-Suwaidi was born in Baghdad in 1892, he completed his early schooling at 16 and after a year in the local law college, travelled to Istanbul in 1909 where he continued his studies in the Istanbul College of Law. After completing his studies in Istanbul (graduation 1912) Tawfiq al-Suwaidi's was sent to the Sorbonne in Paris, by his father, to further his Law education. Al - Suwaidi returned to Iraq after finishing his studies in Paris in 1914. He joined the Ministry of Education as a secretary to the committee for the renovation of Shamsuddin Sami's famous French-Turkish Dictionary. Career During the first world war, as well as working as a lawyer, Al -Suwaidi worked as a teacher in the Law college in Damascus, teaching Roman and general international law. He accepted these posts after rejecting a judgeship in Dair al - Zor and resigning from a judgeship in Damascus - al-Suwaidi was adamant to take a professional salary paying position rather than a position of prestige in order to repay his father for his European education. It was in 1928, upon the resignation of the Saadan ministry, that Tawfik al- Sowaidi was appointed premier and called to form his first cabinet. He thus became the youngest premier in Iraq's history. Iraq was granted membership to the league of nations in 1932 and due to his fluency in foreign languages, particularly French, the then diplomatic language, Tawfiq al-suwaidi was chosen as Iraq's first permanent representative. In addition to serving as prime minister, Al-Suwaidi also held posts as the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Minister of Justice, the Controller general of state accounts; and separate from his ministerial roles, al-Suwaidi served as a member of the regency council (performing the duties of king or regent at times in which they were absent from the country), a leader of the Iraqi delegation to the league of nations and a leader of the delegation to the united nations. He was elected as the president of the Chamber of Deputies from November 1929 to November 1930. He was Governor of the Central Bank of Iraq from 1948 to 1949. In 1958, Tawfiq al-Suwaidi was selected as the Foreign affairs minister under Arab Federation. However, this post was dissolved when the royal regime fell by the 14 July Revolution. Because of his close ties to the crown, Suwaidi was arrested in 1958 during the revolution that overthrew the monarchy. Sentenced to life in prison, he was pardoned in 1961 and went into exile in Lebanon, where he died. References Harris M. Lentz III, Heads of States and Governments: A Worldwide Encyclopedia of Over 2,300 Leaders, 1945 through 1992. McFarland & Company, Inc., 1994, p. 411. . 1892 births 1968 deaths Istanbul University Faculty of Law alumni University of Paris alumni Prime Ministers of Iraq Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of Iraq Governors of the Central Bank of Iraq People from Baghdad Iraqi prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Iraq Recipients of Iraqi presidential pardons Date of birth missing Date of death missing Members of Iraqi Academy of Sciences	[ -0.24130180478096008, 0.4657434821128845, -0.954646110534668, -0.18026763200759888, -0.8177254796028137, 0.6746788620948792, 0.25357115268707275, -0.2831188440322876, 0.07457044720649719, -0.21589501202106476, -0.13281241059303284, 0.41146355867385864, -0.6251797676086426, 0.7314184308052063, 0.10279273241758347, 0.12537238001823425, -0.2015860378742218, 0.16949081420898438, -0.421750545501709, 0.5007103085517883, 0.00025804058532230556, -0.11760398745536804, 0.16265900433063507, -0.11514504253864288, 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216743	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Europe%20Express%20%28album%29	Trans-Europe Express (album)	Trans-Europe Express () is the sixth studio album by German electronic music band Kraftwerk. Recorded in mid-1976 in Düsseldorf, Germany, the album was released in March 1977 on Kling Klang Records. It saw the group refine their melodic electronic style, with a focus on sequenced rhythms, minimalism, and occasionally manipulated vocals. The themes include celebrations of the titular European railway service and Europe as a whole, and meditations on the disparities between reality and appearance. Trans-Europe Express charted at 119 on the American charts and was ranked number 30 in The Village Voices 1977 Pazz & Jop critics' poll. Two singles were released: "Trans-Europe Express" and "Showroom Dummies". The album has been re-released in several formats and continues to receive acclaim. In 2014, the Los Angeles Times called it "the most important pop album of the last 40 years". Background After the release and tour for the album Radio-Activity, Kraftwerk continued to move further away from their earlier krautrock style of improvised instrumental music, refining their work more into the format of melodic electronic songs. During the tour for Radio-Activity, the band began to make performance rules such as not to be drunk on stage or at parties. Karl Bartos wrote about these rules, stating that "it's not easy to turn knobs on a synthesizer if you are drunk or full of drugs. ... We always tried to keep very aware of what we were doing while acting in public." During this tour, early melodies that would later evolve into the song "Showroom Dummies" were being performed. In mid-1976, Kraftwerk began to work on the album which was then called Europe Endless. Paul Alessandrini suggested that Kraftwerk write a song about the Trans Europ Express to reflect their electronic music style. Hütter and Schneider met with musicians David Bowie and Iggy Pop prior to the recording, which influenced song lyrics. Maxime Schmitt encouraged the group to record a French language version of the song "Showroom Dummies", which led the group to later record several songs in French. The album was recorded at Kling Klang Studio in Düsseldorf. Artistic control over the songs was strictly in the hands of members Ralf Hütter and Florian Schneider, with Bartos and Wolfgang Flür contributing sequenced electronic percussion. Kraftwerk went to railway bridges to listen to the sounds the train would actually produce. The group found the sound the train made was not danceable and changed it slightly. Recording An important piece of new equipment used on the album was the Synthanorma Sequenzer, a customized 32-step 16-channel analog sequencer made for the band by Matten & Wiechers. This allowed the construction of more elaborate sequenced synthesizer lines, which are featured prominently in the tracks "Franz Schubert" and "Endless Endless", and liberated the player from the chore of playing repetitive keyboard patterns. Whereas Radio-Activity had featured a mixture of German and English lyrics throughout the album, Trans-Europe Express went further and was mixed as two entirely separate versions, one sung in English, the other in German. At the recommendation of Maxime Schmitt, a French version of the song "Showroom Dummies", titled "Les Mannequins", was also recorded. "Les Mannequins" was the group's first song in French and would influence decisions to record songs in French on later albums. After recording the album in Düsseldorf, Hütter and Schneider visited Los Angeles to mix the tracks at the Record Plant Studio. Elements of the mixing sessions that were done in Los Angeles were dropped from the album, including the use of more upfront vocals in order to do more mixing in Düsseldorf and Hamburg later. The artwork for the album cover of Trans-Europe Express was originally going to be a monochrome picture of the group reflected in a series of mirrors. This idea was dropped for a photo by New York-based celebrity photographer Maurice Seymour, with the group dressed in suits to resemble mannequins. J. Stara's image of the group was taken in Paris and is a highly retouched photo-montage of Kraftwerk from their shoulders up again posed as mannequins which are shown on the cover of the English version of the album. On the inside sleeve, a color collage of the group sitting at a small cafe table designed by Emil Schult was used. The photo for this scene was from the session by Maurice Seymour, taken on the group's American tour. Other photos were taken by Schult that show the group laughing and smiling. These were not used for the album's release. Composition Wolfgang Flür has stated Kraftwerk were influenced by the music of the Weimar Germany era: "we were children who were born straight after World War Two... we had no musical or pop culture of our own... there was the war, and before the war we had only the German folk music. In the 1920s or 1930s melodies were developed and these became culture that we worked from". Karl Bartos also spoke of post-war influence as the group thought that they "had this development in the 1920s which was very, very strong and was audio visual. We had the Bauhaus school before the war and then after the war we had tremendous people like Karlheinz Stockhausen and the development of the classical and the electronic classical. This was very strong and it all happened very close to Düsseldorf in Cologne and all the great composers at that time came there." Paul Alessandrini is credited for helping contribute to the album's concept. Alessandrini told Hütter and Schneider that "with the kind of music you do, which is kind of like an electronic blues, railway stations and trains are very important in your universe, you should do a song about the Trans Europe Express". Kraftwerk believed critics in the United Kingdom and the United States associated them with Nazi Germany, with tracks such as "Autobahn" inextricably linked with the Nazis who built the high-speed roads in the 1930s and 1940s. At the same time, the band were keen to move away from their German heritage towards a new sense of European identity and felt that the Trans Europ Express could be used to symbolize this. AllMusic referred to Trans-Europe Express as a concept album with two different themes. The first being the disparities between reality and image, represented by the songs "Hall of Mirrors" and "Showroom Dummies", and the others about the glorification of Europe. Slant Magazine described the album as "a sonic poem to Europe". The musical style of Trans-Europe Express was described by AllMusic as melodic themes which are "repeated often and occasionally interwoven over deliberate, chugging beats, sometimes with manipulated vocals" and "minimalism, mechanized rhythms, and crafted, catchy melodies". The music has been categorized as electronic pop, synth-pop, and experimental pop. Hütter has commented on the minimalist nature of the album, stating that "If we can convey an idea with one or two notes, it is better than to play a hundred or so notes". The first side of Trans-Europe Express has three songs. The song "Hall of Mirrors" has been described as containing deadpan vocals with lyrics that speculate how stars look at themselves in a looking glass. Hütter and Schneider have described the song as autobiographical. The third track "Showroom Dummies" was described by AllMusic as "bouncily melodic in a way that most of Trans-Europe Express isn't" and with lyrics which are "slightly paranoid". The idea for the song came from Flür and Bartos being compared to showroom dummies in a British concert review. Some versions of the song contain a spoken introduction starting with a count-in of "eins zwei drei vier" as a parody of the band Ramones who started some songs with a quick count-in of "one two three four". The second side of Trans-Europe Express is a suite with "Trans-Europe Express" continuing through to "Metal on Metal" and "Franz Schubert" before closing with a brief reiteration of the main theme from "Europe Endless". AllMusic described the musical elements of the suite as having a haunting theme with "deadpan chanting of the title phrase" which is "slowly layered over that rhythmic base in much the same way that the earlier "Autobahn" was constructed". The song's lyrics reference the album Station to Station and meeting with musicians Iggy Pop and David Bowie. Hütter and Schneider had previously met up with Bowie in Germany and were flattered by the attention they received from him. Ralf Hütter was interested in Bowie's work as he had been working with Iggy Pop, who was the former lead singer of The Stooges; one of Hütter's favorite groups. Release Trans-Europe Express was originally released in March 1977. With the help of Günther Fröhling, Kraftwerk made a promotional music video for the song "Trans-Europe Express". The video features the group wearing long coats on a train trip from Düsseldorf to nearby Duisburg. Photo stills from this video were later used on the single sleeve for "Showroom Dummies". Fröhling would work with Kraftwerk again on their album The Man-Machine doing the photography for the album cover. To promote the album to the press in France, EMI Records hired a train with old-fashioned carriages from the 1930s to travel from Paris to Rheims while the songs from the album were played over the train's announcement system for the critics. In October 2009, a remastered edition of the album was released by EMI in Germany, Mute Records in the European Union and Astralwerks in the United States. This re-release was available on compact disc, digital download, and vinyl and features a different album cover from previous versions of the album. This new version features a black background with white Trans Europ Express train in the center. The track listing on the 2009 re-release amends the titles of the songs to match the original German release. This change has "Metal on Metal" being credited for two minutes of the music with the remainder being a track titled "Abzug" (English: "Departure"). Critical reception Initial reviews for Trans-Europe Express were positive. Music critic Robert Christgau, in a review for The Village Voice, wrote that the album's "textural effects sound like parodies by some cosmic schoolboy of every lush synthesizer surge that's ever stuck in your gullet—yet also work the way those surges are supposed to work". Trans-Europe Express placed at number 30 in The Village Voices 1977 Pazz & Jop critics' poll. Modern reception has been very favorable. Trans-Europe Express has the highest possible ratings from publications including AllMusic, Drowned in Sound, Mojo, Rolling Stone and Slant Magazine. Steve Huey of AllMusic wrote that the album "is often cited as perhaps the archetypal (and most accessible) Kraftwerk album ... Overall, Trans-Europe Express offers the best blend of minimalism, mechanized rhythms, and crafted, catchy melodies in the group's catalog". Q, in a 1995 review, wrote that the album "changed the face of American dance music" and was "one of the most compelling beats of this or any other era". In 2009, Drowned in Sounds Chris Power stated that "Trans-Europe Express is all at once antique, timeless, retro and contemporary. Its status as modern electronic music's birth certificate is well-earned, but its hallowed reputation should never be allowed to disguise its true value and power as a work of art. Nor should it obscure a longevity that, 32 years on, we might as well start calling by its real name: immortality". Trans-Europe Express has also appeared on top album lists from a variety of sources. In 2001, TV network VH1 placed Trans-Europe Express at number 56 on their list of "100 Greatest Albums (of Rock & Roll) of All Time". In 2002, Slant Magazine placed the album at number one on their list of the greatest electronic albums of the 20th century. In 2003, Rolling Stone placed the album at number 253 on their list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time", with the ranking dropping to number 256 in a 2012 revision and climbing to number 238 in the 2020 reboot of the list. Channel 4 placed the album at number 71 on their list of the 100 greatest albums. In 2004, the online music website Pitchfork listed Trans-Europe Express as 6th best album of the 1970s, stating that "the day will soon come, if it hasn't already, that Trans-Europe Express joins the ranks of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Exile on Main St. as a record that simply cannot be written about". Legacy Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described the album's influence as "unprecedented, reaching as wide as rock (Radiohead's Kid A), hip-hop (Afrika Bambaataa's classic 'Planet Rock', Jay Dee's recent 'Big Booty Express') and pop (Madonna's Drowned World Tour, which incorporated samples of 'Metal on Metal')". In the late 1970s, the album influenced post-punk band Joy Division; bassist Peter Hook related: "We were introduced to Kraftwerk by [singer] Ian Curtis, who insisted we play Trans Europe Express before we went on stage every time. The tape was played at the venue over the PA system, to be heard by everyone. The first time was Pips [a Manchester club well known for its 'Bowie Room']. Ian got thrown out for kicking glass around the dance floor in time to the track. It took us ages of pleading to get him back in." Drummer Stephen Morris also confirmed that Joy Division "used to play Trans-Europe Express before we went on stage, to get us into the zone. It worked because it gets up a lot of momentum. Trans-Europe Express just seemed to express an optimism even if people see it as machine music". Morris also said: "It reminds me of Cabaret, the film, with all of the 1920s singing. ... When you get that marriage between humans and machines, and you get it right, it's fantastic. I have to say it's my favourite Kraftwerk album." In the mid-1980s, Siouxsie and the Banshees' rendition of "The Hall of Mirrors", on their album Through the Looking Glass, was one of the few cover versions that Ralf Hütter hailed in glowing terms as "extraordinary". Accolades The information regarding accolades attributed to Trans-Europe Express is adapted from Acclaimed Music, except where otherwise noted. Commercial performance Trans-Europe Express charted higher in the United States than Kraftwerk's previous album Radio-Activity by peaking at number 117 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart. "Trans-Europe Express" and "Showroom Dummies" were released as singles from the album. "Trans-Europe Express" charted on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1977 where it peaked at number 67. Trans-Europe Express began charting in the United Kingdom in the 1980s. The album entered the charts on 6 February 1982, staying in the charts for seven weeks and peaking at number 49. The re-released single for "Showroom Dummies" (a remix with additional drums) entered the charts on 20 February 1982, staying on the charts for five weeks and peaking at number 25. Track listingNotes While "Abzug" (English meaning "trigger" or "departure") appeared originally as a separate track on all pressings of Trans Europa Express, later releases of Trans-Europe Express combined "Abzug" and "Metal on Metal" together under the latter track's title, at a running time of 6:52. On both 2009 reissues of Trans Europa Express and Trans-Europe Express, however, "Abzug" is presented as a separate track. Personnel Adapted from Trans-Europe Express liner notes.Kraftwerk Ralf Hütter – voice, synthesizers, Vako Orchestron, synthanorma-sequenzer, electronics, producer Florian Schneider – voice, vocoder, votrax, synthesizer, electronics, producer Karl Bartos – electronic percussion Wolfgang Flür – electronic percussionTechnical Peter Bollig – engineer Bill Halverson – engineer (The Record Plant, Hollywood) Thomas Kuckuck – engineer (Rüssl Studio, Hamburg)Design Maurice Seymour – photography J. Stara – photography Günther Fröhling – photography (2009 remaster only) Ink Studios – typographic design Johann Zambryski – artwork reconstruction (2009 remaster) Charts Weekly charts Certifications ReferencesFootnotesWorks cited''' External linksTrans Europe Express'' on Spotify (listen) Kraftwerk official website 1977 albums Kling Klang Studio albums Concept albums EMI Records albums Kraftwerk albums German-language albums Experimental pop albums	[ -0.4968181550502777, 0.1985413134098053, 0.25035688281059265, 0.11937955021858215, 0.07290370017290115, 0.442091703414917, 0.6842798590660095, 0.15127351880073547, 0.16656434535980225, -0.5299938917160034, -0.35179403424263, -0.04517950490117073, -0.3499550521373749, 0.494092732667923, 0.7304338812828064, 0.3568871319293976, -0.06070706620812416, 0.5083867311477661, -0.20251330733299255, -1.123687505722046, 0.13598960638046265, -0.06701011210680008, 0.5700637698173523, -0.1007564589381218, 0.06991457939147949, -0.319999635219574, 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216746	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Holt%20%28educator%29	John Holt (educator)	John Caldwell Holt (April 14, 1923 – September 14, 1985) was an American author and educator, a proponent of homeschooling and, specifically, the unschooling approach, and a pioneer in youth rights theory. After a six-year stint teaching elementary school in the 1950s, Holt wrote the book How Children Fail (1964), which cataloged the problems he saw with the American school system. He followed it up with How Children Learn (1967). Both books were popular, and started Holt's career as a consultant to American schools. By the 1970s he decided he would try reforming the school system and began to advocate homeschooling, and later the form of homeschooling known as unschooling. He wrote a total of 11 books on the subject of schooling, as well as starting the newsletter Growing Without Schooling (GWS). Early life Holt was born on April 14, 1923 in New York City; he had two younger sisters. He attended Phillips Exeter Academy, then attended Yale University, graduating in 1943. Directly after graduating he enlisted with the United States Navy, and served in World War II on the submarine USS Barbero. He was discharged in 1946, then joined the United World Federalists, an organization that promoted world peace through the formation of a single world government. He rose up the ranks of the organization, and served as the executive director of the group's New York State chapter when he left in 1952 due to frustration with the organization's lack of progress. Teaching career Holt's sister encouraged him to become an elementary school teacher, and in 1953 he began teaching at the newly-formed Colorado Rocky Mountain School, a private school in Carbondale, Colorado. In 1957 and 1958 he taught at the Shady Hill School, a private elementary and middle school in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1959 he taught fifth grade at the Lesley Ellis School, also in Cambridge. While teaching, Holt came to the belief that the students in his classroom, despite often being intelligent and from wealthy backgrounds, were more timid and unsure than the infant and toddler children of his sisters and friends. From homeschooling to unschooling Holt became disillusioned with the school system after several years of working within it; he became convinced that reform of the school system was not possible and began to advocate homeschooling. He believed that "children who were provided with a rich and stimulating learning environment would learn what they are ready to learn, when they are ready to learn it". Holt believed that children did not need to be coerced into learning; they would do so naturally if given the freedom to follow their own interests and a rich assortment of resources. This line of thought came to be called unschooling. Holt's Growing Without Schooling newsletter, founded in 1977, was America's first home education newsletter. He also set up John Holt's Bookstore, which made selected books available by mail order. This brought in additional revenue that helped sustain the newsletter, which carried very little advertising. Holt's sole book on homeschooling, Teach Your Own, was published in 1981. It quickly became the "Bible" of the early homeschooling movement. It was revised by his colleague Patrick Farenga and republished in 2003 by Perseus Books. Holt on education Holt wrote several books that have greatly influenced the unschooling movement. His writings have influenced many individuals and organizations, including the Evergreen State College, Caleb Gattegno, Americans for a Society Free from Age Restrictions, the National Youth Rights Association, and the Freechild Project. Holt did not have a teaching degree, which many believe allowed for his work in the private school sector to make way for him to have a more objective opinion on the American school system. Being new to the environment, it is thought that he was able to make more objective distinctions than other educators, as to what the schools said they were doing and what they were actually doing. For the first many years of his teaching career, he maintained the belief that schools overall were not meeting their missions due to using the wrong methods and pedagogical approaches, and that these failures were the cause for rendering young scholars as children who were less willing to learn and more focused on avoiding the embarrassment and ridicule of not learning. As Holt wrote in his first book, How Children Fail (1964) "...after all, if they (meaning us) know that you can't do anything, then they won't blame you or punish you for not being able to do what you have been told to do." This notion led him to make changes within his own classroom to provide an environment in which his students would feel more comfortable and confident. With the support of his colleague Bill Hull, Holt began putting less emphasis on grades and tests, and began taking steps to decrease the notion of ranking the children. He focused on his students being able to grasp concepts, rather than having them work for the correct answer. Instead of using the typical methods to determine students' progress, he adopted a more student-centered approach. Patrick Farenga paraphrased Holt's distinction between good and bad students: "a good student is careful not to forget what he studied until after the test is taken." Eventually, his new methods for teaching caused him to be terminated from his position, which he claimed was due to the school wanting to maintain "old 'new' ideas not new 'new' ideas." After leaving Colorado, Holt sought other opportunities in education. Although it took him some time to come to a conclusion about his own thoughts on education as well as make sense of his observations, studies, and data, ultimately he felt that schools were "a place where children learn to be stupid." Once he developed this conclusion, his focus shifted to making suggestions to help teachers and parents capable of teaching their children how to learn, thus prompting his second book, How Children Learn, in 1967. Despite his successful career, he still met rejections, resentment, and false hopes from colleagues and school systems surrounding his ideas and methods. This reality pushed him further and further into the idea of deschooling. After a few more years of teaching and some visiting professor positions at area universities, Holt wrote his next two books, The Underachieving School (1969) and What Do I Do Monday? (1970). Both books focused on his belief that schools weren't working and ideas about how they could be better. Holt had determined by this time that the changes he would like to see happen in the school systems were not likely to become a reality. These changes included the relationship between children and the teachers and school community. At this point in the history of education, the free school movement was in full swing, and his next book, Freedom and Beyond (1972), questioned much of what teachers and educators really meant when they suggested children should have more freedom in the classroom. While Holt was an advocate of children having more rights and abilities to make decisions for themselves, he felt that the free school movement was not the answer to the question of how to fix the school system. Holt then wrote Escape from Childhood: The Needs and Rights of Children (1974), in which he claimed that children should have independence including the right to work for money, receive fair and equal treatment, the right to vote, and even the right to choose new parents. At the time, his notions of children having so many rights and responsibilities was not very popular, but since then the court systems have seen more and more cases of children attempting to realise many of Holt's suggestions, such as choosing their legal guardian. Although many of Holt's previous works had discussed the needed reform and failure of the traditional school system, his seventh book, Instead of Education: Ways to Help People do Better (1976), focused more on his encouragement that parents find legal ways to remove their children from compulsory schools. Specifically, he referred to an Underground Railroad in which schoolchildren could escape the failing school systems of which he had been so critical. The book caused a number of parents to reach out to him regarding their own homeschooling of their children. This correspondence grew so much that he decided to start a newsletter for homeschooling parents. In 1977 Growing Without Schooling was developed and distributed. It is thought that this newsletter is the first published periodical regarding homeschooling in the United States. Holt's focus began to switch from critiquing school systems and writing from afar to speaking engagements and educating adults on how they can teach their children while learning themselves. His next book, Never Too Late: My Musical Autobiography (1978), focused on showing adults that they were not too old to learn new things. This was translated into ways in which parents who had no experience in education could learn to teach their children on their own in a homeschooling setting. In 1981, the first edition of Holt's most noteworthy book on unschooling, Teach Your Own: The John Holt Manual on Homeschooling, was published. This book, as noted in the first lines of the introduction, is "about ways we can teach children, or rather, allow them to learn, outside of schools—at home, or in whatever other places and situations (and the more the better) we can make available to them. It is in part an argument in favor of doing it, in part a report of the people who are doing it, and in part a manual of action for people who want to do it." This manual has since been revised by Holt follower and homeschooling parent Patrick Farenga, and is still distributed today. Even after his death in 1985, Holt's influence on homeschooling continued through his work. His final book, Learning All the Time: How Small Children Begin to Read, Write, Count and Investigate the World, Without Being Taught, was published posthumously in 1989. It contained a number of his writings for Growing Without Schooling. The GWS''' newsletter has since garnered followings in a number of different countries and has been continuously distributed since its inception as a tool for the promotion and encouragement of homeschooling in light of the lack of school system reform. Bibliography How Children Fail (1964; revised 1982) How Children Learn (1967; revised 1983) The Underachieving School (1969) What Do I Do Monday? (1970) Freedom and Beyond (1972) Escape from Childhood (1974) Instead of Education (1976) Never Too Late (1979) Teach Your Own (1981; revised 2003 by Pat Farenga) Learning All the Time (1989) A Life Worth Living (1990) See also Deschooling John Taylor Gatto Jonathan Kozol Grace Llewellyn History of youth rights in the United States Unschooling References Further reading Miller, Ron (2002). The Legacy of John Holt, ch. 3 of Free Schools, Free People: Education and Democracy after the 1960s''. New York: SUNY Press. External links HoltGWS information, including an interview with Holt by Mel Allen Book excerpt: Common Objections to Homeschooling Article: "The Needs and Rights of Children: Steps to Take" John Holt – links to interviews, quotes and book summaries/reviews "Deep Intelligence: Giving Our Young the Education they Really Need" by Andrew Seaton, PhD Biography at John Holy GWS 1923 births 1985 deaths Advocates of unschooling and homeschooling American education writers American educational theorists Education reform Homeschooling advocates Newsletter publishers (people) United States Navy personnel of World War II World federalist activists Youth empowerment people Youth rights people Educators from New York (state) Writers from New York City 20th-century American non-fiction writers	[ 0.08565817028284073, 0.3577103018760681, -0.7397300004959106, 0.11910002678632736, 0.48982396721839905, 0.10946304351091385, 0.6700146198272705, -0.20836792886257172, 0.1391819268465042, -0.4594895839691162, 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216749	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saliva%20%28band%29	Saliva (band)	Saliva is an American rock band, formed in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1996. Saliva released their self-titled debut album on August 26, 1997, through Rockingchair Records, a label owned and operated by Mark Yoshida. The release was recorded and produced by Bill Pappas at Rockingchair Studios. They were signed to Island Records and went on to release their second studio album Every Six Seconds. Saliva later released their third studio album titled Back into Your System on November 12, 2002, which reached No. 19 on the Billboard 200. Back into Your System launched one of Saliva's most successful songs, "Always", reaching No. 51 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 1 on the Modern Rock Chart. Three years after Survival of the Sickest, Saliva released Blood Stained Love Story on January 23, 2007, repeating Back into Your Systems chart performance at No. 19 on the Billboard 200. Its first single, "Ladies and Gentlemen", peaked at No. 2 on the Mainstream Rock Chart. History Formation and Saliva (1996–2000) Saliva was founded in Bartlett, Tennessee (a suburb of Memphis, Tennessee) in September 1996 by former members of local bands Roxy Blue, Blackbone and Gemini Clan. The original line-up featured vocalist Josey Scott Sappington, drummer Todd Poole, bassist Dave Novotny and guitarists Chris D'Abaldo and Wayne Swinny. The band played their first show on Halloween, October 31, 1996 with Sappington dressed in a nun costume and Novotny dressed in a voodoo costume. In December 1996, only four months after forming, the band hastily recorded a demo tape, on the basis of which they were selected, out of 117 local bands, to perform at the second annual Grammy Showcase National Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences' local competition. The band barely had time to finish mixing the tracks of their demo tape at Rockingchair Recording Studios in order to submit their application before the deadline. The local showcase had Saliva perform alongside four other Tennessee and Arkansas bands (DDT Big Band, Mash-o-Matic, Straight Up Buzz and Ashtray Babyhead) on January 24, 1997 at Memphis' New Daisy Tavern. Saliva ranked first place at the local showcase and advanced to the regional showcase held in Austin, Texas on February 7, 1997. Their demo tape had since been re-mixed with a better production and the song "Suffocate" was included on the 1997 Grammy Showcase Various Artists compact disc compilation, released through Grammy Recordings, alongside the eleven other bands with whom they would be competing in the regional showcases. Saliva again won first place in the regional showcase and they advanced to the national finals, held in New York City on February 22, 1997, competing against the other two regional finalists: folk trio Maggi, Pierce, and EJ and rock band Save Ferris. Saliva came in second behind Save Ferris, but still received worthy consolation prizes including money, equipment and tickets to 1997's 39th Annual Grammy Awards ceremony. By this point, Saliva had only played a total of six concerts, but they began to be courted by major record label A&R scouts. The band was nominated for Best Newcomer at the 12th Annual Premier Player Awards, the local Memphis edition of the Grammy Awards, held at The Peabody's Memphis Ballroom on April 16, 1997. Saliva also appeared at Memphis' Crossroads '97 music exhibition as part of Memphis in May's Beale Street Music Festival showcase on May 2, 1997. In the spring and summer of 1997, Saliva returned to Rockingchair Recording Studios in Memphis to record additional songs with producers Bill Pappas and Mark Yoshida, which were combined with the re-mixed songs from their demo tape into their self-titled debut album . Saliva was released on compact disc in mid-August 1997 through producer Yoshida's own independent record label Rockingchair Records. A CD-release party was held at Club 616 in Memphis on Friday, August 15, 1997. The album went on to sell over 10,000 copies within two years, prompting Island Records A&R representatives to again take notice of the band. The band's debut album was repressed following Saliva's major label success through a licensing deal between Rockingchair Records and hip hop record label Diamond Productions. The reissue was distributed by RED Distribution imprint RUMM (RED Urban Music Marketing) and featured an updated artwork designed by Brandon Seavers at AudioGraphic MasterWorks. The band performed again at Memphis' Crossroads '98 music exhibition as part of Memphis in May's Beale Street Music Festival showcase on May 3, 1998. Drummer Poole departed in late 1999 and was replaced by Paul Crosby. Every Six Seconds (2000-2002) Saliva's Island Every Six Seconds was released in 2001 and featured the singles "Your Disease" and "Click Click Boom", both of which saw significant play on rock radio and helped bring the band into mainstream popularity. The songs "Superstar" and "Click Click Boom" are featured in the film The Fast And The Furious. Back into Your System (2002–2003) Back into Your System, their third album, was released in 2002, which included the chart topping hits "Always", and "Rest in Pieces" co-written by James Michael and Nikki Sixx of Mötley Crüe. The band toured in 2003, opening for KISS and Aerosmith. Survival of the Sickest (2004–2005) Saliva then released Survival of the Sickest on August 17, 2004, which reached number 20 on the Billboard 200. On May 29, 2005, guitarist Chris D'Abaldo announced he had left the band "for obvious reasons, as the band is not a unit anymore." He then shortly retracted his statement and apologized, declaring on the band's website that "there was a bit of an issue we're working through and we're looking forward to recording a new album later this year". However, the band's website later apologized again for the confusion and confirmed that due to "creative differences", D'Abaldo was in fact leaving the band, but that Saliva was "completely moving forward as planned and [has] our best music ahead of us". D'Abaldo eventually moved on to start the band Smolder. Jake Stutevoss formerly of the band Future Leaders of the World replaced him in Saliva's tour lineup. Stutevoss left the group right before the recording sessions for Ladies and Gentlemen. Jonathan Montoya, formerly of Full Devil Jacket, then became the next permanent member of Saliva. Blood Stained Love Story (2006–2007) A new single, titled "Ladies and Gentlemen" was released in November 2006 to radio stations and made it to No. 2 on the US Mainstream Rock charts. Saliva released the album Blood Stained Love Story on January 23, 2007. It has also been included as the background music for a number of Sony's commercials for the PlayStation 3. It was also made the official Theme song for WrestleMania 23. The second single released off of the album was "Broken Sunday", which reached No. 8 on the Mainstream Rock chart. Saliva's tour manager Chris stated that the new single off Blood Stained Love Story would be "King of the Stereo". Cinco Diablo and Greatest Hits (2008–2010) In an interview with WWE on February 27, Scott said "We're going to go in the studio probably around May and record our next record. If you like "Ladies and Gentlemen" and "Click Click Boom", and more dynamic stuff, it's going to be an ass-whooping of a record. It's going to be 45 minutes of ass-whooping!" Saliva toured with Sevendust in South Korea, Japan and a brief stint in Europe until July 2008. As of April 30, 2008, Octane 20 on Sirius Satellite Radio began playing a new song titled "Don't Question My Heart", featuring Brent Smith from Shinedown. The song can be found on the album WWE The Music, Vol. 8, and was the official television theme song for the ECW brand. Saliva's sixth studio album is titled Cinco Diablo and was released on December 16, 2008. "Hunt You Down" was a song on the album that was then made the official WWE No Way Out 2009 theme song in February 2009. Saliva also made a song titled "I Walk Alone", which is a theme song used by Batista since 2005. The band worked on a reality television show style DVD following the recording of Cinco Diablo and life on the road. In an interview with MJP, Josey was asked if it was a TV Show to which Josey stated "I hope not", and stated that he wanted it more as "a DVD for our fans". Saliva went on tour with Pop Evil, Since October, Dead Season, and Aranda. They were scheduled to join the 13th annual SnoCore Tour, but singer Josey Scott had ulcer surgery. Walt Lafty of Silvertide was hired to fill in for Scott for the tour, but Saliva ultimately decided to drop out of the tour, instead of touring with Lafty. On March 23, 2010, the band released a Greatest Hits album titled, Moving Forward in Reverse: Greatest Hits. "Time to Shine" from said album was used as the official theme song for the "WWE Extreme Rules" Pay-Per-View in 2010. Under Your Skin and departure of Josey Scott (2010–2011) They had begun recording their latest album, titled Under Your Skin, with Howard Benson. The band supplied a song titled "Badass" to the Saw 3D soundtrack released on October 26, 2010. The band released the lead single from their new album Under Your Skin, entitled "Nothing". It was digitally released on February 1, 2011. "Badass" was later released as the second single, and reached No. 26 on Billboard's Mainstream Rock Tracks. At the end of 2011, after 15 years with the band, Josey Scott decided to leave Saliva to pursue a solo Christian music career. Bobby Amaru, In It to Win It and Rise Up (2012–2015) In early January 2012 it was announced that Bobby Amaru has joined Saliva as the new vocalist. According to Wayne, "he is a 28-year-old singer, songwriter, producer from Jacksonville, Florida who has a GREAT voice and will not only bring some fresh blood into the band but; will also put a new spin on the Saliva sound." Amaru was the frontman of his solo band Amaru, as well as the drummer for Burn Season. On February 10, 2012, Saliva released a brand new single named "All Around the World" and said to write a brand new album straight after the tour. In addition to "All Around the World", the band has been performing another new song titled "One More Night" on their current tour with 12 Stones and Royal Bliss. On November 30, 2012, it was announced that the band had just signed a new record deal with Rumbum Records and that after they have finished their current tour, the band will return home to finish writing the new album and begin recording in January for a release date some time in the spring. On February 5, 2013, Saliva began recording a new album which would later be named "In It to Win It". "In It to Win It" was to be the band's eighth record (1st with RumBum Records) with producer Bobby Huff, and executive producer Luis Bacardi. Bobby Huff co-wrote Saliva's single "Badass" and has worked with artists such as Meat Loaf, 3 Doors Down and Cavo. On April 30, 2013, the band released its first single from the new album, the aggressively anthemic title track "In It To Win It," which is now available on iTunes. On September 3, 2013, the band released an album "In It to Win It". In August 2013 Wayne Swinny announced that rhythm guitarist Jonathan Montoya had left the band after 6 years. On January 22, 2014, a new single "Rise Up" was announced. It was also revealed that "In It to Win It" was an early limited time fan only sneak peek and the band is going to release the new record titled "Rise Up" with the same songs re-arranged. Love, Lies & Therapy (2016–2017) On April 16, 2016 Saliva announced their new album, titled Love, Lies & Therapy would be released June 10, 2016. Later in May, the group announced they would be supporting the album by taking part of the "Make America Rock Again" tour in the summer 2016 alongside Trapt, Saving Abel, Alien Ant Farm, Crazy Town, 12 Stones, Tantric and Drowning Pool, Fuel, Puddle Of Mudd and P.O.D. 10 Lives, departure and return of Paul Crosby and Brad Stewart (2018–present) In mid-2018, drummer Paul Crosby announced his departure from the band after 18 years. Shortly afterward, bassist Brad Stewart would also depart to focus on other touring and projects. Saliva then released their tenth studio record, 10 Lives, on October 19, 2018 via Megaforce Records. The album was produced by frontman Bobby Amaru and Steve Perreira in Jacksonville, Florida. In 2019, both Crosby and Stewart confirmed their return to the band. Saliva would go on to tour in 2019 as a part of Puddle of Mudd's Muddfest. In October 2019, former vocalist Josey Scott announced on The Morning Dump podcast that he planned to reunite with Saliva for a tour and a new studio album. This was confirmed by Swinny in an interview with Detroit's WRIF Radio, adding that although "there's nothing on paper," the reunion should take place from 2020 into 2021 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of Every Six Seconds. In addition to Scott rejoining, Swinny also suggested that former guitiarist Chris D'Abaldo may also be taking part. In January 2021, it was announced that these plans were put on hold due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On April 16, 2021, the band released a music video for "After Me" following the 20th anniversary of their second album Every Six Seconds. Also, guitarist and founder Wayne Swinney sat out touring for August, due to testing positive for COVID-19, with Josh Kulack filling in for him. Band members Current Members Wayne Swinny – lead guitar, backing vocals (1996–present) Paul Crosby – drums (1997–2018, 2019–present) Bobby Amaru – lead vocals (2011–present) Brad Stewart – bass, backing vocals (2015–2018, 2019–present) Former members Todd Poole – drums, backing vocals (1996–1997) Chris D'Abaldo – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1996–2005) Jonathan Montoya – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2007–2010, 2015) Josey Scott – lead vocals (1996–2011) Dave Novotny - bass, backing vocals (1996–2015) Touring musicians Chris Hahn – rhythm guitar (2005–2006) Jake Stutevoss – rhythm guitar (2006–2007) Zach Myers – bass (2004, 2005) Eric Bice – drums (2009, 2012) Damien Starkey – bass, backing vocals (2018–2019) Tosha Jones – drums (2018–2019) Josh Kulack – lead guitar (2021) Timeline Discography Studio albums Saliva (1997) Every Six Seconds (2001) Back into Your System (2002) Survival of the Sickest (2004) Blood Stained Love Story (2007) Cinco Diablo (2008) Under Your Skin (2011) In It to Win It (2013) Rise Up (2014) Love, Lies & Therapy (2016) 10 Lives (2018) Awards and nominations Grammy Awards References External links 1996 establishments in Tennessee Alternative rock groups from Tennessee American nu metal musical groups American post-grunge musical groups Hard rock musical groups from Tennessee Musical groups established in 1996 Musical groups from Memphis, Tennessee Musical quartets Rap metal musical groups	[ 0.9454474449157715, 0.40343374013900757, -0.4373909533023834, -0.23033350706100464, -0.11738424003124237, 0.3333984613418579, 0.6424039602279663, -0.043872810900211334, 0.12869875133037567, -0.2639293968677521, 0.4994834065437317, 0.31753307580947876, -0.3460443317890167, 0.5281984806060791, -0.3843884766101837, 0.15230464935302734, -0.04064735025167465, 0.6992893218994141, 0.3819426894187927, 0.09265966713428497, 0.0799870565533638, 0.16054999828338623, 0.7112312912940979, 0.04996337741613388, 0.0842100977897644, 0.7846134901046753, 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216750	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framley%20Parsonage	Framley Parsonage	Framley Parsonage is a novel by English author Anthony Trollope. It was first published in serial form in the Cornhill Magazine in 1860, then in book form in April 1861. It is the fourth book in the Chronicles of Barsetshire series, preceded by Doctor Thorne and followed by The Small House at Allington. Synopsis The hero of Framley Parsonage, Mark Robarts, is a young vicar, settled in the village of Framley in Barsetshire with his wife and children. The living has come into his hands through Lady Lufton, the mother of his childhood friend Ludovic, Lord Lufton. Mark has ambitions to further his career and begins to seek connections in the county's high society. He is soon preyed upon by local Whig Member of Parliament Mr Sowerby to guarantee a substantial loan, which Mark in a moment of weakness agrees to do, even though he does not have the means and knows Sowerby to be a notorious debtor. The consequences of this blunder play a major role in the plot, with Mark eventually being publicly humiliated when bailiffs arrive and begin to take an inventory of the Robarts' furniture. At the last moment, Lord Lufton forces a loan on the reluctant Mark. Another plot line deals with the romance between Mark's sister Lucy and Lord Lufton. The couple are deeply in love and the young man proposes, but Lady Lufton is against the marriage. She would prefer that her son instead choose the coldly beautiful Griselda Grantly, daughter of Archdeacon Grantly, and fears that Lucy is too "insignificant" for such a high position. Lucy herself recognises the great gulf between their social positions and declines the proposal. When Lord Lufton persists, she agrees only on condition that Lady Lufton ask her to accept her son. Lucy's conduct and charity (especially towards the family of poor priest Josiah Crawley) weaken her ladyship's resolve. In addition, Griselda becomes engaged to Lord Dumbello. But it is the determination of Lord Lufton that in the end vanquishes his doting mother. The book ends with Lucy and Ludovic's marriage as well as three other marriages. Two of these involve the daughters of Bishop Proudie and Archdeacon Grantly. The rivalry between Mrs Proudie and Mrs Grantly over their matrimonial ambitions forms a significant comic subplot, with the latter triumphant. The other marriage is that of the outspoken heiress, Martha Dunstable, to Doctor Thorne, the eponymous hero of the preceding novel in the series. Characters The Luftons Lady Lufton, the widowed peeress of Framley Court and patroness of Mark Robarts. Ludovic, Lord Lufton. Her only son and heir. The Robartses Rev'd Mr Mark Robarts, the Vicar of Framley, a protégé of Lady Lufton and hero of the novel. Mrs Fanny Robarts, née Mosell, Mark's even-tempered wife, chosen for him by Lady Lufton. Miss Lucy Robarts, Mark's youngest sister and the love interest of Lord Lufton. The Merediths Sir George Meredith, the husband of Justinia Lufton. Justinia, Lady Meredith, née Lufton, sister of Lord Lufton, wife of Sir George Meredith and daughter of Lady Lufton. The Grantlys Dr Theophilus Grantly, Archdeacon of Barchester, who lives at Plumstead Episcopi. Mrs Grantly, née Harding, the wife of Dr Grantly. Griselda Grantly, the eldest daughter of the Grantlys, a classical and "statuesque" beauty who speaks little. The Proudies Dr Proudie, the Bishop of Barchester. Mrs Proudie, the domineering wife of the Bishop. Miss Olivia Proudie, their eldest daughter. The Crawleys Mr Crawley, the impoverished but proud clergyman of Hogglestock. Mrs Crawley, his wife, and their four children The Smiths Harold Smith, Member of Parliament and short-lived Cabinet Minister. Mrs Harriet Smith, wife of Harold Smith, sister of Nathianel Sowerby and close friend of Miss Martha Dunstable. Others Francis "Frank" Newbold Gresham, junior, the rich squire of Boxhall Hill and son of Mr Gresham of Greshamsbury. Mrs Mary Gresham, the niece of Dr Thorne, a wealthy heiress. Dr Arabin, the Dean of Barchester, a friend of Mr Crawley. Mrs Arabin, née Harding, his wife, sister of Mrs Grantly. Nathaniel Sowerby, a member of parliament who cajoles Mark Robarts into recklessly guaranteeing a three-month bill of Sowerby's for £400 (making Mark liable if Sowerby does not pay a £400 debt within that time) and a subsequent further bill for £500. He is the brother of Mrs Smith. Dr Thomas Thorne, a doctor and apothecary, the uncle of Mary Gresham. Duke of Omnium, a powerful Whig politician and the main creditor of Sowerby. Political opponent of the Conservative Lady Lufton. Martha Dunstable, a kindhearted wealthy heiress, inheritor of the "oil of Lebanon" pharmaceutical business. Lord Dumbello, the heir to a marquisate and a suitor of Griselda Grantly. Author's description and other criticism In his autobiography, Trollope described Framley Parsonage: "The story was thoroughly English. There was a little fox-hunting and a little tuft-hunting, some Christian virtue and some Christian cant. There was no heroism and no villainy. There was much Church, but more love-making." The Literary Gazette of 1861 saw the book as marking the eclipse of Byronism in the literary world, and its replacement by what it called “accurate and faithful portraits of mediocre respectability.” 20thC criticism would confirm the accuracy of Trollope's representation of the habits and mores of his mid-Victorian middle-class world in Framley Parsonage, whilst also hinting the work perhaps suffered from the (necessary) haste involved in its serial composition. References External links 1860 British novels 1861 British novels Novels by Anthony Trollope Works originally published in The Cornhill Magazine Novels first published in serial form	[ -0.538390040397644, 0.7643651962280273, 0.041868794709444046, -0.8397899270057678, 0.2709052860736847, 0.5577704906463623, 0.467931866645813, 0.03149867057800293, -0.3388621509075165, 0.02687339298427105, -0.4794721007347107, 0.2802934944629669, -0.3215578496456146, -0.14138995110988617, 0.3161675035953522, 0.3857809603214264, 0.4513606131076813, 0.31364133954048157, 0.07343761622905731, -1.0060654878616333, -0.16929097473621368, -0.11275853216648102, 0.19601286947727203, -0.3535624146461487, 0.35674765706062317, 0.18589244782924652, 0.2154388278722763, -0.2836202383041382, -0.1978570967912674, 0.20871354639530182, -0.264773964881897, 0.9218835234642029, 0.3760378956794739, -0.43147197365760803, -0.14390668272972107, -0.46531519293785095, -0.013567976653575897, -0.8289965391159058, -0.5579440593719482, 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216751	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caius%20Gabriel%20Cibber	Caius Gabriel Cibber	Caius Gabriel Cibber (1630–1700) was a Danish sculptor, who enjoyed great success in England, and was the father of the actor, author and poet laureate Colley Cibber. He was appointed "carver to the king's closet" by William III. Biography Cibber was born in Flensburg in the province of Schleswig in Denmark. His father was a cabinetmaker, supposedly to King Frederick III of Denmark. He travelled to Italy to study art, where he may have changed his name from Sieber to Cibo. The Cibos were an old and noble Italian family to which Pope Innocent VIII had belonged. Cibber later emigrated to London, England, probably via the Netherlands. At first, he worked for the mason-sculptor John Stone, who had a workshop on Long Acre, until he set up his own studio after Stone's death in 1667. In 1668, Cibber became a Freeman, by Redemption, of the Worshipful Company of Leathersellers, and in 1679 he became a Liveryman of the same Company, remaining so until his death. He carved the Company's coat of arms, and a stone mermaid pump, which stood outside Leathersellers' Hall in Little St Helen's, off Bishopsgate. The mermaid's head survives, having been discovered in excavations at St Helen's Place in 1925. A decade or more after his arrival in London, Cibber married (as his second wife—his first wife had died) Jane Colley on 24 November 1670 at St Giles in the Fields, London. In the marriage licence documents, Cibber's age is given as 'about 33'. Jane came from a family of English gentry who claimed descent from the sister of William of Wykeham, and her grandfather, Sir Antony Colley, had been a prominent Cavalier during the English Civil War. They had three children: Colley, Lewis and Veronica. Between 1673 and 1679, Cibber was detained in Marshalsea prison and the King's Bench prison for unpaid gambling debts, though he was able to continue his work, and borrowed substantial sums from Edward Colley, his brother-in-law. Many of his works were, or are, on public display in London, including his statue of Charles II (1681), which still stands (rather worn away) in Soho Square. He made two lifelike human statues in Portland stone entitled "Melancholy" and "Raving Madness" for the gates of the 17th century mental hospital, known as Bedlam (now Bethlem Royal Hospital), which can currently be seen in their museum (modelli in V&A). They were said to be modelled on two inmates of the asylum, one of whom was Oliver Cromwell's mad porter, Daniel. The two statues became his most famous work, and were mentioned in Alexander Pope's satire The Dunciad. He also created the bas reliefs on the base of the Monument to the Great Fire of London; his reliefs at the Royal Exchange have been destroyed. He produced sets of sculpture for Trinity College, Cambridge, and for the Danish Church on Wellclose Square, where he was buried. The church was demolished in 1869 and the grave was lost at that point. Major works Cibber worked extensively with the architects Sir Christopher Wren (on St Paul's Cathedral and Hampton Court Palace) and William Talman (on Chatsworth House (1688–91) and the version of Thoresby Hall which was entirely burnt down in 1745). Cibber produced a number of excellent church monuments, including those to the 7th and 8th Earls of Rutland at Bottesford, Leicestershire, and the extraordinary Sackville monument at Withyham in East Sussex. A Flora in the gardens at Chatsworth has in recent years been returned to the Temple named after her; other large works there include the Sea Horse Fountain. Other Works Statues of "Melancholy" and "Raving Madness" for Bethlehem Hospital (1680) now in the Guildhall Museum Statue of William of Wykeham at Winchester College (1697) Gallery References Sources Ashley, Leonard R. N. (1965) Colley Cibber, New York: Twayne Publishers. Barker, Richard Hindry (1939) Mr Cibber of Drury Lane, New York:Columbia University Press. Koon, Helene (1986) Colley Cibber: A Biography, Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, External links Bethlem Royal Hospital Archives + Museum Works by Cibber in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum 1630 births 1700 deaths English sculptors English male sculptors Danish Baroque sculptors Danish emigrants to England People from Flensburg	[ -0.15769462287425995, 0.510882556438446, 0.028644626960158348, -0.07513774931430817, 0.11051131039857864, 1.4603971242904663, 0.645945131778717, -0.039784371852874756, -0.7252163887023926, -0.36409682035446167, -0.1781531125307083, -0.2352306991815567, -0.11082623153924942, 0.2667900025844574, -0.5676071047782898, 0.34765714406967163, -0.1780739277601242, -0.1280902922153473, -0.6650617122650146, -0.25238949060440063, 0.2611609399318695, -0.293992817401886, 0.0963791012763977, -0.309818834066391, 0.1880539059638977, 0.33603930473327637, 0.06076670065522194, -0.05780399963259697, 0.26783227920532227, 0.2730894684791565, 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216752	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor%20affinity	Processor affinity	Processor affinity, or CPU pinning or "cache affinity", enables the binding and unbinding of a process or a thread to a central processing unit (CPU) or a range of CPUs, so that the process or thread will execute only on the designated CPU or CPUs rather than any CPU. This can be viewed as a modification of the native central queue scheduling algorithm in a symmetric multiprocessing operating system. Each item in the queue has a tag indicating its kin processor. At the time of resource allocation, each task is allocated to its kin processor in preference to others. Processor affinity takes advantage of the fact that remnants of a process that was run on a given processor may remain in that processor's state (for example, data in the cache memory) after another process was run on that processor. Scheduling a CPU-intensive process that has few interrupts to execute on the same processor may improve its performance by reducing degrading events such as cache misses, but may slow down ordinary programs because they would need to wait for that CPU to become available again. A practical example of processor affinity is executing multiple instances of a non-threaded application, such as some graphics-rendering software. Scheduling-algorithm implementations vary in adherence to processor affinity. Under certain circumstances, some implementations will allow a task to change to another processor if it results in higher efficiency. For example, when two processor-intensive tasks (A and B) have affinity to one processor while another processor remains unused, many schedulers will shift task B to the second processor in order to maximize processor use. Task B will then acquire affinity with the second processor, while task A will continue to have affinity with the original processor. Usage Processor affinity can effectively reduce cache problems, but it does not reduce the persistent load-balancing problem. Also note that processor affinity becomes more complicated in systems with non-uniform architectures. For example, a system with two dual-core hyper-threaded CPUs presents a challenge to a scheduling algorithm. There is complete affinity between two virtual CPUs implemented on the same core via hyper-threading, partial affinity between two cores on the same physical processor (as the cores share some, but not all, cache), and no affinity between separate physical processors. As other resources are also shared, processor affinity alone cannot be used as the basis for CPU dispatching. If a process has recently run on one virtual hyper-threaded CPU in a given core, and that virtual CPU is currently busy but its partner CPU is not, cache affinity would suggest that the process should be dispatched to the idle partner CPU. However, the two virtual CPUs compete for essentially all computing, cache, and memory resources. In this situation, it would typically be more efficient to dispatch the process to a different core or CPU, if one is available. This could incur a penalty when process repopulates the cache, but overall performance could be higher as the process would not have to compete for resources within the CPU. Specific operating systems On Linux, the CPU affinity of a process can be altered with the taskset(1) program and the sched_setaffinity(2) system call. The affinity of a thread can be altered with one of the library functions: pthread_setaffinity_np(3) or pthread_attr_setaffinity_np(3). On SGI systems, dplace binds a process to a set of CPUs. On DragonFly BSD 1.9 (2007) and later versions, usched_set system call can be used to control the affinity of a process. On NetBSD 5.0, FreeBSD 7.2, DragonFly BSD 4.7 and later versions can use pthread_setaffinity_np and pthread_getaffinity_np. In NetBSD, the psrset utility to set a thread's affinity to a certain CPU set. In FreeBSD, cpuset utility is used to create CPU sets and to assign processes to these sets. In DragonFly BSD 3.1 (2012) and later, usched utility can be used for assigning processes to a certain CPU set. On Windows NT and its successors, thread and process CPU affinities can be set separately by using SetThreadAffinityMask and SetProcessAffinityMask API calls or via the Task Manager interface (for process affinity only). macOS exposes an affinity API that provides hints to the kernel how to schedule threads according to affinity sets. On Solaris it is possible to control bindings of processes and LWPs to processor using the pbind(1) program. To control the affinity programmatically processor_bind(2) can be used. There are more generic interfaces available such as pset_bind(2) or lgrp_affinity_get(3LGRP) using processor set and locality groups concepts. On AIX it is possible to control bindings of processes using the bindprocessor command and the bindprocessor API. 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216753	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassel%20%28district%29	Kassel (district)	Kassel district (German: Landkreis Kassel) is a district in the north of Hesse, Germany. Neighboring districts are Northeim, Göttingen, Werra-Meißner, Schwalm-Eder, Waldeck-Frankenberg, Höxter. The independent city of Kassel is nearly completely surrounded by the district. Geography The main river in the district is the Weser, which also forms part of the eastern boundary. Its headstream, the Fulda, flows through the southern part of the district including the city of Kassel. In the north of the district there is the Diemel as a tributary of the Weser. History The area was first populated by the ancient Germanic tribe of Chatti, who later founded the state of Hesse. The present county was disputed between various principalities (Hesse, Mainz, Paderborn, Cologne and Braunschweig) in the early Middle Ages; later it became part of Hesse and Hesse-Kassel. This state was annexed by Prussia in 1866 . The modern federal state of Hesse was founded after 1945. This state reformed its districts in the 1970s. In 1972, the previous districts of Kassel, Hofgeismar and Wolfhagen, were merged to form the newly established district of Kassel. Coat of arms The coat of arms shows the lion of Hesse in the top part, as Kassel was the capital of the county of Hesse until 1866, when it moved to Prussia. In the lower part it has three oak leaves taken from the coat of arms of the Hofgeismar district, and a wolf's hook symbolizing the Wolfhagen district. Tourism and sights Many characters and places from the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm have originated in the area around Kassel. Thus the tale of Sleeping Beauty locates at the Sababurg in Reinhardswald and that of Rapunzel on the Trendelburg. Therefore, the district of Kassel is also marketed as the "Land of the Brothers Grimm". The region is the center of the German Fairy Tale Route. The district is represented in the European Garden Heritage Network with three parks: The park of the castles Schloss Wilhelmsthal (in Calden), the Escheberg-Castle and the Sababurg. Transportation The district is served by the motorways 7 ( Würzburg - Kassel - Hanover ), 44 (Kassel - Dortmund ) and 49 (Kassel-Borken). Other roadlinks, including the B 7, B 83 and B 251, exist. With the Airport Kassel-Waldau in 1924 there was an airport with international connections. In 1970 it was closed with the opening of the new Kassel Calden Airport. Currently this airport is completely rebuilt. The rail transport is oriented to the city of Kassel with tram and rail lines. Economy Some parts of the district benefit from good infrastructure. Baunatal has large Volkswagen and Lohfelden factories and also has several industrial areas on the border with the city of Kassel. Other more rural parts had experienced population decline, though this has halted in recent years. Towns and municipalities {\| ! align=left width=25%\|Towns ! align=left width=25%\|Municipalities ! align=left width=25%\| ! align=left width=25%\|Unincorporated areas \|- valign=top \|\| Bad Karlshafen Baunatal Grebenstein Hofgeismar Immenhausen Liebenau Naumburg Trendelburg Vellmar Wolfhagen Zierenberg \|\| Ahnatal Bad Emstal Breuna Calden Espenau Fuldabrück Fuldatal Habichtswald Helsa \|\| Kaufungen Lohfelden Nieste Niestetal Reinhardshagen Schauenburg Söhrewald Wesertal \|\| Gutsbezirk Reinhardswald \|} Twinnings (partner regions) Waldviertel, Austria (federal state of Lower Austria) Forlì-Cesena, Italy (region Emilia-Romagna) Csepel Island, Hungary Yaroslavl, Russia (Yaroslavl Oblast) Bistriţa-Nasaud, Romania Dane County, United States (Wisconsin) References External links Official website (German) Districts of Hesse Districts of Prussia	[ 0.30513033270835876, -0.09465344995260239, 0.7814889550209045, -0.4136175215244293, -0.18773755431175232, 0.1180812194943428, 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216754	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susannah%20Maria%20Cibber	Susannah Maria Cibber	Susannah Maria Cibber (née Arne; February 1714 – 30 January 1766) was a celebrated English singer and actress. She was the sister of the composer Thomas Arne. Although she began her career as a soprano, her voice lowered in the early part of her career to that of a true contralto. She was universally admired for her ability to move her audiences emotionally both as an actress and vocalist. Possessing a sweet, expressive, and agile singing voice with a wide vocal range, Cibber was an immensely popular singer, even if at times her voice was criticized for a lack of polished technique. Charles Burney wrote of her singing that "by a natural pathos, and perfect conception of the words, she often penetrated the heart, when others, with infinitely greater voice and skill, could only reach the ear." Cibber was particularly admired by Handel, who wrote numerous parts especially for her including the contralto arias in his 1741 oratorio Messiah, the role of Micah in Samson, the role of Lichas in Hercules and the role of David in Saul among others. In the mid-1730s she began appearing in plays in addition to appearing in operas and oratorios. She became the greatest dramatic actress of the eighteenth-century London stage and at the time of her death was the highest-paid actress in England. Biography Cibber was born in the Covent Garden area of London to Thomas and Anne Arne. Her father and grandfather were upholsterers and office holders in the Worshipful Company of Upholders. As a child she studied singing with her brother Thomas, who would later become one of the most important composers of the era and an important part of Cibber's career as a singer. Her other brother, Richard, also worked as a singer and actor but never achieved the same level of success as his siblings. On 13 March 1732 Susannah made her professional debut in the title role of John Frederick Lampe's setting of Henry Carey's Amelia to positive reviews, at the Little Theatre. Her performances over the following two years included roles in Handel's Acis and Galatea, and her brother's Rosamund, The Opera of Operas and Dido and Aeneas. The year 1733 proved to be a critical year for Cibber. She met Handel while rehearsing and performing the role of Jael in the original production of his oratorio Deborah. It was the beginning of a close and lifelong friendship between the two. Handel patiently taught her parts note by note as she could not read music. Also that year, Cibber's name appeared in the playbills offering entr'acte songs ‘by popular demand' at the Haymarket, performances which became very popular. During the 1733-1744 acting season, Theophilus Cibber and his theatre company were introduced to the young Susannah. In April 1734, Susannah married actor Theophilus Cibber. He was the son of playwright, theatre manager, and poet laureate Colley Cibber, whose company of players was in residence at Drury Lane at this time. The marriage proved very beneficial to Susannah's career and position in the London theatre, as she became a regular at that house for many years, now performing under the name "Mrs Cibber". Even more important was the attention of her father-in-law Colley Cibber who, recognizing in Susannah the makings of a great tragic actress, trained her. Susannah received hours of acting tuition from her new father-in-law, and he helped teach her valuable vocal intonations and tragic gestures that shaped her into the most celebrated tragedienne of her time. Further, adopting a 'Cibberian identity' proved very advantageous for Susannah's career. Public audiences began to view her as the young ingénue of the Cibber acting dynasty, which in turn, helped land her leading roles. Her brother Thomas also benefited from the marriage as he became house composer at Drury Lane, and wrote music for a number of plays and pantomimes over the next several years. In 1736 Cibber made her début as a dramatic actress in the title role of Aaron Hill's Zara, with great success. She went on to portray numerous Shakespearean roles to critical acclaim, which she later continued to perform with David Garrick. In 1737 a much noted dispute with Kitty Clive over the part of Polly in The Beggar's Opera erupted and inspired a satire, The Beggar's Pantomime, or The Contending Columbine. The following year, Cibber portrayed the role of David in the original production of Handel's oratorio Saul and she appeared in the world premiere of her brother's immensely popular masque Comus. Sadly Cibber's marriage was not a happy one. Her husband was reportedly abusive and a profligate spender, and even began selling off some of his wife's wardrobe and personal effects to deter creditors, though he also considerably refined her acting. In order to pay rent, the Cibbers took in a wealthy tenant named William Sloper. The resultant relationship between these three people led to a notorious lawsuit in 1738, in which Cibber accused Sloper of "Assaulting, Ravishing and Carnally Knowing" his wife. Various versions of the scandal suggest that all three may have been involved in a ménage à trois. One account states that Cibber forced his wife at gunpoint to sleep with Sloper; another places a spy in a closet at the scene of one of their trysts, in order to gather testimony for the lawsuit. In any event, Cibber was awarded a paltry £10 in damages. The following year, Cibber brought a second case against Sloper for "detaining" his wife. In fact, Mrs Cibber and Sloper had run off together, and had a daughter, Susannah Maria (Molly). This time Cibber was awarded £500. Cibber's intention, going into the lawsuit against his estranged wife and her new lover, was to shame Susannah as a cruel, unfaithful wife. However, as she was pregnant at the time of the trial, she shifted the public perception of herself to being an innocent woman, merely the victim of Cibber's male cruelty and greed. In 1740 Mrs Cibber sang in the world premiere of her brother's masque Alfred. She moved to Dublin, and in the autumn of 1741 for a busy season at the Aungier Street Theatre with her good friend and mentor, the actor James Quinn. Handel joined her there, and she performed in several concerts with him conducting including performances of Acis and Galatea, Esther, and Alexander's Feast. She also joined the premiere performance of Handel's Messiah on 13 April 1742, singing the contralto solos. Legend has it that Dr Patrick Delany, the chancellor of St Patrick's Cathedral, upon hearing her sing "He was despised", proclaimed "Woman, for this be all thy sins forgiven thee!" On 21 and 28 July she sang a duo recital with her sister-in-law, the soprano Cecilia Arne (née Young). The Dublin notices were full of praise for Cibber for both her acting and her singing. Thomas Sheridan wrote: "What then must [the mighty force of oratorical expression] be, when conveyed to the heart with all the superadded powers and charms of musick? No person of sensibility, who has had the good fortune to hear Mrs Cibber sing the oratorio of the Messiah, will find it very difficult to give credit to accounts of the most wonderful effects produced from so powerful a union." Eventually the scandal surrounding Cibber died down, and she returned to the London stage in autumn 1742. The first role she performed upon her return was that of Desdemona, from Othello. The tragic nature of her character helped perpetuate the public's view of her as a 'wronged wife', a persona she adopted following the well-documented breakdown of her marriage. Following this, she continued adding many more tragic roles to her repertoire. Her home in London became a salon of sorts on Sunday evenings. Burney, referring to these evenings, wrote that he found himself "in a constellation of wits, poets, actors, and men of letters", including Handel, Garrick, and Arne. She was also engaged by Handel for his oratorio season, creating the role of Micah in Samson. In 1744–1745 she continued to sing for Handel, now at the King's Theatre in The Haymarket. Her roles included Jael in Deborah, Lichas in Hercules and David in Saul, and she sang in the oratorios L'Allegro, Alexander's Feast and Messiah. Handel also wrote the part of Daniel in Belshazzar for her but, due to illness, she never sang the role. In 1744 Susannah became David Garrick's leading lady at Drury Lane, the theatre managed by her father-in-law, and their partnership and friendship (reflected in letters) continued until her death. Garrick directed Susannah, alongside actor Spranger Barry, in a successful adaptation of William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, written by Garrick himself. Garrick's version was well received by eighteenth-century audiences, as it omitted many 'indecent' moments, and added to the tragic tomb scene between Romeo and Juliet, whereupon the characters have a final conversation, after Romeo has poisoned himself. However, after a brief falling-out between Garrick and Mrs. Cibber, she and Barry took their version of Romeo and Juliet to Garrick's rival, John Rich, at Covent Garden. This prompted Garrick to cast himself and young actress George Anne Bellamy in a rival version of the same show, performed across the street in Drury Lane, to run concurrently with Cibber and Barry's version. For twelve nights, beginning on the 28 September 1750, rival versions of Romeo and Juliet ran in London, thrilling audiences. Both shows received a lot of publicity, and audiences often watched both versions, to decide who they thought were the superior star-crossed lovers. Cibber fell ill on the thirteenth night, and ended the competition between the two shows. Eventually, herself and Garrick reconciled, and she returned to Drury Lane in 1753. From 1744 to 1765 she added numerous dramatic roles to her repertory and was, after Garrick, the highest paid thespian in London. Contemporary reviews, dedications, letters and poems all refer to her ability to affect the listener deeply. Also, during this time, Susannah became the primary caregiver and teacher for her young nephew, Michael Arne. The boy's mother, Cecilia Arne, suffered from recurring health problems and this, compounded with Thomas's busy work schedule, made it impossible for his parents to care for him. Under Susannah's guidance, Michael started out as a stage actor at Drury Lane before he reached the age of ten. He later followed in his father's footsteps to become a successful composer. Susannah died in 1766 and was buried in the north cloisters of Westminster Abbey. On the day of her death Covent Garden and Drury Lane closed their doors as a tribute to one of their finest actresses and singers. Garrick, upon hearing of her death, said: "Then tragedy dies with her". The poet George Keate wrote in that year "A Poem to the Memory of the Celebrated Mrs Cibber": ... Closed are those eyes which knew each varied art, And could my meaning with such force inspire; Call tears of pity from the melting heart, Freeze with wild horror, or with rapture fire! ... References Sources Mary Nash The Provoked Wife: the life and times of Susannah Cibber (1977) 1714 births 1766 deaths 18th-century English actresses English stage actresses 18th-century British women opera singers Operatic contraltos People from Covent Garden	[ -0.7117802500724792, -0.22668762505054474, -0.4966440200805664, -0.6496478915214539, 0.24456070363521576, 1.2282499074935913, 0.9303321838378906, 0.13841982185840607, -0.9840167760848999, 0.46233201026916504, -0.3634161055088043, 0.039461154490709305, 0.12341594696044922, 0.09987308084964752, -0.7603843212127686, 0.5665271878242493, 0.6407744288444519, 0.2990780174732208, 0.04456536844372749, -0.8710651993751526, -0.15032833814620972, -0.10290978848934174, 0.16576328873634338, -0.033804070204496384, -0.4248150885105133, -0.03179391473531723, -0.38484206795692444, -0.30358344316482544, 0.4283120334148407, -0.24414584040641785, -0.23539844155311584, 0.6131178140640259, 0.6628590226173401, 0.344306617975235, -0.4359814524650574, 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216755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%2016	Mark 16	Mark 16 is the final chapter of the Gospel of Mark in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. It begins after the sabbath, with Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome bringing spices to the tomb to anoint Jesus body. There they encounter the stone rolled away, the tomb open, and a young man dressed in white who announces the resurrection of Jesus (16:1-6). The two oldest manuscripts of Mark 16 (from the 300s) conclude with verse 8, which ends with the women fleeing from the empty tomb, and saying "nothing to anyone, because they were too frightened". Textual critics have identified two distinct alternative endings: the "Longer Ending" (vv. 9-20) and the unversed "Shorter Ending" or "lost ending", which appear together in six Greek manuscripts, and in dozens of Ethiopic copies. Modern versions of the New Testament generally include the Longer Ending, but place it in brackets or otherwise format it to show that it is not considered part of the original text. Text The original text was written in Koine Greek. Textual witnesses Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter are: Codex Vaticanus (325-350; extant verses 1-8) Codex Sinaiticus (330-360; extant verses 1-8) Codex Bezae (~400; complete: 1-20) Codex Alexandrinus (400-440; complete: 1-20) Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (~450; complete: 1-20) Sources While some scholars argue that Mark 16 is a Markan composition, others argue that the chapter comes from an older tradition in the pre-Markan passion story. Those arguing in favor of Markan creation point to the numerous time indicators in vs. 2, which bear similarities to other phrases in Mark. The scholars who argue in favor of Mark's use of a prior tradition argue that phrases such as "on the first day of the week" instead of the "third day" motif indicates a primitive tradition. Furthermore, many phrases found in Mark 16 seem to be non-Markan in their vocabulary. Dale Allison argues that, "The reduction of the empty tomb to Markan creativity, whatever the redactional motivation postulated, is not a compelling point of view...the case for the redactional origin of Mark 16:1-8 is unpersuasive, which is why so many Markan scholars, despite their differences on the details, see tradition here." The fact that Mark 16 is extremely reserved in its theological expression, having no Christological titles, proofs or prophecies, descriptions of the resurrection, and a reserved description of the angel at the tomb indicate a more primitive narrative source. Verses 1-8 (the empty tomb) Verses 1–2 Mark states that the Sabbath is now over. Just after sunrise, Mary Magdalene, another Mary, the mother of James, and Salome come with spices to anoint Jesus' body. Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James the younger and of Joses, and Salome are also mentioned among the women "looking on from afar" in , although those who "saw where the body was laid." in were only Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Joses. Luke 24:1 states that the women had "prepared" the spices but seems to say that Nicodemus had already anointed his body. John 20:1 and Matthew 28:1 simply say "Mary Magdalene and the other Mary" came to see the tomb. Verses 3–4 The women wonder how they will remove the stone over the tomb. Upon their arrival, they find the stone already gone and go into the tomb. According to Jesuit writer John J. Kilgallen, this shows that in Mark's account they expected to find the body of Jesus. Instead, they find a young man dressed in a white robe who is sitting on the right and who tells them that Jesus "has risen" and shows them "the place where they laid him" (verses 5–7). Verses 5–7 Kilgallen suggests that the white robe may be a sign that the young man is a messenger from God. For Christopher Tuckett, the white robe probably indicates that he is to be thought of as an angel: Matthew 28:5 describes him as such. In the account in there were two men. John says there were two angels, but that Mary saw them after finding the empty tomb and showing it to the other disciples. She comes back to the tomb, talks to the angels, and then Jesus appears to her. Jesus had predicted his resurrection and returning to Galilee during the Last Supper in Mark (). Mark uses the passive verb form ēgerthē, translated "he was raised", indicating God raised him from the dead, rather than "he is risen", as translated in the NIV. Peter, last seen in tears two mornings previously having denied any knowledge of Jesus () is mentioned in particular. Gregory the Great notes that "had the Angel not referred to him in this way, Peter would never have dared to appear again among the Apostles. He is bidden then by name to come, so that he will not despair because of his denial of Christ". The last appearance of Peter's name in verse 7 (also the last among the disciples' names to be mentioned) can be connected to the first appearance of his name (as 'Simon') in Mark 1:16 to form a literary inclusio of eyewitness testimony to indicate Peter as the main eyewitness source in the Gospel of Mark. Verse 8 Mark 16:1-8 ends with the response of the women: Those women, who are afraid (compare ), then flee and keep quiet about what they saw. Kilgallen comments that fear is the most common human reaction to the divine presence in the Bible. This is where the undisputed part of Mark's Gospel ends. Jesus is thus announced to have been raised from the dead, and to have gone ahead of the disciples to Galilee, where they will see Him. Alternative endings Mark has two additional endings, the longer ending (verse 9-20), and the shorter ending (unversed). Longer ending of Mark (verse 9-20) Canonical status Mark 16:9-20 is first attested in the 2nd century . It is considered to be canonical by the Roman Catholic Church, and was included in the Rheims New Testament, the 1599 Geneva Bible, the King James Bible and other influential translations. In most modern-day translations based primarily on the Alexandrian Text, the longer ending is included, but is accompanied by brackets or by special notes, or both. Text and interpretation In this 12-verse passage, the author refers to Jesus' appearances to Mary Magdalene, two disciples, and then the Eleven (the Twelve Apostles minus Judas). The text concludes with the Great Commission, declaring that believers that have been baptized will be saved while nonbelievers will be condemned, and pictures Jesus taken to Heaven and sitting at the Right Hand of God. : Jesus appears to Mary Magdalene, who is now described as someone whom Jesus healed from possession by seven demons. She then "tells the other disciples" what she saw, but no one believes her. : Jesus appears "in a different form" to two unnamed disciples. They, too, are disbelieved when they tell what they saw. : Jesus then appears at dinner to all the remaining eleven Apostles. He rebukes them for not believing the earlier reports of his resurrection and tells them to go and "proclaim the good news to all creation. The one who believes and is baptised will be saved; but the one who does not believe will be condemned." Belief and non-belief are a dominant theme in the Longer Ending: there are two references to believing (verses 16 and 17) and four references to not believing (verses 11, 13, 14 and 16). Johann Albrecht Bengel, in his Gnomon of the New Testament, defends the disciples: "They did believe: but presently there recurred to them a suspicion as to the truth, and even positive unbelief". : Jesus states that believers will "speak in new tongues". They will also be able to handle snakes, be immune from any poison they might happen to drink, and will be able to heal the sick. Kilgallen, picturing an author putting words in Jesus' mouth, has suggested that these verses were a means by which early Christians asserted that their new faith was accompanied by special powers. According to Brown, by showing examples of unjustified unbelief in verses 10-13, and stating that unbelievers will be condemned and that believers will be validated by signs, the author may have been attempting to convince the reader to rely on what the disciples preached about Jesus. : Jesus is then taken up into heaven where, Mark claims, he sits at the right hand of God. The author refers to Psalm 110:1, quoted in Mark 11, about the Lord sitting at the right hand of God. : the eleven go out and "proclaimed the good news everywhere"; this is known as the Dispersion of the Apostles. Several signs from God accompanied their preaching. Where these things happened is not stated, but one could presume, from , that they took place in Galilee. Luke-Acts, however, has this happening in Jerusalem. Shorter ending of Mark (unversed) The "Shorter Ending" (first manuscript c. 3rd century), with slight variations, is usually unversed, and runs as follows: While the New Revised Standard Version places this verse between verse 8 and 9, it could also be read as verse 21, covering the same topics as verse 9-20. Manuscript versions Manuscripts without either ending The earliest extant complete manuscripts of Mark, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus, two 4th-century manuscripts, do not contain the last twelve verses, 16:9–20, nor the unversed shorter ending. Codex Vaticanus (4th century) has a blank column after ending at 16:8 and placing kata Markon, "according to Mark". There are three other blank columns in Vaticanus, in the Old Testament, but they are each due to incidental factors in the production of the codex: a change to the column-format, a change of scribes, and the conclusion of the Old Testament portion of the text. The blank column between Mark 16:8 and the beginning of Luke, however, is deliberately placed. Other manuscripts which omit the last twelve verses include: Syriac Sinaiticus (late 4th-century); Minuscule 304 (12th century); a Sahidic manuscript; over 100 Armenian manuscripts; the two oldest Georgian manuscripts. The Armenian Version was made in 411-450, and the Old Georgian Version was based mainly on the Armenian Version. Manuscripts having only the longer ending Manuscripts including verses 9–20 in its traditional form The Majority/Byzantine Text (over 1,200 manuscripts of Mark); A group of manuscripts known as "Family 13" adds verses 16:9–20 in its traditional form: About a dozen uncials (the earliest being Codex Alexandrinus) and in all undamaged minuscules. Uncials: A, C, D, W, Codex Koridethi, and minuscules: 33, 565, 700, 892, 2674. the Vulgate and part of the Old Latin, Syriac Curetonian, Peshitta, Bohairic, Gothic. Manuscripts including verses 9–20 with a notation A group of manuscripts known as "Family 1" add a note to Mark 16:9–20, stating that some copies do not contain the verses. Including minuscules: 22, 138, 205, 1110, 1210, 1221, 1582. One Armenian manuscript, Matenadaran 2374 (formerly known as Etchmiadsin 229), made in 989, features a note, written between 16:8 and 16:9, Ariston eritzou, that is, "By Ariston the Elder/Priest". Ariston, or Aristion, is known from early traditions (preserved by Papias and others) as a colleague of Peter and as a bishop of Smyrna in the first century. Manuscripts including verses 9–20 without divisions A group of manuscripts known as "Family K1" add Mark 16:9-10 without numbered (chapters) at the margin and their (titles) at the top (or the foot). This includes Minuscule 461. Manuscripts including verses 9–20 with the "Freer Logion" Noted in manuscripts according to Jerome. Codex Washingtonianus (late 4th, early 5th century) includes verses 9–20, and features an addition between 16:14-15, known as the "Freer Logion": Manuscripts containing the shorter ending Manuscript only having the shorter ending In only one Latin manuscript from c. 430, the Codex Bobbiensis, "k", the "Shorter Ending" appears without the "Longer Ending". In this Latin copy , the text of Mark 16 is anomalous: It contains an interpolation between 16:3 and 16:4 which appears to present Christ's ascension occurring at that point: It omits the last part of 16:8: "and they said nothing to anyone, for they were afraid."; It contains some variations in its presentation of the "Shorter Ending". Manuscripts having both the shorter and the longer ending The following manuscripts add the "shorter ending" after 16:8, and follow it with vv. 9–20: Six Greek manuscripts, including the Codex L (019) (8th cent.); Codex Ψ (044); Uncial 083; Uncial 099; minuscule 274 (margin); minuscule 579, lectionary 1602; Syriac Harclean margin; Ethiopic manuscripts; Coptic texts: Sahidic manuscripts, Bohairic manuscripts (Huntington MS 17). Writings of the Church Fathers Omits vv. 9-20: Eusebius, manuscripts according to Eusebius, manuscripts according to Jerome (who was recycling part of Eusebius' statements, condensing them as he loosely rendered them into Latin). Adds vv. 9-20: Irenaeus; manuscripts according to Eusebius; Marinus; Acts of Pilate; manuscripts according to Jerome (add with obeli f 1 al); Ambrose; Aphraates; Augustine; Augustine's Latin copies; Augustine's Greek manuscripts; Tatian's Diatessaron; Eznik of Golb; Pelagius; Nestorius; Patrick; Prosper of Aquitaine; Leo the Great; Philostorgius; Life of Samson of Dol; Old Latin breves; Marcus Eremita; Peter Chrysologus. Also, Fortunatianus (c. 350) states that Mark mentions Jesus' ascension. Explanations Both the shorter and the longer ending are considered to be later writings, which were added to Mark. Scholars disagree whether verse 8 was the original ending, or if there was an ending which is now lost. In the early 20th century, the view prevailed that the original ending was lost, but in the second part of the 20th century the view prevailed that verse 8 was the original ending, as intended by the author. Ending at verse 8 Among the scholars who reject Mark 16:9–20, a debate continues about whether the ending at 16:8 is intentional or accidental. Intentional Numerous arguments have been given to explain why verse 8 is the intended ending. There is scholarly work that suggests the "short ending" is more appropriate as it fits with the 'reversal of expectation' theme in the Gospel of Mark.<ref name="MacDonald">MacDonald, Dennis R. Homeric Epics and the Gospel of Mark, by Dennis R. MacDonald, Pages 42, 70, 175, 213</ref> Having the women run away afraid is contrasted in the reader's mind with Jesus' appearances and statements which help confirm the expectation, built up in , , , and Jesus' prediction during the Last Supper of his rising after his death. According to Brown, this ending is consistent with Mark's theology, where even miracles, such as the resurrection, do not produce the proper understanding or faith among Jesus' followers. Richard A. Burridge argues that, in keeping with Mark's picture of discipleship, the question of whether it all comes right in the end is left open: Burridge compares the ending of Mark to its beginning: Kilgallen proposes that maybe Mark gives no description of the resurrected Jesus because Mark did not want to try to describe the nature of the divine resurrected Jesus. Some interpreters have concluded that Mark's intended readers already knew the traditions of Jesus' appearances, and that Mark brings the story to a close here to highlight the resurrection and leave anticipation of the parousia (Second Coming). Others have argued that this announcement of the resurrection and Jesus going to Galilee is the parousia (see also Preterism), but Raymond E. Brown argues that a parousia confined only to Galilee is improbable. Unintentional The final sentence in verse 8 is regarded as strange by some scholars. In the Greek text, it finishes with the conjunction γαρ (gar, "for"). It is contended by some who see 16:9–20 as originally Markan that γαρ literally means because, and this ending to verse 8 is therefore not grammatically coherent (literally, it would read they were afraid because). However, γαρ may end a sentence and does so in various Greek compositions, including some sentences in the Septuagint; Protagoras, a contemporary of Socrates, even ended a speech with γαρ. Although γαρ is never the first word of a sentence, there is no rule against it being the last word, even though it is not a common construction. If the Gospel of Mark intentionally concluded with this word, it would be one of only a few narratives in antiquity to do so. Some scholars argue that Mark never intended to end so abruptly: either he planned another ending that was never written, or the original ending has been lost. The references to a future meeting in Galilee between Jesus and the disciples (in Mark 14:28 and 16:7) could suggest that Mark intended to write beyond 16:8. C. H. Turner argued that the original version of the Gospel could have been a codex, with the last page being especially vulnerable to damage. Many scholars, including Rudolf Bultmann, have concluded that the Gospel most likely ended with a Galilean resurrection appearance and the reconciliation of Jesus with the Eleven, even if verses 9–20 were not written by the original author of the Gospel of Mark. Longer ending Later addition Most scholars agree that verses 9–20 were not part of the original text of Mark but are a later addition.Funk, Robert W. and the 1985 Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Empty Tomb, Appearances & Ascension" p. 449-495. Critical questions concerning the authenticity of verses 9–20 (the "longer ending") often center on stylistic and linguistic issues. On linguistics, E. P. Gould identified 19 of the 163 words in the passage as distinctive and not occurring elsewhere in the Gospel. Dr. Bruce Terry argues that a vocabulary-based case against Mark 16:9–20 is indecisive, inasmuch as other 12-verse sections of Mark contain comparable numbers of once-used words. Robert Gundry mentions that only about 10% of Mark's γαρ clauses (6 out of 66) conclude pericopes. Thus he infers that, rather than concluding 16:1–8, verse 8 begins a new pericope, the rest of which is now lost to us. Gundry therefore does not see verse 8 as the intended ending; a resurrection narrative was either written, then lost, or planned but never actually written. Concerning style, the degree to which verses 9–20 aptly fit as an ending for the Gospel remains in question. The turn from verse 8 to 9 has also been seen as abrupt and interrupted: the narrative flows from "they were afraid" to "now after he rose", and seems to reintroduce Mary Magdalene. Secondly, Mark regularly identifies instances where Jesus' prophecies are fulfilled, yet Mark does not explicitly state the twice predicted reconciliation of Jesus with his disciples in Galilee (Mark 14:28, 16:7). Lastly, the active tense "he rose" is different from the earlier passive construction "[he] has been risen" of verse 6, seen as significant by some. Dating Because of patristic evidence from the late 100s for the existence of copies of Mark with 16:9-20, scholars widely date the composition of the longer ending to the early 2nd century.Kelhoffer, J. Miracle and Mission: The Authentication of Missionaries and their Message in the Longer Ending of Mark, 2000, 169-244. Aimed addition or independent longer ending Scholars are divided on the question of whether the "Longer Ending" was created deliberately to finish the Gospel of Mark, as contended by James Kelhoffer, or if it began its existence as a freestanding text which was used to "patch" the otherwise abruptly ending text of Mark. Metzger and Ehrman note that Intertextuality Verses 9–20 share the subject of Jesus' post-resurrection appearances, and other points, with other passages in the New Testament. This has led some scholars to believe that Mark 16:9–20 is based on the other books of the New Testament, filling in details which were originally lacking from Mark. Jesus' reference to drinking poison (16:18) does not correspond to a New Testament source, but that miraculous power did appear in Christian literature from the 2nd century CE on. Julie M. Smith notes that if there was an original ending, "then the Resurrection accounts in Matthew and/or Luke may contain material from Mark’s original ending. Shorter ending The shorter ending appears only in a minimal number of manuscripts as the sole ending. It is a quick summary, which contradicts verse 8. It probably originated in Egypt, and diverges from the style of Mark. The shorter ending appears in a manuscript sometime after the 3rd century. See also Johannine Comma Jesus and the woman taken in adultery John 21 Luke 22:43–44 Matthew 16:2b–3 Overview of resurrection appearances in the Gospels and Paul Stolen body hypothesis Notes References Citations Citations to printed sources Citations to web sources Sources Printed sources Beavis, M. A., Mark's Audience, Sheffield, Sheffield Academic Press, 1989. . Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. Doubleday, 1997. . Brown, Raymond E. et al. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Prentice Hall, 1990 . Elliott, J. K., The Language and Style of the Gospel of Mark. An Edition of C. H. Turner's "Notes on Markan Usage" together with Other Comparable Studies, Leiden, Brill, 1993. . Epp, Eldon Jay. "The Significance of the Papyri for Determining the Nature of the New Testament Text in the Second Century: A Dynamic View of Textual Transmission". In Epp, Eldon Jay; Fee, Gordon D. Studies in the Theory and Method of New Testament Textual Criticism. Eerdmans, 1993. . Gundry, R. H., Mark: A Commentary on His Apology for the Cross, Chapters 9–16, Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1992. . Kilgallen, John J. A Brief Commentary on the Gospel of Mark. Paulist Press, 1989. . MacDonald, Dennis R. "The Homeric Epics and the Gospel of Mark" Yale University Press, 2000 . Miller, Robert J. (ed.), The Complete Gospels.'' Polebridge Press, 1994. . External links WELS Topical Q&A: Mark 16:9-20 - Inspiration, Signs, Miracles - believing that Mark 16:9-20 clearly belong in the sacred text without reservation Mark 16 in Manuscript Comparator — allows two or more New Testament manuscript editions' readings of the passage to be compared in side-by-side and unified views (similar to diff output) The various endings of Mark Detailed text-critical description of the evidence, the manuscripts, and the variants of the Greek text (PDF, 17 pages) Extracts from authors arguing for the authenticity of Mark 16:9–20 Aichele, G., "Fantasy and Myth in the Death of Jesus" A literary-critical affirmation of Mark's Gospel ending at 16:8. Catholic Encyclopedia: Gospel of Saint Mark: Section IV. STATE OF TEXT AND INTEGRITY Last Twelve Verses of the Gospel According to S. Mark Vindicated Against Recent Critical Objectors and Established A Book written by Burgon, John William The Authenticity of Mark 16:9–20 A detailed defense of Mark 16:9–20, featuring replicas of portions of Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus and a list of early patristic evidence. See also http://www.curtisvillechristianchurch.org/AuthSuppl.htm for manuscript-images and other materials. Mark 16:9-20 as Forgery or Fabrication A detailed case against Mark 16:9–20, including all relevant stylistic, textual, manuscript, and patristic evidence, and an extensive bibliography. King James Bible - Wikisource English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English) Multiple bible versions at Bible Gateway (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.) Biblical criticism Gospel of Mark chapters King James Only movement	[ -0.45796284079551697, 1.0167373418807983, -0.12488682568073273, -0.7527350187301636, -0.11277446150779724, 0.5558536052703857, 0.8035034537315369, -0.029166346415877342, -0.18631219863891602, -0.37813976407051086, -0.6731281876564026, -0.02518852986395359, -0.38847672939300537, -0.4044059216976166, -0.11143717169761658, 0.8636913299560547, 0.16330862045288086, -0.25203317403793335, 0.03155818209052086, -1.0490341186523438, 0.21596232056617737, 0.06291518360376358, 0.21442727744579315, 0.17876124382019043, 0.7060984969139099, -0.2950606346130371, 0.33789750933647156, -0.2923761010169983, -0.4109342694282532, -0.06450381875038147, 0.20962201058864594, 0.11573174595832825, 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216763	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessar	Tessar	The Tessar is a photographic lens design conceived by the German physicist Paul Rudolph in 1902 while he worked at the Zeiss optical company and patented by Zeiss in Germany; the lens type is usually known as the Zeiss Tessar. A Tessar comprises four elements in three groups, one positive crown glass element at the front, one negative flint glass element at the center and a negative plano-concave flint glass element cemented with a positive convex crown glass element at the rear. History Beginnings Despite common belief, the Tessar was not developed from the 1893 Cooke triplet design by replacing the rear element with a cemented achromatic doublet. Paul Rudolph designed the Anastigmat with two lenses cemented in 1890. Later, Rudolph thought that a narrow airgap in the form of a positive lens would correct the spherical aberration (as did HL Aldis in 1895) and that this device was much better than the lenses cemented. In addition, this allowed the photographers to have greater freedom when choosing the lenses. In 1899 he separated the lenses in the Anastigmat to produce the fourth element, a group of four Unar lenses (which replaced the two interfaces cemented by the aforementioned device). In 1902, he realized that the two cemented interfaces had many virtues, so he reinserted them in the back of his Anastigmat, maintaining the "air gap" of the previous part of the Unar, thus creating the Tessar design (from the Greek word τέσσερα (téssera, four) to indicate a design of four elements) of 1902. The frontal element of the Tessar, like that of the Anastigmat, had little power since its only function was to correct the few aberrations produced by the powerful posterior element. The set of interfaces cemented in the posterior element had 3 functions: to reduce the spherical aberration; reduce the overcorrected spherical-oblique aberration; reduce the gap found between astigmatic foci. The first Tessar appeared with a maximum aperture of f/6.3, but by 1907, the maximum aperture had been increased to f/4.5. In 1930, Ernst Wanderslab and Willy Merté from Zeiss developed Tessar lenses with apertures of f/3.5 and f/2.8. Millions of Tessar lenses have been created by Zeiss and other manufacturers, and are still produced as excellent intermediate aperture lenses. The famous 50mm f/3.5 Elmar lenses used in the first Leica cameras were of this type, designed by Max Berek in 1920. Actually, Zeiss has a large monopoly on this type of construction, because Rudolph's patent was very general. His only claim was:"A spherically, chromatically and astigmatically corrected objective consisting of 4 lenses separated by the diaphragm into two groups, each of two lenses, of which group one includes a pair of facing surfaces and the other a cemented surface, the power of the pair of facing surfaces being negative and that of the cemented surface positive".- Paul Rudolph on his device. Modifications of the Tessar Many workers tried to copy the design of the Tessar lenses but due to the limitations of the patent, they could not. The simplest way was to use three cemented elements on the back instead of two. In 1913, many designs of this type appeared, for example "Ross Xpress" by J. Stuart and J.W. Hasselkus, "Gundlach Radar lens" and "Berthiot Olor" by Florian. In 1925, E. Wandersleb and W. Merté of Zeiss created "Biotessar" consisting of two elements cemented in the front and a single negative element and three cemented behind. Common uses Tessar are frequently found in mid-range cameras, as they can provide a very good optical performance at a reasonable price, and are often quite compact. They are also frequently used in photographic enlargers, as they provide more contrast than many competing lens designs due to the limited number of air-to-glass surfaces. Focusing methods All lenses can be focused by moving the lens assembly towards or away from the film ("unit focusing"), and the Tessar is no exception. Unit-focusing Tessars were used on higher-end cameras such as the Contaflex Super B, Rolleiflex TLR, and larger-format plate cameras such as the Maximar. Some lenses, including Tessars, can be focused by moving lens elements relative to each other; this usually worsens optical performance to some extent, but is cheaper to implement. As the front element of the Tessar has three times the power of the whole lens, it must be moved one-third of the distance that the whole lens would need to move to focus at the same point. The large airspace between the first and second elements allows focusing by moving the front element only; as the displacement is small compared with the airspace, the adverse effect on image performance is not severe. The front-element-focusing Tessar, cheaper than a unit-focusing lens, was widely used in many midrange Zeiss Ikon cameras. Tessar type lenses The Tessar design patent was held by Zeiss for two decades, and licensed to Ross (optics) in the United Kingdom, Bausch & Lomb in the United States and to Krauss in France. Only licensed manufacturers were allowed to use the brand name "Tessar". However, Tessar-type lenses were widely made by many manufacturers under different trade names. The Minoxar 35/2.8 lens on the Minox M.D.C and GT-E is the fastest and widest Tessar type lens achieved so far by using lanthanum glass elements. The picture quality was outstanding. Other Tessar-type lenses include the Schneider Xenar, Agfa Solinar, Rodenstock Ysar, Kodak Ektar, KMZ Industar, Yashica Yashinon 80mm (twin-lens-reflex design), and Minolta Rokkor 75mm (twin-lens-reflex design). After WW2 the Zeiss factory at Jena ended up in East Germany behind the Iron Curtain, and developed a popular camera named the 'Werra' after the river which runs through the town. This used Tessar lenses, which were marked as "Zeiss-Tessar", resulting in legal action from the Zeiss company in Western Germany. For a while the Werra Tessar lenses were marked simply as "T", but eventually they were allowed to market the lenses as "Carl Zeiss – Jena Tessar". Leitz Elmar It is sometimes thought that The Leitz Elmar 50/3.5 was a Tessar copy or clone. This is not the case. Although the lenses appear similar in layout, there is a lot more to the design and performance of a lens than simply the layout of the glass elements. The position of the stop, the optical characteristics of the glasses used for each element, the curvature of each lens surface, and the negative format that the lens is designed to cover, are all vital to the performance of the lens, and in the Leica lens these were all different from the Tessar. When the Leica was being developed, Oskar Barnack tried a 50 mm Tessar, but because it had been designed to cover only the 18×24 mm field of a cine frame, he found it inadequate for coverage of the Leica 24×36 mm format. The lens designed by Max Berek for the Leica rangefinder camera was a modified Cooke triplet with five elements in three groups, the third group being three cemented elements, with the aperture stop in the first air space. This lens, called the Elmax, gave good coverage of the 24×36 mm format and was used until improved optical glass allowed the third group to be simplified to a cemented pair when it was renamed Elmar. It was not until Zeiss Ikon was developing the Contax camera to compete with the Leica that the Tessar was redesigned to cover a 24×36 mm negative. Pro Tessar The front element of the Tessar can be replaced to make a long-focus or wide-angle lens. In 1957 Carl Zeiss offered the long-focus Pro Tessar 115 mm f/4 and 85 mm f/4, and the wide-angle Pro Tessar 35 mm f/3,2 for use on the central-shutter SLR Zeiss Ikon Contaflex Super B cameras. Other Tessar lenses / Vario-Tessar Other Tessar lenses, for example for Nokia mobile phones, have only the name "Tessar" in common with the original Tessar. They are for example a 5-elements-in-1-group, aperture-less all-aspherical lens, as in the Nokia 808 Pureview and Nokia Lumia 800 camera. Vario-Tessar lenses also only have the name "Tessar" in common with the original Tessar. The Vario-Tessar name has been used by Zeiss for various zoom lenses including that of the digital still cameras Sony Cyber-shot DSC-P100, DSC-P200 and DSC-W330 as well as the E-mount lenses such as Sony Alpha Carl Zeiss Vario-Tessar T* E 4/16-70mm ZA OSS (Sony SEL-1670Z) and Sony Alpha Carl Zeiss Vario-Tessar T* FE 4/16-35mm ZA OSS. Sony also uses Vario-Tessar lenses in their consumer camcorders such as the HDR-CX405 extending the wide angle view with 1.9mm to 57mm zoom range. See also Pancake lens Planar Sonnar Biogon Hologon Elmar (lens) Further reading References Photographic lens designs Zeiss lenses	[ -0.04251595586538315, 0.11386643350124359, 0.4797404408454895, 0.21289709210395813, -0.030755478888750076, 0.1598006933927536, 0.1878603845834732, -0.3198896050453186, 0.12003865092992783, -0.15296848118305206, -0.46773236989974976, 0.5916937589645386, -0.27904102206230164, 0.2601299583911896, -0.041332703083753586, 0.15902528166770935, 0.42377325892448425, -0.10318479686975479, -0.6944003105163574, -0.08656857907772064, 0.03234069049358368, -0.2188037633895874, 0.5706596970558167, -0.5478329658508301, -0.12351245433092117, 0.18035778403282166, 0.45071879029273987, 0.3797983229160309, 0.09234809875488281, 0.2913104295730591, 0.3515203595161438, 0.1420983374118805, -0.21425944566726685, -0.15342555940151215, -0.16802528500556946, 0.0944652333855629, -0.07574386894702911, 0.2450246661901474, -0.16941817104816437, -0.07253924757242203, -0.017767738550901413, 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216770	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A41%20road	A41 road	The A41 in the UK is a trunk road between London and Birkenhead. Now, in parts, replaced by motorways, it passes through or near Watford, Kings Langley, Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury, Bicester, Solihull, Birmingham, West Bromwich, Wolverhampton, Newport, Whitchurch, Chester and Ellesmere Port. With the opening of the M40 extension in 1990 from junction 8, much of the route was downgraded. The sections between Bicester and the M42 near Solihull in the Midlands have been re-classified B4100, A4177 and A4141. Route London to Kings Langley The route begins at Marble Arch from its junction on the A40 road in London with Portman Street/Gloucester Place (northbound) and Baker Street/Orchard Street (southbound). Named the Finchley Road, the A41 is dual-carriageway through Swiss Cottage and Hendon Way and intersects with the North Circular Road near Brent Cross shopping centre. The road passes through Hendon and after the junction with the A5150, (close to the Metropolitan Police's police college and the RAF Museum). The A41 overlaps the A1 at Five Ways Corner with the section known as Watford Way. It passes through Mill Hill, separating with the A1 at Apex Corner roundabout After crossing the M1, near Elstree, it links the M1 at Junction 4, and then meets the A5 at a roundabout (where the A5 becomes the A5183). The A41 continues alongside the M1 into Hertfordshire. This section is known as Elton Way, as far as the roundabout with the B462. Running parallel to the M1, it intersects with junction 5 (Berrygrove Interchange). The road continues north, passing over the River Colne, to the east of Watford, crossing the A412 near Garston at "the Dome roundabout". After passing under the junction with the A405, the A41 turns towards the west. At a roundabout, with the A411 to Watford to the south, and the M25 spur straight ahead to join the M25 westbound at junction 19, the A41 continues north through Hunton Bridge crossing the River Gade and the Grand Union Canal to meet the M25 at junction 20. The old route through Kings Langley is now classified A4251. It used to follow the route of the Roman road, Akeman Street, between Berkhamsted and Bicester. The London to Aylesbury section was a similar route to the Sparrows Herne Turnpike Road. Kings Langley to Tring North of the M25, the road is a near motorway standard "A" road with all junctions grade-separated via underpasses or flyovers, but curves and gradients a little steeper. There are no hard shoulders but frequent lay-bys. It climbs through the Chiltern Hills then descends into the valley of the River Bulbourne crossing water meadows just outside Hemel Hempstead at Boxmoor. There are grade-separated junctions with the A414, A4251 and A416. The route returns to open country north of here, passing west of Berkhamsted. It passes the National Film Archive. Before Tring, near Wigginton, it crosses the Icknield Way Path and Chiltern Way. An arched footbridge spans the road just near the summit before it passes just east of Tring (for the Ridgeway footpath) and descends the Chiltern scarp into the Vale of Aylesbury. The Tring bypass was built in 1973 as the first section of the Watford-Aylesbury A41(M) motorway. On 6 July 1987, this section was downgraded to A41. The Tring bypass ends with the junction with the B4635, B4009 (the former route through Aston Clinton) and B488. The A41 from junction 20 of the M25 to the Tring bypass was built in the early 1990s and opened in two sections: the £23.9m Berkhamsted bypass opened September 1993 and the £32.7m Kings Langley bypass opened August 1993. Tring to Bicester On 3 October 2003, the dual carriageway section was extended to the £25m Aston Clinton Bypass, which was originally intended to be built at the same time as the two sections further south. It enters Buckinghamshire and the district of Aylesbury Vale. It crosses the Grand Union Canal, and there is a junction with the B489, and finishes at a roundabout, becoming Aston Clinton Road. The road goes straight through Aylesbury, which is a bottleneck. It meets the A4157 at a junction as Tring Road, and the next roundabout is near Aylesbury Grammar School and a Tesco. It meets the A418 ring-road and becomes Exchange Street, then meets the A413 from Wendover at a roundabout and becomes Friarage Road, passing close to a Morrisons and the railway station. The A418 turns to the left and A41 continues straight ahead to become Gatehouse Road, then at the next roundabout, it leaves to left as Bicester Road near the Applegreen Aylesbury Service Station. After four roundabouts, it crosses the River Thame. It then meets a roundabout with access for the new Berryfields development as well as Aylesbury Vale Parkway before passing under a railway line, then through Waddesdon, then passes close to Westcott near the former airfield of RAF Westcott. At Kingswood, it passes the Crooked Billet (now the "Akeman Inn") and Plough and Anchor (now an Italian restaurant) pubs. It enters Oxfordshire and the district of Cherwell, and at Blackthorn it crosses the River Ray and meets a low bridge which was originally a limit but due to bridge strikes, the road was lowered and the bridge now has a limit. Plans for an Aylesbury bypass exist and are well supported locally but no government decision has been made. Bicester to Solihull The £5.7m first stage of the Bicester bypass opened in November 1990, with the £3.9m second stage (part of the A421 section to Wendlebury) opened in May 1993, and has many roundabouts. Since 1993, the road now heads south-west where it officially becomes part of the M40 at junction 9, meeting with the A34 (which also overlaps the M40 to Birmingham – to draw traffic off the previous routes). The former route went through Warwick. From here to the M42, the original route is now mainly designated as the B4100 (multiplexing at points with the current A361 and A422 through Banbury, plus the A452 and A425 approaching and through Warwick) followed by the A4177 and A4141, the latter two both excellent wide roads. At junction 5 of the M42, the A41 follows its old course. Further north, the road bypasses Solihull and goes through the city centres of Birmingham and Wolverhampton. This renumbering took place in 1991. The A4141 and B4100 are new designations, while the A4177 is an extension of an existing route. Solihull to Wolverhampton The road manifests from the junction which opened in November 1976 with the A4141 and M42 near Berry Hall Farm (Picture), and crosses the River Blythe and bypasses Solihull. The former route through Solihull is now the B4025 and B425, which passes Solihull School. The A41 has a staggered junction with the B4102 (for Solihull and Catherine-de-Barnes) near the BUPA Parkway Hospital. At Lode Heath, there is crossroads with the B425 (for Solihull Hospital) where the road is the Seven Star Road. The A41 resumes the old route at another junction with the B425, becoming Warwick Road, which is the name of the route all the way into Birmingham. At Worlds End there is the Shell Solihull garage on the left. Next is Ulverley Green and it passes the BP Mereside garage on the right and passes under the Chiltern Main Line (for Leamington) near Olton station, Olton Library and Olton Reservoir. At the junction with the B4514, there is a Tesco petrol station and the road enters the city of Birmingham. The B4514 leads onto Olton Boulevard and can be used to bypass Acocks Green, although there is one section to be completed near Sparkhill. It passes Archbishop Ilsey RC School at Acocks Green, then meets the B4146 and B4217 at a roundabout near a Sainsburys. It meets the A4040 ring road at a staggered junction and crosses the Birmingham -Stratford Line near Tyseley station and the Tyseley Locomotive Works. At Sparkhill, it crosses the River Cole and meets the B4145 at a roundabout near Golden Hillock School. At Sparkbrook, it meets the A34 Stratford Road and there is a crossroads with the A4540 and B4126. The two main routes overlap around central Birmingham and meet The Middleway (A4540) inner ring road. The former route of the A41 through inner Birmingham is now the B4100 heading past the National Express Birmingham coach station, and passes near St Chad's RC Cathedral. The A41 previously resumed at Constitution Hill near Snow Hill train station but following downgrading of much of the former Inner Ring Road, resumes in Hockley where it meets the northern section of the A4540. (The section from the A4540 to city centre is another part of the B4100). There is a staggered junction with the A4040 as the road passes through Handsworth (at this point known as Soho Road) which is a particular bottleneck with narrow lanes, on-street parking, bad drivers and several close-set junction, often very badly congested. Just before The Hawthorns football stadium, home of West Bromwich Albion F.C., it leaves Birmingham and enters the borough of Sandwell. It meets the M5 at junction 1, where it also meets the A4252. In 2004, there were plans to re-route the road between Birmingham & West Bromwich along the current A457 via Smethwick & up to the M5 at Junction 1 along the current A4168. These plans were scrapped soon after. It bypasses West Bromwich on a dual-carriageway called the Expressway, which opened in 1973. There is a grade separated roundabout with the A4031 and the former route follows the A4196 from a roundabout. The grade separated roundabout opened over 20 years after the Expressway, relieving what had been a major bottleneck. The new route opened in 1995 and is called the Black Country New Road, and crosses the West Midlands Metro tram near Guns Village. There is a roundabout with the B4149 at Swan Village. From the roundabout with the A461 (for Dudley) at Great Bridge, it overlaps the A461 (to Walsall), crosses the Tame Valley Canal, meets the A4037 at a roundabout and goes under the West Midlands Metro near Wednesbury Parkway tram stop. The A461 heads off to junction 9 of the M6 and Walsall. The A41 follows the old route from the next roundabout and enters the borough of Walsall. At the junction with the A4444 (the final phase of the Black Country New Road) it crosses the Walsall Canal. There are junctions with the A4098 (where the road enters the borough of Wolverhampton) and B4163. The road goes straight through the middle of Bilston, where it meets the dual-carriageway A463 Black Country Route at a busy roundabout. Close by is the Bilston Central tram stop, near Morrisons. There is a junction with the B4484 (for the A454) near The Crescent tram stop. At Priestfield, it meets the B4162, and passes the City of Wolverhampton College Wellington Road Campus (Bilston) near Priestfield tram stop. From here, the West Midlands Metro runs down the centre of the road. There is a signalised junction with the A4126 (trams and buses use the nearside lane towards Wolverhampton) and the road passes under the Wolverhampton loop of the West Coast Main Line at Monmore Green, and crosses the Birmingham Canal. It overlaps the A4150 Wolverhampton Ring Road, then passes West Park Hospital and crosses the Staffordshire & Worcestershire Canal. It passes through Tettenhall, past Tettenhall College. Wolverhampton to Newport After leaving the borough of Wolverhampton, it crosses the River Penk, then runs into Staffordshire passing Perton, Codsall and the golf course at Wrottesley Hall. Next is a junction with the A464 (for Shifnal), and the road enters Shropshire. It crosses the Wolverhampton to Shrewsbury Line on the Albrighton bypass. The road passes close by the RAF Museum at Cosford. After junction 3 of the M54 motorway, the road passes through Tong. The road meets the A5 at a roundabout, which is on the border with Staffordshire. At Weston Heath, there is a junction with the B5314. At the junction of the B4379, the road enters Telford and Wrekin. The £6m Newport bypass opened in early 1985. The former route went through Chetwynd Aston. The A41 meets the A518 for Telford at a roundabout, followed by another roundabout with the A518 for travelling east, and then a roundabout with the A519 and the B5062. Newport to Whitchurch The road rejoins the old route and passes Chetwynd Park. The £1.5m Hinstock Bypass opened in late 1983 It then passes through Standford, Standford Bridge and over the River Meese. It passes High Heath, Shakeford, Crickmery which is near Wistanswick. Nearby is the former wartime fighter base RAF Ternhill, now an army base known as Clive Barracks. The road crosses the River Tern, meets the A53 at a roundabout at Ternhill. After Bletchley Manor, there is of dual carriageway. The road passes through Prees Higher Heath near a former airfield (RAF Tilstock), and meets the A49 at a roundabout near Tilstock. The £13.7m Whitchurch Bypass opened in July 1992, where the road meets the A49. Whitchurch to Birkenhead The final stretch of the road leaves Shropshire and heads north through Cheshire on a modern alignment bypassing the villages of Tushingham cum Grindley and No Mans Heath before reaching a nineteenth century bypass of the stagecoach road through Broxton. The road crosses the A534 at Broxton Roundabout before passing Beeston, Bolesworth and Peckforton Castles. The road bypasses Chester, before running through the suburbs of Ellesmere Port (where the road was downgraded for safety reasons in the early 1990s). It heads to junction 5 of the M53 motorway and the Merseyside county boundary at Hooton. From this junction it is named New Chester Road, passing through Eastham and Bromborough. At Port Sunlight the A41 diverts onto a dual-carriageway section bypassing New Ferry and Rock Ferry before rejoining New Chester Road at Tranmere Oil Terminal. After passing Green Lane railway station, a spur of the A41 separates at the southern approach to the Queensway Tunnel, which passes under the River Mersey and enters Liverpool to meet the start of the A59. The road then passes a junction with the A554 near Hamilton Square railway station, terminating at the bus station at Woodside. The end of the road has views over the Mersey to Liverpool and transport links to Mersey Ferry services. Major junctions History of the road number The original (1923) route was Stanmore north-west of London to Oakengates, west of Wolverhampton, in Shropshire, meeting the A5 at both ends. The A41 was extended by numbering as follows: The northern extension dates from 1935; in Shropshire, it swapped with a combination of the A464/A529; from Kingswood Common to Nantwich, Cheshire and the original A529 ran from Hinstock to Chester. North of Chester, the A41 replaced part of the A51. The southern extension dates from after the Second World War using Watford Way which opened in about 1930 as the A5088. In the remaining years after 1935, it was renumbered A500. See also Great Britain road numbering scheme Sparrows Herne Turnpike Road Wirral Line Notes References External links BBC News – Village gets bypass after 40 years – 03/10/2003 Highways Agency – Aston Clinton scheme page. CBRD – Futures – A41 Aston Clinton Bypass. 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216773	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akeman%20Street	Akeman Street	Akeman Street is a Roman road in southern England between the modern counties of Hertfordshire and Gloucestershire. It is approximately long and runs roughly east–west. Akeman Street linked Watling Street just north of Verulamium (near modern St Albans) with the Fosse Way at Corinium Dobunnorum (now Cirencester). Evidence suggests that the route may well have been an older track, metalled and reorganised by the Romans. Its course passes through towns and villages including Hemel Hempstead, Berkhamsted, Tring, Aylesbury, Alchester (outside modern Bicester), Chesterton, Kirtlington, Ramsden and Asthall. Parts of the A41 road between Berkhamsted and Bicester use the course of the former Roman road, as did the Sparrows Herne turnpike between Berkhamsted and Aylesbury. A minor road between Chesterton and Kirtlington also uses its course. Other parts are in use as public footpaths, including a stretch between Tackley and Stonesfield that is part of the Oxfordshire Way. The origins of the road's name are uncertain but certainly date back to the Early Middle Ages. Some have suggested that "Akeman" derives from the Anglo-Saxon words for "oak-man". Others have suggested a connection with Bath, which the Anglo-Saxons called Acemannesceastre (Acemannes apparently being derived from the Roman name Aquae Sulis). It is unclear how this might have become associated with the road, but one possibility is that the name was originally used for the long stretch of road from Bath. See also Akeman Street (Cambridgeshire) Roman Britain Roman roads in Britain RAF Akeman Street References Bibliography Roman roads in England Archaeological sites in Hertfordshire Archaeological sites in Buckinghamshire Archaeological sites in Oxfordshire Berkhamsted Aylesbury	[ -0.17361922562122345, 0.3378380537033081, -0.4222296476364136, -0.5914276838302612, -0.08915001153945923, 0.5098270177841187, 0.44998684525489807, 0.44754865765571594, 0.16457507014274597, -0.08289695531129837, 0.22466865181922913, -0.4603251814842224, -0.40691468119621277, 0.2656888961791992, -0.17223712801933289, 0.046851251274347305, -0.34072819352149963, 0.3334560990333557, 0.43779537081718445, -0.2719123363494873, 0.21159988641738892, 0.2938252389431, -0.22927318513393402, -0.15955813229084015, 0.13462528586387634, -0.06058866158127785, 0.3300842344760895, -0.5501290559768677, -0.52969890832901, -0.3969038426876068, 0.16914750635623932, 0.5144588947296143, -0.04385986551642418, -0.9762489795684814, 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216774	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layne%20Staley	Layne Staley	Layne Thomas Staley (born Layne Rutherford Staley; August 22, 1967 – April 5, 2002) was an American musician, songwriter and the original lead singer of the rock band Alice in Chains, which rose to international fame in the early 1990s as part of Seattle's grunge movement. He was known for his distinctive vocal style and tenor voice, as well as his harmonizing with guitarist/vocalist Jerry Cantrell. Staley was also a member of the glam metal bands Sleze and Alice N' Chains, and the supergroups Mad Season and Class of '99. "Man in the Box", the second single from Alice in Chains' debut album, Facelift (1990), garnered Staley critical recognition for his vocal style. Alice in Chains' EP Jar of Flies (1994), debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, making it Alice in Chains' first record—and the first-ever EP—to top the chart. However, Staley's deteriorating condition due to heroin abuse led him to enter a rehabilitation clinic. He began to work on a side project with several Seattle musicians, Mike McCready of Pearl Jam, Barrett Martin of Screaming Trees and John Baker Saunders of The Walkabouts, which came to be Mad Season, while Alice in Chains went into hiatus. During Alice in Chains' hiatus, reports of Staley's drug addiction began to gain widespread circulation in fan and media communities, in part due to changes in his physical condition brought on by prolonged heroin abuse. On April 10, 1996, the band returned with a performance on MTV Unplugged in New York; it was their first concert in two-and-a-half years. From mid-1996 onwards, Staley was out of the public spotlight, never to perform live again. Staley struggled with depression and addiction for much of his adult life and later died from a speedball overdose on April 5, 2002, at the age of 34. Staley was ranked at No. 27 on Hit Paraders list of "Heavy Metal's All-Time Top 100 Vocalists" in 2006, and at No. 42 on Complex's magazine list of "The 50 Best Lead Singers of All Time" in 2012. Seattle officially declared August 22, 2019, as "Layne Staley Day". Staley earned six Grammy Award nominations as a member of Alice in Chains. Early life Staley was born in Kirkland, Washington, on August 22, 1967. His parents are Phillip Blair "Phil" Staley and Nancy Elizabeth Staley (née Layne). Staley did not like his middle name "Rutherford" and would get angry every time someone called him by this name. He legally changed his middle name to "Thomas" during his teens because he was a fan of Mötley Crüe drummer Tommy Lee. Staley joined a rhythm band in Bellevue when he was two or three years old, and was the youngest in the group. At nine years old, he wrote in his Dr. Seuss book, All About Me, that he wanted to be a singer. Staley was seven years old when his parents divorced, after which he was raised by his mother and stepfather, Jim Elmer. He took his stepfather's surname while enrolled in Meadowdale High School in Lynnwood, and was known for some time as Layne Elmer. Staley was raised as a Christian Scientist, but was critical of religion in his adult life, stating in a 1991 interview: "I have a fascination with how brainwashed people get with religion and how they'll give up their money, their time and their whole life for a cause that they're sure is right, but I'm sure is wrong. I think there's a lot of people who are scared of life and living and they want to make sure they get to Heaven or whatever. I try to stay away from it as much as I can. I was raised in the church until I was 16 and I've disagreed with their beliefs as long as I can remember, so when I had the choice I chose not to believe in anything apart from myself." Staley also stated in a 1999 interview that the song "Get Born Again" is about "religious hypocrisy". He approached music through his parents' collection, listening to Black Sabbath (regarded by him as his first influence) and Deep Purple. Other favorite bands include hard rock and metal bands like The Stooges, Anthrax, Judas Priest, Saxon, Rainbow, Mercyful Fate, Twisted Sister, Van Halen, and industrial/new wave acts such as Ministry, The Lords of the New Church and Skinny Puppy. He also cited Prince and David Bowie as two of his biggest idols. Staley began playing drums at age 12; he played in several glam bands in his early teens, but by this point, Staley had aspirations of becoming a singer. In 1984, Staley joined a group of Shorewood High students in a band called Sleze, which also featured future members of The Dehumanizers and Second Coming. In 1985, Staley and his band Sleze made a cameo in Father Rock, a low-budget movie from Seattle's Public Access Channel. In 1986, Sleze morphed into Alice N' Chains, a band which Staley said "dressed in drag and played speed metal." The new band performed around the Seattle area playing Slayer and Armored Saint covers. Career Alice in Chains and Mad Season Staley met guitarist Jerry Cantrell at a party in Seattle while working at Music Bank rehearsal studios in 1987. A few months before that, Cantrell had watched Staley performing with his then-band, Alice N' Chains, in his hometown at the Tacoma Little Theatre, and was impressed by his voice. Cantrell was homeless after being kicked out of his family's house, so Staley invited Cantrell to live with him at the Music Bank. The two fast friends lived as roommates for over a year in the dilapidated rehearsal space they shared. Alice N' Chains soon disbanded and Staley joined a funk band, which at the time also required a guitarist. He asked Cantrell to join as a sideman. Cantrell agreed on condition that Staley join his band, which at the time did not have a name and included drummer Sean Kinney and bassist Mike Starr. They started auditioning terrible lead singers in front of Staley to send a hint, which made him angry. The final straw for Staley was when they auditioned a male stripper in front of him – he decided to join the band after that. Cantrell said this about Staley's voice: "I knew that voice was the guy I wanted to be playing with. It sounded like it came out of a 350-pound biker rather than skinny little Layne. I considered his voice to be my voice." Eventually the funk project broke up, and in 1987, Staley joined Cantrell's band on a full-time basis. The band had names like "Fuck" and "Diamond Lie", the latter being the name of Cantrell's previous band. Two weeks after the band's formation, they were playing a gig at the University of Washington, trying to fill out a 40-minute set with a couple of original songs along with Hanoi Rocks and David Bowie covers. Diamond Lie gained attention in the Seattle area and eventually took the name of Staley's previous band, Alice N' Chains, then renamed Alice in Chains. Staley got permission from his former bandmates to use the name. Local promoter Randy Hauser became aware of Alice in Chains at a concert and offered to pay for demo recordings. However, one day before the band was due to record at the Music Bank studio in Washington, police shut down the studio during the biggest cannabis raid in the history of the state. The final demo, completed in 1988, was named The Treehouse Tapes and found its way to the music managers Kelly Curtis and Susan Silver, who also managed the Seattle-based band Soundgarden. Curtis and Silver passed the demo on to Columbia Records' A&R representative Nick Terzo, who set up an appointment with label president Don Ienner. Based on The Treehouse Tapes, Terzo signed Alice in Chains to Columbia in 1989. The band also recorded another untitled demo over a three-month period in 1989. This recording can be found on the bootleg release Sweet Alice. Alice in Chains released their debut album Facelift on August 21, 1990, shaping the band's signature style. The second single, "Man in the Box", with lyrics written by Staley, became a huge hit. "Man in the Box" is widely recognized for its distinctive "wordless opening melody, where Staley's peculiar, tensed-throat vocals are matched in unison with an effects-laden guitar" followed by "portentous lines like: 'Jesus Christ/Deny your maker' and 'He who tries/Will be wasted' with Cantrell's drier, and less-urgent voice." Facelift has since been certified double platinum by the RIAA for sales of two million copies in the United States. The band toured in support of the album for two years before releasing the acoustic EP Sap in early 1992. Alice in Chains made a cameo in Cameron Crowe's 1992 film Singles, performing the songs "It Ain't Like That" and "Would?". In September 1992, Alice in Chains released Dirt. The critically acclaimed album, also the band's most successful, debuted at number six on the Billboard 200, and was certified quadruple platinum. Staley designed the sun logo on the album's inlay. During the Dirt tour in Brazil in 1993, Staley saved Starr's life after he had overdosed. Because of Staley's drug addiction, the band did not tour in support of Dirt for very long. Cantrell wrote almost all of the music and lyrics for Alice in Chains, but as time went on, Staley contributed more lyrics. Eventually, Staley would receive credit for about half the lyrics from the entire Alice in Chains catalog prior to the release of Black Gives Way to Blue in 2009. He also wrote the music and the lyrics to "Hate to Feel", "Angry Chair" and "Head Creeps", and melodies to other songs. Staley's lyrics are largely viewed as having dealt with his personal troubles, such as drug use and depression. Staley also played guitar on "Angry Chair" and "Hate to Feel". Cantrell said of "Angry Chair" on the liner notes of the 1999 Music Bank box set: In 1994, Alice in Chains released their second EP, Jar of Flies. It debuted at number one, making it the first Alice in Chains release—and the first-ever EP—to do so. The other members of Alice in Chains, seeing Staley's deteriorating condition, opted not to tour in support of Jar of Flies. Following the album's release, Staley entered a rehabilitation clinic and began to work on a side project with several Seattle musicians, Mike McCready of Pearl Jam, Barrett Martin of Screaming Trees and John Baker Saunders of The Walkabouts. The band worked on material for several months and played their first show at the Crocodile Cafe in Seattle under the name "The Gacy Bunch" on October 12, 1994. Within a few weeks, the band changed its name to Mad Season. In January 1995, Mad Season performed two songs on Pearl Jam's Self-Pollution satellite radio broadcast, "Lifeless Dead" and "I Don't Know Anything". The band completed an album, titled Above, which was released in March 1995. The first single, "River of Deceit", became a modest success on alternative radio. A live performance filmed at the Moore Theatre in Seattle was released in August 1995 as a home video, Live at the Moore. During Alice in Chains' hiatus, reports of Staley's addiction began to gain widespread circulation in fan and media communities, in part due to changes in his physical condition brought on by prolonged heroin abuse. Alice in Chains regrouped to record Alice in Chains, sometimes referred to as "Tripod", which was released in November 1995. The album debuted at the top of the U.S. charts, and has since been awarded—along with Facelift and Jar of Flies—double platinum status. With the exceptions of "Grind", "Heaven Beside You", and "Over Now", the lyrics were all written by Staley, making this album his greatest lyrical contribution to the band's catalogue. To accompany the album, the band released a home video, The Nona Tapes, but the band lapsed again, failing to complete tours planned in support of the album. When asked about the frustration of not touring to support the record, Cantrell provided some insight into how Staley's addictions led to tensions within the band: "Very frustrating, but we stuck it out. We rode the good times together, and we stuck together through the hard times. We never stabbed each other in the back and spilled our guts and [did] that kind of bullshit that you see happen a lot." "Drugs worked for me for years", Staley told Rolling Stone in February 1996, "and now they're turning against me, now I'm walking through hell and this sucks. I didn't want my fans to think that heroin was cool. But then I've had fans come up to me and give me the thumbs up, telling me they're high. That's exactly what I didn't want to happen." One of Staley's last shows with Alice in Chains was the MTV Unplugged performance in New York on April 10, 1996. The recording of Unplugged came after a long period of inactivity for the band; it was their first concert in two-and-a-half years. Staley made his last performance on July 3, 1996, in Kansas City, Missouri, while Alice in Chains were touring with Kiss. Other projects Staley shared lead vocals with Ann Wilson for a cover of Bob Dylan's "Ring Them Bells", featured on Heart's 1993 album Desire Walks On. The song "It's Coming After" from Second Coming's 1994 debut album L.O.V.Evil features Staley on lead vocals. Second Coming features Staley's bandmates from Alice N' Chains, his former band. One of the last songs that Staley recorded was a cover of Pink Floyd's "Another Brick in the Wall" with the supergroup Class of '99, featuring guitarist Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine, bassist Martyn LeNoble, drummer Stephen Perkins, both from Jane's Addiction and Porno for Pyros, and keyboardist Matt Serletic. In November 1998, the group recorded the song for the soundtrack to Robert Rodriguez's 1998 horror/sci-fi film The Faculty. A music video was also released. While the other members of the band were filmed specifically for the video, Staley's appearance consisted of footage pulled from Mad Season's 1995 Live at the Moore video. A song titled "Things You Do" featuring Staley on vocals was part of the soundtrack to the 2012 film Grassroots. In the film, the song was credited to "The Bondage Boys featuring Layne Staley", but the song had been credited to "Layne Staley and The Aftervibes" and "Layne Staley and Second Coming" when it leaked on the internet years before. Personal life In the early 1990s, Staley enrolled in several rehab programs, but he failed to stay clean for long. At one point, the other members of Alice in Chains flew to Los Angeles for weekly therapy at Staley's rehab. During the Dirt tour, Alice in Chains' manager, Susan Silver, hired bodyguards to keep Staley away from people who might try to pass him drugs, but he ended up relapsing on alcohol and drugs during the tour. Kurt Cobain's death in April 1994 scared Staley into temporary sobriety, but soon he was back into his addiction. Alice in Chains' managers turned down lucrative touring possibilities and kept the band off the road, hoping that would help Staley. Pearl Jam lead guitarist Mike McCready also tried to help Staley by inviting him to his side project, Mad Season. McCready had hoped that playing with sober musicians would encourage Staley. On October 29, 1996, Staley's former fiancée, Demri Lara Parrott, died of a drug overdose. Staley was placed on a 24-hour suicide watch, according to NME, which quoted a friend saying Staley was taking Parrott's death "extremely badly" and had fallen into a deep depression. Screaming Trees' Mark Lanegan told Rolling Stone in 2002, "He never recovered from Demri's death. After that, I don't think he wanted to go on." Final years: 1997–2002 On February 26, 1997, Staley and the other members of Alice in Chains attended the Grammy Awards after the song "Again" was nominated for Best Hard Rock Performance. In April of that same year, Staley purchased a , three-bedroom condominium in Seattle's University District via a trust. Toby Wright, the producer of Alice in Chains' third album, set up a home recording system for him there. In 1998, amid rumors that Staley rarely left his apartment, had contracted gangrene, and had lost the ability to ingest food and was living on a diet of Ensure, Jerry Cantrell told Kerrang! that the members of Alice in Chains regularly hung out at Staley's house. On June 22, 1998, Staley made a phone call to radio program Rockline and gave a rare interview while Cantrell was promoting his first solo album, Boggy Depot. Staley called the show to talk to Cantrell and stated that he had loved the album. In October 1998, Staley re-emerged to record two tracks with Alice in Chains, "Get Born Again" and "Died", which were released on the Music Bank box set in 1999. Additional reports of Staley's deteriorating condition persisted in the midst of the sessions. Dirt producer Dave Jerden—originally chosen by the band for the production—said, "Staley weighed 80 pounds…and was white as a ghost." Cantrell refused to comment on the singer's appearance, and band manager Susan Silver said she had not seen him since "last year". Staley made his final public appearance on October 31, 1998, when he attended a Jerry Cantrell solo concert in Seattle. He declined Cantrell's request to sing with him on stage. A photo taken of Staley backstage at this show is the most recent photo of him that has been publicly released. Thereafter, Staley was thought to have left behind his "self-imposed rock & roll exile", when in November 1998 he laid down additional vocal tracks as part of a supergroup called Class of '99, featuring members of Rage Against the Machine, Jane's Addiction, and Porno for Pyros. On July 19, 1999, the radio program Rockline was hosting Cantrell, Inez, and Kinney for a discussion on the release of Nothing Safe: Best of the Box, when, unexpectedly, Staley called in to participate. This was Staley's last interview. From 1999 to 2002, Staley became more reclusive and depressed, rarely leaving his Seattle condo; little is known about the details of his life during this period. Staley was rumored to spend most of his days creating art, playing video games, or nodding off on drugs. Staley's one time roommate and friend Morgen Gallagher later said that around 2001 Staley was going to audition for Audioslave; this claim was later debunked by Audioslave guitarist Tom Morello. Staley's mother, Nancy McCallum, told The Seattle Times in 2007 that despite his isolation, he was never far from the love of his family and friends, who filled his answering machine and mailbox with messages and letters. "Just because he was isolated doesn't mean we didn't have sweet moments with him." McCallum has also claimed that she saw Staley on Thanksgiving of 2001, and again just around Valentine's Day of 2002, when he visited his sister's baby. This was the last time that McCallum saw her son. Sean Kinney has commented on Staley's final years and isolation period: Staley's physical appearance had become even worse than before: he had lost several teeth, his skin was sickly pale, and he was severely emaciated. Close friends such as Matt Fox said, "If no one heard from him for weeks, it wasn't unusual". Staley grew increasingly disconnected from his friends and bandmates who repeatedly tried to get him into rehab, but Staley refused. Staley's close friend Mark Lanegan said, "He didn't speak to anybody as of late… It's been a few months since I talked to him. But for us to not talk for a few months is par for the course." Death On April 19, 2002, Staley's accountants contacted his former manager, Susan Silver, and informed her that no money had been withdrawn from the singer's bank account in two weeks. Silver then contacted Staley's mother, Nancy McCallum, who placed a call with 911 to say she had not heard from him "in about two weeks". The police went with McCallum and her ex-husband, Jim Elmer, to Staley's home. It was reported that the Staley weighed only when his body was discovered. Staley's body was partially decomposed when he was found. Medical examiners had to identify the body by comparing dental records. Years later, McCallum revealed that two days before Staley's body was found, she went to his apartment to let him know about the death of Demri Parrott's brother, but there was no answer. When she got the phone call to check on her son two days later, she was not surprised that Staley had not responded. There was some mail by his door. Staley owned a cat named Sadie at the time, who was usually quiet; upon hearing Sadie meow, McCallum became worried it was a call of distress. Still not receiving an answer from Staley, McCallum called 911. The autopsy and toxicology report on Staley's body revealed that he died from a mixture of heroin and cocaine, known as a speedball. The autopsy concluded that Staley died two weeks before his body was found, on April 5—the same day fellow grunge icon Kurt Cobain died eight years prior. Staley's death was classified as "accidental." Staley's Alice in Chains bandmates issued the following statement: It's good to be with friends and family as we struggle to deal with this immense loss … and try to celebrate this immense life. We are looking for all the usual things: comfort, purpose, answers, something to hold on to, a way to let him go in peace. Mostly, we are feeling heartbroken over the death of our beautiful friend. He was a sweet man with a keen sense of humor and a deep sense of humanity. He was an amazing musician, an inspiration, and a comfort to so many. He made great music and gifted it to the world. We are proud to have known him, to be his friend, and to create music with him. For the past decade, Layne struggled greatly—we can only hope that he has at last found some peace. We love you, Layne. Dearly. And we will miss you … endlessly. In 2010, in an interview on VH1's Celebrity Rehab with Staley's mother, Nancy McCallum, former Alice in Chains bass player Mike Starr said that he was the last person to see Staley alive and had spent time with him the day before he died, as Starr's birthday was on April 4, 2002. Starr claimed that Staley was very sick but would not call 911. They briefly argued, which ended with Starr storming out. Starr stated that Staley called after him as he left and said: "Not like this, don't leave like this." Since Staley is believed to have died a day later, on April 5, Starr expressed regret for not calling 911 to save his life. Starr reported that Staley had threatened to sever their friendship if he did, and also stated that he wished he had not been high on benzodiazepine that night and wouldn't have just walked out of the door. The interview ended with Starr apologizing to McCallum for not calling 911, but she was insistent that neither she nor anyone in her family blamed Starr for Staley's death. She also told Starr: "Layne would forgive you. He'd say, 'Hey, I did this. Not you.'" Starr still blamed himself for the death of Staley. Starr kept this story a secret until his appearance on Celebrity Rehab in February 2010. During this same interview, McCallum also said that Staley had attempted rehab 13 times, although it is not clear whether any of these attempts were during his reclusive years. Starr was found dead on March 8, 2011, as a result of prescription drug overdose. Aftermath An informal memorial was held for Staley on the night of April 20, 2002, at the Seattle Center, which was attended by at least 100 fans and friends, including Alice in Chains bandmates Cantrell, Starr, Inez and Kinney, and Soundgarden frontman Chris Cornell. Staley's body was cremated and a private memorial service was held for him on April 28, 2002, on Bainbridge Island in Washington's Puget Sound. During her appearance on Celebrity Rehab in 2010, Staley's mother said she has her son's ashes in a box. Staley's private memorial was attended by his family and friends, along with his Alice in Chains bandmates, the band's manager Susan Silver and her then husband Chris Cornell, as well as other music personalities. Chris Cornell, joined by Heart's Ann and Nancy Wilson, sang a rendition of The Rolling Stones' "Wild Horses" at the funeral. They also performed The Lovemongers' song "Sand". Jerry Cantrell dedicated his solo album, Degradation Trip, released two months after Staley's death, to his memory. Cantrell also took in Staley's cat, Sadie, and he and the family cared for the pet for eight years until Sadie passed away in 2010 at the age of 18. Shortly after Staley's death, his parents Nancy McCallum and Phil Staley started receiving donations from fans all over the world. Nancy and Phil worked with Seattle's Therapeutic Health Services clinic to create the Layne Staley Memorial Fund to help other heroin addicts and their families in the Seattle music community. Alice in Chains remained inactive following Staley's death. For the next several years, the band refused to perform together out of respect for him. In 2005, Cantrell, Kinney, and Inez reunited for a benefit concert for victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, with several vocalists filling in for Staley. Following positive response, the band decided to reunite formally in 2006. Comes with the Fall vocalist William DuVall, a member of Cantrell's solo touring band who often sang Staley's parts on the Alice in Chains songs that Cantrell performed, was announced to sing Staley's part for the reunion shows. In an interview with MTV News, Kinney noted that the band would use the reunion concerts to pay tribute to the songs and to Staley. The band used to have an intermission to include a five-minute filmed tribute to Staley in between sets. DuVall has since become Staley's full-time replacement in the band, contributing to three full-length releases. Tributes and influence Billy Corgan of The Smashing Pumpkins stated that Staley "had an amazing voice that had such a beautiful, sad, haunting quality about it. He was different because his heaviness was in that voice." The song "Bleeding The Orchid" from The Smashing Pumpkins' 2007 album Zeitgeist was indirectly inspired by the death of Staley. Cold's song "The Day Seattle Died" from their 2003 album Year of the Spider was an ode to Staley, as well as fellow grunge figurehead Kurt Cobain. That same year Staind featured a song called "Layne" in memory to the singer on their album 14 Shades of Grey. In their 2004 album Hangover Music Vol. VI, Black Label Society also included a tribute to Staley, titled "Layne". Eddie Vedder, lead singer of Pearl Jam, wrote a song eulogizing Staley, titled "4/20/02" (the day Vedder heard the news). The song featured only Vedder singing and playing the guitar in a ukulele-inspired tuning, and was released as a hidden track on Pearl Jam's 2003 B-sides and rarities album, Lost Dogs, roughly four minutes and twenty seconds after the conclusion of the final listed song, "Bee Girl". Vedder also paid tribute to Staley during a Pearl Jam concert in Chicago on August 22, 2016, which would have been Staley's 49th birthday, and dedicated the song "Man of the Hour" to his late friend. Jerry Cantrell said Staley gave him the self-assurance to sing. "Layne was really responsible for giving me the confidence to become more of a singer. He'd say, 'You wrote this song, this means something to you, sing it.' He kicked my ass out of the nest. Over the years I continued to grow, and Layne started to play guitar, and we inspired each other". Since 2002, Seattle has hosted an annual tribute concert for Staley on his birthday. Venues such as the Moore Theatre, The Showbox The Fenix, and The Crocodile have hosted the event. The show proceeds benefit the Layne Staley Memorial Fund. Staley ranked at No. 27 on Hit Parader magazine's list of "Heavy Metal's All-Time Top 100 Vocalists" published in the November 2006 issue, and at No. 42 on Complex's magazine list of "The 50 Best Lead Singers of All Time" in 2012. Staley was an inspiration for the title of Metallica's 2008 album, Death Magnetic. The band recorded a song in tribute to him, titled "Rebel of Babylon". In 2009, Alice in Chains released their first studio album in 14 years, Black Gives Way to Blue, with Cantrell and then-new vocalist and rhythm guitarist William DuVall sharing lead vocals. The title track is a tribute to Staley. Cantrell invited Elton John to join Alice in Chains and pay tribute to Staley playing the piano in "Black Gives Way to Blue", the closing song in the album. The song was written and sung by Cantrell, who described it as the band's goodbye to Staley. The first concert that Staley attended was Elton John's and he was blown away by it. According to Cantrell, the album's cover art featuring a heart surrounded by a black background was inspired by the fact that the members of the band had their hearts broken by losing Staley. Staley's former bandmates also thanked him in the album's liner notes. On September 6, 2011, Hank Williams III released his Attention Deficit Domination album and dedicated it to Staley. Staley's Alice in Chains bandmates have stated that one of the saddest aspects of his legacy is to hear him remembered primarily for his drug use rather than the other aspects of his personality. Kinney and Cantrell have also expressed their frustration over the Grammys ignoring Staley during their annual tribute to the musicians who have died in the past year. In 2013, Alice in Chains' drummer, Sean Kinney, added the initials "LSMS" on his drum kit, a tribute to Staley and the band's former bassist, Mike Starr, who died in 2011. The music video for Alice in Chains' 2013 single, "Voices", features a picture of Staley next to a photo of Nirvana's frontman, Kurt Cobain, at the 2:20 mark. Since Alice in Chains reunited, Jerry Cantrell started paying tribute to Staley before performing the song "Nutshell". Since 2011, Cantrell pays tribute to both Staley and Mike Starr before performing the song at concerts. In April 2017, Nancy Wilson revealed that she started writing the song "The Dragon" for Staley in the '90s. The song was recorded in 2016 and is part of the EP of Wilson's new band, Roadcase Royale, released in 2017. On Staley's 50th birthday, August 22, 2017, Alice in Chains released a video paying tribute to him, featuring Jerry Cantrell, Ann Wilson, Mike McCready and Barrett Martin. William DuVall revealed that he was thinking about Staley, his grandmother and the late Soundgarden lead vocalist Chris Cornell while writing the Alice in Chains' song "Never Fade", from their 2018 album, Rainier Fog. The album's title track, written by Cantrell, is partly a tribute to Staley and Mike Starr. Layne Staley Day in Seattle On August 22, 2019, which would have been Staley's 52nd birthday, Seattle mayor Jenny Durkan officially proclaimed that day as "Layne Staley Day" in the city in honor of Staley's contributions to the world of music. The day was also a call to attention to the Layne Staley Memorial Fund, established by his parents in 2002. Books Two biographies have been written about Staley, both authored by Adriana Rubio—Layne Staley: Angry Chair released in 2003, which contains an alleged final interview of Staley that Rubio claimed to have conducted less than three months before his death, and Layne Staley: Get Born Again, released in 2009, a revised and updated version of her earlier book. Staley's family has disputed Rubio's work, stating they do not believe she interviewed him in 2002. Staley's last interview was for the radio Rockline on July 19, 1999, promoting the release of the compilation album Nothing Safe: Best of the Box with the other members of Alice in Chains. The content of Rubio's book, including what she referred to as Staley's final interview, was called into question in journalist David De Sola's 2015 book Alice in Chains: The Untold Story. De Sola questions not only the content of the interview, which portrays Staley as using his lyrics in casual conversation, it also indicates that Rubio never talked to him, citing her refusal to release the tape with the interview and the fact that not even her publisher had access to the tape. One of Staley's sisters, Liz Coats, likewise doubted the veracity of the book. Staley was featured on the books Grunge Is Dead: The Oral History of Seattle Rock Music (2009) by Greg Prato, and Everybody Loves Our Town: An Oral History of Grunge (2011) by Mark Yarm. Both books explored the history of grunge in detail and touch upon Alice in Chains and Staley's life and death via interviews with Staley's mother, friends and bandmates, including Cantrell, Kinney, Starr and Inez. In August 2015, journalist David de Sola released the biography Alice in Chains: The Untold Story, which is mainly focused on Staley and features interviews with his friends and relatives; the surviving members of Alice in Chains did not partake in interviews for this book. Discography Alice in Chains Staley appeared on all Alice in Chains releases from We Die Young up to the song "Died", later taking part in reissues and compilations containing material from his time in the band. Other appearances References External links Archive Seattle Police incident report at The Smoking Gun 1967 births 2002 deaths 20th-century American male singers Accidental deaths in Washington (state) Alice in Chains members Alice N' Chains members Mad Season (band) members Musicians from Kirkland, Washington Musicians from Seattle Singer-songwriters from Washington (state) American heavy metal singers American male singer-songwriters American rock songwriters American tenors Alternative rock singers Alternative metal singers Grunge musicians Glam metal musicians Columbia Records artists Deaths by heroin overdose in Washington (state) American people of Danish descent American people of English descent American people of Scottish descent American people of Swiss-German descent Critics of religions Class of '99 members Former Christian Scientists	[ 0.6919915080070496, -0.10574935376644135, -0.9540889263153076, 0.06557027250528336, 0.16249123215675354, -0.064479298889637, 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216776	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laguna%20%28province%29	Laguna (province)	Laguna, officially the Province of Laguna (; ), is a province in the Philippines located in the Calabarzon region in Luzon. Its capital is Santa Cruz and the province is situated southeast of Metro Manila, south of the province of Rizal, west of Quezon, north of Batangas and east of Cavite. Laguna hugs the southern shores of Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the country. As of the , the province's total population is . It is also currently the seventh richest province in the country. Laguna is notable as the birthplace of José Rizal, the country's de facto national hero. It is also famous for attractions like Pagsanjan Falls, the University of the Philippines Los Baños and the University of the Philippines Open University in Los Baños, the hot spring resorts of Calamba on the slopes of Mount Makiling, Pila historic town plaza, Taytay Falls in Majayjay, the wood carvings and papier-mâché created by the people of Paete, the annual Sampaguita Festival in San Pedro, the turumba of Pakil, the tsinelas footwears from Liliw, the Pandan Festival of Luisiana, the Seven Lakes of San Pablo, and the Nagcarlan Underground Cemetery in Nagcarlan. Laguna is part of Greater Manila Area. History Pre-Hispanic Era The history of the province of Laguna, (Lagoon in Spanish) and that of the Southern Tagalog region, dates as far back as 900 AD. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription is the oldest known written document found in the Philippines, which talks of its subject being released from a debt to the King of Tondo. Pre-Hispanic settlement in the area can be dated to prehistoric times, as evidenced in the names of towns such as Pila, Laguna, whose name can be traced to the straight mounds of dirt that form the boundaries of the rice paddy, or Pilapil. A prominent figure during the time of pre-Hispanic contact is Gat Pangil, a chieftain in the area. The towns of Bay, Pangil and Pakil were reputed to have once been a part of his domain, although accounts vary on who exactly Gat Pangil was. 16th Century The Province of Laguna, which was formerly called La Laguna and La Provincia de la Laguna de Bay, was named after Laguna de Bay, the body of water that forms its northern boundary. Laguna de Bay, in turn, was named after the town of Bay, the first provincial capital. Captain Juan de Salcedo with a band of one hundred Spanish-Mexican soldiers conquered the province and its surrounding regions for Spain in 1571. The province of La Laguna comprised the modern province of Laguna, as well as parts of what is now known as Rizal and Quezon. In 1577, the Franciscan missionaries arrived in Manila, and in 1578 they started evangelizing Laguna, Morong (now Rizal), Tayabas (now Quezon) and the Bicol Peninsula. Juan de Plasencia and Diego de Oropesa were the earliest Franciscans sent to these places. From 1580, the towns of Bay, Caliraya, Majayjay, Nagcarlan, Liliw, Pila, Santa Cruz, Lumban, Pangil and Siniloan were founded. During the time of Governor-General Gomez Perez Dasmarinas, the province of La Laguna was divided into the following encomiendas: Mirabago - Currently the areas surrounding, Liliw, and Nagcarlan. Tabuco - Currently the areas surrounding San Pedro, Biñan, Santa Rosa, Cabuyao, and Calamba. Taitay - Currently Taytay, Rizal. Bay - The area surrounding Bay, Laguna, and Los Baños, Laguna. Pila - The area that is now Pila, Victoria, Pililla, Rizal, and Jala-Jala, Rizal Mahaihai - Currently the area around Majayjay, Magdalena, and Luisiana Lumbang - The largest encomienda, containing what is now known as Lumban, Santa Cruz, Paete, Pakil, Cavinti, and Pagsanjan. Tayaval - Tayabas, now known as Quezon. Panguil - Now Pangil, Laguna. Sinaloa - The area surrounding Siniloan, Famy and Mabitac. Moron - Currently the areas surrounding Morong, including the town of Santa Maria, formerly known as Caboan. Nayun - Nayum, Currently Tiaong, Quezon. By 1591, there were approximately 48,400 people living in the province. 17th and 18th Century Laguna was the site of multiple engagements during the Sangley Rebellion. In 1603, Antonio de Morga relates how the Chinese rebels scattered to three divisions, one of which went to the mountains of San Pablo. Captain Don Luys de Velasco, aided by Spanish and Filipino forces, was successful in pursuing the rebels. Eventually the Chinese were able to kill Luys de Velasco and ten of his men, before securing themselves in San Pablo while waiting for reinforcement from the mainland. On the 20th of October, 1603, Governor-General Pedro Bravo de Acuña then sent Captain Cristoval de Axqueta Menchaca to pursue and crush the rebellion and was successful after twenty days of fighting. Around this time the hot springs of Los Baños and San Pablo were known to the Spanish, and a hospital was built in the area. By 1622 the hospital was notable enough to be mentioned by the Archbishop of Manila at the time, Miguel García Serrano in his letter to King Philip IV. In 1639, a second rebellion involving the Chinese occurred, and the rebels fortified themselves in the highlands of Cavinti and Lumban before surrendering in Pagsanjan a year later. In 1670, a delimitation of borders were made between Lucban, Majayjay and Cavite. The most populous town at that time, Bay, was capital of the province until 1688, when the seat of the provincial government was moved to Pagsanján. Pagsanján would be the provincial seat until 1858 when it was moved once again to Santa Cruz. In 1754, the Province of Laguna and Tayabas were divided, with the Malinao River separating the towns of Majayjay and Lucban. In 1678, Fray Hernando Cabrera founded San Pablo de los Montes (now San Pablo City) and built a wooden church and convent considered as the best and finest in the province. Fighting extended to Laguna during the British occupation of Manila between the years of 1762–64. A detachment of British troops under Captain Thomas Backhouse entered the province in search of the silver cargo of the galleon Filipina while Francisco de San Juan led a band of volunteers that fought them in several engagements in and around the then provincial capital of Pagsanjan. Backhouse plundered the town and burned its newly reconstructed church but San Juan succeeded in escaping with the precious hoard to Pampanga where the treasure greatly bolstered the defense effort of Governor-General Simón de Anda y Salazar. For his actions, San Juan was made a brigade commander and alcalde mayor of Tayabas (now Quezon) province. 19th Century A major event in Laguna occurred in 1840, when religious intolerance led the people of Majayjay, Nagcarlan, Bay, and Biñan to join the revolt of Hermano Pule (Apolinario de la Cruz) of Lucban, Tayabas. This revolt was eventually crushed by Governor-General Marcelino de Oraá Lecumberri. As part of political restructuring during the 19th century, the municipalities of Morong, Pililla, Tanay, Baras, Binangonan, Jalajala, Angono and Cardona were separated from Laguna and re-organized to the province Politico-Militar Distrito de Morong. In 1858, the provincial capital was once again moved from Pagsanjan to Santa Cruz, where it stands until today. In 1861, José Rizal was born in Calamba to Francisco Mercado and Teodora Alonso. Rizal would become one of the leading members of the Propaganda Movement, who advocated political reforms for the colony. Rizal would go on to write two novels, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, which in part fueled additional anti-colonial sentiment, contributing to the eventual Philippine Revolution. In 1896, thousands of inhabitants, especially of Bay, Los Baños, Nagcarlan, Magdalena, Santa Cruz, and Pagsanjan had joined the revolutionary Katipunan. Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, on charges of rebellion. Today Rizal is recognized as one of the national heroes of the Philippines. Laguna was one of the eight provinces to rise in revolt against the Spanish misrule led by Generals Paciano Rizal in Calamba, Severino Taiño in Pagsanjan, Agueda Kahabagan in Calauan, and Miguel Malvar in Batangas. One of the early engagements of the revolution was the Battle of Sambat, in Pagsanjan. Katipuneros from Laguna, led by Severino Taiño, took the city of Pagsanjan and attempted to use it as a starting point towards the liberation of the province, but was quelled by forces led by Basilio Augustin. The defeat in Sambat meant the end of large-scale organized revolt in Laguna, the Malungingnging chapter of the Katipunan failing to replicate the relative success of the revolution in Cavite. The revolutionaries resorted to hit-and-run and guerrilla tactics against the Spanish, lasting until the Pact of Biak-na-Bato on December 14 to 15, 1897. It was only after the execution of Jose Rizal that the revolution flared up again, culminating in the Battle of Calamba in May 1898, and the surrender of the last Spanish garrison in Laguna in Santa Cruz, on August 31 of the same year. Laguna actively supported the First Philippine Republic proclaimed at Malolos on January 23, 1899. Its two delegates to the Malolos Congress were Don Higino Benítez and Don Graciano Cordero, both natives of Pagsanján. 20th Century Upon the outbreak of the Philippine–American War, Generals Juan Cailles and Paciano Rizal led the defense of Laguna during the war's early stages. The Battle of Mabitac was fought in defense of the town of Mabitac and was won by Filipino forces. However, forces led by Henry W. Lawton fought and won in Santa Cruz, Pagsanjan, and Paete, effectively securing the province for American forces. Resistance still occurred during this time. One of the province's folk hero during the continuing engagements was Teodoro Asedillo, who was considered a bandit by American forces. By the end of the war, the entire country was occupied by American forces and was taken as a colony. The Taft Commission was established to govern the Philippines during the interim period, which appointed Juan Cailles as the provincial governor of Laguna. Act No. 83, or the Provincial Government Act, established a civilian government under American occupation. During this time, roads were built, schools were established, and in 1917, the Manila Railroad Company extended its line to Laguna as far as Pagsanjan. During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines (1942–1945), Laguna was a center of Filipino resistance despite the presence of Makapili collaborators. Marking's Guerrillas raided the Cine Lumban in Laguna in June 1942 in an attempt to free the 115 American POWs. Only one American was rescued, Corporal George Lightman of the 3rd Pursuit Squadron, because the ranking American captain ordered his men to stay where they were. The Japanese executed 10 American prisoners in retribution. The establishment of the military general headquarters and military camp bases of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and the Philippine Constabulary is a military unit organization was founded on January 3, 1942, to June 30, 1946, in the province of Laguna, and aided of the local military regular units of the Philippine Commonwealth Army 4th and 42nd Infantry Division and the Philippine Constabulary 4th Constabulary Regiment. Started the engagements of the Anti-Japanese Military Operations in Southern Luzon, Mindoro and Palawan from 1942 to 1945 against the Japanese Imperial forces. Beginning in 1945, attacks by the Filipino soldiers of the 4th, 42nd, 43rd, 45th, 46th and 47th Infantry Division of the Philippine Commonwealth Army, 4th Constabulary Regiment of the Philippine Constabulary and the recognized guerrillas against Japanese forces in Laguna increased in anticipation of the Liberation of the Philippines by joint Filipino & American forces. Geography Laguna covers a total area of occupying the northcentral section of the Calabarzon region in Luzon. The province is situated southeast of Metro Manila, south of Rizal, west of Quezon, north of Batangas and east of Cavite. Laguna is the third largest province in the Calabarzon region and the 63rd largest in the entire country. The municipalities of Cavinti and the city of San Pablo have the largest land areas with and , respectively. The municipality of Victoria has the smallest land area with . Laguna lies on the southern shores of Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the country. The land near Laguna de Bay can be considered to be narrow and flat, while become more rugged going further inland towards the mountainous areas of Sierra Madre, Mount Makiling, and Mount Banahaw. Laguna is home to 24 mountains, most of which are inactive volcanoes. The highest peak in Laguna is Mt. Banahaw, with an elevation of . Banahaw, unlike most other volcanoes in Laguna, is an active complex stratovolcano, which last erupted in 1843. Banahaw is located in the boundary of Laguna and Quezon and is home to multiple hot springs. Laguna is also home to the Laguna Volcanic Field, which can be found near San Pablo. The Laguna Volcanic Field is composed of over 200 dormant and monogenetic maars, crater lakes, scoria cones and stratovolcanoes, the tallest of which is Mount Makiling at in elevation. San Pablo itself is known for its seven crater lakes, the largest of which is Lake Sampaloc. Apart from the Laguna de Bay and the Seven Lakes of San Pablo, there are also two reservoir lakes that can be found in Laguna, the Lake Caliraya and Lumot Lake. These two man-made lakes were formed by the creation of the Caliraya Dam and the Lumot Dam. Due to its proximity to Laguna de Bay, Laguna is home to a large number of its tributaries. One of the most famous rivers in Laguna is the Bumbungan River, also known as the Pagsanjan River, named after the town of Pagsanjan and its falls. The Pagsanjan Falls lie at the end of the river. The Pagsanjan Falls are a three-drop waterfall with a longest drop of . Laguna has of alienable and disposable agricultural land, mostly found near the low-lying areas. Around , or 23.44% of Laguna's total land area is forest land, situated near Mount Makiling and further south towards Quezon. Laguna has an estimated of forest cover, ranking it third in the region. Climate The province is relatively dry from November to April and wet during the rest of the year for a small portion near the southern boundary. The other parts, west of Santa Cruz municipality, experience a dry season from November to April and rainy season during the rest of the year. The eastern and southernmost portions do not have distinct season, with rainfall more evenly distributed throughout the year. Laguna is classified under the Köppen climate classification as predominantly having a Tropical monsoon climate, mostly centered around the areas of Calamba to Calauan. The area stretching from Biñan to Cabuyao is classified as having a Tropical savanna climate, while the area from Luisiana to Pangil has a Tropical rainforest climate. Administrative divisions Laguna comprises 24 municipalities and 6 cities. The provincial capital of Laguna is Santa Cruz. As of the , there are people in the province. Demographics The population of Laguna in the was people, with a density of . Calamba is the most populous city in Laguna, accounting for 16% of the provincial population with 539,671 inhabitants, while Famy is the smallest municipality in Laguna with a total population of 16,791. In terms of population density, San Pedro has the largest with a density of , while Cavinti is the smallest with a density of . Most of the people in Laguna live in the cities of San Pedro, Biñan, Santa Rosa, Cabuyao, Calamba and San Pablo accounting to 68.8% of the population of the province. Laguna is the 3rd most populous province in the Philippines and also the 3rd densest. Laguna has a median age of 24.9 years. Being in the middle of the Southern Tagalog Region, almost all people in Laguna speak Tagalog, with 99.2% of the population being fluent in it. There is a minority of people fluent in Ilocano, Bicolano and Waray. A significant portion of the workforce in Laguna can read and speak English and Filipino. In 2000, literacy in Laguna was at 96.22%. Religion Laguna was historically one of the first provinces in the Philippines to have been visited by Christian missionaries. Today, the province, like the rest of the country, is predominantly Christian, with most being a part of the Roman Catholic Church. The Diocese of San Pablo is the only Roman Catholic diocese in Laguna. Other Christian denominations present in Laguna are the Philippine Independent Church, the Iglesia ni Cristo, Baptists, Ang Dating Daan and other Mainline Protestants. Most non-Christians in Laguna practice Islam, Anitism, animism, or atheism. Economy Present-day Laguna shows a thriving economy. With a population of (), and a total area of of land, Laguna produces millions of pesos worth of coconuts, rice, sugar, citrus fruits, lanzones and other products. Tourists flock to its beauty spots, especially Pagsanjan Falls, Calamba and Los Baños hot springs, Mount Makiling, Caliraya Lake and many others. Levels of development vary. The towns near Metro Manila have become industrialized whereas the inner towns continue to engage in agricultural production or pursue agri-based industries and cottage and small-scale industries. In 2015, Laguna was reported to have an equity of PHP 4.474 billion, the second highest in the region behind Cavite. Laguna is labeled as the Detroit of the Philippines because of the presence of major vehicle manufacturers in the city of Santa Rosa. It is also considered as the Silicon Valley of the Philippines because of the vast number of electronic and semi-conductor companies operating in the province. Laguna is also the Resort Capital of the Philippines for it houses more than 700 hot spring resorts in the areas of Calamba and Los Baños. Natural resources The main natural resources of Laguna are in its agriculture and fisheries, owing to its position near the Laguna de Bay and the surrounding lowlands. There are about forty rivers in Laguna with a total area of almost . The Laguna de Bay has an approximate area of broken down into of land and of lake proper with shoreline. The shores of Laguna de Bay provide fishing grounds capable of producing of fish, or roughly two-thirds of the fresh water fish requirements of Metro Manila. Laguna has an estimated 300 million US gallons (1,100,000 m3) of underground water. At least seven principal water basins in the province with a total of drainage area and level area provide an estimated total run-off annually. There are two major watershed reserves in Laguna, the Malabanban Cabunsod Watershed Forest Reserve in San Pablo, and the Caliraya-Lumot River Watershed Forest Reserve, which spans the municipalities of Paete, Cavinti, Kalayaan, and Lumban. Overall, these two watersheds span an area of . Laguna has a relatively small mining industry compared to the other provinces in the region, with only 11 non-metallic mines registered in the region, and only 8 of which are operating. These mines are found in Santa Cruz, Magdalena, Siniloan, Lumban, and San Pablo. A total of are used for mining purposes. Aggregates make up the largest amount in Laguna's mineral industry, with a value of PHP 16,995,923. Overall, Laguna's mining economy contributes 8.87% to the region's total mining economy. Agricultural activities Laguna has of alienable and disposable agricultural land. About or 23.44% of Laguna's total land area is forest land. In 2002, there were 38,445 farms in Laguna. The top five crops produced in Laguna are rice, maize, coconuts, mangoes, and bananas. Other crops grown in the province include Robusta coffee, pineapple, lanzones, rambutan, and sugarcane. Calamba was once the site of a sugar cane mill, although the decline of the sugar industry during the 1970s and 1980s resulted in its eventual shutdown. Rice farming is an important part of Laguna's agriculture, with approximately of land used for cultivating of rice. Los Baños is also the site of multiple research institutions specializing in rice, such as the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), the ASEAN Center for Biodiversity (ACB) and the Southeast Asian Regional center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), among others. Laguna de Bay, with a surface area of , is the province's main fishing ground producing of fish. Carp and tilapia fingerlings are also being grown in inland ponds and freshwater fish pens. There are a total of 457 operators utilizing an area of for fish pens and fish cages. Aside from the Laguna de Bay, approximately 12% of the area in the Seven Lakes of San Pablo is being used for aquaculture. Industry and commerce Laguna is home to twenty-one economic zones as registered under the Philippine Economic Zone Authority. Most of these economic zones are located in Santa Rosa, Biñan, and Calamba. The largest economic zone in Laguna is the Laguna Technopark, located in Santa Rosa and Biñan, with an area of . Laguna is home to a large automotive industry, with Toyota Motor Philippines, Nissan Motor Philippines, Honda Philippines Incorporated, and Mitsubishi Motors Philippines all having plants in Santa Rosa. Laguna has a growing business process outsourcing industry, with companies such as IBM and Convergys establishing offices in Santa Rosa. PEZA lists 4 IT parks and 1 IT Center in Laguna. Business districts and shopping malls continues to arise bringing opportunities and attractive places to dine and relax. Infrastructure Road network Laguna has a total of of national roads, all paved. Daang Maharlika (Route 1, AH26), Calamba–Pagsanjan Road (Route 66) and Manila East Road (Route 601, Route 602, Route 603), and Bay–Calauan–San Pablo Road (Route 67), form the highway network backbone, and secondary and tertiary national roads interconnect most municipalities, with Magdalena only connected by provincial road. Provincial roads serves as a supplement to the national roads, and connects barangays and municipalities not connected to the main network. The highway network is interconnected with nearby provinces and Metro Manila. The South Luzon Expressway (SLEx) passes through Laguna. The Cavite–Laguna Expressway begins in Mamplasan, Biñan and aims to connect the province with Cavite. A public-private partnership initiative of the national government include plans to build a circumferential road along Laguna de Bay shoreline, the Laguna de Bay Flood Control Dike Expressway (or C-6 Extension), from San Pedro to Siniloan. Some of the proposed road networks include the Calamba-Los Baños Expressway. Power Three power generating plants are operating in the province. Botocan Hydro-electric Plant (25MW) — Majayjay Caliraya Hydro-electric Plant (23.5 MW) — Kalayaan Mak-Ban Geothermal Plant (20MW) — Bay Meralco, the main electricity distributor of Metro Manila, has also the franchise for most of Laguna. Most of the municipalities on the 4th District, however, are franchise areas of First Laguna Electric Cooperative (FLECO). Government The seat of the provincial government of Laguna is Santa Cruz, and has been the capital since 1858. Historically, the provincial government was seated in Bay (1581-1688) and Pagsanjan (1688-1858) before setting in Santa Cruz. The provincial government is organized under a governor and vice governor, as well as the Laguna Provincial Board. Laguna is divided to four districts for the purposes of electing members of the provincial board. On a municipal level, the province is governed by mayors and their own legislatures, the Sangguniang Panlungsod and Sangguniang Bayan for cities and municipalities, respectively. Each municipality is further composed for barangays, which are headed by a Punong Barangay and legislated by a Sangguniang Barangay. Provincial Government The governor of Laguna is Ramil Hernandez, who is a member of the Nacionalista Party. House of Representatives On the legislative level, the province is divided into six legislative districts, each of which elect their own representative to the House of Representatives. Of the five available seats for Laguna, 4 of them were won by members of the Liberal Party. The 3rd District was won by Sol Aragones, who is a member of the United Nationalist Alliance. The newest district, the Lone District of the City of Calamba, will have its first election in 2019. Arts and culture Laguna is a major contributor to the development of arts in the Philippines. Paete is known as the Woodcarving Capital of the Philippines for the murals found in the Saint James the Apostle Parish Church. The church houses three murals created by Luciano Dans depicting images of Heaven, Earth, and Hell, as well as other murals of Saint Christopher. Some of these murals, however, need restoration as they have been infested by termites. Manuel Baldemor is an internationally acclaimed woodcarver born in Paete. Another famous icon in Laguna is the Our Lady of Turumba, found in Pakil. Much like the rest of the country, Laguna celebrates multiple feasts and festivals throughout the year. Each barangay has their own fiesta in homage to a patron saint. Some of Laguna's famous festivals include the Turumba Festival in Pakil, the Pinya Festival in Calauan, and the Tsinelas Festival in Liliw. Tourism Laguna has a large tourist industry, owing to its historical and natural resources. The Department of Tourism currently accredits two hotels, one inn, six resorts, one establishment, one restaurant, four tour operations, four tour guides, and two museums in the province. Laguna also has a total of 239 accredited tourist attractions, the second largest in the region behind Batangas. Tourism in Laguna is large, although most of the visitors to tourist spots are foreigners, as opposed to other provinces in Calabarzon. Owing to its long history, Laguna has a host of sites that showcase the different periods of history in Laguna. The Rizal Shrine in Calamba is the ancestral home of the Philippines' national hero, Jose Rizal. Other historical sites include the Alberto House in Biñan, the Cuartel de Santo Domingo in Santa Rosa, the Pagsanjan Municipal Hall, the Pagsanjan Arch, the Nagcarlan Underground Cemetery, the ancestral homes and Pinagbayanan crematorium in Pila, Emilio Jacinto Shrine in Santa Cruz, the Baker Memorial Hall in UP Los Baños, and the Tipakan in Luisiana. Other historical markers include the Japanese Garden in Cavinti and the Homma-Yamashita Shrine in Los Baños, both of which commemorate the Japanese occupation of the Philippines during the Second World War, the memorial sites of the Battle of Sambat in Pagsanjan and the Battle of Mabitac in Mabitac, and the Bantayog ng Kagitingan, Bantayog ng mga Bayani, Trece Martires Monument, and the Bonifacio Monument in San Pablo. There are multiple historical and educational museums in Laguna in addition to its historical sites, such as the Pila Memorial Museum in Pila, the Salvador Laurel Museum and Library in San Pedro, the Museo de Santa Rosa in Santa Rosa, the Danilo Daleňa House of Paintings in Pakil, the Bahay Laguna in Magdalena, and the Monterola Museum in Nagcarlan. Los Baños is home to multiple museums, such as the IRRI Riceworld Museum, the Museum of Natural History, the Museum of the Wildlife Collections of Dr. Dioscoro Rabor, and the Entomology Museum. Laguna is home to some of the oldest churches in the Philippines, dating back to the end of the 16th century. The St. James the Apostle Parish Church in Paete, and the Saint Gregory the Great Parish Church in Majayjay are considered to be some of the oldest in the province, dating as far back as 1578 and 1571, respectively. Other historical churches in the provinces include the Saint Paul the First Hermit Cathedral in San Pablo, the Transfiguration of our Lord Parish Church in Cavinti, the Nuestra Señora de Candelaria Parish Church in Mabitac, the Immaculate Conception Parish Church in Los Baños, the Saint John the Baptist Church in Liliw, the St. John the Baptist Church in Calamba, where Rizal was baptized, the Saint Peter of Alcantara Parish Church in Pakil, which houses the Our Lady of Turumba painting, the Immaculate Conception Parish Church in Santa Cruz, St. Polycarp Church and the Diocesan Shrine of San Vicente Ferrer in Cabuyao, Santa Rose de Lima Parish Church in Santa Rosa, and the Diocesan Shrine of Jesus in the holy Sepulchre (Lolo Uweng) and the San Pedro Apostol Parish Church in San Pedro. Lolo Uweng Church was known as the Quiapo Church of the South. Laguna contains many natural tourist spots, owing to its geography and climate. Laguna is home to the Laguna Volcanic Field, a group of 200 volcanoes and maars. The highest feature of these fields is Mount Makiling, which is also considered to be a holy mountain. The Seven Lakes of San Pablo are also part of this field. The highest peak in Laguna is Mount Banahaw, which it shares with the province of Quezon. Laguna also features multiple waterfalls, such as the Pagsanjan Falls, the Buruwisan Falls in Siniloan, the Botocan and Taytay Falls in Majayjay, the Talon ng Aliw and the Hulugan Falls, both in Luisiana. Other attractions in the province include the Cavinti Underground River and Caves Complex, the Simbahang Bato in Luisiana, the Dalitiwan River in Majayjay, and the Crocodile Park in Los Baños. There are also multiple man-made tourist attractions and parks located in Laguna. The Enchanted Kingdom theme park is found in Santa Rosa and is accredited by the Department of Tourism. Other parks in Laguna include the Valesol Haven, the Boy Scouts of the Philippines Camp, the Maria Makiling Park, and the Makiling Botanical Garden, all found in Los Baños; the Wawa Park in Paete, and the Public Plaza of San Pablo. Calamba and Los Baños are famous for its resorts and hot springs, lending to it the title of Resort Capital of the Philippines. Other sites include the Turumba Swimming Pool in Pakil, the Caliraya Lake, Dagatan Boulevard in San Pablo, and the Sampaloc Lake Staircase. Education Education rates in Laguna are high. In 2010 there were approximately 2,382,512 out of 2,669,847 people having attained some form of education. The literacy rate of Laguna in 2000 was 96.22%. Most people in Laguna are high school graduates, while most overseas workers from Laguna have a college degree. There are 586 public schools in Laguna, composed of 458 public schools and 128 secondary schools. The city of San Pablo has the greatest number of public schools with 79, while the municipality of Rizal has the least with four. Laguna is home to multiple schools and universities. There are an estimated 18 universities and 37 colleges in the province. There are 3 state universities in Laguna with a total of 11 campuses: Laguna State Polytechnic University, Pamantasan ng Cabuyao, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, and the University of the Philippines Los Baños. UPLB is also one of the oldest universities in the Philippines, having been established in 1909. The International Rice Research Institute can be found within the UPLB campus and is known internationally for its work in developing rice technologies. There are also multiple private colleges in Laguna. Some colleges and universities with main campuses in Metro Manila have also established satellite campuses in Laguna, such as Lyceum of the Philippines University-Laguna, De La Salle University – Laguna Campus, Colegio San Agustin, San Sebastian College – Recoletos, Colegio de San Juan de Letran, Malayan Colleges Laguna, and National University Laguna. Most recently, the University of Santo Tomas and University of the East have announced that they will establish their respective campus in Santa Rosa. Notable alumni from colleges in Laguna include Teodoro Casiño, a former member of the House of Representatives; Eduardo Cojuangco Jr., the chairman of San Miguel Corporation; and Jerrold Tarog, film director. Notable people National heroes and patriots José Rizal – writer, propagandist, national hero of the Philippines (Calamba City) Pedro Pelaez – educator, priest, known as the Father of Filipinization of the Church (Pagsanjan) Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista – lawyer and author of the Declaration of Philippine Independence (Biñan) Paciano Rizal – military general and revolutionary; older brother of José Rizal (Calamba City) Agueda Kahabagan – Filipina general of the Philippine Revolutionary Army (Santa Cruz) Fernando Canon – Filipino revolutionary general, poet, inventor, engineer, musician (Biñan) Vicente Lim – World War II general (Calamba City) Delfina Herbosa de Natividad – one of the three women, together with Marcela Agoncillo and her daughter Lorenza, who seamed together the Flag of the Philippines. Niece of José Rizal. (Calamba City) Trinidad Rizal – feminist leader and co-founder of the Philippines' first feminist organization, the Asociacion Femenista Filipina. (Calamba City) Saturnina Rizal Hidalgo – José Rizal's eldest sister (Calamba City) Salud Algabre – Filipina leader of the Sakdal movement. (Cabuyao) Rizalina Ilagan – anti-martial law activist that was abducted by state security agents and disappeared with nine other activists in what is believed to be the single biggest case of involuntary disappearance during Ferdinand Marcos’ martial law in the Philippines that later came to be known as the Southern Tagalog 10.(Los Baños) Sciences Encarnacion Alzona – National Scientist of the Philippines for Philippine History (Biñan) Dioscoro L. Umali – National Scientist of the Philippines for Agriculture and Rural Development (Biñan) Eduardo Quisumbing – National Scientist of the Philippines for Plant Taxonomy, Systematics, and Morphology (Santa Cruz) Ricardo Lantican – National Scientist of the Philippines for Plant Breeding (Los Baños) Dolores Ramirez – National Scientist of the Philippines for Biochemical Genetics & Cytogenetics (Calamba City) Bienvenido O. Juliano – National Scientist of the Philippines for Biochemistry (Calamba City) Gelia Tagumpay Castillo – National Scientist of the Philippines for Rural Sociology (Pagsanjan) Emil Q. Javier, National Scientist of the Philippines for Agriculture, and 17th President of the University of the Philippines (Santa Cruz) José Fabella - Filipino physician and a public health advocate, Father of Public Health and Social Welfare in the Philippines. (Pagsanjan) Jose Juliano – Filipino nuclear physicist and chemist (Calamba City) Francisco E. Baisas – entomologist regarded as the "Dean of Philippine Culicidologists" (Paete) Aloysius Baes – environmental chemist, environmental and pro-democracy activist, educator, and musician (Los Baños) Gregorio F. Zaide – historian, author, known as the Dean of Filipino Historiographers (Pagsanjan) Leandro H. Fernandez - educator, author, and historian (Pagsanjan) Alfredo E. Evangelista – archaeologist (San Pedro) Arts Marcelo Adonay – Filipino church composer, musician, organist, musical director, and music teacher (Pakil) José Maceda – National Artist of the Philippines for Music ( Pila) Jonas Baes – composer ( Los Baños) Celso Ad. Castillo – film director and screenwriter. (Siniloan) Celso Al. Carunungan – writer, novelist, and film scriptwriter (San Pablo) Bonifacio Ilagan – playwright, screenwriter, filmmaker, journalist, editor, and activist (Los Baños) Frank G. Rivera – playwright, actor and production designer. (Paete) Edgar Calabia Samar – poet and novelist. ( San Pablo) Tony Mabesa – stage director, film and television actor, and professor. (Los Baños) Louie Ignacio – TV director (Pagsanjan) Gerry Alanguilan – comic book artist, writer, and architect (San Pablo) Manuel Baldemor – painter, sculptor, printmaker, writer and book illustrator (Paete) Nena Saguil – modernist and abstract art painter ( Santa Cruz) Danilo Echavaria Dalena - modern and contemporary painter. (Pakil) Maria Carpena – stage actress and soprano singer. She was the first recording artist in the Philippine music industry. She was also dubbed as the country's “Nightingale of Zarzuela”. (Santa Rosa) HaveYouSeenThisGirl – author of the books Diary ng Panget, Voiceless and She Died ( San Pablo) Religion Dalisay Lazaga – Roman Catholic nun and Servant of God (Santa Rosa) Leo M. Drona – Catholic Priest. Second Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of San Jose (Nueva Ecija) and Third Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of San Pablo, Laguna. (Pangil) Politics and Government Ernesto Maceda – 15th President of the Senate of the Philippines, columnist, and lawyer (Pagsanjan) Pedro Guevara – former senator and former Resident Commissioner to the U.S. House of Representatives from the Philippine Islands (Santa Cruz) Alexander Gesmundo – 27th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines (San Pablo) Estanislao Fernandez – 88th Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines and former senator (Liliw) Lorenzo Relova – 103rd Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines.(Pila) Conrado M. Vasquez – first Ombudsman of the Philippines and 102nd Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines. (Biñan) Arturo Brion – 161st Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines. and 26th Secretary of the Department of Labor and Employment (San Pablo) Conrado Benitez - statesman, writer, educator, and was one of the drafters of the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines. (Pagsanjan) Crispin Oben – lawyer, member of the First Philippine Assembly (Lumban) Joey Lina – 15th Governor of Laguna, 20th Secretary of the Interior and Local Government, and former senator (Victoria) Cielito Habito – economist, professor, former NEDA Director-General (Cabuyao) Benjamin Madrigal Jr. – 51st Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (Los Baños) ER Ejercito – 17th Governor of Laguna, Actor, and Former Mayor of Pagsanjan (Pagsanjan) Liza Maza – former Gabriela Partylist and Bayan Muna Partylist Representative (San Pablo) Sol Aragones – former news reporter and host of ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs, incumbent legislator (San Pablo) Sports and Beauty Pageants Anthony Villanueva – boxer, 1964 Summer Olympics silver medalist (Cabuyao) Ariella Arida – fashion model, television personality, Miss Universe-Philippines 2013, Miss Universe 2013 3rd Runner-up ( Alaminos) Ronato Alcano – professional pool player (Calamba City) Maybelline Masuda – Filipino Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu practitioner (Calamba City) Jema Galanza – volleyball player ( San Pedro) John Vic De Guzman – volleyball player and actor (Calamba City) Entertainment Jake Zyrus, singer (Cabuyao) Didith Reyes, actress, singer Rico Blanco, singer, songwriter Julia Clarete, host, singer, actress Sabrina, singer Karylle, It's Showtime host, actress, daughter of Zsa Zsa Padilla Jessie Lasaten, film composer, musical scorer Pat Lasaten, film composer, musical scorer and arranger, keyboardist of Ben&Ben Mario Montenegro, actor Bayani Casimiro, tap dancer Dencio Padilla, actor and comedian. Palito – Filipino comedian and actor (Calamba City) Teody Belarmino – Filipino film actor (Calamba City) Alden Richards, model and actor Angeli Gonzales, actress Alfie Anido, actor, matinee idol Paw Diaz, actress, model, TV host Dion Ignacio, actor C. J. Muere, actor Ronnie Alonte, actor, singer, dancer, It's Showtime, Hashtags member Jane De Leon, It's Showtime GirlTrend member, Actress. Led Sobrepeña III, singer of The Singing Bee, actor, and comedian Sabrina Man, child actress Princess Snell, actress Halina Perez, model, actress Carmina Villaroel, actress Charo Ronquillo, fashion model Charlene Almarvez, fashion model Barbie Forteza, actress, model Joan Da, Finalist of the X Factor Philippines Thea Tolentino, female winner of GMA Network's Protégé Season 2 (Calamba City) Jeric Gonzales, male winner of GMA Network's Protégé Season 2 (Calamba City) Zephanie Dimaranan, an Idol Philippines Grand Winner, singer, recording artist Jak Roberto, actor, model Sanya Lopez, actress, model Stephanie Retuya, contestant and runner-up in Asia's Next Top Model (cycle 1) Other Personalities Flor Contemplacion, domestic worker (San Pablo) See also Campaigns of the Philippine–American War Laguna Lake Development Authority Roman Catholic Diocese of San Pablo Legislative districts of Laguna References External links Official Website of the Province of Laguna 1571 establishments in the 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216781	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni%20Battista%20Tiepolo	Giovanni Battista Tiepolo	Giovanni Battista Tiepolo ( , ; March 5, 1696 – March 27, 1770), also known as Giambattista (or Gianbattista) Tiepolo, was an Italian painter and printmaker from the Republic of Venice who painted in the Rococo style, considered an important member of the 18th-century Venetian school. He was prolific, and worked not only in Italy, but also in Germany and Spain. Giovan Battista Tiepolo, together with Giambattista Pittoni, Canaletto, Giovan Battista Piazzetta, Giuseppe Maria Crespi, and Francesco Guardi are considered the traditional Old Masters of that period. Successful from the beginning of his career, he has been described by Michael Levey as "the greatest decorative painter of eighteenth-century Europe, as well as its most able craftsman." Biography Early life (1696–1726) Born in Venice, he was the youngest of six children of Domenico and Orsetta Tiepolo. His father was a small shipping merchant who belonged to a family that bore the prestigious patrician name of Tiepolo without claiming any noble descent. Some of the children acquired noble godparents, and Giambattista was originally named after his godfather, a Venetian nobleman called Giovanni Battista Dorià. He was baptised on 16 April 1696 in the local church, San Pietro di Castello (then still officially the cathedral of Venice). His father died about a year later, leaving his mother to bring up a family of young children, presumably in somewhat difficult circumstances. In 1710 he became a pupil of Gregorio Lazzarini, a successful painter with an eclectic style. He was, though, at least equally strongly influenced by his study of the works of other contemporary artists such as Sebastiano Ricci and Giovanni Battista Piazzetta and those of his Venetian predecessors, especially Tintoretto and Veronese. A biography of his teacher, published in 1732, says that Tiepolo "departed from [Lazzarini's] studied manner of painting, and, all spirit and fire, embraced a quick and resolute style". His earliest known works are depictions of the apostles, painted in spandrels as part of the decoration of the church of the Ospedoletto in Venice in 1715–6. At about the same time he became painter to the Doge, Giovanni II Cornaro, and oversaw the hanging of pictures at his palace, as well as painting many works himself, of which only two portraits have been identified. He painted his first fresco in 1716, on the ceiling of a church at Biadene, near Treviso. He probably left Lazzarini's studio in 1717, the year he was received into the Fraglia or guild of painters. In around 1719–20 he painted a scheme of frescoes for the wealthy, and recently ennobled, publisher Giambattista Baglione in the hall of his villa at Massanzago near Padua. Tiepolo depicted the Triumph of Aurora on the ceiling, and the Myth of Phaethon on the walls, creating the kind of fluid spatial illusion which was to become a recurring theme in his work. In 1722 he was one of twelve artists commissioned to contribute a painting on canvas of one of the apostles as part of a decorative scheme for the nave of San Stae in Venice. The other artists involved included Ricci, Piazetta, and Pellegrini. Marriage and children In 1719, Tiepolo married noblewoman Maria Cecilia Guardi, sister of two contemporary Venetian painters, Francesco and Giovanni Antonio Guardi. Tiepolo and his wife had nine children, of whom four daughters and three sons survived to adulthood. Two of his sons, Domenico and Lorenzo, painted with him as his assistants and later achieved some independent recognition, in particular Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo. His children painted figures with a design similar to that of their father, but with distinctive, including genre, styles. His third son became a priest. Fabio Canal, Francesco Lorenzi, and Domenico Pasquini were among his pupils. Early mature work (1726–1750) Some major commissions came from the patrician Dolfin family. Dionisio Dolfin, the Archbishop of Udine in Friuli employed him to decorate a chapel in the cathedral at Udine, and then to paint another cycle depicting episodes from the lives of Abraham and his descendants from the Book of Genesis at his archiepiscopal palace (the "Arcivescovado") (completed 1726–1728). Despite their elevated subject matter, they are bright in colour, and light-hearted in mood: Michael Levey describes the paintings at the palace as "a shimmering set of tableaux, full of wit and elegance". Tiepolo used a much cooler palette than previous Venetian painters, in order to create a convincing effect of daylight. His first masterpieces in Venice were a cycle of ten enormous canvases painted to decorate a large reception room of Ca' Dolfin on the Grand Canal of Venice (ca. 1726–1729), depicting battles and triumphs from the history of ancient Rome. These early masterpieces, innovative amongst Venetian frescoes for their luminosity, brought him many commissions. He painted canvases for churches such as that of Verolanuova (1735–1740), for the Scuola dei Carmini (1740–1747), in Cannaregio, a ceiling for the Palazzi Archinto and Casati-Dugnani in Milan (1731), the Colleoni Chapel in Bergamo (1732–1733), a ceiling for the Gesuati (Santa Maria del Rosario) in Venice of St. Dominic Instituting the Rosary (1737–1739), Palazzo Clerici, Milan (1740), decorations for Villa Cordellina Molin, a ceiling for the Chiesa degli Scalzi (1743–1744; now destroyed (reconstitution : ), Villa Cordellina, at Montecchio Maggiore (1743–1744) and for the ballroom of the Palazzo Labia in Venice (now a television studio), showing the Story of Cleopatra (1745–1750). Etchings Tiepolo produced two sets of etchings, the Capricci (c. 1740–1742) and the Scherzi di fantasia (c. 1743–1757). The ten capricci were first published by Anton Maria Zanetti, incorporated into the third edition of a compilation of woodcuts after Parmigiano. They were not published separately until 1785. The subject matter is often bizarre and fantastical, and the works owe a lot to the example of Salvator Rosa and Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione. The 23 Scherzi were etched over more than ten years and privately circulated, only being commercially published after Tiepolo's death, with numbers and titles added by his son, Giandomenico. Subjects include mysterious Eastern figures, and, in some of the later prints, scenes of necromancy. Würzburg Residenz (1750–1753) By 1750, Tiepolo's reputation was firmly established throughout Europe, with the help of his friend Francesco Algarotti, an art dealer, critic and collector. That year, at the behest of Prince Bishop Karl Philip von Greiffenklau, he traveled to Würzburg where he arrived in November 1750. He remained there for three years during which he executed ceiling paintings in the New Residenz palace (completed 1744). He frescoed the Kaisersaal salon in collaboration with his sons Giandomenico and Lorenzo and was then invited to deliver a design for the grandiose entrance staircase (Treppenhaus) designed by Balthasar Neumann. It is a massive ceiling fresco at , and was completed in November 1753. His Allegory of the Planets and Continents depicts Apollo embarking on his daily course; deities around him symbolize the planets; allegorical figures (on the cornice) represent the four continents. He included several portraits in the Europe section of this fresco, including a self-portrait; one of his son Giandomenico; one of the prince-bishop von Greiffenklau; one of the painter Antonio Bossi; and one of the architect, Balthasar Neumann. Return to Venice and the Veneto (1753–1770) Tiepolo returned to Venice in 1753. He was now in demand locally, as well as abroad where he was elected President of the Academy of Padua. He went on to complete theatrical frescoes for churches; the Triumph of Faith for the Chiesa della Pietà; panel frescos for Ca' Rezzonico (which now also houses his ceiling fresco from the Palazzo Barbarigo); and paintings for patrician villas in the Venetian countryside, such as Villa Valmarana in Vicenza and an elaborate panegyric ceiling for the Villa Pisani in Stra. In some celebrated frescoes at the Palazzo Labia, he depicted two scenes from the life of Cleopatra: Meeting of Anthony and Cleopatra and Banquet of Cleopatra, as well as, in a central ceiling fresco, the Triumph of Bellerophon over Time. Here he collaborated with Girolamo Mengozzi Colonna. This connection with Colonna, who also designed sets for opera, highlights the increasing tendency towards composition as a staged fiction in Tiepolo's frescoes. The architecture of the Banquet fresco also recalls that of Veronese's Wedding at Cana. In 1757, he painted an altar piece for the Thiene family, representing the apotheosis of Saint Cajetan. It is in the church of hamlet of Rampazzo in the Camisano Vicentino. Madrid In 1761, Charles III commissioned Tiepolo to create a ceiling fresco to decorate the throne room of the Royal Palace of Madrid. The panegyric theme is the Apotheosis of Spain and has allegorical depictions recalling the dominance of Spain in the Americas and across the globe. He also painted two other ceilings in the palace, and carried out many private commissions in Spain.However he suffered from the jealousy and the bitter opposition of the rising champion of Neoclassicism, Anton Raphael Mengs; at the instigation of Mengs' supporter, the King's confessor Joaquim de Electa, had Tiepolo's series of canvases for the church of S. Pascual at Aranjuez replaced by works by his favourite. Tiepolo died in Madrid on March 27, 1770. After his death, the rise of a stern Neoclassicism and the post-revolutionary decline of absolutism led to the slow decline of the Rococo style associated with his name, but failed to dent his reputation. In 1772, Tiepolo's son was sufficiently respected to be painter to Doge Giovanni II Cornaro, in charge of the decoration of Palazzo Mocenigo in the sestiere of San Polo, Venice. Gallery List of works Paintings before 1740 Works from 1740–1750 Works after 1750 References Sources Further reading Aldo Rizzi, Il Tiepolo all'Arcivescovado di Udine, Milano 1965. Aldo Rizzi, Tiepolo a Udine, Milano 1969. Aldo Rizzi, le acqueforti dei Tiepolo, Milano, 1970. Aldo Rizzi, La grafica del Tiepolo: le acqueforti, Milano 1971. Aldo Rizzi, La mostra del Tiepolo, Milano 1971. Aldo Rizzi, Giambattista Tiepolo, Milano 1990. Aldo Rizzi, I Tiepolo a Udine, Milano 1996. Adelheid M. Gealt and George Knox, Domenico Tiepolo: A New Testament, Bloomington, IN, Indiana UP, 2006. Christiansen, Keith. Giambattista Tiepolo, 1696–1770, New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1996. . Boorsch, Suzanne. Venetian prints and books in the age of Tiepolo, New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1997. . External links Udine, IT, Tiepolo's city Many works by Tiepolo Works in Udine Short biography Illustrated biography and discussion of famous works Aldo Rizzi References to Giambattista Tiepolo in European historic newspapers 1696 births 1770 deaths 18th-century Italian painters Italian male painters Italian printmakers Italian Baroque painters Rococo painters 18th-century Venetian people Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia faculty Catholic painters Catholic etchers	[ 0.43060120940208435, -0.05388021469116211, -0.10202358663082123, 0.02288890816271305, 0.5967604517936707, 0.682548463344574, -0.3407772481441498, -0.24183990061283112, -1.4506583213806152, -0.533366858959198, -0.3771187663078308, 0.151261106133461, -0.7244586944580078, 0.03995379060506821, -0.1348588913679123, -0.4289209544658661, 0.8034846186637878, -0.14033478498458862, -0.6687926650047302, -0.24040809273719788, -0.2935529947280884, -0.2718101739883423, -0.17482957243919373, 0.15778954327106476, -0.5045503377914429, 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216783	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycome	Glycome	The glycome is the entire complement of sugars, whether free or present in more complex molecules, of an organism. An alternative definition is the entirety of carbohydrates in a cell. The glycome may in fact be one of the most complex entities in nature. "Glycomics, analogous to genomics and proteomics, is the systematic study of all glycan structures of a given cell type or organism" and is a subset of glycobiology. "Carbohydrate", "glycan", "saccharide", and "sugar" are generic terms used interchangeably in this context and includes monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and derivatives of these compounds. Carbohydrates consist of “hydrated carbon”, i.e. [CH2O]n. Monosaccharides are a carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler carbohydrate and are the building blocks of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Oligosaccharides are linear or branched chains of monosaccharides attached to one another via glycosidic linkages. The number of monosaccharide units can vary. Polysaccharides are glycans composed of repeating monosaccharides, generally greater than ten monosaccharide units in length. The glycome exceeds the complexity of the proteome as a result of the even greater diversity of the glycome's constituent carbohydrates and is further complicated by the sheer multiplicity of possibilities in the combination and interaction of the carbohydrates with each other and with proteins. "The spectrum of all glycan structures — the glycome — is immense. In humans, its size is orders of magnitude greater than the number of proteins that are encoded by the genome, one percent of which encodes proteins that make, modify, localize or bind sugar chains, which are known as glycans." The outer surface of the cell is a sea of lipids with a fleet of sugar molecules, many of which are attached to proteins, fats or both, that interact with molecules outside the cell and are critical for the communication between cells and the stickiness of a cell. "Glycans are nature's biologic modifiers," says Jamey Marth, a Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator at the University of California San Diego."Glycans generally don't turn physiologic processes on and off, rather they modify the behavior of the cell by responding to external stimuli." See also Glycomics Cell adhesion Glycolipid Glycoprotein List of omics topics in biology Tools used for research on glycome The following are examples of the commonly used techniques in glycan analysis: High-resolution mass spectrometry (MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) The most commonly applied methods are MS and HPLC, in which the glycan part is cleaved either enzymatically or chemically from the target and subjected to analysis. In case of glycolipids, they can be analyzed directly without separation of the lipid component. N-glycans from glycoproteins are analyzed routinely by high-performance-liquid-chromatography (reversed phase, normal phase and ion exchange HPLC) after tagging the reducing end of the sugars with a fluorescent compound (reductive labeling). A large variety of different labels were introduced in the recent years, where 2-aminobenzamide (AB), anthranilic acid (AA), 2-aminopyridin (PA), 2-aminoacridone (AMAC) and 3-(acetylamino)-6-aminoacridine (AA-Ac) are just a few of them. O-glycans are usually analysed without any tags, due to the chemical release conditions preventing them to be labeled. Fractionated glycans from high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) instruments can be further analyzed by MALDI-TOF-MS(MS) to get further information about structure and purity. Sometimes glycan pools are analyzed directly by mass spectrometry without prefractionation, although a discrimination between isobaric glycan structures is more challenging or even not always possible. Anyway, direct MALDI-TOF-MS analysis can lead to a fast and straightforward illustration of the glycan pool. In recent years, high performance liquid chromatography online coupled to mass spectrometry became very popular. By choosing porous graphitic carbon as a stationary phase for liquid chromatography, even non derivatized glycans can be analyzed. Detection is here done by mass spectrometry, but in instead of MALDI-MS, electrospray ionisation (ESI) is more frequently used. Multiple Reaction Monitoring (MRM) Although MRM has been used extensively in metabolomics and proteomics, its high sensitivity and linear response over a wide dynamic range make it especially suited for glycan biomarker research and discovery. MRM is performed on a triple quadrupole (QqQ) instrument, which is set to detect a predetermined precursor ion in the first quadrupole, a fragmented in the collision quadrupole, and a predetermined fragment ion in the third quadrupole. It is a non-scanning technique, wherein each transition is detected individually and the detection of multiple transitions occurs concurrently in duty cycles. This technique is being used to characterize the immune glycome. Table 1:Advantages and disadvantages of mass spectrometry in glycan analysis Arrays Lectin and antibody arrays provide high-throughput screening of many samples containing glycans. This method uses either naturally occurring lectins or artificial monoclonal antibodies, where both are immobilized on a certain chip and incubated with a fluorescent glycoprotein sample. Glycan arrays, like that offered by the Consortium for Functional Glycomics and Z Biotech LLC, contain carbohydrate compounds that can be screened with lectins or antibodies to define carbohydrate specificity and identify ligands. Metabolic and covalent labeling of glycans Metabolic labeling of glycans can be used as a way to detect glycan structures. A well known strategy involves the use of azide-labeled sugars which can be reacted using the Staudinger ligation. This method has been used for in vitro and in vivo imaging of glycans. Tools for glycoproteins X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for complete structural analysis of complex glycans is a difficult and complex field. However, the structure of the binding site of numerous lectins, enzymes and other carbohydrate-binding proteins has revealed a wide variety of the structural basis for glycome function. The purity of test samples have been obtained through chromatography (affinity chromatography etc.) and analytical electrophoresis (PAGE (polyacrylamide electrophoresis), capillary electrophoresis, affinity electrophoresis, etc.). Sources and notes Further reading Bio-IT World a periodical covering glycomics (A proposal to base the glycome project on Caenorhabditis elegans, a microscopic worm, whose entire genome is already sequenced) 'GlycoChip' Carolyn Bertozzi's Seminar: "Chemical Glycobiology" External links Glycomics	[ -0.07098695635795593, 0.15234902501106262, 0.11390369385480881, 0.2822524905204773, -0.2187972068786621, -0.10338275134563446, 0.044085048139095306, -0.01722043566405773, -0.17950479686260223, -0.5396237373352051, 0.039162129163742065, 0.1496395766735077, -0.47361546754837036, 0.4807736277580261, -0.2158513367176056, 0.5113993883132935, 0.7084839344024658, 0.7904612421989441, -0.3272063136100769, -0.22233985364437103, -0.6066552400588989, -0.20298714935779572, 0.19890375435352325, -0.2658769488334656, 0.6564884781837463, -0.37400001287460327, -0.09722420573234558, 0.26696062088012695, 0.5321047902107239, 0.05971963703632355, -0.20024943351745605, 0.4729907810688019, -0.026150930672883987, 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216784	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church%20Stretton	Church Stretton	Church Stretton is a market town in Shropshire, England, south of Shrewsbury and north of Ludlow. The population in 2011 was 4,671. The town was nicknamed Little Switzerland in the late Victorian and Edwardian period for its landscape, and became a health resort. The local geology includes some of the oldest rocks in England and a notable fault is named after the town. Today, Church Stretton is a busy market town in the Shropshire Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. History People have lived in the Stretton Gap (or Dale) for thousands of years; an Iron Age hillfort on Caer Caradoc overlooks the town. The name "Stretton" is derived from the Old English words stræt meaning "Roman road" and tun meaning "settlement"; a Roman road, Watling Street runs through the Stretton Gap, though the town (and adjacent settlements) were not historically located on this road – during the "Dark Ages" the settlements grew a short distance away from the old thoroughfare, for defensive purposes. Today the modern A49 road, which was constructed on its current alignment through the Stretton Gap in the late 1930s, runs along a similar course to the Roman Road. The Roman road was historically known as Botte Street. The settlements of Little Stretton, Church Stretton and All Stretton (until the late 19th century regarded as separate townships) formed the manor of Stretton or Stretton-en-le-Dale. The Domesday Book of 1086 recorded 35 households and a mill in the manor. Church Stretton became the largest of the settlements, with the manor's parish church and market located there, and being where Bristol Road had a junction with the road to Much Wenlock and the Burway – a route over the Long Mynd. At the time of the Domesday Book, the manor came under the hundred of Culvestan, a Saxon hundred that was amalgamated during the reign of Henry I — the Strettons then came within the upper division of the hundred of Munslow. The town was first granted a market charter by King John in 1214, for a weekly market on Wednesdays, but by 1253 the market day had changed to Tuesdays. In 1337 a new charter was granted by Edward III and it authorised a weekly market to be held on Thursdays. The market is still held every Thursday, in the square on the High Street, which has been the town's market place since the 13th century. Much of the town was destroyed by fire in 1593 and many of the present half timbered buildings in the town centre date from the time of the rebuilding. The High Street was for many centuries known instead as the Bristol Road, being the road from Shrewsbury to Bristol. It was once a much wider street within the town, with the churchyard of St Laurence bordering directly onto the street. Over time buildings were erected on the street, in a similar fashion to other English market towns, such as in Ludlow. The High Street, which is a narrow street, is effectively only the eastern side of the original Bristol Road thoroughfare through the town. It was made more open when the old market hall was demolished to form the present town square. 18th century Carding Mill Valley Historically the town was known for its textiles, using the abundant local wool, and a notable location for this industry was Carding Mill Valley (). The carding mill there was built in the eighteenth century, and named after a stage in making cloth, the three stages being carding, spinning and weaving. Carding would have been done by children, and involved using a hand-card that removed and untangled short fibres from the mass of raw material. The cards were wooden blocks with handles and covered in metal spikes, which were angled (to make it easier to untangle) and set in leather. When untangled, the material would be spun, and then woven into the final product. The carding mill closed and was demolished at the beginning of the twentieth century, though the adjacent factory building remains in the valley today. The valley it is in took the name "Carding Mill Valley", and is now a tourist attraction and well-known starting location for walkers (being at the heart of the Long Mynd range). Those who follow the valley to its summit are greeted by the sight of the lightspout waterfall. The valley is owned (along with the entire hill range) by the National Trust, who have a visitor centre there. The mill building itself has been converted into flats and a number of other private houses exist near it and the visitor centre, forming a small settlement in the valley. Vehicles (and therefore most visitors) have to drive up from the town, from Shrewsbury Road, to access the valley. Cars may drive as far as the car park situated about a mile up the valley. This car park was at one time an open-air swimming pool. A sign indicating water depth still stands in its original position. Victorian and Edwardian times Church Stretton was nicknamed "Little Switzerland" in late-Victorian and Edwardian times, because of its surroundings and the way many houses hug the hillside. Church Stretton railway station opened on 20 April 1852 as part of the newly created Shrewsbury and Hereford Railway. It was originally to the north of (what is now known as) Sandford Avenue and the old station building still remains, but is no longer in railway use. Sandford Avenue had been for centuries called Lake Lane and became Station Road with the arrival of the railway in the town, before becoming Sandford Avenue in 1884. In 1914 the railway station was moved just to the south of the Sandford Avenue road bridge, where it continues to the present day. New railway station buildings were built, but these were demolished in 1970, the station having become unstaffed in 1967. Local property developer Ralph Beaumont Benson (1862–1911), who lived at Lutwyche Hall in nearby Easthope, is responsible for the naming of Easthope Road, Essex Road (after his wife), Beaumont Road and Lutwyche Road, all in the centre of the town and part of the town's expansion in the early twentieth century. Long Mynd Hotel The Long Mynd Hotel on Cunnery Road opened in 1901, originally as "The Hydropathic Hotel" (or "the Hydro"), at a time when the town was popular as a spa. Today it continues as a hotel and has a number of features and activities in its woodland grounds; it is also a wedding and conference venue. In 2012 it was sold by the local Chapman family (who ran it since 1977) to 'HF Holidays', a national company. Mid-twentieth century During and just after the Second World War, from 1940 to 1946, St Dunstan's (now Blind Veterans UK) was based in the town. The charitable service (for blinded armed forces personnel) was moved from Sussex as Church Stretton was thought to be a safe location. Some 700 people were trained during this period in Church Stretton in an industrial training centre set up at a malthouse in Sandford Avenue. The Long Mynd Hotel, the Denehurst Hotel, the Brockhurst Estate and Tiger Hall were the most notable buildings taken over by St Dunstan's in the town. A residential cul-de-sac is named St Dunstan's Close in recognition of the charity's place in the town's history. The Long Mynd was considered to be a potential landing place for German parachutists, although Church Stretton avoided the aerial bombing of the war; the only death recorded in the district by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission of a civilian war casualty was of a Firewatcher from Manchester who died while being treated at the St Dunstan's Hospital. Late 20th century A small market hall stood on the High Street but was demolished in July 1963 and the site has become a town square, and is still used to hold markets on. The first market hall – a timber-framed construction – was built in 1617; this was replaced by the second market hall (called the Town Hall) in 1839, which was a stone and red-brick construction. Today the Silvester Horne Institute (extended and refurbished in 2011) is the town's main meeting place for societies, polling, public meetings and exhibitions. Additionally there is the Mayfair Community Centre on Easthope Road and the St Laurence's Parish Hall on Church Street. In recent years volunteer members of the Community Group have transformed Church Stretton into the Town of Flags: thanks to local grants they have purchased over 120 flags – English, Union and foreign – and these are regularly flown in the town centre on special occasions throughout the year. Conservation Most of the town centre and large parts of the town both to the east and to the west of the A49, including Carding Mill Valley, is covered by the Church Stretton Conservation Area. The Conservation Area contains all of the town's Listed buildings and smaller structures, approximately 40 in total. St Laurence's Church is Grade I listed. Population At the 2011 census, the parish's population was 4,671. The population of Church Stretton parish (including All Stretton, Little Stretton and Minton) was recorded in official UK censuses as being: The population remained steady between 1841 and 1901, but then boomed in the first two decades of the 20th century as the town became a desirable rural retreat. Another spate of growth occurred in the period 1931–1951. Since then there has been unremarkable growth, with some expansion in the 1970s and '80s and more recently in the 2000s. Geography Church Stretton is located approximately south of Shropshire's county town, Shrewsbury. The town is dominated by the surrounding hills, including the huge Long Mynd massif to the west, and Caer Caradoc and the adjacent hills (Hazler, Ragleth, et al.) to the east. Church Stretton effectively lies at a saddle point – the railway station lies roughly at this position, which is at above sea level. The High Street through the town centre runs at an elevation of 636 feet. Because of its position at a saddle point, water drains away from the town in two directions – towards the north (to the Cound and then the Severn) and towards the south (to the Onny and then the Teme) – roughly Sandford Avenue in the town centre forms the watershed. Parts of the town are subject to flooding after heavy rain and in 2000 serious flooding closed the railway line through the town. Localities The historic core of the town lies around the parish church and along the High Street. With the building of the railway line and station in 1852, the town began to grow towards the new station, along what is today Sandford Avenue. Since the first half of the 20th century the two main streets of the town centre are the High Street and Sandford Avenue. In the later decades of the 20th century a number of shops on the southern end of High Street changed use to restaurants or purely residential, as Sandford Avenue became the pre-eminent shopping street. The B5477 takes the name Shrewsbury Road north from the town centre, High Street within the town centre, and Ludlow Road south of there. Cunnery is a hillside and collection of houses to the west of the town centre and includes the Long Mynd Hotel. World's End is where the Ludlow Road curves round the foot of the hillside to the south of the Long Mynd Hotel. To the north of the town centre is an area called Ashbrook; here the Carding Mill Valley meets the town, with the stream (known as the Ashbrook as it runs through the town) running between the town's two main recreation fields (named Russell's Meadow and Richard Robinson Field). Two other notable areas of public parkland are Rectory Field & Wood, situated to the west of the town centre off Church Street, and the town's formal park between the A49 and the railway line, which is managed by the town council and includes tennis courts and a bowling green. On the eastern side of the A49 road are three named areas: Battle Field, Snatchfield and Hazler. On Hazler Hill is a transmitter for local radio (BBC Radio Shropshire broadcast from here on 90FM). Battle Field is named for the legend that Caer Caradoc was the site of the last stand of Caractacus against the Roman legions during the Roman conquest of Britain, and that after the battle he hid in the cave near its summit. All Stretton and Little Stretton The villages of All Stretton and Little Stretton remain separate settlements to Church Stretton. The B5477 connects the three settlements, with Church Stretton roughly midway between – All Stretton is north of the centre of Church Stretton, whilst Little Stretton is south. Although there is some ribbon development along the B5477, the three settlements are not joined, although the gap between the nearest buildings of All Stretton and Church Stretton is a mere and the road signs (on the B5477) welcoming people into those two settlements lie back-to-back. The B5477 continues as Shrewsbury Road as it passes through All Stretton and likewise continues as Ludlow Road as it passes through Little Stretton. The three settlements are sometimes known collectively as "the Strettons", a name also given to the wider area including the surrounding hills. Governance Parish and town council The town is located within the civil parish of Church Stretton, and is administered by a parish council called Church Stretton Town council. The parish (and the town council) also cover the neighbouring villages of All Stretton, Little Stretton, and the hamlets of Minton and Hamperley, and other outlying settlements including Botvyle and part of Marshbrook. The parish has an area of and is divided into four wards: Church Stretton North (represented by four councillors on the town council), Church Stretton South (represented by five councillors), All Stretton and Little Stretton (each represented by two councillors). Between 1966 and 2002, the parish council was not termed a town council and there was no mayor, a situation which was remedied by a resolution of the council in May 2001. Sometimes the parish is referred to as "Church Stretton and Little Stretton"; the present-day parish was formed by the addition of the former Little Stretton parish and part of All Stretton parish (the remainder still exists as a separate parish). This is effectively a return to the situation before 1899, when the old civil parish of Church Stretton was split into three, though the modern parish does not include that part of All Stretton parish that was not transferred in 1934. The Town Council have their offices at 60 High Street and hold their meetings at the nearby Silvester Horne Institute, also on High Street. Mayors Below is a complete list of mayors of Church Stretton. Formally the mayor of a town council is a Town Mayor. One of the town councillors is elected by the council (at the 'Annual Meeting' in May) as jointly chairman and Town Mayor. Although Church Stretton's parish council became a town council in 2002, the title of Town Mayor was not bestowed upon the chairman until 2004. Local government From 1894 to 1966 the town was an urban district (a form of local government) in its own right, before becoming part of Ludlow Rural District (the separate Church Stretton Rural District had already been abolished in 1934) and the contemporary civil parish was then established. The Urban District Council was based at offices on Beaumont Road, where Beaumont Court now is. In 1974 the system of urban and rural districts was replaced and the town came under South Shropshire non-metropolitan district and Shropshire non-metropolitan county. The most recent change in local government occurred in 2009 when Shropshire became a unitary area with Shropshire Council replacing South Shropshire District Council and Shropshire County Council. Church Stretton is part of the Shropshire Council electoral division (or ward) of 'Church Stretton and Craven Arms'. The population of this ward at the 2011 Census was 8,936. In the 2009 council elections the electorate of this ward returned two councillors, both Conservative. Member of Parliament On a national level, Church Stretton is located within the Ludlow constituency, and the current Member of Parliament ("MP") for that constituency is Philip Dunne, a Conservative. Geology The local geology is complex; the area lies astride the Church Stretton Fault and atop some of the oldest rocks in England – formed over 560 million years ago. On 2 April 1990, another nearby fault – the Pontesford-Linley Fault – registered an earthquake with a magnitude of 5.1 on the Richter scale, known as the Bishop's Castle earthquake. The area also plays a part in the history of geology; the three major subdivisions of the Lower Paleozoic are named from local celtic tribes: Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian. Also, Comley Quarry is about from the town and the first site in the British Isles where trilobites were recorded. Transport Road The A49 (a primary route and trunk road) runs through the Stretton Gap, connecting Shrewsbury to the north with Ludlow and Hereford to the south. The B5477 runs through the villages of All Stretton and Little Stretton, as well as the historic core and town centre of Church Stretton. The B4371 starts at the B5477 in the town centre and heads east, having a crossroads junction with the A49, then up to Hazler and on towards Much Wenlock. The B4371 in the town (on both sides of the A49) is known as Sandford Avenue and is partially lined with lime trees. The B5477 was, until renumbered in 2004, the northern section of the B4370. The renumbering to B5477 is anomalous in two ways: the number does not comply with the Great Britain road numbering scheme (it is "out-of-zone") and was already (and remains) in use in Wallasey. The Burway The Burway is an ancient route which leads up from the town to the plateau on the Long Mynd. It is Shropshire's highest public road, reaching above sea level and passing close to the highest point of the Long Mynd, called Pole Bank (516 m). Running along the plateau of the Long Mynd is another ancient route called the Portway, though not all of this is open to motor traffic. The Burway is a through route, allowing traffic (though not goods vehicles, caravans or similar) to cross over the Long Mynd westwards to Ratlinghope or Asterton (the route splits into two at Boiling Well). In winter, deep snow sometimes makes the Burway impassable. In 2015 "snow gates" were installed at various points of access onto the Long Mynd, to deter motorists from using the routes in wintry conditions. The gliding club at the southern end of the Long Mynd can be accessed via the Burway from either Asterton or Church Stretton. The part of the road within the town is called Burway Road and begins at the crossroads in the town centre, where the B5477 and B4371 meet. Rail The Welsh Marches Line runs through the town parallel to (and west of) the A49 road. The town's station is off Sandford Avenue just east of the town centre, near the junction of the A49 and B4371. The railway was originally built as the Shrewsbury and Hereford Railway in 1852. Trains on the Heart of Wales Line also call at the station. Today there are direct train services to Shrewsbury, Chester, Holyhead, Crewe, Manchester, Ludlow, Hereford, Newport, Cardiff and Swansea. The station has a large number of passengers using it considering the town's population: it is the eighth busiest station in Shropshire (2017-18 figures). Bus The town is served by the 435 bus route (Shrewsbury-Ludlow), run by Minsterley Motors, which runs Monday-Saturday. This connects the town with All Stretton, Dorrington and Condover towards Shrewsbury, and Little Stretton, Craven Arms and Bromfield towards Ludlow. In addition there are two Shropshire Hills Shuttles services that operate at weekends and on Bank Holidays during the spring and summer. One route runs over the Long Mynd to Ratlinghope and Bridges, Stiperstones, Habberley, Pulverbatch, Minsterley and Pontesbury. The other route, called the "Wenlock Wanderer", runs to Much Wenlock via Little Stretton, Marshbrook, Acton Scott, Ticklerton and then along the B4371 which runs along the top of the Wenlock Edge to the market town of Much Wenlock. All bus services call at Beaumont Road in the town centre. The Shuttles services also both call at Carding Mill Valley. Cycling Regional Cycle Route 32/33 runs through the town, on its way from Shrewsbury to Craven Arms. The route avoids cycling along the busy A49 main road, with the exception of a stretch north of Craven Arms. The area is popular with mountain bikers, due to the number of bridleways and country lanes in the hilly countryside. Economy The mineral water extraction and bottling plant on Shrewsbury Road (known locally as the 'Pop Works'), has been operating since 1883; since 2004 it has provided Princes with mineral water. It is a notable local employer as is the polymer laboratories off Essex Road, currently owned by Agilent Technologies (until 2009 by Varian). There is a designated light industrial area between the A49 and the railway line, known as Crossways, with a number of businesses, many of which are in the motoring trade, including an independent petrol/diesel filling station. The town benefits from tourism, which is a growth industry in the area, as well as attracting local trade. A recent survey showed that the town has some 50 retail outlets, 44 of which are independently owned, with a diverse range of shop types. These include two butchers, several outdoor activities shops, a baker, a delicatessen, several clothes and shoe shops, three banks, and two supermarkets (Co-op and Spar). There is a large antiques market, situated in a former malthouse on the corner of Sandford Avenue and Easthope Road. There are four pubs, as well as a number of cafes and small restaurants. In June 2011 the town was officially declared to be a "Fairtrade Town" with 34 businesses selling fair trade products. There is a small art gallery in the former hotel on the corner of Shrewsbury Road and Sandford Avenue. The town also has a number of professional services, such as solicitors, accountants and estate agents, confirming its status as a local centre of business. The town continues to benefit from its reputation as a spa town, and a desirable place to live, especially in retirement. House prices are above the county average and have seen similar increases in recent times to other spa towns in the UK. The 2001 census recorded the parish's employment rate at 54.2%, whilst unemployment was at 1.9% (both are percentages of residents aged 16–74), and 18.7% of all residents were retired. The largest sector of employment was "wholesale and retail trade, and repair of motor vehicles" with 16.7% of all employment in that sector. Culture and sport The novelist Henry Kingsley (1830–1876) wrote "Stretton" based around this area, and Oliver Sandys' book, "Quaint Place" is set in Church Stretton. Mary Webb's works also made reference to the town, under the name "Shepwardine". The Lone Pine Club series of children's books by Malcolm Saville is also partly set in the area. Church Stretton is a major centre for the sport of archery, and there is also a gliding air field and station atop the Long Mynd, owned by the Midland Gliding Club. As well as gliding, the activities of paragliding, hang gliding and similar aerial pursuits take place from the Long Mynd. Church Stretton became a Walkers Are Welcome town in 2009, the first in the West Midlands, and its many well-maintained footpaths over the Long Mynd and the Stretton Hills help make it a major walking centre for Shropshire. In the town itself, sports facilities are provided adjacent to the schools, just off Shrewsbury Road, which include a swimming pool and a recently opened 4 court sports & leisure centre, and the town council provide facilities (such as a BMX facility, crazy golf, hard tennis courts, a bowling green and a croquet pitch) at the town park (situated between the A49 and the railway). Summer festival In recent times, on a June Saturday the town holds a summer festival ("Summerfest"), organised by volunteers and the town's chamber of trade. The town centre's streets and car parks are closed to traffic, as stalls, entertainment and activities take place throughout the town, including a classic car and steam rally. In the evening there is a concert in Rectory Field. Churches The town has four churches. In the centre of the town is the historic parish church dedicated to Lawrence of Rome, situated on the corner of Churchway and Church Street, and with its own small graveyard surrounding it. (This graveyard was succeeded by a cemetery at the foot of Cunnery Road, which in turn has been replaced by one near Brockhurst.) It is the town's Church of England church and is one of three in the ecclesiastical parish of Church Stretton, along with the churches in All Stretton and Little Stretton (which were built around 1900). The parish is part of the Diocese of Hereford. The church's name is written either as "Lawrence" or "Laurence", though the latter is used more for the church itself. St Laurence's Church has a remnant of its Anglo-Saxon origins: a stone carved fertility symbol called a Sheela na gig. The other three churches in the town are: the United Reformed Church on Ludlow Road; a Roman Catholic church dedicated to St Milburga (a local saint), situated on the corner of Sandford Avenue and Watling Street; and a Methodist church situated on the corner of Crossways and Watling Street. Golf course There is an 18-hole golf course about a km from the town centre, the Church Stretton Golf Club. The course is 5,030 yards long and has a par of 66. It is one of the highest golf courses in the country, being located on the side of the Long Mynd hill range (the course is situated on the slopes of Stanyeld Hill and Bodbury Hill). The clubhouse is at approximately 230 m (755 ft) above sea level and the hilly links course rises up to around 375m (1,230 ft). Apart from the clubhouse, putting green and first hole, the course is situated on common land owned by the National Trust (who own most of the Long Mynd upland area). The town's golf course is the oldest 18-hole course in Shropshire, with the club starting in 1898 and the final holes being completed around 1904. The course was primarily designed by John (Jack) Morris and James Hepburn. James Braid and Harry Vardon later made changes to the course. Open Champions James Braid, Harry Vardon and J. H. Taylor (together referred to as the Great Triumvirate) all played at the course many times, albeit at different times, during the pre-World War I years of the club's existence. Football Church Stretton Town F.C. (usually called simply "Stretton") is a football team who currently play in the West Midlands Regional League Division 2. Home games are played at Russell's Meadow, located near the centre of the town off Lutwyche Road (). The home kit is black and white (thick) vertical stripes. There has been a football field at Russell's Meadow since the 1930s, though the pavilion moved (c. 1950s) from the other side of the Ashbrook to its present location near Lutwyche Road. There is a community project on-going to raise funds and then build a new pavilion at Russell's Meadow. In 2011 funding was secured from Sport England to improve the five existing football pitches and create two new training pitches, on both Russell's Meadow and neighbouring Robinson's Field. Russell's Meadow is also home to a separate football club for under-16s – the Church Stretton Magpies — and to Sunday league football. The home colours of both the Town and Magpies teams is black and white. Cricket During the summer, Russell's Meadow and its pavilion are used to play cricket. Church Stretton Cricket Club have a Saturday First XI playing in the Shropshire County Cricket League Division Five and a Friendly XI that play on Sundays against Shropshire teams and touring sides. Public services Education Church Stretton has two state-funded schools: Church Stretton School, a secondary school with 750 pupils and a primary school (named "St Lawrence") with 210 pupils. The two schools neighbour one other and are situated just off Shrewsbury Road, on the northern edge of Church Stretton. The Council also operates a public library, on Church Street, situated in former, Victorian school buildings, which is also the town's tourist information centre and information point for Shropshire Council services. Emergency services At the junction of Sandford Avenue and Essex Road, in the centre of the town, is a police station (West Mercia Police) staffed Monday-Friday and a fire station (Shropshire Fire and Rescue Service) with two engines and manned by retained firefighters. The present fire station was built in the early 1970s – it was previously on Beaumont Road, where Beaumont Court now is – whilst the police station was built in the 1990s – it was on Shrewsbury Road where Longmynd Place now is. Health There is a doctors' surgery and medical clinic on Easthope Road. The nearest ambulance station is in Craven Arms and the nearest major hospital is the Royal Shrewsbury Hospital. Public conveniences The town council operate the two public toilets in the town, on Lutwyche Road and on Easthope Road. Notable people Sir John Thynne (c.1515 in Church Stretton – 1580) was the steward to Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (c. 1506 – 1552) and a member of parliament. He was the builder of Longleat House and his descendants became Marquesses of Bath. Roger Maynwaring (c.1589/90 in Church Stretton - 1653) was Bishop of St David's 1636-49. Hesba Stretton came to Church Stretton often before moving away from Shropshire, becoming an established author. There is a plaque to her memory in St. Laurence's Church together with a window depicting the figure of "Jessica" from her immensely popular story Jessica's First Prayer. A sister owned a house, Caradoc Lodge in neighbouring All Stretton, the latter village (within Church Stretton parish) said to be the source of her pen-surname. Although he did not live there, artist Sir Frederic Leighton took his peerage title of Baron Leighton of Stretton in the County of Salop, created the day before his death in 1896, from this place. There is a window to his memory in St Laurence's Church. The 'White House' nursing home on Sandford Avenue, demolished in 2006 to make way for a housing development, was previously the family home of Silvester Horne a Congregationalist minister, Liberal MP for Ipswich, and father of the BBC broadcaster Kenneth Horne. The town's Silvester Horne Institute, on the south end of High Street, commemorates his name. He is buried in the cemetery on Cunnery Road. Amateur footballer Frederick Green (1851–1928), winning side veteran of FA Cup Final of 1874 for Oxford University and of 1877 and 1878 for the Wanderers, died at his last home in the town, The Uplands. Residents of the town did include Pete Postlethwaite, who used to live in Minton, near Little Stretton, which was the home of Oliver Sandys. Greg Hearle, the renowned clarinetist, is a local resident. Also, the Olympic bronze-medal archer, Alison Williamson lives in All Stretton and is a member of the town's archery club. John Jones (born 1930 in Church Stretton) is a British rower who competed at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki with the men's coxless four where they came fourth. In the 1930s, E. M. Almedingen, the biographer and children's writer, lived in the town, and, following retirement, the writer Kenneth Bird (also known by his pen name Fougasse) moved to Church Stretton. Two Archdeacons of Ludlow were also resident Rectors of Church Stretton, Henry Dixon in 1923-36 and Herbert Whately from 1937 to his death in 1947. George Nickson, former Bishop of Bristol died in retirement at Church Stretton in 1949. William Alonzo Parker, former Anglican Bishop of Shrewsbury, lived in retirement at Church Stretton before his death in 1982. Stephen Laurie, a notable amateur astronomer, lives in the area and has discovered a number of asteroids from observatories at Church Stretton and nearby Ragdon (the area not suffering from much light pollution). One of the asteroids discovered has been named after the town — 11626 Church Stretton. Former Jaguar chief test driver (and brand ambassador) Norman Dewis lived in the town after his retirement in 1986. Clarinettist Greg Hearle is from Church Stretton, where he attended the local secondary school. See also Listed buildings in Church Stretton References Footnotes King's Arms (High St), Buck's Head (High St), Housmans (High St), Old Coopers Malt House (Shrewsbury Rd) Further reading My Story of St Dunstan's (1961) by Lord Fraser of Lonsdale External links Church Stretton – official Town Council website The Stretton Focus website Extract from A History of the County of Shropshire: Volume 10 (1998) Open Domesday (Church) Stretton Geograph – SO4593 Market towns in Shropshire Civil parishes in Shropshire Towns in Shropshire Towns of the Welsh Marches Spa towns in England Tourist attractions in Shropshire Geology of Shropshire	[ 0.2592361271381378, 0.4788367748260498, 0.3739622235298157, -1.1542725563049316, -0.28869932889938354, 0.8017860651016235, 0.1582345813512802, 0.26213809847831726, -0.14371909201145172, -0.03193609043955803, -0.2884472906589508, 0.4796133041381836, -0.22909611463546753, 0.1548703908920288, -0.7758962512016296, 0.4704035520553589, 0.4448680877685547, 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216786	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions%20of%20the%20Philippines	Regions of the Philippines	In the Philippines, regions (; ISO 3166-2:PH) are administrative divisions that primarily serve to coordinate planning and organize national government services across multiple local government units (LGUs). Most national government offices provide services through their regional branches instead of having direct provincial or city offices. Regional offices are usually but not necessarily located in the city designated as the regional center. As of 2019, the Philippines is divided into 17 regions. 16 of these are mere administrative groupings, each provided by the president of the Philippines with a regional development council (RDC) – in the case of the National Capital Region (Metro Manila), an additional metropolitan authority serves as the coordinating and policy-making body. Only one, the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, has an elected government and parliament to which the Congress of the Philippines has delegated certain powers and responsibilities. History Regions first came to existence on September 24, 1972, when the provinces of the Philippines were organized into eleven regions under Presidential Decree No. 1 as part of the Integrated Reorganization Plan of the former President Ferdinand Marcos. Since that time, other regions have been created and some provinces have been transferred from one region to another. June 22, 1973: Pangasinan was transferred from Region III to Region I. July 7, 1975: Region XII created and minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions. July 25, 1975: Regions IX and XII declared as Autonomous Regions in Western and Central Mindanao respectively. August 21, 1975: Region IX divided into Sub-Region IX-A and Sub-Region IX-B. Minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions. November 7, 1975: Metropolitan Manila created. June 2, 1978: Metropolitan Manila declared as the National Capital Region. June 11, 1978: Regional center of Region IX transferred from Jolo, Sulu to Zamboanga City. July 15, 1987: Cordillera Administrative Region created. August 1, 1989: Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) created. Region XII reverted to an administrative region. October 23, 1989: First creation of Cordillera Autonomous Region. Ratification rejected by residents in a plebiscite. October 12, 1990: Executive Order 429 issued by President Corazon Aquino to reorganize the Mindanao regions but the reorganization never happened (possibly due to lack of government funds). February 23, 1995: Region XIII (Caraga) created and minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions. Sultan Kudarat transferred to Region XI. 1997: Minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions. December 22, 1997: Second creation of Cordillera Autonomous Region. Ratification rejected by residents in a plebiscite. December 18, 1998: Sultan Kudarat returned to Region XII. March 31, 2001: ARMM expanded. September 19, 2001: Most Mindanao regions reorganized and some renamed. May 17, 2002: Region IV-A (Calabarzon) and Region IV-B (Mimaropa) created from the former Region IV (Southern Tagalog) region. Aurora transferred to Region III. May 23, 2005: Palawan transferred from Region IV-B to Region VI; Mimaropa renamed to Mimaro. August 19, 2005: Transfer of Palawan to Region VI held in abeyance. May 29, 2015: Negros Island Region (NIR) created. Negros Occidental and Bacolod from Region VI and Negros Oriental from Region VII transferred to form new region. July 17, 2016: Republic Act No. 10879 established the Southwestern Tagalog Region (Mimaropa Region) from the former Region IV-B (in effect merely a renaming and discontinuation of the "Region IV-B" designation since no boundary changes were involved). August 9, 2017: Executive Order No. 38 was signed by President Rodrigo Duterte abolishing the Negros Island Region. January 25, 2019: Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) created replacing the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) after the Republic Act No. 11054 or the Bangsamoro Organic Law was "deemed ratified" on January 25, 2019, following the January 21 plebiscite. List of regions , the Philippines is divided into 17 regions. The traditional island groups of Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao are composed of eight (Regions I, II, III, IV-A, and V, and CAR, NCR, and Mimaropa), three (VI, VII, and VIII), and six (IX, X, XI, XII, XIII, and BARMM) regions, respectively. The names of Calabarzon, Mimaropa, and Soccsksargen are acronyms signifying their component provinces and cities; and are usually capitalized in official government documents. Types of regions Administrative region An administrative region is a grouping of geographically adjacent LGUs that may be established, disestablished, and modified by the President of the Philippines based on the need to formulate coherent economic development policies, more efficiently provide national government services, and coordinate activities beneficial to the development of larger area beyond the province level. No plebiscites have been conducted so far to democratically confirm the creation, abolition or alteration of the boundaries of regular administrative regions, as the Constitution does not mandate it. An administrative region is not a local government unit (LGU), but rather a group of LGUs to which the President has provided an unelected policy-making and coordinating structure, called the Regional Development Council (RDC). Metro Manila is recognized in law as a "special development and administrative region", and was thus given the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA); the Metro Manila Council within the MMDA serves as the National Capital Region's RDC. Autonomous region The 1987 Constitution allows for the creation of autonomous regions in the Cordillera Central of Luzon and the Muslim-majority areas of Mindanao. However, only the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao and its predecessor, the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, have been approved by voters in plebiscites held in 1989, 2001, and 2019. Voters in the Cordilleras rejected autonomy in 1990 and 1998; hence the Cordillera Administrative Region remains as a regular administrative region with no delegated powers or responsibilities. The Supreme Court has ruled that an autonomous region established by statute must be composed of more than one province, thereby invalidating the proposed establishment of the Autonomous Region of Ifugao following the results of the original 1990 Cordillera autonomy plebiscite, which saw only Ifugao's voters casting a majority 'yes' vote towards autonomy. Table of regions Component local government units: the data column is limited to primary LGUs, which pertains to component provinces, highly urbanized cities, and independent component cities, as well as the independent municipality of Pateros. All city names, except those under the National Capital Region, are italicized. Location: the location map column can be sorted from north-to-south, west-to-east. Judicial regions As far as the judiciary is concerned, specifically the first and second level courts, the country is divided into judicial regions as provided by Batas Pambansa Bilang 129. The coverage of these judicial regions generally coincides with that of the administrative regions in 1980, with some exceptions. Legislative districts Representation for the Interim Batasang Pambansa was mostly through parliamentary districts based on how regions were organized in 1978. Metro Manila was "Region IV", while Southern Tagalog was "Region IV-A". This was the only time the national legislature was represented via regions; in a 1984 plebiscite, voters approved a constitutional amendment that reverted to representation per province and city. Proposed regions Cordillera Autonomous Region (proposal to convert the Cordillera Administrative Region into an autonomous region; see Cordillera autonomy movement) Negros Island Region (proposed reestablishment of an abolished region) Samar Administrative Region Bangsa Sug (proposed to separate the Sulu Archipelago from the mainland portion of Bangsamoro) Defunct regions The following are regions that no longer exist, listed along with their current status: Southern Tagalog (Region IV, now divided into Calabarzon, Central Luzon (Aurora), Metro Manila (several cities that were part of Rizal), and Mimaropa) Western Mindanao (renamed as Zamboanga Peninsula, still designated as Region IX) Central Mindanao (now mostly Soccsksargen, still designated as Region XII) Southern Mindanao (now mostly Davao Region, still designated as Region XI) Negros Island Region (designated as Region XVIII/NIR; abolished; provinces were reverted and split to Western Visayas and Central Visayas) Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (replaced by Bangsamoro) See also List of regions of the Philippines by GDP Super regions of the Philippines Federalism in the Philippines ISO 3166-2:PH References External links National Statistical Coordination Board Philippine Statistics Authority Subdivisions of the Philippines Regions Philippines 1 Philippines geography-related lists	[ 0.210688516497612, -0.2258962243795395, 0.21093428134918213, 0.4067237973213196, -0.00025376249686814845, -0.10187400877475739, 0.018515964969992638, 1.0022730827331543, -0.49293893575668335, -0.5633761286735535, -0.8269306421279907, 0.12124431133270264, -0.11995329707860947, 0.14264310896396637, -0.3687487244606018, 0.8748586773872375, 0.3944697082042694, 0.6565517783164978, -0.2045675814151764, -0.41800495982170105, -0.4998658299446106, -0.41126424074172974, 0.34011948108673096, -0.08101186901330948, 0.5922988653182983, -0.027465559542179108, 0.20110087096691132, 0.4562065601348877, 0.14414209127426147, 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216788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Shropshire	South Shropshire	South Shropshire was, between 1974 and 2009, a local government district in south west Shropshire, England. South Shropshire was the most rural district of one of the UK's most rural counties, the population of the district was 40,410 in 2001 spread out over 1,027 km2 of forest, mountains, moorlands, hills and mixed quality farmland. It bordered the unitary authority of Powys in Wales, which it closely resembles, economically, socially, culturally and historically. 65% of the district is part of the Shropshire Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The towns in the former district are Ludlow, Church Stretton, Cleobury Mortimer, Clun, Bishop's Castle and Craven Arms. The district was formed by the merger of the rural districts of Clun and Bishop's Castle and Ludlow in 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972. The district and its council were abolished on 1 April 2009 when the new Shropshire unitary authority was established, as part of the 2009 structural changes to local government in England. Economics and demographics Economically the district was largely dependent on tourism, partly due to the decline in the economic significance of farming and also the decline and subsequent end of local lead and coal mining industry. In addition to tourism, some light industry did exist in the district, in the Church Stretton and Ludlow areas, and in Burford, near Tenbury Wells. Some statistics for the local area suggest that wages are "low", but also that the rate of unemployment is below average. Additionally, the local demographics show a large economic gap between affluent residents and poorer communities. Many of the affluent residents have moved into the area from other places, such as South East England on their retirement. This continues an older trend whose root was initially in the imbalance of wealth associated with the farming economy previously prevalent in the area. Geography The District of South Shropshire covered an area of 1,028 square kilometres, or , which was roughly one third of the administrative county of Shropshire as of 2008. South Shropshire is a land of mountains, valleys, hills, moors, forests and low grade farmland. The landscape is often rugged, with crags and rock outcrops very common, especially in the west and around the Clee Hills, and was for the most part gouged by glaciers during the ice age. It contains a myriad of rock types, and is widely regarded as the geological capital of the UK, with Wenlock Edge being especially highly regarded by geologists. See the Shropshire Hills AONB (Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty) for more about the natural geography of the area. History South Shropshire is littered with ancient monuments, with Mitchells Fold on the Welsh border being the most notable, and there is evidence of Neolithic quarrying in the Apedale. The area seems to have been settled by the Ordovices, an Iron Age tribe of people in the last millennium BC, and was a stronghold of the Celtic chieftain Caractacus (Caer Caradoc is said to be named after him). The area was probably part of the "Military" division of the Roman occupation and locals claim that the Romans mined lead in the north west of the district. In the Early Middle Ages, the area was a battleground between the Welsh and the Anglo Saxon Kingdom of Mercia and Offa's Dyke, which is partially in the district, is a permanent reminder of the areas border status. In the Middle Ages, South Shropshire was part of the Welsh Marches, a lawless area ruled by tyrannical feudal lords, who as Marcher Lords had de facto independence from the King of England. It has been remarked that the attitude of the time lives on in the areas mistrust of outside control. During the English Civil War the area was generally spared from fighting, although there was a small massacre at Hopton Castle and Ludlow Castle was captured by Parliamentary troops. During the Industrial Revolution, coal was mined around Clee Hill and lead was mined near the border with Wales, e.g. at Snailbeach. Church Stretton was a centre of textile manufacture and Ludlow thrived on the malting trade, while the rest of the area was populated by smallholders. The economy of the area was fragile, and most industry in the area had collapsed by 1900. Politics The last South Shropshire District Council was controlled by the Conservative Party, with the second largest party being the Liberal Democrats. A number of independent politicians also held seats in the council. The Labour Party had not contested recent elections within the district. Senior Councillors Council leader: Cecilia Mottley, C, Deputy leader: ? Energy policy In May 2006, a report commissioned by British Gas showed that housing in South Shropshire produced the 13th highest average carbon emissions in the country at 7,156 kg of carbon dioxide per dwelling. Various statistics References Districts of England established in 1974 English districts abolished in 2009 Former non-metropolitan districts of Shropshire	[ -0.4650067687034607, -0.2625126242637634, 0.19857631623744965, -1.0911242961883545, -0.3324306607246399, 0.5111371278762817, 0.16607822477817535, 0.03385615348815918, -0.10264485329389572, -0.29196152091026306, -0.23512396216392517, 0.06340530514717102, 0.03576905280351639, 0.3634253442287445, -0.7368424534797668, 0.9757780432701111, 0.11753334105014801, 0.3047005534172058, 0.15560093522071838, -0.6861572861671448, 0.286121129989624, -0.2604517340660095, -0.33113938570022583, 0.4228091537952423, 0.031082933768630028, 0.0650445967912674, 0.5092918872833252, 0.17564080655574799, 0.60563725233078, -0.17812371253967285, 0.6030187010765076, 0.1909651905298233, -0.3650799095630646, -0.3901922404766083, -0.3686148226261139, 0.11571614444255829, 0.3999303877353668, -0.5158189535140991, -0.38995176553726196, -0.18181268870830536, 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216792	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire%20tap	Vampire tap	A vampire tap (also called a piercing tap) was a device for physically connecting a station, typically a computer, to a network that used 10BASE5 cabling. This device clamped onto and "bit" into the cable (hence the name "vampire"), inserting a probe through a hole drilled using a special tool through the outer shielding to contact the inner conductor, while other spikes bit into the outer conductor. The vampire tap usually had an integrated AUI (Attachment Unit Interface), from which a short multicore cable connected to the network card in the station. Vampire taps allowed new connections to be made on a given physical cable while the cable was in use. This allowed administrators to expand bus-topology network sections without interrupting communications. Without a vampire tap, the cable had to be cut and connectors had to be attached to both ends. See also Network tap Insulation-displacement connector, another insulation-piercing system External links Image of a Vampire Tap Ethernet cables Networking hardware	[ 0.4751814603805542, -0.2207305133342743, 0.1187705472111702, 0.7001345157623291, 0.023604564368724823, 0.11550309509038925, 0.09989726543426514, 0.16459494829177856, 0.28727149963378906, 0.10204295068979263, 0.08588499575853348, 0.371834397315979, -0.2096412479877472, 0.13847532868385315, -0.22431530058383942, -0.09453392773866653, 0.34525105357170105, 0.21429362893104553, 0.23902581632137299, -0.4752885699272156, -0.5421808958053589, -0.017832567915320396, 0.4427916705608368, -0.29714590311050415, -0.2312125265598297, 0.3251403570175171, -0.48504552245140076, 0.0728319063782692, -0.26936548948287964, 0.16021020710468292, 0.9263678193092346, 0.3727565109729767, -0.03793451935052872, -0.5669416189193726, -0.14928990602493286, 0.02728613093495369, -0.24733519554138184, -0.36450502276420593, -0.07285761833190918, 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216794	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator%20%28electric%29	Commutator (electric)	A commutator is a rotary electrical switch in certain types of electric motors and electrical generators that periodically reverses the current direction between the rotor and the external circuit. It consists of a cylinder composed of multiple metal contact segments on the rotating armature of the machine. Two or more electrical contacts called "brushes" made of a soft conductive material like carbon press against the commutator, making sliding contact with successive segments of the commutator as it rotates. The windings (coils of wire) on the armature are connected to the commutator segments. Commutators are used in direct current (DC) machines: dynamos (DC generators) and many DC motors as well as universal motors. In a motor the commutator applies electric current to the windings. By reversing the current direction in the rotating windings each half turn, a steady rotating force (torque) is produced. In a generator the commutator picks off the current generated in the windings, reversing the direction of the current with each half turn, serving as a mechanical rectifier to convert the alternating current from the windings to unidirectional direct current in the external load circuit. The first direct current commutator-type machine, the dynamo, was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832, based on a suggestion by André-Marie Ampère. Commutators are relatively inefficient, and also require periodic maintenance such as brush replacement. Therefore, commutated machines are declining in use, being replaced by alternating current (AC) machines, and in recent years by brushless DC motors which use semiconductor switches. Principle of operation A commutator consists of a set of contact bars fixed to the rotating shaft of a machine, and connected to the armature windings. As the shaft rotates, the commutator reverses the flow of current in a winding. For a single armature winding, when the shaft has made one-half complete turn, the winding is now connected so that current flows through it in the opposite of the initial direction. In a motor, the armature current causes the fixed magnetic field to exert a rotational force, or a torque, on the winding to make it turn. In a generator, the mechanical torque applied to the shaft maintains the motion of the armature winding through the stationary magnetic field, inducing a current in the winding. In both the motor and generator case, the commutator periodically reverses the direction of current flow through the winding so that current flow in the circuit external to the machine continues in only one direction. Simplest practical commutator Practical commutators have at least three contact segments, to prevent a "dead" spot where two brushes simultaneously bridge only two commutator segments. Brushes are made wider than the insulated gap, to ensure that brushes are always in contact with an armature coil. For commutators with at least three segments, although the rotor can potentially stop in a position where two commutator segments touch one brush, this only de-energizes one of the rotor arms while the others will still function correctly. With the remaining rotor arms, a motor can produce sufficient torque to begin spinning the rotor, and a generator can provide useful power to an external circuit. Ring/segment construction A commutator consists of a set of copper segments, fixed around the part of the circumference of the rotating machine, or the rotor, and a set of spring-loaded brushes fixed to the stationary frame of the machine. Two or more fixed brushes connect to the external circuit, either a source of current for a motor or a load for a generator. Commutator segments are connected to the coils of the armature, with the number of coils (and commutator segments) depending on the speed and voltage of the machine. Large motors may have hundreds of segments. Each conducting segment of the commutator is insulated from adjacent segments. Mica was used on early machines and is still used on large machines. Many other insulating materials are used to insulate smaller machines; plastics allow quick manufacture of an insulator, for example. The segments are held onto the shaft using a dovetail shape on the edges or underside of each segment. Insulating wedges around the perimeter of each segment are pressed so that the commutator maintains its mechanical stability throughout its normal operating range. In small appliance and tool motors the segments are typically crimped permanently in place and cannot be removed. When the motor fails it is discarded and replaced. On large industrial machines (say, from several kilowatts to thousands of kilowatts in rating) it is economical to replace individual damaged segments, and so the end-wedge can be unscrewed and individual segments removed and replaced. Replacing the copper and mica segments is commonly referred to as "refilling". Refillable dovetailed commutators are the most common construction of larger industrial type commutators, but refillable commutators may also be constructed using external bands made of fiberglass (glass banded construction) or forged steel rings (external steel shrink ring type construction and internal steel shrink ring type construction). Disposable, molded type commutators commonly found in smaller DC motors are becoming increasingly more common in larger electric motors. Molded type commutators are not repairable and must be replaced if damaged. In addition to the commonly used heat, torque, and tonnage methods of seasoning commutators, some high performance commutator applications require a more expensive, specific "spin seasoning" process or over-speed spin-testing to guarantee stability of the individual segments and prevent premature wear of the carbon brushes. Such requirements are common with traction, military, aerospace, nuclear, mining, and high speed applications where clamping failure and segment or insulation protrusion can lead to serious negative consequences. Friction between the segments and the brushes eventually causes wear to both surfaces. Carbon brushes, being made of a softer material, wear faster and may be designed to be replaced easily without dismantling the machine. Older copper brushes caused more wear to the commutator, causing deep grooving and notching of the surface over time. The commutator on small motors (say, less than a kilowatt rating) is not designed to be repaired through the life of the device. On large industrial equipment, the commutator may be re-surfaced with abrasives, or the rotor may be removed from the frame, mounted in a large metal lathe, and the commutator resurfaced by cutting it down to a smaller diameter. The largest of equipment can include a lathe turning attachment directly over the commutator. Brush construction Early machines used brushes made from strands of copper wire to contact the surface of the commutator. However, these hard metal brushes tended to scratch and groove the smooth commutator segments, eventually requiring resurfacing of the commutator. As the copper brushes wore away, the dust and pieces of the brush could wedge between commutator segments, shorting them and reducing the efficiency of the device. Fine copper wire mesh or gauze provided better surface contact with less segment wear, but gauze brushes were more expensive than strip or wire copper brushes. Modern rotating machines with commutators almost exclusively use carbon brushes, which may have copper powder mixed in to improve conductivity. Metallic copper brushes can be found in toy or very small motors, such as the one illustrated above, and some motors which only operate very intermittently, such as automotive starter motors. Motors and generators suffer from a phenomenon known as 'armature reaction', one of the effects of which is to change the position at which the current reversal through the windings should ideally take place as the loading varies. Early machines had the brushes mounted on a ring that was provided with a handle. During operation, it was necessary to adjust the position of the brush ring to adjust the commutation to minimise the sparking at the brushes. This process was known as 'rocking the brushes'. Various developments took place to automate the process of adjusting the commutation and minimizing the sparking at the brushes. One of these was the development of 'high resistance brushes', or brushes made from a mixture of copper powder and carbon. Although described as high resistance brushes, the resistance of such a brush was of the order of milliohms, the exact value dependent on the size and function of the machine. Also, the high resistance brush was not constructed like a brush but in the form of a carbon block with a curved face to match the shape of the commutator. The high resistance or carbon brush is made large enough that it is significantly wider than the insulating segment that it spans (and on large machines may often span two insulating segments). The result of this is that as the commutator segment passes from under the brush, the current passing to it ramps down more smoothly than had been the case with pure copper brushes where the contact broke suddenly. Similarly the segment coming into contact with the brush has a similar ramping up of the current. Thus, although the current passing through the brush was more or less constant, the instantaneous current passing to the two commutator segments was proportional to the relative area in contact with the brush. The introduction of the carbon brush had convenient side effects. Carbon brushes tend to wear more evenly than copper brushes, and the soft carbon causes far less damage to the commutator segments. There is less sparking with carbon as compared to copper, and as the carbon wears away, the higher resistance of carbon results in fewer problems from the dust collecting on the commutator segments. The ratio of copper to carbon can be changed for a particular purpose. Brushes with higher copper content perform better with very low voltages and high current, while brushes with a higher carbon content are better for high voltage and low current. High copper content brushes typically carry 150 to 200 amperes per square inch of contact surface, while higher carbon content only carries 40 to 70 amperes per square inch. The higher resistance of carbon also results in a greater voltage drop of 0.8 to 1.0 volts per contact, or 1.6 to 2.0 volts across the commutator. Brush holders A spring is typically used with the brush, to maintain constant contact with the commutator. As the brush and commutator wear down, the spring steadily pushes the brush downwards towards the commutator. Eventually the brush wears small and thin enough that steady contact is no longer possible or it is no longer securely held in the brush holder, and so the brush must be replaced. It is common for a flexible power cable to be directly attached to the brush, because current flowing through the support spring would cause heating, which may lead to a loss of metal temper and a loss of the spring tension. When a commutated motor or generator uses more power than a single brush is capable of conducting, an assembly of several brush holders is mounted in parallel across the surface of the very large commutator. This parallel holder distributes current evenly across all the brushes, and permits a careful operator to remove a bad brush and replace it with a new one, even as the machine continues to spin fully powered and under load. High power, high current commutated equipment is now uncommon, due to the less complex design of alternating current generators that permits a low current, high voltage spinning field coil to energize high current fixed-position stator coils. This permits the use of very small singular brushes in the alternator design. In this instance, the rotating contacts are continuous rings, called slip rings, and no switching happens. Modern devices using carbon brushes usually have a maintenance-free design that requires no adjustment throughout the life of the device, using a fixed-position brush holder slot and a combined brush-spring-cable assembly that fits into the slot. The worn brush is pulled out and a new brush inserted. Brush contact angle The different brush types make contact with the commutator in different ways. Because copper brushes have the same hardness as the commutator segments, the rotor cannot be spun backwards against the ends of copper brushes without the copper digging into the segments and causing severe damage. Consequently, strip/laminate copper brushes only make tangential contact with the commutator, while copper mesh and wire brushes use an inclined contact angle touching their edge across the segments of a commutator that can spin in only one direction. The softness of carbon brushes permits direct radial end-contact with the commutator without damage to the segments, permitting easy reversal of rotor direction, without the need to reorient the brush holders for operation in the opposite direction. Although never reversed, common appliance motors that use wound rotors, commutators and brushes have radial-contact brushes. In the case of a reaction-type carbon brush holder, carbon brushes may be reversely inclined with the commutator so that the commutator tends to push against the carbon for firm contact. The commutating plane The contact point where a brush touches the commutator is referred to as the commutating plane. To conduct sufficient current to or from the commutator, the brush contact area is not a thin line but instead a rectangular patch across the segments. Typically the brush is wide enough to span 2.5 commutator segments. This means that two adjacent segments are electrically connected by the brush when it contacts both. Rotation of brushes for stator field distortion Most introductions to motor and generator design start with a simple two-pole device with the brushes arranged at a perfect 90-degree angle from the field. This ideal is useful as a starting point for understanding how the fields interact but it is not how a motor or generator functions in actual practice. In a real motor or generator, the field around the rotor is never perfectly uniform. Instead, the rotation of the rotor induces field effects which drag and distort the magnetic lines of the outer non-rotating stator. The faster the rotor spins, the further this degree of field distortion. Because a motor or generator operates most efficiently with the rotor field at right angles to the stator field, it is necessary to either retard or advance the brush position to put the rotor's field into the correct position to be at a right angle to the distorted field. These field effects are reversed when the direction of spin is reversed. It is therefore difficult to build an efficient reversible commutated dynamo, since for highest field strength it is necessary to move the brushes to the opposite side of the normal neutral plane. These effects can be mitigated by a compensation winding in the face of the field pole that carries armature current. The effect can be considered to be analogous to timing advance in an internal combustion engine. Generally a dynamo that has been designed to run at a certain fixed speed will have its brushes permanently fixed to align the field for highest efficiency at that speed. Further compensation for self-induction Self-induction – The magnetic fields in each coil of wire join and compound together to create a magnetic field that resists changes in the current, which can be likened to the current having inertia. In the coils of the rotor, even after the brush has been reached, currents tend to continue to flow for a brief moment, resulting in a wasted energy as heat due to the brush spanning across several commutator segments and the current short-circuiting across the segments. Spurious resistance is an apparent increase in the resistance in the armature winding, which is proportional to the speed of the armature, and is due to the lagging of the current. To minimize sparking at the brushes due to this short-circuiting, the brushes are advanced a few degrees further yet, beyond the advance for field distortions. This moves the rotor winding undergoing commutation slightly forward into the stator field which has magnetic lines in the opposite direction and which oppose the field in the stator. This opposing field helps to reverse the lagging self-inducting current in the stator. So even for a rotor which is at rest and initially requires no compensation for spinning field distortions, the brushes should still be advanced beyond the perfect 90-degree angle as taught in so many beginners textbooks, to compensate for self-induction. Use of interpoles to correct field distortions Modern motor and generator devices with commutators are able to counteract armature reaction through the use of interpoles, which are small field coils and pole pieces positioned approximately halfway between the primary poles of the stator. By applying a dynamic varying field to the interpoles as the load, RPM, or direction of rotation of the device changes, it is possible to balance out field distortions from armature reaction so that the brush position can remain fixed and sparking across the segments is minimized. Limitations and alternatives Although direct current motors and dynamos once dominated industry, the disadvantages of the commutator have caused a decline in the use of commutated machines in the last century. These disadvantages are: The sliding friction between the brushes and commutator consumes power, which can be significant in a low power machine. Due to friction, the brushes and copper commutator segments wear down, creating dust. In small consumer products such as power tools and appliances the brushes may last as long as the product, but larger machines require regular replacement of brushes and occasional resurfacing of the commutator. So commutated machines are not used in low particulate or sealed applications or in equipment that must operate for long periods without maintenance. The resistance of the sliding contact between brush and commutator causes a voltage drop called the "brush drop". This may be several volts, so it can cause large power losses in low voltage, high current machines. Alternating current motors, which do not use commutators, are much more efficient. There is a limit to the maximum current density and voltage which can be switched with a commutator. Very large direct current machines, say, more than several megawatts rating, cannot be built with commutators. The largest motors and generators are all alternating-current machines. The switching action of the commutator causes sparking at the contacts, posing a fire hazard in explosive atmospheres, and generating electromagnetic interference. With the wide availability of alternating current, DC motors have been replaced by more efficient AC synchronous or induction motors. In recent years, with the widespread availability of power semiconductors, in many remaining applications commutated DC motors have been replaced with "brushless direct current motors". These don't have a commutator; instead the direction of the current is switched electronically. A sensor keeps track of the rotor position and semiconductor switches such as transistors reverse the current. Operating life of these machines is much longer, limited mainly by bearing wear. Repulsion induction motors These are single-phase AC-only motors with higher starting torque than could be obtained with split-phase starting windings, before high-capacitance (non-polar, relatively high-current electrolytic) starting capacitors became practical. They have a conventional wound stator as with any induction motor, but the wire-wound rotor is much like that with a conventional commutator. Brushes opposite each other are connected to each other (not to an external circuit), and transformer action induces currents into the rotor that develop torque by repulsion. One variety, notable for having an adjustable speed, runs continuously with brushes in contact, while another uses repulsion only for high starting torque and in some cases lifts the brushes once the motor is running fast enough. In the latter case, all commutator segments are connected together as well, before the motor attains running speed. Once at speed, the rotor windings become functionally equivalent to the squirrel-cage structure of a conventional induction motor, and the motor runs as such. Laboratory commutators Commutators were used as simple forward-off-reverse switches for electrical experiments in physics laboratories. There are two well-known historical types: Ruhmkorff commutator This is similar in design to the commutators used in motors and dynamos. It was usually constructed of brass and ivory (later ebonite). Pohl commutator This consisted of a block of wood or ebonite with four wells, containing mercury, which were cross-connected by copper wires. The output was taken from a pair of curved copper wires which were moved to dip into one or other pair of mercury wells. Instead of mercury, ionic liquids or other liquid metals could be used. See also Armature (electrical engineering) Floor pick-up system (FPU) Slip ring Reversing switch Rotary switch Rotary transformer Mercury swivel commutator Brushless motor Patents Elihu Thomson - - Commutators for Dynamo Electric Machines - 1881 June 7. Henry Jacobs - - Commutator for Magneto Electric Machines - 1881 September 6. Frank. B. Rae & Clarence. L. Healy - - Commutator For Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines - 1884 February 26. Nikola Tesla - - Commutator for Dynamo Electric Machines - 1886 January 26. Thomas E. Adams - - Commutator for Dynamo-Electric Machines - 1886 April 27. Nikola Tesla - - Commutator for Dynamo Electric Machines - 1888 May 15. References External links "Commutator and Brushes on DC Motor". HyperPhysics, Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University. "PM Brushless Servo Motor Feedback Commutation Series – Part 1 Commutation Alignment – Why It Is Important." Mitchell Electronics. "PM Brushless Servo Motor Feedback Commutation Series – Part 2 Commutation Alignment – How It Is Accomplished." Mitchell Electronics. 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216795	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry%20wall	Slurry wall	A slurry wall is a civil engineering technique used to build reinforced concrete walls in areas of soft earth close to open water, or with a high groundwater table. This technique is typically used to build diaphragm (water-blocking) walls surrounding tunnels and open cuts, and to lay foundations. Construction While a trench is excavated to create a form for a wall, it is simultaneously filled with slurry (usually a mixture of bentonite and water). The dense but liquid slurry prevents the trench from collapsing by providing outward pressure, which balances the inward hydraulic forces and also retards water flow into the trench. Slurry walls are typically constructed by starting with a set of guide walls, typically deep and thick. The guide walls are constructed on the ground surface to outline the desired slurry trench and guide the excavation machinery. Excavation is done using a special clamshell-shaped digger or a hydromill trench cutter, suspended from a crane. The excavator digs down to design depth (or bedrock) for the first wall segment. The excavator is then lifted and moved along the trench guide walls to continue the trench with successive cuts as needed. The trench is at all times kept filled with slurry to prevent its collapse, but the liquid filling allows the excavation machinery and excavation spoil to be moved without hindrance. Once a particular length of trench is reached, a reinforcing cage is lowered into the slurry-filled pit and the pit is filled with concrete from the bottom up using tremie pipes. The heavier concrete displaces the bentonite slurry, which is pumped out, filtered, and stored in tanks for use in the next wall segment, or recycled. Slurry walls are successively extended to enclose an area, blocking water and softened earth from flowing into it. Once the concrete has hardened, excavation within the now concrete-wall-enclosed area can proceed. To prevent the concrete wall from collapsing into the newly open area, temporary supports such as tiebacks or internal crossbeams are installed. When completed, the structure built within the walled-off area supports the wall, so that tiebacks or other temporary bracing may be removed. Stability of the trench is essential in trench cutting. Usage of bentonite with precise density prevents collapse of trench walls History The slurry wall technique was first introduced in the 1950s during the excavations of the red line of the Milan Metro in Italy by the company ICOS (Impresa Costruzioni Opere Specializzate). This new technology became an important component of the top-down tunnelling method also known as Metodo Milano ("Milan method"). Slurry wall construction was used to construct the "bathtub" that surrounded the foundations of most of the World Trade Center site in New York City. In the 1980s, the Red Line Northwest Extension project in Boston was one of the first projects in the US to use the modern form of the technology, with hydromill trench cutters and the "Milan method". Slurry walls were also used extensively in Boston's later Big Dig tunnel project. Design The design of a slurry wall (diaphragm wall) includes the design of wall thickness and reinforcements. Thickness of a slurry wall in preliminary design is generally set to about 4-8% of the excavation depth. Slurry wall design is undertaken based on bending moment and shear envelope obtained from the stress analysis. In the design of such underground walls, width of the unit is considered as one meter, and the wall is analyzed under plane strain condition. Since the length-to-width ratio of excavations is generally large, plane strain conditions can be assumed. See also Retaining wall Building of the World Trade Center Grout curtain References External links Slurry Wall Construction by Diaphragm Machine Video Overview of Slurry Wall Construction WTC-slurry wall construction-1967 Slurry Trenches A technical resource for slurry wall construction, slurry trenches and cut-off walls Natural shale appears to be ideal material for landfill liners Barrier technologies for environmental management Pictures of slurry walls «"Lakhta Center". 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216797	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentonite	Bentonite	Bentonite () is an absorbent swelling clay consisting mostly of montmorillonite. It usually forms from weathering of volcanic ash in seawater, which converts the volcanic glass present in the ash to clay minerals. Bentonite beds are white or pale blue or green in fresh exposures, turning to a cream color and then yellow, red, or brown as the exposure is weathered further. As a swelling clay, bentonite has the ability to absorb large quantities of water, which increases its volume by up to a factor of eight. This makes bentonite beds unsuitable for building and road construction. However, the swelling property is used to advantage in drilling mud and groundwater sealants. The montmorillonite making up bentonite is an aluminium phyllosilicate mineral, which takes the form of microscopic platy grains. These give the clay a very large total surface area, making bentonite a valuable adsorbent. The plates also adhere to each other when wet. This gives the clay a cohesiveness that makes it useful as a binder and as an additive to improve the plasticity of kaolinite clay used for pottery. One of the first findings of bentonite was in the Cretaceous Benton Shale near Rock River, Wyoming. The Fort Benton Group, along with others in stratigraphic succession, was named after Fort Benton, Montana, in the mid-19th century by Fielding Bradford Meek and F. V. Hayden of the U.S. Geological Survey. Bentonite has since been found in many other locations, including China and Greece. Total worldwide production of bentonite in 2018 was 20,400,000 metric tons. Types In geology, the term bentonite is applied to a type of claystone composed mostly of montmorillonite. It forms by devitrification of volcanic ash or tuff, typically in a marine environment. This results in a very soft, porous rock that may contain residual crystals of more resistant minerals, and which feels soapy or greasy to the touch. However, in commerce, the term bentonite is used more generally to refer to any swelling clay composed mostly of smectite clay minerals, which includes montmorillonite. The montmorillonite making up bentonite is an aluminium phyllosilicate mineral whose crystal structure is described as low-charge TOT. This means that a crystal of montmorillonite consists of layers, each of which is made up of two T sheets bonded to either side of an O sheet. The T sheets are so called because each aluminium or silicon ion in the sheet is surrounded by four oxygen ions arranged as a tetrahedron. The O sheets are so called because each aluminium ion is surrounded by six oxygen or hydroxyl ions arranged as an octahedron. The complete TOT layer has a weak negative electrical charge, and this is neutralized by calcium or sodium cations that bind adjacent layers together, with a distance between layers of about 1 nanometer. Because the negative charge is weak, only a fraction of the possible cation sites on the surface of a TOT layer actually contain calcium or sodium. Water molecules can easily infiltrate between sheets and fill the remaining sites. This accounts for the swelling property of montmorillonite and other smectite clay minerals. The different types of bentonite are each named after the respective dominant cation. For industrial purposes, two main classes of bentonite are recognized: sodium and calcium bentonite. Sodium bentonite is the more valuable but calcium bentonite is more common. In stratigraphy and tephrochronology, completely devitrified (weathered volcanic glass) ash-fall beds are commonly referred to as K-bentonites when the dominant clay species is illite. Sodium bentonite Sodium bentonite expands when wet, absorbing as much as several times its dry mass in water. Because of its excellent colloidal properties, it is often used in drilling mud for oil and gas wells and boreholes for geotechnical and environmental investigations. The property of swelling also makes sodium bentonite useful as a sealant, since it provides a self-sealing, low permeability barrier. It is used to line the base of landfills, for example. Bentonite is also part of the backfill material used at the Waste Isolation Pilot Project. Various surface modifications to sodium bentonite improve some rheological or sealing performance in geoenvironmental applications, for example, the addition of polymers. Sodium bentonite can be combined with sulfur as fertilizer prills. These permit slow oxidation of the sulfur to sulfate, an important plant nutrient, and maintain sulfate levels in rainfall-leached soil longer than either pure powdered sulfur or gypsum. Sulfur/bentonite pads with added organic fertilizers have been used for organic farming. Calcium bentonite Calcium bentonite is a useful adsorbent of ions in solution, as well as fats and oils. It is the main active ingredient of fuller's earth, probably one of the earliest industrial cleaning agents. Calcium bentonite may be converted to sodium bentonite (termed sodium beneficiation or sodium activation) to exhibit many of sodium bentonite's properties by an ion exchange process. As commonly practiced, this means adding 5–10% of a soluble sodium salt such as sodium carbonate to wet bentonite, mixing well, and allowing time for the ion exchange to take place and water to remove the exchanged calcium. Some properties, such as viscosity and fluid loss of suspensions, of sodium-beneficiated calcium bentonite (or sodium-activated bentonite) may not be fully equivalent to those of natural sodium bentonite. For example, residual calcium carbonates (formed if exchanged cations are insufficiently removed) may result in inferior performance of the bentonite in geosynthetic liners. Potassium bentonite Also known as potash bentonite or K-bentonite, potassium bentonite is a potassium-rich illitic clay formed from alteration of smectic clay. Illite is a high-charge TOT clay mineral, in which sheets are bound relatively strongly by more numerous potassium ions, and so it is not a swelling clay and has few industrial uses. Uses The main uses of bentonite are in drilling mud and as a binder, purifier, absorbent, and carrier for fertilizers or pesticides. As of around 1990, almost half of the US production of bentonite was used as drilling mud. Minor uses include filler, sealant, and catalyst in petroleum refining. Calcium bentonite is sometimes marketed as fuller's earth, whose uses overlap with those of other forms of bentonite. Drilling mud Bentonite is used in drilling mud to lubricate and cool the cutting tools, to remove cuttings, and to help prevent blowouts. Bentonite also curtails drilling fluid invasion by its propensity for aiding in the formation of mud cake. Much of bentonite's usefulness in the drilling and geotechnical engineering industry comes from its unique rheological properties. Relatively small quantities of bentonite suspended in water form a viscous, shear-thinning material. Most often, bentonite suspensions are also thixotropic, although rare cases of rheopectic behavior have also been reported. At high enough concentrations (about 60 grams of bentonite per litre of suspension), bentonite suspensions begin to take on the characteristics of a gel (a fluid with a minimum yield strength required to make it move). Binder Bentonite has been widely used as a foundry-sand bond in iron and steel foundries. Sodium bentonite is most commonly used for large castings that use dry molds, while calcium bentonite is more commonly used for smaller castings that use "green" or wet molds. Bentonite is also used as a binding agent in the manufacture of iron ore (taconite) pellets as used in the steelmaking industry. Bentonite, in small percentages, is used as an ingredient in commercial and homemade clay bodies and ceramic glazes. It greatly increases the plasticity of clay bodies and decreases settling in glazes, making both easier to work with for most applications. The ionic surface of bentonite has a useful property in making a sticky coating on sand grains. When a small proportion of finely ground bentonite clay is added to hard sand and wetted, the clay binds the sand particles into a moldable aggregate known as green sand used for making molds in sand casting. Purification Bentonites are used for decolorizing various mineral, vegetable, and animal oils. They are also used for clarifying wine, liquor, cider, beer, mead, and vinegar. Bentonite has the property of adsorbing relatively large amounts of protein molecules from aqueous solutions. Consequently, bentonite is uniquely useful in the process of winemaking, where it is used to remove excessive amounts of protein from white wines. Were it not for this use of bentonite, many or most white wines would precipitate undesirable flocculent clouds or hazes upon exposure to warm temperatures, as these proteins denature. It also has the incidental use of inducing more rapid clarification of both red and white wines. Bentonite is also considered an effective low-cost adsorbent for the removal of chromium (VI) ions from aqueous solutions (contaminated wastewater). Absorbent Bentonite is used in a variety of pet care items such as cat litter to absorb pet waste. It is also used to absorb oils and grease. Carrier Bentonite is used as an inert carrier for pesticides, fertilizer, and fire retardants. It helps ensure that the active agent is uniformly dispersed and that pesticides and fertilizers are retained on the plants. Filler Bentonite is used as a filler in a wide variety of products, including adhesives, cosmetics, paint, rubber, and soaps. It also acts as a stabilizer and extender in these products. Sealant The property of swelling on contact with water makes sodium bentonite useful as a sealant since it provides a self-sealing, low-permeability barrier. It is used to line the base of landfills to prevent migration of leachate, for quarantining metal pollutants of groundwater, and for the sealing of subsurface disposal systems for spent nuclear fuel. Similar uses include making slurry walls, waterproofing of below-grade walls, and forming other impermeable barriers, e.g., to seal off the annulus of a water well, to plug old wells. Bentonite can also be "sandwiched" between synthetic materials to create geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) for the aforementioned purposes. This technique allows for more convenient transport and installation, and it greatly reduces the volume of bentonite required. It is also used to form a barrier around newly planted trees to constrain root growth so as to prevent damage to nearby pipes, footpaths, and other infrastructure. Farmers use bentonite to seal retention ponds and line canals. Catalyst High-purity calcium bentonite is treated with acid for use as a catalyst in cracking heavy petroleum fractions. Medical Bentonite has been prescribed as a bulk laxative, and it is also used as a base for many dermatologic formulas. Granular bentonite is being studied for use in battlefield wound dressings. Bentonite is also sold online and in retail outlets for a variety of indications. Bentoquatam is a bentonate-based topical medication intended to act as a shield against exposure to urushiol, the oil found in plants such as poison ivy or poison oak. Bentonite can also be used as a desiccant due to its adsorption properties. Bentonite desiccants have been successfully used to protect pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and diagnostic products from moisture degradation and extend shelf life. In fact, in the most common package environments, bentonite desiccants offer a higher adsorption capacity than silica gel desiccants. Bentonite complies with the FDA for contact with food and drugs. Farming in Thailand The application of clay technology by farmers in northeast Thailand, using bentonite clay, has dramatically reversed soil degradation and resulted in greater economic returns, with higher yields and higher output prices. Studies carried out by The International Water Management Institute and partners in 2002–2003 focused on the application of locally sourced bentonite clays to degraded soils in the region. These applications were carried out in structured field trials. Applying bentonite clays effectively improved yields of forage sorghum grown under rain-fed conditions. Bentonite application also influenced the prices that farmers received for their crops. Production costs are higher, but due to more production and the quality of the food, clay farmers could afford to invest and grow more and better food, compared to nonclay-using farmers. Bentonite slurry walls in modern construction Bentonite slurry walls (also known as diaphragm walls ) are used in construction, where the slurry wall is a trench filled with a thick colloidal mixture of bentonite and water. A trench that would collapse due to the hydraulic pressure in the surrounding soil does not collapse as the slurry balances the hydraulic pressure. Forms for concrete, and rebar, can be assembled in a slurry-filled trench, and then have concrete poured into the form. The liquid concrete being denser displaces the less-dense bentonite slurry and causes the latter to overflow from the trench. This displaced bentonite slurry is then channeled to a recycling unit from which it can subsequently be reused in a new trench elsewhere on the construction site. In addition, because the colloid is relatively impervious to water, a slurry wall can prevent the seepage of groundwater, which is useful in preventing the further spread of groundwater that has been contaminated by toxic material such as industrial waste. Pottery The clay from which pottery is made is described as "plastic" if it can be stretched without cracking, or "short" or non-plastic if it tends to break up when formed. A small amount of bentonite is often added to make a clay mixture more plastic. This makes the clay more easily formed, by methods such as throwing on a potter's wheel and various hand-building techniques. Short clay, such as a porcelain mixture consisting only of kaolinite and feldspar, can be formed only by a limited set of methods such as pressing and molding, that do not put the clay under tension. However, bentonite typically contains minerals that affect the color of the mix, and its swelling absorbent properties can make such a mix prone to significant shrinkage and potential cracking as it dries. Ceramic glazes often contain bentonite. The bentonite is added to slow or prevent the settling of the glazes. It can also improve the consistency of application of glazes on porous biscuit-fired ware. Once a certain amount of glaze water has been absorbed by the biscuit the bentonite effectively clogs the pores and resists the absorption of further water resulting in a more evenly thick coat. Emergency use Bentonite is used in industry and emergency response as a chemical absorbent and container sealant. History and natural occurrence In 2018, China was the top producer of bentonite, with almost a one-quarter share of the world's production, followed by the United States and India. Total worldwide production was 24,400,000 metric tons of bentonite and 3,400,000 metric tons of fuller's earth. Most high-grade natural sodium bentonite is produced from the western United States in an area between the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Bighorn Basin of Wyoming, and the Tokat Resadiye region of Turkey. Mixed sodium/calcium bentonite is mined in Greece, Australia, India, Russia, and Ukraine. In the United States, calcium bentonite is mined primarily in Mississippi and Alabama. Other major locations producing calcium bentonite include New Zealand, Germany, Greece, Turkey, India, and China. 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216799	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman	Grumman	The Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, later Grumman Aerospace Corporation, was a leading 20th century American producer of military and civilian aircraft. Founded on December 6, 1929, by Leroy Grumman and partners, it merged in 1994 with Northrop Corporation to form Northrop Grumman. History Leroy Grumman worked for the Loening Aircraft Engineering Corporation beginning in 1920, and when it was bought by Keystone Aircraft Corporation and the operations were moved from New York City to Bristol, Pennsylvania, in 1929, Grumman and his partners, all ex-Loening Aircraft employees, (Edmund Ward Poor, William Schwendler, Jake Swirbul, and Clint Towl) started their own company in an old Cox-Klemin Aircraft Co. factory in Baldwin on Long Island, New York. The company registered as a business on December 6, 1929, and officially opened on January 2, 1930. While maintaining the business by welding aluminum tubing for truck frames, the company eagerly pursued contracts with the US Navy. Grumman designed the first practical floats with a retractable landing gear for the Navy, and this launched Grumman into the aviation market. The first Grumman aircraft was also for the Navy, the Grumman FF-1, a biplane with retractable landing gear. This was followed by a number of other successful designs. During World War II, Grumman became known for its "Cats", Navy fighter aircraft, F4F Wildcat and F6F Hellcat, the less well known Grumman F7F Tigercat and Grumman F8F Bearcat, and for its torpedo bomber TBF Avenger. Grumman ranked 22nd among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. Grumman's first jet aircraft was the F9F Panther; it was followed by the upgraded F9F/F-9 Cougar, and the less well known F-11 Tiger in the 1950s. The company's big postwar successes came in the 1960s with the A-6 Intruder and E-2 Hawkeye and in the 1970s with the Grumman EA-6B Prowler and F-14 Tomcat. Grumman products were prominent in several feature movies including The Final Countdown in 1980, Top Gun in 1986, as well as Flight of the Intruder in 1990. The U.S. Navy still employs the Hawkeye as part of Carrier Air Wings on board aircraft carriers, while the U.S. Marine Corps, the last branch of service to fly the Prowler, retired it on March 8, 2019. Grumman was the chief contractor on the Apollo Lunar Module, the first spacecraft to ever land humans on the Moon. The firm received the contract on November 7, 1962, and built 13 lunar modules; six of which successfully landed on the Moon, with one serving as a lifeboat on Apollo 13, after an explosion crippled the main Apollo spacecraft. LM-2, a test article which never flew in space, is displayed permanently in the Smithsonian Institution. As the Apollo program neared its end, Grumman was one of the main competitors for the contract to design and build the Space Shuttle, but lost to Rockwell International. In 1969, the company changed its name to Grumman Aerospace Corporation, and in 1978 it sold the Grumman-American Division to Gulfstream Aerospace. That same year, it acquired the bus manufacturer Flxible. The company built the Grumman Long Life Vehicle (LLV), a light transport mail truck designed for and used by the United States Postal Service. The mail truck had been built from 1987 until 1994. Originally, it was supposed to stay in usage for 24 years, although some of them are still in service today. In December 1982, Grumman announced that they will be selling Flxible for $40 million to the General Automotive Corporation of Ann Arbor. Grumman was responsible for a successful line of business aircraft including the Gulfstream I turboprop (Grumman model G-159) and Gulfstream II business jet (Grumman model G-1159) which were operated by a number of companies and private individuals as well as by government agencies including various military entities and NASA. In addition, the Gulfstream I propjet was operated by several commuters/regional airlines in scheduled passenger services and included a stretched version, being the Gulfstream I-C (Grumman model G-159C) which could transport 37 passengers. Gulfstream business jets are currently manufactured by Gulfstream Aerospace, which is a wholly owned subsidiary of General Dynamics. Long Island location For much of the Cold War period, Grumman was the largest corporate employer on Long Island. Grumman's products were considered so reliable and ruggedly built that the company was often referred to as the "Grumman Iron Works". As the company grew, it moved to Valley Stream, New York, then Farmingdale, New York, finally to Bethpage, New York, with the testing and final assembly at the Naval Weapons Station in Calverton, New York, all located on Long Island. At its peak in 1986 it employed 23,000 people on Long Island and occupied in structures on it leased from the U.S. Navy in Bethpage. The end of the Cold War at the beginning of the 1990s reduced defense spending and led to a wave of mergers as aerospace companies shrank in number; in 1994 Northrop bought Grumman for $2.1 billion to form Northrop Grumman, after Northrop topped a $1.9 billion offer from Martin Marietta. The new company closed almost all of its facilities on Long Island and converted the Bethpage plant to a residential and office complex, with its headquarters becoming the corporate headquarters for Cablevision and the Calverton plant being turned into a business/industrial complex. Former aircraft hangars have become Grumman Studios, a film and television production center. A portion of the airport property has been used for the Grumman Memorial Park. Products Aircraft Projects Grumman 674 Nutcracker tilting fuselage VTOL Grumman 698 VTOL Grumman G-3 project only Grumman G-4 project only Grumman G-17 project only Grumman G-25 project only Grumman G-27 project only Grumman G-29 project only Grumman G-30 project only Grumman G-35 project only Grumman G-48 project only Grumman G-49 project only Grumman G-57 project only Grumman G-62 project only Grumman G-68 project only Grumman G-71 project only Grumman G-76 project only Grumman G-77 swept-back wing research aircraft project Grumman G-78 towed target glider project Grumman G-84 project only Grumman G-85 project only Grumman G-86 project only Grumman G-91 project only Grumman G-92 project only Grumman G-97 project only Grumman G-107 project only Grumman G-108 project only Grumman G-110 project only Grumman G-113 project only Grumman G-114 Grumman G-115 Grumman G-116 project only Grumman G-118 project only Grumman G-119 project only Grumman G-122 project only Grumman G-124 jet trainer design Grumman G-127 Grumman G-132 Grumman XTB2F Grumman XTSF Spacecraft Space Apollo Lunar Module Grumman 619 Space Shuttle Other products Grumman manufactured fire engines under the name Firecat (not to be confused with the firefighting variant of the Grumman S-2 Tracker, which is sold under the same name) and aerial tower trucks under the Aerialcat name. The company entered the fire apparatus business in 1976 with its purchase of Howe Fire Apparatus. Grumman canoes were developed in 1944 as World War II was winding down. Company executive William Hoffman used the company's aircraft aluminum to replace the traditional wood design. The canoes had a reputation for being sturdier, lighter and stronger than their wood counterparts and had a considerable market share. Grumman moved its boat making division to Marathon, New York in 1952. Outboard Marine Corp. bought the division in 1990 and produced the last Grumman-brand canoe in 1996. Shortly thereafter former Grumman executives formed the Marathon Boat Group to produce the canoes. In 2000 the Group worked out an agreement with Northrop Grumman to sell the canoes using Grumman name and logo. Grumman sport boat Grumman-Flxible 870 transit buses (1978–1982) Ben Franklin (PX-15), a science submarine Grumman LLV postal vehicle widely used by the United States Postal Service and Canada Post In honor of Grumman's aviation and aerospace inventions, a Grumman Memorial Park was established in Calverton, New York. References Footnotes Notes Bibliography Ferguson, Robert G. "One Thousand Planes a Day: Ford, Grumman, General Motors and the Arsenal of Democracy." History and Technology, Volume 21, Issue 2, 2005. Fetherston, Drew. "Pioneers on the Runway: Raising Grumman." LI History.com, Grumman Park. Retrieved: March 18, 2009. Kessler, Pamela. "Leroy Grumman, Sky King." The Washington Post (Weekend), October 11, 1985. O'Leary, Michael, ed. "Leroy Grumman." Air Classics, Volume 19, no. 2, February 1983, pp. 27–29. Skurla, George M. and William H. Gregory. Inside the Iron Works: How Grumman's Glory Days Faded. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2004. . Tillman, Barrett. Hellcat: The F6F in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2001. . Thruelsen, Richard. The Grumman Story. New York: Praeger Publishers, Inc., 1976. . Treadwell, Terry. Ironworks: Grumman's Fighting Aeroplanes. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishers, 1990. . External links International Directory of Company Histories, Vol. 11. 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216800	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul%20Mousseau	Jean-Paul Mousseau	Jean-Paul Mousseau (January 1, 1927 – February 7, 1991) was a Quebec artist. He was a student of Paul-Émile Borduas and a member of the Automatist school. He was a founding member of the Association on Non-Figurative Artists of Montreal. He designed murals for the Hydro-Québec building and the Peel Metro station in Montreal. Early career Jean-Paul Mousseau studied painting at the age of thirteen while at the College Notre-Dame in Montreal under Frère Jérome (1940–45). He became a student of Paul-Emile Borduas at the Ecole du Meuble, Montreal. He was a member of the group of painters known as the Automatistes. In 1948, he was one of the signatories of the Refus global manifesto. At the end of the 1950s he was one of the first Quebec artists who saw the necessity of integrating art into the urban environment. His most important contributions are original murals and other collaborations with architects. Montreal metro Jean-Paul Mousseau did artwork in the Montreal metro. He clashed with the metro's first art director, Robert Lapalme, who insisted that metro art be figurative, represent Montreal history, and be sponsored. Mousseau wished to open the doors to non-figurative art integrated into the architecture and accounted for in the construction budget. Lapalme held sway over the initial network, except for two works (Mousseau's circles at Peel station and Marcelle Ferron's stained glass at Champ-de-Mars). Mousseau took over as art director after LaPalme, and his influence marked all the rest of the network, which includes works of non-figurative art integrated with the architecture. Most of the artwork was planned in accordance with the architects, and many were by the architects themselves. Works by Mousseau in the metro include the mural Opus 74 at Viau station, two murals at Honoré-Beaugrand, and a mural at Square-Victoria. He also created some sculptural lighting elements in the concert-hall of the Orford Arts Centre, in collaboration with the designer Léonard Garneau, who was in charge of the interior design of the centre. His work is integral to Montreal's airport and several of its skyscrapers. A major work is a mural (Lumière et mouvement) in the Hydro-Québec building in Montreal. Exhibitions 1946: Montreal Museum of Fine Art 1947: Automatistes, Galerie du Luxembourg, Paris; Exhibited with Riopelle in Montreal 1952: Automatistes, Museum of Fine Arts, Montreal; Biennial Exhibition of Canadian Painting, National Art Gallery of Canada, Ottawa 1953: Automatistes, Place Des Arts, Montreal 1954: "La matière Chante", Galerie Antoine, Montreal Biennial Exhibition of Canadian painting, National Art Gallery, Ottawa; "Young painters of Canada" in Belgium 1955: Winnipeg Art Show (first prize); "Espace 55", Museum of Fine Art, Montreal; Galerie l'Actuelle, Montreal 1956: Galerie l'Actuelle, with Riopelle, Borduas, Sam Francis, McEwen, and others 1957: Exhibition of the Association of Non-Figuratives Artists of Montreal 1959: The Association of Non Figurative Artists, Montreal Museum of Fine Arts 1960: "L'exposition Universelle de Brussels" of 20 Canadian painters, La Galerie Denyse Delrue 1963: "Festival of the 2 Worlds", Spolette, Italy; Luminous Sculptures: Museum of Montreal Galerie Agnès Le Fort 1964: Museum of Montreal Salon du Printemps Galerie Toninelli, Milan, Italy; Galerie 60 "Espace-temps" 1967: Retropesctive "Aspects", Museum of Contemporary Art, Montreal 1971: "Borduas and the Automatistes" Grand Palais, Paris 1980: Contemporary Art Society, Edmonton Art Gallery, Edmonton, Alberta 1983: Association of Non-Figurative Artists of Montreal, Concordia University 1997: Retrospective "Mousseau" Museum of Contemporary Art, Montreal Collections Museum of Fine Arts, Montreal Museum of Contemporary Art, Montreal National Museum of Fine Arts of Quebec, Quebec City Museum of Art, Joliette, Quebec Leonard & Bina Ellen Art Gallery, Concordia University, Montreal National Art Gallery, Ottawa Edmonton Art Gallery McGill Visual Arts Collection Art Gallery of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario University of Lethbridge Art Collections, Alberta See also List of Quebecois Website http://canadianartgroup.com/post-war-artists/jean-paul-mousseau/ 1927 births 1991 deaths 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216810	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitting%20Image	Spitting Image	Spitting Image is a British satirical television puppet show, created by Peter Fluck, Roger Law and Martin Lambie-Nairn. First broadcast in 1984, the series was produced by 'Spitting Image Productions' for Central Independent Television over 18 series which aired on the ITV network. The series was nominated and won numerous awards, including ten BAFTA Television Awards, and two Emmy Awards in 1985 and 1986 in the Popular Arts Category. The series features puppet caricatures of contemporary celebrities and public figures, including British Prime Ministers Margaret Thatcher and John Major and other politicians, Ronald Reagan, and the British royal family. The series was the first to caricature Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (as an elderly gin-drinker with a Beryl Reid voice). One of the most-watched shows of the 1980s, Spitting Image satirised politics, entertainment, sport and British popular culture of the era. At its peak, the show was watched by 15 million people. The popularity of the show saw collaborations with musicians, including Phil Collins and Sting. The series was cancelled in 1996 after viewing figures declined. ITV had plans for a new series in 2006, but these were scrapped after a dispute over the Ant & Dec puppets used to host Best Ever Spitting Image, which were created against Roger Law's wishes. In 2018, Law donated his entire archive – including scripts, puppet moulds, drawings and recordings – to the University of Cambridge. In 2019, Law announced the show would be returning with a new series. The revived series debuted on 3 October 2020 on BritBox, and featured caricatures of Boris Johnson and Donald Trump. History Martin Lambie-Nairn proposed a satirical television show featuring caricature puppets created by Peter Fluck and Roger Law. Fluck and Law, who had both attended the Cambridge School of Art, had no previous television experience, but had, for several years, constructed plasticine caricatures to illustrate articles in The Sunday Times magazine. The idea for the series was rejected by many in the industry, who thought it would only be suitable for children, but the series was finally accepted for development and first broadcast in 1984. English comedy writer and National Lampoon editor Tony Hendra, was brought in as a writer; Fluck and Law had met him while they were working in the US. Hendra brought in John Lloyd, producer of Not The Nine O'Clock News. They were joined by Jon Blair, a documentary producer. They then hired Muppet puppeteer Louise Gold. Development was funded by the entrepreneur Clive Sinclair. The puppets, based on public figures, were designed by Fluck and Law, assisted by caricaturists including David Stoten, Pablo Bach, Steve Bendelack and Tim Watts. The episodes included musical parodies by Philip Pope (former member of Who Dares Wins and The Hee Bee Gee Bees) and later Steve Brown. In 1984, the first episode of Spitting Image was aired with a laugh track, apparently at the insistence of Central Television. This episode was shown to a preview audience before transmission. In the early years of the show, Spitting Image was filmed and based in the enterprise zone at London Docklands at the Limehouse Studios, where scriptwriters convened and puppets were manufactured. Impressionist Steve Nallon recalls that "they were able to get away with no health and safety, so all of the building of the puppets with all the toxic waste from the foam was just in a warehouse. There were no extractor fans; it was quite Dickensian." In later series, Spitting Image was recorded at Central's studios in Nottingham with last minute additions being recorded at the Limehouse Studios at Canary Wharf, London. Reception Before the first episode was broadcast, the parodies of the Royal Family were cut, as a courtesy to the Duke of Edinburgh, who opened the East Midlands Television Centre a few days later. The scenes were all reinstated in later episodes. Stephen Fry has written that Diana, Princess of Wales told him around 1991 that "They hate it of course. I absolutely adore it." Avalon Television executive producer Jon Thoday stated that Ronald Reagan directly contacted NBC, asking for the show to be cancelled. The first episode had an audience of 7.9 million, but numbers rapidly dropped, which meant economies had to be introduced since the series cost £2.6 million, which was nearly double the price of other prime time series. The series had been scheduled to have 13 episodes but was cut to 12, after the series was nearly cancelled. Rob Grant and Doug Naylor were then brought in as head writers to save the show. By 1986, under their supervision, Spitting Image had become popular, producing a number one song on the UK Singles Chart ("The Chicken Song"). However, Grant and Naylor subsequently left to create Red Dwarf for BBC2. Spitting Image had a short-running dispute with the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) in 1985, over the use of subliminal images. Evolution When Margaret Thatcher resigned as both Prime Minister and Leader of the Conservative Party in November 1990, her successor was Chancellor of the Exchequer John Major. This marked a shift in the show's style, with the writers moving from the Punch and Judy style to more subtle and atmospheric sketches, notably a series in which an awkward Major and wife Norma ate peas for dinner. The producers dressed Major, skin and all, in shades of grey, and invented an affair between him and Virginia Bottomley. The show added animated sketches from 1989 and again from 1994 (with short, animated segments before 1989). For the 1992 Election Special, a studio audience was used; this format was revisited for two episodes in late 1993. A spoof Question Time took questions from the audience. The 1992 show was fronted by a puppet Robin Day, a puppet Jeremy Paxman filling the role in the episodes broadcast on 14 November 1993 and 12 December 1993. Characters Politicians Many British politicians in parliament during Margaret Thatcher's tenure were parodied. By far the most prominent was Thatcher herself, portrayed as an abusive tyrant and cross-dresser (she wore suits, shaved, used the urinals, and was portrayed as a cigar-chomper and addressed by her Cabinet as "Sir"). The Thatcher puppet had a strong dislike of anything French (agreeing with Hitler about 'teaching those Frenchies where to go' and throwing an apple out of the window because it was French). In the first series, Thatcher sought advice from her enraptured neighbour Herr Jeremy Von Wilcox (who is actually an elderly Adolf Hitler, living at 9 Downing Street) about the unions and the unemployed. In the third episode, Mr. Wilcox/Hitler compares the trade unions with the Soviet Union and advises not to attack in winter. In that same episode, regarding unemployment, he says that people out of work should be put in the army, and tells Thatcher that he thinks the SS (meaning SAS) are a "great bunch of guys". Alongside Thatcher were her Cabinet, which included: Willie Whitelaw, with fluffy eyebrows and wearing a tartan dressing gown to cabinet meetings. Nigel Lawson, panicking about a financial crisis he had apparently caused. A real-life recession caused Lawson to step down in 1989. He is by far the worst of all the cabinet being unable to count to 17. He also writes new budget and tax laws in his favor. However, upon discovering Thatcher promptly has him rewrite them in her favor. Geoffrey Howe, boring, bland and talks to sheep. Douglas Hurd, famous for his Dalek-style voice and his hair shaped like a "Mr Whippy" ice cream. Hurd seems also the most competent and humane one in the cabinet, opposing the usage of torture and stopping the dumping of nuclear waste in Scotland. Norman Tebbit, appearing as a leather-clad skinhead loyal to Thatcher, referring to her as "Leader" and often beating up other politicians. Michael Heseltine, growing more manic with every series (and wearing a flak jacket as Defence Secretary). Leon Brittan, constantly fawning towards Thatcher and often seen eating. Norman Fowler, portrayed during his time as Health Secretary as a hospital-murdering Jack the Ripper-style lunatic. Cecil Parkinson, having a sexual interest in every woman he sees. Edwina Currie, portrayed as a vampire or Cruella de Vil. Paul Channon, childish. Kenneth Baker, transforming into a slug over the series. Nicholas Ridley, smoking and developing the countryside for houses. Kenneth Clarke, obese and drunk despite being Minister for Health. Peter Walker, as a spineless wimp. David Waddington, fast talking and creepy. Francis Pym and James Prior, Wets who swam in swimming pools. Colin Moynihan, minuscule and childlike, called "miniature for sport". Tom King, portrayed while Employment Secretary as The Invisible Man. Thatcher's Cabinet were often depicted as bickering schoolchildren, with Thatcher acting as teacher. In one skit she treats her Cabinet to a meal at a restaurant. The waitress asks: "Would you like to order, sir?" Thatcher responds: "Yes. I will have the steak" Waitress: "And what about the Vegetables?" Thatcher: "Oh, they'll [The Cabinet] have the same as me". Thatcher's successor John Major was portrayed as a dull, boring grey character who enjoyed a meal of peas with his wife Norma and was constantly mocked by Humphrey, the Downing Street cat. Before Thatcher's resignation, Major had been portrayed as wearing a leopard print suit and swinging in on a trapeze, referencing his background as the son of a circus acrobat (which he would frequently remind everyone about). Upon his appointment to Prime Minister, Major was initially portrayed as robotic with a spinning antenna on his head (it was explained in a sketch that Thatcher used it to control Major, standing behind Thatcher in the crowd of sycophantic cabinet members, eager to repeat whatever the Thatcher puppet screeched). The Opposition (Labour Party) politicians included: Neil Kinnock, the 'Welsh Windbag', talking for hours about anything other than policies. Roy Hattersley, spitting with every word because of his lisp (on 'Best Ever Spitting Image', Hattersley praised his puppet for 'putting the spit into Spitting Image'''). Michael Foot, aged and senile, ending sentences with "Yes! Argh!". Tony Benn, a rampant socialist with eyes that never looked in the same direction. Ken Livingstone, whose living room was filled with salamanders and snakes. Denis Healey, with giant eyebrows, who helped to make Kinnock look foolish (the real Healey appeared in the programme in 1984 in a skit about that year's European elections in the UK). Gerald Kaufman, portrayed as a Hannibal Lecter-style maniac. Arthur Scargill, who was a member of the Labour Party until 1997, appeared as head of the National Union of Mineworkers, and was portrayed as a big-nosed egotist who was ignorant about mining. In 1994, a puppet of Tony Blair made his appearance. He was originally a public school boy, wearing grey shorts, blazer and cap. His catchphrase was "I'M THE LEADER" in reference to his attempt to lead the Labour Party. When Blair did become Labour leader, the puppet changed and he was portrayed with his grin replaced with an even bigger smile if he said something of importance. The deputy leader, John Prescott, was portrayed as a fat bumbling assistant, along with a squeaky voiced Robin Cook, and an enormous glasses-wearing Jack Straw. The SDP-Liberal Alliance was portrayed by the election-losing, populist, arrogant and undecided David Owen, with whining, bedwetting David Steel in his pocket. They were soon replaced by Paddy Ashdown, whose "equidistance" from the larger parties was satirised by his frequent appearance at the side of the screen during unrelated sketches, saying: "I am neither in this sketch nor not in it, but somewhere in-between". This running gag was used when Ashdown's extramarital affair was revealed, and his puppet commented that "I didn't touch her on the left leg, or the right leg, but somewhere in-between." Former Liberal MP Cyril Smith also made a few appearances depicted as a morbidly obese giant. Mark Thatcher was portrayed as a tiny and childlike opportunist (similar in size to the puppet of Steel) who benefit from the government via his mother, including through blackmailing his mother with his father. He's also portrayed in another skit as dumb with his mother playing fetch with him like if he was a dog. In the first series, Former Prime Ministers Harold Wilson, James Callaghan, Harold Macmillan and Alec Douglas-Home were depicted as living in a highly restrictive retirement home named Exchequers, where they were frequently abused by Queen Victoria. Wilson constantly attempted escape, whilst Callaghan took delight in tormenting him. Edward Heath was also said to have resided there, but he was not seen on screen; later, he would appear as a naked piano player. Royal Family The main characters were: The Queen: wears a CND badge, always seemed slightly mad and picked clothes from rubbish bins. The Duke of Edinburgh, the Queen's husband; was a blunderbuss-toting Greek-obsessed buffoon in naval uniform. Charles, Prince of Wales was a pseudo-hippie, then a taxi driver in later episodes. Diana, Princess of Wales was a publicity-hungry Sloane Ranger. Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, who was generally seen with a bottle of Gordon's Gin, a copy of the Racing Post, and a Beryl Reid voice; this was a running joke from a sketch in which the Royal Family's desire to conceal her Birmingham accent was the reason she was seldom heard speaking on television. In the series she is seen with jockey Lester Piggott with whom she has an affair. Other members who were parodied include: the sex-obsessed Prince Andrew, the envious and heavily freckled Sarah, Duchess of York, the grumpy Princess Anne, the poorly informed Prince Edward, the Panzer-driving Princess Michael of Kent, and the always tipsy Princess Margaret. International politiciansSpitting Image lampooned US President Ronald Reagan as a bumbling, nuke-obsessed fool in comparison with his advisors Edwin Meese and Caspar Weinberger. Next to his bed were red buttons labelled 'Nuke' and 'Nurse'. His wife Nancy was the butt of cosmetic surgery jokes. Mikhail Gorbachev's forehead birthmark was shaped like a hammer and sickle. All other Russians looked like Leonid Brezhnev, often said "da" ("yes") and talked about potatoes. In Russia it was snowing even indoors and the Soviet television had extremely low-tech visual effects. Yitzhak Shamir often appeared wearing a hard hat with the Star of David on it, holding a brick and referring to building a "legitimate Israeli settlement" (referring to the practice of building houses on the West Bank for Israeli people). François Mitterrand was wearing a beret and a garlic wreath, his successor Jacques Chirac was depicted as being obsessed and callous with nuclear weapons. P. W. Botha was shown as a racist cleverly disguising his views (once he had a badge "anti-anti-apartheid"). Adolf Hitler incognito had a house at 9 Downing Street. Some appearances were also made by Idi Amin, Robert Mugabe, Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos, Ruhollah Khomeini, Saddam Hussein and Muammar Gaddafi. Khomeini appear to parody Iranian law and policy. Khomeini and Botha along with the more recurring Reagan, Thatcher, Pope John Paul II, and Gorbachev appear in the Spitting Image video game. Other international caricatures included Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger; George H. W. Bush and Dan Quayle; Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton, Konstantin Chernenko, Raisa Gorbachova and Boris Yeltsin. Sport England manager Bobby Robson was a senile worrier nicknamed 'Rubbisho'. Emlyn Hughes was portrayed with a high pitched and annoying voice. England midfielder Paul Gascoigne appeared, frequently crying – a parody of the 1990 World Cup semi-final against West Germany, in which he famously cried after being booked, which would have ruled him out of the final had England won the game. Ian Botham was a violent drug addict, while Mike Gatting spoke with a high voice. Lester Piggott had to be subtitled. Boxing characters included Frank Bruno with his trademark laugh and catchphrase "where's 'Arry?", and Chris Eubank, with his lisp. Snooker player Steve Davis was boring, upset because he had no nickname, but thought himself interesting. Celebrities News reporters were also depicted: Alastair Burnet was sycophantic towards the Royal Family and with a nose that inflated; Sandy Gall was effeminate, always worrying what coat he would wear; John Cole was incomprehensible and had to be dragged off-screen when he talked for too long; Nicholas Witchell was always turning up during a strike to work rather than report; Kate Adie was a thrill-seeker, and BBC Head of Bravery. Presenters were also seen: Jeremy Paxman appeared as uninterested and self-loving, and Trevor McDonald frequently lamented his lot after being paired with Ronnie Corbett as newscasters, with the latter always getting the punchlines. William Rees-Mogg was portrayed as a censorship-crazy person with eyes that would frequently pop out of the socket. David Coleman had a very loud ear prompter and sometimes did not know what he was commentating on; Frank Bough was portrayed as being a drug user; Bruce Forsyth spoke every sentence as though it was a catchphrase. Celebrity chef Keith Floyd was always getting drunk on wine, while film critic Barry Norman was not a fan of his puppet, because it had an inexplicable wart on its forehead, which he did not have. Paul Daniels did not mind jokes about his toupée, but took offence to a sketch depicting him nuzzling his assistant Debbie McGee's breasts. Comedians were satirised: Billy Connolly was portrayed as a jester; Jimmy Tarbuck was said to use old jokes and always take part in the Royal Variety Performance; Bernard Manning was an obese racist; and Ben Elton was always shown with a microphone. Writer and MP Jeffrey Archer appeared as an annoying, self-commenting writer whose books were not read by anyone. Kenneth Williams was depicted with a large nose and big teeth, and Harry Secombe was depicted as overly religious. Alan Bennett was shown at home as watching Spitting Image on TV. Esther Rantzen always had a permanent grin and was frequently carrying an onion (reflecting a concurrent running joke in Private Eye suggesting insincere theatrical tears), whilst Cilla Black had large teeth and a thick Scouse accent. Musicians A Mick Jagger character seemed perpetually high, and Keith Richards so old and haggard that he thought he was dead. Ringo Starr was a drunkard, and Paul McCartney was always releasing albums and films that flopped. Madonna changed her hair and clothes with every episode, and Michael Jackson's skin turned lighter. Kylie Minogue was depicted as a vain robot; Luciano Pavarotti was hugely overweight and ate everything he saw; Matt and Luke Goss of the band Bros were depicted as children wanting to grow up. Actors Actor Dustin Hoffman spoke nasally and was parodied for his method acting; John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier lamented their friends, and even their own death. James Bond actor Roger Moore was depicted "with a wooden delivery" – only his eyebrows moved; Moore quipped, "My acting range has always been something between the two extremes of 'raises left eyebrow' and 'raises right eyebrow'." Arnold Schwarzenegger was muscle-bound but insecure about the size of his genitals; Donald Sinden was parodied as also trying to become the greatest Shakespearian actor and get a knighthood. Clint Eastwood was frequently portrayed as an uncompromising tough guy, and Sylvester Stallone nearly always appeared dressed up as John Rambo. Religious figures Archbishop Robert Runcie, Mary Whitehouse and Cliff Richard were portrayed as Christian censors. Ian Paisley was always shouting and dressed in black. Bishop David Jenkins was depicted as not believing in anything. Pope John Paul II was a banjo-playing womaniser who spoke with a hip urban African-American accent. Others Media moguls Robert Maxwell and Rupert Murdoch were also on the show, the latter depicted as an extremely flatulent individual encouraging obscenity in his mass media. Lord Lucan appeared in various background roles often as a bartender. Songs The first single from Spitting Image, released in 1984, was a rework of the Crystals' "Da Doo Ron Ron". The Spitting Image version, "Da Do Run Ron", was a spoof election campaign song for Ronald Reagan, featuring Nancy Reagan listing reasons to elect her husband. The cover of the single featured Reagan as a biker with Nancy riding pillion. The B-side of this single was entitled "Just A Prince Who Can't Say No" and poked fun at the sexual indiscretions of Prince Andrew. The TV version of this song (featured in the second episode) was heavily censored by Central Television on broadcast but presented uncut on vinyl. In the television series he was shown surrounded by various famous women including Joan Collins, Mary Whitehouse and Linda McCartney. In 1986, the Spitting Image puppets released "The Chicken Song", a parody of "Agadoo" by Black Lace – one of several parodies to have featured in the programme, mimicking novelty records and holiday songs with a repetitive tunes and nonsensical lyrics. Ironically, The Chicken Song hit number 1 in the UK Singles Chart for 3 weeks from 17 May 1986 – 3 June 1986. VH1 US named it as one of the worst number 1 nominations. The other songs released by Spitting Image were "I've Never Met a Nice South African" (which was on the B-Side of "The Chicken Song" and was a savage indictment of the apartheid-ridden country), "We're Scared Of Bob" (a parody of "We Are The World") and "Hello You Must Be Going" (which mocked Phil Collins's divorce ballads and was on the 12" release of The Chicken Song), "Santa Claus Is on the Dole" (backed with "The Atheist Tabernacle Choir"), "The Christmas Singles" and "Cry Gazza Cry" (based on footballer Paul Gascoigne's tears in the 1990 World Cup). "The Chicken Song" was by far the most successful of all of their music and not-so-subtle references were made to it in subsequent sketches in the show itself. In 1986, a compilation LP "Spit In Your Ear" was produced, featuring some of their sketches over time along with a few of their songs, followed in 1990 by "20 Great Golden Gobs", a songs-only collection from the 1986–1990 series. In 1986, the Spitting Image team experienced some real musical success when they created the video for "Land of Confusion" by Genesis, a song which implied that Thatcher and Reagan were about to bring the world to a nuclear war. Phil Collins saw a disfigured version of himself on the show and contacted the show's producers with the idea to produce the video. Three new puppets were created depicting all members of Genesis (including a less exaggerated version of Collins), which also appear on the sleeve of the 45 (and later CD) single. The video was depicted as a nightmare Reagan was having, which left him completely immersed in sweat from worrying. It won a Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video in 1987. The end of the 1987 election featured a young boy, dressed as a city banker, singing "Tomorrow Belongs to Me", a parody of the film Cabaret, when a member of the Hitler Youth starts singing the same song. In a series 5 episode, Labour leader Neil Kinnock is portrayed singing a self-parody to the tune "My eyes are fully open" from Gilbert and Sullivan's Ruddigore, supported by members of his shadow cabinet. In one instance Sting was persuaded to sing a re-worded version of "Every Breath You Take", titled "Every Bomb You Make" (series 1, episode 12), to accompany a video showing the Spitting Image puppets of world leaders and political figures of the day, usually with the figure matching the altered lyrics The video ended with the grim reaper appearing in front of a sunset. This version was due to be resurrected by Sting at the Live 8 concert, and the parody lyrics were cleared with their writers Quentin Reynolds and James Glen, but plans were abandoned at the last minute. The closing music for series 8 episode 3 featured an ensemble of characters performing "We All Hate Jeremy Beadle", in reference to the light entertainment host of that name. In series 9 episode 4, the show ended with "Why Can't Life Be Like Hello?", sung by June Brown (who was commonly known as the EastEnders character Dot Cotton). The song pastiches Hello magazine, in satire of post-Big Bang UK consumerist culture. Other musical parodies featured Mick Jagger, Michael Jackson, David Bowie, Kylie Minogue, The Monkees, Pulp, Brett Anderson of Suede, Pet Shop Boys, R.E.M., Björk, East 17, Elvis Presley, Oasis, ZZ Top, Prince and Barbra Streisand. The new 2020 release of the show features such songs as a mockery of celebrities’ use of social media and a parody of New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern’s domestic policies. In the song, a Jacinda Ardern puppet dressed as Mary Poppins serenades with the Spitting Image original song, "Super-Kiwi-socialistic-extra-nice-Jacinda," a play on Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious. StaffSpitting Image launched the careers of and featured many then-unknown British comedians and actors, including Hugh Dennis, Steve Coogan and Harry Enfield. Voices The voices were provided by British impressionists including: Chris Barrie (1984–1991) Roger Blake (1990–1996) Brian Bowles (1993) Rory Bremner (1987) Phil Cool (1984–1985) Phil Cornwell (1986) Steve Coogan (1988–1993) Jon Culshaw (1994–1996) Hugh Dennis (1989–1992) Ade Edmondson (1984) Harry Enfield (1985–1989, 1996) Chris Emmett (1984, 1990) Michael Fenton Stevens (singing voices only, mainly backing vocals) Fogwell Flax (1984) Jon Glover (1984–1989, 1994) Louise Gold (1984–1985) Alistair McGowan (1991–1996) Jessica Martin (1985–1988) Steve Nallon (1984–1996) (voice of Margaret Thatcher) Philip Pope (1984–1991, singing voices only) Jan Ravens (1984–1992) Enn Reitel (1985–1990, 1994, 1996) Kate Robbins (1986–1996) Bob Saker (1987) Peter Serafinowicz (1996) John Sessions (1986) Steve Steen (1993) Debra Stephenson (1989) John Thomson (1990, 1992–1994) Performers The puppets were operated by British performers, including: Anthony Asbury Don Austen Chris Barrie Michael Bayliss Kevin Bradshaw (later credited as Kaefan Shaw) Simon Buckley Patrick Comerford Richard Coombs Craig Crane Sue Dacre Phil Eason John Eccleston Geoff Felix Rebecca Nagan Alistair Fullarton Louise Gold Barnaby Harrison Marie Philips Brian Herring Mark Jefferis Robin Kingsland Terry Lee Steve Nallon Martin H Oates Ben Oldfield Angie Passmore Nigel Plaskitt Gillie Robic Martin P. Robinson Richard Robinson Tim Rose Andrew Sinclair John Thirtle Ian Thom William Todd-Jones Robert Tygner Mak Wilson Francis Wright Writers Geoff Atkinson (1984–1993) David Austin Debbie Barham Barry Atkins Alistair Beaton Colin Bostock-Smith Jo Brand (one episode, 1988) Mark Burton (1985–1993) Kevin Cecil (1993–1996) Paul John Clark, journalist and writer Richard Curtis (1984–1985) Terence Dackombe (1984–1989) Paul B. Davies (John) Jack Docherty and Moray Hunter Chris Edge Chris Langham (1984) Ben Elton (1984–1985) Stevie Fowler Patrick Gallagher Dan Gaster Rob Grant (1984–1986) Simon Goodman Sean Hardie Ray Harris (1985–1993) Brian Highley (1984-1986) Ian Hislop (1984–1989) Will Ing Donnie Kerr David Kind Wayne Kline Stewart Lee Paul Lewis Victor Lewis-Smith and Paul Sparks (one episode, 1988) Doug Naylor (1984–1986) Henry Naylor (1984–1986) Nick Newman (1984–1989) John O'Farrell (1984–1993) Andy Parsons (1993–1996) Paul Powell Georgia Pritchett (1986–1992) Steve Punt (1989–1993) Neil Raphael (1984–1987) Keith Rees Andy Riley (1993–1996) Laurie Rowley Tony Sarchet Stuart Silver Paul Simpkin Pete Sinclair David Slade & Frank Walsh (Thatcher Vegetables Sketch) Paul Smith (1984–1985) Andrea Solomons Guy Jenkin Johnny Mack Chris Morris (satirist) Producers Jon Blair, John Lloyd, Tony Hendra (first six episodes, 1984) Jon Blair, John Lloyd (1984) John Lloyd (1984–1986) Geoffrey Perkins (1986–1988) David Tyler (1989) Bill Dare (1990–1993) Giles Pilbrow (1994–1996) Directors Stephen Bendelack Richard Bradley Philip Casson Bob Cousins Andy De Emmony Gordon Elsbury Sean Hardie Peter Harris John Henderson Liddy Oldroyd Tom Poole Geoffrey Sax John Stroud Graham C. Williams Decline The writers, Mark Burton, John O'Farrell, Pete Sinclair, Stuart Silver, and Ray Harris quit the show in 1993 and in 1995, and with viewing figures in decline, production was cancelled. The final series was initially planned for broadcast in autumn 1995 but was subsequently broadcast in January and February 1996, with the final episode featuring "The Last Prophecies of Spitting Image" in which Labour moved into Number 10. A few years later, most of the puppets were sold at an auction hosted by Sotheby's, including a puppet of Osama bin Laden never used in the series. During 2004, the idea of the series coming back started to appear after John Lloyd held talks with ITV executives about the show's return. John Lloyd also held talks with a number of people who voiced the Spitting Image puppets, including John Sessions, Harry Enfield and Rory Bremner, with all responding positively. Lloyd said: "There's enormous enthusiasm from ITV to do it. We're just trying to work out how it would be affordable. The budget is about to go off to ITV. Everybody seems to have residual affection for Spitting Image. It could be scrappy and uneven, but it's rather like a newspaper. You don't expect it to be brilliant every time, but there's something delicious in every edition." By early 2006, ITV were producing a documentary celebrating the series and if the audience figures were good a full series might have been produced. On 25 June 2006, ITV transmitted Best Ever Spitting Image as a one-off special of Spitting Image which took a nostalgic look back at the programme's highlights. This special actually prevented ITV directly resurrecting the famous satire as they had planned, because it featured new puppets of Ant and Dec – a move which was against the wishes of Roger Law, who owns the rights to the Spitting Image brand.Spitting Image, as ITV's primary satirical programme, was succeeded by 2DTV, a cartoon format that had five series between 2001 and 2004. In 2008 ITV created a CGI version to caricature and lampoon the famous, called Headcases, but it only aired for one series. Satirical puppets finally returned to ITV in 2015, in Newzoids. Archive donated to Cambridge University In 2018, Spitting Image co-creator Roger Law donated his entire archive – which includes original scripts, puppet moulds, drawings and recordings – to Cambridge University. The collection is located in the university library, with its librarian Dr Jessica Gardner describing the collection as a "national treasure". She added, "Spitting Image was anarchic, it was creative, it entered the public imagination like nothing else from that era. It is an extraordinary political and historical record. Great satire holds up a mirror, it questions and challenges." Broadcast dates All episodes and specials were broadcast on Sunday, usually at 10 pm. The programme was also picked up overseas. It aired on Canada's CBC Television on Sunday nights in the late 1980s. The American network NBC aired several prime-time specials in the same period. Austrian public broadcaster ORF broadcast Spitting Image in English with German subtitles late on Friday nights in approximately four-week intervals in the late 1980s and early 1990s, introducing it to the German-speaking world (where foreign programming is usually dubbed into German). Spitting Image was also briefly shown in France on the private TV channel M6 in English with French subtitles. The show was also aired in New Zealand on TVNZ in the 1980s. Series Specials Repeats From October 1996 Spitting Image Series 1–11 were on UK Gold until September 1998. Edited episodes from Series 1–3 and 7 were on Granada Plus from 2001 to 2003. In February 2008, Comedy Central Extra started showing regular repeats of Spitting Image from 9 pm on Tuesday evenings, with a whole weekend's worth of evenings devoted to the first two series. It reappeared in a late night slot in November 2010, through to 18 December 2010 and has not been aired since then. From 2001 to 2004 the ITV series 2DTV had a similar style, but using computer animation instead of puppets. United States version In an attempt to crack the American market, there were some attempts to produce a US version of the show. A 45-minute 'made for market' show by the original Spitting Image team, titled Spitting Image: Down and Out in the White House was produced in 1986 by Central for the NBC network. NBC did not give this high priority. During the late summer, when viewership was traditionally low and the networks aired reruns of the previous season, NBC broke the special into two half-hour episodes and slotted them into its schedule on 30 August and 6 September of that year, following reruns of The Golden Girls. Introduced by David Frost, it departed from the sketch-based format in favour of an overall storyline involving the upcoming (at that time) Presidential election. The plot involved a conspiracy to replace Ronald Reagan with a double (actually actor Dustin Hoffman in disguise). This plan was hatched by the Famous Corporation, a cabal of the ultra-rich headed by Johnny Carson's foil Ed McMahon (in the show, Carson was his ineffectual left-hand man) who met in a secret cavern hollowed out behind the façade of Mount Rushmore. Eventually, their plot foiled, the famous corporation activated their escape pod – Abraham Lincoln's nose – and left Earth for another planet, but (in a homage to the beginning of the Star Wars movies) were destroyed during a collision with 'a nonsensical prologue in gigantic lettering'. The show did not achieve high ratings. It did, however, receive great praise from critics and it was followed by several more television specials: The Ronnie & Nancy Show (also satirising the Reagans), The 1987 Movie Awards (sending up the Academy Awards), Bumbledown: The Life and Times of Ronald Reagan (a quasi-documentary about the President), and The Sound of Maggie (satirising Thatcher and parodying several musicals such as Oliver!, West Side Story and many others). Revival In September 2019, the show was confirmed to be returning 23 years after it originally ended, with the unveiling of the puppets of Greta Thunberg, Donald Trump, Vladimir Putin, Mark Zuckerberg, Prince Harry and Meghan Markle. Roger Law stated that the pilot for the new series had been filmed and that talks were in progress with US networks to take the show to a larger, global audience, and that the revival is set to have a global appeal through a "uniquely British eye". Among the writers for the revival will be Jeff Westbrook of Futurama (who also serves as executive producer), Al Murray, The Windsors creators Bert Tyler-Moore and George Jeffrie, Bill Odenkirk, David X. Cohen, Jason Hazeley, Keisha Zollar, Patric Verrone, Phil Wang, and Sophie Duker. On 4 March 2020, the show was announced to be returning on the streaming service BritBox, as its first official commission. The show premiered on the service on 3 October 2020, featuring the voices of Billy West, Debra Stephenson, Debra Wilson, Guz Khan, Indira Varma, Jess Robinson, John DiMaggio, Lewis MacLeod, Lobo Chan, Matt Forde, and Phil LaMarr. Home releases The programme was first released on video in 1986 in a series of three collections, each a compilation of material from the first two series: Spit – With Polish!, A Floppy Mass Of Blubber & Rubber Thingies. All carried a 15 certificate and were reissued in 1988, also as a box set. 1989 saw the release by Central Video of two complete specials, Bumbledown: The Life & Times Of Ronald Reagan and The Sound Of Maggie and was also released in the US by BFS Video. Next was a video containing a collection of the music videos from the programme, titled "The Klassik Music Video Vol 1", released in 1991 by Central Video under The Video Collection Ltd (VCI or 2entertain); there was never a Volume 2. "Is Nothing Sacred?" was released in 1992 by Surprise Video, compiling material from 1990 to 1991. The free booklet was written by Stewart Lee and Richard Herring. Havin' It Off: The Bonker's Guide was released in 1993. In 1996 FA to Fairplay was released on VHS, later reissued on DVD in 2005. Made specially for video, it provided an alternative look at the 1996 European football championship held in England. The Ronald Reagan song "Da Do Run Ron" featured in a straight to video release called Rockin' Ronnie (1986), an otherwise unrelated compilation of movie clips released by ATI Video. The first 12 series including An 11-disc set (containing the first seven series broadcast 1984–89) have been released by Network Distributing under licence by ITV Studios, so far. Series 1–7 individual releases are now deleted. DVD releases do not include any of the specials made. DVD release dates Media adaptations The show was adapted into a video game: Spitting Image and a comic magazine. International adaptations Australia: Rubbery Figures (1984–1990) Austria: Telewisch'n (1987–1989) Basque Country: Txoko-Latex (1993–1994) Belgium: Les Décodeurs de l'Info (1990–1992), Poppehan Brazil: Agildo no País das Maravilhas (1987–1988), Cabaré do Barata (1989–1990) Bulgaria: Govoreshti Glavi (Говорещи Глави) Cameroon: Les Guignols d'Afrique/Les Guignols Actu Canada: Segments in "What's New" Chile: Los Toppins (1993–1994) Colombia: Noticiero NP& (2010–2013) Costa Rica: Doble Filo (1997-1998) Czech Republic: Gumáci (1994–1999) Estonia: Pehmed ja karvased (2002–2013) France: Les Guignols (1988–2018) Germany: Hurra Deutschland (1989–1992)/Hurra Deutschland – Jetzt erst recht! (2003–2004), Der Kaiser und die Kanzlerin Greece: Ftystous (Φτυστούς) (1994–1995), Ela ston Psalti (Έλα στον Ψάλτη) (1996) Hungary: Uborka (1992–2002) India: Gustakhi Maaf Iran: Shabake Nim (شبکه نیم) Israel: Chartzufim (1996–2001) Italy: Teste di Gomma (1987–1988), Gommapiuma (1993–1995), Gli Sgommati (2011–2013) Japan: Spitting Image Japan (スピッティング・イメージ・ジャパン) (1994) Kenya: The XYZ Show (2009–Ongoing) Lebanon: Damaa Qaratiatan (دمى قراطية) Mexico: Los Clones (2005) Netherlands: Medialand (1992–1996), Wat een poppenkast! (2016) New Zealand: Public Eye (1988–1989) Nicaragua: Los Hulosos (2006-2008) Norway: Sett på maken (1996, was originally planned to run for 12 episodes, but ended up being a failed pilot due to low ratings) Poland: Polskie Zoo (1991–1994) Portugal: Jornalouco (1992–1993), Cara Chapada (1993–1996), Contra Informação (1996–2010)/ContraPoder (2013)/Do Contra (2021–Ongoing), Os Bonecos (2015) Russia: Kukly (Куклы) (1995–2002) Serbia and Montenegro: Nikad izvini (2003–2005) South Africa: ZANEWS (2008–2017) Spain: Los Muñegotes (1990–1991), Las noticias del guiñol (1995–2008) Sweden: Riksorganet (1998) Switzerland: Les Bouffons de la Confédération (2009–2010) Tunisia: Ellougik Essiyasi (اللوجيك السياسي), Les Guignols du Maghreb Turkey: Plastip Show (1991–1994) Ukraine: Pupsnya (Пупсня) United States: D.C. Follies (1987–1989), Puppet Nation USA (2014–2017) Venezuela: Los Muñecotes See also Cultural depictions of Margaret Thatcher Cultural depictions of Ronald Reagan Les Guignols de l'info The Wrong Coast Crapston Villas Headcases 2DTV The Mary Whitehouse Experience Have I Got News for You Land of Confusion The XYZ Show ZANEWS, also known as Puppet Nation ZAD.C. Follies Las noticias del guiñol The Winjin Pom Rubbery Figures Newzoids Sooty References External links Walker, John. "Spitting Image". Glossary of Art, Architecture & Design since 1945, 3rd. ed. Spitting Image v. Headcases Encyclopedia of Television Chester, Lewis. Tooth & Claw – The Inside Story of Spitting Image'', Faber and Faber, 1986 BBC Radio4, "South Africa Spits Back" 1984 British television series debuts 1996 British television series endings 1980s British satirical television series 1990s British satirical television series BAFTA winners (television series) British political comedy television series ITV sketch shows British television series revived after cancellation Political satirical television series British television shows featuring puppetry Television series by ITV Studios English-language television shows Television shows adapted into comics Television shows adapted into video games Television shows produced by Central Independent Television Cultural depictions of politicians Cultural depictions of sportspeople Cultural depictions of actors Cultural depictions of presenters Cultural depictions of pop musicians Cultural depictions of religious leaders Jimmy Savile Caricature	[ 0.13796661794185638, 0.45999687910079956, 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216811	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarski%27s%20circle-squaring%20problem	Tarski's circle-squaring problem	Tarski's circle-squaring problem is the challenge, posed by Alfred Tarski in 1925, to take a disc in the plane, cut it into finitely many pieces, and reassemble the pieces so as to get a square of equal area. This was proven to be possible by Miklós Laczkovich in 1990; the decomposition makes heavy use of the axiom of choice and is therefore non-constructive. Laczkovich estimated the number of pieces in his decomposition at roughly 1050. A constructive solution was given by Łukasz Grabowski, András Máthé and Oleg Pikhurko (2016) which worked everywhere except for a set of measure zero. More recently, gave a completely constructive solution using about Borel pieces. In 2021 Máthé, Noel and Pikhurko improved the properties of the pieces. In particular, it is impossible to dissect a circle and make a square using pieces that could be cut with an idealized pair of scissors (that is, having Jordan curve boundary). The pieces used in Laczkovich's proof are non-measurable subsets. Laczkovich actually proved the reassembly can be done using translations only; rotations are not required. Along the way, he also proved that any simple polygon in the plane can be decomposed into finitely many pieces and reassembled using translations only to form a square of equal area. The Bolyai–Gerwien theorem is a related but much simpler result: it states that one can accomplish such a decomposition of a simple polygon with finitely many polygonal pieces if both translations and rotations are allowed for the reassembly. It follows from a result of that it is possible to choose the pieces in such a way that they can be moved continuously while remaining disjoint to yield the square. Moreover, this stronger statement can be proved as well to be accomplished by means of translations only. These results should be compared with the much more paradoxical decompositions in three dimensions provided by the Banach–Tarski paradox; those decompositions can even change the volume of a set. However, in the plane, a decomposition into finitely many pieces must preserve the sum of the Banach measures of the pieces, and therefore cannot change the total area of a set . See also Squaring the circle, a different problem: the task (which has been proven to be impossible) of constructing, for a given circle, a square of equal area with straightedge and compass alone. References . . . . . . . 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216814	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20New%20York%20%28LPD-21%29	USS New York (LPD-21)	USS New York (LPD-21) is a , and the fifth ship of the United States Navy to be named after the state of New York. Naming Shortly after September 11 2001, Governor of New York George E. Pataki wrote a letter to Secretary of the Navy Gordon R. England requesting that the Navy bestow the name "New York" on a surface warship involved in the Global War on Terrorism in honor of the victims of the September 11 attacks. In his letter, the Governor said he understood state names were reserved for submarines but asked for special consideration so the name could be given to a surface ship. The request was approved on 28 August 2002. Sister ships names announced On 9 September 2004 Gordon R. England, then the Deputy Secretary of Defense, announced that two of New York sister ships would be named and in commemoration of the places where two of the other planes used in the attacks came down: Arlington County, Virginia, and Somerset County, Pennsylvania. Construction A symbolic amount of steel salvaged from the World Trade Center after it was destroyed in the September 11 attacks was used in her construction. The ship is the first to be designed fully from the CAD-screen up to support both of the Marines' primary mobility capabilities, LCAC landing craft and MV-22B Osprey aircraft. The contract to build New York was awarded to Northrop Grumman Ship Systems of New Orleans, Louisiana, in 2003. New York was under construction in New Orleans at the time of Hurricane Katrina in 2005. of the steel used in the ship's construction came from the rubble of the World Trade Center; this represents less than one thousandth of the total weight of the ship. The steel was melted down at Amite Foundry and Machine in Amite, Louisiana, to cast the ship's bow section. It was poured into the molds on 9 September 2003, with cast to form the ship's "stem bar"—part of the ship's bow. The foundry workers reportedly treated it with "reverence usually accorded to religious relics," gently touching it as they walked by. One worker delayed his retirement after 40 years of working to be part of the project. Christening and delivery New York was christened on 1 March 2008, in a ceremony at Avondale Shipyard in New Orleans. Dotty England, the ship's sponsor, smashed the traditional champagne bottle on the ship's bow and christened the ship New York. Several dignitaries were in attendance, including Louisiana Congressman William J. Jefferson, Deputy Defense Secretary Gordon R. England, members of the New York City Police Department and the New York City Fire Department, and family members of victims of the September 11 attacks. The champagne bottle did not break the first time it was struck against the hull of the ship, but the second attempt was successful. The ship was delivered to the Navy on 21 August 2009 at New Orleans. She set sail for Norfolk, Virginia, on 13 October 2009. On 2 November 2009 the ship passed the World Trade Center site for the first time and gave the site a 21-gun salute. Commissioning and trials The commissioning ceremony for New York took place on 7 November 2009, in New York City. Speakers included Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus, Governor David Paterson, Mayor Michael Bloomberg, Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Gary Roughead, and Commandant of the Marine Corps General James T. Conway. Approximately one in seven of the plank owners are from New York state, a larger number than usual. Propulsion New York uses four Fairbanks-Morse license-built MAN Colt-Pielstick PC2.5 STC sequentially turbocharged marine diesel engines with inboard rotating Rolls-Royce controllable-pitch propellers. The V16-cylinder Colt-Pielstick PC2.5 STC engine is intended for use on ships requiring high propulsion power combined with a lightweight installation. Each V16 PC2.5 STC diesel engine weighs dry without flywheel. On 11 January 2010, the Navy announced that the ship would have to undergo repairs for faulty engine parts after inspectors discovered the "premature failure" of bearings on the ship's main propulsion diesel engines during a week-long sea trial following the November commissioning. Service history 2012 On 10 June 2012 the ship was deployed for the first time to the Strait of Hormuz and the Persian Gulf region. She deployed with Marines from 1st Battalion, 2nd Marine Regiment, 2nd Marine Division and returned in December 2012 along with , and the Marines from the same unit attached to all three ships. 2014 In June 2014, the ship was used to transport Ahmed Abu Khattala, suspected mastermind of the 2012 Benghazi attack on the American diplomatic mission at Benghazi, back to the United States. 2017 On 11 September 2017, New York arrived off the Florida coast for Hurricane Irma relief, 16 years to the day after the 9/11/2001 terrorist attacks. 2018 New York supported the reception night for the 23rd International Seapower Symposium at the Naval War College in Newport, RI in September 2018. In November, the ship supported Exercise Trident Juncture, a large scale NATO exercise involving more than 50,000 personnel, 65 ships, and 250 aircraft, including 14,000 American troops, a Carrier Strike Group (CSG) and an Amphibious Readiness Group (ARG). 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216815	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20junta	Military junta	A military junta () is a government led by a committee of military leaders. The term junta means "meeting" or "committee" and originated in the national and local junta organized by the Spanish resistance to Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808. The term is now used to refer to an authoritarian form of government characterized by oligarchic military dictatorship, as distinguished from other categories of authoritarian rule, specifically strongman (autocratic military dictatorships); machine (oligarchic party dictatorships); and bossism (autocratic party dictatorships). A junta often comes to power as a result of a coup d'état. The junta may either formally take power as the nation's governing body, with the power to rule by decree, or may wield power by exercising binding (but informal) control over a nominally civilian government. These two forms of junta rule are sometimes called open rule and disguised rule. Disguised rule may take the form of either civilianization or indirect rule. Civilianization occurs when a junta publicly ends its obviously military features, but continues its dominance. For example, the junta may terminate martial law, forgo military uniforms in favor of civilian attire, "colonize" government with former military officers, and make use of political parties or mass organizations. "Indirect rule" involves the junta's exertion of concealed, behind-the-scenes control over a civilian puppet. Indirect rule by the military can include either broad control over the government or control over a narrower set of policy areas, such as military or national security matters. Since the 1920s, military juntas have been frequently seen in Latin America, typically in the form of an "institutionalized, highly corporate/professional junta" headed by the commanding officers of the different military branches (army, navy, and air force), and sometimes joined by the head of the national police or other key bodies. Political scientist Samuel Finer, writing in 1988, noted that juntas in Latin America tended to be smaller than juntas elsewhere; the median junta had 11 members, while Latin American juntas typically had three or four. "Corporate" military coups have been distinguished from "factional" military coups. The former are carried out by the armed forces as an institution, led by senior commanders at the top of the military hierarchy, while the latter are carried out by a segment of the armed forces and are often led by mid-ranking officers. A 2014 study published in the Annual Review of Political Science journal found that military regimes behaved differently from both civilian dictatorships and autocratic military strongmen. The study found that (1) "strongmen and military regimes are more likely to commit human rights abuses and become embroiled in civil wars than are civilian dictatorships"; (2) "military strongmen start more international wars than either military regimes or civilian dictators, perhaps because they have more reason to fear post-ouster exile, prison, or assassination" and (3) military regimes and civilian dictatorships are more likely to end in democratization, in contrast to the rule of military strongmen, which more often ends by insurgency, popular uprising, or invasion. Examples The following are examples of military juntas which have ruled, organized by continent. Bolded items indicate countries with juntas currently in power. Africa – Revolutionary Council (1965–1976) – Patriotic Movement for Safeguard and Restoration (2022–present) – Transitional Military Council (2021–present) – Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (2011–2012) – Derg (1974–1987) – National Committee of Reconciliation and Development (2021–present) – People's Redemption Council (1980–1984) – Revolutionary Command Council (1969–1977), Establishment of the Authority of the People (1977–2011) – National Committee for the Salvation of the People (2020–present) – Military Committee for National Recovery (1978–1979), Military Committee for National Salvation (1979–1992), Military Council for Justice and Democracy (2005–2007), High Council of State (2008–2009) – Military juntas (1966–1979 and 1983–1998) – National Reformation Council (1967–1968), Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (1997–2002) – Supreme Revolutionary Council (1969–1976, 1980–1981) – Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation (1989–1993), Transitional Military Council (2019), Military Junta (2021–present) – Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council (1994–1996) Americas – Argentine Revolution (1966–1973), National Reorganization Process (1976–1983) – Bolivian military juntas (1970–1971 and 1980–1982) – Brazilian military juntas of 1930 (1930–1945) and 1969 (1964–1985) – Government Junta (1973–1990) – Civic Directory (1931), Junta of Government (1960–1961), Civic-Military Directory (1961–1962), Revolutionary Government Junta (1979–1982) – Junta of the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état – Junta that took control in the 1991 coup and was deposed in 1994 (1991–1994) – Junta of National Reconstruction (1979–1985) – Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces (1968–1980) – Civic-military dictatorship (1973–1985) under Marcos Pérez Jiménez (1948–1958) Asia – Military governments of Ziaur Rahman (1975–1981) and H.M. Ershad (1982–1990) – Military Council of the Republic of Georgia (საქართველოს რესპუბლიკის სამხედრო საბჭო)–Governed the country from 6 January to 10 March 1992. Replaced by state council led by Eduard Shevardnadze. – New Order (1967–1998) – State Peace and Development Council (1988–2011), known as the State Law and Order Restoration Council from 1988 to 1997 and State Administration Council (2021–present) – Military governments of Ayub Khan (1958–1969), Yahya Khan (1969–1971), Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (1977–1988), Pervez Musharraf (1999–2008) – Supreme Council for National Reconstruction (1961–1963) – Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion (1948–1991) used by Kuomintang after the fall of Mainland China to the Communists – Council for National Security (2006–2008) and National Council for Peace and Order (2014–19) Europe – Regime of the Colonels, officially the "Revolutionary Committee" (1967–1974) – Military Council of National Salvation (1981–1983) – Ditadura Nacional (1926–1933), National Salvation Junta (1974–1975) – National Unity Committee (1960–1961) and National Security Council (1980–1983) Oceania – Military government of Frank Bainimarama (2006–2014) See also Civilian control of the military Civil–military relations References . 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216816	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%20dynasty	Ottoman dynasty	The Ottoman dynasty () was made up of the members of the imperial House of Osman (), also known as the Ottomans (). According to Ottoman tradition, the family originated from the Kayı tribe branch of the Oghuz Turks, under Osman I in northwestern Anatolia in the district of Bilecik Söğüt. The Ottoman dynasty, named after Osman I, ruled the Ottoman Empire from c. 1299 to 1922. During much of the Empire's history, the sultan was the absolute regent, head of state, and head of government, though much of the power often shifted to other officials such as the Grand Vizier. During the First (1876–78) and Second Constitutional Eras (1908–20) of the late Empire, a shift to constitutional monarchy was enacted, with the Grand Vizier taking on a prime ministerial role as head of government and heading an elected General Assembly. The imperial family was deposed from power and the sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922 during the Turkish War of Independence. The Republic of Turkey was declared the following year. The living members of the dynasty were initially sent into exile as personae non-gratae, though some have been allowed to return and live as private citizens in Turkey. In its current form, the family is known as the Osmanoğlu family. History The Ottoman dynasty operated under several basic premises: that the Sultan governed the empire's entire territory, that every male member of the dynastic family was hypothetically eligible to become Sultan, and that only one person at a time could be the Sultan. Such rules were fairly standard for monarchic empires of the time. The certain processes through which men rose to the Sultanate, however, were very specific to the Ottoman Empire. To go into greater detail about these processes, the history of succession between Sultans can be divided into two eras: the period between the reign of Orhan (1323–1362), the first person to inherit the Ottoman sultanate, and the reign of Ahmed I (1603–1617); and the period following Ahmed I's reign. The succession process during the first period was dominated by violence and intra-familial conflict, in which the various sons of the deceased Sultan fought until only one remained alive and, thus, inherited the throne. This tradition was known as fratricide in the Ottoman Empire, but may have evolved from tanistry, a similar succession procedure that existed in many Turco-Mongolian dynasties predating the Ottomans. Sons of the Sultan were often given provincial territories to govern until the Sultan's death, at which point they would each vie for the throne. Each son had to, according to historian H. Erdem Cipa, "demonstrate that his fortune was superior to the fortunes of his rivals", a demonstration that often took the form of military accomplishment and ruthlessness. This violence was not considered particularly unexpected or unusual. As Cipa has noted, the Ottoman words for "successor" and "conflict" share the same Arabic root, and indeed, all but one of the successions in this roughly 200-year period involved a resolution by combat. Over time, the combat became increasingly prevalent and recognized, especially after a Jannissary uprising negated Murad II's attempt to abdicate the throne peacefully to his son, Mehmed II, in 1444. During the eventual reign of Mehmed II (1451–1481), fratricide was legalized as an official practice; during the reign of Bayezid II (1481–1512), fratricide between Bayezid II's sons occurred before Bayezid II himself died; and after the reign of Murad III (1574–1595), his successor Mehmed III executed 19 relatives in order to claim the throne. During the second period, the tradition of fratricide was replaced by a simpler and less violent procedure. Starting with the succession from Ahmed I to Mustafa I in 1617, the Ottoman throne was inherited by the eldest male blood relative – not necessarily son – of the Sultan, regardless of how many eligible family members were alive. The change in succession procedure was likely instigated by numerous factors, including fratricide’s decline in popularity among Ottoman elites and Ahmed I’s decision not to kill Mustafa when inheriting the throne from Mehmed III in 1603. With the door opened for a change in policy, a political debate arose between those who supported unrestricted Sultanic privilege and those who supported a stronger, centralized law system that would supersede even the Sultan’s power to an extent. Historian Baki Tezcan has argued that the latter faction – with the help of the influential şeyhülislam Hocazade Esad Efendi – was able to prevail in this instance. The bloodless succession from Ahmed I to Mustafa I in 1617 "provided a reference for the eventual stabilization of the rule of Ottoman succession, the very regulation of which by an outside force was in effect a constitutional check on the dynastic prerogative," Tezcan has written. The precedent set in 1617 stuck, as the eldest living family member successfully inherited the throne in each of the following 21 successions, with relatively few instances of a son inheriting the throne. Succession practices From the fourteenth through the late sixteenth centuries, the Ottomans practiced open succession – something historian Donald Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son." During their father's lifetime, all adult sons of the reigning sultan obtained provincial governorships. Accompanied and mentored by their mothers, they would gather supporters while ostensibly following a Ghazi ethos. Upon the death of the reigning sultan, his sons would fight amongst themselves until one emerged triumphant. A Prince's proximity to Constantinople improved his chances of succession, simply because he would hear of his father's death and declare himself Sultan first. A Sultan could thus hint at his preferred successor by giving a favourite son a closer governorship. Bayezid II, for instance, had to fight his brother Cem Sultan in the 1480s for the right to rule. Occasionally, the half-brothers would begin the struggle even before the death of their father. Under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), strife between his sons Mustafa and Selim caused such internal turmoil that Suleiman ordered the deaths of both Mustafa and another son, Bayezid, leaving Selim the sole heir. During the reigns of Suleiman and Selim II, the Haseki Sultan (Ottoman Turkish: خاصکى سلطان) or chief consort rose to greater prominence. Gaining power within the Imperial Harem, the favourite was able to manoeuvre to ensure the succession for one of her sons. This led to a short period of effective primogeniture. However, unlike the earlier period, when the sultan had already defeated his brothers and potential rivals for the throne in battle, these sultans had the problem of many half-brothers who could act as the focus for rival factions. Thus, to prevent attempts at seizing the throne, reigning sultans practiced fratricide upon accession, starting with Murat I in 1362. Both Murad III and his son Mehmed III had their half-brothers murdered. The killing of all the new sultan's brothers and half-brothers (which were usually quite numerous) was traditionally done by manual strangling with a silk cord. As the centuries passed, the ritual killing was gradually replaced by lifetime solitary confinement in the "Golden Cage" or kafes, a room in the harem from where the sultan's brothers could never escape, unless perchance they became heir presumptive. Some had already become mentally unstable by the time they were asked to reign. Muhammad or Mehmed III was the last sultan to have previously held a provincial governorship. Sons now remained within the harem until the death of their father. This not only denied them the ability to form powerful factions capable of usurping their father, but also denied them the opportunity to have children while their father remained alive. Thus, when Mehmet's son came to the throne as Ahmed I, he had no children of his own. Moreover, as a minor, there was no evidence he could have children. This had the potential to create a crisis of succession and led to a gradual end to fratricide. Ahmed had some of his brothers killed, but not Mustafa (later Mustafa I). Similarly, Osman II allowed his half-brothers Murad IV and Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire to live. This led to a shift in the 17th century from a system of primogeniture to one based on agnatic seniority, in which the eldest male within the dynasty succeeded, also to guarantee adult sultans and prevent both fratricides as well as the sultanate of women. Thus, Mustafa succeeded his brother Ahmed; Suleiman II and Ahmed II succeeded their brother Mehmed IV before being succeeded in turn by Mehmed's son Mustafa II. Agnatic seniority explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother. It also meant that potential rulers had to wait a long time in the kafes before ascending the throne, hence the old age of certain sultans upon their enthronement. Although attempts were made in the 19th century to replace agnatic seniority with primogeniture, they were unsuccessful, and seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate in 1922. Chronology of Sultans The Ottoman Dynasty had unusual succession practices compared to other monarchies. Those succession practices changed over time, and ultimately the sultanate was abolished in 1922. Later, the House of Osman (Turkish: Osmanoğlu Ailesi) continued the latest succession practice for the head of the family. List of heirs since 1922 The Ottoman dynasty was expelled from Turkey in 1924 and most members took on the surname Osmanoğlu, meaning "son of Osman." The female members of the dynasty were allowed to return after 1951, and the male members after 1973. Below is a list of people who would have been heirs to the Ottoman throne following the abolition of the sultanate on 1 November 1922. These people have not necessarily made any claim to the throne; for example, Ertuğrul Osman said "Democracy works well in Turkey." Family tree, showing relationships among the heads of the Ottoman dynasty Mahmud II (1785–1839; 30th Sultan and 23rd Ottoman Caliph: 1808–1839) Abdulmejid I (1823–1861; 31st Sultan and 24th Ottoman Caliph: 1839–1861) Murad V (1840–1904; 33rd Sultan and 26th Ottoman Caliph: 1876) Şehzade Mehmed Selaheddin (1861–1915) Ahmed Nihad (1883–1954; 38th Head of the House of Osman: 1944–1954) Ali Vâsib (1903–1983; 41st Head of the House of Osman: 1977–1983) Osman Fuad (1895–1973; 39th Head of the House of Osman: 1954–1973) Abdul Hamid II (1842–1918; 34th Sultan and 27th Ottoman Caliph: 1876–1909) Şehzade Mehmed Selim (1870–1937) Şehzade Mehmed Abdülkerim (1906–1935) Dündar Ali Osman (1930–2021): 45th Head of the House of Osman: 2017–2021) Harun Osman (born 1932): 46th Head of the House of Osman: (2021–present) Şehzade Mehmed Abdülkadir (1878–1944) Mehmed Orhan (1909–1994; 42nd Head of the House of Osman: 1983–1994) Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (1885–1949) Ertuğrul Osman (1912–2009; 43rd Head of the House of Osman: 1994–2009) Mehmed V (1844–1918; 35th Sultan and 28th Ottoman Caliph: 1909–1918) Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (1849–1876) Şehzade Ibrahim Tevfik (1874–1931) Bayezid Osman (1924–2017; 44th Head of the House of Osman: 2009–2017) Mehmed VI Vahideddin (1861–1926; 36th and last Sultan and 29th Ottoman Caliph: 1918–1922; 36th Head of the House of Osman: 1922–1926) Abdulaziz (1830–1876; 32nd Sultan and 25th Ottoman Caliph: 1861–1876) Abdulmejid II (1868–1944; 30th and last Ottoman Caliph: 1922–1924; 37th Head of the House of Osman: 1926–1944) Şehzade Mehmed Seyfeddin (1874–1927) Mehmed Abdulaziz (1901–1977; 40th Head of the House of Osman: 1973–1977) Line of succession in November 1922 Mahmud II (1785–1839; 30th Sultan and 23rd Ottoman Caliph: 1808–1839) Abdulmejid I (1823–1861; 31st Sultan and 24th Ottoman Caliph: 1839–1861) Murad V (1840–1904; 33rd Sultan and 26th Ottoman Caliph: 1876) Şehzade Mehmed Selaheddin (1861–1915) (8) Şehzade Ahmed Nihad (born 6 July 1883) (19) Şehzade Ali Vâsib (born 14 October 1903) (14) Şehzade Osman Fuad (born 26 September 1895) Abdul Hamid II (1842–1918; 34th Sultan and 27th Ottoman Caliph: 1876–1909) (2) Şehzade Mehmed Selim (born 11 January 1870) (23) Şehzade Mehmed Abdülkerim (born 27 June 1906) (6) Şehzade Mehmed Abdülkadir (born 16 January 1878) (25) Şehzade Mehmed Orhan (born 11 July 1909) (32) Şehzade Necib Ertuğrul (born 1914 (or 27 March 1915) (34) Şehzade Alaeddin Kadir (born 2 January 1917) (7) Şehzade Ahmed Nuri (born 12 February 1878) (9) Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (born 19 December 1885) (27) Şehzade Mehmed Fahreddin (born 14 November 1911) (28) Şehzade Ertuğrul Osman Efendi (born 18 August 1912) (12) Şehzade Abdurrahim Hayri (born 15 August 1894) (16) Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin (born 22 June 1901) (22) Şehzade Mehmed Abid (born 17 September 1905) Mehmed V Reşâd (1844–1918; 35th Sultan and 28th Ottoman Caliph: 1909–1918) (3) Şehzade Mehmed Ziyaeddin (born 26 August 1873) (26) Şehzade Mehmed Nazım (born 26 October 1910) (30) Şehzade Ömer Fevzi (born 13 November 1912) (10) Şehzade Ömer Hilmi (born 2 March 1888) (31) Şehzade Mahmud Namık (born 1913 (or 25 February 1914) Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (1849–1876) (5) Şehzade Ibrahim Tevfik (born 25 September 1874) (36) Şehzade Burhaneddin Cem (born 1920) Şehzade Selim Süleyman (1860–1909) (13) Şehzade Mehmed Abdülhalim (born 28 September 1894) (20) Şehzade Mehmed Şerafeddin (born 19 May 1904) Mehmed VI Vahideddin (born 2 February 1861) (29) Şehzade Mehmed Ertuğrul (born 10 September 1912) Abdulaziz (1830–1876; 32nd Sultan and 25th Ottoman Caliph: 1861–1876) Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin (1857–1916) (24) Şehzade Mehmed Nizameddin (born 18 December 1908) (1) Abdulmejid II (born 29 May 1868) (15) Şehzade Ömer Faruk (born 29 February 1898) Şehzade Mehmed Şevket (1872–1899) (11) Şehzade Mehmed Cemaleddin (born 1 March 1891) (33) Şehzade Mahmud Hüsameddin (born 25 August 1916) (35) Şehzade Süleyman Sadeddin (born 20 November 1917) (4) Şehzade Mehmed Seyfeddin (born 22 September 1874) (17) Şehzade Mehmed Abdulaziz (born 26 September 1901) (18) Şehzade Mahmud Şevket (born 30 July 1903) (21) Şehzade Ahmed Tevhid (born 2 December 1904) See also Simplified Ottoman Emperors family tree Detailed Ottoman Emperors family tree Turkic History List of Turkic dynasties and countries Amuca tribe Osmanoğlu family, its current form List of admirals in the Ottoman Empire List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire List of mothers of the Ottoman sultans List of Ottoman Grand Viziers List of Kapudan Pashas List of Valide Sultans Tuğra-Sultan's Signature Ottoman Empire Notes References External links In English Official website of the immediate living descendants of the Ottoman dynasty Everything about Ottoman Empire Everything about the history, culture and civilization of Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire – The Family In Turkish Osmanlı Hanedanlığı, Ottoman dynasty Osmanlı Sultanları Tarihvemedeniyet.org In French \|- \|- \|- Line of succession Line of 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216817	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Running%20mate	Running mate	A running mate is a person running together with another person on a joint ticket during an election. The term is most often used in reference to the person in the subordinate position (such as the vice presidential candidate running with a presidential candidate) but can also properly be used when referring to both candidates, such as by saying Joe Biden and Kamala Harris, and Uhuru Kenyatta and William Ruto, were running mates in relation to the presidential elections held in the United States in 2020 and Kenya in 2013 respectively. Running mates may be chosen, by custom or by law, to balance the ticket geographically, ideologically, or personally; examples of such a custom for each of the criteria are, geographically, in Nigerian presidential elections, in which a presidential candidate from the predominantly Christian south is typically matched with a vice presidential candidate from the predominantly Muslim north, and vice versa, ideologically, the Brazilian general elections in 2010 and 2014, where Dilma Rousseff of the left-wing Workers' Party ran alongside Michel Temer of the center-right Brazilian Democratic Movement Party, and, personally, the 2016 Bulgarian presidential election, in which both candidates who went on to the second round of voting, Rumen Radev and Tsetska Tsacheva, had running mates of the opposite gender. The objective is to create a more widespread appeal for the ticket and the results can range from assisting the resulting pair of candidates in appealing to a larger base of people to deterring voters who were initially inclined to vote for the running candidate, but may have been put off by the choice of the running mate. The term is usually used in countries in which the offices of President and Vice President are both directly elected on the same ticket, in reference to a prospective Vice President. However, there are countries, such as the Philippines and (nominally) Cyprus, in which the President and Vice-President are elected on separate tickets, and frequently, this results in them being from different political parties - indeed, when the Philippine Vice-Presidential position was restored in 1987, only once were the President and Vice-President elected from the same ticket, in 2004. Further, in other countries, such as Botswana and Venezuela, the Vice-President is legally appointed by the President in all cases (unlike, for instance, the United States, in which the President appoints a Vice-President only in case of a vacancy, or Taiwan, in which the President nominates candidates for Vice-President in case of a vacancy and the Legislative Council elects one of them to fill the vacancy). In cases of both separate elections and appointments, the President and Vice-President are not considered running mates because they are not elected on the same ticket. In United States politics In the United States, "running mate" refers not only to a candidate for vice president (federal), but also to a candidate for lieutenant governors of those states where the governor and lieutenant governor are jointly elected. Historically, American running mates were chosen by political parties in consultation with the principal candidate (i.e., the person running for president or governor). In the late 1960s, it became the practice of the principal candidate in presidential elections to announce their preferred choice of running mate at their political party's national convention. The current practice is for the presumptive nominee of a political party to announce their choice for running mate before the national convention which, because of the extensive primary election and caucus system, is becoming increasingly irrelevant. The practice of running candidates for president and vice president together evolved in the nineteenth century. Originally, electors cast votes for two candidates on the same ballot for president; the candidate who finished second place in the tabulation became vice president. Starting in 1804, the president and vice president were elected on separate ballots as specified in the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution which was adopted in that year. As more and more states subsequently began to choose their electors by popular election instead of appointment (South Carolina being the last state to change, in 1860), candidates began to realize they could run together as a team for president and vice president instead of running completely separately for each office. The practice of a presidential candidate having a running mate was solidified during the American Civil War. In 1864, in the interest of fostering national unity, Abraham Lincoln from the Republican Party (popular in the North) and Andrew Johnson of the Democratic Party (popular in the South) were co-endorsed and ran together for President and Vice-President as candidates of the National Union Party. Notwithstanding that this party disbanded after the war ended, with the result that after Lincoln's assassination he was succeeded by a Democrat, Johnson, the states began to place candidates for President and Vice-President together on the same ballot ticket, thus making it impossible to vote for a presidential candidate from one party and a vice-presidential candidate from another party, as had previously been possible. Presidential candidates from smaller states sometimes choose a vice presidential running mate from a state with a large number of electoral votes as in 1984, when Walter Mondale of Minnesota (10 votes) selected Geraldine Ferraro of New York (then 36 votes). It is preferred, but not legally required, that the running mate be from a different state from the presidential nominee, because each elector can vote for no more than one candidate from their own state. Running mates can also be chosen from swing states in order to boost a candidate's chance of winning in the state. Outside the United States In many countries in which there are a President and Vice-President with both positions being directly elected by popular vote, the running mate of the winning presidential candidate automatically assumes the Vice-Presidency; a notable exception is the Philippines, in which one presidential candidate can be (and usually is) elected with the running mate of an opposing candidate. In the Republic of Ireland, the term "running mate" refers to members of the same party who are running for the same constituency in a general election for Dáil Éireann. 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216824	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Reilly	O'Reilly	O'Reilly () is a group of families, ultimately all of Irish Gaelic origin, who were historically the kings of East Bréifne in what is today County Cavan. The clan were part of the Connachta's Uí Briúin Bréifne kindred and were closely related to the Ó Ruairc (O'Rourkes) of West Bréifne. O'Reilly is ranked tenth in the top twenty list of most common Irish surnames. It is also the patronymic form of the Irish name Reilly (Irish Gaelic: Uí Raghaile). The name is commonly found throughout Ireland, with the greatest concentration of the surname found in County Cavan followed by Longford, Meath, Westmeath, Fermanagh and Monaghan, and the Province of Leinster. Naming conventions Overview It is usually anglicised as Reilly, Riley, and O'Reilly. The original form of the name, Ó Raghallaigh, denotes "from/of Raghallach", the name Raghallach thought to be derived from the compounds ragh (meaning "race") and ceallach (meaning "sociable"). The Ó Raghallaigh family were part of the Connachta, with the eponymous Raghallach said to have died at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. The family became the kings of East Breifne, modern-day County Cavan and County Longford. The name is common and widespread throughout Ireland, ranked 11th most common in 1890 and in 1997. The O'Reilly Clan Chieftain to this day is at odds with the O'Rourke Clan Chieftain because both clans viciously contest each other for the title Prince of Breifne. This was settled in 1994 when the Chief Herald of Ireland made the O'Rourke Chief the Prince of Breifne, but the Office of the Chief Herald stopped granting courtesy titles to Gaelic Chiefs in 2003 (see O'Rourke). In 2014, with the election of the new O'Reilly Chief, the rivalry has been rekindled. People O'Reilly People with the surname O'Reilly include: Alejandro O'Reilly (1722–1794), second Spanish governor of colonial Louisiana Andreas O'Reilly (1742–1832), Irish-born Austrian general Bernard O'Reilly (1903–1975), Australian author, found the wreck of a Stinson aircraft in the McPherson Range, 1937 Bernard O'Reilly (bishop of Hartford) (1803–1856), Irish Roman Catholic bishop Bernard O'Reilly (bishop of Liverpool) (1824–1894), Irish Roman Catholic bishop Bill O'Reilly (born 1949), American commentator and television show host of The O'Reilly Factor on the Fox News Channel Bill O'Reilly, Australian cricketer Bob O'Reilly, Australian rugby league footballer Caitriona O'Reilly, Irish poet and critic Cal O'Reilly, Canadian ice hockey player Cameron O'Reilly, Irish and Australian businessman Cassia O'Reilly, Irish singer-songwriter Charles O'Reilly (died 1800), Roman Catholic Bishop of Kilmore from 1798 to 1800 Danny O'Reilly, lead singer of Irish band, The Coronas David O'Reilly, several people Dermot O'Reilly (1942–2007), Irish-born Canadian singer and songwriter in band Ryan's Fancy, working in Newfoundland and Labrador Des O'Reilly (1954–2016), Australian rugby league player Emily O'Reilly, Irish journalist Emma O'Reilly, Irish physiotherapist and cycling soigneur who worked for Lance Armstrong Finbarr O'Reilly, Canadian photographer Gary O'Reilly, English footballer Genevieve O'Reilly, Irish actress Heather O'Reilly (born 1985), American soccer player Hugh Reily (1630–1695), Irish M.P. and political author James Reilly (Canadian politician) (1835–1909), Canadian businessman and politician from Alberta James O'Reilly, American Roman Catholic priest Jennifer O'Reilly (1943–2016), medieval historian of Britain and Ireland Jenny Quinn O'Reilly (1762–1802), in baptism Evgenia Ivanovna Vyazemskaya, Irish-born lady and second wife of Prince Andrey Vyazemsky, mother of the Russian Imperial poet Pyotr Vyazemsky Joe O'Reilly, Irish politician John Reyly (recte O'Reilly) (c. 1646–1717), M.P. for Cavan County in the Parliament of Ireland of 1689 John O'Reilly (born 1940), Canadian politician from Ontario Kyle O'Reilly (born 1987), ring name of Canadian professional wrestler Kyle Greenwood Leonora O'Reilly, American feminist Luke O'Reilly (disambiguation), several people Mary Margaret O'Reilly, Assistant Director of the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1924 to 1938 Matthew O'Reilly, Irish politician and farmer O'Reilly, Lords of Bréifne (c. 1161 – 1607), Irish rulers Patrick Thomas O'Reilly (1833–1892), U.S. Catholic bishop, born in Ireland Peter O'Reilly (civil servant) (1827–1905), Irish-born settler and official in the Colony of British Columbia Peter O'Reilly (hurler) (1902–1940), Irish hurler Philip O'Reilly (Cavan County MP) (c. 1600–1655), M.P. for County Cavan Philip Og O'Reilly (c. 1640 – 1703), M.P. for Cavan Borough in the Parliament of Ireland of 1689 Philip Reyley (recte O'Reilly) (c. 1630 – after 1689), M.P. for Cavan County in the Parliament of Ireland of 1689 Randall C. O'Reilly (born 1967), American professor of psychology, developer of Leabra Robert O'Reilly (born 1950), American actor Ruth O'Reilly (born 1981), Irish rugby union player Ryan O'Reilly (ice hockey) (born 1991), Canadian ice hockey player Ryan O'Reilly (wrestler) (born 1980), American professional wrestler Samuel O'Reilly (1854–1909), American tattoo artist and inventor Stephen O'Reilly (born 1964) (better known as Stephen Egerton), American musician Stephen O'Reilly, American actor Stephen O'Reilly, Australian footballer Terry O'Reilly, Canadian hockey player Tom O'Reilly (1915–1995), Irish Fianna Fáil politician Tim O'Reilly (born 1954), Irish-American founder of O'Reilly Media Tom O'Reilly (1915–1995), Irish Gaelic footballer and politician Tom O'Reilly, Irish Sinn Féin politician Tom O'Reilly, Papua New Guinea international Tony O'Reilly (born 1936), Irish businessman Valli O'Reilly, American makeup artist Walter Cresswell O'Reilly (1877–1954), Australian Commonwealth Film Censor and founding President of the National Trust of Australia O'Riley Bunny Wailer (1947–2021), Jamaican reggae musician sometimes known as Bunny O'Riley Christopher O'Riley (born 1956), American classical pianist and public radio show host Don O'Riley (1945–1997), American Major League Baseball pitcher Jon Riley (1824–1879), US army deserter also known as John O'Riley Matt O'Riley (born 2000), English footballer at Celtic F.C. Riley Fictional character Mr. O'Reilly, portrayed by the Irish actor David Kelly in the Fawlty Towers episode "The Builders" Aloysius Umbongo N'Danga O'Reilly, in the song "Baguette Dilemma for the Booker Prize Guy" by the band Half Man Half Biscuit on their 2014 album Urge for Offal Corporal Walter "Radar" O'Reilly, in the MAS*H media franchise Other uses O'Reilly Auto Parts, an American chain of automotive supply stores O'Reilly Media (formerly O'Reilly & Associates), an American media company Baba O'Riley, a song by The Who See also Riley (disambiguation) Ryley (name) Riley (surname) References External links The O'Reilly Clan O'Reilly family pedigree at Library Ireland Statistics about O'Reilly Ancestors O'Reilly, Reilly, Riley. History of family Irish Times surname entry for "Riley" The Irish O'Reilly family and their connections to Austria and Russia by Stefan M. 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216826	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20heads%20of%20state%20of%20Argentina	List of heads of state of Argentina	Argentina has had many different types of heads of state, as well as many different types of government. During pre-Columbian times, most of the territories that today form Argentina were inhabited by Amerindian peoples without any centralized government, with the exception of the Inca subjects of the Northwest and Cuyo regions. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the King of Spain retained the ultimate authority over the territories conquered in the New World, appointing viceroys for local government. The territories that would later become Argentina were first part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and then the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. The May Revolution started the Argentine War of Independence by replacing the viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros with the first national government. It was the Primera Junta, a junta of several members, which would grow into the Junta Grande with the incorporation of provincial deputies. The size of the juntas gave room to internal political disputes among their members, so they were replaced by the First and Second Triumvirate, of three members. The Assembly of the Year XIII created a new executive authority, with attributions similar to that of a head of state, called the Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. A second Assembly, the Congress of Tucumán, declared independence in 1816 and promulgated the Argentine Constitution of 1819. However, this constitution was repealed during armed conflicts between the central government and the Federal League Provinces. This started a period known as the Anarchy of the Year XX, when Argentina lacked any type of head of state. There was a new attempt to organize a central government in 1826. A new congress wrote a new constitution and elected Bernardino Rivadavia as president in the process. Rivadavia was the first President of Argentina. However, he resigned shortly after and the 1826 Constitution was repealed. The Argentine provinces then organized themselves as a confederation without a central head of state. In this organization, the governors of Buenos Aires province took some duties such as the payment of external debt or the administration of the foreign relations in the name of all provinces. Those governors were appointed by the Buenos Aires legislature, with the only exception of Juan Lavalle. Juan Manuel de Rosas kept the governor office for seventeen consecutive years until Justo José de Urquiza defeated him at the 1852 Battle of Caseros. Urquiza then called for a new Constitutional Assembly and promulgated the Argentine Constitution of 1853, which is the current Constitution of Argentina through amendments. In 1854, Urquiza became the first President of modern Argentina, acting both as head of government and head of state. However, the Buenos Aires Province had rejected the Constitution and became an independent state until the aftermath of the 1859 Battle of Cepeda, although the internecine conflict continued. Only after the subsequent Battle of Pavón in 1861, the former bonaerense leader Bartolomé Mitre became the first president of an unified Argentine Republic. The succession line of constitutional presidents run uninterrupted until 1930, when José Félix Uriburu took government through a civic-military coup d'état. For many decades, there was an alternance between legitimate presidents and others that took government through illegitimate means. Those means included coups d'état, but also proscriptions of major political parties and electoral fraud. The last coup d'état occurred in 1976 and resulted in the National Reorganization Process, which ended in 1983. The retrospective recognition as presidents or heads of state of any de facto ruler that exercised its authority outside the Constitutional mandate is a controversial and relevant issue in Argentine politics. However, their government actions were recognized as valid following the de facto government doctrine that used to legitimize them. This doctrine was rejected by the 1994 amendment and would not be applicable for potential future coups. The current head of state is President Alberto Fernandez, who took office on 10 December 2019. Affiliation keys United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (1810–1831) Junta presidents (1810–1811) Triumvirates (1811–1814) Supreme Directors (1814–1820) Governors of Buenos Aires Province managing international relations (1820–1826) Between 1820 and 1826, the United Provinces functioned as a loose alliance of autonomous provinces put together by pacts and treaties (see Treaty of Pilar, Treaty of Benegas, Quadrilateral Treaty), but lacking any actual central government until the 1825 Constitutional Congress. First presidential government (1826–1827) Governors of Buenos Aires Province managing international relations (1827–1831) Argentine Confederation (1831–1861) Governors managing international relations (1831–1852) Provisional Director of the Argentine Confederation (1852–1854) Presidents of the Confederation (1854–1861) Argentine Republic (1861–present) Presidents (1861–present) Timeline of head of states of Argentina by affiliation Timeline of head of states of Argentina by individual See also President of Argentina Politics of Argentina List of vice presidents of Argentina Lists of incumbents References Notes Bibliography External links Rulers.org — Argentina list of rulers for Argentina Argentina Argentina Presidents	[ 0.31260597705841064, 0.3308113217353821, 0.10665107518434525, 0.22024574875831604, -0.2366769164800644, 0.02756722830235958, 0.10131114721298218, 0.8072499632835388, -0.6081671118736267, 0.0017372735310345888, 0.0756123811006546, 0.23464173078536987, 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216827	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Reilly%20Media	O'Reilly Media	O'Reilly Media (formerly O'Reilly & Associates) is an American learning company established by Tim O'Reilly that publishes books, produces tech conferences, and provides an online learning platform. Its distinctive brand features a woodcut of an animal on many of its book covers. Company Early days The company began in 1978 as a private consulting firm doing technical writing, based in the Cambridge, Massachusetts area. In 1984, it began to retain publishing rights on manuals created for Unix vendors. A few 70-page "Nutshell Handbooks" were well-received, but the focus remained on the consulting business until 1988. After a conference displaying O'Reilly's preliminary Xlib manuals attracted significant attention, the company began increasing production of manuals and books. The original cover art consisted of animal designs developed by Edie Freedman because she thought that Unix program names sounded like "weird animals". Global Network Navigator In 1993 O'Reilly Media created the first web portal, when they launched one of the first Web-based resources, Global Network Navigator. GNN was sold to AOL in 1995, in one of the first large transactions of the dot-com bubble. GNN was the first site on the World Wide Web to feature paid advertising. Conferences In March 2020, O'Reilly announced they would be closing the live conferences arm of their business. Although O'Reilly Media got its start in publishing, roughly two decades after its genesis the company expanded into event production. In 1997, O'Reilly launched The Perl Conference to cross-promote its books on the Perl programming language. Many of the company's other software bestsellers were also on topics that did not attract much attention of the commercial software industry. In 1998, O'Reilly invited many of the leaders of software projects to a meeting. Originally called the freeware summit, the meeting became known as the Open Source Summit. The O'Reilly Open Source Convention (which includes the Perl conference) is now one of O'Reilly's flagship events. Other key events include the Strata Conference on big data, the Velocity Conference on Web Performance and Operations, and FOO Camp. Past events of note include the O'Reilly Emerging Technology Conference and the Web 2.0 Summit. Overall, O'Reilly describes its business not as publishing or conferences, but as "changing the world by spreading the knowledge of innovators." Today, the company offers a variety of conferences including: Strata Data Conference OSCON (O'Reilly Open Source Convention) Velocity Conference Artificial Intelligence Conference TensorFlow World The O'Reilly Software Architecture Conference Discontinued conferences O'Reilly Emerging Technology Conference (2001 as O'Reilly P2P Conference; 2002–2009) Fluent Tools of Change (TOC) Conference (2007–2013) The Next:Economy Summit The Next:Money Summit The Solid Conference The O'Reilly Design Conference Web 2.0 Summit (co-produced with TechWeb) Web 2.0 Expo (co-produced with TechWeb) MySQL Conference and Expo (co-presented by MySQL AB, until 2008, then by Sun Microsystems since 2009, now by Oracle Corporation since 2010.) RailsConf (co-presented by Ruby Central) Where 2.0 Money:Tech Gov 2.0 Expo and Gov 2.0 Summit (co-produced with TechWeb) O'Reilly school of technology discontinued as of January 6, 2016 O'Reilly Network In the late 1990s, O'Reilly founded the O'Reilly Network, which grew to include sites such as: LinuxDevCenter.com MacDevCenter.com WindowsDevCenter.com ONLamp.com O'Reilly Radar In 2008 the company revised its online model and stopped publishing on several of its sites (including Codezoo and O'Reilly Connection). The company also produced dev2dev (a WebLogic-oriented site) in association with BEA and java.net (an open-source community for Java programmers) in association with Sun Microsystems and CollabNet. O'Reilly Online Learning (formerly Safari Books Online) In 2001, O'Reilly launched Safari Books Online, a subscription-based service providing access to ebooks and videos as a joint venture with the Pearson Technology Group. The platform includes content from O'Reilly and over 200 publishers including Adobe Press, Alpha Books, Cisco Press, FT Press, Microsoft Press, New Riders Publishing, Packt, Peachpit Press, Prentice Hall, Prentice Hall PTR, Que and Sams Publishing. In 2014, O'Reilly Media acquired Pearson's stake, making Safari Books Online a wholly owned subsidiary of O'Reilly Media. O'Reilly did a redesign of the site and had success in expanding beyond Safari's core B2C market into the B2B Enterprise market. In 2017, O'Reilly Media announced they were no longer selling books online, including eBooks. Instead, everyone was encouraged to sign up for Safari or purchase books through online retailers such as Amazon. In 2018, O’Reilly Media rebranded Safari to what is now O’Reilly online learning. The platform includes books, videos, live online training, O’Reilly conference videos, and more. In 2019, O'Reilly acquired Katacoda so users can experiment with code in the website itself. Web 2.0 phrase In 2003, after the dot com bust, O'Reilly's corporate goal was to reignite enthusiasm in the computer industry. To do this, Dale Dougherty and Tim O'Reilly decided to use the term "Web 2.0" coined in January 1999 by Darcy DiNucci. The term was used for the Web 2.0 Summit run by O'Reilly Media and TechWeb (formerly CMP Media). CMP registered Web 2.0 as a Service Mark "for arranging and conducting live events, namely trade shows, expositions, business conferences and educational conferences in various fields of computers and information technology." Web 2.0 framed what distinguished the companies that survived the dot com bust from those that died, and identified key drivers of future success, including what is now called “cloud computing,” big data, and new approaches to iterative, data-driven software development. In May 2006 CMP Media learned of an impending event called the "Web 2.0 Half day conference." Concerned over their obligation to take reasonable means to enforce their trade and service marks CMP sent a cease and desist letter to the non-profit Irish organizers of the event. This attempt to restrict through legal mechanisms the use of the term was criticized by some. The legal issue was resolved by O'Reilly's apologizing for the early and aggressive involvement of attorneys, rather than simply calling the organizers, and allowing them to use the service mark for this single event. Make: and Craft: In January 2005 the company launched Make: magazine and in 2006 it launched Maker Faire. The flagship Maker Faire in San Mateo, CA, drew over 130,000 attendees. Other Faires around the world collectively draw millions. In 2012, O'Reilly Media spun out the Make properties into a separate venture-backed company, Maker Media, headed up by former O'Reilly executive and Make founder Dale Dougherty. In the fall of 2006, O'Reilly added a second magazine, Craft:, with the tagline "Transforming Traditional Crafts." Craft: folded in 2009. In the summer of 2019, Maker Media laid off its entire staff and ceased operations. Post–Tim O'Reilly era In 2011, Tim O'Reilly stepped down from his day-to-day duties as O'Reilly Media CEO to focus his energy and attention on the Gov 2.0 movement. Since then, the company has been run by Laura Baldwin. Baldwin comes from a finance and consulting background. Infinite Skills acquisition In 2014 O'Reilly acquired Infinite Skills, a Canadian publisher of online and DVD video courses. Licensing O'Reilly uses Creative Commons' Founders Copyright, which grants the company exclusive use of content produced by the authors who sign with them for 28 years. Although it is shorter than the current default duration of the monopoly in copyright law, it is still quite restrictive compared with other, widely used, licenses offered by Creative Commons. See also :Category:O'Reilly Media books References External links Book publishing companies of the United States Computer book publishing companies Mass media companies of the United States Entertainment companies based in California Publishing companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area Companies based in Sonoma County, California Sebastopol, California Publishing companies established in 1978 1978 establishments in California	[ 0.6904205083847046, 0.2689344882965088, 0.31338489055633545, 0.32075974345207214, 0.15039695799350739, -0.12204351276159286, -0.1866471767425537, 0.2596196234226227, -0.05881534516811371, -0.2266094833612442, -0.1928984671831131, 0.3798825144767761, -0.0017785520758479834, 0.2868446111679077, 0.09384185075759888, -0.5543375015258789, -0.1247170940041542, 0.06443947553634644, -0.29331356287002563, -0.28029632568359375, -0.6930666565895081, -0.4788147211074829, 0.13139158487319946, -0.5418760776519775, -0.05652477219700813, -0.09001930058002472, 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216829	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google%20Hacks	Google Hacks	Google Hacks: Tips & Tools for Smarter Searching is a book of tips about Google by Tara Calishain and Rael Dornfest. It was listed in the New York Times top ten business paperbacks in May 2003, considered at the time to be "unprecedented" for a technology book, and "even rarer" for the topic of search engines. The book was first published by O'Reilly in February 2002. The third edition of the book was released in 2006. It covers tips of all kinds, from usage hints for the novice just using Google, to advice for the expert programming the Google Web API. Much of the content provided in the book can also be used for Google Hacking, the act of finding security issues through Google searches. Most programming examples are written in Perl. The second edition was published in December, 2004 (). There was also a third edition published (). 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216834	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disagreement	Disagreement	A disagreement is the absence of consensus or consent. It can take the form of dissent or controversy. See also Objection Broad-concept articles Consensus	[ -0.21755243837833405, 0.49243399500846863, -0.22451946139335632, 0.18263746798038483, -0.1812695860862732, -0.07339423149824142, 0.22233839333057404, -0.13959643244743347, 0.08790870010852814, -0.3968660235404968, -0.3848786950111389, 0.46376582980155945, 0.04016079381108284, 0.56109619140625, -0.38396456837654114, 0.5362406969070435, 0.28276389837265015, 0.4928458631038666, -0.19224055111408234, -0.20586661994457245, 0.10546846687793732, 0.02620523050427437, -0.12288827449083328, -0.03590623661875725, 0.2986481487751007, -0.0420861691236496, 0.3461827337741852, -0.3084888160228729, 0.07129611819982529, 0.02397826500236988, 0.019933784380555153, 0.5121782422065735, -0.3092772364616394, -0.04935985431075096, 0.05059472471475601, 0.4993232190608978, 0.4526553750038147, 0.20225416123867035, -0.4864685535430908, -0.3376314342021942, 0.32421496510505676, -0.22193577885627747, -0.01741606742143631, 0.1348705142736435, 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216838	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YP	YP	YP may refer to: Yard patrol boat, a type of training craft, by US Navy hull classification symbol Yellow Pages (computing), former name of the Network Information Service protocol Yersinia pestis, a bacterium that causes plague and the "Black Death" epidemic YP.com, an online local business directory Yurt Partisi, the Homeland Party in Turkey YP-, prefix for Yepp player names, such as the YP-55 Yttrium phosphide, a chemical compound Yukon Party, a centre-right political party in Yukon, Canada Y P Desert, a desert in Idaho and Nevada in the United States The YP Foundation, a charitable trust for young people in India	[ 0.46128690242767334, -0.05941975489258766, -0.327141135931015, 0.3585101366043091, 0.08153220266103745, 0.6416431665420532, 0.08603031188249588, 0.24787673354148865, -0.8323622941970825, -0.12269590049982071, -0.5503633618354797, -0.19351978600025177, -0.4629516899585724, -0.019926365464925766, 0.24549922347068787, 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216840	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIS	NIS	Nis, Niš, NiS or NIS may refer to: Niš, a city in south-eastern Serbia Nis, Iran, a village in Khuzestan Province Ness, Lewis (), a village in the Outer Hebrides islands Niš (boat), a sunk Yugoslav ferry Acronyms Businesses and organizations Naftna Industrija Srbije, Petroleum Industry of Serbia Nagoya International School Nanjing International School National Institute of Sports, India National innovation system , railway company in the Dutch East Indies Nordic Integrated System for ski binding Norwegian International Ship Register, () In military, intelligence, and security National Intelligence Service (disambiguation), abbreviated NIS in some countries National Intelligence Service (Greece) National Intelligence Service (South Africa), former agency National Intelligence Service (South Korea) Norwegian Intelligence Service Naval Investigative Service, later Naval Criminal Investigative Service, U.S. Canadian Forces National Investigation Service (CFNIS; sometimes abbreviated to NIS) Other uses in politics and government New Israeli Shekel, unofficial abbreviation Nuclear Information Service, independent UK organisation In science and technology In computing Network Information Service, directory service protocol Network information system Nippon Ichi Software, a video game developer NIS Directive, the EU Directive on Security of Network and Information Systems Other uses in science and technology Nickel sulfide, chemical symbol NiS N-Iodosuccinimide, a reagent Sodium-iodide symporter, a protein Other uses Johnson (rapper) or N.I.S., Danish rapper born 1979 See also	[ 0.2977087199687958, -0.14359934628009796, -0.10414688289165497, 0.2336864173412323, 0.11189240217208862, 0.39868268370628357, 0.26299068331718445, 0.16910110414028168, -0.48143938183784485, -0.34452611207962036, -0.5030210018157959, -0.2690964937210083, -0.040648069232702255, 0.6050670742988586, 0.19077818095684052, 0.18920277059078217, 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216841	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm%20School%20%28economics%29	Stockholm School (economics)	The Stockholm School () is a school of economic thought. It refers to a loosely organized group of Swedish economists that worked together, in Stockholm, Sweden primarily in the 1930s. The Stockholm School had—like John Maynard Keynes—come to the same conclusions in macroeconomics and the theories of demand and supply. Like Keynes, they were inspired by the works of Knut Wicksell, a Swedish economist active in the early years of the twentieth century. William Barber's comment upon Gunnar Myrdal's work on monetary theory goes like this: History and aspects Two of the most prominent members of the Stockholm School were Stockholm School of Economics professors Gunnar Myrdal and Bertil Ohlin. The movement's name, "The Stockholm School", was launched in an article by Bertil Ohlin in the influential Economic Journal in 1937, "Some Notes on the Stockholm Theory of Savings and Investment". The article was published in response to the publication of Keynes' magnum opus, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money in 1936, and its purpose was to draw international attention to the Swedish discoveries in the field, many of which had predated the discoveries of Keynes. Gunnar Myrdal was early in supporting the theses of John Maynard Keynes, maintaining that the basic idea of adjusting national budgets to slow or speed an economy was first developed in Sweden by him and the Stockholm School. Scandinavian welfare state Myrdal and Ohlin went on to further develop their theories, and in so doing, they developed the intellectual underpinnings of the modern north European welfare state. Their theories were embraced and implemented as national policy by the two powerful arms of the Swedish labor movement, the Swedish Social Democratic Party and the national labor union, the Swedish Trade Union Confederation. In the post-World War II geopolitical situation of the Cold War, with two rival predatory political blocks, their theories also achieved wide international appeal as a "Third Way", i.e. a middle way between a capitalist economy and a communist economy. The objective of this "third way" was to achieve a high level of social equality without undermining economic efficiency. Leading members Gunnar Myrdal, professor at the Stockholm School of Economics, and later Stockholm University, spent many years in the U.S. writing the book An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy, an investigation into the situation of African Americans, funded by the Carnegie Foundation. Myrdal co-authored, together with his wife Alva Myrdal the book Crisis in the Population Question, published in 1934. The book served as a major source of inspiration for the construction of the modern Swedish welfare state, relying heavily on government intervention and social engineering to create a "people's home" (Swedish: "Folkhemmet"). The work was later criticized for its discussion of racial issues. Myrdal received the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (commonly known as the "Nobel Prize for Economics") in 1974. Bertil Ohlin, professor at the Stockholm School of Economics, was party leader of the Swedish Liberal People's Party, the largest opposition party in the Swedish Parliament, for over twenty years (1944–1967) battling the powerful incumbent Social Democratic government. Professor Ohlin developed, together with professor Eli Heckscher, a standard economic model of international trade, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. Ohlin received the Bank of Sweden Prize in 1977. Gustav Cassel, professor of economics at the Stockholm University, created the standard mathematical formulation of purchasing power parity, a central concept in microeconomics. Dag Hammarskjöld, economist. Second Secretary-General of the United Nations. In office 10 April 1953 – 18 September 1961 (when he died in a plane crash on a peacekeeping mission to the Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)). Dag Hammarskjöld is the only person to have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize posthumously (Alfred Nobel's testament explicitly states that the prize should be awarded only to the living). Erik Lindahl (21 November 1891 – 6 January 1960) was another member of the Stockholm school; he proposed a method of financing public goods in accordance with individual benefits. In the Lindahl equilibrium, the quantity of the public good satisfies the requirement that the aggregate marginal benefit equals the marginal cost of providing the good. Ingvar Svennilson (14 March 1908 – 1972) became known for his theories in planned economics. Other members, such as Erik Lundberg, continued as business cycle-oriented economists. See also Rudolf Meidner Social corporatism Constitutional economics References Further reading Axel Leijonhufvud, The Wicksell Connection, 1979 Gunnar Myrdal’s Prescient Criticisms of Keynes’ General Theory-by Philip Pilkington A Methodolological Issue: Ex-Ante and Ex-Post,Claude Gnos Gunnar Myrdal, growth processes and equilibrium theory Rules from Myrdal’s Monetary Equilibrium Adrián de León-Arias Monetary Equilibrium -Claes Henrik Siver Stockholm University Video Gunnar Myrdal lecturing at UCLA 5/4/1966 Schools of economic thought 1930s in Stockholm	[ 0.026463480666279793, 0.0839470624923706, 0.12626323103904724, 0.1633663773536682, -0.48751920461654663, 0.2746213674545288, 0.3285943567752838, 0.09309366345405579, -0.7211694121360779, -0.5570622682571411, 0.14831355214118958, 0.03780795633792877, -0.14999890327453613, 0.32383185625076294, -0.1710326224565506, -0.0928962454199791, 0.557449221611023, 0.011936555616557598, -0.12677063047885895, -0.4020732641220093, -0.2576958239078522, 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216842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day%20of%20the%20Fight	Day of the Fight	Day of the Fight is a 1951 American short-subject documentary film financed and directed by Stanley Kubrick, who based this black-and-white motion picture on a photo feature he shot two years earlier for Look magazine. Plot Day of the Fight shows Irish-American middleweight boxer Walter Cartier during the height of his career, on April 17, 1950, the day of a fight with middleweight Bobby James. The film opens with a short section on boxing's history and then follows Cartier through his day as he prepares for the 10 P.M. bout. Cartier eats breakfast in his West 12th Street apartment in Greenwich Village, goes to early mass, and eats lunch at his favorite restaurant. At 4 P.M., he starts preparations for the fight. By 8 P.M., he is waiting in his dressing room at Laurel Gardens in Newark, New Jersey, for the fight to begin. We then see the fight itself, which he wins in a short match. Cast Douglas Edwards as Narrator (voice only) Walter Cartier as Himself (uncredited) Vincent Cartier as Himself - Walter's twin brother (uncredited) Nat Fleischer as Himself - boxing historian (uncredited) Bobby James as Himself - Walter's opponent (uncredited) Stanley Kubrick as Himself - man at ringside with camera (uncredited) Alexander Singer as Himself - man at ringside with camera (uncredited) Judy Singer as Herself - female fan in crowd (uncredited) Cast notes The year after the fight chronicled in Day of the Fight took place, Walter Cartier made boxing history by knocking out Joe Rindone in the first 47 seconds of a match (16 October 1951). Cartier had played some bit parts in movies before he appeared in Day of the Fight, and afterwards, up until 1971, he continued to appear occasionally in films and on television. With regard to his televised performances, his most notable role is in the 1955-1956 season of the American sitcom The Phil Silvers Show in which he portrays the mild-mannered character Private Claude Dillingham. Alexander Singer, who was a high-school friend of Stanley Kubrick (both attended William Howard Taft High School in the Bronx), served as assistant director and as a cameraman on this production. Singer also worked on Kubrick's Killer's Kiss (1955) and The Killing (1956), and went on to have a long career as a director of films and television dramas. Douglas Edwards, the narrator on Day of the Fight, was a veteran CBS radio and television newscaster. At the time, he was the anchor on the first televised daily news program, which would later be titled Douglas Edwards with the News and then The CBS Evening News. Production Kubrick and Singer used daylight-loading Eyemo cameras that take 100-foot spools of 35mm black-and-white film to shoot the fight, with Kubrick shooting hand-held (often from below) and Singer's camera on a tripod. The 100-foot reels required constant reloading, and Kubrick did not catch the knock-out punch which ended the bout because he was reloading. Singer did, however. Day of the Fight is the first film credit on composer Gerald Fried's resume. Kubrick did not pay him for his work in scoring the production. "He thought the very fact that my doing the music" for the film "got me into the profession was enough payment", Fried told The Guardian in 2018, although he conceded in the same newspaper interview that Kubrick's point was accurate. A childhood friend of Kubrick, Fried later composed the score for the director's Paths of Glory (1957) and three other films. Since the original planned buyer of the documentary went out of business, Kubrick was able to sell Day of the Fight to RKO Pictures for $4,000, resulting in only a net profit of $100 for him after paying the film's $3,900 in production costs. However, the noted physicist and author Jeremy Bernstein, who in November 1965 conducted a 76-minute interview with Kubrick for The New Yorker, documented that the project was actually not a break-even endeavor, that it instead lost $100. Day of the Fight was released as part of RKO-Pathé's "This Is America" series and premiered on 26 April 1951 at New York's Paramount Theater, on the same program as the film My Forbidden Past. Frank Sinatra headlined the live stage show that day. Notes External links Day of the Fight at Stanley Kubrick: Master Filmmaker Day of the Fight at Kubrick Multimedia Film Guide The Kubrick Site 1951 films American short documentary films American films American black-and-white films Films directed by Stanley Kubrick RKO Pictures short films American boxing films 1950s sports films 1951 documentary films Films shot in Newark, New Jersey Films shot in New York City Sports in Newark, New Jersey Films produced by Stanley Kubrick Films scored by Gerald Fried 1951 directorial debut films Black-and-white documentary films 1950s short documentary films	[ -0.18450331687927246, -0.013254084624350071, -0.6891152858734131, -0.13379406929016113, 0.2366044521331787, -0.04099106788635254, 0.24501070380210876, -0.4273059368133545, 0.3126537799835205, -0.032573599368333817, -0.48693400621414185, 0.6669861674308777, -0.44104307889938354, -0.05544161796569824, -0.18657249212265015, 0.04490560665726662, -0.06889941543340683, -0.32470229268074036, 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216843	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20Consulate	French Consulate	The Consulate () was the top-level Government of France from the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire on 10 November 1799 until the start of the Napoleonic Empire on 18 May 1804. By extension, the term The Consulate also refers to this period of French history. During this period, Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul (), established himself as the head of a more authoritarian, autocratic, and centralized republican government in France while not declaring himself sole ruler. Due to the long-lasting institutions established during these years, Robert B. Holtman has called the Consulate "one of the most important periods of all French history." Napoleon brought authoritarian personal rule which has been viewed as military dictatorship. Fall of the Directory government French military disasters in 1798 and 1799 had shaken the Directory, and eventually shattered it in November 1799. Historians sometimes date the start of the political downfall of the Directory to 18 June 1799 (Coup of 30 Prairial VII by the French Republican calendar). This was when anti-Jacobin Director Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès, after only a month in office, with the help of the Directory's only surviving original member, Paul Barras, also an anti-Jacobin, successfully rid himself of the other three then-sitting directors. The March–April 1799 elections to the two councils had produced a new Neo-Jacobin majority in the two bodies, and being unhappy with the existing five man Directory, by 5 June 1799, these councils had found an irregularity in the election of the Director Jean Baptiste Treilhard, who thus retired in favor of Louis Jérôme Gohier, a Jacobin more 'in tune' with the feelings in the two councils. The very next day, 18 June 1799, the anti-Jacobins Philippe-Antoine Merlin (Merlin de Douai) and Louis-Marie de La Revellière-Lépeaux were also driven to resign, although one long time anti-Jacobin, popularly known for his cunning, survived the day's coup; they were replaced by the Jacobin Baron Jean-François-Auguste Moulin and by the non-Jacobin, or 'weak' Jacobin, Roger Ducos. The three new directors were generally seen by the anti-Jacobin elite of France as non-entities, a 'put-down' if ever there was one, but that same elite could take some comfort in knowing that the five man Directory was still in anti-Jacobin hands, but with a reduced majority. A few more military disasters, royalist insurrections in the south, Chouan disturbances in a dozen departments of the western part of France (mainly in Brittany, Maine and eventually Normandy), Orléanist intrigues, and the end became certain. In order to soothe the populace and protect the frontier, more than the French Revolution's usual terrorist measures (such as the law of hostages) was necessary. The new Directory government, led by the anti-Jacobin Sieyès, decided that the necessary revision of the constitution would require "a head" (his own) and "a sword" (a general to back him). Jean Victor Moreau being unattainable as his sword, Sieyès favoured Barthélemy Catherine Joubert; but, when Joubert was killed at the Battle of Novi (15 August 1799), he turned to General Napoleon Bonaparte. Although Guillaume Marie Anne Brune and André Masséna won the Battles of Bergen and of Zürich, and although the Allies of the Second Coalition lingered on the frontier as they had done after the Battle of Valmy, still the fortunes of the Directory were not restored. Success was reserved for Bonaparte, suddenly landing at Fréjus with the prestige of his victories in the East, and now, after Hoche's death (1797), appearing as sole master of the armies. In the coup of 18 Brumaire Year VIII (9 November 1799), Napoleon seized French parliamentary and military power in a two-fold coup d'état, forcing the sitting directors of the government to resign. On the night of the 19 Brumaire (10 November 1799) a remnant of the Council of Ancients abolished the Constitution of the Year III, ordained the consulate, and legalised the coup d'Etat in favour of Bonaparte with the Constitution of the Year VIII. The new government The initial 18 Brumaire coup seemed to be a victory for Sieyès, rather than for Bonaparte. Sieyès was a proponent of a new system of government for the Republic, and the coup initially seemed certain to bring his system into force. Bonaparte's cleverness lay in counterposing Pierre Claude François Daunou's plan to that of Sieyès, and in retaining only those portions of each which could serve his ambition. The new government was composed of three parliamentary assemblies: the Council of State which drafted bills, the Tribunate which could not vote on the bills but instead debated them, and the Corps législatif, whose members could not discuss the bills but voted on them after reviewing the Tribunate's debate record. The Sénat conservateur was a governmental body equal to the three aforementioned legislative assemblies and verified the draft bills and directly advised the First Consul on the implications of such bills. Ultimate executive authority was vested in three consuls, who were elected for ten years. Popular suffrage was retained, though mutilated by the lists of notables (on which the members of the Assemblies were to be chosen by the Senate). The four aforementioned governmental organs were retained under the Constitution of the Year XII, which recognized Napoleon as the French sovereign Emperor, but their respective powers were greatly diminished. Napoleon vetoed Sieyès' original idea of having a single Grand Elector as supreme executive and Head of State. Sieyès had intended to reserve this important position for himself, and by denying him the job Napoleon helped reinforce the authority of the consuls, an office which he would assume. Nor was Napoleon content simply to be part of an equal triumvirate. As the years would progress he would move to consolidate his own power as First Consul, and leave the two other consuls, Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès and Charles-François Lebrun, as well as the Assemblies, weak and subservient. By consolidating power, Bonaparte was able to transform the aristocratic constitution of Sieyès into an unavowed dictatorship. On 7 February 1800, a public referendum confirmed the new constitution. It vested all of the real power in the hands of the First Consul, leaving only a nominal role for the other two consuls. A full 99.9% of voters approved the motion, according to the released results. While this near-unanimity is certainly open to question, Napoleon was genuinely popular among many voters, and after a period of strife, many in France were reassured by his dazzling but unsuccessful offers of peace to the victorious Second Coalition, his rapid disarmament of , and his talk of stability of government, order, justice and moderation. He gave everyone a feeling that France was governed once more by a real statesman, and that a competent government was finally in charge. Napoleon's consolidation of power had to now rid himself of and of those republicans who had no desire to hand over the republic to one man, particularly of and , his military rivals. The victory of Marengo (14 June 1800) momentarily in the balance, but secured by and , offered a further opportunity to his ambition by increasing his popularity. The royalist plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise on 24 December 1800 allowed him to make a clean sweep of the democratic republicans, who despite their innocence were deported to French Guiana. He annulled the Assemblies and made the Senate omnipotent in constitutional matters. The Treaty of Lunéville, signed in February 1801 with Austria (which had been disarmed by ’s victory at ), restored peace to Europe, gave nearly the whole of Italy to France, and permitted to eliminate from the Assemblies all the leaders of the opposition in the discussion of the Civil Code. The Concordat of 1801, drawn up not in the Church's interest but in that of his own policy, by giving satisfaction to the religious feeling of the country, allowed him to put down the constitutional democratic Church, to rally round him the consciences of the peasants, and above all to deprive the royalists of their best weapon. The hid from the eyes of his companions-in-arms and councillors a reaction which, in fact if not in law, restored to a submissive Church, despoiled of her revenues, her position as the religion of the state. The Peace of Amiens (25 March 1802) with the United Kingdom, of which France's allies, Spain and the Batavian Republic, paid all the costs, finally gave the peacemaker a pretext for endowing himself with a Consulate, not for ten years but for life, as a recompense from the nation. The Rubicon was crossed on that day: ’s march to empire began with the Constitution of the Year X dated 16 Thermidor or 4 August 1802. On 2 August 1802 (14 Thermidor, An X), a second national referendum was held, this time to confirm as "First Consul for Life." Once again, a vote claimed 99.7% approval. As increased his power, he borrowed many techniques of the in his new form of one-man government. Like the old monarchy, he re-introduced plenipotentiaries; over-centralised, strictly utilitarian administrative and bureaucratic methods, and a policy of subservient pedantic scholasticism towards the nation's universities. He constructed or consolidated the funds necessary for national institutions, local governments, a judiciary system, organs of finance, banking, codes, traditions of conscientious well-disciplined labour force. France enjoyed a high level of peace and order under that helped to raise the standard of comfort. Prior to this, Paris had often suffered from hunger and thirst, and lacked fire and light, but under Napoleon, provisions became cheap and abundant, while trade prospered and wages ran high. The pomp and luxury of the were displayed in the of the good , the beautiful , and the "divine" . In strengthening the machinery of state, created the elite order of the (The Legion of Honour), the , and restored indirect taxes, an act seen as a betrayal of the Revolution. was largely able to quell dissent within government by expelling his more vocal critics, such as and . The expedition to reduced the republican army to a nullity. Constant war helped demoralise and scatter the military's leaders, who were jealous of their "comrade" . The last major challenge to 's authority came from , who was compromised in a royalist plot; he too was sent into exile. In contradistinction to the opposition of senators and republican generals, the majority of the French populace remained uncritical of 's authority. No suggestion of the possibility of his death was tolerated. The Napoleonic age began here when he became officer of the French state and established the consulate. The Duke of Enghien affair Because Napoleon's hold on political power was still tenuous, French Royalists devised a plot that involved kidnapping and assassinating him and inviting Louis Antoine de Bourbon, the Duke of Enghien, to lead a coup d'état that would precede the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy with Louis XVIII on the throne. The British government of William Pitt the Younger had contributed to this Royalist conspiracy by financing one million pounds and providing naval transport (with the ship of Captain John Wesley Wright) to the conspirators Georges Cadoudal and General Charles Pichegru for their return to France from England. Pichegru met Jean Victor Marie Moreau, one of Napoleon's generals and a former protege of Pichegru, on 28 January 1804. The next day, a British secret agent named Courson was arrested and he, under torture, confessed that Pichegru, Moreau and Cadoudal were conspiring to overthrow the consulate. The French government sought more details of this plot by arresting and torturing Louis Picot, Cadoudal's servant. Joachim Murat ordered the city gates of Paris to be closed from 7 pm to 6 am while Pichegru and Moreau were arrested during the next month. These further arrests revealed that the Royalist conspiracy would eventually involve the active participation of the Duke of Enghien, who was a relatively young Bourbon prince and thus another possible heir to a restored Bourbon monarchy. The Duke, at that time, was living as a French émigré in the future Grand Duchy of Baden, but then still the 1803-1806 Electorate of Baden, but he also kept a rented house in Ettenheim, which was close to the French border. Perhaps at the urging of Talleyrand, Napoleon's foreign minister, and Fouché, Napoleon's minister of police who had warned that "the air is full of daggers", the First Consul came to the political conclusion that the Duke must be dealt with. Two hundred French soldiers crossed the border, surrounded the Duke's home in Baden and arrested him. On the way back to France d'Enghien stated that "he had sworn implacable hatred against Bonaparte as well as against the French; he would take every occasion to make war on them." After three plots to assassinate him and the further financing of a supposed insurrection in Strasbourg, Napoleon had enough. Based on d'Enghien's who were seized at his home in Germany and the material from the police, d'Enghien was charged as a conspirator in time of war and was subject to a military court. He was ordered to be tried by a court of seven colonels at Vincennes. D'Enghien during his questioning at the court told them that he was being paid £4,200 per year by England "in order to combat not France but a government to which his birth had made him hostile." Further, he stated that "I asked England if I might serve in her armies, but she replied that that was impossible: I must wait on the Rhine, where I would have a part to play immediately, and I was in fact waiting." D'Enghien was found guilty of being in violation of Article 2 of a law of 6 October 1791, to wit, "Any conspiracy and plot aimed at disturbing the State by civil war, and arming the citizens against one another, or against lawful authority, will be punished by death." He was executed in the ditch of the fortress of Vincennes. The aftermath caused hardly a ripple in France, but abroad, it produced a storm of anger. Many of those who had favored or been neutral to Napoleon now turned against him. But Napoleon always assumed full responsibility for allowing the execution and continued to believe that, on balance, he had done the right thing. Consuls Ministers See Cabinet of the French Consulate The Ministers under the consulate were: References Bibliography website (English language version). Accessed October 2006. Tom Holmberg, "The d'Enghien Affair: Crime or Blunder?" (September 2005), The Napoleonic Series website. Accessed October 2006. 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216844	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20Information%20Service	Network Information Service	The Network Information Service, or NIS (originally called Yellow Pages or YP), is a client–server directory service protocol for distributing system configuration data such as user and host names between computers on a computer network. Sun Microsystems developed the NIS; the technology is licensed to virtually all other Unix vendors. Because British Telecom PLC owned the name "Yellow Pages" as a registered trademark in the United Kingdom for its paper-based, commercial telephone directory, Sun changed the name of its system to NIS, though all the commands and functions still start with "yp". A NIS/YP system maintains and distributes a central directory of user and group information, hostnames, e-mail aliases and other text-based tables of information in a computer network. For example, in a common UNIX environment, the list of users for identification is placed in and secret authentication hashes in . NIS adds another "global" user list which is used for identifying users on any client of the NIS domain. Administrators have the ability to configure NIS to serve password data to outside processes to authenticate users using various versions of the Unix crypt(3) hash algorithms. However, in such cases, any NIS(0307) client can retrieve the entire password database for offline inspection. Successor technologies The original NIS design was seen to have inherent limitations, especially in the areas of scalability and security, so other technologies have come to replace it. Sun introduced NIS+ as part of Solaris 2 in 1992, with the intention for it to eventually supersede NIS. NIS+ features much stronger security and authentication features, as well as a hierarchical design intended to provide greater scalability and flexibility. However, it was also more cumbersome to set up and administer, and was more difficult to integrate into an existing NIS environment than many existing users wished. NIS+ has been removed from Solaris 11. As a result, many users choose to stick with NIS, and over time other modern and secure distributed directory systems, most notably Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), came to replace it. For example, slapd (the standalone LDAP daemon) generally runs as a non-root user, and SASL-based encryption of LDAP traffic is natively supported. On large LANs, DNS servers may provide better nameserver functionality than NIS or LDAP can provide, leaving just site-wide identification information for NIS master and slave systems to serve. However, some functionssuch as the distribution of netmask information to clients, as well as the maintenance of e-mail aliasesmay still be performed by NIS or LDAP. NIS maintains an NFS database information file as well as so called maps. See also Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Hesiod (name service) Name Service Switch (NSS) Network information system, for a broader use of NIS to manage other system and networks References External links RHEL 9 will remove support for NIS Alexander Bokovoy, Sr. Principal Software Engineer slide show Unix network-related software Sun Microsystems software Network management Directory services Inter-process communication	[ 0.07308617979288101, -0.16817858815193176, 0.1657344102859497, 0.37332335114479065, 0.2967509925365448, -0.11199863255023956, -0.22769849002361298, 0.6080349683761597, -0.3079604208469391, -0.931833028793335, -0.3482089936733246, 0.10236384719610214, -0.22951243817806244, 0.33474209904670715, 0.08218894898891449, -0.06418805569410324, 0.5247124433517456, 0.4073099195957184, -0.1775079071521759, -0.214007169008255, -1.080985188484192, -0.21392293274402618, -0.4771497845649719, -0.6108710169792175, 0.34441450238227844, 0.09547310322523117, 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216847	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20information%20system	Network information system	This article is about management systems for general networks. For computing networks see Network Information Service Network Information System (abbreviation: NIS) is an information system for managing networks, such as electricity network, water supply network, gas supply network, telecommunications network., or street light network NIS may manage all data relevant to the network, e.g.- all components and their attributes, the connectivity between them and other information, relating to the operation, design and construction of such networks. NIS for electricity may manage any, some or all voltage levels- Extra High, High, Medium and low voltage. It may support only the distribution network or also the transmission network. Telecom NIS typically consists of the physical network inventory and logical network inventory. Physical network inventory is used to manage outside plant components, such as cables, splices, ducts, trenches, nodes and inside plant components such as active and passive devices. The most differentiating factor of telecom NIS from traditional GIS is the capability of recording thread level connectivity. The logical network inventory is used to manage the logical connections and circuits utilizing the logical connections. Traditionally, the logical network inventory has been a separate product but in most modern systems the functionality is built in the GIS serving both the functionality of the physical network and logical network. Water network information system typically manages the water network components, such as ducts, branches, valves, hydrants, reservoirs and pumping stations. Some systems such as include the water consumers as well as water meters and their readings in the NIS. Sewage and stormwater components are typically included in the NIS. By adding sensors as well as analysis and calculations based on the measured values the concept of Smart water system is included in the NIS. By adding actuators into the network the concept of SCADA can be included in the NIS. NIS may be built on top of a GIS (Geographical information system). Private Cloud based NIS is gaining in functionality and popularity. As much of the changes to the network are conducted on the field, this approach has significant benefits compared to traditional GIS. The as-builts can be documented on site using mobile connectivity to the NIS. Many of the products in this category, such as by Keypro offer easy to use web interface which requires no installations at the client workstation. See also See Network Information Service for detailed info on computer networks, (originally called Yellow Pages or YP) References External links Resources on how to replace NIS can be found at the NIS Migration Resource Site Computer networking	[ -0.06694141775369644, 0.08074946701526642, 0.08011734485626221, 0.33250191807746887, 0.21142233908176422, -0.15507440268993378, -0.06258536130189896, 0.3989580273628235, -0.6844638586044312, -1.0175868272781372, -0.26452895998954773, 0.5842229127883911, -0.3306565284729004, 0.19149990379810333, 0.08373715728521347, 0.13356909155845642, 0.37304526567459106, 0.12426857650279999, -0.18794997036457062, -0.273995578289032, -0.6064981818199158, 0.08414728194475174, 0.020109616219997406, -0.10895605385303497, 0.022322364151477814, -0.07416623085737228, 0.08813111484050751, 0.26146167516708374, 0.43152740597724915, 0.028538288548588753, 0.44208216667175293, 0.20654916763305664, -0.19080407917499542, 0.17637164890766144, -0.5438767075538635, 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216849	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Northern%20Ireland	History of Northern Ireland	Northern Ireland is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom, (although it is also described by official sources as a province or a region), situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland. It was created as a separate legal entity on 3 May 1921, under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The new autonomous Northern Ireland was formed from six of the nine counties of Ulster: four counties with unionist majorities Antrim, Armagh, Down, and Londonderry and two counties with slight Irish nationalist majorities Fermanagh and Tyrone in the 1918 General Election. The remaining three Ulster counties with larger nationalist majorities were not included. In large part unionists, at least in the north-east, supported its creation while nationalists were opposed. Resistance to Home Rule From the late 19th century, the majority of people living in Ireland wanted the British government to grant some form of self-rule to Ireland. The Irish Nationalist Party sometimes held the balance of power in the House of Commons in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a position from which it sought to gain Home Rule, which would have given Ireland autonomy in internal affairs, without breaking up the United Kingdom. Two bills granting Home Rule to Ireland were passed by the House of Commons in 1886 and 1893, but rejected by the House of Lords. With the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 by the Liberal Party government (which reduced the powers of the Lords from striking down parliamentary Bills to delaying their implementation for two years) it was apparent that Home Rule would probably come into force in the next five years. The Home Rule Party had been campaigning for this for almost fifty years. However, a significant minority was vehemently opposed to the idea and wished to retain the Union in its existing form. Irish unionists had been agitating successfully against Home Rule since the 1880s, and on 28 September 1912, the leader of the northern unionists, Edward Carson, introduced the Ulster Covenant in Belfast, pledging to exclude Ulster from home rule. The Covenant was signed by 450,000 men. Whilst precipitating a split with unionists in the south and west (including a particularly sizeable community in Dublin), it gave the northern unionists a feasible goal to aim for. By the early 20th century, Belfast, the largest city in Ulster, had become the largest city in Ireland. Its industrial economy, with strong engineering and shipbuilding sectors, was closely integrated with that of Great Britain. Belfast was a substantially Ulster Protestant town with a Catholic minority of less than 30 per cent, concentrated in the west of the city. A third Home Rule Bill was introduced by the Liberal minority government in 1912. However, the Conservative Party was sympathetic to the unionist case, and the political voice of unionism was strong in Parliament. After heavy amendment by the House of Lords, the Commons agreed in 1914 to allow four counties of Ulster to vote themselves out of its provisions and then only for six years. Throughout 1913 and 1914, paramilitary "volunteer armies" were recruited and armed, firstly the unionist Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), and in response, the nationalist Irish Volunteers. But events in World War I Europe were to take precedence. Home rule was delayed for the duration of what was expected to be a short war and unionist and nationalist leaders agreed to encourage their volunteers to join the British army. 1916: Easter Rising, Battle of the Somme and aftermath During World War I, tensions continued to mount in Ireland. Hardline Irish separatists (known at the time as Irish Nationalists and later as Republicans) rejected Home Rule entirely because it involved maintaining the connection with Britain. They retained control of one faction of the Irish Volunteers, and in Easter 1916, led by Thomas Clarke, James Connolly and others attempted a rebellion in Dublin. After summary trials, the British government had the leaders executed for treason. The government blamed the small Sinn Féin party, which had little to do with it. The execution of the leaders of the rebellion turned out to be a propaganda coup for militant republicanism, and Sinn Féin's previously negligible popular support grew. The surviving leaders of the Irish Volunteers infiltrated the party and assumed its leadership in 1917. (The Irish Volunteers would later become the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in 1919.) Republicans gained further support when the British government attempted to introduce conscription to Ireland in 1918. Sinn Féin was at the forefront of organising the campaign against conscription. The 36th (Ulster) Division was one of the first units in the British Army to be sent into the Somme beginning in July 1916. Despite being one of the few divisions to achieve their objectives, the Ulstermen suffered nearly 85% casualties. Though the 36th Division was made up of both Catholics and Protestants from the north, one result from the heavy losses at the Somme was that the Unionist community became evermore determined to remain in the United Kingdom, believing themselves to have sacrificed theirs sons at the behest of the Crown. Nationalists joined in great numbers as well, with "old" Irish regiments from Munster and Leinster being greatly strengthened by these recruits. When the veterans of World War I, on both sides of the political divide, returned from the front in 1918 and 1919, they came back as battle-hardened soldiers. In the general election of 1918, the Irish Parliamentary Party lost almost all of its seats to Sinn Féin. Of the 30 seats in the six counties that would become Northern Ireland, 23 were won by Unionists, including 3 Labour Unionists and five of the six IPP members returned in Ireland were elected in Ulster as a result of local voting pacts with Sinn Féin. Guerrilla warfare gathered pace in Ireland in the aftermath of the election, leading to the Anglo-Irish War. Although lower in intensity in Ulster than the rest of Ireland, the conflict was complicated there by involving not only the IRA, British Army and Royal Irish Constabulary, but the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) as well. Partition The fourth and final Home Rule Bill (the Government of Ireland Act 1920) partitioned the island into Northern Ireland (six northeastern counties) and Southern Ireland (the rest of the island). Some unionists such as Sir Edward Carson opposed partition, seeing it as a betrayal of unionism as a pan-Irish political movement. Three Counties unionists (those living in the Ulster counties of Cavan, Donegal, and Monaghan) who found themselves on the wrong side of the new border that partitioned Ulster, felt betrayed by those who had joined them in pledging to "stand by one another" in the Ulster Covenant. The Belfast Telegraph reassured unionists who felt guilty about this "that it was better for two-thirds of passengers to save themselves than for all to drown". Many Irish nationalists also opposed partition, although some were gratified that Northern Ireland contained a large nationalist minority that would deny it stability. The Treaty was given effect in the United Kingdom through the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922. Under Article 12 of the Treaty, Northern Ireland could exercise its opt out by presenting an address to the King requesting not to be part of the Irish Free State. Once the Treaty was ratified, the Parliament of Northern Ireland had one month to exercise this opt out during which month the Irish Free State Government could not legislate for Northern Ireland, holding the Free State's effective jurisdiction in abeyance for a month. On 7 December 1922 (the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State) the Parliament of Northern Ireland resolved to make the following address to the King so as to opt out of the Irish Free State: On 13 December 1922 Prime Minister James Craig addressed the Parliament of Northern Ireland informing them that the King had responded to the Parliament's address as follows: Early years of Home Rule Northern Ireland, having received self-government within the United Kingdom under the Government of Ireland Act, was in some respects left to its own devices. The first years of the new autonomous region were marked by bitter violence, particularly in Belfast. The IRA was determined to oppose the partition of Ireland so the authorities created the (mainly ex-UVF) Ulster Special Constabulary to aid the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) and introduced emergency powers to combat the IRA. Many died in political violence between 1920 and 1923, during which Belfast experienced the worst violence in its history. Killings petered out in 1923 after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922. The continuing violence created a climate of fear in the new region, and there was migration across the new border. As well as movement of Protestants from the Free State into Northern Ireland, some Catholics fled south, leaving some of those who remained feeling isolated. Despite the mixed religious affiliation of the old Royal Irish Constabulary and the transfer of many Catholic RIC police officers to the newly formed Royal Ulster Constabulary (1922), northern Catholics did not join the new force in great numbers. Many nationalists came to view the new police force as sectarian, adding to their sense of alienation from the state. 1925–1965 Under successive unionist Prime Ministers from Sir James Craig (later Lord Craigavon) onwards, the unionist establishment practised what is generally considered a policy of discrimination against the nationalist/Catholic minority. This pattern was firmly established in the case of local government, where gerrymandered ward boundaries rigged local government elections to ensure unionist control of some local councils with nationalist majorities. In a number of cases, most prominently those of the Corporation of Derry, Omagh Urban District, and Fermanagh County Council, ward boundaries were drawn to place as many Catholics as possible into wards with overwhelming nationalist majorities while other wards were created where unionists had small but secure majorities, maximising unionist representation. Voting arrangements which gave commercial companies multiple votes according to size, and which restricted the personal franchise to property owners, primary tenants and their spouses (which were ended in England in the 1940s), continued in Northern Ireland until 1969 and became increasingly resented. Disputes over local government gerrymandering were at the heart of the Northern Ireland civil rights movement in the 1960s. In addition, there was widespread discrimination in employment, particularly at senior levels of the public sector and in certain sectors of the economy, such as shipbuilding and heavy engineering. Emigration to seek employment was significantly more prevalent among the Catholic population. As a result, Northern Ireland's demography shifted further in favour of Protestants, leaving their ascendancy seemingly impregnable by the late 1950s. The abolition of proportional representation in 1929 meant that the structure of party politics gave the Ulster Unionist Party a continual sizeable majority in the Parliament of Northern Ireland, leading to fifty years of one-party rule. While nationalist parties continued to retain the same number of seats that they had under proportional representation, the Northern Ireland Labour Party and various smaller leftist unionist groups were smothered, meaning that it proved impossible for any group to sustain a challenge to the Ulster Unionist Party from within the unionist section of the population. In 1935, the worst violence since partition convulsed Belfast. After an Orange Order parade decided to return to the city centre through a Catholic area instead of its usual route; the resulting violence left nine people dead. Over 2,000 Catholics were forced to leave their homes across Northern Ireland. While disputed for decades, many unionist leaders now admit that the Northern Ireland government in the period 1922–72 was discriminatory, although prominent Democratic Unionist Party figures continue to deny it or its extent. One unionist leader, Nobel Peace Prize joint-winner, former UUP leader and First Minister of Northern Ireland David Trimble, described Northern Ireland as having been a "cold house for Catholics". Despite this, Northern Ireland was relatively peaceful for most of the period from 1924 until the late 1960s, except for some brief flurries of IRA activity, the (Luftwaffe) Belfast blitz during the Second World War in 1941 and the so-called "Border Campaign" from 1956 to 1962. It found little support among nationalists. However, many Catholics were resentful towards the state, and nationalist politics was fatalist. Meanwhile, the period saw an almost complete synthesis between the Ulster Unionist Party and the loyalist Orange Order, with Catholics (even unionist Catholics) being excluded from any position of political or civil authority outside of a handful of nationalist-controlled councils. Throughout this time, although the Catholic birth rate remained higher than for Protestants, the Catholic proportion of the population declined, as poor economic prospects, especially west of the River Bann, saw Catholics emigrate in disproportionate numbers. Nationalist political institutions declined, with the Nationalist Party boycotting the Stormont Parliament for much of this period and its constituency organisations reducing to little more than shells. Sinn Féin was banned although it often operated through the Republican Clubs or similar vehicles. At various times the party stood and won elections on an abstentionist platform. Labour-based politics were weak in Northern Ireland in comparison with Britain. A small Northern Ireland Labour Party existed but suffered many splits to both nationalist and unionist factions. Second World War Belfast was a representative British city that has been well studied by historians. It was a key industrial city producing ships, tanks, aircraft, engineering works, arms, uniforms, parachutes and a host of other industrial goods. The unemployment that had been so persistent in the 1930s disappeared, and labour shortages appeared. There was a major munitions strike in 1944. As a key industrial city, Belfast became a target for German bombing missions, but it was thinly defended; there were only 24 anti-aircraft guns in the city. The Northern Ireland government under Richard Dawson Bates (Minister for Home Affairs) had prepared too late, assuming that Belfast was far enough away to be safe. When Germany conquered France in Spring 1940 it gained closer airfields. The city's fire brigade was inadequate, there were no public air raid shelters as the Northern Ireland government was reluctant to spend money on them, and there were no searchlights in the city, which made shooting down enemy bombers all the more difficult. After the Blitz in London during the autumn of 1940, the government began to build air raid shelters. In early 1941, the Luftwaffe flew reconnaissance missions that identified the docks and industrial areas to be targeted. Working class areas in the north and east of the city were particularly hard hit, as over 1,000 people were killed and hundreds were seriously injured. Many people left the city in fear of future attacks. The bombing revealed terrible slum conditions in the city. In May 1941, the Luftwaffe hit the docks and the Harland and Wolff shipyard, closing it for six months. The Belfast blitz saw half of the city's houses destroyed. About £20 million worth of damage was caused. The Northern Ireland government was criticised heavily for its lack of preparation, and Northern Ireland's Prime Minister J. M. Andrews resigned. The bombing raids continued until the invasion of Russia in summer 1941. The American army arrived in 1942–44, setting up bases around Northern Ireland. The Troubles Beginnings The Troubles were a period of ethno-political conflict in Northern Ireland which spilled over at various times into England, the Republic of Ireland, and mainland Europe. The duration of the Troubles is conventionally dated from the late 1960s and considered by many to have ended with the Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement of 1998. Violence nonetheless continues on a sporadic basis. In the 1960s, moderate unionist prime minister Terence O'Neill (later Lord O'Neill of the Maine) tried to introduce reforms, but encountered strong opposition from both fundamentalist Protestant leaders like Ian Paisley and within his own party. The increasing pressures from Irish nationalists for reform and opposition by Ulster loyalists to compromise led to the appearance of the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association, under figures such as Austin Currie and John Hume. It had some moderate Protestant support and membership, and a considerable dose of student radicalism after Northern Ireland was swept up in the worldwide protests of 1968. Clashes between marchers and the RUC led to increased communal strife, culminating in an attack by a unionist mob (which included police reservists) on a march, known as the Burntollet bridge incident, outside Derry on 4 January 1969. Wholescale violence erupted after an Apprentice Boys march was forced through the Irish nationalist Bogside area of Derry on 12 August 1969 by the RUC, which led to large-scale disorder known as the Battle of the Bogside. Rioting continued until 14 August, and in that time 1,091 canisters, each containing 12.5g of CS gas and 14 canisters containing 50g, were released by the RUC. Even more severe rioting broke out in Belfast and elsewhere in response to events in Derry (see Northern Ireland riots of August 1969). The following thirty years of civil strife came to be known as "the Troubles". At the request of the unionist-controlled Northern Ireland government, the British army was deployed by the UK Home Secretary James Callaghan two days later on 14 August 1969. Two weeks later, control of security in Northern Ireland was passed from the Stormont government to Lieutenant-General Ian Freeland (GOC). At first the soldiers received a warm welcome from Irish nationalists, who hoped they would protect them from loyalist attack (which the IRA had, for ideological reasons, not done effectively). However, tensions rose throughout the following years, with an important milestone in the worsening relationship between the British Army and Irish nationalists being the Falls Curfew of 3 July 1970, when 3,000 British troops imposed a three-day curfew on the Lower Falls area of West Belfast. After the introduction of internment without trial for suspected IRA men on 9 August 1971, even the most moderate Irish nationalists reacted by completely withdrawing their co-operation with the state. The Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) members of the Parliament of Northern Ireland withdrew from that body on 15 August and a widespread campaign of civil disobedience began. 1972–1974 Tensions were ratcheted to a higher level after the killing of fourteen unarmed civilians in Derry by the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment on 30 January 1972, an event dubbed Bloody Sunday. Many civilians were killed and injured by the indiscriminate bombing campaigns carried out, mainly by the Provisional IRA. Throughout this period, the main paramilitary organisations began to form. 1972 was the most violent year of the conflict. In 1970 the Provisional IRA, was created as a breakaway from what then became known as the Official IRA (the Provisionals came from various political perspectives, though most rejected the increasingly Marxist outlook of the Officials and were united in their rejection of the Official's view that physical force alone would not end partition), and a campaign of sectarian attacks by loyalist paramilitary groups like the Ulster Defence Association (formed to co-ordinate the various Loyalist vigilante groups that sprung up) and others brought Northern Ireland to the brink of civil war. On 30 March 1972, the British government, unwilling to grant the unionist Northern Ireland government more authoritarian special powers, and now convinced of its inability to restore order, pushed through emergency legislation that prorogued the Northern Ireland Parliament and introduced direct rule from London. In 1973 the British government dissolved the Parliament of Northern Ireland and its government under the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973. The British government held talks with various parties, including the Provisional IRA, during 1972 and 1973. The Official IRA declared a ceasefire in 1972, and eventually ended violence against the British altogether, although a breakaway group, the Irish National Liberation Army, continued. The Provisional IRA remained the largest and most effective nationalist paramilitary group. On 9 December 1973, after talks in Sunningdale, Berkshire, the UUP, SDLP and Alliance Party of Northern Ireland and both governments reached the Sunningdale Agreement on a cross-community government for Northern Ireland, which took office on 1 January 1974. The Provisional IRA was unimpressed, increasing the tempo of its campaign, while many unionists were outraged at the participation of Irish nationalists in the government of Northern Ireland and at the cross-border Council of Ireland. Although the pro-Sunningdale parties had a clear majority in the new Northern Ireland Assembly, the failure of the pro-Agreement parties to co-ordinate their efforts in the general election of 28 February, combined with an IRA-sponsored boycott by hardline republicans, allowed anti-Sunningdale unionists to take 51.1% of the vote and 11 of Northern Ireland's 12 seats in the UK House of Commons. Emboldened by this, a coalition of anti-Agreement unionist politicians and paramilitaries organised the Ulster Workers' Council strike which began on 15 May. The strikers brought Northern Ireland to a standstill by shutting down power stations, and after Prime Minister Harold Wilson refused to send in troops to take over from the strikers, the power-sharing executive collapsed on 28 May 1974. Some British politicians, notably former British Labour minister Tony Benn, advocated British withdrawal from Ireland, but many opposed this policy, and called their prediction of the possible results of British withdrawal the 'Doomsday Scenario', anticipating widespread communal strife. The worst fear envisaged a civil war which would engulf not just Northern Ireland, but also the Republic of Ireland and Scotland, both of which had major links with the people of Northern Ireland. Later, the feared possible impact of British withdrawal was the 'Balkanisation' of Northern Ireland. The level of violence declined from 1972 onwards, decreasing to under 150 deaths a year after 1976 and under 100 after 1988. The Provisional IRA, using weapons and explosives obtained from the United States and Libya, bombed England and various British army bases in Europe, as well as conducting ongoing attacks within Northern Ireland. These attacks were not only on "military" targets but also on commercial properties and various city centres. Arguably its signature attack would involve cars packed with high explosives. At the same time, loyalist paramilitaries largely (but not exclusively) focused their campaign within Northern Ireland, ignoring the uninvolved military of the Republic of Ireland, and instead claiming a (very) few republican paramilitary casualties. They usually targeted Catholics (especially those working in Protestant areas), and attacked Catholic-frequented pubs using automatic fire weapons. Such attacks were euphemistically known as "spray jobs". Both groups would also carry out extensive "punishment" attacks against members of their own communities for a variety of perceived, alleged, or suspected crimes. 1975–1998 Various fitful political talks took place from then until the early 1990s, backed by schemes such as rolling devolution, and 1975 saw a brief Provisional IRA ceasefire. The two events of real significance during this period, however, were the hunger strikes (1981) and the Anglo-Irish Agreement (1985). Despite the failure of the hunger strike, the modern republican movement made its first foray into electoral politics, with modest electoral success on both sides of the border, including the election of Bobby Sands to the House of Commons. This convinced republicans to adopt the Armalite and ballot box strategy and gradually take a more political approach. While the Anglo-Irish Agreement failed to bring an end to political violence in Northern Ireland, it did improve co-operation between the British and Irish governments, which was key to the creation of the Belfast Agreement/Good Friday Agreement a decade later. At a strategic level the agreement demonstrated that the British recognised as legitimate the wishes of the Republic to have a direct interest in the affairs of Northern Ireland. It also demonstrated to paramilitaries that their refusal to negotiate with the governments might be self-defeating in the long run. Unlike the Sunningdale Agreement, the Anglo-Irish Agreement withstood a much more concerted campaign of violence and intimidation, as well as political hostility, from unionists. However, unionists from across the spectrum felt betrayed by the British government and relations between unionists and the British government were at their worst point since the Ulster Covenant in 1912, with similar mass rallies in Belfast. Unionist co-operation needed in tackling Republican violence became so damaged that in 1998 Margaret Thatcher said she regretted signing the Agreement for this reason. Republicans were also left in the position of rejecting the only significant all-Ireland structures created since partition. By the 1990s, the perceived stalemate between the IRA and British security forces, along with the increasing political successes of Sinn Féin, convinced a majority inside the republican movement that greater progress towards republican objectives might be achieved through negotiation rather than violence at this stage. This change from paramilitary to political means was part of a broader Northern Ireland peace process, which followed the appearance of new leaders in London (John Major) and Dublin (Albert Reynolds). New government structure The Belfast Agreement/ Good Friday Agreement Increased government focus on the problems of Northern Ireland led, in 1993, to the two prime ministers signing the Downing Street Declaration. At the same time Gerry Adams, leader of Sinn Féin, and John Hume, leader of the Social Democratic and Labour Party, engaged in talks. The UK political landscape changed dramatically when the 1997 general election saw the return of a Labour government, led by prime minister Tony Blair, with a large parliamentary majority. A new leader of the Ulster Unionist Party, David Trimble, initially perceived as a hardliner, brought his party into the all-party negotiations which in 1998 produced the Belfast Agreement ("Good Friday Agreement"), signed by eight parties on 10 April 1998, although not involving Ian Paisley's Democratic Unionist Party or the UK Unionist Party. A majority of both communities in Northern Ireland approved this Agreement, as did the people of the Republic of Ireland, both by referendum on 22 May 1998. The Republic amended its constitution, to replace a claim it made to the territory of Northern Ireland with an affirmation of the right of all the people of Ireland to be part of the Irish nation and a declaration of an aspiration towards a United Ireland (see the Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland). Under the Good Friday Agreement, properly known as the Belfast Agreement, voters elected a new Northern Ireland Assembly to form a parliament. Every party that reaches a specific level of support gains the right to name members of its party to government and claim one or more ministries. Ulster Unionist party leader David Trimble became First Minister of Northern Ireland. The Deputy Leader of the SDLP, Seamus Mallon, became Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, though his party's new leader, Mark Durkan, subsequently replaced him. The Ulster Unionists, Social Democratic and Labour Party, Sinn Féin and the Democratic Unionist Party each had ministers by right in the power-sharing assembly. The Assembly and its Executive operated on a stop-start basis, with repeated disagreements about whether the IRA was fulfilling its commitments to disarm, and also allegations from the Police Service of Northern Ireland's Special Branch that there was an IRA spy-ring operating in the heart of the civil service. It has since emerged that the spy-ring was run by MI5 (see Denis Donaldson). Northern Ireland was then, once more, run by the Direct Rule Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Peter Hain, and a British ministerial team answerable to him. Hain was answerable only to the Cabinet. The changing British position to Northern Ireland was represented by the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Stormont, where she met nationalist ministers from the SDLP as well as unionist ministers and spoke of the right of people who perceive themselves as Irish to be treated as equal citizens along with those who regard themselves as British. Similarly, on visits to Northern Ireland, the President of Ireland, Mary McAleese, met with unionist ministers and with the Lord Lieutenant of each county – the official representatives of the Queen. Dissident Republicans in the Provisional IRA who refused to recognize the Good Friday Agreement split from the main body and formed a separate entity known as the Real IRA. It was this paramilitary group that was responsible for the Omagh Bombing in August 1998 that claimed the lives of 29 including a mother and her unborn twins. In a break from traditional Republican policy, Martin McGuinness officially condemned the actions of the Real IRA, setting a precedent that resulted in the alienation and minuscule support for dissident groups within the Republican movement. Elections and politics in 2000s However, the Assembly elections of 30 November 2003 saw Sinn Féin and the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) emerge as the largest parties in each community, which was perceived as making a restoration of the devolved institutions more difficult to achieve. However, serious talks between the political parties and the British and Irish governments saw steady, if stuttering, progress throughout 2004, with the DUP in particular surprising many observers with its newly discovered pragmatism. However, an arms-for-government deal between Sinn Féin and the DUP broke down in December 2004 due to a row over whether photographic evidence of IRA decommissioning was necessary, and the IRA refusal to countenance the provision of such evidence. The 2005 British general election saw further polarisation, with the DUP making sweeping gains, although Sinn Féin did not make the breakthrough many had predicted. In particular, the failure of Sinn Féin to gain the SDLP leader Mark Durkan's Foyle seat marked a significant rebuff for the republican party. The UUP only took one seat, with the leader David Trimble losing his and subsequently resigning as leader. On 28 July 2005, the IRA made a public statement ordering an end to the armed campaign and instructing its members to dump arms and to pursue purely political programmes. While the British and Irish governments warmly welcomed the statement, political reaction in Northern Ireland itself demonstrated a tendency to suspicion engendered by years of political and social conflict. In August the British government announced that due to the security situation improving and in accordance with the Good Friday Agreement provisions, Operation Banner would end by 1 August 2007. On 13 October 2006 an agreement was proposed after three days of multiparty talks at St. Andrews in Scotland, which all parties including the DUP, supported. Under the agreement, Sinn Féin would fully endorse the police in Northern Ireland, and the DUP would share power with Sinn Féin. All the main parties in Northern Ireland, including the DUP and Sinn Féin, subsequently formally endorsed the agreement. On 8 May 2007, devolution of powers returned to Northern Ireland. DUP leader Ian Paisley and Sinn Féin's Martin McGuinness took office as First Minister and Deputy First Minister, respectively. (BBC). "You Raise Me Up", the 2005 track by Westlife, was played at their inauguration. On 5 June 2008, Peter Robinson was confirmed as First Minister, succeeding Ian Paisley. In November 2015 he announced his intention to resign, stepping down officially in January 2016. His successor as the leader of the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), Arlene Foster, became the new First Minister on 11 January 2016. She was the first woman to hold the post of First Minister. In April 2021, Arlene Foster announced that she would resign as DUP leader on 28 May and end her tenure as First Minister at the end of June 2021. Current developments Impact of 2017 elections on the Northern Ireland Executive On 9 January 2017, following the Renewable Heat Incentive scandal, Martin McGuinness resigned as deputy First Minister, triggering the 2017 Northern Ireland Assembly election and the collapse of the Northern Ireland Executive. Since then, the Executive has been in suspension and has not reformed. The election marked a significant shift in Northern Ireland's politics, being the first election since Ireland's partition in 1921 in which unionist parties did not win a majority of seats, and the first time that unionist and nationalist parties received equal representation in the Assembly (39 members between Sinn Féin and the SDLP, 39 members between the DUP, UUP, and TUV). The DUP's loss of seats also prevents it from unilaterally using the petition of concern mechanism, which the party had controversially used to block measures such as the introduction of same-sex marriage to Northern Ireland. UUP leader Mike Nesbitt announced his resignation, following the party's failure to make any breakthrough. Sinn Féin reiterated that it would not return to a power-sharing arrangement with the DUP without significant changes in the DUP's approach, including Foster not becoming First Minister until the RHI investigation is complete. The parties had three weeks to form an administration; failing that, new elections would likely be called. While unionism has lost its overall majority in the Assembly, the result has been characterised by political analyst Matthew Whiting as being more about voters seeking competent local leadership, and about the DUP having less success than Sinn Féin in motivating its traditional voter base to turn out, than about a significant move towards a united Ireland. Secretary of State for Northern Ireland James Brokenshire gave the political parties more time to reach a coalition agreement after the 27 March deadline passed. Sinn Féin called for fresh elections if agreement could not be reached. Negotiations were paused over Easter, but Brokenshire threatened a new election or direct rule if no agreement could be reached by early May. On 18 April, the Conservative Party Prime Minister, Theresa May, then called a snap general election for 8 June 2017. A new deadline of 29 June was then set for power-sharing talks. The UK General Election saw both the DUP and Sinn Féin advance, with the UUP and SDLP losing all their MPs. The overall result saw the Conservatives losing seats, resulting in a hung parliament. May sought to continue as Prime Minister running a minority administration through seeking the support of the DUP. Various commentators suggested this raised problems for the UK government's role as a neutral arbiter in Northern Ireland, as is required under the Good Friday Agreement. Talks restarted on 12 June 2017, while a Conservative–DUP agreement was announced and published on 26 June. A new deadline was set for 29 June, but it appeared that no agreement would be reached in time, with the main sticking point over Sinn Féin's desire for an Irish language act, rejected by the DUP, while Sinn Féin reject a hybrid act that also covers Ulster Scots. The deadline passed with no resolution. Brokenshire extended the time for talks, but Sinn Féin and the DUP remained pessimistic about any quick resolution. Negotiations resumed in the autumn of 2017 but failed, leaving it in the hands of the UK Parliament to pass a budget for the ongoing financial year of 2017–18. The bill, which began its passage on 13 November, would if enacted release the final 5% of Northern Ireland's block grant. Negotiations resume, 2018 Talks between the DUP and Sinn Féin recommenced on 6 February 2018, only days before the mid-February deadline where, in the absence of an agreement, a regional budget will have to be imposed by Westminster. Despite being attended by Theresa May and Leo Varadkar, the talks collapsed and DUP negotiator Simon Hamilton stated "significant and serious gaps remain between ourselves and Sinn Féin". The stalemate continued into September, at which point Northern Ireland reached 590 days without a fully functioning administration, eclipsing the record set in Belgium between April 2010 and December 2011. On 18 October the Northern Ireland Secretary Karen Bradley introduced the Northern Ireland (Executive Formation and Exercise of Functions) Bill, removing the time frame of an Assembly election until 26 March 2019, which could be replaced by a later date by the Northern Ireland Secretary for once only, and during which the Northern Ireland Executive could be formed at any time, enabling civil servants to take a certain degree of departmental decisions that would be in public interest, and also allowing Ministers of the Crown to have several Northern Ireland appointments. The Bill's third reading was passed in the House of Commons and in the House of Lords on 24 and 30 October respectively. The Bill became Northern Ireland (Executive Formation and Exercise of Functions) Act 2018 and came into effect after it received Royal Assent and was passed on 1 November. During question period to the Northern Ireland Secretary on 31 October Karen Bradley announced that she would hold a meeting in Belfast the following day with the main parties regarding the implementation of the Bill (which was not an Act yet on that day) and next steps towards the restoration of the devolution and that she would fly to Dublin alongside Theresa May's de facto deputy David Lidington to hold an inter-governmental conference with the Irish Government. No deal was reached at that time. In early January 2020, the British and Irish governments announced the text of a deal to restore power sharing in Northern Ireland, and to restore devolution. Other current developments Gay marriage and the liberalisation of abortion was legalised in Northern Ireland on 22 October 2019. The legalisation received royal assent on 24 July 2019 by way of an amendment to the Northern Ireland (Executive Formation etc) Act 2019 which was primarily to implement sustainable governance in Northern Ireland in the absence of an executive. The British government stated that the legalisation would only come into effect if the executive was not functioning by 22 October deadline. Attempts to restart the assembly were made, predominantly by unionist parties, on 21 October, but Sinn Féin and Alliance refused to enter the Assembly. The legalisation was enacted and progress to restart Stormont stagnated for several months until a fresh election became likely. The Northern Ireland Assembly and Executive (which collapsed three years ago) resumed on 11 January 2020 after an agreement titled 'New Decade, New Approach' was signed between the DUP and Sinn Féin, and the British and Irish governments, and subsequently by most other parties. See also Flag of Northern Ireland History of Ireland History of the United Kingdom Murals in Northern Ireland History of the British Isles Politics of Northern Ireland Notes and references Further reading Bardon, Jonathan. A History of Ulster (Belfast, 1992.) Bew, Paul, Peter Gibbon and Henry Patterson, Northern Ireland 1921-1994: Political Forces and Social Classes (1995) Bew, Paul, and Henry Patterson. The British State and the Ulster Crisis: From Wilson to Thatcher (London: Verso, 1985). Brady, Claran, Mary O'Dowd and Brian Walker, eds. Ulster: An Illustrated History (1989) Buckland, Patrick. A History of Northern Ireland (Dublin, 1981) Elliott, Marianne. The Catholics of Ulster: A History. Basic Books. 2001. online edition Farrell, Michael. Northern Ireland: The Orange State, 2nd edition (London, 1980). Gillespie, Gordon. Historical dictionary of the Northern Ireland conflict (Rowman & Littlefield, 2017). Henessy, Thomas. A History of Northern Ireland, 1920-1996. St. Martin's, 1998. 365 pp. Hill, John. Cinema and Northern Ireland: Film, Culture and Politics (Bloomsbury, 2019). Kennedy, Liam and Philip Ollerenshaw, eds, Ulster Since 1600: Politics, Economy, and Society (2013) excerpts Lynch, Timothy J. Turf war: the Clinton administration and Northern Ireland (Routledge, 2019) US role. McAuley, James White. Very British Rebels?: The Culture and Politics of Ulster Loyalism (Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2015). Ollerenshaw, Philip. "War, industrial mobilisation and society in Northern Ireland, 1939–1945." Contemporary European History 16#2 (2007): 169–197. Historiography Adamson, Ian. The Identity of Ulster, 2nd edition (Belfast, 1987) Lawther, Cheryl. Truth, denial and transition: Northern Ireland and the contested past (Routledge, 2018). Miller, David, ed. Rethinking Northern Ireland: culture, ideology and colonialism (Routledge, 2014) Parker, Michael. Changing history: the Republic and Northern Ireland since 1990 (Manchester University Press, 2017). online Smyth, Jim, ed. Remembering the troubles: Contesting the recent past in Northern Ireland (U of Notre Dame Press, 2017). 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216854	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothenburg%20School%20of%20Business%2C%20Economics%20and%20Law	Gothenburg School of Business, Economics and Law	The Gothenburg School of Business, Economics and Law at the University of Gothenburg () is one of Sweden's leading business schools, located in Gothenburg. It was founded in 1923 as an independent business college and is situated in the centre of the city. In 1961 it was integrated into the state-run university system, still as a separate college, but then was integrated into the University of Gothenburg in 1971. The school is the only one in Sweden to hold the Triple Accreditation, i.e. AACSB, AMBA and EQUIS, certifying that all main activities are of the highest international standards. Facilities The School moved to its present premises in central Gothenburg in 1952, the present buildings being inaugurated in 1995, with further work and extensions conducted in 1996, 2003 and 2010. The main campus offers approximately 25,500 square metres of space, hosting lecture halls and office space for faculty members, as well as excellent library facilities, a restaurant and the premises of the School's Student Association. Programmes Undergraduate Level Programme in Business and Economics Bachelor Programme in Logistics Management Bachelor Programme in Environmental Social Science The Social Analysis Programme Master Level (taught in English) Executive MBA Master in Accounting and Financial Management Master in Finance Master in Innovation and Industrial Management Master in International Business and Trade Master in Knowledge-based Entrepreneurship Master in Logistics and Transport Management Master in Management Master in Marketing and Consumption Master in Economics Master of Laws Programme (in Swedish) PhD Level PhD in Business Administration PhD in Economic Geography PhD in Innovation and Entrepreneurship and Intellectual Asset Management PhD in Law PhD in Economics PhD in Economic History PhD in Human Geography The School was founded in 1923. It was a private institution, serving a growing need for internationally oriented academic and professional education among the manufacturing companies, shipping firms and trading houses of Gothenburg. Gothenburg-based globally oriented companies, such as SKF, Volvo and the leading shipyards later became major employers of graduates from the School. After several decades of rapid growth in the Swedish economy and thus in the public system of higher education, the School became a public institution under Government auspices in 1960. After its amalgamation with the University of Gothenburg (the University) in 1971, it was recognised as an independent unit within the University in 1986. Since 1997, the School has had its own Faculty Board, reflecting a high degree of sovereignty within the University system. In 1992 the School expanded its activities by adding a Master of Laws programme to its educational options. Its present English name, ‘the School of Business, Economics and Law’, was adopted in 2004, so as to reflect its three main pillars of research and education. Over the years, the development of the School has combined consistency and dynamism in a close relationship with the society surrounding it. The School's founders, in creating advanced higher education in Gothenburg, stressed the need for an academic base for the many local merchant firms engaged in overseas shipping and trade. Research conducted in close cooperation with the business community is essential to the School, and has been so since its foundation. The international orientation of businesses headquartered or operating in the area contributes to the School's own international focus. Language courses were introduced at the School as far back as the early 1920s, and the emphasis on international business studies led to the creation of Sweden's oldest and largest Bachelor Programme in International Business and Economics, with French as one of the main subjects. Over the years, Spanish, German, Japanese, Chinese and English have been added as optional main languages to what is now known as the Programme in Business and Economics. The successive establishment of an extensive network of cooperation with foreign universities that today includes more than 150 agreements has furthermore strengthened the School's international orientation. In 2006, the Swedish Government declared that the Bologna system was to be implemented for all higher education. The School was well prepared for this, having conducted Master programmes in English, open to foreign students, since 1997. The organisation of the Master programmes has since continued to develop into what today is formally known as the Graduate School, the unit for all education within the second cycle of the Bologna system today delivering nine two-year Master Programmes in Business and Economics. The School grants degrees at all academic levels and has comprehensive PhD programmes in all its disciplines. The Department of Business Administration – with a strong history of Management and Accounting research dating back to the 1920s – is one of the largest of its kind in the Nordic countries. Today, the School's student body exceeds 4,000 full-time students. The faculty includes 272 researchers and teachers of whom 109 are full professors or associate professors. The Organisation of the School According to the new organisational structure that will be fully implemented by January 1, 2013 the School is organised into four departments: Business Administration Economics Law Economy and Society The Graduate School is an administrative entity outside the departments, with responsibility for the Executive MBA, Specialised Master Programmes, the Visiting Professor Programme and the School's GMAT Centre. The PhD programmes are the responsibility of the individual departments and not of the Graduate School. The Faculty Board and the School Management Team The School's Faculty Board consists of three categories of members; Senior Management of the School, Senior Faculty (who form a majority), and Representatives for the Students and Employees appointed by the Student Association and the trade unions respectively. The Dean chairs the Board. The Faculty Board has overall responsibility for: Long-term strategy of the School Funding and allocation of resources Staffing Programme options and content Research strategies Principles for quality assessment The School Management Team comprises the Dean, the Assistant Dean and the Vice Dean. The Dean is individually responsible for the executive management of the School, answering to the Vice-Chancellor of the University. Internally, the Dean is in charge of the School's strategy and its relationship with external stakeholders, and holds a formal operating responsibility with regards to staff, financial administration and infrastructure. The Dean is also a member of the Vice-Chancellor's Management Council at the University level. The Assistant Dean holds the main responsibility for research and postgraduate education, while the Vice Dean is responsible for Master and Bachelor education. Both the Dean and the Assistant Dean are elected by the School's members of faculty and administrators for a period of six years. The remaining elected members of the Faculty Board have a three-year mandate. Student and union representatives are appointed by the respective associations. Advisory Boards and Committees To ascertain that all decision-making processes are based on a qualified analysis of correct facts, the School Management Team and Faculty Board is backed by a number of advisory committees and boards. The Swedish Government stipulates that all preparatory and decision-making bodies dealing with educational matters within Swedish universities must have student representation. Accordingly, the Student Association is represented on all these advisory bodies. All vacant academic positions are publicly advertised internationally and candidates evaluated by external referees for proficiency and merit. An Appointments Board oversees the recruitment and evaluation process, with the final appointment decision being taken by the Faculty Board. Professors, who hold the highest academic position within the University, are formally appointed by the Vice-Chancellor following an application's adoption by the Faculty Board. Research and education activities are discussed and coordinated through two separate preparatory committees. The Preparatory Committee for Research includes representatives from all departments, as well as one PhD student representative, and is responsible for developing common strategies for research, principles for the allocation of research resources between the departments, common principles for quality assessment, etc. The committee is chaired by the Assistant Dean. The Preparatory Committee for Education comprises representatives from all departments, major education units and programmes of the School, as well as one student representative, and handles all major questions regarding education at Bachelor and Master level. The committee is chaired by the Vice Dean. The Advisory Board – made up of leading management executives from a wide variety of companies such as AB Volvo, Volvo Car Corporation, SKF and Stena, as well as the Swedish financial and public sectors – provides strategic advice to the School Management Team and practical support. It also functions as a key communication tool with some of the School's most important stakeholders. Some of the Advisory Board members are alumni of the School. Research Centres In addition to the main intra-disciplinary research groups within the departments, a long-term strategy by the School has also been to build up research capacity within more focused units that are organised multi-disciplinarily. Research centres have been initiated with the objective of promoting thinking outside the box, and at the same time facilitating active contacts with the business community in order to cooperate in dealing with applied research which is typical for a specific sector or a specific area. Centre for Business in Society Centre for Business Solutions Centre for Consumer Science Centre for Finance Centre for Global Human Resource Management Centre for Health Economics Centre for International Business Studies Centre for Regional Analysis Centre for Tourism Gothenburg Centre for Globalisation and Development Researchers at the School are also active in cross-faculty centres hosted by other faculties, including: Business and Design Lab Centre for European Research (CERGU) Centre for Intellectual Property (CIP) Centre for Environment and Sustainability Lighthouse Notable alumni Per-Olov Atle (b. 1943), industry leader, board member of Bonnier. Percy Barnevik (b. 1941), industry leader, former CEO of Asea Brown Boveri and board member of GM Carl Bennet, (b. 1951), industry leader, major shareholder and chairman in Elanders, Getinge and Lifco. Nils Brunsson, academic and researcher in organizational behavior Jan Eliasson (b. 1940), diplomat, Swedish foreign minister Roger Holtback, (b. 1945), industry leader, former CEO of Volvo AB Lars Murman (b. 1957), Former CEO of Manpower Stig Nordfelt, (b. 1940), Accountant and consultant, board member of H&M and Capinordic Asset Management AB. Dan Sten Olsson, (b. 1947), industry leader, CEO of Stena AB and chairman in Concordia Maritime AB, Stena Line Holding B.V., Stena Metall AB, Stena Bulk AB, Stena Sessan AB, Stena Drilling Ltd. Also member of international advisory board of Alliance for Global Sustainability and honorary doctorate at the Chalmers University of Technology. Leif Pagrotsky (b. 1951), former Minister of Industry and Trade, Minister of Education, and Minister of Culture. Melker Schörling, (b. 1947), investor, major shareholder in Securitas AB and Assa Abloy. Also board member in AarhusKarlshamn AB, Hexagon AB, Hexpol AB and Securitas AB. Chairman and owner of MSAB. Hans Wallenstam, (b. 1961), Business magnate, CEO and major shareholder of Wallenstam. Leif Östling (b. 1945), industry leader, CEO of Scania AB. Holds also a Master of Engineering (Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg). Mats Wahlstrom, founder of Puro hospitality group See also Stockholm School of Economics Jönköping International Business School Umeå School of Business Lund School of Economics and Management List of universities in Sweden List of business schools in the Nordic countries References Annual Report - The School of Business, Economics and Law 2011 External links School of Business, Economics and Law at Göteborg University - Official site University of Gothenburg Business schools in Sweden Buildings and structures in Gothenburg University departments in Sweden 1923 establishments in Sweden Educational institutions established in 1923 Law schools in Sweden	[ 0.35601159930229187, 0.1876288652420044, 0.9816631078720093, -0.3114698827266693, -0.10540928691625595, 0.09963003545999527, 0.49540963768959045, 0.3765612244606018, -0.4321627914905548, -0.167293518781662, -0.22667795419692993, 0.578687310218811, 0.0005648197256959975, 0.17633551359176636, 0.11545155197381973, -0.26459789276123047, 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216855	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Relapse	The Relapse	The Relapse, or, Virtue in Danger is a Restoration comedy from 1696 written by John Vanbrugh. The play is a sequel to Colley Cibber's Love's Last Shift, or, The Fool in Fashion. In Cibber's Love's Last Shift, a free-living Restoration rake is brought to repentance and reform by the ruses of his wife, while in The Relapse, the rake succumbs again to temptation and has a new love affair. His virtuous wife is also subjected to a determined seduction attempt, and resists with difficulty. Vanbrugh planned The Relapse around particular actors at Drury Lane, writing their stage habits, public reputations, and personal relationships into the text. One such actor was Colley Cibber himself, who played the luxuriant fop Lord Foppington in both Love's Last Shift and The Relapse. However, Vanbrugh's artistic plans were threatened by a cutthroat struggle between London's two theatre companies, each of which was "seducing" actors from the other. The Relapse came close to being not produced at all, but the successful performance that was eventually achieved in November 1696 vindicated Vanbrugh's intentions, and saved the company from bankruptcy as well. Unlike Love's Last Shift, which never again performed after the 1690s, The Relapse has retained its audience appeal. In the 18th century, however, its tolerant attitude towards actual and attempted adultery gradually became unacceptable to public opinion, and the original play was for a century replaced on the stage by Sheridan's moralised version A Trip to Scarborough (1777). On the modern stage, The Relapse has been established as one of the most popular Restoration comedies, valued for Vanbrugh's light, throwaway wit and the consummate acting part of Lord Foppington, a burlesque character with a dark side. The Relapse as sequel Sexual ideology Love's Last Shift can be seen as an early sign of Cibber's sensitivity to shifts of public opinion, which was to be useful to him in his later career as manager at Drury Lane (see Colley Cibber). In the 1690s, the economic and political power balance of the nation tilted from the aristocracy towards the middle class after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and middle-class values of religion, morality, and gender roles became more dominant, not least in attitudes to the stage. Love's Last Shift is one of the first illustrations of a massive shift in audience taste, away from the analytic bent and sexual frankness of Restoration comedy and towards the conservative certainties and gender role backlash of exemplary or sentimental comedy. The play illustrates Cibber's opportunism at a moment in time before the change was assured: fearless of self-contradiction, he puts something into his first play to please every section of the audience, combining the old outspokenness with the new preachiness. The way Vanbrugh, in his turn, allows the reformed rake to relapse quite cheerfully, and has the only preaching in the play come from the comically corrupt parson of "Fatgoose Living", has made some early 20th-century critics refer to The Relapse as the last of the true Restoration comedies. However, Vanbrugh's play is also affected by the taste of the 1690s, and compared to a play like the courtier William Wycherley's The Country Wife of 20 years earlier, with its celebration of predatory aristocratic masculinity, The Relapse contains quite a few moments of morality and uplift. In fact it has a kind of parallel structure to Love's Last Shift: in the climactic scene of Cibber's play, Amanda's virtue reforms her husband, and in the corresponding scene of The Relapse, it reforms her admirer Worthy. Such moments have not done the play any favours with modern critics. Love's Last Shift plot Love's Last Shift is the story of a last "shift" or trick that a virtuous wife, Amanda, is driven to reform and retain her rakish husband Loveless. Loveless has been away for ten years, dividing his time between the brothel and the bottle, and no longer recognises his wife when he returns to London. Acting the part of a high-class prostitute, Amanda lures Loveless into her luxurious house and treats him to the night of his dreams, confessing her true identity in the morning. Loveless is so impressed that he immediately reforms. A minor part that was a great hit with the première audience is the fop Sir Novelty Fashion, written by Cibber for himself to play. Sir Novelty flirts with all the women, but is more interested in his own exquisite appearance and witticisms, and Cibber would modestly write in his autobiography 45 years later, "was thought a good portrait of the foppery then in fashion". Combining daring sex scenes with sentimental reconciliations and Sir Novelty's buffoonery, Love's Last Shift offered something for everybody, and was a great box-office hit. The Relapse plot Vanbrugh's The Relapse is less sentimental and more analytical than Love's Last Shift, subjecting both the reformed husband and the virtuous wife to fresh temptations, and having them react with more psychological realism. Loveless falls for the vivacious young widow Berinthia, while Amanda barely succeeds in summoning her virtue to reject her admirer Worthy. The three central characters, Amanda, Loveless, and Sir Novelty (ennobled by Vanbrugh into "Lord Foppington"), are the only ones that recur in both plays, the remainder of the Relapse characters being new. In the trickster subplot, young Tom tricks his elder brother Lord Foppington out of his intended bride and her large dowry. This plot takes up nearly half the play and expands the part of Sir Novelty to give more scope for the roaring success of Cibber's fop acting. Recycling Cibber's merely fashion-conscious fop, Vanbrugh lets him buy himself a title and equips him with enough aplomb and selfishness to weather all humiliations. Although Lord Foppington may be "very industrious to pass for an ass", as Amanda remarks, he is at bottom "a man who Nature has made no fool" (II.i.148). Literary historians agree in esteeming him "the greatest of all Restoration fops" (Dobrée), "brutal, evil, and smart" (Hume). Background: theatre company split In the early 1690s, London had only one officially countenanced theatre company, the "United Company", badly managed and with its takings bled off by predatory investors ("adventurers"). To counter the draining of the company's income, the manager Christopher Rich slashed the salaries and traditional perks of his skilled professional actors, antagonising such popular performers as Thomas Betterton, the tragedienne Elizabeth Barry, and the comedian Anne Bracegirdle. Colley Cibber wrote in his autobiography that the owners of the United Company, "who had made a monopoly of the stage, and consequently presumed they might impose what conditions they pleased upon their people, did not consider that they were all this while endeavouring to enslave a set of actors whom the public… were inclined to support." Betterton and his colleagues set forth the bad finances of the United Company and the plight of the actors in a "Petition of the Players" submitted to the Lord Chamberlain. This unusual document is signed by nine men and six women, all established professional actors, and details a disreputable jumble of secret investments and "farmed" shares, making the case that owner chicanery rather than any failure of audience interest was at the root of the company's financial problems. Barely veiled strike threats in the actors' petition were met with an answering lock-out threat from Rich in a "Reply of the Patentees", but the burgeoning conflict was pre-empted by a suspension of all play-acting from December until March 1695 on account of Queen Mary's illness and death. During this interval, a cooperative actors' company took shape under the leadership of Betterton and was granted a Royal "licence to act" on 25 March, to the dismay of Rich, who saw the threat too late. The two companies that emerged from this labour/management conflict are usually known respectively as the "Patent Company" (the no-longer-united United Company) and "Betterton's Company", although Judith Milhous argues that the latter misrepresents the cooperative nature of the actors' company. In the following period of intense rivalry, the Patent Company was handicapped by a shortage of competent actors. "Seducing" actors (as the legal term was) back and forth between the companies was a key tactic in the ensuing struggle for position, and so were appeals to the Lord Chamberlain to issue injunctions against seductions from the other side, which that functionary was quite willing to do. Later Rich also resorted to hiring amateurs, and to tempting Irish actors over from Dublin. But such measures were not yet in place for the staging of The Relapse in 1696, Rich's most desperate venture. Casting Vanbrugh is assumed to have attempted to tailor his play to the talents of particular actors and to what audiences would expect from them, as was normal practice (Holland), but this was exceptionally difficult to accomplish in 1695–96. Love's Last Shift had been cast from the remnants of the Patent Company—"learners" and "boys and girls"—after the walkout of the stars. Following the surprising success of this young cast, Vanbrugh and Rich had even greater difficulty in retaining the actors needed for The Relapse. However, in spite of the continuous emergency in which the Relapse production was mounted, most of Vanbrugh's original intentions were eventually carried out. Love's Last Shift cast To cast Love's Last Shift in January 1696, the Patent Company had to make the best use of such actors as remained after the 1694 split (see cast list right). An anonymous contemporary pamphlet describes the "despicable condition" the troupe had been reduced to: The disproportion was so great at parting, that it was almost impossible, in Drury Lane, to muster up a sufficient number to take in all the parts of any play; and of them so few were tolerable, that a play must of necessity be damned, that had not extraordinary favour from the audience. No fewer than sixteen (most of the old standing) went away; and with them the very beauty and vigour of the stage; they who were left being for the most part learners, boys and girls, a very unequal match for them that revolted. The only well-regarded performers available were the Verbruggens, John and Susanna, who had been re-seduced by Rich from Betterton's company. They were of course used in Love's Last Shift, with John playing Loveless, the male lead, and his wife Susanna the flirtatious heiress Narcissa, a secondary character. The rest of the cast consisted of the new and untried (for instance Hildebrand Horden, who had just joined Rich's troupe, playing a rakish young lover), the modest and lacklustre (Jane Rogers, playing Amanda, and Mary Kent, playing Sir Novelty's mistress Flareit), and the widely disliked (the opportunist Colley Cibber, playing Sir Novelty Fashion); people who had probably never been given the option of joining Betterton. Betterton's only rival as male lead, George Powell, had most likely been left behind by the rebels with some relief (Milhous); while Powell was skilled and experienced, he was also notorious for his bad temper and alcoholism. Throughout the "seduction" tug-of-war between Rich and Betterton in 1695–96, Powell remained at Drury Lane, where he was in fact not used for Love's Last Shift, but would instead spectacularly demonstrate his drinking problem at the première of The Relapse. The Relapse cast Vanbrugh planned The Relapse, too, round these limited casting resources and minor talents, which Peter Holland has argued explains the robust, farcical character of the play; Vanbrugh's second comedy, The Provoked Wife (1697), written for the better actors of the cooperative company, is a much subtler piece. The Relapse was written in six weeks and offered to the Patent Company in March, but because of the problems with contracting and retaining actors, it did not première until November. It is known from Cibber's autobiography that Vanbrugh had a decisive say in the ongoing casting changes made during these seven months; it is not known whether he altered his text to accommodate them. To reinforce the connection with Love's Last Shift and capitalise on its unexpected success, Vanbrugh designed the central roles of Loveless, Amanda, and Sir Novelty for the same actors: John Verbruggen, Jane Rogers, and Colley Cibber. Keeping Rogers as Amanda was not a problem, since she was not an actress that the companies fought over, but holding on to John Verbruggen and Colley Cibber posed challenges, to which Rich rose with energetic campaigns of bribery and re-seduction. Filling the rest of the large Relapse cast presented a varied palette of problems, which forced some unconventional emergency casting. John Verbruggen was one of the original rebels and had been offered a share in the actors' company, but became disgruntled when his wife Susanna, a popular comedian, was not. For Rich, it was a stroke of luck to get Susanna and John back into his depleted and unskilled troupe. John's availability to play Loveless remained precarious, however. In September, when The Relapse had still not been staged after six months of trying (probably because Rich was still parleying with Cibber about his availability as Lord Foppington), John was still complaining about his employment situation, even getting into a physical fight over it at the theatre. This misbehaviour caused the Lord Chamberlain to declare his contract void and at the same time order him to stay with the Patent Company until January 1697, to give Rich time to find a replacement. The original Loveless was thus finally guaranteed for an autumn season run of The Relapse. Since the loyal Verbruggen couple always moved as a unit, Susanna's services were also assured. The Verbruggens were essential to the play, not least because Vanbrugh had customised the sprightly temptress Berinthia to Susanna's talents and reputation for witty, roguish, sexually enterprising characters, most recently Mrs Buxom in Thomas D'Urfey's Don Quixote (a success thanks to "the extraordinary well acting of Mrs Verbruggen", wrote D'Urfey). Although John was less well known, his acting skills were considerable and would flourish after January 1697 in the cooperative company, where commentators even started to compare him with the great Betterton. Verbruggen was considered a more natural, intuitive or "careless" actor, with "a negligent agreeable wildness in his action and his mien, which became him well." Anthony Aston vividly described Verbruggen as "a little in-kneed, which gave him a shambling gait, which was a carelessness, and became him." Modern critics do not find the Loveless part very lively or irresistible, but Vanbrugh was able to count on Verbruggen's shambling male magnetism and "agreeable wildness" to enrich the character. This would originally have worked even in print, since cast lists were included in the published plays: most 1690s play readers were playgoers also, and aware of the high-profile Verbruggens. Happily married in private life and playing the secret lovers Loveless and Berinthia, the Verbruggens have left traces of their charisma and erotic stage presences in Vanbrugh's dialogue. The Relapse even alludes to their real-life relationship, in meta-jokes such as Berinthia's exclamation, "Well, he is a charming man! I don't wonder his wife's so fond of him!" Hildebrand Horden, who had played a "wild" young lover in Love's Last Shift, was the only young, handsome, potential romantic lead Rich had. He was presumably cast by Vanbrugh as Tom Fashion, Lord Foppington's clever younger brother (Holland), and it was a blow to the Patent Company when he was killed in a tavern brawl (more glamorously referred to as a "duel" in older sources) in May. At the première in November, Tom Fashion was instead played as a breeches role by Mary Kent, an unusual piece of emergency casting that puts a different face on a uniquely frank homosexual scene where Tom keeps skipping nimbly out of the way of the matchmaker Coupler's lecherous groping. Colley Cibber was a rather unsuccessful young actor at the time of the split, with a squeaky voice and without any of the physical attractiveness of the soon-to-be-dead Horden. After the success of Love's Last Shift, his status was transformed, with both companies vying for his services as actor and playwright. He made an off-season transfer to Betterton's company in the summer of 1696 and wrote part of a play for the rebels before being re-seduced by Rich by means of a fat contract (Milhous). Cibber as Lord Foppington was thus also assured, and finally the première of The Relapse could be scheduled with some confidence. Cibber's performance in it was received with even greater acclaim than in his own play, Vanbrugh's Lord Foppington being a larger and, in the estimation of both contemporaries and modern critics, much funnier part than Sir Novelty Fashion. Vanbrugh's play incorporates some of the ad-libbing and affectations of Cibber's by all accounts inspired performance in Love's Last Shift. Cibber has thus imprinted not only his own playwriting but also his acting style and squeaky personality on Vanbrugh's best-known character. Vanbrugh's preface to the first edition preserves a single fleeting concrete detail about the première performance: George Powell was drunk. He played Amanda's worldly and sophisticated admirer Worthy, the "fine gentleman of the play", and apparently brought an unintended hands-on realism to his supposedly suave seduction attempt: One word more about the bawdy, and I have done. I own the first night this thing was acted, some indecencies had like to have happened, but it was not my fault. The fine gentleman of the play, drinking his mistress's health in Nantes brandy from six in the morning to the time he waddled upon the stage in the evening, had toasted himself up to such a pitch of vigour, I confess I once gave Amanda for gone. Stage history The desperate straits of the United Company, and the success of The Relapse in saving it from collapse, are attested in a private letter from 19 November 1696: "The other house [Drury Lane] has no company at all, and unless a new play comes out on Saturday revives their reputation, they must break." The new play is assumed to have been The Relapse, and it turned out the success Rich needed. "This play", notes Colley Cibber in his autobiography, "from its new and easy turn of wit, had great success, and gave me, as a comedian, a second flight of reputation along with it." Charles Gildon summarises: "This play was received with mighty applause." The Relapse is singled out for particular censure in the Puritan clergyman Jeremy Collier's anti-theatre pamphlet Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage (1698), which attacks its lack of poetic justice and moral sentiment. Worthy and Berinthia, complains Collier, are allowed to enact their wiles against the Lovelesses' married virtue without being punished or losing face. The subplot is an even worse offence against religion and morality, as it positively rewards vice, allowing the trickster hero Tom to keep the girl, her dowry, and his own bad character to the end. Vanbrugh failed to take Short View seriously and published a joking reply, but Collier's censure was to colour the perception of the play for centuries. While it remained a popular stage piece through the 18th century, much praised and enjoyed for its wit, attitudes to its casual sexual morality became increasingly ambivalent as public opinion became ever more restrictive in this area, and more at odds with the permissive ethos of Restoration comedy. From 1777 Vanbrugh's original was replaced on the stage by Sheridan's A Trip to Scarborough, a close adaptation but with some "covering", as the prologue explains, drawn over Vanbrugh's "too bare" wit: As change thus circulates throughout the nation, Some plays may justly call for alteration; At least to draw some slender covering o'er, That graceless wit which was too bare before. Sheridan does not allow Loveless and Berinthia to consummate their relationship, and he withdraws approval from Amanda's admirer Worthy by renaming him "Townly". Some frank quips are silently deleted, and the matchmaker Coupler with the lecherous interest in Tom becomes decorous Mrs Coupler. A small-scale but notable loss is of much of the graphic language of Hoyden's nurse, who is earthy in Vanbrugh's original, genteel in Sheridan. However, Sheridan had an appreciation of Vanbrugh's style, and retained most of the original text unaltered. In the 19th century, A Trip to Scarborough remained the standard version, and there were also some ad hoc adaptations that sidelined the Lovelesses' drawing-room comedy in favour of the Lord Foppington/Hoyden plot with its caricatured clashes between exquisite fop and pitchfork-wielding country bumpkins. The Man of Quality (1870) was one such robust production, Miss Tomboy (1890) another. Vanbrugh's original Relapse was staged once, in 1846, at the Olympic Theatre in London. During the first half of the 20th century The Relapse was relatively neglected, along with other Restoration drama, and experts are uncertain about exactly when Vanbrugh's original again resurged to prominence on the stage and thereby marginalised Sheridan's version. These experts now believe the play may have been first brilliantly rehabilitated by Anthony Quayle's 1947 production at the Phoenix Theatre, starring Cyril Ritchard as Lord Foppington and brought to Broadway by Ritchard in 1950. A musical version, Virtue in Danger (1963), by Paul Dehn with music by James Bernard, opened to mixed reviews. John Russell Taylor in Plays and Players praised the cast, which included Patricia Routledge as Berinthia and John Moffatt as Lord Foppington, but complained that the production was "full of the simpering, posturing and sniggering which usually stand in for style and sophistication in Restoration revivals." Following Donald Sinden's outstanding and award-winning performance at the Aldwych Theatre in the mid-1960s Vanbrugh's original play is now again a favourite of the stage. A 2001 revival by Trevor Nunn at the National Theatre was described by Sheridan Morley as "rare, loving and brilliantly cast." As so often with commentary on The Relapse, Morley focused on the role of Lord Foppington and its different interpretations: "Alex Jennings superbly inherits the role of Lord Foppington which for 20 years or so belonged to Donald Sinden, and for another 20 before that to Cyril Ritchard." Restoration Comedy, a play by Amy Freed that draws on both The Relapse and its predecessor, Colley Cibber's Love's Last Shift, premiered at Seattle Repertory Theatre in 2005, starring Stephen Caffrey as Loveless, Caralyn Kozlowski as Amanda, and Jonathan Freeman as Lord Foppington, and directed by Sharon Ott. Notes References Cibber, Colley (first published 1740, ed. Robert Lowe, 1889). An Apology for the Life of Colley Cibber, vol.1 , vol 2. London. Dobrée, Bonamy (1927). Introduction to The Complete Works of Sir John Vanbrugh, vol. 1. Bloomsbury: The Nonesuch Press. Faller, Lincoln B. (1974–75). "Between jest and earnest: the comedy of Sir John Vanbrugh". Modern Philology 72, 17–29. Gildon, Charles (1699). The Lives and Characters of the English Dramatic Poets. London. Harris, Bernard (1971). Introduction to The Relapse. London: New Mermaids, Ernest Benn. Highfill, Philip Jr, Burnim, Kalman A., and Langhans, Edward (1973–93). Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers and Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660–1800. 16 volumes. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. All details about individual actors are taken from this standard work unless otherwise indicated. Holland, Peter (1979). The Ornament of Action: Text and Performance in Restoration Comedy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hume, Robert D. (1976). The Development of English Drama in the Late Seventeenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Milhous, Judith (1979). Thomas Betterton and the Management of Lincoln's Inn Fields 1695–1708. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Van Lennep, William (ed.) (1965). The London Stage 1660–1800: A Calendar of Plays, Entertainments and Afterpieces Together with Casts, Box-Receipts and Contemporary Comment Compiled from the Playbills, Newspapers and Theatrical Diaries of the Period, Part 1: 1660–1700. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. 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