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217152	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer%20price%20index	Consumer price index	A consumer price index (CPI) is a price index, the price of a weighted average market basket of consumer goods and services purchased by households. Changes in measured CPI track changes in prices over time. Overview A CPI is a statistical estimate constructed using the prices of a sample of representative items whose prices are collected periodically. Sub-indices and sub-sub-indices can be computed for different categories and sub-categories of goods and services, being combined to produce the overall index with weights reflecting their shares in the total of the consumer expenditures covered by the index. It is one of several price indices calculated by most national statistical agencies. The annual percentage change in a CPI is used as a measure of inflation. A CPI can be used to index (i.e. adjust for the effect of inflation) the real value of wages, salaries, and pensions; to regulate prices; and to deflate monetary magnitudes to show changes in real values. In most countries, the CPI, along with the population census, is one of the most closely watched national economic statistics. The index is usually computed monthly, or quarterly in some countries, as a weighted average of sub-indices for different components of consumer expenditure, such as food, housing, shoes, clothing, each of which is, in turn, a weighted average of sub-sub-indices. At the most detailed level, the elementary aggregate level, (for example, men's shirts sold in department stores in San Francisco), detailed weighting information is unavailable, so indices are computed using an unweighted arithmetic or geometric mean of the prices of the sampled product offers. (However, the growing use of barcode scanner data is gradually making weighting information available even at the most detailed level.) These indices compare prices each month with prices in the price-reference month. The weights used to combine them into the higher-level aggregates, and then into the overall index, relate to the estimated expenditures during a preceding whole year of the consumers covered by the index on the products within its scope in the area covered. Thus the index is a fixed-weight index, but rarely a true Laspeyres index, since the weight-reference period of a year and the price-reference period, usually a more recent single month, do not coincide. Ideally, the weights would relate to the composition of expenditure during the time between the price-reference month and the current month. There is a large technical economics literature on index formulas which would approximate this and which can be shown to approximate what economic theorists call a true cost-of-living index. Such an index would show how consumer expenditure would have to move to compensate for price changes so as to allow consumers to maintain a constant standard of living. Approximations can only be computed retrospectively, whereas the index has to appear monthly and, preferably, quite soon. Nevertheless, in some countries, notably in the United States and Sweden, the philosophy of the index is that it is inspired by and approximates the notion of a true cost of living (constant utility) index, whereas in most of Europe it is regarded more pragmatically. The coverage of the index may be limited. Consumers' expenditure abroad is usually excluded; visitors' expenditure within the country may be excluded in principle if not in practice; the rural population may or may not be included; certain groups such as the very rich or the very poor may be excluded. Saving and investment are always excluded, though the prices paid for financial services provided by financial intermediaries may be included along with insurance. The index reference period, usually called the base year, often differs both from the weight-reference period and the price-reference period. This is just a matter of rescaling the whole time series to make the value for the index reference-period equal to 100. Annually revised weights are a desirable but expensive feature of an index, for the older the weights the greater is the divergence between the current expenditure pattern and that of the weight reference-period. It is calculated and reported on a per region or country basis on a monthly and annual basis. International organizations like the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report statistical figures like the consumer price index for many of its member countries. In the US the CPI is usually reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. An English economist by the name of Joseph Lowe first proposed the theory of price basket index in 1832. His fixed basket approach was relatively simple as Lowe computed the price of a list of goods in period 0 and compared the price of that same basket of goods in period 1. Since his proposed theories however were elementary, later economists built on his ideas to form our modern definition. Calculating the CPI for a single item or Where 1 is usually the comparison year and CPI1 is usually an index of 100. Alternatively, the CPI can be performed as . The "updated cost" (i.e. the price of an item at a given year, e.g.: the price of bread in 2018) is divided by that of the initial year (the price of bread in 1970), then multiplied by one hundred. Calculating the CPI for multiple items Many but not all price indices are weighted averages using weights that sum to 1 or 100. Example: The prices of 85,000 items from 22,000 stores, and 35,000 rental units are added together and averaged. They are weighted this way: housing 41.4%; food and beverages 17.4%; transport 17.0%; medical care 6.9%; apparel 6.0%; entertainment 4.4%; other 6.9%. Taxes (43%) are not included in CPI computation. where the terms do not necessarily sum to 1 or 100. Weighting Weights and sub-indices By convention, weights are fractions or ratios summing to one, as percentages summing to 100 or as per mille numbers summing to 1000. On the European Union's Harmonized Index of Consumer Prices (HICP), for example, each country computes some 80 prescribed sub-indices, their weighted average constituting the national HICP. The weights for these sub-indices will consist of the sum of the weights of a number of component lower level indices. The classification is according to use, developed in a national accounting context. This is not necessarily the kind of classification that is most appropriate for a consumer price index. Grouping together of substitutes or of products whose prices tend to move in parallel might be more suitable. For some of these lower-level indices detailed reweighing to make them be available, allowing computations where the individual price observations can all be weighted. This may be the case, for example, where all selling is in the hands of a single national organisation which makes its data available to the index compilers. For most lower level indices, however, the weight will consist of the sum of the weights of a number of elementary aggregate indices, each weight corresponding to its fraction of the total annual expenditure covered by the index. An 'elementary aggregate' is a lowest-level component of expenditure: this has a weight, but the weights of each of its sub-components are usually lacking. Thus, for example: Weighted averages of elementary aggregate indices (e.g. for men's shirts, raincoats, women's dresses, etc.) make up low-level indices (e.g. outer garments). Weight averages of these, in turn, provide sub-indices at a higher, more aggregated level (e.g. clothing) and weighted averages of the latter provide yet more aggregated sub-indices (e.g. Clothing and Footwear). Some of the elementary aggregate indices and some of the sub-indices can be defined simply in terms of the types of goods and/or services they cover. In the case of such products as newspapers in some countries and postal services, which have nationally uniform prices. But where price movements do differ or might differ between regions or between outlet types, separate regional and/or outlet-type elementary aggregates are ideally required for each detailed category of goods and services, each with its own weight. An example might be an elementary aggregate for sliced bread sold in supermarkets in the Northern region. Most elementary aggregate indices are necessarily 'unweighted' averages for the sample of products within the sampled outlets. However, in cases where it is possible to select the sample of outlets from which prices are collected so as to reflect the shares of sales to consumers of the different outlet types covered, self-weighted elementary aggregate indices may be computed. Similarly, if the market shares of the different types of products represented by product types are known, even only approximately, the number of observed products to be priced for each of them can be made proportional to those shares. Estimating weights The outlet and regional dimensions noted above mean that the estimation of weights involves a lot more than just the breakdown of expenditure by types of goods and services, and the number of separately weighted indices composing the overall index depends upon two factors: The degree of detail to which available data permit breakdown of total consumption expenditure in the weight reference-period by type of expenditure, region and outlet type. Whether there is reason to believe that price movements vary between these most detailed categories. How the weights are calculated, and in how much detail, depends upon the availability of information and upon the scope of the index. In the UK the retail price index (RPI) does not relate to the whole of consumption, for the reference population is all private households with the exception of pensioner households that derive at least three-quarters of their total income from state pensions and benefits, and "high income households" whose total household income lies within the top four per cent of all households. The result is that it is difficult to use data sources relating to total consumption by all population groups. For products whose price movements can differ between regions and between different types of outlet: The ideal, rarely realizable in practice, would consist of estimates of expenditure for each detailed consumption category, for each type of outlet, for each region. At the opposite extreme, with no regional data on expenditure totals but only on population (e.g. 24% in the Northern region) and only national estimates for the shares of different outlet types for broad categories of consumption (e.g. 70% of food sold in supermarkets) the weight for sliced bread sold in supermarkets in the Northern region has to be estimated as the share of sliced bread in total consumption × 0.24 × 0.7. The situation in most countries comes somewhere between these two extremes. The point is to make the best use of whatever data are available. The nature of the data used for weighing No firm rules can be suggested on this issue for the simple reason that the available statistical sources differ between countries. However, all countries conduct periodical household-expenditure surveys and all produce breakdowns of consumption expenditure in their national accounts. The expenditure classifications used there may however be different. In particular: Household-expenditure surveys do not cover the expenditures of foreign visitors, though these may be within the scope of a consumer price index. National accounts include imputed rents for owner-occupied dwellings which may not be within the scope of a consumer price index. Even with the necessary adjustments, the national-account estimates and household-expenditure surveys usually diverge. The statistical sources required for regional and outlet-type breakdowns are usually weak. Only a large-sample Household Expenditure survey can provide a regional breakdown. Regional population data are sometimes used for this purpose, but need adjustment to allow for regional differences in living standards and consumption patterns. Statistics of retail sales and market research reports can provide information for estimating outlet-type breakdowns, but the classifications they use rarely correspond to COICOP categories. The increasingly widespread use of bar codes, scanners in shops has meant that detailed cash register printed receipts are provided by shops for an increasing share of retail purchases. This development makes possible improved Household Expenditure surveys, as Statistics Iceland has demonstrated. Survey respondents keeping a diary of their purchases need to record only the total of purchases when itemized receipts were given to them and keep these receipts in a special pocket in the diary. These receipts provide not only a detailed breakdown of purchases but also the name of the outlet. Thus response burden is markedly reduced, accuracy is increased, product description is more specific and point of purchase data are obtained, facilitating the estimation of outlet-type weights. There are only two general principles for the estimation of weights: use all the available information and accept that rough estimates are better than no estimates. Reweighing Ideally, in computing an index, the weights would represent current annual expenditure patterns. In practice, they necessarily reflect past using the most recent data available or, if they are not of high quality, some average of the data for more than one previous year. Some countries have used a three-year average in recognition of the fact that household survey estimates are of poor quality. In some cases, some of the data sources used may not be available annually, in which case some of the weights for lower-level aggregates within higher-level aggregates are based on older data than the higher level weights. Infrequent reweighing saves costs for the national statistical office but delays the introduction into the index of new types of expenditure. For example, subscriptions for Internet service entered index compilation with a considerable time lag in some countries, and account could be taken of digital camera prices between re-weightings only by including some digital cameras in the same elementary aggregate as film cameras. Owner-occupiers and the price index The way in which owner-occupied dwellings should be dealt with in a consumer price index has been, and remains, a subject of heated controversy in many countries. Various approaches have been considered, each with their advantages and disadvantages. The economists' approach Leaving aside the quality of public services, the environment, crime and so forth, and regarding the standard of living as a function of the level and composition of individuals' consumption, this standard depends upon the amount and range of goods and services they consume. These include the service provided by rented accommodation, which can readily be priced, and the similar services yielded by a flat or house owned by the consumer who occupies it. Its cost to a consumer is, according to the economic way of thinking, an "opportunity cost", namely what he or she sacrifices by living in it. This cost, according to many economists, is what should form a component of a consumer price index. Opportunity cost can be looked at in two ways, since there are two alternatives to continuing to live in an owner-occupied dwelling. One – supposing that it is one year's cost that is to be considered – is to sell it, earn interest on the owner's capital thus released, and buy it back a year later, making an allowance for its physical depreciation. This can be called the "alternative cost" approach. The other, the "rental equivalent" approach, is to let it to someone else for the year, in which case the cost is the rent that could be obtained for it. There are practical problems in implementing either of these economists' approaches. Thus, with the alternative cost approach, if house prices are rising fast the cost can be negative and then become sharply positive once house prices start to fall, so such an index would be very volatile. On the other hand, with the rental equivalent approach, there may be difficulty in estimating the movement of rental values of types of property that are not actually rented. If one or other of these measures of the consumption of the services of owner-occupied dwellings is included in consumption, then it must be included in income too, for income equals consumption plus saving. This means that if the movement of incomes is to be compared with the movement of the consumer price index, incomes must be expressed as money income plus this imaginary consumption value. That is logical, but it may not be what users of the index want. Although the argument has been expressed in connection with owner-occupied dwellings, the logic applies equally to all durable consumer goods and services. Furniture, carpets and domestic appliances are not used up soon after purchase in the way that food is. Like dwellings, they yield a consumption service that can continue for years. Furthermore, since strict logic is to be adhered to, there are durable services as well that ought to be treated in the same way; the service consumers derive from appendectomies or crowned teeth continue for a long time. Since estimating values for these components of consumption has not been tackled, economic theorists are torn between their desire for intellectual consistency and their recognition that inclusion of the opportunity cost of the use of durables is impracticable. Spending Another approach is to concentrate on spending. Everyone agrees that repairs and maintenance expenditure of owner-occupied dwellings should be covered in a consumer price index, but the spending approach would include mortgage interest too. This turns out to be quite complicated, conceptually as well as in practice. To explain what is involved, consider a consumer price index computed with reference to 2009 for just one sole consumer who bought her house in 2006, financing half of this sum by raising a mortgage. The problem is to compare how much interest such a consumer would now be paying with the interest that was paid in 2009. Since the aim is to compare like with like, that requires an estimate of how much interest would be paid now in the year 2010 on a similar house bought and 50% mortgage-financed three years ago, in 2007. It does not require an estimate of how much that identical person is paying now on the actual house she bought in 2006, even though that is what personally concerns her now. A consumer price index compares how much it would cost now to do exactly what consumers did in the reference-period with what it cost then. Application of the principle thus requires that the index for our one house owner should reflect the movement of the prices of houses like hers from 2006 to 2007 and the change in interest rates. If she took out a fixed-interest rate mortgage it is the change in interest rates from 2006 to 2007 that counts; if she took out a variable interest mortgage it is the change from 2009 to 2010 that counts. Thus her current index with 1999 as reference-period will stand at more than 100 if house prices or, in the case of a fixed-interest mortgage, interest rates rose between 2006 and 2007. The application of this principle in the owner-occupied dwellings component of a consumer price index is known as the "debt profile" method. It means that the current movement of the index will reflect past changes in dwelling prices and interest rates. Some people regard this as odd. Quite a few countries use the debt profile method, but in doing so most of them behave inconsistently. Consistency would require that the index should also cover the interest on consumer credit instead of the whole price paid for the products bought on credit if it covers mortgage interest payments. Products bought on credit would then be treated in the same way as owner-occupied dwellings. Variants of the debt profile method are employed or have been proposed. One example is to include down payments as well as interest. Another is to correct nominal mortgage rates for changes in dwelling prices or for changes in the rest of the consumer price index to obtain a "real" rate of interest. Also, other methods may be used alongside the debt profile method. Thus several countries include a purely notional cost of depreciation as an additional index component, applying an arbitrarily estimated, or rather guessed, depreciation rate to the value of the stock of owner-occupied dwellings. Finally, one country includes both mortgage interest and purchase prices in its index. Transaction prices The third approach simply treats the acquisition of owner-occupied dwellings in the same way as acquisitions of other durable products are treated. This means: Taking account of the transaction prices agreed; Ignoring whether payments are delayed or are partly financed by borrowing; Leaving out second-hand transactions. Second-hand purchases correspond to sales by other consumers. Thus only new dwellings would be included. Furthermore, expenditure on enlarging or reconstructing an owner-occupied dwelling would be covered, in addition to regular maintenance and repair. Two arguments of an almost theological character are advanced in connection with this transactions approach. One argument is that purchases of new dwellings are treated as 'investment' in the system of national accounts, so should not enter a consumption price index. It is said that this is more than just a matter of terminological uniformity. For example, it may be thought to help understanding and facilitate economic analysis if what is included under the heading of 'consumption' is the same in the consumer price index and in the national income and expenditure accounts. Since these accounts include the equivalent rental value of owner-occupied dwellings, the equivalent rental approach would have to be applied in the consumer price index too. But the national accounts do not apply it to other durables, so the argument demands consistency in one respect but accepts its rejection in another. The other argument is that the prices of new dwellings should exclude that part reflecting the value of the land, since this is an irreproducible and permanent asset that cannot be said to be consumed. This would presumably mean deducting site value from the price of a dwelling, site value presumably being defined as the price the site would fetch at auction if the dwelling were not on it. How this is to be understood in the case of multiple dwellings remains unclear. Confusion The merits of the different approaches are multidimensional, including feasibility, views on the way the index should and would move in particular circumstances, and theoretical properties of the index. Statisticians in a country lacking a good dwelling price index (which is required for all except the rental equivalent method) will go along with a proposal to use such an index only if they can obtain the necessary additional resources that will enable them to compile one. Even obtaining mortgage interest rate data can be a major task in a country with a multitude of mortgage lenders and many types of mortgage. Dislike of the effect upon the behavior of the consumer price index arising from the adoption of some methods can be a powerful, if sometimes unprincipled, argument. Dwelling prices are volatile and so, therefore, would be an index incorporating the current value of a dwelling price sub-index which, in some countries, would have a large weight under the third approach. Furthermore, the weight for owner-occupied dwellings could be altered considerably when reweighting was undertaken. (It could even become negative under the alternative cost approach if weights were estimated for a year during which house prices had been rising steeply). Then, there is the point that a rise in interest rates designed to halt inflation could paradoxically make inflation appear higher if current interest rates showed up in the index. Economists' principles are not acceptable to all; nor is insistence upon consistency between the treatment of owner-occupied dwellings and other durables. Consumer price indices in the United States In the United States several different consumer price indices are routinely computed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). These include the CPI-U (for all urban consumers), CPI-W (for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers), CPI-E (for the elderly), and C-CPI-U (chained CPI for all urban consumers). These are all built over two stages. First, the BLS collects data to estimate 8,018 separate item–area indices reflecting the prices of 211 categories of consumption items in 38 geographical areas. In the second stage, weighted averages are computed of these 8,018 item–area indices. The different indices differ only in the weights applied to the different 8,018 item–area indices. The weights for CPI-U and CPI-W are held constant for 24 months, changing in January of even-numbered years. The weights for C-CPI-U are updated each month to reflecting changes in consumption patterns in the last month. Thus, if people on average eat more chicken and less beef or more apples and fewer oranges than the previous month, that change would be reflected in next month's C-CPI-U. However, it would not be reflected in CPI-U and CPI-W until January of the next even-numbered year. This allows the BLS to compute consumer price indices for each of the designated 38 geographical areas and for aggregates like the Midwest. In January of each year, Social Security recipients receive a cost-of-living adjustment (COLA) "to ensure that the purchasing power of Social Security and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits is not eroded by inflation. It is based on the percentage increase in the Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers (CPI-W)". The use of CPI-W conflicts with this purpose, because the elderly consume substantially more health care goods and services than younger people. In recent years, inflation in health care has substantially exceeded inflation in the rest of the economy. Since the weight on health care in CPI-W is much less than the consumption patterns of the elderly, this COLA does not adequately compensate them for the real increases in the costs of the items they buy. The BLS does track a consumer price index for the elderly (CPI-E). It is not used, in part because the social security trust fund is forecasted to run out of money in roughly 40 years, and using the CPI-E instead of CPI-W would shorten that by roughly five years. The most recent December 2021 CPI reading hit 7%, the highest level in over 40 years. According to methods used in the 1980s CPI is closer to 15%. In response Jerome Powell, chair of the Federal Reserve has begun Quantitative tightening with rate hikes expected to begin in March 2022. History The CPI for various years are listed below with 1982 as the base year: A CPI of 150 means that there was 50% increase in prices, or 50% inflation, since 1982. Chained CPI Former White House Chief of Staff Erskine Bowles and former U.S. Senator Alan K. Simpson suggested a transition to using a "chained CPI" in 2010, when they headed the White House's deficit-reduction commission. They stated that it was a more accurate measure of inflation than the current system and switching from the current system could save the government more than $290 billion over the decade following their report. "The chained CPI is usually 0.25 to 0.30 percentage points lower each year, on average, than the standard CPI measurements". However, the National Active and Retired Federal Employees Associations said that the chained CPI does not account for seniors citizens' health care costs. Robert Reich, former United States Secretary of Labor under President Clinton, noted that typical seniors spend between 20 and 40 percent of their income on health care, far more than most Americans. "Besides, Social Security isn't in serious trouble. The Social Security trust fund is flush for at least two decades. If we want to ensure it's there beyond that, there's an easy fix – just lift the ceiling on income subject to Social Security taxes, which is now $113,700." Replacing the current cost-of-living adjustment calculation with the chained CPI was considered, but not adopted, as part of a deficit-reduction proposal to avert the sequestration cuts, or fiscal cliff, in January 2013, but President Obama included it in his April 2013 budget proposal. Personal consumption expenditures price index Because of some shortcomings of the CPI, notably that it uses static expenditure weighting and it does not account for the substitution effect, the PCEPI is an alternative price index used by the Federal Reserve, among others, to measure inflation. From January 1959 through July 2018, inflation measured by the PCEPI has averaged 3.3%, while it has averaged 3.8% using CPI. See also Consumer price index by country Asset price inflation Core inflation Cost of living index FRED (Federal Reserve Economic Data) Harmonized Index of Consumer Prices (HICP) Hedonic regression Higher Education Price Index Household final consumption expenditure (HFCE) GDP deflator Inflation adjustment Inflation hedge Inflation rate Inflationism List of economics topics Market basket (basket of goods) MIT Billion Prices project Personal consumption expenditures price index (PCEPI) Producer price index (PPI) Quality bias RPIX World inflation crisis References Further reading W. E. Diewert, 1993. "The early history of price index research". Chapter 2 of Essays in Index Number Theory, Volume I, W. E. Diewert and A. O. Nakamura, editors. Elsevier Science Publishers, B.V. External links Consumer Price Index Data Issues of the Consumer Price Index report from the BLS for 1953–present ILO CPI manual – This large manual produced co-operatively by a number of international organizations is the standard work on the methods of compiling consumer price indices and on the underlying economic and statistical theory. 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217155	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celaya	Celaya	Celaya () is a city and its surrounding municipality in the state of Guanajuato, Mexico, located in the southeast quadrant of the state. It is the third most populous city in the state, with a 2005 census population of 310,413. The municipality for which the city serves as municipal seat, had a population of 415,869. The city is located in the geographic center of the municipality, which has an areal extent of 553.18 km2 (213.58 sq mi) and includes many smaller outlying communities, the largest of which are San Miguel Octopan, Rincón de Tamayo and San Juan de la Vega. There are many smaller towns around Celaya including Rincón de Tamayo, Tarimoro, Salvatierra, La Moncada, Panales Jamaica (Cañones), Panales Galera, La Calera, La Estancia, La Noria, Los Fierros, El Acebuche, Cacalote, and Charco Largo. History Celaya was a frontier region between the Purépecha and the Chichimecas. General Álvaro Obregón defeated Pancho Villa in the Battle of Celaya, 1915. Celaya was also the Guanajuato state capital for a short period. An explosion in a gunpowder and fireworks warehouse in September, 1999, killed over 60 people and injured over 300 people. Climate Education Centro Pedagogico de Celaya Colegio Arturo Rosenblueth Colegio Marista Colegio Nuevo Continente Bajío Celaya Campus • Complejo Educativo Ignacio Allende Colegio Mexico Escuela Bilingue Guilford Instituto Andersen Instituto Bilingue Oxford Instituto Británico de Celaya (BIC) Instituto Educativo Rosa G. de Carmona Instituto Kipling Instituto Sir Winston Churchill Instituto Tecnologico de Celaya Instituto Tecnologico de Roque Instituto Universitario del Centro de México (UCEM) Tecnologico de Monterrey Universidad de Celaya Universidad de Guanajuato Universidad de Itesba Universidad Lasallista Benavente Universidad Latina de Mexico Westminster Royal College Attractions Ball of Water The Ball of Water reservoir has been a city icon since 1908; it continues to supply water to portions of downtown. The tank was manufactured in Germany and assembled on site, and is unique in being assembled using rivets rather than welds. It is believed to be the only one of its kind with a spherical shape (it is rumored that there was another similar water ball in Stuttgart, Germany that was destroyed during the Second World War). Traditionally, locals tell visitors that it is filled with cajeta, taking them to visit the "Bola del Agua" on Sundays, the traditional day for visiting the Independencia Lane. A plaque at the base of the water tower features the legend (in Spanish): The work was carried out under the command of German Enrique Schöndube, although it is known that payment for the construction took ten years due to the start of the Mexican Revolution, so it was paid once the new government established. During the Mexican Revolution, Villa's officers thought the hydraulic tower had such a large amount of water that destroying it would drown the population of Celaya. One of Villa's generals ordered his artillery to destroy it. Captain Gustavo Duron, in charge of a 75mm battery, followed the orders but shot around the tower, avoiding it and protecting the monument, as mentioned by local historian Herminio Martínez. The construction resulted in the neglect of the people handing out water at home from the mayor's office called water carriers. Commercial advertising on its surface was allowed for several years to cover the costs of the reservoir, ending on September 8, 1980 when, in celebration of upcoming 410th Anniversary of the Foundation of Celaya, the mayor in charge decreed that the Ball of Water would be a symbol that would represent the city, and the placement of advertisements was banned. Cuisine Celaya is also known for the artisanal production of cajeta, a type of milk candy. Transportation The Celaya Airport had (as of January 22, 2007) commercial flights to Santiago de Querétaro and connections from there to other destinations; these services were dropped in 2008. Celaya lies along the El Paso Spur of the Pan-American Highway which is known locally as Mexican Federal Highway 45. People Marta Sahagún de Fox (b. April 10, 1953), former Mexican First Lady and wife of President Vicente Fox, lived in Celaya and unsuccessfully ran for mayor Miguel Martínez (b. September 29, 1921), Musician, composer and songwriter. Considered the father of the modern mariachi trumpet. Francisco Eduardo Tresguerras (b. October 13, 1759, d. August 3, 1833), Architect and painter. Designed the El Carmen church in Celaya. Joshua Ilika Brenner (b. September 14, 1976) Olympic swimmer Liliana Ibáñez (b. January 30, 1991) Olympic swimmer Raúl Velasco (b. April 24, 1933, d. November 26, 2006) Entertainer and TV Producer. Was the host of the TV program Siempre en Domingo. Octavio Ocampo (b. February 28, 1943) Painter known for his "metamorphosis" style. Mauricio Ochmann (b. November 16, 1977), Actor. Ever Guzmán (b. March 15, 1988), footballer. José Juan Vázquez (b. 14 March 1988), Mexican footballer, who currently plays in Club Leon. David Roberto Bárcena Ríos (26 December 1941 – 22 February 2017) was a Mexican equestrian who competed at five Olympic Games, winning a bronze medial in the Team Event at his fifth Olympics Sister cities Carrboro, North Carolina, United States Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States Guernica, Spain Oaxaca, Mexico Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico See also Club Celaya a football club from the 1950s that was resurrected in 2003 Atlético Celaya a former association football team Auditorio Tresguerras Estadio Miguel Alemán Roman Catholic Diocese of Celaya Immaculate Conception Cathedral, Celaya References Sources Link to tables of population data from Census of 2005 INEGI: Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática Guanajuato Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México External links A casi 100 años de la Bola de Agua (Near the century of "Ball of Water") PODCelaya.com Business Virtual Directory Diócesis de Celaya Domingo Negro Explosion Populated places in Guanajuato Municipalities 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217157	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDP%20deflator	GDP deflator	In economics, the GDP deflator (implicit price deflator) is a measure of the level of prices of all new, domestically produced, final goods and services in an economy in a year. GDP stands for gross domestic product, the total monetary value of all final goods and services produced within the territory of a country over a particular period of time (quarterly or annually). Like the consumer price index (CPI), the GDP deflator is a measure of price inflation/deflation with respect to a specific base year; the GDP deflator of the base year itself is equal to 100. Unlike the CPI, the GDP deflator is not based on a fixed basket of goods and services; the "basket" for the GDP deflator is allowed to change from year to year with people's consumption and investment patterns. Calculation Measurement in national accounts In most systems of national accounts the GDP deflator measures the ratio of nominal (or current-price) GDP to the real (or chain volume) measure of GDP. The formula used to calculate the deflator is: The nominal GDP of a given year is computed using that year's prices, while the real GDP of that year is computed using the base year's prices. The formula implies that dividing the nominal GDP by the real GDP and multiplying it by 100 will give the GDP Deflator, hence "deflating" the nominal GDP into a real measure. It is often useful to consider implicit price deflators for certain subcategories of GDP, such as computer hardware. In this case, it is useful to think of the price deflator as the ratio of the current-year price of a good to its price in some base year. The price in the base year is normalized to 100. For example, for computer hardware, we could define a "unit" to be a computer with a specific level of processing power, memory, hard drive space and so on. A price deflator of 200 means that the current-year price of this computing power is twice its base-year price - price inflation. A price deflator of 50 means that the current-year price is half the base year price - price deflation. This can lead to a situation where official statistics reflect a drop in real prices, even though they nominally have stayed the same. Unlike some price indices (like the CPI), the GDP deflator is not based on a fixed basket of goods and services. The basket is allowed to change with people's consumption and investment patterns. Specifically, for the GDP deflator, the "basket" in each year is the set of all goods that were produced domestically, weighted by the market value of the total consumption of each good. Therefore, new expenditure patterns are allowed to show up in the deflator as people respond to changing prices. The theory behind this approach is that the GDP deflator reflects up to date expenditure patterns. For instance, if the price of chicken increases relative to the price of beef, people may spend more money on beef as a substitute for chicken. In practice, the difference between the deflator and a price index like the Consumer price index (CPI) is often relatively small. On the other hand, with governments in developed countries increasingly utilizing price indexes for everything from fiscal and monetary planning to payments to social program recipients, even small differences between inflation measures can shift budget revenues and expenses by millions or billions of dollars. Pakistan The State Bank of Pakistan reports the GDP deflator and the real GDP. India The GDP deflator is reported by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. It is calculated quarterly and released annually only. United States The GDP and GDP deflator are calculated by the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis. United Kingdom The GDP and GDP deflator series are published by the Office for National Statistics. Canada The GDP and GDP deflator series are published by Statistics Canada. Australia The GDP and GDP deflator are calculated by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Argentina The GDP and GDP deflator are calculated by the INDEC. Japan The GDP and GDP deflator are calculated by the Cabinet Office. Hong Kong The GDP and GDP deflator series are published by the Census and Statistics Department. Nepal The GDP and GDP deflator series are published by the Central Bureau of Statistics. See also Fisher index Etienne Laspeyres Hermann Paasche Chained volume series (of GDP data.) Implicit Price Deflator for Personal Consumption Expenditures (IPD for PCE) Inflation GDP References External links Gross Domestic Product (GDP) deflators: user guide Data OECD GDP deflator data IMF database of country GDP deflators for 1980-2013 Briefing.com: GDP-Adv. 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217158	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton	Compton	Compton may refer to: Places Canada Compton (electoral district), a former Quebec federal electoral district Compton (provincial electoral district), a former Quebec provincial electoral district now part of Mégantic-Compton Compton, Quebec Compton County, Quebec Compton Creek, a tributary of the Adam River on Vancouver Island, British Columbia Compton Island, in the Queen Charlotte Strait region of British Columbia Compton Névé, a névé (icefield) in the Pacific Ranges, British Columbia Compton Glacier, a glacier in the Compton Névé, Pacific Ranges, British Columbia Compton Mountain, a mountain in the Compton Névé, Pacific Ranges, British Columbia England Compton, Berkshire Compton, Derbyshire, a location Compton, Plymouth, Devon Compton, South Hams, a location Compton, Test Valley, a location Compton, Hampshire, in Winchester district Compton, Staffordshire, a location Compton, Guildford, Surrey Compton, Waverley, Surrey (near Farnham) Compton, West Sussex Compton, West Yorkshire, a former village Compton, Wiltshire Compton, Wolverhampton, West Midlands United States Compton, Arkansas, an unincorporated community Compton, California, a city south-southeast of downtown Los Angeles Compton, Illinois, a village Compton, Maryland, an unincorporated community Compton, Virginia, an unincorporated community Compton Township, Otter Tail County, Minnesota Music Compton (album), a 2015 album by Dr. Dre "Compton", a song by Kendrick Lamar from Good Kid, M.A.A.D City "Compton", a song by The Game from Doctor's Advocate Science and technology Compton (crater), a lunar crater Compton (software), an X composite manager; third-degree fork of Xcompmgr Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, a space observatory operational in Earth orbit from 1991 to 2000 Compton Limestone, a geologic unit in Missouri Compton scattering, an effect observed when photons interact with electrons Compton wavelength, a quantum mechanical property of a particle Other uses Compton (surname), a surname (including a list of people with the name) Compton (Trappe, Maryland), a home Compton Petroleum, a petroleum exploration company based in Canada See also	[ 0.19353771209716797, 0.15585966408252716, -0.19491389393806458, 0.134785458445549, -0.16582274436950684, 0.8294955492019653, 0.37023964524269104, -0.08938130736351013, -0.17465294897556305, -0.37827664613723755, -0.23944057524204254, -0.1342003047466278, -0.19091679155826569, 0.2580183744430542, -0.35869160294532776, 0.8138355612754822, 0.2539418637752533, 0.2992814779281616, -0.04761264845728874, -0.4674147963523865, 0.3241671621799469, -0.3316624164581299, 0.39688852429389954, 0.040318865329027176, -0.06849554926156998, 0.24820013344287872, 0.7469233274459839, 0.366277277469635, -0.06344618648290634, 0.9153472781181335, -0.45656639337539673, 0.6019383668899536, 0.01145416684448719, -0.7959876656532288, 0.1756860315799713, -0.13901133835315704, -0.09431268274784088, 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217160	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haley%20Barbour	Haley Barbour	Haley Reeves Barbour (born October 22, 1947) is an American attorney, politician, and lobbyist who served as the 63rd Governor of Mississippi from 2004 to 2012. A member of the Republican Party, he served as chairman of the Republican National Committee from 1993 to 1997. Born in Yazoo City, Mississippi, Barbour graduated from the University of Mississippi with undergraduate and law degrees, where he was a member of Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity. Barbour was an active Republican operative during the 1970s and 1980s, and he is often credited with building significant Republican infrastructure in Mississippi during an era when it was still dominated by Southern Democrats. He was the Republican nominee for U.S. Senate in 1982, but lost to incumbent Democrat John C. Stennis. In 2003, Barbour became the second Republican governor of Mississippi since Reconstruction when he defeated Democratic incumbent Ronnie Musgrove. As governor he oversaw his state's responses to Hurricane Katrina and the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the state's two most damaging environmental disasters since the 1927 Mississippi River floods. Barbour was expected to be a candidate for President in 2012, but announced he would not run in April 2011. Since retiring as governor, Barbour has resumed lobbying as a senior partner at BGR Group, which he co-founded in 1991. He has been described as "one of Washington's all-time mega-lobbyists". His clients have often included foreign governments, oil, and tobacco companies. Barbour currently co-chairs the Immigration Task Force at the Bipartisan Policy Center. Early years Barbour was born in Yazoo City, Mississippi, where he was raised as the youngest of three sons of Grace LeFlore (née Johnson) and Jeptha Fowlkes Barbour, Jr. Haley's father, a lawyer, died when Barbour was two years old. Barbour's father was a Circuit Judge who had an inmate, Leon Turner, assist him after Judge Barbour became ill. As governor, Haley later gave Turner, who had helped raise him, a posthumous pardon in the closing days of his administration. He enrolled at the University of Mississippi School of Law, receiving a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1972. Subsequently, Barbour joined his father's old law firm in Yazoo City. He was also a law partner of his cousin, William H. Barbour Jr., who later became a federal district judge. Early political career Barbour soon became prominent within the Republican party running Gerald Ford's 1976 presidential campaign in the Southeast. He also worked on the campaign of former Texas Governor John Connally, who had become a Republican, for president in 1980. In 1982 Barbour was the Republican nominee for the U.S. Senate election in Mississippi, but was defeated by longtime incumbent John C. Stennis, a conservative Democrat, 64% to 36%, despite an endorsement by President Ronald Reagan. During the campaign, The New York Times reported that a Barbour aide complained about "coons" at a campaign event. Barbour, embarrassed that the comment was overheard by a reporter, told the aide that he would be "reincarnated as a watermelon and placed at the mercy of blacks" if he continued making racist comments. Barbour later served as a political aide in the Reagan Administration and worked on the 1988 presidential campaign of George H. W. Bush. Before being elected governor of Mississippi, Barbour "had a long career on the national stage" and was "well-known as a Republican operative since the Reagan years". Lobbying career Barbour has been described as "one of Washington's all-time mega-lobbyists". He "was a wealthy K Street lobbyist for giant corporations such as RJ Reynolds, Philip Morris, Amgen, Microsoft, United Health, Southern Company, and many others." In 1991, Barbour helped found the lobbying group now known as BGR Group, a Washington, D.C.-based lobbying firm, with Ed Rogers, a lawyer who formerly worked in the George H. W. Bush administration. In 1994, Lanny Griffith (also a former Bush administration appointee) joined the firm. In 1998, Fortune magazine named Barbour Griffith & Rogers as the second-most-powerful lobbying firm in America. In 2001, after the inauguration of George W. Bush, Fortune called it the most powerful. The firm "is employed by several foreign countries, as well as oil and cigarette companies". Its role in advocating on behalf of the tobacco industry has been particularly prominent. BGR also "lobbied on behalf of the Embassy of Mexico in 2001 to promote a bill related to Section 245(i) of the Immigration and Nationality Act. This provision would have provided a path to citizenship for illegal immigrants in the United States, through family connections or job skills, without a requirement that they return to their home country for the requisite 3-10 years. This is what's often referred to as 'amnesty.'" "As part of that work, Barbour's firm arranged meetings and briefings with 'Senators, members of Congress and their staffs, as well as Executive Branch Officials in the White House, National Security Council, State Department, and Immigration & Naturalization Service'. Barbour's firm charged Mexico $35,000 a month, plus expenses." As of 2010, the firm remained one of DC's top 25, but had seen revenues drop both in 2009 and in 2010. As of 2011, Barbour continued to "collect payments from BGR through a blind trust, which was recently valued at $3.3 million". In early 2014, Barbour and his nephew, Henry Barbour, formed a Super PAC named Mississippi Conservatives, which supported the (successful) reelection campaign of Senator Thad Cochran. RNC chairman In 1993, Barbour became chairman of the Republican National Committee (RNC). In 1994, during his tenure as RNC chair, Republicans captured both houses of the United States Congress, taking the House of Representatives for the first time in forty years. In 1997, Barbour retired from his position as chairman of the RNC. Governor of Mississippi 2003 campaign After two decades in Washington, D.C., Barbour announced his intention to run for governor of Mississippi in 2003. On August 5, 2003, Barbour won the Republican gubernatorial primary over Canton trial attorney Mitch Tyner. Barbour's campaign manager was his nephew Henry Barbour. During the campaign, a controversy arose when Barbour chose to speak at the Blackhawk Rally, a fundraiser for the Blackhawk "council school" in Blackhawk, Mississippi. Such "council schools", also referred to in Mississippi lexicon as "academies", were established by the White Citizens' Council movement in reaction to the demands for racial integration by the Civil Rights Movement. The Blackhawk rally was hosted by the Council of Conservative Citizens (CCC). A photograph of Barbour with CCC members appeared on the CCC webpage, and some commentators and pundits demanded that Barbour ask for his picture to be removed from the site, but Barbour refused. Barbour stated that "Once you start down the slippery slope of saying, 'That person can't be for me,' then where do you stop? ... I don't care who has my picture. My picture's in the public domain." Barbour's Democratic opponent, then-governor Ronnie Musgrove, declined to be critical, stating that he had also attended Blackhawk rallies in the past, and would have done so that year except for a scheduling conflict. Historically, both Democrats and Republicans have participated in Blackhawk rallies. Barbour defeated incumbent Democrat Ronnie Musgrove in the general election on November 4, 2003, with 53 percent of the vote to Musgrove's 46 percent. Barbour became just the second Republican governor elected in Mississippi since Reconstruction, the first being Kirk Fordice. Barbour took office in January 2004. Fiscal matters Barbour has been praised for translating his lobbying skills into success at winning over a legislature dominated by Democrats. Barbour has called several special legislative sessions to force an issue. Writing for Reason magazine in February 2011, Damon Root expressed the opinion that Barbour supports farm subsidies, corporate welfare, and eminent domain. When he took office, the state of Mississippi had run a $709 million budget deficit for the 2004 fiscal year. With bipartisan support, and without raising taxes, Barbour implemented a plan called Operation: Streamline to cut the budget deficit in half. He accomplished this largely by reducing spending on social services, most notably Medicaid; the 2005 budget drastically reduced coverage for 65,000 individuals classified as Poverty-Level Aged and Disabled (PLAD), most of whom qualified for the federal Medicare program, and also significantly limited prescription drug coverage. However, the same budget increased the percentage of Medicaid prescriptions that are for generic drugs. In 2005, the state was budgeted to spend a total of $130 million less on Medicaid than in the previous year. This trend continued in the state budget for the 2006 fiscal year. After a long special session, the legislature approved a budget that featured more social service cuts but also increased educational spending. With tax revenues higher than expected during the 2006 fiscal year, due in large part to increased sales tax revenues in the wake of Hurricane Katrina, the state achieved its first balanced budget in years. In the 2008 fiscal year budget, for the first time since its enactment in 1997, the state fully funded the Mississippi Adequate Education Program. Building on a 2002 tort reform bill passed by his predecessor, Barbour also introduced a new tort reform measure that has been described as one of the strictest in the nation. Barbour rarely made a speech during his gubernatorial campaign without mentioning this subject and was able to convert political support into law, overcoming the resistance of House Democratic leaders, who argued that further legislation would disenfranchise people with legitimate complaints against corporations. Barbour then embarked on a "tort tour" to encourage other states to follow Mississippi's lead. "We've gone from being labeled as a judicial hellhole and the center of jackpot justice to a state that now has model legislation," commented Charlie Ross, the chair of the Mississippi Senate's Judiciary Committee. The effectiveness of Barbour's tort reform efforts has been questioned. According to conservative journalist Timothy Carney, he "touts job growth down in Mississippi under his governing, and some of that is due to tort reform, but some of it is due to rank favoritism and special-interest deals more akin to Obama than Reagan — for instance, subsidies for a biofuels plant." Through his entire terms, Barbour's Commissioner of Corrections was Chris Epps, who had been appointed on August 30, 2002 by Democratic Governor Ronnie Musgrove. Republican governors Barbour and Phil Bryant reappointed Epps on January 13, 2004 and January 11, 2012, respectively. On November 6, 2014, it was revealed by federal prosecutors in the FBI's Operation Mississippi Hustle sting that Epps and a confederate, former Republican state House member Cecil McCrory, had taken bribes from many for-profit prison operators, consultants, vendors and subcontractors for other prisoner services. The amounts Epps personally received were estimated to be at least $1.47 million in bribes for steering what Assistant US Attorney LaMarca estimated was $800 million in contracts between 2006 and 2014. Epps cooperated with the prosecution and wore a wire for a substantial amount of time before their indictments were made public. Before federal Judge Henry Travillion Wingate pronounced his sentence in July 2017, Epps asked forgiveness of the many he had harmed. He said, "It comes back to greed. I made some stupid mistakes I will regret for the rest of my life." Judge Wingate characterized Epps' conduct as, "staggering." He continued, "Mississippi is still in shock. It was an act of betrayal. He has bruised the image of Mississippi and given joy to many of the inmates he’s overseen who can now say the head of the state prison system was just as corrupt as any of them." He sentenced Epps to over 19 years in federal prison. On February 8, 2017, Mississippi Attorney General Jim Hood, a Democrat, announced he had filed civil cases against 15 corporations and individuals who had engaged in contracts with the MDOC and Epps, seeking damages and punitive damages. He stated, "The state of Mississippi has been defrauded through a pattern of bribery, kickbacks, misrepresentations, fraud, concealment, money laundering and other wrongful conduct." He continued, "These individuals and corporations that benefited by stealing from taxpayers must not only pay the state's losses, but state law requires that they must also forfeit and return the entire amount of the contracts paid by the state. We are also seeking punitive damages to punish these conspirators and to deter those who might consider giving or receiving kickbacks in the future." Defendants in the bribery cases included Management & Training Corporation; The GEO Group, Inc.; Cornell Companies, Inc.; Wexford Health Sources, Inc.; Global Tel*Link Corporation; Health Assurance, LLC; Keefe Commissary Network, LLC of St. Louis; Sentinel Offender Services, L.L.C.; AJA Management & Technical Services, Inc., and the Branan Medical Corporation; On May 18, 2017, Hood announced that the state had quickly settled the first suit for two million dollars. The defendant was Alere Incorporated, which had purchased the Branan Medical Corporation. Ten lawsuits in bribery schemes remained pending. Those have accused at least 10 individuals and 11 out-of-state corporations of using so-called "consultants" to gain more than $800 million in Mississippi prison contracts. On January 24, 2019, Hood announced his actions had recovered $27 million from those vendors against which he had filed suits. Management and Training Corporation paid $5.2 million. GEO Group paid $4.6 million, with the named defendant being Cornell Companies, which had been merged with GEO in 2010. Wexford Health Sources paid $4 million. Keefe Commissary Network paid $3.1 million. $3.1 million was paid by C.N.W. Construction Company. $750,000 was paid by CGL Facility Management, which provides maintenance services. $32,188 was received from AdminPros LLC, a Medicaid billing service. Insurance agent Guy E. "Butch" Evans paid $100,000. Hurricane Katrina response The evacuation order for Hurricane Katrina was issued by local officials more than 24 hours before it hit, and Mississippi activated 750 National Guard troops as of August 29, the day of the hurricane. On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck Mississippi's coast, killing 231 people, devastating the state's $2.7 billion-a-year casino industry and leaving tens of thousands homeless. (see Effect of Hurricane Katrina on Mississippi). Barbour's response was characterized by a concerted effort at evacuation, tough-minded talk on looters and an unwillingness to blame the federal government. His response was likened, favorably, to that of Rudy Giuliani in the wake of the September 11 attacks. Barbour credited the countless government workers who helped southern Mississippi to cope with the hurricane. Barbour was praised by the coast's citizens as a strong leader who can communicate calmly to the public, and provide "a central decision-making point for when things get balled up or go sideways, which they do", as Barbour says. While the reconstruction process does not dictate how localities should rebuild, Barbour has touted New Urbanist principles in constructing more compact communities. "They have the chance to build some things very differently," he says. "The goal is to build the coast back like it can be, rather than simply like it was." Barbour has been accused by Bloomberg News of personally profiting from Hurricane Katrina recovery. Barbour is an owner of the parent company of lobbying firm Barbour Griffith & Rogers Inc., and he receives a pension and profit-sharing plan benefits from it. The lobbying firm has lobbied the state to give recovery contracts to its clients. Some of the proceeds of the firm's lobbying activities are deposited into Barbour's investment account. According to Barbour's attorney, a blind trust executed in 2004 prevents Barbour knowing the composition of his investments in order to eliminate any conflicts of interest. Tobacco matters Barbour's taxation policies have come under scrutiny. The "Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids" insinuated that Barbour's lobbying-era affinity with the tobacco industry may also explain his 2006 proposal to dismantle Mississippi's controversial youth-tobacco-prevention program, called The Partnership for a Healthy Mississippi, although the political motives of this group's leadership has been called into question by Barbour supporters. Barbour has also received criticism from some Mississippi Democrats for his refusal to approve a bill to increase the cigarette tax and decrease the grocery tax passed by the Mississippi House of Representatives during his first term as governor. Mississippi currently has the third-lowest cigarette tax and the highest grocery tax—while being the poorest state in the country. He stated that the lack of revenue generated after the tax swap would quite possibly result in bankrupting the state government, which was already fragile due to the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina. The House of Representatives could produce no figures to dispute this assertion. Also, in his successful 2004 campaign, Barbour ran on the platform that he would veto any tax increase. In May 2009, Barbour followed the State Tax Commission's recommendation and signed into law the state's first increase since 1985, from 18 cents to 68 cents per pack. The tax is estimated to generate more than $113 million for the year that begins July 1, 2009. 2007 re-election Barbour announced on February 8, 2007, that he would seek a second term as Governor of Mississippi. Barbour announced the beginning of his re-election campaign at a series of meetings across the state on February 12, 2007. During his campaign, Barbour signed the Americans for Tax Reform "Taxpayer Protection Pledge" and vowed not to institute any new taxes or raise any existing ones. Barbour defeated Frederick Jones in the Republican primary on August 7 and Democrat John Arthur Eaves, Jr. in the November general election. Race and integration Barbour has faced considerable "in-state criticism for his approach to racial issues". Mississippi state Representative Willie Perkins has "compared Barbour to the southern Democrats who preceded him", saying: "As far as I'm concerned, he has never done anything as a governor or a citizen to distinguish himself from the old Democrats who fought tooth and nail to preserve segregation." In 2006, he declined to posthumously pardon Clyde Kennard, an African-American civil rights pioneer, after evidence was presented that Kennard had been falsely convicted of burglary in Hattiesburg, Mississippi in 1960. Instead, Barbour designated a Clyde Kennard Day, calling for remembrance of Kennard's "determination, the injustices he suffered, and his significant role in the history of the civil rights movement in Mississippi". Barbour subsequently joined in a petition for a court rehearing of the case that resulted in the original conviction being thrown out. Barbour proved instrumental in winning state legislative support for the Mississippi Civil Rights Museum. Legislation to fund a state museum had been introduced every year since 2000, but died for various reasons. In November 2006, Barbour proposed creating a state commission to develop plans for the Mississippi Civil Rights Museum. In his "State of the State" address on January 16, 2007, Barbour said the museum was "overdue, and it needs doing", The proposal won legislative approval, and a site for the museum was selected in March 2008. The project then stalled for three years, however, with museum backers listing lack of direction from the governor's office and Barbour's refusal to spend $500,000 in museum planning funds as part of the reason why. Barbour also declined to name a museum commission to oversee the final push for funding and construction. Barbour announced in late 2010 that he would run for president of the United States. Then in an interview with The Weekly Standard neoconservative newsmagazine, Barbour appeared to minimize the oppressiveness of racial intolerance in Mississippi when he characterized the White Citizens' Council in his hometown of Yazoo City as merely "an organization of town leaders" that kept more radical anti-integrationist elements (like the Ku Klux Klan) at bay. In what many political observers felt was an attempt to disassociate himself from Mississippi's racially intolerant past as well as to dampen the criticism over his remarks, Barbour again declared his complete support for construction of the Mississippi Civil Rights Museum. The museum secured $20 million in funding from the Mississippi Legislature in April 2011 after Barbour personally testified in favor of its funding. During an April 11, 2010, appearance on CNN, host Candy Crowley asked if it had been insensitive for Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell to omit mentioning slavery in a proposed recognition of Confederate History Month. Barbour replied, "To me, it's a sort of feeling that it's a nit, that it is not significant, that it's not a—it's trying to make a big deal out of something doesn't amount to diddly." Barbour continued, "I don't know what you would say about slavery ... but anybody that thinks that you have to explain to people that slavery is a bad thing, I think that goes without saying." In December 2010, Barbour was interviewed by The Weekly Standard magazine. Asked about coming of age in Yazoo City during the civil rights era, he told the interviewer regarding growing up there, "I just don't remember it as being that bad." Barbour then credited the White Citizens' Council for keeping the KKK out of Yazoo City and ensuring the peaceful integration of its schools. Barbour dismissed comparisons between the White Citizens' Councils and the KKK, and referred to the Councils as "an organization of town leaders". Barbour continued in his defense of the Councils, saying, "In Yazoo City they passed a resolution that said anybody who started a chapter of the Klan would get their ass run out of town. If you had a job, you'd lose it. If you had a store, they'd see nobody shopped there. We didn't have a problem with the Klan in Yazoo City." Barbour's statement did not address the role of the white supremacist group in publicly naming and blacklisting individuals who petitioned for educational integration and how it used political pressure and violence to force African-American residents to move. This led to a considerable outcry in which critics such as Rachel Maddow accused Barbour of whitewashing history. In response to criticism, Barbour issued a statement declaring Citizens' Councils to be "indefensible." In what was speculated to be an attempt at damage control just days after the interview, Barbour suspended the prison sentences of Jamie and Gladys Scott, two African American women who each received two life sentences resulting from a 1993 mugging in which the two women allegedly conspired to steal what amounted to $11. Barbour has denied that there was any connection between the suspension of the Scott sisters' prison sentence and the controversy surrounding his Weekly Standard interview. Jamie Scott suffered from kidney failure while in prison, and requires a donated organ, which her sister Gladys had volunteered to provide. Barbour's decision to release the Scott sisters, however, was contingent upon her consent for the promised organ donation by Gladys Scott, which critics argued amounted to coercion and raises questions of medical ethics. The sisters were released in 2011, but by 2018 the transplant had not occurred because of other medical conditions suffered by the intended recipient. Other second term activities In September 2008, some Democrats accused Barbour of trying to influence the outcome of the 2008 Senate race by placing the candidates at the bottom of the ballot. Since Mississippi electoral law mandates the placing of federal elections at the top of the ballot, Barbour was ordered by a circuit court to comply with the ballot laws. In April 2009, Barbour joined a conservative policy group to discuss Republican policies in town hall meetings. The group also included former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney, former Florida Governor Jeb Bush, then-Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal, and Senator John McCain. On June 24, 2009, Barbour assumed the chairmanship of the Republican Governors Association, succeeding South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford. On October 29, 2009, Barbour endorsed Texas Governor Rick Perry for the Texas Republican gubernatorial nomination. On March 3, 2010, Barbour and his wife participated in events with First Lady Michelle Obama, promoting the Let's Move! anti-obesity campaign. In March 2011, Barbour drew criticism for his role in allowing the release of a convicted killer eight years into a 20-year sentence. In prior years, Barbour had used his powers as governor to release five other killers. 2012 pardons On his last day as governor in 2012, Barbour granted pardons, clemency, or early release to 203 people convicted of crimes, including murder, rape and armed robbery. Barbour's actions included 19 people convicted of murder. Pardons by governors are not uncommon; the issue in this case is the number of pardons compared to former governors. Previous Governor Ronnie Musgrove, issued only one pardon, for a man convicted of marijuana possession; Governor Kirk Fordice, who preceded Musgrove, issued only two full pardons for convicted murderers. Harry Bostick, whom Barbour pardoned, had been convicted of DUI three times, and at the time of his pardon was being held for (and subsequently pleaded guilty to) the DUI killing of Charity Smith. On January 11, a Mississippi judge temporarily blocked the release of 21 inmates who had been given pardons or medical release. Attorney General Jim Hood argued the Mississippi Constitution says any inmate seeking a pardon must publish their intentions at least 30 days prior to the hearing in a newspaper in or near the county where the person was convicted. Hood also criticized Barbour for failing to notify or speak with the families of victims before granting the pardons. He responded to criticism of his actions, saying that 90% of those involved had already been released from prison, many years earlier; he acted in order to allow them to find employment, get professional licenses, vote and hunt. He also stated that in 90% of the cases his decision was based on recommendations of the parole board. An article in The New York Times said that a disproportionate number of pardons were granted to applicants from wealthy families and those with personal or political connections, a situation also observed in the pardon systems of other states. On March 8, 2012, the Mississippi Supreme Court upheld the pardons, which had been challenged based on the argument that many of them did not follow a requirement in the state constitution to publish notices in newspapers for 30 days. The Court wrote "we are compelled to hold that – in each of the cases before us – it fell to the governor alone to decide whether the Constitution's publication requirement was met." The court also said it could not overturn the pardons because of the constitution's separation of powers of the different branches of government. Possible 2012 presidential campaign After he visited Iowa in 2009, there was speculation that Barbour might run for the Republican nomination for U.S. President in 2012. An advisor of Barbour stated, "When he surveys what most Republicans consider to be a weak field, he sees no reason he couldn't easily beat them. He's a better strategist and fundraiser than any other candidate currently considering running—and just as good on television and in debates." While considering a potential run, Barbour stated forthrightly in February 2011, "I'm a lobbyist", and said that his K Street past prepared him for the job. Many commentators were skeptical of Barbour's chances in 2012. David Broder of The Washington Post wrote that "several others would have to stumble before he could get a serious consideration." Statistician Nate Silver argued that "Barbour may have difficulty appealing to voters outside the South, especially after his recent comments about the civil rights era." Salon.com noted that "Barbour has some serious baggage ... he's lobbied on behalf of the Mexican government for amnesty. There's also the issue of his freighted racial history, and whatever pragmatic concerns it raises for November-minded Republicans." Timothy Carney, reflecting on Barbour's history as a lobbyist, concluded: "If the Tea Party still has some wind, it's hard to see how Barbour gets anywhere near the GOP nomination." On April 25, 2011, Barbour announced that he would not run for president in 2012. Post-gubernatorial career After leaving office as governor, Barbour joined Butler Snow, a Jackson, Mississippi law firm (together with his former Chief of Staff Paul Hurst); re-joined lobbying firm BGR Group; and became a client of speakers' bureau Leading Authorities. At a Christian Science Monitor breakfast in June 2012, Barbour suggested that the Republican Party should take a more moderate approach to certain elements of its platform. He suggested barring corporations and unions from making direct campaign contributions, expressed satisfaction with Mitt Romney's moderate brand of Republicanism, and suggested that the party should soften its stance on illegal immigration and reach out to Latino voters: "We need a secure border for lots of reasons, and then we need to recognize that we're not going to deport 12 million people and we shouldn't." During a private Crossroads fundraiser in Tampa in 2012, Barbour said, of the planned keynote address by New Jersey Governor Chris Christie at the 2012 Republican National Convention, "I would love for Christie to put a hot poker to Obama's butt..." He was criticized by some online commentators for the alleged racism of these remarks. He later apologized for his statement. Barbour was stopped with a loaded handgun in a briefcase by TSA security at the Medgar Evers airport in Jackson on January 2, 2018 as he was boarding a flight for Washington, D.C.; he was briefly detained by airport police and said he would pay the associated fine. The governor said he forgot he had the gun there after an employee had removed it from his car days before. Public image Barbour maintained a positive approval rating in his state during periods when he was governor. A July 2010 Rasmussen Reports poll found that Barbour had a 70% approval rating in Mississippi. Awards and honors In 2009, Barbour was awarded the Honorary Patronage of the University Philosophical Society, Trinity College, Dublin. The Mississippi Emergency Management Agency headquarters building in Pearl, MS was named in his honor on January 5, 2012. On October 18, 2012, The Center for Manufacturing Excellence (CME) at the University of Mississippi in Oxford, Mississippi was named in his honor. References External links \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1947 births American lobbyists American Presbyterians Christians from Mississippi Governors of Mississippi Living people Mississippi lawyers Mississippi Republicans People from Yazoo City, Mississippi Republican National Committee chairs Republican Party state governors of the United States University of Mississippi School of Law alumni	[ -0.6831812262535095, 0.19727325439453125, -0.23609882593154907, -0.5150735974311829, 0.3751608431339264, 0.7028062343597412, 0.7288095951080322, 0.026710225269198418, -0.8194422125816345, 0.010198165662586689, 0.07503964751958847, 0.7224504947662354, -0.5263977646827698, 0.6720134019851685, 0.1487976461648941, 0.6739767789840698, 0.3954070508480072, -0.161864772439003, -0.15355513989925385, -0.29978299140930176, -0.2730787694454193, 0.1024407371878624, 0.250599205493927, -0.2043256312608719, -0.39670124650001526, 0.026490945369005203, -0.005736354272812605, 0.018106650561094284, 0.0011238839942961931, 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217170	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson%20State%20University	Jackson State University	Jackson State University (Jackson State or JSU) is a public historically Black university in Jackson, Mississippi. It is one of the largest HBCUs in the United States and the fourth largest university in Mississippi in terms of student enrollment. The university is a member of the Thurgood Marshall College Fund and classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". Jackson State University's athletic teams, the Tigers, participate in NCAA Division I athletics as a member of the Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC). The university is also the home of the Sonic Boom of the South, a marching band founded in the 1940s. Their accompanying danceline, the Prancing J-Settes, are well known for their unique style of dance, known as J-Setting. History Jackson State University developed from Natchez Seminary, founded October 23, 1877 in Natchez, Mississippi. The seminary was affiliated with the American Baptist Home Mission Society of New York, who established it "for the moral, religious, and intellectual improvement of Christian leaders of the colored people of Mississippi and the neighboring states". In 1883, the school changed its name to Jackson College and moved from Natchez to a site in Jackson, the capital. Today that site serves as the campus of Millsaps College. Jackson College moved to its current location early in the 20th century, where it developed into a full state university. In 1934, during the Great Depression, The Baptist Society withdrew financial support. The school became a state-supported public institution in 1940, known as the Mississippi Negro Training School. The name has since been changed to express development: Jackson College for Negro Teachers (1944). After desegregation, Jackson State College (1967); with the addition of graduate programs and expanded curriculum, Jackson State University (1974). 1970 student killings Many students at Jackson State College became active in the civil rights movement. Work to gain integrated practice and social justice continued after civil rights legislation was passed in the mid 1960s. During an on-campus protest on May 14, 1970, two students were killed by police gunfire. An additional 12 students were injured by gunfire during the clash. A dormitory still bears the bullet marks fired on campus that day. Campuses The main campus contains over 50 academic and administrative buildings on . It is located at 1400 John R. Lynch Street between Prentiss and Dalton Streets. Ayer Hall was constructed in 1903 and is the oldest structure on the main campus. It was named in honor of the first president of the institution, Charles Ayer. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977. Green-Gibb Pedestrian Walkway was named in honor of the two young men who died in the Jackson State shooting in 1970. As a result of the landmark "Ayers Settlement" in 2002, the university, along with the other two public HBCUs in the state, has completed extensive renovations and upgrades to campus. Jackson State has satellite campuses throughout the Jackson Metropolitan area: Universities Center (Ridgewood Road) Madison campus Holmes campus Mississippi E-Center Downtown (100 Capitol Street) Organization and administration Governance The board of trustees is the constitutional governing body of the Mississippi State Institutions of Higher Learning. This body appoints the President of the university. There are 575 faculty and 1,431 staff, of which 54% are tenured, teaching approximately 7,000 undergraduate and graduate students. JSU presidents Interim presidents excluded 1877–1894: Dr. Charles Ayer 1894–1911: Dr. Luther G. Barrett 1911–1927: Dr. Zachary T. Hubert 1927–1940: Dr. B. Baldwin Dansby 1940–1967: Dr. Jacob L. Reddix 1967–1984: Dr. John A. Peoples, Jr. 1984–1991: Dr. James A. Hefner 1992–1999: Dr. James E. Lyons Sr. 2000–2010: Dr. Ronald Mason, Jr. 2011–2016: Dr. Carolyn W. Meyers 2017–2020: Dr. William B. Bynum 2020–present: Thomas Hudson, JD Academics JSU colleges and schools include: College of Business College of Education and Human Development College of Liberal Arts College of Health Sciences College of Science, Engineering and Technology W.E.B. Du Bois – Maria Luisa Alvarez Harvey Honors College School of Life Long Learning Teaching and learning In 2015, JSU became the first university in Mississippi approved by the legislature to establish a School of Public Health which is housed under the College of Health Sciences. JSU is the only university in Mississippi to earn two consecutive "Apple Distinguished School" distinctions. Apple Inc. biennially acknowledges schools that uniquely incorporate technology into its curriculum. Since 2012, Jackson State University has provided all first-time, full-time freshmen brand new iPads to increase technology usage on campus. JSU is the first and only HBCU in Mississippi to support a bachelor's and master's level engineering program. JSU is one of only two universities in Mississippi with a comprehensive meteorology undergraduate level degree program. The W.E.B. Du Bois – Maria Luisa Alvarez Harvey Honors College is a selective interdisciplinary college at the university that provides a unique academic experience for the most high-achieving undergraduate students. Military Science Tiger Battalion, the university's Army ROTC program is the host US Army ROTC program for Belhaven College, Delta State University, Hinds Community College, Millsaps College, Mississippi College, Mississippi College School of Law, Mississippi Valley State University, Tougaloo College, and University of Mississippi Medical Center's School of Nursing. Air Force Detachment 006 is the Air Force ROTC Component for the Jackson metropolitan area. Hosted at Jackson State, it also serves students from Belhaven University, Millsaps College, Mississippi College and Tougaloo College. Athletics Jackson State is a member of the Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) and the Southwestern Athletic Conference. Currently, the university fields teams in basketball, track and field, cross country, baseball, softball, golf, tennis, soccer, bowling, volleyball, and football. The university's mascot is the Tiger, and the teams are sometimes referred to as the "Blue Bengals." The Tiger men's football team has a heralded history, winning and sharing 16 SWAC titles, most recent in 2021. Its most famous alumni includes Pro Football Hall of Famers Lem Barney, Jackie Slater and Walter Payton, and former Jacksonville Jaguars wide receiver Jimmy Smith. JSU participates in a number of notable football games with rival colleges. These include: Southern Heritage Classic – played against Tennessee State University, in Memphis, Tennessee, at the Liberty Bowl Jackson State–Southern University rivalry – played on a rotating home-and-home schedule Soul Bowl (formerly Capital City Classic) – played against Alcorn State University on a rotating home-and-home schedule Sonic Boom of the South The marching band began in the 1940s at what was then Jackson State College, under the directorship of Frederick D. Hall, who had directed a band at the college as early as the 1920s, in addition to the chorus and orchestra. It was initially made up of students from Jackson College and Lanier High School. Founded as the Jackson State University Marching Band, the name "Sonic Boom of the South" was adopted by the school in 1971, after having been suggested by band members. The first full-time band director, William W. Davis, was appointed in 1948, replacing Charles Saulsburg, who had been director since 1947. Davis had previously played trumpet in Cab Calloway's band, and Calloway's musical style and showmanship influenced Davis's conceptualization of the marching band. The band at this time had around 20 members, increasing to 88 in 1963. Davis retired as director in 1971, but remained the chief arranger for the band. He was replaced by Harold J. Haughton. Haughton was instrumental in the creation of the Prancing J-Settes, the band's accompanying danceline. Student life Student body As of fall 2017, 75% of Jackson State's student community was from Mississippi, with the majority from Hinds County and Madison County. The top three feeder states were Illinois (419 students), Louisiana (227), and Tennessee (192). China accounted for the highest number of international students on campus. 90% of students identified as Black, 6% identified as white, and 4% identified with various race categories. 34% of students were male, and 66% of students were female. Student organizations Jackson State University offers over 100 registered student organizations. There are academic, residential, religious, Greek, and special interest groups established to serve the diverse interests of JSU's student community. All student organizations are governed under the Student Affairs division. National Pan Hellenic Council Jackson State University's National Pan Hellenic Council (NPHC) includes all nine NPHC organizations: Gamma Rho, Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority Delta Pi, Delta Sigma Theta sorority Upsilon Epsilon, Omega Psi Phi fraternity Delta Phi, Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity Delta Delta, Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity Alpha Beta, Phi Beta Sigma fraternity Lambda Beta, Zeta Phi Beta sorority Alpha Tau, Sigma Gamma Rho sorority Delta Psi, Iota Phi Theta fraternity Academic honor societies Alpha Lambda Delta National Honor Society Alpha Phi Sigma Alpha Psi Omega National Theatre Honor Society American Chemical Society Association for Computing Machinery ATMAE Chi Alpha Sigma Elementary & Early Childhood Education Club (EECE) Golden Key International Honor Society HEALTH CLUB HPER Club Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Student Branch of JSU (IEEE) JSUSEA Lambda Pi Eta Lambda Sigma Honor Society National Society of Black Engineers National Organization for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers (NOBCChE) Phi Alpha Pi Sigma Alpha Nu Mega Chapter Political Science Club of Jackson State University Psychology Club @ Work Reading for Stripes-Honors College Book Club Society of Women Engineers Tau Sigma National Honor Society The National Society of Collegiate Scholars University College Ambassadors W.E. B. DuBois Honors Council Campus media Jackson State is home to radio station WJSU-88.5 FM which plays jazz, gospel, news and public affairs programming. Jackson State University also owns a television station, W23BC known as JSUTV aired on Comcast. Jackson State also publishes the independent Blue and White Flash weekly student newspaper and the Jacksonian magazine, which features news and highlights about the university, its students, and alumni. Notable alumni Education Arts, TV and radio media, entertainment and music Politics, law, and government Sports Honorary See also Jackson State University Botanical Garden References External links Public universities and colleges in Mississippi Historically black universities and colleges in the United States Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Educational institutions established in 1877 1877 establishments in Mississippi Universities and colleges in the Jackson metropolitan area, Mississippi Education in Jackson, Mississippi Buildings and structures in Jackson, Mississippi	[ -0.10536853969097137, -0.19538544118404388, -0.3119739592075348, -0.1722785234451294, 0.6082497835159302, 0.47656938433647156, 0.7410187125205994, 0.6999767422676086, -0.3948690593242645, -0.5036928057670593, -0.26404646039009094, -0.003623261349275708, -0.11454754322767258, 0.8076574206352234, -0.07119234651327133, 0.01135844737291336, 0.34994950890541077, 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217172	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Mountain%20College	Blue Mountain College	Blue Mountain College (BMC) is a private college supported by the Mississippi Baptist Convention and located in Blue Mountain, Mississippi. Founded as a women's college in 1873, the college's board of trustees voted unanimously for the college to go fully coeducational in 2005. History By 1873, the college was founded as a woman's college by Confederate Brigadier-General Mark Perrin Lowrey, a pastor who was known as "a preacher general" during the war. Blue Mountain Female Institute, as it was called at first, started with 50 students with Lowrey and his two daughters serving as the faculty. In 1877, the college was officially chartered by the State of Mississippi. Lowrey, his sons W. T. and B. G., and grandson Lawrence Lowrey all served as the first four presidents. After the sudden death of President Lowrey in 1960, a longtime professor at the school, Dr. Wilfred Tyler, became the first non-Lowrey family president followed by Dr. E. Harold Fisher in 1965. Dr. Bettye Rogers Coward served as the seventh president from 2001 to 2012. Dr. Janice I. Nicholson, a BMC alumna, served as transitional president prior to Dr. Barbara Childers McMillin's becoming the eighth president on August 1, 2012. Originally an independently owned institution, the college was turned over to the Mississippi Baptist Convention in 1920 by the Lowrey Family. It remained focused on women's education until 1956 when a program to train men for church-related vocations was started. In October 2005, the college's board of trustees voted to make the school fully coeducational. Notable alumni George Duke Humphrey - 9th president of Mississippi State University. Dusti Bongé Artist, Biloxi, Mississippi. Annibel Jenkins, English scholar, professor at Georgia Tech Athletics Blue Mountain teams are known as the Toppers. The college is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA). Starting in the 2013-14 season, the Toppers joined the Southern States Athletic Conference (SSAC). Men's sports include archery, baseball, basketball, bowling, cross country, golf, soccer, and tennis. Women's sports include archery, basketball, bowling, cross country, golf, soccer, softball, and tennis. References External links Blue Mountain College Blue Mountain College Athletics Former women's universities and colleges in the United States Southern States Athletic Conference Universities and colleges affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention Educational institutions established in 1873 Female seminaries in the United States Education in Tippah County, Mississippi Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Private universities and colleges in Mississippi 1873 establishments in Mississippi	[ 0.3357473909854889, 0.4484780728816986, -0.4131707549095154, -0.27443626523017883, 1.1163347959518433, 0.20938074588775635, 0.6358579397201538, 0.8153669238090515, -0.5456434488296509, -0.11438065767288208, -0.30243736505508423, 0.054833561182022095, -0.195994034409523, 0.7409070730209351, -0.2698931097984314, 0.20566397905349731, 0.7293517589569092, 0.273212194442749, -0.09268464148044586, -0.6606130599975586, -0.36653074622154236, 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217174	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me%20Against%20the%20World	Me Against the World	Me Against the World is the third studio album by American rapper 2Pac, released on March 14, 1995, by Interscope Records and Jive Records. Drawing lyrical inspiration from his impending prison sentence, troubles with the police, and poverty, the album is described as being 2Pac's most introspective album. According to 2Pac, Me Against the World was made to show the hip hop audience his respect for the art form. Lyrically, he intentionally tried to make the album more personal and reflective than his previous efforts. The musical production on the album was considered by several music critics to be the best of any of his albums up to that point in his career. Me Against the World features guest appearances from rap group Dramacydal and rapper Richie Rich. Released while 2Pac was imprisoned, Me Against the World made an immediate impact on the charts, debuting at number one on the Billboard 200, holding the top spot for four consecutive weeks, and Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. "Dear Mama" was released as the album's first single in February 1995 and would be the album's most successful single, topping the Hot Rap Singles chart, and peaking at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100. While 2Pac was in prison, the album over-took Bruce Springsteen's Greatest Hits as the current best-selling album of the year in the United States. Me Against the World was eventually certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). At the 38th Grammy Awards, the album was nominated for Best Rap Album and "Dear Mama" was nominated for Best Rap Solo Performance. The album received acclaimed reviews by critics, being ranked among the best albums of the 1990s. It has been ranked by many critics as one of the greatest hip hop albums, as well as one of the greatest albums of all time. In 2008, the National Association of Recording Merchandisers (NARM), in conjunction with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, included Me Against the World in its list of the Definitive 200 Albums of All Time. Background By 1994, Tupac Shakur, age 23, was already a prominent and controversial rapper. His second album, Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z., going Platinum, had entered the top 25 on the Billboard 200, and offered two Gold singles, "I Get Around" and "Keep Ya Head Up", both entering the top 15 of the Billboard Hot 100. In rapid succession, however, he had become involved in a string of violent encounters. All for incidents in 1993, Shakur was sentenced to 15 days in jail for assaulting director Allen Hughes while filming Menace II Society, pled guilty to the attempted assault on a rival rapper and saw the charges dropped after he shot two off-duty police officers. Later that year, Shakur and two associates were charged with gang-raping a female fan in Shakur's hotel room, a charge he vehemently denied. In the ensuing trial, Shakur was acquitted of seven felonies, including rape, sodomy and gun charges, but was convicted of two counts of sexual abuse for unwanted touching and was subsequently sentenced to 18 months to 4.5 years in prison. On November 30, 1994 one day before the jury reached their verdict, Shakur was shot and robbed at gunpoint at the lobby of a New York recording studio. He believed the shooting was set up by East Coast associates and collaborators, such as The Notorious B.I.G., Andre Harrell and Sean "Puffy" Combs. According to Shakur, Me Against the World aimed to show the hip-hop audience his respect for the art form. Shakur purposefully made Me Against the World's lyrics more personal and reflective than previously. This was widely attributed to Shakur's growing maturity and perhaps an effort to reconcile with his troubled past. Production Although originally released by Interscope, the album was later released twice by Amaru Entertainment, the label owned by Shakur's mother, Afeni Shakur. The album was recorded at ten different studios, and it was mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering by Brian Gardner. Several critics found the album's musical production the best on any of Shakur's albums to date. Steve "Flash" Juon of RapReviews, scoring the production a perfect 10 of 10, particularly praised "So Many Tears" and "Temptations". Jon Pareles of the New York Times called the production a "fatalistic calm, in a commercial mold", and added that "while 2Pac doesn't sing, other voices do, providing smooth melody". Yet James Bernard of Entertainment Weekly, dissenting, complained that Shakur's "vocals are buried deep in the mix. That's a shame—if they were more in-your-face, the lackluster beats might be less noticeable." Themes Often depicting the travails of male survival in the ghetto, prominent sentiments include anguish, despair, hopelessness, paranoia, and self-loathing. Such dark tracks, sometimes simultaneously menacing, are "If I Die 2Nite", "Lord Knows", "Outlaw", and "Fuck The World". But there are exceptions. Nostalgic jubilance distinguishes "Old School"—a roster his favorite rap songs, with associated joys, predating his adulthood—while bittersweet optimism occurs in "It Ain't Easy". "Can U Get Away" aims to flirtatiously encourage and lure a romantic interest away from her current, abusive relationship. And the track most popular, "Dear Mama", is a reverent ode to his mother. Throughout the album, Shakur employs various poetical devices, such as alliteration ("If I Die 2Nite") and paired couplets ("Lord Knows"). Release Me Against the World debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, selling 210,500 copies in the first week. The album ended up holding the top spot for four consecutive weeks. The album also debuted at number one on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, thus giving 2Pac the first number one album on both R&B and Pop charts. While Shakur was in prison, the album over-took Bruce Springsteen's Greatest Hits as the best-selling album in the United States, a feat which he took pride in. Shakur became the first artist to have a number one album while serving a prison sentence. On December 6, 1995, the album was certified double platinum for sales of over two million copies in the United States. As of September 2011, the album has sold 3,524,567 copies in the United States. Tupac Shakur's virtual appearance at the annual Coachella Festival (April 15, 2012) led to the album selling 1,000 copies the following week (up by 53% from the previous week). Singles "Dear Mama" was released as the album's first single in February 1995, along with the track "Old School" as the B-side. "Dear Mama" would be the album's most successful single, topping the Hot Rap Singles chart, and peaking at the ninth spot on the Billboard Hot 100. The single was certified platinum in July 1995, and later placed at number 51 on the year-end charts. The second single, "So Many Tears," was released in June, four months after the first single. The single would reach the number six spot on the Hot Rap Singles chart, and the 44th on the Billboard Hot 100. "Temptations," released in August, was the third and final single from the album. The single would be the least successful of the three released, but still did fairly well on the charts, reaching number 68 on the Billboard Hot 100, 35 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks, and 13 on the Hot Rap Singles charts. "Me Against the World", the title track, was released as a single in Europe. It included the Soul Power Remix and the Soul Power Hip Hop Remix. Critical reception Me Against the World received critical acclaim. In a contemporary review, Cheo H. Coker at Rolling Stone called the album Shakur's best and said it was "by and large a work of pain, anger and burning desperation — [it] is the first time 2Pac has taken the conflicting forces tugging at his psyche head-on". Jon Pareles, writing in The New York Times, called Shakur the "St. Augustine of gangster rap" due to his ambivalence towards the behavior and nature of the gangster lifestyle. Steve Huey of AllMusic noted that, with Me Against the World, the rapper became markedly more "confessional," "reflective," and "soul-baring." "This may be the first hip-hop blues LP," observed Matt Hall in Select. "Not so much in the music, although the harp blasts owe more to Howlin' Wolf than Tupac's previous two solo efforts, but more with Shakur's vocals, which are at once rebellious and resigned ... Me Against the World is a statement of intent, a note from the depths of America, and a fine, thoughtful LP." In The Guardian, critic Caroline Sullivan observed a "surprisingly optimistic" and thoughtful 2Pac on display on the album, deeming it "worth a listen" despite criticizing the presence of "anodyne" beats and predictable samples. Jaleel Abdul-Adil of the Chicago Sun-Times stated that "2Pac's latest also mixes toughness and tenderness. Desperation follows raw anger on "Fuck the World" and "It Ain't Easy," but most tracks confess frailties beneath the rapper's tough exterior. "Dear Mama" is a tear-jerking tribute to his mother, "Lord Knows" discloses desperate considerations of suicide, and "So Many Tears" ponders a merciless world that wrecks young lives. 2Pac even includes a sorrowful "shout-out" to Robert Sandifer, the Chicago youth whose brief life ended in a brutal shooting. After earlier releases that lacked focus and consistency, 2Pac finally presents a polished project of self-examination and social commentary. It's ironic that it arrives as his sentence begins." Some reviewers were less impressed. James Bernard from Entertainment Weekly said, "2Pac does the black-man-backed-into-a-corner routine better than just about anyone because that's largely who he is. When he says it's 'me against the world,' there's an urgency that only comes from experience. On record, the rapper-turned-movie icon’s vocals are buried deep in the mix. That’s a shame-if they were more in-your-face, the lackluster beats might be less noticeable." Robert Christgau of The Village Voice said Shakur witlessly exploited fundamental hip hop themes such as persecution while exhibiting an offensive level of self-pity: "His I-love-Mom rings true because Mom was no saint, and his respect for old G's seems genuine, probably because they told him how smart he was. But whether the metaphor be dead homies or suicide threat, the subtext of his persecution complex is his self-regard." Reappraisal Me Against the World was one of 2Pac's most positively reviewed albums, with many calling it the magnum opus of his career; the work is considered one of the greatest and most influential hip hop albums of all time. In a retrospective review, AllMusic editor Steve Huey dubbed the album "[Shakur's] most thematically consistent, least self-contradicting work", and stated, "it may not be his definitive album, but it just might be his best". Steve "Flash" Juon of RapReviews seemed to feel differently, remarking that the album "is not only the quintessential Shakur album, but one of the most important rap albums released in the 1990s as a whole". On MTV's Greatest Rappers of All Time list, Me Against the World was listed as one of 2Pac's "certified classic" albums, along with 2Pacalypse Now, All Eyez on Me and The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory. "One of the best five rap albums ever," remarked Mojo, after Shakur's death. In 1996, at the 38th Grammy Awards, Me Against the World was nominated for Best Rap Album and the single "Dear Mama" was nominated for Best Rap Solo Performance. Me Against the World won Best Rap Album at the 1996 Soul Train Music Awards. In 2008, the National Association of Recording Merchandisers, in conjunction with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, recognized Me Against the World as one of the "most influential and popular albums", ranking it number 170 on a list of 200 other albums by artists of various musical genres. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. The information regarding accolades is adapted from Acclaimed Music, except for lists that are sourced otherwise. (*) signifies unordered lists Track listing Credits adapted from the album's liner notes. Notes Background Vocals on "Me Against the World" performed by Puff Johnson Background Vocals on "So Many Tears" performed by Thug Life, Digital Underground & Stretch signifies a co-producer. signifies an additional producer. Sample Credits "If I Die 2Nite" contains samples from: "Tonight Is the Night", written by Betty Wright and Willie Clarke, as recorded by Betty Wright. "Tonight", written by Norman Durham, as recorded by Kleeer. "Deep Cover (187)", written by Calvin Broadus, Colin Wolfe, and Andre Young, as recorded by Dr. Dre. "Me Against the World" contains samples from: "Walk On By", written by Burt Bacharach and Hal David, as recorded by Isaac Hayes. "Inside My Love", written by Minnie Riperton, Richard Rudolph, and Leon Ware), as recorded by Minnie Riperton. "So Many Tears" contains a sample from "That Girl", written and recorded by Stevie Wonder. "Temptations" contains samples from: "Computer Love", written by Roger Troutman, Larry Troutman, and Shirley Murdock, as recorded by Zapp. "Watch Your Nuggets", written by Reggie Noble, George Clinton, Garry Shider, and David Spradley, as recorded by Redman. "Young Niggaz" contains an interpolation of "She's Strange", written by Nathan Leftenat, Charles Singleton, Tomi Jenkins, and Larry Blackmon. "Dear Mama" contains: a sample from "In All My Wildest Dreams", written and recorded by Joe Sample. an interpolation of "Sadie", written by Joseph B. Jefferson, Bruce Hawes, and Charles Simmons. "Can U Get Away" contains an interpolation of "Happy Feelin's", written by Frankie Beverly. "Old School" contains samples from: "We Share", written by John Buchanan and Donald Tilery, as recorded by the Soul Searchers. "Dedication", written by Maxwell Nixon, as recorded by Brand Nubian. Personnel Credits for Me Against the World adapted from AllMusic 2Pac - composer, primary artist, vocals Eric Altenburger - art direction, design Kim Armstrong - vocals (background) Paul Arnold - engineer, Mixing Burt Bacharach - composer Eric Baker - composer Larry Blackmon - composer Sam Bostic - composer, producer George Clinton - composer Hal David - composer Kevin "KD" Davis - engineer, mixing Digital Underground - guest artist Dramacydal - guest artist, performer, primary artist Easy Mo Bee - composer Eboni Foster - vocals (background) Reggie Green - vocals (background) Jeff Griffin - mixing Greg Jacobs - composer Gregory Jacobs - composer Johnny J - composer Puff Johnson - guest artist, vocals (background) Lady Levi - guest artist Jay Lean - engineer, mixing Eric Lynch - engineer Moe Z - composer Bob Morris - engineer Mike Mosley - composer Shirley Murdock - composer Tim Nitz - engineer Tony "D" Pizarro - composer, engineer, mixing, producer Richie Rich - guest artist Minnie Riperton - composer, vocals (background) Roger - composer Jill Rose - vocals Richard Rudolph - composer Joe Sample - composer Garry Shider - composer Charlie Singleton - composer David Spradley - composer Thug Life - guest artist Larry Troutman - composer Le-Morrious "Funky Drummer" Tyler - composer Ronnie Vann - guitar Natasha Walker - guest artist, vocals (background) Leon Ware - composer Brian Gardner - Mastering Stevie Wonder - composer Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications See also List of number-one albums of 1995 (U.S.) List of number-one R&B albums of 1995 (U.S.) References Footnotes Bibliography External links 1995 albums Albums produced by Easy Mo Bee Albums produced by Johnny "J" Albums produced by Soulshock and Karlin Amaru Entertainment albums Atlantic Records albums Interscope Records albums Jive Records albums Tupac Shakur albums	[ 0.22509945929050446, -0.05471999570727348, -0.07972358912229538, -0.18880869448184967, -0.22116512060165405, 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217183	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Washington%20%28ACR-11%29	USS Washington (ACR-11)	The seventh USS Washington (ACR-11/CA-11/IX-39), also referred to as "Armored Cruiser No. 11", and later renamed Seattle and reclassified CA-11 and IX-39, was a United States Navy armored cruiser. She was laid down on 23 September 1903 at Camden, New Jersey, by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation, launched on 18 March 1905, sponsored by Miss Helen Stewart Wilson, daughter of United States Senator John L. Wilson of Washington state, and commissioned at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on 7 August 1906, Captain James D. Adams in command. Pre-World War I Washington was fitted out there until 1 November when she got underway for Hampton Roads, whence she departed a week later as an escort for which was then carrying President Theodore Roosevelt to Panama for an inspection of progress of work constructing the Panama Canal. During that voyage, the armored cruiser touched at Hampton Roads and Piney Point, Maryland; Colón, Panama; Chiriquí Lagoon; and Mona Passage before she returned to Newport News on 26 November. She headed back toward the Delaware Capes on 8 December, arrived at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on the 11th, and remained there undergoing repairs into the spring of 1907. Washington departed League Island on 11 April and arrived at Hampton Roads the next day. She remained there into May participating in festivities of the Jamestown Exposition which commemorated the founding of Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. She returned northward soon thereafter, spending most of May undergoing docking and tests at the New York Navy Yard. She then shook down off Tompkinsville, New York (Staten Island), from 28 May to 5 June before she returned to Hampton Roads for further observances at the Jamestown Exposition. Washington departed Hampton Roads on 11 June and proceeded via Bradford, Rhode Island, to Newport where she joined before heading across the Atlantic on the 14th, bound for European waters. The sister ships visited the French ports of Royan, Île-d'Aix, La Pallice, and Brest from 23 June – 25 July, before returning to Tompkinsville in August to run speed trials. Following those trials and a period of yard work at the New York Navy Yard, Washington set sail for the Pacific Station, again in company with Tennessee. The two armored cruisers subsequently called at Hampton Roads; Port of Spain, Trinidad; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Montevideo, Uruguay; Punta Arenas, Chile; Callao, Peru; Acapulco, Mexico; and Pichilinque Bay, Mexico; before they joined the Pacific Fleet in time to fire target practices with them at Magdalena Bay, Mexico, from late December 1907 – January 1908. Washington subsequently operated both in company with the Fleet and on independent tactical exercises out of Magdalena Bay into March, operating also off Santa Barbara, San Francisco, and San Diego, as well as San Pedro, California. Other ports visited by the armored cruiser into the summer of 1908 included Redondo Beach, Venice, Monterey, and Angel Island in California; and Port Townsend, Port Angeles, Seattle, Tacoma, and Bremerton in Washington. She was among the units of the Fleet reviewed by the Secretary of the Navy at San Francisco between 6 and 17 May. Washington operated off the west coast into 1909 before she made preparations to sail in company with the Armored Cruiser Squadron to "show the flag" in the Far East. She accordingly got underway from San Francisco on 5 September 1909 and called, in succession, at Honolulu, Hawaii; from 10–20 September; and Nares Harbor, Admiralty Islands – where she coaled ship from 17–25 October – before she arrived at Manila, Philippine Islands on 30 October. After visiting Woosung (near Shanghai), China, from 14–30 December 1909, Washington and her sisters called at Yokohama, Japan, from 3–20 January 1910, and Honolulu from 31 January – 8 February, before returning to the west coast. Washington made port back at San Francisco via Port Discovery, Washington and Bremerton on 3 March. She then returned to Bremerton where she commenced a period of repairs on 21 March. Washington next operated off the west coast into the autumn of 1910, holding target practices off Santa Cruz, California, before returning to San Francisco. She coaled ship at Tiburon, California on 7–8 August before shifting to San Francisco to prepare for her next deployment. On 14 August, she departed San Francisco, bound for South America on the first leg of her voyage to the east coast to join the Atlantic Fleet. With the ships of the 1st Division of the Pacific Fleet, Washington visited Valparaíso, Chile, and took part in the observances of the Chilean Centennial Celebration from 10–23 September. She then resumed her voyage around South America, touching at Talcahauano and Punta Arenas, Chile; Rio de Janeiro; Carlisle Bay, Barbados; and St. Thomas, Danish West Indies; before she arrived at Culebra, Puerto Rico on 2 November to prepare for target practice with the Fleet. Washingtons next area of operations was the Tidewater area of Virginia – especially Hampton Roads and Lynnhaven Bay — before the armored cruiser underwent repairs at the Norfolk Navy Yard from 20 December 1910 – 2 January 1911. The armored cruiser subsequently underwent another period of repairs at the Portsmouth Navy Yard before heading south with stores and material for delivery to the 5th Division of the Fleet in Cuban waters. She arrived at Guantánamo Bay on 20 March and remained there into the summer, conducting trials and exercises with the 5th Division. She then returned northward and stopped at Hampton Roads from 21–24 June before pushing on to New York, where she arrived on the 25th. The armored cruiser operated off the northeastern seaboard through the summer, holding exercises and maneuvers in areas ranging from Cape Cod Bay to Hampton Roads. During that time, she cruised briefly with the Naval Militia from 19–21 July; acted as a reference ship for torpedo practice off Sandwich Island, Cape Cod, Massachusetts on 2 August; witnessed the as that ship fired at the target hulk San Marcos (former ) on 27–28 August, and then conducted battle practice with the Fleet off the southern drill grounds. In early November, Washington was among the ships of the Fleet reviewed by President William Howard Taft. The cruiser then participated in a search problem out of Newport, R.I. from 9–18 November before she sailed for the West Indies in company with , arriving at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic on 26 November. Washington subsequently returned home to Hampton Roads in company with her sister ship and went into drydock at the Norfolk Navy Yard three days before Christmas of 1911. After returning to the Fleet and participating in maneuvers in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, in late January and early February 1912, Washington steamed back to the Norfolk Navy Yard where, between 13 and 19 February, she underwent special preparations to embark the Secretary of State and his party. The armored cruiser then shifted to Key West where she embarked the Secretary on 23 February. In the ensuing weeks, Washington carried Philander C. Knox and his guests to such ports as Colón, Panama; Port Limón, Costa Rica; Puerto Barrios, Guatemala; La Guaira, Venezuela; Santo Domingo; St. Thomas; Puerto Cabello, Venezuela; San Juan; Port-au-Prince; Guantánamo Bay; Kingston, Jamaica; and Havana, before disembarking her distinguished guests at Piney Point, Maryland, on 16 April. The high point of the spring of 1912 for Washington was her service as temporary flagship for the Commander in Chief, Atlantic Fleet, while she was at the Philadelphia Navy Yard from 19 April – 3 May. The warship subsequently paused at New York from 9–12 May and at the Portsmouth Navy Yard for an inspection by the Board of Inspection and Survey for ships before she conducted maneuvers out of Provincetown and Newport and then received Rear Admiral Hugo Osterhaus — the Commander in Chief, Atlantic Fleet – aboard on 26 May. After shifting to Hampton Roads, Washington embarked a detachment of additional Marines on 27 May, took on stores; and set out that day for Key West. There, she awaited further orders from 30 May – 10 June, while President Taft concentrated a strong naval force there to prepare for possible action which might be required by internal problems in Cuba. In the late spring and early summer, a rebellion on that Caribbean island occasioned a show of force by the United States. Washington accordingly departed Key West on 10 June and arrived at Havana later that day. She remained there on "duty in connection with the Cuban rebellion" until 1 July, when she shifted to Guantánamo. The rebellion on the island was put down by the Cuban Government, resulting in the withdrawal of the American naval and marine representation there. Accordingly, Washington sailed to Hampton Roads, where she discharged her marines and equipment and went into "first reserve" at the Portsmouth Navy Yard on 9 July. Washington remained inactive until 8 October, when she sailed for New York to participate in the Naval Review held there from 10–15 October and then resumed her reserve status at Portsmouth on 17 October. Shifted subsequently from Portsmouth to the New York Navy Yard – via President Roads, Massachusetts, and Tompkinsville, Staten Island — Washington was assigned duty as receiving ship at the navy yard on 20 July. The armored cruiser was placed in commission again on 23 April 1914, Captain Edward W. Eberle in command. Later that spring, the armored cruiser took aboard drafts of men from Norfolk and Port Royal, South Carolina on 30 April and 2 May; touched at Key West, and proceeded to Santo Domingo. Once again there was unrest in the Dominican Republic. A revolution in the northern province of Santiago, against the rule of Provisional President José Bordas Valdez, had been quelled; but one in the province of Puerto Plata — near the capital of Santo Domingo itself – continued unchecked and was marked by severe fighting, fighting so severe that "marked apprehension" existed in Washington. On 1 May, had been ordered to Dominican waters, but a further show of force seemed to be in order. Accordingly, Washington was chosen to "show the flag" in those troubled waters. She departed Key West on 4 May and arrived at the beleaguered city of Puerto Plata on 6 May to protect American interests, joining the Petrel. Six days later, Captain Eberle invited representatives of both warring parties – the insurgents and the government – out to his ship, in an attempt to persuade both sides to come to an amicable settlement. Unfortunately, the attempt failed, and the fighting continued. The insurgents were aided by a recent large consignment of guns and ammunition smuggled across the Haitian border that had given them new blood. The revolutionaries soon recaptured the key city of La Vega and were successfully holding Puerto Plata. Government forces, laying siege to that port and shelling the insurgents, clearly endangered the lives of the neutral citizens still living in the city. Captain Eberle objected to the bombardment and warned President Valdés repeatedly. Washington departed Puerto Plata on 6 June with the conflict between the insurgents and the government of President Valdes still unresolved. Her place had been taken by . Washington coaled ship and took on stores at Guantánamo Bay from 7–10 June before she sailed for Veracruz, Mexico. She then remained in Mexican waters from 14–24 June before she shifted to Cap-Haïtien, Haiti, to protect American interests there during an outbreak of violence that summer. Washington remained at Cap-Haïtien into July. In the meantime, the situation in the Dominican Republic had worsened when government shellings of rebel positions in Puerto Plata resulted in an inevitable "incident". On 26 June, a stray shell killed an English woman in Puerto Plata causing the gunboat Machias to shift to a berth in the inner harbor and shell one of President Valdes' batteries, silencing it with a few well placed shots. During early July, Machias again fired her guns in anger when stray shots hit the ship. In view of those developments, Washington returned to Puerto Plata on 9 July and remained there into the autumn, keeping a vigil to protect American lives and property and standing by to land her landing force if the situation required it. That August, Captain Eberle's attempts to bring about a conference finally bore fruit. The United States government sent a commission – consisting of John Franklin Fort, the former governor of New Jersey, James M. Sullivan, the American Minister to Santo Domingo; and Charles Smith, a New Hampshire lawyer – to mediate a peace in the Dominican Republic. Both sides ultimately accepted the American suggestions which provided for the establishment of a constitutional government and the institution of elections under United States "observation." Washington left Santo Domingo on 20 November; but, later that month, continued high feelings over the closely contested election resulted in further unrest – unrest met by the dispatch of additional Marines to Santo Domingo. For Washington, however, her part in the Dominican intervention of 1914 was over. She sailed for home and arrived at Philadelphia on 24 November and became flagship of the Cruiser Squadron. Following an overhaul at the Portsmouth Navy Yard from 12 December 1914 – 11 January 1915, Washington sailed – via President Roads, Massachusetts (where she took on ammunition on 11 January) — for Hampton Roads, arriving there on 14 January. After a five-day visit, during which she took on stores and provisions and an expeditionary force of Marines, Washington sailed for the Caribbean once more. Two revolutions had rocked Haiti in 1914; a third, in January 1915, led by General Vilbrun Guillaume Sam, had resulted only in further unrest for that troubled nation. Washington arrived at Cap-Haïtien on 23 January, a week after General Sam's troops had invested it. The armored cruiser, flying the flag of Rear Admiral William B. Caperton and commanded by Captain Edward L. Beach, Sr. — the father of the future naval officer who would win fame as a famous submariner and author – stayed in port there until the 26th investigating "political conditions" before she shifted to the Haitian capital, Port-au-Prince, on 27 January. There, she again observed local political conditions in the wake of General Sam's takeover of the government before sailing, via Guantánamo, for Mexican waters. Washington conducted sub-caliber practices, observed political conditions, and conducted torpedo practices off the ports of Tampico, Tuxpan, Progreso, and Veracruz into the summer. Receiving provisions and stores from the supply ship off Progreso on 26–27 June, the armored cruiser sailed for Guantánamo where she coaled and took on water on 30 June. She sailed the same day for Cap-Haïtien, as all reports from the American minister there indicated that yet another crisis was brewing. While Washington awaited further developments at Cap-Haïtien, events in Port-au-Prince deteriorated, moving American chargé d'affaires Davis to send a telegram on 27 July to the Secretary of State, Robert Lansing, reporting the troubled conditions. He reported that President Sam and some of his men had been surrounded in the presidential palace and that the presence of American war vessels was desirable. In accordance with that message, the Navy dispatched Washington to that port. Meanwhile, Sam took refuge in the French legation where he hoped that diplomatic immunity would prevail. The mobs of angry Haitians, however, were not concerned with such international niceties: they invaded the legation at 10:30 on 28 July 1915, forcibly removed former President Sam, killed and dismembered him, and paraded portions of his body on poles around the city. Washington arrived at Port-au-Prince that day. Upon reviewing the situation, Admiral Caperton acted quickly. He ordered marines and a landing force ashore from his flagship to protect not only American interests but those of other foreign nations as well. Washington remained at Port-au-Prince into the winter. During that time, the United States effectively ran Haiti. On 12 August, Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave was elected president; and his government was recognized by the United States on 17 September. Ending that lengthy in-port period, Washington departed Port-au-Prince on 31 January 1916 and arrived at Guantánamo the following day. There, she transferred passengers and stores to other ships of the Fleet and later transferred a company of Marines to Norfolk soon after her arrival in Hampton Roads on 5 February. The armored cruiser steamed north, via New York and Boston; reached Portsmouth, New Hampshire on 29 February; and began an overhaul in the navy yard there which lasted until the end of March. Then, on 31 March, she was placed in reserve. The ship was renamed Seattle on 9 November 1916—in order that her original name might be used for the new ---but retained her classification as Armored Cruiser No. 11. She was simultaneously taken out of reserve and recommissioned for duty as flagship of the Destroyer Force. World War I Seattles peacetime duties as flagship for the Destroyer Force were short. On 6 April 1917, the United States, after attempting to remain neutral despite repeated incidents on the high seas, finally entered World War I. Seattle arrived at New York on 3 June to be fitted out at the New York Navy Yard for war service. She sailed on 14 June as an escort for the first American convoy to European waters and as flagship for Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves. At 22:15 on 22 June, she encountered her first enemy submarines at . Shortly before the convoy was attacked, Seattles helm jammed; and she sheered out of formation sharply, sounding her whistle to warn the other vessels. A few minutes later, the ship was brought back on course. Soon lookouts noted a white streak in the water ahead of the vessel, crossing from starboard to port at right angles to Seattles course. Admiral Gleaves, asleep in the charthouse at the time, awoke and was on the bridge in time to see the armored cruiser's gun crews manning their weapons and the transport De Kalb opening fire on the U-boat. Subsequently, the destroyer attacked an enemy submersible but failed to sink the German submarine. Later information indicated that the enemy, probably aware of the approach of the first American expeditionary forces, had dispatched a pair of submarines to lie in wait for it. The attack, conducted under "ideal" conditions, was, fortunately for the Americans, unsuccessful. Admiral Gleaves, in his report to the Commander in Chief, Atlantic Fleet, on 12 July, reported unequivocally: "their [the enemy's] failure to score hits was probably due to the attack being precipitated by the fortuitous circumstances of the Seattles helm jamming and the sounding of her whistle, leading the enemy to suppose he had been discovered." Seattle operated on comparatively uneventful escort duties for the remainder of World War I, completing her ninth round-trip voyage at New York on 27 October 1918. Inter-war period After the armistice of 11 November 1918, Seattle — like many other ships – was fitted with extra accommodations to enable her to function as a transport, and she brought back doughboys from France until 5 July 1919. Later, after all of her special troop fittings had been removed, Seattle sailed for the west coast to join the Pacific Fleet. Reviewed by President Woodrow Wilson on 12 September at her namesake city – Seattle – the armored cruiser shifted to the Puget Sound Navy Yard where she was placed in "reduced commission". While in that inactive status, Seattle was reclassified — CA-11 — on 17 July 1920. Placed in full commission again on 1 March 1923, Captain George L. P. Stone in command, Seattle became the flagship for the Commander in Chief, United States Fleet. In that role, over the next four years, she wore the four-starred flags of a succession of officers: Admirals Hilary P. Jones, Robert Coontz, Samuel S. Robison (who was embarked in the ship at the time of the Australian cruise of 1925), and Charles F. Hughes. During that time, the armored cruiser operated from Seattle to Hawaii and from Panama to Australia. Subsequently returning to the Atlantic in June 1927, Seattle passed in review before President Calvin Coolidge on 3 June. After a cruise along the east coast, the ship arrived at New York on 29 August to assume duties as the receiving ship at that port. On 1 July 1931, the ship's classification was changed to "unclassified." As receiving ship, Seattle served as a floating barracks – a "clearance house for personnel" — at New York into the 1940s. Ships and stations transferred men to her for attending various schools in the 3rd Naval District; she provided men for tugs and other district craft, as well as naval escorts for patriotic functions (parades and funerals, etc.) and, on board her, crews for ships preparing to go into commission were assembled. Among those ships was the light cruiser . On 17 February 1941, the erstwhile armored cruiser was again reclassified, this time as IX-39 and served as receiving ship for the duration of World War II. She was ultimately placed out of commission at New York on 28 June 1946 and was struck from the Navy List on 19 July of the same year. Sold on 3 December to Hugo Neu of New York City, the former flagship of the United States Fleet and receiving ship at New York was subsequently scrapped. Awards Mexican Service Medal Haitian Campaign Medal World War I Victory Medal with "ESCORT" clasp American Defense Service Medal American Campaign Medal World War II Victory Medal References Bibliography Alden, John D. American Steel Navy: A Photographic History of the U.S. Navy from the Introduction of the Steel Hull in 1883 to the Cruise of the Great White Fleet. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989. Friedman, Norman. U.S. Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1984. Musicant, Ivan. U.S. Armored Cruisers: A Design and Operational History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985. 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217184	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve%20%28rapper%29	Eve (rapper)	Eve Jihan Cooper ( Jeffers; born November 10, 1978), known mononymously as Eve, is an American rapper, singer, actress, and television presenter. In 1999, she released her debut album, Let There Be Eve...Ruff Ryders' First Lady, which reached number-one on the Billboard 200, making her the third female rapper to accomplish this feat. Eve followed up with three subsequent albums, Scorpion (2001), Eve-Olution (2002), and Lip Lock (2013). She achieved chart success with her singles, "Let Me Blow Ya Mind" (featuring Gwen Stefani), "What Ya Want", "Who's That Girl", "Gangsta Lovin'" (featuring Alicia Keys), "Satisfaction", "Love Is Blind", and "Tambourine"; and also experienced success with collaborations, including "Rich Girl", "4 My People", "Caramel", "You Got Me", "Hot Boyz (remix)" and "Like This". As an actress, Eve is known for her role as Terri Jones in the films Barbershop, Barbershop 2: Back in Business, and Barbershop: The Next Cut, as well as Shelley Williams on the UPN television sitcom Eve. She also appeared in films The Woodsman (2004), The Cookout (2004) and Whip It (2009). She also had a clothing line called Fetish from 2003 to 2009. From 2017 to 2020, Eve was one of the co-hosts of the CBS Daytime talk show The Talk. In 2021, she starred in the American television series, Queens. She was also featured on the album Planet Her by Doja Cat, which earned her a Grammy Award for Album of the Year nomination as a featured artist. Eve has received multiple accolades throughout her career, which include a Grammy Award, BET Award, MTV Video Music Award, Teen Choice Award, and two Daytime Emmy Award nominations. Eve was placed on VH1's list of the '50 Greatest Hip Hop Artists'. In 2020, Spin named her one of the '30 Greatest Female Rappers Ever'. Early life Eve was born in Philadelphia, the daughter of Julie Wilcher, a publishing company supervisor and Jerry Jeffers, a chemical plant supervisor. Eve lived in West Philadelphia until age 13 when her family moved to the neighborhood of Germantown. She graduated from Martin Luther King High School in Philadelphia. At the age of 18, she worked as a stripper until rapper Mase convinced her to stop stripping. In 1999, Eve discussed stripping in an interview with Rolling Stone, saying "that was a hustle, too; there's a song about it on my album, 'Heaven Only Knows.' But I don't regret it – I was eighteen and confused, going through personal problems. I did it for about a month, and I was glad I did it. It helped me find Eve, helped me get serious. It was depressing – a lot of those girls have three or four kids. I'd sit there and be like, 'Eve, you don't belong here, this is not your world. Eve's first musical interest was singing. She sang in many choirs and even formed an all-female singing group (Dope Girl Posse or EDGP) with a manager. This group covered songs from En Vogue and Color Me Badd. The group's manager suggested that they should start rapping, and Eve stuck with it. After the group split up, Eve began working on a solo career under the name "Eve of Destruction". Career 1998–2001: Beginnings, debut album and breakthrough In 1998, Eve appeared on the Bulworth soundtrack as Eve of Destruction while signed to Dr. Dre's record label Aftermath Entertainment. She appeared on DJ Clue?'s song "Ruff Ryders' Anthem" (Remix) from his album The Professional and The Roots' single "You Got Me" from the band's fourth album Things Fall Apart. Eve also provided background vocals on The Roots' song "Ain't Sayin' Nothin' New" from Things Fall Apart and is credited as Eve of Destruction. Eve's first single "What Y'all Want", featuring Nokio the N-Tity of Dru Hill, was released in June 1999. The song peaked at number 29 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart and at number one on the Hot Rap Songs chart. "What Ya'll Want" was included on the compilation album Ryde or Die Vol. 1 (1999). Her debut album called Let There Be Eve...Ruff Ryders' First Lady was released on September 14, 1999, by Ruff Ryders Entertainment and Interscope Records. It sold 213,000 copies in the first week. The album has sold over 2 million copies (according to SoundScan) and is certified Double Platinum. The album features singles such as "Gotta Man" and "Love Is Blind". "Love Is Blind" was written when she was 16 and based on her 17-year-old best friend's relationship with a 35-year-old abusive man by whom she became pregnant. All of the songs on the album were written by Eve herself. Eve became the third female hip-hop artist to have her album peak at number one on the Billboard 200 (Lauryn Hill's debut album, The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, being the first to top the chart in 1998 and Foxy Brown's second album, Chyna Doll achieving the feat earlier in 1999). In November 1999, Eve was featured on Missy Elliott's single "Hot Boyz (Remix)" along with Nas, Lil Mo, and Q-Tip. The remix broke the record for most weeks at number-one on the US R&B chart on the issue dated January 15, 2000; as well as spending 18 weeks at number one on the Hot Rap Singles from December 4, 1999, to March 25, 2000. Her second studio album Scorpion, was released on March 6, 2001. She appeared on the cover of Jet magazine, which referred to her as the "Queen of Rap". The album's first single, "Who's That Girl" peaked at number 47 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number six in the United Kingdom. It was also number 97 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop. The second single, "Let Me Blow Ya Mind" with Gwen Stefani of No Doubt, peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the US Mainstream Top 40 chart. It won a Grammy Award in 2002 for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration, which was a brand new category at the time. The song was listed at number seven on the 2001 Pazz & Jop list, a survey of several hundred music critics conducted by Robert Christgau. A remix of "Love Is Blind" featuring singer Faith Evans also appeared on the album. In 2001, Eve won the BET Award for Best Female Hip-Hop Artist. In November 2001, she appeared as a contestant on the game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire and won $32,000 for her charity. 2002–2012: Eve-Olution, collaborations and acting roles Eve's third album, Eve-Olution, was released by Ruff Ryders Entertainment on August 27, 2002, and peaked at number six on the Billboard 200. The album's first single, "Gangsta Lovin'", with Alicia Keys, became her second consecutive number-two hit on the Billboard Hot 100, as well as her third consecutive top ten hit in the United Kingdom. The second single, "Satisfaction" was moderately successful in the United States, reaching number 27 and 22 on the Billboard Hot 100 and R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. Eve-Olution has sold over 500,000 copies in the U.S. and was certified gold in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In 2002, Eve appeared on the remixed version of Michael Jackson's "Butterflies". She appeared in the action film XXX (2002) and all three Barbershop films (Barbershop, Barbershop 2: Back in Business, and Barbershop: The Next Cut). In 2003, Eve starred as a fashion designer called Shelly Williams in the television sitcom, Eve. The show followed two sets of male and female friends attempting to navigate relationships with the opposite sex. The show aired for three seasons on UPN from September 15, 2003, to May 11, 2006. Eve guest starred as Yvette Powell in an episode of NBC's crime drama television series Third Watch. In 2004, she appeared in two films, The Woodsman and The Cookout. In 2005, she appeared on Gwen Stefani's song "Rich Girl", which peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 in March. In the United States, "Rich Girl" was certified gold, and it received a nomination for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration at the 47th Grammy Awards. The same year, she appeared on the official remix of Amerie's number one U.S. R&B single, "1 Thing". She also appeared on Keyshia Cole's single "Never" and Teairra Mari's official remix for "No Daddy". In 2007, Eve appeared on Kelly Rowland's single "Like This" which reached the top-ten in Ireland and the United Kingdom, the top-twenty in Australia and New Zealand, as well as number 30 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. In July 2007, Eve made a guest appearance on Maroon 5's second single "Wake Up Call" on Live 45th at Night. In late 2008, she performed "Set It On Fire", which became available on the Transporter 3 soundtrack. In April 2009, Eve and Lil Jon appeared on the song "Patron Tequila", the debut single of girl group Paradiso Girls. She played Ophelia Franklin in the British drama film Flashbacks of a Fool (2008). In 2009, she landed a role as Rosa Sparks in the comedy-drama film Whip It, opposite Elliot Page and Drew Barrymore. It received generally positive reviews from critics but did not perform well financially, having made $16.6 million worldwide against its $15 million budget. Also in 2009, she portrayed La-La Buendia in an episode of CBS' crime drama series Numbers and appeared in two episodes of Fox's musical comedy-drama series Glee, appearing as Grace Hitchens. She portrayed Latisha in the crime thriller film 4.3.2.1. (2010) alongside Emma Roberts and Tamsin Egerton. Eve hosted the 2010 MTV Africa Music Awards. In March 2010, Eve was featured on the official remix of Ludacris' song "My Chick Bad". In November 2010, Eve performed a rap on Australian singer Guy Sebastian's single "Who's That Girl", which reached number one on the ARIA Singles Chart and has been certified 4x Platinum. In December 2010, Eve was featured on Alicia Keys' song "Speechless", which charted at number 71 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart in early 2011. In March 2011, Eve was featured on Swizz Beatz' song "Everyday (Coolin')", the first promotional single from his upcoming album Haute Living. In April 2011, she appeared on Jill Scott's song "Shame" from her album The Light of the Sun. She also appeared on Russian rapper Timati's new single "Money In Da Bank" and Wolfgang Gartner's song "Get Em". In April 2012, Eve appeared on reggae artist Shaggy's single "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun". 2013–2015: Lip Lock and label change In 2007, Eve began working on a new album titled Lip Lock. Five of the album's songs were produced by Swizz Beatz, including the singles "Tambourine" and "Give It to You" (featuring Sean Paul). "Tambourine" debuted at number 73 on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart in the week of April 19, 2007. In the United Kingdom, the song debuted at number 38, two weeks before the song's physical release. "Tambourine" peaked at number 18 there and was her fifth consecutive top twenty solo hit in the UK. The song peaked at number 68 on Rolling Stones list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007, and was placed at number 70 on MTV Asia's list of Top 100 Hits of 2007. Pharrell Williams produced the song "All Night Long", in which Eve sings rather than raps. The album ran into a series of delays due to corporate change at the record label and discontent with the lackluster success of the singles. The album was renamed twice from "Here I Am" to "Flirt" to "Lip Lock". After Eve left Interscope Records and signed with EMI, Lip Lock was expected to be released in 2011, but it was delayed again. In 2012, Eve decided to release the album as an independent artist, and stated that there will be several buzz singles before the official single release. In an interview with Billboard, Eve stated that "one of the biggest things that I wanted to do on this album was make people realize why they fell in love with me in the first place and then take them on a journey to where I am now musically. My ear is different but I think people will recognize me. I think you'll hear that I'm in a happy place. I miss my music. My hunger is different than the first time around". On October 9, 2012, Eve released a promotional single titled "She Bad Bad" on iTunes. In November 2012, Eve released a series of weekly remixes on YouTube called EVEstlin' Tuesdays, in which she added freestyle rap verses on 2012 hit singles, such as Rihanna's "Diamonds" and Miguel's "Adorn". The album's first official single, "Make It Out This Town", featuring Gabe Saporta of Cobra Starship was released on February 23, 2013. In an interview with Rap-Up TV, Eve confirmed that the second official single would be "Eve" featuring Jamaican reggae artist Miss Kitty. The music video for the song was shot in London in February 2013 and premiered on BET on April 29, 2013. On May 14, 2013, Lip Lock was released under her own label From The Rib Music and distributed through Sony/RED. The album debuted at number 46 on the Billboard 200 chart. The album features collaborations with Juicy J, Dawn Richards, Claude Kelly, Pusha T, Chrisette Michele, Nacho, Gabe Saporta, Propaine, Missy Elliott, and Snoop Dogg. She appeared in the post-apocalyptic action comedy Bounty Killer (2013) and the horror thriller film Animal (2014). In 2014, Eve appeared in two episodes of the Oxygen reality television series Sisterhood of Hip Hop. She portrayed Amaya in Lifetime's romantic comedy television film With This Ring (2015) alongside Jill Scott and Regina Hall. 2016–present: Television projects In April 2016, it was announced that Eve would join Gwen Stefani on her This Is What the Truth Feels Like Tour. The tour began on July 12, 2016, in Mansfield, Massachusetts at the Xfinity Center and continued throughout North America before concluding on October 16, 2016, in Inglewood, California at The Forum. In 2016, she hosted VH1's annual event Hip Hop Honors, which honors old school and golden age hip hop rappers and contributors for their long-term influence and importance in the history of hip hop culture. In 2017, she portrayed Cecile James in two episodes of VH1's satirical comedy-drama television series Daytime Divas. On November 14, 2017, Eve became a co-host of the CBS Daytime talk show, The Talk, replacing Aisha Tyler. In 2018, she appeared in several television shows, including Jane the Virgin, Empire, Celebrity Family Feud, and Happy Together. On July 12, 2019, Eve released her first single in six years titled "Reload", featuring Jamaican dancehall artist Konshens. In November 2019, Eve and Gwen Stefani performed "Rich Girl" on NBC's competition series The Voice. The special performance celebrated Stefani's debut solo album's 15th anniversary. Eve hosted the 47th annual Daytime Emmy Awards with Sharon Osbourne, Sheryl Underwood, Carrie Ann Inaba, and Marie Osmond on June 26, 2020. She received a second Daytime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Entertainment Talk Show Host along with her The Talk co-stars in 2020. On the November 2, 2020, episode of The Talk, Eve announced that she would be leaving the show at the end of the year due to the impending lockdown restrictions preventing her from returning to the US, and plans to expand her current family. On March 6, 2021, Eve released a 20th anniversary re-release of her album Scorpion with four new remixes. On June 16, 2021 Eve and Trina battled in the webcast series Verzuz. On March 8, 2021, it was announced that Eve was to join the cast of American Broadcasting Company's music series Queens, alongside Naturi Naughton and Brandy. In May 2021, it was announced the show was being picked up for a full series, followed by the first official trailer, released on May 18, 2021. On October 1, 2021, the first promo single from Queens (“Nasty Girl") was released featuring Eve alongside the cast: Brandy, Naturi Naughton and Nadine Velazquez. A music video, directed by Tim Story, was released on the same day. This was followed on October 18, 2021 by another rap song from the Queens soundtrack: “The Introduction”, which was co-written by Nas. Queens debuted on October 19, 2021 and reviews were largely positive; Caroline Framke for Variety praised the quartet’s musical offering, calling their raps “sharp and distinct […] making clear their talent as both individuals and a swaggering collective”. Angie Han for The Hollywood Reporter called the show “Impressive […] lavish […] magic”. Other ventures Eve has graced the covers of numerous magazines, including Essence, Teen People, Allure, Rolling Stone, Paper, Philadelphia Style, Giant, Blaze, Vibe, Inked, XXL, and Ebony. She has appeared in commercials and music videos throughout her career. She has appeared in television commercials for Clarica, Pepsi, and Sprite. Her print ads include Tommy Hilfiger and MAC Cosmetics' Viva Glam campaign. In 2003, she launched a clothing line titled Fetish which was targeted towards black women. She ended her clothing line in 2009. Personal life Eve divides her time between London, Los Angeles and New York. She began dating Maximillion Cooper in 2010. The couple became engaged on December 25, 2013, and married on June 14, 2014, in Ibiza, Spain. Eve has four stepchildren, all from Cooper's previous marriage to businessperson Julie Brangstrup. In October 2021, Eve announced she was expecting her first child with Cooper, due in February 2022. Eve and Max welcomed their first child, a son named Wilde Wolf Fife Alexander Somers Cooper on February 1, 2022. Controversies In 1999, a dispute between Eve and New York City-based rapper Foxy Brown, began to build up in the midst of Brown's alleged affair with Eve's former mentor DMX. Additional tensions surfaced when Eve "subliminally dissed" Foxy Brown and Lil' Kim on her records "Let Me Blow Ya Mind" (2001) and "Double R What" (2002), where she criticized the two for having ghostwriters and further solidified that she "writes [her] own songs". In December 2002, Foxy Brown responded to the disses via her unreleased record "Get Off Me", in which she compared Eve to a yorkie terrier, dubbed her a "jealous bum bitch" and criticized her Alicia Keys-assisted single "Gangsta Lovin'". That same year, Brown reportedly disapproved of Eve and former friend Charli Baltimore's "Philly's Finest", a remake of Jay-Z and Notorious B.I.G.'s "Brooklyn's Finest", in which she felt the two Philly-bred female rappers were "disrespectful". Brown also stated that when she and Lil' Kim debuted on the music scene, "everybody all of a sudden wanted a female in their crew", adding that Eve wasn't doing that for DMX and Ruff Ryders, simply because it was "just not believable". In December 2002, during her interview with Miss Jones, Eve responded to Brown's diss record ("Get Off Me"), stating that she was glad she could be "an inspiration" for Brown's ghostwriter. Eve also revealed that she had known Brown since 1997 and dubbed her a "wankster" and a "miserable jealous bitch". Eve lastly added, "Ain't my fault [Foxy] been out since '96 & her bank account look the same. Do you ma. You look weak. Do you." In April 2003, during her interview with Wendy Williams, Foxy Brown revealed that she hated Eve and cited her as the prime reason why she broke up with Kurupt because Eve "snitched" about the alleged affair between her and DMX. Brown later made derogatory comments about Eve throughout the interview, calling the rapper a "poorly dressed nappy headed blond chick". Brown also added that she was "sick and tired" of Eve subliminally dissing her and Lil' Kim on records because she and Kim "changed the game of hip-hop for female rappers". In September 2003, Eve dissed Brown on a record titled "We're Back" from former mentor DMX's album, Grand Champ. In November 2017, on the show The Talk (which Eve co-hosts) when discussing if someone ruined a moment for them, Eve brought up Foxy Brown (although not by name) during the discussion. Eve describes an incident where Brown planned to sabotage her show at a club in Chicago during her time performing club rounds. The promoter calls Eve to tell her "one of her friends called and wants tickets to [her] show." It turned out to be Foxy Brown, with whom Eve was not friends. Despite Eve's pleas to the promoter to not give Brown a ticket (she admitted she knew something was going to happen if he did it), the promoter told Eve that he has to give Brown a ticket "because she's bigger than you and I don't want to mess up this relationship." When Eve got ready for the show she believed Brown would not come to her performance, which Brown did. During her performance, Brown's appearance in the balcony behind Eve prompted the crowd to scream Brown's name rather than Eve's. Eve admitted this made her want to cry, but she said "[But] the rapper in me and the Philly in me was like 'Oh you want to battle me?' You know, like on stage -- and she didn't want to battle me at all; she just wanted to mess up my show." This discussion prompted her fellow co-hosts Julie Chen, Sharon Osbourne, Sara Gilbert, and Sheryl Underwood as well as top talker Sean Valentine to find out who Eve was talking about. Eve said at the end of her discussion that she's "much happier in [her] life than [Brown] is right now." Discography Studio albums Let There Be Eve...Ruff Ryders' First Lady (1999) Scorpion (2001) Eve-Olution (2002) Lip Lock (2013) Filmography Film Television Appearances and reality television Video games Awards and nominations References External links Archive of Eve official website 1978 births Living people 21st-century American actresses Actresses from Philadelphia African-American actresses African-American women rappers African-American television talk show hosts American television talk show hosts American women rappers American film actresses American hip hop record producers American television actresses American voice actresses American women record producers APRA Award winners East Coast hip hop musicians Feminist musicians Grammy Award winners for rap music Rappers from Philadelphia Record producers from Pennsylvania Ruff Ryders artists Women hip hop record producers 21st-century American rappers 21st-century American women musicians 21st-century African-American women 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217185	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20places%20in%20Guatemala	List of places in Guatemala	This is a list of places in Guatemala. List of most populous cities in Guatemala Population data based on the 2002 census. Ancient cities and important ruins Cancuén Dos Pilas El Baul Iximche Kaminaljuyu Machaquila El Mirador La Joyanca Mixco Viejo Naranjo Nakbé Piedras Negras Quirigua Q'umarkaj Tikal Natural features Caribbean Sea Pacific Ocean Volcán de Agua Volcán de Fuego Lakes See also List of national parks of Guatemala Lists of cities in Central America References External links Guatemala Cities Guatemala	[ -0.0595850832760334, 1.0246073007583618, -0.24311888217926025, -0.18077118694782257, -0.5238794684410095, 0.02960652858018875, 0.7008243799209595, 1.3130851984024048, -0.8607350587844849, -0.19342374801635742, -0.3001879155635834, -0.046223271638154984, 0.06304353475570679, 0.8625887632369995, -0.21786367893218994, 0.2965557873249054, 0.4284854829311371, 0.8803671002388, 0.3042374551296234, -0.30336707830429077, -0.007315821945667267, -0.911237359046936, 0.13797882199287415, -0.4024570882320404, 0.027142727747559547, 0.19187729060649872, 0.3904745876789093, 0.17818832397460938, 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217186	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambanteinn	Gambanteinn	In Norse mythology, Gambanteinn (Old Norse gambanteinn 'magic wand') appears in two poems in the Poetic Edda. Hárbarðsljóð In Hárbarðsljóð stanza 20, Hárbarðr says: A giant hard was Hlébard, methinks: His gambanteinn he gave me as gift, And I stole his wits away. Skírnismál In Skírnismál (Stanzas 25 to 26) Skírnir speaks to Gerd: Seest thou, maiden, this keen, bright sword That I hold here in my hand? Before its blade the old giant bends,— Thy father is doomed to die. I strike thee, maid, with my gambanteinn, To tame thee to work my will; There shalt thou go where never again The sons of men shall see thee. Skírnir then condemns Gerd to live lonely and hideous, unloved, either married to a three-headed giant or forever unwed. It might seem that this gambanteinn also refers to the sword with which Skirnir has previously threatened Gerd. But immediately after concluding his curse, Skírnir says (stanza 32): I go to the wood, and to the wet forest, To win a gambanteinn; . . . . . . . . . I won a gambanteinn. The poem then continues with further threats by Skírnir condemning Gerd to a life of misery. 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217189	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collateral%20estoppel	Collateral estoppel	Collateral estoppel (CE), known in modern terminology as issue preclusion, is a common law estoppel doctrine that prevents a person from relitigating an issue. One summary is that, "once a court has decided an issue of fact or law necessary to its judgment, that decision ... preclude[s] relitigation of the issue in a suit on a different cause of action involving a party to the first case". The rationale behind issue preclusion is the prevention of legal harassment and the prevention of overuse or abuse of judicial resources. Issue Parties may be estopped from litigating determinations on issues made in prior actions. The determination may be an issue of fact or an issue of law. Preclusion requires that the issue decided was decided as part of a valid final judgment. In the United States, valid final judgments of state courts are given preclusive effect in other state and federal courts under the Full Faith and Credit Clause of the U.S. Constitution. Valid final judgments must be issued by courts with appropriate personal and subject matter jurisdiction. It is notable, however, that an error does not make a decision invalid. Reversible errors must be appealed. The legal defense (CE) applies even if an erroneous judgment, or erroneous use of legal principles, occurred in the first action. An incorrect conclusion of the court in the first suit does not cause defendant to forsake the protection of res judicata (and by extension, of CE). A judgment need not be correct to preclude further litigation; it is sufficient that it be final, and that it have been decided on the merits of the case. Collateral estoppel does not prevent an appeal of a decision, or a party from asking the judge for re-argument or a revised decision. In federal court, judgments on appeal are given preclusive effect. However, if the decision is vacated, the preclusive effect of the judgment fails. Due process concerns Collateral estoppel cases raise constitutional due process problems, particularly when it is applied to a party that did not participate in the original suit. Due process mandates that collateral estoppel not be applied to a party that has not litigated the issue in dispute, unless that party is in legal privity to a party that litigated it. In other words, every disputant is entitled to a day in court and cannot ordinarily be bound by the negative result of another disputant's suit, even if that other disputant had exactly the same legal and factual arguments. Due process concerns also can arise even when a party did have a day in court to dispute an issue. For example, a defendant may have not effectively litigated an issue decided against the defendant in an earlier suit because the damages were too small, so it may be unjust to bar the defendant from relitigating the issue in a trial for much greater damages. As another example, suppose that a defendant did effectively litigate an issue to a favorable conclusion in nine cases, but to an unfavorable result in a tenth case. In this situation, note that the defendant did not have the opportunity to use the nine judgments in its favor as collateral estoppel against subsequent plaintiffs, because that would violate their right to a day in court. As suggested by the U.S. Supreme Court in Parklane Hosiery Co, Inc. v. Shore, to allow a subsequent plaintiff to use the tenth, negative judgment as collateral estoppel against the defendant may seem unjust. Mutuality Traditionally, collateral estoppel applied only where there was mutuality of parties, meaning that both the party seeking to employ collateral estoppel and the party against whom collateral estoppel is sought were parties to the prior action. Most courts in the United States have now abandoned mutuality as a requirement for collateral estoppel in most circumstances. The California Supreme Court case of Bernhard v. Bank of America, authored by justice Roger J. Traynor, began a movement away from the application of mutuality in collateral estoppel. Bernhard claimed that certain assets held by the executor Cook of a decedent's estate were part of that estate, while the executor claimed they had been gifted to him by the decedent. In a previous court action it was decided that the assets were gifts to the executor and not assets in escrow, upon which Bernhard sued the bank that had been holding the assets and that had disbursed them to the executor, alleging again that the assets were property of the estate and should have been handled as estate matter. The bank successfully used CE as defense, arguing that Bernhard had already adjudicated the right to those funds and had lost. The court concluded that it was proper for a new party to take advantage of findings in a previous suit to bar action by a party of that suit. Since Bernhard had a full and fair opportunity to litigate the issue in her first suit, the court did not allow her to retry the same issue by merely switching defendants. The precedent of Bernhard holds that collateral estoppel may be used as defense against any party who has fully and fairly litigated an issue in a previous action. In the absence of mutuality, courts are more hesitant to apply collateral estoppel in an offensive setting than in a defensive one. In other words, courts are more hesitant to apply collateral estoppel to a defendant from a previous action if the defendant is sued by a new plaintiff for the same issue. Strategy Collateral estoppel may be used either defensively or offensively; mutually or non-mutually: Defensive mutual collateral estoppel Used against the plaintiff from the first suit regarding issue(s) that were previously litigated against the defendant from the first suit Defensive non-mutual collateral estoppel Used by a new defendant in a subsequent suit who wants to assert a final judgment on an issue(s) against the plaintiff from the first suit Offensive mutual collateral estoppel Used against the defendant from the first suit by the plaintiff (from the first suit) in a subsequent suit thereby preventing relitigation on an issue already decided Offensive non-mutual collateral estoppel Used by a new plaintiff in a subsequent suit who wants to assert a final judgment on an issue(s) against the defendant from the first suit U.S. Courts employ "Fairness Factors" from Parklane Hosiery Co., Inc. v. Shore, to determine validity of the offensive non-mutual collateral estoppel: Could the party trying to assert collateral estoppel have intervened in the earlier suit? Did defendant have incentive to litigate the first action? Are there multiple, prior inconsistent judgments? Are there any procedural opportunities available to defendant in the second suit that were not available in the first suit? Collateral estoppel may be avoided as a defense if the claimant did not have a full and fair opportunity to litigate the issue decided by a state court, which means he may file suit in federal court to challenge the adequacy of state procedures. Note that in this case the plaintiff's suit would be against the state, not against the other party from the prior lawsuit. In the U.S., the doctrine of offensive non-mutual collateral estoppel does not extend to the U.S. government; it is limited to private litigants. Rationale Collateral estoppel is an efficiency rule that is meant to save judicial resources by avoiding the relitigation of issues of fact that have already been litigated. The rule is also intended to protect defendants from the inequity of having to defend the same issue repeatedly. But note that the use of offensive non-mutual collateral estoppel may work against the goal of judicial economy. The offensive use encourages potential plaintiffs to sit and "test the waters" to see the strength of the defendant's case. If the defendant's case is weak, there is great incentive for new parties to sue and claim that the defendant is estopped based on the prior adverse ruling. Related concepts Collateral estoppel is closely related to the concept of claim preclusion, which prevents parties relitigating the same cause of action after it has been decided by a judge or jury. Res judicata (literally - that which has been decided) can be used as the term for both concepts, or purely as a synonym for claim preclusion. Under the doctrine of res judicata, a judgment on the merits in a prior suit bars a second suit involving the same parties or their privies based on the same cause of action. Under the doctrine of collateral estoppel, on the other hand, the second action is upon a different cause of action and the judgment in the prior suit precludes relitigation of issues litigated and necessary to the outcome of the first action. Res judicata may be used as a defense in a second suit which involves the same claim as a prior suit, and is conclusive on all matters which were litigated as well as all matters which could have been litigated in the prior suit. In collateral estoppel the judgment is conclusive only regarding the issues which were litigated. In order for CE to apply, four factors must be met: The issues in the second suit are the same as in the first suit The issues in the first suit must have been litigated The issues in the first suit must have been decided The issues must have been necessary to the court's judgment See also direct estoppel. Criminal law Although issue preclusion emerged from civil law, in the United States it has applied to federal criminal law since United States v. Oppenheimer in 1916. In 1970 in Ashe v. Swenson, the United States Supreme Court applied it to double jeopardy to limit prosecution for crimes committed at the same time. 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217192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20prosecution	Selective prosecution	In jurisprudence, selective prosecution is a procedural defense in which defendants argue that they should not be held criminally liable for breaking the law, as the criminal justice system discriminated against them by choosing to prosecute. In claims of selective prosecution, defendants essentially argue that it is irrelevant whether they are guilty of violating a law, but that the fact of being prosecuted is based upon forbidden reasons. Such a claim might, for example, entail an argument that persons of different age, race, religion, or gender, were engaged in the same illegal acts for which the defendant is being tried and were not prosecuted, and that the defendant is only being prosecuted because of a bias. In the US, this defense is based upon the 14th Amendment, which stipulates, "nor shall any state deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." The Supreme Court of the United States has defined the term as: "A selective prosecution claim is not a defense on the merits to the criminal charge itself, but an independent assertion that the prosecutor has brought the charge for reasons forbidden by the Constitution." The defense is rarely successful; some authorities claim, for example, that there are no reported cases in at least the past century in which a court dismissed a criminal prosecution because the defendant had been targeted based on race. In United States v. Armstrong (1996), the Supreme Court ruled the Attorney General of the United States and United States Attorneys "retain 'broad discretion' to enforce the Nation's criminal laws" and that "in the absence of clear evidence to the contrary, courts presume that they have properly discharged their official duties." Therefore, the defendant must present "clear evidence to the contrary", which demonstrates "the federal prosecutorial policy 'had a discriminatory effect and that it was motivated by a discriminatory purpose.'" See also Equal protection Malicious prosecution Selective enforcement References Further reading David Cole, No Equal Justice (New Press rev. ed. 2008) Angela Davis, Arbitrary Justice: The Power of the American Prosecutor (Oxford 2007) Cassia Spohn, Samuel Walker & Miriam Delone, The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America (2006) Criminal defenses	[ 0.31778237223625183, 0.050451431423425674, -0.5106238126754761, 0.2616001069545746, -0.05160411447286606, 0.4768170118331909, 0.3065294623374939, -0.2221938669681549, -0.6254278421401978, 0.025680365040898323, -0.06545016914606094, 0.5368391275405884, -0.11866435408592224, 0.17193560302257538, -0.44583067297935486, 0.6760593056678772, 0.4130745530128479, -0.07421013712882996, 0.39413270354270935, -0.45637357234954834, 0.013622209429740906, 0.14801810681819916, -0.3917921781539917, -0.24417249858379364, 0.22791117429733276, -0.17912441492080688, 0.0012224256061017513, 0.08770553022623062, -0.3501874804496765, 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217196	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifetime%20%28TV%20network%29	Lifetime (TV network)	Lifetime is an American basic cable channel that is part of Lifetime Entertainment Services, a subsidiary of A&E Networks, which is jointly owned by Hearst Communications and The Walt Disney Company. It features programming that is geared toward women or features women in lead roles. , it is received by 93.8 million households in America. History Predecessors There were two television channels that preceded Lifetime in its current incarnation. Daytime, originally called BETA, was launched in March 1982 by Hearst-ABC Video Services. The cable service operated four hours per day on weekdays. The service was focused on alternative women's programming. The following year, the Cable Health Network was launched as a full-time channel in June 1982 with a range of health-related programming. Hearst/ABC-Viacom Entertainment Services Lifetime was established on February 1, 1984, as the result of a merger of Hearst/ABC's Daytime and Viacom's Cable Health Network. A board for the new network was formed with equal representation from Hearst, ABC, and Viacom, and the board elected Thomas Burchill as the new network's first CEO. It was not an initial success, reportedly losing $36 million in its first two years of operation, and did not become profitable until 1986. The channel suffered from low viewership, with a poll reportedly finding that some TV viewers erroneously believed it carried religious content. In 1985, Lifetime started branding itself as "Talk Television," with a nightly lineup of talk shows and call-in programs hosted by people including Regis Philbin and Dr. Ruth Westheimer (known as "Dr. Ruth"). In the process, the creators dropped the apple from the logo. During the 1980s and early 1990s, Lifetime devoted itself on Sundays to the airing of in-depth medical programs—and advertising—for physicians under the banner of Lifetime Medical Television (LMT). As early as 1990, however, plans were floated to move LMT to another channel, with TLC and CNBC being considered. Lifetime began programming Sundays on August 1, 1993. In 1988, Lifetime hired Patricia Fili as its head of programming. In the first three years of her tenure, she changed 60 percent of Lifetime's programming, by her own estimate. In addition to overhauling Lifetime's signature talk show, Attitudes, by hiring a new producer and refocusing it on current women's issues, Fili acquired the rights to syndicated network hits like Moonlighting and L.A. Law. She also oversaw the production of the first Lifetime movies ever made, along with carrying the final three seasons of the Blair Brown–starring dramedy The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd from NBC after the network canceled it. The network also showed movies from the portfolios of its owners, Hearst, ABC, and Viacom. In 1991, reporter Joshua Hammer stated, "Considered one of cable TV's backwaters, [...] Lifetime network was replete with annoying gabfests for housewives and recycled, long-forgotten network television series, such as Partners in Crime and MacGruder and Loud. [...] Under Fili's direction, Lifetime has gone a long way toward shedding its low-rent image." Douglas McCormick became the network's president in 1993. He moved to make Lifetime a seven-day-a-week network by ending Lifetime Medical Television after nearly a decade of existence, and the next year, the channel relaunched with a new tagline, "Television for Women". Lifetime began airing a limited amount of women's sports coverage, including the WNBA and the America's Cup, in which it sponsored the first women's crew team to compete. McCormick also strengthened the network's ties with women's organizations, such as the National Organization for Women, and began airing public service announcements about women's issues, such as breast cancer awareness. Meanwhile, the channel's original programming was aimed not just at women aged 24–44, but these women's spouses, who research showed watched the network in the evenings with their wives. This was done by making the male characters in Lifetime's original programming – such as the film series Spencer for Hire – more appealing to men by making them more masculine. These roles were more stereotypical than previous Lifetime movies, which usually featured women protagonists on their own. This helped Lifetime take advantage of a known bias in the Nielsen ranking system that favored "upscale" couples who shared a television set. By January 1995, Lifetime was the sixth most-highly rated subscription network by Nielsen. Lifetime Entertainment Services In 1996, TCI, one of the United States' largest subscription providers, announced that it would no longer carry Lifetime in certain markets to make room for the soon-to-be-launched Fox News Channel, in which TCI held a financial stake. According to Lifetime executives, the network stood to lose up to one million subscribers due to TCI's move. However, Lifetime published advertisements in some of the markets that would be affected – including Eugene, Oregon and Newport, Rhode Island – informing customers that TCI was removing the only network that was made for women. After TCI customers called the company to complain, TCI cut back the number of homes that would lose Lifetime to approximately 300,000. Still, women's groups and politicians rallied behind Lifetime. Colorado representative Patricia Schroeder called TCI's decision a "power play" between TCI chief executive John Malone and Fox executive Rupert Murdoch, and said, "Women kind of feel like they're being rolled over so that the guys who run these companies can make more money." Massachusetts Congressman Barney Frank said that the decision showed that Fox "might have an agenda of its own that is anti-woman." TCI executives were surprised and angry about the public's reaction. TCI's vice president of programming was quoted in The New York Times as saying, "I resent the implication that they are the women's network. Other networks come in to us and say Lifetime is not telling the truth. Lifetime is a women's channel only in name and advertising. [...] It programs for ratings." TCI senior vice president Robert Thomson stated that the reaction was "laughably out of scale," based on the fact that less than 10 percent of Lifetime's audience would be affected. TCI executives chalked the politicians' reactions up to lobbying by Lifetime (it being an election year), and suggested to the Times that in retaliation, Disney, one of Lifetime's parent companies, might have trouble launching a new network on TCI. In 1997, it was reported that Lifetime had 67.7 million subscribers. A&E ownership On August 27, 2009, Lifetime was acquired by A&E Networks; the company was already owned by Lifetime's shareholders Hearst and Disney, but with additional shares owned by NBC Universal. NBCUniversal divested its stake in A&E Networks in 2012, once again leaving the network as a Disney/Hearst joint venture. Programming Lifetime's original content is currently composed of made-for-TV films and reality series, such as Dance Moms. The network states that it "is committed to offering the highest quality entertainment and information programming, and advocating a wide range of issues affecting women and their families." In the past, Lifetime used to air several game shows in daytime and early evenings, including Supermarket Sweep, Shop 'til You Drop, Rodeo Drive, Born Lucky, and Debt. Lifetime also produced one original game show (Who Knows You Best?, starring Gina St. John), with a format based on The Newlywed Game; it was canceled after one season. The network has also previously produced scripted dramas, such as Devious Maids and Witches of East End. The network currently airs a mix of second-run syndicated series (such as How I Met Your Mother and Grey's Anatomy) during the daytime hours. In the past, Lifetime has revived several programs that originally aired on other networks. In 1988, it bought the rights to the existing 26 episodes of The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd from its original broadcaster NBC, and produced 39 additional episodes of the series. Lifetime did not renew the show reportedly because of low ratings and the high cost to produce the program. In late 2011, the network began to air new episodes of America's Most Wanted, a program canceled in series form by Fox at the end of the 2010–11 season, although special feature episodes continued to air intermittently on Fox. Lifetime aired more than 40 new episodes of the program before cancelling it in 2013. On July 21, 2017, Lifetime simulcasted the premiere of Disney Channel's original movie Descendants 2; marking the first time the channel premiered a program produced for a wholly-owned Disney subsidiary. In 2018, Lifetime premiered Harry & Meghan: A Royal Romance, a story about the relationship between Prince Harry and Meghan Markle. Films In addition to feature films, as well as made-for-television films previously broadcast on other networks, Lifetime is known for producing various original films of its own. These films are produced by the network's own Lifetime Pictures unit. A movie-focused spin-off channel, known informally as the Lifetime Movie Network or "LMN" due to its frequent rebrands, was launched in 1998. Sports In its early years, Lifetime occasionally broadcast coverage of women's professional sports. From its inaugural season in 1997 to 2000, Lifetime was one of three broadcasters of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), alongside NBC and ESPN. In 2000, Lifetime phased out its live broadcasts and replaced them with an original series documenting the lives of WNBA players. The network stated that it wanted to focus on "stories" rather than event coverage; the program package would move to ESPN2. As part of an arrangement with Raycom Sports, the network also broadcast the LPGA's Tournament of Champions in 1998. In February 2017, A&E Networks acquired an equity stake in the National Women's Soccer League, and announced that Lifetime would broadcast a weekly, Saturday-afternoon game beginning in the 2017 season. High-Definition Lifetime launched an HD simulcast on April 16, 2008. International versions Canada On May 30, 2012, Canadian television broadcaster Shaw Media announced that it would rebrand Showcase Diva, a Category B subscription specialty channel as the Canadian version of Lifetime under a licensing agreement with A+E Networks; Showcase Diva relaunched as Lifetime on August 27, 2012. Southeast Asia AETN All Asia Networks plans to bring the Lifetime channel into Southeast Asia. The channel began broadcasting on June 14, 2013, 6.00 p.m with Astro and StarHub TV being two of the first providers to carry Lifetime in Asia. In July, available in Hong Kong now TV channel 520. And since September 1, 2014, Lifetime Asia airs in the Philippines on Dream Satellite TV channel 18 and SkyCable. United Kingdom and Ireland A+E Networks UK launched a version of Lifetime for the UK and Ireland in November 2013. The network was unsuccessful in the market, as Lifetime's program contractors instead distributed their programming on different networks, and it slowly lost rights over the years. The channel closed at 06:00 on March 1, 2021, after A+E Networks UK contracted with Discovery+ to carry Lifetime's original network-produced American programming in the UK and Ireland. Latin America Lifetime announced the launch of a Latin American version of the network, which launched on July 1, 2014, in association with Sony Pictures Television Latin America. It supplanted the now-defunct Sony Spin channel (formerly known as Locomotion from 1996 to 2005 and Animax from 2005 to 2011) on the Amazonas satellite serving South America. Lifetime Latin America is currently distributed by Ole Distribution, currently based in Bogotá, Colombia, under license from A+E Networks Latin America and Sony Pictures Television Latin America. In Brazil, its programming is fully dubbed in Portuguese. In Mexico, it was launched on October 1, 2014, replacing The Biography Channel. Africa A+E Networks launched the African version of Lifetime on Channel 131 on DStv on July 22, 2014. Lifetime launched on Zuku TV on Channel 136. Israel A+E Networks launched a version of Lifetime for Israel on September 14, 2014, replaced The Biography Channel. Turkey On March 16, 2016, A&E Television Networks has announced that Lifetime (Turkey) channel was launched on April 26, 2016, in Turkey with cooperation of Multi Channel Developers. South Korea A localized version of Lifetime was launched on September 22, 2017, by A+E Networks Asia-Pacific and local company iHQ. Its programming primarily consists of Korean dramas, talk shows, and entertainment programs. Backstreet Rookie is the first Korean drama invested in by the channel. MENA In 2019, A&E Television Networks will launch a version of Lifetime for the Middle East & Northern Africa region. Australia A&E Television Networks launched a version of Lifetime Movie Network for the Australia and New Zealand region on September 1, 2020, as a joint venture with the Foxtel network. LRW LRW (Lifetime Real Women) is an American pay television channel which is intended as a complementary service to the main Lifetime network. It was launched in August 2001, mainly as a response to Lifetime's challenges from the then-launching WE tv and Oxygen networks for the women's network market. LRW is available in over 10 million homes via some cable providers, Verizon FiOS, and AT&T U-verse. The network has a mixture of comedies, dramas, how-to, game shows and reality programming that had once aired or is currently airing on the main Lifetime network, and formerly imported series with rights held by Lifetime but no carriage due to the main network's current format. LRW also features no original series or films, deferring from Lifetime and LMN, though it did burn off the 2011 Lifetime reality series Love Handles: Couples in Crisis, which only aired twice on the main network. DirecTV carried the network until July 2007. Orby TV also carried the network for the last year of that service's existence. Overall carriage has declined as providers choose instead to carry high definition networks rather than standard definition-only channels such as LRW without original programming, and Lifetime itself promoting on-demand access to past series. Its programming has further been thinned out with the launch of TrueReal, a Scripps-owned digital broadcast network which draws from Lifetime's program archive for its own schedule, with Tegna's Twist also airing some outside-produced Lifetime programming. Lifetime Movie Club On July 2, 2015, Lifetime launched a streaming service branded as Lifetime Movie Club (LMC). The service offers over 2,000 titles, both originally-produced & acquired by Lifetime. References External links Television networks in the United States English-language television stations in the United States Television channels and stations established in 1984 Former Comcast subsidiaries Former General Electric subsidiaries Former Vivendi subsidiaries Former Viacom subsidiaries 1996 mergers and acquisitions Women's interest channels 1984 establishments in the United States	[ 0.5012089014053345, -0.6376534104347229, 0.6405616402626038, 0.2915339767932892, 0.5508215427398682, -0.33209410309791565, 0.26284441351890564, 0.19116385281085968, -0.015943609178066254, 0.1086072251200676, 0.025215066969394684, 0.7741290926933289, -0.307924747467041, 0.2483135312795639, -0.34417152404785156, 0.42162492871284485, 0.35323089361190796, 0.7785378694534302, -0.572120726108551, -1.0273619890213013, -0.5192640423774719, -0.33516034483909607, 1.0365569591522217, -0.3508013188838959, -0.41508176922798157, -0.05831404775381088, 0.2805144488811493, 0.016535183414816856, 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217199	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20L.%20Alcorn	James L. Alcorn	James Lusk Alcorn (November 4, 1816December 19, 1894) was a slave owner, governor, and a U.S. senator during the Reconstruction of his adopted state of Mississippi. A moderate Republican, Alcorn engaged in a bitter rivalry with Radical Republican Adelbert Ames, who defeated him in the 1873 Mississippi gubernatorial race. He briefly served as a brigadier general of Mississippi state troops in Confederate Army service during the early part of the American Civil War. Among the Confederate generals who joined the post-Civil War Republican Party, only James Longstreet had been of higher rank than Alcorn. Early life and career Alcorn was born near Golconda in the Territory of Illinois to James Alcorn and Hanna Lusk, a Scots-Irish family. He attended Cumberland College in Princeton, Kentucky, and from, 1839 to 1844 served as deputy sheriff of Livingston County, Kentucky. He was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1838 and for six years practiced law in Salem, Kentucky. He served in the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1843 before he moved the following year to Mississippi. Alcorn set up a law office in Coahoma County. As his law practice flourished and his property holdings in the Mississippi Delta increased, he became a wealthy man. In 1850, he built a three-story house at his Mound Place Plantation in Coahoma County, at which he resided with his family. By 1860, he owned nearly a hundred slaves and held lands valued at a quarter of a million dollars. Alcorn served in the Mississippi House of Representatives and Mississippi Senate during the 1840s and 1850s being one of the leaders of the then Whigs in the state. The levee system was founded by him, and he was chosen president of the levee board. In the Mississippi legislature Alcorn pushed for construction of levees to protect Delta counties from flooding. A levee district was established in 1858 through his efforts. He ran for Congress in 1856 but was defeated. In 1857 Alcorn was nominated for governor by the Whigs, but declined. Alcorn was a delegate to the special Mississippi convention of 1851 called by Democratic Governor John A. Quitman, who as an opponent of Henry Clay's Compromise of 1850 advocated secession. Alcorn joined the Mississippi Unionists to thwart Quitman's plans. Like many other Whig planters, Alcorn opposed secession, pleading with the secessionists to reflect for a moment on the realities of national balance of power. He foretold a horrific picture of a beaten South, "when the northern soldier would tread her cotton fields, when the slave should be made free and the proud Southerner stricken to the dust in his presence." However, in January 1861, at the Mississippi state convention he joined the secessionists and was elected to the Committee of Fifteen to prepare the Ordinance of Secession. Civil War When secession was declared, Alcorn, although born in what became in 1818 the free, pro-Union state of Illinois, cast his lot with the Confederacy and was appointed by the State Secession convention as a brigadier general of the Mississippi state militia, but when his brigade entered the Confederate army, President Davis refused to commission him, on account of political differences. Alcorn during the war was in uniform for about eighteen months of inconspicuous field service, mainly in raising troops and in garrison duty. After the resignation of several major generals of the Mississippi state troops, including Jefferson Davis, Earl Van Dorn, and Charles Clark, Alcorn became eligible for promotion in rank, but was passed over because his political foe, John J. Pettus, was the governor of Mississippi at the time. At the start of the Civil War, Alcorn was ordered to proceed with his troops to central Kentucky; then he was stationed at Fort Donelson, Tennessee. In October 1861, Alcorn raised three regiments of militia troops committed to sixty-days of service in Mississippi and led his brigade to Camp Beauregard, Kentucky, at which he served under General Leonidas Polk. His field service ended after his brigade was disbanded in January 1862. Alcorn was taken prisoner in Arkansas in 1862, was paroled later in the year, and returned to his Mound Place Plantation in Mississippi. In 1863, he was elected to the Mississippi state legislature, where he joined critics of Confederate President Jefferson Davis. During the war, Alcorn spent a fortune raising and supplying troops. Additionally, in 1863 his plantation was raided by General Leonard Ross' troops during the Yazoo Pass Expedition, part of the Vicksburg Campaign. However, he managed to preserve part of his wealth during the war by trading cotton with the North. In November 1863, Alcorn wrote to his wife: "I have been very busy hiding & selling my cotton. I have sold in all one hundred & eleven bales, I have now here ten thousand dollars in paper (Green backs) and one thousand dollars in gold." After the war, he was estimated to be among the fifty wealthiest men in the South. Alcorn lost two sons. His older son, James Lusk Alcorn, Jr., committed suicide in 1879 after returning home from the war partially deaf and a drunkard. An inscription on the monument at the family cemetery attributes James' death to the "insane war of rebellion" (apparently his father's words). Seventeen-year-old Henry "Hal" Alcorn ran away during the war to join the military against his father's wishes, became ill, and was left behind and captured. He was held in Camp Chase and made his way to Richmond, Virginia after the surrender. He died of typhoid fever en route to Mississippi. Postbellum career Alcorn was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1865, but, like all Southerners who had attacked the U.S as part of the Confederacy, was not allowed to take a seat as Congress was divided over Reconstruction. He supported suffrage for freedmen and endorsed the Fourteenth Amendment. Alcorn became the leader of the scalawags, who comprised about a fourth of the Republican officials in the state, in coalition with carpetbaggers, African-Americans who had been free before the outbreak of the Civil War, and freedmen. Mississippi had a majority of African-Americans, the overwhelming majority of whom were freedmen. They had no desire to vote for the Democratic Party, which had carried the 1868 elections by intimidation and violence against blacks. Thus the vast majority of votes for Republican candidates came from African-Americans even though most of the Republican state office holders in Mississippi were whites. In the 1869 election, James Alcorn was elected governor of Mississippi, defeating Ulysses S. Grant's brother-in-law Lewis Dent. Alcorn served as governor until 1871. As a modernizer, he appointed many like-minded former Whigs, some of them since Democrats. He strongly supported public schools for all, and a new college exclusively for blacks, now known as Alcorn State University. He maneuvered to make his ally, Hiram Revels, the president of that institution. Irritated at his patronage policy, many Republicans opposed Alcorn. They were concerned as well over his understanding of African-American interests. His hostility to a state civil rights bill was well known; so was his unwillingness to appoint black local officers where a white alternative could be found. One complained that Alcorn's policy was to see "the old civilization of the South modernized" rather than lead a total political, social and economic revolution. Alcorn resigned the governorship to become a U.S. senator, with service from 1871 to 1877, when he was succeeded by L. Q. C. Lamar. He succeeded his ally, Hiram Revels, the first African American senator. Senator Alcorn urged the removal of the political disabilities of white southerners and rejected Republican proposals to end segregation in hotels, restaurants, and railroad cars by federal legislation; he denounced the federal cotton tax as robbery, and defended separate schools for both races in Mississippi. Although a former slaveholder, he characterized slavery as "a cancer upon the body of the nation" and expressed the gratification which he and many other Southerners felt over its destruction. Alcorn's estrangement from Senator Adelbert Ames, his northern-born colleague, deepened in 1871, as African-Americans became convinced that the former governor was not taking the problem of white terrorism seriously enough; and, in fact, Alcorn resisted federal action to suppress the Ku Klux Klan, having instead contended that state authorities were sufficient to handle the task. By 1873, the quarrel had deepened into an intense animosity. Both men ran for governor. Ames was supported by the Radicals and most African Americans, while Alcorn won the votes of conservative whites and most of the scalawags. Ames won by a vote of 69,870 to 50,490. Alcorn withdrew from active politics in the state and accused the new governor of being incapable and an enemy of the people. This was not true, but then, neither was Ames' view of Alcorn as an insincere and possibly corrupt man. When a second African-American Senator, Blanche K. Bruce, was elected in 1874, Alcorn refused to follow the customary procedure of introducing his new colleague to the Senate. In 1875, when Reconstruction was fighting for its life against a campaign of violence from the Democrats, Alcorn emerged, only to lead a white force against black Republicans at Friar's Point. The aftermath led to at least five black people being killed. During the Reconstruction period, Alcorn was an advocate of modernizing the South. Although a believer in white supremacy, he supported civil and political rights for African-Americans. In a letter to his wife (Amelia Alcorn, née Glover, of Rosemount Plantation in southern Alabama), he states that white Southerners must make African Americans their friend or the path ahead will be "red with blood and damp with tears." Alcorn was the founder of the Mississippi levee system and was instrumental in rebuilding the structures after the Civil War. After his retirement from politics, he was active in levee affairs and was a delegate to the Mississippian constitutional convention of 1890, in which he supported the black disenfranchisement clause that the state's Democrats had introduced in the new constitution. He was twice married: in 1839 to Mary C. Stewart of Kentucky, who died in 1849; and in 1850 to Amelia Walton Glover of Alabama. In his later life, Alcorn practiced law in Friars Point, Mississippi, and lived quietly at his home, Eagle's Nest, in Coahoma County. He was interred upon his death in 1894 in the family cemetery. Alcorn commissioned a statue of himself and after his death it was placed on his grave. Honors Alcorn County is named in his honor, as is the historically black Alcorn State University, the first black land grant university. See also List of American Civil War Generals (Acting Confederate) References Sources Harris, William C. (1979), The Day of the Carpetbagger: Republican Reconstruction in Mississippi. Harris, William C. (1967), Presidential Reconstruction in Mississippi. Louisiana State University Press. Pereyra, Lillian A. (1966), James Lusk Alcorn: Persistent Whig. LSU Press, the standard scholarly biography. Riley, Franklin Lafayette (1928), "Alcorn, James Lusk" in Dictionary of American Biography, Volume 1. External links 1816 births 1894 deaths People from Golconda, Illinois Cumberland College (Princeton, Kentucky) alumni Governors of Mississippi United States senators from Mississippi Mississippi state senators Members of the Mississippi House of Representatives Members of the Kentucky House of Representatives Mississippi Republicans Mississippi lawyers Kentucky sheriffs Confederate militia generals American people of Scotch-Irish descent Northern-born Confederates People of Mississippi in the American Civil War Republican Party United States senators Republican Party state governors of the United States American slave owners People from Coahoma County, Mississippi Burials in Mississippi 19th-century American politicians American white supremacists 19th-century American lawyers Military personnel from Illinois	[ -0.5657810568809509, 0.48003292083740234, -0.5300827622413635, -0.4241015315055847, 0.3472669720649719, 0.5435855984687805, 0.5639374256134033, 0.6474384069442749, 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217200	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Golden%20Girls	The Golden Girls	The Golden Girls is an American sitcom created by Susan Harris that aired on NBC from September 14, 1985, to May 9, 1992, with a total of 180 half-hour episodes, spanning seven seasons. With an ensemble cast starring Bea Arthur, Betty White, Rue McClanahan, and Estelle Getty, the show is about four older women who share a home in Miami, Florida. It was produced by Witt/Thomas/Harris Productions, in association with Touchstone Television. Paul Junger Witt, Tony Thomas, and Harris served as the original executive producers. The Golden Girls received critical acclaim throughout most of its run, and won several awards, including the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series twice. It also won three Golden Globe Awards for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy. Each of the four stars received an Emmy Award, making it one of only four sitcoms in the award's history to achieve this. The series also ranked among the Nielsen ratings' top ten for six of its seven seasons. In 2013, TV Guide ranked The Golden Girls number 54 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time. In 2014, the Writers Guild of America placed the sitcom at number 69 in their list of the "101 Best Written TV Series of All Time". Terry Tang of the Associated Press reported that the series continues to attract new fans in the 21st century and characterized it as an example of a sitcom that has aged well. Premise The show features an ensemble cast and the plot revolves around four older single women (three widows and one divorcée) sharing a house in Miami. The owner of the house is a widow named Blanche Devereaux (McClanahan), who was joined by fellow widow Rose Nylund (White) and divorcée Dorothy Zbornak (Arthur) after they both responded to an ad on the bulletin board of a local grocery store a year before the start of the series. In the pilot episode, the three are joined by Dorothy's 80-year-old widowed mother, Sophia Petrillo (Getty), after the retirement home where she has been living has burned down. Pilot The first episode features a cook/butler named Coco (played by Charles Levin), but the role was dropped before the second episode. The writers observed that in many of the proposed scripts, the main interaction between the women occurred in the kitchen while preparing and eating food. They decided that a separate cook would distract from their friendship. In addition, the character of Sophia had originally been planned as an occasional guest star, but Getty had tested positively with preview audiences, so the producers decided to make her a regular character. The pilot was taped on April 17, 1985. Finale The Golden Girls came to an end when Bea Arthur chose to leave the series. In the hour-long series finale, which aired in May 1992, Dorothy meets and marries Blanche's uncle Lucas (Leslie Nielsen) and moves to Hollingsworth Manor in Atlanta. Sophia is to join her, but in the end, she stays behind with the other women in Miami. This led into the spin-off series, The Golden Palace. The series finale of The Golden Girls was watched by 27.2 million viewers. As of 2016, it was the 17th-most watched television finale. Episodes Cast and characters Main Beatrice Arthur as Dorothy Zbornak (née Petrillo), a substitute teacher, was born in Brooklyn, New York City, to Sicilian immigrants, Sophia and Salvadore (Sal) Petrillo. Dorothy became pregnant while still in high school, resulting in a marriage to Stanley Zbornak (Herb Edelman) to legitimize the baby. Stan and Dorothy divorced after 38 years when Stan left the marriage for a young flight attendant. The marriage produced two children, Kate and Michael. In the series' final episode, Dorothy marries Blanche's uncle, Lucas Hollingsworth, and relocates to Atlanta. In season one, episode seven, Dorothy is stated to be 55. She is practical, sarcastic, easily angered, a follower of current events, and frequently the brunt of jokes about her supposed lack of attractiveness. Betty White as Rose Nylund (née Lindström), a Norwegian American, is from the small farming town of St. Olaf, Minnesota. Often naive and known for her humorously peculiar stories of life growing up in her hometown, Rose was happily married to Charlie Nylund, with whom she had five children, daughters Kirsten, Bridget, and Gunilla, and sons Adam and Charlie, Jr. Upon Charlie's death, she moved to Miami. She eventually finds work at a grief-counseling center, but later switches careers and becomes assistant to a consumer reporter, Enrique Mas, at a local TV station. In later seasons, Rose becomes romantically involved with college professor Miles Webber. During season six, Miles is revealed to have been in the Witness Protection Program. Their relationship continues throughout the series and shortly into the sequel series, The Golden Palace. She is sweet, kind, and very competitive. Many of the jokes about Rose focus on her perceived lack of intelligence. Rue McClanahan as Blanche Devereaux (née Hollingsworth), a Southern belle, is employed at an art museum. Born into a wealthy family, Blanche grew up on a plantation outside of Atlanta, Georgia, prior to her relocation to Miami, where she lived with her husband, George, until his death. Their marriage produced six children, daughters Janet and Rebecca, and sons Doug, Biff, Skippy, and Matthew. A widow, Blanche is portrayed as self-absorbed and man-hungry. She has two sisters, Virginia and Charmaine, and a younger brother, Clayton. Another brother of Blanche's, Tad, is seen in the spin-off series. Many of the jokes about Blanche focus on her promiscuity. Estelle Getty as Sophia Petrillo, Dorothy's mother, was born in Sicily; Sophia moved to New York after fleeing an arranged marriage to Guido Spirelli. She married Salvadore "Sal" Petrillo, with whom she had three children, Dorothy, Gloria, and Phil, a cross-dresser who later dies of a heart attack (episode "Ebbtide's Revenge"). Initially a resident of the Shady Pines retirement home after having a stroke prior to the start of the series, she moved in with Blanche, Rose, and Dorothy following a fire at the institution. Sophia is portrayed as a quick-witted straight talker, and a great cook. Recurring Herb Edelman as Stanley Zbornak, Dorothy's cheating, freeloading ex-husband, who left her to marry a young flight attendant, who later left him. Stan married another woman, Catherine, in season four, but they divorced off-screen in season five. Stanley worked as an unsuccessful novelty salesman until he became a successful entrepreneur by inventing the "Zbornie", which was a utensil used to open baked potatoes. Many of Stan's plot lines were centered around the fact that Dorothy was still bitter about their divorce and the way he left her. Attempts at reconciliation were made by both Stan and Dorothy throughout the series, particularly episode 12 of season one and episodes 16 and 17 of season six. They made a peaceful truce, in the series finale, when Stan accepted Dorothy marrying another man. Harold Gould as Miles Webber, Rose's professor boyfriend from season five onwards. In season six, Miles reveals he is in the witness protection program and was a bookkeeper for a mobster. Gould also guest-starred once in the first season as Arnie Peterson, Rose's first serious boyfriend after her husband Charlie's death. Sid Melton as Salvadore 'Sal' Petrillo, Sophia's late husband, is usually seen in dreams or flashback sequences. Melton also appears as Don the Fool, a waiter at a medieval-themed restaurant in season six. Shawn Schepps and Debra Engle, as Blanche's daughter, Rebecca Devereaux, was an overweight former model in an emotionally abusive relationship, but she later slimmed down and had a baby girl named Aurora by artificial insemination. Monte Markham and Sheree North as Blanche's siblings Clayton Hollingsworth and Virginia Hollingsworth Warren, were estranged for a long time, until they reconciled in season one. They became estranged in season five after their father's funeral. Clayton is a closeted gay man who had troubled coming out to Blanche, who eventually accepted his orientation when Clayton and his new boyfriend got married. Bill Dana and Nancy Walker portray Sophia's siblings Angelo Grisanti and Angela Grisanti Vecchio. Dana appears in seven episodes (seasons three-seven), while he also played Sophia's father in a season-four episode. Walker starred in two episodes in season two. Doris Belack and Dena Dietrich as Gloria Petrillo-Harker, Dorothy's younger sister, is married to a wealthy man in California. In a two-part episode, she has lost all of her money and becomes romantically involved with Stan, but she eventually comes to think of him as a yutz and breaks up with him. Scott Jacoby is Dorothy's traveling musician son Michael Zbornak; in season three, he married Lorraine, an older black woman who sang with his band, but by season five, they are divorced. Lynnie Greene (credited as Lyn Greene) is a younger Dorothy in flashbacks. Lisa Jane Persky and Deena Freeman portrayed Dorothy's daughter, Kate Zbornak, an interior decorator in New York, married to Dennis, a podiatrist. Production Creation Ideas for a comedy series about older women emerged during the filming of a television special at NBC Studios in Burbank, California, in August 1984. Produced to introduce the network's 1984–85 season schedule, two actresses appearing on NBC shows, Selma Diamond of Night Court and Doris Roberts of Remington Steele, appeared in a skit promoting the upcoming show Miami Vice as Miami Nice, a parody about old people living in Miami. NBC senior vice president Warren Littlefield was among the executive producers in the audience who were amused by their performance, and he envisioned a series based on the geriatric humor the two were portraying. Shortly afterward, he met with producers Paul Junger Witt and Tony Thomas, who were pitching a show about a female lawyer. Though Littlefield nixed their idea, he asked if they would be interested in delivering a pilot script for Miami Nice, instead. Their regular writer declined, so Witt asked his wife, Susan Harris, who had been semiretired since the conclusion of their ABC series Soap. She found the concept interesting, as "it was a demographic that had never been addressed," and she soon began work on it. Though her vision of a sitcom about women in their 60s differed from NBC's request for a comedy about women around 40 years old, Littlefield was impressed when he received her pilot script and subsequently approved production of it. The Cosby Show director Jay Sandrich, who had previously worked with Harris, Witt, and Thomas on Soap, agreed to direct the pilot episode. The pilot included a gay houseboy, Coco (Charles Levin), who lived with the girls. Levin had been suggested by then-NBC president Brandon Tartikoff based on Levin's groundbreaking portrayal of a recurring gay character, Eddie Gregg, on NBC's Emmy-winning drama Hill Street Blues. After the pilot, the character of Coco was eliminated from the series. Walt Disney, NBC Studios and the creators were named in a federal copyright infringement suit filed by Nancy Bretzfield claiming the show was based on a script rejected by NBC in 1980. The suit was later settled. Casting The part of Sophia Petrillo was the first of the four roles to be cast. Estelle Getty auditioned and won the role as the feisty mother of character Dorothy Zbornak, due, in part, to the rave reviews she garnered in her off-Broadway role reprisal for the 1984 Los Angeles run of Torch Song Trilogy. Afterwards, Getty had returned to New York, but gained permission from her manager to return to California in early 1985. Getty figured it would be her last chance to find television or film work. She would return home to New York if she were unsuccessful. Casting director Judith Weiner had seen Torch Song Trilogy, and thought Getty was terrific in it. She was also impressed by Getty's audition for the role of the mother of Steven Keaton (played by actor Michael Gross) for a guest episode of Family Ties. Although Getty was impressive, the show's producers went with another actress. Getty came to Weiner's mind soon after, when it became time to begin casting of The Golden Girls. Getty, who went through a three-hour transformation to become Sophia, wore heavy make-up, thick glasses, and a white wig to look the part. The character of Sophia was thought by the creators to enhance the idea that three retirement-aged women could be young. Disney's Michael Eisner explains, "Estelle Getty made our three women into girls. And that was, to me, what made it seem like it could be a contemporary, young show." Getty continuously battled stage fright during her tenure on the show. In a 1988 interview, Getty commented on her phobia and expressed how working with major stars, such as Arthur and White, made her even more nervous. At times, she even froze on camera while filming. Hired to shoot the pilot, director Jay Sandrich also became instrumental in helping to cast the roles of Blanche Devereaux and Rose Nylund. Both Rue McClanahan and Betty White came into consideration, as the series Mama's Family, in which the two co-starred, had been cancelled by NBC. Producers wanted to cast McClanahan as Rose and White as Blanche based on roles they previously played; White portrayed man-hungry Sue Ann Nivens on The Mary Tyler Moore Show, while McClanahan co-starred as sweet but scatterbrained Vivian Harmon in Maude. Eager not to be typecast, they took the suggestion of Sandrich and switched roles at the last minute. In the pilot script, Blanche was described as "more Southern than Blanche DuBois", so McClanahan was perplexed when she was asked by director Sandrich during the filming of the pilot not to use the strong Southern accent she had developed, but to use her natural Oklahoma accent instead. Once the show was picked up for a first season, new director Paul Bogart felt exactly the opposite, insisting that McClanahan use a Southern accent. McClanahan deliberately exaggerated her accent, stating, "I played Blanche the way I felt Blanche. She thought an accentuated Southern accent...would be sexy and strong and attractive to men. She wanted to be a Southern heroine, like Vivien Leigh. In fact, that's who I think she thought she was." Though Harris had created the character of Dorothy with a "Bea Arthur type" in mind, Littlefield and the producers initially envisioned actress Elaine Stritch for the part. Stritch's audition flopped, however, and under the impression that Arthur did not want to participate, Harris asked McClanahan if she could persuade Arthur, with whom she worked previously on the CBS sitcom Maude, to take the role. Arthur flipped upon reading the script, but felt hesitant about McClanahan's approach, as she did not "want to play (their Maude characters) Maude and Vivian meet Sue Ann Nivens." She reconsidered, however, after hearing that McClanahan and White had switched roles. Bea Arthur and Betty White worked well together in shared mutual respect, but they did not pursue a personal friendship with one another outside of The Golden Girls set. Arthur's son, Matthew Saks, later spoke of tension between the two actresses, stating that his mother, "unknowingly carried the attitude that it was fun to have somebody to be angry at...It was almost like Betty became her nemesis, someone she could always roll her eyes about at work." Both actresses had dramatically different training and acting backgrounds; Saks commented on White's habit of breaking the fourth wall to engage and joke with the studio audience during breaks between filming, which Bea Arthur found unprofessional. In 2011, White stated that she believed it was her "positive attitude" and perky demeanor that got on Arthur's nerves. Interestingly, Arthur preferred that her three castmates and she all break for lunch together on workdays. Writing and taping The show was the second television series to be produced by the Walt Disney Company under the Touchstone Television label, and was subsequently distributed by Buena Vista International, Inc. (which holds as the ownership stake in Disney Channel Southeast Asia, now Disney–ABC Television Group). Creator Susan Harris went on to contribute another four episodes to the first season, but became less involved with the sitcom throughout its run; she continued reading all scripts, though, and remained familiar with most of the storylines. Kathy Speer and Terry Grossman were the first head writers of the series, and wrote for the show's first four seasons. As head writers, Speer and Grossman, along with Mort Nathan and Barry Fanaro, who won an Emmy Award for outstanding writing the first season, gave general ideas to lower staff writers, and personally wrote a handful of scripts each season. In 1989, Marc Sotkin, previously a writer on Laverne & Shirley and a producer on another Witt/Thomas series, It's a Living, assumed head-writing responsibilities, and guided the show (to varying degrees) during what were its final three seasons. Richard Vaczy and Tracy Gamble, previously writers on 227 and My Two Dads, also assumed the roles of producers and head writers. Beginning in 1990, Marc Cherry served as writer and producer, years before creating Desperate Housewives, which ran on ABC from 2004 to 2012. Mitchell Hurwitz also served as writer for the show in its last two seasons. Hurwitz later created Arrested Development for Fox and later for Netflix. Cherry commented on read-throughs of the scripts that "generally, if the joke was a good one, the women found a way to make it work the very first time they read it. You have a lot of table reads where the actors will mess it up because they don't understand what the characters are doing, or they misinterpret. But the women were so uniformly brilliant at nailing it the first time...we basically knew that if the women didn't get it right the first time, the joke needed to be replaced." According to Cherry, the writers' room was "a competitive atmosphere. There was a lot of competition to get your words into the script." Writer Christopher Lloyd explained that the usual situation was for all of the more junior writers to be assigned the same scene to write, with the one judged the best version becoming the one chosen. This "created a great deal of stress and competitiveness amongst those of us who weren't in that inner sanctum." After season three, Arthur had expressed her growing dissatisfaction with the disparaging jokes made about her physical appearance, which were often in the script. She expressed that she would not continue if changes were not made, but changes were made and jokes regarding Dorothy's physique appeared less often. Christopher Lloyd later said, "I think that was a mistake we made, to be a little bit insensitive to someone who was an extremely sensitive person...I think we pushed that [the jokes about Arthur's appearance] a little bit far and I think she let it be known she didn't love that." Estelle Getty's stage fright, which affected her from the beginning of the show, grew worse as the show went on. According to McClanahan, by the end of season three, Getty's anxiety had become a serious problem, and she had increasing trouble memorizing her lines. To aid her retention, Getty tried hypnosis, and the show hired an assistant to run lines with her before taping; neither method worked. She took to writing her lines on props at which she could glance easily, like the wicker purse Sophia always carried with her. The cast often had to stay behind after the audience had departed to redo scenes where Getty had flubbed her lines, and although this was at first met with resistance from the producers, cue cards were eventually introduced to help her. Rue McClanahan, who shared a dressing room with Getty, described the severity of Getty's stage fright: "She'd panic. She would start getting under a dark cloud the day before tape day...You could see a big difference in her that day. She'd be walking around like Pig-Pen under a black cloud. By tape day, she was unreachable. She was just as uptight as a human being could get. When your brain is frozen like that, you can't remember lines." Getty died in 2008, the result of dementia with Lewy bodies. Her co-stars, in an interview, said that her disease had progressed to the point that she was not able to hold conversations with them or recognize them. She had reportedly started to show signs of the dementia during the filming of the television series, when, despite more than three decades of theater work, she began to struggle to remember her lines, and in later seasons of the show, had to rely on cue cards. During season six, some uncertainty arose over whether Bea Arthur would commit to future seasons, or leave the show once her contract expired to pursue other projects. Arthur felt the characters had been in every possible scenario, and wanted to end the series while it was still successful. Debbie Reynolds was brought on as a guest star in the season-six episode "There Goes the Bride: Part 2" to test her chemistry with the other actresses as a possible replacement for Arthur, but producers decided that nobody could replicate the chemistry of the four original actresses. In any event, Arthur chose to commit to a seventh and final season. Exterior and interior sets The house's address was mentioned as being 6151 Richmond Street, Miami. The model used for exterior shots of the house from the third season through the end of the series was part of the backstage studio tour ride at Disney's Hollywood Studios. This façade, along with the Empty Nest house, sustained hurricane damage leading to Disney's 2003 decision to bulldoze the houses of "Residential Street" and construct its Lights, Motors, Action!: Extreme Stunt Show attraction, later replaced by Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge. The façade was based on a real house at 245 North Saltair Avenue in the Westgate Heights neighborhood of Los Angeles. Producers used this residence for exterior shots during the first two seasons. In 2020, owners marketed the property for $3 million. The show's designer, Ed Stephenson, took inspiration from his time living in Florida to design a "Florida look" for The Golden Girls house set. The wooden accents, columns, and doors were painted to mimic bald cypress wood, popular in South Florida homes, with rattan furniture and tropical-printed upholstery chosen for the furniture. The kitchen set seen on The Golden Girls was originally used on an earlier Witt/Thomas/Harris series, It Takes Two, which aired on ABC from 1982 to 1983. However, the exterior backdrop seen through the kitchen window changed from the view of Chicago high-rises to palm trees and bushes for the Miami setting. Space was limited on the soundstage, so when the kitchen was off camera, it was usually detached from the rest of the set and the space used for something else. The doorway from the living room, with the alcove and baker's shelf just inside, was designed to give the illusion that the actors were walking into and out of the kitchen. Costumes Costume designer Judy Evans created distinctive looks for each of the four actresses to suit their character's personalities and to reflect the Florida setting. According to Evans, "I wanted a sexy, soft, and flowing look for Rue, a tailored, pulled-together look for Bea, a down-home look for Betty, and comfort for Estelle." Anna Wyckoff of the Costume Designers Guild wrote, "Evans took the direction from the producers to create a vibrant look for the four mature leads, and ran with it...redefining what "dressing your age" looked like." Many of the character's outfits were designed by Evans and made specially, but seven to ten costume changes per episode were made between the four actresses, which entailed a great deal of off-the-rack shopping. Evans generally dressed the actresses in expensive pieces and high-quality fabrics, despite the recurring theme that the four characters were struggling with money, because, "The main idea was to make them look good. We didn't want the show to be about four dowdy ladies." Bea Arthur had a preference for wearing loose-fitting clothing, like slacks and long sweaters, along with sandals, because she hated wearing shoes. She had established this signature look while playing Maude, and Evans honored it in her designs for Dorothy. Much of Arthur's wardrobe was custom-made because at the time, finding off-the-rack clothing that was flattering for a taller woman was difficult. Rue McClanahan had a special clause written into her contract allowing her to keep her costumes, which were mostly custom-made using expensive fabrics. Eventually, McClanahan went on to create a clothing line for QVC called "A Touch of Rue", inspired by Blanche, but made with affordable fabrics and practical designs. Format The Golden Girls was shot on videotape in front of a live studio audience. Many episodes of the series followed a similar format or theme. For example, one or more of the women would become involved in some sort of problem, often involving other family members, men, or an ethical dilemma. At some point, they would gather around the kitchen table and discuss the problem, sometimes late at night and often while eating cheesecake, ice cream, or some other dessert. One of the other girls then told a story from her own life, which somehow related to the problem (though Rose occasionally regaled the others with a nonsense story that had nothing to do with the situation, and Sophia told outrageous, made-up stories). Some episodes featured flashbacks to previous episodes, flashbacks to events not shown in previous episodes, or to events that occurred before the series began. Though the writing was mostly comical, dramatic moments and sentimental endings were included in several episodes. One of the actresses on the show, Bea Arthur, actually hated cheesecake. Reception Critical reception During the NBC upfronts, the preview screening of the show got a standing ovation. The show promptly received a full order of 12 episodes. Ratings An instant ratings hit, The Golden Girls became an NBC staple on Saturday nights. The show was the anchor of NBC's Saturday line-up, and almost always won its time slot, as ABC and CBS struggled to find shows to compete against it, the most notable being ABC's Lucille Ball sitcom Life With Lucy in the beginning of the 1986–87 season although it aired at 8:00, an hour earlier. The Golden Girls was part of a series of Brandon Tartikoff shows that put an end to NBC's ratings slump, along with The Cosby Show, 227, Night Court, Miami Vice, and L.A. Law. The show dealt with many controversial issues, such as coming out and same-sex marriage, elder care, homelessness, poverty, HIV/AIDS and discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS, US immigration policy, sexual harassment, teenaged pregnancy, artificial insemination, adultery, bad medical care, sexism, miscegenation and interracial marriage, antisemitism, age discrimination, environmentalism, addiction to pain killers, problem gambling, nuclear war, death, and assisted suicide. Writer and producer Linda Bloodworth-Thomason created a sitcom with this kind of image as a "four women" show, which became Designing Women on CBS. Designing Women began competing against The Golden Girls. At the request of Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, who was reputedly a big fan, the cast of The Golden Girls performed several skits as their characters in front of other members of the royal family and her at the 1988 Royal Variety Performance in London. NBC Timeslots Seasons one-six: Saturday at 9:00 pm Season seven: Saturday at 8:00 pm Awards and nominations During its original run, The Golden Girls received 68 Emmy nominations, 11 Emmy awards, four Golden Globe Awards, and two Viewers for Quality Television awards. All the lead actresses won Emmy awards for their performances on the show. The Golden Girls is one of four live-action shows, along with All in the Family, Will & Grace, and Schitt's Creek, where all the principal actors have won at least one Emmy. As a tribute to the success of The Golden Girls, all four actresses were later named Disney Legends as part of the class of 2009. Distribution Syndication Beginning July 3, 1989, NBC added daytime reruns of the show, replacing long-running Wheel of Fortune (which had moved to CBS) on the NBC schedule at 11:00 am(EST); it ran until September 1990. At this time, syndicated reruns began airing, distributed by Buena Vista Television (now Disney–ABC Domestic Television), the syndication arm of Disney, whose Touchstone Television division produced the series. In March 1997, the Lifetime cable network acquired the exclusive rights to repeat the episodes of The Golden Girls in the US until March 1, 2009. Many episodes were edited to allow more commercials and for content. Both the Hallmark Channel and WE tv picked up the reruns in March 2009. As of February 2013, WE tv's rights expired and Viacom networks' TV Land, home to Betty White's last series Hot in Cleveland, purchased them, as did Logo TV. In 2020, CMT purchased the rights to the series. In Australia, the show airs daily on Fox Classics. As of 2019, every episode is available for streaming on Stan. As of December 1, 2021, every episode was made available to stream on Disney+. In Canada, Corus Entertainment's digital specialty channel, DejaView, aired reruns of The Golden Girls until 2017. In Southeast Asia, Rewind Networks began airing reruns of The Golden Girls on its HD channel, HITS, in 2013. In New Zealand, the series aired on TVNZ and is replayed on public holidays and it is shown on Jones!. In the United Kingdom, the series aired on Channel 4, Living and Disney Channel. Another brief run of the show began on 27 April 2020 till summer 2020 on Channel 5, but only showed episodes up to the season-four finale and is returning to Channel 4 starting from early 2022. Every episode of The Golden Girls was made available to stream on Hulu on February 13, 2017. Film Forever Golden: A Celebration of The Golden Girls released in select movie theaters across North America via Fathom Events on September 14, 2021, marking the show's 36th anniversary. The film featured five episodes from the show: "The Pilot", "The Flu", "The Way We Met", "Ladies of the Evening" and "Grab That Dough". Home media Buena Vista Home Entertainment has released all seven seasons, with edits, of The Golden Girls on DVD in Region 1 and Region 4 with the first four being released in Region 2. On November 9, 2010, the studio released a complete-series box set titled The Golden Girls: 25th Anniversary Complete Collection. The 21-disc collection features all 180 episodes of the series as well as all special features contained on the previously released season sets; it is encased in special collectible packaging, a replica of Sophia's purse. On November 15, 2005, Warner Home Video released The Golden Girls: A Lifetime Intimate Portrait Series on DVD which contains a separate biography of Arthur, White, McClanahan and Getty, revealing each woman's background, rise to stardom and private life, which originally aired on Lifetime network between June 2000 and January 2003. Continuation and spin-offs A continuation, The Golden Palace, aired in the 1992–1993 season, starring all the main cast with the exception of Bea Arthur (though she did guest star). Upon the success of The Golden Girls, creator Susan Harris later devised Empty Nest as a spin-off with some character crossovers. Nurses was later spun-off from Empty Nest, and the shows occasionally had special episodes in which characters from one show made appearances in the others. The Golden Palace After the original series ended, White, McClanahan, and Getty reprised their characters in the CBS series The Golden Palace, which featured Rose, Blanche, and Sophia selling their house to buy and run a hotel in Miami. It ran from September 1992 to May 1993 and also starred Cheech Marin and Don Cheadle. Bea Arthur was not a part of the main cast but did guest star in a double episode, reprising her role as Dorothy. The show never approached the popularity or acclaim of the original, and ranked 57th in the annual ratings. Reportedly, a second season was approved before being cancelled the day before the network announced its 1993–94 schedule. Lifetime, which held the rights to The Golden Girls at the time, aired reruns of The Golden Palace in the summer of 2005, and again in December of that year. This was the first time since 1993 that The Golden Palace was seen on American television. Until April 2006, Lifetime played the series as a virtual season eight, airing the series in between the conclusion of the final season and the syndicated roll-over to season one. Empty Nest Susan Harris developed a spin-off centering on the empty nest syndrome. The initial pilot was aired as the 1987 Golden Girls episode "Empty Nests", and starred Paul Dooley and Rita Moreno as George and Renee Corliss, a married couple living next to the Golden Girls characters, who face empty nest syndrome after their teenaged daughter goes to college. When that idea was not well received, Harris retooled the series as a vehicle for Richard Mulligan, and the following year Empty Nest debuted, starring Mulligan as pediatrician Harry Weston, a widower whose two adult daughters moved back home. Characters from both shows made occasional crossover guest appearances on the other show, with the four girls guesting on Empty Nest and Mulligan, Dinah Manoff, Kristy McNichol, David Leisure, and Park Overall appearing on The Golden Girls in their Empty Nest roles. After the end of The Golden Palace, Getty joined the cast of Empty Nest, making frequent appearances as Sophia in the show's final two seasons. Mulligan and Manoff were alumni from one of Susan Harris' earlier shows, Soap. Nurses Empty Nest launched its own spin-off in 1991 set in Miami in the same hospital where Dr. Weston worked. The series starred Stephanie Hodge and a set of other young nurses. As one of the few times in television history where three shows from the same producer, set in the same city, aired back-to-back-to-back on the same network, the three shows occasionally took advantage of their unique circumstance to create storylines carrying through all three series, such as "Hurricane Saturday". Starring actress Hodge left after two seasons, David Rasche joined the cast at the start of the second season, and Loni Anderson was added as the new hospital administrator in the third. Adaptations Stage The Golden Girls: Live! was an off-Broadway show that opened in the summer of 2003 in New York City at Rose's Turn theater in the West Village, and ran until November of that year. The production ended because the producers failed to secure the rights and received a cease-and-desist order by the creators of the original television show. Featuring an all-male cast in drag, The Golden Girls: Live! consisted of two back-to-back episodes of the sitcom: "Break-In" (season one, episode eight) and "Isn't It Romantic?" (season two, episode five). The cast of The Golden Girls, Sophia, Dorothy, Blanche, and Rose, have been even further immortalised in two puppet parody shows Thank You For Being A Friend and That Golden Girls Show: A Puppet Parody, both created by Australian screenwriter Thomas Duncan-Watt and producer Jonathan Rockefeller. International versions Chile: : In 2015, a Chilean remake called Los Años Dorados (The Golden Years) was produced by UCVTV in agreement with Disney, starring famous Chilean actresses Gloria Münchmeyer, Carmen Barros, Ana Reeves, and Consuelo Holzapfel, who live their retirement in the city of Viña del Mar. It was a success for the channel, so plans were made to do the second season in 2016. Egypt: : In 2020, an Arabic remake broadcaster Dubai TV and MBC Masr premiered a show called سكر زيادة (Extra Sugar); it was produced by Cedars Art Production (Sabbah Brothers) Cedars Art Production in agreement with Disney. It was a success for the channel, And it was a Ramadan 30 episode exclusive and it started broadcasting on April 24, 2020 / and stopped May 24th, 2020. Israel: Bnot HaZahav ran from 2011 to 2016. Greece: In 2008, Greek broadcaster ET1 premiered a Greek remake entitled Chrysa Koritsia (, Gold[en] Girls), which features the four women in Greece. Each of the characters has been hellenized to suit the culture and modern setting. Names were only slightly changed, but more for cultural reasons, as Sophia (whose first name was unchanged, as it is Greek), Bela (Blanche), Dora (Dorothy), Fifi (Rose), and Panos (Stan). The series began airing in mid-January, and features many similar plots to the original. ET1 aired a rerun of the show in the summer of 2008 and managed to take a place in the top-10 ratings chart, presented by AGB Nielsen Media Research. The Greek edition features Mirka Papakonstantinou as Dora, Dina Konsta as Sofia, Eleni Gerasimidou as Fifi, and Ivonni Maltezou as Bela. Netherlands: : A Dutch remake for the RTL 4 network stars Loes Luca as Barbara (Blanche), Beppie Melissen as Els (Dorothy), Cecile Heuer as Milly (Rose), and Pleuni Touw as Toos (Sophia). The show premiered in fall 2012, using essentially the same plots as the U.S. version, along with a Dutch-language version of the original theme song, "Thank You for Being a Friend". The Philippines: 50 Carats, O Di Ba? A Philippine version of The Golden Girls (spin-off) aired during the early 1990s by IBC 13 starred Nida Blanca, Charito Solis, and Gloria Romero. Russia: Bolshie Devochki: A Russian remake was broadcast on Channel One in 2006, entitled Bolshie Devochki (), which in English can literally be translated to: Grown Girls. The series featured renowned Russian actresses Galina Petrova as Irina (Dorothy), Olga Ostroumova as Nadejda (Blanche), Valentina Telechkina as Margarita (Rose), and Elena Millioti as Sofya (Sophia). However, the concept never caught on with Russian viewers and the show was canceled after only 32 episodes. Spain: /: In 1996, TVE launched a Spanish remake entitled Juntas pero no revueltas (Together, but not mixed) with Mercedes Sampietro as Julia (Dorothy), Mónica Randall as Nuri (Blanche), Kiti Manver as Rosa (Rose), and Amparo Baró as Benigna (Sophia). Low ratings made it disappear after one season. In 2010, another remake with the title Las chicas de oro (The Golden Girls) was announced, again on TVE, this time produced by José Luis Moreno and with Concha Velasco as Doroti (Dorothy), Carmen Maura as Rosa (Rose), Lola Herrera as Blanca (Blanche), and Alicia Hermida as Sofía (Sophia). The series premiered on September 13, 2010, with success. However, after only 26 episodes, the series was eventually discontinued after the end of the first season after receiving generally bad reviews and following dropping ratings. Portugal: Queridas e Maduras: In July 1995, RTP premiered Queridas e Maduras (in English, Dear Mature Girls) a Portuguese version of the American sitcom. The show featured renowned Portuguese actresses Catarina Avelar as Edite (Dorothy), Amélia Videira as Inês (Rose), Lia Gama as Salomé (Blanche) and the veteran actress Luísa Barbosa as Aparecida (Sophia). The Portuguese version got two seasons, the first in 1995 and the second in 1996, adapting episode plots from the first two seasons of the original series. Turkey: . In 2009, broadcaster ATV premiered Altın Kızlar (literally translated to English as "The Golden Girls"). It was produced by Play Prodüksiyon. Rather than residing in Miami, the women shared a condo in residential part of Beyoğlu. As in other foreign adaptations, it featured well-known local actresses. The key roles were filled by Fatma Girik as Safıye (the 'Sophia' character), Hülya Koçyiğit as İsmet ('Dorothy'), Nevra Serezli as Gönül ('Blanche') and Türkan Şoray as Inci ('Rose'). The show lasted only one episode, consisting of story lines from two of the original American series: "The Engagement" (Season 1, Episode 1) and "The Triangle" (Season 1, Episode 5). United Kingdom: Brighton Belles: In 1993, ITV premiered Brighton Belles, a British version of the American sitcom. The show, starring Sheila Hancock, Wendy Craig, Sheila Gish, and Jean Boht was nearly identical to Girls except for character name changes and actor portrayals. The 10-episode series was canceled after six weeks due to low ratings, with the final four episodes airing more than a year later. Restaurant In 2017, a Golden Girls-themed eatery, Rue la Rue Cafe owned by Rue McClanahan's close friend Michael La Rue, who inherited many of the star's personal belongings and in turn decorated the restaurant with them, opened in the Washington Heights section of the New York City borough of Manhattan. The eatery closed in November 2017 after less than a year of operation. References Further reading External links Encyclopedia of Television @ccess The Golden Girls Wiki 1980s American sitcoms 1985 American television series debuts 1990s American sitcoms 1992 American television series endings Best Musical or Comedy Series Golden Globe winners English-language television shows Fictional quartets NBC original programming Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series winners Television series about old age Television series by ABC Studios Television series by Disney–ABC Domestic Television Television shows filmed in Los Angeles Television shows set in Florida Television shows set in Miami Works about old age	[ -0.7587246894836426, -0.2668452262878418, 0.19580136239528656, 0.46725404262542725, -0.01908618025481701, 0.0859975516796112, 0.6652636528015137, 0.22933924198150635, -0.5319128632545471, 0.24011912941932678, -0.33726394176483154, 0.3744552433490753, 0.08149643242359161, 0.5710827112197876, -0.6012064814567566, -0.2125566303730011, 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217201	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bea%20Arthur	Bea Arthur	Beatrice Arthur (born Bernice Frankel; May 13, 1922 – April 25, 2009) was an American actress, comedian, singer, and activist. Arthur began her career on stage in 1947. She won the 1966 Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical for playing Vera Charles in Mame. She went on to play Maude Findlay on the sitcoms All in the Family (appearing 1971–72) and Maude (1972–78), as well as Dorothy Zbornak on the sitcom The Golden Girls (1985–92). She won Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series in 1977 for Maude and 1988 for The Golden Girls. Her film appearances include Lovers and Other Strangers (1970) and Mame (1974). In 2002, she starred in the one-woman show Bea Arthur on Broadway: Just Between Friends. An obituary described Arthur as “the tall, deep-voiced actress whose razor-sharp delivery of comedy lines made her a TV star ….” Early life Bernice Frankel was born on May 13, 1922, the middle of three daughters, to Rebecca ( Pressner, born in Austria) and Philip Frankel (born in Poland) in Brooklyn, New York City. Arthur was raised in a Jewish home with an older sister, Gertrude and a younger sister, Marian (1926-2014). In 1933, the Frankel family relocated to Cambridge, Maryland, where her parents subsequently operated a women's clothing shop. At age 16, young Bernice Frankel developed a serious condition called coagulopathy, in which her blood would not clot. Concerned for her health, her parents decided to send her to Linden Hall School for Girls, an all-girls' boarding school in Lititz, Pennsylvania, for her final two years of high school. Afterwards she studied for a year at Blackstone College for Girls in Blackstone, Virginia. During World War II, Frankel enlisted as one of the first members of the United States Marine Corps Women's Reserve in 1943. After basic training, she served as a typist at Marine headquarters in Washington, D.C. In June 1943, the Marine Corps accepted her transfer request to the Motor Transport School at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. Frankel then worked as a truck driver and dispatcher in Cherry Point, North Carolina, between 1944 and 1945. She was honorably discharged at the rank of staff sergeant in September 1945. After serving in the Marines, Frankel studied for a year at the Franklin School of Science and Arts in Philadelphia, where she became a licensed medical technician. After interning at a local hospital for the summer, she decided against working as a lab technician, departing for New York City in 1947 to enroll in the School of Drama at The New School. That same year, she married fellow Marine Robert Alan Aurthur. They divorced three years later, but she kept his surname, with the spelling adjusted to "Arthur". Career Theater From 1947, Beatrice Arthur studied at the Dramatic Workshop of The New School in New York, N.Y. with German director Erwin Piscator. Arthur began her acting career as a member of an off-Broadway theater group at the Cherry Lane Theatre in New York City in the late 1940s. Onstage, her roles included Lucy Brown in the 1954 Off-Broadway premiere of Marc Blitzstein's English-language adaptation of Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, Nadine Fesser in the 1957 premiere of Herman Wouk's Nature's Way at the Coronet Theatre, Yente the Matchmaker in the 1964 premiere of Fiddler on the Roof on Broadway. In 1966, Arthur auditioned for the title role in the musical Mame, which her husband Gene Saks was set to direct, but Angela Lansbury won the role instead. Arthur accepted the supporting role of Vera Charles, for which she won great acclaim, winning a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical the same year. She reprised the role in the unsuccessful 1974 film version opposite Lucille Ball. In 1981, she appeared in Woody Allen's The Floating Light Bulb. She made her debut at the Metropolitan Opera in 1994 portraying the Duchess of Krakenthorp, a speaking role, in Gaetano Donizetti's La fille du régiment. In 1995, she starred opposite Renée Taylor and Joseph Bologna in Bermuda Avenue Triangle in Los Angeles. Television In 1971, Arthur was invited by Norman Lear to guest-star on his sitcom All in the Family, as Maude Findlay, the cousin of Edith Bunker. An outspoken liberal feminist, Maude was considered the antithesis role to the caricatured reactionary character Archie Bunker, who described her as a "New Deal fanatic". Nearly 50, Arthur's tart turn on All in the Family impressed viewers as well as executives at CBS who, she would later recall, asked "'Who is that girl? Let's give her her own series.'" That series, previewed in her second All in the Family appearance, would be simply titled "Maude". The show, debuting in 1972, found her living in the affluent community of Tuckahoe, Westchester County, New York, with her fourth husband Walter (Bill Macy) and divorced daughter Carol (Adrienne Barbeau). Her performance in the role garnered Arthur several Emmy and Golden Globe nominations, including her Emmy win in 1977 for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series. Maude would also earn a place for Arthur in the history of the women's liberation movement. The series addressed serious sociopolitical topics of the era that were considered taboo for a sitcom, including the Vietnam War, the Nixon Administration, Maude's bid for a Congressional seat, divorce, menopause, drug use, alcoholism, nervous breakdown, mental illness, women's lib, gay rights, abortion, and spousal abuse. A prime example is "Maude's Dilemma", a two-part episode airing near Thanksgiving of 1972 in which Maude's character grapples with a late-life pregnancy, ultimately deciding to have an abortion. Even though abortion was legal in New York State since 1970, as well as in California since its state's 1969 on-demand ruling, it was illegal in many other regions of the country and, as such, sparked controversy. As a result, dozens of affiliates refused to broadcast the episode when it was originally scheduled, substituting either a repeat from earlier in the season or a Thanksgiving TV special in its place. However, by the time of the summer rerun season six months later all the flak had died down, and the stations that refused to air the episode upon its first run reinstated it for the reruns the following summer. As a result, a reported 65 million viewers watched the two-episode arc either in their first run that November or during the following summer as a rerun. The episode initially aired two months before the U.S. Supreme Court legalized the procedure nationwide in the Roe v. Wade outcome in January 1973. By 1978, Arthur decided to move on from the series. Later in 1978, she costarred in Star Wars Holiday Special, in which she had a song and dance routine in the Mos Eisley cantina. She hosted The Beatrice Arthur Special on CBS on January 19, 1980, which paired the star in a musical comedy revue with Rock Hudson, Melba Moore and Wayland Flowers and Madame. Arthur returned to television in the short-lived 1983 sitcom Amanda's (an adaptation of the British series Fawlty Towers). The show was not a hit with audiences and only 10 of the 13 filmed episodes actually aired. In 1985, at the age of 63, Arthur was cast in The Golden Girls, in which she played Dorothy Zbornak, a divorced mother and substitute teacher living in a Miami house owned by widow Blanche Devereaux (Rue McClanahan). Her other roommates included widow Rose Nylund (Betty White) and Dorothy's Sicilian mother, Sophia Petrillo (Estelle Getty). Getty was actually a year younger than Arthur in real life. Initially, Betty White was cast as the man-hungry Blanche, and Rue McClanahan (who had previously co-starred with Arthur in Maude) was cast as the naive Rose. Arthur refused to be in a show essentially about Maude and Vivian living with Sue Ann Nivens. After White and McClanahan switched roles, Arthur reconsidered. The series was a hit and remained a top-ten rating fixture for six of its seven seasons. Arthur's performance as Dorothy Zbornak led to several Emmy nominations over the course of the series and an Emmy win in 1988. Arthur decided to leave the show after seven years, and in 1992, the show was moved from NBC to CBS and retooled as The Golden Palace in which the other three actresses reprised their roles, with Cheech Marin as their new foil. Arthur made a guest appearance in a two-part episode, but the new series lasted only one season. Film Arthur sporadically appeared in films, reprising her stage role as Vera Charles in the 1974 film adaption of Mame, opposite Lucille Ball. She portrayed overbearing mother Bea Vecchio in Lovers and Other Strangers (1970), and had a cameo as a Roman unemployment clerk in Mel Brooks' History of the World, Part I (1981). She appeared in the 1995 American movie For Better or Worse as Beverly Makeshift. Later career After Arthur left The Golden Girls, she made several guest appearances on television shows and organized and toured in her one-woman show, alternately titled An Evening with Bea Arthur as well as And Then There's Bea. She made a guest appearance on the American cartoon Futurama, in the Emmy-nominated 2001 episode "Amazon Women in the Mood", as the voice of the feminist "Femputer" who ruled a race of giant Amazonian women. She appeared in a first-season episode of Malcolm in the Middle as Mrs. White, one of Dewey's babysitters who was a strict disciplinarian. She was nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her performance. She also appeared as Larry David's mother on Curb Your Enthusiasm. In 2002, she returned to Broadway, starring in Bea Arthur on Broadway: Just Between Friends, a collection of stories and songs (with musician Billy Goldenberg) based on her life and career. The show was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Special Theatrical Event. In addition to appearing in a number of programs looking back at her own work, Arthur performed in stage and television tributes for Jerry Herman, Bob Hope, Ellen DeGeneres. In 2004, she appeared in Richard Barone's "There'll Be Another Spring: A Tribute to Miss Peggy Lee" at the Hollywood Bowl, performing "Johnny Guitar" and "The Shining Sea". In 2005, she participated in the Comedy Central roast of Pamela Anderson, where she recited sexually explicit passages from Anderson's book Star Struck in a deadpan fashion. Influences In 1999, Arthur told an interviewer of the three influences in her career: "Sid Caesar taught me the outrageous; [method acting guru] Lee Strasberg taught me what I call reality; and [original Threepenny Opera star] Lotte Lenya, whom I adored, taught me economy." Another source of influence to Arthur was that of famed actress/director Ida Lupino, whom Arthur praised: "My dream was to become a very small blonde movie star like Ida Lupino and those other women I saw up there on the screen during the Depression. " Personal life Arthur was married twice. Her first marriage took place in 1944, during her time in the military when she wed fellow Marine Robert Alan Aurthur, later a screenwriter, television, and film producer and director, whose last name she took and kept (though with a modified spelling). Shortly after they divorced in 1950, she married director Gene Saks with whom she adopted two sons, Matthew, an actor, and Daniel, a set designer. She and Saks remained married until 1978. In 1972, she moved to Los Angeles and sublet her apartment on Central Park West in New York City and her country home in Bedford, New York. In a 2003 interview, while in London promoting her one-woman show, she described the English capital as her "favorite city in the world". Arthur was a longtime champion of equal rights for women and an active advocate of the elderly and Jewish communities in both her major television roles and through her charity work and personal outspokenness. Contrary to the character she played as Maude, she was originally skeptical of the women's rights movement. Following her divorce from Gene Saks, she later adopted the language of that movement. Considered a longtime gay icon, she embraced the gay community that had supported her since the 1970s. Late in life, Arthur took up the cause of LGBTQ+ youth homelessness. She raised $40,000 for the Ali Forney Center with one of her final live performances, a revival of her one-woman Broadway show in 2005 after she had fallen ill with cancer. She would go on to advocate for the center until her death, telling Next Magazine, "These kids at the Ali Forney Center are literally dumped by their families because they are lesbian, gay or transgender — this organization really is saving lives." Regarding politics, Arthur herself was a liberal Democrat who confirmed her views by saying, "I've been a Democrat my whole life. That's what makes Maude and Dorothy so believable, we have the same viewpoints on how our country should be handled." Arthur was a private and introverted woman according to her friends. She was a particularly close mentor and friend to Adrienne Barbeau, who co-starred with her on Maude for six seasons. Barbeau was unavailable to perform regularly on the sitcom during its last season due to her schedule; nevertheless, the two remained close and stayed in touch for the rest of Arthur's life. In a 2018 interview with the American website Dread Central, Barbeau shared some of her feelings about her friend: Death and legacy Arthur died of lung cancer at her home in Brentwood, Los Angeles on April 25, 2009, aged 86. On April 28, 2009, the Broadway community paid tribute to Arthur by dimming the marquees of New York City's Broadway theater district in her memory for one minute at 8:00 p.m. On September 16, 2009, a public tribute to Arthur was held at the Majestic Theatre in Manhattan, where friends and colleagues including Angela Lansbury, Norman Lear, Rosie O'Donnell and Rue McClanahan paid tribute to the actress. Arthur's surviving co-stars from The Golden Girls, Rue McClanahan and Betty White, commented on her death via telephone on an April 27 episode of Larry King Live. On the Today Show by phone, McClanahan said she and Arthur got along together "like cream". White said "I knew it would hurt, I just didn't know it would hurt this much." Longtime friends Adrienne Barbeau (with whom she had worked on Maude) and Angela Lansbury (with whom she had worked in Mame) reflected on her death. Barbeau said, "We've lost a unique, incredible talent. No one could deliver a line or hold a take like Bea and no one was more generous or giving to her fellow performers". Lansbury said, "She became and has remained my bosom buddy [...] I am deeply saddened by her passing, but also relieved that she is released from the pain." Arthur bequeathed $300,000 to the Ali Forney Center, a New York City organization that provides housing for homeless LGBTQ+ youths. The center was heavily damaged in October 2012 by Hurricane Sandy, but has since been restored and re-opened. The Bea Arthur Residence, which opened in 2017, is an 18-bed residence in Manhattan for homeless LGBT youth operated by the Ali Forney Center. Awards Arthur won the American Theatre Wing's Tony Award in 1966 as Best Featured Actress in a Musical for her performance that year as Vera Charles in the original Broadway production of Jerry Herman's musical Mame. Arthur received the third most nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series with nine; only Julia Louis-Dreyfus (11) and Mary Tyler Moore (10) have more. She received the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences' Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series twice, once in 1977 for Maude and again in 1988 for The Golden Girls. She was inducted into the academy's Television Hall of Fame in 2008. On June 8, 2008, The Golden Girls was awarded the Pop Culture award at the Sixth Annual TV Land Awards. Arthur (in one of her final public appearances) accepted the award with McClanahan and White. Filmography Film Television Theater performances References External links Bea Arthur Interview, emmytvlegends.org; accessed June 13, 2014. Bea Arthur profile, Comedy Hall of Fame website; accessed June 13, 2014. Beatrice Arthur at the University of Wisconsin's Actors Studio audio collection; accessed June 13, 2014. Beatrice Arthur profile by Kirsten Fermaglich, Jewish Women Encyclopedia; accessed June 13, 2014. N.Y. Times obituary, April 26, 2009; accessed June 13, 2014. "Huffington Post" obituary; April 25, 2014; accessed June 13, 2014. "Beatrice Arthur: A towering comedic talent from another era", L.A. Times, August 27, 2009; accessed June 13, 2014 Entertainment Weekly article about her death, ew.com; accessed June 13, 2014. Beatrice Arthur obituary, Daily Telegraph; accessed June 13, 2014. 1922 births 2009 deaths 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses 20th-century American comedians 21st-century American comedians 20th-century American singers 20th-century American women singers Activists from Maryland Actresses from Maryland Blackstone College for Girls alumni American feminists American film actresses American musical theatre actresses American people of Austrian-Jewish descent American people of Polish-Jewish descent American stage actresses American television actresses Television personalities from New York City American women television personalities American women comedians American women's rights activists California Democrats Deaths from cancer in California Deaths from lung cancer Jewish activists Jewish American actresses Jewish feminists Jewish singers LGBT rights activists from the United States Marine Corps Women's Reserve personnel New York (state) Democrats Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners People from Cambridge, Maryland Tony Award winners The New School alumni Comedians from New York City Military personnel from New York City Jewish American female comedians United States Marine Corps non-commissioned officers 20th-century American Jews 21st-century American Jews	[ 0.30375924706459045, 0.05352814868092537, -0.48720595240592957, -0.04816880822181702, -0.028729168698191643, 0.7480722069740295, 0.7381327152252197, 0.02099740132689476, -0.4280076324939728, 0.014072384685277939, 0.22835464775562286, 0.23062612116336823, 0.08834563940763474, 0.23576423525810242, -0.6422718167304993, 0.2550661861896515, -0.22391994297504425, 0.38659897446632385, 0.3352088928222656, -0.6566381454467773, -0.5884650945663452, -0.2735546827316284, 0.1694139540195465, 0.30645355582237244, -0.7429429292678833, 0.4612078368663788, -0.3093566298484802, -0.10594990104436874, 0.2749010920524597, 0.4376218914985657, 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217203	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnasium%20%28school%29	Gymnasium (school)	Gymnasium (and variations of the word) is a term in various European languages for a secondary school that prepares students for higher education at a university. It is comparable to the British English terms grammar school and sixth form college and to US English preparatory high school. Before the 20th century, the gymnasium system was a widespread feature of educational systems throughout many European countries. The word (), from Greek () 'naked' or 'nude', was first used in Ancient Greece, in the sense of a place for both physical and intellectual education of young men. The latter meaning of a place of intellectual education persisted in many European languages (including Albanian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Greek, German, Hungarian, the Nordic languages, Dutch, Polish, Czech, Serbian, Macedonian, Slovak, Slovenian, and Russian), whereas in English and Spanish, the former meaning of a place for physical education was retained, in the colloquial, abbreviated form "gym." School structure Because gymnasiums prepare students for university study, they are thus meant for the more academically minded students, who are sifted out between the ages of 10–13. In addition to the usual curriculum, students of a gymnasium often study Latin and Ancient Greek. Some gymnasiums provide general education, while others have a specific focus. (This also differs from country to country.) The four traditional branches are: humanities (specialising in classical languages, such as Latin and Greek) modern languages (students are required to study at least three languages) mathematics and physical sciences economics and other social sciences (students are required to study economics, world history, social studies and business informatics) Curricula differ from school to school but generally include literature, mathematics, informatics, physics, chemistry, biology, geography, art (as well as crafts and design), music, history, philosophy, civics/citizenship, social sciences, and several foreign languages. Schools concentrate not only on academic subjects, but also on producing well-rounded individuals, so physical education and religion or ethics are compulsory, even in non-denominational schools which are prevalent. For example, the German constitution guarantees the separation of church and state, so although religion or ethics classes are compulsory, students may choose to study a specific religion or none at all. Today, a number of other areas of specialization exist, such as gymnasiums specializing in economics, technology or domestic sciences. In some countries, there is a notion of , which is equivalent to beginning classes of the full gymnasium, with the rights to continue education in a gymnasium. Here, the prefix pro- is equivalent to pre-, indicating that this curriculum precedes normal gymnasium studies. History In Central European, Nordic, Benelux and Baltic countries, this meaning for "gymnasium" (that is a secondary school preparing the student for higher education at a university) has been the same at least since the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. The term was derived from the classical Greek word "" (), which was originally applied to an exercising ground in ancient Athens. Here teachers gathered and gave instruction between the hours devoted to physical exercises and sports, and thus the term became associated with and came to mean an institution of learning. This use of the term did not prevail among the Romans, but was revived during the Renaissance in Italy, and from there passed into the Netherlands and Germany during the 15th century. In 1538, Johannes Sturm founded at Strasbourg the school which became the model of the modern German gymnasium. In 1812, a Prussian regulation ordered all schools with the right to send their students to the university to bear the name of gymnasium. By the 20th century, this practice was followed in almost the entire Austrian-Hungarian, German, and Russian Empires. In the modern era, many countries which have gymnasiums were once part of these three empires. By country Albania In Albania, a gymnasium () education takes three years following a compulsory nine-year elementary education and ending with a final aptitude test called . The final test is standardized at the state level and serves as an entrance qualification for universities. These can be either public (state-run, tuition-free) or private (fee-paying). The subjects taught are mathematics, Albanian language, one to three foreign languages, history, geography, computer science, the natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics), history of art, music, philosophy, logic, physical education, and the social sciences (sociology, ethics, psychology, politics and economy). The gymnasium is generally viewed as a destination for the best-performing students and as the type of school that serves primarily to prepare students for university, while other students go to technical/vocational schools. Therefore, gymnasiums often base their admittance criteria on an entrance exam, elementary school grades, or some combination of the two. Austria In Austria the Gymnasium has two stages, from the age of 11 to 14, and from 15 to 18, concluding with Matura. Historically, three types existed. The focuses on Ancient Greek and Latin. The puts its focus on actively spoken languages. The usual combination is English, French, and Latin; sometimes French can be swapped with another foreign language (like Italian, Spanish or Russian). The Realgymnasium emphasizes the sciences. In the last few decades, more autonomy has been granted to schools, and various types have been developed, focusing on sports, music, or economics, for example. Belarus In Belarus, gymnasium is the highest variant of secondary education, which provides advanced knowledge in various subjects. The number of years of instruction at a Gymnasium is 12, which is different from usual secondary education (11 years). However, it is possible to cover all required credits in 11 years, by taking additional subjects each semester. In Belarus, gymnasium is generally viewed as a destination for the best-performing students and as the type of school that serves primarily to prepare students for university. Czech Republic and Slovakia In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, (also spelled gymnasium) is a type of school that provides secondary education. leads to the exam. There are different types of distinguished by the length of study. In the Czech Republic there are eight-year, six-year, and four-year types, and in Slovakia there are eight-year and four-year types, of which the latter is more common. In both countries, there are also bilingual (Czech or Slovak with English, French, Spanish, Italian, German, or Russian; in Slovakia, bilingual are five-year) and private . Germany German gymnasiums are selective schools. They offer the most academically promising youngsters a quality education that is free in all state-run schools (and generally not above €50/month cost in Church-run schools, though there are some expensive private schools). Gymnasiums may expel students who academically under-perform their classmates or behave in a way that is often seen as undesirable and unacceptable. Historically, the German also included in its overall accelerated curriculum post-secondary education at college level and the degree awarded substituted for the bachelor's degree (Baccalaureate) previously awarded by a college or university so that universities in Germany became exclusively graduate schools. In the United States, the German Gymnasium curriculum was used at a number of prestigious universities, such as the University of Michigan, as a model for their undergraduate college programs. Pupils study subjects such as German, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geography, biology, arts, music, physical education, religion, history and civics/citizenship/social sciences and computer science. They are also required to study at least two foreign languages. The usual combinations are English and French or English and Latin, although many schools make it possible to combine English with another language, most often Spanish, Ancient Greek, or Russian. Religious education classes are a part of the curricula of all German schools, yet not compulsory; a student or their parents or guardians can conscientiously object to taking them, in which case the student (along with those whose religion is not being taught in the school) is taught ethics or philosophy. In-state schools, a student who is not baptized into either the Catholic or Protestant faiths is allowed to choose which of these classes to take. The only exception to this is in the state of Berlin, where the subject ethics is mandatory for all students and (Christian) religious studies can only be chosen additionally. A similar situation is found in Brandenburg where the subject life skills, ethics, and religious education (Lebensgestaltung, Ethik, Religionskunde, LER) is the primary subject but parents/guardians or students older than 13 can choose to replace it with (Christian) religious studies or take both. The intention behind LER is that students should get an objective insight on questions of personal development and ethics as well as on the major world religions. For younger students nearly the entire curriculum of a Gymnasium is compulsory; in higher years additional subjects are available and some of the hitherto compulsory subjects can be dropped, but the choice is not as wide as in other school systems, such as US high schools. Although some specialist Gymnasiums have English or French as the language of instruction, at most Gymnasiums lessons (apart from foreign language courses) are conducted in Standard German. The number of years of instruction at a Gymnasium differs between the states. It varies between six and seven years in Berlin and Brandenburg (primary school is six years in both as opposed to four years in the rest of Germany) and eight in Bavaria, Hesse and Baden-Württemberg among others. While in Saxony and Thuringia students have never been taught more than eight years in Gymnasium (by default), nearly all states now conduct the examinations, which complete the Gymnasium education, after 13 years of primary school and Gymnasium combined. In addition, some states offer a 12-year curriculum leading to the . These final examinations are now centrally drafted and controlled () in all German states except for Rhineland-Palatinate and provide a qualification to attend any German university. Italy In Italy originally the indicated a typology of five-year junior high school (age 11 to 16) and preparing to the three year Classical Lyceum (age 16 to 19), a high school focusing on classical studies and humanities. After the school reform that unified the junior high school system, the term stayed to indicate the first two year of , now five years long. An Italian high school student who enrolls in follows this study path: (gymnasium fourth year, age 14), (gymnasium fifth year, age 15), (lyceum first year, age 16), (lyceum second year, age 17) and (lyceum third year, age 18). Some believe this still has some sense, since the two-year has a differently oriented curriculum from the . students spend the majority of their schooling studying Greek and Latin grammar, laying the bases for the "higher" and more in depth set of studies of the , such as Greek and Latin literature and Philosophy. In July 1940 the Fascist Minister of National Education Giuseppe Bottai got a bill of law approved that abolished the first three years of the Gymnasium and instituted a unique path of studies for children aged from 12 to 14. The last two years of the Gymnasium kept the previous denomination and the related scholastic curriculum for the following decades. Netherlands In the Netherlands, gymnasium is the highest variant of secondary education, offering the academically most promising youngsters (top 5%) a quality education that is in most cases free (and in other cases at low cost). It consists of six years, after 8 years (including kindergarten) of primary school, in which pupils study the same subjects as their German counterparts, with the addition of compulsory Ancient Greek, Latin and (Classical Cultural Education), history of the Ancient Greek and Roman culture and literature. Schools have some freedom in choosing their specific curriculum, with for example Spanish, Philosophy and , a very technical and highly demanding course, being available as final exams. Usually, schools will have all classes mandatory in switching combinations for the first three or so years (with the exception of which is a free choice from the second year onward), after which students will choose their subjects in the directions of Economics and Society, Culture and Society, Nature and Health, Nature and Technology or Technology. The equivalent without classical languages is called , and gives access to the same university studies (although some extra classes are needed when starting a degree in classical languages or theology). All are government-funded. See (in English) for the full article on Dutch "preparatory scientific education". Nordic and Baltic countries In Denmark, Estonia, the Faroe Islands, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Latvia, Norway and Sweden, gymnasium consists of three years, usually starting at the year the students turn 16 years old after nine or ten years of primary school. In Lithuania the gymnasium usually consists of four years of schooling starting at the age of 15–16, the last year roughly corresponding to the first year of college. In the Nordic countries, education is meant to be free. This includes not only primary school but most gymnasiums and universities as well. Furthermore, to help decrease the heritage of historic social injustice, all countries except Iceland have universal grants for students. However, entrance is competitive and based on merit. In Denmark (see also Gymnasium (Denmark)), there are four kinds of gymnasiums: STX (Regular Examination Programme), HHX (Higher Business Examination Programme), HTX (Higher Technical Examination Programme) and HF (Higher Preparatory Examination Programme). HF is only two years, instead of the three required for STX, HHX, and HTX. All four type of gymnasiums theoretically gives the same eligibility for university. However, because of the different subjects offered, students may be better qualified in an area of further study. E.g. HHX students have subjects that make them more eligible for studies such as business studies or economics at university. There is also EUX, which takes four years and ends with both the STX exam and status as a journeyman of a craft. Compared to the somewhat equivalent A-levels in the UK, Danish gymnasia have more mandatory subjects. The subjects are divided into levels, where A-levels run through all three years, B-levels two years and C-levels one year (apart from PE which exists as a C-level lasting tree years). In Sweden, there are two different kinds of branches of studies: the first branch focuses on giving a vocational education while the second branch focuses on giving preparation for higher education. While students from both branches can go on to study at a university, students of the vocational branch graduate with a degree within their attended program. There are 18 national programs, 12 vocational and 6 preparatory. In the Faroe Islands, there are also four kinds of gymnasiums, which are the equivalents of the Danish programmes: (equivalent to STX), (HHX), (HTX) and HF (HF). and HF are usually located at the same institutions as can be seen in the name of the institute in Eysturoy: Studentaskúlin og HF-skeiðið í Eysturoy. In Greenland, there is a single kind of gymnasium, Den Gymnasiale Uddannelse (Ilinniarnertuunngorniarneq), that replaced the earlier Greenlandic Secondary Education Programme (GU), the Greenland Higher Commercial Examination Programme (HHX) and the Greenland education to Higher Technical Examination Programme (HTX), which were based on the Danish system. This program allows a more flexible Greenland gymnasium, where students based on a common foundation course can choose between different fields of study that meet the individual student's abilities and interests. The course is offered in Aasiaat, Nuuk, Sisimiut and Qaqortoq, with one in Ilulissat to be opened in 2015, latest in 2016 if approved by . In Finland, the admissions to gymnasiums are competitive, the accepted people comprising 51% of the age group. The gymnasiums concludes with the matriculation examination, an exam whose grades are the main criteria for university admissions. Switzerland In Switzerland, gymnasia (, ) are selective schools that provide a three- to six-year (depending on the canton) course of advanced secondary education intended to prepare students to attend university. They conclude with a nationally standardized exam, the or , often shortened to "Matura or Matur", which if passed allows students to attend a Swiss university. The gymnasia are operated by the cantons of Switzerland, and accordingly in many cantons they are called (cantonal school). Former Yugoslav countries In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, and Slovenia, a gymnasium education takes four years following a compulsory eight or nine-year elementary education and ending with a final aptitude test called Matura. In these countries, the final test is standardized at the state level and can serve as an entrance qualification for universities. There are either public (state-run and tuition-free), religious (church-run with secular curriculum and tuition-free) or private (fee-paying) gymnasium schools in these countries. The subjects taught are mathematics, the native language, one to three foreign languages, history, geography, informatics (computers), the natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics), history of art, music, philosophy, logic, physical education, and the social sciences (sociology, ethics or religious education, psychology, politics, and economy). Religious studies are optional. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Serbia and North Macedonia, Latin is also a mandatory subject in all gymnasiums, just as Ancient Greek is, with Latin, in a certain type of gymnasiums called Classical Gymnasiums (). In all of the countries, the gymnasium (/) is generally viewed as a destination for best-performing students and as the type of school that serves primarily to prepare students for university studies, while other students go to technical/vocational schools. Therefore, gymnasiums often base their admittance criteria on an entrance exam, elementary school grades, or a combination of the two. Countries with gymnasium systems : 3 years, after 9 years (4 years primary school and 5 years lower high school) of education, ends with at the age of 18. : Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires, 6 years; Rafael Hernández National College of La Plata, 5 years (formerly 6 years), after 7 years of primary school; and Gymnasium UNT 8 years, ends at the age of 18. : 8 years, after 4 years of primary school; or 4 years, after primary school and 4 years of ; ending in matura at the age 18. : 7 years, after 4 years of primary school. : 6 years, starting at age 11/13, after 6 years of primary school, ends at the age of 18 where students progress to a university. : Deutsche Schule Mariscal Braun La Paz, 6 years, ends with Abitur. : 4 years, starting at age 14/15 after 9 years in elementary school, ends with Matura : Humboldt Schule of São Paulo is a German school in São Paulo. There are more Gymnasiums in the country and some of them receive resources from the German government. : 5 years, after 7 years of primary school. Currently graduation after passing at least two Maturas. : (all-male, traditional and conservative Pre-K to 11th grade private school located in Bogotá, Colombia). : 4 years, starting at age 14/15 after 8 years in elementary school, five different educational tracks: (general education), (focused on Latin and Ancient Greek), (focused on modern languages), (biology, chemistry, physics) and (mathematics, physics and computer science), ends with Matura. Students of all tracks have compulsory classes in Latin and English as well as in at least one additional foreign language (most commonly German, Italian, Spanish and French). : 3 years, starting at age 12 and following 6 years of elementary school. Compulsory for all students. Followed by the non-mandatory Lyceum (ages 15–18) for students with academic aspirations or Secondary Technical and Vocational Lyceum TVE for students who prefer vocational training. After successfully completing the program, students of TVE are awarded a School Leaving Certificate, which is recognized as equivalent to a Lyceum School Leaving Certificate (three-grade Senior Secondary School). : 4 years, starting at age 15 or 16; 6 years, starting at age 13 or 14 (not usual); 8 years, starting at age 11 or 12; all ending in matura. : 3 years, or 4 years for athletes who are part of the Team Danmark elite sports program, and musicians who have chosen MGK ("Musical Elementary Course"), usually starting after 10 or 11 years of primary school. This is more like a prep school or the first years of college than high school. Everyone is eligible to go to a US high school, but one needs to be deemed competent to get into a gymnasium. (For more information, see Gymnasium (Denmark).) Gymnasium is also available in an intensive 2-year program leading to the ("Higher Preparatory Exam"). : 3 years, after 9 years of primary school. : 3 years, usually starting after 9 or 10 years of primary school. The system is similar to the Danish system. A gymnasium-level education is also available in an intensive 2-year programme leading to ("Higher Preparatory Exam"). : (educational language is Finnish) or (educational language is Swedish) takes 2–5 years (most students spend 3 years), after 9 years of primary school (, ); starts usually in the autumn of the year when the student turns 16 and ends with abitur after passing the matriculation examination; is not compulsory and its entrance is competitive. : the French equivalent of a gymnasium is called a (3 years, after 5 years of primary school and 4 years of secondary school, age 15/18). The last year (called ) ends with passing the , an examination to enter university. : formerly 8–9 years depending on the state—now being changed to 8 years nationwide, starting at 5th (at age 11), in 12th or 13th grade; for more information, see Gymnasium (Germany). : 3 years, starting at age 12 after 6 years of primary school. Compulsory for all children, it is followed by the non-mandatory , (Lyceum, ages 15–18), or the Vocational Lyceum (EPAL). The EPAL School Leaving Certificate is recognized equally as a Senior Secondary School Leaving Certificate (high school). : 4/6/8 years, starting after 8/6/4 years of primary school, ends with Matura; see Education in Hungary : usually 3–4 years, starting at age 15 or 16 after 10 years of elementary school. : five schools termed "gymnasium" located in Tel Aviv, Rishon LeZion, Jerusalem, and Haifa. : is the name of the two first years of : 7 years, after 5 years of primary school : 3 years, after 9 years of primary school : ends with Matura : —usually 4 years: 2 years of basic school after 4 years of basic school and 2 years of secondary school, sometimes 8 years: 6 of basic school and 2 of secondary school, 12 years in rural areas or in art/music gymnasiums. : usually 7 years, starting at age 12–13 after 6 years of primary school. : 4 years, starting at age 14/15 after 8 years in elementary school, 3 years for those who went in the elementary for 9 years; ends with Matura. : 6 years, starting at age 11–13, after 8 years of primary school. Prepares for admission to university. Gymnasia in the Netherlands have compulsory classes in Ancient Greek and/or Latin; the same high level secondary school without the classical languages is called Atheneum. They are both variants of . : the traditional but now discontinued gymnasium led to the completion of . This has now been succeeded by a 2-, 3-, or 4-year program (), depending on course path taken, starting at the age of 15/16, culminating with an exam that qualifies for university matriculation (). : was the name of the 3-year Polish compulsory middle school, starting at age of 12 or 13, following 6 years of primary school. ended with a standardized test. Further education was encouraged but optional, consisting of either 3-year , 4-year , or 2 to 3 years of vocational school (potentially followed by a supplementary or ). In 2017, Poland reverted to a compulsory 8-year primary school, optionally followed by a 4-year , a 5-year , or 2 to 3 years of vocational school. : 4 years, starting at age 10 ends with at the age of 14. Primary education lasts for four years. Secondary education consists of: 1) lower secondary school education organized in a gymnasium for grades 5 to 8 and lower cycle of high school or arts and trades schools (vocational) for grades 9 and 10; 2) upper secondary school education organized in for grades 11, 12, and 13 followed, if necessary, by an additional high school year for those who want to move from vocational training (grade 10) to upper secondary school education. High school education (lower cycle of high school and upper secondary school education) offers three different orientations (academic, technological, specialization). Imperial Russia: since 1726, 8 years since 1871. Women's gymnasiums since 1862; 7 years plus an optional 8th for specialisation in pedagogy. Progymnasiums: equivalent to 4 first years of gymnasium. Russian Federation: full 11 or 6–7 years after primary school. Nowadays there are very few schools in Russia which in their teaching principles and curriculum resemble the prerevolutionalry tradition of Classical Gymnasium. The notable exception is the St Petersburg Classical Gymnasium where Latin, Ancient Greek, and mathematics are the three core subjects. In the majority of other cases, Russian Gymnasiums are schools specialised in a certain subject (or several subjects) in the humanities (e.g. Chelyabinsk School No. 1). : 4 years, starting at age 14/15 after 8 years in elementary/primary school. There are three most common types of gymnasiums: 1) general gymnasium () which offers broad education in all sciences; 2) natural sciences (); and 3) social studies (), available all over Serbia, and a few specialised ones, e.g. mathematics ()—only one in all of Serbia, in Belgrade; sports ()—just two in Serbia; language ()—a total of four in Serbia; and military gymnasium ()—only one in all of Serbia. In the end, all students take a final exam—a Matura. Completion of the Gymnasium is a prerequisite for enrollment into a university. English and another foreign language (from the selection of German, French, Russian (most common languages), Italian or Spanish (far less common) or Chinese and Japanese (only philological gymnasiums have these two) in addition to the mother tongue, and in case of minorities also Serbian) are compulsory throughout. : 4 years starting at age 15/16 after completing 9 years of elementary school (more common); 8 years starting at age 11/12 after completing 5 years of elementary school; both end with Maturita. : 4 years, starting at age 14/15; ends with Matura. : Paul Roos Gymnasium is a well-known gymnasium for boys in the town of Stellenbosch. The school is a boarding school, based on the classic British boarding schools; however, it was more influenced by the Protestant faith, hence the German Gymnasium. Foreign languages such as French, German, Mandarin, and Latin are studied; Afrikaans and English are compulsory. School in South Africa: 5 years, starting at age 13/14, at a secondary institution, after 7 years of primary school, ends with Matric. : Upper secondary school in Sweden lasts for three years (formerly four years on some programmes). "Gymnasium" is the word used to describe this stage of the education system in Sweden. The National Agency of Education has decided that gymnasium is equivalent to the international upper secondary school. The gymnasium is optional and follows after nine years in elementary school. However, the Swedish term ("high school") may cause some confusion. In Swedish it is used almost synonymously with "university," with the only difference being that universities have the right to issue doctoral examinations. In the case of technical universities, these could also be called even when they have right to issue doctoral examinations (e.g., , officially named a "Technical University" in English; , Faculty of Engineering, Lund University; and Kungliga tekniska högskolan, Royal Institute of Technology"). A is often located in cities with lower population, except for the technical ones that can be found also in the largest cities. : usually 4 years after 9 years of compulsory schooling (primary and secondary I); it is also possible to attend a so-called which lasts 6 years, following a six-year primary schooling; the Gymnasium ends with Matura at the age of 18/19. : 8 years, starting after 4 years of primary school. : historically, grammar schools have been the English equivalent of the gymnasium, selecting pupils on the basis of academic ability (usually through the 11+ entrance examination in year 6, at the age of 10 or 11) and educating them with the assumption that they would go on to study at a university; such schools were largely phased out from 1965 under the Wilson and Heath governments, and less than 5% of pupils now attend the remaining 146 grammar schools. The UK therefore no longer has a widespread equivalent of the gymnasium. The exception is Northern Ireland and some parts of England within the counties of Buckinghamshire, Lincolnshire, and Kent, which have retained the system. Grammar schools are also to be found in some London boroughs, North Yorkshire, Essex, Lancashire, Warwickshire, and Devon in varying degrees. Many private, fee-paying independent schools, including all those commonly referred to as "public" schools, seek to fulfill a similar role to the state grammar school if the scholar has the ability (and thus to the gymnasium in other countries) and, most importantly, the money to attend them. Public school: As school districts continue to experiment with educational styles, the magnet school has become a popular type of high school. Boston Latin School and Central High School in Philadelphia are the two oldest public schools in the country and the oldest magnet schools. As the concept has not become entrenched in the various American educational systems, due partly to the federal—rather than unitary—style of education in the United States, the term may vary among states. Private school: The equivalent among private schools is the preparatory school. Final degree Depending on country, the final degree (if any) is called Abitur, Artium, Diploma, Matura, Maturita or Student and it usually opens the way to professional schools directly. However, these degrees are occasionally not fully accredited internationally, so students wanting to attend a foreign university often have to submit to further exams to be permitted access to them. Relationship with other education facilities In countries like Austria, most university faculties only accept students from secondary schools that last four years (rather than three). This includes all Gymnasium students but only a part of vocational high schools, in effect making Gymnasium the preferred choice for all pupils aiming for university diplomas. In Germany, other types of secondary school are called , and . These are attended by about two thirds of the students and the first two are practically unknown in other parts of the world. A largely corresponds to a British or American comprehensive school. However, it offers the same school-leaving certificates as the other three types—the (school-leaving certificate of a after 9th grade or in Berlin and North Rhine-Westphalia after 10th grade), the (also called , school-leaving certificate of a after 10th Grade) and (also called , school-leaving certificate after 12th Grade). Students who graduate from or may continue their schooling at a vocational school until they have full job qualifications. It is also possible to get an after 10th grade that allows the students to continue their education at the of a gymnasium and get an . There are two types of vocational school in Germany: the , a part-time vocational school and a part of Germany's dual education system, and the , a full-time vocational school outside the dual education system. Students who graduate from a vocational school and students who graduate with a good grade point average from a can continue their schooling at another type of German secondary school, the Fachhochschulreife, a vocational high school. The school leaving exam of this type of school, the , enables the graduate to start studying at a (polytechnic) and in Hesse also at a university within the state. Students who have graduated from vocational school and have been working in a job for at least three years can go to Berufsoberschule to get either a (meaning they may go to university, but they can only study the subjects belonging to the "branch" (economical, technical, social) they studied in at ) after one year, or the normal (after two years), which gives them complete access to universities. See also Comparison of US and UK Education Gymnasium (ancient Greece) Gymnasium (Germany) Lyceum (Classical) Educational stage Realschule Lyceum Explanatory notes Citations External links School types Secondary education	[ 0.562606692314148, 0.15652400255203247, -0.22380748391151428, -0.062423303723335266, -0.023603364825248718, -0.02236510068178177, 0.7213467955589294, 0.525147557258606, -0.2666967213153839, -0.44347822666168213, -0.8485052585601807, 0.03357097879052162, 0.5575708746910095, 0.017570197582244873, -0.3502548933029175, -0.3268824517726898, 0.6776575446128845, 0.4854614734649658, -0.11655592173337936, -0.4084795117378235, -0.34227558970451355, 0.05349351093173027, 0.31623491644859314, -0.030101828277111053, 0.03086175210773945, -0.0937260314822197, 0.6156026124954224, 0.42558032274246216, -0.043556369841098785, 0.009747992269694805, 0.36374253034591675, 0.11304415017366409, -0.02475646696984768, 0.028716225177049637, 0.025360453873872757, 0.14436645805835724, 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217226	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrubs%20%28TV%20series%29	Scrubs (TV series)	Scrubs (stylized as [scrubs]) is an American medical comedy-drama television series created by Bill Lawrence that aired from October 2, 2001, to March 17, 2010, on NBC and later ABC. The series follows the lives of employees at the fictional Sacred Heart Hospital, which is a teaching hospital. The title is a play on surgical scrubs and a term for a low-ranking person because at the beginning of the series, most of the main characters are medical interns. The series was noted for its fast-paced slapstick and surreal vignettes presented mostly as the daydreams of the central character, John "J.D." Dorian, played by Zach Braff. The main cast for all but its last season consisted of Braff, Sarah Chalke, Donald Faison, Neil Flynn, Ken Jenkins, John C. McGinley, and Judy Reyes. The series featured multiple guest appearances by film actors, such as Brendan Fraser, Heather Graham, Michael J. Fox and Colin Farrell. Although season eight's "My Finale" was conceived and filmed as a series finale, the show was eventually revived for a ninth season, subtitled Med School, with the setting moved to a medical school, and new cast members introduced. Of the original cast, only Braff, Faison, and McGinley remained regular cast members, while the others, with the exception of Reyes, made guest appearances; Kerry Bishé, Eliza Coupe, Dave Franco, and Michael Mosley became series regulars, with Bishé becoming the show's new narrator. Scrubs, produced by the television production division of Walt Disney Television, premiered on October 2, 2001, on NBC. The series received a Peabody Award in 2006. During the seventh season, NBC announced that it would not renew the show; ABC announced it had picked up the eighth season of the series, which began airing on January 6, 2009. The ninth season premiered on December 1, 2009, and on May 14, 2010, ABC officially canceled the series. Overview Scrubs focuses on the unique point of view of its main character and narrator, Dr. John Michael "J.D." Dorian (Zach Braff) for the first eight seasons, with season nine being narrated by the new main character Lucy Bennett (Kerry Bishé). Most episodes feature multiple story lines thematically linked by voice-overs done by Braff, as well as the comical daydreams of J.D. According to Bill Lawrence, "What we decided was, rather than have it be a monotone narration, if it's going to be Zach's voice, we're going to do everything through J.D.'s eyes. It opened up a visual medium that those of us as comedy writers were not used to." Actors were given the chance to improvise their lines on set with encouragement by series creator Bill Lawrence, with Neil Flynn and Zach Braff being the main improvisors. Almost every episode title for the first eight seasons begins with the word "My". Bill Lawrence says this is because each episode is Dr. John Dorian writing in his diary (revealed in the commentary on the DVD of the first-season episode "My Hero"). A few episodes are told from another character's perspective and have episode titles such as "His Story" or "Her Story". Apart from a brief period of narration from J.D. at the beginning and the end, these episodes primarily contain internal narration from other characters besides J.D. The transfer of the narration duties usually occurs at a moment of physical contact between two characters. Starting with season nine, the episode titles start with "Our..." as the focus has shifted from the perspective of J.D. to a new group of medical students. The webisodes that accompanied season eight, Scrubs: Interns, also were named "Our...". Cast and characters For the first eight seasons, the series featured seven main cast members, with numerous other characters recurring throughout the course of the series. Starting with the ninth season, many of the original cast left as regular characters, while four new additions were made to the main cast. Zach Braff portrays John Michael "J.D." Dorian, the show's protagonist and narrator. J.D. is a young physician, who begins the series as an intern. His voice-over to the series comes from his internal thoughts and often features surreal fantasies. J.D. describes himself as a "sensi", enjoying acoustic alternative music and being a lover of hugs. Over the course of the series, J.D. rises through the ranks of the hospital before leaving Sacred Heart to become the Residency Director at St. Vincent Hospital, before briefly returning to become a teacher at Winston University. J.D. has a son with ex-girlfriend Kim Briggs and a child with wife Elliot Reid. Sarah Chalke portrays Elliot Reid (seasons 1–8, recurring season 9), another intern and later private-practice physician. Her relationship with J.D. becomes romantic on several occasions throughout the series, resulting in them eventually marrying and having a child together. As the series progresses, despite an initial dislike of each other, she becomes friends with Carla. Elliot is driven by a neurotic desire to prove her worth to her family (in which all of the males are doctors), her peers, and herself. She is described as extremely book-smart and equally attractive, while her social abilities are somewhat lacking. Her social skills develop throughout the seasons. Donald Faison portrays Christopher Turk, J.D.'s best friend and surgeon, who rises from intern to chief of surgery as the series progresses. Turk and J.D. were roommates when they attended the College of William and Mary, as well as in medical school, and the two have an extremely close relationship. Turk is highly driven and competitive while always remaining loyal. During the course of the series, Turk forms a relationship with Carla; they start dating early in the series, then get married, and eventually start a family together, having two children. In season nine, he is a teacher at Winston University while continuing his duties as chief of surgery. Neil Flynn portrays the "Janitor" (recurring season 1, main cast seasons 2–8, guest star season 9), the hospital's custodian. An incident in the pilot episode establishes an antagonistic relationship between J.D. and him, which persists throughout the series. This tends to take the form of the Janitor pulling abusive pranks on J.D., although he has shown, several times throughout the series, that he has a good side. The Janitor's real name is not mentioned until the season eight finale when he reveals to J.D. that he is called "Glenn Matthews". Shortly after this revelation, he is addressed as and answers to "Tommy" by another member of the hospital staff, bringing his previously stated name into question. However, it was later confirmed in a Facebook video by creator Bill Lawrence that the former is indeed his true name. Ken Jenkins portrays Bob Kelso (seasons 1–8, recurring season 9), Sacred Heart's chief of medicine for the first seven seasons, after which he retires; in season nine, he becomes a teacher at Winston University. While chief of medicine, Kelso is seen to be selfish, intimidating, and mean-spirited, driven primarily by the hospital's bottom line rather than the well-being of patients. It is occasionally suggested that he has a softer side, and that his meanness is a means of coping with the years of hard decisions. After his retirement in season seven, his relationship with staff at the hospital improves, becoming a regular at the hospital's coffee shop where he is entitled to "free muffins for life". He is married with a son and regularly comments on the poor state of his marriage and the activities of his homosexual son. In season nine, after the death of his wife, Kelso becomes a teacher at Winston University along with J.D., Cox, and Turk. John C. McGinley portrays Perry Cox, an attending physician who becomes the chief of medicine at Sacred Heart in season eight. J.D. considers Cox his mentor, despite the fact that Cox routinely criticizes him, patronizes him, and calls him female names. Cox frequently suggests that this cruel treatment is intended as conditioning for the rigors of hospital life. On rare occasions, he expresses grudging admiration and even pride at J.D.'s accomplishments. Dr. Cox is dedicated to the welfare of his patients and frequently expresses concern for them, leading to frequent arguments with Bob Kelso. In season nine, he is seen working as a professor at Winston University while continuing his duties as chief of medicine. Judy Reyes portrays Carla Espinosa (seasons 1–8), the hospital's head nurse. Carla is opinionated, stubborn, and domineering, but continually caring, acting as a mother figure to interns, supporting them and sticking up for them when they make mistakes. During the course of the series, Turk forms a relationship with Carla; they start dating in the first episode of the series, then get married, and eventually start a family together. She is very close to J.D., affectionately calling him "Bambi", and despite initially disliking each other, also becomes close friends with Elliot. Eliza Coupe portrays Denise Mahoney (recurring season 8, regular season 9), an intern at Sacred Heart Hospital in season eight. She is outspoken and brutally honest, and struggles with patient-doctor communications because of this. In season nine, she is a resident at the new Sacred Heart Hospital, as well as a student adviser and teacher's assistant at Winston University. She is romantically involved with medical student Drew Suffin. Kerry Bishé portrays Lucy Bennett (season 9), a medical student at Winston University. She is the protagonist of season nine, initially sharing the narrating duties of the show with J.D. before taking over completely. She, like J.D., also has surreal fantasies. She loves horses and is romantically involved with a fellow student, Cole Aaronson. Michael Mosley portrays Drew Suffin (season 9), a medical student at Winston University. Though few details are ever given, Drew's dark past is often alluded to, including a previous burn-out at medical school. He is in a relationship with Denise Mahoney. Dave Franco portrays Cole Aaronson (season 9), an arrogant medical student at Winston University whose family donated a large amount of money to get the new Sacred Heart Hospital built and as such, believes that he is untouchable. After being diagnosed with skin cancer and subsequently going into remission after successful surgery, Cole rethinks his life and decides to specialize in surgery. He is in a relationship with Lucy Bennett. Episodes The first season introduces John Michael "J.D." Dorian and his best friend Christopher Turk in their first year out of medical school as interns at Sacred Heart Hospital. J.D. meets his reluctant mentor Perry Cox; an attractive female intern named Elliot, on whom he develops a crush; the hospital's janitor, who goes out of his way to make J.D.'s life difficult; Chief of Medicine Dr. Bob Kelso, who is more concerned about the budget than the patients; and Carla Espinosa, the head nurse who eventually becomes Turk's girlfriend. The characters face romance and relationship issues, family obligations, overwhelming paperwork, long shifts, dealing with death of patients, and conflicting pressures from senior doctors. The second season follows J.D.'s second year practicing medicine at Sacred Heart where Elliot, Turk, and he are now residents. As the season develops, money issues affect the three of them, especially Elliot, whose dad cut her off. J.D.'s older brother Dan (Tom Cavanagh) comes to visit, as does Turk's brother Kevin (D.L. Hughley). Season two focuses on the romantic relationships of the main characters: Turk proposes to an indecisive Carla, who has doubts about if Turk is mature enough; Elliot dates nurse Paul Flowers (Rick Schroder); and Dr. Cox dates pharmaceutical rep Julie (Heather Locklear) before reigniting a relationship with his pregnant ex-wife Jordan (Christa Miller). J.D., meanwhile, attempts a relationship with Elliot, and later falls for Jamie (Amy Smart), the wife of one of his coma patients. As the third season opens, Elliot decides to change her image with some help from the Janitor. J.D.'s undeniable crush on Elliot emerges again, but J.D. instead begins a relationship with Jordan's sister Danni (Tara Reid), who is also dealing with feelings for her ex. Turk and Carla are engaged and planning their wedding. Turk, along with Todd and the other surgical residents, deal with new attending surgeon Grace Miller (Bellamy Young), who dislikes Turk and considers him sexist. Cox and Jordan are doing well with their relationship and their son Jack, although Cox develops a schoolboy crush on Dr. Miller. He also struggles with the death of his best friend. Elliot gets into a serious relationship with Sean Kelly (Scott Foley) and tries to maintain a long-distance relationship while he is in New Zealand for six months. J.D. eventually convinces Elliot to break up with Sean to date him, only to realize, once he has her, that he does not actually love her. Their relationship lasts three days. The season ends with Turk and Carla's wedding, which Turk misses due to surgery and a church mix-up. In season four, J.D. finishes his residency and becomes a full-blown colleague of Cox, although their dynamic does not change much. As the season opens, Turk arrives from his honeymoon with Carla, but they soon start having issues when Carla tries to change many things about her new husband. Their marriage and Turk's friendship with J.D. experience friction when J.D. and Carla share a drunken kiss. Dr. Cox and Jordan learn that their divorce was not final, but this is not necessarily all good news. Elliot is still angry with J.D. for breaking her heart, and the situation becomes more uncomfortable still when she dates J.D.'s brother. J.D. has a new love interest of his own when a new and very attractive psychiatrist, Dr. Molly Clock (Heather Graham), arrives at Sacred Heart. Molly also serves as Elliot's mentor during her time at the hospital. Season five starts with J.D. living in a hotel, sorting out apartment issues. Elliot has taken a new fellowship in another hospital. Turk and Carla are trying to have a baby, despite Turk's still having doubts. Finally, new interns have arrived to Sacred Heart, chief among them being Keith Dudemeister (Travis Schuldt), who soon becomes Elliot's new boyfriend, much to J.D.'s dissatisfaction. J.D. is cast in the role of expecting father, discovering at the very end of the season that his girlfriend, Dr. Kim Briggs (Elizabeth Banks), is pregnant with his child. The sixth season has J.D. and the other characters mature to fill the different roles required of them. Turk and Carla become parents when Carla gives birth to their daughter Isabella. Elliot plans her wedding to Keith, although J.D. and she still harbor feelings for each other. Dr. Cox, as father of two children with Jordan, struggles to prevent his foul disposition from affecting his parenting. In season seven, J.D. and Elliot struggle once again to deny their feelings for each other, despite Elliot soon to be marrying Keith and J.D. to have his first son with Kim, while the Janitor may have a new girlfriend. Bob Kelso's job is put on the line as he turns 65 years old. J.D.'s brother Dan also returns to town. The eighth season has Kelso's replacement, Taylor Maddox (Courteney Cox), arrive; she quickly makes a lot of changes, affecting the way doctors treat patients. Elliot and J.D. finally discuss their true feelings for each other and again become a couple. Janitor and Lady (Kit Pongetti) marry, while Cox is promoted to chief of medicine to replace the dismissed Dr. Maddox, with some encouragement from Kelso. Kelso and Dr. Cox become friends, and J.D. prepares to leave Sacred Heart to move closer to his son, with Elliot. Turk is promoted to chief of surgery at Sacred Heart. Coinciding with season eight, the webisode series Scrubs: Interns was launched, focusing around the eighth season's medical interns, Sonja "Sunny" Dey (Sonal Shah), Denise (Eliza Coupe), Katie (Betsy Beutler), and Howie (Todd Bosley). The interns learn from various characters of the show about life in the hospital. The ninth season takes place over a year after season eight's finale. The old Sacred Heart hospital has been torn down and rebuilt. Cox, Dorian, and Turk are now Winston University medical school professors whose students occasionally rotate through the new Sacred Heart. Between the end of season eight and the beginning of season nine, the Janitor has left the hospital after being told that J.D. was not returning, and Elliot and J.D. have married and are expecting their first child. J.D.'s stay at the university is short, and he leaves the series after six episodes, reappearing in episode 9, "Our Stuff Gets Real", as a secondary character. Kelso's wife passes away, and Ted quits Sacred Heart to travel around the U.S. with his girlfriend. Production The origin for the show is loosely based on Dr. Jonathan Doris' experiences as a resident in internal medicine at Brown Medical School, which served as inspiration for college friend and show creator Bill Lawrence. Scrubs was produced by ABC, through its production division, though it was aired by rival broadcaster NBC. According to show runner Lawrence, the arrangement was unusual, at least for 2007: "The show is a dinosaur, on one network and completely owned by another" and, since it is now in syndication, making a "ton of money for Touchstone." Lawrence confirmed ABC would have broadcast the seventh season had NBC refused to do so. Main crew The show's creator, Bill Lawrence, was also an executive producer and the showrunner. He wrote 14 episodes and directed 17. Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan co-wrote 13 episodes during their eight-year run on the show, starting as co-producers on the show and ending as executive producers; they left the show after the eighth season. Mike Schwartz, who also played Lloyd the Delivery Guy, wrote 13 episodes during the first eight seasons; he started out as a story editor and became co-executive producer in season six. Janae Bakken and Debra Fordham were writers and producers during the first eight seasons, each writing 16 episodes. Other notable writers who started in the first season include Mark Stegemann, who wrote 14 episodes and directed two episodes during the first eight seasons; Gabrielle Allan, who wrote 11 episodes during the first four seasons and was co-executive producer; Eric Weinberg, who wrote 11 episodes during the first six seasons and was co-executive producer; Matt Tarses, who wrote eight episodes during the first four seasons and was co-executive producer. Notable writers who joined in the second season include Tim Hobert, who wrote 11 episodes from seasons two to six, and became executive producer in season five. Angela Nissel wrote 10 episodes from seasons two to eight, starting out as a staff writer and became supervising producer in season seven. Bill Callahan joined the show in season four, writing eight episodes from seasons four to eight; he became executive producer in season six. Adam Bernstein, who directed the pilot episode, "My First Day", also directed 11 episodes up until season seven. Michael Spiller directed the most episodes, 20 during the entire series run. Ken Whittingham and Chris Koch both directed 12 episodes from seasons two to nine. Comedian Michael McDonald, who also appeared on the show, directed five episodes. Show star Zach Braff directed seven episodes of the show, including the landmark 100th episode "My Way Home", which won a Peabody Award in April 2007. In 2009, Josh Bycel, a writer and supervising producer for the animated comedy American Dad!, joined the crew as a new executive producer for the ninth season. Medical advisors Scrubs writers worked with several medical advisors, including doctors Jonathan Doris, Jon Turk, and Dolly Klock. Their names serve as the basis for the names of characters John Dorian, Chris Turk, and Molly Clock (played by Braff, Faison, and Heather Graham, respectively). In the season eight finale "My Finale", the "real J.D.", Jonathan Doris, made a cameo appearance as the doctor who said "adios" to J.D. In addition, the show creator said that every single medical story on the show was handed to them by real physicians, whose names would then be written into the show. The show never used real patients’ names, but Lawrence and his writers would make sure the doctors’ names were written into the episodes. Filming location and Sacred Heart Hospital In the show, Sacred Heart is an inner-city teaching hospital located in Greater Sacramento, California. The first eight seasons of Scrubs were filmed on location at the North Hollywood Medical Center, a decommissioned hospital located at 12629 Riverside Drive in North Hollywood. The production of Scrubs took complete control of the hospital, with the existing hospital rooms reworked to be more production-friendly. This involved knocking down various walls to create larger, more open spaces such as the main ward and the communal areas like admissions, which did not originally exist. Production designer Cabot McMullen also introduced more glass walls and windows around the hospital sets, as well as putting in nurses stations, which could be easily moved to allow different camera movements. While much of the building was renovated, the team were very keen to preserve the state of disrepair which the hospital was in, to give the show a more gritty, dank aesthetic. Other recurring locations were also built into the hospital, including J.D. and Turk's apartment, a bar which they frequent and Dr. Cox's apartment–which was built in an old operating room. As well as these permanent locations, the production team would also often construct temporary sets as required, also within the hospital. Almost all of the team responsible for the show were housed within the hospital; this included all of the writers, production and casting team. Post-production was also handled in the building, with an editing suite and a sound-studio for ADR. Instead of the more traditional artist trailers for the cast to retreat to during breaks, they were instead all given old hospital rooms as well as a small allowance to decorate them. In some instances when either filming went on late, or the cast and crew went out after work, some, such as John C. McGinley would go and sleep in their dressing room at the hospital instead of going home. Cast and crew on the show refer to the location as "San DiFrangeles"—a portmanteau of San Diego, San Francisco, and Los Angeles that is meant to encompass a large part of California. In season four's episode nine, "My Malpractice Decision", Turk's new phone number has the Sacramento area code 916. For the ninth season, the show moved to Culver Studios. The building used for the exteriors of the new Sacred Heart Hospital is located at the intersection of Ince Boulevard and Lindblade Street in Culver City, California (). WGA strike and network change On November 5, 2007, the Writers Guild of America went on strike, which put the production of the show's seventh season on hold. When the strike started, only 11 of Scrubs 18 planned seventh-season episodes had been finished. Lawrence refused to cross any WGA picket lines to serve any of his duties for the show, so ABC Studios had non-WGA members finish episode 12, which the studio had unsuccessfully pressured Lawrence to rewrite as a series finale prior to the strike. During the strike, NBC announced that The Office and Scrubs would be replaced by Celebrity Apprentice. NBC later announced that they would leave Scrubs on hiatus for the time being and fill the 8–9 pm timeslot with various specials and repeats. Episode 11, "My Princess", was eventually filmed, although Lawrence was absent. Filming of episode 11 was disrupted by picketers. It was believed that Lawrence had tipped the picketers off about the filming schedule, although these beliefs turned out to be false as Lawrence quickly drove to the set to "keep the peace". After the strike ended, Lawrence announced that the final episodes of Scrubs would be produced, although at the time, he was unsure where or how they would be distributed. Switch to ABC Amid strike-induced doubt involving the final episodes of Scrubs, on February 28, 2008, The Hollywood Reporter reported that ABC was in talks with corporate sibling ABC Studios with the aim of bringing Scrubs to ABC for an eighth season of 18 episodes, despite Lawrence and Braff's protests that the seventh season would definitely be the last. Just hours later, Variety reported that NBC was lashing out and threatening legal action against ABC Studios. McGinley confirmed that he had been told to report back to work on March 24, 2008, to begin production for another season. On March 12, 2008, McGinley was also quoted as saying that the show's long-rumored move from NBC to ABC was a done deal, and that Scrubs would air on ABC during the 2008–09 TV season as a midseason replacement. On March 19, 2008, Michael Ausiello of TV Guide reported that although nothing was "official", the Scrubs cast was to report back to work the following Wednesday for work on a season "unofficial" as yet. Zach Braff posted in his blog on MySpace, on April 28, 2008, that an eighth season consisting of 18 episodes was under production, but that he could not say where it would be aired. He then stated, on May 7, 2008, that the May 8 episode would be the final NBC-aired episode of Scrubs, which was followed by a bulletin on his MySpace, on May 12, confirming that Scrubss eighth season would be moving to ABC. Season eight On May 13, 2008, ABC announced that Scrubs would be a midseason replacement, airing Tuesday nights at 9:00 pm EST. Steve McPherson, ABC's President of Entertainment, also stated that additional seasons of Scrubs beyond the eighth could be produced if it performs well. In late November, ABC announced Scrubs would resume with back-to-back episodes on January 6, 2009, at 9:00 pm EST. Creator Bill Lawrence described season eight as more like the first few seasons in tone, with increased focus on more realistic storylines, accompanied by the introduction of new characters. Courteney Cox joined the cast as the new chief of medicine, Dr. Maddox, for a three-episode arc. The eighth season includes webisodes and is the first Scrubs season broadcast in high definition. Sarah Chalke was hoping that J.D. and Elliot would end up back together, comparing them to Friends characters Ross and Rachel, which has been addressed a few times on the show. In the early episodes of the season, they did rekindle their relationship, and continued dating through the end of the season. Several actors who guest starred as patients at Sacred Heart during the course of Scrubs returned for the finale. The double-length season eight finale, "My Finale", aired on May 6, 2009, and was expected to be the series finale, as well. However, it soon became clear that the show would return for a ninth season. Season nine On April 16, 2009, Bill Lawrence wrote on the ABC.com message boards that a ninth season of Scrubs was still "50/50". On April 28, it was announced that ABC was in talks to renew Scrubs for another year. Lawrence also stated that Scrubs as it was is over, for the show to move forward with a new cast in an ER type role on ABC, or take a new title completely. In response to criticisms that the change would tarnish Scrubs legacy, Lawrence defended the decision, as it would allow the Scrubs crew to continue work through a recession: "'Legacy shmegacy.' I'm really proud of the show, I'll continue to be proud of the show, but I love all of those people..." On June 19, 2009, it was announced that the ninth season of Scrubs would "shift from the hospital to the classroom and make med-school professors of John C. McGinley's Dr. Cox and Donald Faison's Turk." According to Lawrence, the ninth season would "be a lot like Paper Chase as a comedy," with Cox's and Turk's students occasionally rotating through the halls of Sacred Heart and encountering former series regulars. McGinley and Faison were joined by "a quartet of newbies (most of them playing students)" as full-time regulars, while one of the freshmen "will be fairly famous." Of the seven actors who had appeared in the show since the pilot, only Faison and McGinley retained their roles as regulars. Zach Braff returned part-time and was absent for the majority of the season, while retaining lead billing for six episodes. Sarah Chalke returned for four episodes as a guest star; Ken Jenkins, credited as a guest star, appeared in nine of the 13 episodes; Neil Flynn appeared in the season premiere in a brief cameo; Judy Reyes was the only former star not to return to the show. In an interview on the YouTube series Made Man, John C. McGinley stated that the reason for some cast members not returning was that they demanded higher salaries. Although he did not confirm which cast members, he did specify that two of the original cast made demands; hence, they were not brought back. The new main cast included Eliza Coupe returning to the recurring role of Denise "Jo" Mahoney from season eight, Dave Franco as Cole, a charming, confidently stupid, and incredibly entitled medical student whose family donated the money to build the school, Kerry Bishé as Lucy, who shared the starring role with Braff in the beginning of the season and eventually became the show's new narrator, and Michael Mosley as Drew, a 30-year-old med student on his last attempt at school. Production for the final season took place at Culver Studios. Cancellation On May 14, 2010, it was officially announced that the show was canceled. The season nine finale, titled "Our Thanks", aired on March 17, 2010. Five days later, on March 22, 2010, Zach Braff announced, via the official Facebook page, that the ninth season of Scrubs would be the last, commenting that, "Many of you have asked, so here it is: it appears that 'New Scrubs', 'Scrubs 2.0', 'Scrubs with New Kids', 'Scrubbier', 'Scrubs without JD' is no more. It was worth a try, but alas... it didn't work." Crossovers Zach Braff, Sarah Chalke, Judy Reyes, John C. McGinley and Neil Flynn reprised their roles as J.D., Elliot Reid, Carla Espinosa, Perry Cox, and the Janitor to make a cameo appearance in the 2002 Muppets film It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie, trying to reanimate Miss Piggy. Eventually, Piggy and the Scrubs cast break the fourth wall, with the actors portraying themselves and Bill Lawrence appearing as himself/the director of the current episode. Sam Lloyd reprised his role as Ted Buckland in the season two finale of the Lawrence series Cougar Town. In the episode, written and directed by Lawrence, Ted is in Hawaii and says his girlfriend, Stephanie Gooch, has run off with Dr. Hooch. Lloyd reprised his role again in a season three episode which also featured Ken Jenkins, Robert Maschio, Zach Braff, Christa Miller, Sarah Chalke, and the Worthless Peons in cameo appearances at the end of the episode. Cinematography and delivery format The show is shot with a single instead of multiple-camera setup more typical for sitcoms. The season four episode "My Life in Four Cameras", has a brief multiple-camera style, since it includes J.D.'s fantasies of life being more like a traditional sitcom. John Inwood, the cinematographer of the series, shot the series with his own Aaton XTR prod Super16 film camera. Despite the fact that some broadcasters, such as the BBC, consider Super 16 a "non-HD" format, John Inwood believed that footage from his camera was not only sufficient to air in high definition, but it also "looked terrific." The intro of the first season, which was broadcast in 4:3, has been reused in an HD version for season eight without any further change. Except for the finale of season five, "My Transition", which was broadcast in high definition, the first seven seasons of the show have been broadcast in standard definition with a 4:3 aspect ratio. After the show was moved from NBC to ABC, the broadcast format for new episodes changed to high definition and widescreen. John Inwood opined that older episodes could be rereleased that way, as well. From the very beginning, he filmed the show with widescreen delivery in mind so the whole series could be aired in widescreen when the market evolved. All nine seasons have been released on DVD in 4:3 format. However, the eighth season was also released on Blu-ray Disc in the original widescreen format. Music Music plays a large role in Scrubs. A wide variety of rock, pop, and indie artists are featured, and almost every episode ends with a musical montage summing up the themes and plot lines of the episode, and the music for these montages is often picked even before the episodes are completely written. Members of the cast and crew were encouraged to contribute song suggestions, with many ideas coming from series creator Bill Lawrence, writer Neil Goldman, and actors Zach Braff (whose college friends Cary Brothers and Joshua Radin appear on the Scrubs soundtrack) and Christa Miller (who selected Colin Hay and Tammany Hall NYC). According to Lawrence, "Christa picks so much of the music for the show that a lot of the writers and actors don't even go to me anymore when they have a song. They hand it to her." Featured songs present in the original broadcasts appear unaltered in the DVD release of the show. However, a handful of songs were replaced in the versions released to streaming services such as Netflix and Hulu due to licensing issues. Scrubs featured a musical episode in the sixth season, "My Musical", guest-starring Tony-nominated Avenue Q actress Stephanie D'Abruzzo. The episode was nominated for five Emmy Awards, winning one. Theme song The theme song of the series, performed by Lazlo Bane, is titled "Superman", and can be found on the album All the Time in the World, as well as on the first Scrubs soundtrack. Lawrence credits Braff for finding and suggesting "Superman" as the theme song, with the specific lyric "I'm no Superman" serving as an allusion to the fallibility of the lead characters. The Scrubs main title is performed at a faster tempo than the original recording of the song. The original, slower recording was used briefly at the beginning of season two, played during an extended version of the title sequence, as well as the opening for "My Urologist", and a special edit of the title sequence for resulting in roughly 1–2 seconds of music, followed by the line "I'm no Superman", accompanied by a quick flash of credits. The original introduction from season one was used through most of season three and then used for seasons four through eight. Beginning with season nine, a new version of "Superman" is used which is performed by WAZ. Soundtracks Three official soundtracks have been released. The first soundtrack, Music From Scrubs, was released on CD on September 24, 2002. The second soundtrack, Scrubs Original Soundtrack Vol. 2, was released exclusively on iTunes on May 9, 2006. The third soundtrack, "My Musical" Soundtrack, featured the music composed and performed in musical episode "My Musical"; it was released on Amazon.com and iTunes on August 7, 2007. Featured musical contributors Colin Hay, the former frontman of Men at Work, has had music featured in at least seven episodes, and has appeared in the episode "My Overkill", performing the song "Overkill" as a street musician, and in the episode "My Hard Labor" performing "Down Under". Hay also sings "Where Everybody Knows Your Name", the theme from Cheers, in the episode "My Life in Four Cameras" and the episode "My Philosophy" features Hay's song "Waiting For My Real Life To Begin", sung by several members of the cast. He also appeared in "My Finale". The music of Joshua Radin, who is a friend of Scrubs star Zach Braff, appeared in six episodes. Music by Keren DeBerg has featured in 15 episodes, and she appeared in "My Musical" as an extra in the song "All Right". Clay Aiken appeared in the episode "My Life in Four Cameras" and performed the song "Isn't She Lovely?" by Stevie Wonder. The Worthless Peons The Worthless Peons (also known as Ted's Band, The Blanks, or in the "My Way Home" Director's Cut, as "Foghat") are an a cappella group made up of Sacred Heart hospital employees from different departments. They are a cover band, and often sing songs from a specific genre (for example, cartoon theme songs or commercial jingles). The Worthless Peons are played by The Blanks, who are a real-life a cappella band made up of Sam Lloyd (who plays Ted), George Miserlis, Paul F. Perry, and Philip McNiven. The Blanks' album, Riding the Wave, features guest appearances from Lawrence and members of the Scrubs cast. This band was put on the show when Sam Lloyd brought his a cappella band to the Scrubs cast Christmas party. Lloyd told Lawrence about his band, and Lawrence got the idea of putting them in the show. The Worthless Peons also sing the theme song to the web series Scrubs: Interns, which features the new interns from season eight learning about the hospital in the same way that J.D. did in season one. Interns is aired on the ABC website. Title sequence The chest X-ray featured at the end of the title sequence was hung backwards for most of the first five seasons. Lawrence has stated that having the X-ray backwards was intentional as it signified that the new interns were inexperienced. During Zach Braff's audio commentary on "My Last Chance", he states that the error was actually unintentional. The error became somewhat infamous and was even parodied in "My Cabbage". An attempt was made to fix the error in the extended title sequence used at the beginning of season two that included Neil Flynn, but the extended sequence (including corrected X-ray) was soon scrapped due to fan and network request. Finally, in "My Urologist", Dr. Kim Briggs steps into the credits and switches the X-ray around, saying, "That's backwards; it's been bugging me for years". At the beginning of season eight, when the series switched to ABC, the chest X-ray was once again backwards. The ninth season features a new title sequence with a new version of the theme song "Superman" performed by WAZ. The new title sequences features the four new characters–Denise, Lucy, Drew, and Cole, as well as Dr. Cox and Turk, while J.D. is seen at the end placing the chest X-ray. In all season nine episodes that do not feature J.D., he is absent from the title sequence and Lucy is the one placing the X-ray. The X-ray at the end of the sequence is also not backwards and the subtitle "Med School" appears at the end of the sequence. Podcast On March 31, 2020, Zach Braff and Donald Faison launched their Scrubs-themed podcast Fake Doctors, Real Friends in partnership with iHeartRadio in which Braff and Faison rewatch each episode and give behind-the-scenes details on the series. Reception Critical reception First eight seasons Throughout its original run, Scrubs received critical acclaim, with many critics praising its cast, characters, and humor (especially J.D.'s fantasy sequences). In 2006, Entertainment Weeklys website EW.com gave the overall series (the review was made early after the fifth-season premiere) a grade of "A-", with the author saying "Scrubs is the trickiest comedy on TV [...] A likable, daffy, buoyant series that would be a big annoying mess if it weren't done just right, Scrubs is the very definition of nimble". IGN gave the first season a perfect score of 10. The seven following seasons were rated, respectively, 9, 9, 9, 8, 7.5, 8.3 and 7.5. The Truth About Nursing, which checks the realism of the medical series, gave Scrubs a "Nursing rating" of 1.5 out of 4 stars, but an "Artistic rating" of 3 out of 4 stars, praising that "despite the nasty and surreal elements, its characters are not above learning or growing, as they try to cope with the very real stresses of life and death at the hospital". However, the reviewer stated, "The show's portrayal of nursing has been less impressive". Review aggregate Metacritic only assigned an average score to the eighth and ninth seasons, with the eighth season scoring 79/100, based on four reviews only (all positives), indicating "Generally favorable reviews". Ninth season The ninth and final season received mixed reviews, with many critics heavily criticizing the new cast; it received a score of 64/100 on Metacritic, indicating "Generally favorable reviews". An IGN editor gave it a positive score of 7 out of 10, stating "even though this was not the best season, I'll always have fond memories of the show". USA Today reviewer Robert Bianco wrote a negative review, stating "The result is a deadly, deal-driven mistake that takes a network that has made great sitcom strides forward one unfortunate step back". He also noted that the presence of a few members of the original cast (Braff, Faison, and John C. McGinley) "only makes it harder for the new characters to take hold" (despite his additional criticism of Braff's performance). Blogcritics gave it a mixed review, criticizing the new cast, but praising the performances by the original cast members. Awards and nominations Scrubs received 17 Emmy nominations, in categories such as casting, cinematography, directing, editing, and writing, winning only two. Its fourth season earned the series its first nomination for Outstanding Comedy Series. Zach Braff was also nominated that year for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. The series was nominated again the following year for Outstanding Comedy Series. At the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards, the episode "My Musical" was nominated for five awards in four categories: Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series (Will Mackenzie), Outstanding Music Direction (Jan Stevens) and Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics ("Everything Comes Down to Poo" and "Guy Love"); while sharing the award for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series (Half-Hour) And Animation (Joe Foglia, Peter J. Nusbaum, and John W. Cook II) with Entourage. Braff was nominated for the Golden Globe award for Best Actor in a Television Series, Comedy or Musical in 2005, 2006, and 2007. The show won the 2002, 2008, and 2009 Humanitas Prize, an award created for rewarding human dignity, meaning, and freedom. It also won a Peabody Award. References External links 2001 American television series debuts 2010 American television series endings 2000s American comedy-drama television series 2000s American medical television series 2000s American single-camera sitcoms 2000s American workplace comedy television series 2000s American workplace drama television series 2010s American comedy-drama television series 2010s American medical television series 2010s American single-camera sitcoms 2010s American workplace comedy television series 2010s American workplace drama television series American Broadcasting Company original programming English-language television shows Metafictional television series NBC original programming Peabody Award-winning television programs Television series by ABC Studios Television shows set in California American television series revived after cancellation Television series created by Bill Lawrence (TV producer)	[ 0.26115933060646057, -0.051885247230529785, 0.27282482385635376, 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217227	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meharry%20Medical%20College	Meharry Medical College	Meharry Medical College is a historically black medical school affiliated with the United Methodist Church and located in Nashville, Tennessee. Founded in 1876 as the Medical Department of Central Tennessee College, it was the first medical school for African Americans in the South. This region had the highest proportion of this ethnicity, but they were excluded from many public and private segregated institutions of higher education, particularly after the end of Reconstruction. Meharry Medical College was chartered separately in 1915. In the early 21st century, it has become the largest private historically black institution in the United States solely dedicated to educating health care professionals and scientists. The school has never been segregated. Meharry Medical College includes its School of Medicine, School of Dentistry, a School of Allied Health Professions, School of Graduate Studies and Research, the Harold R. West Basic Sciences Center, and the Metropolitan General Hospital of Nashville-Davidson County. The degrees that Meharry offers include Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.), Master of Science in Public Health (M.S.P.H.), Master of Health Science (M.H.S.), and Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degrees. Meharry is the second-largest educator of African-American medical doctors and dentists in the United States. It has the highest percentage of African Americans graduating with Ph.Ds in the biomedical sciences in the country. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved is a public health journal owned by and edited at Meharry Medical College. Around 76% of graduates of the school work as doctors treating people in underserved communities. School training emphasizes recognizing health disparities in different populations. History Meharry Medical College was one of six medical institutions established between the years of 1876 and 1900 in the state of Tennessee. These schools were founded after the end of the Civil War when slaves had been freed and there were as yet few African-American physicians, and many freedmen in need of health care. In the common segregation, most hospitals would not admit African Americans and many white physicians often chose not to serve freedmen. During the late 19th century and into the early 20th century, most medical institutions accepted few, if any, African-American students. To combat this shortage of health care and the lack of accessibility to medical education, individuals, such as Samuel Meharry, and organizations, such as the Medical Association of Colored Physicians, Surgeons, Dentists, and Pharmacists (later renamed the National Medical Association), helped to found medical schools specifically for African Americans. The college was named for Samuel Meharry, a young Irish American immigrant who first worked as a salt trader on the Kentucky-Tennessee frontier. After achieving some success, he and four of his brothers later made a major donation to help establish the college. As a young trader, Meharry had been aided by a family of freedmen, whose names are unknown. Meharry reportedly told the former slave family, "I have no money, but when I can I shall do something for your race." Students at Central Tennessee College (CTC) approached the college president about setting up a medical school in 1875. The president, John Braden, approached Samuel Meharry to discuss the proposal. In 1875, Meharry, together with four of his brothers, donated a total of $15,000 to assist with establishing a medical department at (CTC), a historically black college in Nashville, Tennessee. With the contribution of the Freedman's Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church North, George W. Hubbard and Braden, they opened the Medical College at CTC in 1876 with a starting class of nine students. The classes took place in the basement of the Clark Memorial Methodist Episcopal Church. The first regular year of classes began in October 1876 and had eleven students in that group. The medical program was initially two years long, but they added an additional year in 1879 and a fourth year to the course of study in 1893. Hubbard, a physician, served as the founding president of the medical college. The first student graduated in 1877. The second class, which had its commencement in 1878, had three graduates. In 1886, the Dental Department was founded, followed by a Pharmacy Department founded in 1889. The Dental and Pharmaceutical Building was dedicated on October 20, 1889. By 1896, half of all "regularly educated physicians then practicing in the South" had graduated from Meharry. A nurse-training school was also developed during the 1900–1901 school year and the first class had eight students. A training hospital, Mercy Hospital, was built during the 1901–1902 school year. This hospital was replaced in 1916 and named the George W. Hubbard Hospital. Meharry Auditorium, with a 1,000 person capacity was built in 1904. In 1900, CTC changed its name to Walden University. In 1915, the medical department faculty of Walden University received a separate charter to operate independently as Meharry Medical College. The college continued to be privately funded. The Medical College remained in its original buildings, and Walden University moved to another campus in Nashville in 1922. In 1910, Meharry absorbed medical students from Flint Medical College when that school was closed. Meharry also graduated a large number of women physicians for the time period, with 39 women having graduated by 1920. In 1923, Meharry was recognized as a "grade-A institution" by the American Medical Association (AMA). Since its founding, Meharry Medical College has added several graduate programs in the areas of science, medicine, and public health. In 1938, the School of Graduate Studies and Research was founded. The first master's degree program, a Master of Science in Public Health, was established in 1947. In the 1950s, the nursing school and dental technology school were ended. The department of Psychiatry was established in 1961 by school president, Lloyd Charles Elam, a psychiatrist. During the 1960s, Meharry began to focus on fighting health disparities. In 1968, Meharry created the Matthew Walker Health Center to provide health services to the community. Also in 1968, the school added a Ph.D. degree in basic sciences. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, 83 percent of all African American physicians had been trained at Meharry Medical College and Howard University School of Medicine. In 1970, more than 60 percent of black medical students worked as residents at these two colleges. In 1972, Meharry started receiving federal distress grants which were given to medical schools with deficits in operating costs and problems with accreditation. By 1976, the school campus took up space on 65 acres. In 1981, the accrediting body of the AMA put Meharry on probation because there were not enough patients in the Hubbard Hospital for students and the student to teacher ratio was too high. In 1983, president Ronald Reagan allowed the school to work with patients in the nearby veterans' hospitals and the Blanchfield Army Community Hospital and the college regained full accreditation. By 1986, around 46 percent of all black faculty members in medical schools had graduated from Meharry. In 1972, a Ph.D. program was implemented. A decade later in 1982, Meharry established an M.D/Ph.D. program. In 2004, Meharry created a Master's of Science in Clinical Investigation program (2004). The Hubbard Hospital, belonging to Meharry Medical College, closed in 1994 and was renovated as the new site for the Metropolitan Nashville General Hospital, opening November 1997. The year 1994 was also a start for more renovations of campus buildings initiated by campus president, John E. Maupin Jr. The school was also suffering from a $49 million deficit and morale at the school was low. The Nashville General Hospital's lease money, however, helped bring money into the school and eventually, by June 1995, the finances of the school were stabilized. In 1999, the college partnered with Vanderbilt University Medical Center. In 2005, Meharry was censured by the American Association of University Professors for not observing generally recognized principles of academic freedom and tenure. On November 9, 2017, Meharry, under president James E.K. Hildreth, signed a memorandum of agreement with Hospital Corporation of America (HCA), America's largest for-profit operator of health care facilities. Under the agreement, Meharry's medical students will gain clinical training at HCA's TriStar Southern Hills Medical Center in Nashville. Meharry students had previously received clinical training at numerous sites, primarily Nashville General Hospital, which had moved on-campus in the 1990s. Withdrawal of the alliance with Meharry is thought to threaten the provision of inpatient care at Nashville General Hospital. A board member resigned over this surprise decision and announcement. In September 2020, philanthropist Michael Bloomberg donated $34 million to help lower student debt at the institution. Presidents George W. Hubbard served as Meharry Medical College's first president from its founding in 1876 until his retirement in 1921. The second president of the school was John J. Mullowney, who served from 1921 to 1938. He implemented changes in order to improve Meharry's overall academic rating. Admission requirements were tightened and strictly enforced, a superintendent was installed at the hospital, and the number of faculty, research facilities, and hospital facilities were all expanded. Two years after Mullowney took leadership, Meharry Medical College received an ‘A’ rating. Succeeding Meharry Medical College presidents have been: Edward Lewis Turner (1938–1944), M. Don Clawson (1944–1950), Harold D. West (1952–1966), Lloyd C. Elam (1968–1981), Richard G. Lester (1981-1982), David Satcher (1982–1993), John E. Maupin (1994–2006), Wayne J. Riley (2006–2013), A. Cherrie Epps (2013-2015), James E.K. Hildreth (2015–present) From 1950 to 1952 a committee guided the institution instead of a president. In 1952, Meharry welcomed its first African-American president, Dr. Harold D. West. West made numerous changes, made possible by his successful $20 million fund drive. He added a new wing to Hubbard Hospital, eliminated the nursing and the dental technology programs, and purchased land adjacent to the campus for expansion. Research Meharry Medical College spent $96 million on research during fiscal years between 2013 and 2017. The school has a Graduate Studies and Research department. Research centers include: Asthma Disparities Center Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neurosciences Center for Women's Health Research Clinical Research Center Export Center for Health Disparities Meharry Center for Health Disparities Research in HIV Sickle Cell Center BS/MD Program Ten universities are in partnership with Meharry to better recruit and prepare their pre-med students for Meharry. The ten universities are Alabama A&M University, Albany State University, Alcorn State University, Fisk University, Grambling State University, Hampton University, Jackson State University, Southern University, Tennessee State University, and Virginia Union University. Notable alumni References Sources Additional references . Summerville, James. Educating Black Doctors; A History of Meharry Medical College. Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1983. External links Official website Universities and colleges in Nashville, Tennessee Private universities and colleges in Tennessee Historically black universities and colleges in the United States Medical schools in Tennessee Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Historically black hospitals in the United States African-American history in Nashville, Tennessee Universities and colleges affiliated with the Methodist Episcopal Church	[ 0.5333642959594727, 0.500234067440033, -0.22598256170749664, -0.37514156103134155, 0.5402851104736328, 0.3257346451282501, 0.36891210079193115, 0.33752578496932983, -0.004653905052691698, -0.3729422986507416, 0.0879637598991394, 0.29672539234161377, -0.00822138600051403, 0.7434421181678772, -0.03833384066820145, 0.29828745126724243, 0.42719924449920654, 0.3735215663909912, -0.6543368101119995, -0.7278032302856445, -0.10723432898521423, -0.4171878397464752, 0.9395142197608948, 0.3638930022716522, 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217229	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speedy%20Trial%20Clause	Speedy Trial Clause	The Speedy Trial Clause of the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that "[i]n all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial". The Clause protects the defendant from delay between the presentation of the indictment or similar charging instrument and the beginning of trial. History In Barker v. Wingo (1972), the Supreme Court developed a four-part test that considers the length of the delay, the reasons for the delay, the defendant's assertion of his right to a speedy trial, and the prejudice to the defendant. A violation of the Speedy Trial Clause is cause for dismissal with prejudice of a criminal case. Within these parameters, it was determined that the five-year wait for this case to go trial was not in violation of the Constitution. In response, in 1974, Congress passed the Speedy Trial Act. This Speedy trial clause protects defendants from waiting more than a certain amount of time for a trial. Speedy trial statutes In addition to the constitutional guarantee, various state and federal statutes confer a more specific right to a speedy trial. In New York, the prosecution must be "ready for trial" within six months on all felonies except murder, or the charges are dismissed by action of law without regard to the merits of the case. This is also known as a "ready rule". In California courts, defendants have a right to a trial within 100 days to a year. The federal law detailing this right is the Speedy Trial Act of 1974. All U.S. states have either statutes or constitutional provisions detailing this right. In 1979 the Act was amended to ensure that the defendant had time to provide a suitable defense. This amendment made it so trial could not start within less than 30 days after the defendant first appeared in the court. Speedy trial cases In Doggett v. United States (1992) the Supreme Court determined that Doggett's eight and a half year wait for a trial violated his sixth amendment rights. In Zedner v. United States (2006) the Supreme Court determined that a defendant cannot waive his right to a speedy trial using the Speedy Trial Clause because the clause protects all parties involved in a case to ensure that no one's interests are being implicated. See also Speedy trial Justice delayed is justice denied References Further reading United States constitutional criminal procedure Clauses of the United States Constitution Clause	[ 0.3481101095676422, -0.1439320296049118, -0.43330952525138855, 0.3431982398033142, 0.2880336046218872, -0.21796894073486328, 0.7249226570129395, -0.19727036356925964, -0.5681384205818176, -0.1972431242465973, -0.5545481443405151, 0.5301928520202637, -0.6054244041442871, 0.17131806910037994, -0.4832824766635895, 0.4139135181903839, 0.783697783946991, 0.04949848726391792, 0.12393023073673248, -0.41378456354141235, 0.43253016471862793, 0.1192261353135109, -0.016808146610856056, -0.24844111502170563, 0.5702342391014099, -0.01544768363237381, -0.21178290247917175, 0.29696226119995117, -0.8512797951698303, 0.1526951938867569, -0.11164644360542297, 0.4073545038700104, -0.3344144821166992, 0.11047414690256119, 0.18757662177085876, 0.14485915005207062, 0.1475486159324646, -0.613845944404602, -0.18488778173923492, 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217231	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curb%20Your%20Enthusiasm	Curb Your Enthusiasm	Curb Your Enthusiasm is an American television sitcom that has been produced and broadcast by HBO since October 15, 2000. It was created by Larry David, who stars as a semi-fictionalized version of himself. It follows Larry's life as a semi-retired television writer and producer in Los Angeles, and for one season, New York City. Also starring are Cheryl Hines as his wife Cheryl, Jeff Garlin as his manager and best friend Jeff Greene, and Susie Essman as Jeff's wife Susie. It often features guest stars, many of them playing fictionalized versions of themselves. As with Seinfeld, which David co-created, the humor of Curb Your Enthusiasm often revolves around the minutiae of American daily social life. Episodes frequently center on Larry's ignorance of or disregard for well-established social conventions and expectations, and his insistence that others adhere to rules of which only he seems to be aware. This social ineptitude, combined with his inability to let even the most minor grievance or annoyance go unexpressed, often leads him into awkward social situations and draws the ire of his friends, family, and total strangers. He is also routinely the victim of labyrinthine misunderstandings. Each episode's plot and subplot is established in an outline written by David, and the dialogue is largely improvised by the actors (a technique known as retroscripting). The series was developed from a 1999 one-hour special, Larry David: Curb Your Enthusiasm, which David and HBO originally envisioned as a one-time project. It was shot as a mockumentary, where the characters were aware of the presence of cameras and a crew. The series, while not in documentary form, was shot in a somewhat similar cinéma vérité-like style. Curb Your Enthusiasm has received high critical acclaim and grown in popularity since its debut. It has been nominated for 47 Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Comedy Series for nine of its ten seasons. It won the 2002 Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy. It aired for eight mostly consecutive seasons until 2011, and resumed with a ninth season in 2017. The tenth season aired in 2020 and the eleventh season in 2021. Premise Larry David has explained the show's name in TV interviews as reflecting his perception that many people seem to live their lives projecting false enthusiasm, which he believes is used to imply that "they are better than you". This conflicts with his dry style. The title also urges the audience not to expect too much from the show; at the time of the premiere, David wanted to lower expectations after his earlier success in the entertainment industry. The series stars Larry David as a fictionalized version of himself. Like the real-life David, the character is well known as the co-creator and main co-writer of the highly successful sitcom Seinfeld. Although Larry maintains an office, he is rarely shown working. The show's plots often center around everyday interactions between Larry and his friends, acquaintances, and occasionally strangers. Conflicts in the show are frequently sparked by Larry's social unorthodoxy, particularly his often tactless manner of speaking and his stubbornness. For most of the series, the Larry David character is living a married, child-free life in Los Angeles with his wife Cheryl (Cheryl Hines). David's main confidant on the show is his manager and friend Jeff Greene (Jeff Garlin). Susie Essman plays Susie Greene, Jeff's short-tempered wife, who is frequently at odds with Larry. Many of the show's frequent guest stars are celebrities and public figures, who will usually play fictionalized versions of themselves. Among the more frequently recurring guest stars are Larry's longtime friend Richard Lewis as well as Ted Danson and his wife Mary Steenburgen. The show is set and filmed in various affluent Westside communities of (and occasionally in downtown) Los Angeles, as well as in the adjacent cities of Beverly Hills, Culver City, and Santa Monica. David's hometown of New York City is featured throughout most of the episodes in season 8. Episodes Curb Your Enthusiasm premiered with an hour-long special on October 17, 1999, upon which the series was based. The first eight seasons of the series aired from 2000 to 2011. The series took a prolonged six-year hiatus, before returning for a ninth season in 2017, a tenth season in 2020, and an eleventh season in 2021. The episodes are typically named after an event, object, or person that figures prominently in the plot, similarly to how Seinfeld episodes were titled. Unrelated events woven throughout a given episode are tied into an unforced climax that resolves the storylines simultaneously, either to Larry's advantage or detriment. While each episode has a distinct individual plot, most seasons feature a story arc that extends across several episodes and culminates in a finale that often features the return of many of the characters that appeared throughout the season. Characters Main cast Larry David as himself, the show's idiosyncratic, tactless and curmudgeonly protagonist. Larry David is a semi-retired television writer and producer. Born and raised in New York, he is the only child of Nat and Adele David. He is Jewish, although he is not observant and is willing to betray his heritage when it suits him. He gained massive success with the sitcom Seinfeld. Having made a fortune off the show, Larry now works only occasionally. Stubborn and self-centered, Larry frequently flouts social conventions which he perceives as pointless, inconvenient, or nonsensical. At the same time, however, he openly rebukes friends, acquaintances, and strangers for their failure to adhere to his self-imposed (and often equally nonsensical) social rules. Larry often becomes obsessed with minute, insignificant details of others' behavior, and is seemingly unable to let any grievance, annoyance, or inappropriate remark go unexpressed. Larry is often reluctant to apologize to people he has offended, firmly believing himself to be in the right, and frequently going to extreme lengths to prove the righteousness of his beliefs and actions. When he does apologize, however, he usually only does so because he needs something from the person in question, and he is often more self-defensive than truly apologetic. All this aside, however, Larry is generally well-intentioned, and is oftentimes simply a victim of circumstance, finding himself at the center of complex misunderstandings, or falling victim to others' selfishness and/or stupidity. He is even at times celebrated by those around him for his candor and his willingness to call others out for their hypocrisy. Jeff Garlin as Jeff Greene, Larry's manager and best friend. He is married to Susie Greene (Essman), with whom he has a daughter, Sammi (Ashly Holloway). Jeff and Susie have a tumultuous marriage, due in large part to Jeff's frequent extramarital affairs, as well as Susie's incessant criticism of Jeff, most often in regards to his weight and his cheating. Jeff often recruits Larry in his efforts to cover up his affairs from Susie, although these efforts usually fall apart and are quickly discovered by Susie. Jeff Garlin has stated that he does not empathize with his character at all and described him as a "pretty evil guy" who has "no morals, no scruples". Cheryl Hines as Cheryl David (seasons 1–7, 9–present; guest season 8), Larry's long-suffering wife (and later, ex-wife). Patient, friendly, and generally easygoing, she serves as a comic foil to the stubborn and nit-picky Larry and often serves as a voice of reason. She is nominally an actress, although she is not shown working for most of the series. She is very environmentally conscious, and devotes a great deal of her time and money to charitable causes, particularly the NRDC. Unlike Larry, Cheryl is outgoing, enjoys most social functions, and is the primary agent in maintaining many of the couple's friendships. Cheryl is also the driving force behind many of Larry's apologies. While she feels a deep affection for Larry and often shows near super-human patience with his various foibles, she has her limits, particularly with his obsession over minute, unimportant details. She is finally pushed to her breaking point in the season 6 episode "The TiVo Guy" when, on board a flight experiencing severe turbulence, she calls Larry to tell him she loves him. To her shock and anger, Larry pays no attention to what is ostensibly his wife's final goodbye and instead berates her with questions about their DVR. In the wake of the incident, Cheryl leaves Larry. They briefly reunite at the end of season 7, before Cheryl is once again driven away by Larry's obsession over minor details, in particular, a stain left by Cheryl's coffee cup on Julia Louis-Dreyfus' table. They finalize their divorce at the start of season 8. In season 9, Cheryl begins dating Larry's friend Ted Danson. Prior to this, she and Ted shared a close, platonic friendship, of which Larry was always suspicious. Susie Essman as Susie Greene (season 8–present; recurring seasons 1–7), Jeff's shrill and overbearing wife, known for her explosive temper and her filthy mouth. Her interactions with Larry often begin friendly and quickly degrade into vicious arguments that occasionally border on physical violence. Shrewd and perpetually suspicious of both Jeff and Larry, Susie is often the first to uncover Larry and Jeff's schemes and wrongdoings and will often rebuke them with profanity-laced tirades. Susie and Jeff have an "on-again, off-again" relationship. She often uses Larry as a scapegoat for her marital problems. She is known to refer to Larry as "Larry Fucking David", "Bald Asshole", and "Four-Eyed Fuck," and when he crosses her, she is known to respond "Fuck you, Larry David!" Her most common epithet for her husband is "You fat piece of shit!" She often defends traditional moral standards, such as the sanctity of marital vows and fealty to hearth and home, at times against her husband, at others against Larry, and usually against both. J. B. Smoove as Leon Black (season 9–present; recurring seasons 6–8), Larry's friend and, later, roommate (casita). He is the brother of Loretta Black, a single mother whose New Orleans home was destroyed by Hurricane Edna. When Larry and Cheryl take in Loretta and her family, Leon moves in, too, despite living in Los Angeles and thus having been unaffected by the Hurricane. When Loretta and her children finally move back to Louisiana, Leon stays behind. He and Larry develop an unlikely friendship, with Leon frequently offering Larry questionable advice on romance, business, and social interactions. Like Larry, Leon is blunt and often confrontational, although unlike Larry, his confrontations with others will end favorably for him. Leon first appears in the season 6 episode, "The Anonymous Donor". Recurring roles Among the show's many recurring roles, Richard Lewis, Ted Danson, and Wanda Sykes play fictionalized versions of themselves as old friends of Larry with whom he frequently butts heads. Shelley Berman played Larry's father, Nat David. Bob Einstein frequently appeared as Marty Funkhouser, another of Larry's oldest friends. Kaitlin Olson recurred as Becky, Cheryl's sister. In seasons 6 and 7, Vivica A. Fox appears as Loretta Black, a member of the Black family, a family of hurricane evacuees who take refuge in Larry's house upon Cheryl's invitation. Loretta eventually becomes Larry's primary love interest for a time once he and Cheryl split up. Saverio Guerra plays Mocha Joe who first appeared in season 7 and returned as Larry's nemesis in season 10. Notable guest appearances Celebrities, including actors, comedians, authors, musicians and athletes, often make guest appearances on the show, with a large portion of them playing themselves, or fictional versions thereof. Some of these guest stars who appear as fictionalized versions of themselves include Mary Steenburgen, Mel Brooks, Michael York, Martin Scorsese, Ben Stiller, Christian Slater, David Schwimmer, Rob Reiner, Rosie O'Donnell, and the main cast of Seinfeld – Jerry Seinfeld, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Jason Alexander, and Michael Richards. Notable people who filled in fictional roles include Bryan Cranston, Bob Odenkirk, Wayne Federman, Gina Gershon, Elisabeth Shue, Vince Vaughn, Bobby Lee, Frank Whaley, Kaley Cuoco and Stephen Colbert. Reception Critical response Curb Your Enthusiasm has received critical acclaim, praised particularly for its writing and the actors' improvisational comedy. The show has enjoyed largely positive critical reception since its debut and has outgrown its early "cult" status. On Metacritic, the first season of the show scored 80 out of 100 (based on 20 reviews), 93 for season 3 (based on 12 reviews), 88 for season 4 (18 reviews), 91 for season 5 (five reviews), 89 for season 6 (nine reviews), 81 for season 7 (18 reviews), 86 for season 8 (six reviews), 74 for season 9 (10 reviews) and 78 for season 10 (5 reviews). Slate named the characters of Cheryl David and Susie Greene as two of the best on television and as reasons to look forward to the return of the show in the fall of 2007. Curb Your Enthusiasm has also received praise from Galus Australis magazine for being even more unabashedly Jewish than the Seinfeld series. Of the show's depiction of Jewish characters, academic Vincent Brook stated, "Curbs commitment to Jewish identification greatly enhances its storytelling capacity, as it lends greater realism and dimension to the characters and opens the show up to episodes with meaningful Jewish themes." The character of Larry on the show is in many ways reminiscent of the schlemiel character often present in traditional Yiddish folklore. The schlemiel is usually a comic character whose actions lead to his inevitable downfall, but also stands as a form of resistance to social and cultural values and norms. David Gillota wrote: In 2016, Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone ranked Curb Your Enthusiasm as the 19th greatest television series ever made. Journalist James Andrew Miller made the first chapter of his new podcast "Origins" about Curb Your Enthusiasm. The chapter goes across five episodes and was released on September 6, 2017. It documents the genesis of the series, and uses conversations with people involved in the show. Awards and nominations The series has received a total of 47 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, winning twice: Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series for Robert B. Weide for "Krazee-Eyez Killa" in 2003, and Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series for Steven Rasch for "Palestinian Chicken" in 2012. The series has received nine nominations for Outstanding Comedy Series. Larry David has received six nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. Cheryl Hines has received two nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. Shelley Berman and Michael J. Fox have each received a nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. The series has also received ten nominations for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series. The ninth season received four nominations at the 70th Primetime Emmy Awards, for Outstanding Comedy Series, Larry David for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series, and Bryan Cranston and Lin-Manuel Miranda each for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. The tenth season was nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series at the 72nd Primetime Emmy Awards, and the series received three further nominations in technical categories. The series has also received five Golden Globe Award nominations (in 2003 and 2006) and won for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy in 2003. Larry David has been nominated for three Golden Globes for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy in 2003, 2005, and 2006. It has been nominated for four Screen Actors Guild Awards, two for Larry David and two for the ensemble cast. It has been nominated six times for the Producers Guild of America Award, winning twice in 2003 and 2005. It has been nominated for eleven Directors Guild of America Awards, winning twice for Bryan Gordon for "The Special Section" in 2003 and Robert B. Weide for "Palestinian Chicken" in 2012. It has been nominated five times for the Writers Guild of America Award, winning once in 2006. Syndication When aired in syndication, the series is edited from its original HBO broadcast (for running time and without the TV-MA scenes). On June 2, 2010, the series premiered on the TV Guide Network, making its basic cable debut. The network also recorded a series of related discussions with high-profile guest stars, media pundits, and prominent social figures called "Curb: The Discussion" debating the moral implications depicted in each episode. The show debuted in syndication on local stations and WGN America in September 2010, but was removed the following year due to low ratings. It debuted on TV Land in February 2013. Home media VHS release The first season of Curb Your Enthusiasm was released on VHS in a three-volume box set. DVD releases Curb Your Enthusiasm seasons come in a two-disc DVD set with ten episodes. Other media Book A Curb Your Enthusiasm book was released October 19, 2006, published by Gotham Books. The book contains stories from Larry David's past, original interviews and commentary, episode outlines, episode guide, and over 100 full-color photographs. The contents of the book span the first five seasons of the show. Music The show is punctuated between scenes with music orchestrated by Wendell Yuponce and from a music library company called Killer Tracks. Frequently heard are instrumental arrangements of the whimsical "Three Little Maids From School Are We" from The Mikado, and the rhythmic Gypsy dance "Les tringles des sistres tintaient" from Carmen. The opening and closing theme song (not mentioned in the credits) is "Frolic" by Italian composer . Larry David heard the music used in a bank commercial years before the show was created and thought it had a lighthearted, joyful quality. An unofficial soundtrack was released by Mellowdrama Records in 2006. Documentary The 2017 Netflix documentary film, Long Shot, revealed that raw footage from the filming of an episode for the fourth season of the show at Dodger Stadium helped to inadvertently exonerate Juan Catalan, who was accused of murder and faced the death penalty, by giving him an alibi during the time the murder was committed. References External links 2000 American television series debuts 2000s American black comedy television series 2010s American black comedy television series 2020s American black comedy television series Adultery in television Best Musical or Comedy Series Golden Globe winners Cultural depictions of American people English-language television shows HBO original programming Jewish comedy and humor Jewish culture in Los Angeles Television series about Jews and Judaism Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series Television series about marriage Television series about show business Television series created by Larry David Television shows filmed in Los Angeles Television shows filmed in New York (state) Television shows set in Los Angeles Television shows set in New York City	[ 0.41210126876831055, -0.05949064716696739, 0.20879369974136353, 0.3867495656013489, 0.08791567385196686, -0.27292701601982117, -0.031178245320916176, 0.8931589722633362, 0.24311257898807526, -0.26626116037368774, 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217237	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosecutorial%20misconduct	Prosecutorial misconduct	In jurisprudence, prosecutorial misconduct is "an illegal act or failing to act, on the part of a prosecutor, especially an attempt to sway the jury to wrongly convict a defendant or to impose a harsher than appropriate punishment." It is similar to selective prosecution. Prosecutors are bound by a sets of rules which outline fair and dispassionate conduct. Types of misconduct Failure to disclose exculpatory evidence False confession Falsified evidence Malicious prosecution Prosecutorial corruption Retaliatory prosecution Selective prosecution Subornation of perjury Examples and remedies In late 1993, the 6th US Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that John Demjanjuk had been a victim of prosecutorial misconduct during a 1986 trial in which federal prosecutors withheld evidence. Demjanjuk's sentence was overturned, but he lost when his case was retried. In the 1995 murder trial of O. J. Simpson, the defense argued that Los Angeles Police Department detective Mark Fuhrman had planted evidence at the crime scene. Although Fuhrman denied the allegations, Simpson was found not guilty, although he was later held liable for the deaths in a civil suit filed by the families of the victims. In USA Today (August 24, 1995), Francis Fukuyama stated, "[Such defenses lead to] a distrust of government and the belief that public authorities are in a vast conspiracy to violate the rights of individuals." However, such misconduct may actually be widespread in the United States. "It’s a result-oriented process today, fairness be damned," Robert Merkle, former U.S. Attorney for the Middle District of Florida, said. Prosecutors are protected from civil liability even when they knowingly and maliciously break the law in order to secure convictions, and the doctrine of harmless error can be used by appellate courts to uphold convictions despite such illegal tactics, which some argue gives prosecutors few incentives to comply with the law. A more recent example of prosecutorial misconduct can be seen in the 2006 Duke lacrosse case. In that incident, members of the Duke University men's lacrosse team hired a female stripper for a team party. She went on to accuse three players of raping her at that party. Making the case even more volatile was the fact that the stripper was black and the three accused players were white. The actions of the prosecutor in this case, Mike Nifong, drew enormous criticism, as he proceeded with the case despite numerous inconsistencies in the accuser's story, a lack of DNA evidence conclusively linking any player to any sexual assault, and at least two of the accused having solid alibis. He also made numerous inflammatory statements to the media. The case against the players eventually collapsed; all charges were dropped, and the North Carolina Attorney General took the unusual step of declaring the players innocent. The North Carolina State Bar eventually disbarred Nifong for his actions during this case. In 2011 a Texas man, Michael Morton was released from prison after serving nearly 25 years for the murder of his wife in 1987. He was released after DNA evidence pointed to another man as the killer. The prosecutor, Ken Anderson later plead guilty to withholding evidence that could have helped Morton fight the murder charge. He was sentenced to spend 10 days in jail and was also disbarred. For an increasing number of North Carolinians, District Attorneys often enjoy both legal and political protections, making it that much harder to extricate them officially from office for their perceived misconduct. This is further exacerbated by the role media chooses to play with prosecutors. Since 2018, western North Carolina investigative journalist Davin Eldridge has exposed several instances of impropriety by area officials, including District Attorney Ashley Welch. While his reporting has proven itself as accurate, adjacent news outlets have nonetheless treated the matters as almost entirely nonexistent—opting instead to provide Welch with favorable coverage. This has left many in the community disaffected toward its justice system, political parties and media. Despite such, the defense has been successful in roughly 1 out of 6 times it has been used from 1970 to 2003. During that period, judges have cited misconduct by prosecutors as a reason to dismiss charges, reverse convictions, or reduce sentences in 2,012 cases, according to a study by the Center for Public Integrity released in 2003; the researchers looked at 11,452 cases in which misconduct was alleged. A debate persists over the meaning of the term. Prosecutors have asked judges to stop using the term to refer to an unintentional error, and to restrict its use to describe a breach of professional ethics. E. Norman Veasey, the chief justice of Delaware Supreme Court, answered one such request in 2003 by noting the term's extensive use in rulings over the past 60 years. "We believe it would be confusing to change the terminology in view of this history," he wrote in reply. See also Attorney misconduct Fruit of the poisonous tree Harmless error Malicious Prosecution Selective Prosecution List of wrongful convictions in the United States Special Counsel investigation (2017–2019) References External links Discovery violations have made evidence-gathering a shell game, The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 24, 1998 Misconduct Criminal defenses Prosecution Criminal justice ethics	[ -0.13977019488811493, 0.2756725251674652, -0.5506980419158936, 0.13187910616397858, -0.08103178441524506, 0.12485162913799286, 0.3705977499485016, 0.20953477919101715, -0.29065826535224915, 0.08132683485746384, -0.1614968478679657, 0.31984055042266846, -0.17464721202850342, 0.3176170587539673, -0.3106781244277954, 0.83692467212677, 0.5434390902519226, 0.48631390929222107, 0.4422607421875, -0.2763731777667999, -0.025576399639248848, 0.2160988301038742, -0.4999595880508423, -0.6139833331108093, 0.17299319803714752, -0.20515485107898712, -0.011219404637813568, 0.029755787923932076, 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217239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipscomb%20University	Lipscomb University	Lipscomb University is a private university in Nashville, Tennessee. It is affiliated with the Churches of Christ. The campus is located in the Green Hills neighborhood of Nashville, between Belmont Boulevard to the west and Granny White Pike on the east. Student enrollment for the fall 2016 semester was 4,632, which included 2,986 undergraduate students and 1,646 graduate students. It also maintains two satellite locations called "Spark," in the Cool Springs area of Franklin, Tennessee and in Downtown Nashville to serve the business community. History Lipscomb University was founded in 1891 by David Lipscomb and James A. Harding. The campus grounds consist predominantly of the former estate of David Lipscomb, who donated it to the school. The school was always intended to function as a Christian liberal arts institution. It is still affiliated with the Churches of Christ and a seminary is part of the university. In an early catalog, the founders expressed their views about providing a liberal education that included Christian underpinning: Several prominent Church of Christ ministers received at least a portion of their higher education here (see Notable alumni below). The university remains thoroughly affiliated in the Churches of Christ: Potential full-time, undergraduate faculty must prove their membership in a Church of Christ before being hired. Its original name was the Nashville Bible School, which was changed to David Lipscomb College, then to David Lipscomb University. Lipscomb graduated its first senior class in 1948, leaving behind the name of junior college forever. In 1954, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools granted Lipscomb its first accreditation. In 1988, Lipscomb attained Level III (master's degree-granting) status and became known as David Lipscomb University. All full-time, undergraduate students are required to take Bible classes and attend chapel twice a week. (Half of these chapels are now held in the sports facility Allen Arena, and half are "break-out" sessions that are held in multiple places on the same schedule.) The university operates an on-campus high school and middle school as part of its training of teachers and research programs. The associated elementary school moved to a renovated former public school a few blocks away in 1986. All three form Lipscomb Academy, offering Pre-kindergarten through high school education. In January 2019, the university launched LipscombLEADS, a $250 million fundraising campaign to fund various improvements to the campus, including new academic buildings, renovations to existing academic and residence buildings, and new programs. Additionally, funds will go to increased financial aid for students and growing the endowment. At the time of announcement, $186 million had already been raised from 42,000 donors. In September 2020, Lipscomb announced that it would be merging with the Austin Graduate School of Theology in Austin, Texas. The merger would become official in January 2021, with Lipscomb managing all of AGST's affairs and expanding their course offerings. Presidents There have been 14 superintendents or presidents of Lipscomb over 18 administrations. James A. Harding (1891-1901) William Anderson (1901-1905) J. S. Ward (1905-1906) E. A. Elam (1906-1913) J. S. Ward (1913) H. Leo Boles (1913-1920) A. B. Lipscomb (1920-1921) H. S. Lipscomb (1921-1923) H. Leo Boles (1923-1932) Batsell Baxter (1932-1934) E. H. Ijams (1934-1943) Batsell Baxter (1943-1946) Athens Clay Pullias (1946-1977) G. Willard Collins (1977-1986) Harold Hazelip (1987-1997) Steve Flatt (1997-2005) L. Randolph Lowry III (2005–2021) Candice McQueen (2021–present) The Nashville Bible School was co-founded in 1891 by college founders Lipscomb and Harding. David Lipscomb never served as president, but as chairman of the board of trustees. James A. Harding served as the school's first superintendent. Academics U.S. News & World Report ranks Lipscomb University 18th among Regional Universities (South) according to its "2015 America's Best Colleges" guidebook. Lipscomb's liberal arts curriculum includes a wide range of academic programs in the arts and sciences. The curriculum continues to evolve, notably with the addition of civil and environmental engineering in the Raymond B. Jones College of Engineering, and the doctorate in pharmacy in the College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences. Under the administration of President Lowry, Lipscomb increased the number of its graduate programs from 8 in 2005 to 44 in 2015. Colleges and institutes Lipscomb University comprises the following colleges, schools and institutes: Campus The center of the university, known as Bison Square, is located between the Bennett Campus Center and the Willard Collins Alumni Auditorium. The south side of the Bennett Campus Center was converted from a single upstairs and downstairs entry into an amphitheater-style seating area and entryway, as well as having an entirely renovated interior with redesigned seating and lighting that create a more welcoming atmosphere. A full-service Starbucks store has also opened inside the campus center, complete with its own separate entry on both the interior and exterior of the building. The bricked square is traditionally used during warm weather as the location for devotionals, concerts, and other campus activities. Willard Collins Alumni Auditorium has been completely renovated with new seating, flooring, and audio/video equipment, updating its look from the original design. Allen Arena, a 5,028-seat multipurpose facility, opened in October 2001 on the site of the old McQuiddy Gymnasium. Part of the McQuiddy Gymnasium still remains between Allen Arena and the Student Activities Center (the SAC), a multi-purpose student activity space with workout facilities, basketball courts, and an indoor track. The SAC offers a variety of workout classes to students, including spin classes on exercise bikes. Yearwood Hall, an older women's dormitory, was torn down for construction of Allen Arena and its accompanying parking garage. Academic buildings Attached to Willard Collins Alumni Auditorium is the A. M. Burton Health Sciences Center. The Burton building was fully renovated to house the College of Pharmacy. The entire renovation of the building received LEED Gold certification. On the southeast corner of Burton, is the music wing, the McMeen Music Center. It has a large rehearsal room for music ensembles on the main level, with music offices and practice rooms on the lower level. To the south side of Burton is the Swang Business Center, where business and computing classes are held, along with various other classes. The university's newest academic buildings have been constructed on the north side of campus, where the university expanded beyond its historic northern boundary. The Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center houses the university's graduate pharmacy program. The neighboring James D. Hughes Center houses all the university's health-science programs and the physician assistant program. The Nursing and Health Sciences Center next door houses the graduate College of Nursing. The Fields Engineering Center is also located on the north side of campus. The Ezell Center comprises the religious, education, mass communication, social work, history, political science, philosophy, and professional studies departments. Other academic buildings include the McFarland Science Building, where science and math classes are held, and the attached Ward Hall, which was fully renovated. The basements of McFarland and Ward now house the majority of the arts-related programs as they await the delayed opening of the new George Shinn Event Center. This will house the College of Entertainment and the Arts. Beaman Library was constructed in time for the university's centennial in 1991. The university's old library, the Crisman building, now serves as the university's administrative building. Lipscomb has announced plans for a new College of Business building and a new performing arts center. Housing The university has seven residence halls. Women's residences include Elam Hall, Fanning Hall, and Johnson Hall, all of which have a large enclosed courtyard. Men's residences include Sewell Hall, which was renovated in the late 1990s, and the eight-story High Rise, the university's tallest structure. The Village is a co-ed, apartment style housing for upperclassmen. Bison Hall, the newest residence hall, is a hotel-style, co-ed housing option for upperclassmen that also doubles as Bison Inn, a hotel option for visitors to campus. Men and women are not allowed in dorms belonging to the opposite sex, with a few exceptions: 1) members of both sexes can enter the lobby during certain hours, 2) during moving days, and 3) on "open dorm" occasions; 4) and men are also allowed into the central courtyard of the women's dormitories only when cookouts or other such mixers are being held. Tax exempt bonds Some academic buildings were built with tax-exempt municipal bonds, and, because Lipscomb is a Christian school, this led to an extended lawsuit on the basis of whether or not a private religious institution is allowed to use public bonds. This case was debated for many years and ultimately made it to the Supreme Court. The court upheld the decision of the lower court, that, plainly stated, the government could not withhold public bonds based on Lipscomb's religious affiliation. However, one of the stipulations for receiving public funding was that these buildings cannot have religious classes taught in them. For example, no Bible classes are taught in the McFarland Hall of Sciences; however, the rule about excluding Bible classes does not apply to Ward Hall, even though it is attached to McFarland Hall. Construction of Ward was funded through private donations. This decision has allowed other private, religious universities to pursue public funding for capital projects. Campus life Lipscomb does not have fraternities and sororities. Rather, it has social clubs, which are local and unique to Lipscomb University and are not part of any national Greek system. The women's social clubs include Delta Sigma, Delta Omega, Kappa Chi, Pi Delta, Phi Nu, and Phi Sigma. The men's social clubs are Delta Nu, Theta Psi, Sigma Alpha, Sigma Iota Delta, and Tau Phi. Students participate in Singarama (an annual spring musical variety show), as well as other entertainment, social, and service activities throughout the year. The university also offers membership in other academic, professional, and service clubs including Alpha Kappa Psi International Business Fraternity (Delta Kappa chapter), Sigma Alpha Iota women's music fraternity, Alpha Phi Chi men's service club, Pi Kappa Sigma women's service club, Sigma Pi Beta co-ed service club, Alpha Chi National Honors Society, Sigma Tau Delta National English honor society, Circle K International, College Republicans, and College Democrats. The Babbler is the defunct student newspaper and was published weekly during the spring and fall semesters. The title of the publication comes from Acts 17:18 which in part says "What does this babbler have to say?" The Backlog is the school's yearbook and is published annually. The Lumination Network, the school's converged student media outlet, replaces the weekly Babbler and is tied heavily with the academic program of the Department of Communication and Journalism. An independent student newsletter, the Lipscomb Underground, provides unfiltered student opinion for the campus. Originally running from 1994 to 2008 and resurfacing in 2016, the title of the Lipscomb Underground comes from the musical Les Misérables which in part says "Make for the sewers, go underground!" Global learning Lipscomb offers a handful of study abroad programs, which the university terms global learning. In the mid-1990s a semester-long, study abroad program in Vienna, Austria, was first offered, and is the flagship trip for the university. Additional study abroad trips include Santiago, Chile; Florence, Italy; and London, United Kingdom. Lipscomb Global Learning announced that beginning in Fall 2019, the Santiago program would end and be replaced with a new program in Heredia, Costa Rica. Several academic departments take short trips to various sites around the world. These trips are usually for fewer than 10 hours credit and a shorter time abroad. The university also partners with the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities to offer other trips ranging from 10 days to year-round, thanks to the newly developed programs of 2013. The current head of the global learning department is Michael Winegeart. Athletics Sports teams are nicknamed "The Bisons," and there is a large statue of the namesake animal centrally located on the campus. At one time the school was a small-college sports powerhouse, notably in baseball and basketball in the NAIA; now it is a member of NCAA Division I and competes in the ASUN Conference. The university has an ongoing sports rivalry with Belmont University, just down the road from Lipscomb. Traditionally basketball games between the two schools are called the "Battle of the Boulevard". Overall the Bisons have the series advantage 75–72. In 2006, the rivalry reached a new level when Belmont and Lipscomb advanced to the finals of the Atlantic Sun tournament at the Memorial Center in Johnson City, Tennessee, with the winner earning its first-ever bid to the NCAA tournament. Belmont won 74–69 in overtime. Lipscomb was invited to the National Invitation Tournament as the regular-season conference champion, losing in its first game. LU The Bison serves as the official mascot of Lipscomb University. Notable alumni Academia Michael F. Adams (1970), retired president of the University of Georgia, former chancellor of Pepperdine University Dr. W.B. West, Jr. (1929) Founder and former Dean of Harding School of Theology William S. Banowsky, fourth president of Pepperdine University Richard A. Batey (H.S. 1951, David Lipscomb College 1955), New Testament scholar Judy G. Hample (1969), former Chancellor of the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education (PASSHE) Howard A. White, fifth president of Pepperdine University M. Norvel Young, third president of Pepperdine University George E. Howard, 1958 Head of Dept. of Religion University of Georgia, New Testament scholar, author Athletics Casey Bond (2009), actor, former professional baseball player Rex Brothers (2011), professional baseball player for the Atlanta Braves Caleb Joseph (2010), professional baseball player for the Baltimore Orioles Garrison Mathews (2019), professional basketball player for the Houston Rockets Kayla Montgomery, award-winning long-distance runner John Pierce, college basketball all-time/all-division scoring leader with 4,230 points Medicine J. Ridley Stroop (1921), psychology and biblical professor, known for his interference research in experimental psychology known as the Stroop Effect Edwin Trevathan (1977), physician and public health leader, currently director of the Vanderbilt Institute for Global Health, former national center director at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), former provost at Baylor University. Music & Arts Kelsea Ballerini (2012), country music singer and songwriter Pat Boone (H.S. 1952), singer Jim Jinkins (1975), creator of the animated Doug series Dustin Lynch (2007), country music singer and songwriter Michael Shane Neal (1991), portrait artist Niki (singer), Indonesian singer and songwriter Monty Powell (1984), Multiple award-winning country music singer, songwriter and producer Thomas Rhett (2011), country music singer and songwriter Marty Roe (1984), lead singer of the country music band Diamond Rio Ray Walker (1956), bass singer for The Jordanaires quartet Politics LaMar Baker (1938), former U.S. Representative from TN-03 David French (1991), (political commentator) Beth Harwell (1978), former Tennessee State Representative, first female Speaker of the Tennessee House of Representatives, candidate for governor of Tennessee in the 2018 election Benjamin Pollock, Democratic political consultant for Beto O'Rourke Dave Retterer (1974) Mayor of Ada, Ohio Kerry Roberts (1983), Tennessee State Senator David Sampson (1978), former United States Deputy Secretary of Commerce William R. Snodgrass (1942), former Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury Religion Robert Henry Boll, German-born American preacher in the Churches of Christ Charles R. Brewer (1918), professor, preacher, poet, and leader G. C. Brewer (1911), author, preacher, and teacher B.C. Goodpasture (1918), preacher and writer Ira L. North (1941), preacher and author Other Cyntoia Brown (2015), a woman whose murder conviction at age 16 was a national controversy; she was granted clemency in 2019 Savannah Chrisley, reality television personality and pageant queen Douglas A. Foster (1974), author and scholar known for his work on the history of Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement David Edwin Harrell (1954), historian at Auburn University W. Mark Lanier (1981), founder of The Lanier Law Firm Barry Stowe (1979), CEO, Jackson National Life References External links Lipscomb Athletics website 1891 establishments in Tennessee Council for Christian Colleges and Universities Educational institutions established in 1891 Private universities and colleges in Tennessee Seminaries and theological colleges in Tennessee Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Universities and colleges affiliated with the Churches of Christ Universities and colleges in Nashville, Tennessee	[ -0.19386038184165955, 0.007127503864467144, 0.23022885620594025, -0.4129959046840668, 0.8322065472602844, 0.4758946895599365, 0.702450692653656, 0.5640704035758972, -0.48395535349845886, -0.5121830105781555, -0.12737081944942474, 0.46434327960014343, 0.020707493647933006, 0.7590486407279968, -0.25270509719848633, -0.0758102536201477, 0.3387184143066406, 0.4305177628993988, 0.05773789435625076, -0.3767743408679962, 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217240	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine%20Post	Palestine Post	Palestine Post is the company responsible for postal service in the State of Palestine. See also Postage stamps and postal history of the Palestinian National Authority Postage stamps and postal history of Palestine External links Palestine Post official website (Arabic only) Universal Postal Union Palestine Postcode Listing References Communications in the State of Palestine Postal organizations	[ 0.620701253414154, 0.4435553550720215, -0.2793489396572113, -0.23767507076263428, -0.4573231041431427, 0.1939576268196106, -0.3701762855052948, 0.5838639140129089, 0.20121978223323822, -0.43041369318962097, -0.767449676990509, -0.2931080758571625, 0.2800149619579315, 0.38617706298828125, -0.38607800006866455, 0.35955166816711426, -0.023894213140010834, 0.5791009068489075, -0.30698537826538086, -0.5578087568283081, -0.42740845680236816, -0.07314411550760269, 0.32020092010498047, 0.04060957580804825, -0.5094890594482422, -0.41667816042900085, 0.4597669541835785, 0.3074258863925934, -0.2539009749889374, -0.037128105759620667, 0.12210753560066223, 0.4373597502708435, 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217241	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted%20Danson	Ted Danson	Edward Bridge Danson III (born December 29, 1947) is an American actor and producer who played the lead character Sam Malone on the NBC sitcom Cheers, Jack Holden in the films Three Men and a Baby and Three Men and a Little Lady, and Dr. John Becker on the CBS sitcom Becker. He also starred in the CBS dramas CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and CSI: Cyber as D.B. Russell. Additionally, he plays a recurring role as a fictionalized version of himself on Larry David's HBO sitcom Curb Your Enthusiasm, starred alongside Glenn Close in legal drama Damages and was a regular on the HBO comedy series Bored to Death. In 2015 he starred as Hank Larsson in the second season of FX's black comedy-crime drama anthology Fargo. From 2016 to 2020, he played the afterlife architect Michael in the NBC sitcom The Good Place. He currently plays Neil Bremer in NBC's Mr. Mayor. During his career, Danson has been nominated for 18 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning two; 11 Golden Globe Awards nominations, winning three; one Screen Actors Guild Award; and one American Comedy Award and has been awarded a star on Hollywood's Walk of Fame. He was ranked second in TV Guides list of the top 25 television stars. Danson has also been a longtime activist in ocean conservation. In March 2011, he published his first book, Oceana: Our Endangered Oceans and What We Can Do to Save Them, written with journalist Michael D'Orso. Early life and education Danson was born in San Diego to Edward "Ned" Bridge Danson, Jr. (1916–2000), an archaeologist and director of the Museum of Northern Arizona from 1959 to 1975, and Jessica MacMaster (1916–2006), and has an older sister, Jan Ann Haury (born January 11, 1944). Danson was raised in Flagstaff, Arizona. His ancestry is mostly English and also partially Scottish, his ancestry goes back to colonial New England, being descended from Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, John Webster and Roger Ludlow. In 1961, Danson enrolled in the Kent School, a prep school in Connecticut, where he was a star player on the basketball team. He became interested in drama while attending Stanford University and, seeking a better acting program, transferred to Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, where he received his Bachelor of Fine Arts in drama in 1972. Career Television Early career Danson began his television career as a contract player on the daytime soap opera Somerset. He played the role of "Tom Conway" from 1975 to 1976. In 1977 he played Dr. Mitchell Pierson on the daytime soap opera The Doctors, having also appeared earlier in 1975 as another character, Dr. Chuck Weldon. He was also in a number of commercials, most recognizably as the "Aramis man". He made a number of guest appearances in episodic television in the late 1970s and early 1980s, including spots on Laverne & Shirley, B. J. and the Bear, Family, Benson, Taxi, Magnum, P.I., The Amazing Spider-Man, Tucker's Witch and Mrs. Columbo. Career breakthrough: Cheers In 1982, Danson was cast as the womanizing former baseball player and bartender Sam Malone on the NBC sitcom Cheers, in which he has an on-and-off relationship with college-educated, sophisticated Diane Chambers. Though the show finished last in the ratings in the first season, it was well received by critics. Ratings gradually improved in 1983 and by 1986 Cheers was one of the top ten shows on TV. The show had a run of 11 seasons and its finale (May 20, 1993) was watched by 80 million people, becoming the second-most-watched finale in television history at that time. It won four Emmy Awards for Outstanding Comedy Series and a Golden Globe for Best Series – Musical or Comedy. The show ran from 1982 to 1993, with Danson receiving eleven consecutive Emmy nominations and nine Golden Globe nominations, ultimately winning two Emmys and two Golden Globes. In 2002, TV Guide named Cheers the 18th Greatest Show of All Time. It was also included in Time Magazine's 100 Greatest Shows of All Time. Danson also appeared as Sam Malone in guest-starring roles on other sitcoms, such as Cheers spin-off Frasier, The Jim Henson Hour, and The Simpsons. Later career Although he was best known for his work in comedy, he also appeared in a drama, Something About Amelia, about a family devastated by the repercussions of incest, which co-starred his later co-star on Damages, Glenn Close. He won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie and was nominated for an Emmy Award. In 1996, three years after Cheers concluded, Danson starred in the short-lived CBS sitcom Ink with his real-life wife Mary Steenburgen. In the same year, they starred as Lemuel Gulliver and his wife in an acclaimed television miniseries of Gulliver's Travels. Danson went on to star in the successful CBS sitcom Becker (produced by Paramount Television, which also produced Cheers), which ran from 1998 to 2004. Danson also plays a fictionalized version of himself on Curb Your Enthusiasm. He reprised his role of Sam Malone in a second-season episode of Frasier and voiced him in The Simpsons episode "Fear of Flying". In 1999, Danson was presented with a star on Hollywood's Walk of Fame. Danson returned to series television in the fall of 2006, playing a psychiatrist in the ABC sitcom Help Me Help You, which was canceled at midseason due to low ratings. In 2006, Danson received a nomination for a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a TV Movie or Miniseries for his role in Knights of the South Bronx. In 2007, Danson starred in the FX Network drama Damages as a corrupt billionaire, Arthur Frobisher. The role earned him an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series but he lost to co-star Željko Ivanek. In the second season Danson became a recurring character instead of one of the principal cast. Nevertheless, Danson received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series but lost to Michael J. Fox for his guest appearance in Rescue Me. In 2011, Danson appeared in the music video for "Make Some Noise" by the Beastie Boys. He is also mentioned in the song's lyrics. Danson starred in the HBO sitcom Bored to Death as George Christopher, the laconic and sometime downright infantile editor of Edition magazine. Critics often praised Danson as being the highlight of the program, calling his character a "scene stealer". In July 2011, it was announced that Danson would star in the CBS police drama CSI: Crime Scene Investigation. He played D.B. Russell, a new graveyard shift supervisor who previously headed a crime lab in Seattle, Washington. Tony Shalhoub, Robin Williams, and John Lithgow were also considered for the role. In March 2013, it was confirmed that Danson had signed a deal extending his stay on CSI for two more years. Following the cancellation of CSI, it was announced that his character would make a move over to the third spinoff show CSI: Cyber in the second season. The show was cancelled after two seasons. In 2015, Danson appeared in the second season of the TV show Fargo. He portrays Sheriff Hank Larsson. From September 2016 to January 2020, Danson appeared opposite Kristen Bell as the character Michael in the NBC sitcom The Good Place. He has both been nominated for and won numerous awards for his performance as Michael. In July 2019, Danson was cast as one of the main lead roles for the situation comedy Mr. Mayor, in which he plays a wealthy businessman who runs for mayor of Los Angeles for all the wrong reasons. The series was greenlit by NBC as an entry in the 2020–2021 television season. Film Danson has also been featured in numerous films. His most notable film appearances were in Three Men and a Baby with Tom Selleck and Steve Guttenberg, its sequel Three Men and a Little Lady, and Cousins with Isabella Rossellini. He also appeared in The Onion Field (his first film, as the bagpipe-playing Officer Ian Campbell), Creepshow, Body Heat, Little Treasure, Just Between Friends (with Mary Tyler Moore), A Fine Mess, Dad, Made in America, Getting Even with Dad, Loch Ness, and Saving Private Ryan. Personal life Danson and his first wife, actress Randall "Randy" Gosch (now professionally known as Randy Danson), were married in 1970 and divorced in 1975. Danson's second wife was producer Cassandra "Casey" Coates; they were married in 1977. On December 24, 1979, while giving birth to their first daughter Kate, Coates suffered a stroke. Danson spent several years caring for her and helping her recuperate. They later adopted a second daughter, Alexis. Danson's affair with actress Whoopi Goldberg contributed to their divorce in 1993. It is known as one of Hollywood's costliest divorces, reportedly costing Danson $30 million. On October 7, 1995, Danson married actress Mary Steenburgen, whom he met on the set of the movie Pontiac Moon in 1993, and became the stepfather to Steenburgen's children, Lilly and Charlie, from her previous marriage to actor Malcolm McDowell. Danson has been on a vegan diet multiple times, but he currently adheres to a pescetarian diet. Relationship with Whoopi Goldberg While a guest on The Arsenio Hall Show in late 1988, he met actress Whoopi Goldberg, whom he described as "a sexy, funny woman". The two became friends, co-hosting Help Save Planet Earth in 1990, a video guide to saving the environment (Danson played himself, Goldberg played the role of Mother Earth). While making Made in America in April 1992, the two became romantically involved—a pairing which was heavily featured in gossip tabloids such as the National Enquirer. The couple also appeared on the Rock the Vote TV special that same year, as well as being set to star in a Paramount-produced version of Neal Barrett Jr.'s Pink Vodka Blues, written by Marshall Brickman. Danson experienced negative press attention on October 8, 1993, after his appearance wearing blackface at a Friars Club comedy roast in honor of Goldberg, and for using a plethora of racist slurs. Reportedly, several black audience members left mid-performance. Later, Goldberg defended the sketch, explaining that she had helped write much of the material and referred Danson to the makeup artist who painted his face as a societal critique. Danson and Goldberg issued statements emphasizing "the Friars Club tradition of raucous and over the top humor" and describing those offended as newcomers who "were uncomfortable with what to expect". Substantial excerpts from the performance were later printed in Spy. On November 5, 1993, Danson and Goldberg issued a statement signalling the end of their relationship. Environmentalism Danson's interest in environmental concerns was ignited when he was twelve years old and Bill Breed, then curator of geology at the Museum of Northern Arizona, introduced Danson and friend Marc Gaede to a game he referred to as "billboarding". Armed with an ax and saw, Breed, Gaede, and Danson ended up destroying over 500 outdoor advertising signs. Danson's interest in environmentalism continued over the years, and he began to be concerned with the state of the world's oceans. In the 1980s, he was a contributing founder of the American Oceans Campaigns, which merged with Oceana in 2001, where Danson is a board member. Danson's commitment to the environment led him to host the A&E television series "Challenge of the Seas" in 1991, filming 26 one-hour episodes. In March 2011 Danson published his first book, Oceana: Our Endangered Oceans And What We Can Do To Save Them, written with journalist Michael D'Orso. On October 25, 2019, Danson was arrested and charged along with actress Jane Fonda at a climate change protest outside the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Political activity Danson is a friend of former U.S. President Bill Clinton, who attended Danson and Mary Steenburgen's wedding. Danson has donated $85,000+ to Democratic candidates, including Al Gore, John Edwards, Barbara Boxer, Bill Clinton, Al Franken, and John Kerry. He has also donated to the Democratic Party of Arkansas and the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee. Danson and Steenburgen campaigned for Senator Hillary Clinton during her 2008 presidential campaign. He attended the wedding of their daughter Chelsea on July 31, 2010. He appeared with Steenburgen at the 2016 Democratic National Convention. On October 3, 2016, he helped open the new headquarters in Lancaster, PA at the old Queen Pharmacy on King Street for Hillary Clinton. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations References Further reading External links Ted Danson at Internet Off-Broadway Database 1947 births American environmentalists American male film actors American male television actors Male actors from California Male actors from San Diego Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actor Golden Globe winners Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (television) winners Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors California Democrats Carnegie Mellon University College of Fine Arts alumni HuffPost writers and columnists Kent School alumni American people of English descent American people of Scottish descent Living people People from Flagstaff, Arizona Arizona Democrats Massachusetts Democrats	[ -0.43332019448280334, 0.35815557837486267, 0.08470267802476883, -0.12660793960094452, 0.998284101486206, 0.6472230553627014, 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217245	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Demjanjuk	John Demjanjuk	John Demjanjuk (born Ivan Mykolaiovych Demjanjuk; ; 3 April 1920 – 17 March 2012) was a Ukrainian-American who served as a Trawniki man and Nazi camp guard at Sobibor extermination camp, Majdanek, and Flossenbürg. Demjanjuk became the center of global media attention in the 1980s, when he was tried and convicted after being misidentified as "Ivan the Terrible", a notoriously cruel watchman at Treblinka extermination camp. Shortly before his death, he was again tried and convicted as an accessory to 28,000 murders at Sobibor. Born in Soviet Ukraine, Demjanjuk was conscripted into the Red Army in 1940. He fought in World War II and was taken prisoner by the Germans in spring 1942. He was recruited by the Germans and trained at Trawniki concentration camp, going on to serve at Sobibor extermination camp and at least two concentration camps. After the war he married a woman he met in a West German displaced persons camp, and emigrated with her and their daughter to the United States. They settled in Seven Hills, Ohio, where he worked in an auto factory and raised three children. Demjanjuk became a US citizen in 1958. In August 1977, Demjanjuk was accused of having been a Trawniki man. Based on eyewitness testimony by Holocaust survivors in Israel, he was identified as the notorious Treblinka extermination camp guard known as "Ivan the Terrible". Demjanjuk was extradited to Israel in 1986 for trial. In 1988, Demjanjuk was convicted and sentenced to death. He maintained his innocence, claiming that it was a case of mistaken identity. In 1993 the verdict was overturned by the Israeli Supreme Court, based on new evidence that cast reasonable doubt over his identity as "Ivan the Terrible". Although the judges agreed that there was sufficient evidence to show that Demjanjuk had served at Sobibor, Israel declined to prosecute. In September 1993 Demjanjuk was allowed to return to Ohio. In 1999, US prosecutors again sought to deport Demjanjuk for having been a concentration camp guard, and his citizenship was revoked in 2002. In 2009, Germany requested his extradition for over 27,900 counts of acting as an accessory to murder: one for each person killed at Sobibor during the time when he was alleged to have served there as a guard. He was deported from the US to Germany in that same year. On 12 May 2011, he was convicted and sentenced to five years in prison. According to legal scholar Lawrence Douglas, in spite of serious missteps along the way, the German verdict brought the case "to a worthy and just conclusion". After the conviction, Demjanjuk was released pending appeal. He lived at a German nursing home in Bad Feilnbach, where he died on 17 March 2012. Having died before a final judgment on his appeal could be issued, under German law, Demjanjuk remains technically innocent. In January 2020, a photograph album by Sobibor guard Johann Niemann was made public; some historians have suggested that a guard who appears in two photos may be Demjanjuk. Background Demjanjuk was born in Dubovi Makharyntsi, a farming village in the western part of Soviet Ukraine. He grew up during the Holodomor famine, and later worked as a tractor driver in a Soviet collective farm. In 1940, he was drafted into the Red Army. After a battle in Eastern Crimea, he was taken prisoner by the Germans and was held in a camp for Soviet prisoners of war in Chełm. According to German records, Demjanjuk most likely arrived at Trawniki concentration camp to be trained as a camp guard for the Nazis on 13 June 1942. He was assigned to a manorial estate called Okzow on 22 September 1942, but returned to Trawniki on 14 October. He was transferred to Majdanek concentration camp, where he was disciplined on 18 January 1943. He was sent back to Trawniki and on 26 March 1943 he was assigned to Sobibor concentration camp. On 1 October 1943 he was transferred to Flossenbürg, where he served until at least 10 December 1944. Demjanjuk would later claim to have been drafted into the Russian Liberation Army in 1944. But an investigation conducted in the 1990s by the US Office of Special Investigations found this to be a cover story. OSI was unable to establish Demjanjuk's whereabouts from December 1944 to the end of the war. After the end of the war, Demjanjuk spent time in several displaced persons (DP) camps in Germany. Initially, Demjanjuk hoped to emigrate to Argentina or Canada; however, under the Displaced Persons Act of 1948, he applied to move to the United States. His application stated that he had worked as a driver in the town of Sobibór in eastern Poland. (The nearby Sobibor extermination camp was named after the village.) Demjanjuk later claimed this was a coincidence, and said that he picked the name "Sobibor" from an atlas owned by a fellow applicant because it had a large Soviet population. Historian Hans-Jürgen Bömelburg noted in regard to Demjanjuk that Nazi war criminals sometimes tried to evade prosecution after the war by presenting themselves as victims of Nazi persecution, rather than as the perpetrators. Demjanjuk found a job as a driver in a displaced persons camp in the Bavarian city of Landshut, and was subsequently transferred to camps in other southern German cities, until ending up in Feldafing near Munich in May 1951. There he met Vera Kowlowa, another DP, and they married. Demjanjuk, his wife and daughter arrived in New York City aboard the on 9 February 1952. They moved to Indiana, and later settled in the Cleveland suburb of Seven Hills, Ohio. There he became a United Auto Workers (UAW) diesel engine mechanic at the nearby Ford automobile factory, where a friend from Regensburg had found work. His wife found work at a General Electric facility, and the two had two more children. On 14 November 1958, Demjanjuk became a naturalized citizen of the United States and legally changed his name from Ivan to John. Loss of US citizenship and extradition to Israel Investigation by INS and OSI In 1975, Michael Hanusiak, the American editor of Ukrainian News, presented US Senator Jacob Javits of New York with a list of 70 ethnic Ukrainians living in the United States who were suspected of having collaborated with Germans in World War II; Javits sent the list to US Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS). Its investigation reduced the list to nine individuals, including Demjanjuk. Hanusiak claimed that Soviet newspapers and archives had provided the names during his visit to Kiev in 1974; however, INS suspected that Hanusiak, a member of the Communist Party USA, had received the list from the KGB. It chose to investigate the names as leads. Hanusiak claimed that Demjanjuk had been a guard at Sobibor concentration and death camp. INS quickly discovered that Demjanjuk had listed his place of domicile from 1937 to 1943 as Sobibor on his US visa application of 1951. This was considered circumstantial corroboration of Hansiuk's claims, but its agents were unable to find witnesses in the US who could identify Demjanjuk. INS sent photographs to the Israeli government of the nine persons alleged by Hanusiak to have been involved in crimes against Jews: the government's agents asked survivors of Sobibor and Treblinka if they could identify Demjanjuk based on his visa application picture. While none recognized the name Ivan Demjanjuk, and no survivors of Sobibor identified his photograph, nine survivors of Treblinka identified Demjanjuk as "Ivan the Terrible", so named because of his cruelty as a guard operating the gas chamber at Treblinka. Lawyers at the US Office of Special Investigations (OSI), in the Department of Justice, valued the identifications made by these survivors, as they had interacted with and seen "Ivan the Terrible" over a protracted period of time. They also gained an additional identification of the visa photo as Demjanjuk by Otto Horn, a former SS guard at Treblinka. In August 1977, the Justice Department submitted a request to the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Ohio to revoke Demjanjuk's citizenship, based on his concealment on his 1951 immigration application of having worked at Nazi death camps. While the government was preparing for trial, Hanusiak published pictures of an ID card identifying Demjanjuk as having been a Trawniki man and guard at Sobibor in News from Ukraine. Given that eyewitnesses attested to Demjanjuk having been Ivan the Terrible at Treblinka, decades before, whereas documentary evidence seemed to indicate that he had served at Sobibor with little notoriety, OSI considered dropping the proceeding against Demjanjuk to focus on higher profile cases. But OSI's new director Allan Ryan chose to go ahead with the prosecution of Demjanjuk as Ivan the Terrible. In 1979, three guards from Sobibor gave sworn depositions that they knew Demjanjuk to have been a guard there, and two identified his photograph. OSI did not submit these deposits into evidence and took them as a further indication that Demjanjuk was Ivan the Terrible, though none of the guards mentioned Demjanjuk having been at Treblinka. Deportation and extradition proceedings The proceeding opened with the prosecution calling historian Earl F. Ziemke, who reconstructed the situation on the Eastern Front in 1942 and showed that it would have been possible for Demjanjuk to have been captured at the Battle of Kerch and arrive in Trawniki that same year. The authenticity of the Trawniki card was affirmed by US government experts who examined the original document as well as by Wolfgang Scheffler of the Free University of Berlin during the hearing, Scheffler also testified to the crimes committed by Trawniki men and that it was possible that Demjanjuk had been moved between Sobibor and Treblinka. Additionally, the former paymaster at Trawniki, Heinrich Schaefer, stated in a deposition that such cards were standard issue at Trawniki. Five Holocaust survivors from Treblinka identified Demjanjuk as having been at Treblinka and having been "Ivan the Terrible." Additionally, OSI submitted the testimony of former SS guard Horn identifying Demjanjuk as having been at Treblinka. Although Demjanjuk's Trawniki card only documented that he had been at Sobibor, the prosecution argued that he could have shuttled between the camps and that Treblinka had been omitted due to administrative sloppiness. During the trial, Demjanjuk admitted to having lied on his US visa application but claimed that it was out of fear of being returned to the Soviet Union and denied having been a concentration camp guard. Demjanjuk instead claimed to have been a German prisoner who completed forced labor. The defense also submitted the statement of Feodor Fedorenko, a Ukrainian guard at Treblinka, which stated that Fedorenko could not recall having seen Demjanjuk at Treblinka. Demjanjuk's citizenship was revoked for having lied about his past in 1981, with the judge persuaded especially by the testimony of Otto Horn. Demjanjuk subsequently requested political asylum in the United States rather than deportation. His application for asylum was denied on 31 May 1984. Demjanjuk's defense was supported by the Ukrainian community and various Eastern European émigré groups; Demjanjuk's supporters alleged that he was the victim of a communist conspiracy and raised over two million dollars for his defense. Much of the money was raised by a Cleveland-based Holocaust denier Jerome Brentar, who also recommended Demjanjuk's lawyer Mark O'Connor. The first day of the denaturalization trial was accompanied by a protest of 150 Ukrainian-Americans who called the trial "a Soviet trial in an American court" and burned a Soviet flag. Demjanjuk also attracted the support of conservative political figures such as Pat Buchanan and Ohio congressman James Traficant. Others, particularly American Jews, were outraged by the presence of Demjanjuk in the United States and vocally supported his deportation. Writer Lawrence Douglas has called the case "the most highly publicized denaturalization proceeding in American history." In October 1983, Israel issued an extradition request for Demjanjuk to stand trial on Israeli soil under the Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law of 1950 for crimes allegedly committed at Treblinka. Demjanjuk appealed his extradition; in a hearing on 8 July 1985, Demjanjuk's defense attorneys claimed that the evidence against him had been manufactured by the KGB, that Demjanjuk was never at Treblinka, and that the court had no authority to consider Israel's request for extradition. The appeals court found probable cause that Demjanjuk "committed murders of uncounted numbers of prisoners" and allowed the extradition to take place. The United States Supreme Court declined to hear Demjanjuk's appeal on 25 February 1986, allowing the extradition to move forward. Demjanjuk was deported to Israel on 28 February 1986. Trial in Israel Demjanjuk's trial took place in the Jerusalem District Court between 26 November 1986 and 18 April 1988, before a special tribunal comprising Israeli Supreme Court Judge Dov Levin and Jerusalem District Court Judges Zvi Tal and Dalia Dorner. The prosecution conceived of the trial as a didactic trial on the Holocaust in the manner of the earlier trial of Adolf Eichmann. It was the first televised trial in Israeli history. Despite initially attracting little attention, once survivor testimony began the trial became a "national obsession" and was followed widely throughout Israel. Prosecution case The prosecution team consisted of Israeli State Attorney Yonah Blatman, lead attorney Michael Shaked of the Jerusalem District Attorney's Office, and the attorneys Michael Horovitz and Dennis Gouldman of the International Section of the State Attorney's Office. According to prosecutors, Demjanjuk had been recruited into the Soviet army in 1940, and had fought until he was captured by German troops in Eastern Crimea in May 1942. He was then brought to a German prisoner of war camp in Chełm in July 1942. Prosecutors claimed that Demjanjuk volunteered to collaborate with the Germans and was sent to the camp at Trawniki, where he was trained to guard prisoners as part of Operation Reinhard. The principal allegation was that three former prisoners identified Demjanjuk as "Ivan the Terrible" of Treblinka, who operated the petrol engines sending gas to the death chamber. The prosecution alleged that Demjanjuk had listed Sobibor on his US immigration application in an attempt to cover up his presence at Treblinka. Prosecutors based part of these allegations on an ID card referred to as the "Trawniki card". Because the Soviet Union generally refused to cooperate with the Israeli prosecutions, this ID card was obtained from the USSR and provided to Israel by American industrialist Armand Hammer, a close associate of several Kremlin leaders, whose help had been requested by the personal appeal of Israeli president Shimon Peres. The defense claimed that the card was forged by Soviet authorities to discredit Demjanjuk. The card had Demjanjuk's photograph, which he identified as his picture at the time. The prosecution called expert witnesses to testify on the authenticity of the card including its signatures by various Nazi officers, paper, and ink. The defense used some evidence supplied by the Soviets to support their case while calling other pieces of evidence supplied by the Soviets "forgeries". The prosecution relied heavily on the testimony of Holocaust survivors to establish that Demjanjuk had been at Treblinka, five of whom were put on the stand. Four of the survivors who had originally identified Demjanjuk's photograph had died before the trial began. The testimony of one of these witnesses, Pinhas Epstein, had been barred as unreliable in US denaturalization trial of former camp guard Feodor Fedorenko, while another, Gustav Boraks, sometimes appeared confused on the stand. The most important of these was Eliyahu Rosenberg. Asked by the prosecution if he recognized Demjanjuk, Rosenberg asked that the defendant remove his glasses "so I can see his eyes." Rosenberg approached and peered closely at Demjanjuk's face. When Demjanjuk smiled and offered his hand, Rosenberg recoiled and shouted "Grozny!" meaning "Terrible" in Polish and Russian. "Ivan", Rosenberg said. "I say it unhesitatingly, without the slightest shadow of a doubt. It is Ivan from Treblinka, from the gas chambers, the man I am looking at now." "I saw his eyes, I saw those murderous eyes", Rosenberg told the court, glaring at Demjanjuk. Rosenberg then exclaimed directly to Demjanjuk: "How dare you put out your hand, murderer that you are!" It was later learned that Eliyahu Rosenberg had previously testified in a 1947 deposition that "Ivan the Terrible" had been killed in 1943 during a Treblinka prisoner uprising. During the trial, Demjanjuk was again identified on the photo spread by Otto Horn, a former German SS guard at Treblinka. Other controversial evidence included Demjanjuk's tattoo. Demjanjuk admitted the scar under his armpit was an SS blood group tattoo, which he removed after the war, as did many SS men to avoid summary execution by the Soviets. The blood group tattoo was applied by army medics and used by combat personnel in the Waffen-SS and its foreign volunteers and conscripts because they were likely to need blood or give transfusions. There is no evidence that POWs trained as police auxiliaries at Trawniki were required to receive such tattoos, although it was an option for those that volunteered. Defense case and Demjanjuk's testimony Demjanjuk was at first represented by attorney Mark J. O'Connor of New York State; Demjanjuk fired him in July 1987 just a week before he was scheduled to testify at his trial. In his place, Demjanjuk hired Israeli trial lawyer Yoram Sheftel whom O'Connor had hired as co-counsel. Sheftel focused the defense largely on the claim that Demjanjuk's Trawniki card was a KGB forgery. Most significantly, Sheftel called Dr. Julius Grant, who had proven that the Hitler diaries were forged. Grant testified that the document had been forged. He also called Dutch psychologist Willem Albert Wagenaar, who testified to flaws in the method by which Treblinka survivors had identified Demjanjuk as Ivan the Terrible. Additionally, Sheftel alleged that the trial was a show trial, and referred to the trial as "the Demjanjuk affair," alluding to the famous antisemitic Dreyfus Affair. Demjanjuk testified during the trial that he was imprisoned in a camp in Chełm until 1944, when he was transferred to another camp in Austria, where he remained until he joined an anti-Soviet Ukrainian army group. Demjanjuk had not mentioned Chelm in his initial depositions in the United States, first referring to Chelm during his denaturalization trial in 1981. As Chelm was Demjanjuk's alibi, he was questioned about this omission during the trial by both the prosecutors and the judges; Demjanjuk blamed the trauma of his POW experience and said he had simply forgotten. Demjanjuk also denied having known how to drive a truck in 1943, despite having stated this on his application for refugee assistance in 1948; Demjanjuk alleged that he had not filled out the form himself and the clerk must have misunderstood him. Demjanjuk's denial related both to the supposed operation of a truck's diesel engine by "Ivan the Terrible" for the gas chamber at Treblinka and to the SS's singling out of Ukrainians with experience driving trucks as Trawniki men. Demjanjuk also changed his testimony as to why he had listed Sobibor as his place of domicile from his earlier trials: he now claimed to have been advised to do so by an official of the United Nations Relief Administration to list a place in Poland or Czechoslovakia in order to avoid repatriation to the Soviet Union, after which another Soviet refugee waiting with him suggested Demjanjuk list Sobibor. Demjanjuk also said, "Your Honors, if I had really been in that terrible place, would I have been stupid enough to say so?" Demjanjuk further claimed that in 1944 he was drafted into an anti-Soviet Russian military organization, the Russian Liberation Army (Vlasov Army), funded by the Nazi German government, until the surrender of Nazi Germany to the Allies in 1945. Following closing statements, the defense also submitted the statement of Ignat Danilchenko, information which had been obtained through the US Freedom of Information but had not previously been made available to the defense by OSI. Danilchenko was a former guard at Sobibor and had been deposed by the Soviet Union in 1979 at the request of the OSI (US Office of Special Investigations). Danilchenko identified Demjanjuk from three separate photo spreads as having been an "experienced and reliable" guard at Sobibor and that Demjanjuk had been transferred to Flossenbürg, where he had received an SS blood-type tattoo; Danilchenko did not mention Treblinka. Through Baltic émigré supporters living in Washington DC, the defense was also able to acquire internal OSI notes that had been thrown in a dumpster without shredding that showed that Otto Horn had in fact had difficulty identifying Demjanjuk and had been prompted to make the identification. Verdict and Israeli Supreme Court reversal On April 18, 1988, the Jerusalem District Court found Demjanjuk "unhesitatingly and with utter conviction" guilty of all charges and being Ivan the Terrible. One week later it sentenced him to death by hanging. Demjanjuk was placed in solitary confinement during the appeals process. While there, carpenters began building the gallows that would be used to hang him if his appeals were rejected, and Demjanjuk heard the construction from his cell. On 29 July 1993, a five-judge panel of the Israeli Supreme Court overturned the guilty verdict on appeal. The Supreme Court upheld the lower court's rulings on the authenticity of the Trawniki card and the falsity of Demjanjuk's alibi but ruled that reasonable doubt existed that Demjanjuk was Ivan the Terrible. The judges agreed that Demjanjuk most likely served as a Nazi Wachmann (guard) in the Trawniki unit and had been posted at Sobibor extermination camp and two other camps. Evidence to assist this claim included an identification card from Trawniki bearing Demjanjuk's picture and personal information – found in the Soviet archives – in addition to German documents that mentioned "Wachmann" Demjanjuk with his date and place of birth. The Trawniki certificate also implied that Demjanjuk had served at Sobibor, as did the German orders of March 1943 posting his Trawniki unit to the area. The court declined to find him guilty on this basis because the prosecution had built its entire case around Demjanjuk's identity with Ivan the Terrible, and Demjanjuk had not been given a chance to defend himself from charges of being a guard at Sobibor. The judge's acquittal of Demjanjuk for being Ivan the Terrible was based on the written statements of 37 former guards at Treblinka that identified Ivan the Terrible as "Ivan Marchenko". The former guards' statements were obtained after World War II by the Soviets, who prosecuted USSR citizens who had assisted the Nazis as auxiliary forces during the war. Most of the guards were executed after the war by the Soviets, and their written statements were not obtained by Israeli authorities until 1991, when the Soviet Union collapsed. Central to the new evidence was a photograph of Ivan the Terrible and a description that did not match the 1942 appearance of Demjanjuk. The accounts of 21 guards who were tried in the Soviet Union on war crimes gave details that differentiate Demjanjuk from Ivan the Terrible – in particular that 'Ivan the Terrible's surname was Marchenko, not Demjanjuk. One described Ivan the Terrible as having brown hair, hazel eyes and a large scar down to his neck; Demjanjuk was blond with grayish-blue eyes and no such scar. US officials had originally been aware, without informing Demjanjuk's attorneys, of the testimony of two of these German guards. However the Israeli justices noted that Demjanjuk had incorrectly listed his mother's maiden name as "Marchenko" in his 1951 application for US visa. Demjanjuk said he just wrote a common Ukrainian surname after he forgot his mother's real name (Tabachyk). Post-acquittal Demjanjuk's acquittal was met with outrage in Israel, including threats against the justices' lives. Simon Wiesenthal, an iconic figure in Nazi-hunting, first believed Demjanjuk was guilty, but after Demjanjuk's acquittal by the Israeli Supreme Court said he too would have cleared him given the new evidence. In Ukraine, Demjanjuk was viewed as a national hero and received a personal invitation to return to Ukraine by then-president Leonid Kravchuk. After Demjanjuk's acquittal, the Israeli Attorney-General decided to release him rather than to pursue charges of committing crimes at Sobibor. Ten petitions against the decision were made to the Supreme Court. On 18 August 1993, the court rejected the petitions on the grounds that the principle of double jeopardy would be infringed, new charges would be unreasonable given the seriousness of those of which he had been acquitted, conviction on the new charges would be unlikely, and Demjanjuk was extradited from the United States specifically to stand trial for offenses attributed to Ivan the Terrible of Treblinka, and not for other alternative charges. During the trial, the prosecution argued that Demjanjuk should be tried for crimes at Sobibor; however, Justice Aharon Barak was not convinced, stating, "We know nothing about him at Sobibor". Demjanjuk was released to return to the United States. His return was met by protests and counter-protests, with supporters including members of the Ku Klux Klan. Even before his acquittal by the Israeli Supreme Court, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals had opened an investigation into whether OSI had withheld evidence from the defense. The investigation charged that OSI had ignored evidence indicating that Demjanjuk was not Ivan the Terrible, uncovered an internal OSI memo that questioned the case against Demjanjuk. After Demjanjuk's acquittal in Israel, the panel of judges on the Sixth Circuit ruled against OSI for having committed fraud on the court and having failed to provide exculpatory evidence to Demjanjuk's defense. Second loss of US citizenship and extradition to Germany On 20 February 1998, Judge Paul Matia of the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Ohio vacated Demjanjuk's denaturalization "without prejudice," meaning that OSI could seek to strip Demjanjuk of citizenship a second time. OSI continued to investigate Demjanjuk, relying solely on documentary evidence rather than eye-witnesses. These documents were found in former Soviet archives in Moscow and in Lithuania, which placed Demjanjuk at Sobibor on 26 March 1943, at Flossenbürg on 1 October 1943, and at Majdanek from November 1942 through early March 1943; administrative documents from Flossenbürg referencing Demjanjuk's name and Trawniki card number were also uncovered. On 19 May 1999, the Justice Department filed a complaint against Demjanjuk to seek his denaturalization. The complaint alleged that Demjanjuk served as a guard at the Sobibór and Majdanek camps in Poland under German occupation and as a member of an SS death's head battalion at Flossenbürg. The complaint relied on evidence compiled by historians Charles W. Sydnor, Jr. and Todd Huebner, who compared Demjanjuk's Trawniki card to 40 other known cards and found that issues on the card that had fueled suspicions of fraud were in fact typical of Trawniki's poor record keeping. In February 2002, Judge Matia revoked Demjanjuk's US citizenship. Matia ruled that Demjanjuk had not produced any credible evidence of his whereabouts during the war and that the Justice Department had proved its case against him. Demjanjuk appealed to the US Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, which on 30 April 2004 ruled that Demjanjuk could be again stripped of his US citizenship because the Justice Department had presented "clear, unequivocal and convincing evidence" of Demjanjuk's service in Nazi death camps. The United States Supreme Court declined to hear his appeal in November 2004. On 28 December 2005, an immigration judge ordered Demjanjuk deported to Germany, Poland or Ukraine. In an attempt to avoid deportation, Demjanjuk sought protection under the United Nations Convention against Torture, claiming that he would be prosecuted and tortured if he were deported to Ukraine. Chief US Immigration Judge Michael Creppy ruled there was no evidence to substantiate Demjanjuk's claim that he would be mistreated if he were sent to Ukraine. On 22 December 2006, the Board of Immigration Appeals upheld the deportation order. On 30 January 2008, the Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit denied Demjanjuk's request for review. On 19 May 2008, the US Supreme Court denied Demjanjuk's petition for certiorari, declining to hear his case against the deportation order. The Supreme Court's denial of review meant that the order of removal was final; no other appeal was possible. One month after the US Supreme Court's refusal to hear Demjanjuk's case, on 19 June 2008, Germany announced it would seek the extradition of Demjanjuk to Germany. The file on Demjanjuk was compiled by the German Central Office for the Investigation of National Socialist Crimes. On 10 November 2008, German federal prosecutor Kurt Schrimm directed prosecutors to file in Munich for extradition, since Demjanjuk once lived there. On 9 December 2008, a German federal court declared that Demjanjuk could be tried for his role in the Holocaust. Some three months later, on 11 March 2009, Demjanjuk was charged with more than 29,000 counts of accessory to murder of Jewish prisoners at the Sobibor extermination camp. The German foreign ministry announced on 2 April 2009 that Demjanjuk would be transferred to Germany the following week, and would face trial beginning 30 November 2009. On 2 April 2009, Demjanjuk filed a motion in an immigration trial court in Virginia. The motion sought to reopen the matter of the removal order against him; that order of removal had been originally issued by an immigration court in 2005, had been upheld by the BIA on administrative appeal in late 2006, and was further upheld by the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals; after these two appeals, the US Supreme Court had, as noted above, denied any review. On 3 April 2009, US Immigration Judge Wayne Iskra temporarily stayed Demjanjuk's deportation, but reversed himself three days later, on 6 April. As the Government noted, a motion to reopen, such as Demjanjuk's, could only properly be filed with the Board of Immigration Appeals (BIA) in Washington, D.C., and not an immigration trial court. The issuance of the stay by the immigration trial court was therefore improper, as that court had no jurisdiction over the matter. Accordingly, Demjanjuk re-filed his motion to reopen, and for an attendant stay, with the BIA. On 10 April, the BIA found there was "little likelihood of success that [Demjanjuk's] pending motion to re-open the case will be granted" and accordingly denied his motion for a stay pending the disposition of his motion to reopen. This removed any obstacles to federal agents seizing him for deportation to Germany. On 14 April 2009, immigration agents removed Demjanjuk from his home in preparation for deportation. The same day, Demjanjuk's son filed a motion in the Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit asking that the deportation be stayed, which was subsequently granted. The Government argued that the Court of Appeals has no jurisdiction to review the decision of the Board of Immigration Appeals, which denied the stay. Demjanjuk later won a last-minute stay of deportation, shortly after US immigration agents carried him from his home in a wheelchair to face trial in Germany. The BIA denied Demjanjuk's motion to reopen his deportation case. On 1 May 2009, the Sixth Circuit lifted the stay that it had imposed against Demjanjuk's deportation order. On Thursday 7 May 2009, the United States Supreme Court, via Justice John Paul Stevens, declined to consider Demjanjuk's case for review, thereby denying Demjanjuk any further stay of deportation. Demjanjuk sued Germany on 30 April 2009, to try to block the German government's agreement to accept Demjanjuk from the US. The German Administrative Court rejected Demjanjuk's claim on 6 May. Demjanjuk was deported to Germany, leaving Cleveland, Ohio, on 11 May 2009, to arrive in Munich on 12 May. Upon his arrival, he was arrested and sent to Munich's Stadelheim prison. Trial in Germany On 3 July 2009, prosecutors deemed Demjanjuk fit to stand trial. On 13 July 2009, prosecutors charged him with 27,900 counts of accessory to murder for his time as a guard at Sobibor. Demjanjuk was tried without any connection to a concrete act of murder or cruelty, but rather on the theory that as a guard at Sobibor he was per se guilty of murder, a novelty in the German justice system that was seen as risky for the prosecution. Some 35 plaintiffs were admitted to file in the case, including four survivors of the Sobibor concentration camp and 26 relatives of victims. The indictment made almost no mention of Demjanjuk's service at Majdanek or Flossenbürg, as these were not extermination camps. Demjanjuk was represented by German attorney Ulrich Busch and Günther Maul. The defense argued that Demjanjuk had never been a guard, but that if he had been that he had had no choice in the matter. Busch would also allege that the German justice system was prejudiced against his client, and that the entire trial was therefore illegitimate. Busch also alleged that the trial violated the principle of double jeopardy due to the previous trial in Israel. Doctors restricted the time Demjanjuk could be tried in court each day to two sessions of 90 minutes each, according to Munich State Prosecutor Anton Winkler. On 30 November 2009, Demjanjuk's trial, expected to last for several months, began in Munich. Demjanjuk arrived in the courtroom in a wheelchair pushed by a German police officer. Because of the long pauses between trial dates and cancellations caused by the alleged health problems of the defendant and his defense attorney Busch's use of many legal motions, the trial eventually stretched to eighteen months. On 14 April 2010, Anton Dallmeyer, an expert witness, testified that the typeset and handwriting on an ID card being used as key evidence matched four other ID cards believed to have been issued at the SS training camp at Trawniki. Demjanjuk's lawyer argued that all of the ID cards could be forgeries and that there was no point comparing them. The prosecution also produced orders to a man identified as Demjanjuk to go to Sobibor and other records to show that Demjanjuk had served as a guard there. Demjanjuk's defense team argued that these documents were Soviet forgeries. As part of the prosecution's case, historian Dieter Pohl of the University of Klagenfurt testified that Sobibor was a death camp, the sole purpose of which was the killing of Jews, and that all Trawniki men had been generalists involved in guarding the prisoners as well as other duties; therefore, if Demjanjuk was a Trawniki man at Sobibor, he had necessarily been involved in sending the prisoners to their deaths and was an accessory to murder. The prosecution further argued, using Pohl's testimony, that Demjanjuk's choice after being captured by the Germans was guard duty or forced labor, not death, the Trawniki guards were a privileged group that was essential to the Holocaust, and that Demjanjuk's failure to desert, something many Trawniki guards did, showed that he had been at Sobibor voluntarily. On 24 February 2010, a witness for the prosecution, Alex Nagorny, who agreed to serve the Nazi Germans after his capture, testified that he knew Demjanjuk from his time as a guard. When asked to identify Demjanjuk in the courtroom, however, Nagorny was unable to, stating "That's definitely not him - no resemblance." As Nagorny had previously identified Demjanjuk from his US visa application photo, his inability to recognize Demjanjuk in the courtroom was seen as unimportant. Demjanjuk declined to testify or make a final statement during the trial. He would, however, deliver three written declarations to the court that alleged that his prosecution was caused by a conspiracy between the OSI, the World Jewish Congress, and the Simon Wiesenthal Center, while continuing to allege that the KGB had forged the documents used. In his third declaration Demjanjuk demanded access to a secret KGB file numbered 1627 and declared a hunger strike until he got it. On 15 January 2011, Spain requested a European arrest warrant be issued for Nazi war crimes against Spaniards; the request was refused for a lack of evidence. On 12 May 2011, aged 91, Demjanjuk was convicted as an accessory to the murder of 27,900 Jews at Sobibor killing center and sentenced to five years in prison with two years already served. Presiding Judge Ralph Alt ordered Demjanjuk released from custody pending his appeal, as he did not appear to pose a flight-risk. This was the first time someone has been convicted solely on the basis of serving as a camp guard, with no evidence of being involved in the death of any specific inmate. His release pending appeal was protested by some, including Efraim Zuroff of the Simon Wiesenthal Center. Death and posthumous efforts to restore US citizenship John Demjanjuk died at a home for the elderly in Bad Feilnbach, Germany on 17 March 2012, aged 91. As a consequence of his appeal not having been heard, Demjanjuk is still presumed innocent under German law. Following his death, his relatives requested that he be buried in the United States, where he once lived. Jewish organizations have opposed this, claiming that his burial site would become a center for neo-Nazi activity. On 31 March 2012, it was reported that John Demjanjuk was buried at an undisclosed US location. On 12 April 2012, Demjanjuk's attorneys filed a suit to posthumously restore his US citizenship. On 28 June 2012, the 6th US Circuit Court of Appeals in Cincinnati ruled that Demjanjuk could not regain his citizenship posthumously. On 11 September 2012, the court denied Demjanjuk's request to have the appeal reheard en banc by the full court. In early June 2012, Ulrich Busch, Demjanjuk's attorney, filed a complaint with Bavarian prosecutors claiming that the pain medication Novalgin (known in the US as metamizole or dipyrone) that had been administered to Demjanjuk helped lead to his death. The investigation was closed in November 2012 after no evidence emerged to support the allegations. Legacy The 1989 film Music Box, directed by Costa-Gavras, is based in part on the Demjanjuk case. Author Philip Roth, who briefly attended the Demjanjuk trial in Israel, portrays a fictionalized version of Demjanjuk and his trial in the 1993 novel Operation Shylock. In 2019, Netflix released The Devil Next Door, a documentary by Israeli filmmakers Daniel Sivan and Yossi Bloch that focuses on Demjanjuk's trial in Israel. Subsequent prosecutions of Nazi extermination camp guards in Germany Demjanjuk's conviction for accessory to murder solely on the basis of having been a guard at a concentration camp set a new legal precedent in Germany. Prior to Demjanjuk's trial, the requirement that prosecutors find a specific act of murder to charge guards with had resulted in a very low conviction rate for death camp guards. Following Demjanjuk's conviction, however, Germany began aggressively prosecuting former death camp guards. In 2015, former Auschwitz guard Oskar Gröning was convicted on the same legal argument as Demjanjuk; his conviction was upheld on appeal, solidifying the precedent made by the Demjanjuk case. In 2019, German prosecutors charged guards at a concentration camp - as opposed to a death camp - on the same rationale for the first time: former Stutthof concentration camp guards Johann Rehbogen and . Publication of photographs from Sobibor In January 2020, the Topography of Terror Foundation in Berlin announced that they were about to exhibit and publish a collection of 361 photographs taken by Johann Niemann, deputy commandant of Sobibor, which had been made newly available by his descendants. They believe the collection includes two photos showing Demjanjuk with fellow guards at the camp, which would be the first documentary evidence to conclusively establish he had served there. The following day, the Ludwigsburg Research Center qualified the announcement, saying that it is likely that one of the men in the noted photos is Demjanjuk, but that this cannot be said "with absolute certainty" (), given the time that had passed since they were taken. The photographs are part of a collection of 361 taken by Niemann from his career, with numerous photos from Sobibor. Niemann was killed there on 14 October 1943, during a prisoner revolt. The photographs were published on 28 January 2020 in the book Fotos aus Sobibor ("Photos from Sobibor"). The Niemann family has donated the originals to the collection of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. It has digitized this collection for research. See also List of denaturalized former citizens of the United States List of most-wanted Nazi war criminals Johann Breyer Algimantas Dailidė Bohdan Koziy Erich Lachmann Karl Linnas Arthur Rudolph Citations Bibliography External links 1920 births 2012 deaths People from Koziatyn Raion 20th-century Ukrainian people Soviet military personnel of World War II from Ukraine Soviet prisoners of war Sobibor extermination camp personnel Prisoners sentenced to death by Israel Ayalon Prison inmates Denaturalized citizens of the United States Loss of United States citizenship by prior Nazi affiliation People deported from the United States People extradited from the United States People extradited to Israel Ukrainian collaborators with Nazi Germany Ukrainian anti-communists Majdanek concentration camp personnel Flossenbürg concentration camp personnel World War II prisoners of war held by Germany	[ -0.08969095349311829, 0.10739153623580933, -0.9981400966644287, -0.3872154951095581, 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217252	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy%20Kimmel%20Live%21	Jimmy Kimmel Live!	Jimmy Kimmel Live! is an American late-night talk show, created and hosted by Jimmy Kimmel, broadcast on ABC. The nightly hour-long show first made its debut on January 26, 2003 at Hollywood Masonic Temple in Hollywood, California as part of ABC's lead-out programming for Super Bowl XXXVII. Jimmy Kimmel Live! is produced by Kimmelot in association with ABC Signature. It currently holds the title as the longest running late-night talk show on the network, having aired for more than three times as long as either The Dick Cavett Show (1969–1975) or Politically Incorrect (1997–2002). Overview For its first 10 years, the show aired at either the midnight or 12:05 a.m. timeslots before moving to 11:35 p.m. ET beginning on January 8, 2013 to more directly compete with The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and Late Show with David Letterman while bumping the ABC nightly news program Nightline to 12:37 a.m. ET. Following the subsequent retirements of Leno in February 2014, Letterman in May 2015, and Jon Stewart in August 2015, Kimmel became the third-longest serving current host in network late-night television after Conan O'Brien and Bill Maher. O’Brien’s show ended in 2021, making Kimmel the second-longest-tenured host after Maher. Contrary to its name, Jimmy Kimmel Live! has not aired live editions regularly since 2004; instead, it is shot at 5 p.m. Pacific Time on the day of broadcast. On occasion, a special live edition is broadcast, usually after major events like the Academy Awards ceremonies (except in years where Kimmel has hosted the actual ceremony) and four to seven half-hour episodes with some basketball theming under the title Jimmy Kimmel Game Night airing in primetime that lead into ABC's coverage of the NBA Finals in June each year (in 2020, it aired in late September–early October instead). Until 2009, new episodes aired five nights a week; from 2009 to 2012, the Friday episode was a rebroadcast of a recent episode. Starting with the January 2013 move, the Friday episode had been retitled Jimmy Kimmel Live! This Week, which showed highlights from the entire week of shows. However, the show has since reverted to airing a rebroadcast of a recent episode on Fridays, though current events do allow for new occasional Friday episodes. On April 14, 2009, after the March sweeps break, the show began broadcasting in 720p high definition. On April 1–5, 2019, Jimmy Kimmel Live! was aired as a secondary home at Zappos Theater in Paradise, Nevada, a suburb of Las Vegas where he grew up in the Las Vegas Valley and graduated at the Ed W. Clark High School. Kimmel attended the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV) but did not graduate. On August 15, 2019, ABC and the show were fined $395,000 via a settlement by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for misusing the Emergency Alert System (EAS) tone on the October 3, 2018 episode. In May 2019, Kimmel and ABC agreed to extend his contract to host the show until 2022, which would be the show's twentieth season. On March 16, 2020, the show suspended production due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Two weeks later, on March 30, the show resumed production from Kimmel's house, resuming its original 12:05 a.m. timeslot; Nightline returned to 11:35 p.m.. On April 13, episodes were reduced to 30 minutes in length. Nightline moved to 12:05 a.m., followed by an encore of the 11:35 p.m. show. On June 18, 2020, Kimmel announced he was taking a hiatus from the show; a series of guest hosts filled in with 30-minute episodes until the show returned. On September 21, 2020, Kimmel returned to the show, which also resumed taping from the studio without a studio audience. The show also resumed its 60-minute format, with Nightline returning to 12:35 a.m. After an uptick of COVID-19 cases in January 2021, Kimmel resumed taping episodes from his home on January 4, 2021. He again returned to the studio on January 25, after California's stay-at-home order was again lifted. History The show began on January 26, 2003, replacing Politically Incorrect; ABC had originally intended to give Jon Stewart his own late-night program following Nightline, but Kimmel was chosen instead. The show, stunted early on by an ABC affiliate body which was fulfilling existing syndication contracts for post-local news sitcom repeats and entertainment newsmagazines and thus delaying the show (and making the "Live!" title somewhat of a misnomer), started behind the ratings of Late Show with David Letterman, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn, but gradually moved up in the ratings into 2004, and became a fairly strong competitor, capturing about half the audience of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Jimmy Kimmel Live! is ABC's first attempt at a traditional late-night talk show since its attempt to revive The Dick Cavett Show in the 1980s. ABC had earlier attempted to directly compete with NBC's Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in the 1960s and 1970s with The Les Crane Show, which was more of a serious interview program than light entertainment, The Joey Bishop Show (1967–1969), featuring Rat Pack member Joey Bishop with Regis Philbin as sidekick, the original Dick Cavett Show (1969–1975) with Dick Cavett in a show that featured a mixture of cultural, popular entertainment and intellectual figures and was considered more highbrow than Carson and even a short-lived revival of NBC's Tonight Starring Jack Paar under the name Jack Paar Tonite, which alternated weeks with Cavett in 1973. While Cavett was the longest-lasting and best remembered of these attempts, none seriously threatened the domination of the Tonight Show. ABC's long-running Nightline series which premiered in 1979 during the Iran hostage crisis and continued at 11:30 until 2013 was able to compete with the Tonight Show, however, particularly on days when there were major news events or ongoing crises. The growth and development of cable news and the emergence of the internet and the 24-hour news cycle eroded Nightlines originally unique, and later preeminent position as a source for late evening national and international news and its value as a counterprogramming against Tonight and other late-night talk shows. As a result, in 2012, Nightline switched places on ABC's schedule with Jimmy Kimmel Live!. At the start of 2019, when Hearst Television's newest affiliation agreement for their ABC affiliates kicked in and forced them to give up their ability to delay the program for extended local newscasts or syndicated programming, the show now airs across the network on most stations at 11:35 p.m. ET/10:35 p.m. CT. Despite its name, the show has not regularly aired live since 2004, when censors were unable to properly bleep censor a barrage of swearing from actor Thomas Jane. For special nights such as the Oscar show, it does air live, but with a broadcast delay of a few seconds. Talent The show's house band is Cleto and the Cletones, led by saxophonist Cleto Escobedo III, a childhood friend of Kimmel. The other "Cletones" of the band are Cleto Escobedo Jr., the bandleader's father, on tenor and alto saxophone, Jeff Babko on keyboards, Toshi Yanagi on guitar, Jimmy Earl on bass, and Jonathan Dresel on drums. Like other talk shows with live bands, Cleto and the Cletones play the show's opening and closing themes and play into and out of commercial breaks. (They usually play through the entire break for the studio audience.) The show's opening theme was written by Les Pierce, Jonathan Kimmel and Cleto Escobedo III and sung by Robert Goulet. The show originally had guest co-hosts each week who would sit at the desk with Kimmel and participate in skits and questioning each night's guests. The show also featured guest announcers, until comedian Andy Milonakis took over as the show's announcer from late 2003 to 2004. He would also appear in comedy bits for the show. Then in 2004, Mighty Mighty Bosstones singer Dicky Barrett took over as the show's announcer when the Bosstones went on hiatus. The band has since become active again, and performed live on the show in 2009. Since its inception, stand-up comedian Don Barris has performed as the warmup comic for the in-studio audience, although he rarely appears on camera; before joining JKL, Barris was the warmup comic for The Man Show. Francis "Uncle Frank" Potenza, Kimmel's real-life uncle, served as a security guard for the show, and appeared regularly in bits on-camera with Kimmel and other employees of the show. He was a New York City police officer and a personal security guard for Frank Sinatra. Potenza did not appear regularly from December 2009 through March 2010, due to illness. (In the interim, he did appear on the seventh anniversary show on January 26, 2010.) However, he later returned as a semi-regular. Potenza died on August 23, 2011, at the age of 77. Guillermo Rodriguez is the parking lot security guard for the show, and frequently serves as a celebrity gossip correspondent in a segment called "Guillermo's Hollywood Round-Up." Veatrice Rice was another parking lot security guard who had several of her own segments on the show until her death from cancer on January 21, 2009. Kimmel and Matt Damon Frequently at the end of the show, Kimmel thanks the guests as usual, but then adds, "Our apologies to Matt Damon, we ran out of time." Kimmel told TMZ.com that he says this "for no good reason at all," continuing, "A star like Matt Damon would never be scheduled to appear near the end of the show where he can be bumped." Damon told Parade magazine that Kimmel said he first did it at a low moment at the end of a show which had substandard guests. The show's producer liked the joke, and Kimmel continued to do it on subsequent shows for their amusement. “The first time I met Jimmy was when I went to do the prime-time show. For a year he’d been saying, ‘My apologies to Matt Damon; we ran out of time.’ So he came backstage, and I asked him what that was about. And he was like, ‘You want to know what happened? I was doing a particularly lame show; I think my guests were a ventriloquist and a guy in a monkey suit. We were wrapping it up, and there was a smattering of applause in the audience. I was having kind of a low moment, and I just said, ‘My apologies to Matt Damon; we ran out of time.’ My producer was right off camera and he doubled over laughing. It was just gallows humor. Nobody else got the joke. But it made us laugh, so we started doing it every night. I have no idea why I said you; it could have been anybody.’" - Matt Damon On September 12, 2006, Damon appeared on the show. A montage of clips demonstrating the numerous times Kimmel performed the bit was shown and, after a very lengthy introduction by Kimmel, Damon appeared on stage. After a few seconds, Kimmel apologized and stated that the show was out of time. He asked Damon if he could return the next night, to which Damon replied, "Go f**k yourself." An infuriated Damon continued to curse at Kimmel throughout the rolling of the credits, ultimately slapping the desk and walking off the set. In the December 17, 2006 issue of USA Weekend, Kimmel acknowledged that the Damon incident was a joke. In the show which aired on June 5, 2007, Kimmel sent his sidekick Guillermo to the Ocean's Thirteen premiere to interview Damon, though when he started the interview, he said that they were out of time, at which point Damon assumed that Kimmel sent him. In the August 2, 2007 episode, Kimmel then announced that Guillermo was taking on the role of Jason Bourne, who was played by Damon, for The Bourne Ultimatum. A clip was shown in which Guillermo was playing Bourne, until Damon showed up and thought that Kimmel was now trying to bump him from his movie. Damon tried to chase Guillermo but Guillermo slapped him and jumped through a wall. In Kimmel's 2010 post-Oscar show, he featured a clip called "The Handsome Men's Club," which ended with Damon telling Kimmel, "We're all out of time," then bursting into evil laughter after Kimmel was ejected from the club for not being handsome enough. However, it turned out to be a dream, as he wakes up next to Ben Affleck. Damon was part of the all-star cast assembled by Kimmel for his 2012 Oscars parody, which was a mock trailer for a non-existent blockbuster called Movie: The Movie. Damon appears briefly in a full grape suit, only to be informed his scene had been cut from the "film" after which he is shown storming out of the studio (as part of the trailer), cursing at Kimmel. In the mock trailer for the sequel, 'Movie: The Movie 2', Damon appears again as an alien who is munching on a sandwich only to think he is munching something else. He walks out cursing Kimmel again. However, it later shown to just be a toy. In August 2013, Guillermo crashed a Matt Damon interview, about his upcoming movie Elysium, by promoting his own movie called "Estupido", about a stupid man, which poster had an arrow pointing towards Matt Damon. At the end of the interview, Matt removed the poster, revealing on the other side the name of another Guillermo movie called "Ass Face", also with an arrow pointing towards Matt. Matt accuses Guillermo of acting on Kimmel's orders and, facing the camera, starts to say "you...", at which time it cuts to Guillermo's promo which ends with Matt's face turning into an ass. In February 2014, Damon was invited with the cast of Monuments Men. Damon sat in another seat. A fake fire was activated at the end of the show when Kimmel asked Damon a question. During Kimmel's 2016 post-Oscar special, Ben Affleck wore a very large coat for his appearance, and Damon emerged from the coat for the interview. However, he was removed from the studio by an enraged Kimmel, who then moved on to interview Affleck. Later, Damon appeared in a sketch about the movie that Affleck stars in, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, reprising his role as astronaut Mark Watney. When Kimmel hosted the 89th Academy Awards on February 26, 2017, he renewed his feud with Damon, first in a skit harshly criticizing Damon's film We Bought a Zoo, having the announcer introduce him as only the unnamed "guest" of Ben Affleck, and personally conducting the orchestra to play him off while Damon was talking (before announcing the nominees and award winner). On an appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, Damon praised Fallon for his speedy invitation process, which Kimmel poked fun of. In June 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic when Kimmel was hosting the show from his house, Damon emerged from one of Kimmel's bedrooms, revealing to have been there during the whole pandemic and demanded to be on the show, when Kimmel wanted to take a break. Then it was revealed Kimmel's wife, had been cheating on him with Damon again. This resulted in Kimmel telling Damon he is not on the show. "I'm fucking Matt Damon" video In a segment that aired on January 31, 2008, Kimmel's then long-time girlfriend Sarah Silverman appeared on the show and announced, via a music video, that she had been "fucking Matt Damon." Damon took an additional jab at Kimmel's long running gag by telling Kimmel at the end of the video, "Jimmy, we're out of time. Sorry." On February 24, on Kimmel's third post-Oscar show, he debuted his rebuttal video, announcing that he was doing the same to Ben Affleck. Kimmel introduced his star-studded musical by addressing Damon and vowing, "You take something I love from me, I’m gonna take something you love from you." Affleck is Damon's longtime acting and writing collaborator; the two first became prominent as such for Good Will Hunting and later channeled this collaboration into Project Greenlight. In addition to Affleck, the video featured Robin Williams, Don Cheadle, Harrison Ford, William Shatner, Hynden Walch, Cameron Diaz, Christina Applegate, Benji Madden and Joel Madden from Good Charlotte, Dicky Barrett, Christopher Mintz-Plasse, Lance Bass, Dominic Monaghan, Meat Loaf, Pete Wentz, Joan Jett, Huey Lewis, Perry Farrell, Macy Gray, Rebecca Romijn, Josh Groban, Jessica DiCicco, and unnamed choir singers as recording booth singers, along with Brad Pitt as a delivery man. The video gained widespread media attention, with Kimmel jokingly telling the New York Times, "Every once in a while, Hollywood rallies itself for a worthy cause." On its end-of-the-decade "best-of" list, Entertainment Weekly put Damon as an action star at No. 60 and the Silverman video on No. 62, writing, "A talk-show host's famous comedian girlfriend confesses in a catchy song that she's shtupping No. 60? Yeah, that'll go viral." In 2008, the segment won a Creative Arts Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics. Jimmy Kimmel Sucks! For the 10th anniversary episode on January 24, 2013, Damon took over hosting duties; for the occasion, the show was renamed Jimmy Kimmel Sucks! The episode began with a sequence of clips showing Kimmel "bumping" Damon, and continued with Damon taking command of the show, while Kimmel was tied to a chair and gagged for the remainder of the episode. Damon then replaced Guillermo with Andy Garcia and bandleader Cleto with Sheryl Crow, before bringing in Robin Williams to do the monologue. The show had numerous guests, including Nicole Kidman, Gary Oldman, Amy Adams, Reese Witherspoon, Demi Moore, and Sarah Silverman, along with an on-screen cameo by Ben Affleck during Damon's monologue. There were also numerous taped pieces congratulating Damon on hosting, including by Jennifer Lopez, Sally Field, John Krasinski, Robert De Niro, Don Cheadle, Oprah Winfrey, and Kimmel's parents. Damon also "revealed" that Kimmel keeps "bumping" Damon out of jealousy: a clip shows Kimmel's unsuccessful attempts to audition for all movie roles that Damon played. At the episode's end, Damon turns the "We ran out of time" joke on Kimmel after asking Kimmel if he had anything to say. The episode was the highest-rated late night show that evening, and ABC elected to rebroadcast it in primetime the following week. Jay Leno parody During the 2010 Tonight Show conflict, Kimmel donned a gray wig and fake chin, performing his entire January 12, 2010 show in character as Jay Leno. With his bandleader, Cleto Escobedo, parodying Leno's bandleader Kevin Eubanks, Kimmel started out his monologue with "It’s good to be here on ABC. Hey, Cleto, you know what ABC stands for? Always Bump Conan." He also referenced the "People of Earth" letter written by Conan O'Brien, noting how O'Brien declined to participate in the "destruction" of The Tonight Show, commenting as Leno that "Fortunately, though, I will! I'll burn it down if I have to!" Leno called Kimmel the next morning to discuss the bit, and at the end of the call, Leno suggested he come over and appear on his show. When his booking department called to confirm his appearance on a "10 at 10" segment, Kimmel agreed immediately. When he received the questions for his January 14 appearance—such as "What's your favorite snack junk food?"—he realized Leno intended to neutralize the scathing parody and paint the two as friends. Kimmel, however, was upfront with wanting to discuss the fiasco at hand, and upon his appearance, attempted to steer the questions that way: when asked about his favorite prank, he responded, "I think the best prank I ever pulled was, I told a guy once, 'Five years from now I'm going to give you my show.' And then when the five years came, I gave it to him and I took it back, almost instantly." Another example came from when Leno asked, "Ever order anything off the TV?" Kimmel replied, "Like when NBC ordered your show off the TV?" Following similar remarks to more questions, Kimmel closed the segment with this comment: "Listen, Jay. Conan and I have children. All you have to take care of is cars! We have lives to lead here! You've got eight hundred million dollars! For God's sakes, leave our shows alone!" Leno never fought back and accepted the bit as comedy (he ascribed it as Kimmel attempting to score some publicity), but Leno's producer, Debbie Vickers, was furious. Kimmel discussed the appearance during an interview with Marc Maron for the latter's podcast in 2012. Kimmel stated that he felt O'Brien was not given a proper chance, but that he was also motivated by his own history with Leno. According to Kimmel, Leno had some years prior been in serious discussions with ABC about the possibility of jumping ship from NBC. During this period, Leno initiated a friendship with Kimmel, wanting to ensure that they would be on good terms if the move was made. (Under that scenario, Leno would have taken Kimmel's time slot and become his lead-in.) However, after Leno made the arrangement to remain at NBC, "those conversations were gone," according to Kimmel. Realizing that Leno's relationship with him had been artificial, Kimmel felt "worked over," reasoning that Leno was using the ABC discussions as a bargaining tactic to try to get his old job back. Sets The stage where the show is taped has gone through many changes, from the addition of a platform in front of the stage for Kimmel to do his monologue, to various stage backgrounds. In January 2005, the show's original set, at the TV studio in the Hollywood Masonic Temple (now known as the El Capitan Entertainment Centre), which had video screens in the background and the band performing on the left side of the stage, was replaced with the current set, which has a city in the background. The band now performs on the right side of the stage. In the special February 25, 2007 episode of Jimmy Kimmel Live! (the second "After the Academy Awards" show), the second set was slightly tweaked when an illustrated picture of a city, which was seen in the background from January 2005 to February 2007, was replaced with a 3D collage of Los Angeles and Hollywood (including the adjacent Dolby Theatre (formerly Kodak Theatre) across from the studio where his show is broadcast from). The 3D image, which was first used during Lionel Richie's outdoor stage performances in the September 16, 2006 episode, was created by artists Colin Cheer and Brian Walters. A brand-new set was unveiled January 8, 2013, coinciding with the show's move to the earlier 11:35 p.m. timeslot. The new set is similar to the previous one, though the desk and chairs are no longer a stationary set element, and are only brought out for the guest interviews. Later, the traditional city duratrans was replaced with a large floor-to-ceiling curved video display known as the "Wall of America", which most of the time displays the traditional background, but is now also able to be used for video pieces and bits, along with interviews (including ones where Kimmel is not at his desk; an instance of this was an interview through Cisco's Jabber Guest with actress Viola Davis after the first-season finale of How to Get Away With Murder in February 2015 where she was unable to fly to Los Angeles from the East Coast due to weather issues) which are branded under Cisco Systems's telepresence technology. The desk/chairs component of the set is also not permanently staged unlike most talk shows, being quickly built on-stage only after Kimmel has finished his monologue, skits and bits at center stage. Music The Jimmy Kimmel Live Concert Series segment comprises a musical performance at the end of the show, which is performed either in a more intimate space on the second floor of the Masonic Temple, or a nearby outdoor stage, along with rare on-location performances, and since the pandemic, more often remotely performed. the musical performance was perform by numerous musician including Slayer, Cypress Hill, Backstreet Boys, and Happa-tai from Japanese TV show, Warau Inu. Coors Light sponsored most of the show's musical performances from 2004 to 2006. In June 2005, the show partnered with Pontiac for its concerts, which were held on the "Pontiac Garage" outdoor stage in Hollywood. the "Pontiac Garage" campaign was created Leo Burnett Worldwide for the show including The Super Bowl XL Roadtrip in a Pontiac G6, and the live advertisements to coincide with the launch of the Pontiac G8 (a rebadged Holden VE Commodore). Pontiac was sponsored for 4 years until the sponsor's parent company, General Motors, filed for bankruptcy in 2009 and announced the termination of the brand. Beginning in October 2009, Anheuser-Busch's Bud Light (initially Bud Light Golden Wheat in 2009–10) replaced Pontiac as the segment's sponsor. In January 2013, Sony took over sponsorship. In 2014, AT&T took over sponsorship, then in 2015 Samsung replaced AT&T as the segment's sponsor, in 2016 Cîroc replaced Samsung as the segment's sponsor and in 2017 Mercedes-Benz became the segment's sponsor. Openings Cold open When the show aired at 12:05 ET, the show began with a two-minute segment before the theme song and actual show. Originally a miniature monologue and preview of the guests, the segment expanded to include miniature skits and other ways to plug a product from one of the show's sponsors. (These, better known as "integrated commercials," are rarely repeated.) The cold open device was later adopted by The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson, and it also remains in use by James Corden for occasional segments for his version. These segments were dropped when the show moved to 11:35. For ABC's O&O stations and some affiliates, Kimmel does tape a promo introducing the night's guests and bits meant to be bedded into a late segment of their local newscasts. Show opening The show's original opening sequence was a stop-motion piece which showcased Kimmel in casual gear with his dry cleaning stopping at various places in Hollywood until arriving at the theater. On October 27, 2011, the show introduced a new opening sequence that shows Kimmel zip-lining through Hollywood until he arrives at the theater. In January 2015, the show premiered a new opening, created by Industrial Light & Magic. The sequence begins with Kimmel turning on the lights of Los Angeles from the Hollywood sign before the background instantly changes to several locations in Los Angeles before transforming into the theater where Kimmel leads the camera in. In 2016, after Kimmel grew out his beard, the sequence was modified slightly to remove Kimmel's presence. From March to August 2020, during the time the show is filmed from his home, Kimmel's kids created a unique opening sequence. Starting in late September 2020, upon Kimmel's return to the studio, a picture of the classic 1962 ABC ID was used. However, with every broadcast, the show's announcer, Dicky Barrett, consistently starts off by saying, "From Hollywood, it's Jimmy Kimmel Live! Tonight..." and then listing the show's guests. At the end of the opening, Barrett comes up with a different introduction quip every time such as "without further ado" or "I warned you" and finishing with saying "Here's Jimmy Kimmel!" while elongating the "-el" sound just to give the show its own uniqueness. Notable segments The Harrison Ford vs. Chewbacca Feud. On July 27, 2011, Ford appeared in a pre-show segment in which he is shown arguing in his dressing room with Chewbacca, his former co-star from the original Star Wars trilogy over an unexplained issue apparently related to Chewbacca cheating with Ford's wife. On April 17, 2013, during another appearance on Kimmel, Chewbacca appeared in the audience during a question-and-answer session; Ford reignited the argument regarding Chewie's apparent dalliance with his wife, and the staged segment ended with a furious Ford "storming" out of the studio. Finally, on November 24, 2015, Ford settles his feud with Chewbacca by saving him from suicide, and remembering together the good old times. Feud with Kanye West. The rap musician launched a tirade directed at Kimmel on Twitter after a September 25, 2013 sketch involving two children re-enacting West's recent interview with BBC Radio 1 in which he calls himself the biggest rock star on the planet. Kimmel reveals the following night that West called him to demand an apology shortly before taping. In October 2013, Kimmel had West back on the show and apologized to him. Birth of William Kimmel. Returning to the show on May 1, 2017 after a hiatus, Jimmy, in his monologue, tearfully recounted the open-heart surgery his newborn son, William, had to undergo after it was discovered he had a congenital disease. Furthermore, the host made an impassioned plea to lawmakers in the United States government on both sides to ensure everyone has access to health care, referencing repeated efforts by Republicans in the House of Representatives to repeal the Affordable Care Act (an effort, by coincidence, House Republicans managed to reach later that week, on May 4). To care for his child, Kimmel took the rest of the week off, with guest hosts Will Arnett, Anthony Anderson, Kristen Bell and David Spade filling in. In November 2017 Shaquille O’Neal, Dave Grohl, Channing Tatum and Jennifer Lawrence filled in as guest hosts for Kimmel when his son had his second heart surgery. No Studio Audience. On January 27, 2020, Kimmel elected to tape the show in an empty studio following the death of NBA superstar Kobe Bryant, who had appeared on the program 15 times by Kimmel's count. An emotional Kimmel explained that he didn't feel it was appropriate to do a comedy show under the circumstances and instead spent the hour reflecting on Bryant's legacy. Guest Host Pete Buttigieg. On March 12, 2020, former Democratic presidential candidate and South Bend, Indiana Mayor Pete Buttigieg guest-hosted the program. Buttigieg delivered the opening monologue, interviewed actors Patrick Stewart and Tony Hale, and briefly played the keyboard. Segments included a skit in which Buttigieg applied for a new job at Wetzel's Pretzels and a mock game show (hosted by LeVar Burton) in which he tested his knowledge of Star Trek against Stewart. (He lost.) Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, several crew members and Buttigieg's husband Chasten served as the in-studio audience. This marks the first time a politician has hosted an American late night talk show. This was also the final broadcast of the show before it was shot from lockdown. Mean Tweets In March 2012, in honor of Twitter's sixth anniversary, Jimmy Kimmel Live! featured a segment called "Mean Tweets" with celebrities—including Will Ferrell, Jason Bateman, Kristen Bell, Roseanne Barr, Anna Faris, and Kathy Griffin—reading aloud actual tweets directed toward them by Twitter users while the song "Everybody Hurts" by R.E.M. plays in the background. The segment was extremely popular, with more than 38 million views on YouTube by April 2015. Additional "Mean Tweets" editions have aired, featuring celebrities including Robert De Niro, Julia Roberts, Tom Hanks, Adam Sandler, Britney Spears, Sofía Vergara, Jon Hamm, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Aaron Paul, Benedict Cumberbatch, Cate Blanchett, Matt Damon, Tim Robbins, Hugh Grant and Bill Murray. The tweets selected for the segment are invariably abusive, vulgar, or rude, often objecting to the celebrity's physical appearance or perceived lack of talent. In many cases, the celebrity is then afforded the opportunity for a brief (albeit scripted) response to the mean tweet. The show has also aired several themed editions of "Mean Tweets," including special NBA, NFL, college football, and music editions. In March 2015, President Barack Obama, who was a guest star, took part in a "President Obama edition" of "Mean Tweets," during which he read tweets from people mocking his jeans and blaming him for the high price of beer. The Obama segment attracted more than 10 million views in one day. On occasion, Kimmel will introduce a surprise celebrity guest for a live on-stage "Mean Tweet", which was later made into a compilation. Celebrities who appeared on stage include Jeff Bridges, Dwayne Johnson and Halle Berry. This Week in Unnecessary Censorship A Thursday-night segment, which features clips of innocuous television shows (such as newscasts) deliberately edited (typically with bleeps) to make them appear offensive. Jimmy Kimmel YouTube Challenge Kimmel will give out a challenge to viewers asking them to videotape themselves pulling a prank on a family member or significant other, and then revealing that "Jimmy Kimmel told me to do it". The best clips are then aired on the show. Lie Witness News A correspondent not seen on camera will ask pedestrians on Hollywood Boulevard a fake question related to an actual current news event. Most of the people answering the question will usually play along, giving the impression that they believe that the so-called fake event really happened. Jimmy Kimmel Pedestrian Question Kimmel will send a "correspondent" not seen on camera to ask a set of random pedestrians a question related to a certain theme. Kimmel will then have the audience guess the answer to the question, then will reveal the answer to the audience. Halloween candy YouTube segments Starting in 2011, every Halloween, Kimmel asks his viewers to take away their children's Halloween candy, videotape their kids' reactions once they tell their kids that they ate their Halloween candy, and post it on YouTube with the respective hashtag. Once his team has compiled all the YouTube videos, he airs them on his broadcast days later. These segments have attracted criticism for potential promotion of emotional abuse. Other end-of-show segments At the end of some shows, there are comedians doing comedy. This is occasionally seen in place of the Jimmy Kimmel Live Concert Series segment. Another end-of-show segment is the rarely seen Future Talent Showcase. International broadcasts Jimmy Kimmel Live! airs worldwide on multiple outlets. In Australia, The Comedy Channel began airing the program in September 2009; however, it was replaced in March 2010 by the return of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. The Comedy Channel resumed airing the program from September 22, 2015. In Canada, the show previously aired on BiteTV and CHCH. The show aired on Citytv from 2012 until September 20, 2014. Even after its move to 11:35, Citytv continued to tape delay the show to midnight to maintain its hour-long late night newscasts. Jimmy Kimmel Live! began airing on CTV Comedy Channel (formerly The Comedy Network) beginning on September 22, 2014, initially airing in simulcast with ABC. However, in January 2015, the program was yet again tape-delayed to midnight in favor of The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore. Jimmy Kimmel Live! aired on The Comedy Network until the end of August, 2017. The following month, the show was added to CMT Canada's schedule, initially airing in simulcast with ABC. The show aired on CMT Canada until August, 2018 and has not aired on a Canadian channel since. However, the show is still available to Canadians through imported ABC stations included in standard pay-TV packages. In India Jimmy Kimmel Live! premiered with its 14th season, and has aired on weeknights since at 9:00pm (IST) STAR World India. The show airs 12 hours after the U.S. broadcast since September 23, 2015. Ratings among late night talk shows Controversies Detroit sports violence During Game 2 of the 2004 NBA Finals in Detroit, Kimmel appeared on ABC's halftime show to make an on-air plug for that night's episode. He suggested that if the Detroit Pistons defeated the Los Angeles Lakers, "they're gonna burn the city of Detroit down ... and it's not worth it." Kimmel was referring to the violence that erupted in Detroit after the Tigers won the 1984 World Series. Officials at Detroit's ABC affiliate, WXYZ-TV, immediately announced that night's show would not air on the station. Hours later, ABC officials followed suit and pulled that night's show from the entire network. Kimmel issued a tongue-in-cheek apology at first, saying that if "the Lakers win, I plan to overturn my own car." WXYZ's then-news director Andrea Parquet-Taylor rejected the apology, saying that Kimmel "tried to turn it into another bad joke." Kimmel apologized again, saying he failed to take into account the embarrassment many Detroiters still felt about the 1984 violence. The second apology was enough for ABC to reinstate the program the following evening. Kimmel would later broadcast a series of shows from Detroit in an effort to make amends. "Kids Table" China comments During the October 16, 2013 episode, Kimmel held the "Kids Table" segment to invite several 6–7-year-old children to discuss the U.S. debt problem: "We owe the Chinese a lot of money, 1.3 trillion dollars." A boy immediately suggested to "kill everyone in China." This comment elicited some laughter from the audience and Kimmel laughed it off and commented, "That's an interesting idea." He later asked, "Should we allow the Chinese to live?" The boy stuck to his answer. The show has drawn fire from offended Asian Americans and Chinese citizens. An online poll showed that 90% of the respondents were angered, saddened or guarded about the show. Overseas Chinese communities and domestic Chinese citizens alike have rallied together and created a petition to the White House and a campaign on Facebook boycotting Kimmel's decision to air the comment on his show and asking that the show be investigated for its promotion of genocide and racism against the Chinese. The petition demanded that ABC should "cut the show and issue a formal apology." The petitioner argued that "[t]he kids might not know any better. However, Jimmy Kimmel and ABC's management are adults. They had a choice not to air this racist program, which promotes racial hatred." Meanwhile, not all viewers of the parody found it objectionable. Gu Xiaoming, a professor at the School of Humanities at Fudan University, believed that some were reading too much into comments from a child, and the show reflected Americans' anxiety on the debt crisis to some extent. The clip of this segment has since been removed from Kimmel's YouTube account, but can still be seen when viewing the entire episode. On November 7, 2013, the White House petition had drawn more than 100,000 signatures. The White House was expected to review the filing and issue some sort of public response for petitions that gather enough support to pass the 100,000 mark. With respect to the petition, White House spokesman said, "Every petition that crosses the threshold will be reviewed by the appropriate staff and receive a response." ABC first sent an apology letter to the 80-20 Initiative, an organization promoting equal opportunities for Asian Americans, for allowing the comment "Kill everyone in China" to air. This letter, signed by ABC senior executives, read in part: "We would never purposefully broadcast anything to upset the Chinese community, Asian community, anyone of Chinese descent or any community at large. Our objective is to entertain." This letter also said that ABC had removed the controversial comment from all media platforms and would remove it from future airing. The chairman of the 80–20 Initiative, S.B. Woo, lodged the protest with ABC after he found out the segment was actually not live, and he considered this apology not a victory at all and could be more satisfactory for Asian-American communities. During the October 28, 2013 episode of his show, Kimmel addressed this issue, stating that "I thought it was obvious that I didn't agree with that statement, but apparently it wasn't, so I just wanted to say, I'm sorry, I apologize." On October 28, 2013, Asian Americans marched through the streets of San Francisco protesting about Kimmel's show and his supposed condoning of genocide. They gathered around ABC headquarters in New York City and demanded a more elaborate apology and that an ABC representative come receive letters of protest. On November 1, 2013, Chinese American demonstrators, mainly from Houston, gathered outside ABC's local office building to protest the offensive skit the show aired "kill everyone in China." The crowds shouted slogans like "Shame on ABC," "Boycott ABC," and "Fire Kimmel". However, protesters were still not satisfied with ABC's apology and organized a nationwide protest against ABC on November 9 in 27 cities, including a rally outside ABC's headquarters in Burbank. The 80–20 initiative, however, accepted ABC's November 8 apology and has said it would like to "build bridges" with ABC. YouTube Gaming During the August 27, 2015 episode, Kimmel made a sketch parody making fun of the YouTube Gaming platform, and the "let's play" culture in general. He received a great deal of criticism from the members of the gaming community on YouTube. At one point, the upload of the sketch was the most disliked video on his channel until November 18, 2021 when YouTube hid the number of dislikes on videos. Kimmel received death threats in the video's comments section, which Kimmel made fun of with two other videos a few days later. The two reaction videos also received negative reception. Melania Trump accent joke In an April 2018 segment, Kimmel made a joke about First Lady Melania Trump's pronunciation of words while reading to children at an annual White House Easter celebration. The comments offended some viewers who objected to jokes about Trump's Slovenian accent. The comments led to a Twitter feud between Kimmel and pundit Sean Hannity (Hannity called Kimmel a "despicable disgrace" and "ass clown"; Kimmel rejoined that Hannity was the "whole ass circus"). Kimmel made comments about the relationship between Hannity and President Trump. Kimmel later said "By lampooning Sean Hannity's deference to the President, I most certainly did not intend to belittle or upset members of the gay community and to those who took offense, I apologize, I will take Sean Hannity at his word that he was genuinely offended by what I believed and still believe to be a harmless and silly aside referencing our First Lady's accent." Kimmel said that his wife and son were the subjects of "vile" death threats as a result of his comments. Awards and nominations Primetime Emmy Awards Creative Arts Emmy Awards See also List of late night network TV programs List of late-night American network TV programs Notes References Additional sources External links 2003 American television series debuts 2000s American late-night television series 2010s American late-night television series 2020s American late-night television series 2000s American variety television series 2010s American variety television series 2020s American variety television series American Broadcasting Company original programming English-language television shows Super Bowl lead-out shows Television series by ABC Studios Television productions suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic ABC late-night programming Works by Jeff Loveness	[ 0.19334380328655243, -0.1824611872434616, 0.205717071890831, -0.33484989404678345, 0.05542021244764328, -0.2921856939792633, 0.13345089554786682, 0.5754473209381104, -0.08397962898015976, -0.24339570105075836, -0.3418275713920593, 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217255	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungrebe	Sungrebe	The sungrebe (Heliornis fulica) is a small aquatic gruiforme found in the tropical and subtropical Americas from northeastern Mexico to central Ecuador and southern Brazil. It is the only living member of the genus Heliornis. The family Heliornithidae, to which it belongs, contains just two other species: the African finfoot, Podica senegalensis, found in the Afrotropics from Sub-saharan West Africa and the Congo Basin through the Great Lakes' western shores to Southeast Africa, and the masked or Masked finfoot Heliopais personatus, found from eastern Indomalaya down through Sundaland to the Wallace Line. These waterfowl have broad lobes on their feet, convergent to that of grebes or coots, that they use to propel themselves in the water. They are reclusive birds, preferring well-covered slow-flowing streams and secluded waterways, sometimes swimming partly submerged, like an Anhinga. Sungrebes are unique among birds in that males have "pouches", folds of skin under their wings in which they carry their young from hatching until the chicks are able to swim for themselves. This has led to them being called "Marsupial Birds" Taxonomy The sungrebe was described by the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in 1781 in his Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux from a specimen collected in Cayenne, French Guiana. The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved by François-Nicolas Martinet in the Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle which was produced under the supervision of Edme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text. Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert coined the binomial name Colymbus fulica in his catalogue of the Planches Enluminées. The sungrebe is now the only species placed in the genus Heliornis that was erected by the French naturalist Pierre Bonnaterre in 1791 with the sungrebe as the type species. The name of the genus combines the Ancient Greek hēlios meaning "sun" and ornis meaning "bird". The specific epithet fulica is Latin for "coot". No subspecies are recognised. There is some debate where the finfoot family, Heliornithidae, fits within Gruiformes. The Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds, based on DNA-DNA Hybridization, suggested that they are sister taxa to limpkins, the Aramidae, and even placed the limpkins within Heliornithidae in 1990. However, more recent genetic analyses suggests that limpkins are sister taxa to cranes, the Gruidae, and that finfeet are instead sister taxa to rails, the Rallidae. Other studies suggest that finfeet and the Afro-Madagascan flufftails, a group originally thought to be nested within rails, form a lineage called Sarothruridae that separated from each other at the end of the Eocene, probably in Africa. Sarothruridae, in turn, is considered a sister clade to Rallidae. Within Heliornithidae, sungrebes are sister to the Asian finfoot, rather than the geographically closer African finfoot, according to the results of both Mitochondrial and Nuclear DNA sequencing. This adds credence to the idea that finfeet moved from an African origin into Eurasia and then across Beringia and through North America to reach South America, rather than coming across the Atlantic from Africa, or having evolved on Gondwana, separated with the shifting of the continents, and moved north into Laurasia from there. This would also explain the absence of finfeet from Australia, and the success of the Sungrebe at colonizing the continental Neotropics while failing to colonize any major Caribbean islands that do not have glacial land bridges to the mainland. Description The female is a small, slim bird, averaging about in length. Sungrebes have lobed toes, and the bare skin of their feet and legs are boldly banded in yellow and black. The body plumage is mostly varying shades of reddish brown, while the head and neck are strikingly patterned with a black crown and nape and white stripes along the sides of its neck, as well as a white throat and chin. The long tail (almost a third of the total length) extends well beyond the body in flight, and sits fanned out on or just below the surface of the water while the bird swims. Females have a rufous patch on the side of the face that brightens to a cinnamon-orange color during the breeding season. Also during the breeding season, her eye ring becomes brighter in color and her lower mandible goes from dark red to bright scarlet. Slightly shorter on average than the male, with a slightly shorter wingspan, , but slightly more powerfully-built with a higher average mass, . The male is similar to the female, but has slightly drabber plumage; in particular the male lacks the bright orange-rufous patch on the cheeks that the female displays, and while his lower mandible turns from pale beige to dark red during the breeding season, it does not get as bright as that of the female. On average he is slightly longer and with a wider wingspan than the female, but more lightly built with a lower average mass (110-140g). Juveniles have similar plumage to the male, but are slightly smaller, and with a grayer cast to the body feathers and more white on the cheeks and neck. Distribution and habitat Sungrebes are found in heavily vegetated, mostly freshwater wetland environments, from northeast Mexico south along the Gulf and Caribbean coasts through Panama, where they live throughout the Canal Zone and Darien, and then along the Pacific coast from Panama through central Ecuador. They are also found throughout the Orinoco and Amazon Watershed, the Pantanal, and the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforests. Aside from Trinidad and Tobago, they are not found in most Caribbean nations, and seem to have difficulty dispersing over long distances of saltwater. Though occasionally recorded at higher elevations, the sungrebe is usually associated with lowlands from sea level to around 500 meters. They are residents throughout their range; they do not seem to migrate. Sungrebes seem to be expanding the northern limit of their range in northeastern Mexico. They were historically found no farther north than central Veracruz, but by the 1940s had established populations throughout Veracruz and into San Luis Potosí. They are now expanding their range further north in Tamaulipas, and an individual was sighted on 13 November 2008 on the Marsh Loop at Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge in New Mexico, USA, the first historical record of Sungrebes in the United States. Behaviour and ecology Breeding The sungrebe has a mating season that begins in the middle of April during the "early wet season"; breeding is correlated with rainfall and corresponding high water levels that flood habitat and bring the sort of low-overhanging vegetation that subgrebes like to build their nest in. The bolder coloration of the females, as well as their greater mass and the males' role as primary caregiver for the young, suggest that females court the males, although this has not yet been observed. Both the male and female birds take part in the nest building, which typically consists of twigs, reeds, and dried leaves. The nest is a flimsy platform placed about a meter above the water's surface. There are usually two to four eggs in a clutch. They are round in shape with a buffy white to pale cinnamon base color, with irregularly-shaped dark cinnamon, ruddy brown, and pale purple sports scattered uniformly over the surface at variable densities from egg to egg. The eggs hatch after an unusually short incubation period of only 10 to 11 days. Both sexes share responsibility in the incubation of the eggs; the female sits on the nest for most of the daylight hours and throughout the night, while male incubates them during the middle part of the day. Unlike their close relatives, the African and Asian finfoot, whose chicks are said to be precocial, sungrebe chicks are altricial upon hatching, blind and defenseless with only sparse down and poorly matured feet and bill. They are covered with fuzzy down that is countershaded slate-gray with a white belly and throat. The bill is slate-gray with a pale yellow tip. Males transfer the young to their pouches soon after hatching and keep them there, feeding them and cleaning out their waste, until they are able to swim and feed independently. For some period of time after this, the chicks continue to follow their father and perhaps their mother, often riding on their back. It is unknown how involved mothers are in the care of their young after hatching. Pouch The pouch of a male sungrebe is a shallow, ovular pocket formed by pleats of well-muscled skin that extend along the side of the chest under the wings, further buffered by a wall of long, curved feathers growing upwards and backwards from the lower part of the side of the chest. These feathers hold chicks in place during movement, even allowing a male to carry them while diving and flying. The bird appears to have some muscular control over the shape of the pleats, and can restrict or enhance fluid flow into the tissue to make them more or less rigid. Each pouch can hold one or two chicks. It is unknown whether other finfoots share this trait, as it does not persist in prepared skins and would be difficult to spot even in fresh specimens unless one knew to seek it out. Since no other species of bird have been found that have pouches, it is difficult to say how this evolved; however, in Jacanas, a tropical wading bird found in the same habitat as finfeet in which males also provide most of the parental care, young are frequently sheltered and even carried by tucking them under the wings and holding them against the body. This could have been the ancestral state for Sungrebes, as well. Food and feeding Sungrebes prefer quiet forest streams and rivers, freshwater ponds, and lakes with thick, overhanging vegetation. Here, they hunt snails and a variety of terrestrial and aquatic arthropods, as well as small fish, frogs and lizards. They will also eat some plant matter, including seeds and fruit. Most hunting and foraging takes place on or just above the surface of the water, although they may make short dives after fish and frogs, or hunt from low perches over the water. Sungrebes live at variable, but generally low population densities, and are generally solitary or found in pairs. They do not migrate seasonally, except to move out of drying habitats and into flooding ones within their range. It is not known how far juvenile sungrebes disperse after fledging, nor is it known if one sex preferentially disperses. It might be notable, however, that erratic sungrebes found outside of their known range have tended to be females. There is also no information on life span, age at first breeding, or mortality rates of young. Conservation status Given that their range is very large and that the species is not directly targeted for human use, BirdLife International (2009) the IUNC evaluates the conservation status of the Sungrebe as of Least Concern. Their northward expansion seems to justify that status. However, very little is known about any population of sungrebe, including the nature of their risk factors and whether the range of the Sungrebe consists of a single large population at low risk or a series of genetically distinct populations at higher risk. Further, tropical wetland areas are attractive targets for agricultural usage and hydroelectric projects. The Sungrebe's preference for heavy cover and tendency to avoid the presence of humans may limit its ability to cope with the rapid urbanization of Latin America. Nevertheless, Sungrebes seem to be faring much better than their relatives, who live in much more population-dense, much less well protected or environmentally regulated parts of the world. Local Names English: Sungrebe, American Finfoot Spanish: Ipequí, Avesol Americano, Colimbo-selvático Americano, Pájaro Cantil, Pájaro del Sol, Patas Lobuladas, Pato Cantil, Zambullidor-Sol Portuguese: Ipequi, Pequi, Picaparra, Marrequinha-do-Igapó, Mergulhão, Patinho-de-Igapó, Ananai, Dom-dom Guarani: Ypeky Wayampi: Pẽkĩ Emerillon: Pẽki Makushi: Yawiwa Warao: Oranih Sranan: Watra-en Guianese Creole: Souroukou Karipúna Creole: Dondon French: Picpare, Grébifoulque d'Amérique, Grébifoulque de Cayenne Dutch: Kleine Fuutkoet Fossil history A 14 million year-old fossil humerus identical to that of Heliornis fulica was found in the Mid-Miocene Pungo River Formation in North Carolina, USA. This is the earliest-known Finfoot fossil, and its discovery raised questions as to whether thus far undiscovered South American ancestors of sungrebes moved into North America well before the Great American Interchange, or if they instead came across Beringia and then moved into South America when the Isthmus of Panama formed. References External links Sungrebe videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection Sungrebe information, photos, & sounds on Avibase - The World Bird Database Sungrebe information, photos, & sounds on The Cornell Lab of Ornithology A Female Sungrebe foraging for food in the Pantanal by Pantanal Birdclub on YouTube Heliornithidae Birds of Central America Birds of South America Birds of the Caribbean Birds described in 1783 Taxa named by Pieter Boddaert	[ -0.33719733357429504, -0.37175965309143066, -0.24274156987667084, 0.07592575997114182, -0.11566311120986938, 0.2194034904241562, 0.1063435971736908, 0.6647428274154663, -0.4879612922668457, 0.1514461189508438, 0.08992831408977509, 0.17736542224884033, -0.7765283584594727, 0.06766662001609802, -0.2560141086578369, 0.595638632774353, 0.262053519487381, 0.6033667922019958, 0.5579335689544678, -0.061508338898420334, -0.16665390133857727, -0.4477555453777313, 0.40656715631484985, -0.6840185523033142, 0.5870146155357361, 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217256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliornithidae	Heliornithidae	The Heliornithidae are a small family of tropical birds with webbed lobes on their feet like those of grebes and coots. The family overall are known as finfoots, although one species is known as a sungrebe. The family is composed of three species in three genera. Description Finfoots resemble rails; they have long necks, slender bodies, broad tails, and sharp, pointed bills. They have a diverse range of calls, but do not call frequently. Their legs and feet are brightly coloured and, unlike grebes, they are capable of walking well and even moving quickly on land. Habitat Finfoots are found in numerous habitats in the tropics as long as there is water and cover. It is uncertain why cover is so essential to finfoots, but they are extremely secretive and often overlooked. Their ranges extend from coastal creeks to fast-moving mountain streams, most commonly being found in large slow moving bodies of water. They also use swamps, reed beds, mangroves, and forest. Finfoots are territorial, probably for much of the year and certainly when breeding. They are not thought to undertake regular migrations, but some birds do regularly disperse and they are quick to colonise new areas of suitable habitat. Behaviour Diet and feeding Finfoots feed on a wide range of foods, insects of various sorts being the most frequently observed component of their diet. Little quantitative information on finfoot diet exists, but they have also been recorded eating molluscs, crustaceans, spiders, frogs, fish and some leaves and seeds. Unlike grebes they do not dive to obtain food, instead picking prey off the water's surface or foraging on the shore. Breeding All three species tend to breed after the wet season, the exact timing of which is dependent on the local climate. The breeding behaviour of the masked finfoot is almost entirely unknown. All three species exhibit some changes in appearance prior to breeding – masked finfoots develop a fleshy knob above the bill, and the plumage of the male African finfoot and female sungrebe also change. There is considerable variation within the finfoots on several aspects of breeding; in the Sungrebe the nest building and incubation duties are shared between the sexes, in the African finfoot the female alone incubates. The nests of all finfoots are untidy bowls of sticks, twigs, and reeds suspended in vegetation above water. Species There are three species. The African finfoot is found in tropical Africa on streams in woodland. The masked finfoot has a scattered distribution from Eastern India down through southeast Asia to the Wallace Line. The sungrebe is found in tropical Central and South America. Finfoots are highly secretive and many aspects of their biology are unknown to science. References Bertrand, B. C. R. (1996). "Family Heliornithidae (Finfoots)" in del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., & Sargatal, J., eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 3. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, External links Heliornithidae videos on the Internet Bird Collection Bird families Taxa named by George Robert Gray	[ -0.04625774547457695, 0.08884481340646744, -0.7652686834335327, 0.0012213621521368623, -0.16153143346309662, 0.45601511001586914, 0.7388864159584045, 0.1416810005903244, -0.48746493458747864, -0.5021013617515564, 0.23871058225631714, 0.20217257738113403, -0.5069031715393066, 0.02607259899377823, -0.17952869832515717, 0.7200754880905151, 0.005937511567026377, 0.030945559963583946, 0.28397345542907715, -0.39135751128196716, -0.3084578216075897, -0.6184439063072205, 0.7176392674446106, -0.9376401901245117, 0.4155799448490143, 0.3195990025997162, 0.5053132176399231, 0.7399090528488159, 0.35546544194221497, -0.33632269501686096, -0.053025539964437485, 0.8178293108940125, 0.3644028306007385, 0.1976599246263504, -0.1538504809141159, -0.17413970828056335, -0.46259886026382446, -0.6309050917625427, -0.052573610097169876, -1.0431684255599976, 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217259	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy%20Richter%20Controls%20the%20Universe	Andy Richter Controls the Universe	Andy Richter Controls the Universe is a sitcom which aired from 2002–2003 on the Fox network. The series was Andy Richter's first starring role after leaving NBC's Late Night with Conan O'Brien in 2000. It ran for two seasons, totaling nineteen episodes, and was canceled due in part to poor ratings. The show was a joint production of Garfield Grove Productions and 20th Century Fox Television in association with Paramount Television. TV Guide included the series in their 2013 list of 60 shows that were "Cancelled Too Soon". Characters The surnames of the characters are very rarely mentioned – with the exception of Andy, most are only mentioned once in the entire series. Main Andy Richter: The character, sharing his name with the actor, is an aspiring writer living in Chicago who wants to write short stories. However, he is forced to work as a technical manual writer for Pickering Industries, the fifth largest company in America, to pay the bills. Andy is shy and not good with women. He doesn't really want to be working at the company, though he is very good at his job. Jessica Green (played by Paget Brewster): Jessica worked with Andy for years before she became the head of Andy's department, and thus, his boss. They tried dating once, but it didn't work out. She often has to act as an intermediary between her superiors and Andy and his co-workers, forcing her to take sides. She is fairly superficial when it comes to men. Wendy McKay (played by Irene Molloy): Wendy is the receptionist at Andy's office. As of the pilot, she had only been working there a month. Andy is attracted to her, but found out that since he had not made a move in a month, Keith has started to date her. Byron Togler (played by Jonathan Slavin): Byron is a new illustrator who moves into Andy's office, which causes Andy annoyance in the pilot episode. Byron is fairly insecure and shy. Keith (played by James Patrick Stuart): Keith is Andy's best friend and co-worker and one usually sticks up for the other. He is the handsome guy in the office who has things handed to him because he's good-looking. Others Pickering Industries is founded by Mr. Pickering (John Bliss) in 1880. Despite being over 170 years old, and dead, he appears in several episodes and has discussions with Andy within his imagination. His viewpoints are typically antiquated and contrary to political correctness to an extreme degree. His comments often seem to represent a negative aspect of Andy's mind, such as guilt, or self-doubt. Teak (Charlie Finn) and Phil (Sean Gunn) live in the same building as Andy. They had been members of the same fraternity as Andy, ten years after Andy was a member. As such, they look up to him. It is hinted that Phil might be homosexual. Guest appearances Conan O'Brien appears as Pickering's new CEO in the episode "Crazy in Rio." Other stars to have guest roles include Cedric Yarbrough, Jon Cryer, Molly Sims, Beth Littleford, Rick Peters, Bree Turner, Jarrad Paul, Rex Lee, Lola Glaudini, and June Lockhart, who plays Andy's grandmother. Episodes Broadcast history Season 1 (2002) Season 2 (2002–03) Production Although canceled after two mid-season runs (totaling 19 episodes), reruns of all 19 episodes aired on HDNet from mid 2003 until 2006. It was also shown on the Paramount Comedy Channel, the Irish network TV3 and on the Polish edition of Comedy Central. The outside shots of Andy's office are taken from the Duke & Duke building from Trading Places. Structure The series' plots were fairly typical of sitcoms with Andy getting himself into a situation and having to find a solution. The unique aspects were several unusual devices that defined the show. First was Richter's voiceover which essentially narrated the plot as well as Andy's thought processes in each episode. Secondly, and connected to the first, was Andy's imagination, which was presented onscreen as if it were reality until it was revealed in a smash cut accompanied by the sound of rewinding audio tape. This was often used to demonstrate alternatives to what actually happened for a given event. These fantasy sequences inspired the original working title, "Anything Can Happen," a sentiment Richter expresses in the series premiere's opening narration. Home release On March 24, 2009, CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) released all 19 episodes of Andy Richter Controls the Universe on DVD in Region 1. 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment holds the international DVD rights, but has yet to make a release anywhere. Soundtrack All music from the show was written by Greg Burns, Jeff Burns, and Brian Kirk. The theme song is sung by Jason Cropper, the original guitarist for Weezer. The song was written for the show, and there is not a full version beyond the short clip in the beginning. However, a slightly longer version of the song is evident on the pilot episode. See also Quintuplets – Andy Richter's subsequent sitcom Andy Barker, P.I. – Andy Richter's third sitcom References External links 2000s American single-camera sitcoms 2002 American television series debuts 2003 American television series endings 2000s American workplace comedy television series English-language television shows Fox Broadcasting Company original programming Television series by CBS Studios Television series by 20th Century Fox Television Television shows set in Chicago Television series created by Victor Fresco	[ -0.1893721967935562, 0.5376711487770081, 0.27402806282043457, 0.5535359978675842, 0.021330904215574265, -0.30434003472328186, 0.2590929865837097, 0.15211422741413116, -0.41114741563796997, -0.04587043449282646, -0.2899087071418762, 0.13732564449310303, -0.12614521384239197, 0.7049914598464966, 0.0602811835706234, 0.15920548141002655, 0.09030315279960632, 0.14971007406711578, -0.16211017966270447, -0.5712122917175293, 0.12481017410755157, -0.4830228090286255, 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217271	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bey	Bey	Bey (, , , , , , , , , or , , ) is a Turkic title for a chieftain, and an honorific, traditionally applied to people with special lineages to the leaders or rulers of variously sized areas in the numerous Turkic kingdoms, emirates, sultanates and empires in Central Asia, South Asia, and The Middle East, such as the Ottomans, Timurids or the various khanates and emirates in Central Asia and the Eurasian Steppe. The feminine equivalent title was begum. The regions or provinces where "beys" ruled or which they administered were called beylik, roughly meaning "governorate" and/or "region" (the equivalent of county in other parts of Europe). However the exact scope of power handed to the beks varied with each country, thus there was no clear-cut system, rigidly applied to all countries defining all the possible power and prestige that came along with the title. Today, the word is still used formally as a social title for men, similar to the way the titles "sir" and "mister" are used in the English language. Additionally, it is widely used in the naming customs of Central Asia, namely in countries such as Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Notably, the ethnic designation of Uzbeks comes from the name of Öz Beg Khan of the Golden Horde, being an example of the usage of this word in personal names and even names of whole ethnic groups. The general rule is that the honorific is used with first names and not with surnames or last names. Etymology The word entered English from Turkish bey, itself derived from Old Turkic beg, which – in the form bäg – has been mentioned as early as in the Orkhon inscriptions (8th century AD) and is usually translated as "tribal leader". The actual origin of the word is still disputed, though it is mostly agreed that it was a loan-word, in Old Turkic. This Turkic word is usually considered a borrowing from an Iranian language. However, German Turkologist Gerhard Doerfer assessed the derivation from Iranian as superficially attractive but quite uncertain, and pointed out the possibility that the word may be genuinely Turkic. Two principal etymologies have been proposed by scholars: the Middle Persian title bag (also baγ or βaγ, Old Iranian baga; cf. Sanskrit भग / bhaga) meaning "lord" and "master". Peter Golden derives the word via Sogdian bġy from the same Iranian root. All Middle Iranian languages retain forms derived from baga- in the sense "god": Middle Persian bay (plur. bayān, baʾān), Parthian baγ, Bactrian bago, Sogdian βγ-, and were used as honorific titles of kings and other men of high rank in the meaning of "lord". The Iranian bāy (through connection with Old Indian noun bhāgá "possessions, lot") gave Turkish word bai (rich), whence Mongol name Bayan (rich). the Chinese title pö (伯 Mandarin bó; its historical pronunciation being pök or pak or perjk, as reconstructed Edwin Pulleyblank), meaning older brother and feudal lord. What is certain is that the word has no connections to Turkish berk, "strong" (Mongolian berke), or Turkish bögü, "shaman" (Mong. böge). Turkish and Azerbaijani beys The first three rulers of the Ottoman realm were titled Bey. The chief sovereign of the Ottoman Empire came to be called sultan starting in 1383 when Murad I was granted this title by the shadow caliph in Cairo. The Ottoman state had started out as one of a dozen Turkish Ghazi Beyliks, roughly comparable to western European duchies, into which Anatolia (i.e., Asian Turkey, or Asia Minor) had been divided after the break-up of the Seljuk Sultanate of Ikonion (Konya) and the military demise of the Byzantine Empire. Its capital was Bursa. By 1336, it had annexed the Beylik of Karasy, its western neighbour on the coast of the Sea of Marmara, and it began to expand quite rapidly thereafter. As the Ottoman realm grew from a Beylik into an imperial sultanate, the title "Bey" came to be applied to subordinate military and administrative officers, such as a district administrator and lower-level minor military governors. The latter were usually titled Sanjak Bey (after the term "Sanjak", denoting a military horsetail banner). Beys were lower in rank than pashas and provincial governors (wālis, usually holding the title of pasha), who governed most of the Ottoman vilayets (provinces), but higher than effendis. Eventually, the chiefs of the former Ottoman capitals Bursa and Edirne (formerly the Byzantine Adrianople in Thrace) both were designated "Bey". Over time, the title became somewhat devalued, as Bey was used as a courtesy title for a pasha's son. It also came to be attached to officers and dignitaries below those entitled to be pashas, notably the following military officer ranks (still lower ranks were styled efendi): Miralai (army colonel or navy captain) Kaimakam (army lieutenant-colonel or navy commander) Oddly, the compound Beyefendi was part of the title of the husband (full style Damad-i-Shahyari (given name) Beyefendi) and sons (full style Sultanzade (given name) Beyefendi) of an Imperial Princess, and their sons in turn were entitled to the courtesy title Beyzade, "Son of a Bey". For the grandsons of an imperial princess, the official style was simply Bey after the name. By the late 19th century, "Bey" had been reduced in the Ottoman Empire to an honorary title. While in Qazaq and other Central Asian Turkic languages, бай [bɑj] remains a rather honorific title, in modern Turkish, and in Azerbaijan, the word "bey" (or "bay") simply means "mister" (compare Effendi) or "sir" and is used in the meaning of "chieftain" only in historical context. Bay is also used in Turkish in combined form for certain military ranks, e.g. albay, meaning colonel, from alay "regiment" and -bay, and yarbay, meaning lieutenant colonel, from yardim "assistance" and -bay (thus an "assistant albay"). Lucy Mary Jane Garnett wrote in the 1904 work Turkish Life in Town and Country that "distinguished persons and their sons" as well as "high government officials" could become bey, which was one of two "merely conventional designations as indefinite as our "Esquire" has come to be.[in the United Kingdom]". The Republican Turkish authorities abolished the title circa the 1930s. As with most Turkish titles, it follows the name rather than precedes it, e.g. "Ahmet Bey" for "Mr. Ahmet". When one speaks of Mr. Ahmet, the title has to be written with a capital (Ahmet Bey), but when one addresses him directly it is simply written without capital (Ahmet bey). Bey may combine with efendi to give a common form of address, to which the possessive suffix -(i)m is usually added: beyefendim, efendim. Beyefendi has its feminine counterpart: hanımefendi , used alone, to address a woman without her first name. And with the first name: Ayşe Hanım or Ayşe hanım, for example, according to the rule given above about the use of the capital letter. Beys elsewhere The title Bey (; ) could be maintained as a similar office within Arab states that broke away from the High Porte, such as Egypt and Sudan under the Muhammad Ali Dynasty, where it was a rank below pasha (maintained in two rank classes after 1922), and a title of courtesy for a pasha's son. Even much earlier, the virtual sovereign's title in Barbaresque North African 'regency' states was "Bey" (compare Dey). Notably in Tunis, the Husainid Dynasty used a whole series of title and styles including Bey: Just Bey itself was part of the territorial title of the ruler, and also as a title used by all male members of the family (rather like Sultan in the Ottoman dynasty). Bey al-Kursi "Bey of the Throne", a term equivalent to reigning prince. Bey al-Mahalla "Bey of the Camp", title used for the next most senior member of the Beylical family after the reigning Bey, the Heir Apparent to the throne. Bey al-Taula "Bey of the Table", the title of the Heir Presumptive, the eldest prince of the Beylical family, who enjoyed precedence immediately after the Bey al-Mahalla. Beylerbeyi (or Beglerbegi) "Lord of Lords", was the administrative rank formally enjoyed by the ruler of Algiers and by rulers of parts of the Balkans in their official capacity of Ottoman Governor-General within the Turkish empire.This title was also used in Safavid empire. Bey was also the title that was awarded by the Sultan of Turkey in the twilight of the Ottoman Empire to Oloye Mohammed Shitta, an African merchant prince of the Yoruba people who served as a ranking leader of the Muslim community in the kingdom of Lagos. Subsequently, he and his children became known in Nigeria by the double-barrelled surname Shitta-Bey, a tradition which has survived to the present day through their lineal descendants. In the Ottoman period, the lords of the semi-autonomous Mani Peninsula used the title of beis (μπέης); for example, Petros Mavromichalis was known as Petrobey. Other Beys saw their own Beylik promoted to statehood, e.g.: in Qusantina (Constantine in French), an Ottoman district subject to the Algiers regency since 1525 (had its own Beys since 1567), the last incumbent, Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif (b. c. 1784, in office 1826–1848, d. 1850), was maintained when in 1826 the local Kabyle population declared independence, and when it was on 13 October 1837 conquered by France, until it was incorporated into Algeria in 1848. Bey or a variation has also been used as an aristocratic title in various Turkic states, such as Bäk in the Tatar Khanate of Kazan, in charge of a Beylik called Bäklek. The Uzbek Khanate of Khiva, Emirate of Bukhara and The Khanate of Kokand used the "beks" as local administrations of "bekliks" or provinces. The Balkar princes in the North Caucasus highlands were known as taubiy (taubey), meaning the "mountainous chief". Sometimes a Bey was a territorial vassal within a khanate, as in each of the three zuzes under the Khan of the Kazakhs. The variation Beg, Baig or Bai, is still used as a family name or a part of a name in South and Central Asia as well as the Balkans. In Slavic-influenced names, it can be seen in conjunction with the Slavic -ov/-ović/ev suffixes meaning "son of", such as in Kurbegović, Izetbegović, Abai Kunanbaev. The title is also used as an honorific by members of the Moorish Science Temple of America and the Moorish Orthodox Church. 'Bey' is also used in colloquially in Urdu-speaking parts of India and its usage is similar to "chap" or "man". When used aggressively, it is an offensive term. See also Baig Begum Beylerbey Begzada Atabeg Dey Khagan Bek Skanderbeg Ban Bai Baianai Anatolian beyliks Ottoman titles References External links "Bey" at Encyclopaedia of the Orient. 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217279	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School%20%28disambiguation%29	School (disambiguation)	A school is an institution for learning. School or the school may also refer to: School of thought, a number of individuals with shared styles, approaches or aims School (fish), a group of fish swimming in the same direction in a coordinated manner Education School (division), a division of a college or university focused on related subjects The School at Columbia University ("The School") The Columbia University primary school Arts, entertainment, and media Art School of art, not used in the educational sense but related to school of thought, above, as in an Art movement Music Groups The School (British band) The School (Norwegian band) Songs "School" (Nirvana song) "School", a song by British rock band Supertramp from their 1974 album Crime of the Century "School", a 2018 track by Toby Fox from Deltarune Chapter 1 OST from the video game Deltarune Television School (South Korean TV series) a South Korean anthology series School (2011 TV series), a 2011 Japanese serial drama The School (Sapphire & Steel), an audio serial based on the TV series Sapphire & Steel See also Old school (disambiguation) Scholar (disambiguation) Scholastic (disambiguation) Scholasticism, a method of learning taught by the academics of medieval universities circa 1100–1500 Schooled (disambiguation) Schooler (disambiguation) Schoolies (disambiguation) Schooling (disambiguation) Types of educational institutions	[ 0.3364258110523224, 0.23247042298316956, -0.3518263101577759, 0.43583598732948303, 0.032477542757987976, -0.4548494219779968, 0.6434125900268555, 0.28922683000564575, -0.08416460454463959, -0.3903971016407013, -0.459567129611969, 0.016613930463790894, 0.1962313950061798, 0.3527384102344513, -0.30891647934913635, -0.06909839808940887, 0.5650695562362671, 0.4099530875682831, -0.05436365678906441, -0.042397644370794296, -0.7416544556617737, 0.005756751634180546, -0.29711616039276123, -0.1900094449520111, 0.1742534190416336, 0.05960433930158615, 0.33608368039131165, 0.05014071241021156, 0.4149421155452728, 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217280	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindergarten	Kindergarten	Kindergarten (, ) is a preschool educational approach based on playing, singing, practical activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from home to school. Such institutions were originally made in the late 18th century in Bavaria and Alsace to serve children whose parents both worked outside home. The term was coined by the German Friedrich Fröbel, whose approach globally influenced early-years education. Today, the term is used in many countries to describe a variety of educational institutions and learning spaces for children ranging from 2 to 6 years of age, based on a variety of teaching methods. History Early years and development In 1779, Johann Friedrich Oberlin and Louise Scheppler founded in Strasbourg an early establishment for caring for and educating preschool children whose parents were absent during the day. At about the same time, in 1780, similar infant establishments were created in Bavaria. In 1802, Princess Pauline zur Lippe established a preschool center in Detmold, the capital of the then principality of Lippe, Germany (now in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia). In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infants school in New Lanark, Scotland. In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a good moral education so that they would be fit for work. His system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy. Samuel Wilderspin opened his first infant school in London in 1819, and went on to establish hundreds more. He published many works on the subject, and his work became the model for infant schools throughout England and further afield. Play was an important part of Wilderspin's system of education. He is credited with inventing the playground. In 1823, Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor, based on the school. He began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views. He also wrote The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, and moral powers of all children from 1 to seven years of age. Countess Theresa Brunszvik (1775–1861), who had known and been influenced by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, was influenced by this example to open an ("angel garden" in Hungarian) on May 27, 1828, in her residence in Buda, the first of eleven care centers that she founded for young children. In 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers. The idea became popular among the nobility and the middle class and was copied throughout the Kingdom of Hungary. Creation of the kindergarten Friedrich Fröbel (1782–1852) opened a "play and activity" institute in 1837 in the village of Bad Blankenburg in the principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, as an experimental social experience for children entering school. He renamed his institute (meaning garden of children) on June 28, 1840, reflecting his belief that children should be nurtured and nourished "like plants in a garden". Fröbel introduced an educational environment into his school, in contrast to other earlier infant establishments, and is therefore credited with the creation of kindergartens. Around 1873, Caroline Wiseneder's method for teaching instrumental music to young children was adopted by the national kindergarten movement in Germany. Women trained by Fröbel opened kindergartens throughout Europe and around the world. The first kindergarten in the US was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856, and was conducted in German by Margaretha Meyer-Schurz. Elizabeth Peabody founded the first English-language kindergarten in the US in 1860. The first free kindergarten in the US was founded in 1870 by Conrad Poppenhusen, a German industrialist and philanthropist, who also established the Poppenhusen Institute. The first publicly financed kindergarten in the US was established in St. Louis in 1873 by Susan Blow. Canada's first private kindergarten was opened by the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, in 1870. By the end of the decade, they were common in large Canadian towns and cities. In 1882, The country's first public-school kindergartens were established in Berlin, Ontario (modern Kitchener) at the Central School. In 1885, the Toronto Normal School (teacher training) opened a department for kindergarten teaching. The Australian kindergarten movement emerged in the last decade of the nineteenth century as both a philanthropic and educational endeavour. The first free kindergarten in Australia was established in 1896 in Sydney, New South Wales, by the Kindergarten Union of NSW (now KU Children's Services) led by reformer Maybanke Anderson. American educator Elizabeth Harrison wrote extensively on the theory of early childhood education and worked to enhance educational standards for kindergarten teachers by establishing what became the National College of Education in 1886. By country Afghanistan In Afghanistan, children between the ages of 3 and 6 attend kindergartens (; ). Although kindergartens in Afghanistan are not part of the school system, they are often run by the government. Early childhood development programs were first introduced during the Soviet occupation with the establishment in 1980 of 27 urban preschools, or kodakistan. The number of preschools grew steadily during the 1980s, peaking in 1990 with more than 270 in Afghanistan. At its peak, there were 2,300 teachers caring for more than 21,000 children in the country. These facilities were an urban phenomenon, mostly in Kabul, and were attached to schools, government offices, or factories. Based on the Soviet model, these early childhood development programs provided nursery care, preschool, and kindergarten for children from 3 months to 6 years of age under the direction of the Department of Labor and Social Welfare. The vast majority of Afghan families were never exposed to this system, and many of these families were in opposition to these programs due to the belief that it diminishes the central role of the family and inculcates children with Soviet values. With the onset of civil war after the Soviet withdrawal, the number of kindergartens dropped rapidly. By 1995, only 88 functioning facilities serving 2,110 children survived, and the Taliban restrictions on female employment eliminated all of the remaining centers in areas under their control. In 2007, there were about 260 kindergarten/preschool centers serving over 25,000 children. Though every government center is required to have an early childhood center, at present, no governmental policies deal with early childhood and no institutions have either the responsibility or the capacity to provide such services. Australia In each state of Australia, kindergarten (frequently referred to as kinder or kindy) means something slightly different. In Tasmania, New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, it is the first year of primary school. In Victoria, kindergarten is a form of preschool and may be referred to interchangeably as preschool or kindergarten. In Victoria and Tasmania, the phrase for the first year of primary school is called Prep (short for "preparatory"), which is followed by Year 1. In Queensland, kindergarten is usually an institution for children around the age of 4 and thus it is the precursor to preschool and primary education. As with Victoria and Tasmania, the first year of primary school is also called Prep, which is then followed by Year 1. The year preceding the first year of primary school education in Western Australia, South Australia or the Northern Territory is referred to respectively as pre-primary, reception or transition. In Western Australia, the year preceding pre-primary is called kindergarten. Bangladesh In Bangladesh, the term kindergarten, or KG school (kindergarten school), is used to refer to the schooling children attend from 3 to 6 years of age. The names of the levels are nursery, (children), etc. The view of kindergarten education has changed significantly over time. Almost every rural area now has at least one kindergarten school, with most being run in the Bengali language. They also follow the textbooks published by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) with slight modification, adding some extra books to the syllabus. The grades generally start from nursery (sometimes "play group"), "KG" afterwards, and end with the 5th grade. Separate from the National Education System, kindergarten contributes greatly toward achieving the Millennium Development Goal of universal primary education in Bangladesh. Brazil In Brazil, kindergarten is the only non-compulsory education modality, for children up to 4 years old completed after March 31 for the vast majority of states. From the age of 4 completed until March 31, the child is eligible for preschool, which is mandatory and precedes the 1st grade. When a child turns 6 years old between April 1 and December 31, he/she must be in kindergarten (last grade of preschool nursery school), also known as kindergarten III, also known as “3º período da Escola Infantil”. Bulgaria In Bulgaria, the term () refers to the caring and schooling children attend from ages 3 to 7 (in some cases 6). Usually the children attend the from morning until late afternoon when their parents return from work. Most Bulgarian kindergartens are public. Since 2012, two years of preschool education are compulsory. These two years of mandatory preschool education may be attended either in kindergarten or in preparatory groups at primary schools. Canada Schools outside of Ontario and the Northwest Territories generally provide one year of kindergarten, except some private schools which offer junior kindergarten (JK) for 4-year-olds (school before kindergarten is most commonly referred to as preschool). Kindergarten is mandatory in British Columbia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, and is optional elsewhere. The province of Nova Scotia refers to Kindergarten as Grade Primary. After kindergarten, the child begins grade one. The province of Ontario and the Northwest Territories provide two years of kindergarten, usually part of an elementary school. Within the French school system in Ontario, junior kindergarten is called and senior kindergarten is called , which is a calque of the German word . Within the province of Quebec, junior kindergarten is called (which is not mandatory), is attended by 4-year-olds, and senior kindergarten (SK) is called , which is also not mandatory by the age of 5; this class is integrated into primary schools. Chile In Chile, the term equivalent to kindergarten is , sometimes also called . It is the first level of the Chilean educational system. It meets the needs of boys and girls integrally from birth until their entry to the (primary education), without being considered compulsory. Generally, schools imparting this level, the JUNJI (National Council of Kindergarten Schools) and other private institutions have the following organization of groups or subcategories of levels: Low nursery: Babies from 85 days to 1 year old. High nursery: Children from 1 to 2 years old. Low Middle Level: Children from 2 to 3 years old. High Middle Level: Children from 3 to 4 years old. First level of transition: Often called pre-kinder, for children from 4 to 5 years old. Second level of transition: Usually called kinder, for children from 5 to 6 years old. It is the last phase of this type of education; upon completion, children go to (first grade of primary education). China In China, preschool education, before the child enters formal schooling at 6 years of age, is generally divided into a "nursery" or "preschool" stage and a "kindergarten" () stage. These can be two separate institutions, or a single combined one in different areas. Where there are two separate institutions, it is common for the kindergarten to consist of the two upper years, and the preschool to consist of one lower year. Common names for these three years are: Nursery (or preschool or playgroup) (): 3- to 4-year-old children Lower kindergarten (): 4- to 5-year-old children Upper kindergarten (): 5- to 6-year-old children. In some places, children at 5–6 years may in addition or instead attend reception or preparatory classes () focusing on preparing children for formal schooling. State (public) kindergartens only accept children older than 3 years, while private ones do not have such limitations. Denmark Kindergarten () is a day care service offered to children from age three until the child starts attending school. Kindergarten classes (grade 0) were made mandatory in 2009 and are offered by primary schools before a child enters first grade. Two-thirds of established day care institutions in Denmark are municipal day care centres while the other third are privately owned and are run by associations of parents or businesses in agreement with local authorities. In terms of both finances and subject matter, municipal and private institutions function according to the same principles. Denmark is credited with pioneering (although not inventing) forest kindergartens, in which children spend most of every day outside in a natural environment. Egypt In Egypt, children may go to kindergarten for two years (KG1 and KG2) between the ages of four and six. Finland At the end of the 1850s, Uno Cygnaeus, known as the "father of the Finnish primary school", presented the idea of bringing kindergartens to Finland after attending a kindergarten in Hamburg and a seminar training kindergarten teachers during his study trip to Central Europe. As early as 1920, there were about 80 kindergartens in operation across Finland, with a total of about 6,000 children. Kindergarten activity emphases and background communities vary. In Finland, most kindergartens are society's service to families while some are private. The underlying philosophy may be Montessori or Waldorf education. Preschools often also operate in connection with Finnish kindergartens. Kindergartens can also arrange language immersion programs in different languages. Finnish kindergartens now have an early childhood education plan, and parenting discussions are held with the parents of each child every year. Among OECD countries, Finland has higher-than-average public funding for early childhood education and the highest number of staff for children under the age of 3: only four children per adult. France In France, preschool is known as (French for "nursery school", literally "maternal school"). Free schools are available throughout the country, welcoming children aged from 3 to 5 (although in many places, children under three may not be granted a place). The ages are divided into (GS: 5-year-olds), (MS: 4-year-olds), (PS: 3-year-olds) and (TPS: 2-year-olds). It became compulsory in 2018 for all children aged 3. Even before the 2018 law, almost all children aged 3 to 5 attended . It is regulated by the Ministry of National Education. Germany In Germany, a (masculine: , plural ) is a facility for the care of preschool children who are typically at least three years old. By contrast, or refers to a crèche for the care of children before they enter (9 weeks to about three years), while —literally "children's day site", usually shortened to —is an umbrella term for any day care facility for preschoolers. Attendance is voluntary, and usually not free of charge. Preschool children over the age of one are entitled to receive local and affordable day care. Within the federal system, fall under the responsibility of the states, which usually delegate a large share of the responsibility to the municipalities. Due to the subsidiarity principle stipulated by §4 SGB VIII, there are a multitude of operators, from municipalities, churches and welfare societies to parents' initiatives and profit-based corporations. Many follow a certain educational approach, such as Montessori, Reggio Emilia, "" or Waldorf; forest kindergartens are well established. Most are subsidised by the community councils, with the fees depending on the income of the parents. Even in smaller townships, there are often both Roman Catholic and Lutheran kindergartens available. Places in crèches and kindergarten are often difficult to secure and must be reserved in advance, although the situation has improved with a new law in effect August 2013. The availability of childcare, however, varies greatly by region. It is usually better in eastern regions, and in big cities in the north, such as Berlin or Hamburg, and poorest in parts of Southern Germany. All caretakers in or must have a three-year qualified education, or are under special supervision during training. can be open from 7 a.m. to 5 p.m. or longer and may also house a crèche () for children between the ages of eight weeks and three years, and possibly an afternoon (often associated with a primary school) for school-age children aged 6 to 10 who spend time after their lessons there. Alongside nurseries, there are day care nurses ( or ) working independently of any preschool institution in individual homes and looking after only three to five children, typically up to the age of three. These nurses are supported and supervised by local authorities. The term ("preschool") is used both for educational efforts in and for a mandatory class that is usually connected to a primary school. Both systems are handled differently in each German state. The is a type of . Greece In Greece, kindergarten is called (). Kindergarten is a form of preschool and may be referred to interchangeably as preschool. Hong Kong Pre-primary Services in Hong Kong refers to provision of education and care to young children by kindergartens and child care centres. Kindergartens, registered with the Education Bureau, provide services for children from three to six years old. Child care centres, on the other hand, are registered with the Social Welfare Department and include nurseries, catering for children aged two to three, and creches, looking after infants from birth to two. At present, most of the kindergartens operate on a half-day basis offering upper and lower kindergarten and nursery classes. Some kindergartens also operate full-day kindergarten classes. Child care centres also provide full-day and half-day services with most centres providing full-day services. The aim of pre-primary education in Hong Kong is to provide children with a relaxing and pleasurable learning environment to promote a balanced development of different aspects necessary to a child's development such as the physical, intellectual, language, social, emotional and aesthetic aspects. To help establish the culture of self-evaluation in kindergartens and to provide reference for the public in assessing the quality and standard of pre-primary education, the Education Bureau has developed performance indicators for pre-primary institutions in Hong Kong. Commencing in the 2000/01 school year, quality assurance inspection was launched to further promote the development of quality early childhood education. Hungary In Hungary a kindergarten is called an ("place for caring"). Children attend kindergarten between ages 3–6/7 (they go to school in the year in which they have their 7th birthday). Attendance in kindergarten is compulsory from the age of 3 years, though exceptions are made for developmental reasons. Though kindergartens may include programs in subjects such as foreign language and music, children spend most of their time playing. In their last year, children begin preparation for elementary school. Most kindergartens are state-funded. Kindergarten teachers are required to have a diploma. India In India, there are only informal directives pertaining to pre-primary education, for which pre-primary schools and sections need no affiliation. Directives state that children who are three years old on 30 September in the given academic year are eligible to attend nursery and kindergarten classes. Typically, children spend 3 to 4 years of their time in pre-primary school after which they are eligible to attend 1st Standard in Primary School which falls under HRD ministry norms. Pre-primary is not mandatory, however, it is preferred. All government schools and affiliated private schools allow children who are 5 years of age to enroll in standard 1 of a primary school. Mid-day meals are provided in most parts of the country and institutes run by the government. Italy In Italy, preschool education refers to two different grades: Nursery schools, called for children between 3 and 36 months; Maternal schools formerly and now , for children 3 to 5 years old. Italian were officially instituted in a 1971 State Law (L. 1044/1971), and may be run by either private or public institutions. They were originally established to allow mothers a chance to work outside of the home, and were therefore seen as a social service. Today, they mostly serve the purpose of general education and social interaction. In Italy, much effort has been spent on developing a pedagogical approach to children's care: well known is the so-called Reggio Emilia approach, named after the city of Reggio Emilia, in Emilia-Romagna. normally occupy small one-story buildings, surrounded by gardens; usually suitable for no more than 60 or 70 children. The heart of the are the classrooms, split into playroom and restroom; the playroom always has windows and doors leading to the outside playground and garden. Maternal schools () were established in 1968 after State Law n. 444 and are a full part of the official Italian education system, though attendance is not compulsory. Like (nursery schools), maternal schools may be held either by public or private institutions. Japan Early childhood education begins at home, and there are numerous books and television shows aimed at helping mothers and fathers of preschool children to educate their children and to parent more effectively. Much of the home training is devoted to teaching manners, social skills, and structured play, although verbal and number skills are also popular themes. Parents are strongly committed to early education and frequently enroll their children in preschools. Kindergartens (), predominantly staffed by young female junior college graduates, are supervised by the Ministry of Education but are not part of the official education system. In addition to kindergartens, there exists a well-developed system of government-supervised nursery schools (), supervised by the Ministry of Labor. Whereas kindergartens follow educational aims, nursery schools are predominantly concerned with providing care for infants and toddlers. Together, these two kinds of institutions enroll 86% at age 3 and 99% at age 5 prior to their entrance into the formal system at first grade. The Ministry of Education's 1990 Course of Study for Preschools, which applies to both kinds of institutions, covers such areas as human relationships, health, environment, language, and expression. Starting from March 2008 the new revision of curriculum guidelines for kindergartens as well as for preschools came into effect. North Korea North Korean children attend kindergarten from 4 to 6. Kindergartens have two sections; low class ( ) and high class ( ) high class is compulsory. South Korea In South Korea, children normally attend kindergarten ( ) between the ages of three or four and six or seven in the Western age system. (Korean ages are calculated differently from Western ages: one is considered one year old from birth. Additionally, one's age increases by one year on January 1 regardless of when their birthday is. Hence in Korea, kindergarten children are called five-, six- and seven-year-olds). The school year begins in March. It is followed by primary school. Normally the kindergartens are graded on a three-tier basis. Korean kindergartens are private schools, and monthly costs vary. Korean parents often send their children to English kindergartens to give them a head start in English. Such specialized kindergartens can be mostly taught in Korean with some English lessons, mostly taught in English with some Korean lessons, or completely taught in English. Almost all middle-class parents send their children to kindergarten. Kindergarten programs in South Korea attempt to incorporate much academic instruction alongside more playful activities. Korean kindergartners learn to read, write (often in English as well as Korean) and do simple arithmetic. Classes are conducted in a traditional classroom setting, with the children focused on the teacher and one lesson or activity at a time. The goal of the teacher is to overcome weak points in each child's knowledge or skills. Because the education system in Korea is very competitive, kindergartens are becoming more intensely academic. Children are pushed to read and write at a very young age. They also become accustomed to regular and considerable amounts of homework. Very young children may also attend other specialized afternoon schools, taking lessons in art, piano or violin, taekwondo, ballet, soccer or mathematics. Kuwait In Kuwait, Kuwaiti children may go to free government kindergartens for two years (KG1 and KG2) between the ages of three-and-a-half and five. Luxembourg In Luxembourg, kindergarten is called (literally "Playschool", plural ). It is a public education facility which is attended by children between the age of 4 (or 5) and 6, when they advance to (elementary school). Malaysia In Malaysia, kindergarten is known as . Most kindergartens are available to children of ages five and six (and some are available to children as young as four). For children up to the age of three (or four), there are preschool playgroups. There are no fixed rules for when a child needs to go to a kindergarten, but the majority do at 5 years of age. The child will usually attend kindergarten for two years, before proceeding to primary school at age 7. Mexico In Mexico, kindergarten is called , with the last year sometimes referred to as ( is the name given to grades 1 through 6, so the name literally means "prior to elementary school"). The kindergarten system in Mexico was developed by professor Rosaura Zapata, who received the country's highest honor for her contribution. It consists of three years of preschool education, which are mandatory before elementary school. Previous nursery is optional and may be offered in either private schools or public schools. At private schools, usually consist of three grades, and a fourth may be added for nursery. The fourth one is called ; it comes prior to the other three years and is not obligatory. While the first grade is a playgroup, the other two are classroom education. In 2002, the Congress of the Union approved the Law of Obligatory Pre-schooling, which made preschool education for three to six-year-olds obligatory, and placed it under the auspices of the federal and state ministries of education. Mongolia In Mongolia, kindergarten is known as or . As of September 2013, there are approximately 152 kindergartens registered in the country. From those 152 kindergartens, 142 are state-owned. Children begin kindergarten at the age of 2 and finish it by 5. The education system before kindergarten in Mongolia is called , which accepts children between 0 and 2 years of age. Morocco In Morocco, preschool is known as , , or . State-run, free schools are available throughout the kingdom, welcoming children aged 2 to 5 (although in many places, children under 3 may not be granted a place). It is not compulsory, yet almost 80% of children aged 3 to 5 attend. It is regulated by the Moroccan Department of Education. Nepal In Nepal, kindergartens are run as private institutions, with their lessons conducted in English. The kindergarten education in Nepal is most similar to that of Hong Kong and India. Children start attending kindergarten from the age of 2 until they are at least 5 years old. The kindergartens in Nepal have the following grades: Nursery/playgroup: 2- to 3-year-olds Lower Kindergarten: 3- to 4-year-olds Upper Kindergarten: 4- to 5-year-olds Netherlands In the Netherlands, the equivalent term to kindergarten was . From the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century the term was also common, after Friedrich Fröbel. However, this term gradually faded in use as the verb gained a slightly derogatory meaning in everyday language. Until 1985, it used to be a separate non-compulsory form of education (for children aged 4–6 years), after which children (aged 6–12 years) attended primary school (). After 1985, both forms were integrated into one, called (Dutch for primary education). For children under 4, the country offers private, subsidized day care (), which are non-compulsory but nevertheless very popular. New Zealand In New Zealand, kindergarten can refer to education in the 2 years preceding primary school, from age 3 to 4. Primary Education starts at age 5. North Macedonia The Macedonian equivalent of kindergarten is (), sometimes called () when the children are younger than 4. is not part of the state's mandatory education because the educational process in the country begins at the age of 5 or 6, i.e. first grade. Norway In Norway, (children's garden) is the term equivalent to kindergarten, used for children in the ages between 10 months and 6 years. The first were founded in Norway in the late 19th century. Although they have existed for 120 years, they are not considered part of the education system. They are both publicly and privately owned and operated. The staff, at minimum the manager, should be educated as (kindergarten teacher), previously known as (preschool teachers). Children younger than three are often kept separate from the older children, since the youngest are only expected to play, rest and eat. All the children spend time outdoors every day. Many let the children sleep outdoors too. There is also an institution called (children's park), which does not need to have certified staff. Peru In Peru, the term refers to the schooling children attend from 3 to 6 years of age. It is followed by primary school classes, which last for six years. Some families choose to send their children to primary school at the age of 6. In 1902 the teacher Elvira García y García organized the first kindergarten for children 2 to 8 years old, Fanning annex to the Lyceum for ladies. Her studies and concern for children led her to spread, through conferences and numerous documents, the importance of protecting children early and to respond to the formation of a personality based on justice and understanding, as well as the use of Fröbel's and Montessori's methods and parental participation. Philippines In the Philippines, education officially starts at the elementary level and placing children into early childhood education through kindergarten is optional. Early childhood education in the Philippines is classified into: Center-based programs, such as the Barangay day care service, public and private preschools, kindergarten or school-based programs, community or church-based early childhood education programs initiated by non-government organizations or people's organizations, workplace-related child care and education programs, child-minding centers, health centers and stations; and Home-based programs, such as neighborhood-based playgroups, family day care programs, parent education and home visiting programs. Early childhood education was strengthened through the creation of the Early Childhood Care and Development Act of 2000 (Republic Act No. 8980). In 2011, the Department of Education disseminated copies of the Kindergarten Education Act through Republic Act No. 10157 making it compulsory and mandatory in the entire nation. As a provision in this law, children under five years old are required to enroll in a kindergarten in any public elementary school in the country. This is part of the implementation of the K-12 system in the Basic Education Curriculum. Poland In Poland, (literally Preschool, also commonly known as or Class 0 ) is a preschool educational institution for children aged from 3 to 6, mandatory for children aged 6, and optional for aged 7, whose parents submitted an application for the postponement of primary school. Romania In Romania, (literally "small garden") is the favored form of education for preschool children usually aged 3–6. The children are divided into three age groups: "little group" (, age 3–4), "medium group" (, age 4–5) and "big group" (, age 5–6). In the last few years private kindergartens have become popular, supplementing the state preschool education system. Attending kindergarten is not compulsory. The "preparatory school year" () is for children aged 6–7, and since it became compulsory in 2012, it usually takes place inside regular school classrooms and is considered "year 0" of elementary education, bridging the gap between kindergarten and years 1–4 of elementary school. Russia In the Russian Federation, (, literal translation of "children's garden") is a preschool educational institution for children, usually 3 to 6 years of age. Singapore Kindergartens in Singapore provide up to three years of preschool for children ages three to six. The three years are commonly called nursery, kindergarten 1 (K1) and kindergarten 2 (K2), respectively. The People's Action Party, which has governed Singapore since 1957, runs over 370 kindergartens through its charitable arm, the PAP Community Foundation. The kindergartens are run by the private sector, including community foundations, religious bodies, and civic or business groups. South Africa Kindergartens (commonly known as creche) in South Africa provide preschool programs for children of all ages up to six. The one to three-year program, known as nursery, kindergarten 1 (K1), and kindergarten 2 (K2), prepares children for their first year in primary school education. Some kindergartens further divide nursery into N1 and N2. Spain In Spain, kindergarten is called or and covers ages 3 to 6, the three courses being called, respectively, P-3, P-4 and P-5. Though non-mandatory, most children in Spain attend these courses. Before that, children aged 0 to 3 may attend the and take courses P-0, P-1 and P-2. In most parts of Spain are specialized schools completely separate from regular schools. Sudan Kindergarten in Sudan is divided into private and public kindergarten. Preschool is compulsory in Sudan. Kindergarten age spans from 3–6 years. The curriculum covers Arabic, English, religion, mathematics and more. Sweden In Sweden, kindergarten activities were established in the 19th century, and have been widely expanded since the 1970s. The first Swedish kindergarten teachers were trained by Henriette Schrader-Breymann at the Pestalozzi-Fröbel Haus, which she founded in 1882. Taiwan While many public kindergartens and preschools exist in Taiwan, private kindergartens and preschools are also quite popular. Many private preschools offer accelerated courses in various subjects to compete with public preschools and capitalize on public demand for academic achievement. The curriculum at such preschools often encompasses subject material such as science, art, physical education and even mathematics classes. The majority of these schools are part of large school chains, which operate under franchise arrangements. In return for annual fees, the chain enterprises may supply advertising, curriculum, books, materials, training, and even staff for each individual school. There has been a huge growth in the number of privately owned and operated English immersion preschools in Taiwan since 1999. These English immersion preschools generally employ native English-speaking teachers to teach the whole preschool curriculum in an English only environment. The legality of these types of schools has been called into question on many occasions, yet they continue to prosper. Some members of Taiwanese society have raised concerns as to whether local children should be placed in English immersion environments at such a young age, and have raised fears that the students' abilities in their mother language may suffer as a result. The debate continues, but at the present time, the market for English immersion preschools continues to grow. Uganda In Uganda, kindergarten is nursery or pre-primary and usually covers ages 3 to 5, the three classes called baby class, middle class and top class, respectively. Pupils graduating from top class then go on to enrol in P1 – the first year of primary school. Though non-mandatory, most children in Uganda today attend these classes. In most parts of Uganda, nursery schools are specialised schools completely separate from regular primary schools. Ukraine In 2010, a total of 56% of children aged one to six years old had the opportunity to attend preschool education, the Education and Science Ministry of Ukraine reported in August 2010. Many preschools and kindergartens were closed previously in light of economic and demographic considerations. United Kingdom The term kindergarten is rarely used in the UK to describe modern preschool education or the first years of compulsory primary school education. Preschools are usually known as creche, nursery schools or playgroups, while the first year of schooling is known as Reception in England and Wales and Primary One in Scotland and Northern Ireland (though different terms may be used in the small minority of UK schools which teach primarily through the medium of a language other than English). Nursery forms part of the Foundation Stage of education. In the 1980s, England and Wales officially adopted the Northern Irish system whereby children start school either in the term or year in which they will become five depending on the policy of the local education authority. In England, schooling is not compulsory until a child's fifth birthday but in practise most children join school in the Reception year the September before their fifth birthday. In Scotland, schooling becomes compulsory between the ages of and years, depending on their birthday (school starts in August for children who were 4 by the end of the preceding February). However, the word "kindergarten" is used for more specialist organisations such as forest kindergartens and is sometimes used in the naming of private nurseries that provide full-day child care for working parents. Historically the word was used during the nineteenth century when activists like Adelaide Manning were introducing educators to the work of Friedrich Fröbel. In the UK, parents have the option of nursery for their children at the ages of three or four years, before compulsory education begins. Before that, less structured childcare is available privately. The details vary between England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Some nurseries are attached to state infant or primary schools, but many are provided by the private sector. The Scottish government provides funding so that all children from the age of three until they start compulsory school can attend five sessions per week of two and a half hours each, either in state-run or private nurseries. Working parents can also receive from their employers childcare worth £55 per week free of income tax, which is typically enough to pay for one or two days per week. England Every child in England at the first school term after their third birthday is entitled to 15 hours per week free childcare funding. Pre-schools in England follow the Early Learning Goals, set by the Early Years Foundation Stage, for education produced by the Department for Education, which carries on into their first year of school at the age of four. This year of school is usually called Reception. The Early Learning Goals cover the main areas of education without being subject driven. These areas include: The three prime areas: communication and language physical development personal, social and emotional development The four specific areas: literacy mathematics understanding the world expressive arts and design Pupils attend nursery school for four or five terms. It is also common practice for many children to attend nursery much earlier than this. Many nurseries have the facilities to take on babies, using the 'Early Years Foundation Stage' framework as a guide to give each child the best possible start to becoming a competent learner and skilful communicator. Nurseries and playgroups are inspected and regulated by Her Majesty's Inspectors (Office for Standards in Education). Scotland The Scottish government defines its requirements for nursery schools in the Early Years Framework and the Curriculum for Excellence. Each school interprets these with more or less independence (depending on their management structure) but must satisfy the Care Inspectorate in order to retain their licence to operate. The curriculum aims to develop: confident individuals effective contributors responsible citizens successful learners United States In the United States, kindergarten is usually part of the K–12 educational system. In most schools, children begin kindergarten at age five for one year. Forty-three of the fifty states (the exceptions being Alaska, Idaho, Minnesota, Michigan, New Hampshire, New York, and Pennsylvania) require school districts to offer a kindergarten year. Students develop skills such as numeracy, literacy and a greater awareness of the world around them geographically, scientifically, socially and culturally. See also Forest kindergarten Head Start Program Montessori education Pre-math skills Reggio Emilia approach Universal preschool Waldorf education Notes References Further reading The following reading list relates specifically to kindergarten in North America, where it is the first year of formal schooling and not part of the preschool system as it is in the rest of the world: Gullo, D. F. (1990). "The changing family context: Implications for the development of all-day kindergarten." Young Children, 45(4), 35–39. EJ 409 110. Housden, T., & Kam, R. (1992). "Full-day kindergarten: A summary of the research." Carmichael, CA: San Juan Unified School District. ED 345 868. Karweit, N. (1992). "The kindergarten experience." Educational Leadership, 49(6), 82–86. EJ 441 182. Koopmans, M. (1991). "A study of longitudal effects of all-day kindergarten attendance on achievement." Newark, NJ: Newark Board of Education. ED 336 494.. Morrow, L. M., Strickland, D. S., & Woo, D. G.(1998). "Literacy instruction in half- and whole-day kindergarten." Newark, DE: International Reading Association. ED 436 756. Olsen, D., & Zigler, E.(1989). "An assessment of the all-day kindergarten movement." Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 4(2), 167–186. EJ 394 085. Puleo, V. T.(1988). "A review and critique of research on full-day kindergarten." Elementary School Journal, 88(4), 427–439. EJ 367 934. Towers, J. M. (1991). "Attitudes toward the all-day, everyday kindergarten." Children Today, 20(1), 25–28. EJ 431 720. West, J., Denton, K., & Germino-Hausken, E.(2000). "America's Kindergartners" Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics McGill-Franzen, A. (2006). "Kindergarten literacy: Matching assessment and instruction in kindergarten." New York: Scholastic. WestEd (2005). "Full-Day Kindergarten: Expanding Learning Opportunities." San Francisco: WestEd. External links Sources for kindergarten teachers in the US Friedrich Fröbel timeline Recent Research on All-Day Kindergarten in the US Kindersite Project – Researching into the use of technology within Kindergartens with Kindergarten-appropriate Internet content Watch the 1962 documentary Kindergarten Early childhood education Educational years Educational stages German words and phrases School types	[ 0.4182668924331665, -0.04006894305348396, -0.3620379865169525, 0.2553078830242157, -0.2331208437681198, 0.0949997529387474, 0.4260171055793762, 0.10303473472595215, -0.274795264005661, -0.3826637864112854, -0.5027445554733276, 0.023322831839323044, 0.20916153490543365, -0.2277100384235382, -0.646159827709198, 0.010520903393626213, 0.8305978178977966, 0.5695663094520569, -0.1078772097826004, -0.02602013573050499, -0.5881086587905884, -0.2716476023197174, 0.37448832392692566, 0.19350619614124298, 0.15812262892723083, -0.1594504714012146, 0.46597379446029663, 0.29743432998657227, 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217281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School%20of%20thought	School of thought	A school of thought, or intellectual tradition, is the perspective of a group of people who share common characteristics of opinion or outlook of a philosophy, discipline, belief, social movement, economics, cultural movement, or art movement. History The phrase has become a common colloquialism which is used to describe those that think alike or those that focus on a common idea. The term's use is common place. Schools are often characterized by their currency, and thus classified into "new" and "old" schools. There is a convention, in political and philosophical fields of thought, to have "modern" and "classical" schools of thought. An example is the modern and classical liberals. This dichotomy is often a component of paradigm shift. However, it is rarely the case that there are only two schools in any given field. Schools are often named after their founders such as the "Rinzai school" of Zen, named after Linji Yixuan; and the Asharite school of early Muslim philosophy, named after Abu l'Hasan al-Ashari. They are often also named after their places of origin, such as the Ionian school of philosophy, which originated in Ionia; the Chicago school of architecture, which originated in Chicago, Illinois; the Prague school of linguistics, named after a linguistic circle founded in Prague; and the Tartu–Moscow Semiotic School, whose representatives lived in Tartu and Moscow. See also Commentary of a philosophical text List of philosophies Mindset Paradigm Philosophical movement Worldview References Colloquial terms Category People by association	[ 0.4219188988208771, -0.14968818426132202, -0.6297082304954529, 0.312419593334198, -0.2328493595123291, 0.41964080929756165, 0.4316634237766266, 0.4848288893699646, -0.025747423991560936, -1.003099799156189, -0.412807822227478, 0.18292799592018127, -0.008966260589659214, 0.5924074649810791, 0.11039594560861588, 0.004980160854756832, 0.5692626237869263, -0.22399000823497772, 0.03786046802997589, 0.27590203285217285, -0.7929145693778992, 0.20938295125961304, -0.1471603959798813, -0.23664911091327667, 0.07456459850072861, -0.13148233294487, 0.5413691401481628, -0.07807008177042007, 0.11089573055505753, 0.12278284877538681, 0.23511701822280884, 0.5377493500709534, 0.314822256565094, 0.12323757261037827, -0.3306143283843994, 0.02049935795366764, 0.5200654864311218, 0.15819750726222992, 0.025512104853987694, 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217282	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Westphal	Paul Westphal	Paul Douglas Westphal (November 30, 1950 – January 2, 2021) was an American basketball player, head coach, and commentator. Westphal played in the National Basketball Association (NBA) from 1972 to 1984. Playing the guard position, he won an NBA championship with the Boston Celtics in 1974. Westphal played in the NBA Finals again in 1976 as a member of the Phoenix Suns. His NBA career also included stints with the Seattle SuperSonics and the New York Knicks. In addition to being a five-time All-Star selection, Westphal earned three All-NBA First Team selections and one Second Team honor. After his playing career ended, Westphal coached for Southwestern Baptist Bible College (now Arizona Christian University), Grand Canyon University, and Pepperdine University, and served also as head coach of the Phoenix Suns, Seattle SuperSonics, and Sacramento Kings in the NBA. Westphal coached the Suns to the NBA Finals in 1993. In 2019, Westphal was inducted into the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame. Early life Born in Torrance, California, He went to Aviation High School in Redondo Beach, California, from 1966 to 1969. Westphal attended the University of Southern California (USC), where he played college basketball for the USC Trojans as a guard. The Trojans had a win-loss record in 1971, setting a Trojans record for winning percentage. He was an All-American and team captain in 1972. Playing for USC from 1970 to 1972, he averaged 16.9 points per game and led the Trojans with 20.3 points per game in 1972. Playing career Boston Celtics (1972–1975) The Boston Celtics selected Westphal with the tenth overall pick in the 1972 NBA draft. After three seasons in Boston, including a championship in 1974, the Celtics traded Westphal and two second round draft picks to the Phoenix Suns for Charlie Scott. Phoenix Suns (1975–1980) In his first season with in Phoenix, Westphal helped the Suns reach their first NBA Finals, against the Celtics. In Game 5 of that series, often called "the greatest game ever played" in NBA history, he made several critical plays that pushed the game into triple overtime before Boston prevailed. Notably, Westphal exploited a loophole within NBA rules that effectively allowed the Suns to cede a point to get the ball at half-court with two seconds remaining at the end of the second overtime; the Suns tied the game thanks to the loophole. Westphal was sixth in the NBA in scoring average for the season at 25.2 points per game, and was also the first NBA All-Star Weekend H-O-R-S-E Competition champion. The following season, he was seventh in scoring average with 24.0 points per game. Seattle Supersonics (1980–1981) After the 1979–80 season in early June, the Suns traded Westphal to the Seattle SuperSonics for Dennis Johnson, where he played one season. New York Knicks (1982–1983) After his season with the Sonics, Westphal then signed with the New York Knicks as a free agent in late February 1982. Return to Phoenix (1983–1984) He signed a two-year contract with Phoenix in September 1983, and the Suns waived him in October 1984. In his NBA career, Westphal scored a total of 12,809 points for an average of 15.6 points per game, with 3,591 assists for an average of 4.4 assists per game. He also had 1,580 rebounds, for an average of 1.9 per game. Westphal was a five-time All-Star, a three-time All-NBA first team selection, and a one-time second team All-NBA selection. He is Phoenix's fifth all-time leading scorer (9,564), averaging 20.6 points in six seasons (1975–80, 1983–84). His No. 44 was retired by the Suns, and he is a member of their Ring of Honor. Westphal was also inducted into the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame as a player on September 6, 2019. Coaching career Westphal's coaching career started in 1985 at Southwestern Baptist Bible College (now Arizona Christian University), located in Phoenix. After compiling a 21–9 record in his lone season there, he moved on to Grand Canyon College, also in Phoenix, and after two seasons led them to the NAIA national title in 1988. In 1988, after three years in the college ranks, Westphal became an assistant coach with the Phoenix Suns under head coach Cotton Fitzsimmons, and in 1992, he succeeded Fitzsimmons as head coach of the Suns. With players such as Kevin Johnson, Dan Majerle, rookie Richard Dumas, Charles Barkley, and Danny Ainge, the Suns made it to the NBA Finals in Westphal's first season as a coach, but lost to the Chicago Bulls in six games. While the Suns made the playoffs during each of Westphal's seasons as coach, they did not return to the Finals, and Westphal was let go during the 1995–96 season. He served as an assistant coach for a high school team in Arizona for two years before he returned to the NBA as a coach with the SuperSonics for the 1998–99 season. He coached in Seattle until he was fired 15 games into the 2000–01 season. Westphal returned to the college ranks in April 2001 at Pepperdine University. In his first season, Westphal led the Waves to a 22–9 record and tied the nationally ranked Gonzaga Bulldogs for the WCC title. The team received an at-large berth to the NCAA Tournament, but lost 83–74 to Wake Forest in the first round, played at ARCO Arena in Sacramento. This was the only postseason berth during the rest of Westphal's five-year tenure and he finished with an overall record of 74–72. After a 7–20 season in 2005–06, Westphal was fired on March 15, 2006. On June 28, 2007, the Dallas Mavericks announced they had hired Westphal as an assistant coach under head coach Avery Johnson. When Johnson was replaced by Rick Carlisle, Westphal left coaching to become executive vice-president of basketball operations (under Donnie Nelson) for the Mavericks in October 2008. On June 10, 2009, Westphal was named head coach of the Sacramento Kings. Westphal was fired from the Kings on January 5, 2012. For the 2014–15 season, Westphal was hired by the Brooklyn Nets as an assistant to new head coach Lionel Hollins. Hollins had previously served as Westphal's assistant coach in Phoenix. When the Nets fired Hollins in January 2016, Westphal left the team. Broadcasting career Westphal also worked as a studio analyst for Fox Sports Net West/Prime Ticket for Los Angeles Clippers and Los Angeles Lakers games, first joining them during the Clippers' run in the 2006 NBA Playoffs. Personal life Westphal was married to Cindy Westphal and they had two children together. He was a Christian. In August 2020, ESPN reported that he was diagnosed with brain cancer to which he succumbed in Scottsdale, Arizona, on January 2, 2021, at age 70. Head coaching record NBA \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Phoenix \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 82\|\|62\|\|20\|\|\|\| style="text-align:center;"\|1st in Pacific\|\|24\|\|13\|\|11\|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Lost in NBA Finals \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Phoenix \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 82\|\|56\|\|26\|\|\|\| style="text-align:center;"\|2nd in Pacific\|\|10\|\|6\|\|4\|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Lost in Conference Semifinals \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Phoenix \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 82\|\|59\|\|23\|\|\|\| style="text-align:center;"\|1st in Pacific\|\|10\|\|6\|\|4\|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Lost in Conference Semifinals \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Phoenix \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 33\|\|14\|\|19\|\|\|\| style="text-align:center;"\|(fired)\|\|—\|\|—\|\|—\|\|— \| style="text-align:center;"\|— \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Seattle \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 50\|\|25\|\|25\|\|\|\| style="text-align:center;"\|5th in Pacific\|\|—\|\|—\|\|—\|\|— \| style="text-align:center;"\|Missed playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Seattle \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 82\|\|45\|\|37\|\|\|\| style="text-align:center;"\|4th in Pacific\|\|5\|\|2\|\|3\|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Lost in First Round \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Seattle \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 15\|\|6\|\|9\|\|\|\| style="text-align:center;"\|(fired)\|\|—\|\|—\|\|—\|\|— \| style="text-align:center;"\|— \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Sacramento \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 82\|\|25\|\|57\|\|\|\| style="text-align:center;"\|5th in Pacific\|\|—\|\|—\|\|—\|\|— \| style="text-align:center;"\|Missed playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Sacramento \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 82\|\|24\|\|58\|\|\|\| style="text-align:center;"\|5th in Pacific\|\|—\|\|—\|\|—\|\|— \| style="text-align:center;"\|Missed playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Sacramento \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 7\|\|2\|\|5\|\|\|\| style="text-align:center;"\|(fired)\|\|—\|\|—\|\|—\|\|— \| style="text-align:center;"\|— \|-class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 597\|\|318\|\|279\|\|\|\| \|\|49\|\|27\|\|22\|\|\|\| College Sources: References External links Paul Westphal's bio on Phoenix Suns' website Paul Westphal's official bio on NBA.com 1950 births 2021 deaths All-American college men's basketball players American Christians American men's basketball coaches American men's basketball players American television sports announcers Basketball coaches from California Basketball players at the 1971 Pan American Games Basketball players from Torrance, California Boston Celtics draft picks Boston Celtics players Brooklyn Nets assistant coaches College basketball announcers in the United States College men's basketball head coaches in the United States Dallas Mavericks assistant coaches Deaths from brain tumor Deaths from cancer in Arizona Grand Canyon Antelopes men's basketball coaches Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees National Basketball Association All-Stars National Basketball Association players with retired numbers New York Knicks players Pan American Games competitors for the United States Pepperdine Waves men's basketball coaches Phoenix Suns assistant coaches Phoenix Suns head coaches Phoenix Suns players Point guards Sacramento Kings head coaches Seattle SuperSonics head coaches Seattle SuperSonics players Shooting guards Sportspeople from Redondo Beach, California USC Trojans men's basketball players	[ -0.18421411514282227, 0.2952297329902649, -0.15079762041568756, -0.18385586142539978, 0.3477678894996643, -0.03785815089941025, 0.4758245646953583, -0.11884721368551254, -0.2516734004020691, -0.3359784185886383, 0.09517252445220947, 0.21288375556468964, 0.006877482868731022, 0.29363173246383667, 0.07655766606330872, -0.10474231839179993, 0.07278090715408325, 0.009862639009952545, -0.017503861337900162, -0.039843082427978516, 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217283	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDP	FDP	FDP may refer to: Biology and medicine Fibrin degradation product Fixed-dose procedure Flexor digitorum profundus muscle Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Political parties Free Democratic Party (Germany) () in the Federal Republic of Germany FDP.The Liberals, in Switzerland Fancy Dress Party Fiji Democratic Party Florida Democratic Party in the United States Free Democratic Party (disambiguation) Popular Democratic Front (Italy) (Italian: ) Other uses Federation of Deaf People, a British rights organisation Fiji's Daily Post, a defunct newspaper Foundry Discovery Protocol Fresh Del Monte Produce, an American produce company Fútbol de Primera (disambiguation) Sons of Divine Providence (Italian: ), a Roman Catholic religious order Fuerzas de Defensa de Panama — Panama Defense Forces	[ 0.7240912318229675, -0.04583825543522835, -0.035378679633140564, 0.06393928080797195, -0.13683108985424042, -0.00997085403650999, -0.08937370777130127, 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217284	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20German%20expressions%20in%20English	List of German expressions in English	The English language has incorporated various loanwords, terms, phrases, or quotations from the German language. A loanword is a word borrowed from a donor language and incorporated into a recipient language without translation. It is distinguished from a calque, or loan translation, where a meaning or idiom from another language is translated into existing words or roots of the host language. Some of the expressions are relatively common (e.g., hamburger), but most are comparatively rare. In many cases, the loanword has assumed a meaning substantially different from its German forebear. English and German both are West Germanic languages, though their relationship has been obscured by the lexical influence of Old Norse and Norman French (as a consequence of the Norman conquest of England in 1066) on English as well as the High German consonant shift. In recent years, however, many English words have been borrowed directly from German. Typically, English spellings of German loanwords suppress any umlauts (the superscript, double-dot diacritic in Ä, Ö, Ü, ä, ö, and ü) of the original word or replace the umlaut letters with Ae, Oe, Ue, ae, oe, ue, respectively (as is done commonly in German speaking countries when the umlaut is not available; the origin of the umlaut was a superscript E). German words have been incorporated into English usage for many reasons: German cultural artifacts, especially foods, have spread to English-speaking nations and often are identified either by their original German names or by German-sounding English names. Developments and discoveries in German-speaking nations in science, scholarship, and classical music have led to German words for new concepts, which have been adopted into English: for example the words doppelgänger and angst in psychology. Discussion of German history and culture requires some German words. Some German words are used in English narrative to identify that the subject expressed is in German, e.g., Frau, Reich. As languages, English and German descend from the common ancestor language West Germanic and further back to Proto-Germanic; because of this, some English words are essentially identical to their German lexical counterparts, either in spelling (Hand, Sand, Finger) or pronunciation ("fish" = Fisch, "mouse" = Maus), or both (Arm, Ring); these are excluded from this list. German common nouns fully adopted into English are in general not initially capitalized, and the German letter "ß" is generally changed to "ss". German terms commonly used in English Most of these words will be recognized by many English speakers; they are commonly used in English contexts. Some, such as wurst and pumpernickel, retain German connotations, while others, such as lager and hamburger, retain none. Not every word is recognizable outside its relevant context. A number of these expressions are used in American English, under the influence of German immigration, but not in British English. Food and drink Berliner Weisse (German spelling: Berliner Weiße)—a sour beer often infused with fruit syrup. Biergarten—an open-air drinking establishment. Bock—a dark beer. Braunschweiger—a liverwurst cold-cut (though, in Germany, Braunschweiger describes a smoked ground beef sausage). Bratwurst (also brat)—a type of frying sausage. Budweiser—a beer, named after Budweis, the German name of Budějovice, a city in Southern Bohemia. Bundt cake (from Bundkuchen; in German: a Gug(e)lhupf)—a ring cake. Delicatessen (German spelling: Delikatessen)—a speciality food retailer; fine foods. Emmentaler (also Emmental)—a yellow, medium-hard Swiss cheese that originated in the area around Emmental, Canton Bern. Frankfurter (also frank or frankfurt)—a type of sausage. Gose—a top-fermenting sour beer that originated in Goslar, Germany. Gugelhupf—a type of cake with a hole in the middle. Gummi bear (in German: Gummibär, but the product is only known as Gummibärchen (diminutive))—the non-Anglicized spelling of gummy bear. Hamburger—a sandwich with a meat patty and garnishments. Hasenpfeffer—a type of rabbit (or hare) stew. Hefeweizen—an unfiltered wheat beer (containing yeast). Jagertee (from Austrian-Bavarian dialects; German spelling: Jägertee)—an alcoholic beverage made by mixing overproof rum with black tea, red wine, plum brandy, orange juice, and various spices. Kipfel (also kipferl)—a horn-shaped type of pastry. Kinder Surprise (also known as a "Kinder Egg")—a chocolate egg containing a small toy, usually requiring assembly (in Germany: Überraschungsei and Kinder-Überraschung). However, despite being a German word, the Kinder chocolate brand is actually of Italian origin. Kirschwasser—a spirit drink made from cherries (hard liquor / booze). Knackwurst—a cooked sausage. Kohlrabi—a type of cabbage (aka "cabbage turnip"). Kommissbrot—a dark type of German bread, baked from rye and other flours. Lager—a beer made with bottom-fermenting yeast and stored for some time before serving (in Germany: an Export). Leberwurst—a pork-liver sausage. Liptauer—a spicy cheese spread made with sheep milk cheese, goat cheese, quark, or cottage cheese, after Liptau, the German name of Liptov, a region in northern Slovakia. Maß—a unit of volume used for measuring beer; typically , but probably evolved from the old Bavarian unit of measure (Maßeinheit) called Quartl (quart). Mozartkugel, (literally "Mozart ball")—a small, round sugar confection made of pistachio marzipan, and nougat, covered with dark chocolate. Muesli—a breakfast cereal. (Swiss German spelling: Müesli, standard German: Müsli) Noodle (from German Nudel)—a type of food; a string of pasta. Pfeffernüsse—peppernuts. Pilsener (also Pils or Pilsner)—a pale lager beer named after Pilsen, the German name of Plzeň, a city in Western Bohemia; contains higher amounts of hops than usual Lager (or Export) beer, and therefore is a tad more bitter. Powidl—a spread made from plums. Pretzel (German spelling: Brezel)—a flour- and yeast-based pastry. Pumpernickel—a type of sourdough rye bread, strongly flavored, dense, and dark in color. Quark—a type of fresh cheese (curd). Radler—a mixture of beer and lemonade. Rollmops—a rolled, pickled herring fillet. Saaz—a variety of hops named after Saaz, the German name of Žatec, a city in Northwestern Bohemia. Sauerkraut (also Kraut, which in German would mean cabbage in general)—fermented cabbage. Schnapps (German spelling: Schnaps)—a distilled alcoholic drink (hard liquor, booze). Seltzer—carbonated water, a genericized trademark that derives from the German town Selters, which is renowned for its mineral springs. Spritzer (from spritzen meaning "to spray"; the term is most commonly used in Vienna and its surroundings; in German: (Wein-)Schorle, rarely Gespritzter)—a chilled drink from white wine and soda water. Stein (from Steingut meaning "earthenware", referring to the material; in German: Steinkrug, literally earthenware jug)—a large drinking mug, usually for beer. Streusel—a crumb topping on a cake. Strudel—a filled pastry (e.g., Apfelstrudel, milk-cream strudel). Süffig—a beverage that is especially light and sweet or palatable; only the latter meaning is connoted with German süffig. Tafelspitz—boiled veal or beef in broth, served with a mix of minced apples and horseradish. Wiener—a hot dog. Wiener Schnitzel—a crumbed veal cutlet. Wurst—a sausage, cold cuts. Zwieback—a "twice baked" bread; rusk, variants: German hard biscuits; Mennonite double yeast roll Sports and recreation Abseil (German spelling: sich abseilen, a reflexive verb, to rope (seil) oneself (sich) down (ab))—the term "abseiling" is used in the UK and Commonwealth countries, "roping (down)" in various English settings, and "rappelling" in the US. Blitz (from Blitzkrieg (lightning war))—A team defensive play in American or Canadian football in which the defense sends more players than the offense can block. The term Blitzkrieg was originally used in Nazi Germany during World War II, describing a dedicated kind of fast and ferocious attack. Foosball—Probably from the German word for table football, Tischfußball, although foosball itself is referred to as Kicker or Tischfußball in German. Fußball is the word for soccer in general. Karabiner (from "Karabinerhaken"; can also mean a Carbine firearm in German)—snaplink, a metal loop with a sprung or screwed gate, used in climbing and mountaineering; translates to "riflehook". Kutte (literally "frock" or "cowl")—a type of vest made out of denim or leather and traditionally worn by bikers, metalheads, and punks; in German, the word also refers to the clothes of monks. Kletterschuh—a climbing shoe (mountaineering). Mannschaft—a German word for a sports team. Rucksack (more commonly called a backpack in American English) Schuss—literally a shot (ski) down a slope at high speed. Turner—a gymnast. Turnverein—a gymnastics club or society. Volksmarsch / Volkssport / Volkswanderung—literally people's march / popular sports (competitive) / people migrating. Animals Dachshund, a dog breed, literally "badger dog" (usually referred to as Dackel in German usage) Doberman Pinscher, a dog breed (usually referred to as Dobermann in German) Hamster, a small rodent often kept as a household pet Olm, an exclusively cave-dwelling aquatic salamander found in Europe. Poodle, a dog breed, from German Pudel Rottweiler, a dog breed Schnauzer, a dog breed (though in German, Schnauzer could also be short for Schnauzbart, meaning "moustache") Siskin, several species of birds (from Sisschen, dialect for Zeisig) Spitz, a dog breed Philosophy and history Antifa, short for "Antifaschistische Aktion" (anti-fascist action) Lebensraum, literally "living space"; conquered territory, now exclusively associated with the Nazi Party in that historical context. In Germany, the word usually simply means 'habitat' Nazi, short for Nationalsozialist (National Socialist) Neanderthal (modern German spelling: Neandertal), for German Neandertaler, meaning "of, from, or pertaining to the Neandertal ("Neander Valley")", the site near Düsseldorf where early Homo neanderthalensis fossils were first found. Schadenfreude, "joy from pain" (literally "harm joy"); delight at the misfortune of others Wanderlust, the yearning to travel Zeitgeist, spirit of the time Society and culture Doppelgänger, literally "double-goer", also spelled in English as doppelgaenger; a double or look-alike. However, in English the connotation is that of a ghostly apparition of a duplicate living person. Dreck, literally "dirt" or "smut", but now meaning trashy, awful (through Yiddish, OED s.v.) Dummkopf, literally "stupid head"; a stupid, ignorant person, similar to "numbskull" in English Fest, festival Fingerspitzengefühl (literally "finger-tip feeling", in German used to mean "empathy", "sensitivity" or "tact") Gemütlichkeit, coziness Gesundheit, literally health; an exclamation used in place of "bless you!" after someone has sneezed Hausfrau, pejorative: frumpy, petty-bourgeois, traditional, pre-emancipation type housewife whose interests centre on the home, or who is even exclusively interested in domestic matters (colloquial, American English only), sometimes humorously used to replace "wife", but with the same mildly derisive connotation. The German word has a neutral connotation. Kaffeeklatsch, literally "coffee gossip"; afternoon meeting where people (usually referring to women, particularly Hausfrauen) chitchat while drinking coffee or tea and having cake. Kindergarten, literally "children's garden"; day-care centre, playschool, preschool Kitsch, cheap, sentimental, gaudy items of popular culture Kraut, literally "cabbage"; derogatory term for a German Lederhosen (short leather pants for men and boys, often worn with suspenders) Meister, "master", also as a suffix: –meister; in German, Meister typically refers to the highest educational rank of a craftsperson. Note: Meister does not refer to the academic master degree (which is now Master or formerly Magister, Diplom-engineer and so forth); it is considered, at most, to be the equivalent of a bachelor's degree. Oktoberfest, Bavarian folk festival held annually in Munich during late September and early October Poltergeist, literally "noisy ghost"; an alleged paranormal phenomenon where objects appear to move of their own accord Spiel, literally "game"; an attempt to present and explain a point in a way that the presenter has done often before, usually to sell something. A voluble line of often extravagant talk, "pitch" uber, über, "over"; used to indicate that something or someone is of better or superior magnitude, e.g. Übermensch Wunderkind, literally "wonder child"; a child prodigy Technology –bahn as a suffix, e.g. Infobahn, after Autobahn Bandsalat, literally "tape salad", refers to a tangle of magnetic tape. Blücher, a half-boot named after Prussian Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher (1742–1819); also a hand in the British card game Napoleon. Ersatz, replacement; usually implying an artificial and inferior substitute or imitation. In German, the word has a neutral connotation, e.g. Ersatzrad simply means "spare wheel" (not an inferior one). Flak, Flugabwehrkanone, literally: air-defence cannon, for anti-aircraft artillery or their shells, also used in flak jacket; or in the figurative sense: "drawing flak" = being heavily criticized Kraft as in kraft paper, a strong paper used to make sacks; Kraft in German just means "strength" or "power" Plandampf, running a scheduled train service with historic steam locomotives, popular with railway enthusiasts. Volkswagen, literally "people's car"; brand of automobile Zeppelin, type of rigid airship, named after its inventor Other aspects of everyday life erlaubt, allowed, granted; opposite of verboten. kaput (German spelling: kaputt), out-of-order, broken, dead nix, from German nix, dialectal variant of nichts (nothing) Scheiße, an expression and euphemism meaning "shit", usually as an interjection when something goes amiss Ur- (German prefix), original or prototypical; e.g. Ursprache, Urtext verboten, prohibited, forbidden, banned. In English this word has authoritarian connotations. German terms common in English academic context German terms sometimes appear in English academic disciplines, e.g. history, psychology, philosophy, music, and the physical sciences; laypeople in a given field may or may not be familiar with a given German term. Academia Ansatz, educated guess Doktorvater, doctoral advisor Festschrift, book prepared by colleagues to honor a scholar, often on an important birthday such as the sixtieth. Gedenkschrift, memorial publication Leitfaden, guideline Methodenstreit, disagreement on methodology Privatdozent, in German it describes a lecturer without professorship (typically requires German Habilitation degree). Professoriat, the entity of all professors of a university Wissenschaft, scholarship, research and study in general Architecture Abwurfdach Angstloch, literally "fear hole", a small hole in the floor of a medieval castle or fortress through which a basement room (popularly described as a "dungeon") can be accessed Bauhaus, a German style of architecture begun by Walter Gropius in 1918 Bergfried, a tall tower typical of Central European medieval castles Biedermeier, of or relating to a style of furniture developed in Germany in the 19th century; in German, it might also derogatively describe a certain old-fashioned, ultra-conservative interior styling. It also describes a certain type of literature in the beginning of the industrialization that represents a longing for the traditional life at that time, with themes of nature and calmness, untouched by the modern world. Burgwall Hügelgrab, in archeology, burial mound Jugendstil, art nouveau Passivhaus, house built to eco-friendly standards, ultra-low energy buildings which need little fuel for heating or cooling Pfostenschlitzmauer, in archeology, a method of construction typical of prehistoric Celtic hillforts of the Iron Age Plattenbau, building made from prefabricated slabs; a typical building style of the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, particularly associated with East Germany. Schwedenschanze Sondergotik, a Late Gothic architectural style found in Central Europe between 1350 and 1550 Stolperstein, literally "stumbling stone", metaphorically a "stumbling block" or a stone to "stumble upon", a cobblestone-size () concrete cube bearing a brass plate inscribed with the name and life dates of victims of Nazi extermination or persecution Viereckschanze, in archaeology, a Celtic fortification of the Iron Age Arts Gesamtkunstwerk, "the whole of a work of art", also "total work of art" or "complete artwork" Gestalt (lit. "shape, figure"), a collection of entities that creates a unified concept (where "the whole is more than the sum of its parts") Heraldry Seeblatt Schwurhand Music Affektenlehre, the doctrine of the affections in Baroque music theory Almglocken, tuned cowbells Alphorn, a wind instrument Augenmusik, eye music Ausmultiplikation, a musical technique described by Karlheinz Stockhausen Blockwerk, medieval type of church organ featuring only labial pipes Crumhorn, from German Krummhorn, a type of woodwind instrument Fach, method of classifying singers, primarily opera singers, by the range, weight, and color of their voices Fife, from Pfeife, a small transverse flute often used in military and marching bands Flatterzunge (literally "flutter tongue"), playing technique for wind instruments Flugelhorn (German spelling: Flügelhorn), a type of brass musical instrument Glockenspiel, a percussion instrument Heldentenor, "heroic tenor" Hammerklavier, "hammer-keyboard", an archaic term for piano or the name of a specific kind of piano, the fortepiano; most commonly used in English to refer to Beethoven's Hammerklavier Sonata Hosenrolle, a term for male character, literally "trousers' role" Kapellmeister, "music director" Katzenjammer, hubbub or uproar; in German, the term Katzenjammer could also mean hangover. Katzenklavier, cat organ, a conjectural instrument employing live cats Kinderklavier, piano for children Klangfarbenmelodie, a term coined by Arnold Schönberg regarding harmonic theory Konzertmeister, concert master Kuhreihen, song originally used for gathering cows for milking Leitmotif (German spelling: Leitmotiv) a musical phrase that associates with a specific person, thing, or idea Lied (pronounced "leet"), "song"; specifically in English, "art song" Lieder ohne Worte, "songs without words" Liederhandschrift, a manuscript containing medieval songs Liederkranz, (originally male) singing club Liedermacher, singer-songwriter Marktsackpfeife, a type of bagpipes Meistersinger, Master-singer Mensurstrich, barline that is drawn between staves Minnesang, medieval love poetry Musikalisches Würfelspiel, a composing technique featuring the use of random number generators, i.e. dice (Würfel) Ohrwurm, catchy tune Orgelbewegung, a movement of organ building featuring a more baroque sound and organ architecture Rauschpfeife, a type of woodwind instrument. Rückpositiv (also rendered as Ruckpositiv) Sängerfest, a Central European tradition of music festivals that also spread to North America Schlager, "a hit" (German schlagen, to hit or beat) Schottische, literally "Scottish", a folk dance Schuhplattler, a regional dance from Upper Bavaria and Austria Singspiel, German musical drama with spoken dialogue Sitzprobe, rehearsal of a musical stage work where singers are sitting and without costumes Sprechgesang and Sprechstimme, forms of musical delivery between speech and singing Strohbass Sturm und Drang, "storm and stress", a brief aesthetic movement in German literature, just before Weimar Classicism Urtext, "original text" (of the composer) Volksmusik, traditional German music Walzer (Waltz) Zukunftsmusik, music of the future Genres Kosmische Musik: a Krautrock-associated genre of electronic music pioneered by Popol Vuh Krautrock: German-like English name for a variety of German rock Neue Deutsche Härte (NDH): "New German Hardness"; a genre of German rock that mixes traditional hard rock with dance-like keyboard parts. Recently it has begun to appear in English. Neue Deutsche Todeskunst: "New German Death Art": a movement within the darkwave and gothic rock scenes Neue Deutsche Welle (NDW): "New German Wave". A genre of German music originally derived from punk rock and new wave music. Neue Slowenische Kunst: "New Slovenian Art". An art collective dating back to the 1980s, when Slovenia was part of Yugoslavia. Most prominently associated with the band Laibach, named after the German name for Slovenia's capital city, Ljubljana. Romantische Oper: genre of early nineteenth-century German opera Selected works in classical music Johann Sebastian Bach's Das wohltemperierte Klavier (The Well-Tempered Clavier); Jesus bleibet meine Freude (Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring) Brahms's Schicksalslied Song of Destiny) Kreisler's Liebesleid (Pain of Love), Liebesfreud (Joy of Love") Liszt's Liebesträume (Dreams of Love) Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik (A Little Serenade); Die Zauberflöte (The Magic Flute) Gustav Mahler's Kindertotenlieder (Songs on Dead Children) Schubert's Winterreise (Winter Journey) Schumann's Dichterliebe (The Poet's Love) Richard Strauss's Der Rosenkavalier (Cavalier of the Rose); Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spoke Zarathustra); "Vier letzte Lieder" (Four last songs) Johann Strauss II's Die Fledermaus (The Bat); An der schönen blauen Donau (On The Beautiful Blue Danube) Richard Wagner's Die Walküre (The Valkyrie); Götterdämmerung (Twilight of the Gods); both from his opera cycle "Der Ring des Nibelungen" (The Ring of the Nibelung) Carols Stille Nacht: "Silent Night" O Tannenbaum: "O Christmas Tree" Modern songs 99 Luftballons: "99 Balloons" (English title: "99 Red Balloons") by Nena Schrei nach Liebe: "Scream for love" by Die Ärzte Feuer frei!: "Fire at will" (literally, "fire freely!") by Rammstein Der Kommissar: "The Commissioner" by Falco Theatre Theaterpädagogik, "theatre pedagogy", the use of theatre as a means for teaching and learning in non-theatrical areas of study Verfremdungseffekt, effect of disassociation or alienation Typography Fraktur, a style of blackletter typeface Schwabacher, a style of blackletter typeface, from the Franconian town of Schwabach Biology Ahnenreihe, line of ancestors Ahnenschwund, pedigree collapse Ahnentafel, line of ancestors Anlage in genetics; also used in the sense of primordium in embryology and temperament in psychology; literal meaning "disposition" or "rudiment" Aufwuchs, growth Aurochs (Modern German: Auerochse), urus Bauplan, body plan of animals Bereitschaftspotential, readiness potential Edelweiss, German spelling Edelweiß, Leontopodium alpinum Einkorn, Triticum boeoticum or Triticum monococcum, a type of wheat Krummholz, crooked or bent wood due to growth conditions of trees and bushes Lagerstätte, repository; sedimentary deposit rich in fossils Lammergeier or lammergeyer (German: Lämmergeier, also Bartgeier), the bearded vulture Marmorkrebs, the marbled crayfish Molosser, a type of dog, literally "Molossian", from Molossus, the name of an ancient dog breed which the modern molossers descend from Oberhäutchen (often written oberhautchen in newer literature), the outermost layer of reptile skin; literally "small top skin" (Häutchen is the diminutive of Haut, the German word for "skin") Schreckstoff (lit. "scare stuff"), a chemical alarm signal emitted by fish Spitzenkörper, structure important in hyphal growth Spreite, laminae found in trace fossils, going back to animal burrows Unkenreflex, a defensive posture adopted by several branches of the amphibian class Waldsterben, forest dieback Zeitgeber (chronobiology), external clue that helps to synchronize the internal body clock Zugunruhe (ornithology), pre-migration anxiety in birds and other migratory animals Chemistry Aufbau principle (physical chemistry) (German spelling: Aufbauprinzip) Bismuth Darmstadtium Einsteinium Entgegen and its opposite zusammen (organic chemistry) Gemisch (chemistry: a randomized mixture of components) Gerade and its opposite ungerade (quantum mechanics) Knallgas Reaction Kugelrohr, distillation apparatus Meitnerium Mischmetall (lit. "mixed metal"), alloy Roentgenium Umpolung (organic chemistry) Wolfram Zwitterion Chess Allumwandlung Blitz chess, from German Blitzschach, literally "lightning chess", also known as Fast chess Fingerfehler: slip of the finger Kibitz, from German Kiebitzer, a spectator making comments on the game that can be heard by the players Luft Patzer Sitzfleisch: patience during slow play Zeitnot Zugzwang Zwischenschach Zwischenzug Economics Dollar (German Thaler, ), from Joachimsthal (), name for the silver coin minted in Bohemia in the 16th century in Joachimsthal (through Dutch (Rijks)daalder) Energiewende, stands for Energy transition Freigeld Freiwirtschaft Hacksilber, a type of commodity money Heller (German also Häller), from Hall am Kocher, name for the coin K: In economics, the letter K, from the German word Kapital, is used to denote Capital Lumpenproletariat Mittelstand Takt Wirtschaftswunder Geography Hinterland Inselberg Knickpoint (German Knickpunkt, from knicken "to bend sharply, fold, kink"), a point where the slope of a river changes suddenly Massenerhebung effect Mitteleuropa Mittelgebirge Schlatt (also Flatt; from Low German) Steilhang (steep slope or face) Thalweg (written "Talweg" in modern German) Geology Aufeis, sheets of layered ice formed from groundwater discharge or upwelling of river water behind ice dams during freezing temperatures Bergschrund Dreikanter Fenster, also known as a window, a geologic structure formed by erosion or normal faulting on a thrust system Firn Flysch Gneiss (German Gneis) Graben Horst Karst Loess () Randkluft, gap between the rock face and the side of the glacier Rille (German: "groove"), a type of feature of the surface of the Moon Sturzstrom Urstrom, a large glacial age river in Northern Europe Urstromtal Minerals including: Feldspar (German Feldspat) Hornblende Meerschaum Moldavite (German Moldavit), from Moldau () Quartz (German Quarz) Wolframite (German Wolframit) Zinnwaldite (German Zinnwaldit), from Zinnwald (Czech: Cínovec) History (Some terms are listed in multiple categories if they are important to each.) The Third Reich Other historical periods Alltagsgeschichte, literally "everyday history" a type of microhistory Aufklarung, in German: Aufklärung, "enlightenment", short for Zeitalter der Aufklärung, "age of enlightenment" Biedermeier, era in early 19th century Germany Chaoskampf (mythology) Diktat Gründerzeit, the period in German history of great artistic and economic developments Junker Kaiser, "emperor" (derived from the title "Caesar") Kleinstaaterei, the territorial fragmentation of Germany in the early modern period Kulturgeschichte Kulturkampf, literally the 'struggle for culture'; Otto von Bismarck's campaign for secularity which mostly went against Catholics in the newly formed German state, ostensibly a result of Bismarck's suspicion of Catholic loyalty Kulturkreis, a theory in anthropology and ethnology Kulturkugel, literally "culture bullet" or "cultural bullet", a neologism coined by archaeologist J. P. Mallory for his model of cultural diffusion Landflucht Landnahme Nordpolitik Ostflucht Ostpolitik Ostalgie (nostalgia for the former Eastern Bloc, specifically for the GDR) Perserschutt, "Persian rubble", sculptures that were damaged by the invading Persian army on the Acropolis of Athens in 480 BC Quellenforschung, "research of sources", the study of the sources of, or influences upon, a literary work Regenbogenschüsselchen, a type of prehistoric gold coin of the Celtic Iron Age Realpolitik (political science: "real politics"); usually implies the way politics really works, i.e. via the influence of power and money, rather than a principled approach that the public might expect to be aligned with a party's or nation's values, or rather than a political party's given interpretation. Reichstag (Imperial Diet; see Reichstag building, Imperial Diet, Reichstag, and the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic) Sammlungspolitik Sippe, an ancient Germanic clan Urmonotheismus Urreligion Völkerschlacht – the "Battle of the Nations" (that is, the Battle of Leipzig, 1813) Völkerwanderung – the migration (and invasions) of the Germanic peoples in the 4th century Weltpolitik – the politics of global domination; contemporarily, "the current climate in global politics". Wunderkammer, a cabinet of curiosities Military terms Blitzkrieg (literally "lightning war") Flak (Flugabwehrkanone), anti-aircraft gun (for derived meanings see under Other aspects of everyday life) Fliegerhorst, another word for a military airport (Horst = predator bird's nest) Karabiner, a carbine (a firearm). For the climbing hardware, see carabiner above Kriegsspiel, in English also written Kriegspiel, war game (different meanings) Luftwaffe, air force (since WW II, with East Germany and the earlier German Empire using the term Luftstreitkräfte instead for their air services) Panzer refers to tanks and other armored military vehicles, or formations of such vehicles Panzerfaust, "tank fist": anti-tank weapon, a small one-man launcher and projectile. Strafe, punishment, extracted from the slogan Gott strafe England (May God punish England) U-Boot (abbreviated form of Unterseeboot – submarine, but commonly called U-Boot in Germany as well) Vernichtungsgedanke (thought of annihilation) Linguistics Ablaut Abstandsprache Aktionsart Ausbausprache Dachsprache Dreimorengesetz, "three-mora law", the rule for placing stress in Latin Grammatischer Wechsel, "grammatical alternation", a pattern of consonant alternations found in Germanic strong verbs and also in Germanic nouns Junggrammatiker, literally "Young Grammarians", a formative German school of linguists in the late 19th century Lallname, a pet name based on baby talk, especially in ancient languages of Asia Minor Loanword (ironically not a loanword but rather a calque from German Lehnwort) Mischsprache, mixed language Primärberührung, "primary contact", the development of certain consonant clusters (stop consonant + /t/) in Proto-Germanic Rückumlaut, "reverse umlaut", a regular pattern of vowel alternation (of independent origin from usual ablaut patterns) in a small number of Germanic weak verbs Sitz im Leben (Biblical linguistics mainly; the study of pragmatics has a similar approach) Sprachbund, "speech bond" or"language union", a sociolinguistic term for a group of languages that have become similar because of geographical proximity , the intuitive sense of what is appropriate in a language Sprachraum Stammbaumtheorie, the tree model of descendance in historical linguistics; also Stammbaum alone, for a phylogenetical tree of languages Suffixaufnahme Umlaut Urheimat, "original homeland", the area originally inhabited by speakers of a (reconstructed) proto-language Ursprache, "proto-language" Verschärfung, "sharpening", several analogous phonetic changes in Gothic, North Germanic and modern Faroese Wanderwort, "migratory term/word", a word which spreads from its original language into several others Winkelhaken, a basic element in the ancient cuneiform script Literature Bildungsroman, a form of coming-of-age story Knittelvers, a form of poetry using rhyming couplets Künstlerroman, a novel about an artist's growth to maturity Leitmotiv, a recurring theme Leitwortstil, a phrase repeated to reinforce a theme Nihilartikel, a fake entry in a reference work Sammelband, a set of manuscripts later bound together Quellenkritik, source criticism Sturm und Drang, an 18th-century literary movement; "storm and stress" in English, although the literal translation is closer to "storm and urge". Urtext, "original text" Vorlage, original or mastercopy of a text on which derivates are based Q, abbreviation for Quelle ("source"), a postulated lost document in Biblical criticism Mathematics and formal logic Ansatz (lit. "set down", roughly equivalent to "approach" or "where to begin", a starting assumption) – one of the most-used German loan words in the English-speaking world of science. "Eigen-" in composita such as eigenfunction, eigenvector, eigenvalue, eigenform; in English "self-" or "own-". They are related concepts in the fields of linear algebra and functional analysis. Entscheidungsproblem Grossencharakter (German spelling: Größencharakter) Hauptmodul (the generator of a modular curve of genus 0) Hauptvermutung Hilbert's Nullstellensatz (without apostrophe in German) Ideal (originally ideale Zahlen, defined by Ernst Kummer) Krull's Hauptidealsatz (without apostrophe in German) Möbius band (German: Möbiusband) Positivstellensatz quadratfrei Vierergruppe (also known as Klein four-group) from (ganze) Zahlen ((whole) numbers), the integers from Körper ("field"), used for one of the two basic fields or not specifying which one Medicine Anwesenheit Diener, autopsy assistant Entgleisen Gedankenlautwerden Gegenhalten Kernicterus (German spelling: Kernikterus) Kleeblattschädel LSD, German abbreviation of "Lysergsäurediethylamid" Mitgehen Mitmachen Mittelschmerz ("middle pain", used to refer to ovulation pain) Pfropfschizophrenie Rinderpest Schnauzkrampf Sensitiver Beziehungswahn Sitz bath Spinnbarkeit Verstimmung Vorbeigehen Vorbeireden Wahneinfall Witzelsucht Wurgstimme Philosophy An sich, "in itself" Dasein Ding an sich, "thing in itself" from Kant Geist, mind, spirit or ghost Gott ist tot!, a popular phrase from Nietzsche; more commonly rendered "God is dead!" in English. Übermensch, also from Nietzsche; the ideal of a Superhuman or Overman. Weltanschauung, calqued into English as "world view"; a comprehensive view or personal philosophy of human life and the universe Welträtsel, "world riddle", a term associated with Nietzsche and biologist Ernst Haeckel concerning the nature of the universe and the meaning of life Wille zur Macht, "the will to power", central concept of Nietzsche's philosophy Physical sciences Ansatz, an assumption for a function that is not based on an underlying theory Antiblockiersystem Bremsstrahlung literally, "brake radiation", electromagnetic radiation emitted from charge particles stopping suddenly Dunkelflaute, a period of time in which little to no energy can be generated with the use of wind and solar power. Durchmusterung, the search for celestial objects, especially a survey of stars Farbzentrum (Solid-state physics) Foehn wind, also "foehn" (German spelling Föhn), a warm wind which sometimes appears on the northern side of the Alps in south Germany and Austria Fusel alcohol (German: Fuselalkohol), from German Fusel, which refers to low-quality liquor Gedanken experiment (German spelling: Gedankenexperiment); more commonly referred to as a "thought experiment" in English Gegenschein, a faint brightening of the night sky in the region of the antisolar point Gerade and its opposite ungerade (quantum mechanics) Graupel, a form of precipitation Heiligenschein (lit. "halo") Hohlraum, a radiation cavity used in thermonuclear weapons design Kirchweger-Kondensationseinrichtung Kugelblitz (the German term for ball lightning), in theoretical physics: a concentration of light so intense that it forms an event horizon and becomes self-trapped Rocks and minerals like Quartz (German spelling: Quarz), Gneiss and Feldspar (originally Gneis and Feldspat respectively), Meerschaum Reststrahlen (lit. "residual rays") Schiefspiegler, special type of telescope Schlieren (from German Schliere for "streak"), inhomogeneities in transparent material Sollbruchstelle, predetermined breaking point Spiegeleisen Trommel Umklapp process (German spelling: Umklappprozess) Vierbein, and variations such as vielbein, in general relativity Zitterbewegung Politics Befehl ist Befehl Berufsverbot Kritik, a type of argument in policy debates Lumpenproletariat Machtpolitik, power politics Putsch, overthrow of those in power by a small group, coup d'état. (Although commonly understood and used in contemporary High German, too, the word putsch originates from Swiss German and is etymologically related to English "push".) Realpolitik, "politics of reality": foreign politics based on practical concerns rather than ideology or ethics. Rechtsstaat, concept of a state based on law and human rights Siegerjustiz Überfremdung Vergangenheitsbewältigung Psychology Aha-Erlebnis (lit. "aha experience"), a sudden insight or epiphany, compare eureka Angst, feeling of fear, but more deeply and without concrete object Eigengrau (lit. "intrinsic grey") or also Eigenlicht (lit. "intrinsic light"), the colour seen by the eye in perfect darkness Einstellung effect, from Einstellung, which means "attitude" here Ganzfeld effect, from German Ganzfeld (lit. "complete field"), a phenomenon of visual perception Gestalt psychology (German spelling: Gestaltpsychologie), holistic psychology Gestaltzerfall (lit. "shape decomposition"), a kind of visual agnosia where a complex, holistic shape (Gestalt) dissolves into its parts for the perceiver Haltlose personality disorder, from haltlos (lit. "without grip"), aimless Merkwelt, "way of viewing the world", "peculiar individual consciousness" Schadenfreude, gloating, a malicious satisfaction obtained from the misfortunes of others Sehnsucht, a yearning for an ideal alternative Sorge, a state of worry, but (like Angst) in a less concrete, more general sense, worry about the world, one's future, etc. Umwelt, environment, literally: "surrounding world"; in semiotics, "self-centred world" Weltschmerz (lit. "world-pain"), a deep feeling of sadness experienced by someone who believes that physical reality can never satisfy the demands of the mind Wunderkind (lit. "wonder child"), child prodigy Zeitgeber (lit. "time-giver"), something that resets the circadian clock found in the suprachiasmatic nucleus Sociology Gemeinschaft, community Gesellschaft, society Herrschaft, reign Männerbund, elite male society Verstehen, lit. "understanding", interpretive or participatory examination of social phenomena Zeitgeist, spirit of the times or age Theology Gattung, genre Kunstprosa, artistic prose Sitz im Leben (setting in life, context) German terms mostly used for literary effect There are a few terms which are recognised by many English speakers but are usually only used to deliberately evoke a German context: Autobahn – particularly common in British English and American English referring specifically to German motorways. Achtung – lit. "attention" Frau and Fräulein – woman and young woman or girl, respectively, in English. Indicating marital state, with Frau – Mrs. and Fräulein – Miss; in Germany, however, the diminutive Fräulein lapsed from common usage in the late 1960s. Regardless of marital status, a woman is now commonly referred to as Frau, because from 1972 the term Fräulein has been officially phased out for being politically incorrect and should only be used if expressly authorized by the woman concerned. Führer (umlaut is usually dropped in English) – always used in English to denote Hitler or to connote a fascistic leader – never used, as is possible in German, simply and unironically to denote a (non-fascist) leader or guide (e.g. Bergführer: mountain guide, Stadtführer: city guide [book], Führerschein: driving licence, Geschäftsführer: managing director, Flugzeugführer: Pilot in command) Gott mit uns – meaning "God be with us", the motto of the Prussian king was used as a morale slogan amongst soldiers in both World Wars. It was bastardized as "Got mittens" by American and British soldiers, and is usually used nowadays, because of the German defeat in both wars, derisively to mean that wars are not won on religious grounds. Hände hoch – "hands up" Herr – in modern German either the equivalent of Mr. (Mister), to address an adult man, or "master" over something or someone (e.g. Sein eigener Herr sein: to be his own master). Derived from the adjective hehr, meaning "honourable" or "senior", it was historically a nobleman's title, equivalent to "Lord". (Herr der Fliegen is the German title of Lord of the Flies.) In a religious context it refers to God. Ich bin ein Berliner – famous quotation by John F. Kennedy Leitmotif (German spelling: Leitmotiv) – any sort of recurring theme, whether in music, literature, or the life of a fictional character or a real person. Meister – used as a suffix to mean expert (Maurermeister) or master; in Germany it means also champion in sports (Weltmeister, Europameister, Landesmeister) Nein – no Raus – meaning Out! – shortened (colloquial) (depending on where the speaker is, if on the inside "get out!" = hinaus, if on the outside "come out!" = heraus). It is the imperative form of the German verb hinausgehen (getting out (of a room/house/etc.) as in the imperative gehen Sie raus!). Reich – from the Middle High German rich, as a noun it means "empire" or "realm", cf. the English word bishopric. In titles as part of a compound noun, for example Deutsche Reichsbahn, it is equivalent to the English word "national" or possibly federal (the words "Reich" and "Bund" are somewhat exchangeable in recent history, with the exception of the Nazi state which continued to call itself Reich despite abolishing states). For instance Reichsbahn ([German] National/Federal Railway), or Reichspost (National/Federal Postal Service), specifically indicating in either case that the respective institutions were organised by central authority (called the German Reich at the time), not the states. To some English – and German – speakers, Reich in English strongly connotes Nazism and is sometimes used to suggest fascism or authoritarianism, e.g. "Herr Reichsminister" used as a title for a disliked politician. Ja – yes Jawohl – a German term that connotes an emphatic yes – "Yes, indeed!" in English. It is often equated to "yes, sir" in Anglo-American military films, since it is also a term typically used as an acknowledgement for military commands in the German military. Schnell! – "Quick!" or "Quickly!" Kommandant – commander (in the sense of person in command or commanding officer, regardless of military rank), used often in the military in general (Standortkommandant: base commander), on battleships and U-boats (Schiffskommandant or U-Boot-Kommandant), sometimes used on civilian ships and aircraft. Wunderbar – wonderful Terms rarely used in English Ampelmännchen Besserwisser – someone who always "knows better" Bockmist, lit. "billy goat's dung", meaning "nonsense" or "rubbish" Eierlegende Wollmilchsau – literally "egg-laying wool-milk-sow", a hypothetical solution, object or person fulfilling unrealistically many different demands; also referring sometimes to a (really existing) object, concept or person like this, for example a multi-tool or exceptionally versatile person (jack of all trades) Fahrvergnügen – "driving pleasure"; introduced in a Volkswagen advertising campaign Fremdscham, "vicarious shame", the shame felt for the behavior of someone else Gastarbeiter – "guest worker", foreign-born worker Geisterfahrer – "ghost driver", a wrong-way driver; one who drives in the direction opposite to that prescribed for the given lane. Götterdämmerung – "Twilight of the Gods", a disastrous conclusion of events (also a music drama by Richard Wagner) Kobold – small mischievous fairy creature, traditionally translated as "goblin", "hobgoblin" or "imp" Ordnung muss sein – "There must be order." This proverbial phrase illustrates the importance that German culture places upon order. Schmutz – smut, dirt, filth ... über alles – "above all", originally from "Deutschland über alles", the first line of Hoffmann von Fallersleben's poem "Das Lied der Deutschen" (The Song of the Germans); see also Über alles (disambiguation). Verschlimmbessern – to make something worse in an honest but failed attempt to improve it Vorsprung durch Technik – "competitive edge through technology", used in an advertising campaign by Audi Zweihänder – two-handed sword German quotations used in English Some famous English quotations are translations from German. On rare occasions an author will quote the original German as a sign of erudition. Muss es sein? Es muss sein!: "Must it be? It must be!" – Beethoven Der Krieg ist eine bloße Fortsetzung der Politik mit anderen Mitteln: "War is politics by other means" (literally: "War is a mere continuation of politics by other means") – Clausewitz: "Vom Kriege", Book I, Chapter 1, Section 24 Ein Gespenst geht um in Europa – das Gespenst des Kommunismus: "A spectre is haunting Europe – the spectre of communism" – The Communist Manifesto Proletarier aller Länder, vereinigt euch!: "Workers of the world, unite!" – The Communist Manifesto Gott würfelt nicht: "God does not play dice" – Einstein Raffiniert ist der Herrgott, aber boshaft ist er nicht: "Subtle is the Lord, but malicious He is not" – Einstein Wir müssen wissen, wir werden wissen: "We must know, we will know" – David Hilbert Was kann ich wissen? Was soll ich tun? Was darf ich hoffen? Was ist der Mensch?: "What can I know? What shall I do? What may I hope? What is Man?" – Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft Die ganzen Zahlen hat der liebe Gott gemacht, alles andere ist Menschenwerk: "God made the integers, all the rest is the work of man" – Leopold Kronecker Hier stehe ich, ich kann nicht anders. Gott helfe mir. Amen!: "Here I stand, I cannot do differently. God help me. Amen!" – attributed to Martin Luther Wovon man nicht sprechen kann, darüber muss man schweigen: "Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent" – Wittgenstein Einmal ist keinmal: "What happens once might as well never have happened." literally "once is never" – a common German phrase and the theme of The Unbearable Lightness of Being by Milan Kundera Es lebe die Freiheit: "Long live freedom" – Hans Scholl Arbeit macht frei: "Labour creates freedom" literally "work makes (you) free" – A phrase written over the entranceway of extermination camps in the Holocaust. See also Germanism (linguistics) List of pseudo-German words adapted to English List of English words of Dutch origin List of English words of Yiddish origin Anglish Denglisch Yinglish References Further reading J. Alan Pfeffer, Garland Cannon, German Loanwords in English: An Historical Dictionary'', Cambridge University Press. 1994. External links Dictionary of Germanisms User-generated collection of Germanisms, including images of spottings. Mathematical Words: Origins and Sources (John Aldrich, University of Southampton) See Section on Contribution of German. 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217286	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ministers%20of%20the%20Federal%20Republic%20of%20Germany	List of ministers of the Federal Republic of Germany	List of past ministers of the Federal Republic of Germany (1945–present) Konrad Adenauer, CDU (Chancellor) Hans Apel, SPD (1974–1978 Finance, 1978–1982 Defense) Walter Arendt, SPD Egon Bahr, SPD Rainer Barzel, CDU (1962–1963 and 1982–1983 Inner-German affairs) Norbert Blüm, CDU (1982–1998 Labour) Kurt Bodewig, SPD (2000–2002 Transportation) Wolfgang Bötsch, CSU Jochen Borchert, CDU (1993–1998 Agriculture) Willy Brandt, SPD (1966–1969 Foreign affairs, 1969–1974 Chancellor) Rainer Brüderle, FDP (2008–2011 Economy) Andreas von Bülow, SPD Herta Däubler-Gmelin, SPD (1998–2002 Justice) Horst Ehmke, SPD Björn Engholm, SPD Erhard Eppler, SPD Ludwig Erhard, CDU (Economy, 1963–1966 Chancellor) Josef Ertl, FDP (Agriculture 1969–1982;1982–1983) Andrea Fischer, Greens (1998–2001 Health) Egon Franke, SPD Hans Friedrichs, FDP (Economy) Anke Fuchs, SPD (Youth, family, and health) Hans-Dietrich Genscher, FDP (1969–1974 Interior, 1974–1992 Foreign affairs) Heiner Geißler, CDU (1982–1985 Youth, family and health) Kurt Gscheidle, SPD (Transportation, Postal services) Johann Baptist Gradl, CDU (1965–1966) Dieter Haack, SPD (Construction and housing) Volker Hauff, SPD (Transportation) Helmut Haussmann, FDP (1988–1991 Economy) Gustav Heinemann, 1945–1952 CDU; after 1957 SPD (1949–1950 Interior, 1966–1969 Justice, 1969–1974 Bundespräsident) Hermann Höcherl, CSU (Interior, later Agriculture) Gerhard Jahn, SPD (1969–1974 Justice) Manfred Kanther, CDU (1993–1998 Interior) Ignaz Kiechle, CSU (1983–1993 Agriculture) Kurt Georg Kiesinger, CDU (1966–1969 Chancellor) Klaus Kinkel, FDP(1991–1992 Justice, 1992–1998 Foreign affairs) Helmut Kohl, CDU (1982–1998 Chancellor) Günther Krause, CDU Oskar Lafontaine, SPD (1998–1999 Finance) Manfred Lahnstein, SPD (Finance) Otto Graf Lambsdorff, FDP (1977–1984 Economy) Lauritz Lauritzen, SPD (Transportation) Georg Leber, SPD (1966–1974 Transportation and additionally from 1969 to 1974 Postal Services, 1974–1978 Defense) Sabine Leutheusser-Schnarrenberger, FDP Heinrich Lübke, CDU (1953-59 Food and Agriculture, 1959–1969 Bundespräsident) Werner Maihofer, FDP Lothar de Maizière, CDU Hans Matthöfer, SPD (Finance) Angela Merkel, CDU (1991–1994 Women and Youth; 1994–1998 Environment, Conservation and Nuclear Safety) Jürgen Möllemann, FDP (1987–1991 education and science, 1991–1993 Economy) Claudia Nolte, CDU Rainer Ortleb, FDP Günter Rexrodt, FDP Heinz Riesenhuber, CDU Hannelore Rönsch, CDU Volker Rühe, CDU (Defense) Jürgen Rüttgers, CDU(1994–1998 education, science, research and technology) Fritz Schäffer, CSU (Finance, later Justice) Wolfgang Schäuble, CDU (1984–1989 Kanzleramt (Chief of Staff); 1989–1991 Interior) Rudolf Scharping, SPD (1998–2002 Defense) Walter Scheel, FDP Karl Schiller, SPD (1966–1972 Economy and additionally 1972–1972 Finance) Marie Schlei, SPD (Economic cooperation) Helmut Schmidt, SPD (1969–1972 Defense; 1972–1974 Finance; 1974–1982 Chancellor; September 1982 additionally Foreign Affairs) Jürgen Schmude, SPD (1981–1982 Justice; September 1982 additionally Interior) Rupert Scholz, CDU (1988–1989 Defense) Gerhard Schröder, CDU (1953–1961 Interior; 1961–1966 Foreign Affairs; 1966–1969 Defense) Gerhard Schröder, SPD (1998–2005 Chancellor) Irmgard Schwaetzer, FDP (1991–1994 Infrastructure and Building) Christian Schwarz-Schilling, CDU Horst Seehofer, CSU Rudolf Seiters, CDU (Interior) Carl-Dieter Spranger, CDU Gerhard Stoltenberg, CDU (1982–1989 Finance, 1989–1992 Defense) Franz Josef Strauß, CSU (1955–1956 Nuclear Energy; 1956–1962 Defense; 1966–1969 Finance) Rita Süssmuth, CDU Klaus Töpfer, CDU Hans-Jochen Vogel, SPD Theodor Waigel, CSU (Finance) Herbert Wehner, SPD (1966–1969 Minister for Inner-German affairs) Hans-Jürgen Wischnewski, SPD Matthias Wissmann, CDU Manfred Wörner, CDU (1982–1988 Defense) See also History of Germany Politics of Germany Chancellor of Germany (Federal Republic) President of Germany Lists of incumbents ! 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217289	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undergraduate%20education	Undergraduate education	Undergraduate education is education conducted after secondary education and before postgraduate education. It typically includes all postsecondary programs up to the level of a bachelor's degree. For example, in the United States, an entry-level university student is known as an undergraduate, while students of higher degrees are known as graduate students. In some other educational systems, undergraduate education is postsecondary education up to the level of a master's degree; this is the case for some science courses in Britain and some medicine courses in Europe. Programs Africa Nigerian system In Nigeria, undergraduate degrees (excluding Medicine, Medical Laboratory Science, Nursing, Engineering, Law and Architecture) are four-year-based courses. Medicine (MBBS) and Architecture normally take six years to complete studies while Medical Laboratory Science, Nursing, Law and Engineering courses take five years to complete studies, usually, all six years are taken to improve their chances. Undergraduate nursing degrees or diplomas usually take two to four years and sometimes 5 years to complete, whereas graduate degrees are an additional two years or more. South African system The South African system usually has a three-year undergraduate bachelor's degree, with two or three majors. (There are exceptions, such as the medical qualification (MBChB), which is six years, and Engineering which is four.) A fourth year, known as an Honours year, is considered a post-graduate degree. It is usually course-driven, although may include a project or thesis. Americas Brazilian system Brazil follows the major traits of the continental European system; free public schools are available from kindergarten up to postgraduation, both as a right established in Article 6, caput of the Brazilian Constitution and as a duty of the State in Article 208, Items I, IV and V, of the Brazilian Constitution. Students choose their specific course of studies before joining the university. Admission to university is obtained by means of a competitive entrance exam known as Vestibular (a concept somewhat similar to the Baccalauréat in France). A later system introduced in 2009, adopted by most federal universities, uses the high school national examination (ENEM) result as part or a replacement of the Vestibular grade. Depending on the chosen course, upon graduating the student is granted: a technologist diploma, 3 years to complete, a bachelor's degree's diploma, which usually takes 4 or, in the case of Law, Veterinary, Geology and Engineering, 5 years to complete; or a professional diploma, which normally require 5 or, in the case of medicine, 6 years to complete. United States system In the United States, undergraduate refers to a student who is studying for a bachelor's degree. The most common bachelor's degrees are Bachelor of Arts (BA or AB) and Bachelor of Science (BS or SB), but other degrees such as Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA), Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA), Bachelor of Music (BM), Bachelor of Social Work (BSW), Bachelor of Engineering (BE), Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN), and Bachelor of Architecture (BArch) are also possible. Unlike in the British model, degrees in law and medicine are not offered at the undergraduate level and instead are completed at a graduate level after earning a bachelor's degree. Neither field specifies or prefers any undergraduate major, though medical schools require a set of courses that must be taken before enrollment. Students can also choose to attend a community college before further study at another college or university. In most states, community colleges are operated either by a division of the state university or by local special districts subject to guidance from a state agency. Community colleges award associate degrees of different types, some intended to prepare students to transfer to universities (e.g. Associate of Arts (AA), Associate of Science (AS)), and others intended to provide vocational skills and training for students wishing to enter into or advance in a profession. Those seeking to continue their education may transfer to a university after applying through a similar admissions process as those applying directly to the four-year institution called articulation. Some community colleges have automatic enrollment agreements with a local college or university, where the community college provides the first two years of study and the university provides the remaining years of study, sometimes all on one campus. The community colleges award associate degrees, while universities and colleges award the bachelor's. However, some community colleges, such as Brazosport College in Lake Jackson, Texas offer bachelor's degrees along with associate degrees. Conversely, some universities such as the University of Delaware also award associate degrees. Asia Bangladeshi system In Bangladesh, 3-year undergraduate programs are known as Degree (Pass) courses and 4-year undergraduate programs are known as Honours courses. Hong Kong system In Hong Kong, the English system is followed. Students sit for the Certificate of Education examinations at around sixteen years of age, and the Advanced-level, or A-level examinations at around eighteen, then follow by three years of undergraduate education, except for a few specific fields, such as medicine, nursing and law. This is due to be changed, with five-year secondary education and two-year matriculation examination combined and shortened to six years matriculation, and undergraduate education lengthened to four years. Students may be able to receive general education in their first years in universities, more akin to the North American system. The first batch of students under the new system will enter universities in 2012. Alternatives are undergraduate certificates or diplomas, with some equivalent to associate degree in educational level. Indian system India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, next to the United States and China. The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission, which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the state. Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 15 autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission (UGC). In India the Graduation system is classified into two parts: Undergraduate (UG) and Postgraduate (PG). It takes three or four years to complete an undergraduate degree. The three-year undergraduate programs are mostly in the fields of arts, commerce, science etc., and the four-year programs are mostly in the fields of technology, engineering, pharmaceutical sciences, agriculture etc. However, for medicine, law and architecture, the period has been five years. The possessor of the first UG is referred to as graduate and that of the PG degree as post-graduate. Other than UG and PG there are various 1 to 2 year diploma courses available. Indian higher education system has expanded at a fast pace by adding nearly 20,000 colleges and more than 8 million students in a decade from 2000–01 to 2010–11. As of 2020, India has over 1000 universities, with a break up of 54 central universities, 416 state universities, 125 deemed universities, 361 private universities, 7 Institute under State Legislature Act, and 159 Institutes of National Importance which include IIMs, AIIMS, IITs, IIITs, IISERs and NITs among others. Other institutions include 52,627 colleges as government degree colleges, private colleges, standalone institutes and post-graduate research institutions, functioning under these universities as reported by the MHRD in 2020. Colleges may be Autonomous, i.e. empowered to examine their own degrees, up to PhD level in some cases, or non-autonomous, in which case their examinations are under the supervision of the university to which they are affiliated; in either case, however, degrees are awarded in the name of the university rather than the college. Pakistani system In Pakistan, it generally requires four years to complete a Bachelor's degree in Arts, Sciences, Dentistry, Engineering or Business Administration such as BA, BS, BDS, BE/BS/BSc Engineering or BBA and five years for bachelor's degrees in Medicine (MBBS), Physiotherapy (DPT), Pharmacy (Pharm.D) and Architecture (B.Arch.) after successfully completing 12 years of schooling. 4 years bachelor's degree is offered in various universities of Pakistan such as COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore (UET Lahore), University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila (UET Taxila), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS) and National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences (NU). The modern educational system comprises the following five stages: The Primary school lasting five years for children 5–10 years old in grades one to five; a Middle school of three years for children 10 to 13 years old, covering grades six through eight; a two-year secondary, or Matriculation consists of grades nine and ten, for children 13 to 15 years old; a two-year higher secondary, or Intermediate college, leading to an F.A. in arts or F.Sc. in science; and a fifth stage covering college and university programs leading to baccalaureate, professional, master's and doctorate degrees. The pre-primary or preparatory classes, called kachi (literally, unripe) or Nursery school, were formally integrated into the education system in 1988. Europe English, Welsh, and Northern Irish system Students in England, Wales and Northern Ireland may usually enter university from the age of eighteen, often having studied A-levels and thus having had thirteen to fifteen years of schooling. Occasionally students who finish A Level or equivalent qualifications early (after skipping a year in school on the grounds of academic giftedness) may enter below this age but large universities are now setting minimum age limits of 16 or 17 after a number of well publicised "child prodigies" were found to be emotionally and mentally unprepared for university life. Applications for undergraduate courses in UK higher education are made through the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS). For their first degree, most students read for the degree of bachelor, which usually takes three years, however in the sciences and engineering integrated courses covering both undergraduate level and advanced degree level leading to the degree of master, usually taking four years and including a research project or dissertation are popular. Given the integrated nature of these programs someone who gains a master's degree via an integrated program is not usually admitted to the degree of bachelor. Master's degrees conferred after extended programs are not to be conflated with the degree of Master of Arts conferred at Oxbridge and Dublin, which is not a substantive qualification, but reflects the ancient practice of those three universities of promoting Bachelors of Arts to Masters of Arts (and thus full membership of the University) six or seven years after matriculation. Honours degrees and integrated master's degrees are awarded with 1st, upper 2nd, lower 2nd or 3rd class honours. If a student passes the course but fails to do so sufficiently well for third class honours to be awarded he will be awarded with an ordinary degree. It is possible to use the abbreviation "Hons" after the degree postnominals to indicate that the degree has been passed with honours and is not an ordinary degree. Many universities offer sandwich courses or an extramural year, which offer work placements for a short period of time in a relevant industry before students complete their studies. Taking a sandwich course may make the course last a year longer than it would otherwise. With very few exceptions, nearly all universities with the power to award degrees are heavily state financed. However, they also rely on tuition fees set by the government at a maximum index-linked level, repayable after graduation contingent on attaining a certain level of income, and with the state paying all fees for students from the poorest backgrounds. UK students are generally entitled to student loans for maintenance with repayment contingent on income. Unlike in other European countries, the British government does not own the universities' assets and university staff are not civil servants. United Kingdom universities are therefore better described as autonomous, intellectually-independent institutions with public funding, rather than public universities per se. The crown does not control syllabi, with the exception of teacher training. The crown restricts the power to award degrees to those with a royal charter, in the case of traditional universities, or authorization from the Secretary of State for Universities, in the case of modern universities. Universities accredited in foreign countries, such as Richmond University are, however, free to operate. European Bologna process systems In many countries, the English distinction between a bachelor's and master's degree is being introduced by the Bologna process. Under the new Bologna reform, universities in Europe are introducing the Bachelor level (BA or BS) degree, often by dividing a 5-year Master-level program into two parts (3-year Bachelor's + 2-year Master's), where students are not obligated to continue with the second Master's-degree part. These new bachelor's degrees are similar in structure to British bachelor's degrees. If there is a separate undergraduate degree, higher degrees (License, Master, Doctorat) can be gained after completing the undergraduate degree. In the traditional German system, there were no undergraduate degrees in some fields, such as engineering: students continued to Master's level education without any administrative breakpoints, and employers would not consider half-finished master's degrees. The Bachelor's phase in The Netherlands can be fulfilled either at university or at a university of applied sciences. These two institutions differ from each other in the level students learn abstract concepts. Education at universities is aimed at research and fundamental principles while at universities of applied sciences it concentrates on applying knowledge in a vocation. Universities of applied sciences typically do not offer master and PhD programs. Scottish system Students in Scotland usually enter university in the year they turn eighteen, with many starting at seventeen; courses take a year longer than in the rest of the UK. At the older universities the degree of Master of Arts is conferred in the arts subjects after four years while the newer universities instead confer the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The degree of Master of Arts conferred by the Ancient Scottish Universities is equivalent to the degree of Bachelor of Arts at other universities and does not require the level of study necessitated for the other degrees of master awarded by these universities. The degree instead reflects the ancient traditions of these universities. In the sciences, students usually read for the degree of bachelor, which usually takes four years. However, as with the rest of the UK, integrated master's degrees are popular in science and engineering, although in Scotland they last for five years. Degree classification is the same as in the rest of UK. Other European systems In many other, particularly continental European systems, an "undergraduate" degree in the American sense does not exist. Because students are expected to have received a sound general education at the secondary level, in a school such as a gymnasium or lycee, students in Europe enroll in a specific course of studies they wish to pursue upon entry into a university. In the US, students only specialize in a "major" during the last years of college. Specializing in a field of study upon entry into a university means most students graduate after four to five years of study. The fields available include those only taught as graduate degrees in the US, such as law or medicine. In the traditional German system, there is a vocational degree (diploma FH) that is similar in length, and is also considered an academic degree. Though it is designed as a specialist degree, in contrast to the Diplom degree at university, which claims to be more generalist. Germany itself, however, is currently abolishing the legal distinction between Fachhochschule and university. They are both translated as university and they both provide bologna-compliant and equivalent postgraduate degrees. Not obligatory and sometimes applied at universities in the Netherlands are the propaedeutic exams. The entire curriculum of the first two semesters of the bachelor's programme is part of the propaedeutic exams. In most bachelor's studies, students are required to obtain their propaedeutic certificate within three semesters after starting the course. A propaedeutic certificate also counts as a requirement for participating in a university level bachelor's study. The propaedeutic exams have the purpose of assessing whether a student has the appropriate capacities in order to complete the course. At some Swedish universities (such as the Royal Institute of Technology), PhD courses are sometimes referred to as "graduate courses", whereas courses for other students (up to master level) sometimes are referred to as "undergraduate courses". The system at many Finnish universities is similar. In the French system, the first degree of tertiary education was reached two years after the baccalauréat. Amongst these degrees the university-delivered DEUG has disappeared, whereas Diplôme universitaire de technologie, Brevet de Technicien Supérieur or classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles still exist. According to the Bologna process, this two-year curriculum will be replaced by the three-year licence, yet existing. 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217291	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodgeball	Dodgeball	Dodgeball is a team sport in which players on two teams try to throw balls and hit opponents, while avoiding being hit themselves. The objective of each team is to eliminate all members of the opposing team by hitting them with thrown balls, catching a ball thrown by an opponent, or inducing an opponent to commit a violation, such as stepping outside the court. The sport is played informally (in schools and pick-up games) under varying rules, and formally as an international sport, under rules that vary among international governing bodies, such as the World Dodgeball Federation (WDBF) and the World Dodgeball Association (WDA). USA Dodgeball is the governing entity for dodgeball in the United States, with member leagues and clubs across the nation. International dodgeball day is April 27. Equipment There are many different ball types used around the world, including 8.5-inch rubber, "no-sting" rubber, foam and cloth. USA Dodgeball uses all ball types across multiple tournaments held by them and their member organizations. The World Dodgeball Federation uses primarily foam for their World Championships with plans to include cloth in the coming years, as those are the two balls used most widely across the world. The WDBF specifies the use of 6 balls with six players per side for their World Championships. Various rule sets governing number of balls and players are used around the world depending on the court size, level of play, and the organization's discretion. The WDA specifies the use of five balls; certain national rule sets, such as in Austria, specify six. Amateur games typically use from three to ten balls, the number tailored to the size of the court and the number of players. More balls generally adds to the amount of action in a game, but can result in stalemate with many blocks. If there are too few balls, the element of stealth is removed, as players can see all the balls that might hit them. Court Dodgeball can be played on any surface that has clearly marked boundaries and a center line, such as a basketball or volleyball court or fenced area. Elite Dodgeball specifies a court by , where a zone wide at the junction of the areas is a neutral zone. Games can also be played outdoors on a soccer pitch or football field. The WDBF organizes games on beaches and USA Dodgeball hosts tournaments at trampoline parks. WDBF specifies a court by with no neutral zone. The attacking lines and center lines are of vital importance. A team can stand in its attacking area and throw the balls to opponents. Matchplay Length of game Informal matches of dodgeball are typically played until all players on one side are out. In WDBF guidelines, matches last a total of 40 minutes. These are split into two 20-minute halves, during which as many sets as possible are played. A set lasts until all players on one side are out. One point is awarded for every set won. Teams switch sides at halftime. Starting the game In informal dodgeball, balls are initially distributed to players by one of the following methods: By even distribution to the two teams. By being lined up on the central dividing line. In this latter option, players then rush toward the center line to grab one of the balls. This is called the opening rush. It is never legal to immediately throw such a ball at an opponent; a player grabbing a ball on the center line retreats or throws it back to a teammate. In WDBF regulations, the ball must be returned behind an "attack line", roughly a third of the way from the back of court. Players may only run for the balls on the left side of the court, while the middle ball will be contested. Gameplay Following distribution, players aim to hit one another. A ball is considered "live" from the moment it leaves a player's hand up until it touches the floor, wall, or ceiling, when it becomes "dead". If a player is hit by an opponent's live ball, they are "out"; if the ball is dead, there is no hit. If a player catches a live ball, the opponent who threw the ball is out and a player on the catcher's team is "revived" from the outbox; however, if they fail to secure the catch, leading to them dropping the ball, the failed catcher is out. In WDBF regulations, players may "block" a throw with another ball. In this situation, the thrown ball remains live, as it has not hit the floor or a wall, and so can be caught or can still hit a player out. If the blocker drops the ball used to block, they have failed to keep their ball secure and are out. Dead balls that leave the court can only be returned to players by each team's designated ball retrievers. Stepping outside the court, including stepping on a boundary line or entering the opponents' zone, is a violation. Other violations include kicking a ball, displaying bad sportsmanship, and stalling (having a ball for over ten seconds and doing nothing with it). The penalty is that the violator is out. Optional rules Optional rules may be in effect in informal games of dodgeball or in open matches by agreement: "Head shots" (thrown balls that hit an opposing player in the head) may either result in the thrower being out, or the person being hit being out, or neither. In "jailball", players who are out go to "jail" behind the opponents' back line. They can return to the game if they: Capture a dead ball, or Capture a dead ball and throw it and hit an opponent. In games played on a basketball court, thrown balls that hit the backboard or go into the goal (even if deflected by a player or another ball) may have special status, such as returning all eliminated teammates to the court. When there are so few players on the court that dodging the ball is easy, "No Lines" may be declared. This means that there are no team zones; players can go anywhere on the court to get a better shot at an opponent. Tactics The following basic tactics are useful: Thrower location: Move toward the neutral zone to attack; stay on the back line when not attacking. Do not stand in another player's line of sight. Do not turn your back to the opponents. Coordinated attack: Call out to teammates to coordinate multiple attacks on the same opponent, preferably from very different angles. Number the opponents, left-to-right, and call out an attack target by number. Throwing technique: Throw with one hand. Aim below the waist to avoid getting caught or making a head shot. Throw when the opponent is distracted. Learn to throw balls so that they curve. Many local teams and international teams develop their own tactics and calling systems specific to their style of play. These become more complex in higher leagues, which often requires specific training for the players in calling positions such that they can make rapid, tactical decisions. Circle dodgeball In some elementary schools in the United States, a version is played using a circular court. The team outside the circle has the ball or balls, and the team inside must evade the thrown balls. The players who are hit with the ball may change places with the person who hit them, or they may be out of the game and the last person remaining unhit may be the winner. There are variants. Similar games in other countries On the Indian subcontinent, a variation of the game is played called "Sekan-tadi" (सेकन-तड़ी). This is slang used for "slamming the hip". Other names are எறி பந்து, Gend Tadi and Maram Pitti. In China, a variation of the game is played called "Diu Sha Bao" (丢沙包). Instead of a ball, the game is played with a small round sand bag, which is also known as the "Sha Bao" (沙包). In Belgium and The Netherlands, a variation is known as “Tussen Twee Vuren” (“Between Two Fires”), which is commonly played in schools. In popular culture The 2004 movie Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story, revived interest in the sport, especially among young adults. Also in 2004, Extreme Dodgeball, a dodgeball tournament broadcast as a game show, aired. The videogame Stikbold! A Dodgeball Adventure (Stikbold being the Danish word for dodgeball) features the sport of dodgeball, although the rules vary slightly from the actual game. The risks of injury from dodgeball, and the fact that gameplay resembles assault, have resulted in controversies, lawsuits, and calls to eliminate the game from school physical education programs. In the third episode of the 2007 animated series Total Drama Island, the protagonists of a fictional game show have to compete in a game of dodgeball until one of the two teams is left uneliminated. World records University of California, Irvine, reclaimed the record for largest game of dodgeball on September 25, 2012, with 6,084 participants. The previous largest game of dodgeball had been played by 4,979 participants at the University of Alberta on February 3, 2012. The longest recorded game of dodgeball was played on April 27–29, 2012, at the Castleton State College in Vermont; it lasted for 41 hr 3 min 17 sec. See also Dodgeball ranking List of dodgeball variations U.S. intercollegiate dodgeball champions References Notes Bibliography D'Angelo, Chris (2008). If you got the Guts, We got the Balls: A book about Dodgeball. Dangerous Chris Print. Keyes, A. (2005). The Complete Book About Dodgeball. AuthorHouse. Kassock, Isaac (2012). The Philosophy of Dodgeball: A Treatise. Createspace. 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217293	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctinus%20of%20Miletus	Arctinus of Miletus	Arctinus of Miletus or Arctinus Milesius () was a Greek epic poet whose reputation is purely legendary, as none of his works survive. Traditionally dated between 775 BC and 741 BC, he was said to have been a pupil of Homer. His father was Teleus son of Nauteus. Phaenias of Eresus placed him in the 7th century BC and claimed that he was defeated by Lesches of Pyrrha in competition. One of the "cyclic poets", Arctinus composed the epics Aethiopis and Sack of Troy, which were contributions to the Trojan War cycle, and possibly Naupactia. These poems are lost, but an idea of the first two can be obtained from the Chrestomathy ascribed (probably wrongly) to Proclus the Neo-Platonist of the 5th century AD. The Aethiopis (Αἰθιοπίς), in five books, is so called from the Aethiopian Memnon, who became the ally of the Trojans after the death of Hector. According to Proclus, the poem took up the narrative from the close of the Iliad: "The Amazon Penthesilea arrives to aid the Trojans in war. She is the daughter of Ares and a Thracian by birth. Achilles kills her while she is fighting at her best, and the Trojans bury her. Achilles kills Thersites, who railed at him and reproached him for loving Penthesileia.” The Aethiopis concluded with the death and burial of Achilles and the dispute between Ajax and Odysseus for his arms. The Sack of Troy (Iliou Persis) told the stories of the Trojan Horse, Sinon, and Laocoön, the capture of the city, and the departure of the Greeks pursued by the anger of Athena at the rape of Cassandra by Ajax the Lesser. The Little Iliad, usually ascribed to Lesches, bridged the gap in the story-line between Aethiopis and the Sack of Troy. References Sources Eusebius, Chronicle Olympiad 1.2, 5.1. Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 1.131.6. Suda s.lem. Arctinus (Alpha, 3960: Ἀρκτῖνος). Further reading David Binning Monro, "On the Fragment of Proclus' Abstract of the Epic Cycle Contained in the Codex Venetus of the Iliad", Journal of Hellenic Studies, 4 (1883), 305-334. T.W. Allen in Classical Quarterly, April 1908, pp. 82ff. 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217296	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow	Shadow	A shadow is a dark area where light from a light source is blocked by an opaque object. It occupies all of the three-dimensional volume behind an object with light in front of it. The cross section of a shadow is a two-dimensional silhouette, or a reverse projection of the object blocking the light. Point and non-point light sources A point source of light casts only a simple shadow, called an "umbra". For a non-point or "extended" source of light, the shadow is divided into the umbra, penumbra, and antumbra. The wider the light source, the more blurred the shadow becomes. If two penumbras overlap, the shadows appear to attract and merge. This is known as the shadow blister effect. The outlines of the shadow zones can be found by tracing the rays of light emitted by the outermost regions of the extended light source. The umbra region does not receive any direct light from any part of the light source and is the darkest. A viewer located in the umbra region cannot directly see any part of the light source. By contrast, the penumbra is illuminated by some parts of the light source, giving it an intermediate level of light intensity. A viewer located in the penumbra region will see the light source, but it is partially blocked by the object casting the shadow. If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightnesses or even colors. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows. The absence of diffusing atmospheric effects in the vacuum of outer space produces shadows that are stark and sharply delineated by high-contrast boundaries between light and dark. For a person or object touching the surface where the shadow is projected (e.g. a person standing on the ground, or a pole in the ground) the shadows converge at the point of contact. A shadow shows, apart from distortion, the same image as the silhouette when looking at the object from the sun-side, hence the mirror image of the silhouette seen from the other side. Astronomy The names umbra, penumbra and antumbra are often used for the shadows cast by astronomical objects, though they are sometimes used to describe levels of darkness, such as in sunspots. An astronomical object casts human-visible shadows when its apparent magnitude is equal or lower than -4. The only astronomical objects able to project visible shadows onto Earth are the Sun, the Moon, and in the right conditions, Venus or Jupiter. Night is caused by the hemisphere of a planet facing its orbital star blocking its sunlight. A shadow cast by the Earth onto the Moon is a lunar eclipse. Conversely, a shadow cast by the Moon onto the Earth is a solar eclipse. Daytime variation The sun casts shadows that change dramatically through the day. The length of a shadow cast on the ground is proportional to the cotangent of the sun's elevation angle—its angle θ relative to the horizon. Near sunrise and sunset, when θ = 0° and cot(θ) = ∞, shadows can be extremely long. If the sun passes directly overhead (only possible in locations between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn), then θ = 90°, cot(θ) = 0, and shadows are cast directly underneath objects. Such variations have long aided travellers during their travels, especially in barren regions such as the Arabian Desert. Propagation speed The farther the distance from the object blocking the light to the surface of projection, the larger the silhouette (they are considered proportional). Also, if the object is moving, the shadow cast by the object will project an image with dimensions (length) expanding proportionally faster than the object's own rate of movement. The increase of size and movement is also true if the distance between the object of interference and the light source are closer. This, however, does not mean the shadow may move faster than light, even when projected at vast distances, such as light years. The loss of light, which projects the shadow, will move towards the surface of projection at light speed. Although the edge of a shadow appears to "move" along a wall, in actuality the increase of a shadow's length is part of a new projection that propagates at the speed of light from the object of interference. Since there is no actual communication between points in a shadow (except for reflection or interference of light, at the speed of light), a shadow that projects over a surface of large distances (light years) cannot convey information between those distances with the shadow's edge. Color Visual artists are usually very aware of colored light emitted or reflected from several sources, which can generate complex multicolored shadows. Chiaroscuro, sfumato, and silhouette are examples of artistic techniques which make deliberate use of shadow effects. During the daytime, a shadow cast by an opaque object illuminated by sunlight has a bluish tinge. This happens because of Rayleigh scattering, the same property that causes the sky to appear blue. The opaque object is able to block the light of the sun, but not the ambient light of the sky which is blue as the atmosphere molecules scatter blue light more effectively. As a result, the shadow appears bluish. Dimension A shadow occupies a three-dimensional volume of space, but this is usually not visible until it projects onto a reflective surface. A light fog, mist, or dust cloud can reveal the 3D presence of volumetric patterns in light and shadow. Fog shadows may look odd to viewers who are not used to seeing shadows in three dimensions. A thin fog is just dense enough to be illuminated by the light that passes through the gaps in a structure or in a tree. As a result, the path of an object's shadow through the fog becomes visible as a darkened volume. In a sense, these shadow lanes are the inverse of crepuscular rays caused by beams of light, they're caused by the shadows of solid objects. Theatrical fog and strong beams of light are sometimes used by lighting designers and visual artists who seek to highlight three-dimensional aspects of their work. Inversion Oftentimes shadows of chain-linked fences and other such objects become inverted (light and dark areas are swapped) as they get farther from the object. A chain-link fence shadow will start with light diamonds and shadow outlines when it is touching the fence, but it will gradually blur. Eventually, if the fence is tall enough, the light pattern will go to shadow diamonds and light outlines. Photography In photography, which is essentially recording patterns of light, shade, and color, "highlights" and "shadows" are the brightest and darkest parts, respectively, of a scene or image. Photographic exposure must be adjusted (unless special effects are wanted) to allow the film or sensor, which has limited dynamic range, to record detail in the highlights without them being washed out, and in the shadows without their becoming undifferentiated black areas. On satellite imagery and aerial photographs, taken vertically, tall buildings can be recognized as such by their long shadows (if the photographs are not taken in the tropics around noon), while these also show more of the shape of these buildings. Analogous concepts Shadow as a term is often used for any occlusion or blockage, not just those with respect to light. For example, a rain shadow is a dry area, which with respect to the prevailing wind direction, is beyond a mountain range; the elevated terrain impedes rainclouds from entering the dry zone. An acoustic shadow occurs when a direct sound has been blocked or diverted around a given area. Cultural aspects An unattended shade was thought by some cultures to be similar to that of a ghost. The name for the fear of shadows is "sciophobia" or "sciaphobia". Chhaya is the Hindu goddess of shadows. In heraldry, when a charge is supposedly shown "in the shadow" (the appearance is of the charge merely being outlined in a neutral tint rather than being of one or more tinctures different from the field on which it is placed), it is technically described as "umbrated". Supposedly, only a limited number of specific charges can be so depicted. Shadows are often linked with darkness and evil; in common folklore and modern graphic novels, like shadows who come to life, are often evil beings trying to control the people they reflect. The film Upside-Down Magic features an antagonistic shadow spirit who possesses people. Ancient Egyptians surmised that a shadow,which they called šwt (shut), contains something of the person it represents because it is always present. Through this association, statues of people and deities were sometimes referred to as shadows. In a commentary to The Egyptian Book of the Dead (BD), Egyptologist Ogden Goelet, Jr. discusses the forms of the shadow: "In many BD papyri and tombs the deceased is depicted emerging from the tomb by day in shadow form, a thin, black, featureless silhouette of a person. The person in this form is, as we would put it, a mere shadow of his former existence, yet nonetheless still existing. Another form the shadow assumes in the BD, especially in connection with gods, is an ostrich-feather sun-shade, an object which would create a shadow." Energy generating Scientists from the National University of Singapore presented a shadow-effect energy generator (SEG), which consists of cells of gold deposited on a silicon wafer attached on a plastic film. The generator has a power density of 0.14 μW cm−2 under indoor conditions (0.001 sun). Gallery See also Black drop effect Convolution applications, for more physical and mathematical discussion about shadows Earth's shadow Gnomon Shade Shadow Cabinet Shadow mapping, in computer 3D graphics Shadow people Shadow play Shadowgraphy or ombromanie, the art of hand shadows Sciography, the art of architectural shadows Shadows in camouflage References External links Art project about shadows and their philosophical connotations How sun casts shadows over day hours Optical phenomena	[ 0.3781163692474365, 0.1403263658285141, -0.396990031003952, 0.18081612884998322, 0.045305389910936356, -0.13820597529411316, 0.5333172082901001, 0.205136239528656, -0.2412881851196289, -0.5801364183425903, -0.5849670171737671, 0.4448116421699524, -0.4204486012458801, 0.057282283902168274, -0.22787775099277496, 0.3838786482810974, 0.2841915488243103, 0.6532842516899109, -0.11829935014247894, 0.1388830542564392, -0.25668400526046753, 0.08574706315994263, -0.15609444677829742, -0.5889487862586975, 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217299	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Monro%20%28scholar%29	David Monro (scholar)	David Binning Monro, FBA (16 November 183622 August 1905) was a Scottish Homeric scholar, Provost of Oriel College, Oxford, and Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University. Life David Monro was born in Edinburgh, the grandson of Alexander Monro tertius, professor of anatomy at the University of Edinburgh, whose own father, Alexander Monro secondus (1733–1817), and grandfather, Alexander Monro primus (1697–1767), had both filled the same position. David Monro was educated at the University of Glasgow, where he was influenced by Edmund Law Lushington to become a classical scholar. In 1854, he attended Brasenose College, Oxford and, later in the same year transferred to Balliol College, Oxford, where he was a Snell exhibitioner. In 1859, he was elected Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford; although he entered Lincoln's Inn the following year, he became lecturer and then tutor at Oriel. In 1882, he became Provost of the College, and he held this office until his death at Heiden, Switzerland. He also served as Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford from October 1901 to 1904. Academic work Monro was a polymath and polyglot who possessed considerable knowledge of music, painting and architecture. His favourite study was Homer, and his A Grammar of the Homeric Dialect (2nd ed., 1891) established his reputation as an authority on the subject. He edited the last twelve books of the Odyssey, with valuable appendices on the composition of the poem, its relation to the Iliad and the cyclic poets, the history of the text, the dialects, and the Homeric house; a critical text of the poems and fragments (Homeri opera et reliquiae, 1896); Homeri opera (1902, with T. W. Allen, in the Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca Oxoniensis); and an edition of the Iliad with notes for schools. Monro's article on Homer, written for the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, was revised by him for later versions before he died. He also wrote The Modes of Ancient Greek Music (1894). Death On 22 August 1905, Monro died of heart disease in Heiden, Switzerland. He is buried in Holywell Cemetery in Oxford. Collections Upon Monro's death in 1905, a number of his friends purchased, by subscription, over 1000 volumes from his library in his memory. These works were on Homeric studies and were mainly 19th century. They were presented to the Bodleian Libraries in Oxford. Monro himself had left Oriel College c.1000 volumes on comparative philology and mythology, most of which are now on permanent loan to the library of the Taylor Institution in Oxford. He left his books on Greek Music and Mathematics, and editions of William Thackeray and Matthew Arnold, to friends. Selected works A Grammar of the Homeric Dialect (2nd ed., 1891) Homer: Iliad, Books I-XII, with an Introduction, a Brief Homeric Grammar, and Notes(3rd ed., 1890) Homer: Iliad, Books XIII-XXIV, with Notes (4th ed., 1903) The Modes of Ancient Greek Music (1894) References Sources John Cook Wilson, David Binning Monro: a short memoir (Oxford, 1907) External links 1836 births 1905 deaths Academics from Edinburgh Scottish classical scholars Alumni of the University of Glasgow Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Fellows of Oriel College, Oxford Provosts of Oriel College, Oxford Vice-Chancellors of the University of Oxford Fellows of the British Academy Burials at Holywell Cemetery	[ -0.3064875900745392, 0.7652122974395752, -0.19247980415821075, -0.8036084771156311, -0.06646895408630371, 0.4469177722930908, 0.30233508348464966, 0.4125605523586273, -0.30738386511802673, -0.14161694049835205, -0.8505992293357849, 0.4094357490539551, -0.19181759655475616, 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217303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Rep	The Rep	The Rep was a weekly entertainment guide, in tabloid format, published by The Arizona Republic from 1997 to 2006. It was replaced by a similar section simply named Calendar. External links Reps Best Readers' Choice 2005 Mass media in Phoenix, Arizona Gannett publications Defunct newspapers published in Arizona Defunct weekly newspapers Publications established in 1997 Publications disestablished in 2006 1997 establishments in Arizona 2006 disestablishments in Arizona Newspaper supplements	[ -0.3673454821109772, -0.2774311602115631, 0.410363107919693, 0.42468705773353577, -0.19192321598529816, 0.19647930562496185, 0.3238373398780823, 0.2823319733142853, -0.1463211178779602, 0.5107029676437378, -0.25795117020606995, 0.8983655571937561, 0.13841620087623596, -0.15965594351291656, -0.4429423213005066, -0.17788268625736237, 0.0818101093173027, 0.32846638560295105, 0.5152292251586914, -0.47456595301628113, -0.4029894471168518, -0.25711894035339355, 0.19687208533287048, -0.2813202440738678, -0.24748142063617706, 0.22122757136821747, 0.15374647080898285, -0.31706833839416504, -0.6947733759880066, 0.46458297967910767, -0.7669535875320435, 0.5357784032821655, 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217304	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pica%20%28genus%29	Pica (genus)	Pica is the genus of seven species of birds in the family Corvidae in both the New World and the Old. They have long tails and have predominantly black and white markings. One species ranges widely from Europe through Asia, one occurs in western North America, one is restricted to California, one is restricted to southwestern Saudi Arabia, and one occurs across North Africa; the last two are often considered subspecies of the Eurasian. They are usually considered closely related to the blue and green magpies of Asia, but recent research suggests their closest relatives are instead the Eurasian crows. Taxonomy The genus Pica was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. He derived the name by tautonymy from the specific epithet of the Eurasian magpie Corvus pica introduced by Linnaeus in 1758. Pica is the Latin word for the Eurasian magpie. A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2018 found that the Eurasian magpie consisted of multiple species including the Maghreb magpie, the Asir magpie, the black-rumped magpie and the oriental magpie. Species The genus contains seven living species: Fossil species Two prehistoric species of Pica are currently known: Pica mourerae, from fossils found in Pliocene–Pleistocene boundary strata on Mallorca, and Pica praepica, from Early Pleistocene strata of Bulgaria. 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217305	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triumvirate	Triumvirate	A triumvirate () or a triarchy is a political institution ruled or dominated by three powerful individuals known as triumvirs (). The arrangement can be formal or informal. Though the three are notionally equal, this is rarely the case in reality. The term can also be used to describe a state with three different military leaders who all claim to be the sole leader. In the context of the Soviet Union and Russia, the term troika (Russian for "group of three") is used for "triumvirate". Pre-Modern triumvirates Biblical triumvirates In the Bible triumvirates occurred at some notable events in both the Old Testament and New Testament. In the Book of Exodus Moses, his brother Aaron and, according to some views their nephew or brother-in-law, Hur acted this way during Battle of Rephidim against the Amalekites. In the Gospels as a leading trio among the Twelve Apostles at three particular occasions during public ministry of Jesus acted Peter, James, son of Zebedee and his brother John. They were the only apostles present at the Raising of Jairus' daughter, Transfiguration of Jesus and Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane. Later, at the time of the Early Christian Church this triumvirate of the leading apostles changed slightly after the former James's death, as it became composed of Peter, John and James, brother of Jesus. Chinese triumvirates One of the most notable triumvirates formed in the history of China was by the Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) statesmen Huo Guang (d. 68 BCE), Jin Midi (d. 86 BCE), and Shangguan Jie 上官桀 (d. 80 BCE), following the death of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) and the installation of the child emperor Zhao. Despite the Three Excellencies—including the Chancellor, Imperial Secretary, and irregularly the Grand Commandant—representing the most senior ministerial positions of state, this triumvirate was supported by the economic technocrat and Imperial Secretary Sang Hongyang (d. 80 BCE), their political lackey. The acting Chancellor Tian Qianqiu was also easily swayed by the decisions of the triumvirate. The Three Excellencies existed in Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) as the Chancellor, Imperial Secretary, and Grand Commandant, but the Chancellor was viewed as senior to the Imperial Secretary while the post of Grand Commandant was vacant for most of the dynasty. After Emperor Guangwu established the Eastern Han (25–220 CE), the Grand Commandant was made a permanent official while the Minister over the Masses replaced the Chancellor and the Minister of Works replaced the Imperial Secretary. Unlike the three high officials in Western Han when the Chancellor was senior to all, these new three senior officials had equal censorial and advisory powers. When a young or weak-minded emperor ascended to the throne, these Three Excellencies could dominate the affairs of state. There were also other types of triumvirates during the Eastern Han; for example, at the onset of the reign of Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), the General-in-Chief Dou Wu (d. 168), the Grand Tutor Chen Fan (d. 168), and another prominent statesman Hu Guang (91–172) formed a triumvirate nominally in charge of the Privy Secretariat, when in fact it was a regent triumvirate that was overseeing the affairs of state and Emperor Ling. Hinduism Triumvirate In Hinduism, the gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva form the triumvirate Trimurti "in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified" respectively by those gods.." Also their female counterparts and consorts Tridevi - Goddesses Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. Pagaruyuang triumvirates Triumvirates during the Pagaruyuang era in the Minangkabau Highlands was known as Rajo Tigo Selo or the three reigning kings. The Rajo Tigo Selo was descended from the same line in the same dynasty and ruled at the same reigning time. It consisted of three kings, the Rajo Alam who ruled the government and diplomatic affairs, the Rajo Adaik who ruled the customs and the Rajo Ibadaik who acted as a Grand Mufti. Roman triumvirates During the Roman Republic, (or ) were special commissions of three men appointed for specific administrative tasks apart from the regular duties of Roman magistrates. The triumviri capitales oversaw prisons and executions, along with other functions that, as Andrew Lintott notes, show them to have been "a mixture of police superintendents and justices of the peace." The capitales were first established around 290 to 287 BC. They were supervised by the praetor urbanus. These triumviri, or the tresviri nocturni, may also have taken some responsibility for fire control. They went the rounds by night to maintain order, and among other things they assisted the in burning forbidden books. It is possible that they were entrusted by the praetor with the settlement of certain civil processes of a semi-criminal nature, in which private citizens acted as prosecutors. They also had to collect the (deposits forfeited by the losing party in a suit) and examined the plea of exemption put forward by those who refused to act as jurymen. Julius Caesar increased their number to four, but Augustus reverted to three. In imperial times most of their functions passed into the hands of the . The ("triumviri of the temple of Juno the Advisor" or "monetary triumvirs") supervised the issuing of Roman coins. Their number was increased by Julius Caesar to four, but again reduced by Augustus. As they acted for the senate they only coined copper money under the empire, the gold and silver coinage being under the exclusive control of the emperor. , a priestly body, assisted at public banquets. Their number was subsequently increased to seven, and by Caesar to ten, although they continued to be called , a name which was still in use at the end of the 4th century. They were first created in 196 BC to superintend the feast on the Capitol, but their services were also requisitioned on the occasion of triumphs, imperial birthdays, the dedication of temples, games given by private individuals, and so forth, when entertainments were provided for the people, while the senate dined on the Capitol. Their number was later increased to seven (septemviri epulones). Three-man commissions were also appointed for purposes such as establishing colonies (triumviri coloniae deducendae) or distributing land. Triumviri mensarii served as public bankers; the full range of their financial functions in 216 BC, when the commission included two men of consular rank, has been the subject of debate. The term triumvirate is most commonly used by historians to refer to the First Triumvirate of Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Pompey the Great, and the Second Triumvirate (the ) of Octavianus (later Caesar Augustus), Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Tamil triumvirates Tamil Triumvirate refers to the triumvirate of Chola, Chera, and Pandya who dominated the politics of the ancient Tamil country. Sivaperuman, Murugan and Agathiyar are considered triumvirate of Tamil Language and Sangam Literature. Modern triumvirates The title was revived a few times for (short-lived) three-headed political 'magistratures' in post-feudal times. Ottoman Empire The Three Pashas also known as Ottoman Triumvirate effectively ruled the Ottoman Empire during World War I: Mehmed Talaat Pasha (1874–1921), the Grand Vizier (prime minister) and Minister of the Interior; Ismail Enver Pasha (1881–1922), the Minister of War; and Ahmed Djemal Pasha (1872–1922), the Minister of the Navy. Early-modern and modern France While French Huguenots had derisively bestowed the name Triumvirate on the alliance formed in 1561 between Catholic Francis, Duke of Guise, Anne de Montmorency, and Jacques Dalbon, Seigneur de Saint Andre during the French Wars of Religion, in later years the term would be used to describe other arrangements within France. At the end of the 1700s, when the French revolutionaries turned to several Roman Magistrature names for their new institutions, the three-headed collective Head of State was named Consulat, a term in use for two-headed magistratures since Antiquity; furthermore it included a "First Consul" who was not an equal, but the de facto solo head of state and government – a position Napoleon Bonaparte chose to convert openly into the First French Empire. Prior to Napoleon and during the Terror Robespierre, Louis de Saint-Just, and Couthon, as members of the governing Committee of Public Safety, were purported by some to have formed an unofficial triumvirate. Although officially all members of the committee shared equal power the three men's friendship and close ideological base led their detractors to declaim them as triumvirs which was used against them in the coup of 9 Thermidor. Pre-Independent India In the early days of the national struggle and before Gandhi, the Indian National Congress was known to be under Lal-Bal-Pal i.e. Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and the leader of the three Balgangadhar Tilak often dubbed Lokmanya Tilak. Modern Israel 2008–2009: Former Prime Minister Ehud Olmert, Defense Minister Ehud Barak, and Minister of Foreign Affairs Tzipi Livni were sometimes referred to as a triumvirate. 2012: The leadership of Shas, the ultra-orthodox Sepharadi political party of Israel, was given by its spiritual leader, Rabbi Ovadia Yosef and the Council of Torah Sages, to a triumvirate formed by the convicted Aryeh Deri, who decided to return to politics after a thirteen-year hiatus, the former party leader Eli Yishai and Ariel Atias. People's Republic of China Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and Liu Shaoqi had the biggest contribution to the foundation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 and are regarded as the three most influential members of the first generation of the Chinese communist leaders. Mao and Zhou managed to remain at the highest levels of power until their deaths in 1976. Unlike them Liu, who served as the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress and later as the President of the People's Republic of China, nominal de jure head of state, was purged in the cultural revolution in 1968. He died in late 1969 under harsh treatment. Instead of Liu Shaoqi, Zhu De is sometimes regarded as a member of the triumvirate of the leading Chinese potilicians alongside Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai. Mao, Zhou and Zhu were the only three original members of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party who remained in the Politburo from 1945 until their deaths in 1976 (though Zhu temporarily lost his membership between 1969-1973) and died while holding the highest party and state offices Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (Mao), Premier of the State Council (Zhou) and Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, the nominal head of state (Zhu). Benin 13 April 1970 until 26 October 1972: After the contentious 1970 presidential elections, the country of Benin (then known as the Republic of Dahomey) adopted a Presidential Council which included the three main political figures in the country: Hubert Maga, Justin Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, and Sourou-Migan Apithy. In addition, the formal office of President would rotate between the three of them beginning with Hubert Maga. After one successful change of leadership, military leader Mathieu Kérékou staged a coup and overthrew the Presidential Council becoming the leader of the country until 1991. Soviet Union See also List of Troikas in the Soviet Union May 1922 – April 1925: When Vladimir Lenin suffered his first stroke in May 1922, a Troika was established to govern the country in his place, although Lenin briefly returned to the leadership from 2 October 1922 until a severe stroke on 9 March 1923 ended Lenin's political career. The Troika consisted of Lev Kamenev, Joseph Stalin, and Grigory Zinoviev. The Troika broke up in April 1925, when Kamenev and Zinoviev found themselves in a minority over their belief that socialism could only be achieved internationally. Zinoviev and Kamenev joined forces with Leon Trotsky's Left Opposition in early 1926. Later, Kamenev, Zinoviev and Trotsky would all be murdered on Stalin's orders. 13 March – 26 June 1953: After the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953, power was shared between Lavrenty Beria, Georgy Malenkov, and Vyacheslav Molotov. 14 October 1964 – 16 June 1977: After the removal of Nikita Khrushchev in October 1964, the Soviet Union went through a period of collective leadership. Power was initially shared between Premier Alexei Kosygin, General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev and Chairman of the Presidium Anastas Mikoyan. Mikoyan was replaced by Nikolai Podgorny in 1965. Modern Italy In the Roman Republic (1849), the title of two sets of three joint chiefs of state in the year 1849: 29 March – 1 July 1849: Carlo Armellini (b. 1777 – d. 1863), Giuseppe Mazzini (b. 1805 – d. 1872), and Conte Aurelio Saffi (b. 1819 – d. 1890) 1–4 July 1849: Aurelio Saffi (again), Alessandro Calandrelli (b. 1805 – d. 1888), and Livio Mariani (no dates available) Almost immediately following the Roman Republic, the Red Triumvirate governed the restored Papal States from 1849 to 1850: 1 August 1849 – 12 April 1850: Cardinals Gabriele della Genga Sermattei (b. 1801 – d. 1861), Lodovico Altieri (b. 1805 – d. 1867), and (b. 1801 – d. 1877) Modern Greece After the downfall of the first King of Greece, the Bavarian Otto, on 23 October 1862, and Dimitrios Voulgaris' unsuccessful term (23 October 1862 – 30 January 1863) as president of the Provisional Government, a Triumvirate (30 January – 30 October 1863) was established consisting of the same Dimitrios Voulgaris, the renowned Admiral Konstantinos Kanaris and Benizelos Roufos, which acted as a regency until the arrival of the new monarch, the first "King of the Hellenes", George I. A triumvirate was established to head the Theriso revolt of 1905 in autonomous Crete, consisting of Eleftherios Venizelos (later Prime Minister of Greece) in charge of organisational matters, Konstantinos Foumis in charge of finances and Konstantinos Manos, the former mayor of Chania, in charge of military affairs. A triumvirate was set up during the First World War in September 1916, to head the "Provisional Government of National Defence" in Thessaloniki. It consisted of the popular liberal statesman Eleftherios Venizelos, General Panagiotis Danglis and Admiral Pavlos Koundouriotis. This "Triumvirate of National Defence" functioned as a collective head of government, although effective control was in Venizelos' hands. With the abdication of King Constantine I in June 1917 and the reunification of the country under Venizelos, the triumvirate was dissolved. The Triandria municipality in Thessaloniki is named after this triumvirate. A triumvirate was set up on 13 September 1922 to lead the military revolt against the royalist government in Athens in the aftermath of the Asia Minor Disaster. It was composed of Colonels Nikolaos Plastiras and Stylianos Gonatas, and Commander Dimitrios Fokas. The triumvirate assumed the government of Greece on 15 September, and would control the country until it laid down its powers on 2 January 1924. Plastiras however quickly became the dominant figure among the triumvirate, and was eventually labelled as the "Chief of the Revolution". A de facto triumvirate existed during the early years of the Greek military junta of 1967–1974, when the junta's three main leaders were Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos, Brigadier Stylianos Pattakos and Colonel Nikolaos Makarezos. With the increasing predominance of Papadopoulos from 1970 on, this triumvirate ceased to function. The Greek People's Liberation Army, active during the Axis Occupation of Greece, had a triadic leadership structure, consisting of the kapetánios ("captain", the unit's leader), the stratiotikós (the military specialist, usually a former Army officer) and the politikós (the political representative of the National Liberation Front). Argentina First Triumvirate (23 September 1811 – 8 October 1812): Feliciano Chiclana. Manuel de Sarratea. Juan José Paso, replaced by Juan Martín de Pueyrredón on 23 March 1812. Second Triumvirate (8 October 1812 – 31 January 1814): Nicolás Rodríguez Peña. Antonio Álvarez Jonte, replaced by Gervasio Antonio de Posadas on 19 August 1813. Juan José Paso, replaced by José Julián Pérez on 20 February 1813, and replaced by Juan Larrea on 5 November 1813. Third Triumvirate (18 April 1815 - 20 April 1815): José de San Martín. Matías de Irigoyen. Manuel de Sarratea. Military Junta (28 June 1966 - 29 June 1966): Pascual Pistarini. Benigno Ignacio Varela. Adolfo Teodoro Álvarez. Junta of Commanders of the Armed Forces (8 June 1970 - 18 June 1970): Pedro Alberto José Gnavi, President. Carlos Alberto Rey. Alejandro Lanusse. Junta of Commanders of the Armed Forces (23 March 1971 - 26 March 1971): Alejandro Lanusse, President. Pedro Alberto José Gnavi. Carlos Alberto Rey. Military Junta (24 March 1976 - 29 March 1976): Jorge Rafael Videla. Emilio Eduardo Massera. Orlando Ramón Agosti. The Americas Venezuela: by decree of the Caracas Junta and ratified in the Federal Constitution of 1811 the executive power was vested in "three individuals" (1810–12) The Eastern State of Uruguay had one triumvirate in 1853. The United Provinces of New Granada, now Colombia, and Panama, were headed by two triumvirates in the period known as the "Patria Boba" or Foolish Fatherland Interim Triumvirate, 5 October – 23 November 1814 José María del Castillo y Rada José Joaquín Camacho José Fernández Madrid Triumvirate of the United Provinces of New Granada, 23 November 1814 – October 1815 Custodio García Rovira Antonio Villavicencio, replaced Rovira during his second term as he could not preside over José Manuel Restrepo, was never sworn in. José Miguel Pey de Andrade, replaced Restrepo as he declined. 28 July 1815 Manuel Rodríguez Torices The Dominican Republic had two triumvirates, which were essentially three-member juntas: 29 May – 22 August 1866 – 1st Triumvirate (in rebellion against Buenaventura Báez from 1 May 1866): Pedro Antonio Pimentel (b. 1830 – d. 1874; formerly one of three "Generals-in-Chief" 23–24 January 1865) Gregorio Luperón (b. 1839 – d. 1897) PA Federico de Jesús García 26 September 1963 – 25 April 1965 – 2nd Triumvirate: Emilio de los Santos (b. 1903 – 22 December 1963) (chairman from 29 December 1963, succeeded by Donald Reid Cabral, b. 1923, UCN, new chairman) Manuel Enrique Tavares Espaillat (b. 1924 - d. 1984) Ramón Tapia Espinal (b. 1926 – d. 2002) : the political arrangement of "three men in a room", consisting of the Governor, Speaker of the New York State Assembly, and the Majority Leader of the New York State Senate Nicaragua (1972–74) Liberal-Conservative Junta of Roberto Martínez, Alfonso Lovo Cordero (liberals) and Fernando Agüero (conservative). Agüero resigned in 1973 and Edmundo Paguada was successor. (1823–24) Guadalupe Victoria, Nicolás Bravo and Celestino Negrete. European Union After the Lisbon Treaty came into force from 1 December 2009: President of the European Council - Charles Michel President of the European Commission - Ursula von der Leyen High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy - Josep Borrell Business slang Eric Schmidt, CEO of Google has referred to himself, along with founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin as part of a triumvirate, stating, "This triumvirate has made an informal deal to stick together for at least 20 years". Other triumvirates The word has been used as a term of convenience, though not an official title, for other groups of three in a similar position: Great Triumvirate (19th-century American politics – Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun) Great Triumvirate (Early 20th-century golf – Harry Vardon, James Braid, and J.H. Taylor) See also Constitution of the Roman Republic Council of Three (disambiguation) Decemvirate Diarchy Duumviri Monarchy Septemvir Tetrarchy Notes References Beck, Mansvelt. (1986). "The Fall of Han," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . Loewe, Michael. (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 103–222. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . 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217311	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick%20Pointer	Mick Pointer	Michael Pointer (born 22 July 1956) is an English drummer. He is known for his work in the neo-progressive rock bands Marillion and Arena. Away from music, he has also worked as a kitchen designer. Career Pointer was the original drummer and a founding member of Marillion. He appeared on the band's debut EP Market Square Heroes (1982) and debut LP Script for a Jester's Tear (1983). He was sacked from the band following the album's UK tour and ultimately replaced by Ian Mosley. Lead singer Fish later told Classic Rock that Pointer had been dismissed because he had "never liked Mick's drumming", "his timing was awful" and "everybody was developing except him". After his acrimonious departure from Marillion, Pointer did not perform music for another ten years and instead became a kitchen designer, something he had served an apprenticeship in as a teenager. Pointer eventually founded the British progressive band Arena, in which he continues to play with keyboardist Clive Nolan (from Pendragon). He is Nolan's business partner in his record label. Pointer later gathered a band for "Mick Pointer's Script for a Jester's Tear tour", comprising Brian Cummings (Carpet Crawlers) on vocals, Nick Barrett (Pendragon) on lead guitar, Mike Varty (Credo) on keyboards and Ian Salmon (Arena) on bass guitar, to perform Marillion's debut album for its 25th anniversary. Pointer had originally intended to call it "Mick Pointer, ex-Marillion" but the remaining members of the band objected to him using the name and threatened him with legal action. References External links Official site of Arena 1956 births Living people British male drummers English rock drummers Marillion members Arena (band) members	[ -0.42666301131248474, 0.33261361718177795, -0.5232756733894348, -0.9413005709648132, 0.3268291652202606, 0.961715042591095, -0.05775929242372513, -0.34210386872291565, -0.7547118663787842, 0.3362768292427063, 0.42927786707878113, 0.6895591616630554, -0.6526588797569275, -0.7486135363578796, -0.05642658844590187, 0.20364093780517578, 0.17845095694065094, -1.0236769914627075, -0.6596347093582153, -0.33818620443344116, 1.009146809577942, 0.0877331793308258, -0.05083261430263519, 0.6126060485839844, -0.12035224586725235, 0.4283759593963623, -0.24668313562870026, -0.2381828874349594, -0.4581312835216522, -0.5948613882064819, 0.326890230178833, 0.2674364447593689, 0.8731983304023743, -0.7717035412788391, 0.22602692246437073, 0.11420641839504242, -0.4062005281448364, 0.1573161482810974, -0.33396202325820923, 0.25094717741012573, 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217313	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic%20matrix	Stochastic matrix	In mathematics, a stochastic matrix is a square matrix used to describe the transitions of a Markov chain. Each of its entries is a nonnegative real number representing a probability. It is also called a probability matrix, transition matrix, substitution matrix, or Markov matrix. The stochastic matrix was first developed by Andrey Markov at the beginning of the 20th century, and has found use throughout a wide variety of scientific fields, including probability theory, statistics, mathematical finance and linear algebra, as well as computer science and population genetics. There are several different definitions and types of stochastic matrices: A right stochastic matrix is a real square matrix, with each row summing to 1. A left stochastic matrix is a real square matrix, with each column summing to 1. A doubly stochastic matrix is a square matrix of nonnegative real numbers with each row and column summing to 1. In the same vein, one may define a stochastic vector (also called probability vector) as a vector whose elements are nonnegative real numbers which sum to 1. Thus, each row of a right stochastic matrix (or column of a left stochastic matrix) is a stochastic vector. A common convention in English language mathematics literature is to use row vectors of probabilities and right stochastic matrices rather than column vectors of probabilities and left stochastic matrices; this article follows that convention. History The stochastic matrix was developed alongside the Markov chain by Andrey Markov, a Russian mathematician and professor at St. Petersburg University who first published on the topic in 1906. His initial intended uses were for linguistic analysis and other mathematical subjects like card shuffling, but both Markov chains and matrices rapidly found use in other fields. Stochastic matrices were further developed by scholars like Andrey Kolmogorov, who expanded their possibilities by allowing for continuous-time Markov processes. By the 1950s, articles using stochastic matrices had appeared in the fields of econometrics and circuit theory. In the 1960s, stochastic matrices appeared in an even wider variety of scientific works, from behavioral science to geology to residential planning. In addition, much mathematical work was also done through these decades to improve the range of uses and functionality of the stochastic matrix and Markovian processes more generally. From the 1970s to present, stochastic matrices have found use in almost every field that requires formal analysis, from structural science to medical diagnosis to personnel management. In addition, stochastic matrices have found wide use in land change modeling, usually under the term Markov matrix. Definition and properties A stochastic matrix describes a Markov chain over a finite state space S with cardinality . If the probability of moving from to in one time step is , the stochastic matrix is given by using as the -th row and -th column element, e.g., Since the total of transition probability from a state to all other states must be 1, thus this matrix is a right stochastic matrix. The above elementwise sum across each row of may be more concisely written as , where is the -dimensional vector of all ones. Using this, it can be seen that the product of two right stochastic matrices and is also right stochastic: . In general, the -th power of a right stochastic matrix is also right stochastic. The probability of transitioning from to in two steps is then given by the -th element of the square of : In general, the probability transition of going from any state to another state in a finite Markov chain given by the matrix in steps is given by . An initial probability distribution of states, specifying where the system might be initially and with what probabilities, is given as a row vector. A stationary probability vector is defined as a distribution, written as a row vector, that does not change under application of the transition matrix; that is, it is defined as a probability distribution on the set which is also a row eigenvector of the probability matrix, associated with eigenvalue 1: It can be shown that the spectral radius of any stochastic matrix is one. By the Gershgorin circle theorem, all of the eigenvalues of a stochastic matrix have absolute values less than or equal to one. Additionally, every right stochastic matrix has an "obvious" column eigenvector associated to the eigenvalue 1: the vector , whose coordinates are all equal to 1 (just observe that multiplying a row of times equals the sum of the entries of the row and, hence, it equals 1). As left and right eigenvalues of a square matrix are the same, every stochastic matrix has, at least, a row eigenvector associated to the eigenvalue 1 and the largest absolute value of all its eigenvalues is also 1. Finally, the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem (applied to the compact convex set of all probability distributions of the finite set ) implies that there is some left eigenvector which is also a stationary probability vector. On the other hand, the Perron–Frobenius theorem also ensures that every irreducible stochastic matrix has such a stationary vector, and that the largest absolute value of an eigenvalue is always 1. However, this theorem cannot be applied directly to such matrices because they need not be irreducible. In general, there may be several such vectors. However, for a matrix with strictly positive entries (or, more generally, for an irreducible aperiodic stochastic matrix), this vector is unique and can be computed by observing that for any we have the following limit, where is the -th element of the row vector . Among other things, this says that the long-term probability of being in a state is independent of the initial state . That both of these computations give the same stationary vector is a form of an ergodic theorem, which is generally true in a wide variety of dissipative dynamical systems: the system evolves, over time, to a stationary state. Intuitively, a stochastic matrix represents a Markov chain; the application of the stochastic matrix to a probability distribution redistributes the probability mass of the original distribution while preserving its total mass. If this process is applied repeatedly, the distribution converges to a stationary distribution for the Markov chain. Example: the cat and mouse Suppose there is a timer and a row of five adjacent boxes, with a cat in the first box and a mouse in the fifth box at time zero. The cat and the mouse both jump to a random adjacent box when the timer advances. E.g. if the cat is in the second box and the mouse in the fourth one, the probability is one fourth that the cat will be in the first box and the mouse in the fifth after the timer advances. If the cat is in the first box and the mouse in the fifth one, the probability is one that the cat will be in box two and the mouse will be in box four after the timer advances. The cat eats the mouse if both end up in the same box, at which time the game ends. The random variable K gives the number of time steps the mouse stays in the game. The Markov chain that represents this game contains the following five states specified by the combination of positions (cat,mouse). Note that while a naive enumeration of states would list 25 states, many are impossible either because the mouse can never have a lower index than the cat (as that would mean the mouse occupied the cat's box and survived to move past it), or because the sum of the two indices will always have even parity. In addition, the 3 possible states that lead to the mouse's death are combined into one: State 1: (1,3) State 2: (1,5) State 3: (2,4) State 4: (3,5) State 5: game over: (2,2), (3,3) & (4,4). We use a stochastic matrix, (below), to represent the transition probabilities of this system (rows and columns in this matrix are indexed by the possible states listed above, with the pre-transition state as the row and post-transition state as the column). For instance, starting from state 1 – 1st row – it is impossible for the system to stay in this state, so ; the system also cannot transition to state 2 – because the cat would have stayed in the same box – so , and by a similar argument for the mouse, . Transitions to states 3 or 5 are allowed, and thus . Long-term averages No matter what the initial state, the cat will eventually catch the mouse (with probability 1) and a stationary state π = (0,0,0,0,1) is approached as a limit. To compute the long-term average or expected value of a stochastic variable , for each state and time there is a contribution of . Survival can be treated as a binary variable with for a surviving state and for the terminated state. The states with do not contribute to the long-term average. Phase-type representation As State 5 is an absorbing state, the distribution of time to absorption is discrete phase-type distributed. Suppose the system starts in state 2, represented by the vector . The states where the mouse has perished don't contribute to the survival average so state five can be ignored. The initial state and transition matrix can be reduced to, and where is the identity matrix, and represents a column matrix of all ones that acts as a sum over states. Since each state is occupied for one step of time the expected time of the mouse's survival is just the sum of the probability of occupation over all surviving states and steps in time, Higher order moments are given by See also Density matrix Markov kernel, the equivalent of a stochastic matrix over a continuous state space Matrix difference equation Models of DNA evolution Muirhead's inequality Probabilistic automaton References zh-yue:轉移矩陣 Matrices Markov models	[ -0.20860208570957184, -0.022851578891277313, -0.39310452342033386, 0.04323587566614151, -0.3803044557571411, 0.30443423986434937, 0.18355081975460052, -0.22224931418895721, -0.27924463152885437, -0.44008439779281616, -0.33364588022232056, -0.0994272232055664, -0.6399349570274353, 0.5425098538398743, 0.23386698961257935, -0.27040326595306396, 0.5824298858642578, 0.1656995266675949, 0.09380102157592773, -0.4559522271156311, -0.064876988530159, 0.7688400745391846, 0.40888679027557373, -0.07030610740184784, 0.1478825807571411, 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217315	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray	Cray	Cray Inc., a subsidiary of Hewlett Packard Enterprise, is an American supercomputer manufacturer headquartered in Seattle, Washington. It also manufactures systems for data storage and analytics. Several Cray supercomputer systems are listed in the TOP500, which ranks the most powerful supercomputers in the world. Cray manufactures its products in part in Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, where its founder, Seymour Cray, was born and raised. The company also has offices in Bloomington, Minnesota (which have been converted to Hewlett Packard Enterprise offices), and numerous other sales, service, engineering, and R&D locations around the world. The company's predecessor, Cray Research, Inc. (CRI), was founded in 1972 by computer designer Seymour Cray. Seymour Cray later formed Cray Computer Corporation (CCC) in 1989, which went bankrupt in 1995. Cray Research was acquired by Silicon Graphics (SGI) in 1996. Cray Inc. was formed in 2000 when Tera Computer Company purchased the Cray Research Inc. business from SGI and adopted the name of its acquisition. The company was acquired by Hewlett Packard Enterprise in 2019 for $1.3 billion. History Background: 1950 to 1972 Seymour Cray began working in the computing field in 1950 when he joined Engineering Research Associates (ERA) in Saint Paul, Minnesota. There, he helped to create the ERA 1103. ERA eventually became part of UNIVAC, and began to be phased out. He left the company in 1960, a few years after former ERA employees set up Control Data Corporation (CDC). He initially worked out of the CDC headquarters in Minneapolis, but grew upset by constant interruptions by managers. He eventually set up a lab at his home town in Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, about 85 miles to the east. Cray had a string of successes at CDC, including the CDC 6600 and CDC 7600. Cray Research Inc. and Cray Computer Corporation: 1972 to 1996 When CDC ran into financial difficulties in the late 1960s, development funds for Cray's follow-on CDC 8600 became scarce. When he was told the project would have to be put "on hold" in 1972, Cray left to form his own company, Cray Research, Inc. Copying the previous arrangement, Cray kept the research and development facilities in Chippewa Falls, and put the business headquarters in Minneapolis. The company's first product, the Cray-1 supercomputer, was a major success because it was significantly faster than all other computers at the time. The first system was sold within a month for US$8.8 million. Seymour Cray continued working, this time on the Cray-2, though it only ended up being marginally faster than the Cray X-MP, developed by another team at the company. Cray soon left the CEO position to become an independent contractor. He started a new Very Large Scale Integration technology lab for the Cray-2 in Boulder, Colorado, Cray Laboratories, in 1979, which closed in 1982; undaunted, Cray later headed a similar spin-off in 1989, Cray Computer Corporation (CCC) in Colorado Springs, Colorado, where he worked on the Cray-3 project—the first attempt at major use of gallium arsenide (GaAs) semiconductors in computing. However, the changing political climate (collapse of the Warsaw Pact and the end of the Cold War) resulted in poor sales prospects. Ultimately, only one Cray-3 was delivered, and a number of follow-on designs were never completed. The company filed for bankruptcy in 1995. CCC's remains then became Cray's final corporation, SRC Computers, Inc. Cray Research continued development along a separate line of computers, originally with lead designer Steve Chen and the Cray X-MP. After Chen's departure, the Cray Y-MP, Cray C90 and Cray T90 were developed on the original Cray-1 architecture but achieved much greater performance via multiple additional processors, faster clocks, and wider vector pipes. The uncertainty of the Cray-2 project gave rise to a number of Cray-object-code compatible "Crayette" firms: Scientific Computer Systems (SCS), American Supercomputer, Supertek, and perhaps one other firm. These firms did not mean to compete against Cray and therefore attempted less expensive, slower CMOS versions of the X-MP with the release of the COS operating system (SCS) and the CFT Fortran compiler; they also considered United States Department of Energy national laboratories (LANL/LLNL) developed Cray Time Sharing System operating system as well before joining the broader trend toward adoption of Unixes. A series of massively parallel computers from Thinking Machines Corporation, Kendall Square Research, Intel, nCUBE, MasPar and Meiko Scientific took over the 1980s high performance market. At first, Cray Research denigrated such approaches by complaining that developing software to effectively use the machines was difficult – a true complaint in the era of the ILLIAC IV, but becoming less so each day. Cray eventually realized that the approach was likely the only way forward and started a five-year project to capture the lead in this area: the plan's result was the Digital Equipment Corporation DEC Alpha-based Cray T3D and Cray T3E series, which left Cray as the only remaining supercomputer vendor in the market besides NEC's SX architecture by 2000. Most sites with a Cray installation were considered a member of the "exclusive club" of Cray operators. Cray computers were considered quite prestigious because Crays were extremely expensive machines, and the number of units sold was small compared to ordinary mainframes. This perception extended to countries as well: to boost the perception of exclusivity, Cray Research's marketing department had promotional neckties made with a mosaic of tiny national flags illustrating the "club of Cray-operating countries". New vendors introduced small supercomputers, known as minisupercomputers (as opposed to superminis) during the late 1980s and early 1990s, which out-competed low-end Cray machines in the market. The Convex Computer series, as well as a number of small-scale parallel machines from companies like Pyramid Technology and Alliant Computer Systems were particularly popular. One such vendor was Supertek, whose S-1 machine was an air-cooled CMOS implementation of the X-MP processor. Cray purchased Supertek in 1990 and sold the S-1 as the Cray XMS, but the machine proved problematic; meanwhile, the not-yet-completed S-2, a Y-MP clone, was later offered as the Cray Y-MP (later becoming the Cray EL90) which started to sell in reasonable numbers in 1991–92—to mostly smaller companies, notably in the oil exploration business. This line evolved into the Cray J90 and eventually the Cray SV1 in 1998. In December 1991, Cray purchased some of the assets of Floating Point Systems, another minisuper vendor that had moved into the file server market with its SPARC-based Model 500 line. These symmetric multiprocessing machines scaled up to 64 processors and ran a modified version of the Solaris operating system from Sun Microsystems. Cray set up Cray Research Superservers, Inc. (later the Cray Business Systems Division) to sell this system as the Cray S-MP, later replacing it with the Cray CS6400. In spite of these machines being some of the most powerful available when applied to appropriate workloads, Cray was never very successful in this market, possibly due to it being so foreign to its existing market niche. CCC was building the Cray-3/SSS when it went into Chapter 11 in March 1995. Silicon Graphics ownership: 1996 to 2000 Cray Research was acquired by Silicon Graphics (SGI) for $740 million in February 1996. In May 1996, SGI sold the Superservers business to Sun. Sun then turned the UltraSPARC-based Starfire project then under development into the extremely successful Sun Enterprise 10000 range of servers. SGI used several Cray technologies in its attempt to move from the graphics workstation market into supercomputing. Key among these was the use of the Cray-developed HIPPI computer bus and details of the interconnects used in the T3 series. SGI's long-term strategy was to merge its high-end server line with Cray's product lines in two phases, code-named SN1 and SN2 (SN standing for "Scalable Node"). The SN1 was intended to replace the T3E and SGI Origin 2000 systems and later became the SN-MIPS or SGI Origin 3000 architecture. The SN2 was originally intended to unify all high-end/supercomputer product lines including the T90 into a single architecture. This goal was never achieved before SGI divested itself of the Cray business, and the SN2 name was later associated with the SN-IA or SGI Altix 3000 architecture. In October 1996, Founder Seymour Cray died as a result of a traffic accident. Under SGI ownership, one new Cray model line, the Cray SV1, was launched in 1998. This was a clustered SMP vector processor architecture, developed from J90 technology. On March 2, 2000, Cray was sold to Tera Computer Company, which was renamed Cray Inc. Post-Tera merger: 2000 to 2019 After the Tera merger, the Tera MTA system was relaunched as the Cray MTA-2. This was not a commercial success and shipped to only two customers. Cray Inc. also unsuccessfully badged the NEC SX-6 supercomputer as the Cray SX-6 and acquired exclusive rights to sell the SX-6 in the U.S., Canada and Mexico. In 2002, Cray Inc. announced its first new model, the Cray X1 combined architecture vector processor / massively parallel supercomputer. Previously known as the SV2, the X1 is the end result of the earlier SN2 concept originated during the SGI years. In May 2004, Cray was announced to be one of the partners in the United States Department of Energy's fastest-computer-in-the-world project to build a 50 teraFlops machine for the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Cray was sued in 2002 by Isothermal Systems Research for patent infringement. The suit claimed that Cray used ISR's patented technology in the development of the Cray X1. The lawsuit was settled in 2003. As of November 2004, the Cray X1 had a maximum measured performance of 5.9 teraflops, being the 29th fastest supercomputer in the world. Since then the X1 has been superseded by the X1E, with faster dual-core processors. On October 4, 2004, the company announced the Cray XD1 range of entry-level supercomputers which use dual-core 64-bit Advanced Micro Devices Opteron central processing units running Linux. This system was previously known as the OctigaBay 12K before Cray's acquisition of that company. The XD1 provided one Xilinx Virtex II Pro field-programmable gate array (FPGA) with each node of four Opteron processors. The FPGAs could be configured to embody various digital hardware designs and could augment the processing or input/output capabilities of the Opteron processors. Furthermore, each FPGA contains a pair of PowerPC 405 processors which can add to the already considerable power of a single node. The Cray XD1, although moderately successful, was eventually discontinued. In 2004, Cray completed the Red Storm system for Sandia National Laboratories. Red Storm was to become the jumping-off point for a string of successful products that eventually revitalized Cray in supercomputing. Red Storm had processors clustered in 96 unit cabinets, a theoretical maximum of 300 cabinets in a machine, and a design speed of 41.5 teraflops. Red Storm also included an innovative new design for network interconnects, which was dubbed SeaStar and destined to be the centerpiece of succeeding innovations by Cray. The Cray XT3 massively parallel supercomputer became a commercialized version of Red Storm, similar in many respects to the earlier T3E architecture, but, like the XD1, using AMD Opteron processors. The Cray XT4, introduced in 2006 added support for DDR2 memory, newer dual-core and future quad-core Opteron processors and utilized a second generation SeaStar2 communication coprocessor. It also included an option for FPGA chips to be plugged directly into processor sockets, unlike the Cray XD1, which required a dedicated socket for the FPGA coprocessor. On August 8, 2005, Peter Ungaro was appointed CEO. Ungaro had joined Cray in August 2003 as Vice President of Sales and Marketing and had been made Cray's President in March 2005. On November 13, 2006, Cray announced a new system, the Cray XMT, based on the MTA series of machines. This system combined multi-threaded processors, as used on the original Tera systems, and the SeaStar2 interconnect used by the XT4. By reusing ASICs, boards, cabinets, and system software used by the comparatively higher volume XT4 product, the cost of making the very specialized MTA system can be reduced. A second generation of the XMT is scheduled for release in 2011, with the first system ordered by the Swiss National Supercomputing Center (CSCS). In 2006, Cray announced a vision of products dubbed Adaptive Supercomputing. The first generation of such systems, dubbed the Rainier Project, used a common interconnect network (SeaStar2), programming environment, cabinet design, and I/O subsystem. These systems included the existing XT4 and the XMT. The second generation, launched as the XT5h, allowed a system to combine compute elements of various types into a common system, sharing infrastructure. The XT5h combined Opteron, vector, multithreaded, and FPGA compute processors in a single system. In April 2008, Cray and Intel announced they would collaborate on future supercomputer systems. This partnership produced the Cray CX1 system, launched in September the same year. This was a deskside blade server system, comprising up to 16 dual- or quad-core Intel Xeon processors, with either Microsoft Windows HPC Server 2008 or Red Hat Enterprise Linux installed. By 2009, the largest computer system Cray had delivered was the Cray XT5 system at National Center for Computational Sciences at Oak Ridge National Laboratories. This system, with over 224,000 processing cores, was dubbed Jaguar and was the fastest computer in the world as measured by the LINPACK benchmark at the speed of 1.75 petaflops until being surpassed by the Tianhe-1A in October 2010. It was the first system to exceed a sustained performance of 1 petaflops on a 64-bit scientific application. In May 2010, the Cray XE6 supercomputer was announced. The Cray XE6 system had at its core the new Gemini system interconnect. This new interconnect included a true global-address space and represented a return to the T3E feature set that had been so successful with Cray Research. This product was a successful follow-on to the XT3, XT4 and XT5 products. The first multi-cabinet XE6 system was shipped in July 2010. The next generation Cascade systems were designed make use of future multicore and/or manycore processors from vendors such as Intel and NVIDIA. Cascade was scheduled to be introduced in early 2013 and designed to use the next-generation network chip and follow-on to Gemini, code named Aries. In early 2010, Cray also introduced the Cray CX1000, a rack-mounted system with a choice of compute-based, GPU-based, or SMP-based chassis. The CX1 and CX1000 product lines were sold until late 2011. In 2011, Cray announced the Cray XK6 hybrid supercomputer. The Cray XK6 system, capable of scaling to 500,000 processors and 50 petaflops of peak performance, combines Cray's Gemini interconnect, AMD's multi-core scalar processors, and NVIDIA's Tesla GPGPU processors. In October 2012 Cray announced the Cray XK7 which supports the NVIDIA Kepler GPGPU and announced that the ORNL Jaguar system would be upgraded to an XK7 (renamed Titan) and capable of over 20 petaflops. Titan was the world's fastest supercomputer as measured by the LINPACK benchmark until the introduction of the Tianhe-2 in 2013, which is substantially faster. In 2011 Cray also announced it had been awarded the $188 million Blue Waters contract with the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, after IBM had pulled out of the delivery. This system was delivered in 2012 and was the largest system to date, in terms of cabinets and general-purpose x86 processors, that Cray had ever delivered. In November 2011, the Cray Sonexion 1300 Data Storage System was introduced and signaled Cray's entry into the high performance storage business. This product used modular technology and a Lustre file system. In 2011, Cray launched the OpenACC parallel programming standard organization. However, in 2019 Cray announced that it was deprecating OpenACC, and will support OpenMP. In April 2012, Cray Inc. announced the sale of its interconnect hardware development program and related intellectual property to Intel Corporation for $140 million. On November 9, 2012, Cray announced the acquisition of Appro International, Inc., a California-based privately held developer of advanced scalable supercomputing solutions. Currently the #3 provider on the Top100 supercomputer list, Appro builds some of the world's most advanced high performance computing (HPC) cluster systems. In 2012, Cray opened a subsidiary in China. Subsidiary of Hewlett Packard Enterprise: 2019-present On September 25, 2019, Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE) acquired the company for $1.3 billion. In October 2020, HPE was awarded the contract to build the pre-exascale EuroHPC computer LUMI, in Kaajani, Finland. The contract, worth €144.5 million, is for an HPE Cray EX system, with a theoretical maximum performance of 550 petaflops. Once fully operational, LUMI will become one of the fastest supercomputers in the world. References Further reading External links Comprehensive site with details and history of machines, sales documents, Cray Channels magazine and FAQ notes Cray Manuals Library @ Computing History Cray Manuals at bitsavers.org Historic Cray Research Marketing Materials at the Computer History Museum Cray headquarters is at coordinates 2019 mergers and acquisitions Manufacturing companies based in Seattle Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq Computer companies established in 1972 American companies established in 1972 1995 initial public offerings Computer companies of the United States Computer hardware companies Silicon Graphics Hewlett-Packard acquisitions Hewlett-Packard Enterprise acquisitions	[ -0.4136919677257538, 0.7863001227378845, 0.008854913525283337, -0.1554621160030365, -0.2448066771030426, 0.4831216335296631, -0.2662709355354309, 0.3173593282699585, -0.38526785373687744, 0.15372496843338013, 0.005228170193731785, 0.3951208293437958, 0.4067540764808655, 0.9997403025627136, 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217316	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chough	Chough	There are two species of passerine birds commonly called chough ( ) that constitute the genus Pyrrhocorax of the Corvidae (crow) family of birds. These are the red-billed chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), and the Alpine chough (or yellow-billed chough) (Pyrrhocorax graculus). The white-winged chough of Australia, despite its name, is not a true chough but rather a member of the family Corcoracidae and only distantly related. The choughs have black plumage and brightly coloured legs, feet, and bills, and are resident in the mountains of southern Eurasia and North Africa. They have long broad wings and perform spectacular aerobatics. Both species pair for life and display fidelity to their breeding sites, which are usually caves or crevices in a cliff face. They build a lined stick nest and lay three to five eggs. They feed, usually in flocks, on short grazed grassland, taking mainly invertebrate prey, supplemented by vegetable material or food from human habitation, especially in winter. Changes in agricultural practices, which have led to local population declines and range fragmentation, are the main threats to this genus, although neither species is threatened globally. Taxonomy The first member of the genus to be described was the red-billed chough, named as Upupa pyrrhocorax by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758. His genus Upupa contained species that had a long curved bill and a short blunt tongue. These included the northern bald ibis and the hoopoe, birds now known to be completely unrelated to the choughs. The Alpine chough was described as Corvus graculus by Linnaeus in the 1766 edition of the Systema Naturae. Although Corvus is the crow genus to which the choughs' relatives belong, they were considered sufficiently distinctive to be moved to the new genus, Pyrrhocorax, by English ornithologist Marmaduke Tunstall in his 1771 Ornithologia Britannica, The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek purrhos (, ‘flame-coloured’) and korax (, ‘Raven, crow’). "Chough" was originally an alternative onomatopoeic name for the jackdaw, Corvus monedula, based on its call. The similar red-billed chough, formerly particularly common in Cornwall, became known initially as "Cornish chough" and then just "chough", the name transferring from one species to the other. The fossil record from the Pleistocene of Europe includes a form similar to the Alpine chough, and sometimes categorised as an extinct subspecies of that bird, and a prehistoric form of the red-billed chough, P. p. primigenius. There are eight generally recognised extant subspecies of red-billed chough, and two of Alpine, although all differ only slightly from the nominate forms. The greater subspecies diversity in the red-billed species arises from an early divergence of the Asian and geographically isolated Ethiopian races from the western forms. The closest relative of the choughs as indicated by a study of molecular phylogeny is the ratchet-tailed treepie (Temnurus temnurus) and they form a clade that is sister to the remaining living members of the corvidae. The genus Pyrrhocorax species differ from Corvus in that they have brightly coloured bills and feet, smooth, not scaled tarsi and very short, dense nasal feathers. Choughs have uniformly black plumage, lacking any paler areas as seen in some of their relatives. The two Pyrrhocorax are the main hosts of two specialist chough fleas, Frontopsylla frontalis and F. laetus, not normally found on other corvids. The Australian white-winged chough, Corcorax melanorhamphos, despite its similar shape and habits, is only distantly related to the true choughs, and is an example of convergent evolution. Distribution and habitat Choughs breed in mountains, from Morocco and Spain eastwards through southern Europe and the Alps, across Central Asia and the Himalayas to western China. The Alpine chough is also found in Corsica and Crete, and the red-billed chough has populations in Ireland, the UK, the Isle of Man, and two areas of the Ethiopian Highlands. Both species are non-migratory residents throughout their range, only occasionally wandering to neighbouring countries. These birds are mountain specialists, although red-billed choughs also use coastal sea cliffs in Ireland, Great Britain, and Brittany, feeding on adjacent short grazed grassland or machair; the small population on La Palma, one of the Canary Islands, is also coastal. The red-billed chough more typically breeds in mountains above in Europe, in North Africa and in the Himalayas. In that mountain range it reaches in the summer, and has been recorded at altitude on Mount Everest. The Alpine chough breeds above in Europe, in Morocco, and in the Himalayas. It has nested at , higher than any other bird species, and it has been observed following mountaineers ascending Mount Everest at an altitude of . Where the two species occur in the same mountains, the Alpine species tends to breed at a higher elevation than its relative, since it is better adapted for a diet at high altitudes. Description The choughs are medium-sized corvids; the red-billed chough is 39–40 centimetres (15–16 in) in length with a 73–90 centimetres (29–35 in) wingspan, and the Alpine chough averages slightly smaller at 37–39 (14.5–15.5 in) length with a wingspan. These birds have black plumage similar to that of many Corvus crows, but they are readily distinguished from members of that genus by their brightly coloured bills and legs. The Alpine chough has a yellow bill and the red-billed chough has a long, curved, red bill; both species have red legs as adults. The sexes are similar, but the juvenile of each species has a duller bill and legs than the adult and its plumage lacks the glossiness seen in older birds. Other physical distinctions are summarised in the table below. The two choughs are distinguishable from each other by their bill colour, and in flight the long broad wings and short tail of the red-billed give it a silhouette quite different from its slightly smaller yellow-billed relative. Both species fly with loose deep wing beats, and frequently use their manoeuvrability to perform acrobatic displays, soaring in the updraughts at cliff faces then diving and rolling with fanned tail and folded wings. The red-billed chough's loud, ringing chee-ow call is similar in character to that of other corvids, particularly the jackdaw, although it is clearer and louder than the call of that species. In contrast, the Alpine chough has rippling and whistled sweeeooo calls quite unlike the crows. Small subspecies of both choughs have higher frequency calls than larger races, as predicted by the inverse relationship between body size and frequency. Behaviour and ecology Breeding Choughs are monogamous, and show high partner and site fidelity. Both species build a bulky nest of roots, sticks and plant stems lined with grass, fine twiglets or hair. It is constructed on a ledge, in a cave or similar fissure in a cliff face, or in man-made locations like abandoned buildings, quarries or dams. Red-billed will also sometimes use occupied buildings such as Mongolian monasteries. The choughs are not colonial, although in suitable habitat several pairs may nest in close proximity. Both species lay 3–5 normally whitish eggs blotched with brown or grey, which are incubated by the female alone. The chicks hatch after two to three weeks. Red-billed chough chicks are almost naked, but the chicks of the higher altitude Alpine chough hatch with a dense covering of natal down. The chicks are fed by both parents and fledge in 29–31 days after hatching for Alpine chough, and 31–41 days for red-billed. The Alpine chough lays its eggs about one month later than its relative, although breeding success and reproductive behaviour are similar. The similarities between the two species presumably arose because of the same strong environmental constraints on breeding behaviour. The first-year survival rate of the juvenile red-billed chough is 72.5 percent, and for the Alpine it is 77%. The annual adult survival rate is 83–92% for Alpine, but is unknown for red-billed. Feeding In the summer, both choughs feed mainly on invertebrates such as beetles, snails, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and fly larvae. Ants are a favoured food of the red-billed chough. Prey items are taken from short grazed pasture, or in the case of coastal populations of red-billed chough, areas where plant growth is hindered by exposure to coastal salt spray or poor soils. The chough's bill may be used to pick insects off the surface, or to dig for grubs and other invertebrates. The red-billed chough typically excavates to in the thin soils of its feeding areas, but it may dig to in suitable conditions. Plant matter is also eaten, and red-billed chough will take fallen grain where the opportunity arises; it has been reported as damaging barley crops by breaking off the ripening heads to extract the corn. Alpine choughs rely more on fruit and berries at times of year when animal prey is limited, and will readily supplement their winter diet with food provided by tourist activities in mountain regions, including ski resorts, refuse dumps and picnic areas. Both Pyrrhocorax species feed in flocks on open areas, often some distance from the breeding cliffs, particularly in winter. Feeding trips may cover distance and in altitude. In the Alps, the development of skiing above has enabled more Alpine choughs to remain at high levels in winter. Where their ranges overlap, the two chough species may feed together in the summer, although there is only limited competition for food. An Italian study showed that the vegetable part of the winter diet for the red-billed chough was almost exclusively Gagea bulbs, whilst the Alpine chough took berries and hips. In June, red-billed choughs fed mainly on caterpillars whereas Alpine choughs ate cranefly pupae. Later in the summer, the Alpine chough consumed large numbers of grasshoppers, while the red-billed chough added cranefly pupae, fly larvae and beetles to its diet. In the eastern Himalayas in November, Alpine choughs occur mainly in Juniper forests where they feed on juniper berries, differing ecologically from the red-billed choughs in the same region and at the same time of year, which dig for food in the soil of the villages' terraced pastures. Natural threats Predators of the choughs include the peregrine falcon, golden eagle and Eurasian eagle-owl, while the common raven will take nestlings. In northern Spain, red-billed choughs preferentially nest near lesser kestrel colonies; the falcon, which eats only insects, provides a degree of protection against larger predators, and the chough benefits in terms of a higher breeding success. The red-billed chough is occasionally parasitised by the great spotted cuckoo, a brood parasite for which the Eurasian magpie is the primary host. The choughs host bird fleas, including two Frontopsylla species which are Pyrrhocorax specialist. Other parasites recorded on choughs include a cestode Choanotaenia pirinica, and various species of chewing lice in the genera Brueelia, Menacanthus and Philopterus. Blood parasites such as Plasmodium have been found in red-billed choughs, but this is uncommon, and apparently does little harm. Parasitism levels are much lower than in some other passerine groups. Status Both Pyrrhocorax species have extensive geographical ranges and large populations; neither is thought to approach the thresholds for the global population decline criteria of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and they are therefore evaluated as being of Least Concern. However, some populations, particularly on islands such as Corsica and La Palma are small and isolated. Both choughs occupied more extensive ranges in the past, reaching to more southerly and lower altitude areas than at present, with the Alpine chough breeding in Europe as far south as southern Italy, and both the decline and range fragmentation continue. Red-billed choughs have lost ground in most of Europe, and Alpine choughs have lost many breeding sites in the east of the continent. In the Canary Islands, the red-billed chough is now extinct on two of the islands on which it formerly bred, and the Alpine was lost from the archipelago altogether. The causes of the decline include the fragmentation and loss of open grasslands to scrub or human activities such as the construction of ski resorts, and a longer-term threat comes from global warming which would cause the species' preferred Alpine climate zone to shift to higher, more restricted areas, or locally to disappear entirely. The red-billed chough, which breeds at lower levels, has been more affected by human activity, and the declines away from its main Alpine breeding areas have seen it categorised as "vulnerable" in Europe. Only in Spain is it still common, and it has recently expanded its range in that country by nesting in old buildings in areas close to its traditional mountain breeding sites. In culture Although these are mainly mountain species with limited interactions with humans, the red-billed chough has a coastal population in the far west of its range, and has cultural connections particularly with Cornwall, where it appears on the Cornish Coat of Arms. A legend from that county says that King Arthur did not die but was transformed into a red-billed chough, and hence killing this bird was unlucky. The red-billed chough was formerly reputed to be a habitual thief of small objects from houses, including burning wood or lighted candles, which it would use to set fire to haystacks or thatched roofs. As a high altitude species with limited contact with humans until the development of mountain tourism activities, the Alpine chough has little cultural significance. It was, however, featured together with its wild mountain habitat in Olivier Messiaen’s Catalogue d'oiseaux ("Bird catalogue"), a piano piece written in 1956–58. Le chocard des alpes ("The Alpine Chough") is the opening piece of Book 1 of the work. A group of choughs may be referred to fancifully or jocularly as a chattering or clattering. (See also: List of collective nouns) See also White-winged chough, native to Australia References External links ITIS information on genus Chough populations in Wales: from the BBC Wales Nature & Outdoors portal Pyrrhocorax Taxa named by Marmaduke Tunstall	[ -0.4842349886894226, 0.40462765097618103, -0.33747220039367676, -0.16082735359668732, -0.3663727045059204, 0.6939001083374023, 0.07303640246391296, 0.8229423761367798, -0.3843720257282257, -0.19637127220630646, -0.5572414398193359, -0.14653998613357544, -0.5051426887512207, 0.0578567236661911, -0.3075675666332245, 0.2954407036304474, 0.5125096440315247, 0.420627236366272, -0.515766978263855, -1.0799857378005981, -0.24261561036109924, -0.9967763423919678, -0.19818252325057983, -0.5567903518676758, 0.4620074927806854, 0.30065032839775085, 0.3411676287651062, 0.9650577902793884, 0.8121391534805298, 0.26535090804100037, -0.010074242949485779, 0.9548255205154419, 0.7734241485595703, 0.2977638840675354, -0.3954659104347229, 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217317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Mosley	Ian Mosley	Ian F. Mosley (born 16 June 1953, Paddington, London, England) is an English drummer. He is best known for his long-time membership of the neo-progressive rock band Marillion, which he joined for their second album, Fugazi, released in 1984. He had previously been an in-demand session drummer. Mosley's abilities have been widely praised, including by former Genesis guitarist Steve Hackett, Meshuggah drummer Tomas Haake and critic John Franck of AllMusic. Modern Drummer has characterised him as a "drumming great". Biography Early life Mosley studied percussion at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama under teacher Gilbert Webster and, aged 18, played in the orchestra for the musical Hair. His first professional band was Darryl Way's Wolf. Mosley played drums for former Genesis guitarist Steve Hackett, both on two of his solo studio albums and on tour. He played for Gordon Giltrap. He also played on the 1975 album Birds by Dutch band Trace. Marillion Mosley joined Marillion in 1984 after a long search for a replacement for drummer and founding member Mick Pointer, who had left the band acrimoniously in 1983. He was the fifth drummer to play for Marillion and was frontman Fish's choice for the role, who had been unhappy with the band's previous drummers. Music critic John Franck stated Mosley's "spot-on drumming was the perfect foil for Marillion's meticulous musicianship". He is still a member of Marillion. Other projects In 2001, Mosley joined saxophonist Ben Castle, son of entertainer Roy Castle, and they recorded a jazz-themed album together, Postmankind. The album also featured guest performances by John Etheridge, Steve Hackett and Marillion members Steve Rothery and Pete Trewavas. Mosley played on fellow Marillion bandmate Pete Trewavas' and Eric Blackwood's Edison's Children album In The Last Waking Moments..., playing drums on the epic 16 minute "The Awakening". Musical style Mosley's drumming skills have been praised by Steve Hackett, who has described him as "a phenomenal drummer" and "phenomenally fast". He has also said that Mosley's economy on the drums is "every bit the equal" to Phil Collins, Hackett's former Genesis bandmate. Mosley has been cited as an influence by Tomas Haake, drummer of Swedish extreme metal band Meshuggah. Mosley has stated that he enjoys "playing arrangements kind of in a classical format, which is in movements" but, despite his membership of several progressive rock bands over the course of his career, he does not believe in music labels and distances himself from the "progressive label" that "involves lyrics that quote dancing gnomes, Stonehenge and fairytales, etc." Mosley's drumming is the subject of a book, A guide to the unique drumming style of Ian Mosley - Marillion's Heartbeat, written by drummer and Marillion fan, Mark Pardy. In 2019, Mosley published his collected memoirs under the title Do I Owe You Money? - The Collected Memoirs Of Ian Mosley. References External links Ian Mosley Career Retrospective Interview from 2016 with The Pods & Sods Network 1953 births Living people People from Paddington British male drummers English rock drummers Marillion members Alumni of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama	[ -0.7759219408035278, 0.7956331372261047, 0.07569015026092529, -0.3413366973400116, -0.2620016634464264, 0.18236561119556427, 0.3609851896762848, 0.002366425469517708, -0.020209891721606255, -0.2677088975906372, -0.27043721079826355, 0.4448409080505371, 0.019205644726753235, 0.36445724964141846, 0.5009412169456482, 0.6621057987213135, 0.5928992033004761, 0.5631734728813171, 0.0882258266210556, -0.7277916669845581, 0.230872243642807, -0.7930049300193787, -0.09137079119682312, 0.05659893527626991, 0.11547187715768814, -0.42631736397743225, 0.5442060232162476, -0.5027565360069275, 0.5773042440414429, 0.039985496550798416, 0.025790976360440254, 0.3143700361251831, 0.39898890256881714, -0.2656729519367218, 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217318	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%20Interregnum	Ottoman Interregnum	The Ottoman Interregnum, or the Ottoman Civil War (20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413; ), was a civil war in the Ottoman Empire between the sons of Sultan Bayezid I following the defeat of their father at the Battle of Ankara on 20 July 1402. Although Mehmed Çelebi was confirmed as sultan by Timur, his brothers İsa Çelebi, Musa Çelebi, Süleyman Çelebi, and later, Mustafa Çelebi, refused to recognize his authority, each claiming the throne for himself. Civil war was the result. The Interregnum lasted a little under 11 years, until the Battle of Çamurlu on 5 July 1413, when Mehmed Çelebi emerged as victor, crowned himself Sultan Mehmed I, and restored the empire. Civil war Isa and Mehmed Civil war broke out among the sons of Sultan Bayezid I upon his death in 1403. His oldest son, Süleyman, with his capital at Edirne, ruled the recently conquered Bulgaria, all of Thrace, Macedonia and northern Greece. The second son, İsa Çelebi, established himself as an independent ruler at Bursa and Mehmed formed a kingdom at Amasya. War broke out between Mehmed and İsa, and following the battles of Ermeni-beli and Ulubad (March–May 1403), Isa fled to Constantinople and Mehmed occupied Bursa. The subsequent battle at Karasi between Mehmed and Isa resulted in a victory for Mehmed and Isa fleeing to Karaman. Isa was later killed in a bath by agents of Mehmed. Suleyman enters civil war Meanwhile, the other surviving son of Bayezid, Musa Çelebi, who was captured at the battle of Ankara, was released by Timur into the custody of Yakub of Germiyan. Mûsa was freed, after Mehmed made a request for his brother's release. Following Isa's death, Süleyman crossed the straits with a large army. Initially, Süleyman was successful. He invaded Anatolia, capturing Bursa (March 1404) and Ankara later that year. During the stalemate in Anatolia, which lasted from 1405–1410, Mehmed sent Musa across the Black Sea to Thrace with a small force to attack Suleyman's territories in south-eastern Europe. This maneuver soon recalled Suleyman to Thrace, where a short but sanguinary contest between him and Mûsa ensued. At first Suleyman had the advantage, winning the battle of Kosmidion in 1410, but in 1411 his army defected to Mûsa at Edirne and Suleyman was executed on the orders of Musa. Mûsa was now the ruler of the Ottoman dominions in Thrace. Mehmed and Musa Manuel II Palaiologos, the Byzantine emperor, had been the ally of Suleyman; Mûsa therefore besieged Constantinople. Manuel called on Mehmed to protect him, and Mehmed's Ottomans now garrisoned Constantinople against Musa's Ottomans of Thrace. Mehmed made several unsuccessful sallies against his brother's troops, and was obliged to re-cross the Bosporus to quell a revolt that had broken out in his own territories. Mûsa now pressed the siege of Constantinople. Mehmed returned to Thrace, and obtained the assistance of Stefan Lazarevic, the Serbian Despot. The armies of the rival Ottoman brothers met on the plain of Chamurli (today Samokov, Bulgaria). Hassan, the Agha of the Janissaries of Mehmed, stepped out before the ranks and tried to get the troops to change sides. Mûsa rushed towards Hassan and killed him, but was himself wounded by an officer who had accompanied Hassan. Mûsa's Ottomans fought well, but the battle was won by Mehmed and his allies. Mûsa fled, was later captured and strangled. With Mûsa dead, Mehmed was the sole surviving son of the late Sultan Bayezid I and became Sultan Mehmed I. The Interregnum was a striking example of the fratricide that would become common in Ottoman successions. Political titles During the Interregnum, only Mehmed minted coins titling himself Sultan. His brother Suleyman's coins called himself, Emir Suleyman b. Bayezid, while Musa's coins stated, Musa b. Bayezid. No coins of Isa's have survived. Notes References Bibliography Byzantine Empire–Ottoman Empire relations 1410s in the Ottoman Empire 1400s in the Ottoman Empire Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia 1400s conflicts 1410s conflicts Ottoman period in the Balkans Ottoman period in Anatolia Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe	[ -0.548384964466095, -0.23122964799404144, -0.28187692165374756, -0.041989218443632126, -0.12793616950511932, 0.5788899064064026, 0.3384306728839874, -0.37701451778411865, -0.27943381667137146, -0.1996907889842987, 0.06516584753990173, -0.3571173846721649, -0.7455757260322571, 0.8084070682525635, -0.4964716136455536, 0.2622562348842621, 0.4381062090396881, 0.14976561069488525, -0.17099860310554504, -0.30294379591941833, -0.10523627698421478, 0.11547565460205078, 0.08882984519004822, 0.5870325565338135, 0.4790903329849243, -0.31011104583740234, 0.6305789947509766, -0.3350299000740051, 0.09820766001939774, -0.48331817984580994, 0.4706634283065796, 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217319	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Kelly%20%28keyboardist%29	Mark Kelly (keyboardist)	Mark Colbert Kelly (born 9 April 1961) is an Irish keyboardist and member of the neo-progressive rock band Marillion. He was raised in Ireland until he moved to England with his parents in 1969. Kelly was an electronics student while performing part-time in the progressive/psychedelic band Chemical Alice, who released their EP Curiouser and Curiouser in 1981. He was invited to join Marillion when they supported Chemical Alice, replacing previous keyboardist Brian Jelliman. His first performance with the band was at the Great Northern at Cambridge on 1 December 1981. He has appeared on every Marillion studio album. Kelly also appeared on John Wesley's album Under the Red and White Sky in 1994 and on Jump's album Myth of Independence in 1995 on production and keyboards. Kelly has played keyboards with Travis for their headlining set at the Isle of Wight Festival (10–12 June 2005), and at T in the park in 2005. He played Keyboards for Edison's Children's new album "In The Last Waking Moments..." (featuring fellow Marillion member Pete Trewavas and Eric Blackwood), for the song The "Other" Other Dimension as well as performing vocals with Steve Hogarth and Andy Ditchfield (DeeExpus) on the Edison's Children track The Awakening in 2011. Kelly is credited with inventing online crowdfunding to fund the recording of Marillion's 2001 album Anoraknophobia, following a fan-funded Marillion tour of the United States in 1997, and pioneered many of the ideas copied by other music artists since. Kelly was made Co-CEO of the Featured Artists Coalition, an organization which represents the interests of music artists in the digital age. Kelly stood down as a director of the FAC in 2018 From 2009 until 2020 Kelly was an elected performer-director of PPL. In 2016, he was cast as a guest keyboardist in Ayreon's 2017 album The Source. In September 2020 Kelly released a single "Amelia" with his new solo band, Mark Kelly's Marathon. The debut album was released in November 2020 References External links Chemical Alice Website Marillion – Band Member Profiles Marathon Website Edison's Children 1961 births Living people Irish keyboardists Irish rock musicians Irish expatriates in the United Kingdom Marillion members Musicians from County Dublin	[ -0.4476574659347534, 0.5476505756378174, -0.062381140887737274, -0.6607910990715027, 0.23925307393074036, 0.7514232397079468, 0.1392970234155655, 0.2203911691904068, -0.5070820450782776, -0.15592072904109955, -0.21292132139205933, 0.6579002737998962, -0.37949636578559875, 0.1921624094247818, 0.10371124744415283, 0.32689598202705383, 0.2250284105539322, -0.18460404872894287, -0.5396715998649597, -0.4595641493797302, 0.6682851910591125, 0.10795873403549194, 0.29773879051208496, 0.4562491476535797, -0.5663943290710449, 0.4560820162296295, -0.2957156002521515, 0.02004101127386093, -0.011191640980541706, -0.5550936460494995, 0.025618495419621468, 0.5880218744277954, 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217320	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Schurz	Carl Schurz	Carl Christian Schurz (; March 2, 1829 – May 14, 1906) was a German revolutionary and an American statesman, journalist, and reformer. He immigrated to the United States after the German revolutions of 1848–49 and became a prominent member of the new Republican Party. After serving as a Union general in the American Civil War, he helped found the short-lived Liberal Republican Party and became a prominent advocate of civil service reform. Schurz represented Missouri in the United States Senate and was the 13th United States Secretary of the Interior. Born in the Kingdom of Prussia's Rhine Province, Schurz fought for democratic reforms in the German revolutions of 1848–49 as a member of the academic fraternity association Deutsche Burschenschaft. After Prussia suppressed the revolution Schurz fled to France. When police forced him to leave France he migrated to London. Like many other "Forty-Eighters," he then immigrated to the United States, settling in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1852. After being admitted to the Wisconsin bar, he established a legal practice in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He also became a strong advocate for the anti-slavery movement and joined the newly organized Republican Party, unsuccessfully running for Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin. After briefly representing the United States as Minister (ambassador) to Spain, Schurz served as a general in the American Civil War, fighting in the Battle of Gettysburg and other major battles. After the war, Schurz established a newspaper in St. Louis, Missouri, and won election to the U.S. Senate, becoming the first German-born American elected to that body. Breaking with Republican President Ulysses S. Grant, Schurz helped establish the Liberal Republican Party. The party advocated civil service reform and opposed Grant's efforts to protect African-American civil rights in the Southern United States during Reconstruction. Schurz chaired the 1872 Liberal Republican convention, which nominated a ticket that unsuccessfully challenged President Grant in the 1872 presidential election. Schurz lost his own 1874 re-election bid and resumed his career as a newspaper editor. He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1878. After Republican Rutherford B. Hayes won the 1876 presidential election, he appointed Schurz as his Secretary of the Interior. Schurz sought to make civil service based on merit rather than political and party connections and helped prevent the transfer of the Bureau of Indian Affairs to the War Department. Schurz moved to New York City after Hayes left office in 1881 and briefly served as the editor of the New York Evening Post and The Nation and later became the editorial writer for Harper's Weekly. He remained active in politics and led the "Mugwump" movement, which opposed nominating James G. Blaine in the 1884 presidential election. Schurz opposed William Jennings Bryan's bimetallism in the 1896 presidential election but supported Bryan's anti-imperialist campaign in the 1900 presidential election. Schurz died in New York City in 1906. Early life Carl Christian Schurz was born on March 2, 1829 in Liblar (now part of Erftstadt), in Rhenish Prussia, the son of Marianne (née Jussen), a public speaker and journalist, and Christian Schurz, a schoolteacher. He studied at the Jesuit Gymnasium of Cologne, and learned piano under private instructors. Financial problems in his family obligated him to leave school a year early, without graduating. Later he graduated from the gymnasium by passing a special examination and then entered the University of Bonn. Revolution of 1848 At Bonn, he developed a friendship with one of his professors, Gottfried Kinkel. He joined the nationalistic Studentenverbindung Burschenschaft Franconia at Bonn, which at the time included among its members Friedrich von Spielhagen, Johannes Overbeck, Julius Schmidt, Carl Otto Weber, Ludwig Meyer and Adolf Strodtmann. In response to the early events of the revolutions of 1848, Schurz and Kinkel founded the Bonner Zeitung, a paper advocating democratic reforms. At first Kinkel was the editor and Schurz a regular contributor. These roles were reversed when Kinkel left for Berlin to become a member of the Prussian Constitutional Convention. When the Frankfurt rump parliament called for people to take up arms in defense of the new German constitution, Schurz, Kinkel, and others from the University of Bonn community did so. During this struggle, Schurz became acquainted with Franz Sigel, Alexander Schimmelfennig, Fritz Anneke, Friedrich Beust, Ludwig Blenker and others, many of whom he would meet again in the Union Army during the U.S. Civil War. During the 1849 military campaign in Palatinate and Baden, he joined the revolutionary army, fighting in several battles against the Prussian Army. Schurz was adjunct officer of the commander of the artillery, Fritz Anneke, who was accompanied on the campaign by his wife, Mathilde Franziska Anneke. The Annekes would later move to the U.S., where each became Republican Party supporters. Anneke's brother, Emil Anneke, was a founder of the Republican party in Michigan. Fritz Anneke achieved the rank of colonel and became the commanding officer of the 34th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment during the Civil War; Mathilde Anneke contributed to both the abolitionist and suffrage movements of the United States. When the revolutionary army was defeated at the fortress of Rastatt in 1849, Schurz was inside. Knowing that the Prussians intended to kill their prisoners, Schurz managed to escape and travelled to Zürich. In 1850, he returned secretly to Prussia, rescued Kinkel from prison at Spandau and helped him to escape to Edinburgh, Scotland. Schurz then went to Paris, but the police forced him to leave France on the eve of the coup d'état of 1851, and he migrated to London. Remaining there until August 1852, he made his living by teaching the German language. Immigration to America While in London, Schurz married fellow revolutionary Johannes Ronge's sister-in-law, Margarethe Meyer, in July 1852 and then, like many other Forty-Eighters, immigrated to the United States. Living initially in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the Schurzes moved to Watertown, Wisconsin, where Carl nurtured his interests in politics and Margarethe began her seminal work in early childhood education. In Wisconsin, Schurz soon became immersed in the anti-slavery movement and in politics, joining the Republican Party. In 1857, he ran unsuccessfully as a Republican for lieutenant governor. In the Illinois campaign of the next year between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas, he took part as a speaker on behalf of Lincoln—mostly in German—which raised Lincoln's popularity among German-American voters. In 1858, Schurz was admitted to the Wisconsin bar and began to practice law in Milwaukee. Beginning 1859, his law partner was Halbert E. Paine. With Paine's encouragement, Schurz took more of an interest in politics and public speaking than in law. In the state campaign of 1859, Schurz made a speech attacking the Fugitive Slave Law, arguing for states' rights. In Faneuil Hall, Boston, on April 18, 1859, he delivered an oration on "True Americanism," which, coming from an alien, was intended to clear the Republican party of the charge of "nativism". Wisconsin Germans unsuccessfully urged his nomination for governor in 1859. In the 1860 Republican National Convention, Schurz was spokesman of the delegation from Wisconsin, which voted for William H. Seward. Despite this, Schurz was on the committee which brought Lincoln the news of his nomination. After Lincoln's election and in spite of Seward's objection, Lincoln sent Schurz as minister to Spain in 1861, in part because of Schurz's European record as a revolutionary. While there Schurz succeeded in quietly dissuading Spain from supporting the South. American Civil War During the American Civil War, Schurz served with distinction as a general in the Union Army. Persuading Lincoln to grant him a commission in the Union army, Schurz was commissioned brigadier general of Union volunteers in April 1862. In June, he took command of a division, first under John C. Frémont, and then in Franz Sigel's corps, with which he took part in the Second Battle of Bull Run in August 1862. He was promoted to major general in 1863 and was assigned to lead a division in the XI Corps at the battles of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, both under General Oliver O. Howard. A bitter controversy began between Schurz and Howard over the strategy employed at Chancellorsville, resulting in the routing of the XI Corps by the Confederate corps led by Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson. Two months later, the XI Corps again broke during the first day of Gettysburg. Containing several German-American units, the XI Corps performance during both battles was heavily criticized by the press, fueling anti-immigrant sentiments. Following Gettysburg, Schurz's division was deployed to Tennessee and participated in the Battle of Chattanooga. There he served with the future Senator Joseph B. Foraker, John Patterson Rea, and Luther Morris Buchwalter, brother to Morris Lyon Buchwalter. Senator Charles Sumner (R-MA) was a Congressional observer during the Chattanooga Campaign. Later, he was put in command of a Corps of Instruction at Nashville. He briefly returned to active service, where in the last months of the war he was with Sherman's army in North Carolina as chief of staff of Henry Slocum's Army of Georgia. He resigned from the army after the war ended in April 1865. In the summer of 1865, President Andrew Johnson sent Schurz through the South to study conditions. They then quarreled because Schurz supported General Slocum's order forbidding the organization of militia in Mississippi. Schurz's report, which suggested the readmission of the states with complete rights and the investigation of the need of further legislation by a Congressional committee, was ignored by the President. Newspaper career In 1866, Schurz moved to Detroit, where he was chief editor of the Detroit Post. The following year, he moved to St. Louis, becoming editor and joint proprietor with Emil Preetorius of the German-language Westliche Post (Western Post), where he hired Joseph Pulitzer as a cub reporter. In the winter of 1867–1868, he traveled in Germany; his account of his interview with Otto von Bismarck is one of the most interesting chapters of his Reminiscences. He spoke against "repudiation" of war debts and for "honest money"—code for going back on the gold standard—during the Presidential campaign of 1868. U.S. Senator In 1868, he was elected to the United States Senate from Missouri, becoming the first German American in that body. He earned a reputation for his speeches, which advocated fiscal responsibility, anti-imperialism, and integrity in government. During this period, he broke with the Grant administration, starting the Liberal Republican movement in Missouri, which in 1870 elected B. Gratz Brown governor. After Fessenden's death, Schurz became a member of the Committee on Foreign Affairs where Schurz opposed Grant's Southern policy as well as his bid to annex Santo Domingo. Schurz was identified with the committee's investigation of arms sales to and cartridge manufacture for the French army by the United States government during the Franco-Prussian War. In 1869, he became the first U.S. Senator to offer a Civil Service Reform bill to Congress. During Reconstruction, Schurz was opposed to federal military enforcement and protection of African American civil rights, and held nineteenth century ideas of European superiority and fears of miscegenation. In 1870, Schurz helped form the Liberal Republican Party, which opposed President Ulysses S. Grant's annexation of Santo Domingo and his use of the military to destroy the Ku Klux Klan in the South under the Enforcement Acts. In 1872, he presided over the Liberal Republican Party convention, which nominated Horace Greeley for President. Schurz's own choice was Charles Francis Adams or Lyman Trumbull, and the convention did not represent Schurz's views on the tariff. Schurz campaigned for Greeley anyway. Especially in this campaign, and throughout his career as a Senator and afterwards, he was a target for the pen of Harper's Weekly artist Thomas Nast, usually in an unfavorable way. The election was a debacle for the Greeley supporters. Grant won by a landslide, and Greeley died shortly after the election. Schurz lost the 1874 Senatorial election to Democratic Party challenger and former Confederate Francis Cockrell. After leaving office, he worked as an editor for various newspapers. In 1875, he assisted in the successful campaign of Rutherford B. Hayes to regain the office of Governor of Ohio. In 1877, Schurz was appointed United States Secretary of the Interior by Hayes, who had been by then been elected President of the United States. Although Schurz honestly attempted to reduce the effects of racism toward Native Americans and was partially successful at cleaning up corruption, his recommended actions towards American Indians "in light of late twentieth-century developments" were repressive. Indians were forced to move into low-quality reservation lands that were unsuitable for tribal economic and cultural advancement. Promises made to Indian chiefs at White House meetings with President Rutherford B. Hayes and Schurz were often broken. Secretary of the Interior In 1876, he supported Hayes for President, and Hayes named him Secretary of the Interior, following much of his advice in other cabinet appointments and in his inaugural address. In this department, Schurz put into force his belief that merit should be the principal consideration in appointing civil servants to jobs in the Civil Service. He was not in favor of permitting removals except for cause, and supported requiring competitive examinations for candidates for clerkships. His efforts to remove political patronage met with only limited success, however. As an early conservationist, he prosecuted land thieves and attracted public attention to the necessity of forest preservation. During Schurz's tenure as Secretary of the Interior, a movement to transfer the Office of Indian Affairs to the control of the War Department began, assisted by the strong support of Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman. Restoration of the Indian Office to the War Department, which was anxious to regain control in order to continue its "pacification" program, was opposed by Schurz, and ultimately the Indian Office remained in the Interior Department. The Indian Office had been the most corrupt office in the Interior Department. Positions in it were based on political patronage and were seen as granting license to use the reservations for personal enrichment. Because Schurz realized that the service would have to be cleansed of such corruption before anything positive could be accomplished, he instituted a wide-scale inspection of the service, dismissed several officials, and began civil service reforms whereby positions and promotions were to be based on merit not political patronage. Schurz's leadership of the Indian Affairs Office was at times controversial. While certainly not an architect of forced displacement of Native Americans, he continued the practice. In response to several nineteenth-century reformers, however, he later changed his mind and promoted an assimilationist policy. Later life Upon leaving the Interior Department in 1881, Schurz moved to New York City. That year German-born Henry Villard, president of the Northern Pacific Railway, acquired the New York Evening Post and The Nation and turned the management over to Schurz, Horace White and Edwin L. Godkin. Schurz left the Post in the autumn of 1883 because of differences over editorial policies regarding corporations and their employees. In 1884, he was a leader in the Independent (or Mugwump) movement against the nomination of James Blaine for president and for the election of Grover Cleveland. From 1888 to 1892, he was general American representative of the Hamburg American Steamship Company. In 1892, he succeeded George William Curtis as president of the National Civil Service Reform League and held this office until 1901. He also succeeded Curtis as editorial writer for Harper's Weekly in 1892 and held this position until 1898. In 1895 he spoke for the Fusion anti-Tammany Hall ticket in New York City. He opposed William Jennings Bryan for president in 1896, speaking for sound money and not under the auspices of the Republican party; he supported Bryan four years later because of anti-imperialism beliefs, which also led to his membership in the American Anti-Imperialist League. True to his anti-imperialist convictions, Schurz exhorted McKinley to resist the urge to annex land following the Spanish–American War. In the 1904 election he supported Alton B. Parker, the Democratic candidate. Carl Schurz lived in a summer cottage in Northwest Bay on Lake George, New York which was built by his good friend Abraham Jacobi. Death and legacy Schurz died at age 77 on May 14, 1906 in New York City and is buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Sleepy Hollow, New York. Schurz's wife, Margarethe Schurz, was instrumental in establishing the kindergarten system in the United States. Schurz is famous for saying: "My country, right or wrong; if right, to be kept right; and if wrong, to be set right." He was portrayed by Edward G. Robinson as a friend of the surviving Cheyenne Indians in John Ford's 1964 film Cheyenne Autumn. Works Schurz published a volume of speeches (1865), a two-volume biography of Henry Clay (1887), essays on Abraham Lincoln (1899) and Charles Sumner (posthumous, 1951), and his Reminiscences (posthumous, 1907–09). His later years were spent writing the memoirs recorded in his Reminiscences which he was not able to finish, reaching only the beginnings of his U.S. Senate career. Schurz was a member of the Literary Society of Washington from 1879 to 1880. Memorials Schurz is commemorated in numerous places around the United States: Carl Schurz Park, a park in New York City, adjacent to Yorkville, Manhattan, overlooking the waters of Hell Gate. Named for Schurz in 1910, it is the site of Gracie Mansion, the residence of the Mayor of New York since 1942 Karl Bitter's 1913 monument to Schurz ("Defender Of Liberty And A Friend Of Human Rights") outside Morningside Park, at Morningside Drive and 116th Street in New York City Karl Bitter's 1914 monument to Schurz ("Our Greatest German American") in Menominee Park, Oshkosh, Wisconsin Carl Schurz and Abraham Jacobi Memorial Park in Bolton Landing, New York Schurz, Nevada named after him Carl Schurz Drive, a residential street in the northern end of his former home of Watertown, Wisconsin Schurz Elementary School, in Watertown, Wisconsin Carl Schurz Park, a private membership park in Stone Bank (Town of Merton), Wisconsin, on the shore of Moose Lake Carl Schurz Forest, a forested section of the Ice Age Trail near Monches, Wisconsin Carl Schurz High School, a historic landmark in Chicago, built in 1910. Schurz Hall, a student residence at the University of Missouri. Carl Schurz Elementary School in New Braunfels, Texas Mount Schurz, a mountain in eastern Yellowstone, north of Eagle Peak and south of Atkins Peak, named in 1885 by the United States Geological Survey, to honor Schurz's commitment to protecting Yellowstone National Park In 1983, the U.S. Postal Service issued a 4-cent Great Americans series postage stamp with his name and portrait The was commissioned in 1917 as a Patrol Gun Boat. Formerly the small unprotected cruiser of the German Imperial Navy, the ship had been taken over by the U.S. Navy when hostilities between Germany and the U.S. commenced, after having been interned in Honolulu in 1914. The Schurz sank after a collision on 21 June 1918 off Beaufort Inlet, Florida. Several memorials in Germany also commemorate the life and work of Schurz, including: Carl-Schurz Kaserne, in Bremerhaven, has been home to U.S. Army units for several decades, including elements of the 2nd Armored Division (Forward). Today it houses Army transportation units and some civilian commercial activities related to commercial shipping. Streets named after him in Berlin-Spandau, Bremen, Stuttgart, Erftstadt-Liblar, Giessen, Heidelberg, Karlsruhe, Cologne, Neuss, Rastatt, Paderborn, Pforzheim, Pirmasens, Leipzig, Wuppertal Schools in Bonn, Bremen, Berlin-Spandau, Frankfurt am Main, Rastatt and his place of birth, Erftstadt-Liblar The Carl-Schurz-Haus Freiburg, in Freiburg im Breisgau is an innovative institute (formerly Amerika-Haus) fostering German-American cultural relations an urban area in Frankfurt am Main the Carl Schurz Bridge over the Neckar River a memorial fountain as well as the house where Lt. Schurz was billeted in 1849 in Rastatt German Armed Forces barracks in Hardheim German federal stamps in 1952 and 1976 Carl-Schurz-Medal awarded annually to one distinguished citizen of his home town. Harper's Weekly gallery See also List of foreign-born United States Cabinet members List of American Civil War generals (Union) Forty-Eighters German Americans in the Civil War German American German-American Heritage Foundation of the USA List of United States senators born outside the United States Notes References Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, . Yockelson, Mitchell, "Hirschhorn", Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, Heidler, David S., and Heidler, Jeanne T., eds., W. W. Norton & Company, 2000, . Further reading Schurz, Carl. The Reminiscences of Carl Schurz (three volumes), New York: McClure Publ. Co., 1907–08. Schurz covered the years 1829–1870 in his Reminiscences. He died in the midst of writing them. The third volume is rounded out with A Sketch of Carl Schurz's Political Career 1869–1906 by Frederic Bancroft and William A. Dunning. Portions of these Reminiscences were serialized in McClure's Magazine about the time the books were published and included illustrations not found in the books. Bancroft, Frederic, ed. Speeches, Correspondence, and Political Papers of Carl Schurz (six volumes), New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1913. Brown, Dee, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, 1971 Donner, Barbara. "Carl Schurz as Office Seeker," Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 20, no.2 (December 1936), pp. 127–142. Donner, Barbara. "Carl Schurz the Diplomat," Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 20, no. 3 (March 1937), pp. 291–309. Fish, Carl Russell. "Carl Schurz-The American," Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 12, no. 4 (June 1929), pp. 346–368. Fuess, Claude Moore Carl Schurz, Reformer, (NY, Dodd Mead, 1932) Nagel, Daniel. Von republikanischen Deutschen zu deutsch-amerikanischen Republikanern. Ein Beitrag zum Identitätswandel der deutschen Achtundvierziger in den Vereinigten Staaten 1850-1861. Röhrig, St. Ingbert 2012. Schafer, Joseph. "Carl Schurz, Immigrant Statesman," Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 11, no. 4 (June 1928), pp. 373–394. Schurz, Carl. Intimate Letters of Carl Schurz 1841-1869, Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1928. Trefousse, Hans L. Carl Schurz: A Biography, (1st ed. Knoxville: U. of Tenn. Press, 1982; 2nd ed. New York: Fordham University Press, 1998) Twain, Mark, "Carl Schurz, Pilot," Harper's Weekly, May 26, 1906. External links Retrieved on 2008-08-12 Reynolds, Robert L. "A Man of Conscience", American Heritage Magazine, vol. 14, no. 2 (1963). "Schurz: The True Americanism" Harper's Magazine, November 1, 2008. "Carl Schurz" from Charles Rounds, Wisconsin Authors and Their Works, 1918. The Political Graveyard Abraham Lincoln's White House - Carl Schurz The Carl Schurz Papers, containing materials especially of interest to the examination of Schurz's image in the press and in the German-American community, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Constitutional Minutes episode about Carl Schurz from the American Archive of Public Broadcasting Constitutional Minutes- Series : Constitutional Minutes; Episode : Carl Schurz; Episode Number: 112 from American Archive of Public Broadcasting \|- \|- 1829 births 1906 deaths 19th-century American diplomats 19th-century American newspaper editors 19th-century American politicians Ambassadors of the United States to Spain Burials at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery Civil service reform in the United States German American German-American Forty-Eighters German revolutionaries German emigrants to the United States Hayes administration cabinet members Liberal Republican Party United States senators Missouri Liberal Republicans Missouri Republicans People from Erftstadt People from the Rhine Province People of Missouri in the American Civil War People of the Revolutions of 1848 People of Wisconsin in the American Civil War Republican Party United States senators Union Army generals United States 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217324	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical%20education	Physical education	Physical education, often abbreviated to Phys Ed. or P.E., is a subject taught in schools around the world. It is usually taught during primary and secondary education, and encourages psychomotor learning by using a play and movement exploration setting to promote health and physical fitness. Activities in P.E. include football, netball, hockey, rounders, cricket, four square, racing, and numerous other children's games. Physical education also teaches nutrition, healthy habits, and individuality of needs. Physical education programs vary all over the world. When taught correctly, P.E. class can produce positive effects on students' health, behavior, and academic performance. Pedagogy The main goals in teaching modern physical education are: To expose children and teens to a wide variety of exercise and healthy activities. Because P.E. can be accessible to nearly all children, it is one of the only opportunities that can guarantee beneficial and healthy activity in children. To teach skills to maintain a lifetime of fitness as well as health. To encourage self-reporting and monitoring of exercise. To individualize duration, intensity, and type of activity. To focus feedback on the work, rather than the result. To provide active role models. It is critical for physical educators to foster and strengthen developing motor skills and to provide children and teens with a basic skill set that builds their movement repertoire, which allows students to engage in various forms of games, sports, and other physical activities throughout their lifetime. These goals can be achieved in a variety of ways. National, state, and local guidelines often dictate which standards must be taught in regards to physical education. These standards determine what content is covered, the qualifications educators must meet, and the textbooks and materials which must be used. These various standards include teaching sports education, or the use of sports as exercise; fitness education, relating to overall health and fitness; and movement education, which deals with movement in a non-sport context. These approaches and curriculums are based on pioneers in P.E., namely, Francois Delsarte, Liselott Diem, and Rudolf von Laban, who, in the 1800s focused on using a child's ability to use their body for self-expression. This, in combination with approaches in the 1960s, (which featured the use of the body, spatial awareness, effort, and relationships) gave birth to the modern teaching of physical education. When taught correctly and in a positive manner, children and teens can receive a storm of health benefits. These include reduced metabolic disease risk, cardiological fitness, and better mental health. Research has also shown that there is a positive correlation between brain development and exercising. Physical education can also help improve academic achievement. Researchers in 2007 found a profound gain in English Arts standardized test scores among students who had 56 hours of physical education in a year, compared to those who had 28 hours of physical education a year. Technology use in physical education Many physical education classes utilize technology to assist their pupils in effective exercise. One of the most affordable and popular tools is a simple video recorder. With this, students record themselves, and, upon playback, can see mistakes they are making in activities like throwing or swinging. Studies show that students find this more effective than having someone try to explain what they are doing wrong, and then trying to correct it. Educators may also use technology such as pedometers and heart rate monitors to make step and heart rate goals for students. Other technologies that can be used in a physical education setting include video projectors and GPS systems. Gaming systems and their associated games, such as the Kinect, Wii, and Wii Fit can also be used. Projectors are used to show students proper form or how to play certain games. GPS systems can be used to get students active in an outdoor setting, and active exergames can be used by teachers to show students a good way to stay fit in and out of a classroom setting. By location According to the World Health Organization, it is suggested that young children should be participating in 60 minutes of exercise per day at least 3 times per week in order to maintain a healthy body. Asia Philippines In the Philippines, P.E. is mandatory for all years in school, unless the school gives the option for a student to do the Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme instead for their fifth and sixth year. Some schools have integrated martial arts training into their physical education curriculum. Singapore A Biennial compulsory fitness exam, NAPFA, is conducted in every school to assess pupils' physical fitness in Singapore. This includes a series of fitness tests. Students are graded by a system of gold, silver, bronze, or as a fail. NAPFA for pre-enlistees serves as an indicator for an additional two months in the country's compulsory national service training if they attain bronze or fail. Australia In Australia, physical education was first made a part of the curriculum in public schools in the early 1980s. The policy was outlined in a ministerial statement to the Victorian Legislative Assembly by the Minister for Educational Services, Norman Lacy, on 17 September 1981. Many of the schools of Australia are moving to use the Praxis Model of Physical Education. Shane Pill, of Flinders University, defines the Praxis model as a method of teaching physical education that promotes activities that strengthen the links of understanding between thinking, feeling, and behavior, and how positively affecting these aspects can increase the quality of life for students. Rather than focusing on the traditional aspects of physical education, such as teaching how to perform a certain sport, this model focuses on a broader understanding of what it means to be educated in physical activity. The large goal of this initiative is to create an environment that makes an active difference in the pupils' "reality now", so that students are making proactive changes to their behavior to increase overall health. This model has been introduced with initiatives Healthy Active Australia Schools (HAAS) and Be Active-Let's Go. Europe Ireland In Ireland, one is expected to do 2 semesters worth of 80-minute P.E. classes. This also includes showering and changing times, so on average, classes are composed of 60–65 minutes of activity. Poland In Poland, pupils are expected to do at least three hours of PE a week during primary and secondary education. Universities must also organise at least 60 hours of physical education classes in undergraduate courses. Sweden In Sweden, the time school students spend in P.E. lessons per week varies between municipalities, but generally, years 0 to 2 have 55 minutes of P.E. a week; years 3 to 6 have 110 minutes a week, and years 7 to 9 have 220 minutes. In upper secondary school, all national programs have an obligatory course, containing 100 points of P.E., which corresponds to 90–100 hours of P.E. during the course (one point per hour). Schools can regulate these hours as they like during the three years of school students attend. Most schools have students take part in this course during the first year and offer a follow-up course, which also contains 100 points/hours. United Kingdom In England, pupils in years 7, 8, and 9 are expected to do two hours of exercise per week. Pupils in years 10 and 11 are expected to do one hour of exercise per week. In Wales, pupils are expected to do two hours of PE a week. North America Canada In British Columbia, the government has mandated in the grade one curriculum that students must participate in physical activity daily five times a week. The educator is also responsible for planning Daily Physical Activity (DPA), which is thirty minutes of mild to moderate physical activity a day (not including curriculum physical education classes). The curriculum also requires students in grade one to be knowledgeable about healthy living. For example, they must be able to describe the benefits of regular exercise, identify healthy choices in activities, and describe the importance of choosing healthy food. Ontario, Canada has a similar procedure in place. On October 6, 2005, the Ontario Ministry of Education (OME) implemented a DPA policy in elementary schools, for those in grades 1 through 8. The government also requires that all students in grades 1 through 8, including those with special needs, be provided with opportunities to participate in a minimum of twenty minutes of sustained, moderate to vigorous physical activity each school day during instructional time. United States The 2012 "Shape Of The Nation Report" by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (part of SHAPE America) and the American Heart Association found that while nearly 75% of states require physical education in elementary through high school, over half of the states permit students to substitute other activities for their required physical education credit, or otherwise fail to mandate a specific amount of instructional time. According to the report, only six states (Illinois, Hawaii, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New York, and Vermont) require physical education at every grade level. A majority of states in 2016 did not require a specific amount of instructional time, and more than half allow exemptions or substitution. These loopholes can lead to reduced effectiveness of the physical education programs. Zero Hour is a before-school physical education class first implemented by Naperville Central High School. In the state of Illinois, this program is known as Learning Readiness P.E. (LRPE). The program was based on research indicating that students who are physically fit are more academically alert, experience growth in brain cells, and enhancement in brain development. NCHS pairs a P.E. class that incorporates cardiovascular exercise, core strength training, cross-lateral movements, as well as literacy and math strategies which enhance learning and improve achievement. See also Recreation Exercise Lack of physical education Sports day Worldwide Day of Play References External links The Sociological Aspects of Physical Education Education Sports science Education by subject	[ 0.7993162870407104, 0.16125528514385223, -0.2373754233121872, 0.05036875978112221, 0.20116513967514038, 0.17310547828674316, 0.27285218238830566, 0.5250794291496277, -0.2863895893096924, -0.6777176260948181, -0.2997299134731293, 0.7334707379341125, 0.3012678623199463, -0.38683751225471497, -0.31912583112716675, 0.24371689558029175, 0.1625814437866211, 0.2903479337692261, -0.1401243358850479, -0.16078034043312073, -0.410163938999176, -0.12030952423810959, 0.14441198110580444, -0.15800055861473083, -0.02167551778256893, 0.5594365000724792, 0.6469743847846985, 0.7285900115966797, -0.24685920774936676, -0.3131844103336334, 0.05048824101686478, -0.3091372847557068, -0.17915669083595276, -0.19296877086162567, -0.16030679643154144, 0.09447724372148514, 0.0022367858327925205, 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217326	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugazi%20%28album%29	Fugazi (album)	Fugazi is the second studio album by the British neo-progressive rock band Marillion, released in 1984. Produced by Nick Tauber, it was recorded between November 1983 and February 1984 at various studios and was the first to feature drummer Ian Mosley, following the dismissal of the band's original drummer Mick Pointer. According to AllMusic, the album "streamlined the intricacies of the group's prog rock leanings in favour of a more straight-ahead hard rock identity". Built upon the success of its predecessor, Script for a Jester's Tear, Fugazi reached the UK Top 5 and went Gold. Background Following their first album and its support tour, Marillion found themselves behind schedule, under pressure from EMI Records to deliver a second album. Producer Nick Tauber worked the band hard, having them stop into various rehearsal and recording studios to write songs, and to find a replacement drummer for Mick Pointer, who had been fired. American drummer Jonathan Mover auditioned in London in September 1983, and two days later was performing with Marillion in Germany. Marillion settled into Rockfield Studios in Wales to compose some songs. According to an interview with Mover, the various band members had been working separately on songs when the band's front man, Fish, asked whether they agreed with his new idea that it should be a concept album like Pink Floyd's The Wall. The more veteran band members said "maybe," but new drummer Mover said it was a bad idea, that the current crop of songs was not connected by any theme, and would have to be scrapped. According to Mover, Fish took this as a challenge to his authority and he was fired from the band. Fish said later, "Jonathan Mover left me cold, but the musicians loved him because he was super-technical. I felt I was being railroaded. All he could talk about was drums, and he didn’t fit in to the band's social element." Mover received a writing credit for the single "Punch and Judy". The production schedule ran so late that Marillion had to begin their album support tour before the album was ready. Release Critical reception As Marillion used ten different studios to record the album and the line-up had undergone a change, Fugazi proved to be a slightly incoherent follow-up to Script for a Jester's Tear, which was noticed in the retrospective review by John Franck of AllMusic. Nevertheless, he awarded the album a 4-star rating, singling out such songs as "Assassing", "Incubus", and "Fugazi". Writing for Ultimate Classic Rock, Eduardo Rivadavia observed: Fugazi proved just as diverse, ambitious, even preposterous (in the best possible prog-rock sense) as Script. They matched epic, complex musicianship with oblique wordplay to perfection on the likes of "Assassing", "Jigsaw", "Incubus", and the title track – all of which would become perennial concert favorites for years to come. If anything, the new album was, at once, more polished (in terms of both production standards and song arrangements) and a tad less consistent than its predecessor, unquestionably falling short of heightened expectations on the somewhat less-than-stellar "Emerald Lies" and certainly the subpar "She Chameleon". Commercial performance Fugazi reached number 5 in the UK Albums Chart, spending a total of 20 weeks there. It was certified Gold by the BPI on 9 July 1985 for sales in excess of 100,000 copies. The album produced two singles which became Top 30 hits, "Punch and Judy" (UK no. 29) and "Assassing" (UK no. 22). Formats and reissues The album was initially released on LP, 12" picture disc and cassette. The first CD issue appeared sometime afterwards. As part of a series of Marillion's first eight studio albums, EMI Records re-released Fugazi on 23 February 1998 with 24-bit digital remastered sound and a second disc containing bonus tracks. The remastered version was also made available without the bonus disc in 2000 and again in 2005 as a Japanese mini-LP replica. A new 180g heavy-weight vinyl pressing identical to the original 1984 edition was released in 2012. On August 31st 2021, a deluxe edition of Fugazi was released via Parlophone as a 3CD/Blu-ray set along with a 4LP boxed version. The deluxe edition includes a completely new remix of the original studio album and a live concert recorded in Montreal, Canada on June 20th 1984 (which had previously been partially available on Real to Reel), as well as, on the Blu-ray disc, new high-resolution stereo and 5.1 surround remixes by Avril Mackintosh and Andy Bradfield. The set also includes a 'making of' documentary containing interviews with all then band members, who were filmed separately due to COVID-19 restrictions, as well as their track by track breakdowns of the genesis of each of the songs. Also included is a live concert from 1984 that was filmed and broadcast by Swiss TV. Sleeve artwork In 2012, Gigwise chose the sleeve design by Mark Wilkinson as 29th in its countdown of the "Greatest Album Artwork of All Time". Holly Frith wrote: "Despite the arguable quality of their music, Marillion most certainly gave a shit about their album artwork and this multi-tiered image of a young man suffering an apparent overdose is their most startling, brilliant and thought-provoking." Track listing All individual writing credits are from the 1998 remastered edition. According to the original 1984 version, all songs were written by the whole band; all lyrics are credited to Fish. Personnel Marillion Fish – vocals; cover concept Steve Rothery – guitars; photography (1998 remastered edition) Mark Kelly – keyboards Pete Trewavas – bass Ian Mosley – drums Additional musicians Sergey Nazmov - drum machine, screams Linda Pyke – backing vocal (on "Incubus") Chris Karan – additional percussion Technical personnel Nick Tauber – Original album production Simon Hanhart – Original album recording and mixing Andy Bradfield, Avril Mackintosh - 2021 remix Mark Wilkinson – sleeve design and illustration; photography (1998 remastered edition) Julie Hazelwood – sleeve design and illustration (pictures on the wall) Peter Mew – 1998 digital remastering (April — July 1997 at Abbey Road, London) Bill Smith Studio – repackaging design (1998 remastered edition) Charts Album Certifications References Notes Citations External links The Official Marillion Website Marillion albums 1984 albums Hard rock albums by British artists EMI Records albums	[ -0.303052693605423, -0.1518728882074356, 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217327	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20Rudbeckius	Johannes Rudbeckius	Bishop Johannes Rudbeckius or Johannes Rudbeck (April 3, 1581–August 8, 1646), was bishop at Västerås, Sweden from 1619 until his death and personal chaplain to King Gustavus II Adolphus. Biography Johannes Rudbeck was born in Ormesta, Almby parish, outside Örebro, Sweden. He was the son of Johan Pedersson Rudbeck (1550-1603) and Christina Pedersdtr Bose. He was a student at Uppsala University in 1598 and at University of Wittenberg received his Master of Philosophy in 1693. He was a professor of mathematics at Uppsala from 1604, professor of Hebrew from 1609 and professor of theology from 1611. He was made Bishop in the Diocese of Västerås in 1618. In his capacity of bishop, he was restlessly active in organising. He founded the Swedish system of parish registers, ordering his parsons to file comments on every person in the parish. In 1623 he founded the first gymnasium, a school of secondary education in Västerås. He also founded the first school for girls in Sweden, Rudbeckii flickskola, in 1632. Rudbeckius was considered politically suspect by his superiors but his reforms were gradually introduced in the whole country. Personal life With his second wife Magadalena Malin Carlsdotter (1602–1649), he had a son Olaus Rudbeck (1630–1702), who was a noted scientist of the 17th century. His grandson Olof Rudbeck the Younger (1660–1740) was a scientist, botanist and ornithologist. Bishop Rudbeckius' granddaughter, Wendela Rudbeck (1668–1710), married Peter Olai Nobelius (1655–1707) from whom descended Alfred Nobel (1833–1896). References 1581 births 1646 deaths People from Örebro Uppsala University alumni University of Wittenberg alumni Uppsala University faculty Rectors of Uppsala University Swedish Lutheran priests Swedish religious leaders Bishops of Västerås 16th-century Swedish people 17th-century Swedish educators	[ -0.4961755573749542, 0.405448317527771, 0.1045643612742424, 0.10782675445079803, -0.5075557231903076, 0.7618070244789124, 1.2928260564804077, -0.16238051652908325, -0.7430102229118347, -0.5461052656173706, 0.08830247819423676, 0.16305503249168396, -0.0019760108552873135, -0.16874848306179047, 0.182204008102417, 0.2295219451189041, 0.5978835821151733, -0.08862646669149399, -0.4887624979019165, -0.5959537625312805, -0.0030337437056005, -0.4412993788719177, 0.48506075143814087, 0.43822968006134033, 0.4247676134109497, 0.43428337574005127, 0.05208052694797516, 0.07084758579730988, -0.05771376192569733, -0.08016014099121094, -0.05958138033747673, 0.8774206042289734, 0.40225496888160706, 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217336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonian%20Ode	Plutonian Ode	"Plutonian Ode" is a poem written by American Beat poet Allen Ginsberg in 1978 against the arms race and nuclear armament of the superpowers. It is heavily inspired by Gnosticism which Ginsberg came to know after reading Hans Jonas's book on the subject. Philip Glass' Symphony No. 6 is based on and includes parts of this poem. It was first published in The CoEvolution Quarterly / Journal for the Protection of All Beings co-issue, Fall 1978. References External links Plutonian Ode "Plutonian Ode" read by author Poetry by Allen Ginsberg 1978 poems Nuclear war and weapons in popular culture	[ -0.16031932830810547, 0.5882835388183594, -0.5629509687423706, -0.06418491154909134, -0.3229428231716156, 0.2645990550518036, -0.10126398503780365, 0.6037827134132385, 0.6800522804260254, 0.043600164353847504, -0.5249286890029907, -0.07202515006065369, -0.598712146282196, 0.4269799292087555, 0.038611117750406265, -0.032641831785440445, -0.036212608218193054, -0.09757405519485474, 0.05366583541035652, 0.13456465303897858, 0.07869890332221985, 0.540544331073761, 1.055417537689209, -0.6331223249435425, 0.5054906606674194, -0.28232499957084656, 0.3502092957496643, -0.5124136209487915, -0.6053838729858398, 0.7409306168556213, -0.3196411728858948, 0.7104559540748596, 0.025215163826942444, -0.3556216061115265, 0.10767848044633865, -0.2212846875190735, -0.3591271638870239, 0.018895970657467842, 0.0073569156229496, -0.02690960466861725, 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217339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentinus	Valentinus	Valentinus is a Roman masculine given name derived from the Latin word "valens" meaning "healthy, strong". It may refer to: People Churchmen Pope Valentine (died 827) Saint Valentine, one or more martyred Christian saints Valentinus (Gnostic) (died c. 150), early Christian gnostic theologian Valentinus Paquay (1828–1905), Friar Minor Valentinus Smalcius (1572–1622), German Socinian theologian Emperors and pretenders Valentinus (rebel), 4th-century Roman exile who attempted a conspiracy in Roman Britain Valentinus (usurper) (died 644), Byzantine general and usurper, father of empress Fausta Scholars Basilius Valentinus, 15th century monk from Erfurt who may have described bismuth Valentinus Lublinus (16th-century–16th-century), 16th-century Polish physician and editor Valentinus Otho (died 1603), German mathematician and astronomer Valentinus Nabodus (1523–1593), German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer Biology Anacyclus valentinus, a species of aster Ischnocolus valentinus, a small, old-world tarantula Squalius valentinus, a species of freshwater fish in the carp family Cyprinidae 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217341	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clutching%20at%20Straws	Clutching at Straws	Clutching at Straws is the fourth studio album by the British neo-progressive rock band Marillion, released on June 22, 1987. It was the last album with lead singer Fish, who left the band in 1988, and is a concept album. Although Clutching at Straws did not achieve the sales of its predecessor, the number one album Misplaced Childhood, spending 15 weeks on the UK album chart (the shortest chart residency of any of Marillion's first four studio albums), it was still an immediate commercial success, becoming the second highest charting Marillion album by entering the chart at number two. It produced three UK Top 40 singles: "Incommunicado", "Sugar Mice" and "Warm Wet Circles". The album has received critical acclaim, being listed in Q magazine's "50 Best Recordings of the Year", it has been described by AllMusic as an "unheralded masterpiece", and Rolling Stone placed it at number 37 in its countdown of the "50 Greatest Prog Rock Albums of All Time". In 1999, a 2-CD 'Remastered Version' with additional B-sides and demos was released, including detailed liner notes from all of the original members including Fish. Concept The character of Torch (supposedly a descendant of the Jester from earlier album sleeves) is a 29-year-old out-of-work man whose life is a mess. He seeks comfort mostly in alcohol to numb himself. He is trying, but failing, to forget what lies at his feet—a failed marriage, being a deadbeat father, and his lack of commercial success as a singer in a band. As he gets drunk, he also writes about his surroundings and his laments. Since Torch has no other real outlet at his disposal, he ends up in bars, hotel rooms, and on the road, screaming and drunk, thus, he is described as beyond redemption or hope. Marillion took a break after their tour in support of the album (with Fish eventually quitting) after it was released. The song "Incommunicado" describes the pitfalls of the business, and how pressures in real life exerted by the band's US label Capitol Records were crushing in from outside for them to either succeed or get dropped by the company, which would happen to Marillion anyway a few years later. Cover artwork The front and back covers of the album describe Fish's inspiration for the album's lyrics as well as some of his heroes. There are allusions to them throughout the album. The setting is in a British pub (the Bakers Arms in Colchester), and the people represented are the following: On the front from left to right: Robert Burns, Dylan Thomas, Truman Capote and Lenny Bruce On the back from left to right: John Lennon, James Dean and Jack Kerouac Sleeve artist Mark Wilkinson has expressed his disappointment with the sleeve, which he intended to be more detailed and feature more characters but was rushed due to the release date of the album being brought forward: "It was torture to do. Especially as I got a call almost by the day from EMI or John (manager John Arnison) that if I missed this deadline, the time slot would go, and the tour / album symbiosis put in jeopardy. Somehow I did it, clutching at sleep! EMI were relieved. Fish seemed OK. The rest of the band were a bit unmoved, it was so different to the previous sleeves. I was bloody disappointed! I loved this album, still do. It was some kind of pinnacle as far as I am concerned. Probably my favourite of theirs. And I felt cheated! It was not the sleeve I had imagined. You don't win them all, believe me!" Critical reception In 1987, David Hepworth wrote in Q, "Musically, Clutching at Straws doesn't depart far from the educated arrangements of previous albums. However somebody has been applying a stop watch to the individual songs and to the solos within them; thus we have eleven distinct songs, each with its own melodic virtues and most with quite acceptable hook lines barked out by Fish... There are tracks here that could have snuck into Sting's live act quite easily." AllMusic described the album as "perhaps Marillion's most unheralded masterpiece" which "showcases some of the band's most satisfying compositions, including the magnificent 'Warm Wet Circles' and 'That Time of the Night (The Short Straw)' ... Tour opener 'Slainte Mhath' is simple and elegant, building to its dramatic crescendo only to be upstaged by 'Sugar Mice' – quite simply, one of Marillion's best commercial singles ever". "The Last Straw" was also praised as a "stunning closer" to the album. Music writer Paul Stenning described 'Incommunicado' as "the most original commercial composition of all time," and the album as a whole "the greatest progressive rock album of all time." In 2015, while including Clutching at Straws in the "50 Greatest Prog Rock Albums of All Time", Rolling Stone stated that "Marillion's fourth album balanced melody and melodrama" and commented on the "atmospheric production and guitarist Steve Rothery's spacious, relatively restrained guitar (which split the difference between Genesis' Steve Hackett and U2's the Edge)". Formats and re-issues The album was originally released on cassette, vinyl LP, 12" picture disc and was the first Marillion album to be released on compact disc. In 1999 the album was re-released in a remastered version, with the addition of a second CD consisting of demo tapes from the writing sessions for the then-planned untitled and subsequently aborted fifth album, right before Fish left. Much of the leftover musical material was then used on the official fifth Marillion album Seasons End, with new lyrics penned by John Helmer and the new singer Steve Hogarth, while some of the original lyrics for the music ended up in one form or another on Fish's solo albums – for example, the "Voice in the Crowd" concept would inform much of Vigil in a Wilderness of Mirrors. The remastered edition was later also made available without the bonus disc. A new 180-gram vinyl pressing was released in September 2013 by EMI. It was identical to the original vinyl release from 1987, namely 'Going Under' was not included. Track listing All songs written by Fish, Mark Kelly, Ian Mosley, Steve Rothery and Pete Trewavas. LP version The CD version of the album includes the bonus track "Going Under" (2:47) between "That Time of the Night" and "Just for the Record". This was not included on the vinyl or cassette versions. CD version 1999 remastered CD edition Disc 2 (bonus tracks) "Incommunicado" (alternative version) – 5:57 "Tux On" – 5:13 "Going Under" (extended version) – 2:48 "Beaujolais Day" – 4:51 "Story from a Thin Wall" – 6:47 "Shadows on the Barley" – 2:07 "Sunset Hill" – 4:21 "Tic-Tac-Toe" – 2:59 "Voice in the Crowd" – 3:29 "Exile on Princes Street" – 5:29 "White Russians" (demo) – 6:15 "Sugar Mice in the Rain" (demo) – 5:54 4-CD + Blu-ray Disc, 2018, Remastered, Digi-Book CD 1 Clutching at Straws (2018 Andy Bradfield & Avril Mackintosh Re-Mix) CD 2 Live at the Edinburgh Playhouse 19th December 1987 (2018 Michael Hunter Mix) La Gazza Ladra 2:46 Slainthe Mhath 5:03 Assassing 6:47 White Russian 6:25 Incubus 10:36 Sugar Mice 6:14 Fugazi 9:57 Hotel Hobbies 4:04 Warm Wet Circles 4:17 That Time Of The Night 6:00 CD 3 Live at the Edinburgh Playhouse (continued) (2018 Michael Hunter Mix) Pseudo Silk Kimono (intro) 1:06 Kayleigh 3:48 Lavender 2:34 Bitter Suite 8:32 Heart Of Lothian 7:23 The Last Straw 7:16 Incommunicado 5:00 Garden Party 6:26 Market Square Heroes [incomplete, featuring "My Generation", "Margaret" & "Let's Twist Again"] 10:09 CD 4 Clutching at Straws Demos 1999 Remaster Beaujolais Day Story from a Thin Wall Shadows on the Barley Exile on Princes Street Sunset Hill Tic-Tac-Toe Voice in the Crowd White Russians Sugar Mice in the Rain Previously Unreleased Demos Hotel Hobbies / Warm Wet Circles (The Mosaic Demos) Just for the Record Torch Song Slàinte Mhath Blu-ray Disc Blu-ray Disc Clutching At Straws [Stereo / LPCM Audio 5.1 / DTS Master 5.1] 52:13 The Final Straw [Documentary] 60:00 Incommunmicado [Promo Video] 4:02 Sugar Mice [Promo Video] 5:05 Warm Wet Circles [Demo] 4:25 Clutching At Straws [Original 1987 Album Mix] 52:13 Incommunicado [Alternate Version [1999 Remaster Bonus Track] 5:57 Tux On [1999 Remaster Bonus Track] 5:13 Going Under [1999 Remaster Bonus Track] 2:48 Personnel Band members Fish – vocals Steve Rothery – guitars Mark Kelly – keyboards Pete Trewavas – bass, backing vocals Ian Mosley – drums Additional musicians Tessa Niles – backing vocals on "That Time of the Night" and "The Last Straw" Chris Kimsey (credited as "Christopher 'Robbin' Kimsey") – backing vocals on "Incommunicado", production John Cavanagh – "Dr. Finlay" voice on "Torch Song" Charts Certifications References Notes Citations External links The Official Marillion Website Marillion albums Concept albums 1987 albums Neo-progressive rock albums EMI Records albums Albums produced by Chris Kimsey	[ -0.9253560304641724, 0.2665303647518158, 0.12335497885942459, 0.1376536339521408, -0.2081131637096405, 1.1041847467422485, 0.21906903386116028, -0.01332714594900608, -0.33000829815864563, 0.18187762796878815, 0.36721071600914, 0.4748975932598114, -0.15364058315753937, 0.40100952982902527, -0.0029471362940967083, 0.15154440701007843, 0.08048734068870544, 0.03948749601840973, -0.1834576427936554, -0.5636221766471863, 0.4703133702278137, -0.37637215852737427, 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217342	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%20involvement%20in%20the%202003%20invasion%20of%20Iraq	Polish involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq	On March 17, 2003, then Polish President Aleksander Kwaśniewski announced that Poland would send about 2,000 troops to the Persian Gulf to take part in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Polish soldiers had been present in the region since July 2002 and combat was first confirmed on March 24. These formed the fourth of the larger military contributions to the forces arrayed against Iraq (with the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia). Forces committed The original Polish contingent contained: 70 soldiers from the JW Grom SOF unit, already deployed to the region, before March 2003. These were joined by another 56 men, just before the invasion. The logistic support ship ORP Kontradmirał Xawery Czernicki which served as a base for special operations, included 50+ crew as well as the navy SOF unit JW Formoza. 74 chemical-contamination personnel from 4 Brodnicki Pułk Chemiczny (4. Chemical Warfare Regiment from Brodnica). Another 53 men strong chemical-contamination contingent was ready to be sent to Turkey, but because of the quick victory it was stopped one day before departure. In April 2005, Poland had 2,500 troops deployed in Iraq, and was also commanding a number of other coalition troops within the Polish-led Multinational Division Central-South. Operations by Polish Forces Polish commandos took part in security operations on Iraqi Oil Platforms. Fearing a repeat of the destruction of Iraqi oil wells in the Gulf War by Saddam Hussein, this operation aimed to prevent similar acts that would have led to pollution of the region and loss of infrastructure. Polish special forces performed the operation of securing the port of Umm Qasr. International relations In 2003, controversy erupted between Poland and France when Polish forces found French Roland surface-to-air missiles that the international press reported that Polish officers claimed had been manufactured in 2003. France pointed out that the latest Roland missiles were manufactured in the early 1990s and thus the manufacturing date was necessarily an error (it turned out it was probably the expiry date that was indicated), and affirmed that it had never sold weapons to Iraq in violation of the embargo. Investigations by the Polish authorities came to the conclusion that the persons responsible for the scandal were low level commanders; Wojskowe Służby Informacyjne, the Polish Army's intelligence service, had not verified their claims before they were leaked to the press. The Foreign Minister of Poland, Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz, stated in July 2003, "We have never hidden our desire for Polish oil companies to finally have access to sources of commodities" and was criticized for that by many fellow politicians and Polish popular opinion. See also Iraq–Poland relations Governmental positions on the Iraq War prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq Polish Army References External links President of Poland's decision to commit troops to Iraq Additional troops to leave for Iraq on the 21st Multinational Division Central-South homepage U.S. Foreign Economic and Military Aid by Recipient Country: 2000 to 2003 Military history of Poland Poland History of Poland (1989–present) Iraq–Poland military relations	[ -0.19284391403198242, 0.16282184422016144, -0.3495979905128479, -0.13841897249221802, -0.7037255167961121, 0.10924730449914932, 0.2329174429178238, 0.3796962797641754, -0.18479576706886292, -0.14622677862644196, -0.37508025765419006, -0.03435005247592926, -0.15841621160507202, 0.3026100993156433, -0.5883128046989441, 0.8118941187858582, 0.24441461265087128, 0.5435588359832764, -0.06156766787171364, -0.4650948643684387, 0.12456077337265015, -0.07092861831188202, 0.47446081042289734, -0.1336231231689453, 0.3061707615852356, 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217343	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20write%20rule	Thomas write rule	In computer science, particularly the field of databases, the Thomas write rule is a rule in timestamp-based concurrency control. It can be summarized as ignore outdated writes. It states that, if a more recent transaction has already written the value of an object, then a less recent transaction does not need perform its own write since it will eventually be overwritten by the more recent one. The Thomas write rule is applied in situations where a predefined logical order is assigned to transactions when they start. For example a transaction might be assigned a monotonically increasing timestamp when it is created. The rule prevents changes in the order in which the transactions are executed from creating different outputs: The outputs will always be consistent with the predefined logical order. For example consider a database with 3 variables (A, B, C), and two atomic operations C := A (T1), and C := B (T2). Each transaction involves a read (A or B), and a write (C). The only conflict between these transactions is the write on C. The following is one possible schedule for the operations of these transactions: If (when the transactions are created) T1 is assigned a timestamp that precedes T2 (i.e., according to the logical order, T1 comes first), then only T2's write should be visible. If, however, T1's write is executed after T2's write, then we need a way to detect this and discard the write. One practical approach to this is to label each value with a write timestamp (WTS) that indicates the timestamp of the last transaction to modify the value. Enforcing the Thomas write rule only requires checking to see if the write timestamp of the object is greater than the time stamp of the transaction performing a write. If so, the write is discarded In the example above, if we call TS(T) the timestamp of transaction T, and WTS(O) the write timestamp of object O, then T2's write sets WTS(C) to TS(T2). When T1 tries to write C, it sees that TS(T1) < WTS(C), and discards the write. If a third transaction T3 (with TS(T3) > TS(T2)) were to then write to C, it would get TS(T3) > WTS(C), and the write would be allowed. References Transaction processing ©	[ -0.20197419822216034, 0.35690298676490784, -0.1238178163766861, 0.12077005952596664, 0.20289883017539978, -0.5156545042991638, 0.38649609684944153, -0.2352890521287918, -0.30082857608795166, 0.16595207154750824, -0.5087489485740662, 0.40403881669044495, -0.6331092119216919, 0.3739449977874756, -0.213016077876091, 0.1256808042526245, 0.30229252576828003, 0.4216947555541992, 0.008677355013787746, -0.7585983276367188, 0.01993858441710472, 0.4149543344974518, 0.15368032455444336, -0.4614766538143158, 0.39645639061927795, 0.12102674692869186, -0.24562622606754303, -0.5484238862991333, -0.620879590511322, 0.03565840423107147, 0.1134786382317543, 0.40714386105537415, -0.0011304261861369014, 0.20587246119976044, -0.1206183210015297, 0.0013275857781991363, -0.17928557097911835, -0.22659647464752197, -0.13147351145744324, -0.3720245063304901, 0.010220580734312534, -0.3467036485671997, 0.12164910137653351, 0.21641184389591217, -0.2121141254901886, 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217345	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrepia	Restrepia	Restrepia, abbreviated Rstp in horticultural trade, is a small genus of 49 orchids in the orchid family (Orchidaceae), closely related to Pleurothallis. Named in honor of Don Jose Restrepo, it tends to be more showy than most other Pleurothallids. They are found primarily at higher altitudes in the cool, damp montane forests of the Andes and Venezuela, with some into Central America up to southern Mexico. Description These tiny epiphytic and rarely lithophytic orchids lack pseudobulbs. The erect, thick, leathery leaf is elliptic-ovate in shape. The aerial roots seem like fine hairs. The flowers develop one at a time at the base of the leaf. They are borne on a slender peduncle, originating from the base of the back of the leaf. The long dorsal sepal is erect and ends in a somewhat thicker club-shaped tip. They have fused lateral sepals (synsepals) which may be quite colorful : white, yellow, rose, purple, orange or tan with red, brown or purple overlaid frequently with contrasting reddish-purple spots or stripes. The long, lateral petals equally end in a thickened club-shaped tip. The long lip is ovoid and widest its apex. It shows the same variations in color and markings. They are generally of tufted habit and white sheathed stems with fine papery bracts. Under the right conditions, they can be in flower all year long. They propagate by spreading and forming new plantlets, called keikis, from the base of mature leaves. Several species, such as Restrepia muscifera, are very variable in size, shape and color. No two populations are the same. Species Three subgenera are recognized. Restrepia aberrans (Panama). Restrepia antennifera : Antennae-carrying restrepia (W. South America to NW. Venezuela). Restrepia aristulifera (Venezuela). Restrepia aspasicensium (Colombia to NW. Venezuela). Restrepia brachypus : Short-column foot restrepia (W. South America to Venezuela). Restrepia chameleon : Color-changing restrepia (Colombia). Restrepia chocoensis : Chocó restrepia (Colombia). Restrepia chrysoglossa (Colombia). Restrepia citrina : Lemon-yellow restrepia (Colombia). Restrepia cloesii (Peru). Restrepia condorensis : Condor-like restrepia (SE. Ecuador). Restrepia contorta : Twisted restrepia (W. South America). Restrepia cuprea : Copper-colored restrepia (Colombia). Restrepia cymbula (Ecuador). Restrepia dodsonii : Dodson's restrepia (Ecuador). Restrepia echinata (E. Colombia to Peru). Restrepia echo (Colombia). Restrepia elegans : Elegant restrepia (Colombia to NW. Venezuela). Restrepia ephippium (Ecuador). Restrepia escobariana (Colombia). Restrepia falkenbergii : Falkenberg's restrepia (Colombia). Restrepia flosculata : Small-flowered restrepia (Colombia to NW. Ecuador). Restrepia guttulata : Small-spotted restrepia (Venezuela to Ecuador). Restrepia iris : Rainbow restrepia (SE. Ecuador). Restrepia jesupiana (Venezuela). Restrepia lansbergii (NW. Venezuela to NC. Peru). Restrepia limbata (Colombia). Restrepia mendozae (SE. Ecuador). Restrepia metae (Colombia). Restrepia mohrii : Mohr's restrepia (Peru). Restrepia muscifera : Fly-carrying restrepia (S. Mexico to Ecuador). Restrepia nittiorhyncha (Colombia). Restrepia pandurata (Colombia). Restrepia pelyx (Colombia). Restrepia piperitosa (Peru). Restrepia portillae (Ecuador). Restrepia purpurea : Purple restrepia (Colombia). Restrepia radulifera (Venezuela). Restrepia renzii (Venezuela). Restrepia roseola : Rosy restrepia (Venezuela). Restrepia sanguinea : Blood red restrepia (Colombia). Restrepia schizosepala (NE. Ecuador). Restrepia seketii (Colombia). Restrepia tabeae : Tabe's restrepia (Colombia). Restrepia teaguei : Teague's restrepia (Ecuador). Restrepia tentaculata - now synonym of Lindleyalis tentaculata (Poepp. & Endl.) Luer 2004 Restrepia trichoglossa : Hairy tongued restrepia (Mexico - Chiapas to Ecuador) Restrepia tsubotae (Colombia). Restrepia vasquezii : Vasquez' restrepia (Bolivia). Restrepia wageneri (NW. Venezuela). Gallery References External links Photos of Restrepia orchids Epiphytic orchids Pleurothallidinae genera	[ -0.04161485284566879, -0.3130530118942261, -0.2124468833208084, 0.10514874011278152, -0.30603668093681335, 0.5762526988983154, 0.1824033111333847, -0.10487224161624908, -0.6287172436714172, -0.02230084128677845, -0.13177014887332916, -0.046399615705013275, -0.29969778656959534, -0.02887559123337269, 0.24474886059761047, 0.7335231304168701, 0.05759648606181145, 0.6051076054573059, 0.028907693922519684, 0.2508181929588318, 0.1588987559080124, -0.3848859667778015, 0.5999022722244263, -0.7184708714485168, 0.3230777978897095, 0.02977067232131958, -0.14846037328243256, 0.32093551754951477, -0.07481315732002258, 0.02148415520787239, -0.3015311360359192, 0.1876450926065445, 0.32940465211868286, 0.2272663712501526, 0.26867830753326416, -0.1567707359790802, -0.20180076360702515, -0.10887214541435242, -0.15555429458618164, -0.4886612594127655, -0.027539731934666634, -0.7434528470039368, 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217346	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Fuhrman	Mark Fuhrman	Mark Fuhrman (born February 5, 1952) is a former detective of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD). He is primarily known for his part in the investigation of the 1994 murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron Goldman in the O. J. Simpson murder case. In 1995, Fuhrman was called to testify regarding his discovery of evidence in the Simpson case, including a bloody glove recovered at Simpson's estate. Through the duration of the trial, claims were made that Fuhrman frequently used a racist epithet toward African Americans during the 1980s, which Fuhrman denied. In response, Simpson's defense team produced recorded interviews with Fuhrman and witnesses showing that he had repeatedly used racist language during this period. As a result, the defense claimed that Fuhrman was capable of perjury and not a credible witness. The credibility of the prosecution has been cited as one reason Simpson was acquitted. The defense claimed that Fuhrman planted key evidence as part of a racially motivated plot against Simpson. When asked under oath (with the jury not present), Fuhrman declined to answer all questions, invoking his Fifth Amendment right. These questions included whether he planted or manufactured evidence. Fuhrman retired from the LAPD in 1995. In 1996, he pleaded no contest to perjury for his false testimony related to his use of racial epithets. Fuhrman has claimed that he is not a racist and apologized for his use of racist language. Some of his minority former coworkers have expressed support for him. Fuhrman maintains that he did not plant or manufacture evidence in the Simpson case, and Simpson's defense team did not present any evidence to contradict this claim. Fuhrman believes that Simpson is guilty of the murders and places blame for his acquittal on the lead detectives' failure to enter evidence into the chain of custody and the prosecution's failure to adequately argue their case. Since his retirement from the LAPD, Fuhrman has written true crime books and hosted talk radio. Biography Fuhrman was born in Eatonville, Washington, and attended Peninsula High School in Gig Harbor, Washington. Fuhrman's parents divorced when he was seven years old, and his mother remarried briefly. In 1970, aged 18, he enlisted in the United States Marine Corps, where he was trained as a machine gunner and military policeman. He served during the Vietnam War era, although the closest he got to Vietnam was the , an amphibious assault ship stationed offshore. Having attained the rank of sergeant, he was honorably discharged in 1975. After leaving the military, Fuhrman entered the Los Angeles Police Academy and graduated in 1975. In 1981, Fuhrman requested leave for workers' compensation. During a psychiatric interview regarding this claim, Fuhrman expressed racist sentiments, stating that he stopped enjoying military service because of alleged insubordination from Mexican-Americans and African-Americans, whom he described as "niggers". Fuhrman received workers' compensation and remained on paid leave until 1983. During this time, Fuhrman attempted to leave the police force permanently and receive a stress disability pension. In a 1982 psychiatric interview, he claimed that he had "tortur[ed] suspects and con[ned] internal affairs detectives", that he would choke suspects and break their arms and legs "if necessary", and that he had pounded suspects' faces to "mush". Fuhrman claimed that he was afraid he would kill someone if he were returned to street patrol. Although several psychiatrists recommended that he be removed from duty completely, and others recommended that he not be allowed to carry a gun, the City of Los Angeles argued that Fuhrman's statements were merely part of an elaborate ruse to win a pension. In 1983, Fuhrman lost his case, and a subsequent appeal to Superior Court was rejected; therefore, Fuhrman returned to active duty as a police officer. In 1985, Fuhrman responded to a domestic violence call between a famous retired National Football League player, O. J. Simpson, and his wife, Nicole Brown Simpson, and in 1989, a statement by Fuhrman about this call resulted in Simpson's arrest for spousal abuse. Fuhrman was promoted to detective in 1989. In October 1994 he worked to prove the innocence of Arrick Harris, an African-American male who Fuhrman believed had been falsely implicated for murder. Fuhrman retired from the LAPD in early 1995, after serving as a police officer for 20 years. Personal life Fuhrman has married and divorced three times, to: Barbara L. Koop (from 1973 to 1977), Janet Ellen Sosbee (from 1977 to 1980), and Caroline Lody (from the early 1980s to 2000). The marriage to Lody produced two children. Fuhrman was a collector of various war memorabilia and medals. Role in O. J. Simpson murder trial Background During Simpson's and Nicole's eight-year marriage, Simpson repeatedly physically abused her and threatened to kill her, leading her to call the police on several occasions. Fuhrman responded to one of these calls and encountered Nicole hiding in her Mercedes as Simpson was trying to break the windshield with a baseball bat. In a 2016 interview with Ezra Edelman in O.J.: Made in America, Fuhrman claimed that he twice asked Simpson to put the bat down, and when Simpson refused, Fuhrman got his baton out and threatened him with violence if he continued. Simpson then obeyed and apologized, and Fuhrman offered Nicole the chance to press charges so he could arrest Simpson, but she declined. Nicole and Ron Goldman were murdered outside Brown's Brentwood, Los Angeles condominium on the night of June 12, 1994. Robert Riske and his partner were the first police officers on the scene in the early morning of June 13, and Riske found a bloody left-hand glove at the scene. At least 14 officers and supervisors, some of whom arrived on the scene before Fuhrman, reported seeing only one glove. Fuhrman and his superior, Ronald Phillips, were the first detectives to arrive; Fuhrman's partner, Brad Roberts, arrived later. Fuhrman was familiar with O. J. Simpson and Nicole Brown because of the 1985 domestic violence call. Fuhrman left Brown's condominium with Ronald Phillips and lead detectives Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter, and they went to Simpson's Rockingham residence. At the Simpson residence, Fuhrman found a number of blood drops in and on a white Ford Bronco parked outside. Fuhrman then climbed over the wall of the property in order to let the other detectives in. They later testified that they entered Simpson's estate without a search warrant due to exigent circumstances – specifically, a concern that Simpson himself might have been harmed. In Simpson's guest house, detectives found Kato Kaelin, who told detectives that he had heard thumping sounds earlier in the night. An investigation of the property by Fuhrman produced a second bloody glove, which was later determined to be the right-hand mate of the glove found at the murder scene. The glove found on the Simpson estate, which – according to DNA testing – was soaked with the blood of both victims, was considered to be one of the strongest pieces of evidence for the prosecution. When Simpson was asked to put on the gloves during the trial, they appeared to be too small for him. The reasons for this have been debated. Simpson was arrested on June 17. On July 8, a preliminary hearing determined that there was sufficient evidence for Simpson to stand trial. On July 22, Simpson pleaded not guilty. Defense strategy In an article by Jeffrey Toobin in the July 25 issue of The New Yorker, the defense revealed that they planned to play "the race card". Specifically, Simpson's defense team alleged that Fuhrman planted the glove found at Simpson's estate as part of a racially motivated effort to frame Simpson for the murders. The article detailed Fuhrman's prior use of racist language and claims of violence made during his 1981–1982 psychiatric interviews. Although Fuhrman's psychiatric reports were later ruled inadmissible in the case because they were determined to be too old to have direct relevance, the New Yorker article was published before jury selection was finalized or jury sequestration had taken place. Potential jurors were asked how much exposure to the Simpson case they received from The New Yorker (among other media outlets) as part of the jury selection process. They were also asked their opinions of Fuhrman and other witnesses who had testified at the preliminary hearing. The trial began on January 24, 1995, and Fuhrman took the witness stand for the prosecution on March 9. During cross-examination on March 15, attorney F. Lee Bailey asked Fuhrman whether he had used the word "nigger" in the previous 10 years, to which Fuhrman replied that he had not. The defense tried to introduce witnesses and audiotape evidence to prove that Fuhrman had lied under oath, that he had a particular animus against interracial couples, that he had a history of perpetrating violence against African-Americans, and that he had a history of being willing to fabricate evidence or testimony. In accordance with the California Evidence Code, the prosecution sought to exclude this evidence by arguing that it was too inflammatory and could prejudice the predominantly black jury. Although they conceded that Fuhrman used racial epithets on the tape, the prosecution suggested that the remainder of the material was merely exaggerated "puffing and blowing". On August 31, Judge Lance Ito ruled that evidence could be introduced to prove that Fuhrman had lied about use of the word "nigger", but that claims of violence and police misconduct were inadmissible. On September 5, the defense produced multiple witnesses and audiotapes to establish that Fuhrman had used the word "nigger" within the last 10 years. The tape eventually resulted in a perjury charge against Fuhrman, to which he pleaded no contest. First, Laura Hart McKinny took the stand. Between 1985 and 1994, Fuhrman gave taped interviews to McKinny, a writer working on a screenplay about female police officers. Fuhrman was working as a consultant for McKinny on the understanding that he would be paid $10,000 if a movie were produced. The recordings contain 41 instances of the word "nigger" used as recently as 1988, including references in which Fuhrman claims to have perpetrated violence against African-Americans. In the recordings, he also says he thinks it is sometimes necessary to lie as a police officer and that he has given testimony about events he did not actually witness. After McKinny, witness Kathleen Bell testified. She had met Fuhrman at a Marine recruiting station in 1985 or 1986, where she claimed that he expressed animus against interracial couples and said, "If I had my way, all the niggers would be gathered together and burned." Then, witness Natalie Singer, whose roommate had dated Fuhrman around 1987, testified that Fuhrman had told her, "The only good nigger is a dead nigger." On the television show Leeza, Singer later said that Fuhrman had also said, "Yeah, we work with niggers and gangs. You can take one of these niggers, drag 'em into the alley and beat the shit out of them and kick them. You can see them twitch. It really relieves your tension." However, Ito restricted her from giving her complete statement during the trial. Roderic Hodge then testified that while he was in police custody in 1987, Fuhrman had said to him, "I told you we would get you, nigger." Ultimately, the jury was allowed to hear only two excerpts from the Fuhrman tapes, which did not include the inflammatory violent content or material related to potential misconduct. Jurors heard Fuhrman say, "We have no niggers where I grew up," and "That's where niggers live." With the jury absent on September 6, the defense asked Fuhrman whether he had ever falsified police reports or planted or manufactured evidence in the Simpson case. Although he had earlier responded "No" when asked this question, this time, on his lawyer's advice, he invoked his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination. During his closing argument, defense attorney Johnnie Cochran called Fuhrman "a lying, perjuring, genocidal racist", likening him to Adolf Hitler. He argued that Fuhrman had planted the bloody glove on Simpson's estate as part of a racially motivated plot against Simpson, which could be traced back to Fuhrman's first encounter with the interracial couple in 1985. Although there was no evidence to suggest that Fuhrman had planted the glove, his perjury about his use of the word "nigger" was widely seen as severely damaging the prosecution's credibility in front of the mostly black jury (especially in the wake of the Rodney King trial) and has been cited as one of the main reasons Simpson was acquitted. Aftermath Fuhrman's words on the tapes resulted in his being widely condemned, including by the prosecution. His use of racial epithets and accusations that he had planted evidence became a focal point of the trial and attracted enormous media attention that for a time eclipsed coverage of the crime itself, such that Ron Goldman's father, Fred Goldman, sarcastically told the media, "This is now the Fuhrman trial. It is not the trial of O. J. Simpson, the man accused of murdering my son and Nicole." After the trial, there was widespread pressure on Los Angeles County district attorney Gil Garcetti to bring perjury charges against Fuhrman. Garcetti initially refused, saying that Fuhrman's use of racist language was "not material to the case", a major element of proving perjury. But many members of Garcetti's office made public statements on the issue, and Garcetti, citing the high emotions in his office about the case, opted to give the decision to prosecute to Attorney General Dan Lungren, to avoid the appearance of a conflict of interest. On July 5, 1996, Lungren announced that he would file perjury charges against Fuhrman and soon thereafter offered Fuhrman a plea bargain. On October 2, Fuhrman accepted the deal and pleaded no contest to the charges. He was sentenced to three years' probation and fined $200. Fuhrman is the only person to have been convicted of criminal charges related to the Simpson case. His probation ended early in 1998, and his felony charges were expunged 18 months later. In an October 1996 television interview with Diane Sawyer, Fuhrman said he did not plant evidence in the Simpson case. He said he is not racist, and apologized for his use of racist language. He said he had forgotten about the existence of the audiotapes and that they were merely part of a misguided effort to have a fictional screenplay produced. A police investigation of the claims of violence on the tapes found that Fuhrman had grossly exaggerated, and many of his minority former coworkers have expressed support for Fuhrman and said they do not believe he is racist. In his book Outrage: The Five Reasons Why O. J. Simpson Got Away with Murder, Vincent Bugliosi argues that planting the glove would have required a far-reaching (and unlikely) conspiracy between Fuhrman and other police force members. Anyone involved in such a conspiracy would have been risking their life, because Article 128 of the California Penal Code states that anyone who fabricates evidence in a death penalty case as the Brown and Goldman murder case might have become can be sentenced to death themselves. Bugliosi further argues that Fuhrman was one of the victims in the case and that his lying under oath about racial epithets did not rise to the level of indictable perjury, because it was immaterial to the actual facts of the case. Post-trial Murder in Brentwood After retiring from the LAPD in early 1995, Fuhrman moved to Sandpoint, Idaho. He wrote a book about the Simpson case, called Murder in Brentwood (1997, ), which includes a foreword by Vincent Bugliosi, the prosecutor of the Charles Manson case. In the book, Fuhrman apologized for the racist remarks on the audiotapes, terming them "immature, irresponsible ramblings" made because of a desire to make money; he contends that the tapes were merely part of a screenplay. He argued that Lungren had charged him to garner black support for a planned campaign for governor of California, in 1998. Despite being told that Lungren's case was "flimsy at best", Fuhrman said that he felt he had no choice but to plead no contest. He claimed he could not afford to mount an adequate defense; he already owed thousands of dollars in legal bills, and the city's Police Protective League would not help him pay them. He also claimed he could not afford living expenses for a trial that would take several months (or years, in case of an appeal). He also believed that he could not get a fair trial in the racially charged climate of the time, and thought an acquittal would cause a riot similar to the 1992 Los Angeles riots. He also wanted to protect his family from being harassed by the press. Fuhrman has said he believes the LAPD could have arrested Simpson on the afternoon of June 13, based on the blood evidence and his apparently contradictory statements during questioning. However, he believes senior LAPD officials didn't want to take a chance on being wrong about Simpson and wanted to wait until the preliminary genetic evidence came in. Fuhrman argues that several errors made by his LAPD colleagues permitted the defense to allege that there was suspicious police conduct at Nicole Brown Simpson's residence. For instance, Fuhrman claims that the initial search warrant submitted by one of the detectives on the case, Phillip Vannatter, was too short and did not include enough details of the probable cause and evidence on hand at the time. Fuhrman also argues that major pieces of evidence were mishandled and believes his colleagues did not realize that their every move would be scrutinized in court due to the nature of the case. Fuhrman asserts that the police and the prosecution made other errors that reduced the chances of a guilty verdict. For example, Fuhrman and his partner, Brad Roberts, found a bloody fingerprint on the north walkway gate of Nicole Brown Simpson's house. According to Fuhrman, at least some of it belonged to the suspect, as there was enough blood at the scene to suggest the suspect was bleeding. This was potentially critical evidence; Simpson claimed that he'd cut himself on the night of the murders but hadn't been to his ex-wife's house in a week. Had the fingerprint been tied to Simpson in any way it could have been a crippling blow to his defense. It also could have contradicted the defense's allegation that Fuhrman planted the glove, since Fuhrman did not know or have reason to know that it was Simpson's blood. But the fingerprint was destroyed at some point and mentioned only superficially at trial. In fact, Fuhrman later discovered that Vannatter and Lange didn't even know the fingerprint was there because they never read Fuhrman's notes. Roberts could have offered testimony that would have corroborated the existence of the fingerprint and several of Fuhrman's other observations, but lead prosecutor Marcia Clark never called him to testify. This rankled Fuhrman almost as much as Vannatter's and Lange's failure to read his notes; Furhman believed Clark decided not to call Roberts to avoid embarrassing Vannatter on the stand. Fuhrman has said that he feels the prosecution abandoned him once the tapes were made public. He said that he pleaded the Fifth Amendment after he couldn't get the prosecution to call him to the stand for a redirect prior to the tapes' being played for the jury. Once the tapes came out, Fuhrman has said, his reputation as a credible witness would have been nearly beyond rehabilitation. Fuhrman felt that Judge Lance Ito allowed the defense to control the trial. For instance, like Bugliosi, Fuhrman insists that relevant case law demanded that Ito foreclose the defense from asking him about racial slurs, since any potential relevance was outweighed by the prospect of prejudice to the prosecution's case. Fuhrman also asserts that Ito should have never been assigned to the case in the first place, as Ito was married to Margaret "Peggy" York, an LAPD captain who had been Fuhrman's superior officer in the past. In the Fuhrman tapes recorded by Laura McKinny, Fuhrman disparages York's appearance and suggests that she used her sex to advance in the police force. Fuhrman felt that Ito should have been challenged by the prosecution or voluntarily recused himself from the case on that basis. In fact, prosecutors did request that Ito step down, though they later withdrew the request out of fear that it would result in a mistrial. Other books For his next book, Murder in Greenwich (1998, ), Fuhrman investigated the then-unsolved 1975 murder of Martha Moxley and presented his theory that the murderer was Michael Skakel, nephew of Ethel Kennedy, the widow of Senator Robert F. Kennedy. Skakel was convicted of Moxley's murder in June 2002. The book was adapted for a 2002 television movie starring Christopher Meloni as Fuhrman. In 2001, Fuhrman published Murder in Spokane: Catching a Serial Killer (), which investigated a serial killer's spree in Spokane, Washington. In 2003, he published Death and Justice: An Exposé of Oklahoma's Death Row Machine (), on the subject of capital punishment. In 2005, Fuhrman published Silent Witness: The Untold Story of Terri Schiavo's Death ( ), which emphasized gaps in the medical and legal records that might allow for the possibility that Schiavo was murdered. In 2006, he published A Simple Act of Murder: November 22, 1963 (), about the John F. Kennedy assassination. In it, Fuhrman advanced a theory challenging the single-bullet theory while still maintaining that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone. He claimed that the Warren Commission was forced to ratify the single-bullet theory for political reasons. However, he said that a dent in the chrome above the windshield of the presidential limousine used that day vindicated the story told by John Connally that the first shot that hit President John F. Kennedy did not also hit him. In 2009, he published The Murder Business: How the Media Turns Crime Into Entertainment and Subverts Justice (), which addressed the fine line between crime reporting and entertainment. Radio and television commentary Fuhrman is a forensic and crime scene expert for Fox News, and he has been a frequent guest of Fox commentator Sean Hannity. He was also the host of the Mark Fuhrman Show on KGA-AM in Spokane between the hours of 8am-11am Pacific Time. The show covered local and national topics and included guest callers, and was a casualty of the sale of the station by Citadel Broadcasting Corp. of Las Vegas to Mapleton Communications, LLC of Monterey, California. In popular culture In Murder in Greenwich, Mark Fuhrman is portrayed by Christopher Meloni. In American Crime Story: The People v. O. J. Simpson, Mark Fuhrman is portrayed by Steven Pasquale. He will be portrayed by Alexander Man in Joshua Newton's upcoming film Nicole & O.J.. See also Fuhrman tapes References External links 1952 births Living people American police detectives Los Angeles Police Department officers O. J. Simpson murder case People from Eatonville, Washington People from Gig Harbor, Washington People from Sandpoint, Idaho Researchers of the assassination of John F. Kennedy United States Marine Corps non-commissioned officers American people of German descent	[ -0.3565368950366974, 0.16010060906410217, -0.3027327060699463, -0.2441539615392685, 0.40385839343070984, 0.0005053491913713515, 0.40816134214401245, -0.11144861578941345, -0.08064024895429611, -0.12846000492572784, -0.020206645131111145, 0.8919077515602112, -0.27507463097572327, -0.4815250635147095, 0.1387294977903366, 0.1867104172706604, 0.0535367950797081, 0.40322625637054443, -0.22022771835327148, -0.5586754679679871, 0.03204524889588356, -0.6093150973320007, 0.07594311982393265, 0.1361417919397354, -0.12837083637714386, 0.7879154682159424, -0.5301889181137085, 0.20555907487869263, -0.09710917621850967, 0.4467988610267639, 0.09921348094940186, -0.006598771549761295, 0.056472036987543106, -0.29546257853507996, -0.08003026992082596, 0.32939159870147705, 0.11958182603120804, -0.46364879608154297, 0.033925529569387436, 0.5274195671081543, 0.022501319646835327, 0.31008726358413696, 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217350	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stelis	Stelis	Stelis, or leach orchids, is a large genus of orchids, with perhaps 500 species. The generic name Stelis is the Greek word for 'mistletoe', referring to the epiphytic habit of these species. These mainly epiphytic (rarely lithophytic) plants are widely distributed throughout much of South America, Central America, Mexico, the West Indies and Florida. Many of the older species were named by Lindley, Ruiz & Pavon and Reichenbach, while many of the recent species were named by Dr. C. Luer. An orchid of the genus Stelis was probably the first American orchid ever to be brought to Europe. An herbarium specimen was depicted in 1591 in Tabernaemontanus' herbal book. Description A single oblanceolate leaf develops from narrow, leathery outgrowths from a creeping stem. Most species grow long, dense racemes of small to minute flower in diverse shades of white. Other colors are rare. These flowers are photosensitive, only opening in the sunlight. Some close completely at night. The three symmetrically rounded sepals generally form a triangle with a small central structure, made up of the column, small petals and small lip, though slight variation to this theme does occur. This genus is not common in cultivation. Taxonomy Cladistic research (by A. Pridgeon, R. Solano and M. Chase) has shown that the genus Stelis is monophyletic. But the distinction with several Pleurothallis subgenera is blurred (see Reference). They are closely related to the massive genus Pleurothallis and Masdevallia. Although vegetatively the species show much variety, the flowers show a basic uniformity and are very similar throughout. Apatostelis Garay, Dialissa Lindl., Humboldtia Ruiz & Pav. and Steliopsis Brieger are generally included into Stelis. History The genus Stelis was discovered with Charles Plumier, a French priest and botanist who was sent by Louis XIV, King of France, to study the flora of the Antilles in around 1690. He collected numerous species in Dominica (Caribbean island) and other islands, and published his findings in a catalogue called Nova Plantarum Americanarum Genera in 1703. Later on, Nikolaus von Jacquin, a Dutch botanist who collected extensively in the Caribbean, published his findings in two separate works. In 1760, he published the first one called Enumeratio Systematica Plantarum quas in Insulis Caribeis, where he described the same plant as Plumier´s polynomial (Epidendrum ophioglossoides). In 1763, he published a more detailed second work called Selectarum Stirpium Americanarum Historia. Here, Jacquin describes a plant of his own herbarium with the same name (E. ophioglossoides) Afterwards, on the “Expedición Botánica Española” (Spanish Botanic Expedition) sent by King Carlos III to study the flora of Peru and Chile, Hipolito Ruiz and Joseph Pavon complete results established 11 small plants of a new genus which they named Humboltia in honor of the renowned German explorer and naturalist Alexander Von Humboldt. In 1799, Olof Swartz, a Swedish botanist, studied the genus proposed by Ruiz and Pavon and found that it had been already used by Vahl to designate a Leguminosae. Because of this, he proposed the name Stelis in replacement of Humboltia. The species Epidendrum ophioglossoides was later moved to the genus Stelis by Swarz, and it is now the type species of the genus. Species Select species of Stelis include: Stelis alata Lindl. – winged stelis Stelis argentata Lindl. – silvery stelis Stelis aviceps Lindl. – bird head stelis Stelis barbata Rolfe – bearded stelis Stelis bidentata Schltr – two-toothed stelis Stelis ciliaris Lindl. – hairy stelis Stelis crescentiicola Schltr – Crescentia living stelis Stelis dalstroemii Luer Stelis flexuosa – flexuous stelis Stelis gemma – gem stelis Stelis glomerosa – ball stelis Stelis guatemalensis – Guatemalan stelis Stelis intermedia Poepp. & Endl. – in-between stelis Stelis leinigii – Leinig's stelis Stelis megantha – giant anther stelis Stelis palmeiraensis – Palmeira stelis Stelis pauciflora Lindl. Stelis papaquerensis Rchb.f. Stelis perpusilliflora – West Indian leach orchid Stelis porschiana – Porsch's stelis Stelis purpurea – purple stelis Stelis pygmaea – pygmy leach orchid Stelis triangulisepala – triangular sepal stelis References Dr. C. Luer - Icones Pleurothallidinarum XXIV: A first century of new species of Stelis of Ecuador. Part 1 (2002); Dr. C. Luer - Icones Pleurothallidinarum XXVI: Pleurothallis subgenus Acianthera and three allied subgenera; A Second Century of New Species of Stelis of Ecuador; Epibator, Ophidion, Zootrophion (2004); Phylogenetic relationships in Pleurothallidinae. External links Epiphytic orchids Pleurothallidinae genera Orchids of Central America Orchids of North America Orchids of South America Orchids of Florida Orchids of Mexico Flora of the Caribbean Taxa named by Olof Swartz	[ -0.06694776564836502, -0.019722450524568558, -0.004516846965998411, -0.49515384435653687, -0.3232141137123108, 0.9438488483428955, 0.5447587966918945, -0.1006588563323021, -0.3823534846305847, -0.2634596824645996, -0.059462063014507294, -0.26319968700408936, -0.27709585428237915, 0.043168894946575165, 0.07219156622886658, 1.1112672090530396, -0.06333430856466293, 0.1960536688566208, 0.03300837427377701, 0.15730519592761993, -0.07698842883110046, -0.29843869805336, 0.6391997933387756, -0.7116476893424988, 0.4198199510574341, -0.1453636735677719, 0.36992838978767395, 0.42010727524757385, -0.11030004173517227, 0.0585002601146698, -0.37107500433921814, 0.5140547752380371, 0.6768577098846436, -0.04996902123093605, -0.30042916536331177, 0.023597359657287598, 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217351	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timestamp-based%20concurrency%20control	Timestamp-based concurrency control	In computer science, a timestamp-based concurrency control algorithm is a non-lock concurrency control method. It is used in some databases to safely handle transactions, using timestamps. Operation Assumptions Every timestamp value is unique and accurately represents an instant in time. No two timestamps can be the same. A higher-valued timestamp occurs later in time than a lower-valued timestamp. Generating a timestamp A number of different ways have been used to generate timestamp Use the value of the system's clock at the start of a transaction as the timestamp. Use a thread-safe shared counter that is incremented at the start of a transaction as the timestamp. A combination of the above two methods. Formal Each transaction () is an ordered list of actions (). Before the transaction performs its first action (), it is marked with the current timestamp, or any other strictly totally ordered sequence: . Every transaction is also given an initially empty set of transactions upon which it depends, , and an initially empty set of old objects which it updated, . Each object in the database is given two timestamp fields which are not used other than for concurrency control: is the time at which the value of object was last used by a transaction, is the time at which the value of the object was last updated by a transaction. For all : For each action : If wishes to use the value of : If then abort (a more recent thread has overwritten the value), Otherwise update the set of dependencies and set ; If wishes to update the value of : If then abort (a more recent thread is already relying on the old value), If then skip (the Thomas Write Rule), Otherwise store the previous values, , set , and update the value of . While there is a transaction in that has not ended: wait If there is a transaction in that aborted then abort Otherwise: commit. To abort: For each in If equals then restore and Informal Whenever a transaction begins, it receives a timestamp. This timestamp indicates the order in which the transaction must occur, relative to the other transactions. So, given two transactions that affect the same object, the operation of the transaction with the earlier timestamp must execute before the operation of the transaction with the later timestamp. However, if the operation of the wrong transaction is actually presented first, then it is aborted and the transaction must be restarted. Every object in the database has a read timestamp, which is updated whenever the object's data is read, and a write timestamp, which is updated whenever the object's data is changed. If a transaction wants to read an object, but the transaction started before the object's write timestamp it means that something changed the object's data after the transaction started. In this case, the transaction is canceled and must be restarted. and the transaction started after the object's write timestamp, it means that it is safe to read the object. In this case, if the transaction timestamp is after the object's read timestamp, the read timestamp is set to the transaction timestamp. If a transaction wants to write to an object, but the transaction started before the object's read timestamp it means that something has had a look at the object, and we assume it took a copy of the object's data. So we can't write to the object as that would make any copied data invalid, so the transaction is aborted and must be restarted. and the transaction started before the object's write timestamp it means that something has changed the object since we started our transaction. In this case we use the Thomas write rule and simply skip our write operation and continue as normal; the transaction does not have to be aborted or restarted otherwise, the transaction writes to the object, and the object's write timestamp is set to the transaction's timestamp. Recoverability Note that timestamp ordering in its basic form does not produce recoverable histories. Consider for example the following history with transactions and : This could be produced by a TO scheduler, but is not recoverable, as commits even though having read from an uncommitted transaction. To make sure that it produces recoverable histories, a scheduler can keep a list of other transactions each transaction has read from, and not let a transaction commit before this list consisted of only committed transactions. To avoid cascading aborts, the scheduler could tag data written by uncommitted transactions as dirty, and never let a read operation commence on such a data item before it was untagged. To get a strict history, the scheduler should not allow any operations on dirty items. Implementation issues Timestamp resolution This is the minimum time elapsed between two adjacent timestamps. If the resolution of the timestamp is too large (coarse), the possibility of two or more timestamps being equal is increased and thus enabling some transactions to commit out of correct order. For example, assuming that we have a system that can create one hundred unique timestamps per second, and given two events that occur 2 milliseconds apart, they will probably be given the same timestamp even though they actually occurred at different times. Timestamp locking Even though this technique is a non-locking one, in as much as the Object is not locked from concurrent access for the duration of a transaction, the act of recording each timestamp against the Object requires an extremely short duration lock on the Object or its proxy. 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217352	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Brehm	Alfred Brehm	Alfred Edmund Brehm (; 2 February 1829 – 11 November 1884) was a German zoologist, writer, director of zoological gardens and the son of Christian Ludwig Brehm, a famous pastor and ornithologist. Through the book title Brehms Tierleben, which he co-authored with Eduard Pechuël-Loesche, Wilhelm Haacke, and Richard Schmidtlein, his name became a household word for popular zoological literature. Early life Alfred Brehm grew up in the small Thuringian village of Unterrenthendorf as the son of the minister, Christian Ludwig Brehm, and of his second wife Bertha. Christian Ludwig Brehm made a name for himself as an ornithologist by publications and through an extensive collection of stuffed birds. The collection, held in the parsonage and consisting of over 9,000 dead birds, offered a glimpse into the world of European birds. His father's research gave the younger Brehm an interest in zoology, but at first he wanted to become an architect. In the spring of 1844 he began to study with a builder in Altenburg. He continued his studies there until September 1846, when he left for Dresden in order to study architecture; however, he stopped after two semesters because Johann Wilhelm von Müller, a well-known ornithologist, was looking for a companion for an African expedition. Brehm joined the expedition on 31 May 1847 as a secretary and assistant to von Müller. The expedition took him to Egypt, the Sudan, and the Sinai Peninsula; the discoveries made were so important that, at age 20, Brehm was made a member of the German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina. Career After his return, in 1853 he started to study natural sciences at the University of Jena. Like his brother Reinhold, he became active with the student corps Saxonia Jena; because of his expedition to North Africa, he received the nickname Pharaoh from his corps brothers. He graduated after four semesters in 1855 and in 1856 went on a two-year journey to Spain with his brother Reinhold. Afterwards he settled down in Leipzig as a freelance writer and wrote many essays in the service of science popularization for Die Gartenlaube and other magazines. Soon, Brehm became one of Germany's most popular naturalists and science writers, focusing on zoological themes. Apart from this, he undertook an expedition to Norway and Lapland in 1860. In May 1861 Brehm married his cousin Mathilde Reiz, with whom he had five children. Since he wanted to travel, in 1862 he accepted the invitation of Duke Ernst II of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to accompany him on a trip to Abyssinia. Afterwards, Brehm travelled to Africa as well as to Scandinavia and Siberia. His essays and expedition reports from the animal world were well received by the educated bourgeoisie; because of this, he was commissioned by the editor of the Bibliographisches Institut, Herrmann Julius Meyer, to write a large multivolume work on the animal world. This book became known worldwide as Brehms Tierleben (or, in English, Brehm's Life of Animals). Although Brehm's ethology is no longer seen as correct in all details, the title of his work is still a catchphrase. Brehm's life was full with writing, scientific expeditions and lecture tours. Despite this, in 1862, he accepted the post of first director of the Zoological Garden of Hamburg and kept this position until 1867. Afterwards he went to Berlin, where he opened an aquarium. He remained with the aquarium until 1874. In the winter of 1883 to 1884 Brehm planned a lecture tour to the US. Shortly before his departure, his four children contracted diphtheria. Since he could not afford to break his contract, Brehm, a widower since 1878, went ahead with his tour. At the end of January he received word of his youngest son's death. After the hardship of this news Brehm relapsed into malaria, which he had caught in Africa in his expedition days. On 11 May 1884, he came back to Berlin. In order to find peace, he returned in July to his home town of Renthendorf, where he died on 11 November 1884. Today, the Brehm Memorial Museum is located there. Selected publications Brehms Tierleben (English title: Brehm's Life of Animals.) See the article on Brehms Tierleben for its editions, titles and availability of online text. Reiseskizzen aus Nord-Ost-Afrika (1855, 3 vols., pub. Friedrich Mauke, Jena.) Das Leben der Vögel (pub. C. Flemming, Glogau, 1861; second edition 1867.) Ergebnisse einer Reise nach Habesch (1863, pub. O. Meissner, Hamburg.) Die Thiere des Waldes, with Emil Adolf Rossmässler (2 vols., 1864–1867, pub. C. F. Winter, Leipzig and Heidelberg.) Gefangene Vögel, with Otto Finsch (2 vols., 1872–1876, pub. C.F. Winter'sche Verlagshandlung, Leipzig.) (wild life and scenes in many places) References Further reading Andreas Daum, Wissenschaftspopularisierung im 19. Jahrhundert: Bürgerliche Kultur, naturwissenschaftliche Bildung und die deutsche Öffentlichkeit, 1848–1914. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1998, , 2nd. edition 2002, including a short biography. External links Entomologie Vieux livres A. E. Brehm (French) Information on and table of contents from the work Merveilles de la nature: les insectes, A. E. Brehm, tr. J. Künckel d'Herculais. Project Gutenberg-DE page on Brehm (German) Includes text from Brehms Thierleben and Tiergeschichten. Website advertising the Brehm Memorial Center in Renthendorf, a museum in the former home of Alfred Brehm and his family Source for digitized autographs and transcripts of Alfred Brehm (in German). 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217354	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-lock%20concurrency%20control	Non-lock concurrency control	In Computer Science, in the field of databases, non-lock concurrency control is a concurrency control method used in relational databases without using locking. There are several non-lock concurrency control methods, which involve the use of timestamps on transaction to determine transaction priority: Optimistic concurrency control Timestamp-based concurrency control Multiversion concurrency control See also Concurrency pattern InterBase Lock-free and wait-free algorithms Concurrency control Transaction processing	[ -0.16598089039325714, 0.40245434641838074, -0.07953871041536331, 0.501097559928894, 0.038748979568481445, -0.36926740407943726, 0.18602484464645386, 0.13048988580703735, -0.609880805015564, 0.3756312131881714, -0.30996468663215637, 0.41653358936309814, -0.8215126395225525, 0.8102866411209106, 0.06970655173063278, 0.12597163021564484, 0.26159194111824036, 0.14501594007015228, 0.02515043504536152, -0.5857000946998596, 0.22593672573566437, 0.007370099425315857, -0.10029160976409912, -0.3761833608150482, -0.14667658507823944, 0.4078318178653717, 0.012989512644708157, -0.2749629020690918, -0.5769662857055664, -0.021582378074526787, 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217355	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masdevallia	Masdevallia	Masdevallia, abbreviated Masd in horticultural trade, is a large genus of flowering plants of the Pleurothallidinae, a subtribe of the orchid family (Orchidaceae). There are over 500 species, grouped into several subgenera. The genus is named for Jose Masdevall (?-1801), a physician and botanist in the court of Charles III of Spain. Range and morphology These plants are found from Mexico to southern Brazil, but mostly in the higher regions (2,500-4,000 m ASL) of the Andes of Ecuador and Colombia, Peru and Bolivia. They may be epiphytes, terrestrials or growing as lithophytes on damp rocks. The plants are characterized by an abbreviated to elongate and creeping rhizome that gives rise to stems that lack pseudobulbs. The stem bears a single, fleshy, erect to pendent, ovate to lanceolate leaf. The flowers are triangular and occur singly or in racemose inflorescences. They are characterized by a showy calyx and reduced corolla. The sepals are fused at the base and frequently caudate. The petals flank the semiterete column and the tongue-shaped lip is flexibly hinged to a free column foot. Cultivation The species are sensitive to inappropriate cultural conditions and will show signs of stress by leaf spotting or dropping. They can generally be grown in pots with sphagnum or seedling grade wood chips although a few species produce descending inflorescences and are best accommodated in baskets. In both cases the rhizome should remain at the surface of the medium in order to prevent rot. Most of these plants are from high altitude cloud forests and require very cool conditions and abundant moisture throughout the year. They cannot tolerate dryness, low humidity, or excessive temperatures and the plants are very easy to kill. They will simply drop all their leaves and suddenly collapse if allowed to dry completely or are exposed to high temperatures. Many members of this genus from very high altitude cloud forests defy cultivation. Most of the species from this genus are considered less difficult in cultivation than plants from the genus Dracula, and some of them are very easy to cultivate and have a 'weedy' habit such as Veitch's masdevallia, but the majority of these species are usually very difficult to maintain in cultivation unless the plants can be kept cool and moist all the time. Low humidity conditions or watering the plants with a water source which contains high levels of dissolved salts will result in the leaves yellowing and rapidly dying from the tips back to the rhizome. The plants should be provided with rain water or distilled water or a very pure water source. The medium should always remain moist as the plants do not have any significant storage structures like most orchids. Selected species Masdevallia antonii Masdevallia davisii – Davis' masdevallia, orchid of the sun, qoriwaqanki (Quechua) Masdevallia pinocchio Masdevallia unguentum Masdevallia veitchiana – Veitch's masdevallia, king of the masdevallias, gallo-gallo (Spanish), waqanki (Quechua) Taxonomy Masdevallia was found to be polyphyletic and the taxonomy of the group is unresolved but the currently accepted taxonomy proceeds as follows: Subgenera Subgenus Amanda (≡Spilotantha) Section Amandae: 28+ species, e.g. M. amanda, M. bulbophyllopsis, M. melanopus, M. polysticta. Separated in Spilotantha. Section Ophioglossae: 1-2 species – M. ophioglossa, M. ophioglossa ssp. grossa Subgenus Cucullatia: (≡Megema)4 species – M. cerastes, M. corniculata, M. cucullata, M. macrura Subgenus Fissia: (≡Fissia) 3 species – M. mutica, M. picturata, M. pleurothalloides Subgenus Masdevallia Section Amaluzae: (≡Luzama) 6 species, e.g. M. amaluzae, M. carmenensis, M. patula Section Aphanes: (≡Pteroon) 3 species – M. aphanes, M. capillaris, M. scopaea Section Coriaceae : Subsection Coriaceae: (≡Byrsella) ~35 species, e.g. M. angulata, M. caesia, M. civilis, M. elephanticeps, M. foetens, M. fractiflexa Subsection Durae: (≡Regalia) 4 species – M. ayabacana, M. dura, M. panguiensis, M. utriculata Section Ligiae: Monotypic – M. ligiae Section Masdevallia: Subsection Caudatae: ~28 species, e.g. M. bottae, M. caudata, M. decumana, M. lychniphora, M. triangularis, M. xanthina Subsection Coccineae: 12 species, e.g. M. amabilis, M. barlaeana, M. coccinea, M. ignea, M. veitchiana Subsection Masdevallia: ~58 species, e.g. M. agaster, M. calocodon, M. mejiana, M. pumila, M. uniflora Subsection Oscillantes: ~11 species, e.g. M. andreettana, M. wageneriana (including M. pteroglossa) Subsection Saltatrices: 14 species, e.g. M. angulifera, M. constricta, M. limax, M. saltatrix, M. urosalpinx, M. ventricularia Subsection Tubulosae: 7 species, e.g. M. bangii, M. irapana, M. tubulosa Section Mentosae: Monotypic – M. mentosa Section Minutae: ~21 species, e.g. M. floribunda, M. herradurae, M. minuta, M. nicaraguae, M. wendlandiana Section Racemosae: (≡Spectaculum) Monotypic – M. racemosa Section Reichenbachianae: Subsection Dentatae : (≡Petalodon) 2 species – M. collina, M. macrogenia Subsection Reichenbachianae: (≡Reichantha) ~11 species, e.g. M. rolfeana, M. schroderiana, M. striatella Subgenus Meleagris: (≡Rodrigoa) 7 species, e.g. M. anisomorpha, M. heteroptera, M. meleagris Subgenus Nidifica: (≡Buccella) 4-5 species: e.g. M. dynastes, M. nidifica (including M. ventricosa) Subgenus Polyantha (≡Alaticaulia) Section Alaticaules: 97 species, e.g. M. bicolor, M. infracta, M. scobina, M. stenorrhynchos, M. tovarensis, M. vargasii, M. weberbaueri Section Polyanthae: 7 species, e.g. M. discoidea, M. lata, M. polyantha, M. schlimii Subgenus Scabripes (≡Portilla) Subgenus Volvula (≡Streptoura) Footnotes (2005): Masdevallias, Gems of the Orchid World. Timber Press. : Icones Pleurothallidinarum, Systematics of Masdevallia (multiple volumes). Missouri Botanical Garden Press. (1984–2003) (2001): Phylogenetic relationships in Pleurothallidinae (Orchidaceae): combined evidence from nuclear and plastid DNA sequences. American Journal of Botany 88: 2286-2308. References External links Image gallery Ron Parsons Flowershots Masdevallia Species Masdevallia species and hybrids catalog with images Epiphytic orchids Pleurothallidinae genera	[ -0.582597017288208, 0.2931657135486603, 0.12937089800834656, -0.2773938775062561, -0.3889511525630951, 0.2234480381011963, 0.8624553084373474, 0.38935601711273193, -0.5160703063011169, 0.1402500420808792, -0.2356366515159607, 0.08375498652458191, -0.24450963735580444, 0.5416563153266907, 0.13577060401439667, 0.33266666531562805, 0.14277324080467224, 0.630055844783783, 0.22183680534362793, 0.18068526685237885, 0.142284095287323, -0.8966354727745056, 0.9381731748580933, -0.6501805186271667, -0.09106116741895676, -0.2298130840063095, 0.20056040585041046, 0.6654313206672668, 0.03908463567495346, -0.014558995142579079, -0.5158246159553528, 0.3516615629196167, 0.4708828926086426, -0.09631357342004776, 0.21468564867973328, 0.42018312215805054, 0.09551762044429779, -0.5121880173683167, 0.05428857356309891, 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217356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrency%20control	Concurrency control	In information technology and computer science, especially in the fields of computer programming, operating systems, multiprocessors, and databases, concurrency control ensures that correct results for concurrent operations are generated, while getting those results as quickly as possible. Computer systems, both software and hardware, consist of modules, or components. Each component is designed to operate correctly, i.e., to obey or to meet certain consistency rules. When components that operate concurrently interact by messaging or by sharing accessed data (in memory or storage), a certain component's consistency may be violated by another component. The general area of concurrency control provides rules, methods, design methodologies, and theories to maintain the consistency of components operating concurrently while interacting, and thus the consistency and correctness of the whole system. Introducing concurrency control into a system means applying operation constraints which typically result in some performance reduction. Operation consistency and correctness should be achieved with as good as possible efficiency, without reducing performance below reasonable levels. Concurrency control can require significant additional complexity and overhead in a concurrent algorithm compared to the simpler sequential algorithm. For example, a failure in concurrency control can result in data corruption from torn read or write operations. Concurrency control in databases Comments: This section is applicable to all transactional systems, i.e., to all systems that use database transactions (atomic transactions; e.g., transactional objects in Systems management and in networks of smartphones which typically implement private, dedicated database systems), not only general-purpose database management systems (DBMSs). DBMSs need to deal also with concurrency control issues not typical just to database transactions but rather to operating systems in general. These issues (e.g., see Concurrency control in operating systems below) are out of the scope of this section. Concurrency control in Database management systems (DBMS; e.g., Bernstein et al. 1987, Weikum and Vossen 2001), other transactional objects, and related distributed applications (e.g., Grid computing and Cloud computing) ensures that database transactions are performed concurrently without violating the data integrity of the respective databases. Thus concurrency control is an essential element for correctness in any system where two database transactions or more, executed with time overlap, can access the same data, e.g., virtually in any general-purpose database system. Consequently, a vast body of related research has been accumulated since database systems emerged in the early 1970s. A well established concurrency control theory for database systems is outlined in the references mentioned above: serializability theory, which allows to effectively design and analyze concurrency control methods and mechanisms. An alternative theory for concurrency control of atomic transactions over abstract data types is presented in (Lynch et al. 1993), and not utilized below. This theory is more refined, complex, with a wider scope, and has been less utilized in the Database literature than the classical theory above. Each theory has its pros and cons, emphasis and insight. To some extent they are complementary, and their merging may be useful. To ensure correctness, a DBMS usually guarantees that only serializable transaction schedules are generated, unless serializability is intentionally relaxed to increase performance, but only in cases where application correctness is not harmed. For maintaining correctness in cases of failed (aborted) transactions (which can always happen for many reasons) schedules also need to have the recoverability (from abort) property. A DBMS also guarantees that no effect of committed transactions is lost, and no effect of aborted (rolled back) transactions remains in the related database. Overall transaction characterization is usually summarized by the ACID rules below. As databases have become distributed, or needed to cooperate in distributed environments (e.g., Federated databases in the early 1990, and Cloud computing currently), the effective distribution of concurrency control mechanisms has received special attention. Database transaction and the ACID rules The concept of a database transaction (or atomic transaction) has evolved in order to enable both a well understood database system behavior in a faulty environment where crashes can happen any time, and recovery from a crash to a well understood database state. A database transaction is a unit of work, typically encapsulating a number of operations over a database (e.g., reading a database object, writing, acquiring lock, etc.), an abstraction supported in database and also other systems. Each transaction has well defined boundaries in terms of which program/code executions are included in that transaction (determined by the transaction's programmer via special transaction commands). Every database transaction obeys the following rules (by support in the database system; i.e., a database system is designed to guarantee them for the transactions it runs): Atomicity - Either the effects of all or none of its operations remain ("all or nothing" semantics) when a transaction is completed (committed or aborted respectively). In other words, to the outside world a committed transaction appears (by its effects on the database) to be indivisible (atomic), and an aborted transaction does not affect the database at all. Either all the operations are done or none of them are. Consistency - Every transaction must leave the database in a consistent (correct) state, i.e., maintain the predetermined integrity rules of the database (constraints upon and among the database's objects). A transaction must transform a database from one consistent state to another consistent state (however, it is the responsibility of the transaction's programmer to make sure that the transaction itself is correct, i.e., performs correctly what it intends to perform (from the application's point of view) while the predefined integrity rules are enforced by the DBMS). Thus since a database can be normally changed only by transactions, all the database's states are consistent. Isolation - Transactions cannot interfere with each other (as an end result of their executions). Moreover, usually (depending on concurrency control method) the effects of an incomplete transaction are not even visible to another transaction. Providing isolation is the main goal of concurrency control. Durability - Effects of successful (committed) transactions must persist through crashes (typically by recording the transaction's effects and its commit event in a non-volatile memory). The concept of atomic transaction has been extended during the years to what has become Business transactions which actually implement types of Workflow and are not atomic. However also such enhanced transactions typically utilize atomic transactions as components. Why is concurrency control needed? If transactions are executed serially, i.e., sequentially with no overlap in time, no transaction concurrency exists. However, if concurrent transactions with interleaving operations are allowed in an uncontrolled manner, some unexpected, undesirable results may occur, such as: The lost update problem: A second transaction writes a second value of a data-item (datum) on top of a first value written by a first concurrent transaction, and the first value is lost to other transactions running concurrently which need, by their precedence, to read the first value. The transactions that have read the wrong value end with incorrect results. The dirty read problem: Transactions read a value written by a transaction that has been later aborted. This value disappears from the database upon abort, and should not have been read by any transaction ("dirty read"). The reading transactions end with incorrect results. The incorrect summary problem: While one transaction takes a summary over the values of all the instances of a repeated data-item, a second transaction updates some instances of that data-item. The resulting summary does not reflect a correct result for any (usually needed for correctness) precedence order between the two transactions (if one is executed before the other), but rather some random result, depending on the timing of the updates, and whether certain update results have been included in the summary or not. Most high-performance transactional systems need to run transactions concurrently to meet their performance requirements. Thus, without concurrency control such systems can neither provide correct results nor maintain their databases consistently. Concurrency control mechanisms Categories The main categories of concurrency control mechanisms are: Optimistic - Delay the checking of whether a transaction meets the isolation and other integrity rules (e.g., serializability and recoverability) until its end, without blocking any of its (read, write) operations ("...and be optimistic about the rules being met..."), and then abort a transaction to prevent the violation, if the desired rules are to be violated upon its commit. An aborted transaction is immediately restarted and re-executed, which incurs an obvious overhead (versus executing it to the end only once). If not too many transactions are aborted, then being optimistic is usually a good strategy. Pessimistic - Block an operation of a transaction, if it may cause violation of the rules, until the possibility of violation disappears. Blocking operations is typically involved with performance reduction. Semi-optimistic - Block operations in some situations, if they may cause violation of some rules, and do not block in other situations while delaying rules checking (if needed) to transaction's end, as done with optimistic. Different categories provide different performance, i.e., different average transaction completion rates (throughput), depending on transaction types mix, computing level of parallelism, and other factors. If selection and knowledge about trade-offs are available, then category and method should be chosen to provide the highest performance. The mutual blocking between two transactions (where each one blocks the other) or more results in a deadlock, where the transactions involved are stalled and cannot reach completion. Most non-optimistic mechanisms (with blocking) are prone to deadlocks which are resolved by an intentional abort of a stalled transaction (which releases the other transactions in that deadlock), and its immediate restart and re-execution. The likelihood of a deadlock is typically low. Blocking, deadlocks, and aborts all result in performance reduction, and hence the trade-offs between the categories. Methods Many methods for concurrency control exist. Most of them can be implemented within either main category above. The major methods, which have each many variants, and in some cases may overlap or be combined, are: Locking (e.g., Two-phase locking - 2PL) - Controlling access to data by locks assigned to the data. Access of a transaction to a data item (database object) locked by another transaction may be blocked (depending on lock type and access operation type) until lock release. Serialization graph checking (also called Serializability, or Conflict, or Precedence graph checking) - Checking for cycles in the schedule's graph and breaking them by aborts. Timestamp ordering (TO) - Assigning timestamps to transactions, and controlling or checking access to data by timestamp order. Commitment ordering (or Commit ordering; CO) - Controlling or checking transactions' chronological order of commit events to be compatible with their respective precedence order. Other major concurrency control types that are utilized in conjunction with the methods above include: Multiversion concurrency control (MVCC) - Increasing concurrency and performance by generating a new version of a database object each time the object is written, and allowing transactions' read operations of several last relevant versions (of each object) depending on scheduling method. Index concurrency control - Synchronizing access operations to indexes, rather than to user data. Specialized methods provide substantial performance gains. Private workspace model (Deferred update) - Each transaction maintains a private workspace for its accessed data, and its changed data become visible outside the transaction only upon its commit (e.g., Weikum and Vossen 2001). This model provides a different concurrency control behavior with benefits in many cases. The most common mechanism type in database systems since their early days in the 1970s has been Strong strict Two-phase locking (SS2PL; also called Rigorous scheduling or Rigorous 2PL) which is a special case (variant) of both Two-phase locking (2PL) and Commitment ordering (CO). It is pessimistic. In spite of its long name (for historical reasons) the idea of the SS2PL mechanism is simple: "Release all locks applied by a transaction only after the transaction has ended." SS2PL (or Rigorousness) is also the name of the set of all schedules that can be generated by this mechanism, i.e., these are SS2PL (or Rigorous) schedules, have the SS2PL (or Rigorousness) property. Major goals of concurrency control mechanisms Concurrency control mechanisms firstly need to operate correctly, i.e., to maintain each transaction's integrity rules (as related to concurrency; application-specific integrity rule are out of the scope here) while transactions are running concurrently, and thus the integrity of the entire transactional system. Correctness needs to be achieved with as good performance as possible. In addition, increasingly a need exists to operate effectively while transactions are distributed over processes, computers, and computer networks. Other subjects that may affect concurrency control are recovery and replication. Correctness Serializability For correctness, a common major goal of most concurrency control mechanisms is generating schedules with the Serializability property. Without serializability undesirable phenomena may occur, e.g., money may disappear from accounts, or be generated from nowhere. Serializability of a schedule means equivalence (in the resulting database values) to some serial schedule with the same transactions (i.e., in which transactions are sequential with no overlap in time, and thus completely isolated from each other: No concurrent access by any two transactions to the same data is possible). Serializability is considered the highest level of isolation among database transactions, and the major correctness criterion for concurrent transactions. In some cases compromised, relaxed forms of serializability are allowed for better performance (e.g., the popular Snapshot isolation mechanism) or to meet availability requirements in highly distributed systems (see Eventual consistency), but only if application's correctness is not violated by the relaxation (e.g., no relaxation is allowed for money transactions, since by relaxation money can disappear, or appear from nowhere). Almost all implemented concurrency control mechanisms achieve serializability by providing Conflict serializablity, a broad special case of serializability (i.e., it covers, enables most serializable schedules, and does not impose significant additional delay-causing constraints) which can be implemented efficiently. Recoverability See Recoverability in Serializability Comment: While in the general area of systems the term "recoverability" may refer to the ability of a system to recover from failure or from an incorrect/forbidden state, within concurrency control of database systems this term has received a specific meaning. Concurrency control typically also ensures the Recoverability property of schedules for maintaining correctness in cases of aborted transactions (which can always happen for many reasons). Recoverability (from abort) means that no committed transaction in a schedule has read data written by an aborted transaction. Such data disappear from the database (upon the abort) and are parts of an incorrect database state. Reading such data violates the consistency rule of ACID. Unlike Serializability, Recoverability cannot be compromised, relaxed at any case, since any relaxation results in quick database integrity violation upon aborts. The major methods listed above provide serializability mechanisms. None of them in its general form automatically provides recoverability, and special considerations and mechanism enhancements are needed to support recoverability. A commonly utilized special case of recoverability is Strictness, which allows efficient database recovery from failure (but excludes optimistic implementations; e.g., Strict CO (SCO) cannot have an optimistic implementation, but has semi-optimistic ones). Comment: Note that the Recoverability property is needed even if no database failure occurs and no database recovery from failure is needed. It is rather needed to correctly automatically handle transaction aborts, which may be unrelated to database failure and recovery from it. Distribution With the fast technological development of computing the difference between local and distributed computing over low latency networks or buses is blurring. Thus the quite effective utilization of local techniques in such distributed environments is common, e.g., in computer clusters and multi-core processors. However the local techniques have their limitations and use multi-processes (or threads) supported by multi-processors (or multi-cores) to scale. This often turns transactions into distributed ones, if they themselves need to span multi-processes. In these cases most local concurrency control techniques do not scale well. Distributed serializability and commitment ordering See Distributed serializability in Serializability As database systems have become distributed, or started to cooperate in distributed environments (e.g., Federated databases in the early 1990s, and nowadays Grid computing, Cloud computing, and networks with smartphones), some transactions have become distributed. A distributed transaction means that the transaction spans processes, and may span computers and geographical sites. This generates a need in effective distributed concurrency control mechanisms. Achieving the Serializability property of a distributed system's schedule (see Distributed serializability and Global serializability (Modular serializability)) effectively poses special challenges typically not met by most of the regular serializability mechanisms, originally designed to operate locally. This is especially due to a need in costly distribution of concurrency control information amid communication and computer latency. The only known general effective technique for distribution is Commitment ordering, which was disclosed publicly in 1991 (after being patented). Commitment ordering (Commit ordering, CO; Raz 1992) means that transactions' chronological order of commit events is kept compatible with their respective precedence order. CO does not require the distribution of concurrency control information and provides a general effective solution (reliable, high-performance, and scalable) for both distributed and global serializability, also in a heterogeneous environment with database systems (or other transactional objects) with different (any) concurrency control mechanisms. CO is indifferent to which mechanism is utilized, since it does not interfere with any transaction operation scheduling (which most mechanisms control), and only determines the order of commit events. Thus, CO enables the efficient distribution of all other mechanisms, and also the distribution of a mix of different (any) local mechanisms, for achieving distributed and global serializability. The existence of such a solution has been considered "unlikely" until 1991, and by many experts also later, due to misunderstanding of the CO solution (see Quotations in Global serializability). An important side-benefit of CO is automatic distributed deadlock resolution. Contrary to CO, virtually all other techniques (when not combined with CO) are prone to distributed deadlocks (also called global deadlocks) which need special handling. CO is also the name of the resulting schedule property: A schedule has the CO property if the chronological order of its transactions' commit events is compatible with the respective transactions' precedence (partial) order. SS2PL mentioned above is a variant (special case) of CO and thus also effective to achieve distributed and global serializability. It also provides automatic distributed deadlock resolution (a fact overlooked in the research literature even after CO's publication), as well as Strictness and thus Recoverability. Possessing these desired properties together with known efficient locking based implementations explains SS2PL's popularity. SS2PL has been utilized to efficiently achieve Distributed and Global serializability since the 1980, and has become the de facto standard for it. However, SS2PL is blocking and constraining (pessimistic), and with the proliferation of distribution and utilization of systems different from traditional database systems (e.g., as in Cloud computing), less constraining types of CO (e.g., Optimistic CO) may be needed for better performance. Comments: The Distributed conflict serializability property in its general form is difficult to achieve efficiently, but it is achieved efficiently via its special case Distributed CO: Each local component (e.g., a local DBMS) needs both to provide some form of CO, and enforce a special vote ordering strategy for the Two-phase commit protocol (2PC: utilized to commit distributed transactions). Differently from the general Distributed CO, Distributed SS2PL exists automatically when all local components are SS2PL based (in each component CO exists, implied, and the vote ordering strategy is now met automatically). This fact has been known and utilized since the 1980s (i.e., that SS2PL exists globally, without knowing about CO) for efficient Distributed SS2PL, which implies Distributed serializability and strictness (e.g., see Raz 1992, page 293; it is also implied in Bernstein et al. 1987, page 78). Less constrained Distributed serializability and strictness can be efficiently achieved by Distributed Strict CO (SCO), or by a mix of SS2PL based and SCO based local components. About the references and Commitment ordering: (Bernstein et al. 1987) was published before the discovery of CO in 1990. The CO schedule property is called Dynamic atomicity in (Lynch et al. 1993, page 201). CO is described in (Weikum and Vossen 2001, pages 102, 700), but the description is partial and misses CO's essence. (Raz 1992) was the first refereed and accepted for publication article about CO algorithms (however, publications about an equivalent Dynamic atomicity property can be traced to 1988). Other CO articles followed. (Bernstein and Newcomer 2009) note CO as one of the four major concurrency control methods, and CO's ability to provide interoperability among other methods. Distributed recoverability Unlike Serializability, Distributed recoverability and Distributed strictness can be achieved efficiently in a straightforward way, similarly to the way Distributed CO is achieved: In each database system they have to be applied locally, and employ a vote ordering strategy for the Two-phase commit protocol (2PC; Raz 1992, page 307). As has been mentioned above, Distributed SS2PL, including Distributed strictness (recoverability) and Distributed commitment ordering (serializability), automatically employs the needed vote ordering strategy, and is achieved (globally) when employed locally in each (local) database system (as has been known and utilized for many years; as a matter of fact locality is defined by the boundary of a 2PC participant (Raz 1992) ). Other major subjects of attention The design of concurrency control mechanisms is often influenced by the following subjects: Recovery All systems are prone to failures, and handling recovery from failure is a must. The properties of the generated schedules, which are dictated by the concurrency control mechanism, may affect the effectiveness and efficiency of recovery. For example, the Strictness property (mentioned in the section Recoverability above) is often desirable for an efficient recovery. Replication For high availability database objects are often replicated. Updates of replicas of a same database object need to be kept synchronized. This may affect the way concurrency control is done (e.g., Gray et al. 1996). See also Schedule Isolation (computer science) Distributed concurrency control References Philip A. Bernstein, Vassos Hadzilacos, Nathan Goodman (1987): Concurrency Control and Recovery in Database Systems (free PDF download), Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1987, Gerhard Weikum, Gottfried Vossen (2001): Transactional Information Systems, Elsevier, Nancy Lynch, Michael Merritt, William Weihl, Alan Fekete (1993): Atomic Transactions in Concurrent and Distributed Systems , Morgan Kaufmann (Elsevier), August 1993, , Yoav Raz (1992): "The Principle of Commitment Ordering, or Guaranteeing Serializability in a Heterogeneous Environment of Multiple Autonomous Resource Managers Using Atomic Commitment." ( PDF), Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Conference on Very Large Data Bases (VLDB), pp. 292-312, Vancouver, Canada, August 1992. (also DEC-TR 841, Digital Equipment Corporation, November 1990) Citations Concurrency control in operating systems Multitasking operating systems, especially real-time operating systems, need to maintain the illusion that all tasks running on top of them are all running at the same time, even though only one or a few tasks really are running at any given moment due to the limitations of the hardware the operating system is running on. Such multitasking is fairly simple when all tasks are independent from each other. However, when several tasks try to use the same resource, or when tasks try to share information, it can lead to confusion and inconsistency. The task of concurrent computing is to solve that problem. Some solutions involve "locks" similar to the locks used in databases, but they risk causing problems of their own such as deadlock. Other solutions are Non-blocking algorithms and Read-copy-update. See also Linearizability Lock (computer science) Mutual exclusion Semaphore (programming) Software transactional memory Transactional Synchronization Extensions References Andrew S. 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217357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleurothallidinae	Pleurothallidinae	The Pleurothallidinae are a neotropical subtribe of plants of the orchid family (Orchidaceae) including 29 genera in more than 4000 species. Naturally occurring species of this subtribe are among the more popular orchids of horticulturalists, especially the genera Dracula, Dryadella, Masdevallia and Restrepia. The following genera are considered monophyletic : Barbosella (including Barbrodia), Dracula, Dresslerella, Dryadella, Lepanthes, Masdevallia, Platystele, Porroglossum, Restrepia, Scaphosepalum, Trisetella, and Zootrophion. Many genera in the Pleurothallidinae were found polyphyletic, for example species attributed to the genus Pleurothallis are scattered across five clades. Genera Genera recognized in Chase et al.'s 2015 classification of orchids: Acianthera – Anathallis – Andinia – Barbosella – Brachionidium – Chamelophyton – Dilomilis – Diodonopsis – Draconanthes – Dracula – Dresslerella – Dryadella – Echinosepala – Frondaria – Kraenzlinella – Lepanthes – Lepanthopsis – Masdevallia – Myoxanthus – Neocogniauxia – Octomeria – Pabstiella – Phloeophila – Platystele – Pleurothallis – Pleurothallopsis – Porroglossum – Restrepia – Restrepiella – Sansonia – Scaphosepalum – Specklinia – Stelis – Teagueia – Tomzanonia – Trichosalpinx – Trisetella – Zootrophion References DNA-based reclassification of the Pleurothallidinae Alec M. Pridgeon, Rodolfo Solano and Mark W. Chase - Phylogenetic relationships in Pleurothallidinae (Orchidaceae): combined evidence from nuclear and plastid DNA sequences; American Journal of Botany. 2001;88:2286-2308 Orchid subtribes	[ -0.13636478781700134, 0.2350468784570694, -0.5857402682304382, -0.14560791850090027, -0.5076193809509277, 0.614377498626709, 0.8312936425209045, -0.037569984793663025, 0.049833208322525024, -0.3087967038154602, 0.38359472155570984, -0.05484122037887573, -0.6820752620697021, 0.16133429110050201, 0.07356610149145126, 0.9963639378547668, -0.004235968459397554, 0.47237321734428406, 0.38225454092025757, -0.3547939360141754, -0.11749403178691864, -0.512762188911438, 0.5521223545074463, -0.6907038688659668, 0.2212374359369278, 0.0239817276597023, 0.05737512186169624, 0.3438778221607208, 0.6035723090171814, -0.32137036323547363, -0.1604093313217163, 0.7273467779159546, 0.20885422825813293, -0.1751808524131775, 0.14700832962989807, 0.0704120546579361, -0.07504058629274368, -1.0825988054275513, 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217358	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro%20Calder%C3%B3n%20de%20la%20Barca	Pedro Calderón de la Barca	Pedro Calderón de la Barca y Barreda González de Henao Ruiz de Blasco y Riaño (, ; ; 17 January 160025 May 1681) was a Spanish dramatist, poet, writer and knight of the Order of Santiago. He is known as one of the most distinguished Baroque writers of the Spanish Golden Age, especially for his plays. Calderón de la Barca was born in Madrid, where he spent most of his life. He was born on a boat in the Manzanares river, thus the name "de la Barca" added to his father's last name. During his life, he served as soldier and he was a Roman Catholic priest. Born when the Spanish Golden Age theatre was being defined by Lope de Vega, he developed it further, his work being regarded as the culmination of the Spanish Baroque theatre. As such, he is regarded as one of Spain's foremost dramatists and one of the finest playwrights of world literature. Biography Pedro Calderón de la Barca was born in Madrid on Friday, 17 January 1600, and was baptized in the parish of San Martín. His father, Diego Calderón, was a hidalgo of mountain origin (, Cantabria) and by paternal inheritance he had assumed the position of secretary of the Council and Chief Accounting Office of the Treasury, serving in it the kings Felipe II and Felipe III, died in 1615. His mother, Ana Gonzalez de Henao (or Henaut, Hainaut), was of Flemish or Walloon descent. According to James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, she claimed origin from the De Mons of Hainault. She died when Calderón was ten years old, in 1610. His parents married in 1595. Pedro was the third of the six children that the marriage produced (three boys and three girls, of whom only four survived childhood: Diego, the first-born; Dorotea — nun in Toledo—; Pedro and Jusepe or Josénota—; These brothers were always welcome, as Diego Calderón stated in his will (1647): However, they also had a natural brother, Francisco, who hid under the surname of "González" and was expelled from the father's house by Don Diego, although he left written in 1615 that he be recognized as legitimate unless he had married "with that woman he tried to marry", in which case he would be disinherited. Calderón was educated at the Jesuit College in Madrid, the Colegio Imperial, with a view to taking orders; but instead, he studied law at Salamanca. Between 1620 and 1622 Calderón won several poetry contests in honor of St Isidore at Madrid. Calderón's debut as a playwright was Amor, honor y poder, performed at the Royal Palace on 29 June 1623. This was followed by two other plays that same year: La selva confusa and Los Macabeos. Over the next two decades, Calderón wrote more than 70 plays, the majority of which were secular dramas written for the commercial theatres. Calderón served with the Spanish army in Italy and Flanders between 1625 and 1635. By the time Lope de Vega died in 1635, Calderón was recognized as the foremost Spanish dramatist of the age. Calderón had also gained considerable favour in the court, and in 1636–1637 he was made a knight of the Order of Santiago by Philip IV, who had already commissioned from him a series of spectacular plays for the royal theatre in the newly built Buen Retiro palace. On 28 May 1640 he joined a company of mounted cuirassiers recently raised by Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, took part in the Catalan campaign, and distinguished himself by his gallantry at Tarragona. His health failing, Calderón retired from the army in November 1642, and three years later was awarded a special military pension in recognition of his services in the field. Calderón's biography during the next few years is obscure. His brother, Diego Calderón, died in 1647. A son, Pedro José, was born to Calderón and an unknown woman between 1647 and 1649; the mother died soon after. Calderón committed his son to the care of his nephew, José, son of Diego. Perhaps for reasons relating to these personal trials, Calderón became a tertiary of the order of St Francis in 1650, and then finally joined the priesthood. He was ordained in 1651, and became a priest at San Salvador church, in Madrid. According to a statement he made a year or two later, he decided to give up writing secular dramas for the commercial theatres. Though he did not adhere strictly to this resolution, he now wrote mostly mythological plays for the palace theatres, and autos sacramentales—one-act allegories illustrating the mystery of the Eucharist—for performance during the feast of Corpus Christi. In 1662, two of Calderón's autos, Las órdenes militares and Mística y real Babilonia, were the subjects of an inquiry by the Inquisition; the former was censured, its manuscript copies confiscated, and remained condemned until 1671. Calderón was appointed honorary chaplain to Philip IV in 1663, and continued as chaplain to his successor. In his eighty-first year he wrote his last secular play, Hado y Divisa de Leonido y Marfisa, in honor of Charles II's marriage to Maria Luisa of Orléans. Notwithstanding his position at court and his popularity throughout Spain, near the end of his life Calderón struggled with financial difficulties, but with the motivation of the Carnival of 1680 he wrote his last work of comedy, Hado y divisa de Leonido y de Marfisa. He died May 25, 1681, leaving only partially complete the autos sacramentales that he had been working on for that year. His burial was austere and unembellished, as he desired in his will: "Uncovered, as if I deserved to satisfy in part the public vanities of my poorly spent life". In this manner he left the theatres orphaned in which he was considered one of the best dramatic writers of his time. Style Calderón initiated what has been called the second cycle of Spanish Golden Age theatre. Whereas his predecessor, Lope de Vega, pioneered the dramatic forms and genres of Spanish Golden Age theatre, Calderón polished and perfected them. Whereas Lope's strength lay in the spontaneity and naturalness of his work, Calderón's strength lay in his capacity for poetic beauty, dramatic structure and philosophical depth. Calderón was a perfectionist who often revisited and reworked his plays, even long after they were first performed. This perfectionism was not just limited to his own work: several of his plays rework existing plays or scenes by other dramatists, improving their depth, complexity, and unity. Calderón excelled above all others in the genre of the "auto sacramental", in which he showed a seemingly inexhaustible capacity to giving new dramatic forms to a given set of theological and philosophical constructs. Calderón wrote 120 "comedias", 80 "autos sacramentales" and 20 short comedic works called entremeses. As Goethe notes, Calderón tended to write his plays taking special care of their dramatic structure. He therefore usually reduced the number of scenes in his plays as compared to those of Lope de Vega, so as to avoid any superfluity and present only those scenes essential to the play, also reducing the number of different metres in his plays for the sake of gaining a greater stylistic uniformity. Although his poetry and plays leaned towards culteranismo, he usually reduced the level and obscurity of that style by avoiding metaphors and references away from those that uneducated viewers could understand. However, he had a liking for symbolism, for example making a fall from a horse a metaphor of a fall into disgrace, the fall representing dishonour; the use of horoscopes or prophecies at the start of the play as a way of making false predictions about the following to occur, symbolizing the utter uncertainty of future. In addition, probably influenced by Cervantes, Calderón realized that any play was but fiction, and that the structure of the baroque play was entirely artificial. He therefore sometimes makes use of meta-theatrical techniques such as making his characters read in a jocose manner the clichés the author is using, and they are thus forced to follow. Some of the most common themes of his plays were heavily influenced by his Jesuit education. For example, as a reader of Saint Thomas Aquinas and Francisco Suárez, he liked to confront reason against the passions, intellect against instinct, or understanding against will. In common with many writers from the Spanish Golden Age, his plays usually show his vital pessimism, that is only softened by his rationalism and his faith in God; the anguish and distress usually found his œuvre is better exemplified in one of his most famous plays, La vida es sueño (Life Is a Dream), in which Segismundo claims: Indeed, his themes tended to be complex and philosophical, and express complicated states of mind in a manner that few playwrights have been able to manage. Like Baltasar Gracián, Calderón favoured only the deepest human feelings and dilemmas. Since Calderón's plays were usually produced at the court of the King of Spain, he had access to the most modern techniques regarding scenography. He collaborated with Cosme Lotti in developing complex scenographies that were integrated in some of his plays, specially his most religious-themed ones such as the Autos Sacramentales, becoming extremely complex allegories of moral, philosophical and religious concepts. Reception Although his fame dwindled during the 18th century, he was rediscovered in the early 19th century by the German Romantics. Translations of August Wilhelm Schlegel reinvigorated interest in the playwright, who, alongside Shakespeare, subsequently became a banner figure for the German Romantic movement. E. T. A. Hoffmann based his 1807 singspiel Liebe und Eifersucht on a play by Calderón, La banda y la flor (The Scarf and the Flower), translated by Schlegel. In subsequent decades, Calderón's work was translated into German numerous times, most notably by Johann Diederich Gries and Joseph von Eichendorff, and found significant reception on the German and Austrian stages under the direction of Goethe, and Joseph Schreyvogel. Later significant German adaptations include Hugo von Hofmannsthal's versions of La vida es sueño and El gran teatro del mundo. Although best known abroad as the author of Doctor Zhivago, Boris Pasternak produced acclaimed Russian translations of Calderón's plays during the late 1950s. According to his mistress, Olga Ivinskaya, In working on Calderón he received help from Nikolai Mikhailovich Liubumov, a shrewd and enlightened person who understood very well that all the mudslinging and commotion over the novel would be forgotten, but that there would always be a Pasternak. I took finished bits of the translation with me to Moscow, read them to Liubimov at Potapov Street, and then went back to Peredelkino, where I would tactfully ask [Boris Leonidovich] to change passages which, in Liubimov's view departed too far from the original. Very soon after the "scandal" was over, [Boris Leonidovich] received a first payment for the work on Calderón. Already appropriated as a cultural and identitarian Conservative icon in Spain since Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo in the 19th century, the figure of Calderón de la Barca eventually became a Francoist cultural artifact during the 20th century. In 1881, during a controversial meeting at El Retiro for the commemoration of the two hundredth anniversary of Calderón's death, Menéndez Pelayo drank a toast to the celebration of Calderón's Spain and for the supremacy of the Latin race over "germanic barbarity" (settling accounts with foreign scholars). Félix Sardà y Salvany also claimed Calderón for integrist Catholicism; integrists considered Calderón de la Barca to embody the most brilliant incarnation of the Spanish religious intolerance. A revival of interest in Calderón scholarship can be attributed to British reception, namely through the works of A. A. Parker (who considered La hija del aire to be his finest work), A. E. Sloman and more recently Bruce Wardropper. English Although not well known to the current English-speaking world, Calderón's plays were first adapted into English during the 17th century. For instance, Samuel Pepys recorded attending to some plays during 1667 which were free translations of some of Calderón's. Percy Bysshe Shelley translated a substantial portion of El Mágico prodigioso. Some of Calderón's works have been translated into English, notably by Denis Florence MacCarthy, Edward FitzGerald, Roy Campbell, Edwin Honig, Kenneth Muir & Ann L. Mackenzie, Adrian Mitchell, and Gwynne Edwards. Works Plays Amor, honor y poder (Love, Honor and Power) (1623) El sitio de Breda (The Siege of Breda) (1625) La dama duende (The Phantom Lady) (1629) Casa con dos puertas (The House with Two Doors) (1629) La vida es sueño (Life is a Dream) (1629–1635) El mayor encanto, amor (Love, the Greatest Enchantment) (1635) Los tres mayores prodigios (The Three Greatest Wonders) (1636) La devoción de la Cruz (Devotion to the Cross) (1637) El mágico prodigioso (The Mighty Magician) (1637) A secreto agravio, secreta venganza (Secret Vengeance for Secret Insult) (1637) El médico de su honra (The Surgeon of his Honor) (1637) El pintor de su deshonra (The Painter of His Dishonor) (1640s) El alcalde de Zalamea (The Mayor of Zalamea) (1651) La hija del aire (The Daughter of the Air) (1653) Eco y Narciso (Eco and Narcissus) (1661) La estatua de Prometeo (Prometheus' Statue) El prodigio de Alemania (The Prodigy of Germany) (in collaboration with Antonio Coello) Operas Celos aun del aire matan 1660 Autos Sacramentales (Sacramental plays) La cena del rey Baltazar (The Banquet of King Balthazar) El gran teatro del mundo (The Great Theater of the World) El gran mercado del mundo (The World is a Fair) Comedies For a time the comedic works of Calderón were underestimated, but have since been reevaluated and have been considered as masterfully composed works as being classified in the genre of comedias de enredo, such as his works La dama duende (The Phantom Lady), Casa con dos puertas, mala es de guardar (A house with two doors is difficult to guard), or El galán fantasma (The Heroic Phantom). In modern literature Calderón de la Barca appears in the 1998 novel The Sun over Breda, by Arturo Pérez-Reverte, which takes up the assumption that he served in the Spanish Army at Flanders and depicts him during the sack of Oudkerk by Spanish troops, helping the local librarian save books from the library in the burning town hall. Notes References Calderón de la Barca, Pedro. Life's a Dream: A Prose Translation. Trans. and ed. Michael Kidd (Boulder, Colorado, 2004). Forthcoming in a bilingual edition from Aris & Phillips (U.K.). Calderón de la Barca, Pedro. Obras completas / don Pedro Calderon de la Barca. Ed. Angel Valbuena Briones. 2 Vols. Tolle: Aguilar, 1969–. Cotarelo y Mori, D. Emilio. Ensayo sobre la vida y obras de D. Pedro Calderón de la Barca. Ed. Facs. Ignacio Arellano y Juan Manuel Escudero. Biblioteca Áurea Hispánica. Madrid;Frankfurt: Iberoamericana; Veuvuert, 2001. Cruickshank, Don W. "Calderón and the Spanish Book trade." Bibliographisches Handbuch der Calderón-Forschung / Manual Bibliográfico Calderoniano. Eds Kurt y Roswitha Reichenberger. Tomo III. Kassel: Verlag Thiele & Schwarz, 1981. 9–15. Cruickshank, Don W. Don Pedro Calderón. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009. De Armas, Frederick A. The Return of Astraea: An Astral-Imperial Myth in Calderón. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1986. Greer, Margaret Rich. The Play of Power: Mythological Court Dramas of Calderón de la Barca. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP, 1991. Muratta Bunsen, Eduardo. "Los topoi escépticos en la dramaturgia calderoniana". Rumbos del Hispanismo, Ed. Debora Vaccari, Roma, Bagatto, 2012. 185–192. Parker, Alexander Augustine. The Allegorical Drama of Calderon, an introduction to the Autos sacramentales. Oxford, Dolphin Book, 1968. Regalado, Antonio. "Sobre Calderón y la modernidad." Estudios sobre Calderón. Ed. Javier Aparicio Maydeu. Tomo I. Clásicos Críticos. Madrid: Istmo, 2000. 39–70. Kurt & Roswitha Reichenberger: "Bibliographisches Handbuch der Calderón-Forschung /Manual bibliográfico calderoniano (I): Die Calderón-Texte und ihre Überlieferung". Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 1979. Kurt & Roswitha Reichenberger: "Bibliographisches Handbuch der Calderón-Forschung /Manual bibliográfico calderoniano (II, i): Sekundärliteratur zu Calderón 1679–1979: Allgemeines und "comedias". Estudios críticos sobre Calderón 1679–1979: Generalidades y comedias". Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 1999. Kurt & Roswitha Reichenberger: "Bibliographisches Handbuch der Calderón-Forschung /Manual bibliográfico calderoniano (II, ii):Sekundärliteratur zu Calderón 1679–1979: Fronleichnamsspiele, Zwischenspiele und Zuschreibungen. Estudios críticos sobre Calderón 1679–1979: Autos sacramentales, obras cortas y obras supuestas". Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2003. Kurt & Roswitha Reichenberger: "Bibliographisches Handbuch der Calderón-Forschung /Manual bibliográfico calderoniano (III):Bibliographische Beschreibung der frühen Drucke". Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 1981. Rodríguez, Evangelina y Antonio Tordera. Calderón y la obra corta dramática del siglo XVII. London: Tamesis, 1983. Ruano de la Haza, José M. "La Comedia y lo Cómico." Del horror a la Risa / los géneros dramáticos clásicos. Kassel: Edition Reichenberger, 1994. 269–285. Ruiz-Ramón, Francisco Calderón y la tragedia. Madrid: Alhambra, 1984. Roger Ordono, "Conscience de rôle dans Le Grand Théâtre du monde de Calderón de la Barca", Le Cercle Herméneutique, n°18 – 19, La Kédia. Gravité, soin, souci, sous la direction de G.Charbonneau, Argenteuil, 2012. Sullivan, Henry W. Calderón in the German Lands and the Low Countries: His Reception and Influence 1654–1980."Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Attribution Sources Corrections have been made to biographical information using Cotarelo y Mori, D. Emilio. Ensayo sobre la vida y obras de D. Pedro Calderón de la Barca''. Ed. Facs. Ignacio Arellano y Juan Manuel Escudero. Biblioteca Áurea Hispánica. Madrid;Frankfurt: Iberoamericana; Veuvuert, 2001. The style section uses the following bibliographical information Kurt & Roswitha Reichenberger: "Bibliographisches Handbuch der Calderón-Forschung /Manual bibliográfico calderoniano (I): Die Calderón-Texte und ihre Überlieferung durch Wichser". Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 1979. Enrique Ruul Fernandez, "Estudio y Edición crítica de Celos aun del aire matan, de Pedro Calderón de la Barca", UNED, 2004. "A Hundred Years dressing Calderón", Sociedad Estatal para la acción cultural exterior, 2009. External links A site in Spanish about Calderón at the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. Includes texts, video, images, and more biographical information. 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217360	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misplaced%20Childhood	Misplaced Childhood	Misplaced Childhood is the third studio album by the British neo-progressive rock band Marillion, released in 1985. It is a concept album loosely based on the childhood of Marillion's lead singer, Fish, who was inspired by a brief incident that occurred while he was under the influence of acid. The album was recorded during the spring of 1985 at Hansa Tonstudio in Berlin and produced by Chris Kimsey, who had previously worked with the Rolling Stones. Misplaced Childhood is the group's most commercially successful album to date, peaking immediately at number one in the UK charts and spending a total of 41 weeks on the chart. It ultimately gained the Platinum status. It features Marillion's two most successful singles, the guitar-led rock ballad "Kayleigh", which reached number two in the UK, and piano-led "Lavender", which peaked at number five. Misplaced Childhood was listed as the sixth best album of 1985 by Kerrang! and chosen as the fourth greatest concept album of all time by Classic Rock in 2003. Concept Misplaced Childhood was Marillion's first full concept album consisting of two continuous pieces of music on the two sides of the vinyl record. The story has thematic elements of lost love, sudden success, acceptance, and lost childhood, along with an upbeat ending. As Fish explains, he conceived the concept during a 10-hour acid trip. Several of the songs and titles contain notable autobiographical references; for example, "Kayleigh" references the breakdown of relationships as a whole but is centered around Fish's past girlfriend named Kay Lee. Fish came up with the name Kayleigh in order to obscure the original name due to the song being too personal. Another example is "Heart of Lothian" ("I was born with the heart of Lothian") which is a reference to a traditional region of Scotland – Fish himself being from Midlothian – and a reference to the Heart of Midlothian (Royal Mile) – a mosaic heart in the pavement of Edinburgh's Royal Mile. The theme of childhood is developed in "Lavender", which is partly based on the traditional folk song "Lavender Blue". Like "Kayleigh" it is a love song, but whereas "Kayleigh" was about the failure of an adult relationship, "Lavender" recalls the innocence of childhood. Packaging and cover art Like Script for a Jester's Tear and Fugazi, the original vinyl edition of Misplaced Childhood was released in a gatefold sleeve. The artwork was created by Mark Wilkinson who was commissioned to the role on all Marillion albums and 12" singles of the Fish-era. The front cover features a soldier drummer portrayed by Robert Mead, a then ten-year-old boy who lived next door to Wilkinson. Mead also appeared on the artwork of the album's three hit singles, "Kayleigh", "Lavender", and "Heart of Lothian", and can be seen in the music video for "Kayleigh". The Jester from the two previous studio albums is imagined escaping through the window on the back cover. Release Misplaced Childhood was released in the United Kingdom on 17 June 1985 by EMI Records on LP, 12" picture disc and cassette and went on to be the band's biggest selling album. It topped the UK Albums Chart, becoming the first and the only Marillion album to do so. It stayed on the charts for 41 weeks, the longest chart residency of any of the band's albums. Misplaced Childhood was certified Platinum by the BPI for sales in excess of 300.000 copies on 26 November 1985 just 5 months after the release. It was the 20th best selling album in the United Kingdom for 1985. The album was also highly successful across mainland Europe reaching number 3 in Germany, number 6 in Switzerland and the Netherlands, the latter of which is where Marillion have one of their largest fanbases, and number 10 in Norway. In the United States Misplaced Childhood came out on the Capitol Records label and reached number 47 on the Billboard 200 chart, the highest position the band has ever achieved. Three singles, "Kayleigh", "Lavender", and "Heart of Lothian" were released, with the first preceding the album. "Kayleigh" peaked at number 2 in the UK Singles Chart turning out to be the biggest hit for Marillion and prompting the success of Misplaced Childhood. The two further singles were less successful but still ended up at high positions as "Lavender" reached number 5 and "Heart of Lothian" peaked at number 29. Remastering and reissues As part of a series of Marillion's first eight studio albums, EMI Records re-released Misplaced Childhood on 17 October 1998 with 24-bit digital remastered sound and a second disc containing bonus tracks. The remastered version was also made available without the bonus disc in 2000 and again in 2005 as a Japanese mini-LP replica. A new 180g heavy weight vinyl pressing identical to the original 1985 edition was released in 2013. On 21 July 2017, a deluxe edition of Misplaced Childhood was released via Parlophone as a 4CD/Blu-ray set along with a 4LP boxed version. The deluxe edition includes a new remaster, as well as, on the Blu-ray disc, new high-resolution stereo and 5.1 surround remixes by Steven Wilson. The set also includes a previously unreleased 1985 concert from Utrecht featuring a performance of Misplaced Childhood in its entirety, along with demos and rarities. Reception John Franck of AllMusic gives the album a 4.5 star rating. He has retrospectively said that Misplaced Childhood was "not only the band's most accomplished release to date, but also its most streamlined... With its lush production and punchy mix, the album went on to become the band's greatest commercial triumph, especially in Europe where they would rise from theater attraction to bona fide stadium royalty". In 2015, Ryan Reed of Ultimate Classic Rock called the record "the cornerstone of the entire 'neo-prog' movement". Accolades Kerrang! listed the album the sixth best LP of 1985. Classic Rock placed Misplaced Childhood fourth on its list of "Rock's 30 Greatest Concept Albums" in 2003, and named it one of the top 10 essential progressive rock releases of the 1980s in 2016. In the special edition Pink Floyd & The Story of Prog Rock released by Q Classic and Mojo, the album was ranked number 17 in its list of "40 Cosmic Rock Albums". In 2014, it was included in Rhythm magazine's "30 most influential prog drumming albums" at number 16. Legacy Misplaced Childhood was the inspiration for comedian Will Smith's Edinburgh Festival Fringe show of the same name in 2005, which also led to a successful tour in 2006. In 2006, former Marillion lead singer Fish performed a 20th anniversary tour of Misplaced Childhood, and a 30th anniversary tour was performed in 2015. The album was played in full, and the albums Return to Childhood and Farewell to Childhood were released as documents respectively. Promotion and tour Marillion supported Misplaced Childhood with a one-year tour which began before the album was released. The band made two promotional appearances on BBC Television, firstly on the Wogan talk show on 20 May 1985 and then on Top of the Pops three days later, in both cases showcasing "Kayleigh". The tour consisted of European, Japanese and North American legs. In live performances preceding the album Fish claimed as a teaser that the next LP would consist of only two tracks, "Side 1" and "Side 2". Track listing Tracks 6–17 on the 1998 remastered edition bonus disc are Misplaced Childhood album demos, recorded in February 1985 and previously unreleased. 4-CD + Blu-ray Disc, 2017, Remastered, Digi-Book CD 1 Misplaced Childhood 2017 Remaster by Michael Hunter CD 2 Live at Utrecht 1985 15th October, 1985 at The Muziekcentrum Vredenburg, Utrecht, Netherlands 2017 Mix and Master by Michael Hunter Emerald Lies (Intro) 0:50 Script for a Jester's Tear 8:41 Incubus 9:41 Chelsea Monday 9:59 The Web 8:17 CD 3 Live at Utrecht 1985 (continued) Pseudo Silk Kimono 3:15 Kayleigh 4:00 Lavender 2:20 Bitter Suite 8:20 Heart of Lothian 4:02 Waterhole (Expresso Bongo) 2:26 Lords of the Backstage 1:47 Blind Curve 9:36 Childhoods End? 4:13 White Feather 5:48 Fugazi 12:35 Garden Party 6:14 Market Square Heroes 7:25 CD 4 Singles, B-sides & Versions Lady Nina (B-side) 5:50 Freaks (B-side) 4:08 Kayleigh (alternative mix) 4:03 Lavender Blue 4:23 Heart of Lothian (extended mix) 5:49 Lady Nina (Steve Wilson stereo remix) 3:43 'Misplaced Childhood' Demos Pseudo Silk Kimono 2:19 Kayleigh 3:59 Lavender 2:38 Bitter Suite: Brief Encounter / Lost Weekend 2:55 Lords of the Backstage 1:47 Blue Angel 1:46 Misplaced Rendezvous 1:57 Heart of Lothian: Wide Boys / Curtain Call 3:49 Waterhole (Expresso Bongo) 2:01 Passing Strangers: Mylo / Perimeter Walk / Threshold 9:17 Childhoods End? 2:24 White Feather 2:14 Blu-ray Disc Misplaced Childhood [Steven Wilson Remix] 41:11 Lady Nina [5.1 Surround Mix] 3:43 Lady Nina [Stereo Remix] 3:43 Misplaced Childhood [2017 Remaster] 41:11 Childhood Memories [Documentary] 72:00 Kayleigh [Promo Video] 3:37 Lavender [Promo Video] 3:41 Heart Of Lothian [Promo Video] 3:27 Lady Nina [Promo Video] 3:38 Personnel Marillion Fish – vocals; cover concept Steve Rothery – guitars; additional bass guitar; photography (1998 remastered edition) Mark Kelly – keyboards Pete Trewavas – bass guitar Ian Mosley – drums, percussion Technical personnel Chris Kimsey – production and mixing Thomas Stiehler – recording Mark Freegard – mixing engineering Mark Wilkinson – sleeve design and illustration Julie Hazelwood – collage 1998 remastered edition Peter Mew – digital remastering (July — August 1998 at Abbey Road, London, England) Bill Smith Studio – artwork design Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications References Notes Citations External links The Official Marillion Website Marillion albums 1985 albums Neo-progressive rock albums Concept albums EMI Records albums Albums produced by Chris Kimsey	[ -0.5211117267608643, 0.25010064244270325, -0.6805389523506165, 0.05702480673789978, 0.15348729491233826, 0.998355507850647, 0.477631539106369, 0.2045121043920517, -0.02358497492969036, 0.051835592836141586, 0.3715464472770691, 0.7470515370368958, 0.22268660366535187, 0.44607555866241455, -0.16354209184646606, 0.046674951910972595, 0.29166266322135925, -0.11937466263771057, -0.4004611372947693, -0.24035874009132385, -0.0593189038336277, -0.196114182472229, 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217361	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio%20Garc%C3%ADa%20Guti%C3%A9rrez	Antonio García Gutiérrez	Antonio García Gutiérrez (4 October 1813 in Chiclana de la Frontera, Cádiz26 August 1884 in Madrid) was a Spanish Romantic dramatist. Biography After having studied medicine in his native town, García Gutiérrez moved to Madrid in 1833 and earned a meager living by translating plays of Eugène Scribe and Alexandre Dumas, père. Lacking success, he was on the point of enlisting when he suddenly sprang into fame as the author of a play called El trovador (The Troubadour), which was played for the first time on 1 March 1836. His next great success was Simón Bocanegra, in 1843. His Poesías (1840) and another volume of lyrics, Luz y tinieblas (1842), are comparatively minor, but the versification of his plays, and his power of analysing feminine emotions, have given García Gutiérrez a leading position among the Spanish dramatists of the 19th century. Although recognized as one of the leaders of the Romantic movement in Spain, his plays were not immediately lucrative, and García Gutiérrez emigrated to Spanish America, working as a journalist in Cuba and Mexico, until 1850, when he returned to Spain. After his return to Spain in 1850, however, García Gutiérrez became known all over Europe through Giuseppe Verdi's opera Il trovatore (1853), adapted from El trovador. Verdi then adapted Simón Bocanegra into the opera Simon Boccanegra (1857). The best works of his later period are a zarzuela titled El grumete (1853), La venganza catalana (1864), and Juan Lorenzo (1865). García Gutiérrez became head of the archaeological museum at Madrid, the city where he died. References External links Webber, Christopher, "Antonio García Gutiérrez" on Zarzuela.net. The biography page focusses on his zarzuela libretti 1813 births 1884 deaths People from Chiclana de la Frontera Romanticism Spanish male dramatists and playwrights Spanish journalists 19th-century Spanish poets 19th-century male writers Members of the Royal Spanish Academy 19th-century journalists Male journalists Spanish male poets 19th-century Spanish dramatists and playwrights	[ -0.4544414281845093, 0.04932146891951561, -0.2038593888282776, -0.07978316396474838, -0.06149200722575188, 0.8218609094619751, 0.18026691675186157, 0.27787408232688904, -0.563985288143158, -0.5760186910629272, -0.05196574330329895, 0.3786057233810425, -0.16370892524719238, -0.0048891459591686726, -0.36732468008995056, 0.7900362014770508, 0.30298906564712524, -0.21523267030715942, -0.5810370445251465, -0.2513912618160248, -0.6948985457420349, -0.06341665238142014, 0.4129708409309387, 0.5969403386116028, -0.39860427379608154, -0.22199521958827972, -0.36905407905578613, 0.31424084305763245, 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217362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dracula%20%28plant%29	Dracula (plant)	The orchid genus Dracula, abbreviated as Drac in horticultural trade, consists of 118 species native to Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. The name Dracula literally means "little dragon", an allusion to the mythical Count Dracula, a lead character in numerous vampire novels and films. The name was applied to the orchid because of the blood-red color of several of the species, and the strange aspect of the long spurs of the sepals. The plants were once included in the genus Masdevallia, but became a separate genus in 1978. This genus has been placed in the subtribe Pleurothallidinae. Description They are epiphytic and terrestrial species distributed in Central America and the northwest Andes. Almost half the species are found in Ecuador. They prefer shade and rather cool temperatures. These caespitose orchids grow in tufts from a short rhizome, with a dense pack of stems. They lack pseudobulbs. On each stems grows one large, thin, plicate leaf with a sharply defined midrib. These glabrous, light to dark green leaves may be spongy, taking over the function of the missing pseudobulb. They are tipped with a mucro (a short tip). The flower stalks grow either horizontally from the base of the plant or descend, often for great distances. A few species grow upright flower stalks. The long-tailed terminal flowers are basically triangular. The flowers are borne singly or successively. Three species (sodiroi, decussata/neisseniae, and papillosa) may have up to three simultaneously open flowers on a single stalk. In general, though, if there is more than one flower bud on the raceme, they open up with long intervals. These flowers have a weird aspect, due to the long tails on each sepal. The petals are small and somewhat thickened. The lip is often quite large for a Pleurothallid and may resemble a mushroom or fungus. The fleshy basal part of the lip (hypochile) is cleft. The terminal part (epichile) is rounded and concave. The margins of the perianth are often fringed. There is a well-developed column with two pollinia. Taxonomy The species of Dracula have tentatively been divided into three subgenera, with sections and subsections within one of the subgenera. Subgenus Dracula : This subgenus contains all the species of the genus except two exceptional species (D. sodiroi and D. xenos) Section Andreettaea : Monotypic: Dracula andreettae Section Chestertonia : two species: Dracula chestertonii, D. cutis-bufonis Section Cochliopsia : Monotypic: Dracula cochliops Section Dodsonia : Four species: Dracula dodsonii, D. insolita, D. iricolor, D. portillae Section Dracula : largest section Subsection Costatae : e.g. Dracula bella, D. vespertilio Subsection Dracula : Series Dracula : e.g. Dracula chimaera, D. tubeana, D. vampira Series Grandiflorae-Parvilabiatae : e.g. Dracula gigas, D. platycrater Series Parviflorae : e.g. Dracula houtteana, D. lotax Subgenus Sodiroa : Two Dracula sodiroi, D. erythrocodon Subgenus Xenosia : Monotypic : Dracula xenos Dracula adrianae (Colombia). Dracula alcithoe (SW. Colombia to NE. Ecuador). Dracula amaliae (W. Colombia). Dracula andreettae (W. Colombia to NE. Ecuador). Dracula anthracina (NW. Colombia). Dracula antonii (Colombia). Dracula aphrodes (W. Colombia. Dracula astuta (Costa Rica). Dracula barrowii (Peru). Dracula bella (WC. Colombia). Dracula bellerophon (W. Colombia). Dracula benedictii (WC. Colombia. Dracula berthae (Colombia). Dracula brangeri (C. Colombia). Dracula callithrix (Colombia) - new species 2009 - Dracula carcinopsis (W. Colombia). Dracula carlueri (Costa Rica). Dracula chestertonii (W. Colombia). Dracula chimaera (W. Colombia). Dracula chiroptera (SW. Colombia to NE. Ecuador). Dracula christineana (Ecuador). Dracula circe (Colombia). Dracula citrina (Colombia). Dracula cochliops (SW. Colombia). Dracula cordobae (SW. Ecuador). Dracula cutis-bufonis (NW. Colombia). Dracula dalessandroi (SE. Ecuador). Dracula dalstroemii (NW. Ecuador). Dracula decussata (Colombia). Dracula deltoidea (SE. Ecuador). Dracula deniseana (Peru. Dracula diabola (Colombia). Dracula diana (W. Colombia). Dracula dodsonii (Colombia to NC. Ecuador) Dracula erythrochaete (Costa Rica to W. Panama). Dracula erythrocodon (Ecuador) Dracula exasperata ( SW. Colombia. Dracula fafnir (SE. Ecuador). Dracula felix (SW. Colombia to NW. Ecuador). Dracula fuligifera (C. Ecuador). Dracula gastrophora (Ecuador). Dracula gigas (W. Colombia to NW. Ecuador). Dracula gorgona (W. Colombia) Dracula gorgonella (Colombia) Dracula hawleyi (NW. Ecuador). Dracula hirsuta (SE. Ecuador). Dracula hirtzii (SW. Colombia to NW. Ecuador). Dracula houtteana (Colombia). Dracula immunda (Panama). Dracula inaequalis (W. Colombia). Dracula incognita (Colombia). Dracula inexperata (Costa Rica). Dracula insolita (W. Colombia). Dracula janetiae (C. Peru) Dracula kareniae (Ecuador). Dracula lafleurii (NW. Ecuador). Dracula lehmanniana (SW. Colombia). Dracula lemurella (Colombia). Dracula leonum (Peru). Dracula levii (SW. Colombia to NW. Ecuador). Dracula ligiae (Colombia). Dracula lindstroemii (NW. Ecuador). Dracula lotax (Ecuador). Dracula mantissa (SW. Colombia to NW. Ecuador). Dracula marsupialis (NW. Ecuador). Dracula mendozae Luer & V.N.M.Rao (Ecuador) Dracula minax (Colombia). Dracula mopsus (Ecuador. Dracula morleyi (NW. Ecuador). Dracula navarrorum (Ecuador). Dracula nigritella (Ecuador). Dracula nosferatu (Colombia). Dracula nycterina (Colombia). Dracula octavioi (SW. Colombia. Dracula olmosii (Panama). Dracula ophioceps (SW. Colombia). Dracula orientalis (NE. Colombia). Dracula ortiziana (W. Colombia). Dracula papillosa (NW. Ecuador). Dracula pholeodytes (NE. Colombia). Dracula pileus (W. Colombia). Dracula platycrater (Colombia. Dracula polyphemus (NW. Ecuador). Dracula portillae (SE. Ecuador). Dracula posadarum (Colombia). Dracula presbys (Colombia). Dracula psittacina (Colombia). Dracula psyche (NW. Ecuador). Dracula pubescens (Ecuador). Dracula pusilla (SE. Mexico to C. America) Dracula radiella (NW. Ecuador). Dracula radiosa (E. Colombia to NW. Ecuador). Dracula rezekiana (Ecuador). Dracula ripleyana (Costa Rica). Dracula robledorum (Colombia) Dracula rojasii (Colombia) Dracula roezlii (W. Colombia). Dracula saulii (Peru). Dracula schudelii (Ecuador). Dracula senex-furens(Colombia) Dracula sergioi (Colombia). Dracula severa (NW. Colombia). Dracula sibundoyensis (SW. Colombia to NW. Ecuador). Dracula sijmii (Ecuador). Dracula simia (SE. Ecuador). Dracula sodiroi (Ecuador). Dracula syndactyla (SW. Colombia). Dracula terborchii (Ecuador). Dracula trichroma (W. Colombia to NW. Ecuador). Dracula trinympharum (NW. Ecuador). Dracula tsubotae (Colombia). Dracula tubeana (Ecuador). Dracula ubangina (Ecuador). Dracula vampira (Ecuador). Dracula veliziana (Colombia). Dracula velutina (NW. Colombia). Dracula venefica (W. Colombia. Dracula venosa (W. Colombia to NW. Ecuador). Dracula verticulosa (W. Colombia). Dracula vespertilio (Nicaragua to NW. Ecuador). Dracula villegasii (Colombia). Dracula vinacea (NE. Colombia). Dracula vlad-tepes (NE. Colombia). Dracula wallisii (W. Colombia). Dracula woolwardiae (Ecuador). Dracula xenos (Colombia). Hybrids Dracula × anicula (D. cutis-bufonis × D. wallisii) (Colombia). Dracula × radiosyndactyla (D. radiosa × D. syndactyla) (SW. Colombia). Footnote References Luer, Carlyle A. 1978: Dracula, a New Genus in the Pleurothallidinae. Selbyana 2: 190-198. Luer, Carlyle A. 1993: Icones Pleurothallidinarum X - Systematics of Dracula. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden Vol. 46. 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217364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brave%20%28Marillion%20album%29	Brave (Marillion album)	Brave is the seventh studio album by Marillion, released in 1994. It charted at number 10 on the UK Albums Chart, being the last of the band's albums to reach the Top 10 in the United Kingdom until F E A R reached number 4 in 2016. The album, which mixed classic symphonic progressive rock with standard rock, was ranked by Raw as one of the 20 greatest albums of 1994. In 2000 it was selected by Classic Rock as one of the "30 Best Albums of the 90s", and in 2003 as one of "Rock's 30 Greatest Concept Albums". “We lost a lot of fans on Brave,” said singer Hogarth in 2018. “It wasn’t well received. Everybody now looks back and goes, ‘What a great album.’ But nobody was saying that the day it came out.” “I think it needed at least a year or two after its release before people saw it for what it was,” said guitarist Rothery in 2018. Background After trying and failing to reach a wider audience with the more pop-oriented Holidays in Eden, Marillion decided to go back to their roots and make a more progressive-oriented album again. Back in the mid-eighties, Steve Hogarth heard an appeal on behalf of the police on a local radio broadcast about a teen-aged girl found wandering alone on Severn Bridge in England. When she was found, she was either incapable of, or decided not to, communicate with anyone who questioned her. After a while, the police took the decision to make an appeal on radio to see if anyone could identify her. Eventually, the girl was reclaimed by her family and taken back home. Hogarth made a note of this and kept it aside for many years until Marillion began working on what would later become their Brave Album. The band had written two songs Living with the Big Lie and Runaway when he was reminded of the girl on the bridge and the shape of the album began to happen in his mind. Living with the Big Lie is a song about how people seem to get used to things to the point of being totally desensitized and Runaway catalogues the plight of a young girl attempting to escape a dysfunctional home. Hogarth told the story to the band and suggested how the songs could tie together in a fictitious tale of a life that has undergone problems and horrors such as sexual abuse (an increasingly reported theme in the media at the time) isolation, drug addiction and breakdown, to the point of considering/attempting suicide. As producer, they recruited Dave Meegan, who had previously worked with Marillion on Fugazi. As for EMI, they really wanted the band to do a 'quick record' to gain some revenue, but this project progressively escalated, taking the band nine months to write and produce, partly because of Meegan who would go through 'every single new tape made every day' each night listening for any riff or melody which sounded good enough to be included in the songs.The album was written at the Racket Club, Buckinghamshire between April 1992 and January 1993 and recorded between February and September 1993. The band relocated to Marouatte castle in France for the duration of the recording of Brave. The influence of these surroundings can be heard throughout the album in a lot of haunting atmospherics. They even went into a cave which lay in the nearby area and taped some cave sounds which were used as background ambiance on the album. This recording concept was later used by Marillion's EMI labelmates Radiohead for their OK Computer album. They spent three months in Marouatte in total. But in the summer, they decamped to Liverpool’s Parr Street Studio to continue recording. Marillion spent another four months in Parr Street on top of the three months they’d spent in Marouatte. Three singles from the album were released: "The Great Escape" was only released in the Netherlands in January 1994. "The Hollow Man", released in March 1994 reached No.30 in the UK, and "Alone Again in the Lap of Luxury", released in April 1994 didn’t even make the Top 50. The double-LP vinyl release of Brave features a double groove on the final side of the album, providing two endings to the story of this concept album. The first groove plays "The Great Escape" as heard on the CD, followed by "Made Again", providing the happy ending; the second groove plays "The Great Escape (Spiral Remake)" and 7 minutes of water noise, providing the downer ending. "The Great Escape (Spiral Remake)" was later included as a bonus track on the remastered re-issue, along with one minute of the water noise. Richard Stanley directed a 50-minute film version of Brave which was released 6 February 1995. This film takes the downer ending presented by the second double groove. On the Brave World Tour 1994 the band played their new album from start to finish, with Hogarth acting out characters from the songs. In "Hard As Love", this involved tying his hair into pigtails and putting on lipstick to play the girl herself. “The atmosphere in the concert halls was, like, ‘Fucking hell, what’s all this?’” said drummer Ian Mosley 2018. “When we came on and did the encore and played songs that weren’t from Brave, it was a completely different show. You could physically see people sigh with relief.” They have revisited the whole album twice during the years, playing it in full in 2002 and again in 2013 at the Marillion Weekends. Track listing All music by Steve Hogarth/Steve Rothery/Mark Kelly/Pete Trewavas/Ian Mosley. All lyrics by Hogarth except as indicated. Vinyl edition Side one "Bridge" – 2:55 "Living with the Big Lie" – 6:46 "Runaway" (Hogarth/John Helmer) – 4:40 "Goodbye to all That" – 0:49 Side two "Goodbye To All That (continued)" – 11:51 "(i) Wave" "(ii) Mad" "(iii) The Opium Den" "(iv) The Slide" "(v) Standing in the Swing" "Hard As Love" (Hogarth/Helmer) – 6:41 "The Hollow Man" – 4:08 Side three "Alone Again in the Lap of Luxury" – 8:13 "(i) Now wash your hands" "Paper Lies" (Hogarth/Helmer) – 5:47 "Brave" – 7:56 Side four, groove one "The Great Escape" (Hogarth/Helmer) – 6:30 "(i) The Last of You" "(ii) Fallin' from the Moon" "Made Again" (Helmer) – 5:02 Side four, groove two "The Great Escape (Spiral Remake)" (Hogarth/Helmer) – 4:38 "[unlisted water noises]" – 6:54 CD edition "Bridge" – 2:52 "Living with the Big Lie" – 6:46 "Runaway" – 4:41 "Goodbye to All That" – 12:26 "i) Wave" "ii) Mad" "iii) The Opium Den" "iv) The Slide" "v) Standing in the Swing" "Hard as Love" – 6:42 "The Hollow Man" – 4:08 "Alone Again in the Lap of Luxury" – 8:13 "i) Now Wash Your Hands" "Paper Lies" – 5:49 "Brave" – 7:54 "The Great Escape" – 6:29 "i) The Last of You" "ii) Fallin' from the Moon" "Made Again" – 5:02 Remastered CD bonus tracks "The Great Escape" (orchestral version) – 5:18 "Marouatte Jam" – 9:44 "The Hollow Man" (Acoustic) – 4:10 "Winter Trees" – 1:47 "Alone Again in the Lap of Luxury" (Acoustic) – 2:43 "Runaway" (Acoustic) – 4:27 "Hard as Love" (Instrumental) – 6:48 "Living with the Big Lie" (Demo) – 5:12 "Alone Again in the Lap of Luxury" (Demo) – 3:17 "Dream Sequence" (Demo) – 2:36 "The Great Escape" (Spiral Remake) – 5:48 The second CD also includes a hidden track. Some 26 minutes after "The Great Escape" there is an "instrumental" recording of Scott Joplin's "The Entertainer", followed by a snatch of studio chatter. Formats and re-issues The album was originally released on Cassette, double-vinyl LP and CD. In 1998, as part of a series of Marillion's first eight studio albums, EMI re-released Brave with remastered sound and a second disc containing bonus material, listed above. The remastered edition was later also made available without the bonus disc. A new 180 gram vinyl pressing was released in May 2013 by EMI. It was identical to the original vinyl release from 1994, and included the double-grooved Side 4. Brave was reissued in 2018 as the second in a series of deluxe box set editions of the 8 albums the band made for EMI between 1982 and 1995. It is available in 4CD/Blu-Ray and 5LP vinyl box set form, both issued by Parlophone / RHINO on 9 March. The CD/BD version includes both the original stereo mix, new stereo and 5.1 mixes, and the complete live performance from Paris in April 1994, previously partially released on Made Again, newly mixed by Michael Hunter. The vinyl set includes the new stereo mix and the Paris show recording. The re-mix was done by Steven Wilson who is a good friend of the band. Personnel Marillion Steve Hogarth – vocals, additional keyboards & percussion, backing vocals Steve Rothery – guitars Mark Kelly – keyboards, backing vocals Pete Trewavas – bass, backing vocals Ian Mosley – drums Additional musicians Tony Halligan – Uilleann pipes Liverpool Philharmonic – cellos & flute Darryl Way – orchestral arrangement on "Fallin' from the Moon" Technical Dave Meegan – producer, engineer Chris Hedge – assistant engineer Michael Hunter – assistant engineer Steven Wilson – 2018 re-mix Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts References External links Comments by some of the band members (on the marillion.com band page): Steve Hogarth Steve Rothery Pete Trewavas Marillion albums EMI Records albums 1994 albums Concept albums Albums produced by Dave Meegan	[ -0.33512741327285767, 0.19603410363197327, -0.09737378358840942, 0.08723320811986923, -0.826081395149231, 0.5684345960617065, 0.8904600739479065, -0.5227447748184204, -0.3333496153354645, -0.4896606504917145, 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217365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr.%20Burns	Mr. Burns	Charles Montgomery Plantagenet Schicklgruber "Monty" Burns, usually referred to as Mr. Burns or C. Montgomery Burns , is a recurring character and antagonist in the animated television series The Simpsons, voiced initially by Christopher Collins, and currently by Harry Shearer. He is the evil, devious, greedy, and wealthy owner of the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant and, by extension, Homer Simpson's boss. He is assisted at almost all times by Smithers, his loyal and sycophantic aide, adviser, confidant, and secret admirer. Although originally conceived as a one-dimensional, recurring villain who might occasionally enter the Simpsons' lives and wreak some sort of havoc, Mr. Burns' popularity has led to his repeated inclusion in episodes. He is a stereotype of corporate America in his unquenchable desire to increase his own wealth and power, inability to remember his employees' names (including Homer's, despite frequent interactions—which has become a recurrent joke) and lack of concern for their safety and well-being. Reflecting on his advanced age, Mr. Burns is given to expressing dated humor, making references to Jazz Age popular culture, and aspiring to apply obsolete technology to everyday life. Conan O'Brien has called Mr. Burns his favorite character to write for, due to his arbitrarily old age and extreme wealth. His house is called Burns Manor. Mr. Burns' trademark expression is the word "Excellent...”, muttered slowly in a low, sinister voice while steepling his fingertips. He occasionally orders Smithers to "release the hounds", so as to let his vicious guard dogs attack any intruders, enemies, or even invited guests. Mr. Burns is Springfield's richest and most-powerful citizen (and also the richest person in Springfield's state; his current net worth has been given as $1.3 billion by Forbes, though it fluctuates wildly depending on the episode). He uses his power and wealth to do whatever he wants, usually without regard for consequences and without interference from the authorities. These qualities led Wizard magazine to rate him the 45th-greatest villain of all time. TV Guide named him #2 in their 2013 list of the 60 nastiest villains of all time. In 2016, Rolling Stone ranked him #8 of their "40 Greatest TV Villains of All Time". IGN ranked #25 of the Top 100 Villains. Role in The Simpsons As the primary antagonist, Mr. Burns spends his time in his office at the nuclear plant, monitoring his workers via closed-circuit cameras planted throughout the plant. In "Double, Double, Boy in Trouble", Mr. Burns revealed that he was the youngest of a wealthy family, with eleven children, and all his siblings died of suspicious causes (mostly related to eating poisoned baked potatoes), leading to him receiving the entire family fortune, although another episode reveals that his surviving younger brother is George Burns. At an early age, Mr. Burns left his family to live with a twisted and heartless billionaire who owned an "atom mill" in Shelbyville (implied to be his grandfather). He lived a life of privilege and would amuse himself by injuring immigrant laborers. Mr. Burns later attended Yale University, where he studied science and business, joined Skull and Bones, competed in the "etherweight" wrestling class, and graduated in the class of 1914. At his 25-year college reunion, he became romantically involved with the daughter of an old flame. She would later bear his child, Larry Burns, who was given up for adoption and would later enter Mr. Burns' life briefly. Mr. Burns has been engaged at least three times: to a woman named Gertrude who died of loneliness and rabies, to Marge Simpson's mother Jacqueline Bouvier, and to a meter maid named Gloria. He later enlisted in the U.S. Army and served as a member of Springfield's Flying Hellfish squad under Master Sergeant Abraham Simpson and saw action in the Ardennes during the Battle of the Bulge. Later on, he was shipped to the Pacific Theater and was a co-pilot along with Abe Simpson and his brother, Cyrus. Mr. Burns and Abe were shot down by a kamikaze and stuck on an island. At the end of World War II, he was personally hired by President Harry S. Truman to transport a specially printed trillion-dollar bill to Europe as the United States' contribution to the reconstruction of Europe. As the United States' richest citizen, Mr. Burns was thought to be the most trustworthy. Mr. Burns absconded with the bill and kept it in his possession for many years until it was lost to Fidel Castro in "The Trouble with Trillions". In "Homer the Smithers", it is revealed that Mr. Burns' mother is still alive at the age of 122 years, although Mr. Burns dislikes speaking to her because she had an affair with President William Howard Taft and she refers to him as an "improvident lackwit". Furthermore, because she is so old, the only things she can do (according to Smithers) are picking up the phone, dial, and yell. Mr. Burns resides in a vast, ornate mansion on an immense estate called Burns Manor, on the corner of Mammon and Croesus Streets. It is protected by a high wall, an electrified fence, and a pack of vicious attack dogs known as "The Hounds". Mr. Burns routinely subjects Springfield and its residents to his abuse and there is a general dislike of him throughout the town. Mr. Burns has blackmailed and bribed various officials in Springfield, including Mayor Quimby and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. He employed his wealth to make an ultimately unsuccessful run for governor to prevent his plant from being closed for safety violations, only to be denied his chance to be Governor by Marge Simpson. He once blocked out the sun to force Springfield residents to increase their use of electricity produced by his nuclear plant and was subsequently shot by Maggie when he tried to steal candy from her. Mr. Burns' extreme old age is a frequent source of humor on the show. He is occasionally referred to as "Springfield's oldest resident"; in Season 2's "Simpson and Delilah", he told Homer that he is 81, although, in several later episodes, he is shown to be 104. When Smithers informs him that Mr. Burns' credit card PIN is his age, he types four digits in his answer. When Lisa Simpson is researching her ancestors from the American Civil War, she comes across a Colonel Burns in the journal, presumably one of Mr. Burns' earlier ancestors. However, when Lisa mentions him, Mr. Burns replies by saying that he hasn't heard his father's name in years. The episode reveals that Mr. Burns' father was a slaveowning Southern plantation owner who inspired the character Simon Legree from Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin, and that Homer and Grampa are descended from Colonel Burns's runaway slave Virgil who fled to British Canada with Mabel Simpson on the Underground Railroad. In other episodes, Mr. Burns's birthplace is apparently Pangea, his national anthem implies he was both from Austria-Hungary and unaware of its collapse in World War I, and he mentions the possibility of an update on the Siege of Khartoum, implying that he was aware of current events as early as 1884. In other episodes, he has instructed a postal clerk to send a telegram to the Prussian consulate in Siam via autogyro, and believes a nickel will buy "a steak and kidney pie, a cup of coffee, a slice of cheesecake and a newsreel, with enough change left over to ride the trolley from Battery Park to the Polo Grounds.” In "The Old Man and the Lisa", Mr. Burns' investment portfolio is revealed to consist of long-defunct and obsolete companies such as "Confederated Slave Holdings", and he learns about the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression for the first time after checking a very old stock-ticker. Mr. Burns' state of mind is the subject of frequent jokes on the show. At times, he appears to be completely removed from reality and modern conventions. He continually fails to recognize Homer Simpson or remember his name, even though many of the recent major events in Mr. Burns' life have involved Homer in some way. Mr. Burns is, for the most part, unaware of the townspeople's general dislike of him. He also displays mannerisms that are considered outdated, such as practicing phrenology, writing with a quill pen, and using an antique view camera to take photographs. He is also angered when Springfield Elementary children mock his dated car, saying it was "the first car to outrun a man!" Mr. Burns refers to many celebrities of the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the present tense, assuming they are still alive. In "Homer at the Bat", Mr. Burns instructs Smithers to recruit dead-ball-era players, such as Honus Wagner and Cap Anson for the plant's softball team, and has to be told that all of them died long ago. He also once rewarded Homer for being the first to arrive at work with a ticket to the 1939 World's Fair. However, despite his obvious senility and social ineptitude, Mr. Burns is an extraordinarily clever businessman, as he has lost his fortune several times, only to regain it a very brief time later. In the episode "The Old Man and the Lisa", Mr. Burns loses his fortune and regains it by opening a recycling plant, which allows him to regain his nuclear power plant. Additionally, in the episode "The Seemingly Never-Ending Story", Mr. Burns loses both his fortune and nuclear power plant to the Rich Texan after losing a scavenger hunt, but eventually gains both backs after a series of events that includes him briefly working at Moe's Tavern. Mr. Burns is physically weak and is often shown to have little more strength than an infant. In "The Mansion Family", doctors at the Mayo Clinic discover that Mr. Burns has contracted every known human disease, as well as several that were discovered during his checkup, but that they have canceled each other out in a condition they call "Three Stooges syndrome;" although a doctor warns him that his physical health is extremely fragile and that "even a slight breeze" could upset the balance between his diseases, Mr. Burns misinterprets his condition to believe that he is invincible. In the intro of The Simpsons Movie, Mr. Burns is seen in his bathroom trying to brush his teeth. After Smithers applies the toothpaste onto his brush, he falls over. In "Rosebud" and "Who Shot Mr. Burns?", he needed a great deal of effort to wrench items from Maggie. He has difficulty performing such simple actions as giving a thumbs-up, and crushing an insect by stepping on it, or using a door-knocker. In one instance, when he is told to jump out of his burning mansion onto a life net, he drops at the speed of a feather, floats onto some power lines, and is electrified. He pitched the opening baseball at a game in "Dancin' Homer", but was only able to throw it a small distance, which drew mocking laughter from the crowd. When Mr. Burns joined Homer's bowling team in "Team Homer", he was barely able to roll the ball down the lane. In season five's "Burns' Heir", Smithers puts a sponge on Mr. Burns' head before leaving the bathroom, causing him to nearly drown in the tub from its weight. In "Lady Bouvier's Lover", however, he shows himself as a lively, excellent dancer. Mr. Burns also had a teddy bear named "Bobo" that he loved as a child, revealed in the episode "Rosebud". The stuffed animal was lost and eventually, the stuffed bear became a toy for Maggie. In "American History X-cellent", Mr. Burns gets sent to jail because he is in possession of stolen paintings. In the same episode, it is implied that he was once in the SS. Another episode has him exclaim that though he and Oskar Schindler had much in common: "We both made shells for the Nazis, but mine worked, damn it!" Character Creation Mr. Burns' character, appearance, and mannerisms are based on several different people. The show's creator Matt Groening principally based Mr. Burns on his high school teacher Mr. Bailey. Drawing further inspiration from oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller, David Rockefeller, Groening made Mr. Burns the "embodiment of corporate greed". Animator David Silverman parodied Mr. Burns' appearance on Fox founder Barry Diller, and modeled his body on a praying mantis. The idea of Mr. Burns reading employee names off cards in "There's No Disgrace Like Home" came from an article about Ronald Reagan that writer Al Jean had read. In some episodes, parallels have been drawn between Mr. Burns and moguls such as Howard Hughes and, more frequently, fictional character Charles Foster Kane from Citizen Kane. Writer George Meyer lifted Mr. Burns' "Excellent!" hand gesture from his former Saturday Night Live colleague Jim Downey. While perhaps not intentional, Mr. Burns' physical characteristics and mannerisms are cited as a modern example of the commedia dell'arte character Pantalone. Matt Groening got Mr. Burns' middle name from a Montgomery Ward department store in Portland, Oregon's Northwest Industrial district and his surname from Burnside Street, a main thoroughfare in Portland. Mr. Burns' first name being Charles is a reference to Charles Foster Kane. In the script for "There's No Disgrace Like Home", Al Jean and Mike Reiss referred to him as "Mr. Meanie". In the second season, the writers started to enjoy writing about Smithers and Mr. Burns' relationship, and they often pitched episodes with them as the focus, but many never came to fruition. Voice Mr. Burns was originally voiced by actor Christopher Collins in the episodes "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire", "Homer's Odyssey", "There's No Disgrace Like Home", and "The Telltale Head". He was soon replaced by Harry Shearer because Sam Simon found Collins "difficult to work with". Shearer has voiced the character ever since. He modeled the voice on Lionel Barrymore and Ronald Reagan. Shearer is also the voice of Smithers and is able to perform dialogue between the two characters in one take. Shearer said that Mr. Burns is the most difficult character for him to voice because it is rough on his vocal cords and he often needs to drink tea and honey to soothe his voice. He describes Mr. Burns as his favorite character, saying he "like[s] Mr. Burns because he is pure evil. A lot of evil people make the mistake of diluting it. Never adulterate your evil." In 2014, Shearer won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performance for his performance on "Four Regrettings and a Funeral" for voicing Mr. Burns. Reception In 2006, Wizard magazine rated Mr. Burns the 45th-greatest villain of all time. They also described Smithers and Mr. Burns as being "TV's most functional dysfunctional couple". In a 2003 article, EW also named "Last Exit to Springfield" the greatest episode of The Simpsons. Other episodes which feature Mr. Burns placed on the list, including "Rosebud", at number two, and the "Who Shot Mr. Burns?" two-part episode, at number 25. Vanity Fair placed "Rosebud" first on their list of the top 25 Simpsons episodes. Forbes estimates Mr. Burns' net worth at $1.3 billion, placing 12th on the 2008 Forbes Fictional 15 list. Mr. Burns has been on the list since 1989 and has previously placed fifth in 2005, second in 2006 and sixth in 2007 when he was estimated to be worth $16.8 billion. Mr. Burns' evil has made him a popular example of terrible television bosses. In 2006, outplacement firm Challenger, Gray & Christmas released a report saying that Mr. Burns was one of the eight worst bosses on television. The News & Observer named Mr. Burns the third worst boss, calling him "heartless, greedy and exceptionally ugly, Mr. Burns makes Ebenezer Scrooge seem downright lovely." In the run-up to the New York City's 2009 mayoral election, several posters appeared throughout the city, showing Mr. Burns and accompanied by the words "No Third Terms, Vote for Burns"—a reference to Mayor Michael Bloomberg's run for a third term that year—in the style of Shepard Fairey's Obama poster. The city's Board of Elections announced that December that Mr. Burns had received 27 write-in votes out of 299 write-in votes cast. As the chief of "Springfield Republican Party" Mr. Burns endorsed Mitt Romney in 2012 US Presidential Election. The IG Group, a financial corporation in the City of London, use a recording of Mr. Burns' catchphrase "Excellent" as an alert that an order has been completed. References Bibliography External links Mr. Burns on IMDb Animated series villains The Simpsons characters Television characters introduced in 1989 Fictional business executives Fictional white-collar criminals Fictional Republicans (United States) Fictional World War II veterans Video game bosses Fictional misers Male characters in animated series Male characters in film Male villains Comedy film characters Fictional members of secret societies Fictional characters who have made pacts with devils Fictional Yale University people Characters created by Matt Groening Male characters in animation	[ 0.23958703875541687, 0.8746107220649719, -0.31170082092285156, -0.3003286123275757, 0.19747884571552277, -0.16284462809562683, 0.8956995606422424, -0.19298118352890015, -0.1298520565032959, -0.5333287715911865, -0.6981862783432007, 0.06342670321464539, -0.6096314191818237, 0.48042890429496765, 0.23136837780475616, 0.9143063426017761, -0.38100144267082214, 0.466367244720459, -0.42990434169769287, 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217366	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberals%20%28Sweden%29	Liberals (Sweden)	The Liberals (, L), known as the Liberal People's Party () until 22 November 2015, is a liberal political party in Sweden. The Liberals ideologically shows a variety of liberal tendencies, including social liberalism, conservative liberalism, and economic liberalism. Historically the party was positioned in the centre of the Swedish political landscape, willing to cooperate with both the political left and the right. It has since the leaderships of Lars Leijonborg and Jan Björklund in the 2000s positioned itself more towards the right. It was a part of the Alliance centre-right coalition government led by Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt from 2006 to 2014. The party's policies include action toward a free market economy and pushing for Sweden to join NATO and the Eurozone, as well as investing in nuclear power; it also focuses on gender equality, the school system and quality education. In February 2019 following the conclusion of government negotiations Jan Björklund announced his intention to step down from the leadership position after 11 years at the helm of the Liberals. He was succeeded by Nyamko Sabuni in June 2019. After the 2021 Swedish government crisis, the party withdrew their support for Löfven, and is now promoting a right-wing government together with M and KD with support from SD with Ulf Kristersson as their Prime Minister candidate. In an interview with Dagens Nyheter in February 2022 Sabuni stated that the Sweden Democrats will “play an important role in an eventual right-wing government” and that she won’t be hesitant to work and collaborate with them. Even stating that there is a possibility of L supporting an M-KD-SD government even if the liberals are not included in the government. Since the decision to collaborate with the Sweden Democrats, the party has adopted more right-wing populist policy, such as a more restrictive migration policy, easier withdrawal of citizenship for immigrants, and strong criticism of Muslim schools. The party is a member of the Liberal International and Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe. History 1809: The first liberal party is formed after a coup d'état ends 20 years of royal autocracy under the Union and Security Act; it may be the first party in the world to use the word "liberal" in its name. 1902: The Free-minded National Association () is formed as the first liberal party with a national grassroots organisation. It is heavily reliant on the "free religious" church movement. 1910: After women become eligible to be elected to municipal councils in Sweden, suffragette Valborg Olander is elected to the Falun city council for the Liberal Party. 1923: The Free-minded National Association splits over alcohol prohibition; the anti-ban minority forms the Liberal Party of Sweden. The Free-minded would come to lead several governments during the coming years. 1934: The parties reconcile and form the People's Party (), i.e. the party in its present form. 1939–45: It takes part in a wartime coalition government comprising all parties except the communists. Sweden remains neutral during the Second World War. 1976: It enters a three-party government ending 44 years of Social Democratic Party rule (excepting the wartime emergency grand coalition). 1978: The People's Party forms a short-lived minority government by itself, with chairperson Ola Ullsten as prime minister. Hans Blix served as a foreign minister. 1979: A new attempt at a three-party coalition is made. 1980–82: It forms a two-party coalition government with the Centre Party. 1990: It adds Liberal to its name to become the Liberal People's Party (). 1991–94: It forms part of a four-party centre-right coalition government under Moderate Party leader Carl Bildt. 2002: It more than doubles its vote share and comes close to being the second-largest party in Riksdag elections; party leader Lars Leijonborg fails to unite a green-liberal four-party coalition government with passive Moderate support. 2006–14: It forms part of the Alliance four-party centre-right coalition government under Moderate Party leader Fredrik Reinfeldt. 2015: It changes its name from the Liberal People's Party to the Liberals (). 2018: It, together with the Centre Party, voted down a proposed Moderate-Christian Democrat government led by Ulf Kristersson after concerns that such a government would be dependent on the Sweden Democrats for support. 2019: It, together with the Centre Party, voted to tolerate a Social Democratic-Green government led by Stefan Löfven after coming up with a 73-point agreement. Jan Björklund also announced he will step down as party leader and will not stand in the party's autumn leadership contest. 2021: After the 2021 Swedish government crisis, the party withdraw their support for Löfven, and is now promoting a centre-right government with Ulf Kristersson as Prime Minister. 2006 computer hacking scandal On 4 September 2006, only weeks before the 2006 general election, the Social Democratic Party reported to the police that its internal network had been hacked into. It has been reported that members of the Liberal People's Party had copied secret information not yet officially released to counter-attack Social Democrat political propositions on at least two occasions. On 5 September the Party Secretary, Johan Jakobsson, voluntarily chose to resign. Leading members of the party and its youth organisation were under police investigation suspected for criminal activity. All members of the party were acquitted by the court however, while an official of the party's youth organisation, as well as one from the Social Democrats and a newspaper reporter, were found guilty. Ideology The official party ideology has historically been social liberalism, which translates as a strong ideological commitment to a mixed economy, with support for comprehensive but market-based welfare state programs. While initially allied with the Swedish Social Democratic Party in the struggle for democracy (achieved in 1921) and social reform, the People's Party came to be part of the opposition from the thirties and onwards, opposing Social Democrat demands for nationalization of private businesses. It has stayed opposed to the Social Democrats ever since, often as the largest or second-largest party of the opposition block (called the non-socialists or "de borgerliga", approximately the bourgeois), but often equally critical towards parties on the right. Over time, this has shifted towards a more clear-cut rightwing role. In the mid-nineties the party seemed to have ruled out the alternative of co-operation with the Social Democrats, focusing instead on bringing them down by strengthening the opposition. Foreign aid and women's equality were very important issues for the party in the past, and today the party advocates liberal feminism and giving a full percent of the gross national income as foreign aid. Foreign policy is another high-profile issue. Always oriented towards the United States and the United Kingdom, the party was a strong opponent of Communism and Nazism during the 20th century. While it was part of and supported the Swedish coalition government and its position of neutrality during World War II, the party advocated an active stance against the Soviet Union during the Cold War. The party (alongside Moderaterna) actively supported the struggle of the Baltic peoples against the Soviet regime, whereas Social Democrats were wary of irritating the Soviets. As a consequence, it suffered several sharply worded rebukes from the often-ruling Social Democrats for endangering Swedish relations with the Soviet Union. It also criticised what it perceived as Social Democrat tolerance of left-wing dictatorships in the third world, and supported the United States in the Vietnam War. After the end of the Cold War, it became the first Swedish party to call for abandoning the country's traditional neutrality in favor of joining NATO. Among issues concerning the developing world, the party supported decolonization and advocated boycotting South Africa to help overthrow apartheid rule. It also opposed third world Communist dictatorships. Nowadays it is strongly supportive of Israel, and former Party leader Per Ahlmark has been especially vocal on the issue. On the European level, the Liberal People's Party was strongly supportive of the emergence of the European Union and campaigned for Swedish entry into it (which happened in 1995). It also campaigned for joining the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, but this was voted down by the Swedes in a referendum in 2003. The party has aimed to come across as the most "pro-European" party, trying to break what it refers to as the country's "isolationist" mindset. It is supportive of EU enlargement, including letting Turkey join on condition of democratic reforms, and also advocates further integrative measures, with some members, including the youth organization, openly calling for a single federal European state. In 2003 the Liberal People's Party supported the invasion of Iraq, but stopped short of demanding Swedish participation in the US-led "coalition of the willing". In recent years, and especially under the leadership of Jan Björklund, the party has moved markedly towards conservative liberalism in its social attitudes, taking tougher stands on areas such as crime and punishment, law and order, school and discipline as well as strengthening its abolitionist policies on drugs. In 2008 the Liberal People's Party's support for a controversial legislative change regulating the National Defence Radio Establishment (FRA) in particular upset its youth organisation. Voter base Support for the party is more marked among people above the age of 65, and tends to be higher among people who have completed more education. Its support is lowest among people with a pre-gymnasial education. Historically the party had a strong base in the 'free churches' (Protestant congregations not part of the state church that turned into powerful grassroots movements in the late 19th century), but with the exception of certain regions, that is not a significant feature today. Tensions between factions sometimes described as "the free religionists" and "the metropolitan liberals" (occasionally in the form of an open left-right conflict, with the "free religious" members emphasizing the social aspect over liberal economics) was an important part of party life until the seventies. It provoked a party split in the twenties, centred on the question of an alcohol ban, but differences were eventually repaired. (The re-merging of the parties in 1934 is one of the party's plethora of official creation dates, some others being 1895, 1900 and 1902, providing frequent cause for anniversary celebrations.) Since the 2002 election, the party has been accused of trying to attract new voters by adopting right-wing populist rhetoric, although the party proposes to open Sweden's doors to economic migrants and to additional asylum seekers during their coalition with the Moderate Party. Former party leader Lars Leijonborg proposed a language test for immigrants who apply for Swedish citizenship. Jan Björklund, at the time the party's education spokesman and first deputy chairman, called on schoolteachers to report schoolchildren with extreme opinions to the intelligence services, something which has caused opposition from within the party, not least from the youth wing. The party has campaigned strongly against terrorism and criminality. While these tactics may have helped to more than double party support in the 2002 elections, they have also provoked accusations of betraying their original social liberal ideology from within leftist factions of the party, and led to criticism from the strong liberal press in Sweden. However the party, which has historically been the most pro-immigration Swedish party, has also proposed measures intended to make it easier for foreigners to visit relatives living in Sweden, and to ease restrictions on economic migrants, for which it has been opposed by the governing Social Democrats. In its policy on integration, the party supports more open immigration combined with measures to help new arrivals to integrate into Swedish society. Affiliated organisations and international memberships The party has a youth organization called Liberal Youth of Sweden (Liberala ungdomsförbundet, LUF), which has its own platform and maintains a separate organisation from the party. Since 2019 its chairperson is Romina Pourmokhtari. There is also a women's organization called Liberal Women (Liberala Kvinnor, LK, chairperson Cecilia Elving) and immigrants' organization called Liberal Mångfald, LM, (Liberal Multicultural Association, chairperson Anna Steele Karlström). Additionally, party members maintain a number of small ad hoc "networks" addressing specific issues. Representation in the EU institutions The Liberals is a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe and Liberal International. It is also part of Liberal organisations on the Nordic and Baltic levels. The party's MEP sits with Renew Europe parliamentary group (previously ALDE). In the European Committee of the Regions, the Liberals sit in the Renew Europe CoR group with one full member for the 2020-2025 mandate: Ulrika Landergren, who is first vice-president of the Group. Electoral results Riksdag European Parliament Party leaders Symbols See also Alliance (Sweden) Liberal Youth of Sweden Liberalism and centrism in Sweden Fria liberaler i Svenska kyrkan References External links The Liberals: Sweden's liberal party - a factsheet about the party and its policies The Swedish Parliament: The Liberal Party Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party member parties Centre-right parties in Europe Classical liberal parties Liberal feminism Liberal International Liberal parties in Sweden 1934 establishments in Sweden Political parties established in 1934	[ 0.144045889377594, -0.36665046215057373, 0.6135695576667786, -0.03183417022228241, -0.6061266660690308, 0.20719598233699799, -0.01802653633058071, -0.016414543613791466, -0.8181400895118713, -0.088105708360672, 0.027712024748325348, 0.09376957267522812, -0.24853716790676117, 0.26499032974243164, -0.18980559706687927, 0.33329299092292786, 0.2590123414993286, 0.7985230684280396, -0.31136900186538696, 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217367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortensio%20F%C3%A9lix%20Paravicino	Hortensio Félix Paravicino	Hortensio Félix Paravicino y Arteaga (12 October 1580 – 12 December 1633) was a Spanish preacher and poet from the noble house of Pallavicini. Life He was born in Madrid and was educated at the Jesuit college in Ocaña, and on April 18, 1600 joined the Trinitarian Order. A sermon pronounced before Philip III at Salamanca in 1605 brought Paravicino into notice; he rose to high posts in his order, was entrusted with important foreign missions, became royal preacher in 1616, and on the death of Philip III in 1621 delivered a famous funeral oration which was the subject of acute controversy. His (1638-1641) makes use of extravagant tropes and metaphors. His (1641) include his devout and secular poems, as well as a play entitled ; his verse, like his prose, shows the influence of Gongora, and were highly regarded in his lifetime. He was a great connoisseur of painting, but argued for the destruction of all paintings of nudes: "the finest paintings are the greatest threat: burn the best of them". However these views were too extreme for even 17th century Spain, where the King and leading courtiers kept galleries of such works in relatively private rooms, and his piece on the subject was not published in the pamphlet for which it was written. In film Fernando Fernández de Córdoba played Paravicino in the 1947 historic drama Lady in Ermine. References Attribution 1580 births 1633 deaths Trinitarians Hortensio 17th-century Spanish poets Spanish people of Italian descent Spanish male poets University of Salamanca alumni Baroque writers	[ -0.38181254267692566, 0.47215598821640015, -0.08193814754486084, 0.22854217886924744, -0.3848448693752289, 0.9675617814064026, 1.0772078037261963, 0.29715216159820557, -0.3342936336994171, -0.45143458247184753, 0.026298094540834427, 0.651351273059845, -0.31771934032440186, -0.25016534328460693, -0.13697834312915802, -0.06791017949581146, 0.46021196246147156, -0.15496587753295898, -0.34713220596313477, -0.13447126746177673, -0.39857491850852966, -0.45114827156066895, 0.23381510376930237, 0.17567619681358337, -0.03030780889093876, 0.23204271495342255, 0.11608859151601791, 0.36533400416374207, -0.07645659148693085, -0.20596635341644287, 0.26743581891059875, 0.5957899689674377, 0.6682217717170715, -0.2995309829711914, -0.8631506562232971, 0.7123530507087708, -0.3598472476005554, 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217369	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Democrats%20%28Sweden%29	Christian Democrats (Sweden)	The Christian Democrats ( ; KD) is a Christian-democratic political party in Sweden founded in March 1964. It first entered parliament in 1985, through electoral cooperation with the Centre Party, and in 1991 broke through to win seats by itself. The party leader since 25 April 2015 has been Ebba Busch. She succeeded Göran Hägglund, who had been leader since 2004. The party name was for a long time abbreviated to KDS (standing for , Christian Democratic Unity), until 1996, when the party changed its name to the current Christian Democrats and its abbreviation to KD. The KD was a minor party in the centre-right Alliance coalition government led by Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt between 2006 and 2014 and later a part of the centre-right opposition until it dissolved in January 2019. Since 2021 the KD mainly cooperates with the Moderate Party but also with the Sweden Democrats and the Liberals. Ideology According to the party their five most important policy issues include: Healthcare: reform the healthcare system and nationalise Swedish healthcare. Improve care guarantee. Reform the queue billion. Save LSS. Elderly care: retirement home guarantee as well as an abolished pensions tax. The KD also supports housing supplements for the elderly. The Christian Democrats especially emphasize the elderly's right to a dignified life and want to introduce a higher standard for nursing homes. Safety: more police officers and more resources to the police. The party also supports law and order policies, such as increasing resources for the police and stricter laws against sexual crimes and honor killings. Family: enable more time for the children, facilitate family formation, increase families' room for maneuver, upgrade parenthood, enable different forms of childcare and strengthen the finances of families with children. The party supports freedom of choice of parents for education and increased resources for schools in deprived areas. Integration: according to the party, jobs are one of the keys to good integration and that a society is built on a common set of values, where certain values are not optionable. KD's platform and policies have been shaped by the tenets of Christian democracy, stewardship, and the shared responsibility between the church and political institutions, the responsibility of solidarity towards fellow human beings and the safeguarding of civil society, permeated with socially and culturally conservative values. The KD support reducing petrol prices and abolishing property tax. The KD supports the monarchy. The Christian Democrats want a flexible immigration policy, but one that is regulated and controlled. The party names a Nordic level when it comes to immigration, meaning the amount of refugees that enter Sweden should be at the same level as in the other Nordic countries. The KD also calls for a socially just but efficient asylum policy in which resources can be allocated to those in need in tandem with faster screening and quicker deportation of those who fail or abuse the asylum claiming processes, as well as increased spending on border patrol police. It also wants to introduce a special integration committee in the Riksdag and compulsory measures for refugees to learn Swedish and adopt Swedish customs and social norms. Since 2018, the party has pledged a tougher line against immigration and multiculturalism, including opposing the Islamic call to prayer in public spaces. On foreign policy, the KD is largely supportive of Sweden's membership of the European Union. They were in favour of entering the eurozone during the 2003 Swedish euro referendum, but after the “No” side won the referendum in a landslide victory the party changed its stance and are now against joining the eurozone. They are calling for "a narrower and sharper EU" and that "on a number of issues, the EU need to take a step back and give more power back to the nation states”. In the European Parliament, the KD sits with the European People's Party and is a member of Centrist Democrat International internationally which contains other Christian democratic parties. History Reasons for founding the party The party had its roots in a movement against the Swedish government's decision in 1963 to remove religious education from the elementary school syllabus. An organisation called "Christian Social Responsibility", which would later become the Christian Democratic Unity, organised several marches against the decision, one of which became one of the largest in Swedish modern history. Despite the public outcry and over 2.1 million protest signatures, the decision went through. The group that had worked in the campaign felt it was a sign that Swedish politics needed a Christian Democratic Party. The political and social origins of the Swedish Christian Democrats clearly differ from those of the European continental Christian Democratic parties (as in Italy or Germany). In those countries, Christian Democracy represented the mainstream of the social-conservative political forces and was closely tied to majoritarian religious practice. In Sweden, however, Christian Democracy emerged as a minority grouping amongst the centre-right forces and was tied to minority-religious tendencies in society (particularly among voters associated with the Free Churches) and likeminded Lutherans. Founding In the beginning of 1964 Lewi Pethrus, founder of the Swedish Pentecostal movement and chief editor of the Swedish newspaper Dagen, discussed the idea of a Swedish Christian democratic party on the editorial pages of Dagen. He stated that many people had contacted him about the idea and that the current Swedish political climate was dominated by atheist economic materialism. Principal Algot Tergel hosted a conference on 7 February of the same year. The topic of the conference was "Christianity and Politics", and during the conference the idea of starting a Christian Democratic Party was discussed. A committee consisting of Pethrus and eight other Free Church leaders was formed. A large and widespread debate followed the decision to create the committee. Dagen published an interview with Kjell Bondevik, the leader of the Norwegian Christian Democratic Party, and there were talks about creating a Christian Democratic Party in Finland as well. On 20 March 1964 the party was founded as Christian Democratic Unity (). At first it was only an organisation, but at a board meeting later that year it was decided that the organisation would be revamped into a party and that it would compete in the national elections in Sweden. The first roughly 100 members elected Birger Ekstedt to the post of party chair and Lewi Pethrus to the post of vice chair. The party grew rapidly; by the end of the year it had 14,500 members. Early start During its early years the KDS was sometimes called the "Air and Water" party because of its strong emphasis on environmental politics. At that time the Green Party of Sweden did not exist, and thus the Christian Democratic Unity had a unique appeal with its environmentally friendly policies. In the Swedish national elections of 1964 the party gained 1.8% of the vote, not enough to get any seats in the Riksdag, but the party already had influence at the municipal level. In the municipal elections of 1966 the party gained 354 seats. At this time the established major parties of Sweden began discussing new ways of making it more difficult for minor parties to enter the Riksdag. In 1971 the Riksdag was reformed, and with this came the D'Hondt method of allocating seats. The threshold was set at 4%, which meant that the political breakthrough was far away for the KDS. Birger Ekstedt died in 1972, aged 51, only a few days after having been reelected as the party chair. An emergency congress was called; there Alf Svensson, the relatively unknown chair of the youth wing of the party, was elected chair. Svensson was to become one of the most important figures in modern Swedish politics. In the national elections of 1973 the party gained 1.8% of the vote, the same result as in the two preceding elections. Before the national elections of 1976 there was a strong call for a change to a right-wing government in Sweden. The organisation "Vote right-wing" was formed to promote the change to a right-wing government. The KDS, however, announced a desire not to be placed on the traditional right-wing/left-wing scale, a measurement system it felt was outdated. Therefore, the "Vote right-wing" organisation started a campaign of negative campaigning against the KDS with the slogan "Don't vote for KDS, don't throw away your vote" as the KDS had not reached the 4% threshold at the last elections. The effect of this large campaign on a small and relatively new party like the KDS was disastrous, and it gained only 1.4% of the vote in the 1976 election. At the start of the 1980s, the party revamped its entire political manifesto. The party abandoned its conservative stance on abortion and instead assumed a moderate pro-choice stance and adopted a plank to work to lower the total number of abortions in Sweden through encouragement of individual voluntary measures instead. In the 1980 nuclear power referendums the party supported the "no" campaign, which meant opposing any further construction of new nuclear power-plants in Sweden and advocating the phasing-out of all nuclear power plants in Sweden within 10 years, together with increased investments in alternative energy. In 1982 the Christian Democratic Women's league was founded, and the party gained 1.9% of the votes, for the first time getting more than 100,000 votes. Way into the Riksdag As early as 1978 the KDS discussed the idea of electoral cooperation with the Centre Party. Similar ideas were discussed before the 1982 elections but were never put into action. One of the proponents of such a collaboration was the then secretary of information Mats Odell. The party officially took a stance against a socialist government, which effectively put them together with the right-wing block. The negotiations were difficult, but in 1984 the Centre Party and KDS agreed to run under a joint banner in the next year's elections under the name ("The Centre"). The deal, which was heavily criticised by the Swedish Social Democratic Party, meant that each party had its own voting ticket but that the Centre Party should nominate a Christian Democratic candidate on at least five of the regional candidacy lists. The Centre Party ticket would win over the KDS ticket almost everywhere, but this way there would be at least five Christian Democrats in the Riksdag. The Centre Party did not fulfil its promise, however, and put a Christian Democrat on the list only in the municipality of Kalmar. This resulted in great tensions within the Christian Democrats; one of the party icons, the environmental activist Björn Gillberg, left the party. However, Alf Svensson managed to get into the Riksdag through the KDS party ticket in Jönköping. Real breakthrough In 1987 the party manifesto was revamped once again (although not so heavily as the last time), and the party changed its name to Christian Democratic Social Party ( ), while keeping the KDS abbreviation. In the 1988 national elections the party grew significantly and gained 2.8% of the votes. But the Centre Party did not wish any further electoral cooperation, and Alf Svensson had to leave the Riksdag. Something had happened, however. The party was now recognised as one of the major parties in Sweden, and Svensson had become famous. According to many opinion polls, he was the most popular politician in the entire nation. Several famous people joined the party, and in the right-wing breakthrough national elections of 1991 the party grew explosively yet again and gained over 7% of the votes. The right-wing bloc gained a majority, and KDS formed a government with the right-wing bloc. Several Christian Democrats got positions within the new government: Alf Svensson as the minister of foreign aid (and vice foreign minister), Inger Davidson as minister of civilian infrastructure, and Mats Odell as minister of communications. After the right-wing bloc lost the 1994 general election, the KDS managed to stay in the Riksdag and had assumed a steady position within Swedish national politics. In 1996 it changed its name to the current form, Christian Democrats (Kristdemokraterna), switching the abbreviation form to KD, in a gesture perceived by elements both inside and outside the party as helping deflect the belief that it was a strictly religious party. In 1998 the party had its best elections ever, gaining over 11% of the votes; it established itself as the fourth-largest party in the Riksdag, becoming larger than its former electoral partner the Centre Party. In the 2002 national elections the party got fewer votes but still held on to its position as the fourth-largest party. In 2004 Svensson stepped down in favor of his long-designated successor Göran Hägglund. At the end of 2005 the party had 24,202 confirmed members, making it the fourth-largest party in size as well. Its membership is far more stable than most parties in Sweden. The Christian Democrats are represented in almost every municipality and region in Sweden. Criticism The KD has previously held socially conservative views surrounding same sex marriage and in the early 2000s the party was criticized for being opposed to increased rights for homosexuals. In 2007, the KD mostly voted against the introduction of same-sex marriage in parliament, with party leader Göran Hägglund stating "my position is that I have been tasked by the party to argue that marriage is for men and women. When we discuss it between parties we are naturally open and sensitive to each other's arguments and we'll see if we can find a line that allows us to come together." However, the party has since moderated its stance and now supports keeping same-sex marriage legal, albeit saying that churches should make the final decision on whether to perform wedding ceremonies and not the state, and in 2015 voted to change its platform to support same-sex adoption. Alliance cabinet As a member of the Alliance for Sweden, the winning side in the 2006 general election, the Christian Democrats got three minister posts in the Cabinet of Fredrik Reinfeldt. The minister posts were held by Göran Hägglund, Mats Odell and Maria Larsson. Unlike the Moderate Party and the Liberal People's Party, the Christian Democrats and the Centre Party avoided scandals for personal conduct and accusations for espionage against the competing Social Democratic Party. Hägglund, however, received criticism internally for defending the party's pro-choice stance on abortion, which some older members believed had contributed to the decline of the party in recent years. The Alliance cabinet's stance against unemployment and sick-listed benefits have been criticised by former party leader Alf Svensson, while the Sven-Otto Littorin of the Moderate Party went into aggressive counterattack, but the Christian Democratic ministers were silent. Decline and internal strife Support of the Christian Democrats significantly declined in the European elections of 2009, where the former party leader Alf Svensson got the party's sole seat in the European Parliament at the expense of the party's top candidate Ella Bohlin. Though Bohlin had run her campaign with a focus on limiting alcohol and outlawing traditional Swedish snuff, Göran Hägglund stated in a speech two weeks after the elections that he wanted to "prohibit the prohibitions" and spoke about the difference between the values of the "people of reality" and the left-wing cultural elite. Some claim that this was not followed up by any political suggestions in the 2010 general election, where the party declined once again. Hägglund was criticized for not being controversial enough by MP Ebba Busch, and it was suggested that around a quarter of the party's representatives would like him to resign. Other commentators have suggested that the party's decrease in support has coincided with the rise of the Sweden Democrats, who gained the support of socially and culturally conservative Swedish voters. The politics of the Young Christian Democrats have shifted to the right in the past few years, a change that has been attributed to many conservative ex-members of the Moderate Party joining the organization. Swedish political news magazine Fokus has stated that the conflict on traditional Christian moral questions (abortion, gay rights, stem cell research) is secondary to the conflict between those who want a Christian democratic centrist party focused on social responsibility and environmental questions, and those who want a traditional right-wing party focusing on anti-elitism and economic liberalism. The latter group has founded a network called FFFF (Freedom, family, diligence and enterprise), a group that has clear influences from Thatcherism. Christian Democratic youth leader Aron Modig has stated that he wants the Christian Democrats to become the "Tea Party" of Sweden, and push the government when it fails to present a likeminded vision of society. In 2019 after the new government was announced the KD opened up to cooperation with the Sweden Democrats During this the party saw an increased support in the opinion polls. Ahead of the European election the party saw a massive increase to 13%, which if it would have been the election result would be the best result for the Christian Democracts ever. This passed after the election when the Swedish newspaper Dagens nyheter posted an article showing the KDs MEP Lars Adaktusson voting no to abortion 22 times while he sat in the European parliament between 2014 and 2019. The situation for the party worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic where, as in most other countries, smaller parties saw a decrease whilst the governments strengthened their support. 2022 election Ahead of the election the Christian Democrats has turned to the right in a number of issues. In migration the party advocates for a reduction of the amount of refugees let into Sweden by 70%. The parties youth wing, KDU, went out and caused a stir after they proposed repatriation of migrants that have come, and that are coming to Sweden. Ahead of the Folk och Försvar conference in 2020 the party proposed a doubling of the Swedish Defence budget so that it would meet the 2% of GDP spending each year. The party has also tried to get a grip on Sweden’s rural voters by introducing new policies within the area as well as criticizing both C and S, accusing them of having abandoned rural Sweden. In 2021, the party recruited former parliamentarian for the Centre Party, Staffan Danielsson. The Christian Democrats have also begun cooperation with the Sweden Democrats party at local levels, and have been mentioned as a potential coalition partner in a new right-wing grouping ahead of the election, together with the Moderate Party, the Sweden Democrats and the Liberals. Voter base Ideologically the KD is a centre-right Christian democratic party that during the last few years has shifted to the right and adopted more conservative policies. Historically a large part of its voter base lay among those who belong to evangelical fellowships known in Sweden as free churches (Pentecostals, Methodists, Baptists, etc.) together with likeminded Lutherans (such as Göran Hägglund and Mats Odell). These churches have many followers in Småland and along the Swedish west coast, the regions in which the party is politically strongest. Important voter groups are senior citizens, families, voters in rural areas, members of free churches and citizens that belong to the upper-middle class. The party is a member of the European People's Party (EPP) and the Centrist Democrat International (CDI). Electoral results Riksdag European Parliament Christian Democratic Politicians Party chairman Vice chairman Second vice chairman Party secretary Group leader in the Riksdag Other famous Christian democrats Peter Althin, MP and judicial spokesman Jerzy Einhorn, cancer researcher and MP 1991–1994 Gert Fylking Emma Henriksson Mikael Ljungman, Bror Stefenson, Chairman of the Christian Democratic Senior League Anders Wijkman, MEP Johan DeFarfalla, former Opeth bassist Affiliated organisations Christian Democratic Youth League Christian Democratic Student League Christian Democratic Senior League Christian Democratic Women's league Religious-wing Kristdemokrater för en levande kyrka LGB+ organisation Open Christian Democrats The foundation Civitas Study organisation Framtidsbildarna Literature Niels Arbøl, Kristdemokraterna en världsrörelse (Samhällsgemenskap, 1986) Cecilia Hjort Attefall, Partiet som lyfte: 40 år med svensk kristdemokrati: 1964-2004 (Samhällsgemenskap, 2004) Birger Ekstedt, KDS - en politisk nödvändighet (Samhällsgemenskap, 1970) Göran V. Johansson, Kristen Demokrati På Svenska (Liber, 1985) Erik Lindfelt, Moralpartiet. En bok om KdS (Carlssons, 1991) Bernt Olsson, Upprinnelsen - Om Kristdemokraternas första tid i Sverige (Samhällsgemenskap, 2004) Allan Sandström, KDS - Partiet bakom fromhetsvallen (LT, 1979) Alf Svensson, I Tiden, från motvind till uppvindar (Samhällsgemenskap, 1984) Kristdemokratisk Debatt (paper published by the party between 1992 and 2003) ISSN 1103-1522 See also Alliance for Sweden Government of Sweden Parliament of Sweden Elections in Sweden European People's Party Further reading References External links Kristdemokraterna - Official site Christian Democratic Women's League Christian Democratic Senior League Christian Democratic Youth League Christian Democratic Student League CIVITAS - Christian Democratic Foundation The Christian Democrat - Christian Democratic newspaper on the net EPP - Christian Democratic group in the European Parliament Christian democratic parties in Europe 1964 establishments in Sweden Centre-right parties in Europe Conservative parties in Sweden Member 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217370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre%20Party%20%28Sweden%29	Centre Party (Sweden)	The Centre Party ( ; C) is a liberal and agrarian political party in Sweden, founded in 1913. The party's major issues are the national economy, the environment, political decentralisation and social integration. It is represented in all of the Riksdag's parliamentary committees, currently holding 31 seats. From 2019 to 2021, it provided confidence and supply to the Löfven II Cabinet. Traditionally part of the Nordic agrarian party family, the Centre Party has increasingly shifted its focus towards economic liberalism, environmental protection, equality of the sexes and decentralisation of governmental authority. The party self-describes as liberal feminist, campaigning for policies which enhance gender equality on an individualist basis. Its environmental policies stress the importance of consent and voluntary action, including working with foresters and private landowners to promote biodiversity within a mutually agreeable framework. The Centre Party has held the position of Prime Minister of Sweden three times, most recently Thorbjörn Fälldin from 1979 to 1982. It is a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe, the Liberal International and Renew Europe. It was originally named Farmers' League ( ; B). History The party was founded in 1913 as the Farmers' League (, B). In 1922, it merged with the ( , JR) party adopted its current name in 1957. At that time, it had been the closest ally of the centre-left Swedish Social Democratic Party for twenty-five years and its coalition partners between 1936 and 1945 as well as between 1951 and 1957. However, it has since revised this strategy in order to establish a closer long-term alliance between the centre-right borgerlig ("bourgeois" or "nonsocialist") parties that achieved power between 1976 and 1982 and between 1991 and 1994. Thorbjörn Fälldin was the leader of the Centre Party and Prime Minister from 1976 until 1982, except a short interregnum in 1978–1979 by the Liberal People's Party leader Ola Ullsten. The Centre Party again joined a centre-right government following the 1991 general election led by Moderate Party leader Carl Bildt. During the leaderships of Maud Olofsson and Annie Lööf in the 2000s, the party has positioned itself clearly on the political right as a small business-friendly party, leaning towards neoliberal and right-libertarian policies and viewing the Social Democrats as its main opponent. In 2005, the Centre Party sold its ownership of the newspaper group Centertidningar AB for 1.8 billion SEK, making it the richest political party in the world at the time. 2006 general election The 2006 Swedish general election was a success for the Centre Party. Its support had been slowly increasing through recent elections, receiving 5.1% of the votes in 1998 and increasing this to 6.2% in 2002. In the 2006 Swedish general election, 7.88% of the vote went to the Centre Party, entitling the party to 29 of the 349 seats in the Riksdag. Furthermore, their alliance with the other parties in the Alliance for Sweden, a centre-right coalition which won a majority of parliament seats in this election, meant that the Centre Party shared the ministry posts with their Alliance for Sweden allies, namely the Moderate Party, the Liberal People's Party and the Christian Democrats. The strong victory by the Centre Party has been studied by political scientist Lina M. Eriksson, who in her dissertation from the Department of Government at Uppsala University, entitled "Natural Disasters and National Election", performs a rigorous statistical analysis of election data combined with interviews with Maud Olofsson, Eskil Erlandsson, Ulrica Messing and Mona Sahlin. Eriksson's research finds that both the Indian Ocean's 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami and the 2005 Cyclone Gudrun (Erwin) which struck only two weeks following the tsunami are major events that impacted government popularity in the general election and contributed to the redistribution of voter support within and across party-blocs, with particularly interesting results for the Centre Party. According to this research, "[t]he core findings from this thesis show that the Swedish Social Democratic Party (S) government's poor crisis response to Gudrun, which is the hitherto most costly natural disaster in Swedish history, alone has an estimated effect of a magnitude that likely contributed to the 2006 historic regime shift, while the tsunami also seems to have mattered. The tsunami is particularly interesting, as S's poor international crisis response to the event constitutes the first natural disaster situation to knowingly have affected an election on the other side of the planet. Moreover, to some degree voters recognized the active opposition by C as effective representation and rewarded the party for its strong stance on the poor handling of both events by S. In fact, the active voice of C concerning these disasters likely helped move the party from the periphery of party politics to becoming the third-largest party in Swedish politics". Part of the dissertation has been published in Electoral Studies which is to be considered the leading scientific journal in election research. In the article, long-term effects are also found over the 2010 and 2014 Swedish general elections, implying that the Cyclone Gudrun in particular triggered long-lasting changes in voter support from the left to the right side of the political spectrum. A comprehensive summary of the dissertation is available for download via Uppsala University. Political opinions National economy The party has been described as one of Sweden's most market liberal parties in liberal, socialist and conservative media. However, the party describes itself as "a party with a green, social and decentralised liberalism". The party leadership has advocated neoliberalism and right-libertarianism. The party advocates lower taxes, greatly reduced employer contributions, a freer market and an increased RUT-deduction. The party is a big advocator for small-business, farmers and entrepreneurs. They also want to invest in the infrastructure and transportation so that employees could work in bigger cities but still live in the rural areas and vice versa. On economic policy, they view the Social Democrats and the Sweden Democrats as their opponents, though they have formed a coalition government with the Social Democrats. Immigration The party is liberal on immigration, seeking to combine generous immigration policy with an initially more restrictive contribution policy to the immigrants. After the European migrant crisis, the party proposed to replace the existing establishment grants with establishment loans, similar to the Swedish student loans. The balance of the state responsibility of accepting refugees with their responsibility for integration into Swedish society is at the core of the party policy. In January 2016, the party for example proposed to give all immigrants compulsory civic education in both rights and expectations from the society. European Union The party is a decentralist pro-European party that believes that the European Union is an important union to secure peace, freedom and trade between the European countries. The party also advocates a smaller but sharper European Union that focuses on democracy and peace, free movement and trade, vigorous action against climate change and collaboration against organized crime while also believing that Sweden should stay outside the monetary union and keep the krona as the currency. The party is a member of the ALDE and its European Parliament group Renew Europe. MEP Fredrick Federley is a vice-president of the ALDE Party and the group leader of the ALDE group in the European Parliament Committee on Industry, Research and Energy. In the European Committee of the Regions, the Center Party sits in the Renew Europe CoR group with one full and one alternate member for the 2020-2025 mandate. Publications The Centre Party owned a media consortium called Centertidningar AB. It included newspapers that the party had either started on their own or brought from competitors. It included Hallands Nyheter, Södermanlands Nyheter, Länstidningen i Södertälje, Nynäshamns Posten, Norrtelje Tidning, Lidingö Tidning, Ljusdalsposten, Östersunds-Posten, Hälsingekuriren and Hudiksvalls Tidning. The consortium was split in 2005 and sold to Mittmedia, Stampen Group and VLT for a total of 1.815 billion Swedish kronor. Electoral results Riksdag European Parliament Voter base Traditionally, most of the party's voters come from rural areas and include farmers and agricultural producers. Since the takeover of Maud Olofsson in recent years, the party has been attracting liberal voters from urban areas in central Sweden. It is believed that voters from the Liberals have been moving to the Centre Party due to changes in both parties. Leaders of the Centre Party The Leader of the Centre Party is its highest political and organisational officer, its president in the National Executive Board and representative of the party in the media, in public and with other parties. The party leader has often held an important cabinet portfolio when the party has been part of a coalition. Current Members of Parliament Current Members of Parliament include: Daniel Bäckström, spokesperson on defence Ulrika Carlsson, deputy leader in the Riksdag and spokesperson on educational affairs Fredrik Christensson, spokesperson on youth employment and higher education Staffan Danielsson Eskil Erlandsson, spokesperson on agriculture and farming Johan Hedin, spokesperson on justice and law Peter Helander, spokesperson on regional affairs Ola Johansson, spokesperson on housing and building Per-Ingvar Johnsson, spokesperson on constitutional affairs Anders W. Jonsson, leader in the Riksdag and spokesperson on social affairs Johanna Jönsson, spokesperson on immigration and integration Emil Källström, spokesperson on finance and economics Helena Lindahl, spokesperson on business Per Lodenius, spokesperson on culture and sport Kerstin Lundgren, spokesperson on foreign affairs and security Annie Lööf, party chairman Rickard Nordin, spokesperson on climate and energy Annika Qarlsson, spokesperson on labour, employment and gender equality Kristina Yngwe, spokesperson on environment and food Solveig Zander, spokesperson on social security Anders Åkesson, spokesperson on transportation and infrastructure Per Åsling, spokesperson on taxation Party leadership The current party leadership include: Annie Lööf, Leader of the Centre Party Anders W. Jonsson, first Deputy Leader of the Centre Party and Leader in the Riksdag Fredrick Federley, second Deputy Leader of the Centre Party Kristina Yngwe, Member of Parliament and Spokesperson at Environment Mari-Louise Wernersson, Mayor of Falkenberg Municipality Michael Arthursson, Secretary-General of the Centre Party See also References External links Swedish Parliament: The Centre Party 1913 establishments in Sweden Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party member parties Centrist parties in Sweden Liberal International Liberal parties in Sweden Nordic agrarian parties Political parties established in 1913	[ 0.05483054369688034, -0.33385762572288513, 0.7955244779586792, 0.2951686680316925, -0.839893639087677, 0.05060891434550285, -0.3441229462623596, 0.21622547507286072, -0.6369698643684387, -0.023056525737047195, -0.09201635420322418, 0.05426570773124695, -0.2611215114593506, 0.6483694911003113, -0.3855992555618286, 0.4857487082481384, 0.24333977699279785, 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217371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowdon%20Mountain%20Railway	Snowdon Mountain Railway	The Snowdon Mountain Railway (SMR; ) is a narrow gauge rack and pinion mountain railway in Gwynedd, north-west Wales. It is a tourist railway that travels for from Llanberis to the summit of Snowdon, the highest peak in Wales. The SMR is the only public rack and pinion railway in the United Kingdom, and after more than 100 years of operation it remains a popular tourist attraction, carrying more than 140,000 passengers annually. The line is owned and operated by Heritage Great Britain, operators of several other tourist attractions in the United Kingdom. The railway is operated in some of the harshest weather conditions in Britain, with services curtailed from reaching the summit in bad weather and remaining closed during the winter from November to mid-March. Single carriage trains are pushed up the mountain by either steam locomotives or diesel locomotives. It has also previously used diesel railcars as multiple units. The railway has two new hybrid locomotives on order, for introduction at the start of the 2020 season. The SMR was the inspiration for the fictional Culdee Fell Railway, appearing in the book Mountain Engines, part of The Railway Series written by Reverend W. Awdry. History Construction The idea of a railway to the summit of Snowdon was first proposed in 1869, when Llanberis was linked to Caernarfon by the London & North Western Railway. In 1871 a Bill was put before Parliament, applying for powers of compulsory purchase for a railway to the summit, but it was opposed by the local landowner, Mr Assheton-Smith of the Vaynol Estate, who thought that a railway would spoil the scenery. For two decades nothing happened, and Assheton-Smith remained opposed to any plans. However, in 1893 the Rhyd Ddu terminus of the North Wales Narrow Gauge Railways was renamed Snowdon, attracting many of the tourists who previously visited Llanberis and affecting the livelihoods of the accommodation providers who were Assheton-Smith tenants. After much persuasion Assheton-Smith ultimately gave his assent to the construction of a railway to the summit, and though still the principal landowner in the area, he was not a major influence in the company. However, no Act of Parliament was now required, as the line was built entirely on private land obtained by the company, without any need for the power of compulsory purchase. This was unusual for a passenger-carrying railway, and also meant that the railway did not come under the jurisdiction of the Board of Trade. The railway was constructed between December 1894, when the first sod was cut by Enid Assheton-Smith (after whom locomotive No. 2 was named), and February 1896, at a total cost of £63,800 (equivalent to £ in ). The engineers for the railway were Sir Douglas Fox and Mr Andrew Fox of London, and the contractors were Messrs Holme and King of Liverpool. By April 1895 the earthworks were 50% complete, a sign of the effort put into the construction work as much as of the lack of major earthworks along much of the route. All tracklaying had to start from one end of the line, to ensure the rack was correctly aligned; so although the first locomotives were delivered in July 1895 very little track was laid until August, when the two large viaducts between Llanberis and Waterfall were completed. Progress up the mountain was then quite rapid, with the locomotives being used to move materials as required. Considering the exposed location and possible effects of bad weather, it is surprising that the first train reached the summit in January 1896. As the fencing and signals were not then ready, the opening was set for Easter. The line was opened at Easter 1896. In anticipation of this, Colonel Sir Francis Marindin from the Board of Trade made an unofficial inspection of the line on Friday 27 March. This included a demonstration of the automatic brakes. He declared himself satisfied with the line, but recommended that the wind speed be monitored and recorded, and trains stopped when the wind was too strong. On Saturday 4 April a train was run by the contractor consisting of a locomotive and two coaches. On the final section, the ascending train hit a boulder that had fallen from the side of a cutting and several wheels were derailed. The workmen on the train were able to rerail the carriage and the train continued. Opening day accident The railway was officially opened on Monday 6 April 1896, and two trains were dispatched to the summit. On the first return trip down the mountain, possibly due to the weight of the train, locomotive No. 1 Ladas with two carriages lost the rack and ran out of control. The locomotive derailed and fell down the mountain. A passenger died from loss of blood after jumping from the carriage. After a miscommunication the second downward train hit the carriages of the first, with no fatalities. An inquiry concluded that the accident had been triggered by post-construction settlement, compounded by excess speed due to the weight of the train. As a result of the inquiry's recommendations the maximum allowed train weight was reduced to the equivalent of 1½ carriages, leading to lighter carriages being bought and used on two-carriage trains. A gripper system was also installed on the rack railway. Prewar The railway reopened to Hebron on Saturday 26 September 1896. On 9 April 1897 the line re-opened to Clogwyn. By June the trains were again reaching the summit. This time there were no incidents and the train service continued. On 30 July 1906 a wagon broke loose and ran into a train, injuring one passenger, the driver and guard. Traffic was suspended for several hours. In 1910 there were reports of vandalism on the line. A man named William Morris Griffiths who had climbed Snowdon to see the sunrise, placed a stone on the rail and sitting on it, slid down the track at speed. Someone put a boulder on the line behind him and pushed it down, and it struck Griffiths in the back, he somersaulted off the line and died a few hours later. The manager of the railway also reported that crowds of visitors were breaking down fences, pulling up gradient posts, throwing down wires and interfering with the railway bed. In 1936 it was reported that the railway carried 30,000 people to the summit during the season. Passengers were still carried during World War II. The Western Mail for 12 May 1943 reported that two trains per day would operate from Llanberis (at 1.15pm and 4.00pm) and people could still book to stay at the summit hotel. However, this appears to have been just propaganda, as the summit was closed for military purposes from 1942 until the end of the war. Postwar Normal service resumed in 1946. The shortage of coal led to the railway attempting to burn old army boots as fuel. The British Railways Llanberis–Caernarvon line closed to passengers in 1962. In 1983, the summit buildings were transferred to the ownership of Gwynedd County Council. A share issue was made in 1985, primarily to raise money to purchase the first two diesel locomotives. Between 1986 and 1992 the railway company was involved with the airfield and aviation museum in Caernarvon. Centenary As part of the centenary celebrations the railway held an enthusiasts' weekend in September 1996. This was one of the few occasions when the public were allowed to visit the railway's workshops. Scrap pinion rings were also sold as (rather large) souvenirs. From this time the locomotives were painted in differing liveries, but by 2005 this practice had ended. Summit building project In 2006 the Snowdon summit cafe was demolished and construction of a new visitor centre was started. While this construction was taking place passenger trains terminated at Clogwyn, but the line and a works train was still used to transport workers and materials to the project. On some days, however, the train could not reach the summit and the workers had to walk down to Rocky Valley. The new building, (loosely translated from Welsh as ""), was officially opened by First Minister Rhodri Morgan on 12 June 2009. Rescue work In 2015, after the coastguard rescue helicopter was unable to reach the summit, the railway was used to carry mountain rescue teams to the summit of Snowdon to rescue a 17-year-old girl who had collapsed due to an asthma attack while sheltering from wind gusting up to . The railway was then used to carry the girl and rescuers to the foot of the mountain, where she was transferred to an ambulance. Route The lowland terminus is Llanberis station, at the side of the main road, a short walk from the site of the Llanberis terminus station of the railway from Caernarvon which closed in 1962. The railway is a single track line with passing loops. It is long, with an average gradient of 1 in 7.86 (12.7%). The steepest gradient is 1 in 5.5 (18.2%), and this occurs in a number of places. The railway rises a total of , from above sea level at Llanberis to at Summit station. Llanberis station () has two platforms. The first stretch of line is uphill at 1 in 50, steep for a main line but shallow compared with the 1 in 6 incline that begins shortly afterwards. Waterfall station is now closed, but the station building remains. It was built to allow visitors to use the train to travel to a spectacular waterfall close to the line. A short distance from Waterfall station is a bridge over the river and a gate. This marks the start of the mountain. Hebron station () is named after the nearby 'Hebron' Chapel. It had originally been hoped that agricultural traffic could be carried to and from this station. Halfway station () as the name suggests, halfway along the line and close to the 'Halfway House' on the nearby footpath. A short distance above the station is a path that leads down to the Halfway House cafe. Rocky Valley Halt () consists of a narrow platform sheltered by a rocky outcrop to the east. Immediately beyond the platform the line joins the exposed ridge on which it runs for about . Clogwyn () is located on the exposed ridge and overlooks the Llanberis Pass and the Clogwyn Du'r Arddu cliffs, a popular climbing spot. Summit () is only below the summit, which is at . The station has two platforms that link directly to the summit building and to a path to the summit. Operation The Llanberis complex also houses the company offices, locomotive shed and workshop building. The forecourt has recently been changed from a visitor car park into a café and picnic area. Train control Traffic and train movements are controlled from Llanberis: communication between Llanberis, Clogwyn and the Summit, as well as to trains' guards, is by two-way radio. The line has three passing loops, around 15 minutes travelling time apart. Going up the mountain, these are at Hebron, Halfway and Clogwyn stations. The operation of the Hebron and Halfway loops was converted to semi-automatic operation in the early 1990s. The Clogwyn loop is still staffed and retains the original mechanical point levers. Waterfall station had a siding but never a loop, and has been closed for many years. All three passing loop tracks are on the southwest side of the main running line – this is in general the downhill side, where the mountain slopes away from the line. This means that, if required, the line could be easily be converted to double track without the need to cut into the rock face to widen the formation. Including stops at the passing loops, the train takes an hour to climb to the summit and an hour to descend again, at an average speed of around . Passenger trains normally run from Llanberis to the Summit. The wind speed is measured at Clogwyn Station and used to determine if trains can continue to the summit. Trains terminate at Rocky Valley Halt when the weather is too bad to allow them to proceed safely to the summit. It is possible for two trains to run together on sight, which involves the second train following shortly (more than two minutes but less than five) after the first, and keeping a safe distance throughout the journey. This is known as a "doubler". All platforms and passing loops are long enough to accommodate two trains. The two Llanberis platforms are dedicated, one for arrivals and the other for departures. Arriving trains empty of passengers then shunt to the other platform. At the Summit station arriving trains generally alternate between the two platforms. When steam and diesel trains run together, it is normal for the diesel to lead up the mountain. This allows the steam train to enter the departure platform and load at its leisure, while the diesel moves across from the arrival platform from a quick turn-around. Locomotives spend the whole day with the same carriage. Any locomotive can work with any carriage, although carriage No. 10 (the most modern) until 2012 usually ran with a diesel locomotive. In 2013 four new carriages, which seat 74 passengers instead of 56 (as in the old ones), entered service. They work together with the four diesel locomotives and thus form four identical trains. Passenger traffic Most passengers are tourists, and travel on a return trip, which typically involves being booked on a specific train for a round trip to the summit, with a half-hour break at the top. Down-only journeys can also be made from the Summit and Clogwyn, on a standby basis. Trains depart from Llanberis station at regular intervals, up to every 30 minutes at busy times, although trains are only run if a minimum number of tickets have been sold. During the summer when the weather is favourable, most trains are sold out. Passengers are not allowed to leave or join trains at Halfway or Hebron, but they may join down trains at Clogwyn Station if there is space. Other traffic The first train of the day is the works train. This carries staff and supplies, including drinking water and fuel for the generator, to the summit. It also stops at Halfway station to drop off supplies for the cafe. It returns mid-morning with the previous day's rubbish from the summit. The train also carries the permanent way maintenance gang to where they are working. Upon its return to Llanberis, the locomotive from this train (always now a diesel) goes straight into service with a passenger train. Steam versus diesel For steam-hauled trains, the Llanberis shunt movement includes a trip to the water crane and coaling stage outside the locomotive shed. At Halfway Station steam locomotives also take water from a water crane, fed from a large tank located just above the station. For emergency use another large water tank is situated near Clogwyn Station which can feed two water cranes. The diesel locomotives are used on the normal trains, with the steam locomotives being used on higher priced Heritage Steam trains. On arrival at Llanberis, diesel-hauled trains run directly from the arrival platform to the departure platform, load and depart at the scheduled time. Steam-hauled trains take at least half an hour to transfer from the arrival to the departure platform, thus making no more than one trip every three hours. The use of diesel locomotives therefore allows more trains to be run with the same number of carriages. By using diesels, the reduction in costs for both operating trains over the line and having them standing between infrequent runs has allowed the operating season to be extended considerably. It is stated by the management that the vast majority of passengers do not care whether the trains are powered by steam or diesel locomotives. In the late 1980s comparative figures for the diesels against steam locomotives made it clear that they made economic sense. {\|class="wikitable" !From 1987 !Steam !Diesel \|- !Round trip fuel costs \|£51.00 (equivalent to £ in ) \|£3.05 (equivalent to £ in ) \|- !Locomotive crew \|2 \|1 \|- !Round trips per day \|3 \|4 \|- !Daily maintenance (hours) \| \| \|} Note: these figures are taken from a talk given by a member of the design team. It is assumed that the fuel costs include the cost of fuel for lighting up a steam locomotive, or keeping the fire in overnight, as well as the fuel for a single round trip. For a diesel locomotive, preparation consists only of starting the engine and leaving it to run until sufficient air pressure has been created. Safety Train formation For safety, train formations consist of one locomotive pushing a single carriage up the mountain and leading it down again while the locomotive brakes allow a controlled descent. (On opening, the usual practice was to have a locomotive pushing two coaches; this was changed in 1923.) The carriage is not coupled to the locomotive, as gravity keeps the two in contact. The track is always uphill from the lower end to the top end - it is never even near level An electric cable is run between the locomotive and the carriage, which enables a buzzer to be used to signal between the driver and the guard. The cable is designed to pull free if the locomotive and carriage separate. Not being coupled prevents a carriage being dragged down the mountain if a locomotive derailed, as happened in the opening day accident. Couplings are used during shunting operations as the yard is on level ground (see photograph of No. 6 at Llanberis). It was originally intended that each steam locomotive push two carriages to the summit, but this has not been normal practice since 1914. Gripper rail Following an accident in 1896, most of the line was fitted with 'gripper rails'. These are fixed to either side of the centre toothed rack rail and are of an inverted 'L' cross section. A 'gripper' is fitted to each locomotive, which fits around the gripper rails and holds the locomotive to the rails and prevents the pinion coming free from the rack. Although no other Abt rack railways use a gripper system, other rack systems do. The gripper rails are not fitted in the top and bottom stations, around Llanberis yard, on any pointwork, nor on the less steep lengths of railway just out of Llanberis and near Waterfall. At the beginning of the sections of gripper rail, the ends are staggered and chamfered to help guide the gripper into place. If a broken rack bar lifts under a locomotive, it can strike the gripper and jam under the train. In such an incident, the gripper has to be cut away in order to rescue the train. A mechanical failure in 1987 (a broken rod on the locomotive) could have caused a repeat of the 1896 accident, but the gripper system worked and held the train on the rails; the rails were, however, lifted off the ground by the locomotive. Braking systems All braking is done using the rack and pinion system. Every locomotive and carriage has a pinion, allowing each vehicle to brake itself. Locomotives and carriages each have a hand brake which operates brake blocks that clasp drums on either side of the pinions. On the steam locomotives the hand brake is applied manually; two identical hand brake levers are fitted, one for the driver and one for the fireman. On the diesel locomotives, the hand brake is applied by a powerful spring and held off by a hydraulic system. In normal operation for locomotive/carriage trains, on descending and level running, the train is normally braked (service braking) using the locomotive. This uses compression braking – the energy is absorbed by using the cylinders as pumps, then dumping the pressure, similar to a Jake brake – on steam locomotives, hydraulic braking on the diesel locomotives. The diesel-electric railcars were service braked using hydraulic brakes and dynamic braking, during which power was dissipated in roof-mounted resistors, creating a distinct heat shimmer when the vehicles were descending and shortly afterwards. The hand brakes are used to bring a train to a complete stand from low speed, and as a parking brake. A train or carriage could be brought down the mountain using the hand brake, but this would be an emergency usage, as it would cause significant wear and heat damage. For increased safety, each vehicle is also fitted with an automatic brake that is triggered if the vehicle exceeds a specific speed, such as a carriage running away or a locomotive engine failure. This system slows the train down using the same brake blocks and drums as the hand brake. The running speed at which the automatic brake comes on is lower for the carriages than the locomotive, to prevent a carriage running into a stationary locomotive further down the track. The automatic brake works by monitoring the speed using a centrifugal governor connected by gears to a large toothed gear mounted on the pinion axle next to the wheel (i.e. it is not the pinion gear). When the set speed is exceeded a lever on the governor hits a lever on a brake valve, and the brakes operate. The automatic brake can only be released after the train has come to a stop, and the driver has to leave the locomotive to reset the system. On the steam locomotives, steam is applied to a small brake cylinder that acts on the driver's side brakes. On the carriages, the automatic brake is an air brake. On the diesel locomotives, a hydraulic cylinder is used. It is vitally important that all braking is done in a controlled manner, as any sudden shocks impose very high loads on the rack rail and pinion wheels, and can cause damage. Rack railway The line is built to 800 mm gauge ( gauge), a gauge it has in common with several other rack railways in Switzerland. The rails are fastened to steel sleepers. The line uses the Abt rack system devised by Roman Abt, a Swiss locomotive engineer. The system comprises a length of toothed rail (the rack) between the running rails which meshes with a toothed wheel (the pinion) mounted on each rail vehicle's driving axle. The traditional logo for the railway is a pinion ring engaged on a rack bar. At the stations and passing loops, the real items are mounted on steel frames. The entire railway is fitted with the rack rail. On sidings and around the yard at Llanberis it comprises a single rack bar, but on the running line, and through all the loops up the mountain, two rack bars are used, mounted side by side with their teeth staggered by half a pitch. This is one of the major features of the Abt system, and helps to reduce the shock of the pinions running along the rack. It also ensures the pinion maintains continuous contact with the rack. The joints between rack bars are also staggered and align with the sleepers – each sleeper supports the rack rail as well as the running rails. The locomotive pinions engage the rack and provide all the traction and braking effort; the wheels are free to revolve on the drive axles, to allow for the inevitable difference between the wheel radius and the effective radius of the pinion. The wheels serve only to support and guide the vehicle; if the pinion were missing, handbrake on and locomotive crank locked, the vehicle would still roll down the mountain. (The wheels are not capable of providing useful adhesion on such a gradient, so this is not the disadvantage it might seem.) The two driving axle pinions on a locomotive are mounted with a half a pitch difference between them. Combined with the half pitch difference in the two rack bars, this feature aims to make the transfer of power more continuous, and thus smooth the hauling of the train. In spite of this, the vehicles still suffer from very high levels of vibration. The rack bars are machine cut from a special quality of steel: the profile is not symmetrical and the bars must be installed the right way round. Bars tend to fracture between the fixings. When spotted these breaks are marked and then supported with wedges until the bar can be replaced. The pinions consist of an outer ring that is easily replaced. This ring is mounted onto a centre disc, and springs between the two reduce shock loads and allow the small movement needed to accommodate joints and curves. The pinion rings have symmetrical teeth and are turned round to double their working life. Rolling stock The company has owned a total of eight steam locomotives, five diesel locomotives and three diesel railcars. History When the railway was being planned, only the Swiss had significant experience in building rack locomotives, so it was they who won the contract to build the engines for the line. In comparison with some Swiss railways the line is not very steep, and this is reflected in the design of the engines, which are all classified 0-4-2T. The boilers of the locomotives are set at an angle of 9°, to keep the water level over the tubes when the locomotive is ascending the mountain. Built specially for the line in 1895 and 1896, Nos. 1 to 5 were manufactured by the Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works of Winterthur. The first locomotives cost £1,525 (equivalent to £ in ). Nos. 1 to 3 were delivered before the line was open and used on construction work. On at least two occasions, trials have been made on oil burners on Nos. 1 to 5, the latest being on No. 2 in the late 1990s. For most of the time, the railway's steam locomotives have burnt coal. The requirement for the locomotives to have a hot fire burning efficiently for a solid hour has led to problems when best Welsh steam coal has not been readily available. During 1978 Nos. 2 and 8 ran with oil burners. To hold the fuel oil, a tank was fitted to the roof of each locomotive. The tanks were thin and followed the profile of the roof. In 2000, No. 2 was again fitted with an oil burner in an attempt avoid the increasing problems of obtaining suitable coal. In 1922–23 a further three locomotives were delivered, becoming Nos. 6 to 8. Although similar to the first engines in terms of size and power, they have a different design. Again all were built by Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works of Winterthur. When the boilers of Nos. 7 and 8 needed replacing they were withdrawn from service in 1990 and 1992 respectively, but no new boilers were bought. This is probably due to the extra expense of superheaters, and to the reduced need for steam locomotives after the introduction of the diesels. Neither is likely to run in the foreseeable future. The railway first thought of using a diesel locomotive in the early 1970s, when a small four-wheeled diesel-mechanical locomotive built by Ruston & Hornsby (their class 48DL) was bought second-hand from a quarry. It was intended to regauge it and use it as a yard shunter at Llanberis. It was sold to the Llanberis Lake Railway in 1978 without being regauged or used on the SMR. It would have been the railway's only locomotive without pinions, and as such would have been of limited use – it is doubtful if it would have had sufficient grip on the grease covered rails to shunt a dead steam locomotive. This locomotive has since been dismantled and scrapped. It was the mid 1980s before any effort was made to obtain a diesel locomotive that could work trains up the line. Between 1986 and 1992, four diesel locomotives were bought from the Hunslet Engine Company of Leeds, to a design and specification jointly developed with the railway. These became Nos. 9 to 12. During the period between the building of No. 9 and No. 12 both the locomotive manufacturer and the diesel engine manufacturer changed their names, Hunslet becoming Hunslet-Barclay and Rolls-Royce diesel engines being sold to Perkins. In 1995 three identical railcars built by HPE Tredegar (successor to Hugh Phillips Engineering) were delivered. These were designed to run as either two- or three-car multiple unit trains. When all three were coupled together, they were the maximum length of a train that could fit into the platforms and passing loops. List of motive power Steam locomotives No. 1 to No. 5 The boilers are inclined on the locomotives, to ensure that the boiler tubes and the firebox remain submerged when on the gradient, a standard practice on mountain railways – the locomotive always runs chimney-first up the mountain. The water gauges (gauge glasses) are mounted half at the centre on the locomotive so that the water level does not change with the gradient. One result of the boiler's angle is that the firehole door is at waist height, requiring the fireman to lift the coal some distance. The boiler is not superheated. Water is carried in tanks that run the full length of the boiler, but not all this water is for use in the boiler. The tanks are in fact divided into two sections, the smaller front section holding water that is used for cooling when the engine is running downhill. The drive to the wheels is through a series of levers that allow the pistons to have a longer stroke than the cranks. This is another common feature in mountain railways. Steam locomotives No. 6 to No. 8 The boilers of these engines are fitted with superheaters, making them more efficient, and in place of a lever-type regulator they have a wheel that must be turned times between closed and fully open. The drive from the cylinders and to the wheels again uses levers, but in a different pattern. The linkage is fitted within double frames at the front of the locomotive. This results in a locomotive that is far more rigid. The side tanks are arranged vertically just in front of the cab. No. 6 carries the same amount of water as the earlier engines, but Nos. 7 and 8 carry enough water to get to the top of the mountain without stopping, if required. There is no separate tank for cooling water as it is drawn from the boiler on these engines. Diesel locomotives No. 9 to No. 12 The design specifically includes features for safety, reliability and appearance. In place of cardan shaft drives to the wheels, coupling rods were used to give people something to watch and engine covers were omitted to give a good view of the Rolls-Royce diesel engines. The full-length canopy above the engine covers not only adds to the distinctive outline but also supports the exhaust silencer. For added safety with only one man in the cab, a dead-man device is included, a pedal that when released triggers the braking system to bring the train safely to a halt. The turbocharged six-cylinder engine is rated at and drives through a hydraulic transmission that has only one drive ratio. The result is a locomotive that accelerates quickly up to speed. All four locomotives were rebuilt in 2012–13 in readiness for the launch of the new "traditional diesel" service. Railcars No. 21 to No. 23 The railcars were diesel-electric, using a standard industrial generator set mounted at the downhill end of each vehicle. This powered an induction motor through electronic controllers. The generators had a Cummins engine rated at which was run at a constant 1800 rpm and produced 440 V AC at 60 Hz. Unlike any other train on the system, the driver sat at the front when climbing the mountain. For safety reasons the railcars could not be run as single vehicles since they each had only one set of pinions. No. 21 had to be taken out of service by 2001 owing to problems with the speed control mechanism, and Nos. 22 and 23 were taken out of service in 2003 for the same reason. The railcars were finally taken away for scrap in July 2010. New hybrid locomotives On 13 August 2019, the railway announced that it had ordered two new battery-diesel hybrid locomotives from Clayton Equipment Ltd for introduction at the start of the railway's 2020 season. The intention is that the diesel generator on the new locomotives will be switched off on the downhill runs, with regenerative service braking used to recharge the battery to provide power for the next ascent. This method of operation means that the locomotives' engines, which will comply with EU Stage V emission standards, can be less powerful than those on the existing locomotives, thus providing maintenance and fuel savings, quieter operation, and lower emissions. It was announced in February 2020 that the new locomotives were due to enter passenger service in May 2020. However, the launch was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Passenger coaches All passenger coaches were withdrawn from service at the end of the 2012 season. With the exception of Coach 10 (the latest built), their bodies were dismantled and the frames and bogies were stored off-site. The railway now operates two services, depending on the motive power: Traditional diesel service Garmendale Engineering Ltd was commissioned to build four brand new coaches for the 2013 season which are used exclusively with the diesel locomotives. These coaches can transport 74 passengers. The coaches have been named: Sir David Brailsford CBE, Bryn Terfel CBE, Katherine Jenkins OBE and Dame Shirley Bassey, the last being named on 17 May 2018 at a ceremony attended by the singer. Heritage steam experience A new body was built on the original frames and bogies of Coach 2 by Garmendale Engineering Ltd to resemble an original coach from 1895. Named the Snowdon Lily, the coach entered service in 2013. This coach only carries 34 passengers and has a central aisle. It is used exclusively with one of the operational steam locomotives and attracts a higher fare. The steam service proved successful and a second heritage coach was built, using the frames and bogies of Coach 5. The Snowdon Mountain Goat arrived at the railway on 15 April 2015 and entered service following running in trials. Liveries It is believed that the first livery for the locomotives was dark-red. In these early years the carriages were open-bodied and were probably a dark brown in colour. During the 1950s and 1960s all the vehicles were upgraded. The carriages were converted to closed-body design and the locomotives had their wooden shutters and doors replaced with more weather-resistant metal ones. The livery at this point was changed to a more typical Welsh livery, the carriages being cream and crimson and the locomotives pea-green and red. Until 1998 the diesels were an overall mid-green colour. It was decided that the warning colour on the coupling section would be striped red and white, with the crank axles an overall red colour. The diesels' colouring was later changed: Yeti, for example, adopted a red livery, and George a purple one. The warning colours also changed several times until around 2004, when all the diesels again received a green livery, with yellow and black warning colours. Opening day accident First train The public opening was on Monday 6 April 1896. A train was run from Llanberis to the summit to check that no more boulders had come loose; it is thought the locomotive was No. 2 Enid. On its return to Llanberis, locomotive No. 1 Ladas departed with two carriages on the official first train. Shortly afterwards, No. 2 Enid departed with a second public train. All went well on the ascent, except that mist and cloud was covering the top of the mountain and extending down to about the level of Clogwyn Station. At a little after noon, Ladas with the two carriages started back down the mountain. About above Clogwyn, where the line runs on a shelf formed across a steep drop, the locomotive jumped off the rack rail, losing all braking force and accelerating down the track. At first it remained on the running rail and the driver tried to apply the handbrake, but with no effect. Realising that the train was out of control, the driver and his fireman jumped from the footplate. Ladas ran about after losing the rack rail before hitting a left-hand curve. Here it derailed and fell over the side of the mountain. The two carriages accelerated to a speed at which the automatic brakes were triggered (). These brakes brought both carriages to a stand safely. One of the passengers, Ellis Griffith Roberts of Llanberis, on seeing the driver and fireman jump from the locomotive did likewise. Falling to the ground, he sustained a serious injury to his leg, which later had to be amputated, and he died. Second train In derailing, locomotive No. 1 had broken the telegraph lines used to signal between stations. Some versions say that the wires had touched as they were hit and made a signal that was mistaken for the 'line clear' signal, while other versions say that so long a time had passed that the people at the summit assumed that the telegraph system had failed. Whichever is true, the other train left the summit on its descent. In spite of the line speed and a man being sent back up the line to warn the second train, it did not stop before reaching the point where No.1 had lost the rack rail; exactly the same thing happened, with No. 2 losing the rack rail and accelerating out of control. This time, however, the line was blocked by the carriages of the first train; No. 2 hit these with some force, causing the carriages of the first train to drag their brakes and run away down the line, and causing the locomotive to drop back onto the rack rail and stop safely. The carriages from the first train rolled down the line to Clogwyn station, where they became derailed. Locomotive No. 1 was recovered and taken back to Llanberis. Inquiry It was revealed during the inquiry that the locomotive on a ballast train had lost the rack in January 1895 a little lower down the line. Details are not recorded, but it is likely that the locomotive dropped back onto the rack and was not badly damaged. After hearing all the evidence, it was decided that the weather had caused a freeze–thaw action which had led to settlement in the ground. Another contributory factor was the construction work being carried out during poor weather, and then not being checked for settlement when the weather had improved. The settlement was sufficient to twist the tracks and reduce the contact between the rack (on the track) and the pinion (on the locomotive). The weight and speed of the train did the rest. The damage caused by the first derailment made the second almost inevitable. Recommendations The first recommendation was that the maximum load for the locomotives be reduced to the equivalent of carriages. These led to a further carriage being bought that was smaller and lighter than the others. From then on, only this carriage was used, with one of the originals, for two-carriage trains. The second recommendation was that a gripper system be installed (see Gripper rail). This required extra rails to be added to the rack rail and a mechanism to be fitted to the locomotives and carriages. See also Llanberis Lake Railway British narrow gauge railways Snowdonia National Park List of wind-related railway accidents References Sources Further reading External links Snowdon Mountain Railway official site Mountain railways 800 mm gauge railways in Wales Railway stations in Great Britain without road access Railway companies established in 1894 Railway lines opened in 1896 Rack railways in the United Kingdom Heritage railways in Gwynedd Llanberis Heritage railways in Snowdonia	[ 0.0010075083700940013, 0.27236831188201904, 0.29968804121017456, -0.484962522983551, 0.46783313155174255, -0.14295326173305511, 1.0674062967300415, 0.2228645235300064, -0.2665312886238098, 0.648331344127655, -0.7736231684684753, 0.006867418065667152, -0.00046897813444957137, 0.8254501223564148, -0.514833390712738, -0.07737904042005539, -0.2535437345504761, -0.004189074505120516, 0.1729821413755417, -0.663861095905304, 0.4489037096500397, -0.44242674112319946, 0.3310849964618683, -0.06240928918123245, 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217373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Party%20%28Sweden%29	Green Party (Sweden)	The Green Party (, commonly referred to in Swedish as Miljöpartiet or MP) is a political party in Sweden based on green politics. Sparked by the anti-nuclear power movement following the 1980 nuclear power referendum, the party was founded in 1981 out of a discontent with the existing parties' environmental policies. In 1988 general election they won seats in the Swedish Riksdag for the first time, capturing 5.5 percent of the vote, and becoming the first new party to enter parliament in seventy years. Three years later, they dropped back below the 4 percent threshold. In 1994, they returned to parliament again and since have retained representation there. The party is represented nationally by two spokespeople, always one man and one woman. These roles are currently held by Per Bolund and Märta Stenevi. Between 3 October 2014 and 30 November 2021, the Green Party was a part of the Social Democratic led government. This was the first time the Greens have entered government in its history. The Greens left the government after the right-wing opposition parties budget for 2022 was passed in the Riksdag, and the government's own budget failed to pass. In the 2018 general election, the Greens received 4.4% of the vote and 16 seats, making the party the smallest in the Riksdag. Despite this, the party was still able to maintain its place in government. Ideology Fundamental principles In their party platform, the Greens describe their ideology as being based on "a solidarity that can be expressed in three ways: solidarity with animals, nature, and the ecological system", "solidarity with coming generations", and "solidarity with all of the world's people". A Green analysis of society is based on a holistic view – everything is connected and interdependent. The platform then describes these solidarities being expressed in "several fundamental ideas", these being participatory democracy, ecological wisdom, social justice, children's rights, circular economy, global justice, nonviolence, equality and feminism, animal rights, self-reliance and self-administration, freedom, and long-sightedness. The Swedish Green Party has its roots in the environmental, solidarity, women's rights and peace movements. Climate change and the environment The Green Party was the first political party in Sweden to raise the issue of climate change. Fighting climate change is a major policy issue for the party. For example, the party's main criticism of The Alliance's 2010 election manifesto was the "entirely astonishing" lack of effort in fighting climate change, and in 2013, the party announced a budget proposal that was dominated by a 49 billion kronor "climate package". The party supports a general shift in taxation policy, towards high taxes on environmentally unfriendly or unsustainable products and activities, hoping to thus influence people's behavior towards the more sustainable. Nuclear power The anti-nuclear movement was a major factor in the party's creation. The party's party platform reads that "we oppose the construction of new reactors in Sweden, or an increase in the output of existing reactors, and instead want to begin immediately phasing out nuclear power." MP Per Bolund clarified in 2010 that the party "does not propose shutting down nuclear power reactors today, but rather phasing them out as new and renewable electricity is phased in." European integration The party was initially opposed to membership in the European Union, and sought a new referendum on the issue. The party's EU-opposition captured them 17 percent of the votes in the 1995 European Parliament election, the first following Sweden’s EU accession. The Greens included withdrawal from the EU in their party platform as recently as 2006. This policy was abolished in a September 2008 internal party referendum. However, the party remains somewhat Eurosceptic. The section of the party platform on the subject opens by citing how decentralization and making decisions as locally as reasonably possible is a central part of green politics. It continues to state that the Greens "are warm adherents to international cooperation. We want to see Europe as a part of a world of democracies, where people move freely over borders, and where people and countries trade and cooperate with each other." Leadership and organisation The Greens, like many other green parties around the world, do not have a party leader in the traditional sense. The party is represented by two spokespeople, always one male and one female. The current spokespersons are Per Bolund and Märta Stenevi. The spokespeople are elected annually by the party congress, up to a maximum of nine consecutive one-year terms. The party congress, consisting of elected representatives of all of the party's local groups, is the highest decision-making organ in the Green Party. The congress, in addition to the two spokespeople, also fills many other important posts in the party, including a party board (), which is the party's highest decision-making authority between party congresses, and the day-to-day operation of the party's national organisation. The congress also elects a party secretary (), who is an internal, organisational leader for the party. The current party secretary, initially elected by the 2019 party congress, is Märta Stenevi. Current status Currently, the Swedish Green Party has about 10 000 members, and is a popular party foremost among young people and women. Organisations connected to the Swedish green party: The Young Greens of Sweden (Grön ungdom) The Green Students of Sweden (Gröna studenter) The Green seniors of Sweden (Gröna seniorer) The Swedish Green party is part of the European Greens. Criticism Islamic extremism The Green Party was hit by a political scandal in April 2016, as images emerged of Green Party housing minister Mehmet Kaplan attending a dinner party alongside leading members of the Turkish far-right extremist group Grey Wolves. Following attention to comments made by Kaplan in 2009 comparing Israel to Nazi Germany, Kaplan resigned as minister, while still defended by the party leadership. In 2014 during a seminar Kaplan equalized jihadists who travel to Syria with Swedish volunteers who fought on the Finnish side against the Soviet Union during the Winter War 1939-1940. Kaplan later defended himself as being misunderstood and said he is against "young Swedes traveling to the war in Syria". After his resignation, images emerged of Kaplan and other members of the Green Party displaying hand gestures associated with the Muslim Brotherhood. Another controversy ensued as a rising Green-Party star, Yasri Khan, refused to shake hands with a female TV reporter. Lars Nicander, director of the Centre for Asymmetric Threat Studies at the Swedish Defence University, compared the revelations with how the Soviet Union sought to infiltrate democratic Western parties during the Cold War, alleging that the Green Party similarly may have been "infiltrated by Islamists". Yasri Khan was criticised by members within the party. He withdrew his candidacy for the Green Party executive board and also quit his seats on a regional board and city council. Spokesperson Fridolin said: men, especially those wanting to be in Swedish politics, should have no problems shaking a woman's hand. The Green Party's spokespersons also comment the debate saying there's no evidence of Islamists influencing party policies, but underlined the party needs a "reset" with greater focus on environmental issues. In April 2016, Kamal al Raffi, a Green Party politician from the council of Burlöv Municipality as well as the chairman of the local Syrian community group invited Osama bin Laden's former advisor Salman al-Ouda to hold a lecture to be attended by his and two other community groups. This invitation was controversial in Sweden as Al-Ouda, a muslim salafist, is known for openly antisemitic views and denying the Holocaust. The Green Party politician was suspended for a time by the party leadership. During the scandal, the party secretary promised the party will better handle crises in the future. In May 2016, Green Party co-spokesperson and Environmental Minister Åsa Romson confirmed she would resign from both positions as a result of her leadership during the party crisis, along with controversies of her own, such as referring to the September 11 attacks as the 11 September "olycka" (which can be translated as "accident", or alternatively as "misfortune" which Romson later claimed as her intention) in a television interview. Romson later explained her comment, and said: "Of course, the attack on New York on 11th September 2001 is one of the biggest attacks, terror-actions and assaults on the peaceful and democratic world we have seen in modern times. I have no other opinion on this matter." Electoral politics It is often believed that the party is situated on the left on a left-right scale due to its co-operation with the Social Democratic Party. The party participated in a political and electoral coalition called the Red-Greens with the Social Democrats and Left Party from October 2008 until the 2010 general election in September 2010, and has vowed to co-operate with the Social Democrats until 2020. In several municipalities, however, the Greens cooperate with liberal and conservative parties, and the party does not define itself as left, nor right. Rather, they place themselves on one end of a scale between sustainability and growth. In an article published in 2009, Maria Wetterstrand, then party co-spokesperson, defined the party as a natural home also for green-minded social liberals and libertarian socialists, by referring to its liberal policy regarding immigration and its support of personal integrity, participation and entrepreneurship, among other issues. , the party is included in government coalition and its prioritized issues are climate change, anti-discrimination and equal rights. Church politics The party does not directly participate in elections to the Church of Sweden, but Greens in the Church of Sweden, an independent nominating group, participates in church elections at all levels. Relationship with other parties The Green Party has a good relationship with the Social Democrats, and to a lesser extent, with the Left Party. The party does not rule out participation in a government with the minor liberal and centre-right parties in Sweden. The Green Party on first entering the Riksdag, allied with the Conservative Bloc in opposition to the Social Democrats. The Green Party has made clear that its preference among cooperative arrangements with the Conservative Bloc does not include support of a government led by the liberal-conservative Moderate Party. However, historically there have been political deals concluded with the parties forming the centre-right Alliance as an example concerning education. Co-operation with the Moderate Party on the municipal level are relatively frequent. Electoral results General elections European Parliament See also Elections in Sweden Green politics Green Youth (Sweden) List of environmental organizations Referendums in Sweden Worldwide green parties References External links The Swedish Parliament: The Green Party 1981 establishments in Sweden European Green Party Environmentalism in Sweden Global Greens member parties Green parties in Europe Political parties established in 1981 Political parties in Sweden	[ 0.27115598320961, -0.2521252930164337, 0.24646170437335968, 0.0979754775762558, -0.5681615471839905, -0.026849273592233658, -0.02236219309270382, 0.2607976496219635, -1.0698472261428833, 0.2753431797027588, -0.3534242808818817, -0.031025437638163567, -0.6332423686981201, -0.2458076924085617, -0.3958406150341034, 0.26319169998168945, 0.7018001079559326, 0.9364994168281555, -0.2033328115940094, -0.18997018039226532, -0.05961029231548309, 0.23337550461292267, 0.8855968117713928, -0.09657488763332367, 0.023919742554426193, 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217378	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirso%20de%20Molina	Tirso de Molina	Gabriel Téllez ( 24 March 1583 20 February 1648), better known as Tirso de Molina, was a Spanish Baroque dramatist, poet and Roman Catholic monk. He is primarily known for writing The Trickster of Seville and the Stone Guest, the play from which the popular character of Don Juan originates. His work is also of particular significance due to the abundance of female protagonists, as well as the exploration of sexual issues. Life and career He was born in Madrid. He studied at Alcalá de Henares, joined the mendicant Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mercy on 4 November 1600, and entered the Monastery of San Antolín at Guadalajara, Spain on 21 January 1601. He was ordained a priest by 1610. He had been writing plays for ten years when he was sent by his superiors on a mission to the West Indies in 1615; residing in Santo Domingo from 1616 to 1618 and returning to Europe in 1618, he resided at the Mercedarian monastery in Madrid, took part in the proceedings of the Academia poetica de Madrid, founded by Sebastián Francisco de Medrano, competed in the literary tournaments then in vogue, and wrote copiously for the stage. His first publication, the incomplete Cigarrales de Toledo (licensed in 1621, but not published till 1624), is a miscellany, containing short tales, novellas, verses and three plays. One of the novellas, Los tres maridos burlados, probably derived from Francesco Cieco da Ferrara's Mambriano, and the play entitled El vergonzoso en palacio reveal his wit and ingenuity. The preface to the Cigarrales de Toledo states that Tirso de Molina had already written three hundred plays, and at this period of his career he was second only to Lope de Vega in popularity. (Tirso de Molina was one of Lope's most ardent followers.) He showed hostility to culteranismo in the Cigarrales de Toledo, and made numerous enemies by his attacks on the new school in such pieces as Amar por arte mayor and La celosa de si misma. The realistic character of some of his productions gave his rivals an excuse to denounce him as a corrupter of public morals to the council of Castile in 1625, and, though no legal action was taken against him, he appears to have been reprimanded privately. In 1626 it was thought advisable to transfer him to Salamanca, and Tirso de Molina left Madrid determined to write no more for the stage. Though one of his plays, La huerta de San Juan, is dated 1626, there is no proof that it was begun after his departure from Madrid, and he seems to have written nothing for eight years. He had not lost his interest in the theatre, and published twelve representative pieces as the first part of his dramatic works (1626). This was a formal protest against the weakness of those who had been persuaded to drive him out. On the other hand, he worked zealously on behalf of his order, and rose to an important position; he became superior of the monastery at Trujillo in 1626, was elected later to the posts of reader in theology and definidor general, and in May 1632 was appointed chronicler of the Order of Mercy. His Deleitar aprovechando (1635) is a devout counterpart of the Cigarrales de Toledo, much inferior to its predecessor in interest; a sequel was promised to this collection of pious tales, pious lyrics, and autos, but, as in the case of the Cigarrales de Toledo, the continuation never appeared. Twelve plays constitute the third part of his dramatic works which was published (before the second) in 1634, supposedly edited by the writer's nephew, "Francisco Lucas de Ávila", possibly a cover identity for himself. The second part (1635), the printing of which was paid for by the confraternity of St Jerome, contains four plays by Tirso de Molina, and eight written by him in collaboration with other dramatists; one of these collaborators was Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, but Tirso de Molina was the predominant spirit in these literary partnerships. The fourth and fifth parts of his dramatic works (1635 and 1636) each contain twelve plays; the haste with which these five volumes were issued indicates the author's desire to save some part of his work from destruction, and the appearance of his "nephew"'s name on the title-pages of the last four volumes indicates his desire to avoid conflict with the authorities. A sixth volume of dramatic pieces, consisting of light comedies, was announced; but the project was abandoned. That dramatic composition still entertained the scanty leisure of Tirso's old age is shown by the fact that the fragmentary autograph copy of Las quinas de Portugal is dated 8 March 1638, but his active career as a dramatist ended two years earlier. He was absorbed by other duties. As official chronicler of his order, he compiled the elaborate Historia de la Merced (his religious order), which occupied him till 24 December 1639 and was not published until 1973. As a tribute to the count de Sastago, who had accepted the dedication of the fourth part of the plays, and who had probably helped to defray the publishing expenses, Tirso de Molina is said to have compiled the Genealogía de la casa de Sastago (1640), but the ascription of this genealogical work is disputed. On 29 September 1645 Tirso de Molina became superior of the monastery at Soria, and died there. It is only within the last century that it has become possible to give an outline of his life; it will always be impossible for posterity to do justice to his genius, for but a fraction of his plays have been preserved. The earliest of his extant pieces is dated 1605 and bears no sign of immaturity; in 1624 he had written three hundred plays, and in 1634 he stated that he had composed four hundred within the previous twenty years; of this immense production not more than eighty plays, are in existence. Tirso de Molina is universally known as the author of The Trickster of Seville and the Stone Guest, the piece in which Don Juan is first presented on the stage; but El Burlador de Sevilla represents only one aspect of his genius. No less remarkable than his representation of perverse depravity in El Burlador de Sevilla is his dramatic treatment of a philosophical enigma in El Condenado por desconfiado, but El Burlador de Sevilla and El Condenado por desconfiado are thought by scholars as Fernando Cantalapiedra or Alfredo Rodriguez to have been written by Andrés de Claramonte. Though manifestly attracted by exceptional cases, by every kind of moral aberration, by the infamous and the terrible, his range is virtually unlimited. He reveals himself as a master of historical interpretation in Prudence in Woman; his sympathetic, malicious wit finds dramatic expression in El vergonzoso en palacio and Don Gil of the Green Breeches, and the fine divination of feminine character in Averígüelo Vargas and La villana de Vallecas (The Peasant Woman of Vallecas) is incomparable. Tirso de Molina has neither Lope de Vega's inventive resource, nor his infinite seduction; he has neither Pedro Calderón de la Barca's idealistic visions, nor his golden music; but he exceeds Lope in massive intellectual power and in artistic self-restraint, and he exceeds Calderón in humour, in creative faculty, and in dramatic intuition. That his reputation extended beyond the Pyrenees in his own lifetime may be gathered from the fact that James Shirley's Opportunity is derived from El Castigo del penséque; but he was neglected in Spain itself during the long period of Calderón's supremacy, and his name was almost forgotten till the end of the 18th century, when some of his pieces were timidly recast by Dionisio Solis and later by Juan Carretero. The renaissance of his fame, however, dates from 1839–1842, when an incomplete but serviceable edition of his plays was published by Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch. He is now accepted as among the greatest dramatists of Spain. In 2012, Tirso's Condenado por Desconfiado was performed as Damned by Despair at the Olivier Theatre in London, in a new version by Frank McGuinness. Bibliography Tirso De Molina Bedrageren Fra Sevilla Og Stengæsten [El Burlador De Sevilla Y Convidado De Piedra] Comedias escogidas Comedias El Teatro del Maestro Tirso de Molina Tirso de Molina; investigaciones bio-bibliográficos Estudios de critica literaria Discurso ante la Real Academía española El Condenado por desconfiado and "Mas sobre las fuentes del condenado por desconfiado" Etudes sur l'Espagne References Attribution: Spanish male dramatists and playwrights 1570s births 1648 deaths Writers from Madrid Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mercy People from Madrid 17th-century Spanish dramatists and playwrights Spanish Roman Catholic priests 17th-century male writers Baroque writers	[ -0.5587431192398071, 0.3725206255912781, 0.10464958101511002, -0.1277274489402771, -0.13527147471904755, 0.9951236844062805, 0.43758511543273926, 0.1570037305355072, -0.8163541555404663, -0.5521105527877808, 0.19984455406665802, 0.7731738686561584, -0.23897762596607208, -0.2521975040435791, 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217379	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Eugenio%20Hartzenbusch	Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch	Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch (6 September 1806 – 2 August 1880) was a Spanish dramatist. He was the Director of the National Library of Spain until he retired in 1875. Biography Hartzenbusch was born in Madrid, Spain. His father was a German furniture carpenter and his mother a Spanish woman with the name María Josefa Martínez Calleja. Hartzenbusch's childhood was spent as an apprentice in his father's shop in order to become a cabinet-maker. He studied French 1815-1818 and then took a four-year course in the Jesuit College of San Isidro el Real in Madrid where he studied principally rhetoric, Latin, and philosophy. He followed his father's trade till 1830, when he learned shorthand and joined the staff of the Gaceta. He married Doña María Bernardina Morgue in 1830. She died in 1836. His earliest dramatic essays were translations from Molière, Voltaire and Alexandre Dumas, père; he then turned to adapting old Spanish plays, and in 1837 produced his first original play, Los amantes de Teruel, the subject of which had previously been used by Andrés Rey de Artieda, Tirso de Molina and Juan Pérez de Montalbán. Los amantes de Teruel at once made the author's reputation, but Doña Mencía (1840) and Alfonso el Casto (1841) were disappointments; it was not till 1845 that he repeated his former success with La jura en Santa Gadea. In 1900, Don Eugenio Hartzenbusch, Juan's son, published Bibliografía in Madrid which presents in succinct form as complete a list of his father's writings. It remains a testimonial to the lifelong indefatigable industry of this prolific writer. Summarized, the record there given comprises about 15 collections, including various editions of his works, 94 dramatic works, 236 poems 231 fables in verse, 19 addresses, 8 biographical articles, 15 stories, 14 articles depicting manners and customs, 9 literary criticism, 3 dramatic criticism, 33 prologues, 22 notes and articles referring to "Don Quixote" 22 miscellaneous articles, and 9 works of different authors collected and annotated. Such a record of literary activity tells its own story. It is the life of an author and a scholar, who through hard work and conscientious effort, secured for himself an honorable place among Spain's men of letters. Hartzenbusch was the chief librarian at the Biblioteca Nacional, National Library, from 1862 to 1875, and was an indefatigable editor of many national classics. Inferior in inspiration to other contemporary Spanish dramatists, Hartzenbusch excelled his rivals in versatility and in conscientious workmanship. As a member of the Real Academia Española, he edited works from Tirso de Molina (12 vols., Madrid, 1839–42), Calderón de la Barca (4 vols., 1849–51), Juan Ruiz de Alarcón (1852), and Lope de Vega (4 vols., 1853), among others. After retiring from the National Library in 1875, his strength of body and mind began to give way, and after losing his second wife, Salvadora Hiriart, he failed rapidly and died at his home in Madrid on 2 August 1880. The Real Academia Española, the Spanish Academy, did him the honor of accompanying his body to its last resting place, the Cementerio de la Sacramental de San Ginés y San Luis. Notes References Further reading Chevalier, Maxime. "Pour les sources des fables d'Hartzenbusch". In: Bulletin Hispanique, tome 81, n°3-4, 1979. pp. 303–310. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/hispa.1979.4399; www.persee.fr/doc/hispa_0007-4640_1979_num_81_3_4399 External links 1806 births 1880 deaths Members of the Royal Spanish Academy Spanish male dramatists and playwrights Spanish people of German descent 19th-century Spanish dramatists and playwrights 19th-century male writers	[ -0.22924275696277618, 0.3999220132827759, -0.2816787362098694, -0.12271185219287872, -0.35286012291908264, 0.8741947412490845, 0.9244690537452698, 0.10071191191673279, -0.28987056016921997, -0.7964657545089722, -0.01545331347733736, 0.5207808017730713, -0.07860135287046432, 0.3518037796020508, -0.4114392101764679, 0.37621885538101196, -0.022558104246854782, -0.16652055084705353, -0.550829291343689, -0.3351149260997772, -0.8943781852722168, -0.45717114210128784, 0.3528940975666046, 0.6308621168136597, -0.40571901202201843, -0.1953117996454239, 0.013031777925789356, 0.16348835825920105, 0.282204806804657, -0.36143049597740173, 0.2309550791978836, 0.5508759617805481, 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217381	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcid%20wasp	Chalcid wasp	Chalcid wasps (, , for their metallic colour) are insects within the superfamily Chalcidoidea, part of the order Hymenoptera. The superfamily contains some 22,500 known species, and an estimated total diversity of more than 500,000 species, meaning the vast majority have yet to be discovered and described. The name "chalcid" is often confused with the name "chalcidid", though the latter refers strictly to one constituent family, the Chalcididae, rather than the superfamily as a whole; accordingly, most recent publications (e.g.,) use the name "chalcidoid" when referring to members of the superfamily. Most of the species are parasitoids of other insects, attacking the egg or larval stage of their host, though many other life cycles are known. These hosts are to be found in at least 12 different insect orders including Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Diptera (true flies), Coleoptera (beetles), Hemiptera (true bugs), and other Hymenoptera, as well as two orders of Arachnida, and even one family of nematodes. For example, the chalcid fly is responsible for a small percentage of egg death in the wood white butterfly (L. sinapis). When the host is itself a parasitoid, they are referred to as hyperparasitoids. A small percentage are phytophagous and the larvae feed inside seeds, stems, and galls, including some that act as pollinators (e.g. fig wasps). Generally beneficial to humans as a group, chalcidoids help keep various crop pests under control, and many species have been imported as biocontrol agents. Moth parasitoid Copidosoma floridanum is one such species, whose genome is being sequenced by the Human Genome Sequencing Center as part of the i5K project, which aims to sequence the genomes of 5,000 arthropods. Chalcidoids are generally tiny; most are less than 3 mm long. Adult males of the smallest known species (Dicopomorpha echmepterygis in the Mymaridae) are only 0.14 mm long. However, females of the species Doddifoenus wallacei are the largest known chalcidoids, reaching nearly in length (including ovipositor). Most are dark-coloured wasps, typically black or brown, but often metallic blue or green, with complex sculpturing on the body. They are also recognized by the characteristic reduced wing venation, similar to that seen in other superfamilies of parasitoid wasps. Taxonomy Chalcidoidea is a superfamily of Hymenoptera, whose family constituency is in constant flux, as new hypotheses of relationships are constantly being proposed and rejected; with the advent of molecular systematics, it seems that the future will see further revisions of the classification in use today. There are twenty-two extant families recognized at present: Agaonidae Walker, 1846 Aphelinidae Thomson, 1876 Azotidae Chalcididae Latreille, 1817 Chrysolampidae Dalla Torre, 1898 Encyrtidae Walker, 1837 Eriaporidae Eucharitidae Latreille, 1809 Eulophidae Westwood, 1829 (including Elasmidae) Eupelmidae Walker, 1833 Eurytomidae Walker, 1832 Eutrichosomatidae Peck, 1951 Leucospidae Fabricius, 1775 Mymaridae Haliday, 1833 Megastigmidae Ormyridae Förster, 1856 Perilampidae Latreille, 1809 Pteromalidae Dalman, 1820 Rotoitidae Bouček & Noyes, 1987 Signiphoridae Ashmead, 1880 Tanaostigmatidae Howard, 1890 Tetracampidae Förster, 1856 Torymidae Walker, 1833 Trichogrammatidae Haliday, 1851 There are also two extinct families: Khutelchalcididae Rasnitsyn, Basibuyuk & Quicke, 2004 Diversinitidae Haas, Burks & Krogmann, 2018 Of these families, at least five are known to be artificial groups (paraphyletic), and are being - or will be - divided into several families, or perhaps fused with existing families. The most problematic, the Pteromalidae, is, in some classifications, supposed to contain as many as eight independent lineages, grouped together because of superficial similarities. Identification Key to families Grissell, E. E., and M. E. Schauff. 1990. A handbook of the families of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera).Entomological Society of Washington (Washington, D.C.) Handbook 1:1-85. Online at Gibson, G. A. P., Huber, J. T., and J. B. Woolley. 1997. Annotated keys to the genera of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). NRC Research Press. References External links Universal Chalcidoid Database Images of chalcidoids on MorphBank, a biological image database Ponent Pictorial overview. 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217383	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Ruiz%20de%20Alarc%C3%B3n	Juan Ruiz de Alarcón	Juan Ruiz de Alarcón (c. 1581 - 4 August 1639) was a New Spain-born Spanish writer of the Golden Age who cultivated different variants of dramaturgy. His works include the comedy La verdad sospechosa (es), which is considered a masterpiece of Latin American Baroque theater. Family Juan Ruiz de Alarcón was born in Real de Taxco, later named Taxco de Alarcón in his honour. His family was of old Asturian nobility. The name Alarcón had been given to his ancestor Ferren Martínez de Ceballos by Alfonso VIII of Castile after he had successfully driven the Moors from the fortress of Alarcón near Cuenca in 1177. Juán Ruiz de Alarcón's maternal grandparents Hernando and María de Mendoza were among the first Spaniards to arrive in Mexico in 1535, when they established themselves in Taxco. Their daughter Leonor de Mendoza married Pedro Ruiz de Alarcón who was described as an hidalgo. Juan Ruiz de Alarcón had four brothers: Pedro Ruiz de Alarcón, who was rector at the College of Saint John Lateran, Hernando Ruiz de Alarcón who was a priest and is known for having written a treatise documenting the non-Christian religious practices of the Nahua Indians of central Mexico, Gaspar and García, about whom little is known. Life Juan Ruiz de Alarcón was born about 1581 at Real de Taxco, New Spain, where his father was superintendent of mines; his mother was descended from one of Spain's most illustrious families, the Mendozas. He was small of stature and suffered from hunchbackedness. Besides, his red haired complexion made him an occasional object of scorn, since some sectors of the conservative catholic society in which he later lived held the prejudice that Judas Iscariot was a redhead himself. Because of this, his critics often ridiculed his appearance rather than his works. He went to Spain in 1600, where he studied law at the University of Salamanca. He continued his studies towards a Licentiate in Law—roughly equivalent to a modern master's degree—which he finished in 1605, without, however, taking the degree. Instead, he practiced law for a while in Seville, then in 1608 went back to Mexico, and in 1609 received the licentiate from the University of Mexico. He completed his studies for his doctorate fairly soon thereafter, but never received the degree, in all likelihood because of the rather substantial costs attached to the ceremony. He worked as a legal adviser for a while, as an advocate, and as an interim investigating judge, all the while trying repeatedly and unsuccessfully to gain a teaching chair at the University. Returning to Spain about 1611, he entered the household of the marquis de Salinas, and began a frustrating life of job-seeking at court. At the same time, purely as a way of making money apparently, he threw himself into the heady literary and theatrical life of the capital, eventually having a number of his plays performed. His first play, El semejante de sí mismo was unsuccessful, yet it attracted attention to him. By some, he was ridiculed and criticized; from others he obtained support. For ten years, he pursued this double life, until he finally secured first an interim and then a permanent appointment to the Royal Council of the Indies (1626) — rather like an appeals court for Spanish colonies in America. Apparently, when political success came, he all but stopped his literary efforts—although he did have two volumes of his plays published (in 1628 and 1634), perhaps because some of them had been pirated and previously published with false attributions to his theatrical rival Félix Lope de Vega. After thirteen years of legal service to the crown, he died at Madrid in 1639. Literary career and importance Alarcón was the least prolific of all the great dramatists of Spain and is one of the very few Spanish-Americans among the great dramatists of the Siglo de Oro. He wrote less than did others, and many of his works circulated under their names. He took pains to mull over his plays and polish both their versification and their general composition. Fitzmaurice-Kelly said of Alarcón: "There are Spanish dramatists greater than Ruiz de Alarcón: there is none whose work is of such even excellence" He is the author of approximately twenty-five plays. Twenty of them were published by the playwright in two volumes. The first, from 1628, contains eight plays (Los favores del mundo, La industria y la suerte, Las paredes oyen, El semejante a sí mismo, La cueva de Salamanca, Mudarse por mejorarse, Todo es ventura and El desdichado en fingir); and the second volume from 1634 consists of twelve plays (Los empeños de un engaño, El dueño de las estrellas, La amistad castigada, La manganilla de Melilla, Ganar amigos, La verdad sospechosa, El anticristo, El tejedor de Segovia, La prueba de las promesas, Los pechos privilegiados, La crueldad por el honor and El examen de maridos). Other plays were published in collections. These include: Quien mal anda mal acaba, No hay mal que por bien no venga and La culpa busca la pena, y el agravio la venganza. He is also the author of a play written in collaboration, Algunas hazañas de las muchas de don García Hurtado de Mendoza (1622). The most famous of his plays is La verdad sospechosa, (published in 1634). The first great French comedy in modern French literature, Corneille's Le menteur (The Liar), was confessedly modeled after it. Las paredes oyen (Walls have Ears) is often seen as a companion-piece since both plays deal with mendacity. His plays can be divided into at least three distinct categories: social comedies, political dramas and plays that dramatize astrology, magic and other occult practices. Among the political plays, El dueño de las estrellas stands out as a stunning tragedy, dealing with Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver. Although the oracle had predicted that he would either kill a king or be killed by one, when faced with the dilemma he commits suicide thus overcoming the power of the stars. A second political play, La amistad castigada, is unusual because the king is deposed at the end. The magic plays include astonishing instances of the occult at a time when such practices were frowned upon. See, for example, La cueva de Salamanca and La prueba de las promesas. Quien mal anda, mal acaba may be the first Spanish play that dramatizes a pact with the devil. Indeed, even in social comedies such as Las paredes oyen we can encounter extensive astrological allusions. Embittered by his deformity, Alarcón was constantly engaged in personal quarrels with his rivals; but his attitude in these polemics is always dignified, and his crushing retort to Lope de Vega in Los pechos privilegiados is an unsurpassed example of cold, scornful invective. More than any other Spanish dramatist, Alarcón was preoccupied with ethical aims, and his gift of dramatic presentation is as brilliant as his dialogue is natural and vivacious. It has been alleged that his non-Spanish origin is noticeable in his plays, and there is some foundation for the observation; but his workmanship is exceptionally conscientious, and in El Tejedor de Segovia he produced a masterpiece of national art, national sentiment and national expression. Works Dramas in verse La verdad sospechosa (Suspect Truth) Los favores del mundo La industria y la suerte Las paredes oyen (The Walls Have Ears) El semejante a sí mismo (He Who is Similar to Himself) La cueva de Salamanca (The Cave in Salamanca) Mudarse por mejorarse Todo es ventura El desdichado en fingir Los empeños de un engaño El dueño de las estrellas (The Master of the Stars) La amistad castigada (Friendship Punished) La manganilla de Melilla (The Stratagem at Melilla) Ganar amigos El anticristo (The Antichrist) El tejedor de Segovia (The Weaver from Segovia) La prueba de las promesas (Trial through Promises) Los pechos privilegiados La crueldad por el honor El examen de maridos (The Test of Suitors) Quien mal anda en mal acaba (He Who Follows an Evil Way Ends Evilly) No hay mal que por bien no venga Non-dramatic texts in verse Una redondilla y cuatro décimas sobre el asunto que luego se verá Vejamen académico a Bricián Díez Cruzate, cuando se doctoró en la Universidad de México (1609-1613) Décima del licenciado don Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, natural de México Romance contra don Francisco de Quevedo El licenciado don Juan Ruiz de Alarcón y Mendoza a don Diego Agreda y Vargas Al doctor Cristóbal Pérez de Herrera, el licenciado don Juan Ruiz de Alarcón y Mendoza A don Gonzalo de Céspedes y Meneses, el licenciado don Juan Ruiz de Alarcón y Mendoza Al Santo Cristo que se halló en Prete, ciudad del Palatinado inferior, quitado de la Cruz y hecho pedazos por los calvinistas, restaurado por los católicos, el licenciado Juan Ruiz de Alarcón dirige estos sonetos De don Juan Ruiz de Alarcón en la muerte del Conde de Villamedina (21 de agosto de 1622) Elogio descriptivo a las fiestas que Su Majestad del rey Filipo IIII hizo por su persona en Madrid, a 21 de agosto de 1623 años, a la celebración de los conciertos entr el serenísimo Carlos Estuardo, Príncipe de Inglaterra, y la serenísima María de Austria, Infanta de Castilla, al Duque Adelantado & c. El licenciado don Juan Ruiz de Alarcón y Mendoza, al mismo (José Camerino) Al volcán en incendios del Vesubio, el licenciado don Juan Ruiz de Alarcón y Mendoza, Relator del Consejo de Indias. Epigrama XXIX Sonero dedicado al mismo asunto que el anterior Sátira contra don Francisco de Quevedo El licenciado don Juan Ruiz de Alarcón y Mendoza, Relator del Consejo de las Indias. Al autor. Décimas Notes References Castro Leal, Antonio. Juan Ruiz de Alarcón. Su vida y su obra. México: Cuadernos Americanos, 1943. Cull, John T. "Some Stylistic Hallmarks in the Dramatic Works of Juan Ruiz de Alarcón." Bulletin of the Comediantes 68, no. 1 (2016): 39-64. De Armas, Frederick A., "El sol sale a medianoche: amor y astrología en Las paredes oyen", Criticón 59 (1993): 119-26. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, James. A History of Spanish Literature. New York: Appleton and Company, 1900. Foley, Augusta E. Occult Arts and Doctrine in the Theater of Juan Ruiz de Alarcón. Geneva: Droz, 1972. Garza Cuarón, Beatriz, Historia de la literatura mexicana: desde sus orígenes hasta nuestros días, vol. 2, México, Siglo XXI, 1996. Halpern, Cynthia. The Political Theater of Early Seventeenth-Century Spain with Special Reference to Juan Ruiz de Alarcón. New York: Peter Lang, 1993 Josa, Lola, El arte dramático de Juan Ruiz de Alarcón. Kassel: Reichenberger, 2003. King, Willard F. Juan Ruiz de Alarcón: letrado y dramaturgo. Mexico City: Colegio de México, 1989. Parr, James A. Critical Essays on the Life and Work of Juan Ruiz de Alarcón. Madrid: Dos Continentes, 1972. Parr, James A. "On Fate, Suicide, and Free Will in Alarcón's El dueño de las estrellas," Hispanic Review 42 (1974): 199-207. Parr, James A. “Virtus, Honor, Noblesse Oblige: La verdad sospechosa and Las paredes oyen as Companion Pieces,” After Its Kind. Approaches to the Comedia, eds. Matthew D. Stroud, Anne M.Pasero y Amy R. Williamsen, Kassel, Reichenberger, 1991: 22-36. Perry, Charles E. "The Question of Means and Magic in Alarcón's La prueba de las promesas," Bulletin of the Comediantes 27 (1975): 14-19. Schons, Dorothy, Apuntes y documentos nuevos para la biografía de Juan Ruiz de Alarcón y Mendoza (Chicago: 1929. Private edition) Whicker, Jules. The Plays of Juan Ruiz de Alarcón. London: Tamesis, 2003. Attribution External links 1580s births 1639 deaths 17th-century Spanish dramatists and playwrights Writers from Guerrero People from Taxco Spanish male dramatists and playwrights Mexican dramatists and playwrights Mexican people of Asturian descent University of Salamanca alumni 17th-century male writers Baroque writers	[ -0.12831224501132965, 0.7142441272735596, -0.7532616257667542, 0.21328380703926086, -1.0717895030975342, 0.7902626991271973, 0.99681156873703, 1.148761510848999, -0.728503406047821, -0.09768117964267731, 0.3206897974014282, 0.11563704907894135, -0.5730597376823425, 0.22569453716278076, -0.27335742115974426, 0.7324635982513428, 0.7510335445404053, 0.6611365079879761, 0.25084060430526733, -0.6363620162010193, 0.1887427717447281, -0.9002590775489807, -0.4111495316028595, -0.1902802586555481, -0.04912463575601578, -0.05998583510518074, -0.07074102014303207, -0.021597737446427345, 0.23918524384498596, -0.24289599061012268, 0.08631515502929688, 0.1629161387681961, 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217384	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gall	Gall	Galls (from Latin galla, 'oak-apple') or cecidia (from Greek kēkidion, anything gushing out) are a kind of swelling growth on the external tissues of plants, fungi, or animals. Plant galls are abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues, similar to benign tumors or warts in animals. They can be caused by various parasites, from viruses, fungi and bacteria, to other plants, insects and mites. Plant galls are often highly organized structures so that the cause of the gall can often be determined without the actual agent being identified. This applies particularly to some insect and mite plant galls. The study of plant galls is known as cecidology. In human pathology, a gall is a raised sore on the skin, usually caused by chafing or rubbing. Causes of plant galls Insects and mites Insect galls are the highly distinctive plant structures formed by some herbivorous insects as their own microhabitats. They are plant tissue which is controlled by the insect. Galls act as both the habitat and food source for the maker of the gall. The interior of a gall can contain edible nutritious starch and other tissues. Some galls act as "physiologic sinks", concentrating resources in the gall from the surrounding plant parts. Galls may also provide the insect with physical protection from predators. Insect galls are usually induced by chemicals injected by the larvae of the insects into the plants, and possibly mechanical damage. After the galls are formed, the larvae develop inside until fully grown, when they leave. In order to form galls, the insects must take advantage of the time when plant cell division occurs quickly: the growing season, usually spring in temperate climates, but which is extended in the tropics. The meristems, where plant cell division occurs, are the usual sites of galls, though insect galls can be found on other parts of the plant, such as the leaves, stalks, branches, buds, roots, and even flowers and fruits. Gall-inducing insects are usually species-specific and sometimes tissue-specific on the plants they gall. Indicator insects Gall-inducing insects include gall wasps, gall midges, gall flies (e.g., the goldenrod gall fly), Agromyzidae, aphids (such as Melaphis chinensis, Pemphigus spyrothecae, and Pemphigus betae), scale insects, psyllids, thrips, gall moths (e.g., Epiblema scudderiana), and weevils. Galls produced by insects and mites include: Ash flower gall: this gall is caused by a small mite that causes irregular distortion of male flowers. The galls are initially green, then dry and turn brown. Ash midrib gall: normally long, these galls are succulent and have thick walls. A small cavity within each gall contains one or more small maggots, the larval stages of very small flies called midges. Female midges lay their eggs in very young leaflets during early spring. Gall formation begins soon after the eggs are laid. Specifics of the biology of this insect are not known. The galls probably do not harm tree health. Elm cockscomb gall: these distinct galls, caused by an aphid, are about long and about high. The irregular edge of the gall and its red color at maturity account for the common name. The galls dry, harden and turn brown as they age. Aphids may be seen through a slit-like opening in the underside of the gall. This insect has a complex life cycle—it forms galls on elm in early summer, then feeds on grass roots later in the summer. The galls apparently do not cause significant harm to the tree. Hackberry leaf gall: this gall is caused by a small ( long) aphid-like insect with sucking mouthparts called a jumping plant louse. The adults spend the winter under bark crevices and can invade houses in large numbers in the fall. Females lay eggs over a long period of time beginning when leaves begin to unfold from the buds in the spring. Feeding by the nymphs that hatch from these eggs causes abnormal plant growth that forms a pouch. The psyllids remain inside the galIs until they emerge as adults in late summer to early fall. There is one generation each year. Heavy infestations can result in premature leaf drop which over a series of years may affect tree health. Honeylocust pod gall: this gall is caused by a small fly (midge). The sunburst cultivar appears to be very susceptible to this pest. Infested leaves have globular or pod-like distortions that contain one to several small maggots ( long). Infestations begin when females lay eggs in young leaflets. There are five or more generations each year. Infested leaves often drop prematurely and repeated damage can kill small branches. New shoots develop at the base of dead twigs. As a result, the natural shape of the tree may be lost. Oak gall: see Oak apple Petiole and stipule galls: thick globe-like galls can develop on leaf petioles and stems. Many of these are caused by insects called phylloxerans which are very similar to aphids. The hard, woody galls may remain on the tree for several years. Usually, there is one generation each year and the insects over winter on the tree in the egg stage. Willow shoot galls: these swellings on shoots, twigs, or leaf petioles, may be caused by small flies (midges) or small wasps (sawflies). The gall increases in size as long as the immature stages are active. They cause no significant injury. The infestation may be reduced by pruning and destroying the galled areas before the adult insect emerges, usually in late summer. Witchhazel gall: this gall is caused by an aphid that passes the winter in eggs laid on twigs of the plant. Feeding by the aphid causes the formation of conical galls on the upper side of the leaf. Each gall, produced by a single aphid, later becomes filled with offspring. Mature aphids with wings leave the galls in late spring and early summer and fly to birch. After several generations there, the insects return to witch hazel to lay the eggs that survive the winter. No galls are formed on the birch. Banksia infructescence galls: microscopic Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) commonly cause swellings on young infructescences of Banksia integrifolia and Banksia marginata in south-eastern Australia Fungi Many rust fungi induce gall formation, including western gall rust, which infects a variety of pine trees and cedar-apple rust. Galls are often seen in Millettia pinnata leaves and fruits. Leaf galls appear like tiny clubs; however, flower galls are globose. Exobasidium often induces spectacular galls on its hosts. The fungus Ustilago esculenta associated with Zizania latifolia, a wild rice, produces an edible gall highly valued as a food source in the Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces of China. Bacteria and viruses Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Pseudomonas savastanoi are examples of gall-causing bacteria. Gall forming virus was found on rice plants in central Thailand in 1979 and named rice gall dwarf. Symptoms consisted of gall formation along leaf blades and sheaths, dark green discoloration, twisted leaf tips and reduced numbers of tillers. Some plants died in the glasshouse in later stages of infection. The causal agent was transmitted by Nephotettix nigropictus after an incubation of two weeks. Polyhedral particles of 65 nm diameter in the cytoplasm of phloem cells were always associated with the disease. No serologic relationship was found between this virus and that of rice dwarf. Nematodes Nematodes are microscopic worms that live in the soil. Some nematodes (Meloidogyne species or root-knot nematodes) cause galls on the roots of susceptible plants. The galls are small, individual and beadlike in some hosts. In other plant species galls may be massive accumulations of fleshy tissue more than in diameter. Some ectoparasitic nematodes (nematodes that live outside the plant in the soil), such as sting and stubby-root nematodes, may cause root tips to swell. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium species) cause swellings on the roots of most legumes (such as clover, peas and beans). These swellings, called nodules, are easily distinguished from root-knot galls by differences in how they are attached to the root and their contents. Nodules are loosely attached to the root, while root-knot galls originate from infection at the center of the root, so they are an integral part of the root. In addition, fresh Rhizobium nodules have a milky pink-to-brown liquid inside them, while root-knot galls have firmer tissues and contain female root-knot nematodes (creamy white beads less than in diameter) inside the gall tissues. Other plants Mistletoe can form galls on its hosts. Uses Galls are rich in resins and tannic acid and have been used in the manufacture of permanent inks (such as iron gall ink) and astringent ointments, in dyeing, and in tanning. The Talmud records using gallnuts as part of the tanning process as well as a dye-base for ink. Medieval Arabic literature records many uses for the gall, called ˁafṣ in Arabic. The Aleppo gall, found on oak trees in northern Syria, was among the most important exports from Syria during this period, with one merchant recording a shipment of galls from Suwaydiyya near Antioch fetching the high price of 4½ dinars per 100 pounds. The primary use of the galls was as a mordant for black dyes; they were also used to make a high-quality ink. The gall was also used as a medication to treat fever and intestinal ailments. The larvae in galls are useful for a survival food and fishing bait; see the Indigenous Australian foods Bush coconut and Mulga apple. Nutgalls also produce purpurogallin. The gall of Rhus chinensis, Galla chinensi, has long been considered to possess many medicinal properties. Gallery See also Forest pathology Burl Bush coconut Chirosia betuleti Mulga apple Oak apple Oak marble gall Knopper gall Oak artichoke gall Rose bedeguar gall Pineapple gall Cola-nut gall Neuroterus quercusbaccarum – common spangle and currant galls Witch's broom References Notes Further reading External links British Plant Gall Society A Field Guide to Plant Galls of the North East U.S. To Be or Not To Be a Gall: The Story of Strange Growths on Plants Insect Galls. 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217387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mite	Mite	Mites are small arachnids (eight-legged arthropods). Mites are not a defined taxon, but the name is used for members of several groups of the class Arachnida. Mites span two large orders of arachnids, the Acariformes and the Parasitiformes, which were historically grouped together in the subclass Acari, but genetic evidence suggests are not closely related. The Parasitiformes include ticks, which are sometimes semantically distinguished from mites. Most mites are tiny, less than in length, and have a simple, unsegmented body plan. The small size of most species makes them easily overlooked; some species live in water, many live in soil as decomposers, others live on plants, sometimes creating galls, while others again are predators or parasites. This last type includes the commercially important Varroa parasite of honey bees, as well as scabies mites of humans. Most species are harmless to humans but a few are associated with allergies or may transmit diseases. The scientific discipline devoted to the study of mites is called acarology. Evolution and taxonomy The mites are not a defined taxon, but is used for two distinct groups of arachnids, the Acariformes and the Parasitiformes. The phylogeny of the Acari has been relatively little studied, but molecular information from ribosomal DNA is being extensively used to understand relationships between groups. The 18 S rRNA gene provides information on relationships among phyla and superphyla, while the ITS2, and the 18S ribosomal RNA and 28S ribosomal RNA genes, provide clues at deeper levels. Taxonomy The third edition (2009) of the standard textbook A Manual of Acarology uses a system of six orders, grouped into three superorders: Superorder Opilioacariformes – a small order of large mites that superficially resemble harvestmen (Opiliones), hence their name Superorder Parasitiformes – ticks and a variety of mites Holothyrida - small group of predatory mites native to former Gondwana landmasses Ixodida – ticks Mesostigmata – a large order of predatory and parasitic mites Trigynaspida - large, diverse order Monogynaspida - diverse order of parasitic and predatory mites Superorder Acariformes – the most diverse group of mites Trombidiformes – plant parasitic mites (spider mites, peacock mites, gall mites, red-legged earth mites, etc.), snout mites, chiggers, hair follicle mites, velvet mites, water mites, etc. Sphaerolichida - small order of mites containing two families Prostigmata - large order of sucking mites Sarcoptiformes Oribatida – oribatid mites, beetle mites, armored mites (also cryptostigmata) Astigmatina – stored product, fur, feather, dust, and human itch mites, etc. It has been subsequently argued that Opilioacariformes should be considered a subgroup of Parasitiformes, based on genetic evidence. Fossil record The mite fossil record is sparse, due to their small size and low preservation potential. The oldest fossils of acariform mites are from the Rhynie Chert, Scotland, which dates to the early Devonian, around 410 million years ago while the earliest fossils of Parasitiformes are known from amber specimens dating to the mid-Cretaceous, around 100 million years ago. Most fossil acarids are no older than the Tertiary (up to 65 mya). Phylogeny Members of the superorders Opilioacariformes and Acariformes (sometimes known as Actinotrichida) are mites, as well as some of the Parasitiformes (sometimes known as Anactinotrichida). Recent genetic research has caused a change in the naming scheme, however, and recent publications have changed the superorder Parasitiformes to an order. Other recent research has suggested that Acari is polyphyletic (of multiple origins), with ticks and spiders more closely related than ticks and mites. The cladogram is based on Dabert et al. 2010, which used molecular data. It shows the Acariformes sister to the Solifugae (camel spiders), while the Parasitiformes are sister to the Pseudoscorpionida. Anatomy External Mites are tiny members of the class Arachnida; most are in the size range but some are larger and some are no bigger than as adults. The body plan has two regions, a cephalothorax (with no separate head) or prosoma, and an opisthosoma or abdomen. Segmentation has almost entirely been lost and the prosoma and opisthosoma are fused, only the positioning of the limbs indicating the location of the segments. At the front of the body is the gnathosoma or capitulum. This is not a head and does not contain the eyes or the brain, but is a retractable feeding apparatus consisting of the chelicerae, the pedipalps and the oral cavity. It is covered above by an extension of the body carapace and is connected to the body by a flexible section of cuticle. The mouthparts differ between taxa depending on diet; in some species the appendages resemble legs while in others they are modified into chelicerae-like structures. The oral cavity connects posteriorly to the mouth and pharynx. Most mites have four pairs of legs, each with six segments, which may be modified for swimming or other purposes. The dorsal surface of the body is clad in hardened tergites and the ventral surface by hardened sclerites; sometimes these form transverse ridges. The gonopore (genital opening) is located on the ventral surface between the fourth pair of legs. Some species have one to five median or lateral eyes but many species are blind, and slit and pit sense organs are common. Both body and limbs bear setae (bristles) which may be simple, flattened, club-shaped or sensory. Mites are usually some shade of brown, but some species are red, orange, black or green, or some combination of these colours. Internal Mite digestive systems have salivary glands that open into the preoral space rather than the foregut. Most species carry two to six pairs of salivary glands that empty at various points into the subcheliceral space. A few mite species lack an anus: they do not defecate during their short lives. The circulatory system consists of a network of sinuses and lacks a heart, movement of fluid being driven by the contraction of body muscles. Gas exchange is carried out across the body surface, but many species additionally have between one and four pairs of tracheae, the spiracles being located in the front half of the body. The excretory system includes a nephridium and one or two pairs of Malpighian tubules. Reproduction and life cycle The sexes are separate in mites; males have a pair of testes in the mid-region of the body, each connected to the gonopore by a vas deferens, and in some species there is a chitinous penis; females have a single ovary connected to the gonopore by an oviduct, as well as a seminal receptacle for the storage of sperm. In most mites, sperm is transferred to the female indirectly; the male either deposits a spermatophore on a surface from which it is picked up by the female, or he uses his chelicerae or third pair of legs to insert it into the female's gonopore. In some of the Acariformes, insemination is direct using the male's penis. The eggs are laid in the substrate, or wherever the mite happens to live. They take up to six weeks to hatch, according to species, and the first stage larvae have six legs. After three moults, the larvae become nymphs, with eight legs, and after a further three moults, they become adults. Longevity varies between species, but the lifespan of mites is short as compared to many other arachnids. Ecology Niches Mites occupy a wide range of ecological niches. For example, Oribatida mites are important decomposers in many habitats. They eat a wide variety of material including living and dead plant and fungal material, lichens and carrion; some are predatory, though no oribatid mites are parasitic. Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all invertebrate groups. They have exploited a wide array of habitats, and because of their small size go largely unnoticed. They are found in fresh and salt water, in the soil, in forests, pastures, agricultural crops, ornamental plants, thermal springs and caves. They inhabit organic debris of all kinds and are extremely numerous in leaf litter. They feed on animals, plants and fungi and some are parasites of plants and animals. Some 48,200 species of mites have been described, but there may be a million or more species as yet undescribed. The tropical species Archegozetes longisetosus is one of the strongest animals in the world, relative to its mass (100 μg): It lifts up to 1,182 times its own weight, over five times more than would be expected of such a minute animal. A mite also holds a speed record: for its length, Paratarsotomus macropalpis is the fastest animal on Earth. Parasitism Many mites are parasitic on plants and animals. One family of mites, Pyroglyphidae, or nest mites, live primarily in the nests of birds and other animals. These mites are largely parasitic and consume blood, skin and keratin. Dust mites, which feed mostly on dead skin and hair shed from humans instead of consuming them from the organism directly, evolved from these parasitic ancestors. Ticks are a prominent group of mites that are parasitic on vetebrates, mostly mammal and birds, feeding on blood with specialised mouthparts. Parasitic mites sometimes infest insects. Varroa destructor attaches to the body of honey bees, and Acarapis woodi (family Tarsonemidae) lives in their tracheae. Hundreds of species are associated with other bees, mostly poorly described. They attach to bees in a variety of ways. For example, Trigona corvina workers have been found with mites attached to the outer face of their hind tibiae. Some are thought to be parasites, while others are beneficial symbionts. Mites also parasitize some ant species, such as Eciton burchellii. Plant pests include the so-called spider mites (family Tetranychidae), thread-footed mites (family Tarsonemidae), and the gall mites (family Eriophyidae). Among the species that attack animals are members of the sarcoptic mange mites (family Sarcoptidae), which burrow under the skin. Demodex mites (family Demodecidae) are parasites that live in or near the hair follicles of mammals, including humans. Dispersal Being unable to fly, mites need some other means of dispersal. On a small scale, walking is used to access other suitable locations in the immediate vicinity. Some species mount to a high point and adopt a dispersal posture and get carried away by the wind, while others waft a thread of silk aloft to balloon to a new position. Parasitic mites use their hosts to disperse, and spread from host to host by direct contact. Another strategy is phoresy; the mite, often equipped with suitable claspers or suckers, grips onto an insect or other animal, and gets transported to another place. A phoretic mite is just a hitch-hiker and does not feed during the time it is carried by its temporary host. These travelling mites are mostly species that reproduce rapidly and are quick to colonise new habitats. Relationship with humans Mites are tiny, almost invisible, and apart from those that are of economic concern to humans, little studied. The majority are beneficial, living in the soil or aqueous environments and assisting in the decomposition of decaying organic material, or consuming fungi, plant or animal matter, as part of the carbon cycle. Medical significance The majority of mite species are harmless to humans and domestic animals, but a few species can colonize mammals directly, acting as vectors for disease transmission, and causing or contributing to allergenic diseases. Mites which colonize human skin are the cause of several types of itchy skin rashes, such as gamasoidosis, rodent mite dermatitis, grain itch, grocer's itch, and scabies; Sarcoptes scabiei is a parasitic mite responsible for scabies, which is one of the three most common skin disorders in children. Demodex mites, which are common cause of mange in dogs and other domesticated animals, have also been implicated in the human skin disease rosacea, although the mechanism by which demodex contributes to the disease is unclear. Ticks are well known for carrying diseases, such as Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Chiggers are known primarily for their itchy bite, but they can also spread disease in some limited circumstances, such as scrub typhus. The house-mouse mite is the only known vector of the disease rickettsialpox. House dust mites, found in warm and humid places such as beds, cause several forms of allergic diseases, including hay fever, asthma and eczema, and are known to aggravate atopic dermatitis. Among domestic animals, sheep are affected by the mite Psoroptes ovis which lives on the skin, causing hypersensitivity and inflammation. Hay mites are a suspected reservoir for scrapie, a prion disease of sheep. In beekeeping The mite Varroa destructor is a serious pest of honey bees, contributing to colony collapse disorder in commercial hives. This organism is an obligate external parasite, able to reproduce only in bee colonies. It directly weakens its host by sucking up the bee's fat, and can spread RNA viruses including deformed wing virus. Heavy infestation causes the death of a colony, generally over the winter. Since 2006, over 10 million beehives have been lost. In culture Mites were first observed under the microscope by the English polymath Robert Hooke. In his 1665 book Micrographia, he stated that far from being spontaneously generated from dirt, they were "very prettily shap'd Insects". The world's first science documentary featured cheese mites, seen under the microscope; the short film was shown in London's Alhambra music hall in 1903, causing a boom in the sales of simple microscopes. A few years later, Arthur Conan Doyle wrote a satirical poem, Parable, with the conceit of some cheese mites disputing the origin of the round Cheddar cheese in which they all lived. See also Grain itch Grocer's itch Copra itch Gamasoidosis Chigger bite List of mites associated with cutaneous reactions References External links Bitingmites.org: What's biting you? Worldwide honey bee decline due to mite infestations – article, photographs Mites and Ticks chapter in United States Environmental Protection Agency and University of Florida/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences National Public Health Pesticide Applicator Training Manual Acari Paraphyletic groups Arthropod common names	[ 0.4200483560562134, 0.32595980167388916, -0.9702158570289612, -0.08090851455926895, -0.42606568336486816, 0.12713222205638885, 0.9152660965919495, 0.42182421684265137, 0.01217395905405283, -0.8732383847236633, 0.6635546088218689, 0.03718772530555725, -0.6869549751281738, 0.3780319392681122, -0.604638397693634, 0.766364336013794, -0.33043500781059265, 0.176675945520401, -0.43433913588523865, -0.015465499833226204, -0.19103586673736572, -0.7551870942115784, 0.6058289408683777, -0.24823641777038574, 0.10197796672582626, 0.2612098753452301, 0.02229585126042366, 0.6735053062438965, 0.252595990896225, -0.47101572155952454, -0.1982797384262085, 0.49359020590782166, 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217392	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable	Executable	In computing, executable code, an executable file, or an executable program, sometimes simply referred to as an executable or binary, causes a computer "to perform indicated tasks according to encoded instructions", as opposed to a data file that must be interpreted (parsed) by a program to be meaningful. The exact interpretation depends upon the use. "Instructions" is traditionally taken to mean machine code instructions for a physical CPU. In some contexts, a file containing scripting instructions (such as bytecode) may also be considered executable. Generation of executable files Executable files can be hand-coded in machine language, although it is far more convenient to develop software as source code in a high-level language that can be easily understood by humans. In some cases, source code might be specified in assembly language instead, which remains human-readable while being closely associated with machine code instructions. The high-level language is compiled into either an executable machine code file or a non-executable machine code – object file of some sort; the equivalent process on assembly language source code is called assembly. Several object files are linked to create the executable. Object files -- executable or not -- are typically stored in a container format, such as Executable and Linkable Format (ELF) or Portable Executable (PE) which is operating system-specific. This gives structure to the generated machine code, for example dividing it into sections such as .text (executable code), .data (initialized global and static variables), and .rodata (read-only data, such as constants and strings). Executable files typically also include a runtime system, which implements runtime language features (such as task scheduling, exception handling, calling static constructors and destructors, etc.) and interactions with the operating system, notably passing arguments, environment, and returning an exit status, together with other startup and shutdown features such as releasing resources like file handles. For C, this is done by linking in the crt0 object, which contains the actual entry point and does setup and shutdown by calling the runtime library. Executable files thus normally contain significant additional machine code beyond that directly generated from the specific source code. In some cases, it is desirable to omit this, for example for embedded systems development, or simply to understand how compilation, linking, and loading work. In C, this can be done by omitting the usual runtime, and instead explicitly specifying a linker script, which generates the entry point and handles startup and shutdown, such as calling main to start and returning exit status to the kernel at the end. Execution In order to be executed by the system (such as an operating system, firmware, or boot loader), an executable file must conform to the system's application binary interface (ABI). In simple interfaces, a file is executed by loading it into memory and jumping to the start of the address space and executing from there. In more complicated interfaces, executable files have additional metadata specifying a separate entry point. For example, in ELF, the entry point is specified in the header's e_entry field, which specifies the (virtual) memory address at which to start execution. In the GCC (GNU Compiler Collection) this field is set by the linker based on the _start symbol. See also Comparison of executable file formats Executable compression Executable text References External links EXE File Format at What Is Computer file systems Programming language implementation	[ -0.018006090074777603, 0.4108142554759979, -0.44048768281936646, 0.5185239911079407, 0.05648009106516838, -0.07197797298431396, 0.04339597374200821, 0.618281900882721, 0.16038697957992554, -0.612628698348999, -0.817072868347168, 0.48029500246047974, -0.35330358147621155, 0.0390821136534214, -0.31709182262420654, 0.11553426086902618, 0.7054495215415955, 0.5415962934494019, -0.25086840987205505, -0.3078838288784027, -0.6108554601669312, 0.06802274286746979, -0.5984705686569214, -0.6713762283325195, 0.5204333662986755, -0.2604790925979614, -0.2874433696269989, -0.37653931975364685, -0.6017705202102661, 0.15565253794193268, 0.059699248522520065, 0.06352593004703522, 0.16635844111442566, 0.08382023870944977, -0.17241796851158142, 0.24832820892333984, -0.02582681179046631, 0.17885451018810272, 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217394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavanify	Lavanify	Lavanify is a mammalian genus from the late Cretaceous (probably Maastrichtian, about 71 to 66 million years ago) of Madagascar. The only species, L. miolaka, is known from two isolated teeth, one of which is damaged. The teeth were collected in 1995–1996 and described in 1997. The animal is classified as a member of Gondwanatheria, an enigmatic extinct group with unclear phylogenetic relationships, and within Gondwanatheria as a member of the family Sudamericidae. Lavanify is most closely related to the Indian Bharattherium; the South American Sudamerica and Gondwanatherium are more distantly related. Gondwanatheres probably ate hard plant material. Lavanify had high-crowned, curved teeth. One of the two teeth is 11.2 mm high and shows a deep furrow and, is centered laterally in the crown, a V-shaped area that consists of dentine. The other, damaged, tooth is 9.8 mm high and has at least one deep cavity (infundibulum). Characters shared by the teeth of Lavanify and Bharattherium include the presence of an infundibulum and a furrow; they both also have large, continuous bands of matrix (unbundled hydroxyapatite crystals) between the prisms (bundles of hydroxyapatite crystals) of the enamel, and perikymata—wave-like ridges and grooves in the enamel surface. Discovery and context Two teeth of Lavanify were discovered in 1995–1996 during joint expeditions of the State University of New York, Stony Brook University, and the University of Antananarivo to the late Cretaceous (mostly Maastrichtian, about 71 to 66 million years ago [mya]) Maevarano Formation of northwestern Madagascar. The two teeth were found in different sites in a white sandstone unit of the Maevarano Formation near the village of Berivotra and have been deposited in the collections of the University of Antananarivo (specimen UA 8653) and Field Museum of Natural History (specimen FMNH PM 59520). David W. Krause and colleagues described Lavanify and a sudamericid from India, which they did not name, in a 1997 paper in Nature. These were the first gondwanathere mammals to be found outside of Argentina and provided evidence that the mammal faunas of the different Gondwanan (southern) continents were similar to each other. The generic name, Lavanify, means "long tooth" and the specific name, miolaka, means "curved" in Malagasy; both refer to the teeth's shape. Gondwanatheres are a small group of mammals of uncertain phylogenetic affinities known from the late Cretaceous to the Eocene (~56–34 mya) of the Gondwanan continents, known only from teeth and a few lower jaws. Upon their discovery in the 1980s, gondwanatheres were initially thought to be xenarthrans—part of the same group as living sloths, armadillos, and anteaters—but later workers have favored affinities with multituberculates (a diverse group of fossil mammals) or left the relationships of the gondwanatheres open. The group comprises two families. The family Ferugliotheriidae, whose members had low-crowned teeth, occurs in the Campanian (~84–71 mya) to Maastrichtian of Argentina. All other gondwanatheres, including Lavanify, are placed in the Sudamericidae, which have high-crowned (hypsodont) teeth. These include Gondwanatherium from the Campanian and Maastrichtian of Argentina; Sudamerica from the Paleocene (~66–56 mya) of Argentina; Lavanify; at least one species from the Maastrichtian of India; an unnamed species related to Sudamerica from the Eocene of Antarctica; and an unnamed possible gondwanathere, TNM 02067, from the Cretaceous of Tanzania. In 2007, teams led by G.P. Wilson and G.V.R. Prasad independently described this animal as Dakshina and Bharattherium respectively; as the latter name was published first, it is the correct name for this genus according to the Principle of Priority. Gondwanatheres have been interpreted as feeding on roots, bark, and abrasive vegetation or as the earliest grass-eating mammals. Several other mammals have been recorded from the late Cretaceous of Madagascar, mostly on the basis of isolated teeth. A possible second gondwanathere is represented by a tooth that is larger and lower-crowned than those of Lavanify, and a yet lower-crowned tooth may also be of a gondwanathere. A lower molar, UA 8699, may be of a marsupial or a placental and a molar fragment is referable to Multituberculata. Finally, an as-yet-undescribed mammal is known from a fairly complete skeleton. None of these mammals is related to the living mammals of the island, many of which belong to unique groups (see List of mammals of Madagascar). The fauna also contains crocodyliforms, dinosaurs, and other animals. Description Lavanify is known from the complete cheektooth UA 8653 and the broken tooth FMNH PM 59520. Krause and colleagues could not determine whether the teeth were from the lower or upper jaw and whether they were molars or molariform (molar-like) premolars, but suggested that they represented two different tooth positions. However, Wilson and colleagues in 2007 tentatively identified UA 8653 as a left fourth (last) lower molariform (mf4); because molars and premolars of gondwanatheres cannot be reliably distinguished, the term "molariform" is used instead. FMNH PM 59520 resembles the Gondwanatherium fossil MACN Pv-RN 1027, a broken tooth that may be an upper molariform. In both Lavanify teeth, the enamel surface features perikymata (ridges and grooves arranged in a transverse, wave-like pattern). UA 8653, the holotype, is hypsodont and curved. It is 11.2 mm high, of which the crown makes up about 85%, and the dimensions of its crown are 3.4 x 3.2 mm. The occlusal (chewing) surface is worn flat and contains a V-shaped island of dentine surrounded by enamel. One side of the crown lacks enamel. Between the two arms of the V, at the lingual (inner) side of the tooth, is a furrow filled with cementum, which extends all the way through the tooth; the presence of such a long furrow distinguishes it from Gondwanatherium. The enamel is made up of small, round prisms (bundles of hydroxyapatite crystals) that are separated by large, continuous bands of interprismatic matrix (IPM; the material between the enamel prisms). FMNH PM 59520 is 9.8 mm high. It is similar in many respects to UA 8653, but is less curved and its occlusal surface contains a large infundibulum (funnel-shaped cavity), filled with cementum and surrounded by enamel that penetrates deeply into the tooth. There is also either a second infundibulum or a cementum-filled furrow. The differences in degree of curvature and occlusal morphology suggest that this tooth represents a different tooth position than UA 8653. Krause and colleagues tentatively placed this tooth in Lavanify in view of the considerable variation among other gondwanathere teeth of a single species and in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Relationships In their original description, Krause and colleagues suggested that Lavanify was most closely related to the then-unnamed Indian sudamericid. They based this proposed relationship on the shared presence of prominent, continuous bands of IPM. The teams who named the Indian gondwanathere in 2007 both agreed with this proposed relationship. In their description of Dakshina, Wilson and colleagues added the presence of an infundibulum and of perikymata to the evidence for the relationship between the two. These three characters are synapomorphies (shared derived traits) for the Bharattherium-Lavanify clade. They also share the presence of furrows on the lingual side of the teeth only, but whether this is a derived feature is uncertain. Wilson and colleagues list two autapomorphies (unique derived traits) of Lavanify: presence of a V-shaped dentine island and absence of enamel on one side of the crown. Prasad and colleagues who named Bharattherium, noted the absence of enamel on part of the crown of a Bharattherium tooth and interpreted this trait as a synapomorphy of Bharattherium and Lavanify. They also mentioned the presence of a furrow and infundibulum as shared traits. References Literature cited Gurovich, Y. 2005. Bio-evolutionary aspects of Mesozoic mammals: description, phylogenetic relationships and evolution of the Gondwanatheria (Late Cretaceous and Paleocene of Gondwana). Ph.D. thesis, Universidad de Buenos Aires, xiii + 546 pp. Gurovich, Y. and Beck, R. 2009. The phylogenetic affinities of the enigmatic mammalian clade Gondwanatheria (subscription required). Journal of Mammalian Evolution 16:25–49. Krause, D.W., Prasad, G.V.R., von Koenigswald, W., Sahni, A. and Grine, F.E. 1997. Cosmopolitanism among gondwanan Late Cretaceous mammals (subscription required). Nature 390:504–507. Krause, D.W., O'Connor, P.M., Rogers, K.C., Sampson, S.D., Buckley, G.A. and Rogers, R.R. 2006. Late Cretaceous terrestrial vertebrates from Madagascar: Implications for Latin American biogeography (subscription required). Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 93(2):178–208. Prasad, G.V.R. 2008. Pp. 90–96 in Singhvi, A.K. and Bhattacharya, A. (eds.). Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India: The Indian Report to IUGS 2004–2008. New Delhi: The Indian National Science Academy (INSA). Prasad, G.V.R., Verma, O., Sahni, A., Krause, D.W., Khosla, A. and Parmar, V. 2007. A new late Cretaceous gondwanatherian mammal from central India. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy 73(1):17–24. Wilson, G.P., Das Sarma, D.C. and Anantharaman, S. 2007. Late Cretaceous sudamericid gondwanatherians from India with paleobiogeographic considerations of Gondwanan mammals (subscription required). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 27(2):521–531. Maevarano fauna Cretaceous mammals Fossil taxa described in 1997 Gondwanatheres Prehistoric animals of Madagascar Taxa named by David W. Krause Taxa named by Guntupalli Veera Raghavendra Prasad Taxa named by Wighart von Koenigswald Taxa named by Ashok Sahni Taxa named by Frederick E. 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217395	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuxhaven	Cuxhaven	Cuxhaven ( , ; ) is an independent town and seat of the Cuxhaven district, in Lower Saxony, Germany. The town includes the northernmost point of Lower Saxony. It is situated on the shore of the North Sea at the mouth of the Elbe River. Cuxhaven has a footprint of (east–west) by (north–south). Its town quarters Duhnen, Döse and Sahlenburg are especially popular vacation spots on the North Sea and home to about 52,000 residents. Cuxhaven is home to an important fisherman's wharf and ship registration point for Hamburg as well as the Kiel Canal until 2008. Tourism is also of great importance. The city and its precursor Ritzebüttel belonged to Hamburg from the 13th century until 1937. The island of Neuwerk, a Hamburg dependency, is located just northwest of Cuxhaven in the North Sea. The city's symbol, known as the Kugelbake, is a beacon once used as a lighthouse; the wooden landmark on the mouth of the Elbe marks the boundary between the river and the North Sea and also adorns the city's coat of arms. History Ritzebüttel, today a part of Cuxhaven, belonged to the Land of Hadeln, first an exclave of the younger Duchy of Saxony and after its de facto dynastic partition in 1296 of the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg, established de jure in 1260. In 1394 the city of Hamburg conquered the fortress of Ritzebüttel and made it its stronghold to protect the estuary of the river Elbe, which connects that city with the open sea. The Hamburg America Line built a large ocean liner terminal at Cuxhaven in 1900. Connected directly to Hamburg by a dedicated railway line and station, it served as the major departure point for German and European emigrants until 1969 when ocean liner travel ceased. The ornate assembly hall and associated buildings survived wartime damage and peacetime demolition to be restored in 1998 for use as a museum and cruise ship terminal. On 15 March 1907 Cuxhaven gained city status within the state of Hamburg. In 1937 Cuxhaven became an urban district of the Stade Region within the Prussian Province of Hanover by the Greater Hamburg Act. In 1972 some municipalities of the neighboured rural district of Land of Hadeln were incorporated into the urban district of Cuxhaven. In 1977 Cuxhaven lost the status as urban district and was integrated into the new rural District of Cuxhaven, being its capital. During the First World War Nordholz Airbase with its airship hangars, near Nordholz to the south of Cuxhaven, was one of the major Imperial German Navy airship stations. On Christmas Day 1914 it was attacked by Royal Navy seaplanes in the Cuxhaven Raid. It subsequently became a strategically important city as German authorities and civilians feared it would be the site of an Allied invasion. During the Second World War, the town hosted a base of a Wehrmacht radio network, codenamed BROWN, which transmitted data regarding experimental weapon developments, including rocketry. From this location the last ENIGMA-code encrypted message of the war was transmitted on 7 May 1945. It reported the arrival of British troops and ends: "Closing down for ever - all the best - goodbye." Between 1945 and 1964 the Hermann-Oberth-Gesellschaft performed various civilian experiments in rocketry near Cuxhaven. Tourism The origins of tourism go back to the year 1816 when a seaside resort was founded in Cuxhaven. Since 1964 Cuxhaven has been a state-recognized climate seaside resort (Seeheilbad) and centre of the so-called holiday region of Cuxland. Geographical and cultural background The town is served by Cuxhaven station. The island of Neuwerk is situated off the coast from Cuxhaven. At low tide the water recedes so far from the coast that the island can be reached either by mudflat hiking or by horse carriage. A modern landmark of Cuxhaven is the Friedrich-Clemens-Gerke Tower, a telecommunication tower built of concrete, which is not accessible to the public. It is not really a landmark, for many cities in Germany have a similar tower. The high-test peroxide (HTP) submarine U 1407, was raised from where she had been scuttled in Cuxhaven after WWII and rebuilt by the British, being commissioned as HMS Meteorite. It was the catalyst for a series of German-made Air-independent propulsion submarines such as the Type 212 submarine and Type 214 submarine. Twin towns – sister cities Cuxhaven is twinned with: Binz, Germany (1990) Hafnarfjörður, Iceland (1988) Penzance, England, United Kingdom (1967–1974, 2009–present) Sassnitz, Germany (1990) Vannes, France (1963) Notable people Carsten Niebuhr (1733–1815), mathematician, cartographer and explorer Joachim Ringelnatz (1883–1934), poet, cabaret artiste and painter. Since 2002 the city hosts the Joachim Ringelnatz-Museum, managed by the Joachim Ringelnatz-Foundation. Anna Strohsahl (1885–1953), first woman city councillor in Cuxhaven Curt Rothenberger (1896–1959), lawyer and Nazi politician Rainer Feist (1945–2007), Admiral, Deputy Supreme Commander of the NATO – HQ Jochen Fraatz (born 1963), handball player, member of the national team Gunnar Sauer (born 1964), footballer Stefanie Schneider (born 1968), photographer/artist Volker Neumüller (born 1969), music manager and former DSDS jury member Constantin Schreiber (born 1979), journalist and author Lena Petermann (born 1994), footballer See also Rocket experiments in the area of Cuxhaven Operation Backfire References External links Official site Operation "Backfire" and rocket experiments at Cuxhaven Panoramic views from Cuxhaven Further Tourist Information Rocket launch sites in Germany Towns in Lower Saxony Province of Hanover Populated places established in 1907 Port cities and towns in Germany Port cities and towns of the North Sea Seaside resorts in Germany	[ 0.07295206189155579, 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217398	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy%20Matrimony	Holy Matrimony	Holy matrimony is a phrase used to describe Christian marriage. It may also refer to: Holy Matrimony (1943 film), a comedy starring Monty Woolley and Gracie Fields Holy Matrimony (1994 film), a comedy directed by Leonard Nimoy "Holy Matrimony!", an episode of Pokemon "Holy Matrimony" (Brothers & Sisters episode), an episode of Brothers & Sisters	[ 0.003564513521268964, 0.4420567452907562, 0.4623865783214569, -0.3437122702598572, 0.051756422966718674, 0.040168676525354385, 0.562317430973053, 0.2467937469482422, -0.07354864478111267, -0.28948092460632324, -0.6124134063720703, 0.37820518016815186, 0.3609802722930908, 0.6358957886695862, -0.4082692861557007, 0.313873291015625, 0.2360897809267044, 1.1432833671569824, 0.11026562750339508, -1.0306589603424072, -0.06341838091611862, -0.4706789255142212, -0.157202810049057, -0.02261732518672943, 0.3106854557991028, -0.07454963773488998, 0.2226530909538269, -0.5648488998413086, -0.06387192010879517, -0.17024224996566772, 0.649735152721405, 0.7204532027244568, 0.4992823600769043, -0.16663654148578644, 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217399	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudamerica	Sudamerica	Sudamerica, literally "South America" in Spanish, is a genus of mammal from the extinct suborder Gondwanatheria that lived in Patagonia, Argentina (Salamanca Formation) and Antarctica (La Meseta Formation) from the Middle Paleocene (Peligran), just after the end of the "Age of Dinosaurs", to the Early Eocene (Casamayoran). Etymology The genus and species were named by Scillato-Yané and R. Pascual in 1984. The genus is also known by the synonym Sudamericana and the species epithet ameghinoi refers to notable Argentinian paleontologist Florentino Ameghino. Description Similar to Gondwanatherium, this genus had high-crowned teeth, which are very useful for eating grasses. Since there is no evidence of grass in South America until later, they must also have been effective for other types of food. Classification The type specimen of Sudamerica ameghinoi was discovered in Punta Peligro, Argentina in deposits dating to the Lower Paleocene period. In 1999, a near complete lower jaw (dentary) was found. The position of gondwanatherians within the class Mammalia is not yet clear. References Further reading Scillato-Yané, G.J. & Pascual, R.1985. Un peculiar Xenarthra del Paleoceno medio de Patagonia (Argentina). Su importancia en la sistemática de los Paratheria. Ameghiniana, 21: 316–318. Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell. (1997) "Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level". Columbia University Press. () Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Gondwanatheria, an Internet directory. Gondwanatheres Paleocene mammals Paleogene Antarctica Fossils of Antarctica Paleocene mammals of South America Cenozoic animals of Antarctica Casamayoran Riochican Itaboraian Peligran Paleogene Argentina Fossils of Argentina Fossil taxa described in 1984 Taxa named by Gustavo Juan Scillato-Yané Taxa named by Rosendo Pascual	[ -0.6451778411865234, -0.2626410722732544, 0.049644920974969864, 0.015838095918297768, 0.1381511688232422, -0.06699694693088531, -0.06654182076454163, 0.9337573647499084, -0.21577221155166626, -0.10521243512630463, 0.3792465925216675, 0.025005772709846497, 0.4084621071815491, 0.573102593421936, -0.18837355077266693, 0.9047213792800903, -0.29957377910614014, 0.5976585149765015, -0.09459302574396133, -0.32369011640548706, -0.23542091250419617, -0.3160654902458191, 0.2529195547103882, 0.09868839383125305, 0.40047940611839294, -0.5346296429634094, 0.219052255153656, 0.29600808024406433, 0.4971398413181305, -0.20691177248954773, -0.5836387276649475, 0.3116355538368225, 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217410	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ney	Ney	The ney (), is an end-blown flute that figures prominently in Middle Eastern music. In some of these musical traditions, it is the only wind instrument used. The ney has been played continually for 4,500–5,000 years, making it one of the oldest musical instruments still in use. The Arabs ney consists of a hollow cylinder with finger-holes. Sometimes a brass, horn, or plastic mouthpiece is placed at the top to protect the wood from damage, and to provide a sharper and more durable edge to blow at. The ney consists of a piece of hollow cane or giant reed with five or six finger holes and one thumb hole. Modern neys may be made instead of metal or plastic tubing. The pitch of the ney varies depending on the region and the finger arrangement. A highly skilled ney player, called neyzen, can reach more than three octaves, though it is more common to have several "helper" neys to cover different pitch ranges or to facilitate playing technically difficult passages in other dastgahs or maqams. In Romanian, this instrument is called "fluier", the word nai is applied to a curved pan flute while an end-blown flute resembling the Persian ney is referred to as caval. Typology The typical Persian ney has six holes, one of which is on the back. Arabic/Turkish neys(Mezmar) normally have seven holes, six in front and one thumb-hole in the back. The interval between the holes is a semitone, although microtones (and broader pitch inflections) are achieved via partial hole-covering, changes of embouchure, or positioning and blowing angle. Microtonal inflection is common and crucial to various traditions of taqsim (improvisation in the same scale before a piece is played). Neys are constructed in various keys. In the Arab system, there are seven common ranges: the longest and lowest-pitched is the Rast which is roughly equivalent to C in the Western equal temperament system, followed by the Dukah in D, the Busalik in E, the Jaharka in F, the Nawa in G, the Hussayni in A, and the Ajam in B (or B♭), with the Dukah Ney being the most common. Advanced players will typically own a set of several neys in various keys, although it is possible (albeit difficult) to play fully chromatically on any instrument. A slight exception to this rule is found in the extreme lowest range of the instrument, where the fingering becomes quite complex and the transition from the first octave (fundamental pitches) to the second is rather awkward. Kargı Düdük Gargy-tuyduk (Karghy tuiduk) is a long reed flute whose origin, according to legend, is connected with Alexander of Macedonia, and a similar instrument existed in ancient Egypt. Kargı in Turkish means reed (Arundo donax, also known as Giant reed). The sound of the gargy-tuyduk has much in common with the two-voiced kargyra. During the playing of the gargy-tuyduk the melody is clearly heard, while the lower droning sound is barely audible. The allay epic songs have been described by the Turkologist N. Baskakov who divides them into three main types: a) Kutilep kayla, in which the second sound is a light drone. b) Sygyrtzip kayla, with a second whistling sound like the sound of a flute. c) Kargyrlap kayla, in which the second sound can be defined as hissing. The sound of the Turkmen gargy-tuyduk is most like the Altay Kargyrkip kayla. The garg-tuyduk can have six finger holes and a length of 780 mm or five finger holes and a length of 550 mm. The range of the garg-tuyduk includes three registers: 1) The lowest register – "non-working" – is not used during the playing of a melody. 2) The same as on the "non-working" register but an octave higher. 3) High register from mi of the second octave to ti. The Pamiri Nay The Pamiri nay is a transverse flute made of wood or, in Eastern Badakhshan, eagle bone. Although the name is similar to the Arabic end-blown nay, it might well be that this side-blown flute is more related to Chinese flutes such as the dizi, perhaps through a Mongol link. It is used for solo melodies as well as with orchestras and for vocal accompaniment. One of the main uses of the nay is for the most original form of the traditional performance ‘falaki’. These are brief melodic sessions which can express complaints against destiny, the injustice of heaven or exile to distant places, and sentiments such as the sorrow of a mother separated from her daughter, the sorrow of a lover torn from her/his beloved, etc. Other forms with similar names The ney ( nej ) of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Karakalpakstan is a transverse flute that can be made of different materials, often indicated by a prefix in the name. The agach-nai is a wooden flute, the garau-nai a bamboo flute, the misnai a flute made of sheet iron and the brindgzhi-nai a brass flute . The Romanian pan flute nai consists of at least 20 to over 30 pipes closed at the bottom, which are connected to each other in a slight arc. See also Turkish ney Tambin, a similar sounding flute used in West Africa. Tsuur / Choor Kawala, a similar instrument used in Arabic music Persian traditional music Arabic Music Music of Iran Washint Dilli Ney References General bibliography Effat, Mahmoud (2005). Beginner's Guide to the Nay. Translated by Jon Friesen; originally published in Arabic in 1968. Pitchphork Music. . Marwan Hassan (2010). Kawala & Nay: Die Ur-Flöten der Menschheit: Bauen, stimmen, pflegen und spielen. [German: Explaining How to Build and Play the Kawala, Saluang, or Ghab and Ney-Flute] External links Arabic musical instruments Jordanian music Turkish musical instruments Iraqi music Lebanese musical instruments Palestinian music End-blown flutes Persian musical instruments Woodwind instruments Romanian musical instruments Moldovan musical instruments Syrian musical instruments Ancient Egyptian musical instruments Sufi music Emirati musical instruments Iranian inventions Bamboo flutes	[ -0.3047562539577484, 0.21709498763084412, -0.09437348693609238, -0.1609097272157669, 0.015061267651617527, 0.9010066986083984, -0.4038389027118683, 0.14467063546180725, -0.29794812202453613, -0.30882886052131653, 0.1735212355852127, 0.3042968511581421, 0.2358953207731247, 0.48508819937705994, -0.2418656200170517, 0.3615040183067322, 1.0326052904129028, -0.033979639410972595, -0.3461448848247528, -0.6774851679801941, 0.06017853319644928, -0.5178431868553162, 0.5325299501419067, 0.04417572170495987, 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217412	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldeck-Frankenberg	Waldeck-Frankenberg	Waldeck-Frankenberg is a Kreis (district) in the north of Hesse, Germany. Neighbouring districts are Höxter, Kassel, Schwalm-Eder, Marburg-Biedenkopf, Siegen-Wittgenstein, Hochsauerland. History The district was created in 1972 by merging the two districts of Frankenberg and Waldeck. Most of the area of the district was previously part of the Freistaat Waldeck, the successor of the principality of Waldeck. Geography The district is located in the mountains of the Sauerland, with the highest elevation in the district of . With , it's the largest district in Hessen. Four artificial lakes created by dams are in the district, the biggest is the Edersee, which covers an area of . The Eder is also the main river in the district; the Diemel in the north is a smaller river. Coat of arms Blason “Per bend sinister Azure a lion rampant issuant per fess Argent and Gules and Or a star with eight rays Sable.” The coat of arms shows the lion of Hesse in chief. The eight-fold star in base is taken from the coat of arms of the counts and princes of Waldeck, and was also the coat of arms of the former district of Waldeck. Towns and municipalities Towns Bad Arolsen Bad Wildungen Battenberg (Eder) Diemelstadt Frankenau Frankenberg (Eder) Gemünden (Wohra) Hatzfeld (Eder) Korbach Lichtenfels Rosenthal Volkmarsen Waldeck Municipalities Allendorf (Eder) Bromskirchen Burgwald Diemelsee Edertal Haina (Kloster) Twistetal Vöhl Willingen (Upland) References External links Official website (German) Districts of Hesse	[ -0.5218513607978821, 0.7509360909461975, 0.5073120594024658, -0.3311031460762024, -0.1393853724002838, 0.3350595533847809, 0.611142098903656, 0.299441397190094, -0.11815255880355835, -0.8586580753326416, -0.23525582253932953, -0.5210335850715637, -0.1267097443342209, 0.12458194047212601, 0.07688264548778534, 0.9093785881996155, 1.0064427852630615, 0.16732564568519592, -0.4226040244102478, -0.9276506304740906, -0.11627718806266785, -0.12127972394227982, 0.42778506875038147, 0.5081090331077576, -0.21841047704219818, -0.13904017210006714, 0.9014772772789001, -0.13780906796455383, 0.21350184082984924, 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217413	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchcock%20%28disambiguation%29	Hitchcock (disambiguation)	Alfred Hitchcock (1899–1980) was an English film director. Hitchcock may also refer to: People Hitchcock (surname) Places Hitchcock, Indiana, United States Hitchcock, South Dakota, United States Hitchcock, Texas, United States Hitchcock, Oklahoma, United States Hitchcock County, Nebraska, United States Lake Hitchcock, a former glacially-formed lake of New England Snell-Hitchcock Halls, two connected residence halls at the University of Chicago Other uses Hitchcock (film), a 2012 film about filmmaker Alfred Hitchcock Hitchcock (automobile), an American car manufactured in 1909 See also Hitchcockella	[ 0.04426071420311928, 0.2924076318740845, -0.6979490518569946, 0.04201294854283333, 0.1274716854095459, 0.036929260939359665, 0.5748518109321594, -0.6494531631469727, -0.41238728165626526, 0.25978896021842957, -0.17553620040416718, 0.33284828066825867, -0.3270244896411896, 0.3399035632610321, 0.4402092695236206, 0.1074281856417656, -0.5214694738388062, -0.2697380781173706, -0.46621790528297424, -0.2326093316078186, -0.3440077304840088, 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217414	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldeck	Waldeck	Waldeck may refer to: Places Canada Waldeck, Nova Scotia, rural community in Nova Scotia, Canada Waldeck, Saskatchewan, a village in Saskatchewan, Canada Europe Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont, a constituent state of the Weimar Republic Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont, a principality in the German Empire and German Confederation, and a state in the Weimar Republic Waldeck, Palatinate, a village in the Upper Palatinate, Bavaria, Germany Waldeck Castle (Upper Palatinate), the remains of a castle near the village Waldeck Castle (Hunsrück), a medieval fortress/castle in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany Waldeck-Eisenberg, a medieval principality of the Holy Roman Empire Waldeck-Frankenberg, a Kreis (district) in the north of Hesse, Germany Waldeck, Hesse, a town in Hesse, Germany Waldeck Castle (Waldeck), a medieval fortress/castle in Waldeck, Hesse, Germany Waldeck, Moselle, a hamlet in Lorraine, France Waldeck Castle (Lorraine), a medieval fortress/castle in Éguelshardt, Lorraine, France Waldeck, historical German name of Orava Commune in Estonia Waldeck, The Hague, a neighbourhood in The Hague Waldeck, Thuringia, a small municipality in Thuringia, Germany United States Waldeck, Kansas, a ghost town in Kansas, United States Waldeck, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community in Pennsylvania, United States Waldeck, Texas, an unincorporated community in Texas, United States People Adolf II of Waldeck (c 1250–1302), count of Waldeck and prince bishop of Liège Benedict Waldeck, deputy in the Prussian National Assembly Christian August, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1744–1798), general in the Austrian service, and last Commander and Field Marshal of the Portuguese land army Christian Louis, Count of Waldeck (1635–1706), Count of Waldeck-Wildungen and Count of Waldeck and Pyrmont Count Ludwig Joseph von Boos-Waldeck (1798–1880), German noble who promoted the settling of Texas by Germans Countess Magdalena of Waldeck (1558–1599), daughter of Philip IV of Waldeck-Wildungen Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1858–1934), Queen Consort and Regent of the Netherlands Franz von Waldeck (1491–1553), Prince-Bishop of Münster, Osnabrück, and Minden Friedrich Anton Ulrich, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1676–1728), first reigning Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont Friedrich Karl August, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1743–1812), Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont Friedrich, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1865–1946), the last reigning Prince of the German state of Waldeck and Pyrmont George I, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1747–1813), German Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont George II, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1789–1845), German Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont George Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1831–1893), 3rd sovereign Prince of the German state of Waldeck and Pyrmont Henry VII, Count of Waldeck (died after 1442), Count of Waldeck Jean-Frédéric Waldeck (c. 1766–1875), French antiquarian, cartographer, artist and explorer Josias, Hereditary Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1896–1967), German heir apparent to the throne of the Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont and a General in the SS Karl August, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1704–1763), Commander of the Dutch forces in the War of Austrian Succession Klaus Waldeck, Austrian musician Philip III, Count of Waldeck (1486–1539), Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg Philip IV, Count of Waldeck (1493–1574), Count of Waldeck-Wildungen Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau (1846–1904), French Republican statesman Prince Georg Friedrich of Waldeck (1620–1692), German and Dutch Field Marshal Prince Wolrad of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1892–1914), youngest child of George Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont Princess Caroline of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1748–1782), Duchess consort of Courland Princess Elisabeth of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1873–1961), youngest daughter of George Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1861–1922), German-born princess, a member of the British Royal Family by marriage Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1899–1948), only daughter of Friedrich, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont Princess Hermine of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1827–1910), second daughter of George II, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont Princess Ida of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1796–1869), member of the House of Waldeck and Pyrmont and a Princess of Waldeck and Pyrmont, Germany Princess Marie of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1857–1882), third daughter of George Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont Princess Pauline of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1855–1925), member of the House of Waldeck and Pyrmont and a Princess of Waldeck and Pyrmont R. G. Waldeck (1898–1982), also known as Rosie Waldeck, German-born American author René Waldeck-Rousseau, father (1809–1882), French politician Sophie of Waldeck (1662–1702), Princess of Waldech by birth and by marriage Duchess of Saxe-Hildburghausen, Germany Waldeck L'Huillier (1905–1986), a French politician. Waldeck Rochet (1905–1983), French politician Wittekind, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont (born 1936), head of the House of Waldeck and Pyrmont Wolrad I, Count of Waldeck (1399–1475), son of Count Henry VII of Waldeck	[ 0.20176824927330017, 0.20463374257087708, 0.2738654911518097, 0.15832968056201935, 0.35838544368743896, 0.06594323366880417, 0.605245053768158, 0.3144350051879883, -0.1833912432193756, -0.7279804944992065, -0.5251141786575317, -0.31613343954086304, -0.41891053318977356, 0.5230851769447327, -0.2757420837879181, 0.6828315258026123, 0.6264866590499878, 0.5759677886962891, -0.24137835204601288, -0.7795055508613586, -0.19019179046154022, -0.1013716608285904, 0.38439783453941345, 0.23279273509979248, 0.45288223028182983, 0.09523498266935349, 1.2338670492172241, 0.21853305399417877, -0.3204725980758667, 0.7462910413742065, -0.18618831038475037, 0.7529425024986267, -0.35045620799064636, 0.08460110425949097, -0.17980828881263733, 0.022945504635572433, -0.25119146704673767, 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