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216858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lund%20School%20of%20Economics%20and%20Management | Lund School of Economics and Management | The Lund University School of Economics and Management (LUSEM) or Ekonomihögskolan i Lund is a business school at Lund University in Lund, Sweden. The educational quality is certified by EQUIS, AMBA, and AACSB.
It was founded and financed by Holger Crafoord.
Rankings
Lund University is highly ranked in international comparisons. Lund University is consistently ranked among the Times Higher Education World University Rankings in recent years. In 2019, Lund University was placed 98th, and in the Business and Economics ranking LUSEM was placed 80th.
Education
The Lund University School of Economics and Management offers the following Bachelor of Science programs:
Business and Economics
Information Systems
International Business
Economy and Society
The Lund University School of Economics and Management offers the following Master of Science programs:
Accounting and Auditing
Data Analytics and Business Economics
Economic Development and Growth
Economic Growth, Population and Development
Economics
Entrepreneurship and Innovation
European and International Trade and Tax Law
Finance
Information Systems
Innovation and Global Sustainable Development
International Marketing and Brand Management
International Strategic Management
Management
Managing People, Knowledge and Change
Student organizations
LINC - Lund University Finance Society, established in 1991, is the primary society for students interested in finance at Lund University. In 2019, LINC had a total of 1,800 members. LINC is the leading finance society in Sweden and one of the most prominent organizations of its kind in Northern Europe. The organization aims to provide members with a skillset to pursue a successful career in finance.
LINC has a strong heritage, noteworthy alumni at top financial institutions, and a successful track record of organizing finance-related events including Investment Banking Forum.
Notable alumni
Sven Otto Littorin, Former Minister for Employment (has not graduated)
Mikael Eriksson, CEO ÖhrlingsPricewaterhouseCoopers Sweden
Bertil Ohlin, developed the Heckscher-Ohlin model on international trade and received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1977.
Torsten Lyth, CEO Ernst & Young Sweden
Eva Rooth, CEO Feelgood
Christian W. Jansson, CEO Kappahl
Lars-Johan Jarnheimer, CEO Tele2
Anders Lidbeck, CEO Telelogic
Bo Strandberg, CEO AddNode
Joen Magnusson, CEO Beijer
Sten K. Johnson, CEO Midway Holding AB
Fredrik Palmstierna, CEO SäkI AB
Fredrik Arp, former CEO Volvo Personvagnar AB
Hans Pihl, CEO Deloitte Sweden
Håkan Jeppsson, CEO Inwido
See also
List of business schools in Scandinavia
List of universities in Sweden
References
External links
Lund University School of Economics and Management - Official site
University departments in Sweden
Lund University
Business schools in Sweden | [
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|
216861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroecosystem | Agroecosystem | An agroecosystem is the basic unit of study in agroecology, and is somewhat arbitrarily defined as a spatially and functionally coherent unit of agricultural activity, and includes the living and nonliving components involved in that unit as well as their interactions.
An agroecosystem can be viewed as a subset of a conventional ecosystem. As the name implies, at the core of an agroecosystem lies the human activity of agriculture. However, an agroecosystem is not restricted to the immediate site of agricultural activity (e.g. the farm), but rather includes the region that is impacted by this activity, usually by changes to the complexity of species assemblages and energy flows, as well as to the net nutrient balance. Traditionally an agroecosystem, particularly one managed intensively, is characterized as having a simpler species composition and simpler energy and nutrient flows than "natural" ecosystem. Likewise, agroecosystems are often associated with elevated nutrient input, much of which exits the farm leading to eutrophication of connected ecosystems not directly engaged in agriculture.
Utilization
Forest gardens are probably the world's oldest and most resilient agroecosystem. Forest gardens originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions. In the gradual process of a family improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected and improved whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior foreign species were selected and incorporated into the family's garden.
Some major organizations are hailing farming within agroecosystems as the way forward for mainstream agriculture. Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. According to a report by the International Water Management Institute and the United Nations Environment Programme, there is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. The report suggested assigning value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests, as well addressing inequities that sometimes result when such measures are adopted, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for
more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.
One of the major efforts of disciplines such as agroecology is to promote management styles that blur the distinction between agroecosystems and "natural" ecosystems, both by decreasing the impact of agriculture (increasing the biological and trophic complexity of the agricultural system as well as decreasing the nutrient inputs/outflow) and by increasing awareness that "downstream" effects extend agroecosystems beyond the boundaries of the farm (e.g. the Corn Belt agroecosystem includes the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico). In the first case, polyculture or buffer strips for wildlife habitat can restore some complexity to a cropping system, while organic farming can reduce nutrient inputs. Efforts of the second type are most common at the watershed scale. An example is the National Association of Conservation Districts' Lake Mendota Watershed Project, which seeks to reduce runoff from the agricultural lands feeding into the lake with the aim of reducing algal blooms.
See also
Agriculture
Agriculture in Concert with the Environment
Agroecological restoration
Agroecology
Agroecosystem analysis
Agrophysics
Ecology of contexts
Long-Term Agroecosystem Research Network
Polyculture
Further reading
References
Ecosystems
Sustainable agriculture
Environmental impact of agriculture | [
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216862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20colonial%20empire | French colonial empire | The French colonial empire () comprised the overseas colonies, protectorates and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. A distinction is generally made between the "First French Colonial Empire", that existed until 1814, by which time most of it had been lost or sold, and the "Second French Colonial Empire", which began with the conquest of Algiers in 1830. At its apex, the Second French colonial empire was one of the largest empires in history. Including metropolitan France, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached in 1920, with a population of 110 million people in 1936.
France began to establish colonies in North America, the Caribbean and India in the 17th century but lost most of its possessions following its defeat in the Seven Years' War. The North American possessions were lost to Britain and Spain but the latter returned Louisiana (New France) to France in 1800. The territory was then sold to the United States in 1803. France rebuilt a new empire mostly after 1850, concentrating chiefly in Africa as well as Indochina and the South Pacific. As it developed, the new French empire took on roles of trade with the motherland, supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items. Rebuilding an empire rebuilt French prestige, especially regarding international power and spreading the French language and the Catholic religion. It also provided manpower in the World Wars.
A major goal was the or "The Civilizing Mission". 'Civilizing' the populations of Africa through spreading language and religion, were used as justifications for many of the practices that came with the French colonial project. In 1884, the leading proponent of colonialism, Jules Ferry, declared; "The higher races have a right over the lower races, they have a duty to civilize the inferior races." Full citizenship rights – – were offered, although in reality "assimilation was always receding [and] the colonial populations treated like subjects not citizens." France sent small numbers of settlers to its empire, with the notable exception of Algeria, where the French settlers took power while being a minority.
In World War II, Charles de Gaulle and the Free French took control of the overseas colonies one-by-one and used them as bases from which they prepared to liberate France. Historian Tony Chafer argues: "In an effort to restore its world-power status after the humiliation of defeat and occupation, France was eager to maintain its overseas empire at the end of the Second World War." However, after 1945 anti-colonial movements began to challenge European authority. Major revolts in Indochina and Algeria proved very expensive and France lost both colonies. Then followed a relatively peaceful decolonization elsewhere after 1960. The French Constitution of 27 October 1946 (Fourth Republic), established the French Union which endured until 1958. Newer remnants of the colonial empire were integrated into France as overseas departments and territories within the French Republic. These now total altogether 119,394 km2 (46,098 sq. miles), with 2.7 million people in 2013. By the 1960s, says Robert Aldrich, the last "vestiges of empire held little interest for the French." He argues, "Except for the traumatic decolonization of Algeria, however, what is remarkable is how few long-lasting effects on France the giving up of empire entailed." Nevertheless, French colonization dramatically impacted its colonies through policies and systems that entrenched internal strife, lack of economic diversity, aid dependency, and loss of cultural treasures. Links between France and its former colonies persist through La francophonie, the CFA franc and military operations such as Operation Serval.
History
First French colonial empire
The Americas
During the 16th century, the French colonization of the Americas began. Excursions of Giovanni da Verrazzano and Jacques Cartier in the early 16th century, as well as the frequent voyages of French boats and fishermen to the Grand Banks off Newfoundland throughout that century, were the precursors to the story of France's colonial expansion. But Spain's defense of its American monopoly, and the further distractions caused in France itself in the later 16th century by the French Wars of Religion, prevented any constant efforts by France to settle colonies. Early French attempts to found colonies in Brazil, in 1555 at Rio de Janeiro ("France Antarctique") and in Florida (including Fort Caroline in 1562), and in 1612 at São Luís ("France Équinoxiale"), were not successful, due to a lack of official interest and to Portuguese and Spanish vigilance.
The story of France's colonial empire truly began on 27 July 1605, with the foundation of Port Royal in the colony of Acadia in North America, in what is now Nova Scotia, Canada. A few years later, in 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec, which was to become the capital of the enormous, but sparsely settled, fur-trading colony of New France (also called Canada).
New France had a rather small population, which resulted from more emphasis being placed on the fur trade rather than agricultural settlements. Due to this emphasis, the French relied heavily on creating friendly contacts with the local First Nations community. Without the appetite of New England for land, and by relying solely on Aboriginals to supply them with fur at the trading posts, the French composed a complex series of military, commercial, and diplomatic connections. These became the most enduring alliances between the French and the First Nation community. The French were, however, under pressure from religious orders to convert them to Catholicism.
Through alliances with various Native American tribes, the French were able to exert a loose control over much of the North American continent. Areas of French settlement were generally limited to the St. Lawrence River Valley. Prior to the establishment of the 1663 Sovereign Council, the territories of New France were developed as mercantile colonies. It is only after the arrival of intendant Jean Talon in 1665 that France gave its American colonies the proper means to develop population colonies comparable to that of the British. Acadia itself was lost to the British in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Back in France, there was relatively little interest in colonialism, which concentrated rather on dominance within Europe, and for most of its history, New France was far behind the British North American colonies in both population and economic development.
In 1699, French territorial claims in North America expanded still further, with the foundation of Louisiana in the basin of the Mississippi River. The extensive trading network throughout the region connected to Canada through the Great Lakes, was maintained through a vast system of fortifications, many of them centred in the Illinois Country and in present-day Arkansas.
As the French empire in North America grew, the French also began to build a smaller but more profitable empire in the West Indies. Settlement along the South American coast in what is today French Guiana began in 1624, and a colony was founded on Saint Kitts in 1625 (the island had to be shared with the English until the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, when it was ceded outright). The Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique founded colonies in Guadeloupe and Martinique in 1635, and a colony was later founded on Saint Lucia by (1650). The food-producing plantations of these colonies were built and sustained through slavery, with the supply of slaves dependent on the African slave trade. Local resistance by the indigenous peoples resulted in the Carib Expulsion of 1660. France's most important Caribbean colonial possession was established in 1664, when the colony of Saint-Domingue (today's Haiti) was founded on the western half of the Spanish island of Hispaniola. In the 18th century, Saint-Domingue grew to be the richest sugar colony in the Caribbean. The eastern half of Hispaniola (today's Dominican Republic) also came under French rule for a short period, after being given to France by Spain in 1795.
Africa and Asia
French colonial expansion was not limited to the New World.
With the end of the French Wars of Religion, King Henry IV encouraged various enterprises, set up to develop trade with faraway lands. In December 1600, a company was formed through the association of Saint-Malo, Laval, and Vitré to trade with the Moluccas and Japan. Two ships, the Croissant and the Corbin, were sent around the Cape of Good Hope in May 1601. One was wrecked in the Maldives, leading to the adventure of François Pyrard de Laval, who managed to return to France in 1611. The second ship, carrying François Martin de Vitré, reached Ceylon and traded with Aceh in Sumatra, but was captured by the Dutch on the return leg at Cape Finisterre. François Martin de Vitré was the first Frenchman to write an account of travels to the Far East in 1604, at the request of Henry IV, and from that time numerous accounts on Asia would be published.
From 1604 to 1609, following the return of François Martin de Vitré, Henry developed a strong enthusiasm for travel to Asia and attempted to set up a French East India Company on the model of England and the Netherlands.<ref>A history of modern India, 1480–1950, Claude Markovits p. 144: The account of the experiences of François Martin de Vitré "incited the king to create a company in the image of that of the United Provinces"</ref> On 1 June 1604, he issued letters patent to Dieppe merchants to form the Dieppe Company, giving them exclusive rights to Asian trade for 15 years. No ships were sent, however, until 1616. In 1609, another adventurer, Pierre-Olivier Malherbe, returned from a circumnavigation of the globe and informed Henry of his adventures. He had visited China and India and had an encounter with Akbar.
In Senegal in West Africa, the French began to establish trading posts along the coast in 1624.
In 1664, the French East India Company was established to compete for trade in the east.
Colonies were established in India's Chandernagore (1673) and Pondichéry in the south east (1674), and later at Yanam (1723), Mahe (1725), and Karikal (1739) (see French India). Colonies were also founded in the Indian Ocean, on the Île de Bourbon (Réunion, 1664), Isle de France (Mauritius, 1718), and the Seychelles (1756).
Colonial conflict with Britain
In the middle of the 18th century, a series of colonial conflicts began between France and Britain, which ultimately resulted in the destruction of most of the first French colonial empire and the near-complete expulsion of France from the Americas. These wars were the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), the American Revolution (1775–1783), the French Revolutionary Wars (1793–1802) and the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). It may even be seen further back in time to the first of the French and Indian Wars. This cyclic conflict is sometimes known as the Second Hundred Years' War.
Although the War of the Austrian Succession was indecisive – despite French successes in India under the French Governor-General Joseph François Dupleix and Europe under Marshal Saxe – the Seven Years' War, after early French successes in Menorca and North America, saw a French defeat, with the numerically superior British (over one million to about 50 thousand French settlers) conquering not only New France (excluding the small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon), but also most of France's West Indian (Caribbean) colonies, and all of the French Indian outposts.
While the peace treaty saw France's Indian outposts, and the Caribbean islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe restored to France, the competition for influence in India had been won by the British, and North America was entirely lost – most of New France was taken by Britain (also referred to as British North America), except Louisiana, which France ceded to Spain as payment for Spain's late entrance into the war (and as compensation for Britain's annexation of Spanish Florida). Also ceded to the British were Grenada and Saint Lucia in the West Indies. Although the loss of Canada would cause much regret in future generations, it excited little unhappiness at the time; colonialism was widely regarded as both unimportant to France, and immoral.
Some recovery of the French colonial empire was made during the French intervention in the American Revolution, with Saint Lucia being returned to France by the Treaty of Paris in 1783, but not nearly as much as had been hoped for at the time of French intervention. True disaster came to what remained of France's colonial empire in 1791 when Saint Domingue (the Western third of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola), France's richest and most important colony, was riven by a massive slave revolt, caused partly by the divisions among the island's elite, which had resulted from the French Revolution of 1789.
The slaves, led eventually by Toussaint L'Ouverture and then, following his capture by the French in 1801, by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, held their own against French and British opponents. The French launched a failed expedition in 1802, and were up against a crippling Royal Naval blockade the following year - as a result the Empire of Haiti ultimately achieved independence in 1804 (Haiti became the first black republic in the world, followed by Liberia in 1847). The black and mulatto population of the island (including the Spanish east) had declined from 700,000 in 1789 to 351,819 in 1804. About 80,000 Haitians died in the 1802–03 campaign alone. Of the 55,131 French soldiers dispatched to Haiti in 1802–03, 45,000, including 18 generals, had died, along with 10,000 sailors, the great majority from disease. Captain [first name unknown] Sorrell of the British navy observed, "France lost there one of the finest armies she ever sent forth, composed of picked veterans, the conquerors of Italy and of German legions. She is now entirely deprived of her influence and her power in the West Indies."
In the meanwhile, the newly resumed war with Britain by the French, resulted in the British capture of practically all remaining French colonies. These were restored at the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, but when war resumed in 1803, the British soon recaptured them. France's repurchase of Louisiana in 1800 came to nothing, as the success of the Haitian Revolution convinced Napoleon that holding Louisiana would not be worth the cost, leading to its sale to the United States in 1803. The French attempt to establish a colony in Egypt in 1798–1801 was not successful. Battle casualties for the campaign were at least 15,000 killed or wounded and 8,500 prisoners for France; 50,000 killed or wounded and 15,000 prisoners for Turkey, Egypt, other Ottoman lands, and Britain.
Second French colonial empire (after 1830)
At the close of the Napoleonic Wars, most of France's colonies were restored to it by Britain, notably Guadeloupe and Martinique in the West Indies, French Guiana on the coast of South America, various trading posts in Senegal, the Île Bourbon (Réunion) in the Indian Ocean, and France's tiny Indian possessions; however, Britain finally annexed Saint Lucia, Tobago, the Seychelles, and the Isle de France (now Mauritius).
In 1825 Charles X sent an expedition to Haïti, resulting in the Haiti indemnity controversy.
The beginnings of the second French colonial empire were laid in 1830 with the French invasion of Algeria, which was conquered over the next 17 years. One authority counts 825,000 Algerian victims of the French conquest.
Franco-Tahitian War (1842–1847)
In 1838, the French naval commander Abel Aubert du Petit-Thouars responded to complaints of the mistreatment of French Catholic missionary in the Kingdom of Tahiti ruled by Queen Pōmare IV. Dupetit Thouars forced the native government to pay an indemnity and sign a treaty of friendship with France respecting the rights of French subjects in the islands including any future Catholic missionaries. Four years later, claiming the Tahitians had violated the treaty, a French protectorate was forcibly installed and the queen made to sign a request for French protection.
Queen Pōmare left her kingdom and exiled herself to Raiatea in protest against the French and tried to enlist the help of Queen Victoria. The Franco-Tahitian War broke out between the Tahitian people and the French from 1844 to 1847 as France attempted to consolidate their rule and extend their rule into the Leeward Islands where Queen Pōmare sought refuge with her relatives. The British remained officially neutral during the war but diplomatic tensions existed between the French and British. The French succeeded in subduing the guerilla forces on Tahiti but failed to hold the other islands. In February 1847, Queen Pōmare IV returned from her self-imposed exile and acquiesced to rule under the protectorate. Although victorious, the French were not able to annex the islands due to diplomatic pressure from Great Britain, so Tahiti and its dependency Moorea continued to be ruled under the protectorate. A clause to the war settlement, known as the Jarnac Convention or the Anglo-French Convention of 1847, was signed by France and Great Britain, in which the two powers agreed to respect the independence of Queen Pōmare's allies in Leeward Islands. The French continued the guise of protection until the 1880s when they formally annexed Tahiti with the abdication of King Pōmare V on 29 June 1880. The Leeward Islands were annexed through the Leewards War which ended in 1897. These conflicts and the annexation of other Pacific islands formed French Oceania.
Napoleon III: 1852–1870
Napoleon III doubled the area of the French overseas Empire; he established French rule in New Caledonia, and Cochinchina, established a protectorate in Cambodia (1863); and colonized parts of Africa.
To carry out his new overseas projects, Napoleon III created a new Ministry of the Navy and the Colonies and appointed an energetic minister, Prosper, Marquis of Chasseloup-Laubat, to head it. A key part of the enterprise was the modernization of the French Navy; he began the construction of 15 powerful new battle cruisers powered by steam and driven by propellers; and a fleet of steam-powered troop transports. The French Navy became the second most powerful in the world, after Britain's. He also created a new force of colonial troops, including elite units of naval infantry, Zouaves, the Chasseurs d'Afrique, and Algerian sharpshooters, and he expanded the Foreign Legion, which had been founded in 1831 and won fame in the Crimea, Italy and Mexico. By the end of Napoleon III's reign, the French overseas territories had tripled in the area; in 1870 they covered a , with more than 5 million inhabitants.
New Caledonia becomes a French possession (1853–54)
On 24 September 1853, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouméa) was founded 25 June 1854. A few dozen free settlers settled on the west coast in the following years, but New Caledonia became a penal colony and, from the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897, about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners were sent to New Caledonia.
Colonization of Senegal (1854–1865)
At the beginning of Napoleon III's reign, the presence of France in Senegal was limited to a trading post on the island of Gorée, a narrow strip on the coast, the town of Saint-Louis, and a handful of trading posts in the interior. The economy had largely been based on the slave trade, carried out by the rulers of the small kingdoms of the interior, until France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1848. In 1854, Napoleon III named an enterprising French officer, Louis Faidherbe, to govern and expand the colony, and to give it the beginning of a modern economy. Faidherbe built a series of forts along the Senegal River, formed alliances with leaders in the interior, and sent expeditions against those who resisted French rule. He built a new port at Dakar, established and protected telegraph lines and roads, followed these with a rail line between Dakar and Saint-Louis and another into the interior. He built schools, bridges, and systems to supply fresh water to the towns. He also introduced the large-scale cultivation of Bambara groundnuts and peanuts as a commercial crop. Reaching into the Niger valley, Senegal became the primary French base in West Africa and a model colony. Dakar became one of the most important cities of the French Empire and of Africa.
France in Indochina and the Pacific (1858–1870)
Napoleon III also acted to increase the French presence in Indochina. An important factor in his decision was the belief that France risked becoming a second-rate power by not expanding its influence in East Asia. Deeper down was the sense that France owed the world a civilizing mission.
French missionaries had been active in Vietnam since the 17th century, when the Jesuit priest Alexandre de Rhodes opened a mission there. In 1858 the Vietnamese emperor of the Nguyen Dynasty felt threatened by the French influence and tried to expel the missionaries. Napoleon III sent a naval force of fourteen gunships, carrying three thousand French and three thousand Filipino troops provided by Spain, under Charles Rigault de Genouilly, to compel the government to accept the missionaries and to stop the persecution of Catholics. In September 1858 the expeditionary force captured and occupied the port of Da Nang, and then in February 1859 moved south and captured Saigon. The Vietnamese ruler was compelled to cede three provinces to France, and to offer protection to the Catholics. The French troops departed for a time to take part in the expedition to China, but in 1862, when the agreements were not fully followed by the Vietnamese emperor, they returned. The Emperor was forced to open treaty ports in Annam and Tonkin, and all of Cochinchina became a French territory in 1864.
In 1863, the ruler of Cambodia, King Norodom, who had been placed in power by the government of Thailand, rebelled against his sponsors and sought the protection of France. The Thai king granted authority over Cambodia to France, in exchange for two provinces of Laos, which were ceded by Cambodia to Thailand. In 1867, Cambodia formally became a protectorate of France.
Intervention in Syria and Lebanon (1860–1861)
In the spring of 1860, a war broke out in Lebanon, then part of the Ottoman Empire, between the quasi-Muslim Druze population and the Maronite Christians. The Ottoman authorities in Lebanon could not stop the violence, and it spread into neighboring Syria, with the massacre of many Christians. In Damascus, the Emir Abd-el-Kadr protected the Christians there against the Muslim rioters. Napoleon III felt obliged to intervene on behalf of the Christians, despite the opposition of London, which feared it would lead to a wider French presence in the Middle East. After long and difficult negotiations to obtain the approval of the British government, Napoleon III sent a French contingent of seven thousand men for a period of six months. The troops arrived in Beirut in August 1860, and took positions in the mountains between the Christian and Muslim communities. Napoleon III organized an international conference in Paris, where the country was placed under the rule of a Christian governor named by the Ottoman Sultan, which restored a fragile peace. The French troops departed in June 1861, after just under one year. The French intervention alarmed the British, but was highly popular with the powerful Catholic political faction in France, which had been alarmed by Louis Napoleon's dispute with the Pope over his territories in Italy.
Algeria
Algeria had been formally under French rule since 1830, but only in 1852 was the country entirely conquered. There were about 100,000 European settlers in the country, at that time, about half of them French. Under the Second Republic the country was ruled by a civilian government, but Louis Napoleon re-established a military government, much to the annoyance of the colonists. By 1857 the army had conquered Kabyle Province, and pacified the country. By 1860 the European population had grown to 200,000, and lands of native Algerians were being rapidly bought and farmed by the new arrivals.
Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians, out of a total of 3 million, were killed within the first three decades of the conquest as a result of war, massacres, disease and famine. French losses from 1830 to 1851 were 3,336 killed in action and 92,329 dead in the hospital.
In the first eight years of his rule Napoleon III paid little attention to Algeria. In September 1860, however, he and the Empress Eugénie visited Algeria, and the trip made a deep impression upon them. Eugénie was invited to attend a traditional Arab wedding, and the Emperor met many of the local leaders. The Emperor gradually conceived the idea that Algeria should be governed differently from other colonies. In February 1863, he wrote a public letter to Pelissier, the Military Governor, saying: "Algeria is not a colony in the traditional sense, but an Arab kingdom; the local people have, like the colonists, a legal right to my protection. I am just as much the Emperor of the Arabs of Algeria as I am of the French." He intended to rule Algeria through a government of Arab aristocrats. Toward this end he invited the chiefs of main Algerian tribal groups to his chateau at Compiegne for hunting and festivities.
Compared to previous administrations, Napoleon III was far more sympathetic to the native Algerians. He halted European migration inland, restricting them to the coastal zone. He also freed the Algerian rebel leader Abd al Qadir (who had been promised freedom on surrender but was imprisoned by the previous administration) and gave him a stipend of 150,000 francs. He allowed Muslims to serve in the military and civil service on theoretically equal terms and allowed them to migrate to France. In addition, he gave the option of citizenship; however, for Muslims to take this option they had to accept all of the French civil code, including parts governing inheritance and marriage which conflicted with Muslim laws, and they had to reject the competence of religious Sharia courts. This was interpreted by some Muslims as requiring them to give up parts of their religion to obtain citizenship and was resented.
More importantly, Napoleon III changed the system of land tenure. While ostensibly well-intentioned, in effect this move destroyed the traditional system of land management and deprived many Algerians of land. While Napoleon did renounce state claims to tribal lands, he also began a process of dismantling tribal land ownership in favour of individual land ownership. This process was corrupted by French officials sympathetic to the French in Algeria who took much of the land they surveyed into public domain. In addition, many tribal leaders, chosen for loyalty to the French rather than influence in their tribe, immediately sold communal land for cash.
His attempted reforms were interrupted in 1864 by an Arab insurrection, which required more than a year and an army of 85,000 soldiers to suppress. Nonetheless, he did not give up his idea of making Algeria a model where French colonists and Arabs could live and work together as equals. He traveled to Algiers for a second time on 3 May 1865, and this time he remained for a month, meeting with tribal leaders and local officials. He offered a wide amnesty to participants of the insurrection, and promised to name Arabs to high positions in his government. He also promised a large public works program of new ports, railroads, and roads. However, once again his plans met a major natural obstacle in 1866 and 1867, Algeria was struck by an epidemic of cholera, clouds of locusts, drought and famine, and his reforms were hindered by the French colonists, who voted massively against him in the plebiscites of his late reign.
French–British relations
Despite the signing of the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier Treaty, a historic free trade agreement between Britain and France, and the joint operations conducted by France and Britain in the Crimea, China and Mexico, diplomatic relations between Britain and France never became close during the colonial era. Lord Palmerston, the British foreign minister from 1846 to 1851 and prime minister from 1855 to 1865, sought to maintain the balance of power in Europe; this rarely involved an alignment with France. In 1859 there were even briefly fears that France might try to invade Britain. Palmerston was suspicious of France's interventions in Lebanon, Southeast Asia and Mexico. Palmerston was also concerned that France might intervene in the American Civil War (1861–65) on the side of the South. The British also felt threatened by the construction of the Suez Canal (1859–1869) by Ferdinand de Lesseps in Egypt. They tried to oppose its completion by diplomatic pressures and by promoting revolts among workers.
The Suez Canal was successfully built by the French, but became a joint British-French project in 1875. Both nations saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. France's leading expansionist Jules Ferry was out of office, and Paris allowed London to take effective control of Egypt.
1870–1939
Most Frenchmen ignored foreign affairs and colonial issues. In 1914 the chief pressure group was the Parti colonial, a coalition of 50 organizations with a combined total of only 5,000 members.L. Abrams and D. J. Miller, "Who Were the French Colonialists? A Reassessment of the Parti Colonial, 1890-1914" Historical Journal 19#3 (1976), pp. 685-725 online
Asia
It was only after its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 and the founding of the Third Republic (1871–1940) that most of France's later colonial possessions were acquired. From their base in Cochinchina, the French took over Tonkin (in modern northern Vietnam) and Annam (in modern central Vietnam) in 1884–1885. These, together with Cambodia and Cochinchina, formed French Indochina in 1887 (to which Laos was added in 1893 and Guangzhouwanin 1900).
In 1849, the French Concession in Shanghai was established, and in 1860, the French Concession in Tientsin (now called Tianjin) was set up. Both concessions lasted until 1946. The French also had smaller concessions in Guangzhou and Hankou (now part of Wuhan).
The Third Anglo-Burmese War, in which Britain conquered and annexed the hitherto independent Upper Burma, was in part motivated by British apprehension at France advancing and gaining possession of territories near to Burma.
Africa
France also extended its influence in North Africa after 1870, establishing a protectorate in Tunisia in 1881 with the Bardo Treaty. Gradually, French control crystallised over much of North, West, and Central Africa by around the start of the 20th century (including the modern states of Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Ivory Coast, Benin, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Cameroon, the east African coastal enclave of Djibouti (French Somaliland), and the island of Madagascar).
Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza helped to formalise French control in Gabon and on the northern banks of the Congo River from the early 1880s. The explorer Colonel Parfait-Louis Monteil traveled from Senegal to Lake Chad in 1890–1892, signing treaties of friendship and protection with the rulers of several of the countries he passed through, and gaining much knowledge of the geography and politics of the region.
The Voulet–Chanoine Mission, a military expedition, set out from Senegal in 1898 to conquer the Chad Basin and to unify all French territories in West Africa. This expedition operated jointly with two other expeditions, the Foureau-Lamy and Gentil Missions, which advanced from Algeria and Middle Congo respectively. With the death (April 1900) of the Muslim warlord Rabih az-Zubayr, the greatest ruler in the region, and the creation of the Military Territory of Chad (September 1900), the Voulet-Chanoine Mission had accomplished all its goals. The ruthlessness of the mission provoked a scandal in Paris.
As a part of the Scramble for Africa, France aimed to establish a continuous west–east axis across the continent, in contrast with the proposed British north–south axis. Tensions between Britain and France heightened in Africa. At several points war seemed possible, but no outbreak occurred. The most serious episode was the Fashoda Incident of 1898. French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to act in the interests of the Khedive of Egypt arrived to confront them. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, implicitly acknowledging Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. An agreement between the two states recognised the status quo: acknowledging British control over Egypt while France became the dominant power in Morocco, but France suffered a humiliating defeat overall.William L. Langer, The diplomacy of imperialism: 1890–1902 (1951) pp 537–80
During the Agadir Crisis in 1911 Britain supported France against Germany, and Morocco became a French protectorate.
Pacific islands
At this time, the French also established colonies in the South Pacific, including New Caledonia, the various island groups which make up French Polynesia (including the Society Islands, the Marquesas, the Gambier Islands, the Austral Islands and the Tuamotus), and established joint control of the New Hebrides with Britain.
Leeward Islands (1880–1897)
In contravention of the Jarnac Convention of 1847, the French placed the Leeward Islands under a provisional protectorate by falsely convincing the ruling chiefs that the German Empire planned to take over their island kingdoms. After years of diplomatic negotiation, Britain and France agreed to abrogate the convention in 1887 and the French formally annexed all the Leeward Islands without official treaties of cession from the islands' sovereign governments. From 1888 to 1897, the natives of the kingdom of Raiatea and Tahaa led by a minor chief, Teraupo'o, fought off French rule and the annexation of the Leeward Islands. Anti-French factions in the kingdom of Huahine also attempted to fight off the French under Queen Teuhe while the kingdom of Bora Bora remained neutral but hostile to the French. The conflict ended in 1897 with the capture and exile of rebel leaders to New Caledonia and more than one hundred rebels to the Marquesas. These conflicts and the annexation of other Pacific islands formed French Polynesia.
Final gains
The French made their last major colonial gains after World War I, when they gained mandates over the former territories of the Ottoman Empire that make up what is now Syria and Lebanon, as well as most of the former German colonies of Togo and Cameroon.
Civilising mission
A hallmark of the French colonial project in the late 19th century and early 20th century was the civilising mission (mission civilisatrice), the principle that it was Europe's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples. As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably French West Africa and Madagascar. During the 19th century, French citizenship along with the right to elect a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies was granted to the four old colonies of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyanne and Réunion as well as to the residents of the "Four Communes" in Senegal. In most cases, the elected deputies were white Frenchmen, although there were some blacks, such as the Senegalese Blaise Diagne, who was elected in 1914.
Elsewhere, in the largest and most populous colonies, a strict separation between "sujets français" (all the natives) and "citoyens français" (all males of European extraction) with different rights and duties was maintained until 1946. As was pointed out in a 1927 treatise on French colonial law, the granting of French citizenship to natives "was not a right, but rather a privilege". Two 1912 decrees dealing with French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa enumerated the conditions that a native had to meet in order to be granted French citizenship (they included speaking and writing French, earning a decent living and displaying good moral standards). From 1830 to 1946, only between 3,000 and 6,000 native Algerians were granted French citizenship. In French West Africa, outside of the Four Communes, there were 2,500 "citoyens indigènes" out of a total population of 15 million.
French conservatives had been denouncing the assimilationist policies as products of a dangerous liberal fantasy. In the Protectorate of Morocco, the French administration attempted to use urban planning and colonial education to prevent cultural mixing and to uphold the traditional society upon which the French depended for collaboration, with mixed results. After World War II, the segregationist approach modeled in Morocco had been discredited by its connections to Vichyism, and assimilationism enjoyed a brief renaissance.
In 1905, the French abolished slavery in most of French West Africa. David P. Forsythe wrote: "From Senegal and Mauritania in the west to Niger in the east (what became French Africa), there was a parallel series of ruinous wars, resulting in tremendous numbers of people being violently enslaved. At the beginning of the twentieth century there may have been between 3 and 3.5 million slaves, representing over 30 percent of the total population, within this sparsely populated region."
Education
French colonial officials, influenced by the revolutionary ideal of equality, standardized schools, curricula, and teaching methods as much as possible. They did not establish colonial school systems with the idea of furthering the ambitions of the local people, but rather simply exported the systems and methods in vogue in the mother nation. Having a moderately trained lower bureaucracy was of great use to colonial officials. The emerging French-educated indigenous elite saw little value in educating rural peoples. After 1946 the policy was to bring the best students to Paris for advanced training. The result was to immerse the next generation of leaders in the growing anti-colonial diaspora centered in Paris. Impressionistic colonials could mingle with studious scholars or radical revolutionaries or so everything in between. Ho Chi Minh and other young radicals in Paris formed the French Communist party in 1920.
Tunisia was exceptional. The colony was administered by Paul Cambon, who built an educational system for colonists and indigenous people alike that was closely modeled on mainland France. He emphasized female and vocational education. By independence, the quality of Tunisian education nearly equalled that in France.
African nationalists rejected such a public education system, which they perceived as an attempt to retard African development and maintain colonial superiority. One of the first demands of the emerging nationalist movement after World War II was the introduction of full metropolitan-style education in French West Africa with its promise of equality with Europeans.David E. Gardinier, "Schooling in the states of equatorial Africa." Canadian Journal of African Studies/La Revue canadienne des études africaines 8.3 (1974): 517-538.
In Algeria, the debate was polarized. The French set up schools based on the scientific method and French culture. The Pied-Noir (Catholic migrants from Europe) welcomed this. Those goals were rejected by the Moslem Arabs, who prized mental agility and their distinctive religious tradition. The Arabs refused to become patriotic and cultured Frenchmen and a unified educational system was impossible until the Pied-Noir and their Arab allies went into exile after 1962.
In South Vietnam from 1955 to 1975 there were two competing colonial powers in education, as the French continued their work and the Americans moved in. They sharply disagreed on goals. The French educators sought to preserving French culture among the Vietnamese elites and relied on the Mission Culturelle – the heir of the colonial Direction of Education – and its prestigious high schools. The Americans looked at the great mass of people and sought to make South Vietnam a nation strong enough to stop communism. The Americans had far more money, as USAID coordinated and funded the activities of expert teams, and particularly of academic missions. The French deeply resented the American invasion of their historical zone of cultural imperialism.
Critics of French colonialism
Critics of French colonialism gained an international audience in the 1920s, and often used documentary reportage and access to agencies such as the League of Nations and the International Labour Organization to make their protests heard. The main criticism was the high level of violence and suffering among the natives. Major critics included Albert Londres, Félicien Challaye, and Paul Monet, whose books and articles were widely read.
While the first stages of a takeover often involved the destruction of historic buildings in order to use the site for French headquarters, archaeologists and art historians soon engaged in systematic effort to identify, map and preserve historic sites, especially temples such as Angkor Wat, Champa ruins and the temples of Luang Prabang. Many French museums have collections of colonial materials. Since the 1980s the French government has opened new museums of colonial artifacts including the Musée du Quai Branly and the Cité Nationale de l’Histoire de l’Immigration, in Paris; and the Maison des Civilisations et de l’Unité Réunionnaise in Réunion.
Revolt in North Africa Against Spain and France
The Berber independence leader Abd el-Krim (1882–1963) organized armed resistance against the Spanish and French for control of Morocco. The Spanish had faced unrest off and on from the 1890s, but in 1921 Spanish forces were massacred at the Battle of Annual. El-Krim founded an independent Rif Republic that operated until 1926 but had no international recognition. Paris and Madrid agreed to collaborate to destroy it. They sent in 200,000 soldiers, forcing el-Krim to surrender in 1926; he was exiled in the Pacific until 1947. Morocco became quiet, and in 1936 became the base from which Francisco Franco launched his revolt against Madrid.
World War II
During World War II, allied Free France, often with British support, and Axis-aligned Vichy France struggled for control of the colonies, sometimes with outright military combat. By 1943, all of the colonies, except for Indochina under Japanese control, had joined the Free French cause.
The overseas empire helped liberate France as 300,000 North African Arabs fought in the ranks of the Free French. However Charles de Gaulle had no intention of liberating the colonies. He assembled the conference of colonial governors (excluding the nationalist leaders) in Brazzaville in January 1944 to announce plans for postwar Union that would replace the Empire. The Brazzaville manifesto proclaimed:
the goals of the work of civilization undertaken by France in the colonies exclude all idea of autonomy, all possibility of development outside the French block of the Empire; the possible constitutional self-government in the colonies is to be dismissed.
The manifesto angered nationalists across the Empire, and set the stage for long-term wars in Indochina and Algeria that France would lose in humiliating fashion.
Decolonization
The French colonial empire began to fall during the Second World War, when various parts were occupied by foreign powers (Japan in Indochina, Britain in Syria, Lebanon, and Madagascar, the United States and Britain in Morocco and Algeria, and Germany and Italy in Tunisia). However, control was gradually reestablished by Charles de Gaulle. The French Union, included in the Constitution of 1946, nominally replaced the former colonial empire, but officials in Paris remained in full control. The colonies were given local assemblies with only limited local power and budgets. There emerged a group of elites, known as evolués, who were natives of the overseas territories but lived in metropolitan France.
Conflict
France was immediately confronted with the beginnings of the decolonisation movement. In Algeria demonstrations in May 1945 were repressed with an estimated 6,000 to 45,000 Algerians killed. Unrest in Haiphong, Indochina, in November 1945 was met by a warship bombarding the city. Paul Ramadier's (SFIO) cabinet repressed the Malagasy Uprising in Madagascar in 1947. The French blamed education. French officials estimated the number of Malagasy killed from a low of 11,000 to a French Army estimate of 89,000.
Also in Indochina, Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh, which was backed by the Soviet Union and China, declared Vietnam's independence, which started the First Indochina War. The war dragged on until 1954, when the Viet Minh decisively defeated the French at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ in northern Vietnam, which was the last major battle between the French and the Vietnamese in the First Indochina War.
Following the Vietnamese victory at Điện Biên Phủ and the signing of the 1954 Geneva Accords, France agreed to withdraw its forces from all its colonies in French Indochina, while stipulating that Vietnam would be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel, with control of the north given to the Soviet-backed Viet Minh as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh, and the south becoming the State of Vietnam under former Nguyen-dynasty Emperor Bảo Đại, who abdicated following the 1945 August Revolution under pressure from Ho. However, in 1955, the State of Vietnam's Prime Minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, toppled Bảo Đại in a fraud-ridden referendum and proclaimed himself president of the new Republic of Vietnam. The refusal of Ngô Đình Diệm, the US-supported president of the first Republic of Vietnam [RVN], to allow elections in 1956 – as had been stipulated by the Geneva Conference – in fear of Ho Chi Minh's victory and subsequently a total communist takeover, eventually led to the Vietnam War.
In France's African colonies, the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon's insurrection, which started in 1955 and headed by Ruben Um Nyobé, was violently repressed over a two-year period, with perhaps as many as 100 people killed. However, France formally relinquished its protectorate over Morocco and granted it independence in 1956.
French involvement in Algeria stretched back a century. The movements of Ferhat Abbas and Messali Hadj had marked the period between the two world wars, but both sides radicalised after the Second World War. In 1945, the Sétif massacre was carried out by the French army. The Algerian War started in 1954. Atrocities characterized both sides, and the number killed became highly controversial estimates that were made for propaganda purposes. Algeria was a three-way conflict due to the large number of "pieds-noirs" (Europeans who had settled there in the 125 years of French rule). The political crisis in France caused the collapse of the Fourth Republic, as Charles de Gaulle returned to power in 1958 and finally pulled the French soldiers and settlers out of Algeria by 1962.James McDougall, "The Impossible Republic: The Reconquest of Algeria and the Decolonization of France, 1945–1962," Journal of Modern History 89#4 (2017) pp 772–811 excerpt
The French Union was replaced in the Constitution of 1958 by the French Community. Only Guinea refused by referendum to take part in the new organisation. However, the French Community ceased to operate before the end of the Algerian War. Almost all of the other former African colonies achieved independence in 1960. The French government refused to allow the populations of the former colonies the right they had in the new French Constitution of 1958, as French citizens with equal rights, to choose for their territories to become full départements of France. The French government had ensured that a constitutional law (60-525) was passed which removed the need for a referendum in a territory to confirm a change in status towards independence or départementalisation, so the voters who had rejected independence in 1958 were not consulted about it in 1960. Very few former colonies chose to remain part of France, under the status of overseas départements or territories.
Critics of neocolonialism claimed that the Françafrique had replaced formal direct rule. They argued that while de Gaulle was granting independence on one hand, he was maintaining French dominance through the operations of Jacques Foccart, his counsellor for African matters. Foccart supported in particular Biafra in the Nigerian Civil War during the late 1960s.
Robert Aldrich argues that with Algerian independence in 1962, it appeared that the Empire practically had come to an end, as the remaining colonies were quite small and lacked active nationalist movements. However, there was trouble in French Somaliland (Djibouti), which became independent in 1977. There also were complications and delays in the New Hebrides Vanuatu, which was the last to gain independence in 1980. New Caledonia remains a special case under French suzerainty. The Indian Ocean island of Mayotte voted in referendum in 1974 to retain its link with France and not become independent like the other three islands of the Comoro archipelago.
Demographics
French census statistics from 1938 show an imperial population, outside of France itself, of 102.8 million people living on 13.5 million square kilometers. Of the total population, 64.7 million lived in Africa and 31.2 million lived in Asia; 900,000 lived in the Caribbean area or islands in the South Pacific. The largest colonies were Indochina with 26.8 million (in five separate colonies), Algeria with 6.6 million, Morocco, with 5.4 million, and West Africa with 35.2 million in nine colonies. The total includes 1.9 million Europeans, and 350,000 "assimilated" natives.
French settlers
Unlike elsewhere in Europe, France experienced relatively low levels of emigration to the Americas, with the exception of the Huguenots in British or Dutch colonies. France generally had close to the slowest natural population growth in Europe, and emigration pressures were therefore quite small. A small but significant emigration, numbering only in the tens of thousands, of mainly Roman Catholic French populations led to the settlement of the provinces of Acadia, Canada and Louisiana, both (at the time) French possessions, as well as colonies in the West Indies, Mascarene islands and Africa. In New France, Huguenots were banned from settling in the territory, and Quebec was one of the most staunchly Catholic areas in the world until the Quiet Revolution. The current French Canadian population, which numbers in the millions, is descended almost entirely from New France's small settler population.
On 31 December 1687 a community of French Huguenots settled in South Africa. Most of these originally settled in the Cape Colony, but have since been quickly absorbed into the Afrikaner population. After Champlain's founding of Quebec City in 1608, it became the capital of New France. Encouraging settlement was difficult, and while some immigration did occur, by 1763 New France only had a population of some 65,000.
In 1787, there were 30,000 white colonists on France's colony of Saint-Domingue. In 1804 Dessalines, the first ruler of an independent Haiti (St. Domingue), ordered the massacre of whites remaining on the island. Out of the 40,000 inhabitants on Guadeloupe, at the end of the 17th century, there were more than 26,000 blacks and 9,000 whites. Bill Marshall wrote, "The first French effort to colonize Guiana, in 1763, failed utterly when tropical diseases and climate killed all but 2,000 of the initial 12,000 settlers."
French law made it easy for thousands of colons, ethnic or national French from former colonies of North and West Africa, India and Indochina to live in mainland France. It is estimated that 20,000 colons were living in Saigon in 1945. 1.6 million European pieds noirs migrated from Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 French Algerians left Algeria in the largest relocation of population in Europe since World War II. In the 1970s, over 30,000 French colons left Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge regime as the Pol Pot government confiscated their farms and land properties. In November 2004, several thousand of the estimated 14,000 French nationals in Ivory Coast left the country after days of anti-white violence.
Apart from French-Canadians (Québécois and Acadians), Cajuns, and Métis, other populations of French ancestry outside metropolitan France include the Caldoches of New Caledonia, the so-called Zoreilles, Petits-blancs with the Franco-Mauritian of various Indian Ocean islands and the Beke people of the French West Indies.
Territories
Africa
French Algeria
French Protectorate in Morocco
French Protectorate of Tunisia
French West Africa
French Mauritania
French Senegal
French Guinea
French Ivory Coast
French Niger
French Upper Volta
French Dahomey
French Togoland
French Sudan
French Equatorial Africa
French Gabon
French Congo
Ubangui-Shari
French Chad
French Cameroon
French Madagascar
Seychelles
Île de France (Mauritius)
Comoros
Mayotte
Réunion
Kerguelen
Île Saint-Paul
Amsterdam Island
Crozet Islands
Bassas da India
Europa Island
Juan de Nova Island
Glorioso Islands
Tromelin
French Somalia
French domains of St Helena
Asia
French mandate of Syria
Greater Lebanon
French India
French Indochina
French Cochinchina
Tonkin
Annam
French protectorate of Cambodia
French protectorate of Laos
China enclaves
French concession in Tianjin
Shanghai French Concession
Guangzhouwan
The Caribbean
Dominica
Saint Lucia
Grenada
Saint-Domingue
Trinidad and Tobago
Virgin Islands
Martinica
Guadeloupe
Saint Barthélemy
Saint Martin
South America
France Antarctique
French Guiana
Equinoctial France
North America
New France
Acadia
United States
Canada
Louisiana
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Oceania
New Caledonia
French Polynesia
Wallis and Futuna
Clipperton Island
Vanuatu
See also
Army of the Levant
CFA franc
Colonialism
Decolonization
Evolution of the French Empire
Francization
French Army units with a tradition of service overseas
1900–1958: Troupes de marine
1900–1958: Troupes coloniales
Tirailleurs
Spahis
Zouaves
French colonial flags
French colonisation of the Americas
French law on colonialism (for teachers, 2005)
History of France
Second French Empire
French Third Republic
Kingdom of France
International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
List of French possessions and colonies
New France
Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
Overseas France
Postage stamps of the French colonies
Scramble for Africa
Timeline of imperialism
References
Further reading
Langley, Michael. "Bizerta to the Bight: The French in Africa." History Today. (Oct 1972), pp 733–739. covers 1798 to 1900.
Hutton, Patrick H. ed. Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870–1940 (2 vol 1986)
Northcutt, Wayne, ed. Historical Dictionary of the French Fourth and Fifth Republics, 1946– 1991 (1992)
Policies and colonies
Aldrich, Robert. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion (1996)
Aldrich, Robert. The French Presence in the South Pacific, 1842–1940 (1989).
Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (2001), covers New France in Canada
Baumgart, Winfried. Imperialism: The Idea and Reality of British and French Colonial Expansion, 1880–1914 (1982)
Betts, Raymond. Tricouleur: The French Overseas Empire (1978), 174pp
Betts, Raymond. Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890–1914 (2005) excerpt and text search
.
Clayton, Anthony. The Wars of French Decolonization (1995)
Conklin, Alice L. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930 (1997) online
Evans, Martin. "From colonialism to post-colonialism: the French empire since Napoleon." in Martin S. Alexander, ed., French History since Napoleon (1999) pp: 391–415.
Gamble, Harry. Contesting French West Africa: Battles over Schools and the Colonial Order, 1900–1950 (U of Nebraska Press, 2017). 378 pp. online review
Jennings, Eric T. Imperial Heights: Dalat and the Making and Undoing of French Indochina (2010).
Lawrence, Adria. Imperial rule and the politics of nationalism: anti-colonial protest in the French empire (Cambridge UP, 2013).
.
Klein, Martin A. Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1998)
Manning, Patrick. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa 1880-1995 (Cambridge UP, 1998). online
Neres, Philip. French-speaking West Africa: From Colonial Status to Independence (1962) online
Priestley, Herbert Ingram. France overseas: a study of modern imperialism (1938) 464pp.
Quinn, Frederick. The French Overseas Empire (2000) online
.
Poddar, Prem, and Lars Jensen, eds., A historical companion to postcolonial literatures: Continental Europe and Its Empires (Edinburgh UP, 2008), excerpt also entire text online
.
Priestley, Herbert Ingram. (1938) France overseas;: A study of modern imperialism 463pp; encyclopedic coverage as of late 1930s
Roberts, Stephen H. History of French Colonial Policy (1870-1925) (2 vol 1929) vol 1 online also vol 2 online; Comprehensive scholarly history
.
Strother, Christian. "Waging War on Mosquitoes: Scientific Research and the Formation of Mosquito Brigades in French West Africa, 1899–1920." Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences (2016): jrw005.
Thomas, Martin. The French Empire Between the Wars: Imperialism, Politics and Society (2007) covers 1919–1939
Thompson, Virginia, and Richard Adloff. French West Africa (Stanford UP, 1958).
Wellington, Donald C. French East India companies: A historical account and record of trade (Hamilton Books, 2006)
Wesseling, H.L. and Arnold J. Pomerans. Divide and rule: The partition of Africa, 1880–1914 (Praeger, 1996.) online
Wesseling, H.L. The European Colonial Empires: 1815–1919 (Routledge, 2015).
Decolonization
Betts, Raymond F. Decolonization (2nd ed. 2004)
Betts, Raymond F. France and Decolonisation, 1900–1960 (1991)
Chafer, Tony. The end of empire in French West Africa: France's successful decolonization (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2002).
Chamberlain, Muriel E. ed. Longman Companion to European Decolonisation in the Twentieth Century (Routledge, 2014)
Clayton, Anthony. The wars of French decolonization (Routledge, 2014).
Cooper, Frederick. "French Africa, 1947–48: Reform, Violence, and Uncertainty in a Colonial Situation." Critical Inquiry (2014) 40#4 pp: 466–478. in JSTOR
Ikeda, Ryo. The Imperialism of French Decolonisation: French Policy and the Anglo-American Response in Tunisia and Morocco (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015)
Jansen, Jan C. & Jürgen Osterhammel. Decolonization: A Short History (princeton UP, 2017). online
Jones, Max, et al. "Decolonising imperial heroes: Britain and France." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 42#5 (2014): 787–825.
Lawrence, Adria K. Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire (Cambridge UP, 2013) online reviews
McDougall, James. "The Impossible Republic: The Reconquest of Algeria and the Decolonization of France, 1945–1962," The Journal of Modern History 89#4 (December 2017) pp 772–811 excerpt
Rothermund, Dietmar. Memories of Post-Imperial Nations: The Aftermath of Decolonization, 1945–2013 (2015) excerpt; Compares the impact on Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Portugal, Italy and Japan
Rothermund, Dietmar. The Routledge companion to decolonization (Routledge, 2006), comprehensive global coverage; 365pp
Shepard, Todd. The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France (2006)
Simpson, Alfred William Brian. Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention (Oxford University Press, 2004).
Smith, Tony. "A comparative study of French and British decolonization." Comparative Studies in Society and History (1978) 20#1 pp: 70–102. online
Smith, Tony. "The French Colonial Consensus and People's War, 1946–58." Journal of Contemporary History (1974): 217–247. in JSTOR
Thomas, Martin, Bob Moore, and Lawrence J. Butler. Crises of Empire: Decolonization and Europe's imperial states (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015)
Von Albertini, Rudolf. Decolonization: the Administration and Future of the Colonies, 1919–1960 (Doubleday, 1971), scholarly analysis of French policies, pp 265–469..
Images and impact on France
Andrew, Christopher M., and Alexander Sydney Kanya-Forstner. "France, Africa, and the First World War." Journal of African History 19.1 (1978): 11–23.
. online
Andrew, C. M., and A. S. Kanya-Forstner. "The French 'Colonial Party': Its Composition, Aims and Influence, 1885-1914." Historical Journal 14#1 (1971): 99-128. online.
August, Thomas G. The Selling of the Empire: British and French Imperialist Propaganda, 1890–1940 (1985)
Chafer, Tony, and Amanda Sackur. Promoting the Colonial Idea: Propaganda and Visions of Empire in France (2002) online
.
Conkin, Alice L. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895-1930 (1997) online
Dobie, Madeleine. Trading Places: Colonization & Slavery in 18th-Century French Culture (2010)
.
Rosenblum, Mort. Mission to Civilize: The French Way (1986) online review
Rothermund, Dietmar. Memories of Post-Imperial Nations: The Aftermath of Decolonization, 1945–2013 (2015) excerpt; Compares the impact on Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Portugal, Italy and Japan
Singer, Barnett, and John Langdon. Cultured Force: Makers and Defenders of the French Colonial Empire (2008)
Thomas, Martin, ed. The French Colonial Mind, Volume 1: Mental Maps of Empire and Colonial Encounters (France Overseas: Studies in Empire and D) (2012); The French Colonial Mind, Volume 2: Violence, Military Encounters, and Colonialism (2012)
Historiography and memoir
Bennington, Alice. "Writing Empire? The Reception of Post-Colonial Studies in France." Historical Journal (2016) 59#4: 1157–1186. abstract
Dubois, Laurent. "The French Atlantic," in Atlantic History: A Critical Appraisal, ed. by Jack P. Greene and Philip D. Morgan, (Oxford UP, 2009) pp 137–61
Dwyer, Philip. "Remembering and Forgetting in Contemporary France: Napoleon, Slavery, and the French History Wars," French Politics, Culture & Society (2008) 26#3 pp 110–122.
.
Greer, Allan. "National, Transnational, and Hypernational Historiographies: New France Meets Early American History," Canadian Historical Review, (2010) 91#4 pp 695–724, in Project MUSE
Hodson, Christopher, and Brett Rushforth, "Absolutely Atlantic: Colonialism and the Early Modern French State in Recent Historiography," History Compass, (January 2010) 8#1 pp 101–117
Lawrence, Adria K. Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire'' (Cambridge UP, 2013) online reviews
External links
French Colonial Historical Society
H-FRANCE, daily discussions and book reviews
French Colonial Historical Society
French Colonial History an annual volume of refereed, scholarly articles
Former empires
History of European colonialism
Overseas empires
1534 establishments in the French colonial empire
1977 disestablishments in the French colonial empire
Historical transcontinental empires | [
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|
216865 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwalm-Eder-Kreis | Schwalm-Eder-Kreis | Schwalm-Eder-Kreis is a Kreis (district) in the north of Hesse, Germany. Neighbouring districts are Kassel, Werra-Meißner, Hersfeld-Rotenburg, Vogelsberg, Marburg-Biedenkopf, and Waldeck-Frankenberg.
History
In 1821 districts were created in Hesse. They included the districts of Fritzlar, Homberg, Melsungen, and Ziegenhain. In 1932 the districts of Fritzlar and Homberg were merged; in 1974 the three districts of Fritzlar-Homberg, Melsungen, and Ziegenhain were merged into the Schwalm-Eder district.
The district is twinned with the Finnish city of Kajaani, the British district of Sedgemoor, and the Polish district of Piła.
Geography
The Schwalm and Eder rivers give the district its name. After they merge close to Felsberg, the Eder enters the Fulda to the north at Edermunde. The southeast of the district includes a portion of the Knüllgebirge range of low mountains; the highest elevation is . In the north are the hills of the Homberger Hochland. The centre of the district is largely rural, and is surrounded by the mountains of the Knüll, the Stölzinger Gebirge, and the Kellerwald with the 675 metre-high Wüstegarten mountain, the highest peak in the district.
Geology
In the east, the geology of the Knüllgebirge is dominated by the clastic Triassic strata of the Middle Buntsandstein, as is the western region around the Gilserberg.
Soils of weathered Buntsandstein are generally acidic to slightly basic and nutrient-poor. For the most part the land is forested.
In the district of Fritzlar there are outcrops of younger Upper Buntsandstein, known as the Röt Formation, because of its red colour. These strata consist of clay beds and various kinds of calcareous beds, interbedded with clayey marls.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms shows the lion of Hesse (azure a lion rampant crowned, barry of six argent and gules, armed or). Below are wavy lines (three bars wavy argent) that symbolise the three main rivers in the district, the Schwalm, the Eder, and the Fulda.
Towns and municipalities
See also
Schwalm (region)
References
External links
Official website (German)
Districts of Hesse | [
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|
216867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Market%20for%20Lemons | The Market for Lemons | The Market for Lemons: Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism is a widely-cited 1970 paper by economist George Akerlof which examines how the quality of goods traded in a market can degrade in the presence of information asymmetry between buyers and sellers, leaving only "lemons" behind. In American slang, a lemon is a car that is found to be defective after it has been bought.
Suppose buyers cannot distinguish between a high-quality car (a "peach") and a "lemon". Then they are only willing to pay a fixed price for a car that averages the value of a "peach" and "lemon" together (pavg). But sellers know whether they hold a peach or a lemon. Given the fixed price at which buyers will buy, sellers will sell only when they hold "lemons" (since plemon < pavg) and they will leave the market when they hold "peaches" (since ppeach > pavg). Eventually, as enough sellers of "peaches" leave the market, the average willingness-to-pay of buyers will decrease (since the average quality of cars on the market decreased), leading to even more sellers of high-quality cars to leave the market through a positive feedback loop. Thus the uninformed buyer's price creates an adverse selection problem that drives the high-quality cars from the market. Adverse selection is a market mechanism that can lead to a market collapse.
Akerlof's paper shows how prices can determine the quality of goods traded on the market. Low prices drive away sellers of high-quality goods, leaving only lemons behind. In 2001, Akerlof, along with Michael Spence, and Joseph Stiglitz, jointly received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, for their research on issues related to asymmetric information.
The paper
Thesis
Akerlof's paper uses the market for used cars as an example of the problem of quality uncertainty. A used car is one in which ownership is transferred from one person to another, after a period of use by its first owner and its inevitable wear and tear. There are good used cars ("peaches") and defective used cars ("lemons"), normally as a consequence of several not-always-traceable variables, such as the owner's driving style, quality and frequency of maintenance, and accident history. Because many important mechanical parts and other elements are hidden from view and not easily accessible for inspection, the buyer of a car does not know beforehand whether it is a peach or a lemon. So the buyer's best guess for a given car is that the car is of average quality; accordingly, the buyer will be willing to pay the price of a car of known average quality. This means that the owner of a carefully maintained, never-abused, good used car will be unable to get a high enough price to make selling that car worthwhile.
Therefore, owners of good cars will not place their cars on the used car market. The withdrawal of good cars reduces the average quality of cars on the market, causing buyers to revise downward their expectations for any given car. This, in turn, motivates the owners of moderately good cars not to sell, and so on. The result is that a market in which there is asymmetric information with respect to quality shows characteristics similar to those described by Gresham's Law: the bad drives out the good. (Although Gresham's principle applies more specifically to exchange rates, modified analogies can be drawn.)
Statistical abstract of the problem
Akerlof considers a situation in which demand D for used cars depends on the cars price p and quality µ = µ(p) and the supply S depends on price alone. Economic equilibrium is given by S(p) = D(p,µ) and there are two groups of traders with utilities given by:
where M is the consumption of goods other than automobiles, x the car's quality and n the number of automobiles. Let Yi, Di and Si be income, demand and supply for group i. Assuming that utilities are linear, that the traders are Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility maximizers and that the price of other M goods is unitary, the demand D1 for cars is Y1/p if μ/p > 1, otherwise null. The demand D2 is Y2/p if 3μ/2 > p, otherwise null. Market demand is given by:
Group 1 has N cars to sell with quality between 0 and 2 and group 2 has no cars to sell, therefore S1 = pN/2 and S2 = 0. For a given price p, average quality is p/2, and therefore D = 0. The market for used cars collapses when there is asymmetric information.
Asymmetric information
The paper by Akerlof describes how the interaction between quality heterogeneity and asymmetric information can lead to the disappearance of a market where guarantees are indefinite. In this model, as quality is indistinguishable beforehand by the buyer (due to the asymmetry of information), incentives exist for the seller to pass off low-quality goods as higher-quality ones. The buyer, however, takes this incentive into consideration, and takes the quality of the goods to be uncertain. Only the average quality of the goods will be considered, which in turn will have the side effect that goods that are above average in terms of quality will be driven out of the market. This mechanism is repeated until a no-trade equilibrium is reached.
As a consequence of the mechanism described in this paper, markets may fail to exist altogether in certain situations involving quality uncertainty. Examples given in Akerlof's paper include the market for used cars, the dearth of formal credit markets in developing countries, and the difficulties that the elderly encounter in buying health insurance. However, not all players in a given market will follow the same rules or have the same aptitude of assessing quality. So there will always be a distinct advantage for some vendors to offer low-quality goods to the less-informed segment of a market that, on the whole, appears to be of reasonable quality and have reasonable guarantees of certainty. This is part of the basis for the idiom buyer beware.
This is likely the basis for the idiom that an informed consumer is a better consumer. An example of this might be the subjective quality of fine food and wine. Individual consumers know best what they prefer to eat, and quality is almost always assessed in fine establishments by smell and taste before they pay. That is, if a customer in a fine establishment orders a lobster and the meat is not fresh, he can send the lobster back to the kitchen and refuse to pay for it. However, a definition of 'highest quality' for food eludes providers. Thus, a large variety of better-quality and higher-priced restaurants are supported.
Impact on markets
The article draws some conclusions about the cost of dishonesty in markets in general:
Critical reception
George E. Hoffer and Michael D. Pratt state that the “economic literature is divided on whether a lemons market actually exists in used vehicles”. The authors’ research supports the hypothesis that “known defects provisions”, used by US states (e.g., Wisconsin) to regulate used car sales, have been ineffectual, because the quality of used vehicles sold in these states is not significantly better than the vehicles in neighboring states without such consumer protection legislation.
Both the American Economic Review and the Review of Economic Studies rejected the paper for "triviality", while the reviewers for Journal of Political Economy rejected it as incorrect, arguing that, if this paper were correct, then no goods could be traded. Only on the fourth attempt did the paper get published in Quarterly Journal of Economics. Today, the paper is one of the most-cited papers in modern economic theory and most downloaded economic journal paper of all time in RePEC (more than 39,275 citations in academic papers as of February 2022). It has profoundly influenced virtually every field of economics, from industrial organisation and public finance to macroeconomics and contract theory.
Criticism
Libertarians, like William L. Anderson, oppose the regulatory approach proposed by the authors of the paper, observing that some used-car markets haven't broken down even without lemon legislation and that the lemon problem creates entrepreneurial opportunities for alternative marketplaces or customers' knowledgeable friends.
Conditions for a lemon market
A lemon market will be produced by the following:
Asymmetry of information, in which no buyers can accurately assess the value of a product through examination before sale is made and all sellers can more accurately assess the value of a product prior to sale
An incentive exists for the seller to pass off a low-quality product as a higher-quality one
Sellers have no credible disclosure technology (sellers with a great car have no way to disclose this credibly to buyers)
Either a continuum of seller qualities exists or the average seller type is sufficiently low (buyers are sufficiently pessimistic about the seller's quality)
Deficiency of effective public quality assurances (by reputation or regulation and/or of effective guarantees/warranties)
A more general mathematical model of market collapse
It is possible to generalize the reasoning in Akerlof's paper. Suppose that there are two populations of cars: the peaches and the lemons , where we assume that the quality of peaches is always greater than the quality of lemons:Accordingly, the utility and the price of the peaches will also always be greater than that of the lemons. Let be the probability of a buyer encountering a peach in the used car market. Then the expected utility for the buyer from purchasing a used car is:where and represent the mean peach and lemon respectively. The expected utility for the buyer will always increase - for a monotonic, positive utility function - as the probability of encountering a peach increases.Furthermore, the equation for a buyer's expected utility implies that the equilibrium price in an informationally symmetric market is:However, the used car market is not a symmetric market: the sellers know which cars are peaches and lemons, while the buyers cannot distinguish between the two. Depending on the type of car he owns, the seller has a differing decision rule based on the offer price :with by definition. It is also assumed that, for both peaches and lemons, sellers are willing to accept a price lower than the full value of the car:However, if , then the sellers possessing peaches will not put them on the market and the equilibrium price will drop. This occurs when:with the associated asymmetric information price equilibrium:where is the indicator function. Once lemons saturate the market, the peaches are driven out of the market because their sellers cannot be matched with buyers to meet their selling price in equilibrium. The beauty of this example is that it illustrates how product quality can collapse in a market with asymmetric information.
Laws in the United States
Five years after Akerlof's paper was published, the United States enacted a federal "lemon law" (the Magnuson–Moss Warranty Act) that protects citizens of all states. There are also state laws regarding "lemons" which vary by state and may not necessarily cover used or leased vehicles. The rights afforded to consumers by "lemon laws" may exceed the warranties expressed in purchase contracts. These state laws provide remedies to consumers for automobiles that repeatedly fail to meet certain standards of quality and performance. "Lemon law" is the common nickname for these laws, but each state has different names for the laws and acts, which may also cover more than just automobiles. In California and federal law, "Lemon Laws" cover anything mechanical.
The federal "lemon law" also provides that the warrantor may be obligated to pay the attorney fees of the party prevailing in a lemon , as do most state lemon laws. If a car has to be repaired for the same defect four or more times and the problem is still occurring, the car may be deemed to be a "lemon". The defect must substantially hinder the vehicle's use, value, or safety. Dealers and manufacturers are required by branding the title as "Lemon Law Buyback" of such vehicles after their reacquiring them due to any defect, malfunctioning or failure under the federal statute or typically nonconformities under state "lemon laws"; dealers may not withhold the lemon branding of such vehicles and an "as is" or "with all defects" labeling does not protect a dealer from legal recourse should they not disclose the "lemon law buyback" status of such vehicles.
Developments of the model
Akerlof’s original model has been developed by adjusting certain parameters to better represent the real world markets. Akerlof limited the market to fixed buyers and sellers, disregarding the possibility that agents are able to interchange their position, with low transaction costs. This would be valid for other markets with asymmetric information; however, the used car market is unique in that a buyer can purchase a car and become a seller. Kim incorporates a variability of agents in the market. Moreover, in this model, sellers are differentiated unlike the Akerlof model where sellers are heterogeneous apart from the cars they sell and therefore their behaviors are dependent on the car they own. By changing the parameters of the model this study’s findings conclude that the lemon principle does not hold.
Daley and Green elaborate the model by segmenting the market equilibrium into intervals of no trade periods and trade periods. Whereby, trade periods are facilitated by the arrival of “news”, categorized as stochastic information. The onset of bad news instigates trade as buyers are more pessimistic, whereas good news establishes confidence in the market. At the equilibrium the following states occur:
A positive perspective of the seller results in an efficient market, whereby the price is the expected value of the asset
A negative perspective of the seller results in a partially selling off of the asset
An indifferent perspective of the seller results in a no trade period, whereby consumers wait for more information.
Both sellers with a positive and negative perspective eventually trade in equilibrium, thus mitigating the trade breakdown inefficiency prevalent in Akerlof’s model. However, by integrating news into the model, a new inefficiency arises. This is where delays occur when more news is introduced in the market. Theoretically, more news would reduce market inefficiencies caused by information asymmetry. The dynamic market model constructed shows that this is only partially true.
Zavolokina, Schlegel and Schwabe incorporate the benefits of modern technology into the model as blockchain is able to solve issues relating to the asymmetry of information. The reliability of the information would improve accuracy of the valuation of cars, however, the advantages of the information stored is limited to the interpretation of the buyer. The information would have to be understandable to consumers with no car expertise to be an effective mechanism for decision making.
See also
Adverse selection
Confusopoly
Death spiral (insurance)
Highest quality is lowest cost
Tragedy of the commons
Transaction cost
Transparency (market)
Open data
References
1970 documents
Market failure
Economics papers
Asymmetric information
Works originally published in the Quarterly Journal of Economics
Works about information
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216868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali%20Jalali | Ali Jalali | Ali Ahmad Jalali (Pashto/) is an Afghan politician, diplomat, and academic. Jalali served as the Minister of Interior from January 2003 to September 2005. He has also been a distinguished professor at the Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies (NESA) at the National Defense University in Washington, D.C. In August 2021, amid the collapse of the US-backed Afghan government, Jalali was rumored to become the leader of the Taliban-controlled interim Afghan government, which he has denied on Twitter as "fake news."
Early life and education
Jalali was born in Kabul, Afghanistan in 1940, the son of the late Professor G. Jelani Jalali. He has been involved in politics and media for most of his life. He previously served with the Voice of America for over 20 years covering Afghanistan, South and Central Asia, and the Middle East, including assignments as Director of the Afghan Radio Network Project and chief of the Dari and Pashto services.
Career
Military and politics
Jalali is a former colonel in the Afghan National Army and was a top military planner with the Afghan resistance following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. He attended higher command and staff colleges in Afghanistan, the United States, United Kingdom, and Russia, and has lectured widely.
As Interior Minister of post-Taliban Afghanistan, he created a trained force of 50,000 Afghan National Police (ANP) and 12,000 Border Police to work effectively in counter-narcotics, counter-terrorism, and criminal investigation to fight against organized crime and illegal border crossings. He successfully led the country-wide operations to protect the constitutional grand assembly (Loya Jirga) in 2003, the nationwide voters’ registration drive and landmark 2004 Presidential election, and the parliamentary elections in 2005.
Prior to assuming the ministerial post in Kabul, Jalali served in executive broadcast positions at Voice of America in Washington, D.C. from 1982 to 2003. During this period he, directed broadcasts in Pashto, Dari, Persian languages to Afghanistan, Iran and Central Asia. As a journalist, he covered the war in Afghanistan from 1982 to 1993 and the former Soviet Central Asia from 1993 to 2000 and traveled extensively across the region.
During his military service in Afghanistan army (1961–81), Jalali served in command, staff and educational posts with a final rank of colonel. He attended higher educational institutions in Afghanistan, United States, United Kingdom and Russia.
A U.S. citizen since 1987, Jalali left his job as a broadcaster for VOA to become the Interior Minister of Afghanistan.
Jalali replaced Taj Mohammad Wardak in January 2003.
In January 2009 an article by Ahmad Majidyar of the American Enterprise Institute included Jalali on a list of fifteen possible candidates in the 2009 Afghan Presidential election.
However, according to Chapter Three, Article Sixty Two of Afghanistan Constitution an Afghan citizen shall be the president of Afghanistan. Since Afghanistan has not signed any dual citizenship accords, it would have been necessary for him to renounce his U.S. citizenship and gain Afghan citizenship before seeking the office.
Jalali did not complete these steps, and was not listed on the ballot in August 2009.
Author
A reputed multi-lingual military and political analyst, Jalali has extensive academic, managerial, journalistic and writing experience. A published writer in three languages (English, Pashto, Dari), Jalali is the author of numerous books and articles on political, military and security issues in Afghanistan, Iran and Central Asia including topics related to Islamic movements in the region. His works are published in the United States, Great Britain, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran.
He has written extensively about the military of Afghanistan for scholarly journals and the mass media, in addition to reporting on Afghanistan and Central Asia for VOA for almost two decades.
Jalali is the author of several books, including a three-volume military history of Afghanistan. His most recent book, The Other Side of the Mountain (2002), co-authored with Lester Grau, is an analytical review of the Mujahedin war with the Soviet forces in Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989.
Jalali wrote an influential critique in the spring of 2002 of the U.S. military role in Afghanistan, arguing that the way the United States used local chieftains in the War on Terrorism "enhanced the power of the warlords and encouraged them to defy the central authorities." He later softened his criticism but pointed out that local militias still play a significant role in working with the U.S. military.
He is a frequent commentator on Afghan and regional security and developmental at U.S. major TV networks (including CNN, ABC, NBC, MSNBC, FOX News, PBS, NPR) as well as Australian National TV (ABC) and Canadian CBC.
Jalali's articles and comments are also published in The New York Times, The Washington Post, Christian Science Monitor and many other major U.S and European papers. Many of his scholarly articles are published by the Parameters, the senior professional journal of the U.S. Army, from 2001 to 2010.
Teaching
Jalali has taught at higher education institutions of Afghanistan and the United States and extensively lectured at U.S. Army War College, U.S. Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, the Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and the British Army Staff College, Camberley, England.
Personal life
Jalali is married to Homaira Jalali and the couple have a son, Engineer Wais Jalali, and a daughter, Dr. Bahar Jalali.
Awards
Afghanistan High State Medal “Wazir Akbar Khan” 2005
Afghanistan Distinguished Service Medal, Constitutional Loya Jirga 2004,
Afghan Army Decoration Baryal 1-Gold 1968,
Afghan Army Decoration Baryal 2-Silver 1964,
Afghan Army Decoration Baryal 3-Bronze 1961,
Afghan Army Wartia (Meritorious Service) Medal- Bronze 1967,
Afghan Army Wartia (Meritorious Service) Medal- Silver 1977,
U.S Government Career Achievement Award 2003
U.S. Federal Service 15, 20, and 25-year pins 1997, 2003 and 2011,
Four VOA Sustained Superior Performance awards 1984–1990,
Eleven VOA Excellence in Programming awards 1985–1992,
Publications
Books and book chapters
A Military History of Afghanistan from the Great Game to the Global War on Terror University Press of Kansas, March 2017,
Afghanistan National Defense and Security Forces in Transition, USIP, Washington DC, May 2016,
Trans-national Crime and the challenge for regional cooperation – a book Chapter in “the Non-Traditional Security Challenges in Asia,” Routledge India, June 2015. The book is a collection of essays that explore how non-traditional issues can manifest as security challenges, and the role of the state and military in dealing with these,
Irregular Warfare of Pashtun Tribes in Fighting the Mughal Empire in 16th and 17th centuries, Kabul, February 2012,
Monograph: Afghanistan - Challenges of the Transition to Peace, Emirate Center for Strategic Studies and research(ECSSR), Abu Dhabi, December 2012,
The Challenge of Security Transition in Afghanistan – Book Chapter, Singapore National University, July 2012
The Other Side of the Mountain, co-authored with Lester Grau, U.S. Marine Corps 1998, Barnes and Nobles 2001, Cass Publishers 2002. Several other publishers. It is an analytical review of Mujahedin war with the Soviet forces in Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989, 2002, 2011,
The Future of Security Forces in Afghanistan. Book chapter in “The Future of Afghanistan,” United States Institute of Peace (USIP). January 2009,
The Challenge of Regaining Momentum in Afghanistan. A book chapter in “Asian Security” by the Institute of Defense and Strategic Analysis (IDSA), New Delhi, India, February 2009,
Countering Narcotics in Afghanistan. ”A book chapter in the Institute of National Strategic Studies (INSS) “Global Security Assessment,” National Defense University. October 2008,
Afghanistan: The Challenge of State Building. A book chapter in "Afghanistan: transition Under Threat,” Geoffrey Hayes, editor, and Mark Sedra, editor, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, August 2008,
Afghanistan: The legacy of War and the Challenge of Peace Building.2006. A book chapter in "Building a New Afghanistan,” by Robert I. Rotberg ed. edited by Brookings Institution Press and the World Peace Foundation, 2006,
Selected Literary Works of Ustad G. Jilani Jalali, Introduction and Ed. Kabul, 2005,
The Voroshilov Lectures, translated from lecture notes from the Soviet General Staff Academy and co-edited in three volumes, NDU Press, 1989, 1990, 1992,
A Historical Perspective on Iran-Afghan Relation, a chapter in the book titled "Iran and Eurasia" edited by Ali Mohammadi, Ithaca Press, London, 2000
The Theory of Combat, Institute of Military Conflict, 1989, Participated as member of the Institute in authoring a theoretical understanding of the nature of the combat process as a basis for model and simulation development,
The Life and Times of the Afghan Classic Warrior Khushal Khan, in Pashto, Kabul, 1978,
Studies in Afghanistan History from a Military Perspective, two volumes, MOD Press, Kabul, 1967. A detailed study of political and strategic trends in Afghanistan's military history (1100 pages)
War and Diplomacy, a 12 chapter book on the use of military power in international relations (450 pages). It was based on lectures I offered as professor at the Institute of Diplomacy (War College), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Kabul, 1974–1978,
"Military strategy in Limited Wars", in Dari, Kabul, 1971,
Textbook on Small Units Tactics (platoon, company), in Dari, Kabul, 1968,
Textbook on larger Units Tactics (Battalion, Regiment, Division), in Dari, Kabul, 1976,
Pages of Afghan History: A collection of 150 radio programs for Radio Afghanistan, Kabul, 1969–1975,
Army Training programs for Infantry and Tank units (CPX, Field Exercise and Wargames), Kabul, 1972,
Most recent published articles
Afghanistan's bubble of Optimism bursts, The Hill, Congress Blog, and November 18, 2015,
"Renewing Afghanistan’s Social Contract", IPI Global Observatory, December 8, 2015,
"Forging Afghanistan National Unity Government", a Peace Brief Paper at USIP (December 2014) on discussing the Challenges facing the Afghanistan National Unity Government,
The Security Sector reform in Afghanistan-Achievements and Setbacks, published by the Journal of International Peace Operations (JIPO),March 2012,
Non-State Armed Groups-Challenges and Opportunities, published by the Special Issue of the International Red Cross Journal, Geneva, Summer 2011,
Commentary on the Kandahar Jail break (Pervasive Corruption and Public Distrust), published in New York Times' opinion page on April 26, 2010.
"Afghanistan in Transition," published in the autumn 2010 issue of Parameters which is available on line.
Commentary on U.S. Strategy Review for Afghanistan in New York Times’ opinion page on December 16, 2010.
What to expect from General Petraeus, New York Times, June 24, 2010
Afghanistan: Long-term Solutions and Perilous Shortcuts, Prism Quarterly (NDU), published in September 2010 Issue
Is Fair Election in Afghanistan Possible, New York Times, October 21, 2009
Is it Time to Negotiate with the Taliban, New York Times, Sep 1, 2009
Afghanistan: A Long Hot Summer and A Call for Change, Far Eastern Economic Review, July/August 2009 issue
Winning in Afghanistan, Parameters, Spring 2009 issue, Carlisle Barracks, Penn, US, May 2009
How to Win in Afghanistan, OP-ED, The Washington Times, March 1, 2009
Afghanistan: Regaining Momentum, Parameters, winter 2007-2008 issue, Carlisle Barracks, Penn, US, Jan 2008
Expeditionary Forces: Superior Technology Defeated - The Battle of Maiwand. 2006. Coauthored with Lester W. Grau. A book chapter in "The British Army 1815-1914,) Harold E. Raugh Jr. Ed. Ashgate Publishing Limited, England, US. 2006
Combating Opium in Afghanistan. 2006. Coauthored with Robert B. Oakley and Zoe Hunter. Strategic Forum No. 224, Institute for National Strategic Studies, National Defense University, November 2006, Washington D.C.
Forbidden Cross-Border Vendetta: Spetsnaz Strike into Pakistan during the Soviet-Afghan, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, December 2006
Five Years later Afghanistan Pays for Sins of Omission. Baltimore Sun, October 8, 2006. It was also published by several other major papers across the country and the Khalij Times. The article reviewed the past five years and made suggestions on ways to improve the security situation in Afghanistan.
Nation Building on the Cheap. 2006. The Washington Post, May 28, 2006
The Future of Afghanistan, Parameters, Spring 2006 issue, Carlisle Barracks, Penn, US, Feb 2006
Afghanistan in 2002: The Struggle to Win Peace, Asian Survey, University of Berkeley, Ca. January 2003
Demobilizing War machines: Making Peace last, a paper presented at and published by the U.N. conference on Rebuilding Societies Emerging from Conflict (September 9–11, 2002)
Rebuilding Afghanistan’s National Army, Parameters, US. Army War College, Autumn, 2002
Afghanistan: Political Participation and Security, Georgetown University, Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, Summer 2002
Russian-Iranian Strategic Partnership, Parameters, US. Army War College, Winter 2001
A detailed Military Analysis of the Battle of Maiwand (Pashto), Afghan Cultural Association, Peshawar, 2000
Expeditionary Forces: Superior Technology Defeated - The Battle of Maiwand,” U.S. Military Review, May–June 2001
Afghanistan: the Anatomy of an Ongoing Conflict, Parameters, US. Army War College, spring 2001
The Campaign for the caves : the battles of Zhawar in the soviet-Afghan war - la guerre des grottes : la bataille de Zhawar pendant la guerre soviétique en Afghanistan, Journal of Slavic military studies (the), 2001, vol. 14 n°3, p. 69-92 Vértitable guerilla, la bataille de Zhawar a montré les insuffisances de tactique des deux armées.
Iran-Central Asia: Reminiscing the Past and Looking to the Future, Central Asia Monitor, No. 4, 2001
Islam as a Political Force in Central Asia: The Iranian Influence, Central Asia Monitor, No. 2, 1999
Kashmir: Flashpoint or Safety Valve? By Mr. Lester W. Grau Foreign Military Studies Office, Fort Leavenworth, KS. And Mr. Ali A. Jalali. This article was previously published in Military Review July–August 1999.
Night Stalkers and Mean Streets: Afghan Urban Guerrillas, by Mr. Ali A. Jalali and Mr. Lester W. Grau, Foreign Military Studies Office, Fort Leavenworth, KS. This article was previously published in Infantry January–April 1999.
Wither the Taliban? Taliban–A Model for “Islamicising” Central Asia? The Cyber-Caravan, Johns Hopkins University, vol. 1, No. 4, March 6, 1999
Underground Combat: Stereophonic Blasting, Tunnel Rats and the Soviet-Afghan War - Lester Grau and Ali Ahmad Jalali. Engineer article November 1998
The Break-up of State Structures in Afghanistan, in Persian, Mehragan (Iranian Journal), Summer 1998
The Clash of Values and Interests in Afghanistan, Institute of World Politics, Washington D.C. 1995
Identity Issues in Central Asia (1994), Institute of World Politics, Washington D.C. 1994
Russia's Military Establishment in Transition, Institute of World Politics, Washington D.C. 1993
Strategic and Operational Aspects of the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, International Conference on Light Infantry, Seattle, 1985
U.S.-Kazakhstan Strategic Partnership: An hour-long documentary published and broadcast by VOA in several languages, 1994
Civil-Military Relations in a Democracy: An hour-long documentary published and broadcast by VOA in several languages, 1995
Intellectual Property Rights: A seven-part series of reports published and broadcast by VOA in several languages, 1995
Poppies Along the Silk Road: An hour-long documentary published and broadcast by VOA in several languages, 1995
Afghanistan- The War of the Neighbors: An hour-long documentary published by VOA and broadcast in several languages, 1996More than 400 reports and news analyses in English on Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia published and broadcast by the Voice of America
Over 450 of analytical reports (English) for VOA on political, economic and social developments in Central Asia and the Caucasus, 1993-2001
Hundreds of Dari/Pashto articles and features were published in Afghanistan (mostly in the Military Journal) or broadcast on Radio Afghanistan between 1965 and 1978
Papers and reports
More than 100 scholarly and policy papers and speeches presented at seminars, conferences and symposium in the United States, Europe, India, Pakistan and Japan, 1995–present
References
External links
Profile: Ali Ahmad Jalali
1944 births
Living people
Afghan emigrants to the United States
Government ministers of Afghanistan
Pashtun people | [
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216869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Arnold | Thomas Arnold | Thomas Arnold (13 June 1795 – 12 June 1842) was an English educator and historian. He was an early supporter of the Broad Church Anglican movement. As headmaster of Rugby School from 1828 to 1841, he introduced several reforms that were widely copied by other noted public schools. His reforms redefined standards of masculinity and achievement.
Early life and education
Arnold was born on the Isle of Wight, the son of William Arnold, a Customs officer, and his wife Martha Delafield. William Arnold was related to the Arnold family of gentry from Lowestoft. Thomas was educated at Lord Weymouth's Grammar School, Warminster, at Winchester, and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He excelled in Classics and was made a fellow of Oriel in 1815. He became headmaster of a school in Laleham before moving to Rugby.
Career as an educator
Rugby School
Arnold's appointment to the headship of Rugby School in 1828, after some years as a private tutor, turned the school's fortunes around. His force of character and religious zeal enabled him to make it a model for other public schools and exercise a strong influence on the education system of England. Though he introduced history, mathematics and modern languages, he based his teaching on the classical languages. "I assume it as the foundation of all my view of the case, that boys at a public school never will learn to speak or pronounce French well, under any circumstances," and so it would be enough if they could "learn it grammatically as a dead language." Physical science was not taught because, in Arnold's view, "it must either take the chief place in the school curriculum, or it must be left out altogether." Arnold was also opposed to the materialistic tendency of physical science, a view deriving from his Christian idealism. He wrote that "rather than have physical science the principal thing in my son's mind, I would gladly have him think that the sun went round the earth, and that the stars were so many spangles set in the bright blue firmament. Surely the one thing needful for a Christian and an Englishman to study is Christian and moral and political philosophy."
Arnold developed the praepostor (prefect) system, in which sixth-form students were given powers over every part of the school (managed by himself) and kept order in the establishment. The 1857 novel by Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown's School Days portrays a generation of boys "who feared the Doctor with all our hearts, and very little besides in heaven or earth; who thought more of our sets in the School than of the Church of Christ, and put the traditions of Rugby and the public opinion of boys in our daily life above the laws of God."
Arnold was no great enthusiast for sport, which was permitted only as an alternative to poaching or fighting with local boys and did not become part of Rugby's curriculum until 1850. He described his educational aims as being the cure of souls first, moral development second, and intellectual development third. However, this did not prevent Baron de Coubertin from considering him the father of the organized sport he admired when he visited English public schools, including Rugby in 1886. When looking at Arnold's tomb in the school chapel he recalled that he felt suddenly as if he were looking on "the very cornerstone of the British empire". Coubertin is thought to have exaggerated the importance of sport to Thomas Arnold, whom he viewed as "one of the founders of athletic chivalry". The character-forming influence of sport, with which Coubertin was so impressed, is more likely to have originated in the novel Tom Brown's School Days than exclusively in the ideas of Arnold himself. "Thomas Arnold, the leader and classic model of English educators," wrote Coubertin, "gave the precise formula for the role of athletics in education. The cause was quickly won. Playing fields sprang up all over England."
Oxford University
Arnold was involved in not a few controversies, educational and religious. As a churchman he was a decided Erastian and strongly opposed to the High Church party. His 1833 Principles of Church Reform is linked with the beginnings of the Broad Church movement. In 1841, he was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford.
Works
Arnold's chief literary works are his unfinished History of Rome (three volumes, 1838–1842) and his Lectures on Modern History. Far more often read were his five books of sermons, which were admired by a wide circle of pious readers, including Queen Victoria.
Family
Arnold married Mary Penrose, daughter of the Rev. John Penrose of Penryn, Cornwall. They had five daughters and five sons, including the poet Matthew Arnold, the literary scholar Tom, the author William Delafield Arnold and Edward Penrose Arnold, an inspector of schools. One daughter died in infancy. The eldest daughter, Jane Martha, married William Edward Forster. Both enjoyed mountaineering; they climbed Mont Blanc in 1859 and in 1860 Jane was one of the first women to stand on the summit of Monte Rosa, which had not been climbed by a woman until 1857. When William Delafield Arnold died in 1859 leaving four orphans, the Forsters adopted them as their own, adding their name to the children's surname. One of them was Hugh Oakeley Arnold-Forster, a Liberal Unionist MP, who eventually became a member of Balfour's cabinet. Another was Florence Vere O'Brien, a diarist, philanthropist and craftswoman who lived in Ireland. Frances Bunsen Trevenen Whateley Arnold, the youngest daughter, never married and died at Fox How in 1923.
Arnold had bought the small estate of Fox How near Ambleside in the Lake District in 1832, and spent many holidays there. On 12 June 1842 he died there suddenly of a heart attack "at the height of his powers", a day before his 47th birthday. He is buried in Rugby School chapel.
Thomas the Younger's daughter Mary Augusta Arnold, became a well-known novelist under her married name, Mrs. Humphry Ward. His other daughter, Julia, married Leonard Huxley, the son of Thomas Huxley. Their sons were Julian and Aldous Huxley. Julia Arnold founded in 1902 Prior's Field School for girls in Godalming, Surrey.
Reputation
The Life of Doctor Arnold, published two years after his death by one of Arnold's former pupils, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, is seen as one of the best works of its class in the language and added to his growing reputation. A popular life of Arnold by the novelist Emma Jane Guyton also appeared. In 1896 his bust was unveiled in Westminster Abbey alongside that of his son, Matthew. The Times asserted, "As much as any who could be named, Arnold helped to form the standard of manly worth by which Englishmen judge and submit to be judged." However, his reputation suffered as one of the Eminent Victorians in Lytton Strachey's book of that title published in 1918.
A more recent public-school headmaster, Michael McCrum of Tonbridge School and Eton College in the 1960s to 1980s, also a churchman and Oxbridge academic (Master of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge and Vice-Chancellor), wrote a biography and reappraisal of Arnold in 1991. He had briefly been a master at Rugby and was married to the daughter of another former headmaster. More recently, a biography entitled Black Tom was written by Terence Copley. Both McCrum and Copley seek to restore some lustre to the Arnold legacy, which had been under attack since Strachey's sardonic appraisal.
A. C. Benson once observed of Arnold, "A man who could burst into tears at his own dinner-table on hearing a comparison made between St. Paul and St. John to the detriment of the latter, and beg that the subject might never be mentioned again in his presence, could never have been an easy companion."
Depictions on screen
Arnold has been played several times in adaptations of Tom Brown's School Days, including by Sir Cedric Hardwicke in the 1940 film version, Robert Newton in the 1951 film version, Iain Cuthbertson in the 1971 television version, and Stephen Fry in the 2005 television version.
Works
The Christian Duty of Granting the Claims of the Roman Catholics (pamphlet) Rugby, 1828
Sermons Preached in the Chapel of Rugby School, London: Fellowes, 1850 (first edition, 1832)
Principles of Church Reform, Oxford: Fellowes,1833
History of Rome, London: Fellowes, 1838
Introductory Lectures on Modern History, London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1842
Sermons: Christian Life, its Hopes, Fears and Close, London: Fellowes, 1842
Sermons: Christian Life, its Course, London: Fellowes, 1844
As translator: The History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides, (3 vols.) London: Fellowes, 1845
The Interpretation of Scripture, London: Fellowes, 1845
Notes
Further reading
Terrence Copley, Black Tom: Arnold of Rugby: The Myth and the Man, New York: Continuum, 2002
Heather Ellis, "Thomas Arnold, Christian Manliness and the Problem of Boyhood' Journal of Victorian Culture, 2014, 19#3, pp. 425–441 online
Giorgia Grilli, "English public schools and the moulding of the'Englishman'." History of Education & Children's Literature 2015, 10.1
Simon Heffer, High minds: the Victorians and the birth of modern Britain, 2013, pp. 1–30
Rosemary Jann, The Art and Science of Victorian History, 1985, pp. 1–32 online free
Michael McCrum, Thomas Arnold, Headmaster, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989
Fabrice Neddam, "Constructing Masculinities under Thomas Arnold of Rugby (1828–1842): Gender, Educational Policy and School Life in an Early-Victorian Public School" Gender and Education, 2004, 16#3, pp. 303–326
Paul M. Puccio, "At the Heart of Tom Brown's Schooldays: Thomas Arnold and Christian Friendship", Modern Language Studies, 1995, pp. 57–74
Lytton Strachey, Eminent Victorians, (London, 1918), online
Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, The life and correspondence of Thomas Arnold, D. D., late head-master of Rugby school and regius professor of modern history in the University of Oxford (2 vol. 1877) famous biography by a former student. online
Norman Wymer, Dr. Arnold of Rugby (1953)
William E. Winn, "Tom Brown's Schooldays and the Development of 'Muscular Christianity'" Church History (1960) 29#1 pp. 64–73
Primary sources
Thomas Arnold, Arnold of Rugby: His school life and contributions to education (1897) online
External links
Archival material at
Huxley family
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Oxford
Fellows of Oriel College, Oxford
19th-century English Anglican priests
Head Masters of Rugby School
People from Cowes
People educated at Winchester College
People educated at Lord Weymouth's Grammar School
1795 births
1842 deaths
Regius Professors of History (University of Oxford) | [
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|
216870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borken | Borken | Borken may refer to:
Borken, North Rhine-Westphalia
Borken (district), in North Rhine-Westphalia
Borken, Hesse | [
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|
216873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentor%20Graphics | Mentor Graphics | Mentor Graphics is a US-based electronic design automation (EDA) multinational corporation for electrical engineering and electronics, headquartered in Wilsonville, Oregon. Founded in 1981, the company was acquired by Siemens in 2017. Since 2021, the former Mentor Graphics operates as a division at Siemens named Siemens EDA.
Mentor Graphics was noted for distributing products that assist in electronic design automation, simulation tools for analog mixed-signal design, VPN solutions, and fluid dynamics and heat transfer tools. The company leveraged Apollo Computer workstations to differentiate itself within the computer-aided engineering (CAE) market with its software and hardware.
History
Mentor Graphics was founded in 1981 by Tom Bruggere, Gerry Langeler and Dave Moffenbeier. The first round of money, worth $1 million, came from Sutter Hill, Greylock, and Venrock Associates. The next round was $2 million from five venture capital firms, and in April 1983 a third round raised an additional $7 million.
Apollo Computer workstations were chosen as the initial hardware platform. Based in Chelmsford, Massachusetts, Apollo was less than a year old and had only announced itself to the public a few weeks prior to when the founders of Mentor Graphics began their initial meetings.
When Mentor entered the CAE market the company had two technical differentiators: the first was the software - Mentor, Valid, and Daisy each had software with different strengths and weaknesses. The second, was the hardware - Mentor ran all programs on the Apollo workstation, while Daisy and Valid each built their own hardware. By the late 1980s, all EDA companies abandoned proprietary hardware in favor of workstations manufactured by companies such as Apollo and Sun Microsystems.
After a frenzied development, the IDEA 1000 product was introduced at the 1982 Design Automation Conference, though in a suite and not on the floor.
Acquisitions
Timeline
Related
In June 2008, Cadence Design Systems offered to acquire Mentor Graphics in a leveraged buyout. On 15 August 2008, Cadence withdrew this offer quoting an inability to raise the necessary capital and the unwillingness of Mentor Graphics' Board and management to discuss the offer.
In February 2011, activist investor Carl Icahn offered to buy the company for about $1.86 billion in cash.
In November 2016, Mentor Graphics announced that it was to be acquired by Siemens for $4.5 billion, at $37.25 per share, a 21% premium on Mentor's closing price on the previous Friday. The acquisition was completed in March 2017. Mentor Graphics started to operate as "Mentor, a Siemens Business". Under the terms of the acquisition, Mentor Graphics kept its headquarters in Wilsonville with workforce intact, and operated as an independent subsidiary.
In January 2021, Mentor became a division of Siemens and was renamed as Siemens EDA.
Locations
Mentor product development was located in the US, Taiwan, Egypt, Poland, Hungary, Japan, France, Canada, Pakistan, UK, Armenia, India and Russia.
Notable persons
James "Jim" Ready left Mentor in 1999 to form the embedded Linux company MontaVista. Neil Henderson joined Mentor Graphics in 2002 with the acquisition of Accelerated Technology Inc. Stephen Mellor, a leader in the UML space and co-originator of the Shlaer-Mellor design methodology, joined Mentor Graphics in 2004 following the acquisition of Project Technology.
Management
Walden C. Rhines was the company's chief executive officer and president following the acquisition by Siemens, until November 2018 when he became CEO Emeritus. Tony Hemmelgarn is now the president and CEO of Siemens Digital Industries Software, which includes the former Mentor product line.
Products
Mentor offered the following tools:
Electronic Design Automation
Integrated circuit layout full-custom and schematic-driven layout (SDL) tools such as IC Station or Memory Builder, a first industry tool for rapid embedded memory design that helped to develop single- or dual-port RAMs (synchronous and asynchronous), as well as diffusion and metal read only memories (ROM)
IC place and route tool: Aprisa
IC Verification tools such as Calibre nmDRC, Calibre nmLVS, Calibre xRC, Calibre xACT 3D
IC Design for Manufacturing tools such as Calibre LFD, Calibre YieldEnhancer, Calibre, and YieldAnalyzer
Schematic editors for electronic schematics such as Xpedition Designer
Layout and design tools for printed circuit boards with programs such as PADS, Xpedition Layout, HyperLynx and Valor NPI
Component library management tools
IP cores for ASIC and FPGA designs
Embedded Systems
Mentor Embedded Linux for ARM, MIPS, Power, and x86 architecture processors
Real-time operating systems:
Nucleus OS (acquired in 2002 when Mentor acquired Accelerated Technology, Inc.)
VRTX (acquired in 1995 when Mentor bought Microtec Research)
AUTOSAR implementation:
Embedded implementation VSTAR in part acquired from Mecel in 2013
Configuration tooling Volcano Vehicle Systems Builder (VSB)
Development Tools:
Sourcery CodeBench and Sourcery GNU toolchains (acquired in 2010 when Mentor acquired CodeSourcery)
Inflexion UI - (Next Device was acquired by Mentor in 2006)
xtUML Design Tools: BridgePoint (acquired in 2004 when Mentor acquired Project Technology)
VPN Solutions:
Nucleus Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) software
Nucleus NET networking stack
Nucleus implementation of the Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption (MPPE) protocol
Nucleus PPP software
FPGA Synthesis
Precision Synthesis - Advanced RTL & physical synthesis for FPGAs
Electrical Systems, Cabling, and Harness
Capital - a suite of integrated tools for the design, validation and manufacture of electrical systems and harnesses
VeSys - a mid-market toolset for vehicle electrical system and harness design
Simulation
ModelSim is a hardware simulation and debug environment primarily targeted at smaller ASIC and FPGA design
QuestaSim is a simulator with advanced debug capabilities targeted at complex FPGA's and SoC's. QuestaSim can be used by users who have experience with ModelSim as it shares most of the common debug features and capabilities. One of the main differences between QuestaSim and Modelsim (besides performance/capacity) is that QuestaSim is the simulation engine for the Questa Platform which includes integration of Verification Management, Formal based technologies, Questa Verification IP, Low Power Simulation and Accelerated Coverage Closure technologies. QuestaSim natively supports SystemVerilog for Testbench, UPF, UCIS, OVM/UVM where ModelSim does not.
Eldo is a SPICE simulator
Xpedition AMS is a virtual lab for mechatronic system design and analysis
ADiT is a Fast-SPICE simulator
Questa ADMS is a mixed-signal verification tool
Emulation
The Veloce product family enables SoC emulation and transaction-based acceleration.
Mechanical Design
Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer tools:
Simcenter Flotherm is a Computational Fluid Dynamics tool dedicated to electronics cooling using parameterized ‘SmartParts’ for common electronic components such as fans, heatsinks, and IC packages
Simcenter Flotherm XT is an electronics cooling CFD tool incorporating a solid modeler for manipulating MCAD parts.
Simcenter FLOEFD is a ‘design concurrent’ CFD tool for use in early-stage product design and is embedded within MCAD systems such as Solidworks, Creo Elements/Pro, CATIA V5 and Siemens NX
Thermal Characterization and Thermal Interface Material (TIM) Measurement equipment:
Simcenter T3STER is a hardware product that embodies an implementation of the JEDEC JESD51-1 standard for IC package thermal characterization and is compliant with JESD51-14 for Rth-JC measurement
Simcenter TERALED provides automation of the CIE 127:2007 standard providing total flux, chromaticity and correlated color temperature (CCT) for power LEDs. With T3Ster it provides thermal resistance metrics for LEDs based on the real dissipated heating power.
Simcenter DYNTIM extends T3Ster, providing a dynamic thermal test station for thermal conductivity measurements of thermal interface materials (TIMs), thermal greases and gap pads.
Simcenter Flomaster is a 1D or system-level CFD solution for analyzing fluid mechanics in complex pipe flow systems (from the acquisition of Flowmaster Ltd in 2012).
CADRA Design Drafting is a 2-1/2D mechanical drafting and documentation package specifically designed for drafting professionals. It provides the tools needed to develop complex drawings quickly and easily (from the acquisition of the CADRA product in 2013).
References
Companies based in Wilsonville, Oregon
1981 establishments in Oregon
2017 mergers and acquisitions
Electronic design automation companies
Electronics companies established in 1981
Electronics companies of the United States
Siemens
American subsidiaries of foreign companies | [
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|
216874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDA | EDA | EDA or Eda may refer to:
Computing
Electronic design automation
Enterprise Desktop Alliance, a computer technology consortium
Enterprise digital assistant
Estimation of distribution algorithm
Event-driven architecture
Exploratory data analysis
Government and politics
Economic Development Administration, an agency of the United States government
Election Defense Alliance, an American voting integrity organization
European Defence Agency, a branch of the European Union
European Democratic Alliance, a former political group in the European Parliament
(Federal Department of Foreign Affairs), a branch of the government of Switzerland
(Spanish Air Force), the air force of Spain
(United Democratic Left) (1951-1967, 1977-1985), a former Greek political party
Electoral District Association, a local unit of a political party in Canada
People
Eda (given name), a given name
Eda (surname), a Japanese surname
Eda Clawthorne, a fictional character in the American animated fantasy TV series The Owl House
Places
Eda, Sweden
Eda glasbruk, Sweden
Eda Station (disambiguation)
Science and medicine
Ectodysplasin A, a protein
Electrodermal activity
Electron donor acceptor complexes, a type of Charge-transfer complex
European Delirium Association
Exploratory data analysis
Other uses
EDA Awards, American film awards
Eda IF, a Swedish sport club
Eighth Doctor Adventures, a series of novels based on the television series Doctor Who
"Eating, Drinking, Adventure". A good mixture of social elements for a decent first Tinder date. | [
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|
216875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anwar%20ul-Haq%20Ahady | Anwar ul-Haq Ahady | Anwar ul-Haq Ahady (August 12, 1951) is a politician in Afghanistan, formerly serving as Afghan Minister of Commerce and Industry. He had served as the nation's Finance Minister from December 2004 to February 5, 2009. Prior to that he held the position as head of Da Afghanistan Bank, the central bank of Afghanistan, from 2002 to 2004. He is also prominent academic and writer.
Early years
Ahady was born on 12 August 1951 in Sarobi, Kabul province, Afghanistan. He is the son of Abdul Haqhas, a Pashtun and native of the Sarobi district in Kabul province. Ahady holds a Master of Business Administration (MBA) and a Ph.D in political science from the post-graduate faculty of Northwestern University, in Evanston, Illinois, north of Chicago. He earned a Bachelor's degree as well as a Master's degree in economics and political science from the American University of Beirut in Lebanon.
Careers
Ahady served as an assistant professor of political science at Carleton College, in Northfield, Minnesota, in the United States, and as the banking director of Continental Elona of Chicago from 1985 to 1987. He was a professor of political science at Providence College, a Catholic university in Providence, Rhode Island, from 1987 to 2002.
After the removal of the Taliban government and the formation of the Karzai administration in late 2001, Ahady was chosen as the head of Afghanistan's central bank, Da Afghanistan Bank. He has many writings in academic journals, books, and popular dailies of the United States.
Political affiliation
Ahady is currently the elected leader of the Afghan Millat Party.
Works
"The Decline of the Pashtuns in Afghanistan", Anwar-ul-Haq Ahady, Asian Survey, Vol. 35, No. 7. (Jul., 1995), pp. 621–634.
References
External links
|-
1951 births
Living people
Finance Ministers of Afghanistan
Governors of Da Afghanistan Bank
Afghan Millat Party politicians
Government ministers of Afghanistan
Pashtun people
Pashtun nationalists | [
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216877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A1%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29 | A1 road (Great Britain) | The A1 is the longest numbered road in the UK, at . It connects London, the capital of England, with Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland. It passes through or near North London, Hatfield, Welwyn Garden City, Stevenage, Baldock, Letchworth Garden City, Biggleswade, St Neots, Huntingdon, Peterborough, Stamford, Grantham, Newark-on-Trent, Retford, Doncaster, York, Pontefract, Wetherby, Ripon, Darlington, Durham, Sunderland, Gateshead, Newcastle upon Tyne, Morpeth, Alnwick and Berwick-upon-Tweed.
It was designated by the Ministry of Transport in 1921, and for much of its route it followed various branches of the historic Great North Road, the main deviation being between Boroughbridge and Darlington. The course of the A1 has changed where towns or villages have been bypassed, and where new alignments have taken a slightly different route. Several sections of the route have been upgraded to motorway standard and designated A1(M). Between the M25 (near London) and the A696 (near Newcastle upon Tyne) the road has been designated as part of the unsigned Euroroute E15 from Inverness to Algeciras.
History
The A1 is the latest in a series of routes north from London to York and beyond. It was designated in 1921 by the Ministry of Transport under the Great Britain road numbering scheme. The earliest documented northern routes are the roads created by the Romans during the period from AD 43 to AD 410, which consisted of several itinera (plural of iter) recorded in the Antonine Itinerary. A combination of these were used by the Anglo-Saxons as the route from London to York, and together became known as Ermine Street. Ermine Street later became known as the Old North Road. Part of this route in London is followed by the current A10. By the 12th century, because of flooding and damage by traffic, an alternative route out of London was found through Muswell Hill, and became part of the Great North Road. A turnpike road, New North Road and Canonbury Road (A1200 road), was constructed in 1812 linking the start of the Old North Road around Shoreditch with the Great North Road at Highbury Corner. While the route of the A1 outside London mainly follows the Great North Road route used by mail coaches between London and Edinburgh, within London the coaching route is only followed through Islington.
Bypasses were built around Barnet and Hatfield in 1927, but it was not until c.1954 that they were renumbered A1. In the 1930s bypasses were added around Chester-le-Street and Durham and the Ferryhill Cut was dug. In 1960 Stamford, Biggleswade and Doncaster were bypassed, as were Retford in 1961 and St Neots in 1971. Baldock was bypassed in July 1967. During the early 1970s plans to widen the A1 along Archway Road in London were abandoned after considerable opposition and four public inquiries during which road protesters disrupted proceedings. The scheme was finally dropped in 1990. The Hatfield cut-and-cover was opened in 1986.
A proposal to upgrade the whole of the A1 to motorway status was investigated by the government in 1989 but was dropped in 1995, along with many other schemes, in response to road protests against other road schemes (including the Newbury Bypass and the M3 extension through Twyford Down).
Inns
The inns on the road, many of which still survive, were staging posts on the coach routes, providing accommodation, stabling for the horses and replacement mounts. Few of the surviving coaching inns can be seen while driving on the A1, because the modern route now bypasses the towns with the inns.
Route
The A1 runs from New Change in the City of London at St. Paul's Cathedral to the centre of Edinburgh. It shares its London terminus with the A40, in the City area of Central London. It runs out of London via St. Martin's Le Grand and Aldersgate Street, through Islington (where Goswell Road and Upper Street form part of its route), up Holloway Road, through Highgate, Barnet, Potters Bar, Hatfield, Welwyn, Stevenage, Baldock, Biggleswade, Sandy and St Neots.
Continuing north, the A1 runs on modern bypasses around Stamford, Grantham, Newark-on-Trent, Retford, Bawtry, Doncaster, Knottingley, Garforth, Wetherby, Knaresborough, Boroughbridge, Scotch Corner, Darlington, Newton Aycliffe, Durham and Chester-le-Street, past the Angel of the North sculpture and the Metrocentre in Gateshead, through the western suburbs of Newcastle upon Tyne, Morpeth, Alnwick, Berwick-upon-Tweed, into Scotland at Marshall Meadows, past Haddington and Musselburgh before arriving in Edinburgh at the East End of Princes Street near Waverley Station, at the junction of the A7, A8 and A900 roads.
Scotch Corner, in North Yorkshire, marks the point where before the M6 was built, the traffic for Glasgow and the west of Scotland diverged from that for Edinburgh. As well as a hotel there have been a variety of sites for the transport café, now subsumed as a motorway services.
Overview and post-First World War developments
A section of the road in North Yorkshire, from Walshford to Dishforth, was upgraded to motorway standard in 1995. Neolithic remains and a Roman fort were discovered.
A section of the road from Alconbury to Peterborough was upgraded to motorway standard at a cost of £128 million (£ as of ), which opened in 1998 requiring moving the memorial to Napoleonic prisoners buried at Norman Cross.
A number of sections between Newcastle and Edinburgh were dualled between 1999 and 2004, including a section from Spott Wood to Oswald Dean in 1999, sections from Bowerhouse to Spott Road and from Howburn to Houndwood in 2002–2003 and the "A1 Expressway", from Haddington and Dunbar in 2004. The total cost of these works was £50 million.
Plans to dual the single carriageway section of road north of Newcastle upon Tyne were shelved in 2006 as they were not considered a regional priority by central government. The intention was to dual the road between Morpeth and Felton and between Adderstone and Belford.
In 1999 a section of A1(M) between Bramham and Hook Moor opened to traffic along with the extension of the M1 from Leeds. Under a DBFO contract, sections from Wetherby to Walshford and Darrington to Hook Moor were opened in 2005 and 2006.
Recent developments
A1 Peterborough to Blyth grade separated junctions
Between August 2006 and September 2009 six roundabouts on the A1 and the A1(M) to Alconbury were replaced with grade-separated junctions. These provide a fully grade-separated route between the Buckden roundabout (just north of St Neots and approximately north of the Black Cat Roundabout) and just north of Morpeth. This project cost £96 million.
A1(M) Bramham to Wetherby motorway
Upgrading the of road to dual three-lane motorway standard between the Bramham/A64 junction to north of Wetherby to meet the section of motorway at a cost of £70 million began in 2006, including a road alongside for non-motorway traffic. The scheme's public inquiry began on 18 October 2006 and the project was designed by James Poyner. Work began in May 2007, the motorway section opened in July 2009 and remaining work on side roads was still ongoing in late August and was expected to be completed by the end of 2009.
A1(M) Dishforth to Leeming motorway
Upgrading of the existing dual carriageway to dual three-lane motorway standard, with a local road alongside for non-motorway traffic, between Dishforth (A1(M)/A168 junction) and Leeming Bar, began in March 2009 and opened to traffic on or about the scheduled date of 31 March 2012.
A1(M) Leeming to Barton motorway
It had originally been proposed that the road would be upgraded to motorway from Dishforth to Barton (between Scotch Corner and Darlington), which was the start of current northernmost section of A1(M). In 2010 the section between Leeming and Barton was cancelled as part of government spending cuts but it was reinstated in December 2012. Work began on 3 April 2014 and was expected to be completed by Spring 2017, but only reached completion in March 2018 due in part to significant Roman-era archaeological finds along the route of the motorway. Completion has provided a continuous motorway-standard road between Darrington (south of M62 junction) and Washington, and given the North East and North Yorkshire full motorway access to London (via the M1 at Darrington and Hook Moor).
Councils in the north east have called for the section from Hook Moor in Yorkshire (where the M1 link road joins the A1(M)) to Washington to be renumbered as the M1. They maintain that this would raise the profile of the north-east and be good for business.
A1 (Gateshead Western Bypass)
In his Autumn Statement on 5 December 2012, the Chancellor of the Exchequer announced that the Government would upgrade a section of road from two to three lanes in each direction within the highway boundary at Lobley Hill (between Coal House and the Metro Centre), Gateshead at a cost of £64 m and create parallel link roads between the Lobley Hill and Gateshead Quay junctions. The same Road investment strategy announcement said that the remaining section of road between Birtley and Coal House will also be widened to three lanes each way, alongside the replacement of the Allerdene Bridge. A modified scheme commenced in August 2014 and was open to traffic in June 2016. The road is now three lanes each way with lane 3 narrower than lanes 1 and 2 so that all existing bridges remained as originally built.
The A1 around Durham, Gateshead and Newcastle has seen a number of incarnations, following routes through, to the east and to the west of both Gateshead and Newcastle. See A1 (Newcastle upon Tyne) for more information.
Ongoing developments
A1 Grantham Southern Relief Road
A new junction is currently under construction on the A1 south of Grantham. Highways England will construct 4 new slip roads to connect the A1 Trunk Road to the new Grantham Southern Relief Road being constructed by Lincolnshire County Council. This will create a southern entry to Grantham and also to the site known as the ‘King 31 Development’. The King 31 (Phase 1) is the section from the Grade Separated Junction to the B1174 (now completed). Phase three is the Southern Quadrant Link Road (SQLR). The Grantham Transport Strategy 2007-2021 identified the need for an east west relief road to bypass the centre of Grantham for traffic and open up the town and surrounding area to a significant amount of growth.
Others
A number of proposed developments listed following are scheduled to begin in the near future. As a result of rerouting the A14, for which construction works have been underway since November 2016, the current junction of A1(M) and A14 at Brampton Hut will be completely redesigned and moved south of the service station.
Proposed developments
A1(M) Red House to Darrington motorway
In the "Road investment strategy" announced to Parliament by the Department for Transport and Secretary of State for Transport on 1 December 2014, planning will begin to upgrade the road in South Yorkshire to raise the last non-motorway section from Red House to Darrington to motorway standard. Once completed, it will provide a continuous motorway-standard road between Blyth, Nottinghamshire and Washington, Tyne and Wear and will provide the North East and Yorkshire with full motorway access to London via the M1, M62 and M18. It will also improve safety along this route, as well as creating a new corridor to the North East, and reducing congestion on the M1 around Sheffield and Leeds. This is the only missing link of motorway on the strategic M1/M18/A1(M) route London to Washington.
A1 Scotswood to North Brunton
The same announcement said that the road from Scotswood to North Brunton would be widened to three lanes each way, with four lanes each way between some junctions.
A1 Morpeth to Ellingham
The announcement then said that the road from Morpeth to Ellingham would be upgraded to dual carriageway. The selection of the preferred route was scheduled for the year 2017, with construction due to begin in 2019. In response to questions regarding transport in the north, Highways England stated that a new dual carriageway section between Morpeth and Fenton and also that of Alnwick to Ellingham would start in 2021 with full opening in 2023.
A1 North of Ellingham
Measures were also announced to enhance the performance and safety of the A1 north of Ellingham to include three sections of climbing lanes, five junctions with improved right turn refuges, and better crossing facilities for pedestrians and cyclists. Start of construction is scheduled for 2018.
Ellington to Fen Ditton scheme
The planned A14 Ellington to Fen Ditton scheme would require a new junction at Brampton, north of which the A1 will be widened to a three-lane dual carriageway from Brampton to the Brampton Hut interchange. The new two-lane dual carriageway section of the A14 would run parallel with the A1 on this section.
Black Cat roundabout replacement
The same announcement in December 2014 said that the A1/A421 Black Cat Roundabout would be replaced with a grade-separated junction, just a few years after this roundabout was expensively upgraded.
A46 Newark northern bypass scheme
It was then also announced that planning would begin to upgrade the Newark northern bypass to dual carriageway, and the A46 junction with the A1 will be replaced to support nearby housing growth and improve links from the A1 to Newark and Lincoln.
A1(M) Doncaster By-pass
It was also announced that the Doncaster By-pass, which is the oldest stretch of two-lane motorway still in service, would be upgraded to dual three lanes. This will relieve local congestion and provide the capacity needed to make the A1 an alternative (and better) strategic route to the north east.
Sandy-Beeston By-pass
In 2003 a proposal for a bypass of Sandy and Beeston, Bedfordshire, was put forward as a green-lighted scheme as part of a government multi-modal study, with a cost of £67 million. However, the Highways Agency was unwilling to confirm the information as the study was preliminary and intended for future publication. In 2008 the proposal was submitted for consideration in the pre-2013/14 Regional Funding Advice 2 Programme of the East of England Development Agency.
A1(M) technology enhancements and upgrades; A1 East of England feasibility study
It was also announced in 2014 that new technology would be implemented to bring the road to motorway standards, including detection loops, CCTV cameras and variable message signs to provide better information for drivers and active traffic management across Tyne and Wear, while Junction 6 (Welwyn North) to Junction 8 (Hitchin) would be upgraded to smart motorway, including widening of a two-lane section to dual three lanes and hard shoulder running.
A strategic study will examine how to improve the safety and performance of the A1 between Peterborough and the M25, including whether to upgrade the old dual carriageway section to motorway standard.
Other proposals
The Highways Agency has been investigating an upgrade of the A1 Newcastle/Gateshead Western Bypass to dual three-lane motorway standard to alleviate heavy congestion which in recent years has become a recurrent problem.
Improvements to junctions near the village of Elkesley, Nottinghamshire are planned: the village's only access to the rest of the road network is via the A1.
Consideration is being given to widening the Brampton Hut interchange to Alconbury sections to a three-lane dual carriageway.
A1(M)
Some sections of the A1 have been upgraded to motorway standard. These are known as the A1(M) and include:
M25 to Stotfold
The M25 to Stotfold section is , and was constructed between 1962 and 1986. The main destinations are Hatfield, Welwyn Garden City, Stevenage, and Letchworth. It opened in five stages: junctions 1 to 2 in 1979; 2 to 4 in 1986; 4 to 6 in 1973; 6 to 8 in 1962; and 8 to 10 in 1967.
Alconbury to Peterborough
The Alconbury to Peterborough section is , and opened in 1998.
Doncaster By-pass
The Doncaster By-pass opened in 1961 and is one of the oldest sections of motorway in Britain. It is long, and runs from Blyth to Carcroft.
Darrington to Gateshead
The Darrington to Gateshead section was constructed between 1965 and 2018. It is , and opened in sections:
Junctions 56 to 59 in 1965
Junctions 59 to 63 in 1969
Junctions 63 to 65 in 1970
Walshford to 49 in 1995
Junctions 43 to 44 in 1999
When this section opened it ended at a temporary terminus south of the M1. There was a final exit into Micklefield Village for non-motorway traffic onto what is now the access road. During the first week of June 2009, Junctions 44 and 45 were renumbered 43 and 44. At the same time the A1/A659 Grange Moor junction became A1(M) Junction 45. As a result many atlases show incorrect junction numbering for this stretch of motorway.
Junction 46 to temporary junction at Walshford opened in 2005
Junction 40 to south of 43 opened in 2005 & 2006
The northern section of the upgrade, bypassing Fairburn village opened in April 2005 with a temporary connection with the A1 between Fairburn and Brotherton. The southern section, with a free-flow interchange with the M62 motorway opened on 13 January 2006.
Junctions 44 to 46 opened in 2009
Junctions 49 to 51 opened as of 31 March 2012. Work began in March 2009 to upgrade the Dishforth to Leeming section to dual three-lane motorway standard with existing connections being replaced by two new junctions. This work was completed on 31 March 2012.
Junctions 51 to 56 opened in 2017 & 2018.
In popular culture
The A1 is celebrated in song. It is mentioned by Jethro Tull on the title track of the album Too Old to Rock 'n' Roll: Too Young to Die! "Up on the A1 by Scotch Corner". "Scotch Corner," by the Welsh band Man, on the album Rhinos, Winos and Lunatics is about an encounter there. Near the southern end, signs saying "Hatfield and the North" inspired the eponymous 1970s rock band Hatfield and the North. The A1 is mentioned in The Long Blondes' song, "Separated By Motorways", along with the A14. The A1(M) is mentioned in the song "Gabadon" by Sheffield band, Haze. Andrew Blackman's 2009 novel "On the Holloway Road", inspired by Jack Kerouac's On the Road, centres on a road trip along the A1.
Junctions
References
External links
BiffVernon: A1-The Great North Road
A1 at Roader's Digest (SABRE)
roadsUK: A1
Motorways in England
Roads in England
Roads in Scotland
Transport in the London Borough of Barnet
Transport in the London Borough of Islington
Transport in Bedfordshire
Transport in East Lothian
Transport in Edinburgh
Roads in Hertfordshire
Transport in Lincolnshire
Transport in Northumberland
Transport in Nottinghamshire
Transport in the Scottish Borders
Transport in Tyne and Wear
Roads in Yorkshire
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|
216878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop%20Corporation | Northrop Corporation | Northrop Corporation was an American aircraft manufacturer from its formation in 1939 until its 1994 merger with Grumman to form Northrop Grumman. The company is known for its development of the flying wing design, most successfully the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber.
History
Jack Northrop founded 3 companies using his name. The first was the Avion Corporation in 1928, which was absorbed in 1929 by the United Aircraft and Transport Corporation as a subsidiary named "Northrop Aircraft Corporation" (and later became part of Boeing). The parent company moved its operations to Kansas in 1931, and so Jack, along with Donald Douglas, established a "Northrop Corporation" located in El Segundo, California, which produced several successful designs, including the Northrop Gamma and Northrop Delta. However, labor difficulties led to the dissolution of the corporation by Douglas in 1937, and the plant became the El Segundo Division of Douglas Aircraft.
Northrop still sought his own company, and so in 1939 he established the "Northrop Corporation" in nearby Hawthorne, California, a site located by co-founder Moye Stephens. The corporation ranked 100th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts. It was there that the P-61 Black Widow night fighter, the B-35 and YB-49 experimental flying wing bombers, the F-89 Scorpion interceptor, the SM-62 Snark intercontinental cruise missile, and the F-5 Freedom Fighter economical jet fighter (and its derivative, the successful T-38 Talon trainer) were developed and built.
The F-5 was so successful that Northrop spent much of the 1970s and 1980s attempting to duplicate its success with similar lightweight designs. Their first attempt to improve the F-5 was the N-300, which featured much more powerful engines and moved the wing to a higher position to allow for increased ordnance that the higher power allowed. The N-300 was further developed into the P-530 with even larger engines, this time featuring a small amount of "bypass" (turbofan) to improve cooling and allow the engine bay to be lighter, as well as much more wing surface. The P-530 also included radar and other systems considered necessary on modern aircraft. When the Light Weight Fighter program was announced, the P-530 was stripped of much of its equipment to become the P-600, and eventually the YF-17 Cobra, which lost the competition to the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon.
Nevertheless, the YF-17 Cobra was modified with help from McDonnell Douglas to become the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet in order to fill a similar lightweight design competition for the US Navy. Northrop intended to sell a de-navalized version as the F-18L, but the basic F-18A continued to outsell it, leading to a long and fruitless lawsuit between the two companies. Northrop continued to build much of the F-18 fuselage and other systems after this period, but also returned to the original F-5 design with yet another new engine to produce the F-20 Tigershark as a low-cost aircraft. This garnered little interest in the market, and the project was dropped.
In 1985, Northrop bought northrop.com, the sixth .com domain created.
Based on the experimentation with flying wings the company developed the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber of the 1990s.
In 1994, partly due to the loss of the Advanced Tactical Fighter contract to Lockheed Corporation and the removal of their proposal from consideration for the Joint Strike Fighter competition, the company bought Grumman to form Northrop Grumman.
Aircraft
Projects
Northrop N-1 (USAAC flying wing bomber)
Northrop N-4 (USAAF pursuit)
Northrop N-5 (USAAF pursuit)
Northrop N-6 (Navy fighter design)
Northrop N-15 (2-engine cargo plane)
Northrop N-31 (flying wing bomber project)
Northrop N-34 (nuclear-powered flying wing bomber design)
Northrop N-55 (patrol aircraft)
Northrop N-59 (carrier-based bomber)
Northrop N-60 (ASW aircraft; lost to Grumman S-2 Tracker)
Northrop N-63 (rival tailsitting VTOL design to XFV-1 and XFY-1)
Northrop N-65 (interceptor for WS-201 program)
Northrop N-74 (tactical transport)
Northrop N-94 (Navy fighter competitor design to Vought F8U Crusader)
Northrop N-102 Fang
Northrop N-103 (all-weather interceptor)
Northrop N-132 (strategic fighter)
Northrop N-144 (long-range interceptor)
Northrop N-155 (target-towing aircraft)
Northrop N-285 (USN advanced jet trainer design; lost to T-45 Goshawk)
Northrop N-321/P610 (LWF design)
Unmanned aerial vehicles
Northrop AQM-35
Northrop AQM-38
Northrop BQM-74 Chukar
Missiles
GAM-67 Crossbow
Northrop JB-1 Bat
SM-62 Snark
See also
Northrop Grumman
References
Defunct aircraft engine manufacturers of the United States
Defunct technology companies based in California
Manufacturing companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Technology companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Companies based in Los Angeles County, California
Hawthorne, California
American companies established in 1930
Electronics companies established in 1930
Manufacturing companies established in 1930
Technology companies established in 1930
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1994
Technology companies disestablished in 1994
1930 establishments in California
1994 disestablishments in California
Defunct companies based in Greater Los Angeles
American companies disestablished in 1994
Defunct manufacturing companies based in California | [
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|
216879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inline | Inline | Inline is commonly used to mean "in a line", "aligned" or "placed within a line or sequence". Topics that feature "inline" in their names include:
Inline citation (here meaning "within a line of text")
Inline engine
Inline hockey
Inline skating
Computing
Inline assembler
Inline expansion
Inline function in C and C++
Inline reply
Inline tag (HTML)
See also
In Line, an album by jazz guitarist Bill Frisell released in 1983. | [
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|
216881 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20design%20automation | Electronic design automation | Electronic design automation (EDA), also referred to as electronic computer-aided design (ECAD), is a category of software tools for designing electronic systems such as integrated circuits and printed circuit boards. The tools work together in a design flow that chip designers use to design and analyze entire semiconductor chips. Since a modern semiconductor chip can have billions of components, EDA tools are essential for their design; this article in particular describes EDA specifically with respect to integrated circuits (ICs).
History
Early days
Prior to the development of EDA, integrated circuits were designed by hand and manually laid out. Some advanced shops used geometric software to generate tapes for a Gerber photoplotter, responsible for generating a monochromatic exposure image, but even those copied digital recordings of mechanically drawn components. The process was fundamentally graphic, with the translation from electronics to graphics done manually; the best-known company from this era was Calma, whose GDSII format is still in use today. By the mid-1970s, developers started to automate circuit design in addition to drafting and the first placement and routing tools were developed; as this occurred, the proceedings of the Design Automation Conference catalogued the large majority of the developments of the time.
The next era began following the publication of "Introduction to VLSI Systems" by Carver Mead and Lynn Conway in 1980; this groundbreaking text advocated chip design with programming languages that compiled to silicon. The immediate result was a considerable increase in the complexity of the chips that could be designed, with improved access to design verification tools that used logic simulation. Often the chips were easier to lay out and more likely to function correctly, since their designs could be simulated more thoroughly prior to construction. Although the languages and tools have evolved, this general approach of specifying the desired behavior in a textual programming language and letting the tools derive the detailed physical design remains the basis of digital IC design today.
The earliest EDA tools were produced academically. One of the most famous was the "Berkeley VLSI Tools Tarball", a set of UNIX utilities used to design early VLSI systems. Still widely used are the Espresso heuristic logic minimizer, responsible for circuit complexity reductions and Magic, a computer-aided design platform. Another crucial development was the formation of MOSIS, a consortium of universities and fabricators that developed an inexpensive way to train student chip designers by producing real integrated circuits. The basic concept was to use reliable, low-cost, relatively low-technology IC processes and pack a large number of projects per wafer, with several copies of chips from each project remaining preserved. Cooperating fabricators either donated the processed wafers or sold them at cost, as they saw the program helpful to their own long-term growth.
Birth of commercial EDA
1981 marked the beginning of EDA as an industry. For many years, the larger electronic companies, such as Hewlett Packard, Tektronix and Intel, had pursued EDA internally, with managers and developers beginning to spin out of these companies to concentrate on EDA as a business. Daisy Systems, Mentor Graphics and Valid Logic Systems were all founded around this time and collectively referred to as DMV. In 1981, the U.S. Department of Defense additionally began funding of VHDL as a hardware description language. Within a few years, there were many companies specializing in EDA, each with a slightly different emphasis.
The first trade show for EDA was held at the Design Automation Conference in 1984 and in 1986, Verilog, another popular high-level design language, was first introduced as a hardware description language by Gateway Design Automation. Simulators quickly followed these introductions, permitting direct simulation of chip designs and executable specifications. Within several years, back-ends were developed to perform logic synthesis.
Current status
Current digital flows are extremely modular, with front ends producing standardized design descriptions that compile into invocations of units similar to cells without regard to their individual technology. Cells implement logic or other electronic functions via the utilisation of a particular integrated circuit technology. Fabricators generally provide libraries of components for their production processes, with simulation models that fit standard simulation tools.
Most analog circuits are still designed in a manual fashion, requiring specialist knowledge that is unique to analog design (such as matching concepts). Hence, analog EDA tools are far less modular, since many more functions are required, they interact more strongly and the components are, in general, less ideal.
EDA for electronics has rapidly increased in importance with the continuous scaling of semiconductor technology. Some users are foundry operators, who operate the semiconductor fabrication facilities ("fabs") and additional individuals responsible for utilising the technology design-service companies who use EDA software to evaluate an incoming design for manufacturing readiness. EDA tools are also used for programming design functionality into FPGAs or field-programmable gate arrays, customisable integrated circuit designs.
Software focuses
Design
Design flow primarily remains characterised via several primary components; these include:
High-level synthesis (additionally known as behavioral synthesis or algorithmic synthesis) – The high-level design description (e.g. in C/C++) is converted into RTL or the register transfer level, responsible for representing circuitry via the utilisation of interactions between registers.
Logic synthesis – The translation of RTL design description (e.g. written in Verilog or VHDL) into a discrete netlist or representation of logic gates.
Schematic capture – For standard cell digital, analog, RF-like Capture CIS in Orcad by Cadence and ISIS in Proteus.
Layout – usually schematic-driven layout, like Layout in Orcad by Cadence, ARES in Proteus
Simulation
Transistor simulation – low-level transistor-simulation of a schematic/layout's behavior, accurate at device-level.
Logic simulation – digital-simulation of an RTL or gate-netlist's digital (boolean 0/1) behavior, accurate at boolean-level.
Behavioral simulation – high-level simulation of a design's architectural operation, accurate at cycle-level or interface-level.
Hardware emulation – Use of special purpose hardware to emulate the logic of a proposed design. Can sometimes be plugged into a system in place of a yet-to-be-built chip; this is called in-circuit emulation.
Technology CAD simulate and analyze the underlying process technology. Electrical properties of devices are derived directly from device physics.
Electromagnetic field solvers, or just field solvers, solve Maxwell's equations directly for cases of interest in IC and PCB design. They are known for being slower but more accurate than the layout extraction above.
Analysis and verification
Functional verification
Clock domain crossing verification (CDC check): similar to linting, but these checks/tools specialize in detecting and reporting potential issues like data loss, meta-stability due to use of multiple clock domains in the design.
Formal verification, also model checking: attempts to prove, by mathematical methods, that the system has certain desired properties, and that certain undesired effects (such as deadlock) cannot occur.
Equivalence checking: algorithmic comparison between a chip's RTL-description and synthesized gate-netlist, to ensure functional equivalence at the logical level.
Static timing analysis: analysis of the timing of a circuit in an input-independent manner, hence finding a worst case over all possible inputs.
Physical verification, PV: checking if a design is physically manufacturable, and that the resulting chips will not have any function-preventing physical defects, and will meet original specifications.
Manufacturing preparation
Mask data preparation or MDP - The generation of actual lithography photomasks, utilised to physically manufacture the chip.
Chip finishing which includes custom designations and structures to improve manufacturability of the layout. Examples of the latter are a seal ring and filler structures.
Producing a reticle layout with test patterns and alignment marks.
Layout-to-mask preparation that enhances layout data with graphics operations, such as Resolution enhancement techniques or RET – methods for increasing the quality of the final photomask. This also includes Optical proximity correction or OPC – the up-front compensation for diffraction and interference effects occurring later when chip is manufactured using this mask.
Mask generation – The generation of flat mask image from hierarchical design.
Automatic test pattern generation or ATPG – The generation of pattern data systematically to exercise as many logic-gates and other components as possible.
Built-in self-test or BIST – The installation of self-contained test-controllers to automatically test a logic or memory structure in the design
Functional safety
Functional safety analysis, systematic computation of failure in time (FIT) rates and diagnostic coverage metrics for designs in order to meet the compliance requirements for the desired safety integrity levels.
Functional safety synthesis, add reliability enhancements to structured elements (modules, RAMs, ROMs, register files, FIFOs) to improves fault detection / fault tolerance. These includes (not limited to), addition of error detection and / or correction codes (Hamming), redundant logic for fault detection and fault tolerance (duplicate / triplicate) and protocol checks (Interface parity, address alignment, beat count)
Functional safety verification, running of a fault campaign, including insertion of faults into the design and verification that the safety mechanism reacts in an appropriate manner for the faults that are deemed covered.
Companies
Old companies
Market capitalization and company name :
$5.77 billion – Synopsys
$4.46 billion – Cadence
$2.33 billion – Mentor Graphics
$507 million – Magma Design Automation; Synopsys acquired Magma in February 2012
NT$6.44 billion – SpringSoft; Synopsys acquired SpringSoft in August 2012
¥11.95 billion – Zuken Inc.
Note: EEsof should likely be on this list, but it does not have a market cap as it is the EDA division of Keysight.
Acquisitions
Many EDA companies acquire small companies with software or other technology that can be adapted to their core business. Most of the market leaders are amalgamations of many smaller companies and this trend is helped by the tendency of software companies to design tools as accessories that fit naturally into a larger vendor's suite of programs on digital circuitry; many new tools incorporate analog design and mixed systems. This is happening due to a trend to place entire electronic systems on a single chip.
See also
Computer-aided design (CAD)
Circuit design
EDA database
Signoff (electronic design automation)
Comparison of EDA software
Platform-based design
References
Notes
http://www.staticfreesoft.com/documentsTextbook.html Computer Aids for VLSI Design by Steven M. Rubin
Fundamentals of Layout Design for Electronic Circuits, by Lienig, Scheible, Springer, , 2020
VLSI Physical Design: From Graph Partitioning to Timing Closure, by Kahng, Lienig, Markov and Hu, , 2011
Electronic Design Automation For Integrated Circuits Handbook, by Lavagno, Martin, and Scheffer, , 2006
The Electronic Design Automation Handbook, by Dirk Jansen et al., Kluwer Academic Publishers, , 2003, available also in German (2005)
Combinatorial Algorithms for Integrated Circuit Layout, by Thomas Lengauer, , Teubner Verlag, 1997.
Electronic engineering | [
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|
216884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inline%20expansion | Inline expansion | In computing, inline expansion, or inlining, is a manual or compiler optimization that replaces a function call site with the body of the called function. Inline expansion is similar to macro expansion, but occurs during compilation, without changing the source code (the text), while macro expansion occurs prior to compilation, and results in different text that is then processed by the compiler.
Inlining is an important optimization, but has complicated effects on performance. As a rule of thumb, some inlining will improve speed at very minor cost of space, but excess inlining will hurt speed, due to inlined code consuming too much of the instruction cache, and also cost significant space. A survey of the modest academic literature on inlining from the 1980s and 1990s is given in Peyton Jones & Marlow 1999.
Overview
Inline expansion is similar to macro expansion as the compiler places a new copy of the function in each place it is called. Inlined functions run a little faster than the normal functions as function-calling-overheads are saved, however, there is a memory penalty. If a function is inlined 10 times, there will be 10 copies of the function inserted into the code. Hence inlining is best for small functions that are called often. In C++ the member functions of a class, if defined within the class definition, are inlined by default (no need to use the inline keyword); otherwise, the keyword is needed. The compiler may ignore the programmer’s attempt to inline a function, mainly if it is particularly large.
Inline expansion is used to eliminate the time overhead (excess time) when a function is called. It is typically used for functions that execute frequently. It also has a space benefit for very small functions, and is an enabling transformation for other optimizations.
Without inline functions, the compiler decides which functions to inline. The programmer has little or no control over which functions are inlined and which are not. Giving this degree of control to the programmer allows for the use of application-specific knowledge in choosing which functions to inline.
Ordinarily, when a function is invoked, control is transferred to its definition by a branch or call instruction. With inlining, control drops through directly to the code for the function, without a branch or call instruction.
Compilers usually implement statements with inlining. Loop conditions and loop bodies need lazy evaluation. This property is fulfilled when the code to compute loop conditions and loop bodies is inlined. Performance considerations are another reason to inline statements.
In the context of functional programming languages, inline expansion is usually followed by the beta-reduction transformation.
A programmer might inline a function manually through copy and paste programming, as a one-time operation on the source code. However, other methods of controlling inlining (see below) are preferable, because they do not precipitate bugs arising when the programmer overlooks a (possibly modified) duplicated version of the original function body, while fixing a bug in the inlined function.
Effect on performance
The direct effect of this optimization is to improve time performance (by eliminating call overhead), at the cost of worsening space usage (due to duplicating the function body). The code expansion due to duplicating the function body dominates, except for simple cases, and thus the direct effect of inline expansion is to improve time at the cost of space.
However, the primary benefit of inline expansion is to allow further optimizations and improved scheduling, due to increasing the size of the function body, as better optimization is possible on larger functions. The ultimate impact of inline expansion on speed is complicated, due to multiple effects on performance of the memory system (primarily instruction cache), which dominates performance on modern processors: depending on the specific program and cache, inlining particular functions can increase or decrease performance.
The impact of inlining varies by programming language and program, due to different degrees of abstraction. In lower-level imperative languages such as C and Fortran it is typically a 10–20% speed boost, with minor impact on code size, while in more abstract languages it can be significantly more important, due to the number of layers inlining removes, with an extreme example being Self, where one compiler saw improvement factors of 4 to 55 by inlining.
The direct benefits of eliminating a function call are:
It eliminates instructions required for a function call, both in the calling function and in the callee: placing arguments on stack or in registers, the function call itself, the function prologue, then at return the function epilogue, the return statement, and then getting the return value back, and removing arguments from stacks and restoring registers (if necessary).
Due to not needing registers to pass arguments, it reduces register spilling.
It eliminates having to pass references and then dereference them, when using call by reference (or call by address, or call by sharing).
The primary benefit of inlining, however, is the further optimizations it allows. Optimizations that cross function boundaries can be done without requiring interprocedural optimization (IPO): once inlining has been performed, additional intraprocedural optimizations ("global optimizations") become possible on the enlarged function body. For example:
A constant passed as an argument can often be propagated to all instances of the matching parameter, or part of the function may be "hoisted out" of a loop (via loop-invariant code motion).
Register allocation can be done across the larger function body.
High-level optimizations, such as escape analysis and tail duplication, can be performed on a larger scope and be more effective, particularly if the compiler implementing those optimizations is primarily relying on intra-procedural analysis.
These can be done without inlining, but require a significantly more complicated compiler and linker (in case caller and callee are in separate compilation units).
Conversely, in some cases a language specification may allow a program to make additional assumptions about arguments to procedures that it can no longer make after the procedure is inlined, preventing some optimizations. Smarter compilers (such as Glasgow Haskell Compiler) will track this, but naive inlining loses this information.
A further benefit of inlining for the memory system is:
Eliminating branches and keeping code that is executed close together in memory improves instruction cache performance by improving locality of reference (spatial locality and sequentiality of instructions). This is smaller than optimizations that specifically target sequentiality, but is significant.
The direct cost of inlining is increased code size, due to duplicating the function body at each call site. However, it does not always do so, namely in case of very short functions, where the function body is smaller than the size of a function call (at the caller, including argument and return value handling), such as trivial accessor methods or mutator methods (getters and setters); or for a function that is only used in one place, in which case it is not duplicated. Thus inlining may be minimized or eliminated if optimizing for code size, as is often the case in embedded systems.
Inlining also imposes a cost on performance, due to the code expansion (due to duplication) hurting instruction cache performance. This is most significant if, prior to expansion, the working set of the program (or a hot section of code) fit in one level of the memory hierarchy (e.g., L1 cache), but after expansion it no longer fits, resulting in frequent cache misses at that level. Due to the significant difference in performance at different levels of the hierarchy, this hurts performance considerably. At the highest level this can result in increased page faults, catastrophic performance degradation due to thrashing, or the program failing to run at all. This last is rare in common desktop and server applications, where code size is small relative to available memory, but can be an issue for resource-constrained environments such as embedded systems. One way to mitigate this problem is to split functions into a smaller hot inline path (fast path), and a larger cold non-inline path (slow path).
Inlining hurting performance is primarily a problem for large functions that are used in many places, but the break-even point beyond which inlining reduces performance is difficult to determine and depends in general on precise load, so it can be subject to manual optimization or profile-guided optimization. This is a similar issue to other code expanding optimizations such as loop unrolling, which also reduces number of instructions processed, but can decrease performance due to poorer cache performance.
The precise effect of inlining on cache performance is complicated. For small cache sizes (much smaller than the working set prior to expansion), the increased sequentiality dominates, and inlining improves cache performance. For cache sizes close to the working set, where inlining expands the working set so it no longer fits in cache, this dominates and cache performance decreases. For cache sizes larger than the working set, inlining has negligible impact on cache performance. Further, changes in cache design, such as load forwarding, can offset the increase in cache misses.
Compiler support
Compilers use a variety of mechanisms to decide which function calls should be inlined; these can include manual hints from programmers for specific functions, together with overall control via command-line options. Inlining is done automatically by many compilers in many languages, based on judgment of whether inlining is beneficial, while in other cases it can be manually specified via compiler directives, typically using a keyword or compiler directive called inline. Typically this only hints that inlining is desired, rather than requiring inlining, with the force of the hint varying by language and compiler.
Typically, compiler developers keep the above performance issues in mind, and incorporate heuristics into their compilers that choose which functions to inline so as to improve performance, rather than worsening it, in most cases.
Implementation
Once the compiler has decided to inline a particular function, performing the inlining operation itself is usually simple. Depending on whether the compiler inlines functions across code in different languages, the compiler can do inlining on either a high-level intermediate representation (like abstract syntax trees) or a low-level intermediate representation. In either case, the compiler simply computes the arguments, stores them in variables corresponding to the function's arguments, and then inserts the body of the function at the call site.
Linkers can also do function inlining. When a linker inlines functions, it may inline functions whose source is not available, such as library functions (see link-time optimization). A run-time system can inline function as well. Run-time inlining can use dynamic profiling information to make better decisions about which functions to inline, as in the Java Hotspot compiler.
Here is a simple example of inline expansion performed "by hand" at the source level in the C programming language:
int pred(int x)
{
if (x == 0)
return 0;
else
return x - 1;
}
Before inlining:
int func(int y)
{
return pred(y) + pred(0) + pred(y+1);
}
After inlining:
int func(int y)
{
int tmp;
if (y == 0) tmp = 0; else tmp = y - 1; /* (1) */
if (0 == 0) tmp += 0; else tmp += 0 - 1; /* (2) */
if (y+1 == 0) tmp += 0; else tmp += (y + 1) - 1; /* (3) */
return tmp;
}
Note that this is only an example. In an actual C application, it would be preferable to use an inlining language feature such as parameterized macros or inline functions to tell the compiler to transform the code in this way. The next section lists ways to optimize this code.
Inlining by assembly macro expansion
Assembler macros provide an alternative approach to inlining whereby a sequence of instructions can normally be generated inline by macro expansion from a single macro source statement (with zero or more parameters). One of the parameters might be an option to alternatively generate a one-time separate subroutine containing the sequence and processed instead by an inlined call to the function.
Example:
MOVE FROM=array1,TO=array2,INLINE=NO
Heuristics
A range of different heuristics have been explored for inlining. Usually, an inlining algorithm has a certain code budget (an allowed increase in program size) and aims to inline the most valuable callsites without exceeding that budget. In this sense, many inlining algorithms are usually modeled after the Knapsack problem. To decide which callsites are more valuable, an inlining algorithm must estimate their benefit—i.e. the expected decrease in the execution time. Commonly, inliners use profiling information about the frequency of the execution of different code paths to estimate the benefits.
In addition to profiling information, newer just-in-time compilers apply several more advanced heuristics, such as:
Speculating which code paths will result in the best reduction in execution time (by enabling additional compiler optimizations as a result of inlining) and increasing the perceived benefit of such paths.
Adaptively adjusting the benefit-per-cost threshold for inlining based on the size of the compilation unit and the amount of code already inlined.
Grouping subroutines into clusters, and inlining entire clusters instead of singular subroutines. Here, the heuristic guesses the clusters by grouping those methods for which inlining just a proper subset of the cluster leads to a worse performance than inlining nothing at all.
Benefits
Inline expansion itself is an optimization, since it eliminates overhead from calls, but it is much more important as an enabling transformation. That is, once the compiler expands a function body in the context of its call site—often with arguments that may be fixed constants—it may be able to do a variety of transformations that were not possible before. For example, a conditional branch may turn out to be always true or always false at this particular call site. This in turn may enable dead code elimination, loop-invariant code motion, or induction variable elimination.
In the C example in the previous section, optimization opportunities abound. The compiler may follow this sequence of steps:
The tmp += 0 statements in the lines marked (2) and (3) do nothing. The compiler can remove them.
The condition 0 == 0 is always true, so the compiler can replace the line marked (2) with the consequent, tmp += 0 (which does nothing).
The compiler can rewrite the condition y+1 == 0 to y == -1.
The compiler can reduce the expression (y + 1) - 1 to y.
The expressions y and y+1 cannot both equal zero. This lets the compiler eliminate one test.
In statements such as if (y == 0) return y the value of y is known in the body, and can be inlined.
The new function looks like:
int func(int y)
{
if (y == 0)
return 0;
if (y == -1)
return -2;
return 2*y - 1;
}
Limitations
Complete inline expansion is not always possible, due to recursion: recursively inline expanding the calls will not terminate. There are various solutions, such as expanding a bounded amount, or analyzing the call graph and breaking loops at certain nodes (i.e., not expanding some edge in a recursive loop). An identical problem occurs in macro expansion, as recursive expansion does not terminate, and is typically resolved by forbidding recursive macros (as in C and C++).
Comparison with macros
Traditionally, in languages such as C, inline expansion was accomplished at the source level using parameterized macros. Use of true inline functions, as are available in C99, provides several benefits over this approach:
In C, macro invocations do not perform type checking, or even check that arguments are well-formed, whereas function calls usually do.
In C, a macro cannot use the return keyword with the same meaning as a function would do (it would make the function that asked the expansion terminate, rather than the macro). In other words, a macro cannot return anything which is not the result of the last expression invoked inside it.
Since C macros use mere textual substitution, this may result in unintended side-effects and inefficiency due to re-evaluation of arguments and order of operations.
Compiler errors within macros are often difficult to understand, because they refer to the expanded code, rather than the code the programmer typed. Thus, debugging information for inlined code is usually more helpful than that of macro-expanded code.
Many constructs are awkward or impossible to express using macros, or use a significantly different syntax. Inline functions use the same syntax as ordinary functions, and can be inlined and un-inlined at will with ease.
Many compilers can also inline expand some recursive functions; recursive macros are typically illegal.
Bjarne Stroustrup, the designer of C++, likes to emphasize that macros should be avoided wherever possible, and advocates extensive use of inline functions.
Selection methods
Many compilers aggressively inline functions wherever it is beneficial to do so. Although it can lead to larger executables, aggressive inlining has nevertheless become more and more desirable as memory capacity has increased faster than CPU speed. Inlining is a critical optimization in functional languages and object-oriented programming languages, which rely on it to provide enough context for their typically small functions to make classical optimizations effective.
Language support
Many languages, including Java and functional languages, do not provide language constructs for inline functions, but their compilers or interpreters often do perform aggressive inline expansion. Other languages provide constructs for explicit hints, generally as compiler directives (pragmas).
In the Ada programming language, there exists a pragma for inline functions.
Functions in Common Lisp may be defined as inline by the inline declaration as such:
(declaim (inline dispatch))
(defun dispatch (x)
(funcall
(get (car x) 'dispatch) x))
The Haskell compiler GHC tries to inline functions or values that are small enough but inlining may be noted explicitly using a language pragma:
key_function :: Int -> String -> (Bool, Double)
{-# INLINE key_function #-}
C and C++
C and C++ have an inline keyword, which functions both as a compiler directive—specifying that inlining is desired but not required—and also changes the visibility and linking behavior. The visibility change is necessary to allow the function to be inlined via the standard C toolchain, where compilation of individual files (rather, translation units) is followed by linking: for the linker to be able to inline functions, they must be specified in the header (to be visible) and marked inline (to avoid ambiguity from multiple definitions).
See also
Macro
Partial evaluation
Tail-call elimination
Code outlining
Notes
References
External links
"Eliminating Virtual Function Calls in C++ Programs" by Gerald Aigner and Urs Hölzle
"Reducing Indirect Function Call Overhead In C++ Programs" by Brad Calder and Dirk Grumwald
ALTO - A Link-Time Optimizer for the DEC Alpha
"Advanced techniques" by John R. Levine
"Whole Program Optimization with Visual C++ .NET" by Brandon Bray
Compiler optimizations
Articles with example C code
Subroutines
Articles with example Lisp (programming language) code
Articles with example Haskell code | [
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|
216885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lule%C3%A5%20University%20of%20Technology | Luleå University of Technology | Luleå University of Technology () is a public research university in Sweden and Scandinavia's northernmost university of technology. The university has four campuses located in the Arctic region and the cities of Luleå, Kiruna, Skellefteå, and Piteå.
Luleå University College was originally established in 1971 and had its first campus in the suburbs of Porsön in Luleå. A couple of years later, after its establishment, Luleå University College merged with the Teacher's Training College of Luleå and the School of Music of Piteå. In 1997, the institution was granted university status by the Swedish government and became then thereafter renamed as Luleå University of Technology.
Luleå University of Technology has two faculties and five departments with around 17,000 students and over 100 study programs. The university has nearly 300 partner universities in over 50 countries all over the world. The university is famous for its groundbreaking collaborations with companies, such as LKAB, Ericsson, Boliden, ABB, and Epiroc, and the high amount of externally funded research.
Luleå University of Technology is consistently ranked among the world's top universities, especially in Mining Science, Materials Science, Engineering, Computer Science, Robotics, and Space Science. The research at the university has a distinct arctic profile and the university is part of several international research collaborations such as the Arctic Five and the Joint Arctic Agenda. Luleå University of Technology is also sometimes called the Space University of Sweden due to its prestigious research and education in Space Engineering.
Areas of Excellence in Research and Innovation
Luleå University of Technology conduct mainly applied research in close collaboration with international and national companies. With regards to research and innovation, Luleå University of Technology is active in the following areas.
Attractive Built Environment
Effective Innovation and Organization
Future Mining
Renewable Energy
Innovative Art and Science
Sustainable Transportation
Health
Intelligent Industrial Processes
Education
Enabling Information and Communications Technology
Space Science
Smart Machines and Materials
See also
List of universities in Sweden
List of forestry universities and colleges
Notes and references
Norrbotten
Piteå
Kiruna
Technical universities and colleges in Sweden
Educational institutions established in 1971
Buildings and structures in Norrbotten County
1971 establishments in Sweden | [
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216886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop%20Grumman | Northrop Grumman | Northrop Grumman Corporation () is an American multinational aerospace and defense technology company. With 90,000 employees and an annual revenue in excess of $30 billion, it is one of the world's largest weapons manufacturers and military technology providers. The firm ranks No. 96 on the 2020 Fortune 500 list of America's largest corporations.
Northrop Grumman and its industry partners have won the Collier Trophy eight times, most recently for developing the X-47B, the first unmanned, autonomous air system to operate from an aircraft carrier.
Northrop Grumman currently leads the development of the B-21 Raider, a long-range, stealth strategic bomber that can drop conventional and nuclear weapons; it will replace Northrop's own B-2 Spirit, the world's only known stealth bomber. Among its other current projects are development and production of the James Webb Space Telescope, an orbiting observatory launched in 2021, and production of the solid rocket boosters for NASA's Space Launch System program. It was the sole bidder on the Air Force's Ground Based Strategic Deterrent program, which aims to develop and build a new intercontinental ballistic missile.
Business sectors
Northrop Grumman is made up of four main business sectors: Aeronautics Systems, Defense Systems, Mission Systems and Space Systems. Prior to Northrop Grumman's reorganization of its divisions on January 1, 2020, the divisions were: Aerospace Systems, Mission Systems, Technology Services, and Innovation Systems.
Aeronautics Systems
Aeronautics Systems, headquartered in Redondo Beach, California, produces aircraft, spacecraft, high-energy laser systems and microelectronics for the U.S. and other nations. This includes surveillance and reconnaissance, protected communications, intelligence, battle management, strike operations, electronic warfare, and missile defense to Earth observation, space science and space exploration. The B-2 Spirit strategic bomber, the E-8C Joint STARS surveillance aircraft, the RQ-4 Global Hawk, and the T-38 Talon supersonic trainer are used by the US Air Force. The US Army uses Northrop Grumman's RQ-5 Hunter unmanned air vehicle, which has been in operational use since 1995. The U.S. Navy uses Northrop Grumman-built aerial vehicles such as the BQM-74 Chukar, RQ-4 Global Hawk-based MQ-4C Triton, MQ-8 Fire Scout, Grumman C-2 Greyhound, Grumman E-2 Hawkeye, and the EA-6B Prowler. Northrop Grumman provides major components and assemblies for different aircraft such as F/A-18 Hornet, F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, EA-18G Growler, and the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II. Aerospace systems also serves as the contractor for numerous space payloads and is the prime contractor for the James Webb Space Telescope
Mission Systems
Northrop Grumman Mission Systems, headquartered in Linthicum, Maryland creates military radar, sensors, and related products, including C4I radar systems for air defense, Airspace Management radar systems such as AMASS, and battlefield surveillance systems like the Airborne Reconnaissance Low (ARL). Tactical aircraft sensors include the AN/APG-68 radar, the AN/APG-80 AESA radar, and the AN/APG-83 AESA radar upgrade for the F-16 Fighting Falcon, the AN/APG-77 AESA radar for the F-22 Raptor, and the AN/APG-81 AESA radar for the F-35 Lightning II, and the AN/AAQ-37 electro-optical Distributed Aperture System (DAS) for the F-35, and the APQ-164 Passive Electronically Scanned Array (PESA) radar for the B-1 Lancer. Mission Systems produces and maintains the AWACS aerial surveillance systems for the U.S., the United Kingdom, NATO, Japan, and others. Northrop Grumman is the prime contractor for the development and integration of the Air Force's $2-billion Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program. Northrop Grumman also supports the U.S. ballistic missile program, integrates various command, control and intelligence systems, and provides technical and management services, to governmental and military customers, all with an emphasis on cybersecurity. Many other smaller products are made by Northrop Grumman, such as night vision goggles and secure communications equipment.
Defense Systems
The Defense Systems sector headquartered in McLean, Virginia (with a Herndon mailing address,) works on "the entire life cycle of civil and defense platforms and capabilities through a range of services". Vinnell, a Northrop Grumman subsidiary, provides training and communications for the military. In 2003, it landed a $48 million contract to train the Iraqi Army. In 2005 the company won a $2 billion contract with Virginia to overhaul most of the state's IT operations. Later that year, the United Kingdom paid $1.2 billion in a contract with the company to provide maintenance of its AWACS radar.
Northrop Grumman performs various functions in the War on Drugs. The company sends planes to spray herbicides on suspected cocaine fields in Colombia and opium poppy fields in Afghanistan.
Space Systems
On June 7, 2018, the acquisition of Orbital ATK was completed and the former company was absorbed in Northrop Grumman as a new business sector called Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems. With this acquisition, Northrop Grumman got more involved in the space industry, which now includes the construction and launch of the Cygnus spacecraft. Until 2020 the firm was developing the OmegA space launch vehicle, intended to carry the U.S. government's national security satellites into space. In January 2020, the company changed the name of the sector to Space Systems, effective in January 2020.
Affiliated companies and partners
Remotec, a subsidiary, is a manufacturer of remote control vehicles for explosive ordnance disposal and hazardous material handling. A UK-based subsidiary, Park Air Systems, provides VHF and UHF ground-to-air communications systems for the civil and defense markets. Northrop Grumman has also worked closely with Antenna Associates, Inc., a manufacturer of Identification friend or foe (IFF)/Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) antennas located in Massachusetts.
In August 2007, Northrop Grumman acquired Scaled Composites in which it had previously owned a 40% stake.
In 2008, Northrop Grumman began working with DHS Systems LLC, manufacturer of the Deployable Rapid Assembly Shelter (DRASH) in New York, as part of the U.S. Army's Standard Integrated Command Post System program.
History
Northrop Grumman can trace its lineage back to the beginning of the 20th century when the Grumman Corporation was founded on Long Island, New York. During World War II it built all American Navy aircraft. After the war it branched out into making the first aluminum canoes using left-over materials no longer needed for aircraft. Later the firm created a myriad of products such as ballistic missiles, all-weather radars, the Apollo Lunar Module, land and sea-based fighter aircraft and Stealth bombers. Originally formed in California in 1939 by Jack Northrop, the Northrop Corporation was reincorporated in Delaware in 1985. After the end of the Cold War, Northrop went on a series of acquisitions where they bought noteworthy companies such as Grumman Aerospace, Westinghouse and TRW Inc. in addition to a number of other enterprises. In 2018, Northrop Grumman completed the purchase of Orbital ATK, which has since been renamed to Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems. Today, Northrop Grumman is one of the largest defense contractors in the world.
1990s
In 1994, Northrop Aircraft bought Grumman Aerospace, which built the Apollo Lunar Module to create Northrop Grumman (NG) at a cost of $2.1 billion. The company purchased the remaining 51% interest in Vought Aircraft Company (Vought) in August 1994 for $130 million taking full control of the company after it had purchased an initial 49% interest in September 1992 for $45 million.
In 1996, the new company acquired substantially all of the defence and electronics systems business of Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Westinghouse Electronic Systems, a major manufacturer of radar systems, for $2.9 billion, and Xetron Corporation. In 1997, the defense computer contractor Logicon was added, which had acquired Geodynamics Corporation in March 1996 and Syscon Corporation in February 1995.
Northrop was the prime contractor on the radical YF-23 which was one of the two airplanes down selected for the Advanced Tactical Fighter but would eventually lose out to the F-22 raptor. Northrop would later partner with Lockheed on the F-35 and now serves as a principal member of the Lockheed Martin industry led team.
In 1998, a merger between Northrop Grumman and competitor Lockheed Martin was considered but abandoned after resistance from the Department of Defense and Department of Justice. That same year, it acquired Inter-National Research Institute Inc. In 1999, the company acquired Teledyne Ryan, developer of surveillance systems and unmanned aircraft, California Microwave, Inc., and the Data Procurement Corporation. On March 19, 1999, Northrop Grumman announced to restate its fourth-quarter results downward to a net loss because of problems related to its dealings with start-up satellite launch company Kistler Aerospace Corp. In 1999, Northrop Grumman and SAIC created AMSEC LLC as a joint venture, which grew "from $100 million in revenue in 2000 to approximately $500 million in fiscal year 2007."
2000s
In 2000, NG acquired Federal Data Corporation, Navia Aviation As, Comptek Research, Inc., and Sterling Software, Inc.
In 2001, the company acquired Litton Industries, a shipbuilder and defense electronics systems provider for the U.S. Navy. During the acquisition process, a new Delaware holding company, NNG, Inc., was formed, which merged with Northrop Grumman through a one-for-one common shares exchange in April 2001. Both Northrop Grumman and Litton became subsidiaries of the new holding company. The original Northrop Grumman Corporation then changed its name to "Northrop Grumman Systems Corporation"; the holding company, NNG, Inc., changed its name to "Northrop Grumman Corporation". Later that year, Newport News Shipbuilding was added.
On November 1, 2001, Northrop Grumman restated its third-quarter profit after stopping work on two ships for American Classic Voyages, which filed for bankruptcy protection.
In 2002, Northrop Grumman acquired TRW Inc., which had acquired Braddock Dunn & McDonald (BDM) in 1997, and became the Space Technology sector based in Redondo Beach, California, and the Mission Systems sector based in Reston, Virginia, with sole interest in their space systems and laser systems manufacturing. The Aeronautical division was sold to Goodrich, and the automotive divisions were spun off and retained the TRW name.
There were 15 acquisitions from 1994 to 2003.
Northrop Grumman partnered with EADS from the mid-2000s to offer the KC-30 Multi Role Tanker Transport aircraft in the U.S. Air Force's KC-X tanker competition. In February 2008 the U.S. Air Force chose KC-30, but in September 2008 the Defense Department stopped the tanker program and in March 2010, Northrop Grumman announced it was withdrawing from the competition.
On January 1, 2006, Northrop Grumman opened its business sector called 'Technical Services'. Northrop Grumman and Boeing collaborated on a design concept for NASA's upcoming Orion spacecraft (previously the Crew Exploration Vehicle), but the contract went to rival Lockheed Martin on August 31, 2006.
In 2006, Northrop Grumman had intended to bid for the U.S. Air Force's Next-Generation Bomber. Though it has not built a large manned aircraft since wrapping up B-2 Spirit production in the 1990s, the company has "been working hard to turn that perception around, with the skills and capabilities that back it up." However, by 2009, the teams working on this were told to close, as USAF's focus turned to a long-range strike instead. Northrop Grumman was one of two teams competing for the Long Range Strike Bomber, and in October 2015 won the contract for the Long Range Strike Bomber.
On July 20, 2007, Northrop Grumman became the sole owner of Burt Rutan's Scaled Composites.
In 2007, Northrop Grumman created 'National Workforce Centers' as an alternative to offshoring. Locations are Auburn, Alabama; Corsicana, Texas; Fairmont, West Virginia; Helena, Montana; Johnstown, Pennsylvania; and Lebanon, Virginia. The Rapid City, South Dakota location closed in January 2012.
In July 2008, three of four Northrop Grumman employees (Thomas Howes, Marc Gonsalves and Keith Stansell) were freed during Operation Jaque after five years of captivity following their aircraft crash in the Colombian jungle. The fourth employee, Tom Janis, had been killed by the FARC shortly after the crash in 2003.
In January 2008, Northrop Grumman combined its Newport News and Ship Systems sectors into a new business unit named Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding. On March 31, 2011, this was spun off as Huntington Ingalls Industries Inc ().
2010 to present
In November 2010, NASA selected Northrop Grumman for consideration of potential contract awards for heavy lift launch vehicle system concepts, and propulsion technologies.
From 2013, Northrop Grumman participates in the DARPA Tactically Exploited Reconnaissance Node (TERN) program, and received $2.9 million for Phase 1 and $19 million for Phase 2. The TERN program attempts to launch and recover a UAV from mid-size ships to provide long distance intelligence gathering.
In July 2013, Northrop Grumman won a training-simulation contract potentially worth $490 million to support the U.S. Air Force's next-generation aerial warfare virtual-training network.
As of 2018, Northrop Grumman is the primary contractor for the James Webb Space Telescope.
In October 2015, the US Military announced it had awarded Northrop Grumman the contract for the successor to the B-1 and B-52, subsequently identified as the B-21. The initial value is $21.4 billion, and could eventually be worth up to $80 billion.
In September 2017, Northrop announced its intention to acquire missile and rocket manufacturer Orbital ATK Inc for $9.2 billion: $7.8 billion in cash plus $1.4 billion in net debt. On November 29, 2017, the acquisition was approved by Orbital ATK stockholders and on June 6, 2018 the merger closed after final FTC approval. The acquired company assets and naming were absorbed and become a division named Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems.
In September 2020, Northrop Grumman won a $298 million sole-source contract for the Evolved Strategic Satcom program, an anti-jam communications satellite program intended to replace the Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) satellite program where Northrop Grumman was a subcontractor to Lockheed Martin.
In December 2020, Northrop sold its federal IT and mission support business to Veritas Capital for $3.4 billion in cash. Veritas placed this purchase in its Peraton subsidiary. The sale closed in February 2021.
The Mars Ascent Propulsion System for Mars sample-return mission Ascent Vehicle contract was awarded to Northrop Grumman on March 5, 2021. For this Northrop Grumman to make a 3–meter long, two-stage, solid-fueled Mars ascent rocket for the Mars Sample Return mission. This mission is to collect Perseverance's samples for return to Earth.
Finances
Corporate governance
From 1990 to 2003, before the merger with Grumman in 1994, Kent Kresa was the CEO of the company, who led the serial-acquisition strategy with a total of 15 additional acquisitions from 1994 to 2003, including Litton, Logicon, Westinghouse's defense electronics business, Ryan Aeronautical and Newport News Shipbuilding, and TRW. He then retired in 2003 at age 65.
In 2003 Ronald Sugar, the former chief operating officer, took over as CEO. Effective October 1, 2003, Sugar also served as the company chairman of the board.
In January 2010, Wes Bush succeeded as CEO and became company president.
In November 2015, Gloria Flach was named COO. She is the former president of the company's electric services sector.
On July 12, 2018, Wes Bush announced that he would step down as CEO effective January 1, 2019, and would remain chairman of the board until July 2019. His successor is Kathy J. Warden, who has served in numerous roles at the company, most recently president and COO.
Board of Directors
As of August 16, 2020:
Kathy J. Warden, CEO and president of Northrop Grumman
David Abney, former chairman and CEO of UPS
Marianne C. Brown, COO of Sungard
Donald E. Felsinger, former chairman and CEO of Sempra Energy
Ann M. Fudge, former chairman and CEO of VMLY&R
Bruce S. Gordon, former president and CEO of the NAACP
William Hernandez, former CFO of PPG
Madeleine Kleiner, former general counsel of Hilton
Karl Krapek, former president and COO of United Technologies
Gary Roughead, former Chief of Naval Operations
Thomas Schoewe, former CFO of Wal-Mart
Jim Turley, former chairman and CEO of Ernst & Young
Mark Welsh, former Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force
Corporate headquarters
Since 2011, Northrop Grumman's headquarters are in West Falls Church, Virginia (previously Jefferson), unincorporated Fairfax County, Virginia.
Prior to 2010, the company was headquartered in Century City, Los Angeles, but announced plans on January 4, 2010 to move to the Washington Metropolitan Area by 2011 to be closer to government customers. CEO Wesley Bush stated that the company needed to be located close to Capitol Hill lawmakers and officials from intelligence and military communities. Northrop Grumman considered sites in Washington, D.C. and in suburbs in Maryland and Virginia. The Los Angeles Business Journal wrote "In a way, the announcement was not a surprise" due to the trend of aerospace companies moving to the DC area, the fact that the new CEO is from West Virginia and that CEOs often move corporate headquarters to places that they want the headquarters located. A Los Angeles area economic development consultant described the move announcement as a "structural failure at all levels for Los Angeles County."
District of Columbia economic development officials were "pitching the city's urban hipness and proximity to Capitol Hill power brokers" to Northrop Grumman. Maryland promoted its highly educated workforce and its large number of federal facilities, while Virginia marketed itself as a state with relatively low taxes.
In July 2010, the company announced its purchase of an existing building in Fairfax County and its move in summer 2011. It planned to consolidate its Century City headquarters and its existing Arlington County, Virginia, offices into the new headquarters. It employed about 40,000 in the Washington DC metropolitan area, including DC and surrounding Maryland and Virginia.
Accolades and criticism
Northrop Grumman was named Forbes's Company of the Year in 2002. Forbes's announcement credited the company with "master[ing] the art of innovation." As of 2019, the company is included on Forbes' list of "America's Best Large Employers".
Since 2005 Northrop Grumman credits itself with sponsoring educational programs and donating thousands of dollars to various charities.
Many members of the U.S. government have attended company events and spoken highly of the company and its contributions, for example John McCain. In December 2007, Northrop Grumman Corporation was awarded the Ron Brown Award for Corporate Leadership, the only presidential award recognizing companies for outstanding achievement in employee and community relations.
Environmental record
In 2000, Northrop Grumman was designated a Primary Responsible Party under federal Superfund laws at 13 hazardous waste sites and under state Superfund laws at eight sites. The corporation has also been linked to 52 superfund toxic waste sites. Based on 2008 data, Northrop Grumman was the 62nd-largest corporate producer of air pollution in the United States, per the Political Economy Research Institute of the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Northrop Grumman facilities released more than 23,798 pounds of toxic chemicals into the air in that year.
In 2002, the Bethpage Community Park in Bethpage, New York, owned by the company until the 1960s, was closed due to soil contamination with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The company dumped cadmium, arsenic, chromium-tainted sludge, solvents, paints and PCBs at the site between 1949 and 1962. Additionally, two toxic chemical plumes centered under Bethpage Community Park and other surrounding land formerly owned by Grumman or Northrop Grumman have spread to under neighboring houses. In November 2013, the Bethpage Water District filed a multimillion-dollar lawsuit against Northrop Grumman in Federal Court for the Eastern District of New York for contaminating the groundwater in Bethpage.
In 2003, the company was among 84 parties with which the United States Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Department of Justice, and the state of New York reached an estimated US$15 million settlement for the rehabilitation of the Mattiace Petrochemical Company Superfund site in Glen Cove, Long Island. In the same year, Northrop Grumman agreed to pay $33,214 after EPA inspectors found hazardous waste violations at the Capistrano test site.
As a response to many of the previous claims, the company has stood up as an organization for social responsibility. In 2008, Northrop Grumman launched its Environmental Sustainability program and an EHS Leadership Council, to advance its commitment to environmental performance both internally and externally. The Greenhouse Gas Inventory Project was launched to accurately quantify company-wide greenhouse gas emissions and to reduce the carbon footprint of Northrop Grumman operations, in anticipation of upcoming regulations.
In October 2010 the company was named one of Computerworld's Top 12 Green-IT Organizations for its large-scale data center migration effort.
Political contributions and governmental ties
From 1990 to 2002, Northrop Grumman contributed $8.5 million to federal campaigns. According to PAC summary data compiled by Source Watch, the company gave US$1,011,260 to federal candidates in the 2005–2006 election cycle, compared to $10,612,837 given by all defense contractors in the same cycle. This donation amount was only behind that of General Dynamics and Lockheed Martin in the defense industry. The majority of the contributions, 63%, went to Republicans. Former Northrop Grumman Electronics Systems chief James G. Roche served as Secretary of the Air Force for two years under George W. Bush. Roche would eventually be nominated to head the Army, but withdrew his nomination among accusations of mismanaging a contract with Boeing and of failing to properly handle the Air Force sexual assault scandals of 2003. According to CorpWatch, "at least seven former officials, consultants, or shareholders of Northrop Grumman" have held posts "in the Bush administration...including Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz, Vice-Presidential Chief of Staff I. Lewis Libby, Pentagon Comptroller Dov S. Zakheim, and Sean O'Keefe, director of NASA." Wolfowitz and Libby have both since left the government amid scandals.
The company engages third-party lobbying firms in jurisdictions where it has interests. For example, in South Australia it works with lobbying firm CMAX Communications.
Controversies
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Northrop was the target of several high-profile criminal and civil cases.
In 1995, Robert Ferro, an employee for TRW Inc., a company Northrop Grumman acquired in 2002, discovered that satellite components manufactured for the U.S. Air Force (USAF) were faulty and likely to fail in operation. TRW suppressed Ferro's report of the problem and hid the information from the USAF, even after a satellite in space equipped with the faulty components experienced serious anomalies. Ferro later sued Northrop Grumman in federal court under the federal whistle-blower law.
In 1999, the company was sued for knowingly giving the Navy defective aircraft. This suit sought $210 million in damages. Ten years later, on April 2, 2009, Northrop Grumman agreed to pay $325 million to settle the suit. Ferro was awarded $48.8 million of the settlement. Northrop Grumman stated, "it believed that TRW had 'acted properly under its contracts' and that the company had substantive defenses against the claims."
In 2001, federal investigators probed NG for fraud of more than $100 million, systematic overcharging for radar jammers and other high-tech devices used in the B-1 bomber, the F-15 fighter and the B-2 Stealth bomber.
In 2003, the company was sued for overcharging the U.S. government for space projects in the 1990s. Northrop Grumman paid $111.2 million to settle out of court.
From August 25 to September 2, 2010, Virginia's computer system operated by NG, under a $2.4 billion contract, experienced an outage which resulted in around 45,000 citizens not being able to renew their drivers licenses prior to their expiration. Computer systems for 26 of the state's 89 agencies were affected and Governor Bob McDonnell announced that some data may have been permanently lost. In 2010 Northrop Grumman apologized for the outage, and agreed to fund an investigation.
In 2012, controversy began over Northrop Grumman's Integrated Air and Missile Battle Command System (IBCS), when it missed its first deadline. Since then, the system has had a number of controversial developments. In 2016, a Director, Operational Test and Evaluation found a number of major faults with the system, concluding it was "neither mature nor stable".
International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) Violations
U.S. State Department investigators found that Litton Industries, a subsidiary acquired by Northrop Grumman in 2000, had provided portions of source code used by guidance and navigation system interfaces aboard Air Force One to a company in Russia in 1998. Northrop Grumman agreed to pay a $15 million fine for 110 violations, occurring between September 1998 and November 1998, of the Arms Export Control Act and the International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR).
Additionally, documents filed by the State Department state that between 1994 and 2003, Northrop Grumman failed to notify the U.S. State Department about the computer guidance systems also being transferred to Angola, Indonesia, Israel, China, Ukraine and Yemen.
See also
IMETS
Northrop Grumman RQ-180 Unmanned Aircraft System
Top 100 contractors of the U.S. federal government – $30.1 billion in FY2018
References
Notes
Bibliography
Parker, Dana T. Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II. Cypress, California: Dana T. Parker Books, 2013. .
External links
Interview with Northrop Grumman CEO, Feb 12, 2006.
Aerospace companies of the United States
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Unmanned aerial vehicle manufacturers
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|
216887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edirne | Edirne | Edirne (, ), formerly known as Adrianople or Hadrianopolis (), is a city in Turkey, in the northwestern part of the province of Edirne and Eastern Thrace, close to Turkey's borders with Greece and Bulgaria (3.24 miles or 5.22 kilometers from the Greek border at the closest point).
Edirne was the capital city of the Ottoman Empire from 1369 to 1453, before Constantinople became the empire's capital. The estimated population in 2019 was 185,408.
Names and etymology
The city was founded as Hadrianopolis ( in English, ; in Greek), named after the Roman emperor Hadrian, on the site of a previous Thracian settlement named Uskudama. The Ottoman name Edrine (أدرنة) derives from the Greek name. The name Adrianople was used in English until the Turkish adoption of the Latin alphabet in 1928, upon which Edirne became the internationally recognized name. (), Romanian and , , and , are all adapted forms of either Hadrianopolis or Edirne.
History
The area around Edirne has been the site of numerous major battles and sieges, from the days of the Roman Empire. The vagaries of the border region between Asia and Europe gives rise to Edirne's historic claim to be the most frequently contested spot on the globe.
Antiquity
The city was refounded by the Roman Emperor Hadrian on the site of a previous Thracian settlement known as Uskadama, Uskudama, Uskodama or Uscudama. Hadrian developed it, adorned it with monuments, and changed its name to Hadrianopolis (which would later be pronounced Adrianopolis, Anglicised as Adrianople). Licinius was defeated there by Constantine I in 324, and Emperor Valens was killed by the Goths there during the Battle of Adrianople in 378.
Medieval period
In 813, the city was temporarily seized by Khan Krum of Bulgaria who moved its inhabitants to the Bulgarian lands north of the Danube.
During the existence of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, the Crusaders were decisively defeated by the Bulgarian Emperor Kaloyan in the Battle of Adrianople (1205). In 1206 Adrianople and its territory was given to the Byzantine aristocrat Theodore Branas as a hereditary fief by the Latin regime. Theodore Komnenos, Despot of Epirus, took possession of it in 1227, but three years later was defeated at Klokotnitsa by Emperor Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria.
In 1362, the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Murad I invaded Thrace. Murad captured Adrianople, probably in 1369 (the date is disputed). The city became "Edirne" in Turkish, reflecting the Turkish pronunciation. Murad moved the Ottoman capital to Adrianople. Mehmed the Conqueror (Sultan Mehmed II) was born in Adrianople, where he came under the influence of some Hurufis dismissed by Taşköprüzade in the Şakaiki Numaniye as "Certain accursed ones of no significance", who were burnt as heretics by Mahmud Pasha.
The city remained the Ottoman capital for 84 years until 1453, when Mehmed II took Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) and moved the capital there.
Edirne is famed for its many mosques, domes, minarets, and palaces from the Ottoman period.
Modern period
Under Ottoman rule, Adrianople was the principal city of the administrative unit, the eponymous Eyalet of Adrianople, and after land reforms in 1867, the Vilayet of Adrianople.
Sultan Mehmed IV left the palace in Constantinople and died in Adrianople in 1693.
During his exile in the Ottoman Empire, the Swedish king Charles XII stayed in the city during most of 1713.
Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, lived in Edirne from 1863 to 1868. He was exiled there by the Ottoman Empire before being banished further to the Ottoman penal colony in Akka. He referred to Adrianople in his writings as the "Land of Mystery".
Adrianople was a sanjak centre during the Ottoman period and was bound to, successively, the Rumeli Eyalet and Silistre Eyalet before becoming a provincial capital of the Eyalet of Edirne at the beginning of the 19th century; until 1878, the Eyalet of Adrianople comprised the sanjaks of Edirne, Tekfurdağı, Gelibolu, Filibe, and İslimye.
Adrianople was briefly occupied by imperial Russian troops in 1829 during the Greek War of Independence and in 1878 during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The city suffered a fire in 1905. In 1905 it had about 80,000 inhabitants, of whom 30,000 were Turks; 22,000 Greeks; 10,000 Bulgarians; 4,000 Armenians; 12,000 Jews; and 2,000 more citizens of unclassified ethnic/religious backgrounds.
Adrianople was a vital fortress defending Ottoman Constantinople and Eastern Thrace during the Balkan Wars of 1912–13. It was briefly occupied by the Bulgarians in 1913, following the Siege of Adrianople. The Great Powers–Britain, Italy, France, and Russia–attempted to coerce the Ottoman Empire into ceding Adrianople to Bulgaria during the temporary winter truce of the First Balkan War. The belief that that government was willing to give up the city created a political scandal in the Ottoman government in Constantinople (as Adrianople was a former capital of the Empire), leading to the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état. Although it was victorious in the coup, the Committee of Union and Progress under Enver Pasha was unable to stop the Bulgarians from capturing the city after the fighting resumed in the Spring. Despite relentless pressure from the Great powers (Russia, Britain, France) the Ottoman empire never officially ceded the city to Bulgaria. Edirne was swiftly reconquered by the Ottoman empire during the Second Balkan War under the leadership of Enver Pasha (who would proclaim himself the "second conqueror of Adrianople", after Murad I) following the total collapse of the Bulgarian military might in the region.
The entire Armenian population of the city was deported during the Armenian genocide on 27–28 October 1915 and 17–18 February 1916, ending up in Syria and Mesopotamia. Their property and businesses were sold at low prices to Turkish Muslims.
It was ceded to Greece by the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920, but recaptured and annexed by Turkey after the decisive Greek defeat at the end of the Greco-Turkish War, also known as the Western Front of the larger Turkish War of Independence, in 1922. During the Greek administration, Edirne (officially known as Adrianople) was the capital of the Adrianople Prefecture.
Adrianople became known in Western languages as "Edirne" circa 1930. From 1934 onwards Edirne was the seat of the Second Inspectorate General, in which an Inspector General governed the provinces Edirne, Çanakkale, Tekirdaĝ and Kırklareli. The Inspectorate Generals governmental posts were abandoned in 1948, but the legal framework of them was only abolished in 1952, under the government of the Democrat Party.
According to the 2007 census, Edirne Province had a population of 382,222 inhabitants. The city is a commercial centre for woven textiles, silks, carpets and agricultural products.
Ecclesiastical history
Adrianople was made the seat of a Greek metropolitan and of an Armenian bishop. Adrianople is also the centre of a Bulgarian diocese, but not recognized and deprived of a bishop. The city also had some Protestants. The Latin Catholics, foreigners for the most part, and not numerous, were dependent on the vicariate-apostolic of Constantinople. At Adrianople itself were the parish of St. Anthony of Padua (Minors Conventual) and a school for girls conducted by the Sisters of Charity of Agram. In the suburb of Karaağaç were a church (Minor Conventuals), a school for boys (Assumptionists) and a school for girls (Oblates of the Assumption). Each of its mission stations, at Tekirdağ and Alexandroupoli, had a school (Minor Conventuals), and there was one at Gallipoli (the Assumptionists).
Around 1850, from the standpoint of the Eastern Catholic Churches, Adrianople was the residence of a Bulgarian vicar-apostolic for the 4,600 Eastern Catholics of the Ottoman vilayet (province) of Thrace and after 1878 - of the principality of Bulgaria.
They had 18 parishes or missions, 6 of which were in the principality, with 20 churches or chapels, 31 priests, of whom 6 were Assumptionists and 6 were Resurrectionists; 11 schools with 670 pupils. In Adrianople itself were only a very few United Bulgarians, with an Episcopal church of St. Elias, and the churches of St. Demetrius and Sts. Cyril and Methodius. The last is served by the Resurrectionists, who have also a college of 90 pupils. In the suburb of Karaağaç, the Assumptionists have a parish and a seminary with 50 pupils. Besides the Eastern Catholic Bulgarians, the above statistics included the Greek Catholic missions of Malgara (now Malkara) and Daoudili (now Davuteli village in Malkara), with 4 priests and 200 faithful, because from the civil point of view belonged to the Bulgarian Vicariate.
Later however, the Roman Catholic diocese was discontinued, and exists only in name as a titular metropolitan archbishopric, under the full name Hadrianopolis in Haemimonto to distinguish it from several other titular sees named Hadrianopolis.
In 2018, archaeologists discovered remains of a Byzantine church. The church was built around 500 AD and it was an early Byzantine period building.
Geography
Climate
Edirne has a borderline humid subtropical (Cfa) and hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) in the Köppen climate classification, and a temperate oceanic climate (Do) in the Trewartha climate classification. Edirne has hot, moderately dry summers and chilly, wet and often snowy winters.
Points of interest
Situated from the Greek and from the Bulgarian borders, Edirne is famed for its many mosques, domes and minarets. The Selimiye Mosque, built in 1575 and designed by Turkey's greatest master architect, Mimar Sinan (c. 1489/1490–1588), is one of the most important monuments in the city. It has the highest minarets in Turkey, at and a cupola higher than that of Hagia Sophia, the former Byzantine Orthodox Cathedral (now mosque, museum from 1935-2020) in Istanbul. Carrying the name of the then reigning Ottoman Sultan Selim II (r. 1566–1574), this mosque futures Turkish marble handicrafts, and it is covered with valuable tiles and fine paintings. Other notable mosques are Eski Cami (Old Mosque), and Burmalı Cami (Serpent Mosque), aka Üç Şerefeli Mosque.
Edirne has three historic covered bazaars: Arasta, next to Selimiye Mosque, Bedesten next to Eski Cami and Ali Paşa Çarşısı (Ali Pasha Bazaar).
Besides the mosques, there are visitor attractions in Edirne, all reflecting its rich past. The most prominent place being the Edirne Palace ( for "New Imperial Palace") in Sarayiçi quarter, built during the reign of Murad II (r. 1421–1444). Although the buildings of the palace and its bath (Kum Kasrı Hamamı) are in ruined form, the palace gate and the palace kitchen facility are restored. The Kasr-ı Adalet ("Justice Castle"), built as part of the palace complex, stands intact next to the small Fatih Bridge over the Tunca river.
Another notable building in the area is the Complex of Sultan Bayezid II, an important monument with its complex construction comprising many facilities used in those times.
The Balkan Wars Memorial Cemetery is located close to the Edirne Palace, with an unknown soldier monument featuring an Ottoman soldier in front of its entrance.
The historic Grand Synagogue of Edirne, abandoned and ruined, was restored and re-opened in March 2015. A Roman Catholic and two Bulgarian Orthodox churches are found in the city.
Edirne has several historic arch bridges crossing over the rivers Meriç and Tundzha, which flow around west and south of the city.
There are caravansaries, like the Rustem Pasha and Ekmekcioglu Ahmet Pasha caravansaries, which were designed to host travelers, in the 16th century.
The historic Karaağaç railway station hosts today, after redevelopment, the Trakya University's Faculty of Fine Arts in Karaağaç suburb of Edirne. Next to it, the Treaty of Lausanne Monument and Museum are situated.
Culture
The traditional oil-wrestling tournament called Kırkpınar, is held every year in late June or early July. Kakava, an international festival celebrating the Roma people is held on 5 May each year.
A cultural partnership with Lörrach, Germany began in 2006. The goal is to exchange pupils and students to improve their cultural skills and understanding.
Liver has an important place in the culture of Edirne city. Edirne is well known for local dishes. "Ciğer tava" (breaded and deep-fried liver) is often served with a side of cacık, a cool dish of diluted strained yogurt with chopped cucumber. Also, locally-made marzipan, which has a different recipe from standard marzipan, is one of Edirne's traditional desserts.
Handmade brooms with a mirror in them are one of the cultural images of the city and a central marriage tradition. Miniature versions are still sold in gift shops.
Economy
Edirne's economy largely depends on agriculture. 73% of the working population work in agriculture, fishing, forests and hunting. The lowlands are productive. Corn, sugarbeets and sunflowers are the leading crops. Melons, watermelons, rice, tomatoes, eggplants and viniculture are important.
The through highway that connects Europe to Istanbul, Anatolia and the Middle East passes through Edirne.
Historic buildings and events have elevated tourism's role in the economy.
Industry is developing. Agriculture-based industries (agro-industries) are especially important for the city's economy.
Education
Universities
Trakya University, which is linked with Loerrach University through the Erasmus programme of the EU.
High schools
Beykent Educational Institutions
80th Year of Republic Anatolian High School (80. Yıl Cumhuriyet Anadolu Lisesi in Turkish)
Edirne Anatolian Teacher Training High School (Edirne Anadolu Öğretmen Lisesi in Turkish: It has been transformed into Edirne Social Sciences High School)
Edirne Anatolian Technical High School (Edirne Anadolu Teknik Lisesi in Turkish)
Edirne Beykent High School of Science (Özel Edirne Beykent Fen Lisesi)
Edirne Beykent High School of Anatolian (Özel Edirne Beykent Anadolu Lisesi)
Edirne High School (Anatolian High School) (Edirne Lisesi in Turkish)
Edirne Ilhami Ertem High School (Edirne İlhami Ertem Lİsesi in Turkish)
Edirne Industrial Vocational High School (Edirne Endüstri Meslek Lisesi in Turkish)
Edirne Milli Piyango Trade Profession High School (Edirne Milli Piyango Ticaret Meslek Lisesi)
Edirne Suleyman Demirel Science & Maths High School (Edirne Fen Lisesi in Turkish)
Edirne Yildirim Anatolian High School (Edirne Anadolu Lisesi - Yıldırım Anadolu Lisesi in Turkish)
Edirne Fine Arts High School (Edirne Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi in Turkish)
Gallery
Quarters
Twin cities
Notable people
Sultans
Bayezid I (1360—1403), Ottoman sultan from 1389 to 1402
Mahmud I (1696—1754), Ottoman sultan from 1730 to 1754
Mehmed the Conqueror (1432–1481), Ottoman sultan who conquered Constantinople (today Istanbul)
Mustafa II (1664–1703), Ottoman sultan from 1695 to 1703
Osman III (1699—1757), Ottoman sultan from 1754 to 1757
Şahin Giray (1745-1787), last khan of Crimea
Historical
Caleb Afendopolo (before 1430-1499), Jewish polyhistor
Athanasius I of Constantinople (1230—1310), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople
Athanasius V of Jerusalem (died 1844), Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem
Hagop Baronian (1843—1891), Ottoman Armenian writer, satirist, educator
Elijah Bashyazi (c. 1420—1490), Karaite Jewish hakham
Theodore Branas, Byzantine general
Nikephoros Bryennios (ethnarch), Byzantine general
Abraham ben Raphael Caro, 18th-century Ottoman rabbi
Karpos Papadopoulos (1790s-1871), Member of the Filiki Eteria
Theoklitos Polyeidis (1698-1759), Greek scholar, teacher, translator, priest and monk
Dionysius V of Constantinople (1820-1891), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople
Joseph Halévy (1827—1917), Ottoman-born Jewish-French Orientalist and traveler
Abdulcelil Levni (died 1732), Ottoman court painter and miniaturist
Neşâtî (?–1674), Ottoman poet
Georgi Valkovich (1833—1892), Bulgarian physician, diplomat and politician
Yirmisekiz Mehmed Çelebi (died 1732), Ottoman statesman and ambassador
Stefanos Koumanoudis (1818-1899), Greek archaeologist, university teacher, writer and translator
Contemporary
Cem Adrian (born 1980), Turkish singer-songwriter, author, producer and film director
Şevket Süreyya Aydemir (1897—1976), Turkish writer, intellectual, economist, historian
Atılay Canel (born 1955), Turkish football coach
Cavit Erdel (1884—1933), Ottoman Army officer and Turkish Army general
Hüsrev Gerede (1884-1962), Ottoman and Turkish Army officer, politician and diplomat
Avra Theodoropoulou (1880-1863), Greek musician and activist
Ragıp Gümüşpala (1897-1964), 11th Chief of the General Staff of the Turkish Armed Forces
Acun Ilıcalı (born 1969), Turkish television personality and producer
Haşim İşcan (1898-1968), Turkish high school teacher, province governor and the first elected mayor of Istanbul
Kemal Kerinçsiz (born 1960), Turkish ultra-nationalist lawyer
Özlem Kolat (born 1984), Turkish classical clarinet player
Michael Petkov (1850-1921), Bulgarian Eastern Catholic priest
Muharrem Korhan Yamaç (born 1972), Paralympics, world and European champion disabled sport shooter
Nikos Zachariadis (1903—1973), General Secretary of the Communist Party of Greece
Gökberk Ergeneman (born 1995) National Tennis Player
See also
List of battles of Adrianople
List of treaties of Adrianople
Trakya University
References
https://www.academia.edu/23674853/Edirne_Ta%C5%9F_K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCleri_Edirne_Stone_Bridges
Further reading
External links
Edirne Directory
GCatholic.org
Edirne Weather Forecast Information
Photographs of the town and monuments taken by Disk Osseman
Awarded "EDEN - European Destinations of Excellence" non-traditional tourist destination 2008
Hadrianopolis in Haemimonto
Cities in Turkey
Former national capitals
Jewish communities in Turkey
Populated places established in the 2nd century
Roman sites in Turkey | [
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|
216888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty%20of%20Engineering%20%28LTH%29%2C%20Lund%20University | Faculty of Engineering (LTH), Lund University | The Faculty of Engineering is one of the eight faculties at Lund University in Lund, Sweden, commonly called LTH (after its Swedish name Lunds Tekniska Högskola). LTH was originally established as an independent institute in 1961, but was incorporated in Lund University as a faculty in 1969. Previously the institute has been known in English as Lund Institute of Technology, but since 2005 the international name is Faculty of Engineering, Lund University.
LTH is Sweden's third largest institute of technology and the third of its kind in Sweden. About 9,600 students (out of a total of 47,000 university students) study at the institute. The facilities housing the faculty are to a varying extent shared with regular education at the Faculty of Science in bordering disciplines, and many of the departments are coorganized with the science faculty, for instance the Department of Physics. Basic courses are as a rule offered in Swedish, while higher-level courses are often taught in English with English literature.
Programs
The Faculty of Engineering at Lund University primarily graduates students working towards a Master of Science in Engineering degree, in addition to offering doctoral studies. Originally LTH offered only six programs, introduced between 1961 and 1965. These original programs are (in order):
Engineering Physics
Electrical Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Civil Engineering
Architecture
Chemical Engineering
In 1982, Computer Science and Engineering was introduced, and since the mid-1990s, many new programs have branched off of existing programs to meet the needs of growing industries and fields. These newer programs are (in no order):
Industrial Engineering and Management
Biochemical Engineering
Biomedical Engineering
Computer Science and Engineering
Environmental Engineering
Fire Engineering
Surveying
Information Technology
Engineering Mathematics
Nanoengineering
Industrial Design
Risk Management
Technology Management
International master programmes are offered in subjects such as Wireless Communications, Systems-on-chip, Bioengineering, Food and Nutrition, Sustainable Energy and Water Resources Engineering.
LTH also offers three-year Bachelor of Science in Engineering programmes, in Helsingborg at the Campus Helsingborg.
See also
Chalmers University of Technology
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
List of universities in Sweden
Notes and references
External links
Faculty of Engineering, LTH - Official site
Top Industrial Managers for Europe (TIME) network
University departments in Sweden
Lund University
Engineering universities and colleges in Sweden | [
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|
216889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Institute%20of%20Technology%20at%20Link%C3%B6ping%20University | The Institute of Technology at Linköping University | The Institute of Technology at Linköping University, or Tekniska högskolan vid Linköpings universitet (formerly Linköpings tekniska högskola, LiTH), is the faculty of science and engineering of Linköping University, located in Linköping and Norrköping in Sweden. Since its start in 1969, LiTH has had close ties with the Swedish transport and electronics industry in general and with Ericsson and SAAB in particular. The faculty has 1,400 staff members, out of whom 125 are professors, and 470 are lecturers with a PhD. The total number of students exceeds 12,000, with more than half being in post-graduate programs.
LiTH focuses its research and education in the areas of information technology, industrial engineering and management, materials technology, biomedical engineering, applied physics, production engineering and electronics. Interdisciplinary approaches and applied science are conducted in cooperation with the industry.
Notable alumni
Carl-Henric Svanberg, chairman BP, former CEO Ericsson, (Applied physics and Electrical Engineering)
Mikael Ohlsson, CEO IKEA, (Industrial engineering and Management)
Magnus Hall, President and CEO Holmen, (Industrial Engineering and Management)
Håkan Eriksson, chief scientific officer Ericsson, (Applied Physics and Electrical Engineering)
Åke Svensson, former CEO Saab, (Applied Physics and Electrical Engineering)
Mats Oretorp, CEO Dell Sweden, Dell AB, (Industrial Engineering and Management)
Björn Blomberg, CEO Swedfund, (Industrial Engineering and Management)
Jan-Eric Sundgren, former rector Chalmers, (Applied Physics and Electrical Engineering)
Mille Millnert, former rector Linköping University, (Applied Physics and Electrical Engineering)
Founders of Configura Sverige AB, (Computer science engineering)
Founders of Intentia (part of Lawson Software), (Industrial Engineering and Management)
Founders of Industrial and Financial Systems, (Industrial Engineering and Management)
Educational programmes
Master of Science programmes at Campus Valla:
Aeronautical Engineering
Industrial Engineering and Management
Sustainability Engineering and Management
Socware (System-On-Chip)
Computer Science
Computer Science and Engineering
Information Technology
Chemical Biology
Engineering Biology
Mechanical Engineering
Applied Physics and Electrical Engineering
Design and Product Development
Master of Science programmes at Campus Norrköping
Electronics Design Engineering
Communication and Transport Engineering
Media Technology and Engineering
See also
Chalmers University of Technology
Royal Institute of Technology
Luleå University of Technology
Lund Institute of Technology
Umeå Institute of Technology
List of universities in Sweden
List of test pilot schools
Notes
External links
University departments in Sweden
Engineering universities and colleges in Sweden
Linköping University | [
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|
216892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ume%C3%A5%20Institute%20of%20Technology | Umeå Institute of Technology | The Umeå Institute of Technology or Tekniska högskolan i Umeå is part of the Faculty of Science and Technology at Umeå University. The Institute offers a wide range of study programmes, some of them not to be found in any other part of Sweden. Research in engineering is gradually being expanded. The faculty's traditionally strong position in natural sciences form a base on which new technology research is built.
Umeå Institute of Technology three main areas in research are Information and Interaction Technologies, Life Sciences, and Sustainable Society.
History
The 1964/65 academic year saw the beginning of what was to become the current Faculty of Sciences and Technology with the creation of a Faculty of Philosophy, which was later divided into a Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science and a Faculty of Social Science in 1968/69.
There was already talk in 1964 of establishing a technical college in Umeå. Nothing definite came out of these discussions until 1 July 1997 when the Umeå Institute of Technology was established.
Engineering programmes were gradually developed at the university during the 1980s in the form of two engineering programmes. The first master's programmes at Umeå University were in engineering physics in 1988. Central to the development of Master's programmes in engineering has always been strong basic sciences, e.g. chemistry, physics, biology and computing science.
Education
Master's programmes in Computing Science and Engineering, Engineering Chemistry and Engineering Biology were introduced during the nineties. At the end of the eighties and beginning of the nineties a series of two-year engineering programmes were started. These later developed into three-year university engineering programmes. The newest of the engineering programmes is the Master's Programme in Energy Engineering.
The 1990s have seen the establishment of a number of centres for research. The goal has been to create centres where researchers from different fields are able to collaborate on common issues.
Departments
Applied Physics and Electronics
Chemistry
Computing Science
Ecology and Environmental Science
Institute of Design
Space Science
Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics
Molecular Biology
Physics
Plant Physiology
Research Centres
The Faculty of Science and Technology at Umeå University has over 5,500 students and more than 350 research students. Research and education is gathered under ten different departments. Several centres have also been established to ensure even more effective research.
The Faculty of Medicine and the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) are two of the Faculty of Science and Technology's most important partners. Collaboration also takes place with a number of universities in Sweden. Interfaces naturally extend beyond Sweden's borders; there are for instance established collaborations with INRA, the National Institute for Agricultural Research in France, and Oxford University.
Research Centers:
Umeå Center for Molecular Patogenesis - UCMP
Umeå Plant Science Centre - UPSC
Umeå Life Science Centre - ULSC
Umeå Centre for Interaction Technology - UCIT
High Performance Computing Center North - HPC2N
Centre for Biomedical Engineering and Physics
Intelligent Vehicles for Off-Road - IFOR
Umeå Marine Sciences Centre - UMF
See also
Umeå University
Umeå Institute of Design
Luleå University of Technology
Chalmers University of Technology,
Royal Institute of Technology,
List of universities in Sweden''
External links
Umeå Institute of Technology - Official site
Umeå University
University departments in Sweden
Technical universities and colleges in Sweden
Educational institutions established in 1997
Scientific organizations based in Sweden
1997 establishments in Sweden | [
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|
216894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen%20Trittin | Jürgen Trittin | Jürgen Trittin (born 25 July 1954) is a German Green politician. He was Federal Minister for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety from 1998 to 2005 in Germany.
Early life and education
Trittin was born in Bremen, as son of Helene and Klaus Trittin. He earned a university degree in social economy in Göttingen and worked as journalist.
Political career
Early beginnings
Trittin's political career started in 1982 as Secretary of the Alternative-Greens-Initiative List (AGIL) Group in the Göttingen City Council (until 1984). From 1984 to 1985, he worked as press spokesman for the Green Party's group in the Lower Saxony State Assembly, which he joined in 1985 as member of the state parliament.
From 1990 to 1994, Trittin was the Lower Saxony Minister for Federal and European Affairs in a coalition government with the SPD, led by Minister-President of Lower Saxony Gerhard Schröder (SPD). In his capacity as minister, he also served as the Head of the Lower Saxony State Mission to the Federal Government in Berlin.
After Schröder's SPD won an absolute majority in the state elections in 1994, the coalition with the Greens was ended. Trittin subsequently served as Member of the Lower Saxony State Assembly and as Deputy Chairman of the Alliance 90/The Greens group in that parliament. Also in 1994, Trittin was elected spokesman (chairman) of the national Green Party, serving alongside Krista Sager (1994–1996) and later Gunda Röstel (1996–1998).
Federal politics
In the 1998 national elections, Trittin was elected as Member of the German Bundestag. Upon entering parliament, he discontinued his work as party chairman, because its statutes did not allow concurrently being a member of parliament and a member of the party executive.
In the federal red–green coalition, the federal red–green coalition government under Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, Trittin was appointed Federal Minister for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, a role which he held from October 1998 until the Grand Coalition under Chancellor Angela Merkel took power in 2005. In his capacity as minister, he was responsible for the decision to abandon the use of nuclear power by 2020, called the nuclear power phase-out (see Nuclear power in Germany). He also pushed the 2000 Renewable Energy Act through parliament. He was appointed Federal Minister for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety under Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, a role which he held from October 1998 until the Grand coalition under Chancellor Angela Merkel took power in 2005. In this position he was responsible for the decision to abandon the use of nuclear power by 2020, called the nuclear power phase-out (see Nuclear power in Germany).
After having lost against Fritz Kuhn in the vote on the Green Party's parliamentary group leadership in 2005, Trittin served as vice-chairman group in charge of foreign, security and European policy from 2005 to 2009.
Alongside Renate Künast, Trittin led the Green Party's campaign for the 2009 elections. In the following years, both chaired the party's parliamentary group. In addition, Trittin served as alternate member of the Committee on Foreign Affairs.
For the 2013 elections, the Greens under lead candidates Trittin and Katrin Göring-Eckardt centered their campaign on a call for tax increases for the wealthy, a strategy that many in the party later blamed for its losses in the polls. As part of the campaign, Trittin strengthened his profile as foreign policy expert by making a five-day trip to the United States in May 2013, including meetings with United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and officials from the International Monetary Fund.
Following his party's defeat in the elections, Trittin became a member of the Committee on Foreign Affairs and of the German delegation to the NATO Parliamentary Assembly. He also serves as deputy chairman of the German-Russian Parliamentary Friendship Group and of the German-Iranian Parliamentary Friendship Group.
In late 2015, Trittin was named co-chairman (alongside Ole von Beust and Matthias Platzeck) of a government-appointed commission tasked with recommending by early 2016 how to safeguard the funding of fulfilling Germany's exit from nuclear energy. By April 2016, the commission agreed to ask the power firms to pay €23.3 billion ($26.4 billion) into a state fund to cover the costs of nuclear waste storage.
In the negotiations to form a so-called traffic light coalition of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), the Green Party and the Free Democratic Party (FDP) following the 2021 federal elections, Trittin was part of his party's delegation in the working group on climate protection and energy policy, co-chaired by Matthias Miersch, Oliver Krischer and Lukas Köhler.
Political positions
Human rights
In August 2012, Trittin was one of 124 members of the Bundestag to sign a letter that was sent to the Russian ambassador to Germany, Vladimir Grinin, expressing concern over the trial against the three members of Pussy Riot. "Being held in detention for months and the threat of lengthy punishment are draconian and disproportionate," the lawmakers said in the letter. "In a secular and pluralist state, peaceful artistic acts – even if they can be seen as provocative – must not lead to the accusation of serious criminal acts that lead to lengthy prison terms."
Environment policy
At the time of Hurricane Katrina in August/September 2005, Trittin wrote an opinion piece in the newspaper Frankfurter Rundschau associating the US failure to sign the Kyoto protocol with the hurricane and its devastation.
In August 2005, Trittin responded to a question on how best to react to the 2005 petrol prices crisis with "leave the car at home from time to time." The media, in particular Bild, attacked these comments.
Controversy
In 1981, Trittin approved an election platform for the Alternative Green Initiative List, a precursor of the Green Party, which called for the legalization of sexual relations between adults and minors.
Already by 1999, shortly after Gerhard Schröder’s coalition government, Trittin told Stern magazine that "Red-Green as a reform project is dead," adding that he saw the Social Democrats as virtually indistinguishable now from the Christian Democrats of former Chancellor Helmut Kohl. He added that the Greens might even consider future political alliances with the Christian Democrats.
In 2001, Trittin compared a prominent Christian Democrat, Laurenz Meyer, to a "skinhead" for declaring that he was proud to be a German. A vigorous debate on the legitimacy of German patriotism has ensued, with most Germans appearing sharply critical of Trittin. The minister justified his remark by noting that extreme-right parties in Germany often use the badge, "I am proud to be a German." However, Trittin came under considerable pressure to quit after making the remark and was openly reprimanded by Chancellor Gerhard Schröder. The Greens' voting results subsequently fell significantly – to 7.8 percent, from 12.1 percent in the 1996 state election, in Baden-Württemberg, and to 5.3 percent, from 6.9 percent, in Rhineland-Palatinate.
In 2010, Trittin attended an event to commemorate the thirtieth anniversary of the Free Republic of Wendland in Hannover where someone threw a pie at him during a panel discussion.
Other activities
Corporate boards
KfW, ex-officio Member of the Board of Supervisory Directors (1998–2005)
Non-profit organizations
German Association for Small and Medium-Sized Businesses (BVMW), Member of the Political Advisory Board
Nuclear Waste Disposal Fund, Member of the Board of Trustees (since 2017)
Foundation for Reusable Systems (SIM), Member of the Board of Trustees
Weltfriedensdienst (WFD), Member of the Board of Trustees
German Energy Agency (dena), Member of the Supervisory Board (1998–2005)
Selected publications
References
External links
Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Reactor Safety
Personal home page of Jürgen Trittin (German)
1954 births
Alliance 90/The Greens politicians
Environment ministers of Germany
Living people
Ministers of the Lower Saxony State Government
Members of the Bundestag 2002–2005
Members of the Bundestag 2005–2009
Members of the Bundestag 2009–2013
Members of the Bundestag 2013–2017
Members of the Bundestag 2017–2021
Members of the Bundestag 2021–2025
Members of the Bundestag for Lower Saxony
Members of the Landtag of Lower Saxony
Politicians from Bremen
Members of the Bundestag for Alliance 90/The Greens | [
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|
216895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grub%20%28search%20engine%29 | Grub (search engine) | Grub is an open source distributed search crawler platform.
Users of Grub could download the peer-to-peer grubclient software and let it run during their computer's idle time. The client indexed the URLs and sent them back to the main grub server in a highly compressed form. The collective crawl could then, in theory, be utilized by an indexing system, such as the one being proposed at Wikia Search. Grub was able to quickly build a large snapshot by asking thousands of clients to crawl and analyze a small portion of the web each.
Wikia has now released the entire Grub package under an open source software license. However, the old Grub clients are not functional anymore. New clients can be found on the Wikia wiki.
History
The project was started in 2000 by Kord Campbell, Igor Stojanovski, and Ledio Ago in Oklahoma City. Intellectual property rights were acquired from Grub in January 2003 for $1.3 million in cash and stock by LookSmart. For a short time the original team continued working on the project, releasing several new versions of the software, albeit under a closed license.
Operations of Grub were shut down in late 2005. On July 27, 2007, Jimmy Wales announced that Wikia, Inc., the for-profit company developing the open source search engine Wikia Search, had acquired Grub from LookSmart on July 17 for $50,000.
References
External links
Internet search engines
Free search engine software
Free web crawlers | [
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|
216900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20jay | Green jay | The green jay (Cyanocorax luxuosus) is a species of the New World jays, and is found in Central America. Adults are about long and variable in colour across their range; they usually have blue and black heads, green wings and mantle, bluish-green tails, black bills, yellow or brown eye rings, and dark legs. The basic diet consists of arthropods, vertebrates, seeds, and fruit. The nest is usually built in a thorny bush; the female incubates the clutch of three to five eggs. This is a common species of jay with a wide range and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being of "least concern".
Taxonomy
Some ornithologists treat the green jay as conspecific with the Inca jay of the Andes, with C. yncas luxuosus as the green jay and C. yncas yncas as the Inca jay.
Description
Green jays are in length. Weight ranges from . They have feathers of yellowish-white with blue tips on the top of the head, cheeks and nape, though some taxa have more blue than others. The breast and underparts range from bright yellow in the south to pale green in the north (e.g., Texas). The upper parts are rich green. It has large nasal bristles that form a distinct tuft in some subspecies, but are less developed in others. The color of the iris ranges from dark brownish to bright yellow depending on the subspecies.
Behavior
Green jays feed on a wide range of insects and other invertebrates and various cereal grains. They take ebony (Ebenopsis spp.) seeds where these occur, and also any oak species' acorns, which they will cache. Meat and human scraps add to the diet when opportunity arises. Green jays have been observed using sticks as tools to extract insects from tree bark.
Breeding
Green jays usually build a nest in a tree or in a thorny bush or thicket, and the female lays three to five eggs. Only the female incubates, but both parents take care of the young.
Voice
As with most of the typical jays, this species has a very extensive voice repertoire. The bird's most common call makes a sound, but many other unusual notes also occur. One of the most distinctive calls sounds like an alarm bell.
Distribution and habitat
The green jay occurs from southern Texas to Honduras. The similar Inca jay has a disjunct home range in the northern Andes of South America.
Status
The green jay is a common species throughout most of its wide range. It is an adaptable species and the population is thought to be increasing as clearing of forests is creating new areas of suitable habitat. No particular threats have been identified, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being of "least concern".
References
External links
Green jay stamps from Belize and Venezuela at bird-stamps.org
green jay
Birds of the Rio Grande valleys
Birds of Mexico
Birds of Belize
Birds of the Yucatán Peninsula
Birds of the Northern Andes
Tool-using animals
green jay
Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN | [
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|
216901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LookSmart | LookSmart | LookSmart is an American search advertising, content management, online media, and technology company. It provides search, machine learning and chatbot technologies as well as pay-per-click and contextual advertising services.
LookSmart also licenses and manages search ad networks as white-label products. It abides by the click measurement guidelines of the Interactive Advertising Bureau.
LookSmart also owns several subsidiaries, including Clickable Inc., LookSmart AdCenter, Novatech.io, ShopWiki and Syncapse.
The current CEO of LookSmart is Michael Onghai and the company is headquartered in Henderson, Nevada.
Etymology
The name "LookSmart" is a double entendre, referring to both its selective, editorially compiled directory and as a compliment to users whom the company thinks "look smart".
History
1995–1998
LookSmart was founded as Homebase in 1995 in Melbourne, Australia by husband and wife Evan Thornley and Tracy Ellery, executives of McKinsey & Company. Reader's Digest invested $5 million in the company for an 80% stake. The original concept of Homebase was to build a female and family-friendly web portal to supplement the Reader's Digest magazine. After leadership and strategy changes at Reader's Digest, which reduced RD's focus on its online business, RD wanted to shut down Homebase, which would have cost $4 million in payouts and other termination costs. The founders and former McKinsey's employee Martin Hosking instead proposed a cheaper leveraged buyout of Homebase.
On 28 October 1996, the company launched its LookSmart search engine. At launch, the search engine listed more than 85,000 sites and had a "Java-enhanced" interface. In June 1997, the search engine underwent a major redesign, dropping its original Java-based browsing system.
LookSmart was sold back to the founders as well as Martin Hosking through a leveraged buyout in 1998, with Reader's Digest providing a $1.5 million loan and retaining about a 10% equity stake. Also in 1998, a search box was added to the LookSmart search engine along with People Search, Yellow pages, Discussions and shopping search. In May 1998, the company raised $2.3 million from Amwin and $6.0 million from Cox Media Group and Macquarie Bank and was valued at $23.3 million. On 21 December 1998, LookSmart stopped accepting pornographic advertisements.
1999–2001
By 1999, the company had 500 employees and LookSmart was the twelfth most visited website worldwide with 10 million users, behind AltaVista and ahead of Snap. In early-1999, the company reached an agreement to provide directory and listing services for Microsoft for 5 years. The deal provided the company with $30 million upfront and guaranteed payments of $5 million per year. In late-March 1999, the company raised $59.6 million based on a post-money valuation of $430 million from Amerindo Investment Advisors, Citicorp Equity Capital, Cox Interactive Media, Hambrecht & Quist and others. In May 1999, LookSmart formed a strategic partnership with direct-response marketing company Guthy-Renker and acquired some of their assets from their e-commerce division for $3 million.
On 20 August 1999, during the dot-com bubble, the company became a public company via an initial public offering on the NASDAQ, debuting at $12 per share and raising $92.4 million based on a $1 billion valuation for the company. LookSmart used the money it made from its IPO to open offices in Denmark, Canada and the Netherlands. By October 1999, the stock price reached $30 per share, giving the company a market capitalization of $2.5 billion. The founders' 15% stake was worth $375 million. On 10 November 1999, LookSmart and BT Group founded joint venture BT LookSmart. In December 1999, LookSmart purchased FutureCorp and its free email service Start for more than $5 million from its co-founders Michael Mak and Bardia Housman. Also in December, LookSmart acquired 14.5% of the voting stock of Dstore Pty Ltd. for $300,000.
In 2000, FindArticles, a website which provided access to articles previously published in magazines, journals, and other sources, was founded as a partnership between LookSmart, which authored the search technology, and the Gale Group, which provided the articles for a fee.
In March 2000, LookSmart's stock price briefly peaked at $72 per share. On 28 March 2000, the International Olympics Committee (IOC) signed a sponsorship deal with LookSmart by adding a custom-built LookSmart directory to the Olympic Games' website. On 30 May 2000, Juno Online Services reached an agreement with LookSmart to provide Juno's subscribers access to LookSmart's directory and LookSmart's stock jumped 8%. On 26 July 2000, AltaVista reached an agreement with LookSmart for it to be their exclusive directory provider. In October 2000, the company acquired Zeal for $20 million.
As a result of the dot-com bubble bursting in late 2000, the company fired 172 employees or 31% of its staff in January 2001 to cut costs. Also in January, LookSmart shut down Inside The Web and LookSmart Live! due to them being unrelated to their core business model. On 17 January 2001, the company reached a deal to provide product categories from its directory to Amazon.
Also after the dot-com bubble burst, LookSmart paid $90,000 to transfer 52.8% of its ownership of FutureCorp back to its founders.
2002–2003
On 12 March 2002, LookSmart announced that they would be acquiring WiseNut for about $9.25 million in stock. LookSmart completed their acquisition of WiseNut in April. In June 2002, Thornley resigned as CEO but stayed on as chairman and three of the seven members of the board of directors resigned in response, including Robert Ryan, Myriann Byerwalter and James Tananbaum. In July 2002, BT LookSmart acquired UK Plus from Associated New Media (ANM) for an undisclosed amount. On 1 October 2002, Jason Kellerman became the CEO of LookSmart, having previously served as COO of the company. In early-December 2002, LookSmart paid US$3.5 million in cash and 1 million in LookSmart shares to purchase BT LookSmart from BT Group and subsequently shut down the joint venture. LookSmart also returned US$1.5 million in restricted cash that was to be used for the funding of the joint venture.
In January 2003, LookSmart acquired Intellectual property rights from Grub for $1.3 million in cash and stock. On 6 March 2003, LookSmart announced that they had renewed an agreement with Time Warner Cable's Road Runner division to continue providing directory listings for Road Runner subscribers. On 9 July 2003, LookSmart announced that they had reached an agreement to provide listing services in the United States for web portal Terra Lycos.
In August 2003, LookSmart stated in a financial report that Microsoft, which accounted for 64% of the company's listing revenues in the last 6 months and 70% of the company's overall revenue, started testing its own search technology without LookSmart's listings on some of its websites in the United Kingdom and LookSmart's stock dropped more than 20% on 15 August and continued dropping on 18 August. Also in August, William Lonergan became the new CFO of LookSmart. In October 2003, LookSmart reintroduced its bid-for-placement ads in order to compete with Google and Yahoo!, which were previously offered through LookSmart's UK division. On 6 October 2003, Microsoft announced that it would not renew its agreement with LookSmart and the company's stock price plunged 52.3% in a day and its stock fell to $1.44 per share. In response to this, LookSmart fired half of its employees in December 2003.
In September 2003, the company settled a lawsuit filed in May 2002 by Legal Staffing Partners after the company converted thousands of websites that originally had paid a onetime submission fee into a cost-per-click payment model.
In 2003, LookSmart had a net income of $5.8 million and made $140.9 million in revenue.
2004–2009
In January 2004, LookSmart sold its Australian operations to Telstra's online division Sensis and most of LookSmart's 30 employees in Australia started working for Sensis. Also in January, Jason Kellerman resigned as CEO of LookSmart and was temporarily replaced as CEO by Damian Smith. Starting on 15 January 2004, LookSmart's directory listings were no longer shown on MSN Search. In April 2004, LookSmart acquired Net Nanny from BioNet Systems, LLC for $5.3 million in stock and cash. On 1 July 2004, Teresa Dial replaced Thornley as chairman of the company.
In 2005, LookSmart was forced to consolidate its shares after facing suspension from the NASDAQ. On 15 March 2005, LookSmart had a market cap of $96.21 million and its stock price was at $0.85 per share. In May 2005, LookSmart started providing Ask.com with its sponsored listings. On 28 March 2006, LookSmart closed the Zeal directory.
In January 2007, ContentWatch Inc. acquired Net Nanny from LookSmart. John Simonelli, the CFO and COO of LookSmart, resigned in June 2007. On 17 July 2007, the company sold Grub to Wikia for $50,000. On 1 August 2007, David Hills resigned as CEO of LookSmart and Edward West was appointed CEO the same day. Also in August, LookSmart's management made the decision to exit consumer products and sell or dispose of their websites and assets associating with their consumer properties revenue stream. Further developments in 2007 included Michael Grubb resigning as CTO of LookSmart on 7 September 2007, LookSmart closing WiseNut in late-September, the company delisting from the Australian Securities Exchange on 1 October, the company selling Zeal on 15 October for $50,000, the company selling FindArticles to CNET Networks on 9 November for $20.5 million, and William Bush being appointed CFO of LookSmart on 20 December.
On 14 January 2009, LookSmart had a market cap of US$28 million and its stock price was at $0.14 per share. In March 2009, the company sold Furl to Diigo. In May 2009, Ask.com, which accounted for 89% of LookSmart's company publisher solutions revenue in the first quarter of 2009, announced that it would not renew its contract with LookSmart for sponsored listings. In December 2009, Jean-Yves Dexmier became the CEO of LookSmart. On 31 December 2009, Ask.com ended its contract with LookSmart for sponsored listings.
2013–present
In February 2013, Michael Onghai became the CEO of LookSmart. On 2 September 2013, LookSmart's Canadian subsidiary, LookSmart Canada Ltd., acquired assets of Syncapse Corp. upon court approval for $3 million. On 22 September 2014, LookSmart announced the launch of its Information Technology services offering Novatech.io.
On 16 July 2015, the company had a market cap of around $3.6 million and its stock price was at $0.63 per share. In October 2015, the company transferred all of its assets to its subsidiary, LookSmart Group Inc. and spun off the ownership of LookSmart Group to its shareholders. LookSmart, Ltd., the company's former entity, completed a merger with Maritime Technologies Corp., a subsidiary of Pyxis Tankers Inc., on 28 October.
On 24 March 2017, LookSmart Group completed a merger with its subsidiary, LookSmart Capital Inc. and LookSmart Group announced that it would de-register its common stock and suspend its public reporting obligations. The company changed its trading symbol to LKSTD for 20 business days and changed its trading symbol back to LKST afterwards.
On 3 April 2017, LookSmart Group announced the launch of its new data center building located in Central Phoenix, Arizona as a technology center, Silicon Canyon. On 13 April 2017, LookSmart Group announced partnerships with the Clickable Institute of Technology, Entrepreneurship and Digital marketing and Richie Bello West to help veterans, minorities and immigrants at Silicon Canyon.
References
Companies based in San Francisco
Companies based in Henderson, Nevada
Mass media companies established in 1995
1995 establishments in Australia
Dot-com bubble
Mass media companies of the United States
Web directories
1999 initial public offerings
2000 mergers and acquisitions
2004 mergers and acquisitions
2013 mergers and acquisitions | [
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|
216906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish%20University%20of%20Agricultural%20Sciences | Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences | The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, or Swedish Agricultural University (Swedish: Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet) (SLU) is a university in Sweden. Although its head office is located in Ultuna, Uppsala, the university has several campuses in different parts of Sweden, the other main facilities being Alnarp in Lomma Municipality, Skara, and Umeå. Unlike other state-owned universities in Sweden, it is funded through the budget for the Ministry for Rural Affairs. The University was co-founder of the Euroleague for Life Sciences (ELLS) which was established in 2001.
The university has four faculties: Faculty of Landscape Planning, Horticulture and Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Natural Resources and Agriculture Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science and Faculty of Forest Sciences. SLU had in 2020 3155 full-time staff, 4216 full-time students, 559 research students and 191 professors.
History
The university was formed in 1977 by combining three existing separate colleges for veterinary medicine, forestry and agriculture, as well as some smaller units into one organisation in order to improve the efficiency by sharing resources between departments. At the same time, the Veterinary college and Forestry college were moved from Stockholm to Ultuna, which already was the main campus of the Agricultural college. The locations used by the two relocated colleges are today used by the Stockholm University.
These colleges had a long history as separate institutions. The Veterinary Institution in Skara was founded in 1775 and was headed by Peter Hernqvist, a student of both Carl von Linné and of Claude Bourgelat, who founded the first veterinary college in Lyon in 1762. From 1821 a new veterinary institution in Stockholm took over the training of veterinarians from Skara. The Institute of Forestry was founded in Stockholm in 1828 to provide higher education to those who had gone through practical forestry schools, and was made into a college 1915. An agricultural institute was founded in Ultuna in 1848 and in Alnarp in 1862, under the supervision of the Royal Swedish Academy of Agriculture, founded in 1813. These institutes, and the experimental activities conducted by the Academy from 1814, were the basis of the Agricultural College, which was created in 1932.
Academics
The Journal of Forest Economics () was published by Elsevier in affiliation with the Department of Forest Economics. It was founded by Sören Wibe. In 2019, the journal was taken over by Now Publishers.
In the 2020 QS World University Ranking, SLU was ranked at 3rd place in the world for the subject Agriculture and Forestry.
Notable alumni
Professor Anna Tibaijuka – Tanzanian Minister of Lands, Housing and Human Settlements and former Executive Director of UN–HABITAT
See also
Umeå University
Uppsala University
List of universities in Sweden
List of forestry universities and colleges
Lund University
References
External links
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences – Official site
Educational institutions established in 1977
Veterinary schools
Agricultural universities and colleges
Uppsala
Education in Uppsala
1977 establishments in Sweden
Agricultural universities and colleges in Sweden
Forestry education
Veterinary medicine in Sweden | [
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|
216908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska%20Institute | Karolinska Institute | The Karolinska Institute (KI; ; sometimes known as the (Royal) Caroline Institute in English) is a research-led medical university in Solna within the Stockholm urban area of Sweden. The Karolinska Institute is consistently ranked amongst the world's best medical schools, ranking 6th worldwide for medicine in 2021. The Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute awards the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The assembly consists of fifty professors from various medical disciplines at the university. The current rector of Karolinska Institute is Ole Petter Ottersen, who took office in August 2017.
The Karolinska Institute was founded in 1810 on the island of Kungsholmen on the west side of Stockholm; the main campus was relocated decades later to Solna, just outside Stockholm. A second campus was established more recently in Flemingsberg, Huddinge, south of Stockholm.
The Karolinska Institute is Sweden's third oldest medical school, after Uppsala University (founded in 1477) and Lund University (founded in 1666). It is one of Sweden's largest centres for training and research, accounting for 30% of the medical training and more than 40% of all academic medical and life science research conducted in Sweden.
The Karolinska University Hospital, located in Solna and Huddinge, is associated with the university as a research and teaching hospital. Together they form an academic health science centre. While most of the medical programs are taught in Swedish, the bulk of the PhD projects are conducted in English. The institute's name is a reference to the Caroleans.
Nobel Prize winners
1955 Hugo Theorell becomes KI's first Nobel Laureate, receiving the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries concerning the nature and mode of action of oxidation enzymes.
1967 Ragnar Granit receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his contributions to the analysis of retinal function and how optical nerve cells respond to light stimuli, colour and frequency.
1970 Ulf von Euler receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his contributions for discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation.
1981 Torsten Wiesel and David H. Hubel jointly receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system.
1982 Sune Bergström and Bengt Samuelsson jointly receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances.
Seal's symbolism
Rod of Asclepius
The rod of Asclepius is named after the god of medicine, Aesculapius or Asclepius. This ancient god was the son of Apollo and was generally accompanied by a snake. Over time, the snake became coiled around the staff borne by the god.
Snake bowl
The snake bowl was originally depicted together with Asclepius' daughter, the virgin goddess of health Hygieia or Hygiea. The snake ate from her bowl, which was considered to bring good fortune. There is nothing to support the notion that the snake would secrete its venom into the bowl.
Cockerel
The cockerel symbolises new life and was sacrificed to Asclepius by those who had recovered from illness. This is the meaning behind the Greek philosopher Socrates' last words after he drank the poisoned cup: "Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius. Do pay it. Don't forget."
Education
The Karolinska Institute offers the widest range of medical education under one roof in Sweden. Several of the programmes include clinical training or other training within the healthcare system. The close proximity of the Karolinska University Hospital and other teaching hospitals in the Stockholm area thus plays an important role during the education.
Approximately 6,000 full-time students are taking educational and single subject courses at Bachelor and Master levels at the Karolinska Institute. Annually, 20 upper high school students from all over Sweden get selected to attend Karolinska's 7-week long biomedical summer research school, informally named "SoFo".
Departments
Rankings and reputation
The Karolinska Institute is not listed in the overall QS World University Rankings since it only ranks multi-faculty universities. However, QS does rank the Karolinska Institute in the category of Medicine, placing it as the best in Sweden, 3rd in Europe and 5th worldwide in 2020. In 2015, the QS ranked the Department of Dental Medicine 1st in the world.
According to the 2021 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, the Karolinska Institute is ranked 10th worldwide and 5th in Europe in clinical, pre-clinical and other health subjects.
The 2021 U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking placed KI as 11th worldwide in Psychiatry and Psychology.
In 2019, the Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked the Karolinska Institute in 4th place worldwide for pharmacy, 5th for public health, 6th for nursing, and 21st for clinical medicine.
The university was a founding member of the League of European Research Universities.
Hong Kong donation controversy
In February 2015, the KI announced it had received a record $50 million donation from Lau Ming-wai, who chairs Hong Kong property developer Chinese Estates Holdings, and would establish a research centre in the city. Within a few days, Next Magazine revealed that Chuen-yan – son of Hong Kong Chief Executive CY Leung – had recently been awarded a fellowship to research heart disease therapeutics at the institute in Stockholm beginning that year, and raised questions about the "intricate relationship between the chief executive and powerful individuals". CY Leung had visited KI when in Sweden in 2014, and subsequently introduced KI president, Anders Hamsten, to Lau. The Democratic Party urged the ICAC to investigate the donation, suggesting that Leung may have abused his public position to further his son's career. The Chief Executive's Office strenuously denied suggestions of any quid pro quo, saying that "the admission of the [Chief Executive's] son to post-doctoral research at KI is an independent decision by KI having regard to his professional standards. He [the son] plays no role and does not hold any position at the [proposed] Ming Wai Lau Center for Regenerative Medicine." This accusation has also been questioned by the South China Morning Post'''s Canadian-based pro-Beijing and pro-government opinion columnist, Alex Lo: "The insinuation is that Leung Chuen-yan with a doctorate from Cambridge doesn't deserve his job at the Karolinska Institute...Leung the son probably could get similar junior posts in many other prestigious-sounding – at least to brand-obsessed Hongkongers – research institutes; it's not that big a deal."
Scientific misconduct
The institute received unfavorable attention in the 2010s for its failure to prevent the deaths of seven patients at the hands of one of their star surgeons, Paolo Macchiarini, who was ultimately found to have repeatedly falsified medical data in order to perform experimental surgeries that were unsuccessful and lead to the deaths of the patients, diseased tracheas were replaced with prosthetic implants. The institute was accused of engaging in targeted retribution against the whistleblowers rather than conducting a full, impartial and appropriate review.
This scientific misconduct scandal occurred in 2014, and involved one of the institute's star surgeons, Paolo Macchiarini. Macchiarini was accused by four former colleagues and co-authors of having falsified claims in his research.
After its unsuccessful effort to avoid unfavorable publicity by silencing whistleblowers, media coverage and public opinion finally forced the Institute to act. In April 2015, the ethics committee of the institute issued a response to one set of allegations with regard to research ethics and peer review at the Lancet, and found them to be groundless.
The Karolinska Institute later appointed an external expert, Bengt Gerdin, to review the charges, comparing the results reported by Macchiarini and his collaborators to the medical record of the hospital. Gerdin's report was released by Karolinska in May 2015. Gerdin found that Macchiarini had committed research misconduct in seven out of seven papers: The findings showed he had not obtained ethical approval for the some of his operations (as claimed), and had misrepresented the result of some of those operations, as well as work he had done with animals.
In August 2015, after considering the findings and a rebuttal provided by Macchiarini, vice-chancellor of Karolinska Institute Anders Hamsten found that Macchiarini had acted "without due care" but had not committed misconduct. The journal The Lancet, which published Macchiarini's work, also published an article defending Macchiarini.
On 5 January 2016, the magazine Vanity Fair published a story about Macchiarini romancing a journalist, which also questioned the accuracy of statements he had made on his CV.
On 13 January 2016the same day that the first part of a three-part documentary about Macchiarini would air on Swedish televisionGerdin criticized the vice-chancellor's dismissal of the allegations in an interview on Swedish television.
Later that day, Sveriges Television investigative TV show Dokument inifrån started airing a three-part series, titled "Experimenten", in which Macchiarini's work was investigated. The documentary showed Macchiarini continuing operations with the new method even after it showed little or no promise, seeming to exaggerate the health of patients following the experimental surgery despite the ultimate deaths of those patients. While Macchiarini admitted that the synthetic trachea did not work in the current state, he did not agree that trying it on several additional patients without further testing had been inappropriate. Allegations were also made that patients' medical conditions both before and after the operations, as reported in academic papers, were inconsistent with patient records. Macchiarini also claimed that the synthetic trachea had been tested on animals before using it on humans, something that could not be verified.
On 28 January, Karolinska issued a statement saying that the documentary made claims of which it was unaware, and that it would consider re-opening the investigations. These concerns were echoed by the chairman of the Karolinska Institute, Lars Leijonborg, and the chairman of the Swedish Medical Association, Heidi Stensmyren, calling for an independent investigation that would also review the actions of the university and hospital management in responding to allegations of scientific misconduct.
In February 2016, the Karolinska Institute published a review of Macchiarini's CV that identified discrepancies.
In March, 2016. the institute terminated Macchiarini's contract.
In October 2016, the BBC broadcast a three-part Storyville documentary, Fatal Experiments: The Downfall of a Supersurgeon'', directed by Bosse Lindquist and based on the earlier Swedish programmes about Macchiarini.
After the special aired, the Karolinska Institute requested Sweden's national scientific review board to review six of Macchiarini's publications about the procedures. The board published its findings in October 2017, and concluded that all six demonstrated scientific misconduct, in particular by failing to report the surgical complications and deaths that occurred after the interventions; and that one of the articles falsely claimed that the procedure had been approved by an ethics committee, when this had not happened. The board called for all six of the papers to be retracted. It also reported that all of the papers' co-authors had committed scientific misconduct as well.
Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute
The Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute is a body at the Karolinska Institute which awards the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The Nobel Assembly consists of fifty professors in medical subjects at the Karolinska Institute, appointed by the faculty of the Institute, and is a private organisation which is formally not part of the Karolinska Institute. The main work involved in collecting nominations and screening nominees is performed by the Nobel Committee at the Karolinska Institute, which has five members. The Nobel Committee, which is appointed by the Nobel Assembly, is only empowered to recommend laureates, while the final decision rests with the Nobel Assembly.
In the early history of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, which was first awarded in 1901, the laureates were decided upon by the entire faculty of the Karolinska Institute. The reason for creating a special body for the decisions concerning the Nobel Prize was the fact that the Karolinska Institute is a state-run university, which in turn means that it is subject to various laws that apply to government agencies in Sweden and similar Swedish public sector organisations, such as freedom of information legislation. By moving the actual decision making to a private body at Karolinska Institute (but not part of it), it is possible to follow the regulations for the Nobel Prize set down by the Nobel Foundation, including keeping the confidentiality of all documents and proceedings for a minimum of 50 years. Also, the legal possibility of contesting the decisions in e.g. administrative courts is removed.
The other two Nobel Prize-awarding bodies in Sweden, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the Swedish Academy, are legally private organisations (although enjoying royal patronage), and have therefore not had to make any special arrangements to be able to follow the Nobel Foundation's regulations.
Notable alumni or faculty
Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848; professor at KI), invented modern chemical notation and is considered one of the fathers of modern chemistry; discoverer of the elements silicon, selenium, thorium, and cerium
Carl Gustaf Mosander (1792–1858; student of chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius, his successor 1836), chemist, discoverer of the elements lanthanum, erbium and terbium.
Gustaf Retzius (1842–1919), anatomist (professor 1877–1890)
Karl Oskar Medin (1847–1928), paediatrician, famous for his study of poliomyelitis (professor 1883–1914)
Wilhelm Netzel (1834–1914), Swedish researcher, gynecologist and obstetrician
Ivar Wickman (1872–1914), pediatrician, pupil of Medin, polio expert
Göran Liljestrand (1886–1968), physiologist and pharmacologist
Nanna Svartz (1890–1986), first female professor at Karolinska Institute and, as a result, the first woman to be appointed professor at a public university in Sweden ever; researcher in gastrointestinal diseases and rheumatologist
die Ulf von Euler (1905–1983), physiologist, Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1970
Herbert Olivecrona (1891–1980), founder of Swedish neurosurgery
Ragnar Granit (1900–1991), Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1967
Hugo Theorell (1903–1982), Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1955
Lars Leksell (1907–1986), physician, inventor of radiosurgery and the Gamma Knife
Sune Bergström (1916–2004), Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1982 (with Bengt I. Samuelsson and John Robert Vane)
Pehr Edman (1916–1977), chemist (Med. dr 1946). Cf. Edman degradation
Sven Ivar Seldinger (1921–1998), radiologist, inventor of the Seldinger technique
Torsten Wiesel (born 1924), Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1981
Bengt I. Samuelsson (born 1934), Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1982 (with Sune Bergström and John Robert Vane)
Tomas Lindahl, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry in 2015 (with Paul Modrich and Aziz Sancar), cancer researcher and winner of the Royal Medal
Lennart Nilsson (1922–2017), computational biologist, photojournalist, and Emmy-award-winning documentarian
Johan Harmenberg (born 1954), Olympic champion épée fencer
See also
Karolinska Institute Prize for Research in Medical Education
Sahlgrenska University Hospital
Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm School of Economics
Stockholm University
The New Karolinska Solna University Hospital, opened in 2015
S*, a collaboration between seven universities and the Karolinska Institute
References
Further reading
External links
Karolinska Institute – Official site
Medical schools in Sweden
Higher education in Stockholm
Nursing schools in Sweden
Educational institutions established in 1810
Academic health science centres
Life sciences industry
1810 establishments in Sweden | [
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216912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe%20Sharett | Moshe Sharett | Moshe Sharett (, born Moshe Chertok (Hebrew: ) 15 October 1894 – 7 July 1965) was a Russian-born Israeli politician from the party Mapai. He was Israel's second prime minister (1954–55), serving for a little under two years between David Ben-Gurion's two terms. Sharett was also the country's first foreign minister (1948–56), holding the post for eight years.
Biography
Born in Kherson in the Russian Empire (today in Ukraine), Sharett immigrated to Ottoman Palestine as a child in 1906. For two years, 1906–1907, the family lived in a rented house in the village of Ein-Sinya, north of Ramallah. In 1910 his family moved to Jaffa, then became one of the founding families of Tel Aviv.
He graduated from the first class of the Herzliya Hebrew High School, even studying music at the Shulamit Conservatory. He then went off to Constantinople to study law at Istanbul University, the same university at which Yitzhak Ben-Zvi and David Ben-Gurion studied. However, his time there was cut short due to the outbreak of World War I. He served a commission as First Lieutenant in the Ottoman Army, as an interpreter.
In 1922, Sharett married Tzipora Meirov, with whom he had two sons, Ya'akov and Haim, and a daughter, Yael.
Political career
After the war, he worked as an Arab affairs and land purchase agent for the Assembly of Representatives of the Yishuv. He also became a member of Ahdut Ha'Avoda, and later of Mapai.
In 1922, he attended the London School of Economics, and worked for the British Poale Zion and actively edited the Workers of Zion. One of the people he met while in London was Chaim Weizmann. He then worked on the Davar newspaper from 1925 until 1931.
In 1931, after returning to Mandatory Palestine, he became the secretary of the Jewish Agency's political department. After the assassination of Haim Arlosoroff in 1933 he became its head.
During the war via his wife Zipporah, Sharett became embroiled in the question of emigration of refugee Jews stranded in Europe and the East. Some Polish refugees, children with and without parents were deported to Tehran with the Soviet's agreement. The "Tehran Children" became a cause celebre in the Yishuv. Sharett flew to Tehran to negotiate their return to Palestine.
The success of these negotiations and others was a hallmark of Sharett's more cerebral approach to practical problems. He met with Tel Aviv bound Hungarian Jewish refugee representative Joel Brand, fresh off the plane from Budapest. Yishuv leadership mistrusted Brand, and the British thought him a criminal.
Sharett's response was to hand the self-appointed liberator over to the British authorities, who drove Brand to prison in Egypt. Sharett's General Zionism was deeply concerned in making Palestine a commercially viable home land; secondary was the deep emotional concerns of the murder in the Diaspora which by 1942 was in German hands.
Like Weizmann, whom he admired, Sharett was a principled Zionist, an implacable opponent of fascism, but a practical realist prepared to co-operate fully with the Mandate.
Sharett, as Ben-Gurion's ally, denounced Irgun's assassination squads on 13 December 1947, accusing them of playing to public feelings. Atrocities escalated, mainly upon Jews, but with reciprocal revenge killings; by the end of the war 6000 Palestinian Jews, 1% of the population, had died. Sharett held the foreign policy post under the Agency until the formation of Israel in 1948.
Independence
Sharett was one of the signatories of Israel's Declaration of Independence. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, he was Foreign Minister for the Provisional Government of Israel. Yigal Allon went to see Sharett at Tel Binyamin (Ramat Gan), his home. Allon wanted permission to capture El-Arish, destroy the base to prevent it falling into British hands.
Allon could not find Ben-Gurion at Tel Aviv, because the Prime Minister was at Tiberias. But Sharett told the general that it would be unconstitutional to order an attack over the head of the Prime Minister. Moreover, it would provoke, thought Sharett the British to side with the Egyptians. When Allon explained a plan to feint an Egyptian withdrawal before invading the area between Rhaffa and Gaza, well within Israel's borders, Sharett gave it the nod. But on the telephone Ben-Gurion totally rejected the proposal.
President Truman ordered troops withdrawals from the war zone, and on 1 Jan 1949, Israeli troops left Sinai and evacuated El-Arish. After a brief Egyptian counter-attack a ceasefire was called, with Egyptian troops marooned in the Faluja Pocket; Israelis had saved the Negev for good.
Sharett was elected to the Knesset in the first Israeli election in 1949, and served as Minister of Foreign Affairs. On 10 March he was part of the first cabinet. A historic armistice was signed with Lebanon, so withdrawal was required from Southern Lebanon on 23 March. International negotiations hosted by Britain took place on the Greek island of Rhodes at Suneh, King Abdullah's residence when Israel's emissaries, Yigael Yadin and Walter Eytan signed with Transjordan. Knowing the Jordanian position on the Hebron Hills, Yadin told Sharett that surrounded by hostile Arab states, Israel had to sign the Transjordan over to Iraq. American Dr. Ralph Bunche, who drafted the UN treaty for Sharett's office, received the Nobel Peace Prize. The final agreement was signed at the "Grande Albergo delle Rose" in Rhodes (now the Casino Rodos) on 3 April 1949.
Ominous violence lay ahead for the new state, warned Sharett during a debate on 15 June, in which he reminded the Jewish people of their vital interests. A fourth and final agreement was signed with Syria on 17 July; the War of Independence had lasted one year and seven months. In the elections that followed, Labour formed a coalition, deliberately excluding Herut and the Communists at Ben-Gurion's behest. As Foreign Minister, Sharett established diplomatic relations with many nations, and helped to bring about Israel's admission to the UN. He continuously held this role until he retired in June 1956 including during his period as Prime Minister.
In the debate on how to deal with the increasing infiltration of fedayeen across the borders in the years leading to the 1956 Suez Crisis, Sharett was sceptical of the reprisal operations being carried out by the Israeli military.
Sharett met with Pius XII in 1952 in an attempt to improve relations with the Holy See, although this was to no avail.
Prime minister
In January 1954 David Ben-Gurion retired from politics (temporarily as it turned out), and Sharett was chosen by the party to take his place. During his time as Prime Minister (5th and 6th governments of Israel), the Arab-Israeli conflict intensified, particularly with the Egypt of Nasser. The Lavon Affair resulting in the resignation of Pinhas Lavon, the Defense Minister, brought down the government. When David Ben-Gurion returned to the cabinet Pinchas Lavon was a civilian adviser to Prime Minister Sharett. But when he returned from the war, he was presented with a fait accompli; it had been the convention, but no longer for a career diplomat, to be chosen to become a Minister of Defense, a portfolio once controlled by the Prime Minister's office, now taken by Ben-Gurion.
Lavon Affair
In 1954 three cells of local Jews living in Egypt and one from Israel proper were activated as terror groups to sabotage in Alexandria and Cairo on the orders of a secretive Unit 131 of Israeli Intelligence. The Israelis welcomed the British presence in Nasser's Egypt. Israel had formed an alliance with the European powers Britain and France. Britain had helped found the State of Israel, encouraged socialism, and fostered a sense of accountable democracy. Israel viewed Britain's historic role in Cairo as a convenient buffer against potential threatening incursions into Israel's borders.
A network of Israeli youth groups were ardent Zionist military trainees, but had little real experience of war. They were influenced by their charismatic leader and handler, Avri Elad. In July 1954 they threw firebomb crackers into the American libraries of Cairo and Alexandria, with little damage, and cinemas in Cairo. But 13 youths were arrested, and then tortured by the Egyptians. Two of the prisoners, including the Israeli agent Meir Max Bineth, committed suicide, and three were sent to prison. Sharett soon discovered that operations were being prepared for execution in other Arab capitals. When the news broke over Cairo Radio in summer 1954, Sharett had turned to Minister for Labour Golda Meir for help. The Minister of Defense, Pinchas Lavon, and his Head of Military Intelligence, Binyamin Gibli, both declared each other as the responsible party. The real orders were transmitted in code over the radio in the form of housewives cookery recipes.
Mapai was hopelessly split over the crisis. Sharett called for a Public Inquiry led by a Judge of the Supreme Court, Yitzhak Olshan, and a former Chief of Staff, Ya'akov Dori. Sharett had wanted to appoint Moshe Dayan as Minister of Defense but was aware that he was a controversial figure. There were those who defended his stubbornness as a those of a military genius, and those who saw him as divisive. But criticism of Lavon was mounting. Mapai demanded the resignation of Dayan, Gibli and Lavon. Sharett appealed to a sense of fairness from Colonel Nasser, but to no avail. A guilty verdict was entered over the heads of the prisoners in Cairo. On 31 January 1955 two of the defendants, Moshe Marzouk and Shmuel Azar were hanged, found guilty of spying.
Lavon offered to resign from the department of defense on 2 February 1955, the same day Sharett and Golda Meir travelled to Sde Boker to see Ben-Gurion. Lavon's resignation was accepted on 18 February. Ben-Gurion agreed to come out of retirement to fill the defense portfolio, and four months later he replaced Sharett as PM, who stayed as Foreign Minister. Olshan-Dori's final judicial report exposed the difficulty of political management in the defense ministry with the cabinet conflicts emerging from Ben-Gurion's stewardship.
Sharett's efforts to unblock the diplomatic impasse had failed. Nasser still prevented traffic from access to the canal. Israeli shipments of arms to defend the state dried up at a time when Arab belligerency was rising. Sharett might have learned from Weizmann's experience at befriending the consummate politician Ben-Gurion; Sharett also believed he could install him his subordinate. Ben-Gurion had been out of office for a year, but returned to demand that Dayan be reappointed. Ben-Gurion spoke regularly with socialist leaders Dayan and Shimon Peres. A few weeks later an Israeli was murdered by infiltrators across the borders. Ben-Gurion and Dayan immediately demanded approval of the planned Operation Black Arrow, which involved attacking Gaza. Sharett had attempted to be pacific and restrained during his premiership, but was overtaken by the vocal elements in Mapai and their growing electoral support in the run-up to a General election.
After the military disaster at Qibya, in which Dayan had caused civilians to be killed, he was forced to change Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) policy towards targeting military installations on 28 February 1955. Sharett was concerned that casualties should be kept to an absolute minimum; 8 Israelis and 37 Egyptians died in an operation that was the most bloody since the armistice of 1949. An adjutant at the ministry, Nehemia Argov, wrote to Foreign Minister and PM, Sharett to report the Gaza Raid as 8 dead and 8 wounded. The wounded were sent to Kaplan Hospital.
Principles of moderation
Sharett's diary included passages in which he bewailed the senseless denigration of duty lacking credibility. He harked back to the days of Havlagah when in the 1930s both he, Sharett and Ben-Gurion had pursued a policy of self-restraint in matters military. Sharett abhorred vengeful killing, he regarded these acts as emotional over-wrought responses in which involuntary killing was devoid of moral sentiment. A policy of reprisal merely sought to justify the excessive use of force. Sharett's pacific doctrine was diluted by both Ben-Gurion and Minister of Defense Dayan, and Operational commander of the Paratroop Brigade, Sharon. Sharett opposed any move that would attract moral outcry of European powers and an arms trade embargo.
Last months as foreign minister
At the next elections in November 1955 Ben-Gurion replaced Sharett as head of the list and became prime minister again. Sharett retained his role as Foreign Minister under the new government of Ben-Gurion. Ben-Gurion justified much of his policy on the siege mentality of a minority of Jews living within 57 times as many Arabs living in 215 times the land area. Sharett came to see Nasser as "suffering from delusions of grandeur" with an almost Hitlerite ambition to export revolution abroad.
Shimon Peres was sent to London and Paris to drum up arms. He made a significant deal with France for jets and artillery. Peres, later a Prime Minister of Israel, was praised from the Knesset for handling the complexities of the 4th Republic. The uneasy diplomatic language between Nasser and Israel that had characterised the post-1949 period turned into open hostility. Nasser ended even secretive clandestine contacts. Within days of the Gaza Raid Iraq aligned in a Baghdad Pact with Turkey.
Ben-Gurion decided to replace Sharett as Foreign Minister with someone more sympathetic to his views - Golda Meir. The cabinet voted 35 to 7 in favour of resignation, but 75 members of the Central Committee abstained. The British and French would provide a shield for Israel against sanctions. Nasser proclaimed a determination to set the Palestinians free. The Egyptian army was very certain of success; the Syrians announced a "war against imperialism, Zionism and Israel." According to Ben-Gurion the Soviet Encyclopaedia now declared the Arab-Israeli War of Independence in 1948 "was caused by American Imperialism".
Retirement
After stepping down as Minister of Foreign Affairs on 18 June 1956 in protest at the new government's bellicose policy that he thought was dangerously precipitate, Sharett decided to retire. Sharett had begun his career a friend of Ben-Gurion, but the two had grown apart; he had come to see him as a messianic liberator no longer prepared to negotiate, yet determined to wreak havoc on Israel's enemies. During his retirement he became chairman of Am Oved publishing house, Chairman of Beit Berl College, and Chairman of the World Zionist Organization and the Jewish Agency. He died in 1965 in Jerusalem and was buried in Tel Aviv's Trumpeldor Cemetery.
Commemoration
Sharett's personal diaries, first published by his son Yaakov in 1978, have proved to be an important source for Israeli history. In 2007, the Moshe Sharett Heritage Society, the foundation that Yaakov established to care for Sharett's legacy, discovered a file of thousands of passages that had been omitted from the published edition. They included "shocking revelations" about the defense minister Pinhas Lavon. A new edition published was complete, apart from a few words still classified.
Many cities have streets and neighborhoods named after him.
Since 1988, Sharett has appeared on the 20 NIS bills. The bill first featured Sharett, with the names of his books in small print, and with a small image of him presenting the Israeli flag to the United Nations in 1949. On the back of the bill, there was an image of the Herzliya Hebrew High School, from which he graduated.
In 1998 the bill went through a graphic revision, the list of Sharett's books on the front side was replaced by part of Sharett's 1949 speech in the UN. The back side now features an image of Jewish Brigade volunteers, part of a speech by Sharett on the radio after visiting the Brigade in Italy, and the list of his books in small print.
Gallery
References
Bibliography
External links
Moshe Sharett Heritage Society, official website
"Moshe Sharett" at Jewish Virtual Library
"Moshe Sharett" at Jewish Agency for Israel
The Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem site: The Office of Moshe Sharett (S65), Personal papers (A245).
Livia Rokach: Israel's Sacred Terrorism: A Study Based on Moshe Sharett's Personal Diary and Other Documents, foreword by Noam Chomsky, 1980.
Yaakov Sharet's fall from Zionism and the Sharett family saga in Haaretz, 19 Sep 2021 (registration needed).
1894 births
1965 deaths
Darülfünun alumni
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Heads of the Jewish Agency for Israel
Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium alumni
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the Ottoman Empire
Israeli people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Istanbul University Faculty of Law alumni
Jewish Agency for Israel
Jewish Israeli politicians
Ashkenazi Jews in Mandatory Palestine
Ashkenazi Jews in Ottoman Palestine
Mapai leaders
Members of the 1st Knesset (1949–1951)
Members of the 2nd Knesset (1951–1955)
Members of the 3rd Knesset (1955–1959)
Members of the 4th Knesset (1959–1961)
Members of the 5th Knesset (1961–1965)
Members of the Assembly of Representatives (Mandatory Palestine)
Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Israel
Ottoman military personnel of World War I
People from Kherson Governorate
People from Kherson
Prime Ministers of Israel
Signatories of the Israeli Declaration of Independence
Ukrainian Jews
Ukrainian Zionists
Deaths from cancer in Israel
Burials at Trumpeldor Cemetery | [
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216915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halfpenny%20%28British%20pre-decimal%20coin%29 | Halfpenny (British pre-decimal coin) | The British pre-decimal halfpenny (d) coin, usually simply known as a ha'penny (pronounced ), historically occasionally also as the obol and once abbreviated ‘ob’ (from the Latin ‘obulus’), was a unit of currency that equalled half of a penny or of a pound sterling. Originally the halfpenny was minted in copper, but after 1860 it was minted in bronze. In the run-up to decimalisation it ceased to be legal tender from 31 July 1969. The halfpenny featured two different designs on its reverse during its years in circulation. From 1672 until 1936 the image of Britannia appeared on the reverse, and from 1937 onwards the image of the Golden Hind appeared. Like all British coinage, it bore the portrait of the monarch on the obverse.
"Halfpenny" was colloquially written ha’penny, and "d" was spoken as "a penny ha’penny" or three ha’pence . Before Decimal Day in 1971 there were 240 pence in one pound sterling. Twelve pence made a shilling, and twenty shillings made a pound. Values less than a pound were usually written in terms of shillings and pence, e.g. 42 pence would be three shillings and sixpence (3/6), pronounced "three and six", whereas 3 shillings even would be "3s" or, on a sign in a shop, "3/-" (the dash usually being written instead of 0 for pence). Values of less than a shilling were simply written in pence, e.g. eightpence would be 8d (the "d" standing for the Latin word denarii (sing. denarius, a common coin in Roman Britain).
The Halfpenny has become famous for being the only word in the English language that has a silent 'f'.
Design
The original reverse of the bronze version of the coin, designed by Leonard Charles Wyon, is a seated Britannia, holding a trident, with the words to either side. Issues before 1895 also feature a lighthouse to Britannia's left and a ship to her right. Various minor adjustments to the level of the sea depicted around Britannia, and the angle of her trident were also made over the years. Some issues feature toothed edges, while others feature beading.
Over the years, various different obverses were used. Edward VII, George V, George VI and Elizabeth II each had a single obverse for halfpennies produced during their respective reigns. Over the long reign of Queen Victoria two different obverses were used, but the short reign of Edward VIII meant no halfpennies bearing his likeness were ever issued.
During Victoria's reign, the halfpenny was first issued with the so-called ‘bun head’, or ‘draped bust’ of Queen Victoria on the obverse. The inscription around the bust read . This was replaced in 1895 by the ‘old head’, or ‘veiled bust’. The inscription on these coins read .
Coins issued during the reign of Edward VII feature his likeness and bear the inscription . Similarly, those issued during the reign of George V feature his likeness and bear the inscription .
A halfpenny of King Edward VIII (1936) does exist, dated 1937, but technically it is a pattern coin i.e. one produced for official approval; it would probably have been due to receive this approval at about the time that the King abdicated. The obverse shows a left-facing portrait of the king (who considered this to be his better side, and consequently broke the tradition of alternating the direction in which the monarch faces on coins — some viewed this as indicating bad luck for the reign); the inscription on the obverse is .
The pattern coin of Edward VIII and regular issue halfpennies of George VI and Elizabeth II feature a redesigned reverse displaying Sir Francis Drake's ship the Golden Hind.
George VI issue coins feature the inscription before 1949, and thereafter. Unlike the penny, halfpennies were minted throughout the early reign of Elizabeth II, bearing the inscription in 1953, and thereafter.
Mintages
Terminology
Ha’porth: British English i.e. ‘halfpenny-worth’ or ‘halfpennyworth’ pronounced in Conservative RP, or in Modern or Contemporary RP.
In literal use usually written out in full although still never pronounced phonetically: e.g. "A halfpennyworth of chips." In figurative use usually said disparagingly: e.g. "I've been dying for somebody with a ha’porth of wit and intelligence to talk to." "…and saying it doesn't make a halfpennyworth of difference!" (from Alan Bennett's A lady Of Letters, written and produced in 1987, some sixteen years after decimalisation and three years after the New Halfpenny—(i.e. the decimal p)—had been demonetised and withdrawn from circulation, thus further illustrating the continued traditional or idiomatic two-syllable pronunciation). Also used in the once common phrase: "daft ha’porth."
See also
Shove ha'penny
References
External links
Halfpenny (Pre-decimal), Coin Type from United Kingdom - Online Coin Club
Coins of Great Britain
Pre-decimalisation coins of the United Kingdom
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|
216916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekaninaite | Sekaninaite | Sekaninaite ((Fe+2,Mg)2Al4Si5O18) is a silicate mineral, the iron-rich analogue of cordierite.
It was first described in 1968 for an occurrence in Dolní Bory, Vysočina Region, Moravia, Czech Republic, and is now known also from Ireland, Japan, and Sweden. It was named after a Czech mineralogist, Josef Sekanina (1901–1986). In Brockley on Rathlin Island, Ireland sekaninaite occurs in bauxitic clay within the contact aureole of a diabase intrusive plug.
Structure and composition
The chemical formula of sekaninaite is: (Fe^2+, Mg^2+)2[Al4Si5O18]*\mathit{n}H2O. Grapes calculated the percentage weights of the sample from Dolni Bory,
This compound exists in nature in the form of two polymorphs: one having a disordered hexagonal structure and the other arranged in an ordered orthorhombic structure. As an aluminosilicate, the repeated and ordered structure is based on polymerization of one or the other's tetrahedral framework of Si, Al tetrahedra (Yakubovich, 2003). Nearly all analyses show excess of Al and deficiency in Si with respect to tetrahedral components. The overall substitution of alkalis causes excess in cations found in (K2O, Na2O, CaO), implying that sekaninaite is essentially anhydrous (Grapes, 2010).
The atomic structures of cordierites are interpreted as a continuous series of structures that vary based on the content of octahedrally coordinated Mg and Fe cations. The varying content of atoms in the octahedral M position has an effect on the orthorhombic unit cell's parameters. The wide range of isomorphism of Mg and Fe(4-96%) suggest the existence of a continuous isomorphic series cordierite (Mg,Fe)2[Al4Si4O18]*\mathit{n}H2O-sekaninaite (Fe,Mg)2[Al4Si4O18]*\mathit{n}H2O. It is shown via crystallographic data that a shift in the iron content leads to a corresponding variance in a and b unit cell parameters (Yakubovich, 2003). As an aluminosilicate/cyclosilicate, the octahedral M-O distances consist of 5 independent tetrahedra form a 3-dimensional anionic framework of ordered and distributed Al3+ and Si4+ cations. One independent AlO4 and two SiO4 vortex-sharing tetrahedra share oxygen atoms to form six-member rings along the c axis of the unit cell. Mg, Fe octahedra share edges with SiO4 to form rings from alternating octahedra and tetrahedra. Thus, the framework can be described as a semi-layered structure formed of layers of tetrahedra linked into rings by sharing vertices and octahedra and tetrahedra sharing edges, alternating along the c axis. The distortion of the orthorhombic unit cell is determined by the chemical composition rather than the degree of ordering in the tetrahedral framework (Yakubovich, 2003). The temperature at which the liquidous phases crystallize in a sequence: mullite + tridymite, followed by sekaninaite and finally fayalite + clinoferrosilite (Grapes, 2010). Similar trends are observed for amphiboles, clinopyroxenes, olivines, and others. The increase in the Fe mole fraction of minerals was not related with iron input, but was caused by its redistribution during contact metamorphism (Korchak, 2010).
Physical properties
Stanek and Miskovsky (1975) first identified and diagnosed sekaninaite as a new mineral in the cordierite series. They sampled the poorly developed crystals of the Dolni Bory region, Czechoslovakia, where specimen did not exceed 70 cm. Dolni Bory samples are very different from samples found in the Kuznetsk paralavas. They are very close analogues with respect to Mg/Fe ratios but vastly different a-, b- and c- parameters (Grapes, 2010). Grapes and colleagues calculated cell dimension to be a 17.230(5), b 9.835(3), c 9.314(3) A. The colour of sekaninaite is bright blue and distinctly pleochroic with X = colourless; Y = blue; Z = pale blue; absorption occurs in the sequence Y > Z > X. Sekaninaite has a hardness of 7-7.5; it cleaves imperfectly along {100} and exhibits parting on {001} (Fleischer, 1977). Majority of crystals show zonation (Fe increasing from core to rim). It common twinned on {110} and {310}, simulating hexagonal symmetry. Sekaninaite is classified under the space group Cccm; it is an orthorhombic crystal that is found in series with cordierite (Stanek, 1975).
Geologic occurrence and location
Sekaninaite was first discovered in the Dolni Bory region of the Czech Republic. Its occurrence is in the albite zone of pegmatite in granulites and gneisses (Fleischer, 1977). Sekaninaite is found in pyrometamorphic rocks, extensively rocks formed via process of ancient combustion metamorphism; paralavas, clinkers and buchites. These combustion metamorphic rocks occur in clinker beds and breccias of vitrified sandstone-siltstone clinker fragments cemented by paralava. These partially baked and oxidized psammitic-pelitic sediments are associated with burnt coal seams, belonging to places like the Kuznetsk coal basin, Siberia (Grapes, 2010). Sekaninaite-Fe-cordierite exists in series and is largely dependent upon variations in solid solution. These minerals are more prevalent in paralavas found in: Power River, Wyoming, Ravat area, Tajikistan, Kenderlyk Basin, eastern Kazakhstan and the Djhar basin in India; each differ in sedimentary mineral assemblage and results depend on high-temperature fusion of mixtures of sandstone-siltstone and minor ferruginous components (Grapes, 2010). These Fe-rich paralavas are composed of Fe-olivine, esseneite, dorite, melilite, Fe-cordierite, anorthite, spinel, tridymite, fayalite, magnetite, quartz etc. (Novikova, 2008).
See also
List of minerals
List of minerals named after people
References
Anthony, John W., Bideaux, Richard A., Bladh, Kenneth W., and Nichols, Monte C., Eds., Handbook of Mineralogy, Mineralogical Society of America, Chantilly, VA 20151-1110, USA. http://www.handbookofmineralogy.org.
Fleischer, M., Jambor, J., American Mineralogist, Volume 62, pages 195-397, 1977.
Geiger, C.A., Voigtlander, H., (2000) Contributions to Mineral Petrology. The heat capacity of synthetic anhydrous Mg and Fe cordierite. Springer-Verlag, Kiel, 46-50.
Grapes, R., Korzhova, S., Sokol, E., Seryotkin, Y. (2010) Paragenesis of unusual Fe-cordierite (sekaninaite)-bearing paralava and clinker from the Kuznetsk coal basin, Siberia, Russia. Contributions of Mineral Petrology, 162:253–273.
Korchak, Yu. A., Men’shikov, Yu.P., Pakhomovskii, Ya. A., Yakovenchuk, V.N., Ivanyuk, G.Yu. (2011) Trap Formation of the Kola Peninsula, Petrologiya, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 89–103.
Miskovsky, J., Stanek, J., (1975) Sekaninaite, a new mineral of the cordierite series from Dolni Bory, Czechoslovakia, Scr. Fac. Sci. Nat. Ujep. Brun. Geol. 1(5), 21-30.
Novikova, S. A., Fayalite from Fe-rich Paralavas of Ancient Coal Fires in the Kuzbass, Russia. Geology of Ore Deposits, 2009, Vol. 51, No. 8, pp. 800–811.
Yakubovich*, O. V., Massa**, V., Pekov*, I. V., Gavrilenko*, P. G., Chukanov***, N. V. (2004) Crystallography Reports, Vol. 49, No. 6, pp. 953–963.
Iron(II) minerals
Magnesium minerals
Aluminium minerals
Cyclosilicates
Orthorhombic minerals
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|
216924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%20Ask%20Alice | Go Ask Alice | Go Ask Alice is a 1971 book about a teenage girl who develops a drug addiction at age 15 and runs away from home on a journey of self-destructive escapism. Attributed to "Anonymous", the book is in diary form, and was originally presented as being the edited "real diary" of the unnamed teenage protagonist. Questions about the book's authenticity and true authorship began to arise in the late 1970s, and Beatrice Sparks is now generally viewed as the author of the found manuscript-styled fictional document. A therapist, Sparks went on to write numerous other books purporting to be real diaries of troubled teenagers. Some sources have also named Linda Glovach as a co-author of the book. Nevertheless, its popularity has endured, and as of 2014 it had remained continuously in print since its publication over four decades earlier.
Intended for a young adult audience, Go Ask Alice became a widely popular bestseller. It is praised for conveying a powerful message about the dangers of drug abuse. Go Ask Alice has also ranked among the most frequently challenged books for several decades due to its use of profanity and explicit references to sex and rape, as well as drugs.
The book was adapted into the 1973 television film Go Ask Alice, starring Jamie Smith-Jackson and William Shatner. In 1976, a stage play of the same name, written by Frank Shiras and based on the book, was also published.
Title
The title was taken from a line in the 1967 Grace Slick-penned Jefferson Airplane song "White Rabbit" ("go ask Alice/ when she's ten feet tall"); the lyrics in turn reference scenes in Lewis Carroll's 1865 novel Alice's Adventures In Wonderland, in which the title character Alice eats and drinks various substances, including a mushroom, that make her grow larger or smaller. Slick's song is understood as using Carroll's story as a metaphor for a drug experience.
Plot summary
In 1968, a 15-year-old girl begins keeping a diary, in which she records her thoughts and concerns about issues such as crushes, weight loss, sexuality, social acceptance, and relating to her parents. The dates and locations mentioned in the book place its events as occurring between 1968 and 1970 in California, Colorado, Oregon, and New York City. The two towns in which the diarist's family reside during the story are not identified, and are only described as being college towns.
The diarist's father, a college professor, accepts a dean position at a new college, causing the family to relocate. The diarist has difficulty adjusting to her new school, but soon becomes best friends with a girl named Beth. When Beth leaves for summer camp, the diarist returns to her hometown to stay with her grandparents. She meets an old school acquaintance, who invites her to a party. There, glasses of cola—some of which are laced with LSD—are served. The diarist unwittingly ingests LSD and has an intense and pleasurable trip. Over the following days the diarist socializes with the other teens from the party, willingly uses more drugs, and loses her virginity while on acid. She worries that she may be pregnant, and her grandfather has a minor heart attack. Overwhelmed by her worries, the diarist begins to take sleeping pills, first stolen from her grandparents, then later prescribed by her doctor upon returning home. Her friendship with Beth ends, as both girls have moved in new directions.
The diarist befriends a hip girl, Chris, with whom she continues to use drugs. They date college students Richie and Ted, who deal drugs and persuade the two girls to help them by selling drugs at schools. When the girls walk in on Richie and Ted stoned and having sex with each other, they realize their boyfriends were just using them to make money. The girls report Richie and Ted to the police and flee to San Francisco. Chris gets a job in a boutique with a glamorous older woman, Shelia. Shelia invites both girls to lavish parties, where they resume taking drugs. One night Shelia and her new boyfriend introduce the girls to heroin and brutally rape them while they are under the influence of the drug. Traumatized, the diarist and Chris move to Berkeley where they open a jewelry shop. Although the shop is a success, they quickly grow tired of it and miss their families; they return home for a happy Christmas.
Back at home, the diarist encounters social pressure from her drug scene friends, and has problems getting along with her parents. Chris and the diarist try to stay away from drugs, but their resolve lapses and they end up on probation after being caught in a police raid. The diarist gets high one night and runs away. She travels to several cities, hitchhiking partway with a girl named Doris who is a victim of child sexual abuse. The diarist continues to use drugs, supporting her habit through prostitution, and experiences homelessness before a priest reunites her with her family. Now determined to avoid drugs, she faces hostility from her former friends, especially after she calls the parents of one girl who shows up high for a babysitting job. The diarist's former friends harass her at school and threaten her and her family. They eventually drug her against her will; she has a bad trip resulting in physical and mental damage, and is sent to a psychiatric hospital. There she bonds with a younger girl named Babbie, who has also been a drug addict and child prostitute.
Released from the hospital, the diarist returns home, finally free of drugs. She now gets along better with her family, makes new friends, and is romantically involved with Joel, a responsible student from her father's college. She is worried about starting school again, but feels stronger with the support of her new friends and Joel. In an optimistic mood, the diarist decides to stop keeping a diary and instead discuss her problems and thoughts with other people.
The epilogue states that the subject of the book died three weeks after the final entry. The diarist was found dead in her home by her parents when they returned from a movie. She died from a drug overdose, either accidental or premeditated.
Diarist's name
The anonymous diarist's name is never revealed in the book. In an episode where the diarist describes having sex with a drug dealer, she quotes an onlooker's remark indicating that her name may be Carla. Although a girl named Alice appears very briefly in the book, she is not the diarist, but a fellow runaway whom the diarist meets on the street in Coos Bay, Oregon.
Despite the lack of any evidence in the book that the diarist's name is Alice, the covers of various editions have suggested that her name is Alice by including blurb text such as "This is Alice's true story" and "You can't ask Alice anything anymore. But you can do something—read her diary." Reviewers and commentators have also frequently referred to the anonymous diarist as "Alice", sometimes for convenience.
In the 1973 television film based on the book, the protagonist played by Jamie Smith-Jackson is named "Alice". The protagonist is also named "Alice Aberdeen" in the 1976 stage play adaptation.
Production
The manuscript that later became Go Ask Alice was initially prepared for publication by Beatrice Sparks, a Mormon therapist and youth counselor then in her early 50s, who had previously done various forms of writing. Sparks had reportedly noted that the general public at that time lacked knowledge about youth drug abuse, and she likely had both educational and moral motives for publishing the book. Sparks later claimed that the book was based on a real diary she received from a real teenage girl, although this claim was never substantiated and the girl has never been identified (see Authorship and veracity controversies).
With the help of Art Linkletter, a popular talk show host for whom Sparks had worked as a ghostwriter, the manuscript was passed on to Linkletter's literary agent, who sold it to Prentice Hall. Linkletter, who had become a prominent anti-drug crusader after the 1969 suicide of his daughter Diane, also helped publicize the book. Even before its publication, Go Ask Alice had racked up large advance orders of 18,000 copies.
Reception
Public reception
Upon its 1971 publication, Go Ask Alice quickly became a publishing sensation and an international bestseller, being translated into 16 languages. Its success has been attributed to the timing of its publication at the height of the psychedelic era, when the negative effects of drug use were becoming a public concern. Alleen Pace Nilsen has called it "the book that came closest to being a YA phenomenon" of its time, although saying it was "never as famous as [the later] Harry Potter, Twilight, and Hunger Games series". In addition to being very popular with its intended young adult audience, Go Ask Alice also attracted a significant number of adult readers.
Libraries had difficulty obtaining and keeping enough copies of the book on the shelves to meet demand. The 1973 television film based on the book heightened reader interest, and librarians reported having to order additional copies of the book each time the film was broadcast.
By 1975, more than three million copies of the book had reportedly been sold, and by 1979 the paperback edition had been reprinted 43 times. The book remained continuously in print over the ensuing decades, with reported sales of over four million copies by 1998, and over five million copies by 2009. The actual number of readers probably surpassed the sales figures, as library copies and even personal copies were likely circulated to more than one reader. Go Ask Alice has been cited as establishing both the commercial potential of young adult fiction in general, and the genre of young adult anti-drug novels, and has been called "one of the most famous anti-drug books ever published."
Critical response
Go Ask Alice received positive initial reviews, including praise from Webster Schott in The New York Times, who called it an "extraordinary work", a "superior work" and a "document of horrifying reality [that] possesses literary quality". It was also recommended by Library Journal, Publishers Weekly, and The Christian Science Monitor, and ranked number 1 on the American Library Association's 1971 list of Best Books for Young Adults. Some reviews focused on the realism of the book's material, without further addressing the literary merit of the book. According to Nilsen and Lauren Adams, the book was not subjected to the regular forms of literary criticism because it was presumed to be the real diary of a dead teenager. Lina Goldberg has suggested that the publishers were motivated to list the author as "Anonymous" partly to avoid such criticism.
Years after its publication, Go Ask Alice continued to receive some good reviews, often in the context of defending the book against censors (see Censorship). In a 1995 Village Voice column for Banned Books Week, Nat Hentoff described it as "an extraordinarily powerful account of what it's actually like to get hooked on drugs" that "doesn't preach".
However, starting in the 1990s, the book began to draw criticism for its heavy-handedness, melodramatic style and inauthenticity, in view of the growing consciousness that it was fiction rather than a real teenager's diary (see Authorship and veracity controversies). Reviewing the book again for The New York Times in 1998, Marc Oppenheimer called it "poorly written", "laughably written", and "incredible", although some other writers have pointed to the material as being plausible or even appealing to young readers. The portrayal of the diarist's drug use, progressing from unwittingly ingesting LSD to injecting speed within a few days, and making a similar quick transition from her first use of marijuana to heroin, has been deemed unrealistic. The book has been criticized for equating homosexuality with "degradation", illness, sin, and guilt. More recent analyses have expressed ethical concerns with the book's presentation of fiction to young readers as a true story. Despite all these criticisms, the book is frequently called a young adult classic.
Educational use
Although school boards and committees reached varying conclusions about whether Go Ask Alice had literary value, educators generally viewed it as a strong cautionary warning against drug use. It was recommended to parents and assigned or distributed in some schools as an anti-drug teaching tool. However, some adults who read the book as teens or pre-teens have written that they paid little attention to the anti-drug message and instead related to the diarist's thoughts and emotions, or vicariously experienced the thrills of her rebellious behavior. Reading the book for such vicarious experience has been suggested as a positive alternative to actually doing drugs. Go Ask Alice has also been used in curricula dealing with mood swings and death.
Authorship and veracity controversies
Although Go Ask Alice has been credited to an anonymous author since its publication, and was originally promoted as the real, albeit edited, diary of a real teenage girl, over time the book has come to be regarded by researchers as a fake memoir written by Beatrice Sparks, possibly with the help of one or more co-authors. Despite significant evidence of Sparks' authorship, a percentage of readers and educators have continued to believe that the book is a true-life account of a teenage girl.
Beatrice Sparks authorship controversy
Go Ask Alice was originally published by Prentice Hall in 1971 as the work of an unnamed author "Anonymous". The original edition contained a note signed by "The Editors" that included the statements, "Go Ask Alice is based on the actual diary of a fifteen-year-old drug user....Names, dates, places and certain events have been changed in accordance with the wishes of those concerned." The paperback edition first published in 1972 by Avon Books contained the words "A Real Diary" on the front cover just above the title, and the same words were included on the front covers of some later editions.
Upon its publication, almost all contemporary reviewers and the general public accepted it as primarily authored by an anonymous teenager. According to Lauren Adams, Publishers Weekly magazine was the only source to question the book's authenticity on the grounds that it "seem[ed] awfully well written". Reviews described the book as either the authentic diary of a real teenage girl, or as an edited or slightly fictionalized version of her authentic diary. Some sources claimed that the girl's parents had arranged for her diary to be published after her death. However, according to Alleen Pace Nilsen, a "reputable source in the publishing world" allegedly said that the book was published anonymously because the parents had initiated legal action and threatened to sue if the published book could be traced back to their daughter.
Not long after Go Ask Alices publication, Beatrice Sparks began making public appearances presenting herself as the book's editor. (Ellen Roberts, who in the early 1970s was an editor at Prentice Hall, was also credited at that time with having edited the book; a later source refers to Roberts as having "consulted" on the book.) According to Caitlin White, when Sparks' name became public, some researchers discovered that copyright records listed Sparks as the sole author—not editor—of the book, raising questions about whether she had written it herself. Suspicions were heightened in 1979 after two newly published books about troubled teenagers (Voices and Jay's Journal) advertised Sparks' involvement by calling her "the author who brought you Go Ask Alice".
In an article by Nilsen, based in part on interviews with Sparks and published in the October 1979 issue of School Library Journal, Sparks said that she had received the diaries that became Go Ask Alice from a girl she had befriended at a youth conference. The girl allegedly gave Sparks her diaries in order to help Sparks understand the experiences of young drug users and to prevent her parents from reading them. According to Sparks, the girl later died, although not of an overdose. Sparks said she had then transcribed the diaries, destroying parts of them in the process (with the remaining portions locked in the publisher's vault and unavailable for review by Nilsen or other investigators), and added various fictional elements, including the overdose death. Although Sparks did not confirm or deny the allegations that the diarist's parents had threatened a lawsuit, she did say that in order to get a release from the parents, she had only sought to use the diaries as a "basis to which she would add other incidents and thoughts gleaned from similar case studies," according to Nilsen.
Nilsen wrote that Sparks now wanted to be seen as the author of the popular Go Ask Alice in order to promote additional books in the same vein that she had published or was planning to publish. (These books included Jay's Journal, another alleged diary of a real teenager that Sparks was later accused of mostly authoring herself.) Nilsen concluded, "The question of how much of Go Ask Alice was written by the real Alice and how much by Beatrice Sparks can only be conjectured." Journalist Melissa Katsoulis, in her 2009 history of literary hoaxes Telling Tales, wrote that Sparks was never able to substantiate her claim that Go Ask Alice was based on the real diary of a real girl and that copyright records continued to list her as the sole author of the work.
Urban folklore expert Barbara Mikkelson of snopes.com has written that even before the authorship revelations, ample evidence indicated that Go Ask Alice was not an actual diary. According to Mikkelson, the writing style and content—including a lengthy description of an LSD trip but relatively little about "the loss of [the diarist's] one true love", school, gossip or ordinary "chit-chat"— seems uncharacteristic of a teenage girl's diary. The sophisticated vocabulary of the diary suggested that it had been written by an adult rather than a teen. Mikkelson also noted that in the decades since the book's publication, no one who knew the diarist had ever been tracked down by a reporter or otherwise spoken about or identified the diarist.
In hindsight, commentators have suggested various motivations for the publishers to present Go Ask Alice as the work of an anonymous deceased teenager, such as avoiding literary criticism, lending validity to an otherwise improbable story, and stimulating young readers' interest by having the book's anti-drug advice come from a teenager rather than an adult. Sparks said that while there were "many reasons" for publishing the book anonymously, her main reason was to make it more credible to young readers. Although the book has been classified as fiction (see Treatment of book as fiction and non-fiction), the publisher has continued to list its author as "Anonymous".
Controversies involving other works by Sparks
Sparks was involved in a similar controversy regarding the veracity of her second diary project, the 1979 book Jay's Journal. It was allegedly the real diary, edited by Sparks, of a teenage boy who committed suicide after becoming involved with the occult. The publisher's initial marketing of the book raised questions about whether Sparks had edited a real teenager's diary or written a fictional diary, and recalled the same controversy with respect to Go Ask Alice. Later, the family of real-life teenage suicide Alden Barrett contended that Jay's Journal used 21 entries from Barrett's real diary that the family had given to Sparks, but that the other 191 entries in the published book had been fictionalized or fabricated by Sparks, and that Barrett had not been involved with the occult or "devil worship".
Sparks went on to produce numerous other books presented as diaries of anonymous troubled teens (including Annie's Baby: The Diary of Anonymous, a Pregnant Teenager and It Happened to Nancy: By an Anonymous Teenager) or edited transcripts of therapy sessions with teens (including Almost Lost: The True Story of an Anonymous Teenager's Life on the Streets). Some commentators have noted that these books use writing styles similar to Go Ask Alice and contain similar themes, such as tragic consequences for spending time with bad companions, a protagonist who initially gets into trouble by accident or through someone else's actions, and portrayal of premarital sex and homosexuality as always wrong. Although Sparks was typically listed on these books as editor or preparer, the number of similar books that Sparks published, making her "arguably the most prolific Anonymous author in publishing", fueled suspicions that she wrote Go Ask Alice.
Linda Glovach authorship claims
In a 1998 New York Times book review, Mark Oppenheimer suggested that Go Ask Alice had at least one author besides Sparks. He identified Linda Glovach, an author of young-adult novels, as "one of the 'preparers'—let's call them forgers—of Go Ask Alice", although he did not give his source for this claim. Publishers Weekly, in a review of Glovach's 1998 novel Beauty Queen (which told the story, in diary form, of a 19-year-old girl addicted to heroin), also stated that Glovach was "a co-author of Go Ask Alice".
Treatment of book as fiction and non-fiction
Following Sparks' statements that she had added fictional elements to Go Ask Alice, the book was classified by its publishers as fiction (and remains so classified as of 2016) and a disclaimer was added to the copyright page: "This book is a work of fiction. Any references to historical events, real people, or real locales are used fictitiously. Other names, characters, places, and incidents are the product of the author's imagination, and any resemblance to actual events or locales or persons, living or dead, is entirely coincidental."
Despite the classification and the disclaimer, Go Ask Alice has frequently been taught as non-fiction in schools and sold as non-fiction in bookstores. The publishers also continued to suggest that the book was true by including the "Editors' Note" stating that the book was based on an actual diary, and listing the author as "Anonymous", with no mention of Sparks. As of 2011, a UK paperback edition published and marketed by Arrow Books contained the statement "This Is Alice's True Story" on the front cover.
Censorship
Go Ask Alice has been a frequent target of censorship challenges due to its inclusion of profanity and references to runaways, drugs, sex and rape. Alleen Pace Nilsen wrote that in 1973, Go Ask Alice was "the book that teens wanted to read and that adults wanted to censor" and that the censors "felt the book did more to glorify sex and drugs than to frighten kids away from them." Challenges began in the early 1970s following the initial publication of the book, and continued at a high rate through the ensuing decades.
Some challenges resulted in the removal of the book from libraries, or in parental permission being required for a student to check the book out of a library. According to The New York Times, in the 1970s it became common practice for school libraries to keep Go Ask Alice off library shelves and make it available to students only upon request, a practice which was criticized as being a form of censorship. A 1982 survey of school librarians across the United States, co-sponsored by the National Council of Teachers of English, found that Go Ask Alice was the most frequently censored book in high school libraries.
Decades after its original publication, Go Ask Alice became one of the most challenged books of the 1990s and 2000s. On the American Library Association (ALA) list of the 100 most frequently challenged books of the 1990s, Go Ask Alice was ranked at number 25; on the ALA list compiled for the 2000s, it rose to position 18.
The likely authoring of the book by one or more adults rather than by an unnamed teenage girl has not been an issue in censorship disputes. Nilsen and others have criticized this on the basis that the dishonesty of presenting a probable fake memoir to young readers as real should raise greater concerns than the content.
Adaptations
The ABC television network broadcast a made-for-television movie, Go Ask Alice, based on the book. It starred Jamie Smith-Jackson, William Shatner, Ruth Roman, Wendell Burton, Julie Adams, and Andy Griffith. Also among the cast were Robert Carradine, Mackenzie Phillips, and Charles Martin Smith. The film was promoted as an anti-drug film based on a true story.
The film was first aired as the ABC Movie of the Week on January 24, 1973. It was subsequently rebroadcast on October 24, 1973 and the network also made screening copies available to school, church and civic groups upon request. The film drew generally good reviews (with one critic calling it "the finest anti-drug drama ever presented by TV"), but was also criticized for lacking the complexity of the book and for not offering any solutions to the problem of teen drug addiction. The adaptation by Ellen Violett was nominated for an Emmy Award.
In 1976, a stage play version of the book, adapted by Frank Shiras, was published by The Dramatic Publishing Company. The play has been produced by various high school and community theatre groups.
In popular culture
Stand-up comedian Paul F. Tompkins' 2009 comedy album Freak Wharf contains a track titled "Go Ask Alice" in which he derides the book as "the phoniest of balonies" and jokingly suggests it was authored by the writing staff of the police drama series Dragnet. The album title comes from a passage in the book in which the diarist refers to a mental hospital as a "freak wharf".
References
External links
Go ask Alice at Spark Notes
https://archive.org/details/goaskalice00alic
1971 American novels
Fictional diaries
Literary forgeries
Novels about substance abuse
Simon & Schuster books
Drug control law in the United States
Works by Beatrice Sparks
Works published anonymously
Written fiction presented as fact
1973 television films
1973 films
ABC Movie of the Week
American films
American young adult novels
American novels adapted into films
American novels adapted into television shows
Novels about rape
Obscenity controversies in literature
American novels adapted into plays
Propaganda books and pamphlets
Censored books | [
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|
216926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanocorax | Cyanocorax | Cyanocorax is a genus of New World jays, passerine birds in the family Corvidae. The generic name is derived from the Greek words κυανος (kuanos), meaning "dark blue," and κοραξ (korax), meaning "raven".
It contains several closely related species that primarily are found in wooded habitats of Mexico and Central and South America, with the green jay just barely entering the United States.
The genus Cyanocorax was introduced by the German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1826, with the plush-crested jay as the type species.
Species
The genus contains 17 species:
Some ornithologists treat the green jay and the Inca jay as conspecific, with C. yncas luxuosus as the green jay and C. yncas yncas as the Inca jay.
References
External links
Bird genera
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics
Taxa named by Friedrich Boie | [
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|
216928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater | Wastewater | Wastewater is generated after the use of fresh water in a variety of applications, and usually involves leaching, flushing, or washing away waste products and nutrients added to the water during these applications. A more detailed definition for wastewater is "Used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff / storm water, and any sewer inflow or sewer infiltration".
In everyday usage, wastewater is commonly a synonym for sewage (also called sewerage, domestic wastewater, or municipal wastewater), which is wastewater that is produced by a community of people. It is typically transported through a sewer system.
As a generic term wastewater may also be used to describe water containing contaminants accumulated in other settings, such as:
Industrial wastewater: waterborne waste generated from a variety of industrial processes, such as manufacturing operations, mineral extraction, power generation, or water and wastewater treatment.
Cooling water, released with potential thermal pollution after use to condense steam or reduce machinery temperatures by conduction or evaporation
Leachate, precipitation containing pollutants dissolved while percolating through ores, raw materials, products, or solid waste
Return flow, carrying suspended soil, pesticide residues, or dissolved minerals and nutrients from irrigated cropland
Surface runoff, the flow of water occurring on the ground surface when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil.
Urban runoff, including water used for outdoor cleaning activity and landscape irrigation in densely populated areas created by urbanization
Agricultural wastewater, generated from confined animal operations
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216931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20anonymously%20published%20works | List of anonymously published works | Throughout the history of literature, since the creation of bound texts in the forms of books and codices, various works have been published and written anonymously, often due to their political or controversial nature, or merely for the purposes of the privacy of their authors, among other reasons. This article provides a list of literary works published anonymously, either attributed to "Anonymous", or with no specific author's name given.
Not included in this list are works which predate the advent of publishing and general attribution of authorship, such as ancient written inscriptions (such as hieroglyphic or pictographical, transcribed texts), certain historical folklore and myths of oral traditions now published as text, and reference or plain texts (letters, notes, graffiti) recovered archaeologically, which are otherwise unimportant to literary studies. Religious texts and grimoires, which are often written anonymously, may appear, along with works initially written anonymously whose authors are now known.
This list is ordered alphabetically by title.
Works predating the Common Era
Ancient Mesopotamian works
Debate between bird and fish
Enûma Eliš
Hurrian hymn to Nikkal
Inscriptions at Tell Abu Salabikh
Instructions of Shuruppak, attributed to the historically debatable Shuruppak
Kesh Temple Hymn
Mesopotamian City Laments
Lament for Ur
Lament for Sumer and Ur
Lament for Nippur
Lament for Eridu
Lament for Uruk
Sumerian creation myth
Ancient Egyptian works
Ancient Egyptian funerary texts
Coffin Texts
New Kingdom funerary texts
Book of the Dead
Amduat
Spell of the Twelve Caves
The Book of Gates
Book of the Netherworld
Book of Caverns
Book of the Earth
Litany of Re
Book of the Heavens
Pyramid Texts
Ancient Egyptian medical papyri
Other works
I Ching
The Aesop Romance
Early classics
Cantar de Mio Cid
Beowulf
De Dubiis Nominibus
Dresden Codex
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
The Second Shepherds' Play
"Enchiriadis" texts
Scolica enchiriadis
Musica enchiriadis
The Battle of Maldon
Diaries of Court Ladies of Old Japan
Gesta Hungarorum
The Secret History of the Mongols
St. Erkenwald
Corpus Hermeticum
Poetic Edda
The Lady of Escalot
One Thousand and One Nights
15th century
The Book of Dede Korkut
The pasquinades (satirical poems) glued to the Talking Statues of Rome. They still appear from time to time.
The Key of Solomon
The Skibby Chronicle
La Farce de maître Pierre Pathelin
Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, published anonymously at the time, now considered likely to have been written by Francesco Colonna
The Voynich manuscript
16th century
Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan
Lazarillo de Tormes
Chilam Balam
17th century
Actio Curiosa
Theophrastus redivivus
The entire catalog of Pierre Marteau
All works published after 1788 by Sylvain Maréchal
Vertue Rewarded
18th century
An Essay on the Principle of Population by T.R. Malthus, originally published anonymously
Anti-Machiavel by Frederick the Great, originally published anonymously
Dream of the Red Chamber by Cao Xueqin, originally published anonymously
The Sorrows of Yamba by Hannah More, originally published anonymously
Common Sense (pamphlet) by Thomas Paine, originally published anonymously
The Federalist Papers, by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay; originally published under the pseudonym "Publius"
The Animated Skeleton
The Cavern of Death
19th century
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, originally published anonymously
A Brief Inquiry into the Natural Rights of Man
A Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder by James De Mille, originally published anonymously.
Democracy by Henry Adams, originally published anonymously.
Elizabeth and Her German Garden by Elizabeth von Arnim, originally published anonymously.
Fantasmagoriana by Jean-Baptiste Benoît Eyriès, published anonymously.
Keep Cool by John Neal, published under the pseudonym "Somebody, M.D.C. &c. &c. &c.", in which "M.D.C." stands for "Member of the Delphian Club"
Seventy-Six by John Neal, attributed to "the author of Logan"
Might is Right, published under the pseudonym "Ragnar Redbeard". The most commonly claimed authors are Arthur Desmond or Jack London.
Romance of Lust, originally published anonymously but variously attributed to Edward Sellon or William Simpson Potter
Supernatural Religion: An Inquiry into the Reality of Divine Revelation by Walter Richard Cassels, originally published anonymously.
Tales of the Dead, translated by Sarah Elizabeth Utterson, published anonymously.
Tamerlane and Other Poems, the first published collection of poems by Edgar Allan Poe, originally published anonymously.
The Log-Cabin Lady
The Princess Ilsée
The String of Pearls
The Way of a Pilgrim
The Great Organ in the Boston Music Hall
Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation by Robert Chambers (publisher, born 1802), as only revealed after his death
20th century
Jack Pots by Eugene Edwards published in 1900 by Jamieson-Higgins. A collection of poker stories. Author is believed to be another pseudonym of S. W. Erdnase.
The Autobiography of a Flea erotic novel published in 1901.
The Expert at the Card Table by S. W. Erdnase, a book on sleight-of-hand with cards for card advantage play and magic, self-published in 1902 in Chicago.
The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man, the story of a young biracial man, was published anonymously in 1912 by James Weldon Johnson who revealed himself as the author in 1927.
Demian by Hermann Hesse, originally published under the pseudonym "Emil Sinclair"
Go Ask Alice, now known to have been written by Beatrice Sparks.
The Occult Technology of Power
A Woman in Berlin, an anonymous diary detailing experiences of a German woman as Germany is defeated in World War II.
Primary Colors, published anonymously. Journalist Joe Klein was immediately suspected as the author. He originally denied it, but admitted authorship within six months.
21st century
Bourbon Kid, an ongoing supernatural horror series first published in 2000
The Bride Stripped Bare, an erotic novel published in 2003; soon after, the author was revealed as the Australian writer Nikki Gemmell.
Through Our Enemies' Eyes: Osama Bin Laden, Radical Islam and the Future of America (2003) and Imperial Hubris: Why the West is Losing the War on Terror (2004) – both revealed to have been written by former CIA employee Michael Scheuer.
Recipes for Disaster: An Anarchist Cookbook (2004) - published by the CrimethInc. collective.
My Immortal (2005) – A work of fiction settled in the Harry Potter universe involving goth subculture which has become a cult phenomenon.
Rolling Thunder (2005–2014) – eleven issues of "an anarchist journal of dangerous living" published the CrimethInc collective.
Diary of an Oxygen Thief (2006) – A Dutch novel about the independent art, literature, and music scene in Brooklyn, New York.
O: A Presidential Novel (2011) – . A speculative novel about President Barack Obama's 2012 re-election campaign. The publishers, Simon & Schuster, claim that the book was written by someone who was "in the room" with the President.
The Incest Diary (2017)
A Warning (2019) – A book written by anonymously by Trump senior official Miles Taylor that expands upon I Am Part of the Resistance Inside the Trump Administration (2018) from the New York Times.
See also
Anonymity
Anonymity application
Anonymous blogging
Anonymous P2P
Anonymous remailer
Anonymous web browsing
Anonymous work
Notname
List of anonymous masters
List of works published under a pseudonym
References
External links
See http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu to find some of these texts on the web.
Lists of books
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216932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20college | University college | In a number of countries, a university college is a college institution that provides tertiary education but does not have full or independent university status. A university college is often part of a larger university. The precise usage varies from country to country.
Australia
In Australia, the term University College was used to refer to educational institutions that were like universities, but lacked full autonomy. The Latrobe University College of Northern Victoria was one such college. University colleges existing today generally cater for specific subjects (such as Theology, or the Arts). UNSW@ADFA was previously known as the University College, ADFA, and it provides the tertiary education component of officer cadet training at the Australian Defence Force Academy . It is a branch of the University of New South Wales.
Additionally, some residential colleges associated with universities are named "University College". These halls of residence are common in Australian universities and primarily provide accommodation to students. They may also provide academic support (such as tutorials) and social activities for residents. University College, Melbourne, formerly University Women's College, is one such residential college. It is affiliated with the University of Melbourne.
Belgium
In Belgium, the term University college is used to refer to state-funded institutions of higher education belonging to one of the three Communities of Belgium, that are specifically not universities. They can issue academic or non-academic Bachelor's degrees or academic Master's degrees, and they are performing practice oriented and artistic research. Even if they are at the same level, academic degrees issued from University colleges are different from University degrees.
In the Dutch-speaking Flemish community, University colleges are called 'Hogescholen' while in the French community, they are called 'Hautes écoles'. However, the French community makes a difference between 'Hautes écoles' and 'Écoles supérieures des arts' which are specialised art schools authorized to select incoming students. Both count as University colleges.
Canada
In Canada, "University College" has three meanings: a degree-granting institution; an institution that offers university-level coursework; or a constituent organization (college) of a university, such as University College at University of Toronto or University College Residences at Laurentian University.
The title "University College" is extensively used by institutions that do not have full university status, but which do extensive teaching at degree level. The title "university" is protected by regulations of the Canada Corporations Act, but the title "college" is only regulated in some Canadian provinces. Some Canadian university colleges are public institutions, some are private; some are regulated by government agencies, others are not. The Council of Ministers of Education maintains a list of accredited institutions through the Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials (CICIC). Institutions that are members of the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada are full universities.
"University College" is also the name of a Canadian educational institution. University College is the name of a constituent college of the University of Toronto.
The Ontario College of Art & Design University is sometimes referred to as a university college due to its history as a college prior to 2002 when it was designated as a university under the Ontario College of Art and Design University Act.
There are a total of 16 affiliated and federated universities in Ontario, Canada.
Finland
A classical university with several colleges is called yliopisto in Finnish. However, some specialized universities are called korkeakoulu, because unlike classical universities, they focus only on one discipline, even though they have the same status as an yliopisto; for example, Teatterikorkeakoulu, a theatre school, can be considered a single "theater college". The vocational universities, however, are called ammattikorkeakoulu. The potential for confusion has led some korkeakoulus to change their name to yliopisto, abandoning the distinction between the terms yliopisto and korkeakoulu. Additionally three Greater Helsinki-based korkeakoulus, Helsinki University of Technology, University of Art and Design Helsinki and Helsinki School of Economics, have opted to merge to form the Aalto University, Aalto-yliopisto.
Ireland
The National University of Ireland and Queen's University Belfast were based on the UK university college system, and were both set up in 1908 before the establishment of the Republic of Ireland and having roots in the earlier Queen's University of Ireland which was also a university college-type system. The university colleges of the National University have since been raised to the status of universities—as they were considered for many years before statute recognition—but the system still maintains its overall federal status. Queen's University Belfast initially had no university colleges and the first university college was created in 1985 (St Mary's) and second in 1999 (Stranmillis), these two institutions previously were associated with the university, offering its degrees since 1968.
Malaysia
The term "University College" in Malaysia denotes institutions that are granted the authority to issue degrees in their own names within specialised fields and disciplines. In contrast, an institution granted the status of "University" provides courses of training in multiple disciplines. The empowering legislations governing the establishment and governance of university colleges in Malaysia include the University and University Colleges Act 1971, Universiti Teknologi MARA Act 1976, the Education Act 1995, and the Private Higher Education Act 1996, the National Council of Higher Education Act 1996.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the term "university college" refers to special programmes at several universities which are similar to United States liberal arts colleges in providing a broad tertiary education; students at Dutch universities normally study one subject only. The first university college to be founded was University College Utrecht at the University of Utrecht (1998); later, the universities of Amsterdam, Leiden (in the Hague), Middelburg (Roosevelt), Maastricht, Rotterdam, Enschede (Twente), Groningen University of Groningen, and Tilburg followed. University Colleges are different from what is called a "Hogeschool." While University Colleges provide a broad liberal arts, often interdisciplinary education, similar to American small liberal arts colleges, a hogeschool is higher education context that focuses on vocational or applied training.
New Zealand
Nearly all New Zealand universities were originally described as "University Colleges", and were constituent parts of a Federal body, the University of New Zealand. All of these are now fully independent; for example, the former Canterbury University College is now the University of Canterbury.
There is a specific university hall of residence named "University College" at the Otago University.
Philippines
In the 1950s, new academic units and degree programs were established at the University of the Philippines; the General Education (GE) Program, a series of core courses prescribed for all students at the undergraduate level were being taught at the then-College of Liberal Arts (now the College of Arts and Letters ), was introduced in 1959. As a result, University President Vicente Sinco saw fit to reorganize the college into a University College, which would offer the core subjects to be taken during the first two years of the undergraduate program.
In 2000, retired educators from the University of the Philippines, led by Dr. José Abueva (President of the University from 1987 to 1993), sought to provide the quality of education offered by UP's University College to individuals who could not get into the UP System due to its limited quotas. Together with similarly-minded individuals, all former UP educators and administrators, Dr. Abueva formed Kalayaan College. Under a memorandum of agreement between KC and UP, 'UP-quality education' is made possible by active members of the UP academic community being given teaching stints in KC, as well as the adoption of the same GE Program and grading system offered in UP. The college aims to develop the critical and creative faculties of its students in the basic fields of knowledge; particularly in the natural and physical sciences, the social sciences and the humanities to help them compete in a fast-changing environment.
Scandinavia
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the use of the word "university" (including "university college") in the name of an institution is protected by law and must be authorised by an act of parliament, a royal charter, or by the privy council. Regulations governing the award of the title are drawn up by the government or devolved administration, and specify (in England) that an institution must hold taught degree awarding powers. However, it is permissible for an institute to be described as a university college without such permission as long as it does not use the term in its name.
As "university college" is a less prestigious title than "university", institutes that meet the (stricter) criteria for university title normally apply for the latter. In 2005, a number of large university colleges became universities after the requirement to hold research degree awarding powers was dropped, the difference between the criteria for university and university college title being only the requirement for a university to have 4,000 students. From 2012 the requirement on the number of students needed for university title was relaxed to 1,000, allowing ten more university colleges to become universities. A further review of the criteria is currently under way.
Historically, the term university college was used to denote colleges (as opposed to universities) that delivered university-level teaching - particularly those in receipt of the parliamentary grants to universities and university colleges from 1889 until the formation of the University Grants Committee in 1919. -, but, unlike in the modern usage of the term, did not hold their own degree awarding powers. Instead, they were associated with universities and thus formed a larger institutional unit while being physically independent. In most cases students at university colleges took the external exams of the University of London, but the colleges of the University of Wales and the Victoria University took degrees of those institutes while the university colleges in Newcastle and Dundee were associated with the universities of Durham and St Andrews respectively. Not all of these university colleges used "university college" in their name.
With the exception of colleges in London that remain part of the University of London, all have gone on to become independent civic universities. Examples include the University of Nottingham (which was University College Nottingham when D. H. Lawrence attended), the University of Southampton which was associated with the University of London until 1952, and the University of Exeter, which until 1955 was the University College of the South West of England; Keele University was founded in 1949 as the University College of North Staffordshire until it was granted its royal charter in 1962 and transformed into a university. This was the recognised route for establishing new universities in the United Kingdom during the first half of the 20th century, prior to the founding of the plate glass universities.
A related, but slightly different, use of the term existed in the federal University of Wales in the late 20th century; some of its constituent colleges took titles such as "University College Aberystwyth". These colleges were to all intents and purposes independent universities (the University of Wales' powers being largely restricted to the formal awarding of degrees). In 1996, the University of Wales was reorganised to admit two former higher education institutions and the older members became "Constituent Institutions" rather than colleges, being renamed along the lines of University of Wales, Aberystwyth.
In Northern Ireland, there are two institutions using the title "university college": St Mary's University College, Belfast and Stranmillis University College. The usage here is closer to the older usage in England, as neither have their own degree-awarding powers but are instead listed bodies associated with Queen's University Belfast.
There are several specific British institutions named "university college", including, but not limited to:
University College, Oxford is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford; founded in 1249, it claims to be the oldest Oxbridge college.
University College London (often known as UCL) is one of the original constituent colleges of the federal University of London. While remaining part of the University of London, it has awarded its own degrees since 2008 and is, like other large London colleges, effectively an independent university.
University College Hospital is a teaching hospital in London founded as part of, and still closely associated with, UCL.
University College, Durham is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Durham; founded in 1832, it is the foundation Durham college.
Wolfson College, Cambridge was named University College from its foundation in 1965 until its endowment by the Wolfson Foundation in 1972.
University College Birmingham is a former university college (in the modern sense) that now has university status but has continued using "university college" in its name.
London Institute of Banking & Finance, an educational charity established by Royal Charter, was granted Taught Degree Awarding Powers in 2010, and in 2013 was awarded university college status although it does not use "university college" in its name.
United States
Universities such as Washington University in Saint Louis, Arizona State University, Rutgers University, the University of Denver, the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, the University of Maine, Syracuse University, the University of Toledo, and Virginia Wesleyan University use "University College" for the name of the division dedicated to continuing education and the needs of the non-traditional student. The University of Maryland University College is a separate institution dedicated to non-traditional education.
The University of Rhode Island, the University of North Carolina Wilmington, Illinois State University, Arizona State University, Ball State University, and the University of Oklahoma (University college homepage) enroll all of their new students into their programs under the name of "University College", which does not grant degrees, but instead provides orientation, academic advising, and support for honors students, probationary students, student athletes, and/or students undecided in their choice of academic major. Appalachian State University uses University College to refer to the general education and first-year seminar programs.
References
Types of university or college | [
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|
216933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consortium%20for%20Functional%20Glycomics | Consortium for Functional Glycomics | The Consortium for Functional Glycomics (CFG) is a large research initiative funded in 2001 by a glue grant from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) to “define paradigms by which protein-carbohydrate interactions mediate cell communication”. To achieve this goal, the CFG studies the functions of:
the three major classes of mammalian glycan-binding proteins (GBPs): C-type lectin, galectin, and SIGLEC
immune receptors that bind carbohydrates: CD1, T cell receptor, and anti-carbohydrate antibodies
GBPs of microorganisms that bind to host cell glycans as receptors.
The CFG comprises eight core facilities and 500+ participating investigators that work together to develop resources and services and make them available to the scientific community free of charge. The data generated by these resources are captured in databases accessible through the Functional Glycomics Gateway, a web resource maintained through a partnership between the CFG and Nature Publishing Group.
Organization
The CFG is composed of three main components: the participating investigators, the cores, and the steering committee.
Participating investigators
Progress towards the CFG’s overall goal is driven by the research of more than 500 participating investigators] (PIs) around the world, whose laboratories utilize resources, services, and data produced by the CFG scientific cores.
The PIs are the largest component of the program, continuing to grow with new members each year. Each PI also has a program of research within the scope of the CFG, supported by non-CFG funds. Investigators apply for membership and must have a funded grant within the scope of the CFG, but they are not required to join the CFG to access resources. Several PIs also have CFG-funded bridging grants that are primarily tied to and enable the goals of the scientific cores, for the benefit of all PIs.
The PIs are organized into 10 subgroups led by subgroup leaders:
Microorganism recognition of host glycans
Immune recognition of glycans
Glycans in immune cell communication
Glycans in development and physiology
Glycans in cancer biology
Glycans in protein conformation and function
Analytical glycomics
Chemical synthesis and glycan microarrays
3-D Structural glycobiology
Bioinformatics
The subgroups hold at least three workshops per year, where they have formed several working groups to leverage CFG funding in their efforts to define GBP biology. PI contributions toward elucidating paradigms that define GBP function are captured in the CFG’s databases, as well as research publications and review articles.
Cores
The majority of CFG funds are invested in the scientific cores, which are responsible for generating novel resources, new technologies, and a platform of information that investigators use in their research. The eight CFG cores are described below:
Administrative Core (A), located at The Scripps Research Institute, supports the CFG steering committee, cores, and participating investigators, plans meetings and workshops, publishes a quarterly newsletter, facilitates resource requests, tracks CFG-related publications, and writes progress reports to NIGMS. Core A also works closely with Core B to update and develop new content for the Functional Glycomics Gateway site.
Bioinformatics Core (B), located at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, is responsible for acquiring, storing, and disseminating all CFG-related data and information. For this purpose, Core B works with Nature Publishing Group to develop the CFG’s Functional Glycomics Gateway site. Here, Core B has constructed complex relational databases to integrate diverse data sets generated by the CFG scientific cores and participating investigators, as well as data sets from other public databases. To increase the usability of these databases, Core B collaborates with the scientific cores to develop bioinformatics tools for data mining and prediction
Analytical Glycotechnology Core (C), located at Imperial College London, offers mass spectrometry profiling of protein N- and O-linked glycans from mammalian cells, with highest priority given to pure populations of human or murine immune cells.
Glycan Array Synthesis Core (D), located at The Scripps Research Institute, produces and collects carbohydrate compounds (monosaccharides, disaccharides, etc.), glycan-binding proteins, and anti-glycan antibodies for distribution to investigators. Many of these reagents were generously contributed by participating investigators. Core D also synthesizes glycans for and prints the CFG glycan array (see Core H below)
Gene Microarray Core (E), located at The Scripps Research Institute, screens RNA samples provided by investigators on a custom-designed glycogene chip array developed using Affymetrix technology. The chip contains probe sets designed to monitor the expression of approximately 2000 human and mouse genes, including glycosyltransferases, glycan-binding proteins, glycan degradation proteins, intercellular protein transport proteins, sugar transporters, adhesion molecules, interleukins, mucins, growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, and more.
Mouse Transgenics Core (F), formerly located at The Scripps Research Institute, is now closed. From 2001-2009, Core F generated 26 total and conditional knockout mouse lines deficient in glycan-binding proteins or glycosyltransferases. All Core F strains are now archived at the Mutant Mouse Regional Resource Center (MMRRC) at the University of California, Davis or The Jackson Laboratory (Jax). As a service to the community, the CFG still maintains a site in the Functional Glycomics Gateway to help investigators locate potential sources of glycogene knockout mouse lines.
Mouse Phenotype Core (G), located at the Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, works with participating investigator “mentors” to assess the histology, hematology, metabolism, immunological function, and behavior of Core F-generated mouse lines in order to describe the phenotypic results of deleting one or more glycogenes. At the discretion of the Mouse Subcommittee, Core G also occasionally evaluates mouse lines provided by investigators.
Protein-Glycan Interaction Core (H), located at Emory University, analyzes investigator-generated lectins, antibodies, antisera, microorganisms, or suspected glycan-binding proteins of human, animal, and microbial origins on a mammalian glycan array to determine carbohydrate specificity and identify specific ligands. The current version of the array (v4.1), developed and printed by Core D, contains 465 different glycans.
Steering Committee
The CFG is managed by a steering committee chaired by James C. Paulson, Ph.D., professor at The Scripps Research Institute and Principal Investigator of the CFG glue grant. Eleven additional glycomics experts and one NIGMS scientific officer make up the rest of the committee.
Five subcommittees oversee the cores and make recommendations to the steering committee regarding resource priorities and technology development: Bioinformatics Subcommittee, Glycan Array/Carbohydrate Library Subcommittee, Glycan Analysis Subcommittee, Mouse Subcommittee, and Nomenclature Subcommittee.
Resources
The CFG resources and services described above are free for the use of investigators studying the complex biology that governs the interactions of glycan-binding proteins and their ligands in mediating cell communication.
Resources can be requested by submitting a form at the Functional Glycomics Gateway website. Once a request is received, the appropriate core director reviews it and contacts the investigator if more information is needed. Once the core director finalizes a request and determines whether or not the core is capable of fulfilling it, the CFG Steering Committee reviews the request for final approval.
Membership in the CFG is not a requirement for receiving resources, but an investigator's institution must endorse the CFG's data sharing agreement to complete the resource request process.
Databases
Data obtained by CFG scientific cores with samples submitted by PIs, and data obtained by investigators in their own labs using CFG resources, are uploaded into the CFG databases for dissemination to investigators and to the scientific community. Specialty databases for GBPs, glycan structures, and glycosyltransferases are designed to help integrate data and assess progress against the overall goal.
The easiest way to search through all CFG-related information is to enter a keyword (e.g. “galectin-1”, “sialic acid”, etc.) or IUPAC carbohydrate nomenclature in the search box at the top of the Functional Glycomics Gateway.
Funding
In 2001, the CFG was awarded a five-year, $34 million glue grant] from NIGMS. In 2006, the CFG glue grant was renewed for another five years with an additional $40.7 million. Glue grant funding ended August 31, 2011. The CFG is seeking alternate funding to continue many aspects of the CFG beyond the glue grant funding period.
References
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|
216938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalmers%20Lindholmen%20University%20College | Chalmers Lindholmen University College | The Chalmers Lindholmen University College or Chalmers Lindholmen was a university college, and an affiliate of Chalmers University of Technology, located in Gothenburg, Sweden. The campus is located at Lindholmen on the island Hisingen. As of 2005, Chalmers Lindholmen no longer exists as a separate organisation. Campus Lindholmen is now one of Chalmers' two campuses.
Schools
The organization is divided into schools.
School of Engineering
School of Maritime Studies
School of Continuing and Professional Learning
Centre of Research and Development
Students
Around 2,700 undergraduate students are attending Chalmers Lindholmen University College.
Bachelor's degrees
Building and Civil Engineering
Building Technology, Business Development and Entrepreneurship
Computer Engineering
Design Engineering
Electrical and Electronical Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Mechatronics Engineering
Marine Engineering
Nautical Science
Shipping and Logistics
Master's degrees
Interaction Design and Technologies
Software Engineering and Technology
See also
Chalmers Students' Union
Lindholmen Science Park
External links
Chalmers Lindholmen University College – Official site
Lindholmen University College
Universities and colleges in Sweden
Higher education in Gothenburg
Hisingen | [
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|
216941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blekinge%20Institute%20of%20Technology | Blekinge Institute of Technology | The Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH; ) is a public, state funded Swedish institute of technology in Blekinge with 5,900 students (part-time, full-time) and offers about 30 educational programmes in 11 departments at two campuses located in Karlskrona and Karlshamn.
BTH was granted university status in engineering in 1999. Among the many programmes and courses taught in Swedish, BTH offers 12 Master's programmes in English.
The university focuses on ICT information technology and sustainable development; additionally also offers programmes in industrial economics, health sciences and spatial planning.
Blekinge Institute of Technology is located in the Telecom City area and works with telecommunications and software companies including Telenor, Ericsson AB and Wireless Independent Provider (WIP).
Campuses
The university has two Campuses in Blekinge:
Campus Gräsvik in Karlskrona, from 1989
Campus Karlshamn, from 2000
The Soft Center Campus in Ronneby existed from 1989 and was integrated in 2010 in the Campus Gräsvik, Karlskrona.
The university had been between 2006 and 2008 included in a strategic alliance with Växjö University and University of Kalmar under the common name of the Academy of the Southeast. The Board, however, decided February 15, 2008 not to join in the fusion the other two parties, which resulted in the founding of Linnaeus University.
Blekinge Institute of Technology is a member of the European University Association, the European Society of Engineering Education and the Association of Technical Universities in Scandinavia (NORDTEK).
Academics
Applied Information Technology
The institute offers Bachelor, Master and PhD programmes oriented towards applied Informatics. BTH has been ranked 6th in the world in Systems and Software Engineering research. Admission to graduate programs is among the most competitive in Sweden due to having the highest number of international applicants. The faculty of the School of Computing consists of 11 full professors and 50 PhD students, among those are high-profile researchers such as
Claes Wohlin,
Nail H. Ibragimov, widely regarded as one of the world's foremost experts in the field of symmetry analysis of differential equations.
A European Master on Software Engineering program is given in collaboration with Technical University of Madrid (Spain), University of Kaiserslautern (Germany) and Free University of Bozen-Bolzano (Italy).
Sustainable Development
The Institute uniquely offers two Masters programs and a PhD program in Strategic Sustainable Development (SSD), a scientifically robust and strategic framework to systematically contribute to sustainable development through trust-building, purposeful practices. The Blekinge Institute of Technology contributed significantly to the development of Strategic Sustainable Development. Leading figures of the Scandinavian sustainability movement, such as Karl-Henrik Robèrt, teach and research at the institute. In cooperation with Lund University the Centre for Innovation, Research and Competence in the Learning Economy (CIRCLE) was established in 2004. Today CIRCLE is the largest national research Centre of Excellence by the Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems.
The latest (2008) report from the Engineering Education for Sustainable Development Observatory (EESD-Observatory) ranked Blekinge Institute of Technology's programme on Strategic Sustainable Development as the best among Swedish technical universities and third among the 56 evaluated European universities, with a grade of 8.4 out of 10.
Through a planning grant from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), BTH and NJU explored the possibilities for cooperation in the field of sustainable development.
See also
ESDP-Network
List of colleges and universities in Sweden
References
University colleges in Sweden
Karlskrona
Buildings and structures in Blekinge County | [
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216942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid%20Sweden%20University | Mid Sweden University | Mid Sweden University (Mittuniversitetet) is a Swedish state university located in the region around the geographical center of Sweden, with two campuses in the cities of Östersund and Sundsvall. The university closed a third campus in Härnösand in the summer of 2016.
History
Created on 1 July 1993, the institution was originally called Mid Sweden University College (Mitthögskolan) and was the result of a merger between the University College of Sundsvall/Härnösand (Högskolan i Sundsvall/Härnösand) and the University College of Östersund (Högskolan i Östersund). The two university colleges had been founded in 1977, with roots in the School of social work that started in 1971 in the city of Östersund, and in the Folk high school teachers' seminary and the nautical training/naval school that were launched in 1842 in the city of Härnösand. On 1 July 1995, the Sundsvall/Örnsköldsvik and Östersund Colleges of Health Sciences (Vårdhögskolor) were also incorporated.
In 2001 Mid Sweden University was awarded university status in the natural sciences area of research including IT, and was thus entitled to issue doctoral degrees. Employees that were carrying out doctoral studies before then were enrolled at other universities, where they had their main supervisor, but also locally supervised at Mid Sweden University College. Effective 1 January 2005, the government of Sweden granted the institution the right to call itself a university and the school's name changed to Mid Sweden University (Mittuniversitetet).
Organization
Mid Sweden University has two authorised areas of research (vetenskapsområden), organized under the Faculty of Science, Technology and Media (since 2001), and the Faculty of Human Sciences (since 2005) respectively. Education and research is also organized under the Faculty of Educational Sciences (lärarutbildningsnämnden).
The university was organized into eight departments, of which four are multi-campus departments:
Faculty of Human Sciences:
Department of Humanities
Department of Social Sciences
Department of Social Work
Department of Health Sciences
Department of Economics, Geography, Law and Tourism
Faculty of Science, Technology and Media:
Department of Information Technology and Media
Department of Natural Sciences
Department of Engineering, Physics and Mathematics
Faculty of Educational Sciences:
Department of Education
Education
The university has offered bachelor's degree (kandidatexamen) and Swedish master's degree (magisterexamen, one year) in a wide range of subjects since 1994, doctoral degree (doktorsexamen and licentiatexamen) since 2001, and International master's degree (masterexamen, two years) according to the Bologna model since 2005. Mid Sweden University also offers professional degrees within Master of Science and Engineering (civilingenjörsexamen, similar to German Diploma engineer) since 2003, and as engineer, teacher, nurse, specialist nurse, social worker/welfare officer (socionom), journalist and, from 2008, Psychologist.
The university's two main campuses have different focuses but with some overlap. The Sundsvall campus has a school of education and offers various courses in the humanities and arts. It also has a wide range of courses and degrees in the technical and natural sciences and journalism. The Östersund campus focuses on graduate degrees in tourism, health care, social work and public administration. Campus Östersund also has Sweden's only ecotechnology programme. Besides the above, education and research within digital printing technology is located to the city of Örnsköldsvik.
The institution is also well known for a wide range of web-based distance education.
Number of students and employees
In school year 2009/2010, the university had 21,476 undergraduate students (including master students) with 4,000 of them based in Östersund, 4,000 in Sundsvall, 2,000 in Härnösand and the rest are learning on distance. The university has 235 doctoral students, about 800 teachers, of which 80 were employed professors, and totally more than 1000 employees.
Past rectors (Sundsvall)
1993–1994 Alf Gunnmo
1994–1999 Kari Marklund
1999 (acting) Alf Gunnmo
1999–2003 Gunnar Svedberg
2003 (acting) Pia Sandvik Wiklund
2003–2008 Thomas Lindstein
2008 (acting) Håkan Wiklund
2008-2016 Anders Söderholm
Past prorectors (Östersund)
1993–1999 Alf Gunnmo
1999 (acting) Sture Pettersson
1999–2002 Mats Ericson
2002–2005 Pia Sandvik Wiklund
2003 (acting) Sture Pettersson
2005–2006 (acting) Sture Pettersson
2006— Håkan Wiklund
2008 (acting) Sture Pettersson
Honorary doctorates at Mid Sweden University
2001 – Thorbjörn Fälldin
2002 – Kenway Smith
2004 – Sverker Martin-Löf
2006 – Bodil Malmsten and Bengt Saltin
2008 – Magdalena Forsberg and Lars Näsman
2010 – Kenneth Eriksson, Erik Fichtelius, Björn Fjæstad and Jan Stenberg
Famous alumni
Here is a list of people who have received attention from national media, and have studied either at Mid Sweden University, or one of the colleges that later formed Mid Sweden University.
Jerry Ahrlin, cross-country skier
Abir Al-Sahlani, Member of Parliament
Berit Andnor, former Minister for Social Affairs and Member of Parliament
Helena Jonsson, biathlete
Mari Jungstedt, journalist and author
Jan Helin, journalist and the editor-in-chief of Aftonbladet since 2008
Anna-Karin Kammerling, swimmer
Mikaela Laurén, swimmer and boxer
Melodie MC (Kent Lövgren), Eurodance rapper
Ylva Nowén, Alpine skier and expert commentator
Linda Olofsson, TV journalist
Anna Ottosson, Alpine skier
Roger Haddad, Member of Parliament
Fadime Sahindal
Anders Sodergren, cross-country skier
Åsa Torstensson, Member of Parliament and former Minister for Transport 2006–2010
Fredrik Wikingsson, journalist and TV host
Gina Dirawi, comedian and TV host
See also
List of colleges and universities in Sweden
Student Union in Sundsvall
References
External links
Mid Sweden University – Official site
Courses for exchange students – Courses taught in English
Study programmes taught in English – International programmes
Mid Sweden University Students' Union (Östersund) – Official site
Mid Sweden University Students' Union (Sundsvall) – Official site
Härnösand
Östersund
Educational institutions established in 1993
Buildings and structures in Jämtland County
1993 establishments in Sweden
Buildings and structures in Sundsvall Municipality
Higher education in Sundsvall | [
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|
216945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halmstad%20University%2C%20Sweden | Halmstad University, Sweden | Halmstad University () is a University (Swedish: högskola) in Halmstad, Sweden. It was established in 1983. Halmstad University is a public higher education institution offering bachelor's and master's programmes in various fields of studies. In addition, it conducts Ph.D. programmes in three fields of research, namely, Information Technology, Innovation Science and Health and Lifestyle.
Statistics
Halmstad University has 11,411 students, 49 professors and 82 research students. The study programmes and courses cover 60 programmes and 175 single subject courses (all of the numbers are from 2019).
Profile
Halmstad University is often called The Innovation Driven University. It conducts education and research within a broad field, but three profile areas are prominent: Innovation Sciences, Information Technology and Health and Lifestyle. These areas make a base for the University's activities and it is also in these that the University offers education on a postgraduate level.
Schools
Halmstad University is organised into the following 4 schools (called "academies" in Swedish):
School of Business, Engineering and Science
School of Health and Welfare
School of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences
School of Information Technology
References
University colleges in Sweden
Halmstad
Florence Network
Educational institutions established in 1983
1983 establishments in Sweden | [
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|
216950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus%20Gotland | Campus Gotland | Uppsala University – Campus Gotland () is a campus of Uppsala University and a former university college (högskola) previously known in English as University of Gotland (). It is located in Visby on the Baltic island of Gotland, Sweden. The school became a part of Uppsala University on 1 July 2013, and has been known as 'Uppsala University – Campus Gotland' since then.
The university college was originally established in 1998 and had around 4,300 registered students in 2007, many of them part-time and distance students. The main building which used to be an old Whiskey distillery is located in the central part of Visby, between the city marina and the Almedalen park. The Rindi Student Union, which organises the students, has its own building, called Rindi-borgen.
The Gotland Game Conference is held annually in June, where campus students show games, movies, and animations produced in the last year.
See also
List of colleges and universities in Sweden
References
External links
Campus Gotland – Official site
Gotland Game Awards – Gotland Game Awards
GAME – Game département at HGo
GotArk – Gotland Archaeological Student Association
Visby
University colleges in Sweden
Buildings and structures in Gotland County | [
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|
216953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A4vle%20University%20College | Gävle University College | University of Gävle () is a university college (högskola) located in Gävle, Sweden. It uses the name "University of Gävle" in English, although it is officially a 'University College'. The university was established in 1977 and is currently organized into three academies and nine departments.
The university offers around 45 masters- and bachelor's degrees and 800 courses in technology, social- and natural sciences and the humanities. The university's postgraduate education at the Ph.D level is through the KTH research school, a collaboration between the university and the Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm. Currently the KTH research school is directed by Professor Christer Sjostrom with several professorships specializing in different subjects including geographic information systems or GeoInformatics. In June 2010, the University of Gävle was granted the right to award a PhD degree in the area of "Built Environment" ("Byggd miljö") and in 2012 "Health in working life" ("Hälsofrämjande arbetsliv")
The facilities of the campus consist of various buildings used by the Swedish infantry since 1909. The military stopped utilizing the buildings in 1993 after which, in 1997, the university's new campus was inaugurated. In 2006 a new library was added to the campus.
References
Notes
External links
University of Gävle - Official site
Gävle
Buildings and structures in Gävleborg County
Educational institutions established in 1977
1977 establishments in Sweden | [
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|
216954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A4lardalen%20University%20College | Mälardalen University College | Mälardalen University (Swedish: Mälardalens universitet), or MDU, is a Swedish university located in Västerås and Eskilstuna, Sweden. It has 16,000 students and around 1000 employees, of which 91 are professors, 504 teachers, and 215 doctoral students. Mälardalen University is the world's first environmentally certified school according to the international standard ISO 14001.
In December 2020, the Löfven government proposed that the university should receive university status from 1 January 2022.
Research
The University has six different research specialisations: educational sciences and mathematics, embedded systems, future energy, health and welfare, industrial economics and management, and innovation and product realisation.
Education
The University has education in economics, health and welfare, teacher education, and engineering, as well as art education in classical music and opera. Education at the research level is given within a dozen subjects.
Organization
Mälardalen University is organized into four schools:
School of Health, Care and Social Welfare
School of Education, Culture, and Communication
School of Sustainable Development of Society and Technology
School of Innovation, Design, and Engineering
See also
List of universities in Sweden
References
External links
Official website
Educational institutions established in 1977
Mälardalen University College
Buildings and structures in Västerås
Buildings and structures in Södermanland County
Education in Västerås
1977 establishments in Sweden | [
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|
216955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristianstad%20University | Kristianstad University | The Kristianstad University () is a university college (högskola) in Kristianstad, Sweden.
Established in 1977, Kristianstad University is one of the newest Swedish institutions of higher education. However, higher education in the region is much older. Teacher education can be traced back to 1835. A training course for nursing was started in 1893. Technical education was established in 1912.
Despite the young age of the institution of Business Administration the BSc programme in business administration is ranked top 3 in the country by the Swedish Council of Higher Education since 2012 (ranked 1st 2012 and 2017). A master thesis done in Stockholm School of Economics ranks Kristianstad's programme as #2 behind the first mentioned.
In 1995, Kristianstad University moved into the present main campus. The college has 12 000 students in various fields of study., Programmes and courses are offered in teaching, behavioural, social, natural and health sciences, business administration and engineering.
Academic Departments
Faculty of Health Science
Education and research is conducted at the Faculty of health science within four departments:
Department of Nursing and Health Sciences
Department of Oral Health
Department of Public Health
Department of Social Sciences
Faculty of Natural Science
Education and research are conducted at the faculty within three departments:
Department of Computer Science
Department of Food and Meal Science
Department of Environmental Science and Bioscience
Faculty of Education
Education and research is conducted at the faculty within five departments:
Department of Humanities
Department of Mathematics and Science Education
Department of Psychology
Department of Educational Sciences specializing in Pre-School and After School Care, Teaching and Learning
Department of Educational Sciences specializing in Primary and Secondary School, and Special Needs Education
Faculty of Business
Education and research is conducted at the faculty within three departments:
Department of Business
Department of Design
Department of Work science
References
About Kristianstad University
External links
Kristianstad University - Official site
University colleges in Sweden
Kristianstad Municipality
Educational institutions established in 1977
1977 establishments in Sweden | [
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|
216956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycobiology | Glycobiology | Defined in the narrowest sense, glycobiology is the study of the structure, biosynthesis, and biology of saccharides (sugar chains or glycans) that are widely distributed in nature. Sugars or saccharides are essential components of all living things and aspects of the various roles they play in biology are researched in various medical, biochemical and biotechnological fields.
History
According to Oxford English Dictionary the specific term glycobiology was coined in 1988 by Prof. Raymond Dwek to recognize the coming together of the traditional disciplines of carbohydrate chemistry and biochemistry. This coming together was as a result of a much greater understanding of the cellular and molecular biology of glycans. However, as early as the late nineteenth century pioneering efforts were being made by Emil Fisher to establish the structure of some basic sugar molecules. Each year the Society of Glycobiology awards the Rosalind Kornfeld award for lifetime achievement in the field of glycobiology.
Glycoconjugates
Sugars may be linked to other types of biological molecule to form glycoconjugates. The enzymatic process of glycosylation creates sugars/saccharides linked to themselves and to other molecules by the glycosidic bond, thereby producing glycans. Glycoproteins, proteoglycans and glycolipids are the most abundant glycoconjugates found in mammalian cells. They are found predominantly on the outer cell membrane and in secreted fluids. Glycoconjugates have been shown to be important in cell-cell interactions due to the presence on the cell surface of various glycan binding receptors in addition to the glycoconjugates themselves. In addition to their function in protein folding and cellular attachment, the N-linked glycans of a protein can modulate the protein's function, in some cases acting as an on-off switch.
Glycomics
"Glycomics, analogous to genomics and proteomics, is the systematic study of all glycan structures of a given cell type or organism" and is a subset of glycobiology.
Challenges in the study of sugar structures
Part of the variability seen in saccharide structures is because monosaccharide units may be coupled to each other in many different ways, as opposed to the amino acids of proteins or the nucleotides in DNA, which are always coupled together in a standard fashion. The study of glycan structures is also complicated by the lack of a direct template for their biosynthesis, contrary to the case with proteins where their amino acid sequence is determined by their corresponding gene.
Glycans are secondary gene products and therefore are generated by the coordinated action of many enzymes in the subcellular compartments of a cell. Since the structure of a glycan may depend on the expression, activity and accessibility of the different biosynthetic enzymes, it is not possible to use recombinant DNA technology in order to produce large quantities of glycans for structural and functional studies as it is for proteins.
Modern tools and techniques for glycan structure prediction and study of glycan-binding ligands
Advanced analytical instruments and software programs, when used in combination, can unlock the mystery of glycan structures. Current techniques for structural annotation and analysis of glycans include liquid chromatography (LC), capillary electrophoresis (CE), mass spectrometry (MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and lectin arrays.
One of the most widely used techniques is mass spectrometry which uses three principal units: the ionizer, analyzer and detector.
Glycan arrays, like that offered by the Consortium for Functional Glycomics and Z Biotech LLC, contain carbohydrate compounds that can be screened with lectins or antibodies to define carbohydrate specificity and identify ligands.
Multiple reaction monitoring (MRM)
MRM is a mass spectrometry-based technique that has recently been used for site-specific glyosylation profiling. Although MRM has been used extensively in metabolomics and proteomics, its high sensitivity and linear response over a wide dynamic range make it especially suited for glycan biomarker research and discovery. MRM is performed on a triple quadrupole (QqQ) instrument, which is set to detect a predetermined precursor ion in the first quadrupole, a fragmented in the collision quadrupole, and a predetermined fragment ion in the third quadrupole. It is a non-scanning technique, wherein each transition is detected individually and the detection of multiple transitions occurs concurrently in duty cycles. This technique is being used to characterize the immune glycome.
Medicine
Drugs already on the market, such as heparin, erythropoietin and a few anti-flu drugs, have proven effective and highlight the importance of glycans as a new class of drug. Additionally, the search for new anti-cancer drugs is opening up new possibilities in glycobiology. Anti-cancer drugs with new and varied action mechanisms together with anti-inflammatory and anti-infection drugs are today undergoing clinical trials. They may alleviate or complete current therapies. Although these glycans are molecules that are difficult to synthesize in a reproducible way, owing to their complex structure, this new field of research is highly encouraging for the future.
Skin
Glycobiology, in which recent developments have been made possible by the latest technological advances, helps provide a more specific and precise understanding of skin aging.
It has now been clearly established that glycans are major constituents of the skin and play a decisive role in skin homeostasis.
They play a crucial role in the recognition of molecules and cells, they act, most notably, at the surface of cells to deliver biological messages.
They are instrumental in the metabolism of cells: synthesis, proliferation and differentiation
They have a role to play in the structure and architecture of tissue.
Vital to the proper functioning of skin, glycans undergo both qualitative and quantitative changes in the course of aging. The functions of communication and metabolism are impaired and the skin's architecture is degraded.
See also
Sugar signal transduction
Glycan-protein interactions
References
External links
Vendor Glycoconjugates, Glycan Recognizing Proteins
The Functional Glycomics Gateway. monthly updated web resource, a collaboration of Nature and the Consortium for Functional Glycomics.
Carolyn Bertozzi's Seminar: "Chemical Glycobiology"
http://www.healthcanal.com/medical-breakthroughs/22037-UGA-scientists-team-define-first-ever-sequence-biologically-important-carbohydrate.html
Branches of biology
Biochemistry
Glycomics
Carbohydrates | [
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|
216958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclipse%20%28software%29 | Eclipse (software) | Eclipse is an integrated development environment (IDE) used in computer programming. It contains a base workspace and an extensible plug-in system for customizing the environment. It is the second-most-popular IDE for Java development, and, until 2016, was the most popular. Eclipse is written mostly in Java and its primary use is for developing Java applications, but it may also be used to develop applications in other programming languages via plug-ins, including Ada, ABAP, C, C++, C#, Clojure, COBOL, D, Erlang, Fortran, Groovy, Haskell, JavaScript, Julia, Lasso, Lua, NATURAL, Perl, PHP, Prolog, Python, R, Ruby (including Ruby on Rails framework), Rust, Scala, and Scheme. It can also be used to develop documents with LaTeX (via a TeXlipse plug-in) and packages for the software Mathematica. Development environments include the Eclipse Java development tools (JDT) for Java and Scala, Eclipse CDT for C/C++, and Eclipse PDT for PHP, among others.
The initial codebase originated from IBM VisualAge. The Eclipse software development kit (SDK), which includes the Java development tools, is meant for Java developers. Users can extend its abilities by installing plug-ins written for the Eclipse Platform, such as development toolkits for other programming languages, and can write and contribute their own plug-in modules. Since the introduction of the OSGi implementation (Equinox) in version 3 of Eclipse, plug-ins can be plugged-stopped dynamically and are termed (OSGI) bundles.
Eclipse software development kit (SDK) is free and open-source software, released under the terms of the Eclipse Public License, although it is incompatible with the GNU General Public License. It was one of the first IDEs to run under GNU Classpath and it runs without problems under IcedTea.
History
Eclipse was inspired by the Smalltalk-based VisualAge family of integrated development environment (IDE) products. Although fairly successful, a major drawback of the VisualAge products was that developed code was not in a component-based software engineering model. Instead, all code for a project was held in a compressed lump (somewhat like a zip file but in a proprietary format called .dat). Individual classes could not be easily accessed, certainly not outside the tool. A team primarily at the IBM Cary, NC lab developed the new product as a Java-based replacement.
In November 2001, a consortium was formed with a board of stewards to further the development of Eclipse as open-source software. It is estimated that IBM had already invested nearly $40 million by that time. The original members were Borland, IBM, Merant, QNX Software Systems, Rational Software, Red Hat, SuSE, TogetherSoft, and WebGain. The number of stewards increased to over 80 by the end of 2003. In January 2004, the Eclipse Foundation was created.
Eclipse 3.0 (released on 21 June 2004) selected the OSGi Service Platform specifications as the runtime architecture.
The Association for Computing Machinery recognized Eclipse with the 2011 ACM Software Systems Award on 26 April 2012.
Licensing
The Eclipse Public License (EPL) is the fundamental license under which Eclipse projects are released. Some projects require dual licensing, for which the Eclipse Distribution License (EDL) is available, although use of this license must be applied for and is considered on a case-by-case basis.
Eclipse was originally released under the Common Public License, but was later re-licensed under the Eclipse Public License. The Free Software Foundation has said that both licenses are free software licenses, but are incompatible with the GNU General Public License (GPL).
Name
According to Lee Nackman, Chief Technology Officer of IBM's Rational division (originating in 2003) at that time, the name "Eclipse" (dating from at least 2001) was not a wordplay on Sun Microsystems, as the product's primary competition at the time of naming was Microsoft Visual Studio, which Eclipse was to eclipse.
Different versions of Eclipse have been given different science-related names. The versions named after Callisto, Europa, and Ganymede, which are moons of Jupiter, were followed by a version named after Galileo, the discoverer of those moons. These were followed by two sun-themed names, Helios of Greek mythology, and Indigo, one of the seven colors of a rainbow (which is produced by the sun). The version after that, Juno, has a triple meaning: a Roman mythological figure, an asteroid, and a spacecraft to Jupiter. Kepler, Luna, and Mars continued the astronomy theme, and then Neon and Oxygen constituted a theme of chemical elements. Photon represented a return to sun-themed names.
, the alphabetic scheme was abandoned in order to better align with the new Simultaneous Release strategy. Releases are named in the format YYYY-MM to reflect the quarterly releases, starting with version 4.9 named 2018-09.
Releases
Since 2006, the Foundation has coordinated an annual Simultaneous Release. Each release includes the Eclipse Platform and several other Eclipse projects.
From 2008 through 2018, each Simultaneous Release had occurred on the 4th Wednesday of June. In 2018 the project switched to quarterly (13 week) YYYY-MM releases without intermediate service releases.
Architecture
Eclipse uses plug-ins to provide all the functionality within and on top of the run-time system. Its run-time system is based on Equinox, an implementation of the OSGi core framework specification.
In addition to allowing the Eclipse Platform to be extended using other programming languages, such as C and Python, the plug-in framework allows the Eclipse Platform to work with typesetting languages like LaTeX and networking applications such as telnet and database management systems. The plug-in architecture supports writing any desired extension to the environment, such as for configuration management. Java and CVS support is provided in the Eclipse SDK, with support for other version control systems provided by third-party plug-ins.
With the exception of a small run-time kernel, everything in Eclipse is a plug-in. Thus, every plug-in developed integrates with Eclipse in the same way as other plug-ins; in this respect, all features are "created equal". Eclipse provides plug-ins for a wide variety of features, some of which are from third parties using both free and commercial models. Examples of plug-ins include for Unified Modeling Language (UML), for Sequence and other UML diagrams, a plug-in for DB Explorer, and many more.
The Eclipse SDK includes the Eclipse Java development tools (JDT), offering an IDE with a built-in Java incremental compiler and a full model of the Java source files. This allows for advanced refactoring techniques and code analysis. The IDE also makes use of a workspace, in this case a set of metadata over a flat filespace allowing external file modifications as long as the corresponding workspace resource is refreshed afterward.
Eclipse implements the graphical control elements of the Java toolkit called Standard Widget Toolkit (SWT), whereas most Java applications use the Java standard Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT) or Swing. Eclipse's user interface also uses an intermediate graphical user interface layer called JFace, which simplifies the construction of applications based on SWT. Eclipse was made to run on Wayland during a Google Summer of Code (GSoC) Project in 2014.
, language packs being developed by the Babel Project provide translations into over 40 natural languages.
Rich client platform
Eclipse provides the rich client platform (RCP) for developing general-purpose applications.
The following components constitute the rich client platform:
Equinox OSGi – a standard bundling framework
Core platform – boot Eclipse, run plug-ins
Standard Widget Toolkit (SWT) – a portable widget toolkit
JFace – viewer classes to bring model view controller programming to SWT, file buffers, text handling, text editors
Eclipse Workbench – views, editors, perspectives, wizards
Examples of rich client applications based on Eclipse are:
IBM Notes 8 and 9
Attachmate-Novell NetIQ Designer for Identity Manager
Apache Directory Studio
Remote Component Environment
DBeaver, a SQL client software
Portfolio Performance
UDig, a GIS software
AnyLogic, a multimethod simulation modeling tool
Server platform
Eclipse supports development for Tomcat, GlassFish and many other servers and is often capable of installing the required server (for development) directly from the IDE. It supports remote debugging, allowing a user to watch variables and step through the code of an application that is running on the attached server.
Web Tools Platform
The Eclipse Web Tools Platform (WTP) project is an extension of the Eclipse platform with tools for developing Web and Java EE applications. It includes source and graphical editors for a variety of languages, wizards and built-in applications to simplify development, and tools and APIs to support deploying, running, and testing apps.
Modeling platform
The Modeling project contains all the official projects of the Eclipse Foundation focusing on model-based development technologies. All are compatible with the Eclipse Modeling Framework created by IBM. Those projects are separated in several categories: Model Transformation, Model Development Tools, Concrete Syntax Development, Abstract Syntax Development, Technology and Research, and Amalgam.
Model Transformation projects uses Eclipse Modeling Framework (EMF) based models as an input and produce either a model or text as an output. Model to model transformation projects includes ATLAS Transformation Language (ATL), an open source transformation language and toolkit used to transform a given model or to generate a new model from a given EMF model. Model to text transformation projects contains Acceleo, an implementation of MOFM2T, a standard model to text language from the Object Management Group (OMG). The Acceleo code generator can generate any textual language (Java, PHP, Python, etc.) from EMF based models defined with any metamodel (Unified Modeling Language (UML), Systems Modeling Language (SysML), etc.). It is open-source.
Model Development Tools projects are implementations of various modeling standards used in the industry, and their toolkits. Among those projects can be found implementations of several standards:
Unified Modeling Language (UML)
Systems Modeling Language (SysML)
Object Constraint Language (OCL)
Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN)
Interactive Media Manager (IMM)
Semantics of Business Vocabulary and Business Rules (SBVR)
XML Schema (XSD)
National Electronic Distributors Association (NEDA)
The Concrete Syntax Development project contains the Graphical Modeling Framework, an Eclipse-based framework dedicated to the graphical representation of EMF based models.
The Abstract Syntax Development project hosts the Eclipse Modeling Framework, core of most of the modeling project of the Eclipse Foundation and the framework available for EMF like Connected Data Objects (CDO), EMF query or EMF validation.
Technology and Research projects are prototypes of Modeling project; this project is used to host all the modeling projects of the Eclipse Foundation during their incubation phase.
Amalgam provides the packaging and integration between all the available modeling tools for the Eclipse package dedicated to modeling tools.
Application lifecycle management
Application lifecycle management (ALM) and task management in Eclipse need an optional component called Mylyn (), an open-source implementation of the task-focused interface. It provides an API for tools embedding the task-focused interface. For software developers, it helps a developer work efficiently with many different tasks (such as bugs, problem reports or new features). Tasks are integrated into Mylyn. For all tasks that have been integrated, Mylyn monitors user activity and tries to identify information relevant to the task at hand. It uses this task context to focus the Eclipse UI on the related information. Mylyn can integrate with repositories such as Bugzilla, Trac, Redmine, Mantis, JIRA, Unfuddle, and GitHub. It focuses on improving productivity by reducing searching, scrolling, and navigation. By making task context explicit, Mylyn is also meant to facilitate multitasking, planning, reusing past efforts, and sharing expertise.
The project name comes from myelin, an electrically insulating layer that surrounds neurons' axons. The original name of this project, "Mylar", replicated a trademark of a boPET film company, so the Eclipse Foundation changed the project name.
Extensions
Eclipse supports a rich selection of extensions, adding support for Python via PyDev, Android development via Google's ADT (superseded by Android Studio since 2015), JavaFX via e(fx)clipse, JavaScript, jQuery, and many others at the Eclipse Marketplace. Valable is a Vala plug-in for Eclipse.
Alternative distributions
Several alternative distributions exist in the Eclipse project.
PHP Development Tools
The PHP Hypertext Preprocessor (PHP) Development Tools project provides a framework for the Eclipse platform. The project encompasses all development components, including code-completion, develop PHP and facilitate extensibility. It leverages the existing Eclipse Web Tools Platform (WTP) and Dynamic Languages Toolkit (DLTK).
Android Development Tools
Android Development Tools (ADT) was superseded in 2015 by the Eclipse foundation's own plugin, called Andmore: Development Tools for Android, after Google discontinued development of their plug-in for the Eclipse IDE, that is designed to provide an integrated environment in which to build Android applications. ADT/Andmore extends the abilities of Eclipse to let developers set up new Android projects, create an application UI, add packages based on the Android Framework API, debug their applications using the Android SDK tools, and export signed (or unsigned) .apk files in order to distribute their applications. It is freely available to download. Googles' ADT was the official IDE for Android until 2015 but was replaced by Eclipse's Andmore and the official Android Studio.
See also
Comparison of integrated development environments
Comparison of integrated development environments for Java
List of Eclipse-based software
List of Eclipse projects
References
Sources
External links
Android (operating system) development software
Code navigation tools
Cross-platform free software
Debuggers
Formerly proprietary software
Free HTML editors
Free integrated development environments
Free software programmed in Java (programming language)
Free UML tools
IBM software
Integrated development environments
Java development tools
Java platform
Linux integrated development environments
Linux programming tools
Linux software
MacOS programming tools
MacOS text editors
Programming tools for Windows
Software development kits
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|
216959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B6dert%C3%B6rn%20University | Södertörn University | Södertörn University (, abbreviated as SH) is a public university college () located in Flemingsberg in Huddinge Municipality, and the larger area called Södertörn, in Stockholm County, Sweden. In 2013, it had about 13,000 full-time and part-time students. The campus area in Flemingsberg hosts the main campus of SH, several departments of the Karolinska Institutet, and the School of Technology and health of the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH). The Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge (formerly Huddinge Hospital), is also located there. The university is unique in the sense that it is the only higher educational institution in Sweden that teaches and researches philosophical schools such as German idealism, existentialism, deconstruction as well as critical theory and other views which are excluded from the traditional Anglo-Saxon analytical philosophy.
History
Södertörn University was established as a university college in 1996 following a parliamentary decision in 1995. The expansion of higher education in the southern parts of Stockholm had then been investigated for a long time. The background was that the transition to higher education was low in the southern parts of Stockholm, unemployment was high and segregation problems tended to be large. Stockholm University did not consider it appropriate to increase the number of students of Stockholm University and a university in Södertörn should be independent and not part of the University of Stockholm. Karolinska Institutet had already relocated their dental education to Flemingsberg. KTH and Stockholm University had facilities in Flemingsberg and Novum Research Park was under construction.
At the university's inception in 1996, there were around 1,000 students. SH had facilities in Södertälje, Flemingsberg and Haninge. Initially the pro-vice chancellor of Stockholm University was also vice-chancellor of Södertörn University, but on 1 January 1997, Per Thullberg was appointed vice-chancellor and SH also attained the right to award their own degrees. In 2002 the main building Moas båge (Moa's crescent) was inaugurated in Flemingsberg. The building also received the Concrete Products Outdoor Environment Prize in 2003. With the new facilities the teacher education program was moved from Södertälje to Flemingsberg. In spring 2006, the university's board operations decided to move from campus Haninge to campus Flemingsberg by autumn 2008 and phase out the Södertälje campus where teaching had already been discontinued.
Södertörn University applied to the government to become a university in 2002. The application has not yet been processed. In 2004 Södertörn University applied together with Karolinska Institutet and KTH for approval to create a university network at Södertörn University based on the same model as the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom. In May 2006, an updated version of the university application was submitted to the government, including changes implemented since 2002. 1 July 2010, the Swedish Higher Education Authority granted Södertörn University the right to award doctoral degrees in the areas of Historical Studies, Critical and Cultural Theory, Environmental Studies and Politics, Economy and the Organisation of Society.
At the end of 2013 Södertörn University was awarded the task of providing the basic training programme for the police. It will run as contract education and will cover five semesters of full-time studies, including a six-month traineeship at a police authority. The first 180 police cadets started their education at Södertörn University in January 2015.
In 2013 Södertörn University had 12,578 students, of whom 6,984 were full-time students.
Departments
Södertörn University has four academic schools:
Department of Historical and Contemporary Studies
Department of Culture and Education
Department of Natural Sciences, Technology and Environmental Studies
School of Social Sciences
Subjects
Subjects at the university:
Science
Södertörn University carries out research in the humanities, social sciences, science, environment, technology and educational science.
Institutes and research centres
The primary purpose of the research centres is to bring academic added value by focusing on scientifically interesting fields that lie at the intersections of traditional disciplines. This way the university wishes to create a creative meeting place for staff and students.
Centre for Baltic and East European Studies (CBEES)
The Academy of Public Administration
Centre for Studies in Practical Knowledge
ENTER forum for research on entrepreneurship
The Institute of Contemporary History (SHI)
The Stockholm Centre on Health of Societies in Transition (SHOHOST)
Maritime Archaeological Research Institute at Södertörn University
Södertörn University Library
The Södertörn University Library building was designed by Christer Malmström Arkitektkontor AB, and has received one of Sweden's most prestigious prizes for architecture, the Kasper Salin Prize. The 11,000 square metre building contains the library's collection, examination rooms, study areas and has 700 study spaces. The library was opened in 2004.
Vice-chancellors
1 January 1997 – 31 December 2002: Per Thullberg
2003 – 30 June 2010: Ingela Josefson
1 July 2010 – 30 June 2016: Moira von Wright
1 July 2016–: Gustav Amberg
Notable people
Faculty
Sara Danius, Professor of Aesthetics, former Member (2013–2019) and Permanent Secretary (2015–2018) of the Swedish Academy.
Aris Fioretos, Professor of Aesthetics.
Yvonne Hirdman, Professor of Contemporary History.
Ebba Witt-Brattström, Professor of Literature.
Alumni
Kodjo Akolor, TV and radio personality.
Esabelle Dingizian, politician, Third Deputy Speaker of the Riksdag (2014–2018).
Kristian Gidlund, musician and author.
Jytte Guteland, politician,
Anna-Karin Hatt, corporate leader and politician, Minister for IT and Regional Affairs (2009–2011) and Minister for IT and Energy (2011–2014) of Sweden.
Mohamed Said, actor.
See also
List of colleges and universities in Sweden
References
University colleges in Sweden
Higher education in Stockholm
Educational institutions established in 1996
1996 establishments in Sweden | [
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|
216961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20West | University West | University West () is a university college (högskola) located in Trollhättan, in southwestern Sweden. University West was initially called University College of Trollhättan/Uddevalla () and had three campuses, in Trollhättan, Uddevalla and Vänersborg. In 2008 all activities were relocated to new facilities in Trollhättan.
University West offers bachelor's (first cycle), master's (second cycle) and doctoral (third cycle) programmes within a variety of fields like IT, economics and management, health studies, education and engineering. In 2020 there were 27 first cycle programmes and 17 second and third cycle programmes.
As of 2021 there are 13,000 students enrolled and the university employs more than 700 people, including more than 60 professors.
Work-integrated learning in education and research
University West implements work-integrated learning (WIL) in its education and research. The university sees both theoretical and practical knowledge as crucial in education and knowledge creation. Through WIL, students get an opportunity to apply theoretical knowledge to real-life situations and are able to bring back practical experiences into the classroom, thereby improving learning and the student's grasp of his or her field.
University West conducts extensive and internationally recognized research within the field of work-integrated learning and has a unique doctoral programme i WIL. They university is also a member of WACE, an international organisation aimed at strengthening cooperative and work-integrated learning around the world.
Departments and Schools
The university consists of four academic departments/schools.
School of Business, Economics and IT
Department of Social and Behavioural Studies
Department of Health Sciences
Department of Engineering Sciences
The current vice-chancellor of the university is Prof. Dr. Martin Hellström.
See also
List of colleges and universities in Sweden
References
External links
Official website
West | [
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|
216962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%20jay | Brown jay | The brown jay (Psilorhinus morio) is a large American jay which has the habitus of a magpie, but is slightly smaller and with a shorter tail, though the bill is larger.
It occurs from Mexico south into Central America on the Gulf slope. The northernmost extent of the bird is in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas.
Description
Brown jays vary in plumage geographically: there are two main groups. Northern birds are almost completely dark brown, with lighter brown on the underparts. Southern birds are white-bellied and have bright white tips to the outer tail feathers. The intergrade zone is in Veracruz, Mexico.
Adults in both populations have black bills, legs, and feet. Immatures have yellow bare parts, including yellow eye-rings.
The voice is a loud but low-pitched pee-ah call and is often modified to suit its situation or mood.
Ecology
Food is sought largely in trees but brown jays also take some food from the ground. They are rather indiscriminate feeders. Insects and a wide range of other invertebrates are taken, also lizards, nectar, and fruit (e.g. that of Trophis racemosa (Moraceae)). Though they will take eggs and nestlings, they appear not to if there is plenty of other food available.
The nest is built in a tree or large shrub with both sexes helping in construction. There are normally three eggs laid but six is not unusual. Incubation is between 18 and 20 days. Only the female broods but the male feeds her while doing so.
Sometimes the offspring from a previous season will help in raising the chicks. If a helper bird returns with food, it will give it to one of the resident parents to feed the chicks.
Range
In Central America, the brown jay is not found in El Salvador; the range is on the Pacific side of Central America in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and western Panama. It does not extend into South America.
References
Further reading
External links
Juvenile brown jay with yellow bill photo by Monte M. Taylor at tsuru-bird.net
Brown jay photos at greglasley.net
Crow/Jay Image page with brown jay photos at otterside.com
brown jay
Birds of the Rio Grande valleys
Birds of Mexico
Birds of Central America
Birds of the Yucatán Peninsula
Birds of Belize
Birds of Guatemala
brown jay
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|
216964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlstad%20University | Karlstad University | Karlstad University (Swedish Karlstads universitet) is a state university in Karlstad, Sweden. It was originally established as the Karlstad campus of the University of Gothenburg in 1967, and this campus became an independent university college in 1977 which was granted full university status in 1999 by the Government of Sweden. The university has about 40 educational programmes, 30 programme extensions and 900 courses within humanities, social studies, science, technology, teaching, health care and arts. As of today, it has approximately 16,000 students and 1,200 employees. Its university press is named Karlstad University Press. The current Rector is Johan Sterte.
CTF Service Research Center (Swedish Centrum för tjänsteforskning) at Karlstad University is one of the world's leading research centers focusing on service management and value creation through service.
On March 26, 2009 the faculty of Economics, communication and IT formed Karlstad Business School (Swedish Handelshögskolan vid Karlstads universitet) as a brand of their educational programmes in the business related areas.
Karlstad University has two a cappella groups, Sällskapet CMB and Söt Likör. Many students live at the nearby student accommodation facilities called Unionen and Campus Futurum.
The motto of the University is Sapere aude (Dare to know).
Organization
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences
Karlstad Business School:
Working Life Science, Business Administration, Information Systems, Law, Economics, Statistics
Department of Artistic Studies:
Ingesund School of Music, Dance, Visual Art
Department of Political, Historical, Religious and Cultural Studies:
History, Cultural Studies, Religious Studies, Social and Political Studies, Political Science
Department of Social and Psychological Studies:
Gender Studies, Social Work, Psychology, Sociology
Department of Language, Literature and Intercultural Studies:
English, Intercultural Studies, Comparative Literature, Spanish, Swedish as a Second Language, Swedish Language
Department of Geography, Media and Communication:
Human Geography, Media and Communication Studies, Geography, Tourism Studies, Film Studies
Department of Educational Studies:
Drama, Pedagogy, Pedagogical Work, Special needs Education
Department of Administration
Faculty of Health, Science and Technology
Department of Environmental and Life Sciences:
Biology, Environmental Science, Physical Geography, Risk Management
Department of Health Sciences:
Biomedical Science, Public Health Science, Sports Sciences, Nursing, Oral Health
Department of Engineering and Chemical Sciences:
Construction Engineering, Miljö- och energisystem, Chemistry, Chemical Engineering
Department of Engineering and Physics:
Electrical Engineering, Physics, Mechanical Engineering, Materials Engineering
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science:
Computer Science, Mathematics
Department of Administration
Faculty Board for Teacher Education
Institutions of higher education issuing teaching degrees are obliged to have a board with responsibility for the teacher education programmes. The Faculty Board for Teacher Education is also responsible for educational research.
University Administration and Central Services
Executive Office
Human Resources Office
Financial Office
Student services Centre
Communications and External Relations
IT Department
Janitorial Services
Cleaning Services
Printing Office
University Library
Karlstad Business School
At Karlstad University there is a business school situated with focus on a service perspective.
Karlstad Business School has seven disciplines and has a deep interest in economics and business. CTF Service Research Center conducts world leading research with a focus on value creation through service.
Ingesund School of Music
The Ingesund School of Music is part of Karlstad University and the Department of Artistic Studies. It is situated in the beautiful Arvika area in mid-Sweden. The school offers music teacher education, music studies, and sound engineering.
Buildings
Karlstad University has a new and environmentally friendly way of heating and cooling the university's buildings. The initiative is one of the largest in a campus area in Europe, making Karlstad University almost self-sufficient for heat and cold.
With the new plant, Karlstad University will produce virtually all its heat and cooling locally. This will happen via 270 drilled holes, 200 meters down to the ground. And the environmental benefits are many, among other things, carbon dioxide emissions are radically reduced and energy consumption for heating and cooling buildings can fall by about 70 percent.
The investment means that the current district heating is replaced and that heat can instead be supplied by heat pump technology. During the summer, heat is stored in the ground and then taken up during the winter.
There is no other campus in Europe with a comprehensive geo-energy plant in this size, says Birgitta Hohlfält, Regional Director of Akademiska Hus Väst.
Notable people
Stefan Holm (b. 1976), retired Swedish high jumper, works at Karlstad University today.
See also
List of universities in Sweden
References
External links
Karlstad University Website
Universities in Sweden
Karlstad
Educational institutions established in 1977
Buildings and structures in Värmland County
1977 establishments in Sweden | [
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216965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flinders%20Petrie | Flinders Petrie | Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie, FRS, FBA (3 June 1853 – 28 July 1942), commonly known as Flinders Petrie, was an English Egyptologist and a pioneer of systematic methodology in archaeology and preservation of artefacts. He held the first chair of Egyptology in the United Kingdom, and excavated many of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt in conjunction with his wife, Hilda Petrie. Some consider his most famous discovery to be that of the Merneptah Stele, an opinion with which Petrie himself concurred.
Petrie developed the system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings.
Early life
Petrie was born on 3 June 1853 in Maryon Road, Charlton, Kent, England, the son of William Petrie (1821–1908) and Anne (née Flinders) (1812–1892). Anne was the daughter of British Captain Matthew Flinders, who led the first circumnavigation of Australia and whom Matthew was named after. William Petrie was an electrical engineer who developed carbon arc lighting and later developed chemical processes for Johnson, Matthey & Co.
Petrie was raised in a Christian household (his father being a member of the Plymouth Brethren), and was educated at home. He had no formal education. His father taught his son how to survey accurately, laying the foundation for his archaeological career. At the age of eight, he was tutored in French, Latin, and Greek, until he had a collapse and was taught at home. He also ventured his first archaeological opinion aged eight, when friends visiting the Petrie family were describing the unearthing of the Brading Roman Villa in the Isle of Wight. The boy was horrified to hear the rough shovelling out of the contents, and protested that the earth should be pared away, inch by inch, to see all that was in it and how it lay. "All that I have done since," he wrote when he was in his late seventies, "was there to begin with, so true it is that we can only develop what is born in the mind. I was already in archaeology by nature."
Academic career
The chair of Edwards Professor of Egyptian Archaeology and Philology at University College London was set up and funded in 1892 following a bequest from Amelia Edwards, who died suddenly in that year. Petrie's supporter since 1880, Edwards had instructed that he should be its first incumbent. He continued to excavate in Egypt after taking up the professorship, training many of the best archaeologists of the day.
In 1904 Petrie published Methods and Aims in Archaeology, the definitive work of his time, in which he lucidly defined the goals and methodology of his profession along with the more practical aspects of archaeology—such as details of excavation, including the use of cameras in the field. With uncommon insight, he noted that research results were dependent on the personality of the archaeologist, who, in addition to possessing broad knowledge, had to have insatiable curiosity. His own abundance of that characteristic was never questioned.
In 1913 Petrie sold his large collection of Egyptian antiquities to University College, London, where it is now housed in the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology. One of his trainees, Howard Carter, went on to discover the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922.
Petrie's mental capacity
Archaeology career
In Britain
In his teenage years, Petrie surveyed British prehistoric monuments, commencing with the late Romano-British 'British Camp' that lay within yards of his family home in Charlton, in attempts to understand their geometry. At 19 he produced the most accurate survey of Stonehenge.
Giza survey
His father had corresponded with Piazzi Smyth about his theories of the Great Pyramid and Petrie travelled to Egypt in early 1880 to make an accurate survey of Giza, making him the first to properly investigate how the pyramids there were constructed; many theories had been advanced on this, and Petrie read them all, but none was based on first hand observation or logic.
Petrie's published reports of this triangulation survey, and his analysis of the architecture of Giza therein, was exemplary in its methodology and accuracy, disproving Smyth's theories and still providing much of the basic data regarding the pyramid plateau to this day. On that visit, he was appalled by the rate of destruction of monuments (some listed in guidebooks had been worn away completely since then) and mummies. He described Egypt as "a house on fire, so rapid was the destruction" and felt his duty to be that of a "salvage man, to get all I could, as quickly as possible and then, when I was 60, I would sit and write it all."
Egypt Exploration Fund affiliation
Returning to England at the end of 1880, Petrie wrote a number of articles and then met Amelia Edwards, journalist and patron of the Egypt Exploration Fund (now the Egypt Exploration Society), who became his strong supporter and later appointed him as professor at her Egyptology chair at University College London. Impressed by his scientific approach, the university
offered him work as the successor to Édouard Naville. Petrie accepted the position and was given the sum of £250 per month to cover the excavation expenses. In November 1884, Petrie arrived in Egypt to begin his excavations.
Tanis dig
He first went to a New Kingdom site at Tanis, with 170 workmen. He cut out the middle man role of foreman on this and all subsequent excavations, taking complete overall control himself and removing pressure on the workmen from the foreman to discover finds quickly but sloppily. Though he was regarded as an amateur and dilettante by more established Egyptologists, this made him popular with his workers, who found several small but significant finds that would have been lost under the old system.
Tell Nebesheh dig
In 1886, while working for the Egypt Exploration Fund, Petrie excavated at Tell Nebesheh in the Eastern Nile Delta. This site is located 8 miles southeast of Tanis and, among the remains of an ancient temple there, Petrie found a royal sphinx, now located at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Nile and Sehel Island
By the end of the Tanis dig, he ran out of funding but, reluctant to leave the country in case it was renewed, he spent 1887 cruising the Nile taking photographs as a less subjective record than sketches. During this time, he also climbed rope ladders at Sehel Island near Aswan to draw and photograph thousands of early Egyptian inscriptions on a cliff face, recording embassies to Nubia, famines and wars.
Fayum burials
By the time he reached Aswan, a telegram had reached there to confirm the renewal of his funding. He then went straight to the burial site at Fayum, particularly interested in post-30 BC burials, which had not previously been fully studied. He found intact tombs and 60 of the famous portraits, and discovered from inscriptions on the mummies that they were kept with their living families for generations before burial. Under Auguste Mariette's arrangements, he sent 50% of these portraits to the Egyptian department of antiquities.
However, when he later found that Gaston Maspero placed little value on them and left them open to the elements in a yard behind the museum to deteriorate, he angrily demanded that they all be returned, forcing Maspero to pick the 12 best examples for the museum to keep and return 48 to Petrie, who sent them to London for a special showing at the British Museum. Resuming work, he discovered the village of the Pharaonic tomb-workers.
Palestine, Tell Hesi and Wadi Rababah
In 1890, Petrie made the first of his many forays into Palestine, leading to much important archaeological work. His six-week excavation of Tell el-Hesi (which was mistakenly identified as Lachish) that year represents the first scientific excavation of an archaeological site in the Holy Land. Petrie surveyed a group of tombs in the Wadi al-Rababah (the biblical Hinnom) of Jerusalem, largely dating to the Iron Age and early Roman periods. Here, in these ancient monuments, Petrie discovered that two different types of cubit had been used as units of length.
Amarna
From 1891, he worked on the temple of Aten at Tell-el-Amarna, discovering a New Kingdom painted pavement of garden and animals and hunting scenes. This became a tourist attraction but, as there was no direct access to the site, tourists wrecked neighbouring fields on their way to it. This made local farmers deface the paintings, and it is only thanks to Petrie's copies that their original appearance is known.
Discovery of the 'Israel' or Merneptah stele
In early 1896, Petrie and his archaeological team were conducting excavations on a temple in Petrie's area of concession at Luxor. This temple complex was located just north of the original funerary temple of Amenhotep III, which had been built on a flood plain. They were initially surprised that this building which they were excavating
was also attributed to Amenophis III since only his name appeared on blocks strewn over the site...Could one king have had two mortuary temples? Petrie dug and soon solved the puzzle: the temple had been built by Merneptah or Merenptah, the son and successor of Ramesses II, almost entirely from stone which had been plundered from the temple of Amenophis III nearby. Statues of the latter had been smashed and the pieces thrown into the foundations; fragments of couchant stone jackals, which must have once formed an imposing avenue approaching the pylon, and broken drums gave some idea of the splendour of the original temple. A statue of Merneptah himself was found—the first known portrait of this king....Better was to follow: two splendid stelae were found, both of them usurped on the reverse side by Merneptah, who had turned them face to the wall. One, beautifully carved, showed Amenophis III in battle with Nubians and Syrians; the other, of black granite, was over ten feet high, larger than any stela previously known; the original text commemorated the building achievements of Amenophis and described the beauties and magnificence of the temple in which it had stood. When it could be turned over, an inscription of Merneptah was revealed, recording his triumphs over the Libyans and the Peoples of the Sea; [Wilhelm] Spiegelberg [a noted German philologist] came over to read it, and near the end of the text he was puzzled by one name, that of a people or tribe whom Merenptah had victoriously smitten-"I.si.ri.ar?" It was Petrie whose quick imaginative mind leapt to the solution: "Israel!" Spiegelberg agreed that it must be so. "Won't the reverends be pleased?" was his comment. At dinner that evening Petrie prophesied: "This stele will be better known in the world than anything else I have found." It was the first mention of the word "Israel" in any Egyptian text and the news made headlines when it reached the English papers.
During the field season of 1895/6, at the Ramesseum, Petrie and the young German Egyptologist Wilhelm Spiegelberg became friends. Spiegelberg was in charge of the edition of many texts discovered by his British colleague, and Petrie offered important collections of artefacts to the University of Strasbourg. In 1897, the Kaiser-Wilhelms-Universität Straßburg gratefully conferred to Petrie the title of doctor honoris causa, and in June 1902 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS).
Hu and Abadiya cemeteries
From 1889-99 Petrie directed a team excavating over 17 cemeteries containing numerous graves between Hu and Abadiya, Egypt. The dig team included Beatrice Orme, David Randall-MacIver, Arthur Cruttenden Mace, Henrietta Lawes and Hilda Petrie. Predynastic, Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Roman graves were excavated and published at 'Diospolis Parva'.
Later life
In 1923, Petrie was knighted for services to British archaeology and Egyptology.
Palestine: Jemmeh and Ajjul
The focus of his work shifted permanently to Palestine in 1926. From 1927 until 1938,he excavated in Palestine under the auspices of the American School of Research. he discovered ruins of ten cities in tell hasi.He began excavating several important sites in the south-west of Palestine, including Tell Jemmeh and Tell el-Ajjul.
Luxor and the novel excavation system
In parallel with his work in Palestine, Petrie became interested in early Egypt. In 1928, while digging a cemetery at Luxor, this proved so huge that he devised an entirely new excavation system, including comparison charts for finds, which is still used today.
Move to Jerusalem
In 1933, on retiring from his professorship, he moved permanently to Jerusalem, where he lived with Lady Petrie at the British School of Archaeology, then temporarily headquartered at the American School of Oriental Research (today the W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research).
Death and preservation of head
Petrie died in Jerusalem on 28 July 1942. His body was interred in the Protestant Cemetery on Mount Zion, but he donated his head (and thus his brain) to the Royal College of Surgeons of London. World War II was then at its height, and the head was delayed in transit. After being stored in a jar in the college basement, its label fell off and no one knew to whom the head belonged. However, it was eventually identified, and is now stored, but not displayed, at the Royal College of Surgeons.
Personal life
Petrie married Hilda Urlin (1871–1957) in London on 26 November 1896. The couple had two children, John (1907–1972) and Ann (1909–1989). The family originally lived in Hampstead, London, where an English Heritage blue plaque has been placed on the building they lived in at 5 Cannon Place. John Flinders Petrie became a noted mathematician, who gave his name to the Petrie polygon.
Legacy
Scientific excavation methods
Flinders Petrie's painstaking recording and study of artefacts set new standards in archaeology. He wrote: "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details."
Relative dating through pottery
By linking styles of pottery with periods, he was the first to use seriation in Egyptology, a new method for establishing the chronology of a site.
Teacher and mentor
Petrie was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including Howard Carter. On the centennial of Petrie's birth in 1953, his widow Hilda Petrie created a student travel scholarship to Egypt.
Egypt findings
Many thousands of artefacts recovered during excavations led by Petrie can be found in museums worldwide.
Petrie Medal for archaeology
The Petrie Medal was created in celebration of Petrie's seventieth birthday, when funds were raised to commission and produce 20 medals to be awarded "once in every three years for distinguished work in Archaeology, preferably to a British subject". The first medal was awarded to Petrie himself (1925), and the first few recipients included Sir Aurel Stein (1928), Sir Arthur Evans (1931), Abbé Henri Breuil (1934), Prof. J.D. Beazley (1937), Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1950), Prof. J.B. Wace (1953), and Sir Leonard Woolley (1957).
Racist and anti-democratic views
Petrie remains controversial for his anti-democratic and pro-eugenics racial views, and was a dedicated believer in the superiority of the Northern peoples over the Latinate and Southern peoples. These views spilled over into his academic opinions. Believing that society is the product of racial biology, he contended that the culture of Ancient Egypt was derived from an invading Caucasoid "Dynastic Race", which had entered Egypt from the south in late predynastic times, conquered the "inferior, exhausted mulatto" natives, and slowly introduced the higher Dynastic civilisation as it interbred with them. Petrie engaged in fierce controversies with the British Museum's Egyptology expert E. A. Wallis Budge, who contended that the religion of the Egyptians was not introduced by invaders, but was essentially identical to that of the people of northeastern and central Africa; however, most of their colleagues judged Petrie's opinion to be more "scientific".
Palestinian archaeology
His involvement in Palestinian archaeology was examined in the exhibition "A Future for the Past: Petrie's Palestinian Collection".
Published work
A number of Petrie's discoveries were presented to the Royal Archaeological Society and described in the society's Archaeological Journal by his good friend and fellow archaeologist Flaxman Charles John Spurrell. Petrie published a total of 97 books.
Tel el-Hesy (Lachish). London: Palestine Exploration Fund.
"The Tomb-Cutter's Cubits at Jerusalem," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly, 1892 Vol. 24: 24–35.
Contributions to the Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed.
Selected works
Naukratis, Pt. I, Egypt Exploration Fund, 1886.
Tanis, Pt. I, Egypt Exploration Fund, 1889.
Migrations, Anthropological Inst. of Great Britain and Ireland, 1906.
Janus in Modern Life, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1907.
Eastern Exploration – Past and Future London: Constable and Company Ltd., 1918.
Some Sources of Human History, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1919.
The Status of the Jews in Egypt, G. Allen & Unwin, 1922.
The Revolutions of Civilization, Harper & Brothers, 1922.
Gallery
References
Further reading
Callaway, Joseph A. "Sir Flinders Petrie, Father of Palestinian Archaeology." Biblical Archaeology Review, 1980 Vol. 6, Issue 6: 44–55.
Drower, Margaret S. Flinders Petrie: A Life in Archaeology, (2nd publication) University of Wisconsin Press, 1995.
Drower, Margaret S. Letters from the Desert – the Correspondence of Flinders and Hilda Petrie, Aris & Philips, 2004.
Petrie, William Matthew Flinders. Seventy Years in Archaeology, H. Holt and Company 1932
Picton, Janet; Quicke, Stephen; Roberts, Paul C. (eds). "Living Images: Egyptian Funerary Portraits in the Petrie Museum." 2007. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek.
Quirke, Stephen. Hidden Hands, Egyptian workforces in Petrie excavation archives, 1880–1924, London 2010
Schultz, Teresa and Trumpour, Mark, "The Father of Egyptology" in Canada. 2009. Journal of the American Research Centre in Egypt, No. 44, 2008. 159 – 167.
Silberman, Neil Asher. "Petrie's Head: Eugenics and Near Eastern Archaeology", in Alice B. Kehoe and Mary Beth Emmerichs, Assembling the Past (Albuquerque, NM, 1999).
Stevenson, Alice. "'We seem to be working in the same line'. A.H.L.F. Pitt-Rivers and W.M.F. Petrie. Bulletin of the History of Archaeology, 2012 Vol 22, Issue 1: 4–13.
Trigger, Bruce G. "Paradigms in Sudan Archeology", International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 27, no. 2 (1994).
Uphill, E.P. "A Bibliography of Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie (1853–1942)," Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 1972 Vol. 31: 356–379.
External links
William Matthew Flinders Petrie: The Father of Egyptian Archaeology, 1853–1942
Manchester Museum
Hilda Mary Isobel Petrie born Urlin (1871–1956)
The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology in London
1853 births
1942 deaths
Academics of University College London
Archaeologists from London
English Egyptologists
Knights Bachelor
English Anglicans
People from Charlton, London
Fellows of the Royal Society
Burials at Mount Zion (Protestant)
19th-century archaeologists
20th-century archaeologists
Fellows of the British Academy | [
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216966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96rebro%20University | Örebro University | Örebro University () is a state university in Örebro, Sweden.
The university has its roots in the Örebro campus of Uppsala University, which became an independent state university college in 1977, Örebro University College (Högskolan i Örebro). The university college also incorporated three other existing educational institutions in Örebro: the teaching seminar, the sports college (founded in 1966) and the social work college (founded 1967). Örebro University College was granted the privileges of a university by the Government of Sweden in 1999, becoming the 12th university in Sweden.
On 30 March 2010 the university was granted the right to award medical degrees in collaboration with Örebro University Hospital, making it the 7th medical school in Sweden. Örebro University co-hosts the Centre of Gender Excellence established by the Swedish Research Council.
The law programme at Örebro University is one of Sweden's most popular programmes (number 10 in 2018, with more than 4,800 applicants).
History
In 1967, Uppsala University established a branch in Örebro, the College of Social Sciences. In 1977, Örebro University College was established through a merger of the Uppsala University branch in Örebro, the Preschool Teaching Seminary, and the College of Physical Education and Sport Science. In 1999, the university college was granted the status of a university by the Government of Sweden and opened by Prime Minister Göran Persson on 6 February 1999.
Rankings
Örebro University is ranked in the 401-500 band in the Times Higher Education world ranking. The university’s place is 403.
Örebro University is ranked number 75 on the Times Higher Education’s list of the best young universities in the world. This list includes only universities established less than 50 years ago.
Faculties
Faculty of Business, Science and Engineering
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
Faculty of Medicine and Health
Schools
School of Health and Medical Sciences
School of Hospitality, Culinary Arts and Food Science
School of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences
School of Law, Psychology and Social work
School of Music, Theatre and Art
School of Science and Technology
Business School
Vice-Chancellors
Thore Hammarland (1977–1978)
Stefan Björklund (1978–1982)
Anders Stening (1983–1989)
Ingemar Lind (1990–1999)
Janerik Gidlund (1999–2008)
Jens Schollin (2008–2016)
Johan Schnürer (2016–present)
Alumni
Lars Adaktusson, Member of the European Parliament
Stefan Borsch, vocalist, Vikingarna (1973–1979)
Johan Dennelind, CEO, Telia Company
Lars Joel Eriksson, politics editor, Skånska Dagbladet
Fredrick Federley, Member of Parliament, Centre Party
Mats Jansson, CEO, SAS Group (2007–2010)
Hans Karlsson, Minister for Employment
Ulrika Knape, Olympic medalist in diving (1972 and 1976)
Pernilla Månsson Colt, television host
Göran Persson, Swedish Prime Minister (1996–2006)
Elisabeth Svantesson, Minister for Employment, Member of Parliament, Moderate Party
Sten Tolgfors, Minister for Defense and Foreign Trade, Member of Parliament, Moderate Party
Rickard Olsson, television and radio host
Sven-Göran Eriksson, Football manager
Marika Domanski Lyfors, coach of the Swedish women's national football team (1996–2005)
Faculty
Anna G. Jónasdóttir, political science, gender studies; Professor Emerita
Fuat Deniz, sociology, killed on campus on 13 December 2007
Gallery
See also
:Category:Örebro University alumni
References
External links
Örebro University - Official site
Universities in Sweden
Örebro
Educational institutions established in 1977
Buildings and structures in Örebro County
1977 establishments in Sweden | [
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|
216967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed%20Management%20Task%20Force | Distributed Management Task Force |
Overview
DMTF is a 501(c)(6) nonprofit industry standards organization that creates open manageability standards spanning diverse emerging and traditional IT infrastructures including cloud, virtualization, network, servers and storage. Member companies and alliance partners collaborate on standards to improve interoperable management of information technologies.
Based in Portland, Oregon, the DMTF is led by a board of directors representing technology companies including: Broadcom Inc., Cisco, Dell Technologies, Hewlett Packard Enterprise, Intel Corporation, Lenovo, NetApp, Positive Tecnologia S.A., and Verizon.
History
Founded in 1992 as the Desktop Management Task Force, the organization’s first standard was the now-legacy Desktop Management Interface (DMI). As the organization evolved to address distributed management through additional standards, such as the Common Information Model (CIM), it changed its name to the Distributed Management Task Force in 1999 , but is now known as, DMTF.
The DMTF continues to address converged, hybrid IT and the Software Defined Data Center (SDDC) with its latest specifications, such as the Redfish standard, SMBIOS and PMCI standards.
DMTF Standards
DMTF standards include:
CADF - Cloud Auditing Data Federation
CIMI - Cloud Infrastructure Management Interface
CIM - Common Information Model
DASH - Desktop and Mobile Architecture for System Hardware
MCTP - Management Component Transport Protocol
Including NVMe-MI™, I2C/SMBus and PCIe® Bindings
NC-SI - Network Controller Sideband Interface
OVF - Open Virtualization Format
PLDM - Platform Level Data Model
Including Firmware Update, Redfish Device Enablement (RDE)
Redfish – Including Protocols, Schema, Host Interface, Profiles
SMASH - Systems Management Architecture for Server Hardware
SMBIOS - System Management BIOS
See also
Cloud Infrastructure Management Interface
Common Information Model (computing)
Desktop and mobile Architecture for System Hardware
Management Component Transport Protocol
NC-SI
Open Virtualization Format
Redfish (specification)
Systems Management Architecture for Server Hardware
System Management BIOS
References
General
https://www.theregister.co.uk/2015/08/05/dmtf_signs_off_redfish_server_management_spec_v_10/
https://digitalisationworld.com/news/49120/dmtf-announces-redfish-api-advancements
https://searchstorage.techtarget.com/tip/Choose-the-right-storage-management-interface-for-you
External links
Technology trade associations
DMTF standards
Information technology organizations
Network management
Standards organizations in the United States
Working groups
Task forces | [
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|
216970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Mandelson | Peter Mandelson | Peter Benjamin Mandelson, Baron Mandelson (born 21 October 1953) is a British Labour Party politician who served as First Secretary of State from 2009 to 2010. He was President of the Board of Trade in 1998 and from 2008 to 2010. He is the president of international think tank Policy Network, honorary president of the Great Britain–China Centre, and chairman of strategic advisory firm Global Counsel. Mandelson is often referred to as a Blairite.
From 1985 to 1990, Mandelson served as Labour's Director of Communications. He was one of the first to whom the term 'spin doctor' was applied and gained the nickname 'the Prince of Darkness' because of his 'ruthlessness' and 'media savvy'. He served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Hartlepool from 1992 to 2004 and held a number of Cabinet positions under Prime Ministers Tony Blair and Gordon Brown. He was the European Commissioner for Trade between 2004 and 2008.
Mandelson was one of several key people responsible for the rebranding of the Labour Party as New Labour before its victory in the 1997 election. He was twice forced to resign from the Cabinet before leaving Parliament to take up an appointment as a European Commissioner. He later rejoined the Cabinet for a third time after being created a life peer, sitting on the Labour benches in the House of Lords. He is the only person to have held the position of First Secretary of State as a Peer.
Early life
Family
Peter Mandelson was born in Hendon, Middlesex, on 21 October 1953, the son of Mary Joyce (née Morrison) and George Norman Mandelson. His father's family were Jewish; his grandfather had founded the Harrow United Synagogue. His father (known as Tony) was the advertising manager of The Jewish Chronicle who was commissioned as an officer in the Royal Dragoons in the Second World War. On his mother's side, Mandelson is a grandson of Herbert Morrison, the London County Council Leader and Labour Cabinet Minister in the Attlee ministry.
Mandelson was raised in Hampstead Garden Suburb. He says of his childhood – "my whole upbringing was framed around the Suburb – my friendships and values".
Education
Mandelson attended Garden Suburb School, and between 1965 and 1972, Hendon County Grammar School. In 1966 he appeared on stage with the local amateur theatre group, the Hampstead Garden Suburb Dramatic Society, as the eponymous lead in The Winslow Boy.
From 1973 to 1976 he read philosophy, politics and economics at St Catherine's College, Oxford. During his teenage years he was a member of the Young Communist League, but later became a member of the Oxford University Labour Club.
Early career
In the late 1970s he became Chairman of the British Youth Council. As Chair of the BYC, he was a delegate in 1978 to the Soviet-organised World Festival of Youth and Students in Havana, Cuba. There, with several future Labour Cabinet colleagues, he – together with future IUSY President Hilary Barnard, Charles Clarke, Richard Corbett and Trevor Phillips – successfully frustrated agreement on a distorted Soviet text on youth in the capitalist countries.
He was elected to Lambeth Borough Council in 1979 but stood down in 1982, disillusioned with the state of Labour politics.
Mandelson then worked for some time as a television producer at London Weekend Television on Weekend World, where he formed a friendship with his superior John (now Lord) Birt.
Political career
Labour's Director of Communications
In 1985, the Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock appointed him as the party's Director of Communications. As Director, he was one of the first people in Britain to whom the term "spin doctor" was applied; he was thus called "the Prince of Darkness".
In 1986 Mandelson ran the campaign at the Fulham by-election in which Labour defeated the Conservative Party. For the 1987 election campaign, Mandelson commissioned film director Hugh Hudson, whose Chariots of Fire (1981) had won an Oscar as Best Picture, to make a party political broadcast promoting Neil Kinnock as a potential prime minister. Tagged "Kinnock – the Movie", it led to the party leader's approval rating being raised by 16% or 19% in polls and was even repeated in another PPB slot. The election, held on 11 June 1987, returned Margaret Thatcher's Conservatives for the third time, although Labour gained 20 seats, and, this time, convincingly pushed the SDP-Liberal Alliance into third place. Opponents termed the Labour Party's election campaign "a brilliantly successful election defeat".
He ceased being a Labour Party official in 1990 when he was selected as Labour candidate for the safe seat of Hartlepool.
Malcolm Tucker, the fictional character from Armando Iannucci's The Thick of It, is based, in part, on Mandelson.
As an MP
Mandelson was first elected to the House of Commons at the 1992 general election, and made several speeches outlining his strong support for the European Union. Although sidelined during the brief period when John Smith led the party, Mandelson was by now close to two Shadow Cabinet members – Gordon Brown and Tony Blair – each regarded as potential future leaders of the party.
Following Smith's sudden death on 12 May 1994, Mandelson chose to back Blair for the leadership, believing him to be a superior communicator to Brown and played a leading role in the leadership campaign. This created antagonism between Mandelson and Brown, though they were considered allies in the Labour Party. In 1994 Kate Garvey suggested that Mandelson (who was at the time being derided by the trade unions and other Labour factions), should adopt a "nom de guerre" throughout Blair's leadership bid, so that he might conceal his considerable role within the campaign team. Mandelson agreed to be called "Bobby" for the duration and was thanked by Blair using this name in his victory speech.
After becoming a close ally and trusted adviser to Tony Blair, Mandelson was Labour's election campaign director for the 1997 general election, which Labour won decisively.
Minister without Portfolio
He was appointed as a Minister without Portfolio in the Cabinet Office, where his job was to co-ordinate within government. A few months later, he also acquired responsibility for the Millennium Dome, after Blair decided to go ahead with the project despite the opposition of most of the cabinet (including the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport who had been running it). Jennie Page, the Dome project's chief executive, was abruptly sacked after a farcical opening night. She gave evidence to a House of Commons Select Committee for Culture and Heritage in June 2000. In what was seen as a reference to the close interest in the Dome from Mandelson, known at the time as so-called "Dome Secretary" and his successor Lord Falconer of Thoroton, Page told the committee: "I made several attempts to persuade ministers that standing back from the Dome would be good for them as well as good for the Dome".
In July 1998 he was appointed to the Cabinet as Secretary of State for Trade and Industry; he launched the Millennium Bug And Electronic Commerce Bill and a Competitiveness White Paper, which he described, as 'bold, far reaching and absolutely necessary'. He also appointed a "Net Tsar" to lead the UK in what he termed the "new industrial revolution". In 1998 he was appointed a Privy Counsellor.
Mandelson bought a home in Notting Hill in 1996 partly with an interest-free loan of £373,000 from Geoffrey Robinson, a cabinet colleague and millionaire whose business dealings were subject to an inquiry by Mandelson's department. Mandelson contended that he had deliberately not taken part in any decisions relating to Robinson. However, he had not declared the loan in the Register of Members' Interests and resigned in December 1998. Mandelson had also not declared the loan to his building society (the Britannia) although they decided not to take any action, with the CEO stating "I am satisfied that the information given to us at the time of the mortgage application was accurate." Mandelson initially thought he could weather the press storm, but had to resign when it became clear that the Prime Minister thought nothing else would clear the air.
In October 2000 it was reported that Robinson had "accused Peter Mandelson of lying to the Commons about the home loan affair that cost both of them their government jobs."
Secretary of State for Northern Ireland
He was out of the Cabinet for ten months. In October 1999 he was appointed Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, replacing Mo Mowlam. In his very first speech in the post he mistakenly referred to himself as the "Secretary of State for Ireland." During his tenure he oversaw the creation of the devolved legislative assembly and power-sharing executive and reform of the police service.
On 24 January 2001 Mandelson resigned from the Government for a second time, following accusations of using his position to influence a passport application.
He had contacted Home Office Minister Mike O'Brien on behalf of Srichand Hinduja, an Indian businessman who was seeking British citizenship and whose family firm was to become the main sponsor of the "Faith Zone" in the Millennium Dome. At the time Hinduja and his brothers were under investigation by the Indian government for alleged involvement in the Bofors scandal.
Mandelson insisted he had done nothing wrong and was exonerated by an independent inquiry by Sir Anthony Hammond, which concluded that neither Mandelson nor anyone else had acted improperly.
At the 2001 general election Mandelson was challenged by Arthur Scargill of the Socialist Labour Party and by John Booth, a former Labour Party press officer standing as "Genuine Labour", but Mandelson was re-elected with a large majority. This prompted him to make an exuberant acceptance speech, which was televised live, in which he declared that "I'm a fighter, not a quitter" and referred to his "inner steel".
Stepping down as MP
Despite Labour success in the June 2001 general election, a third Cabinet appointment did not materialise and he indicated his interest in becoming the United Kingdom's European Commissioner when the new Commission was established in 2004. Both of Britain's Commissioners, Neil Kinnock and Chris Patten, were due to stand down. Appointment as a European Commissioner would require his resignation from Parliament precipitating a by-election in his Hartlepool constituency. His appointment was announced in the summer and on 8 September 2004 Mandelson resigned his seat by submitting his name as Steward of the Manor of Northstead. Labour won the subsequent Hartlepool by-election with a much-reduced majority of 2,033 votes (equating to 40.7% of the vote). He was succeeded as MP for Hartlepool by Iain Wright.
European Commissioner
On 22 November 2004 Mandelson became Britain's European Commissioner, taking the trade portfolio.
In October 2008 he left his post as Trade Commissioner to return to UK politics. As a former EU Commissioner, Lord Mandelson is entitled to a £31,000 pension when he reaches the age of 65 years. It was claimed by Christopher Hope of The Daily Telegraph in 2009 that Mandelson's pension was contingent on a "duty of loyalty to the Communities", which also applied after his term in office. The Taxpayers' Alliance, which was reported to have uncovered the threat to his pension, demanded that he should declare the conflict of interest and either relinquish his EU pay cheques or resign as a minister. "When one considers that his new ministerial post deals specifically with business, enterprise and regulatory reform – all areas that are intimately involved with EU legislation, regulation and policy –" the group said, "the conflict of interest is even more stark." Mandelson did not agree that he had a conflict of interests. "He has always had a clear view of British interests and how they are secured by our EU membership," a spokesperson said.
The website Full Fact reported in 2019 that the claim was untrue, stating that while there are rules governing the conduct of current and former EU staff members, which can lead to pensions sanctions, the European Commission had informed them that it would be “probably impossible” for such people to lose their pension for criticising the EU or supporting Brexit. Full Fact also pointed out that there had been multiple cases of both current and ex-commissioners criticising the EU – in April 2019, German former Commissioner Günter Verheugen criticised the EU’s Brexit negotiating position, saying “the problem is on the EU side”, while in 2017 British former Commissioner Lord Hill had supported “getting on” with Brexit.
Peerage and return to Cabinet
On 3 October 2008, as part of Gordon Brown's Cabinet reshuffle, it was announced amid some controversy that Mandelson would return to Government in the re-designated post of Business Secretary and would be raised to the peerage, thus becoming a member of the House of Lords. On 13 October 2008 he was created Baron Mandelson, of Foy in the County of Herefordshire and of Hartlepool in the County of Durham, and was introduced in the House of Lords the same day.
Following his return to office, Mandelson supported the planned Heathrow expansion. On 6 March 2009, environmental protester Leila Deen of anti-aviation group Plane Stupid approached him outside a summit on the government's low carbon industrial strategy and threw a cup of green custard in his face in protest over his support for a third runway at Heathrow Airport. The protester was cautioned on 9 April for causing "harassment, alarm or distress".
In a Cabinet reshuffle on 5 June 2009 Mandelson was granted the honorific title of First Secretary of State and appointed Lord President of the Council; it was also announced that the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills would be merged into his, giving him the new title of Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills and that he would continue as President of the Board of Trade.
Mandelson was a member of 35 of the 43 Cabinet committees and subcommittees.
In August 2009 Mandelson was widely reported to have ordered "technical measures" such as internet disconnection to be included in the draft of the Digital Economy Act 2010 after a "big lobbying operation", even though the Digital Britain report had rejected this type of punishment. The Independent reported that according to their Whitehall sources, Mandelson was persuaded that tough laws were needed to reduce online copyright infringement following an intensive lobbying campaign by influential people in the music and film industry. The paper also reported that this included a meeting with DreamWorks co-founder David Geffen at the Rothschild family villa on the Greek island of Corfu. Mandelson's spokesperson claimed that there had been no discussion of internet piracy during the Corfu dinner and suggested that the decision to reverse Lord Carter's findings had been taken in late July before the trip. The Times reported after the Corfu meeting that an unnamed Whitehall source had confirmed that before this trip, Mandelson had shown little personal interest in the Digital Britain agenda, which has been ongoing for several years. According to the source of The Times, Mandelson returned from holiday and effectively issued an edict that the regulation needed to be tougher.
In August 2011 a Freedom of Information (FOI) request showed that Mandelson had decided to approve the inclusion of technical measures, such as the disconnection of internet access, at least two months before public consultation had finished and that he had shown little interest in the consultation. Letters from Mandelson's office document talks with Lucian Grainge, CEO of Universal Music Group, on 2 June 2009 and that on the following day Mandelson advised Lord Carter about the "possibility of [the Secretary of State] having a power to direct Ofcom to go directly to introduce technical measures". Mandelson made the formal announcement that technical measures, including disconnection, were to be included in the Digital Economy Bill two months later on 7 August 2009.
An opinion poll conducted by the centre-left think tank Compass found in March 2009 that Mandelson was less disliked by party members than Deputy Leader Harriet Harman. This was felt to be unusual as Mandelson "historically has been unpopular among Labour members". Tony Blair's assertion in 1996 that "my project will be complete when the Labour Party learns to love Peter Mandelson" was seen as prophetic in late September 2009 when Mandelson was enthusiastically received at the party conference in Brighton.
Post-Cabinet career
After the Labour Party lost the 2010 general election, Mandelson's memoirs, The Third Man: Life at the Heart of New Labour, were published in July 2010, two months after leaving office. The memoirs were subsequently criticised by Labour leadership contenders Ed and David Miliband and Andy Burnham. During this time he was appointed President of the international think tank Policy Network.
In November 2010, Mandelson and Benjamin Wegg-Prosser founded Global Counsel, a consultancy firm based in London, with the financial support of WPP, the advertising giant. The firm provides advice for corporate strategists and senior management worldwide. Mandelson has been criticised for so far not disclosing his clients.
In 1999, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014 Mandelson was an invited guest of the Bilderberg Group and attended the annual conferences.
In January 2011, it was announced that Mandelson would serve as a senior adviser to the advisory investment banking firm, Lazard. In 2013, he also joined the Board of Trustees of Deutsche Bank's Alfred Herrhausen Gesellschaft. In May 2011 it was revealed that there was speculation that Mandelson had been approached by China to be a candidate for the leadership of the International Monetary Fund, even though Mandelson had not been a finance minister or headed a central bank. However, it was then speculated that Mandelson would stand to succeed Pascal Lamy as Director-General of the World Trade Organization, backed by David Cameron.
In May 2012, Mandelson confirmed that he was advising Asia Pulp & Paper (APP) in selling timber products to Europe. In 2012 APP was accused of illegal logging in Indonesia and damaging the habitats of rare animals such as the Sumatran tiger. At least 67 companies worldwide, such as Tesco and Kraft Foods since 2004 and Danone since 2012 have boycotted APP.
In 2013, Mandelson was appointed to the revived post of High Steward of Hull, a ceremonial position held by his grandfather Herbert Morrison in 1956–65 and defunct since 1974.
Labour leadership of Jeremy Corbyn
After the 2015 Labour leadership election resulted in Jeremy Corbyn becoming the party leader, Mandelson stated that he believed that Labour was now unelectable, but advised party members unhappy with the situation to wait for Corbyn to demonstrate this before working to replace him. He wished for an early general election to force Corbyn out. In February 2017, he said Corbyn had "no idea in the 21st century how to conduct himself as a leader of a party putting itself forward in a democratic election" and "I work every single day to bring forward the end of [Corbyn's] tenure in office".
After the results of the 2017 general election became known, Mandelson conceded that Corbyn's election campaign was "very sure footed" and the result, in which Labour gained seats and denied the Conservatives a majority, unexpected. "I was wrong" about Corbyn, he told BBC News. "I am very surprised, an earthquake has happened in British politics and I did not foresee it", although he doubted Corbyn's ability to gain a Commons majority. Two years later, in the 2019 general election, Labour suffered their worst defeat since the 1930s. Mandelson described the result as "not undeserved", arguing that Corbyn's leadership was one of the main reasons for Labour's defeat.
Remain campaign
During the 2016 EU referendum, Mandelson sat on the board on Britain Stronger IN Europe, the official "Remain" campaign. The campaign was unsuccessful.
Following the referendum, Mandelson was an outspoken supporter of a second referendum.
WTO lobbying
After Roberto Azevêdo announced he would step down as Director-General of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in September 2020, Mandelson declared his interest in running to succeed him. He proceeded to lobby governments around the world for the job, arguing that the WTO had "reached a fork in the road" and had to be "picked up and put back on its feet". Mandelson was overlooked in favour of the Conservative Liam Fox due to his opposition to Brexit. His candidacy ended when Fox beat him to win the nomination of the UK government.
Labour leadership of Keir Starmer
In 2021 it was reported that Mandelson had been advising Labour leader Keir Starmer on moving the party beyond Corbyn's leadership and broadening its electoral appeal.
Controversies
During the 2009 expenses scandal The Daily Telegraph raised questions about the timing of Mandelson's second home allowance claim, dating from 2004, saying, "Lord Mandelson billed the taxpayer for almost £3,000 of work on his constituency home in Hartlepool less than a week after announcing his decision to stand down as an MP." Mandelson said in a statement, "The work done was necessary maintenance. All claims made were reasonable and submitted consistent with parliamentary rules."
On 22 April 2005 The Times revealed that Mandelson had spent the previous New Year's Eve on the yacht of Paul Allen, the co-founder of Microsoft, which was at the centre of a major EU investigation and although it did not allege impropriety, it did state that Mandelson's visit was inappropriate for a serving European Commissioner.
During the summer of 2008 Mandelson had a widely publicised disagreement with Nicolas Sarkozy, President of France. Sarkozy accused him of trying to sell out European farmers and appeared to blame his handling of the Doha round of trade talks for the "no" vote in the Irish referendum on the Treaty of Lisbon. Mandelson said his position at world trade talks had been undermined and told the BBC he did not start the row, saying, "I stood up for myself, I'm not to be bullied." He said he believed the row was over but renewed his warnings on protectionism.
In 2008 Mandelson was hospitalised, suffering from a kidney stone. At this time, melamine added to milk in China had caused kidney stones and other ailments in thousands of Chinese children, killing at least six. Ironically, during the previous week Mandelson had drunk a glass of Chinese yoghurt in front of reporters in order to show his confidence in Chinese dairy products, although his own kidney stones were unrelated.
In October 2008 Mandelson was reported to have maintained private contacts over several years with Russian oligarch Oleg Deripaska, most recently on holiday in August 2008 on Deripaska's yacht at Taverna Agni on the Greek island of Corfu. News of the contacts sparked criticism because, as European Union Trade Commissioner, Mandelson had been responsible for two decisions to cut aluminium tariffs that had benefited Deripaska's United Company Rusal. Mandelson denied that there had been a conflict of interest and insisted that he had never discussed aluminium tariffs with Deripaska. On 26 October 2008 the Shadow Foreign Secretary William Hague claimed the "whole country" wanted "transparency" about Mandelson's previous meetings with Deripaska. In response, Prime Minister Gordon Brown said Mandelson's dealings with Deripaska had been "found to be above board". Mandelson said that meeting business figures from "across the range" in emerging economies was part of his brief as EU Trade Commissioner. On 29 October 2008, while Mandelson was on a ministerial visit to Moscow, it was alleged in the British press that Valery Pechenkin, the head of security at Deripaska's company Basic Element, had organised a swift entry visa for Mandelson when he turned up in Moscow to visit Deripaska in 2005.
In June 2013, writing for the Progress website, Mandelson warned Labour it risked harming its election chances if affiliated trade unions continued to "manipulate parliamentary selections" as was alleged in the 2013 Labour Party Falkirk candidate selection controversy.
In April 2014 it was reported that Mandelson had strong ties to Russian conglomerate Sistema.
In 2015 it was revealed that Peter Mandelson appears in Jeffrey Epstein's contacts book, on page 34, where 10 telephone numbers and two addresses were recorded by Epstein.
Non-political commitments
Mandelson was, until 8 October 2008, the President of Central School of Speech and Drama. He was replaced in this un-remunerated post by playwright Harold Pinter, who died two months later.
In 2011, Mandelson was guest of honour at Herbert Morrison Primary School in Vauxhall, South London. The school was hosting a special themed day in honour of Mandelson's grandfather, Herbert Morrison, after whom the school was named.
Personal life
Partner and sexuality
Mandelson is gay and he is said to be 'intensely private' about his personal life. During his time as a former government leader, the press – tabloid and broadsheet alike – often portrayed Mandelson as effeminate through "the linguistic resources of camp" (as evidenced through his common nickname, 'Mandy') and narcissistic – sometimes including coded references to homosexual acts in their descriptions of his actions.
He has lived with his life partner Reinaldo Avila da Silva, a Brazilian translator, since March 1998.
Attempted outings and harassment
While his sexual orientation was known to friends, colleagues and constituents, in 1987 the News of the World ran an issue that attempted to out Mandelson as gay. Mandelson preferred to keep his personal life private and as such did not respond. Mandelson was outed again by Matthew Parris in 1998 on the BBC programme Newsnight. This led to press harassment of his partner, with the Daily Express sending a reporter to take pictures of him while he was at his languages course.
An internal investigation later found that the photos had been obtained without Avila da Silva's consent and images of him attempting to cover his face had been secretly deleted. Mandelson phoned the BBC and the Press Complaints Commission following Newsnight broadcast, and an internal memo was later sent within the BBC, stating that "Under no circumstances whatsoever should allegations about the private life of Peter Mandelson be repeated or referred to on any broadcast."
In the media
BBC Four's Storyville in 2010, Mandelson: The Real PM?, directed by Hannah Rothschild, a fly on the wall documentary about Mandelson as Business Secretary in the run up to the 2010 general election.
Mandelson was portrayed by Paul Rhys in the 2003 Channel 4 drama The Deal.
Mandelson was portrayed by Mark Gatiss in the 2015 Channel 4 drama Coalition.
Mandelson was portrayed by Nigel Planer in the 2011 comedy drama The Hunt for Tony Blair.
The Little Britain character Sebastian Love was based on Mandelson
Honours
Officer, Légion d'honneur (2017)
Life peerage (2008)
Bibliography
(with Roger Liddle) The Blair Revolution: Can New Labour Deliver? Faber, 1996 ; The Blair Revolution Revisited, (2nd ed), Politicos, 2002,
(contributor) The City in Europe and the World, European Research Forum at London Metropolitan University, 2006
The Third Man: Life at the Heart of New Labour Harper Press, 2010
Notes
References
Further reading
Jones, Nicholas (2000): Sultans of Spin: The Media and the New Labour Government Orion Books,
Macintyre, Donald (1999): Mandelson: The Biography Harper Collins,
Rawnsley, Andrew (2001): Servants of the People: The Inside Story of New Labour Penguin Books,
Routledge, Paul (1999): Mandy: The Unauthorised Biography of Peter Mandelson Simon & Schuster,
Seldon, Anthony (2005): Blair The Free Press,
Works
Mandelson, Peter (1997): Labour's next steps Fabian Society
Mandelson, Peter (2002): The Blair Revolution Revisited Politico's,
External links
Lord Mandelson, former MP - They Work For You
Peter Mandelson profile at UK Parliament
Peter Mandelson | Financial Times
Policy Network
Profile: Peter Mandelson BBC News, 3 October 2008, 13 August 2004
Peter Mandelson: Interview in full, PublicAffairsAsia.com, 18 August 2008, on sovereign wealth funds
Peter Mandelson: Interview on New Statesman, 1 October 2008.
Social Democracy Observatory
Peter Mandelson | Politics | The Guardian
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1953 births
Living people
Alumni of St Catherine's College, Oxford
British European Commissioners
Councillors in the London Borough of Lambeth
English socialists
English male non-fiction writers
English people of Polish-Jewish descent
English political writers
First Secretaries of State of the United Kingdom
Gay politicians
Labour Party (UK) life peers
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Labour Party (UK) officials
LGBT life peers
LGBT members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
LGBT politicians from England
Lord Presidents of the Council
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
New Labour
People educated at Hendon School
People from Hendon
Politics of the Borough of Hartlepool
Secretaries of State for Northern Ireland
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
Writers from London
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Presidents of the Board of Trade
Hartlepool United F.C. non-playing staff | [
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|
216971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welshpool%20and%20Llanfair%20Light%20Railway | Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway | The Welshpool & Llanfair Light Railway (W&LLR) () is a narrow gauge heritage railway in Powys, Wales. The line is around long and runs westwards from the town of Welshpool () via Castle Caereinion to the village of Llanfair Caereinion.
History
Early proposals
The first proposal to connect Llanfair Caerinion and Welshpool by railway was the Llanfair Railway of 1864; this would have been a narrow gauge line, with a mixed gauge section where it connected to the Cambrian Railways. This proposal was abandoned. The next attempt came in 1876 with the promotion of the Welshpool and Llanfair Railway Bill, which proposed a railway along a similar route to the 1864 effort. This Bill passed through the Houses of Parliament. This attempt failed in 1882 because the promoters were unable to raise sufficient capital. In 1886, another Welshpool and Llanfair Railway Bill appeared for a gauge railway on a similar route; this bill expired unused in 1892.
The Light Railways Act of 1896
In 1896, the Light Railways Act was passed, and this spurred further attempts at a railway to Llanfair Caereinion. The first of these was the Llanfair & Meifod Valley Light Railway bill of 1896, which proposed a standard-gauge line from Arddleen about 8 miles north of Welshpool, through the Meifod Valley.
In late December 1896, the mayor of Welshpool William Addie proposed a gauge railway called the Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway. By March 1897, Addie had contracted with noted narrow gauge promoter Everard Calthrop to assist in preparing a case for the inquiry. An application for a Light Railway Order was submitted to the Board of Trade in May 1897. Calthrop proposed the use of transporter wagons, 0-6-0 tank locomotives and a large "Barsi-type" locomotive for heavy market day traffic. At the August 1897 public inquiry Calthrop appeared, along with J.R. Dix manager of the Corris Railway. The enquiry considered by the Llanfair & Meifod Light Railway and the Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway proposals. The commissioners took their time deciding. Meanwhile, the promoters of the W&LLR had approached the Cambrian Railways to have them pay for and construct the railway. After much time-consuming negotiations, the Cambrian agreed and on 8th. September 1899, the Light Railway Order was granted to begin construction of the line.
Original operations
It was opened on 6 April 1903 to aid economic development in a remote area, never making a profit. It was originally operated by the Cambrian Railways, connecting with it at the former Oswestry and Newtown Railway station in the town of Welshpool. The line is built through difficult country, having a great number of curves in order to reach the summit of 600 ft. The original terminus at Welshpool was located alongside the main line station and trains wound their way through the town, using the locomotive bell as a warning.
In the 1923 Grouping of railway companies, Cambrian Railways, including the Welshpool to Llanfair Caereinion line, was absorbed by the Great Western Railway (GWR). On 9 February 1931 the line lost its passenger service, which was replaced by a bus service, and it became a freight-only line. It was temporarily re-opened to passengers between 6 and 11 August 1945 for the Eisteddfod. The GWR itself was nationalised in 1948 and became part of British Railways.
Freight traffic lingered on until 1956, by which time British Railways decided to close the line, with services ceasing on 5 November.
Preservation
A group of volunteers and enthusiasts took the line over and started raising money to restore it. On 6 April 1963 the western half of the line, from Llanfair Caereinion to Castle Caereinion, was reopened as a Heritage railway.
On 13 December 1964 a pier supporting the steel girder bridge over the River Banwy was seriously damaged by flood waters dislodging the bridge. During the spring and early summer of 1965 the 16th Railway Regiment of the Royal Engineers replaced the damaged masonry pier with a fabricated steel one and restored the span to its original position. Train services between Llanfair Caereinion to Castle Caereinion resumed on 14 August 1965.
In 1972 services were extended to Sylfaen. The line through Welshpool, however, could not be reopened, so the line now has a new terminus station at Raven Square on the western outskirts of the town, opened on 18 July 1981.
There are current discussions about reinstating the link through the town to the main line station, following a different route from that originally used.
Because of the gauge, unusual for British narrow gauge railways, locomotives and rolling stock to supplement the originals have had to be obtained from sources around the world including the Zillertalbahn in Austria. A major grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund permitted restoration of both original locomotives together with several coaches and original wagons, and provision of new workshop facilities, ready for the line's centenary.
Golfa Bank
Golfa Bank is a particularly steep bank on the railway. The bank is nearly a mile at 1 in 29, which in its day, was the steepest section of the Cambrian Railways worked by passenger trains and is still a challenging climb. The line travelling up the slope is curvy, to make the climb easier. Golfa summit is 630 ft above sea level, meaning the locomotives have to travel from about 350 ft above sea level at the bottom of golfa bank, meaning they climb 280 ft in 1.5 miles. The locomotives had to be built specifically to manage the bank, due to its steepness.
There was a halt at the top called Golfa Halt, 1 3/4 miles or 3.2 km from the Welshpool Raven Square terminus. The halt had a loop that was provided for goods traffic. The station was opened on 6 April 1903.
The Great Western Railway withdrew passenger services on 9 February 1931. and the line closed completely on 3 November 1956. The station officially reopened on 18 July 1981, however it was closed again by 2015.
Locomotives
Locomotives of the preserved railway
* = Name added by WLLR
Locomotives on hire
Former locomotives
* = Name added by WLLR
Passenger carriages
Carriages of the preserved railway
Coordinates
Welshpool station:
Llanfair station:
See also
British narrow gauge railways
Welshpool Seven Stars Halt railway station
References
Bibliography
Rushton, Gordon (2015). The Welshpool & Llanfair Railway Travellers's Guide. Llanfair Caereinion : Welshpool & Llanfair Railway.
External links
The Weshpool & Llanfair Railway's website
The Welshpool & Llanfair Light Railway - an online photo album
Golfa Bank: 3 minutes from Welshpool to Llanfair Caereinion
Heritage railways in Powys
2 ft 6 in gauge railways in Wales
Cambrian Railways
Great Western Railway constituents
Narrow gauge railways in Powys
Street running
Railway lines opened in 1903
Light railways
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|
216977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahura | Ahura | Ahura (Avestan: 𐬀𐬵𐬎𐬭𐬀) is an Avestan language designation for a particular class of Zoroastrian divinities. The term is assumed to be linguistically related to the Asuras of Indian Vedic era.
Etymology
Avestan ahura "lord" derives from Proto-Indo-Iranian language *Hásuras, also attested in an Indian context as Rigvedic asura. As suggested by the similarity to the Old Norse æsir, Indo-Iranian *Hásuras may have an even earlier Proto-Indo-European language root.
It is commonly supposed that Indo-Iranian *Hásuras was the proper name of a specific divinity with whom other divinities were later identified.
In scripture
Gathas
In the Gathas, the oldest hymns of Zoroastrianism and thought to have been composed by Zoroaster, followers are exhorted to pay reverence to only the ahuras and to rebuff the daevas and others who act "at Lie's command". That should not, however, be construed to reflect a view of a primordial opposition. Although the daevas would, in later Zoroastrian tradition, appear as malign creatures, in the Gathas the daevas are (collectively) gods that are to be rejected.
The Gathas do not specify which of the divinities other than Ahura Mazda are considered to be ahuras but does mention other ahuras in the collective sense.
Younger Avesta
In the Fravaraneh, the traditional name for the Zoroastrian credo summarized in Yasna 12.1, the adherent declares: "I profess myself a Mazda worshiper, a follower of the teachings of Zoroaster, rejecting the daevas, ... " This effectively defines ahura by defining what ahura is not.
In the Younger Avesta, three divinities of the Zoroastrian pantheon are repeatedly identified as ahuric. These three are Ahura Mazda, Mithra, and Apam Napat, the "Ahuric triad". Other divinities with whom the term "Ahuric" is associated include the six Amesha Spentas, and (notable among the yazatas) Anahita of the Waters and Ashi of Reward and Recompense.
References
Citations
Bibliography
: 684–687
: 682–683
Ancient Iranian deities
Zoroastrianism
Persian words and phrases | [
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|
216985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domenico%20Veneziano | Domenico Veneziano | Domenico Veneziano (c. 1410 – May 15, 1461) was an Italian painter of the early Renaissance, active mostly in Perugia and Tuscany.
Little is known of his birth, though he is thought to have been born in Venice, hence his last name. He then moved to Florence in 1422–23 as a boy, to become a pupil of Gentile da Fabriano. He is said to have worked with Pisanello in Rome around 1423–1430. His work was influenced by the style of Benozzo Gozzoli.
In a letter from him to Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, dated from Perugia in 1438, where he likewise resided for many years, he mentions his long connection with the fortunes of the Medici family, and begs to be allowed to paint an altarpiece for the head of that house. He was a contemporary with Fra Angelico and Fra Filippo Lippi, since those two artists and himself are known to have valued the frescoes of Buonfigli at Perugia. Between 1439 and 1441 he painted a masterpiece of the Adoration of the Magi.
Another masterpiece is considered to be the Santa Lucia de' Magnoli Altarpiece (c. 1445–1447), originally in Santa Lucia dei Magnoli, Florence and now in the Uffizi. Painted in tempera on panel, the altarpiece displays such an unusual palette for this period that Vasari wrote that it had been painted in oil. Domenico is also known for a round panel of the Adoration of the Magi (1439–1441) which was probably commissioned for the palace of the wealthy Medici family and now in Berlin. He influenced Andrea Mantegna.
Other important works are the Madonna del Roseto in the National Museum of Art of Romania and the Madonna Berenson in the Villa I Tatti in Florence, both dating to around 1432–1437.
Vasari alleged that Domenico was murdered by Andrea del Castagno. However, Castagno died c. 1457, four years before Domenico.
He worked at the decorations of the Portinari chapel in the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence from 1439–1445, and had as his assistants Piero della Francesca and Bicci di Lorenzo. It is certain that whilst employed there he used linseed oil as his medium, since the hospital books of that date make many allusions to this item in his expenses. His latter days were spent in Florence, where he died on May 15, 1461.
Predella of the Santa Lucia de' Magnoli Altarpiece
Reconstruction of the original predella
Left to right:
The Stigmata of St Francis
St John the Baptist in the desert
Annunciation
The Miracles of St Zenobius
The Martydom of St Lucy
The predella included panels with scenes of the saints of the main composition, and a central, double-size Annunciation: the Stigmata of St. Francis and John Baptist in the Desert are currently in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, the Annunciation and The Miracle of St. Zenobius are in the Fitzwilliam Museum of Cambridge, and the Martyrdom of St. Lucy is in the Berlin State Museums.
References
External links
Domenico Veneziano at the National Gallery of Art
Italian Renaissance painters
Quattrocento painters
Painters from Venice
Painters from Tuscany
1410 births
1461 deaths
Italian male painters
15th-century Italian painters
Catholic painters | [
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216986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20Ornstein | Leo Ornstein | Leo Ornstein (born Лев Орнштейн, Lev Ornshteyn; – February 24, 2002) was an American experimental composer and pianist of the early twentieth century. His performances of works by avant-garde composers and his own innovative and even shocking pieces made him a cause célèbre on both sides of the Atlantic. The bulk of his experimental works were written for piano.
Ornstein was the first important composer to make extensive use of the tone cluster. As a pianist, he was considered a world-class talent. By the mid-1920s, he had walked away from his fame and soon disappeared from popular memory. Though he gave his last public concert before the age of forty, he continued writing music for another half-century and beyond. Largely forgotten for decades, he was rediscovered in the mid-1970s. Ornstein completed his eighth and final piano sonata in September 1990 at the age of ninety-four, making him the oldest published composer in history at the time (a mark since passed by Elliott Carter).
Early life
Ornstein was born in Kremenchuk, a large town in the Ukrainian province of Poltava, then under Imperial Russian rule. He grew up in a musical environment—his father was a Jewish cantor, while a violinist uncle encouraged the young boy's studies. Ornstein was recognized early on as a prodigy on the piano; in 1902, when the celebrated Polish pianist Josef Hofmann visited Kremenchuk, he heard the six-year-old Ornstein perform. Hofmann gave him a letter of recommendation to the highly regarded St. Petersburg Conservatory. Soon after, Ornstein was accepted as a pupil at the Imperial School of Music in Kiev, then headed by Vladimir Puchalsky. A death in the family forced Ornstein's return home. In 1903, Ossip Gabrilovich heard him play and recommended him to the Moscow Conservatory. In 1904, the nine-year-old Ornstein auditioned for and was accepted by the St. Petersburg school. There he studied composition with Alexander Glazunov and piano with Anna Yesipova. By the age of eleven, Ornstein was earning his way by coaching opera singers. To escape the pogroms incited by the nationalist and antisemitic organisation Union of the Russian People, the family emigrated to the United States on February 24, 1906, exactly ninety-six years before his death. They settled in New York's Lower East Side, and Ornstein enrolled in the Institute of Musical Art—predecessor to the Juilliard School—where he studied piano with Bertha Feiring Tapper. In 1911, he made a well-received New York debut with pieces by Bach, Beethoven, Chopin, and Schumann. Recordings two years later of works by Chopin, Grieg, and Poldini demonstrate, according to music historian Michael Broyles, "a pianist of sensitivity, prodigious technical ability, and artistic maturity."
Fame and "futurism"
Ornstein soon moved in a very different direction. He began composing works containing dissonant and startling sounds. Ornstein himself was unsettled by the earliest of these compositions: "I really doubted my sanity at first. I simply said, what is that? It was so completely removed from any experience I ever had." On March 27, 1914, in London, he gave his first public performance of works then called "futurist", now known as modernist. In addition to a Busoni arrangement of three Bach choral preludes and several pieces by Schoenberg, Ornstein played a number of his own compositions. The concert caused a major stir. One newspaper described Ornstein's work as "the sum of Schoenberg and Scriabine squared." Others were more analytical: "We have never suffered from such insufferable hideousness, expressed in terms of so-called music."
Ornstein's follow-up performance provoked a near-riot: "At my second concert, devoted to my own compositions, I might have played anything. I couldn't hear the piano myself. The crowd whistled and howled and even threw handy missiles on the stage." The reaction, however, was by no means universally negative—the Musical Standard called him "one of the most remarkable composers of the day ... [with] that germ of realism and humanity which is indicative of genius." By the next year, he was the talk of the American music scene for his performances of cutting-edge works by Schoenberg, Scriabin, Bartók, Debussy, Kodály, Ravel, and Stravinsky (many of them U.S. premieres), as well as his own, even more radical compositions.
Between 1915 and the early 1920s, when he virtually ceased performing in public, Ornstein was one of the best known (by some lights, notorious) figures in American classical music. In the description of Broyles and Denise Von Glahn, his "draw was immense. He constantly performed before packed halls, often more than two thousand, in many places the 'largest audience of the season. His solo piano pieces such as Wild Men's Dance (aka Danse Sauvage; ca. 1913–14) and Impressions of the Thames (ca. 1913–14) pioneered the integrated use of the tone cluster in classical music composition, which Henry Cowell, three years Ornstein's junior, would do even more to popularize. In the description of scholar Gordon Rumson, Wild Men's Dance is a "work of vehement, unruly rhythm, compounded of dense chord clusters ... and brutal accents. Complex rhythms and gigantic crashing chords traverse the whole range of the piano. This remains a work for a great virtuoso able to imbue it with a burning, ferocious energy." Aaron Copland recalled a performance of it as the most controversial moment of his later teen years. In 2002, a New York Times reviewer declared that it "remains a shocker." According to critic Kyle Gann, Impressions of the Thames, "if Debussyan in its textures, used more prickly chords than Debussy ever dared, and also clusters in the treble range and a low pounding that foreshadowed Charlemagne Palestine, yet modulated ... with a compelling sense of unity."
As an example of what Ornstein described as "abstract music", his Sonata for Violin and Piano (1915; not 1913 as is often erroneously given) went even further; "to the brink", as he put it: "I would say that [the sonata] had brought music just to the very edge. ... I just simply drew back and said, 'beyond that lies complete chaos. In 1916, critic Herbert F. Peyser declared that "the world has indeed moved between the epoch of Beethoven and of Leo Ornstein." That spring, Ornstein gave a series of recitals in the New York home of one of his advocates; these concerts were crucial precedents for the composer societies around which the modern music scene would thrive in the 1920s. Ornstein also traveled to New Orleans in 1916, where he discovered jazz. The following year, critic James Huneker wrote,
I never thought I should live to hear Arnold Schoenberg sound tame, yet tame he sounds—almost timid and halting—after Ornstein who is, most emphatically, the only true-blue, genuine, Futurist composer alive.
In addition to "futurist", Ornstein was also sometimes labeled—along with Cowell and others in their circle—an "ultra-modernist." An article in the Baltimore Evening Sun referred to him as "the intransigent pianist, who has set the entire musical world by the ears and who is probably the most discussed figure on the concert stage." In The Musical Quarterly he was described as "the most salient musical phenomenon of our time." Swiss-born composer Ernest Bloch declared him "the single composer in America who displays positive signs of genius."
By 1918, Ornstein was sufficiently renowned that a full-length biography of him was published. The book, by Frederick H. Martens, suggests not only the level of Ornstein's fame at age twenty-four, but also his divisive effect on the cultural scene:
Leo Ornstein to many represents an evil musical genius wandering without the utmost pale of tonal orthodoxy, in a weird No-Man's Land haunted with tortuous sound, with wails of futuristic despair, with cubist shrieks and post-impressionist cries and crashes. He is the great anarch, the iconoclast.
Cowell, who had encountered Ornstein while studying in New York, would pursue a similarly radical style as part of a grand intellectual and cultural mission, which also involved ambitious writings on music theory and publishing and promotional efforts in support of the avant-garde. Ornstein, the vanguard iconoclast of American classical music, followed a much more idiosyncratic muse: "I'm guided entirely by just my musical instinct as to what I feel is consequential or inconsequential." Evidence of that is the fact that, even at the height of his ultra-modernist notoriety, he also wrote several lyrical, tonal works, such as the First Sonata for Cello and Piano: "[It] was written in less than a week under a compulsion that was not to be resisted", Ornstein later said. "Why I should have heard this romantic piece at the same period that I was tumultuously involved in the primitivism of [other works] is beyond my understanding." Commenting on the piece after Ornstein's death approximately three-quarters of a century later, critic Martin Anderson wrote that it "rivals Rachmaninov's [cello sonata] in gorgeous tunes."
Before the turn of the decade—probably in 1918 or 1919—Ornstein produced one of his most distinctive works involving tone clusters, Suicide in an Airplane. Its score calls for a high-speed bass ostinato pattern meant to simulate the sound of engines and capture the sensation of flight. The piece would serve as an inspiration for the Airplane Sonata (1923) of George Antheil, who reflected Ornstein's influence in other works such as Sonata Sauvage (1923). Writing in 2000, pianist and historian Joseph Smith cited Suicide in an Airplane among those pieces of Ornstein's that "represented (and may still represent) the ne plus ultra of pianistic violence."
Transition in the 1920s
Ornstein, burned out, effectively gave up his celebrated performance career in the early 1920s. His "music was soon forgotten", writes scholar Erik Levi, leaving him "an essentially peripheral figure in American musical life." As described by Broyles, "Ornstein had mostly retired by the time the new music organizations of the 1920s appeared. Too early and too independent, Ornstein had little desire to participate in the modernist movement by the time it caught hold in the United States. ... [He] seemed little bothered by the publicity or the lack of it. He listened only to his own voice."
Ornstein's primary compositional style was changing as well. As described by latter-day critic Gordon Rumson, his
musical language organised itself into a shimmering, luminous gradation between simplicity and harshness. The melodies have a Hebraic tint, and Ornstein does not shy from placing dissonant and tonal music side by side. This shifting of style is just one of Ornstein's creative tools. More importantly, there is a directness of emotion that makes the music genuinely appealing. It should also be noted that his music is ideally written for the piano and is clearly the work of a master pianist.
This transformation contributed to Ornstein's fade into obscurity. Those whom he had inspired now rejected him, almost as vehemently as the critics he had shocked a decade earlier. "[H]e had been radical modernism's poster boy throughout the 1910s, and when he abandoned that style for one more expressive the ultramoderns reacted as a lover scorned", according to Broyles. "Not even Cowell, known for his accepting temperament, could forgive Ornstein."
Having abandoned not only the concert stage, but also the income that went with it, Ornstein signed an exclusive contract with the Ampico label to make piano rolls. He made over two dozen rolls for Ampico, mostly of a nonmodernist repertoire; the composers he performed most often were Chopin, Schumann, and Liszt. Two rolls contained his own compositions: Berceuse (Cradle Song) (ca. 1920–21) and Prélude tragique (1924). Ornstein never recorded, in any format, even a single example of his futurist pieces which had brought him fame.
In the mid-1920s, Ornstein left New York to accept a teaching post at the Philadelphia Musical Academy, later part of the University of the Arts. During this period, he wrote some of his most important work, including the Piano Concerto, commissioned by the Philadelphia Orchestra in 1925. Two years later, he produced his Piano Quintet. An epic tonal work marked by an adventurous use of dissonance and complex rhythmic arrangements, it is recognized as a masterpiece of the genre.
Later life
In the early 1930s, Ornstein gave his last public performance. A few years later, he and his wife—the former Pauline Cosio Mallet-Prèvost (1892–1985), also a pianist—founded the Ornstein School of Music in Philadelphia. Among the students there, John Coltrane and Jimmy Smith would go on to major careers in jazz. The Ornsteins directed and taught at the school until it closed with their retirement in 1953. They essentially disappeared from public view until the mid-1970s, when they were tracked down by music historian Vivian Perlis: the couple was spending the winter in a Texas trailer park (they also had a home in New Hampshire). Ornstein had continued to compose music; equipped with a powerful memory, he was not diligent about writing it all down and had not sought to publicize it for decades. Though his style had tempered greatly since the 1910s, it retained its unique character, and with his rediscovery came a new burst of productivity. In Gann's description, piano works composed by Ornstein in his eighties, such as Solitude and Rendezvous at the Lake, featured melodies that "sprang through endless ornate curlicues that brought no other composer to mind."
In 1988, the ninety-two-year-old Ornstein wrote his Seventh Piano Sonata. With this composition Ornstein became, by a couple of years, the oldest published composer, until Elliott Carter, ever to produce a substantial new work. On September 23, 1990, at the age of ninety-four, Ornstein completed his final work, the Eighth Piano Sonata. The names of the sonata's movements reflect not only the passage of a remarkable span of time, but an undimmed sense of humor and exploratory spirit: I. "Life's Turmoil and a Few Bits of Satire" / II. "A Trip to the Attic—A Tear or Two for a Childhood Forever Gone" (a. "The Bugler" / b. "A Lament for a Lost Toy" / c. "A Half-Mutilated Cradle—Berceuse" / d. "First Carousel Ride and Sounds of a Hurdy-Gurdy") / III. "Disciplines and Improvisations." Reviewing the work's New York debut, critic Anthony Tommasini wrote, "Between the roaring craziness of the first and third movements, the middle movement is a suite of four short musical musings on childhood mementos discovered in an attic. Though completely incongruous, the shift in tone is audacious and the music disarming. The audience listened raptly, then erupted in applause."
On February 24, 2002, Ornstein died in Green Bay, Wisconsin. At the age of 106, he was among the longest-lived of composers.
See also
List of solo piano compositions by Leo Ornstein
Notes
Citations
Sources
Anderson, Martin (2002a). "Obituary: Leo Ornstein", The Independent (London), February 28.
Anderson, Martin (2002b). Liner notes to Leo Ornstein: Piano Music (Hyperion 67320) (available online).
Broyles, Michael (2004). Mavericks and Other Traditions in American Music. New Haven, Conn., and London: Yale University Press.
Broyles, Michael, and Denise Von Glahn (2007). Leo Ornstein: Modernist Dilemmas, Personal Choices. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007.
Broyles, Michael, and Denise Von Glahn (2007). Liner notes to Leo Ornstein: Complete Works for Cello and Piano (New World 80655) (available online).
Crunden, Robert Morse (2000). Body and Soul: The Making of American Modernism. New York: Basic Books.
Gann, Kyle (2000). "Tri-Century Man", Village Voice, December 19 (p. 136; available online).
Levi, Erik (2000). "Futurist Influences upon Early Twentieth-Century Music", in International Futurism in Arts and Literature, ed. Günter Berghaus. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 322–52.
Martens, Frederick H. (1975 [1918]). Leo Ornstein: The Man, His Ideas, His Work. New York: Arno (excerpted online).
Mathieson, Kenny (2002). Cookin': Hard Bop and Soul Jazz, 1954–65. Edinburgh: Canongate.
Midgette, Anne (2002). "Leo Ornstein, 108, Pianist and Avant-Garde Composer", New York Times, March 5.
Oja, Carol J. (2000). Making Music Modern: New York in the 1920s. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ornstein, Severo M. (2002). Liner notes to Leo Ornstein: Piano Sonatas (Naxos 8.559104).
Perlis, Vivian (1983). "String Quartet No. 3 by Leo Ornstein [recording review]", American Music vol. 1, no. 1, spring (pp. 104–6).
Pollack, Howard (2000 [1999]). Aaron Copland: The Life and Work of an Uncommon Man. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Porter, Lewis (1999 [1998]). John Coltrane: His Life and Music. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Rumson, Gordon (2002). "Leo Ornstein (1892–2002)", in Music of the Twentieth-Century Avant-Garde: A Biocritical Sourcebook, ed. Larry Sitsky. New York: Greenwood, pp. 351–57.
Smith, Joseph, ed. (2001 [introduction dated 2000]). American Piano Classics: 39 Works by Gottschalk, Griffes, Gershwin, Copland, and Others. Mineola, N.Y.: Courier Dover.
Stepner, Daniel (1997). Liner notes to Leo Ornstein: Piano Quintet and String Quartet No. 3 (New World 80509) (available online).
Tommasini, Anthony (2002). "A Russian Rhapsody With the Power to Jolt", New York Times, March 28.
Von Glahn, Denise, and Michael Broyles, eds. (2005). Leo Ornstein: Quintette for Piano and Strings, Op. 92. Music of the United States of America (MUSA) vol. 13. Madison, Wisc.: A-R Editions.
External links
Leo Ornstein at Music of the United States of America (MUSA)
Leo Ornstein artist's website, including a list of works (many with scores and MP3s on demand), prepared by his son Severo
The Leo Ornstein Papers at the Irving S. Gilmore Music Library at Yale University—a register of archived documents spanning his career
"Re: 100 In The Shade" a more detailed version of Martin Anderson's Ornstein obituary
Leo Ornstein and Futurism at LTM
Interview with Leo Ornstein, July 18, 1987
Listening
Leo Ornstein Centenary Program, December 1, 1992 the composer, on the occasion of his 100th birthday, visits with Charles Amirkhanian
Leo Ornstein: The Last of the Original 20th Century Mavericks Ornstein and his wife interviewed by Vivian Perlis
Ornstein Piano Music Marc-André Hamelin's performance of Suicide in an Airplane from the Hyperion Leo Ornstein: Piano Music
Sarah Cahill Plays Ornstein video of 2002 performance of A Morning in the Woods (Sep 28, 1971) for solo piano
1895 births
2002 deaths
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century classical composers
American centenarians
American male pianists
American classical composers
American classical pianists
American contemporary classical composers
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Contemporary classical music performers
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
Jews of the Russian Empire
Jewish classical composers
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Male classical pianists
Modernist composers
People from Kremenchuk
Pupils of Percy Goetschius
Ukrainian emigrants to the United States
Ukrainian Jews
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21st-century American Jews | [
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216990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borscht | Borscht | Borscht () is a sour soup common in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. In English, the word "borscht" is most often associated with the soup's variant of Ukrainian origin, made with red beetroots as one of the main ingredients, which give the dish its distinctive red color. The same name, however, is also used for a wide selection of sour-tasting soups without beetroots, such as sorrel-based green borscht, rye-based white borscht, and cabbage borscht.
Borscht derives from an ancient soup originally cooked from pickled stems, leaves and umbels of common hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium), a herbaceous plant growing in damp meadows, which lent the dish its Slavic name. With time, it evolved into a diverse array of tart soups, among which the Ukrainian beet-based red borscht has become the most popular. It is typically made by combining meat or bone stock with sautéed vegetables, which – as well as beetroots – usually include cabbage, carrots, onions, potatoes, and tomatoes. Depending on the recipe, borscht may include meat or fish, or be purely vegetarian; it may be served either hot or cold, and it may range from a hearty one-pot meal to a clear broth or a smooth drink. It is often served with smetana or sour cream, hard-boiled eggs or potatoes, but there exists an ample choice of more involved garnishes and side dishes, such as or , that can be served with the soup.
Its popularity has spread throughout Eastern Europe and – by way of migration away from Russian Empire – to other continents. In North America, borscht is often linked with either Jews or Mennonites, the groups who first brought it there from Europe. Several ethnic groups claim borscht, in its various local guises, as their own national dish consumed as part of ritual meals within Eastern Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Roman Catholic, and Jewish religious traditions.
Etymology
The name derives from the word ( or //), which is common to East Slavic languages, such as Ukrainian or Russian. Together with cognates in other Slavic languages, it comes from Proto-Slavic *bŭrščǐ 'hogweed' and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *bhr̥stis 'point, stubble'. Common hogweed () was the soup's principal ingredient before it was replaced with other vegetables, notably beetroot in the Ukrainian version. However, the English word borscht, also spelled borsch, borsht, or bortsch, comes directly from Yiddish (), as the dish was first popularized in North America by Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe.
Ingredients and preparation
Traditional Ukrainian borscht is typically made from meat or bone stock, sautéed vegetables, and beet sour (i.e., fermented beetroot juice). Depending on the recipe, some of these components may be omitted or substituted.
The stock is typically made by boiling meat, bones, or both. Beef, pork or a combination of both are most commonly used, with brisket, ribs, shank and chuck considered to give the most flavorful results, especially if cooked on a high flame. Marrow bones are considered best for the bone stock. Meat stock is usually cooked for about two hours, whereas bone stock takes four to six hours to prepare. Meat and bones are usually removed afterwards and the meat is only added back into the soup about 10–15 minutes before the borscht is done. Some recipes call for smoked meats, resulting in a distinctively smoky borscht, while others use poultry or mutton stock. Fasting varieties are typically made with fish stock to avoid the use of meat, while purely vegetarian recipes often substitute forest mushroom broth for the stock.
The vegetables most commonly added to borscht are beetroots, white cabbage, carrots, parsley root, potatoes, onions and tomatoes. Some recipes may also call for beans, tart apples, turnip, swede, celeriac, zucchini or bell peppers. Parsnip may be used as a substitute for parsley root, and tomato paste is often used as well as or instead of fresh tomatoes. Vegetables are usually julienned, except for potatoes and zucchini, which are diced. The beetroots may be partially baked before being sprinkled with vinegar or lemon juice to preserve the color and braised separately from other vegetables.
Onions, carrots, parsley root, turnip and other root vegetables are sautéed (traditionally in animal fat, especially lard or butter) and then mixed with tomatoes or tomato paste. Dry beans are boiled separately. Potatoes and cabbage are boiled in the stock for about 15 minutes before the precooked vegetables are added.
The traditional technique of preparing the soup is to precook the vegetables – by sautéing, braising, boiling or baking – separately from the meat and only then to combine them with the stock. This distinctive feature of borscht derives from the practice of slow cooking in the Russian oven (traditional masonry stove, used for both cooking and heating), wherein the differences in cooking times of individual ingredients had to be taken into account in order to ensure that all components reach doneness at the same time. The importance of this method is reflected in the Russian language, where a variant in which all vegetables are added raw directly into the stock is referred to by the diminutive form rather than .
The soup is typically flavored with a wide selection of herbs, spices and condiments. Salt, black pepper, garlic, bay leaves and dill are among the most commonly used. Other aromatics often added to borscht include allspice, celery stalks, parsley, marjoram, hot peppers, saffron, horseradish, ginger and prunes. Some recipes require flour or roux to further thicken the borscht. A common opinion is that a good borscht should be thick enough in amount of ingredients for a spoon to stand upright in it.
Beet sour
The dominant tastes in borscht are sweet and sour. This combination is traditionally obtained by adding beet sour. The sour is made by covering sliced beetroots with lukewarm preboiled water and allowing bacteria to ferment some of the sugars present in beetroots into dextran (which gives the liquid a slightly viscous consistency), mannitol, acetic acid and lactic acid. Stale rye bread is often added to hasten the process, but usually omitted in Jewish recipes, as chametz (leavened bread) would make the sour unfit for Passover meals. Sugar, salt and lemon juice may be also added to balance the flavor. After about 2–5 days (or 2–3 weeks without the bread), the deep red, sweet and sour liquid may be strained and is ready to use. It is added to borscht shortly before the soup is done, as prolonged boiling would cause the tart flavor to dissipate. The beet sour is known in Slavic languages as kvas (literally 'sour, acid'; compare kvass) and in Yiddish as (from a Slavic word originally referring to any brine obtained by steeping salted meat or vegetables in water; compare Russian 'pickle juice', Polish 'broth'). Apart from its employment in borscht, it may be also added to prepared horseradish or used as pot roast marinade.
As the traditional method of making borscht with beet sour often requires planning at least several days ahead, many recipes for quicker borscht replace the beet sour with fresh beetroot juice, while the sour taste is imparted by other ingredients. Vinegar, tomato products, lemon juice or citric acid may be used, as well as dry red wine, dill pickle juice, sauerkraut juice, tart apples, Mirabelle plums, apricots, or a fermented rye flour and water mixture.
Variations
As the home country of beetroot borscht, Ukraine boasts great diversity of the soup's regional variants, with virtually every province having its own recipe. Differences between particular varieties may regard the type of stock used (meat, bone, or both), the kind of meat (beef, pork, poultry, etc.), the choice of vegetables and the method of cutting and cooking them. For example, although the typical recipe calls for beef and pork, the Kyiv variant uses mutton or lamb as well as beef, while in the Poltava region, the stock for borscht is cooked on poultry meat, that is, chicken, duck or goose. The use of zucchini, beans and apples is characteristic of the Chernihiv borscht; in this variant, beetroots are sautéed in vegetable oil rather than lard, and the sour taste comes solely from tomatoes and tart apples. The Lviv borscht is based on bone stock and is served with chunks of Vienna sausages.
Many regional recipes for borscht have also developed in Russian cuisine. Examples include the Moscow borscht, served with pieces of beef, ham and Vienna sausages; Siberian borscht with meatballs; and Pskov borscht with dried smelt from the local lakes. Other unique Russian variants include a monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht (), the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond-shaped chunks rather than julienned.
As well as the thick borschts described above, Polish cuisine offers a ruby-colored beetroot bouillon known as , or clear red borscht. It is made by combining strained meat-and-vegetable stock with wild mushroom broth and beet sour. In some versions, smoked meat may be used for the stock and the tartness may be obtained or enhanced by adding lemon juice, dill pickle brine, or dry red wine. It may be served either in a soup bowl or – especially at dinner parties – as a hot beverage in a twin-handled cup, with a croquette or a filled pastry on the side. Unlike other types of borscht, it is not whitened with sour cream. , or Christmas Eve borscht, is a variant of the clear borscht that is traditionally served during the Polish Christmas Eve supper. In this version, meat stock is either omitted or replaced with fish broth, usually made by boiling the heads cut off from fish used in other Christmas Eve dishes. The mushrooms used for cooking the mushroom broth are reserved for (small filled dumplings), which are then served with the borscht.
Ashkenazi Jews living in Eastern Europe adopted beetroot borscht from their Slavic neighbors and adapted it to their taste and religious requirements. As combining meat with milk is proscribed by kosher dietary laws, Jews have developed two variants of the soup: meat () and dairy (). The meat variant is typically made from beef brisket (pork is never used) and cabbage, while the dairy one is vegetarian, blended with sour cream or a mixture of milk and egg yolks. Both variants typically contain beetroots and onions, and are flavored with beet sour, vinegar or citric acid for tartness and beet sugar for sweetness. Galician Jews traditionally liked their borscht particularly sweet. Jewish borscht may be served either hot or cold, typically with a hot boiled potato on the side. In prewar Eastern Europe it was traditionally put up to ferment around Purim so that it would be ready four weeks later for the Passover holiday.
Cold borscht
In the summertime, cold borscht is a popular alternative to the aforementioned variants, which are normally served hot. It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream, buttermilk, soured milk, kefir or yogurt. The mixture has a distinctive pink or magenta color. It is served refrigerated, typically over finely chopped beetroot, cucumbers, radishes and green onion, together with halves of a hard-boiled egg and sprinkled with fresh dill. Chopped veal, ham, or crawfish tails may be added as well.
This soup was known in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which comprised the territories of modern-day Lithuania and Belarus, and it is still part of the culinary traditions of these and neighboring nations. The Lithuanian language is the only one in the region which actually refers to it as 'cold borscht' (). In Belarusian it is known simply as , or 'cold soup'; Latvian shares the same definition as Belarusian with aukstā zupa ('cold soup'); in Polish it is known as chłodnik litewski, or 'Lithuanian cold soup'; and in Russian as , or 'beetroot soup'.
Variants without beets
Although borscht is mostly used to describe a beet-based soup, there are some exceptions. In some culinary cultures, there are soups with the same name or similar names. In such soups, beetroots are not used or merely optional. The principal common trait among such borschts is a tart flavor from sour-tasting ingredients. According to A Gift to Young Housewives, a book from the 19th century, "borscht" may or may not include beets (depending from recipe to recipe in the book).
In Polish cuisine, white borscht (, also known as or , 'sour soup') is made from a fermented mixture of rye flour or oatmeal and water. It is typically flavored with garlic and marjoram, and served over eggs and boiled fresh sausage; the water in which the sausage was boiled is often used instead of meat stock.
In the Carpathian Mountains of southern Poland, variants of borscht are also made in which the tart taste comes from dairy products, such as whey or buttermilk. Although the deep red color of beetroot borscht may remind those unfamiliar with Polish cuisine of blood, the kind of borscht that does contain animal (usually poultry) blood mixed with vinegar is dark brownish-gray in color and aptly called "gray borscht" (), which is a regional name of the Polish blood soup better known as .
Green borscht (), a light soup made from leaf vegetables, is an example common in Ukrainian and Russian cuisines. The naturally tart-tasting sorrel is most commonly used, but spinach, chard, nettle, garden orache and occasionally dandelion, goutweed or ramsons, may be added as well, especially after the spring season for sorrel has passed. Like beetroot borscht, it is based on meat or vegetable broth and is typically served with boiled potatoes and hard-boiled eggs, sprinkled with dill. There is also a variety of Ukrainian green borscht which includes both sorrel and beetroots.
In Romanian and Moldovan cuisines, a mixture of wheat bran or cornmeal with water that has been left to ferment, similar to, but less cloudy than that used in Polish white borscht, is called . It is used to impart a sour taste to a variety of tangy Romanian soups, known as either also or . Variants include (with meatballs), (with tripe), (with fish) and (with beetroots).
The Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian version of borscht is a hot soup made with beef stock, green peppers and other vegetables, which may or may not include beetroots, and flavored with chopped red chili and fresh cilantro. In ethnic Mennonite cuisine, borscht refers to a whole range of seasonal vegetable soups based on beef or chicken stock – from spring borscht made with spinach, sorrel and chard to summer borscht with cabbage, tomatoes, maize and squash to fall and winter borscht with cabbage, beets and potatoes.
In Chinese cuisine, a soup known as , or "Russian soup", is based on red cabbage and tomatoes, and lacks beetroots altogether; also known as "Chinese borscht", it originated in Harbin, close to the Russian border in northeast China, and has spread as far as Hong Kong. In Shanghai's Haipai cuisine, tomatoes are the main ingredient; beef and its broth, onions and cabbages are also added; while flour, rather than sour cream, is used for thickening.
Garnishes and sides
The diversity of borscht styles is matched by the wide choice of garnishes and side dishes with which various kinds of borscht may be served.
Most often, borscht is served with sour cream, the East European version of which, known as , is runnier than its American counterpart. The sour cream may be served in a separate pitcher for the diners to add the desired amount themselves or the borscht may come already "whitened", that is, blended with sour cream. Sometimes the cream is thickened with flour before being added to the soup. Yogurt and a mixture of milk and yolks are possible substitutes.
Chopped herbs are often sprinkled on the surface of the soup; dill is most common, but parsley, chives or scallion are often added as well. Individual helpings may be spiced up with minced hot peppers or garlic. Many kinds of borscht are served over halves or quarters of hard-boiled chicken or quail eggs. Navy beans, broad beans or string beans are also a common addition.
Meat, removed from the stock on which the borscht was based, may be cut into smaller chunks and either added back into the soup or served on the side with horseradish or mustard. Bacon and sausages are also commonly used as borscht garnishes. Borscht based on bone stock may be served Old Polish style, with marrow from the bones.
Some kinds of the soup, such as Poltava borscht, may be served with , or thick noodles of wheat or buckwheat flour. Siberian borscht is eaten with boiled meatballs () of minced beef and onion. In Poland and parts of western Ukraine, borscht is typically ladled over , or bite-sized ear-shaped dumplings made from pasta dough wrapped around mushroom, buckwheat or meat filling. Mushroom-filled are particularly associated with Polish Christmas Eve borscht.
Borscht, like any other soup in East Slavic cuisines, is seldom eaten by itself, but rather accompanied by a side dish. At a minimum, spoonfuls of borscht are alternated with bites of a slice of bread. Buckwheat groats or boiled potatoes, often topped with pork cracklings, are other simple possibilities, but a range of more involved sides exists as well.
In Ukraine, borscht is often accompanied with , or savory, puffy yeast-raised rolls glazed with oil and crushed garlic. In Russian cuisine, borscht may be served with any of assorted side dishes based on , or the East European variant of farmer cheese, such as , or . are baked round cheese-filled tarts; are small pancakes wherein the cheese is mixed into the batter; and a is a casserole of buckwheat groats baked with cheese.
, or baked dumplings with fillings as for , are another common side for both thick and clear variants of borscht. Polish clear borscht may be also served with a croquette or . A typical Polish croquette () is made by wrapping a (thin pancake) around a filling and coating it in breadcrumbs before refrying; (literally, 'little ) are variously shaped filled hand-held pastries of yeast-raised or flaky dough. An even more exquisite way to serve borscht is with a coulibiac, or a large loaf-shaped pie. Possible fillings for croquettes, and coulibiacs include mushrooms, sauerkraut and minced meat.
History
Origin
Borscht derives from a soup originally made by the Slavs from common hogweed (, also known as cow parsnip), which lent the dish its Slavic name. Growing commonly in damp meadows throughout the north temperate zone, hogweed was used not only as fodder (as its English names suggest), but also for human consumption – from Eastern Europe to Siberia, to northwestern North America.
The Slavs collected hogweed in May and used its roots for stewing with meat,. As for the stems, leaves, and umbels; these would be chopped, covered with water and left in a warm place to ferment. After a few days, lactic and alcoholic fermentation produced a mixture described as "something between beer and sauerkraut". This fermented product was then used for cooking a soup.
The said soup -- with aforementioned fermented hogweed concoction used -- was characterized by a mouth-puckering amount of sourness in its taste, while its smell was described as pungent As the Polish ethnographer wrote in 1830, "Poles have been always partial to tart dishes, which are somewhat peculiar to their homeland and vital to their health." Simon Syrenius (), a 17th-century Polish botanist, described "our Polish hogweed" as a vegetable that was well known throughout Poland, Ruthenia, Lithuania and Samogitia (that is, most of the northern part of Eastern Europe), typically used for cooking a "tasty and graceful soup" with capon stock, eggs, sour cream and millet. More interested in the plant's medicinal properties than its culinary use, he also recommended pickled hogweed juice as a cure for fever or hangover.
One of the earliest possible mentions of borscht as a soup is found in the diary of German merchant Martin Gruneweg, who visited Kyiv in 1584. After Gruneweg reached river Borshchahivka in Kyiv's vicinity on 17 October 1584, he wrote down a local legend saying that the river was so named because there was a borscht market. However, he doubted the story noting that: "Ruthenians buy borscht rarely or never, because everyone cooks their own at home as it's their staple food and drink".
Another early written reference to the Slavic hogweed soup can be found in (Domestic Order), a 16th-century Russian compendium of moral rules and homemaking advice. It recommends growing the plant "by the fence, around the whole garden, where the nettle grows", to cook a soup of it in springtime and reminds the reader to, "for the Lord's sake, share it with those in need".
Hogweed borscht was mostly a poor man's food. The soup's humble beginnings are still reflected in Polish fixed expressions, where "cheap like borscht" is the equivalent of "dirt cheap" (also attested as a calque in Yiddish and Canadian English), whereas adding "two mushrooms into borscht" is synonymous with excess. For the professors of the University of Kraków, who led a monastic way of life in the 17th century, hogweed borscht was a fasting dish which they ate regularly (sometimes with deviled eggs) from Lent till Rogation days. It was uncommon on the royal table, although according to the 16th-century Polish botanist Marcin of Urzędów – citing , a court physician to the Jagiellonian kings of Hungary – the Polish-born King Vladislaus II used to have a Polish hogweed-based dish prepared for him at his court in Buda.
Diversification
With time, other ingredients were added to the soup, eventually replacing hogweed altogether, and the names or became generic terms for any sour-tasting soup. In 19th-century rural Poland, this term included soups made from barberries, currants, gooseberries, cranberries, celery or plums.
When describing the uses of common hogweed, John Gerard, a 17th-century English botanist, observed that "the people of [Poland] and Lithuania [used] to make [a] drink with the decoction of this herb and leaven or some other thing made of meal, which is used instead of beer and other ordinary drink." It may suggest that hogweed soup was on some occasions combined with a fermented mixture of water and barley flour, oatmeal or rye flour. Such soured, gelatinous flour-and-water mixture, originally known as kissel (from the Proto-Slavic root *kyslŭ, 'sour') had been already mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years, a 12th-century chronicle of Kievan Rus', and continued to be a staple of Ukrainian and Russian cooking until the middle of the 19th century. In Poland, a soup based on diluted kissel became known as either (from Middle High German 'sour') or and later – to distinguish it from the red beetroot borscht – as 'white borscht'.
The earliest known Polish recipes for borscht, written by chefs catering to Polish magnates (aristocrats), are from the late 17th century. , head chef to Prince , included several borscht recipes in his (A Collection of Dishes), the first cookbook published originally in Polish, in 1682. They include such sour soups as lemon borscht and "royal borscht", the latter made from assorted dried, smoked or fresh fish and fermented rye bran. A manuscript recipe collection from the family court, dating back to ca. 1686, contains an instruction for making hogweed borscht mixed with poppy seeds or ground almonds. As this was a Lenten dish, it was garnished, in a fashion typical of Baroque cuisine, with mock eggs made from finely chopped pike that was partly dyed with saffron and formed into oval balls. An alternative recipe for the almond borscht replaced pickled hogweed with vinegar.
Borscht also evolved into a variety of sour soups to the east of Poland. Examples include onion borscht, a recipe for which was included in a 1905 Russian cookbook, and sorrel-based green borscht, which is still a popular summer soup in Ukraine and Russia. A Gift to Young Housewives by Elena Molokhovets, the best-selling Russian cookbook of the 19th century, first published in 1861, contains nine recipes for borscht, some of which are based on kvass, a traditional Slavic fermented beverage made from rye bread. Kvass-based variants were also known in Ukraine at that time; some of them were types of green borscht, while others were similar to the Russian .
Before the advent of beet-based borscht, cabbage borscht was of particular importance. Made from either fresh cabbage or sauerkraut, it could be indistinguishable from the Russian . Indeed, the mid-19th-century Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language defines as "a kind of " with beet sour added for tartness. The significance of cabbage as an essential ingredient of borscht is manifest in the Ukrainian proverb, "without bread, it's no lunch; without cabbage, it's no borscht."
Novel ingredients: beets, tomatoes and potatoes
Beet (), a plant native to the Mediterranean Basin, was already grown in antiquity. Only the leaves were of culinary use, as the tapered, tough, whitish and bitter-tasting root was considered unfit for human consumption. It is likely that beet greens were used in variants of green borscht long before the invention of the beetroot-based red borscht. Beet varieties with round, red, sweet taproots, known as beetroots, were not reliably reported until the 12th century and did not spread to Eastern Europe before the 16th century. , a Polish Renaissance poet and moralist, included the earliest known Polish recipe for pickled beetroots in his 1568 book, Life of an Honest Man. It would later evolve into , or , a beet-and-horseradish relish popular in Polish and Jewish cuisines. also recommended the "very tasty brine" left over from beetroot pickling, which was an early version of beet sour. The sour found some applications in Polish folk medicine as a cure for hangover and – mixed with honey – as a sore throat remedy.
It may never be known who first thought of using beet sour to flavor borscht, which also gave the soup its now-familiar red color. One of the earliest mentions of borscht with pickled beets comes from Russian ethnographer Andrey Meyer, who wrote in his 1781 book that people in Ukraine make fermented red beets with Acanthus, which they in turn use to cook their borscht. The book "Description of the Kharkiv Governorate" of 1785, which describes the food culture of the Ukrainians, says that borscht was the most consumed food, cooked from beets and cabbage with various other herbal spices and millet, on sour kvass; it was always made with pork lard or beef lard, on holidays with lamb or poultry, and sometimes with game. 's Polish-German dictionary published in 1806 was the first to define as a tart soup made from pickled beetroots. The fact that certain 19th-century Russian and Polish cookbooks, such as Handbook of the Experienced Russian Housewife (1842) by and The Lithuanian Cook (1854) by , refer to beetroot-based borscht as "Little Russian borscht" (where "Little Russian" is a term used at the time for ethnic Ukrainians under imperial Russian rule) suggests that this innovation took place in what is now Ukraine, whose soils and climate are particularly well suited to beet cultivation. Ukrainian legends, probably of 19th-century origin, attribute the invention of beetroot borscht either to Zaporozhian Cossacks, serving in the Polish army, on their way to break the siege of Vienna in 1683, or to Don Cossacks, serving in the Russian army, while laying siege to Azov in 1695.
Spanish conquistadors brought potatoes and tomatoes from the Americas to Europe in the 16th century, but these vegetables only became commonly grown and consumed in Eastern Europe in the 19th century. Eventually, both became staples of peasant diet and essential ingredients of Ukrainian and Russian borscht. Potatoes replaced turnips in borscht recipes, and tomatoes – fresh, canned or paste – took over from beet sour as the source of tartness. The turnip is rarely found in modern recipes, and even then, together with potatoes. In Ukraine, beet sour and tomatoes were both used for some time until the latter ultimately prevailed during the last third of the 19th century.
Global spread
Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, borscht's popularity spread beyond its Slavic homeland, largely due to such factors as territorial expansion of the Russian Empire, Russia's growing political clout and cultural stature, and waves of emigration out of the country. As Russia grew to cover most of northern and central Eurasia, borscht was introduced to the cuisines of various peoples inhabiting the territories both within and adjacent to the empire, from Finland to the Caucasus and Iran, to Central Asia and China, to Alaska (Russian America).
Borscht's westward expansion was less successful; Germans used to scoff at the soup along with other East European fare. What helped familiarize Western Europe with borscht was the practice of Russian emperors, as well as Russian and Polish aristocrats, to employ celebrated French chefs, who later presented their own versions of the dish as a foreign curiosity back in France. One of the first French chefs to do so was , who worked briefly for Emperor Alexander I in 1819. In his take on borscht, the original Russian soup served only as inspiration for an extravagant dish with an air of eastern exoticism. Apart from vegetables and beet sour, his recipe calls for a roast chicken, a fried chicken, a duck, a piece of veal, an oxtail, a marrow bone, one pound of bacon, and six large sausages, and suggests serving with beef quenelles, deviled eggs and croûtons. , 's apprentice, who was mostly fascinated by the soup's vivid ruby-red color, simplified his master's recipe, while also securing the place of ("borscht soup") in French cuisine. and , both of whom had been employed at Polish aristocratic courts, presented borscht to the French public as a Polish soup; their cookbook, , published in 1856, contains a borscht recipe under the descriptive name, ("Polish-style beet-juice soup"), which had been changed to by the third edition in 1868. In 1867, beetroot borscht was served, along with herrings, sturgeon, coulibiac, Pozharsky cutlets and vinaigrette salad, at a Russian-themed dinner at the International Exposition in Paris, strengthening its international association with Russian culture.
Mass migration from the Russian Empire to North America – initially mostly by members of persecuted religious minorities – was instrumental in bringing borscht across the Atlantic. The earliest waves of migration occurred at a time when cabbage-based borscht was still the dominant variant of the soup in at least parts of Russia. The Mennonites, who began arriving in Canada and the United States from Russia's Volga region in the 1870s, still eschew beetroots in their borscht; instead, Mennonite varieties include (with cabbage or sauerkraut) and (sorrel-based "summer borscht"). According to the Jewish Encyclopedia published in 1906, cabbage-based kraut borscht was also more popular than the beet-based variant in American Jewish cuisine at the time. Subsequent Jewish immigration helped popularize the red borscht in America.
In the 1930s, when most American hotels refused to accept Jewish guests due to widespread anti-Semitism, New York Jews began flocking to Jewish-owned resorts in the Catskill Mountains for their summer vacations. The area grew into a major center of Jewish entertainment, with restaurants offering all-you-can-eat Ashkenazi Jewish fare, including copious amounts of borscht. Grossinger's, one of the largest resorts, served borscht throughout the day, every day of the year. The region became known, initially in derision, as the "Borscht Belt", reinforcing the popular association between borscht and American Jewish culture. As most visitors arrived in the summertime, the borscht was typically served cold. Marc Gold was one of its largest suppliers, producing 1,750 short tons (1,590 tonnes) a year in his business's heyday. Gold's borscht consists of puréed beetroots seasoned with sugar, salt and citric acid; it is usually blended with sour cream and served as a refreshing beverage, more aptly described as a "beet smoothie". Such kind of "purplish, watery broth" is, according to Nikolai Burlakoff, author of The World of Russian Borsch, "associated in America with borsch, in general, and Jewish borsch in particular."
Borscht in the USSR
In the Soviet Union, borscht was one of the most popular everyday dishes. It was described by James Meek, a British correspondent in Kyiv and Moscow, as "the common denominator of the Soviet kitchen, the dish that tied together ... the high table of the Kremlin and the meanest canteen in the boondocks of the Urals, ... the beetroot soup that pumped like a main artery through the kitchens of the east Slav lands". Among Soviet leaders, the Ukrainian-born Leonid Brezhnev was especially partial to borscht, which his wife continued to personally cook for him even after they had moved into the Kremlin.
The soup has even played a role in the Soviet space program. In March 1961, as part of a communications equipment test, a pre-recorded recipe for borscht was broadcast from the Korabl-Sputnik 4 spacecraft. The craft, carrying animals and a mannequin, had been launched into low Earth orbit in preparation for crewed space flights. Actual borscht eventually made its way into outer space as space food for Soviet and, later, Russian cosmonauts. Originally, a puréed version of borscht was supplied in tubes.
All ingredients for the space borscht (which include beef, beetroots, cabbage, potatoes, carrots, onions, parsley root and tomato paste) were cooked separately, then combined one by one in strictly controlled order, sterilized, packed into tubes, sealed airtight and autoclaved. In the 1970s, the tubes were replaced with packages of rehydratable freeze-dried borscht with regular-size bits of cooked vegetables.
However, with urbanization and mass constructing of Khrushchyovka type housing, borscht would be affected; there would be no comfortable place to make own days-long dishes with "kvass" and sour foods, in a tiny apartment. At this rate, the idea to make own beet sour lost its initial appeal, making borscht in USSR mainly about beets, not about sourness.
Such typical Soviet era book as Entsyclopedia Domashnego Hozyaistva (literally "Encyclopedia of Housekeeping") has an article on borscht. The article offers a soup with beets, other vegetables and tartness source ("tomato puree") as "borscht" in general, but it's "no-nation" primary recipe of meat borscht says "uksus po vkusu (Cyrillic: уксус по вкусу)", e.g. only to add vinegar upon tasting the resulting soup. Simply put, the borscht's sourness became an option, not a requirement, for a "generic" Soviet soup known as borscht, effectively parting ways with older styles of making the sour soups (ones both with or without beets).
However, the same article mentions the sour soups: it lists separate "Ukrainian borscht" and "Cold borscht" recipes. The "Ukrainian borscht" one properly instructs to make the sour soup with beets by saying "sbriiznyt' uksusom (Cyrillic: сбрызнуть уксусом)", literally instructs to "sprinkle with vinegar" while cooking Ukrainian borscht.
A beet infusion for a borscht is mentioned in said article as well. It involves soaking a beet with boiled water + adding some vinegar. Again, this makeshift-like substitute for beet sour is listed in the aforementioned Soviet encyclopedia as a way to color borscht, not to sour it.
Era of Stagnation also would affect making borscht time to time to the next level of simplification: aforementioned canned tomato products, "paste" or "puree" would be a "deficit" item, a thing not available on a regular basis in one's nearest store. At this rate, many modern recipes of beet soups labelled as "borscht" actually have neither a tartness source (lack tomatoes, pickles etc.) nor a sourness source (lack vinegar, lemon acid powder, let alone beet sour kvass).
In culture
As a ritual dish
Borscht is often associated with its role in religious traditions of various denominations (Eastern Orthodox, Greek and Roman Catholic, and Jewish) that are common in Eastern Europe. In East Slavic countries, "memorial borscht" is served as the first course at a post-funeral wake. According to a traditional belief, the soul of the departed either feeds on or is carried up to heaven by puffs of steam rising from bowls of borscht and other hot dishes, such as blini, porridge, boiled potatoes or freshly baked bread. In the region of Polesye, straddling the Belarusian-Ukrainian border, the same steaming-hot dishes, including borscht, are given as an offering to the souls of deceased ancestors during the annual semi-pagan remembrance ceremony known as or Forefathers' Night.
In Poland and Ukraine, borscht is usually one of the dishes served at a Christmas Eve dinner. Celebrated after the first star has appeared in the sky on December 24 (Roman Catholic) or January 6 (Greek Catholic), it is a meal which is at the same time festive and fasting, a multicourse affair (traditionally, with twelve distinct dishes) that excludes ingredients of land-animal origin. Christmas Eve borscht is, therefore, either vegetarian or based on fish stock and is not typically mixed with sour cream. In Ukraine, the soup contains vegetables that are sautéed in vegetable oil rather than lard, as well as beans and mushrooms. It may be also thickened with wheat flour dry-roasted in a pan instead of the usual roux. The Polish version of Christmas Eve borscht is a clear ruby-red broth. Both Ukrainian and Polish variants are often served with .
While Christmas in Poland is traditionally linked to red borscht, Lent – the fasting period that leads up to Easter – is associated with a meatless version of white borscht, or . Youths used to celebrate Holy Saturday, the last day of the fast, with a mock "funeral" of the white borscht, in which a pot of the soup was either buried in the ground or broken, sometimes – to the crowd's amusement – while being carried by an unsuspecting boy on his head. On the next day, the white borscht would reappear on the Easter table, but this time, in its more coveted, meat-based guise with sausage, bacon and eggs.
In Eastern European Ashkenazi Jewish tradition, vegetarian borscht served with sour cream and boiled potatoes on the side, known as , is considered an essential dish during the Passover period. As the holiday is observed in spring (March or April), the preparation of Passover borscht used to provide an opportunity to use up the beet sour left over from pickled beetroots that had been consumed during winter, remaining potatoes that had been stored throughout the winter and sour cream that was readily available in the new calving season. Cold borscht blended with sour cream is also popular on Shavuot (Feast of Weeks), a holiday customarily associated with dairy foods, observed in late May or early June. Seudah Shlishit, or the third meal of the Shabbat, often includes borscht as well.
As an ethnic dish
In its currently most popular, beet-based version, borscht most likely originated in what is now Ukraine. Borscht's role as a staple of everyday Ukrainian diet is reflected in the Ukrainian saying, "borscht and porridge are our food" (compare the equivalent Russian saying, where borscht is replaced with ). The hearty soup in which the beetroot is just one of sundry vegetables, as opposed to the typically Polish clear beet broth, is still known in Poland as "Ukrainian borscht".
Borscht is associated with and claimed by several ethnic groups, especially Ukrainians, Russians, Poles, Lithuanians and Ashkenazi Jews, as their own national or ethnic dish and cultural icon. Such claims are not necessarily mutually exclusive, as the soup's history predates the emergence in Eastern Europe of modern nation states with their ever-shifting borders. Borscht, in the words of Burlakoff, "is perfectly suited to a global culture." He describes it as "a global phenomenon", in which "local variants are so numerous and diverse that it is hard sometimes for a non-specialist to grasp that any single example of it is something that is part of a unified tradition." In his view, borscht "is an almost perfect example of ... 'glocalization' – a phenomenon that is global in distribution but reflective of local needs and ways in its variants and adaptation; ... a highly localized product that became globalized, and in the process adapted to conditions other than the original ones." However, according to Irina Perianova, a Russian linguist and anthropologist, "people tend to be very proprietal about their food and proud of it." Perianova offers competing Russian and Ukrainian views on the origin and ingredients of borscht as an example of "a common connection between culinary and territorial claims", which results in the culinary area turning into "a battlefield generating and proliferating all kinds of myths."
In the Soviet Union, government-sponsored cookbooks, such as The Book of Tasty and Healthy Food curated by Anastas Mikoyan, Cookery and Directory of Recipes and Culinary Production, promoted a unified Soviet cuisine with standardized and nutritionally "rational" versions of traditional dishes. The same cooking techniques and recipes were taught in culinary vocational schools throughout the country, establishing a common cooking style in Soviet cafés and restaurants. Though inspired by the cuisines of the country's various ethnic groups, many recipes were presented as part of an overall Soviet heritage, disassociated from their individual geographic origins. By many people both inside and outside the Soviet Union, borscht was increasingly seen not as an ethnic Ukrainian soup, but as a Soviet or – metonymically – Russian dish. This approach was criticized by William Pokhlebkin, a preeminent Russian food writer, who unequivocally described beet-based borscht as one of the "dishes of Ukrainian cookery" which "have entered the menu of international cuisine". "One could understand", he wrote, "and forgive foreigners for calling borscht or Russian national dishes, but when it turns out that they gleaned the information from Soviet cookbooks or from restaurant menus, one is embarrassed for our authors and chefs, who popularize the national cuisines of our peoples [that is, the ethnic groups of the Soviet Union] with such ignorance."
According to Meek: Pokhlebkin and the Soviet Union are dead, yet Borshchland lives on. Recipes, like birds, ignore political boundaries. ... The faint outline of the Tsarist-Soviet imperium still glimmers in the collective steam off bowls of beetroot and cabbage in meat stock, and the soft sound of dollops of sour cream slipping into soup, from the Black Sea to the Sea of Japan and, in emigration, from Brooklyn to Berlin.
See also
List of soups
Three grand soups in Japanese culture
Notes
References
Sources
Secondary
Other languages
Pages unnumbered.
Primary or self-published
Reference works
External links
Ukrainian cuisine
Slavic cuisine
Cold soups
Vegetable dishes
Armenian soups
Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine
Azerbaijani soups
Belarusian cuisine
Lithuanian cuisine
Polish soups
Russian soups
Romanian cuisine
Soviet cuisine
Ukrainian soups
National dishes
National symbols of Ukraine
Ukrainian traditions
Ukrainian inventions
Christmas food | [
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216991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%20Aircraft | Bell Aircraft | The Bell Aircraft Corporation was an American aircraft manufacturer, a builder of several types of fighter aircraft for World War II but most famous for the Bell X-1, the first supersonic aircraft, and for the development and production of many important civilian and military helicopters. Bell also developed the Reaction Control System for the Mercury Spacecraft, North American X-15, and Bell Rocket Belt. The company was purchased in 1960 by Textron, and lives on as Bell Textron.
History
As a teenager, Larry Bell saw his first plane at an air show, starting a lifelong fascination with aviation. Bell dropped out of high school in 1912 to join his brother in the burgeoning aircraft industry at the Glenn L. Martin Company, where by 1914 he had become shop superintendent. By 1920, Bell was vice president and general manager of Martin, then based in Cleveland. Feeling that he deserved part ownership, in late 1924, he presented Martin with an ultimatum. Mr. Martin refused, and Bell quit.
Bell spent several years out of the aviation industry, but in 1928 was hired by Reuben H. Fleet at Consolidated Aircraft, in Buffalo, New York, where he was guaranteed an interest in the company. Before long, Bell became general manager and business was booming, but he still wanted to run his own company. Although he could raise local capital, he knew he would not be able to compete with either Consolidated or Curtiss-Wright, the two major aircraft builders also based in Buffalo. Fortunately, in 1935 Fleet decided to move Consolidated Aircraft to San Diego, and Bell stayed behind to establish his own company, the Bell Aircraft Company, on 10 July 1935, headquartered in the former Consolidated plant at 2050 Elmwood Avenue in North Delaware area of Buffalo (next to Home Depot store and other businesses).
Bell was the third major aircraft builder to occupy the site. The factory complex was originally built in 1916 for the Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Company, and during World War I had been considered the largest airplane factory in the world.
Bell's first military contract followed in 1937 with the development of the ill-fated YFM-1 Airacuda, an unconventional bomber-destroyer powered by two Allison-powered pusher propellers. The YFM-1 incorporated groundbreaking technology for the time, with gyro stabilized weapons sighting and a thermionic fire control system. Including the prototype, just 13 Airacudas were produced, and these saw only limited service with the USAAC before being scrapped in 1942.
Bell enjoyed much success the following year with the development of the single engine P-39 Airacobra, of which 9,588 were built. Putting their previous experience with Allison engines to good use, the P-39 placed the engine in the center of the aircraft, with the propeller driven by a long shaft through which a 37mm cannon was also mounted, firing through the propeller's spinner. Due to persistent development and production problems, the original turbosupercharger was deleted from production models, instead using a single-stage, single-speed supercharger, as was standard on all other Allison-powered products, with the exception of the P-38.
The P-39 performed poorly at high altitudes compared to newer, late-war designs. Most Allied forces thought the Airacobra effective only for ground attack roles, as demonstrated by a few U.S. Army Air Forces units that flew P-39s, such as the so-called Cactus Air Force on Guadalcanal in 1942–43. However, the Soviet Air Force used their Lend-Lease P-39s primarily in the air-to-air role, where they found it to excel as a front-line fighter against some of the best pilots and aircraft of the Luftwaffe. The Soviet-flown P-39s were the main reason that the aircraft is credited with highest number of individual kills attributed to any U.S. fighter type.
A somewhat larger and more powerful version of the P-39 was produced shortly before the end of World War II. Called the P-63 Kingcobra, this warplane addressed many of the shortcomings of the P-39, though it was produced too late in the war to make any significant contribution. 2,971 P-63's were built between 1943 and 1945, many delivered to the Soviet Union. Also, by that time, the Army Air Forces already had the superior P-47 Thunderbolt and P-38 Lightning fighter-bombers.
In October 1942, The Bell-built twin-jet P-59 Airacomet was the first American jet aircraft to fly. Unfortunately, performance was below expectations, roughly on par with contemporaneous propeller-driven aircraft, an outcome generally attributed to the extremely short development timeframe required by the USAAF, as well as the intense secrecy imposed on the project. Design had begun in September 1941, during which time the Bell team was guided mostly by theory, as General Electric would not finish and begin testing the first engine until March 1942. Also, General Henry "Hap" Arnold had forbidden use of wind tunnels to test and optimize the design, but later relented somewhat, only allowing the group to use the low-speed tunnel at Wright Field, Ohio. Bell engineers could only guess at the performance characteristics. Originally intended initially as a production aircraft, the P-59 nevertheless became an important experimental testbed for jet technology, providing invaluable data for development of later jet airplanes.
During World War II, Bell also built heavy bombers under license from other aircraft companies at a factory near Marietta, Georgia, just northwest of Atlanta. Online by mid-1943, the new plant produced hundreds of Consolidated B-24 Liberators and Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers. In mid-1944, the production of the B-24 was consolidated from several different companies (including some in Texas) to two large factories: Consolidated Vultee in San Diego and Ford Motor Company's Willow Run factory near Detroit, Michigan, which had been specially designed to produce B-24s. For the rest of the war, Bell's Marietta plant, under the management of Carl Cover and James V. Carmichael concentrated on producing B-29s, producing 668 of them by the time contract expired in the fall of 1945. Bell ranked 25th among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts.
After World War II
As the postwar defense industry downsized, Bell consolidated its operations at the Wheatfield plant, near Buffalo. The aircraft factory in Marietta later became the property of the Lockheed Corporation, which has used it for producing C-130 Hercules, C-141 Starlifter, and C-5 Galaxy transport planes. Although Bell designed several more fighter plane designs during and after WW II, none of these ever entered mass-production.
The XP-77 was a small fighter using non-strategic materials; it was not successful. The XP-83 was a jet escort fighter similar in layout to the P-59 that was cancelled. The Bell XF-109 was a supersonic vertical takeoff fighter that was cancelled in 1961.
Perhaps Bell Aircraft's most important contribution to the history of fixed-wing aircraft development would be the design and building of the experimental Bell X-1 rocket plane, the world's first airplane to break the sound barrier, and its follow-on, the Bell X-2. Unlike the usual designations for American aircraft, the X-1 models were successive (mostly identical) units of the X-1 program: the X-1, X-1A, X-1B, X-1C, X-1D, and X-1E.
Bell went on to design and produce several different experimental aircraft during the 1950s. These helped the U.S. Air Force and the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA) explore the boundaries of aircraft design, and paved the way for the founding of NASA and the exploration of outer space. The X-2 Starbuster achieved Mach 3 (2,100 mph) and a height of 126,000 ft in 1955, blazing a technological trail for the development of spacecraft.
Bell played a crucial role in the development of rocket propulsion after WWII, spearheaded by the likes of some of the most brilliant minds in rocket science like Walter Dornberger (ex-commander of Nazi Germany Peenemünde Army Research Center) and Wendell Moore. Bell developed and fielded the world's first nuclear-tipped Air-to-Surface cruise missile, the GAM-63 RASCAL in 1957. Wendell Moore developed the Bell rocket belt, utilizing peroxide monopropellant rocket engines. While the rocket belt failed to be commercially developed, the rocket technology proved invaluable in future Bell programs. Bell's crowning achievement in the realm of rocketry was the Agena rocket engine. The Agena was a 12,000 lbf bi-propellant rocket that is considered to this day to be one of the most reliable rockets ever built. 360 units were produced starting in the late 1950s and it was responsible for inserting into orbit most of the satellites launched by the United States in the 1960s.
Helicopter development began at Bell Aircraft in 1941 with the Bell Model 30 first flying in 1943. Bell Helicopter became the only part of Bell Aircraft still producing aircraft when Bell was purchased by the Textron Corporation. That part of Textron is now known today as Bell Helicopter. After a series of successful helicopter designs, the UH-1 Iroquois became the most famous helicopter of the War in Vietnam, and Bell Helicopter still designs and manufactures helicopters today.
Lawrence Bell died in 1956, and for several years afterwards the company was in financial difficulty.
Textron purchased the Bell Aerospace division on 5 July 1960. Bell Aerospace was composed of three divisions of Bell Aircraft, including the helicopter division. Bell Aerospace Textron continued to play a significant role in NASA's mission to land men on the Moon in the 1960s. Bell designed and built the Reaction Control system for Project Mercury's Redstone command module and a similar system was incorporated into the North American X-15 spaceplane. NASA selected Bell to develop and built the LLRV Lunar Landing Research Vehicle, three of which were built in the early 1960s to train the Apollo astronauts to land on the Moon. Bell also designed the rocket engine used in the Apollo LEM Ascent Propulsion System, which was responsible for getting NASA's astronauts off the Moon.
Products
Aircraft
Spacecraft
Bell Pogo
Lunar Escape Systems
Missiles
AAM-N-5 Meteor
ASM-A-1 Tarzon
GAM-63 RASCAL
Nord CT.41/Bell PQM-56 aerial target
Bell X-9 Shrike
Hovercraft
LACV-30 military hovercraft
SK-5 military hovercraft built under licence
Société d'Étude et de Développement des Aéroglisseurs Marins
Société d'Étude et de Développement des Aéroglisseurs Marins (SEDAM) was a French-based unit of Bell founded in 1965 and builder of N500 Naviplane hovercraft, as well as N.300 Naviplane and Naviplane N102. SEDAM ceased operations in 1982 and factory site re-developed for non-aviation usage.
See also
Harvey Gaylord
References
Bibliography
August A. Cenkner Jr.: Aerospace Technologies of Bell Aircraft Company : A Pictorial History (1935–1985)
External links
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of the United States
Defunct helicopter manufacturers of the United States
Rocket engine manufacturers of the United States
Manufacturing companies based in New York (state)
History of Buffalo, New York
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1935
1935 establishments in New York (state)
Defunct companies based in New York (state)
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1960
1960 disestablishments in New York (state) | [
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|
216992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea%20del%20Castagno | Andrea del Castagno | Andrea del Castagno () or Andrea di Bartolo di Bargilla (; – 19 August 1457) was an Italian painter from Florence, influenced chiefly by Masaccio and Giotto di Bondone. His works include frescoes in Sant'Apollonia in Florence and the painted equestrian monument of Niccolò da Tolentino (1456) in the Cathedral in Florence. He in turn influenced the Ferrarese school of Cosmè Tura, Francesco del Cossa and Ercole de' Roberti.
Life
Early years
Andrea del Castagno was born at Castagno, a village near Monte Falterona, not far from Florence. During the war between Florence and Milan, he lived in Corella, returning to his home after its end. In 1440 he moved to Florence under the protection of Bernadetto de' Medici. Here he painted the portraits of the citizens hanged after the Battle of Anghiari on the facade of the Palazzo del Podestà, gaining the nickname of Andrea degli Impiccati.
Little is known about his formation, though it has been hypothesised that he apprenticed under Fra Filippo Lippi and Paolo Uccello. In 1440–1441 he executed the fresco of Crucifixion and Saints in the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova, whose perspective-oriented construction and figures shows the influence of Masaccio.
In 1442 he was in Venice where he executed frescoes in the San Tarasio Chapel of the church of San Zaccaria. Later he also worked in St Mark's Basilica, leaving a fresco of Death of the Virgin (1442–1443).
Back in Florence, he designed a stained window with Deposition for the local Cathedral. On May 30, 1445 he became a member of the Guild of the Medicians. From the same year is the fresco of Madonna with Child and Santi in the Contini Bonacossi Collection (Uffizi).
The Last Supper
In 1447 Castagno worked in the refectory of the Benedictine nuns at Sant'Apollonia in Florence, painting, in the lower part, a fresco of the Last Supper, accompanied above by other scenes portraying the Passion of Christ: Crucifixion, Entombment, and Resurrection, which are now damaged. This combination of scenes is not known to have been represented before. He also painted a lunette in the convent's cloister, depicting a Pietà. Many important Florentine families had daughters in the convent at Sant'Apollonia, so painting there likely brought Andrea to their attention.
The Last Supper displays Andrea del Castagno's talents at their best. The detail and naturalism of this fresco portray the ways in which he departed from earlier artistic styles. It is likely that Leonardo da Vinci was already familiar with this work before he painted his own Last Supper in a more dramatic form to contrast with the stillness of these works, so that more emotion would be displayed.
Late activity
In 1449–1450 he painted the Assumption with Saints Julian and Miniato for the main altar (in the St. Julian Chapel) of the church of San Miniato fra le Torri in Florence (now in Berlin).
In the same years he collaborated with Filippo Carducci to paint a series of Illustrious People for the Villa Carducci at Legnaia. These include Pippo Spano, Farinata degli Uberti, Niccolò Acciaioli, Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, the Cumaean Sibyl, Esther and Tomiri.
Also from around 1450 is the Crucifixion in London, as well as the David with Goliath's Head and the Portrait of a Man, both in Washington. Between January 1451 and September 1453 he completed the frescoes with Scenes of the Life of the Virgin left unfinished by Domenico Veneziano in the Florentine church of Sant'Egidio, Florence (now lost). In October Filippo Carducci commissioned him to paint frescoes for his villa at Soffiano, of which today an Eve and a ruined Madonna with Child survive.
In 1455 Andrea del Castagno worked in the Basilica della Santissima Annunziata (frescoes with the Trinity with Saints Jerome, Paula and Eustochium and St. Julian and the Redeemer, the former showing a stressed realism). Also in those years is attributed a Crucifixion for St. Apollonia. In 1456 he executed in the Florentine Cathedral the fresco of the Equestrian Monument of Niccolò da Tolentino, paralleling the similar painting by Paolo Uccello portraying John Hawkwood.
Giorgio Vasari, an artist and biographer of the Italian Renaissance, alleged that Castagno murdered Domenico Veneziano, but this is impossible, since Veneziano died in 1461, four years after Castagno died of the plague. It has been suggested that Vasari was confusing this murder case with another one involving a "Domenico di Matteo" who was killed by an "Andreino" in 1448, but the archival record shows that this is a misreading: "A cursory examination reveals two things: first, that the name of the dead painter is not Domenico di Matteo, but Domenico di Marco; and second, and much more crucially, that there is no mention of him having been killed by a painter named Andrea or Andreino."
Selected works
Assumption of the Virgin between San Miniato and St. Julian (1449–1450), Gemäldegalerie, Berlin
References
Further reading
Castagno, Andrea. Andrea del Castagno: complete edition with a critical catalogue. Oxford: Phaidon Press, 1980.
Horster, Marita. Andrea del Castagno: complete edition with a critical catalogue. Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1980.
Spencer, John. Andrea del Castagno and his patrons. Durham: Duke University Press, 1991.
External links
Andrea del Castagno at the National Gallery of Art
Italian Renaissance painters
Painters from Florence
Quattrocento painters
1420s births
1457 deaths
Fresco painters
Italian male painters
Painters from Tuscany
15th-century people of the Republic of Florence
15th-century deaths from plague (disease)
15th-century Italian painters | [
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|
216994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monica%20%28singer%29 | Monica (singer) | <noinclude>
Monica Denise Arnold (formerly Brown; born October 24, 1980) is an American singer, rapper and actress. Born and raised in College Park, Georgia, she began performing as a child and became part of a traveling gospel choir at the age of ten. Monica rose to prominence after she signed with Rowdy Records in 1993 and released her debut album Miss Thang two years later. She followed it with a series of successful albums, including the global bestseller The Boy Is Mine (1998) as well as the number-one albums After the Storm (2003), The Makings of Me (2006) and Still Standing (2010). Throughout her career, several of Monica's singles became number-one hits on the pop and R&B charts, including "Before You Walk Out of My Life", "Don't Take It Personal (Just One of Dem Days)", "Like This and Like That", "The Boy Is Mine" (with Brandy), "The First Night", "Angel of Mine", "So Gone", and "Everything to Me".
Monica's popularity was further enhanced by her roles in television series such as Living Single (1996), Felicity (2001), and American Dreams (2003), and films including Boys and Girls (2000), Love Song (2000), and Pastor Brown (2009). A contributor to the NBC talent show The Voice, in 2008, she appeared in the Peachtree TV reality show special Monica: The Single which tracked the recording of the song "Still Standing" along with her personal life and resulted in her own highly rated BET series Monica: Still Standing, containing a similar concept. Separated from rapper Rodney "Rocko" Hill, father of her first two children, Monica married professional basketball player Shannon Brown in November 2010. Their first child together, a daughter, was born in 2013.
Monica has sold 5.3 million albums in the United States and she is recognized as one of the most successful urban R&B female vocalists to begin a career in the mid to late 1990s. According to Billboard, she is the youngest recording act to ever have two consecutive chart-topping hits on the Billboard Top R&B Singles chart, as well as the first artist to top the US Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart over the span of three consecutive decades (1990s, 2000s, and 2010s). In 2010, Billboard listed Monica at number 24 on its list of the Top 50 R&B and Hip Hop Artists of the past 25 years. A four-time nominee, she won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals for her contribution to "The Boy Is Mine" alongside Brandy, at the 41st awards ceremony and has been the recipient of one Billboard Music Award, one BET Award, and two BMI Pop Awards.
Early life
Monica Denise Arnold was born in College Park, Georgia, the only daughter of Marilyn Best, a Delta Air Lines customer service representative and former church singer of African American descent, and M.C. "Billy" Arnold Jr, who is African American with Indian and Irish ancestry and was a mechanic for an Atlanta freight company. She has a younger brother, Montez (born in 1983), and a half brother, Jermond Grant, on her father's side. Monica also is a cousin of record producer Polow da Don, and is related to rapper Ludacris through her mother's second marriage to Reverend Edward Best, a Methodist minister.
At the age of 2, Monica followed in her mother's footsteps with regular performances at the Jones Hill Chapel United Methodist Church in Marilyn's hometown Newnan, Georgia. While growing up in the modest circumstances of a single-parent home after her parents' 1984 separation and 1987 divorce, Monica continued training herself in singing and became a frequent talent-show contestant, winning over 20 local singing competitions throughout her early teenage years. When she was 10 years old, she became the youngest member of "Charles Thompson and the Majestics", a traveling 12-person gospel choir. She attended North Clayton High School with rapper 2 Chainz. She graduated from high school in 1997 at age 16, having skipped ahead scholastically by studying year-round with a private tutor.
Career
1991–2000: Miss Thang and The Boy Is Mine
In 1991, at the age of eleven, Monica was discovered by music producer Dallas Austin at the Center Stage auditorium in Atlanta performing Whitney Houston 1986's "Greatest Love of All". Amazed by her voice, Dallas offered her a record deal with his Arista Records-distributed label Rowdy Records and consulted rapper Queen Latifah to work as Monica's first manager. Shortly afterwards Dallas and then staff producers Tim & Bob entered the studio with Monica to start writing and producing her debut Miss Thang, which was eventually released in July 1995 and reached number thirty-six on the U.S. Billboard 200 and number seven on the Top R&B Albums chart. It was certified triple platinum by the RIAA for more than three million store-shipped copies and produced three top ten singles, including debut single "Don't Take It Personal (Just One of Dem Days)" and "Before You Walk Out of My Life", which made Monica the youngest artist ever to have two consecutive chart-topping hits on the U.S. Billboard Hot R&B Singles chart. Miss Thang subsequently won Monica a Billboard Music Award and garnered her an American Music Award nomination in the Favorite Soul/R&B New Artist category.
After a label change to Clive Davis' Arista Records, Monica's mainstream success was boosted, when "For You I Will", from the Space Jam soundtrack (1996) became her next top ten pop hit. The song was written by Diane Warren. The following year she was asked to team up with singer Brandy and producer Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins to record "The Boy Is Mine", the first single from both of their second albums. Released in May 1998, surrounding highly publicized rumors about a real-life catfight between both singers, the duet became both the biggest hit of the summer and the biggest hit of 1998 in general in America, spending thirteen weeks on top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It earned the pair a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal" and garnered multi-platinum sales (to date, it remains as one of the top twenty most successful American singles in history based on Billboard chart success).
Jermaine Dupri, David Foster and Austin consulted on the album The Boy Is Mine, which was released later that year and eventually became Monica's biggest-selling album, becoming certified triple platinum by the RIAA for more than three million store-shipped copies. It yielded another two U.S. number-one hits with "The First Night" and "Angel of Mine", a cover of Eternal's 1997 single, as well as a remake of Richard Marx' "Right Here Waiting". Rolling Stone proclaimed it "closer to soul's source... harking back past hip-hop songbirds like Mary J. Blige and adult-contemporary sirens like Toni Braxton", while AllMusic called the album an "irresistible sounding [and] immaculately crafted musical backdrop [...] as good as mainstream urban R&B gets in 1998." Monica has also made guest appearances on several television shows such as Living Single (1996), Beverly Hills, 90210 (1997, 1999).
2000–2005: All Eyez on Me and After the Storm
In 2000, Monica made her film debut in the third drama from MTV Films, Love Song, as Camille Livingston, a young woman torn between the life her parents have planned for her and the world she experiences after meeting a musician from the wrong side of the tracks. The film debut the song "What My Heart Says" with the promotion of her third album All Eyez on Me (2002). The film was released on April 30, 2002, and in Felicity (2001) and American Dreams (2003) playing Mary Wells, singing "My Guy".
In 2000, Monica contributed chorus vocals for "I've Got to Have It", a collaboration with Jermaine Dupri and rapper Nas. Released as the Big Momma's House theme song, the song saw minor success in the United States only. The following year, she released the Ric Wake production track "Just Another Girl", recorded for the Down to Earth soundtrack, as a single.
A year later, Monica channeled much of her heavily media-discussed experiences into the production of her third studio album, All Eyez on Me, her first release on mentor Clive Davis newly founded J Records label. "I just wanted to give the people back something that had personal passion, instead of just, 'Oh, let's dance to this record'," she said about the issues worked into the tracks. The first single "All Eyez on Me", a Rodney Jerkins-produced R&B-dance track, saw minor to moderate success on the international charts but failed to enter the higher half of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart. A follow-up song, "Too Hood", also got a lukewarm response and as a result, the album's tentative release was pushed back several times. "I don't think people wanted to hear a big fun record from me, after knowing all the things that I had personally experienced," Monica second-guessed her new material which saw both early and heavy bootlegging via internet at that time.
After the Japan-wide release of All Eyez on Me, Monica was asked to substantially reconstruct the record with a host of new producers, and as a result she re-entered recording studios to start work with songwriters Kanye West, Jazze Pha, Andre "mrDEYO" Deyo, Bam & Ryan and Dupri – replacing executive producer Missy Elliott. Finally released in June 2003, After the Storm debuted at number one on Billboard`s Top R&B/Hip-Hop albums chart, and on top of the official Billboard 200, with sales of 186,000 copies emerging as Monica's first and only number-one album to date. It eventually received a gold certification, and has sold over one million copies domestically. Media reception of the CD was generally enthusiastic, with AllMusic saying the album "has all the assuredness and smart developments that should keep Monica's younger longtime followers behind her — all the while holding the ability to appeal to a wider spectrum of R&B and hip-hop fans." The album's lead single, Elliott-penned "So Gone", was one of Monica's biggest commercial successes in years, becoming her first top ten single since 1999's "Angel of Mine". In addition, it reached the top position of the Billboard R&B/Hip-Hop Tracks and Hot Dance Club Play charts. Subsequently, After the Storm spawned another three singles, with final single "U Should've Known Better" reaching number nineteen on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.
2006–2010: The Makings of Me, Still Standing, and reality television
Towards the end of 2006, Monica released her next studio album The Makings of Me. Titled after Curtis Mayfield's recording "The Makings of You", it saw her particularly reuniting with producers Elliott, Dupri, and Bryan Michael Cox; they had previously contributed to After the Storm. The album received a positive reception from most professional music critics, with AllMusic calling it a "concise and mostly sweet set of songs", and Entertainment Weekly declaring it "a solid addition" to Monica's discography. While it debuted at number one on Billboards Top R&B/Hip-Hop albums chart, and at number eight on the official Billboard 200, it widely failed to revive the success of its predecessors. Singles such as snap-influenced "Everytime tha Beat Drop" featuring Atlanta hip hop group Dem Franchize Boyz and Elliott-produced "A Dozen Roses (You Remind Me)" failed to reach the top forty of the regular pop charts. The same year, she made a cameo appearance in the American comedy-drama film ATL, playing the Waffle House waitress.
In August 2008, Monica appeared in the Peachtree TV reality show special Monica: The Single, which tracked the recording of the song "Still Standing" for her same-titled sixth studio album. The following year, she lent her voice to the ballad "Trust", a duet with Keyshia Cole, that peaked in the top five on Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and joined the cast of Rockmond Dunbar's drama film Pastor Brown. In 2010, with the success of the 2008 one-hour special, Monica joined the production of the BET network for her own series Monica: Still Standing, producing a spin-off her Peachtree show, containing the same concept. It focused on finding a hit single for the album's release while balancing her personal life as a full-time mother and dealing with her troubled past. The premiere and encore episode garnered 3.2 million total viewers, while the show itself was made the second-highest series debut in BET history behind the debut of Tiny & Toya, and was given a B rating by Entertainment Weekly.
Featuring production by Stargate, Ne-Yo, and Polow da Don, Still Standing was released in March 2010 and garnered a generally positive response by critics, who perceived its sound as "a return to the mid-'1990s heyday" of contemporary R&B, The album debuted atop on Billboards Top R&B/Hip-Hop albums chart, and number two on the Billboard 200 with opening week sales of 184,000 copies, becoming her highest-charting album in years. Lead single "Everything to Me" scored Monica her biggest chart success since 2003's "So Gone", reaching the top position of the Billboard R&B/Hip-Hop Tracks charts for seven weeks. The album was certified gold by the RIAA with domestic shipments of 500,000 copies within a single month. With it success, the album and "Everything to Me" were nominated for a Grammy Award for Best R&B Album and Best Female R&B Vocal Performance, presented at the 53rd Grammy Awards in 2011. In March 2010, it was announced that Monica and Hill had split in October 2009, surrounding rumors that he cheated. Monica and NBA player Shannon Brown met in June 2010 when while they shot her music video for her second single "Love All Over Me". On November 22, 2010, Monica married Brown in a secret ceremony at their Los Angeles home, follow by a second wedding in front of close family on July 9, 2011. Also in 2010, Monica joined Trey Songz on his Passion, Pain & Pleasure Tour, her first North American concert tour in ten years.
2011–2016: New Life and Code Red
In 2011, Monica joined the debut season of the reality talent show The Voice as an adviser to musician coach Cee Lo Green. In April 2012, her seventh studio album, New Life, was released. It marked her first release with RCA, following the disbandment of J Records in October 2011. Reception for the album was generally mixed; AllMusic complimented the album's "saucy, spirited, and soulful vibe" while Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly criticized its "cheesy choruses and outdated tunes". Commercially, New Life debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 and number two on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. The album spawned two preview singles, "Anything (To Find You)" and "Until It's Gone", both of which peaked in the top 30 on the Billboard R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. Lead single "It All Belongs to Me", another duet with singer Brandy, charted similarly, reaching number 23 on the same chart. The same year, Monica along with Fred Hammond was featured on gospel music recording artist James Fortune and FIYA's single "Hold On" which became a top five hit on the Christian Songs chart and garnered a Grammy Award nomination for Best Gospel Song at the 54th awards ceremony.
In October 2013, Monica appeared on the soundtrack of Malcolm D. Lee's Christmas comedy-drama The Best Man Holiday with her Jermaine Dupri-produced rendition of "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas". In December 2015, her eighth studio album Code Red was released. Upon its release, the album received generally mixed reviews from most music critics, and debuted at number 27 on the US Billboard 200 chart. Leading single "Just Right for Me", a collaboration with Lil Wayne, reached number twelve on the Billboard Adult R&B Songs chart but failed to impact elsewhere, resulting in lackluster sales in general and the release of no further singles. In support of the album, Monica embarked on her first solo concert tour in years, The Code Red Experience to promote Code Red. In November 2016, Monica announced her departure from her longtime label RCA Records after two decades.
2017–present: New music and Verzuz
In December 2018, Monica released the ballad "Be Human" to introduce The Be Human Foundation, a non profit organization founded by herself. The same month, she previewed music from her ninth studio album Trenches when she appeared on the seventh season of the VH1 reality series T.I. & Tiny: The Family Hustle. In January 2019, she released "Commitment", the first single on her own label, Mondeenise Music. A sleeper hit, "Commitment" reached number one on the US Billboard Adult R&B Songs in the week ending July 21, 2019, becoming her first chart topper in nine years. This was followed by the release of "Me + You" in April 2019 and title track "Trenches" featuring Lil Baby. The release of "Trenches" coincided with Monica and Brandy's appearances on the webcast battle series Verzuz which took place on August 31, 2020, at Tyler Perry Studios in Atlanta. At least 1.2 million people tuned in for the battle.
Influences
Monica has said many times that Whitney Houston is her biggest inspiration and influence since childhood. Another big influence is Mary J. Blige. Other artists she looks up to are Betty Wright, Gladys Knight and Anita Baker.
Personal life
Monica's career slowed down in 1999 due to having problems in her relationship with ex-boyfriend Jarvis Weems. In July 2000, the couple were together at the gravesite of Weems's brother, who had died in an automobile accident at age 25 in 1998. Weems then, without warning, put a gun to his head and committed suicide. "Afterward, I felt, 'What else could I have done?' You replay that situation over and over and you switch it around: Maybe if I had said this, or if I would have done that,'" Monica said in an interview with The Cincinnati Enquirer the following year. "It's just something that it's never possible for me to go back and change." Monica briefly dated rapper, C-Murder, until he was incarcerated for a murder in 2003.
Monica met rapper Rodney "Rocko" Hill, a former SWA officer and real estate manager, shortly after Weems's suicide, a time which she described as her "weakest". While the couple soon began dating in the fall of the same year, they ended their relationship in 2004. A few months later, Monica and Hill revived their relationship and she became pregnant with their first child. On May 21, 2005, she gave birth to their first son, Rodney, who performs under "Rodneyy" as a SoundCloud rapper. Monica and Hill became engaged once again on Christmas Eve 2007, shortly before the birth of their second child on January 8, 2008. The son was named Romelo Montez Hill, after Monica's younger brother. The pair parted ways in early 2010.
In June 2010, Monica met NBA player Shannon Brown while she was looking for someone to play the love interest in her video for the song "Love All Over Me". In October 2010, she announced her engagement to Brown via her Twitter account, posting a photo of a rose-cut diamond ring. On November 22, 2010, the couple married in a secret ceremony at their Los Angeles home. Their wedding, however, did not become a matter of public record until January 21, 2011, when Brown told the Hip-Hop Non-Stop TV-Show. A second wedding ceremony was held for family and friends to attend in July 2011. On September 3, 2013, Monica gave birth to her third child, Laiyah Shannon. After eight years of marriage, Monica filed for divorce from Brown in March 2019. In October 2019, their divorce was finalized.
Discography
Miss Thang (1995)
The Boy Is Mine (1998)
All Eyez on Me (2002)
After the Storm (2003)
The Makings of Me (2006)
Still Standing (2010)
New Life (2012)
Code Red (2015)
Awards and nominations
Filmography
References
External links
[ Monica] at Billboard.com
1980 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
20th-century African-American women singers
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American businesswomen
21st-century American businesspeople
21st-century African-American women singers
Actresses from Atlanta
African-American actresses
African-American businesspeople
African-American female dancers
African-American women singer-songwriters
African-American women rappers
Rappers from Atlanta
African-American Methodists
American child singers
American contraltos
American contemporary R&B singers
American hip hop singers
American women pop singers
Arista Records artists
Southern hip hop musicians
Businesspeople from Atlanta
Grammy Award winners
J Records artists
Musicians from Atlanta
People from College Park, Georgia
RCA Records artists
American female hip hop musicians
African-American women in business
American people of Irish descent
Singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state) | [
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|
216998 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone%20Systems%20International | Telephone Systems International | Telephone Systems International is a U.S.-based provider of international telecommunications services founded by Afghan-American entrepreneur Ehsan Bayat. TSI operates the Afghan Wireless Communication Company in a joint venture with the Afghan Ministry of Communications.
History
In 1998, Telephone Systems International (TSI) was formed with the goal of building a commercial telephone network in Afghanistan.
References
Telecommunications companies of the United States | [
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|
217002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenal%20tube%20station | Arsenal tube station | Arsenal is a London Underground station located in Highbury, London. It is on the Piccadilly line, between Holloway Road and Finsbury Park stations, in Travelcard Zone 2. Originally known as Gillespie Road, it was renamed in 1932 after Arsenal Football Club, who at the time played at the nearby Highbury Stadium. It is the only tube station named directly after a football club. Although Highbury Stadium closed in 2006, the station retains its name and is still used by spectators attending matches at Arsenal's nearby Emirates Stadium.
Location
The station is located on a narrow Victorian residential street, away from any main roads. It is also unusual in not having any bus routes pass its entrance, though routes 4, 19, 106 and 236 serve nearby Blackstock Road.
History
Arsenal tube station was opened by the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway (GNP&BR) as Gillespie Road on 15 December 1906. The GNP&BR was later renamed the Piccadilly line after the consolidation and nationalisation of the Tube network as London Underground. The original station building and ticket hall were red terracotta-clad buildings designed by Leslie Green, similar to neighbouring stations such as Holloway Road and Caledonian Road.
At the time of Gillespie Road's construction, it served a residential area and a local divinity college. In 1913, Arsenal F.C. moved from Woolwich to Highbury on the site of the college's playing fields, and the club's presence there eventually led to a campaign for a change of name. Arsenal manager Herbert Chapman was a particularly keen advocate, and on 31 October 1932 it was renamed Arsenal (Highbury Hill). The station was expanded in the 1930s, when the original station building was demolished and replaced by a wider building of a more modern design.
The suffix was dropped from the station's name some time around 1960, giving the current name of Arsenal. The original tiled walls of the platforms still bear the Gillespie Road name, spelt out in large letters. In 2007, the station underwent a major upgrade; as part of this the wall tiling was completely restored, the floor resurfaced and an electronic Tannoy system was introduced.
Station layout
When it was first built, the station building was squeezed between residential properties on each side, occupying the width of just two terraced houses. Even after the surface building was rebuilt and widened in the early 1930s, with a further house being demolished, it has one of the narrowest frontages of any Underground station.
Unusually for a "deep level" tube station, Arsenal possesses neither escalators nor lifts. Instead, a sloping passageway leads down to the platforms. This is due to the tunnels being both relatively shallow at this point and situated some distance from the station entrance (being underneath the East Coast Main Line). There are short flights of stairs at both ends of the passageway, so the station is not wheelchair accessible. When the station was rebuilt in the early 1930s, an extra tunnel was dug to platform level from the main access passage in anticipation of increased traffic. This is now used to handle the large crowds on match days. The station has a "tidal" system unique on the Underground network, with a narrow section on one side divided from the main passageway by a full-height fence. The narrow section is used on match days for the lighter flow, according to time of day—for passengers catching trains before matches, or leaving the station afterwards.
Usage
The station is considerably less busy than other stations on the same stretch of line. In 2007 only 2,735,000 entries and exits were recorded, compared with Holloway Road's 7,487,000 and Caledonian Road's 5,333,000.
In 2006 Arsenal F.C. moved to a new stadium, the Emirates Stadium. The stadium is on the site of Ashburton Grove, a former industrial estate approximately west of Highbury, and marginally closer to Drayton Park (on the Northern City Line) and Holloway Road stations. However, Drayton Park is closed on match days due to its small platform size and infrequent service (before 2015 it had no weekend service at all), and trains do not stop at Holloway Road before and after matches to prevent overcrowding. Arsenal station meanwhile is still within easy walking distance of the new stadium's main entrance and is recommended by the club for use on match days. The station thus still retains the "Arsenal" name and, along with Finsbury Park and Highbury & Islington, is still used by many Arsenal supporters to get to matches.
As part of the commemoration of Arsenal F.C.'s move, a temporary mural was placed along the walls of the station passageways as part of London Underground's Art on the Underground scheme. It was unveiled in February 2006 and removed in September.
Services and connections
Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally operate every 2–6 minutes between 06:22 and 00:19 in both directions.
No bus routes directly serve the station. However, London Bus routes 4, 19, 29, 91, 106, 153, 236, 253, 254 and 259 and night routes N19, N29, N91, N253 and N279 are all nearby.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
.
Piccadilly line stations
London Underground Night Tube stations
Former Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway stations
Tube stations in the London Borough of Islington
Arsenal F.C.
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1906
Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom | [
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|
217003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orcagna | Orcagna | Andrea di Cione di Arcangelo (c. 1308 – August 25, 1368), better known as Orcagna, was an Italian painter, sculptor, and architect active in Florence. He worked as a consultant at the Florence Cathedral and supervised the construction of the facade at the Orvieto Cathedral. His Strozzi Altarpiece (1354–57) is noted as defining a new role for Christ as a source of Catholic doctrine and papal authority.
Works
Orcagna's works include:
"Altarpiece of the Redeemer" (1354–57) in the Strozzi di Mantova Chapel at Santa Maria Novella, Florence
The tabernacle in Orsanmichele (finished 1359) which was regarded as "the most perfect work of its kind in Italian Gothic".
His fresco The Triumph of Death inspired Franz Liszt's masterwork Totentanz.
His fresco Crucifixion with a multitude of angels surrounding the cross, portrayed on a dark background and a few fragments of the Last Supper (1365).
The mosaic decoration and the rose window of the cathedral of Orvieto is attributed to Orcagna, who had become Master of the Works in 1359.
Pupils
Among Orcagna's pupils and legacy were:
Nello di Vanni, a Pisan painter of the 14th century, who also worked for the Campo Santo. Nello di Vanni is conjectured to be identical with Bernardo Nello or Giovanni Falcone.
Tommaso del Mazza, called Tomasso di Marco by Giorgio Vasari
Jacopo di Cione, brother of Andrea and mainly sculptor and architect
References
External links
Gothic painters
Trecento painters
1308 births
1368 deaths
Painters from Florence
Painters from Tuscany
Architects from Florence
14th-century people of the Republic of Florence
14th-century Italian architects
14th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Sibling artists | [
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|
217005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20submarine%20simulator | Mobile submarine simulator | The mobile submarine simulator (MOSS) MK70 is a sonar decoy used by submarines of the United States Navy. It was a 10-inch vehicle, without an explosive warhead, but able to generate both an active sonar echo and a passive sound signature recorded to be extremely similar to that of the launching submarine. The purpose of MOSS was to create multiple targets all with the same acoustic signature.
MOSS was originally developed by Gould until Westinghouse acquired that division. Some current underwater training targets are modeled after MOSS's design.
The MOSS first entered service in 1976 and was deployed on all American ballistic missile submarines from the 1980s until it was withdrawn in the mid 1990s.
Unmanned underwater vehicles
Sonar decoys
See also
ADM-160 MALD | [
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|
217006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSS | MOSS | MOSS may refer to:
Technology
Map Overlay and Statistical System, a geographic information system (GIS)
Microsoft SharePoint, known in its 2007 version as Microsoft Office SharePoint Server (MOSS)
MIME Object Security Services, an IETF security protocol
Mobile submarine simulator, a sonar decoy
Morocco Oukaimeden Sky Survey, an astronomical survey of Solar System objects in Morocco
Other uses
Market Oriented Sector Selective talks, trade negotiations between the United States and Japan in 1984
MOSS (company), a Japanese video game company
MoSS, a Canadian hip-hop producer
Mini One Stop Shop, the European Union VAT system for cross-border B2C e-services.
Mobile submarine simulator, Mark 70 sonar decoy previously used by US Navy submarines
See also
Moss (disambiguation)
MOS (disambiguation) | [
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|
217010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Blade | Washington Blade | The Washington Blade is a lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) newspaper in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area. The Blade is the oldest LGBT newspaper in the United States and third largest by circulation, behind the Philadelphia Gay News and the Gay City News of New York City. The Blade is often referred to as America's gay newspaper of record because it chronicled LGBT news locally, nationally, and internationally. The New York Times said the Blade is considered "one of the most influential publications written for a gay audience."
The paper was originally launched as an independent publication in October 1969 with a focus on bringing the community together. In 2001, the Blade was purchased by Window Media LLC, a group of gay-oriented newspapers circulated throughout the United States with a staff composed of professional journalists, becoming a leading source of news for the readers both in Washington and around the nation. The paper publishes weekly on Fridays and celebrated its 50th anniversary in October 2019.
In November 2009, the Blade and several related publications, including the Southern Voice, were shut down after Window Media announced it was closing business. After Blade staff members were told they no longer had jobs, plans were made for a new gay publication entitled DC Agenda, since the trademark for Washington Blade was still held by the now-defunct Window Media.
It was announced on April 27, 2010 that the DC Agenda would rename itself to the Washington Blade. The ownership group of the Agenda consisted of many former staff members of the Blade, who purchased the trademark and paper archives out of bankruptcy court. The first issue of the newly independent Blade debuted on April 30, 2010.
History
Origins to 1973
The Washington Blade, originally called The Gay Blade, published its first issue on October 5, 1969. Taking its roots from the Mattachine Society of Washington's newsletter in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Blade was conceived as a way to fill in a perceived gap in the organization of social communications within the gay community of Washington, D.C. It was created by Nancy Tucker and Lilli Vincenz. The Blade was originally published as a single page and distributed hand-to-hand in a variety of gay bars throughout the city. Afraid of a backlash over the publication, many of the initial authors of writings in the Blade used pen names during the early years of publishing. The initial publications were entirely created by volunteers from the community with two editors, Nancy Tucker and Bart Wenger, at the helm. Wenger stated the initial goals of the publication were to "...engender a sense of community" and that it was "very important for gays to become acquainted with one another." Published monthly from 1969 to 1973, the newspaper evolved from its original size and shape of a single letter sized paper sheet. In June 1972, the Gay Blade published its first multi-page edition which consisted of four pages and in April 1973, the paper expanded to eight pages and was printed on legal sized paper sheets, stapled in the middle and folded. As the looks of the paper evolved, so did the news coverage. The Gay Blade began to focus less on being a newsletter used to organize the community and more of a newspaper for the community.
1974 to 1982
In July 1974, the first newsprint edition was published and signaled an evolution in the history of the Gay Blade. A fifth anniversary edition of the paper was not published in October 1974 because of a lack of revenue and interest, marking the only time the paper failed to publish an edition in its history. The new focus on being a newspaper allowed the publication's circulation to grow in 1974 and 1975 from five hundred copies distributed at less than a dozen sites to over 4,000 copies available at thirty-five locations throughout the city. The June 1975 edition of the Blade dropped the word 'Gay' from the title of the publication after it was discovered that a newspaper in New York City held the rights to the name Gay Blade. The new name of the publication was now The Blade. It continued to be published on newsprint paper and had no additional format changes until near the end of the decade. Incorporating as a non-profit corporation under the title of "Blade Communications, Inc." in November 1975, the paper continued its growth. Don Michaels, an important voice on the pages of the publication, was named the editor of the paper in January 1978. Michaels began strict enforcement of a policy that prohibited pen names from being used in bylines. By November 1978, the Blade was regularly featuring color printing on its pages and beginning in 1979, the Blade changed into a bi-weekly publication. Starting in October 1980, the name of the publication changed to The Washington Blade and the corporation re-incorporated as a for-profit, employee-owned business. In July 1981, the Blade ran a front-page story entitled "Rare, Fatal Pneumonia Hits Gay Men," making the paper one of the first gay newspapers in the country to write about the disease that has come to be known as AIDS. In November 1981, Don Michaels got promoted to the position of publisher, a position he would hold for over two decades.
1983 to 2000
The Blade started publishing weekly in January 1983 and coverage shifted to the AIDS crisis and news about this newly emerging disease. The ever-breaking news caused the paper to remain in a heightened state of coverage and nearly exhausted the papers resources with members of the community having to step in to support the work of the Blade. The reporting of the AIDS crisis from this timeframe allowed the newspaper to come of age to the mature and professionally driven publication seen today. In June 1988, the editors of the paper used a computer to layout the paper for the first time. The 1990s saw increases in readership and circulation of the Washington Blade. In April 1993, during the 1993 Gay March on Washington, the paper published its largest edition to date consisting of 216 pages. The paper expanded into new markets and mediums with the 1995 launch of the online version of the Blade, followed two years later with the launching of a sister publication in New York, called the New York Blade. In the later part of the century, coverage was expanded to include local and national news, as well as international news of interest to the LGBT community.
2001 to 2010
On May 25, 2001, the print edition announced the sale of the Washington Blade to Window Media, LLC, a group of gay publications. With the new ownership came several changes to standardize the paper with other Window Media publications, such as the return of editorials to the publication after being missing for several decades. Shortly after the sale of the paper, staff at the Blade sought a vote to unionize with the help of the Washington-Baltimore Newspaper Guild. The Guild and the staff of the Blade brought a complaint to the National Labor Relations Board and deliberated for a few weeks over this issue resulting in a ten to eight vote against unionization on July 20, 2001.
Beginning in 2005, the Washington Blade also ran a free news clipping service called the BladeWire. This service collected news stories of interest to the LGBT community from a variety of local, state, regional, national, and selected international media sources. The service was generated by the Blades editors and was published on the internet. A feature of the BladeWire also allowed it to be syndicated onto other websites using JavaScript.
During the 2008 U.S. presidential election, Senator John McCain's decision to participate in a written interview with the Blade marked the first time a Republican presidential nominee agreed to be interviewed by a gay publication.
On November 16, 2009, the paper was abruptly shut down because of the financial status of its parent company, Window Media, and its majority shareholder, Avalon Equity Partners. Employees at the Blade were aware of Window Media's financial troubles, but the timing and total closure of the publication came as a shock to the entire staff. Kevin Naff, editor of the Blade, said employees "found out when two of the corporate officers were waiting for us when we got to work this morning". Since the Blade had been a profitable newspaper, and because the debt-ridden Window Media was no longer draining the publication's finances, the same day the Blade shut down, Naff told the Washington City Paper he and the remaining staffers "We're all together. Our first meeting for our new venture is tomorrow morning." Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton said the Blade had been a "weekly must-read", and pledged support for a new publication to serve Washington's LGBT community.
On November 20, 2009, a new venture, supported entirely by volunteering staff (who consisted of the majority of the Blades editorial staff, as well as a few others, at the time of its closing), launched with its first issue. Called DC Agenda, no relation to the non-profit organization of the same name, the new venture released the same week as the closing of the Blade. From the placeholder website SaveTheBlade.com:
While we cannot save the name we can certainly save all that was the essence and spirit of our LGBTQ Community's newspaper of record. The staff of the paper remains united and our mission to enlighten and inform remains steadfast. We will launch a new publication that will bring you what we have always worked to deliver - gay news and information that is critical to our Metro DC LGBTQ Community.
Issues were handed out at Washington, D.C. Metro train stations, and an online copy was available at www.washingtonblade.com.
On February 25, 2010, DC Agenda acquired the assets of The Washington Blade from the US Bankruptcy Court. Included were the archives, name, trademarks, website, and fixtures from the Washington Blade offices. About a month later on April 26, 2010, the DC Agenda publisher announced that the Washington Blade name would return to the masthead of the paper with the DC Agenda becoming the name of the arts and entertainment section.
On March 24, 2017, the paper launched a version in Los Angeles, called the Los Angeles Blade.
Circulation and demographics
The Washington Blade was published weekly on Fridays with a circulation of 33,874 printed copies of each edition. News coverage focuses mainly on global and regional political issues concerning LGBT persons with additional coverage of entertainment and nightlife in the Washington, D.C. area. The masthead of the printed paper includes the slogan "The gay and lesbian weekly of the national capital area since 1969" and the online masthead proclaims "All the news for your life. And your style." Distribution of the Blade includes locations throughout the Washington, D.C. area. Additional distribution points are located in Maryland, Virginia, and as far away as Rehoboth Beach, Delaware. The newspaper is primarily distributed through free-standing newspaper boxes on street corners, newspaper racks at Metro stations, and in shops and restaurants. The main competition to the Washington Blade in Washington, D.C. is the weekly newsmagazine, Metro Weekly, and nationally the Bay Area Reporter of San Francisco. For a brief period starting in 1979, the Blade also had competition from Blacklight, the city's first African-American gay monthly periodical. Archives of the Washington Blade were maintained at their Washington, D.C. offices and on Microfilm at the Microfilm Reading Room of the Library of Congress, and in the Alternative & Underground Press Collections of ProQuest (formerly called UMI) in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The newspaper is a member of the National Newspaper Association, the National Gay Newspaper Guild, and the Associated Press.
According to a survey conducted by Simmons Market Research in April 2000 for the Washington Blade, the median age of their readership was forty-one and 85% of their readers were between the ages of twenty-five and fifty-four years old. 92% of the readership is employed with 70% of the readers in professional and managerial jobs. The median income of readers was $57,200 per year, with median household income at $84,000. Overall, 79% of the Blade'''s readership holds a college degree with 42% of the readers holding postgraduate degrees.
Awards
A series of articles from March 1985 and continuing for five months entitled "When Pretending Stops," written by Lisa Keen, won local acclaim and awards for the coverage of the slow death of local lawyer Ray Engebretsen. This series of articles chronicled the impact of AIDS in the gay community and was ground-breaking coverage in Washington. In 1995, the Washington Blade won a Silver Gavel award from the American Bar Association for a four-part series of articles entitled "Legal Challenges to Anti-Gay Initiatives" which explored the legal consequences of anti-gay ballot initiatives and the constitutional challenges to them. In 2007, the paper won four Dateline Awards for Excellence in Local Journalism from the Society of Professional Journalists Washington, D.C., Pro Chapter.
Criticism and controversy
Publication of the paper has not been without controversy over the years. The news coverage from the early years to the mid-1980s was perceived by some as being "white-washed" for its lack of coverage of the gay African-American population located in Washington, D.C., a city where more than 70 percent of its residents were African-American. This led to the creation of the short-lived publication Blacklight, the city's first African-American gay monthly periodical in August 1979, which attempted to compete with the Blade. Coverage of the City Council special election in April 1991 garnered intensive criticism of biased coverage and led to calls for reforming the paper's editorial board. In 1993, the Blade and its publishing company threatened to sue the Fairfax County Library over a potential ban on the distribution of the Blade at its branches. Also, the 2001 sale of the Washington Blade to Window Media, LLC led to intense criticism from former employees, editors, and media pundits of the consolidation of so many gay newspapers' editorial boards into the same company, leading to fears of homogenizing of content and editorial control. A former staff writer has also accused the paper of playing politics through the mandated use of the capitalized version of the word 'Gay' in order to make a political statement.
The newspaper has been accused from time-to-time of forcing public figures out of the closet. This policy of 'outing' individuals surfaced in 1996 during the debate over the Defense of Marriage Act, when the Blade and The Advocate were going to out Congressmen Jim Kolbe and Mark Foley. Neither publication did out either politician, and both publications later denied ever intending to out the Congressmen. In recent years, these accusations have resurfaced as Kevin Naff, current editor of the Blade, has accused the Washington Post of 'straight-washing' stories about LGBT individuals. Naff wrote that "When someone is described as 'flamboyant,' 'eccentric' or 'a lifelong bachelor,' we know what's being implied... Readers of the Washington Post had better hone their gaydar skills, because in story after story, the newsgathering behemoth either ignores questions of sexual orientation or employs endless winks and nods to convey what would be better spelled out." When asked why identifying and outing of individuals by publications like the Blade, staff writer Greg Marzullo wrote "Why do [we] insist on mentioning someone's sexual orientation at all? Because we're a queer paper." As reported in the Washington Post, former editor Chris Crain summarized the Blades editorial reasoning for the 'outings' by stating that "It is 2004, not 1954, and sexual orientation in and of itself is no longer a 'private fact' beyond the pale of inquiry." The Blade, he wrote, "would investigate and report about whether influential Hill aides are gay if facts about their sexual orientation raise highly newsworthy questions of hypocrisy in the stands taken by anti-gay members of Congress for whom they work." A former staff writer of the Washington Blade has noted objections to this perceived campaign to label individuals by their sexual orientations and has used a blog to register these objections.
In July 2005, Jeff Gannon began writing editorials for the paper. His pieces included criticism of gay blogger John Aravosis, who had helped uncover Gannon's pornographic ads. Editor Chris Crain attracted his own criticism from many in the gay community for this decision, due to Gannon's history of anti-gay reporting as well as Gannon's refusal to disclose his sexual orientation. He has said, "My personal life is a private matter, despite the fact that I have become a public person." Crain defended his decision in a September 2005 editorial and claimed the "steady stream of feedback/vitriol" had declined "a little" with each new Gannon article.
References
External links
DC Agenda The website for the new publication DC Agenda that was created by former Blade staff
Save The Blade A temporary website utilized immediately after the Blade'' closed
A History of the Washington Blade, Metropolitan Washington DC’s GLBT Newspaper of Record, via The Rainbow History Project
Newspaper of Record: 35 Years of the Washington Blade, by The Rainbow History Project
Newspapers published in Washington, D.C.
Weekly newspapers published in the United States
LGBT-related newspapers published in the United States
Publications established in 1969
LGBT culture in Washington, D.C. | [
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|
217019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GP32 | GP32 | The GP32 (GamePark 32) is a handheld game console developed by the South Korean company Game Park. It was released on November 23, 2001, in South Korea and distributed in some parts of Europe.
Features
The overall design is not unlike the original version of the Game Boy Advance. The GP32 is based on a 133 MHz ARM CPU and 8 MB of RAM. Unlike other handheld gaming systems, which tend to be proprietary cartridge-based, the GP32 uses SmartMedia cards (SMC) for storing programs and data, making it accessible for amateur developers as no further development hardware is required.
The console has a four-way mini-joystick controller, two main buttons ('A' and 'B'), two shoulder buttons on each side of the SMC slot ('L' and 'R') and two other menu buttons on each side of the screen ('SELECT' and 'START'), made from a softer, translucent rubber. The console also has a USB 1.1 port for connection with a host computer, a serial expansion port, a 3.3 V power adapter input, a headphone connector and a rear compartment which holds two AA sized batteries.
Variants
There are three main commercial versions of the unit characterized by different display types. Commercial units are white in color with either grey or white buttons and trim. There are also a number of differently colored promotional units, and several prototype units with different designs.
GP32 NLU
The original GP32 was the no-light unit (NLU) which relied on an external light source to view the screen.
GP32 FLU
In late 2002, Game Park introduced the frontlight unit (FLU) as a factory modified (by Hahotech) version of the NLU. It provides its own illumination via a transparent panel between the LCD display and the plastic screen cover. The extra hardware resulted in a slightly raised display frame when compared to the NLU and BLU variants. The frontlight could be turned off with a switch mounted on the back of the GP32 case (to save battery).
The GP32 FLU's name was derived from a sticker added to the front of the GP32 packaging differentiating it from the standard non-light versions.
GP32 BLU
In mid-2004, Game Park introduced the backlight unit (BLU). The new BLU LCD was compatible with the NLU (and FLU) and provided superior screen display in poor lighting conditions. At the end of 2004, Game Park also released a second version of the BLU, which had a different LCD to the first version BLU units. The new BLU+ LCD was not 100% compatible with the original LCD screen and so software required special handling to support both LCD versions.
The backlight could be disabled by holding the SELECT button for 5 seconds. The BLU models also had a slightly different USB port connector and better quality micro switches for the controller.
BLU+ Compatibility
A back lit GP32 (released in December 2004) was given the name BLU+ by the community. The back lit unit featured a different LCD display (Taiwanese manufactured instead of Samsung), which led to some compatibility problems with certain applications, and problems such as white lines across the screen. However, nearly all applications were fixed once it was found that the new screens had better contrast than the old ones. The back lit GP32's were commercially named "BLU". The BLU+ was, as stated, a name that the community gave it to notice the difference between the two models.
There were many applications that worked with the BLU+ and other models.
Mirko's SDK could autodetect which version one had. All the applications such as emulators, movie players, and the like worked as well on the BLU+, as on other models.
Software
Built In
The original Game Park firmware had three main functions: to launch applications, provide a means of linking to a host computer and to play music in MP3 format.
Later versions of the Game Park firmware removed the MP3 music capability.
Homebrew
Game Park planned their system to be powerful and useful, but they also wanted users to be able to create homebrew software. GP32 users could register the unit on the official website and get a free suite of development tools to create their own programs. Game Park also allowed (under certain restrictions) the publishing of such homebrew games on their website.
The GP32's original firmware only supported running encrypted games and tools. Users had to register and use an encrypted "Free Launcher" to run unsigned software. Alternative firmware removed the necessity of using the "Free Launcher" software and provided many extra functions that were lacking in the original firmware.
Through this strategy, the GP32 was the host of multiple homebrew applications and games. The various applications made for it ranged from alternative firmware, file managers, games, emulators, game generators (such as RPG Maker), a DivX player and image slideshows.
Commercial
Commercial games could be acquired via internet download (encrypted to the GP32's ID) or in a retail box. The retail boxes contained SmartMedia Cards with the games which were encrypted to run only from these cards (SMC ID). They could alternatively be downloaded from a Korean portal after submitting the GP32's ID, they were then encrypted to run only on that GP32. Downloading the games effectively reduced the cost to the consumer, who was no longer paying for the manufacture of the cartridge. Downloading a game online could range from US$10 to US$30.
Games
Five games in a variety of genres were released at the system's launch on November 23, 2001. About 28 commercial games were eventually released. The last commercial game to be released was the platformer/RPG Blue Angelo, which was released on December 16, 2004. Most commercial GP32 games could be bought in two ways: boxed or downloaded through the internet through Gamepark's online JoyGP store (typically for a much lower price). JoyGP was the international version of the MegaGP store, which existed earlier and was limited to South Korea. Although most games were sold in both formats, there were a few exceptions: for example, "Blue Angelo" was (and is) only sold as a boxed copy made in France, and "Gloop Deluxe" was only sold online, but not through JoyGP.
Although the number of official games available for the GP32 system is limited, many open source/free software developers worked on various emulators and ported PC games. In addition to this, a wide range of free, public domain games were created by amateur developers. Game Park did not ask any royalties to release games for its device, which made it easier for small editors or independent developers to release software for the GP32.
The modification of Ericsson Chatboard micro-keyboards to work with the system has seen a new flourish of software development, including countless attempts at ports of Linux, and keyboard support being added to many emulators.
Emulators
The GP32's relatively powerful ARM 920T CPU and freely available 'C'-based SDK have allowed many emulators to be specifically developed or ported from other platforms. Emulated systems that run on the GP32 include 16-bit era and earlier console and computer platforms. These emulators allow users to experience a large variety of games on their GP32 system, largely compensating for the relatively small library of commercially available games.
There is also a Windows-based GP32 emulator, which allows users to run GP32 software on a Windows-based PC.
Commercial availability
Commercially, the system can be found mostly in Korea, and some other parts of Asia, although the GP32 BLU model was released in three European markets, including Portugal, Spain, and Italy, being distributed by Virgin Play on June 15, 2004, with a price point of €199. There are official distributors in the United Kingdom and Sweden as well. Game Park, however, did not release the console in America. Since the GP32 is no longer in production, the console can commonly be found on eBay, forums, or other used video game vendors or websites.
Despite the GP32 not being released worldwide, it has a large international community of users and developers. About 30,000 units were sold by the end of 2007.
Hardware
Successors
GP2X - dual-CPU unit produced by new company GamePark Holdings.
GP2X Wiz - Successor to the GP2X
GP2X Caanoo - Successor to the GP2X Wiz
XGP - a never-released system developed by Game Park
See also
Comparison of handheld game consoles
References
External links
GP32 File Archive (all free software written for the system)
ARM-based video game consoles
Handheld game consoles
Sixth-generation video game consoles
Game Park | [
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217033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Bay%2C%20Wisconsin | Green Bay, Wisconsin | Green Bay (, ) is a city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. The county seat of Brown County, it is at the head of Green Bay (known locally as "the bay of Green Bay"), a sub-basin of Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Fox River. It is above sea level and north of Milwaukee. As of the 2020 Census, Green Bay had a population of 107,395, making it the third-largest in the state of Wisconsin, after Milwaukee and Madison, and the third-largest city on Lake Michigan, after Chicago and Milwaukee.
Green Bay is the principal city of the Green Bay Metropolitan Statistical Area, which covers Brown, Kewaunee, and Oconto counties. Green Bay is well known for being home of the Green Bay Packers of the National Football League.
History
Samuel de Champlain, the founder of New France, commissioned Jean Nicolet to form a peaceful alliance with Native Americans in the western areas, whose unrest interfered with French fur trade, and to search for a shorter trade route to China through Canada. Nicolet and others had learned from other First Nations of the Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) people, who identified as "People of the Sea", and believed they must reside on or near the Pacific Ocean. Champlain had also heard about natural resources in the area, including fertile soil, forests, and animals. Nicolet began his journey for this new land shortly before winter in 1634. In what later became a French fur-trading route, he sailed up the Ottawa River, through Lake Nipissing and down the French River to Lake Huron, then through the straits of Michilimackinac into Lake Michigan. He is believed to have landed at Red Banks, near the site of the modern-day city of Green Bay, Wisconsin.
From the trading post La Baie des Puants to the town La Baie verte
Nicolet founded a small trading post here in 1634, originally named La Baye or La Baie des Puants (French for "the Bay of Stinking Waters"). Nicolet's settlement was one of the oldest European permanent settlements in America.
When Nicolet arrived in the Green Bay area, he encountered the Menominee, who occupied this territory. He also met the Ho-Chunk (also known as the Winnebago), a people who spoke a Siouan language.
The Winnebago hunted and fished, and also cultivated corn, beans, squash, and tobacco. Wild rice, which they had incorporated as a dietary staple, grew in abundance along the riverbanks. The women regularly harvested and cooked this, along with a wide variety of nuts, berries, and edible roots which they gathered in the woods. The men typically hunted and fished for food, and the women processed game and other foods in cooking. They prepared and made clothing from the furs, as well as using other parts of animals to make tools, cord, etc. Women also had a role in the political process, as no action could be taken without agreement of half of the women. Nicolet stayed with this tribe for about a year, becoming an ally. He helped open up opportunities for trade and commerce with them before returning to Quebec.
A few months after Nicolet returned to Quebec, Champlain died. His death halted other journeys to La Baie Verte (French for "The Green Bay"). Père Claude Allouez sent Nicolas Perrot to La Baie. After this, the French avoided the area for some decades, because of the intensity of First Nations and European conflicts in the east. In 1671, a Jesuit Mission was set up in the area. A fort was added in 1717 and gradually associated development took place. The town was incorporated in 1754.
Great Britain took control of some French areas during the Seven Years' War, known as the French and Indian War in some areas of North America. They took control of this town in 1761. After the British defeated the French in 1763, France ceded its lands east of the Mississippi in North America.
The first permanent settlers were Charles de Langlade and his family from Quebec, who moved to Green Bay in 1765. They are considered the first European settlers in the present-day state of Wisconsin. Langlade, called the "Founder and Father of Wisconsin", was a métis or mixed-race, son of a French-Canadian father and an Ottawa woman. He grew up with his mother's family among the Ottawa people and became a war chief. The Ottawa were allies of the French during the French and Indian War, and Langlade is credited with planning the ambush of British General Braddock and George Washington. His family was followed to Green Bay by the Grignons, Porliers and Lawes, who brought French-Canadian culture with them. Colorful "jack-knife Judge" Reaume dispensed British justice in the territory after Great Britain took it over following the war. These early ethnic French settlers set the tone for many who followed.
The British take-over
The British gradually took over Wisconsin during the French and Indian War, taking control of Green Bay in 1761 and gaining control of all of Wisconsin in 1763. Like the French, the British were interested in little but the fur trade. In 1791, two free African Americans set up a fur trading post among the Menominee at present day Marinette. The first permanent settlers, mostly French Canadians, some Anglo-New Englanders and a few African American freedmen, arrived in Wisconsin while it was under British control. Charles Michel de Langlade is generally recognized as the first settler, establishing a trading post at Green Bay in 1745, and moving there permanently in 1764. Settlement began at Prairie du Chien around 1781. The French residents at the trading post in what is now Green Bay, referred to the town as "La Bey," however British fur traders referred to it as "Green Bay," because the water and the shore assumed green tints in early spring. The old French title was gradually dropped, and the British name of "Green Bay" stuck. The region coming under British rule had virtually no adverse effect on the French residents as the British needed the cooperation of the French fur traders and the French fur traders needed the goodwill of the British. During the French occupation of the region licenses for fur trading had been issued scarcely and only to select groups of traders, whereas the British, in an effort to make as much money as possible from the region, issued licenses for fur trading freely, both to British and French residents. The fur trade in what is now Wisconsin reached its height under British rule, and the first self-sustaining farms in the state were established as well. From 1763 to 1780, Green Bay was a prosperous community which produced its own foodstuff, built graceful cottages and held dances and festivities.
After Independence
The Green Bay area was still under British control until the 1783 treaty formally ended the American Revolutionary War. Following the War of 1812, which in part was over disputes related to the border with Canada, the United States built Fort Howard on the Fox River in 1816 to protect its northern border. Doty, Whitney, Arndt, Baird and Martin were among the many British-American settlers whose numbers pushed French culture into the background. As British settlers in the area came to outnumber the French, they referred to the town as "Green Bay" (from the French: Baie Verte).
The Erie Canal was completed in 1825, linking New England with the Great Lakes. This led to the advance of Green Bay as a trading center. The end of the Black Hawk War in 1832 also gave impetus to settlement of the region. Most of the settlers were farmers from New England who began using the Erie Canal to pour into Wisconsin. As more and more New England settlers arrived, Green Bay developed into a trading center for this population.
Wisconsin's first newspaper, The Green Bay Intelligencer, was started in 1833 by Albert Ellis and John V. Suydam. The borough of Green Bay, created in 1838, is the center of the present-day city. The borough combined the town of Astoria (a company town of the American Fur Company), with Navarino, platted by Daniel Whitney. Before Wisconsin became a state in 1848, its commerce was based on the fur trade, which became dominated by John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company. After statehood, there was a shift away from fur trading toward lumbering. "For a short time in 1860s and 1870s, iron smelting in charcoal kilns rivaled the timber industry while the port handled increasing amounts of fuel, feed, and lumber. Today's major local industry had its start in 1865 when the first paper mill was built."
By 1850 the town had a population of 1,923. The town was incorporated as the city of Green Bay in 1854. The Green Bay Area Public School District was founded in 1856. Throughout the 1850s, word spread of America's cheap land and good soil, bringing in an influx of Belgian people, German, Scandinavian, Irish and Dutch immigrants, each adding to the culture. The greatest concentration of newcomers came from Belgium. They cleared the land to farm and build their homes.
The railroad arrived in the 1860s. The three railroads that would reach Green Bay were the Chicago & North Western (C&NW), SOO Line, (SOO), and the Milwaukee Road (MILW). These railroads were highways which allowed people and products to travel all over the state, increasing business and trade opportunities. The area was able to grow and enrich itself with the use of the river and the plentiful timber resources. This led to the paper industry becoming the major employer in Green Bay, and opened up the port for international trade.
Large numbers of Belgians immigrated to Green Bay in the thirty-year period between 1880 and 1910. Significant numbers of English immigrants, many having lived first in Canada, also moved to Green Bay during this period, usually arriving as large families. There was also a small Dutch community in Green Bay at this time. Green Bay had a larger portion of first generation immigrants from France than any other city in Wisconsin at this time as well.
In 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt came to Green Bay to honor its tercentenary. By 1950, the city had a population of 52,735. In 1964, the Town of Preble was consolidated with the city of Green Bay.
Geography
Green Bay is in the northeastern part of Wisconsin at the mouth of the Fox River. Today, Interstate 43 meets Interstate 41 (also U.S. Route 41) in Green Bay, about north of Milwaukee.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.
Climate
Green Bay has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb), with some moderation due to the city's proximity to Lake Michigan. Like other cities with this type of climate, there are four distinct seasons, often with severe or extreme variation between them in terms of temperature and precipitation. Green Bay experiences hot, humid summers and cold, snowy winters. The variance in temperature and precipitation between months is severe and often extreme. Tornadoes are rare in the Green Bay area, with the strongest being an F3 tornado that hit the community of Pittsfield on June 26, 1969.
Monthly mean temperatures range from in January to in July. In July, the warmest month, the average high temperature is . There are 6.1 days of + highs, 68 days where the high remains at or below freezing, and 19 days with sub- lows annually. From December to February, even during thaws, the temperature rarely reaches . Extremes have ranged from on January 21, 1888, to on July 13, 1936.
The wettest month in Green Bay is August, when 3.77 inches (95.8 mm) of precipitation falls, mostly in the form of rainfall from thunderstorms. The driest month in Green Bay is February, when the majority of precipitation falls as low moisture-content snow due to cold, dry air. On average, 1.01 inches (25.7 mm) of precipitation falls in February.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 104,057 people, 42,244 households, and 24,699 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 45,241 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 77.9% White, 3.5% African American, 4.1% Native American, 4.0% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 7.2% from other races, and 3.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13.4% of the population.
There were 42,244 households, of which 31.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.4% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.5% were non-families. 32.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.06.
The median age in the city was 33.7 years. 24.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 11.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.7% were from 25 to 44; 24.5% were from 45 to 64; and 11.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.4% male and 50.6% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 102,313 people, 41,591 households, and 24,663 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,332.1 people per square mile (900.5/km2). There were 43,123 housing units at an average density of 982.9 per square mile (379.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 85.9% White, 1.4% African American, 3.3% Native American, 3.8% Asian, <0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.7% from other races, and 2.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.1% of the population.
There were 41,591 households, of which 30.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.1% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.7% were non-families. About 31.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.06.
In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 25.4% under the age of 18, 11.6% from 18 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 11.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $38,820, and the median income for a family was $48,678. Males had a median income of $33,246 versus $23,825 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,269. About 7.4% of families and 10.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.7% of those under the age of 18 and 9.2% of those 65 and older.
Government
Green Bay is governed by a mayor and a city council. The mayor is elected in a citywide vote. The city council consists of 12 members each elected from districts.
Mayors
W. C. E. Thomas 1854
Francis X. Desnoyers 1855
H. E. Eastman 1856, 1857
Burley Follett 1858, 1863
Nathan Goodell 1859, 1864
E. H. Ellis 1860
Henry S. Baird 1861, 1862
M. P. Lindsley 1865
Charles D. Robinson 1866, 1872
James S. Marshall 1868
Anton Klaus 1868-1870
Alonzo Kimball 1871, 1873
Dr. C. E. Crane 1874–1875; 1877-1879
Frederick S. Ellis 1876
J. C. Neville 1880
W. J. Abrams 1881, 1883-1884
J. H. M. Wigman 1882
Charles Hartung 1885-1887
Arthur C. Neville 1888-1889
James H. Elmore 1890-1895
Frank B. Desnoyers 1896-1898
Simon J. Murphy Jr. 1899-1901
J. H. Tayler 1902-1903
Robert E. Minahan 1904−1907
Winford Abrams 1908−1916
Elmer S. Hall 1916−1920
Wenzel Wiesner 1921−1927
James H. McGillan 1927−1929
John V. Diener 1929−1937
John S. Farrell 1937−1938
Alex Biemeret 1938−1945
Dominic Olejniczak 1945−1955
Otto Rachals 1955−1959
Roman Denissen 1959−1965
Donald Tilleman 1965−1972
Harris Burgoyne 1972−1973
Thomas Atkinson 1973−1975
Michael Monfils 1975−1979
Samuel J. Halloin 1979−1995
Paul Jadin 1995−2003
Jim Schmitt 2003−2019
Eric Genrich 2019−
Green Bay is represented by Mike Gallagher (R) in the United States House of Representatives, and by Ron Johnson (R) and Tammy Baldwin (D) in the United States Senate. André Jacque (R), Robert Cowles (R), and Eric Wimberger (R) represent Green Bay in the Wisconsin State Senate, and David Steffen (R), John Macco (R), and Kristina Shelton (D) represent Green Bay in the Wisconsin State Assembly.
Law enforcement
The Green Bay Police Department was established in on August 27, 1857, when the Green Bay Police Corps was established, and Henry Baird was named Chief of Police. The Green Bay Police Department provides many specialized services such as a Dive Team, Harbor Patrol, Motorcycle Patrol, and a S.W.A.T. Team.
Since the establishment of the Green Bay Police Department, one officer has died in the line of duty.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Railroads
From 1896 to 1993 the city was the headquarters of the Green Bay and Western Railroad. In 1993, the line was purchased by the Wisconsin Central. In 2001, the WC was merged into the Canadian National Railway. The Chicago and North Western Railway also served Green Bay and its depot still stands. Green Bay was last served with a regular passenger train, the CNW's Peninsula 400, in 1971. The CNW sold its trackage from Green Bay south to Sheboygan in 1987 to the Fox River Valley Railroad, which became part of the WC in 1993. Green Bay also saw passenger service from the Milwaukee Road's Chippewa-Hiawatha, which ran from Chicago into the upper peninsula of Michigan. Green Bay is also served by the Escanaba and Lake Superior Railroad.
Airport
Green Bay is served by Green Bay–Austin Straubel International Airport, located in Ashwaubenon just west of the city.
Highways
I-43 Northbound terminates at the northwestern side of Green Bay. Southbound continues to Manitowoc and Milwaukee.
I-41 Northbound terminates at the northwestern side of Green Bay. Southbound continues to Appleton and Milwaukee.
US 41 travels towards Marinette, and south concurrently with I-41.
US 141 begins east of Green Bay in Bellevue, and continues north towards Crivitz and Iron Mountain, Michigan.
WIS 29 travels east towards Kewaunee, and west towards Shawano and Wausau.
WIS 32 travels north towards Pulaski, and south towards Chilton and Milwaukee.
WIS 54 travels east to Algoma, and west towards Seymour.
WIS 57 travels north towards Sturgeon Bay, and south towards Milwaukee.
WIS 172 begins at I-43 in Bellevue and travels west to Hobart.
Local transit
Green Bay Metro provides mass transit bus service throughout Green Bay and the surrounding suburbs.
Jefferson Lines, Indian Trails, and Lamers Bus Lines provide intercity transportation from the central Green Bay Metro station which is downtown.
Via on-demand transit
In April 2020, Green Bay Metro partnered with Via Transportation to launch GBM Paratransit, a service for riders with disabilities who are not accommodated by tradition fixed route transit. To qualify for the service, paratransit riders must complete an eligibility application on the Green Bay Metro website. After receiving an application, service operators will respond within 21 days to communicate the rider's eligibility status. Users can download the GBM Paratransit app or call the service directly to schedule a ride.
After the success of GBM Paratransit, Green Bay Metro partnered with Via Transportation again in August 2020 to launch GBM On Demand, the first micro-transit service in the state of Wisconsin. While GBM Paratransit requires an application and caters to users with disabilities are not accommodated by traditional fixed route transit, GBM On Demand is accessible to everyone. GBM On Demand complements existing infrastructure with easy and affordable shared rides near residential neighborhoods, transit hubs and various destinations. Users request a ride through the mobile app GBM On Demand or by phone. All on demand rides are ADA accessible and are the same price as the traditional Green Bay Metro bus fare. Riders can pay for the service directly through the app with a credit card, cash or their Metro day, weekly or monthly pass. The daytime service operates M-F 5:45am–8:45pm and Saturday 7:45am–3:45pm and the nighttime service operates M-F 8:45pm–10:45pm.
Water
Green Bay is served by the Port of Green Bay. The port handled 1.99 million tons of cargo in 2015. The primary shipments into and out of the port include coal, limestone, salt, and cement.
Utilities
Electricity
Green Bay is served by Wisconsin Public Service Corporation. The J. P. Pulliam Generating Station has been demolished and no longer operates within the city.
Water
Water service is provided to the city by the Green Bay Water Utility.
Sewer service is provided by the Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District, also known as NEW Water.
Health care
Green Bay is the headquarters of Bellin Health and Prevea Health, regional health care providers.
Green Bay is home to four hospitals: Aurora Baycare Medical Center, Bellin Hospital, St. Mary's Hospital Medical Center, and St. Vincent Hospital.
Green Bay is also home to the Milo C. Huempfner VA Outpatient Clinic, and Bellin Psychiatric Center and Willow Creek Behavioral Health, the city's two psychiatric hospitals.
Education
Green Bay is served by the Green Bay Area Public School District. It operates twenty-five elementary schools, two K-8 schools, four middle schools, four high schools, and one alternative school in the city and surrounding area. Two of the city's high schools, East High School and West High School, have Wisconsin's longest consecutively-played high school football rivalry, played since 1905. Private schools in Green Bay include Notre Dame de la Baie Academy, Northeastern Wisconsin Lutheran High School, and Bay City Baptist School.
Higher education
Green Bay area colleges and universities:
Bellin College of Nursing
Concordia University Wisconsin, Green Bay Center
College of Menominee Nation
Lakeland College, Green Bay Center
Medical College of Wisconsin – Green Bay campus
Northeast Wisconsin Technical College
Rasmussen College
University of Wisconsin-Green Bay
Public libraries
The Brown County Library (BCL) Central Branch is located in downtown Green Bay and has served as the county public library since 1968. The Central Branch is the headquarters for the BCL system, which encompasses all public libraries in Brown County, including eight branch libraries and a bookmobile that regularly visits locations throughout the county. In 1994, the Brown County Library was named Wisconsin Library of the Year.
Religion
In 2000, the American Religion Data Archive reported Green Bay to be predominantly Catholic (71.5%), with Lutherans composing an additional 16.4%. The remaining 12% is almost entirely made-up of other Protestant denominations.
The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod has four churches in Green Bay: St. Paul Lutheran Church, First Evangelical Lutheran Church, Beautiful Savior Lutheran Church, and Messiah Lutheran Church.
Christ the King Lutheran Church is a church of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Green Bay.
There are two Kingdom Halls of Jehovah's Witnesses in the city, hosting 4 English congregations and a Spanish congregation.
The city is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Green Bay. The Cathedral of Saint Francis Xavier in Green Bay is the mother church of the Diocese which is in the province of the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. The Saint Joseph Oratory is in Green Bay. St. Mary of the Angels Church and Monastery is also located in the city.
The Islamic Society of Wisconsin, Green Bay serves the Islamic community. The Green Bay Area Unitarian Universalist Fellowship is in the city. Congregation Cnesses Israel Temple, serving the area's Jewish population, is on the city's east side.
Sports
Other major sporting events in Green Bay include the Bellin Run and the Cellcom Green Bay Marathon.
Arts and culture
The Meyer Theatre and the Hotel Northland are on the National Register of Historic Places. The Northland was once the largest hotel in Wisconsin.
Daddy D Productions perform at Riverside Ballroom and Let Me Be Frank Productions perform at the Meyer Theatre. The Civic Symphony of Green Bay performs at the Meyer Theatre, its home venue. The former Green Bay Symphony Orchestra disbanded after their 2014–2015 season, after performing for over 100 years, citing financial difficulties.
Performance venues in Green Bay include: Lambeau Field, Resch Center, Weidner Center, Meyer Theatre, and The Tarlton Theatre.
The Art Garage and the Automotive Gallery are art galleries in the downtown area.
Museums in the city include the Neville Public Museum and the Hazelwood Historic House Museum.
Every summer, the downtown area plays host to ArtStreet, an art festival featuring studio displays, demonstrations, and live entertainment. Dine on the Deck is an event that allows patrons to dine on the CityDeck and features dishes from local restaurants. Taste on Broadway has live entertainment and dishes served by local restaurants who compete for awards. Artour brings all-original songwriters to downtown area venues. IgNight hosts artisans, interactive art demonstrations, live entertainment, and life-size games. The Shipyard District hosts the annual All Bands On Deck live music festival with bands at downtown bars and restaurants and free shuttles between venues. The Broadway District hosts a farmer's market every Wednesday from May to October.
Media and internet
Green Bay is served by the Green Bay Press-Gazette and The Press Times, a locally published weekly newspaper introduced in March 2019. Another local newspaper, the Green Bay News-Chronicle, ceased publication in 2005.
Television stations in Green Bay are WBAY (2), (ABC); WFRV (5), (CBS); WLUK (11), (FOX);
WCWF (14), (CW); WGBA (26), (NBC); WACY (32), (MNT); and WPNE (38), a PBS affiliate.
Economy
Industry
Green Bay is known as the "Toilet Paper Capital of the World" because of the prevalence of the paper industry in the city. Northern Paper Company, Fort Howard Paper Company, and Hoberg Paper Company were among Green Bay's first paper companies. Northern Paper Company offered the first splinter-free toilet paper in the early 1930s. The presence of the paper industry helped Green Bay avoid the worst effects of the Great Depression. Today, major paper producers include Georgia-Pacific, Procter & Gamble, and Steen-Macek Paper Company.
Among the earliest packing companies in Green Bay were Acme Packing Company and Indian Packing Company, the namesake of the Green Bay Packers. Today, major meatpackers in the city include JBS S.A. (formerly Packerland Packing) and American Foods Group.
Largest employers
As of 2017, the largest employers in the city were:
Other major employers include Associated Banc-Corp, Green Bay Area Public School District, JBS USA, Expert Global Solutions, Walmart, Procter & Gamble, Schreiber Foods, the Green Bay Packers, Nature's Way, HJ Martin and Son, and Nicolet National Bank.
Séura, a manufacturer of mirrors and flatscreen TVs, is another notable employer.
Points of interest
Bay Beach Amusement Park
Bay Beach Wildlife Sanctuary
Capital Credit Union Park in the Ashwaubenon suburb, home of the Green Bay Rockers and Green Bay Voyageurs
The Broadway District
City Stadium, former home of the Packers
Cofrin Memorial Arboretum
Fox River State Recreational Trail
Green Bay Botanical Garden
Heritage Hill State Park in the Allouez suburb
Joannes Stadium
Lambeau Field, home of the Green Bay Packers
Meyer Theatre
National Railroad Museum in the Ashwaubenon suburb
Neville Public Museum of Brown County
Northeast Wisconsin Technical College
NEW Zoo
Packers Heritage Trail
Resch Center, home of the Green Bay Blizzard and Green Bay Gamblers
The Shipyard District
The Tarlton Theatre
Weidner Center
Shopping
Green Bay has one enclosed shopping mall, East Town Mall, located within the city. The Bay Park Square shopping mall is located in the suburb of Ashwaubenon. The city was home to the first Shopko discount department store; it closed on April 22, 2019.
Notable people
Gallery
Notable buildings
Sister cities
Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico (since 2006)
Notes
References
External links
Greater Green Bay Convention & Visitor Bureau
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1883 1887 1894 1900 1907
Cities in Brown County, Wisconsin
Cities in Wisconsin
Wisconsin populated places on Lake Michigan
Inland port cities and towns in Wisconsin
County seats in Wisconsin
Green Bay Packers
Green Bay metropolitan area
Populated places established in 1634
Belgian-American culture in Wisconsin
French mission settlements in North America
1634 establishments in the French colonial empire | [
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217036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Maria%20Novella | Santa Maria Novella | Santa Maria Novella is a church in Florence, Italy, situated opposite, and lending its name to, the city's main railway station. Chronologically, it is the first great basilica in Florence, and is the city's principal Dominican church.
The church, the adjoining cloister, and chapter house contain a multiplicity of art treasures and funerary monuments. Especially famous are frescoes by masters of Gothic and early Renaissance. They were financed by the most important Florentine families, who ensured themselves funerary chapels on consecrated ground.
History
This church was called S. Maria Novella ('New') because it was built on the site of the 9th-century oratory of Santa Maria delle Vigne. When the site was assigned to the Dominican Order in 1221, they decided to build a new church and adjoining cloister. The church was designed by two Dominican friars, Fra Sisto Fiorentino and Fra Ristoro da Campi. Building began in the mid-13th century (about 1276), and lasted 80 years, ending under the supervision of Friar Iacopo Talenti with the completion of the Romanesque-Gothic bell tower and sacristy. In 1360, a series of Gothic arcades were added to the façade; these were intended to contain sarcophagi. The church was consecrated in 1420.
On a commission from the wealthy Florentine wool merchant Giovanni di Paolo Rucellai, Leon Battista Alberti designed the upper part of the inlaid green marble of Prato, also called 'serpentino', and white marble façade of the church (1456–1470). He was already famous as the architect of the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini, but even more for his seminal treatise on architecture De re aedificatoria. Alberti had also designed the façade for the Rucellai Palace in Florence.
Alberti attempted to bring the ideals of humanist architecture, proportion and classically inspired detailing to bear on the design, while also creating harmony with the already existing medieval part of the façade. The combined façade can be inscribed by a square; many other repetitions of squares can be found in the design. His contribution consists of a broad frieze decorated with squares, and the full upper part, including the four white-green pilasters and a round window, crowned by a pediment with the Dominican solar emblem, and flanked on both sides by enormous S-curved volutes.
The four columns with Corinthian capitals on the lower part of the façade were also added. The pediment and the frieze are clearly inspired by antiquity, but the S-curved scrolls in the upper part are new and without precedent in antiquity. Solving a longstanding architectural problem of how to transfer from wide to narrow storeys, the scrolls (or variations of them), found in churches all over Italy, all draw their origins from the design of this church.
The frieze below the pediment carries the name of the patron : IOHAN(N)ES ORICELLARIUS PAU(LI) F(ILIUS) AN(NO) SAL(UTIS) MCCCCLXX (Giovanni Rucellai son of Paolo in the year of salvation 1470).
Interior
The vast interior is based on a basilica plan, designed as an Egyptian cross (T-shaped) and is divided into a nave, two aisles set with windows and a short transept. The large nave is 100 metres long and gives an impression of austerity. The piers are of compound form and have Corinthian columns supporting pointed Gothic arches above which is a clerestory of ocular windows above which rises a ribbed, pointed quadrupartite vault. The ribs and arches are all black and white polychrome.
There is a trompe-l'œil effect by which towards the apse the nave seems longer than its actual length because the piers between the nave and the aisles are progressively closer, nearer to the chancel.
Many of the windows have stained glass dating from the 14th and 15th century, such as 15th century Madonna and Child and St. John and St. Philip (designed by Filippino Lippi), both in the Filippo Strozzi Chapel. Some stained glass windows have been damaged in the course of centuries and have been replaced. The one at the west end, a depiction of the Coronation of Mary, dates from the 14th century, and is based on a design of Andrea di Bonaiuto da Firenze.
The pulpit, commissioned by the Rucellai family in 1443, was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi and executed by his adopted son Andrea Calvalcanti. This pulpit has a particular historical significance, since it was from this pulpit that the first verbal attack was made on Galileo Galilei, leading eventually to his indictment.
The Holy Trinity, situated almost halfway along the left aisle, is a pioneering early Renaissance work of Masaccio, showing his new ideas about perspective and mathematical proportions. Its meaning for the art of painting can easily be compared to the importance of Brunelleschi for architecture and Donatello for sculpture. The patrons were the judge and his wife, members of the Lenzi family, here depicted kneeling. The cadaver tomb below carries in Italian the epigram: "I was once what you are, and what I am you will become".
Of particular note in the right aisle is the Tomba della Beata Villana, a monument by Bernardo Rossellino executed in 1451. In the same aisle, are located tombs of bishops of Fiesole, one by Tino di Camaino and another by Nino Pisano.
Tornabuoni Chapel
The chancel (or the Cappella Tornabuoni) contains series of famous frescoes painted from 1485-1490 by Domenico Ghirlandaio whose apprentice was the young Michelangelo. The frescoes represent themes from the lives of the Virgin and John the Baptist. They contain portrayals of several members of important Florentine families. The vaults have roundels with paintings of the Evangelists. On the rear wall are the paintings Saint Dominic burns the Heretical Books and Saint Peter's Martyrdom, the Annunciation, and Saint John goes into the Desert.
The stained-glass windows were made in 1492 by the Florentine artist Alessandro Agolanti, known also as Il Bidello, and were based on cartoons by Ghirlandaio.
The bronze crucifix on the main altar is by Giambologna (16th century).
Filippo Strozzi Chapel
The Filippo Strozzi Chapel is situated on the right side of the main altar. The series of frescoes by Filippino Lippi depict the lives of Apostle Philip and the Apostle Saint James the Great and were completed in 1502. On the right wall is the fresco St Philip Driving the Dragon from the Temple of Hieropolis and in the lunette above it, the Crucifixion of St Philip. On the left wall is the fresco St John the Evangelist Resuscitating Druisana and in the lunette above it The Torture of St John the Evangelist. Adam, Noah, Abraham and Jacob are represented on the ribbed vault. Behind the altar is the tomb of Filippo Strozzi with a sculpture by Benedetto da Maiano (1491).
Gondi Chapel
This chapel, designed by Giuliano da Sangallo, is situated on the left side of the main altar and dates from the end of the 13th century. Here, on the rear wall, is the famous wooden Crucifix by Brunelleschi, one of his very few sculptures. The legend goes that he was so disgusted by the "primitive" Crucifix of Donatello in the Florence's church of Santa Croce that he made this one. The vault contains fragments of frescoes by 13th-century Greek painters. The polychrome marble decoration was applied by Giuliano da Sangallo (c. 1503). The stained-glass window and dates from the 20th century.
Cappella Strozzi di Mantova
The Cappella Strozzi di Mantova is situated at the end of the left transept. The frescoes were commissioned from Nardo di Cione (1350–1357) by Tommaso Strozzi, an ancestor of Filippo Strozzi. The frescoes are inspired by Dante's Divine Comedy: Last Judgment (on the back wall; including a portrait of Dante), Hell (on the right wall) and paradise (on the left wall). The main altarpiece of The Redeemer with the Madonna and Saints was done by Nardo di Cione's brother, Andrea di Cione, better known as Orcagna. The large stained-glass window on the back was made from a cartoon by the two brothers.
Della Pura Chapel
The Della Pura Chapel is situated north of the old cemetery. It dates from 1474 and was constructed with Renaissance columns. It was restored in 1841 by Gaetano Baccani. On the left side there is a lunette with a 14th-century fresco Madonna and Child with St Catherine. On the front altar there is a wooden crucifix by Baccio da Montelupo (1501).
Rucellai Chapel
The Rucellai Chapel, at the end of the right aisle, dates from the 14th century. Besides the tomb of Paolo Rucellai (15th century) and the marble statue of the Madonna and the Child by Nino Pisano, it houses several art treasures such as remains of frescoes by the Maestro di Santa Cecilia (end 13th – beginning 14th century). The panel on the left wall, the Martyrdom of St Catherine, was painted by Giuliano Bugiardini (possibly with assistance from Michelangelo). The bronze tomb, in the centre of the floor, was made by Lorenzo Ghiberti in 1425.
Bardi Chapel
The Bardi Chapel, the second chapel on the right of the apse, was founded by Riccardo Bardi and dates from early 14th century. The high-relief on a pillar on the right depicts St Gregory blessing Riccardo Bardi. The walls show us some early 14th-century frescoes attributed to Spinello Aretino. The Madonna del Rosario on the altar is by Giorgio Vasari (1568)
Sacristy
The sacristy, at the end of the left aisle, was built as the Chapel of the Annunciation by the Cavalcanti family in 1380. It houses, after a recent period of fourteen years of cleaning and renovation, the enormous painted Crucifix with the Madonna and John the Evangelist, an early work by Giotto. The sacristy is also embellished by a glazed terra cotta and a marble font, masterpieces by Giovanni della Robbia (1498). The cupboards were designed by Bernardo Buontalenti in 1593. The paintings on the wall are ascribed to Giorgio Vasari and to other contemporary Florentine painters. The large Gothic window with three mullions at the back wall dates from 1386 and was based on cartoons by Niccolò di Pietro Gerini
Spanish Chapel
The Spanish Chapel (or Cappellone degli Spagnoli) is the former chapter house of the convent. It is situated at the north side of the green Cloister (Chiostro Verde). It was commissioned by Buonamico (Mico) Guidalotti as his funerary chapel. Construction started c. 1343 and was finished in 1355. The Guidalotti chapel was later called "Spanish Chapel", because Cosimo I assigned it to Eleonora of Toledo and her Spanish retinue. Within the Spanish Chapel there is a smaller Chapel of the Most Holy Sacrament.
The Spanish Chapel was decorated from 1365 to 1367 by Andrea di Bonaiuto, also known as Andrea da Firenze. The large fresco on the right wall depicts an Allegory of the Active and Triumphant Church and of the Dominican order. It is especially interesting because in the background it shows a large pink building that some think may provide some insight into the original designs for Florence Cathedral by Arnolfo di Cambio (before Brunelleschi's dome was built). However, such an interpretation is fantasy since the Duomo was never intended to be pink, nor to have the bell tower at the rear. This fresco also contains portraits of pope Benedict IX, cardinal Friar Niccolò Albertini, count Guido di Poppi, Arnolfo di Cambio and the poet Petrarch.
The frescoes on the other walls represent scenes from the lives of Christ and St Peter on the entry wall (mostly ruined due to the later installation of a choir), The Triumph of St Thomas Aquinas and the Allegory of Christian Learning on the left wall, and the large "Crucifixion with the Way to Calvalry and the Descent into Limbo" on the archway of the altar wall.
The four-part vault contains scenes of Christ's resurrection, the navicella, the Ascension, and Pentecost. The five-panelled Gothic polyptych that was probably originally made for the chapel's altar, depicting the Madonna Enthroned with Child and Four Saints by Bernardo Daddi dates from 1344 and is currently on display in a small museum area reached ed through glass doors from the far end of the cloister. Together, the complex iconography of the ceiling vault, walls, and altar combine to communicate the message of Dominicans as guides to salvation.
Rectangular in shape, towards the west it has a scarsella containing the altar and a marble crucifix by Domenico Pieratti from the early seventeenth century, donated in 1731 by Gian Gastone de' Medici.
Architecture
Giorgio Vasari was the architect, commissioned in 1567 by Grand Duke Cosimo I, for the first remodelling of the church, which included removing its original rood screen and loft, and adding six chapels between the columns. An armillary sphere (on the left) and a gnomon (on the right) were added to the end blind arches of the lower façade by Ignazio Danti, astronomer of Cosimo I, in 1572. The second remodelling was designed by Enrico Romoli, and was carried out between 1858 and 1860.
The square in front the church was used by Cosimo I for the yearly chariot race (Palio dei Cocchi). This custom existed between 1563 and late in the 19th century. The two Obelisks of the Corsa dei Cocchi marked the start and the finish of the race. They were set up to imitate an antique Roman Circus Maximus. The obelisks rest on bronze tortoises, made in 1608 by the sculptor Giambologna.
List of artworks
Artists who produced items for the church include:
Sandro Botticelli – early work, a nativity scene above the door (Adoration of the Magi)
Baccio D'Agnolo – wood carvings
Bronzino – the Miracle of Jesus
Filippo Brunelleschi – The Crucifix (between 1410 and 1425)
Tino da Camaino – Bust of St. Antoninus (in terra cotta); the Tomb of the Bishop of Fiesole
Nardo di Cione – frescoes of the Divine Judgment
Duccio – Rucellai Madonna
Lorenzo Ghiberti – tombstone of Leonardo Dati (1423)
Domenico Ghirlandaio – frescoes (late 15th century) in the Tornabuoni Chapel, design of the stained-glass window
Filippino Lippi – frescoes in the Strozzi Chapel, depicting the life of Philip the Apostle; stained glass window
Benedetto da Maiano – the Tomb of Filippo Strozzi (1491) at the backside of the Strozzi Chapel.
Giacomo Marchetti – Martyrdom of Saint Laurence.
Masaccio – The Trinity
Nino Pisano – Madonna with Child (1368)
Bernardo Rossellino – Monument to the Beata Villana (1451)
Santi di Tito – Lazarus Raised from Death
Paolo Uccello – frescoes in the cloisters
Giorgio Vasari – Madonna of the Rosary (1568)
Notable prioresses
Saint Agnes of Montepulciano
List of burials
Joseph II of Constantinople (1439)
Domenico Ghirlandaio (1494)
Niccolò Gaddi- cardinal (1552)
See also
Roman Catholic Marian churches
References
External links
Opera per Santa Maria Novella, from the Opera per Santa Maria Novella
Santa Maria Novella, Florence virtual reality movie and pictures
The Museums of Florence Santa Maria Novella
Maria Novella
Maria Novella
Renaissance architecture in Florence
Fresco paintings
Gothic paintings
Paintings by Giotto
Dominican churches in Italy
15th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Buildings containing meridian lines
Leon Battista Alberti church buildings | [
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|
217038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptome | Cryptome | Cryptome is a 501(c)(3) private foundation created in 1996 by John Young and Deborah Natsios and sponsored by Natsios-Young Architects. The site collects information about freedom of expression, privacy, cryptography, dual-use technologies, national security, intelligence, and government secrecy.
Cryptome is known for publishing the alleged identity of the CIA analyst who located Osama Bin Laden, lists of people allegedly associated with the Stasi, and the PSIA. Cryptome is also known for publishing the alleged identity of British intelligence agent and anti-Irish Republican Army assassin Stakeknife and the disputed internal emails of the WikiLeaks organization. Cryptome republished the already public surveillance disclosures of Edward Snowden and announced in June 2014 that they would publish all unreleased Snowden documents later that month.
Cryptome has received praise from notable organizations such as the EFF, but has also been the subject of criticism and controversy. Cryptome was accused by WikiLeaks of forging emails and some of Cryptome's posted documents have been called an "invitation to terrorists." The website has also been criticized for posting maps and pictures of "dangerous Achilles' heel[s] in the domestic infrastructure," which The New York Times called a "tip off [to] terrorists." ABC News also criticized Cryptome for posting information that terrorists could use to plan attacks. Cryptome continues to post controversial materials including guides on "how to attack critical infrastructure" in addition to other instructions for illegal hacking "for those without the patience to wait for whistleblowers". Cryptome has also received criticism for its handling of private and embarrassing information.
People
John Young
John Young was born in 1935. He grew up in West Texas where his father worked on a decommissioned Texas POW camp, and Young later served in the United States Army Corps of Engineers in Germany (1953–56) and earned degrees in philosophy and architecture from Rice University (1957–63). He went on to receive his graduate degree in architecture from Columbia University in 1969. A self-identified radical, he became an activist and helped create community service group Urban Deadline, where his fellow student-activists initially suspected him of being a police spy. Urban Deadline went on to receive citations from the Citizens Union of the City of New York and the New York City Council, and which later evolved into Cryptome. His work earned him a position on the nominating committee for the Chrysler Award for Innovation in Design in 1998.
He has received citations from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Society of Civil Engineers and the Legal Aid Society. In 1993, he was awarded the Certificate of Special Congressional Recognition. He has stated he doesn't "acknowledge the power of the law."
Deborah Natsios
Deborah Natsios grew up in CIA safe houses across Europe, Asia and South America reserved for covert CIA station chiefs. She later received her graduate degree in architecture from Princeton University. She has taught architecture and urban design at Columbia University and Parsons The New School for Design, and held seminars at the Pratt Institute and the University of Texas. She is the principal of Natsios Young Architects.
In addition to being co-editor for Cryptome, she is responsible for the associated project Cartome, which was founded in 2011 and posts her original critical art and graphical images and other public resources to document sensitive areas. She additionally holds a degree in mathematics from Smith College. She has given talks at the USENIX Annual Technical Conference and Architectures of Fear: Terrorism and the Future of Urbanism in the West, and written on topics ranging from architectural theory to defenses of Jim Bell and assassination politics. She is a notable critic of Edward Snowden.
Family
Natsios is the daughter of Nicholas Natsios, who served as CIA station chief in Greece from 1948–1956, in Vietnam from 1956–1960, in France from 1960–1962, in South Korea from 1962–1965, in Argentina from 1965–1969, in the Netherlands from 1969–1972, and in Iran from 1972–1974. While stationed in Vietnam, his deputy was William Colby, the future Director of Central Intelligence. His name was included in the 1996 membership directory of the Association of Former Intelligence Officers, which Cryptome helped to publish. Cryptome acknowledged its link to Nicholas Natsios in 2000.
Activities
Digital library
Cryptome's digital library includes series on:
Cartome: An archive of news and spatial / geographic documents on privacy, cryptography, dual-use technologies, national security and intelligence—communicated by imagery systems: cartography, photography, photogrammetry, steganography, camouflage, maps, images, drawings, charts, diagrams, IMINT and their reverse-panopticon and counter-deception potential.
Cryptome CN: Information, documents and opinions banned by the People's Republic of China.
Nuclear Power Plants and WMD Series.
Protest Photos Series.
NYC Most Dangerous Buildings Series.
Editorial policy
Young has said of Cryptome, "We do expect to get false documents but it's not our job to sort that out." In another interview, Young promoted skepticism about all sources of information, saying: "Facts are not a trustworthy source of knowledge. Cryptome is not an authoritative source." When asked about providing context for material, Young said, "We do not believe in 'context.' That is authoritarian nonsense. For the same reason, we do not believe in verification, authentication, background."
The front page of the Cryptome website states that "documents are removed from this site only by order served directly by a US court having jurisdiction. No court order has ever been served; any order served will be published here – or elsewhere if gagged by order." However, documents have been removed at the request of both law enforcement as well as individuals.
Privacy policy
In 2015, it was discovered that Cryptome's USB archives contained web server logs, containing clues to the identities of Cryptome visitors including their IP addresses and what files they had accessed on Cryptome. Cryptome initially stated that they had been faked as part of a disinformation campaign. Several days later, Cryptome confirmed the logs were real and shared their findings. The logs had been mailed out to users who ordered the site's archive since they changed web hosts in 2007, which Cryptome blamed on their current ISP, Network Solutions.
Cryptome has warned users that they do not have technical measures to protect the anonymity of their sources, saying "don’t send us stuff and think that we’ll protect you."
History
1968: Urban Deadline was created as an extension of the Columbia strike and the Avery Hall occupation. Three decades later, Cryptome evolves out of Urban Deadline.
1993: Young and Natsios met and their collaboration begins "some time late in 1993". Young received the Certificate of Special Congressional Recognition.
1994: What became Cryptome began with Young and Natsios's participation in the Cypherpunks electronic mailing list and Urban Deadline. Natsios called this time "seminal" and "transformative" for the internet.
1996: Cryptome was officially created out of their architectural practice.
1999: In October journalist Declan McCullagh wrote about Young's perusal of the site's access logs.
2000: Cartome was founded. In July, two FBI agents spoke with Cryptome on the phone after Cryptome published a Public Security Intelligence Agency personnel file. The file listed 400 names, birthdates, and titles, notably included Director General Hidenao Toyoshima. The FBI expressed concerns over the file, but admitted it was legal to publish in the United States but not Japan. After speculation that the documents may have come from someone called "Shigeo Kifuji", Cryptome identified the source as Hironari Noda.
2004: New York City removed warning signs around gas mains after Cryptome posts pictures of them, citing security concerns.
2006: Cryptome became one of the early organizers of WikiLeaks. Young revealed that he was approached by Julian Assange and asked to be the public face of Wikileaks; Young agreed and his name was listed on the website's original domain registration form.
2007: In the early part of the year, Young and Natsios left Wikileaks due to concerns about the organizations' finances and fundraising, accusing it of being a "money-making operation" and "business intelligence" scheme, and expressing concern that the amount of money they sought "could not be needed so soon except for suspect purposes." Cryptome published an archive of the secret, internal electronic mailing list of the Wikileaks organizers, from its inception through Young's departure from the group. On April 20 the website received notice from its hosting company, Verio, that it would be evicted on May 4 for unspecified breaches of their acceptable use policy. Cryptome alleged that the shutdown is a censorship attempt in response to posts about the Coast Guard's Deepwater program.
2010: Cryptome's Earthlink account was compromised, leading to its website being hacked and Cryptome's data copied. The hackers posted screenshots of the compromised email account. Cryptome confirmed the accuracy of the information taken, but contested specific assertions, claiming they had only about seven gigabytes of data, not the seven terabytes the attackers claimed to copy. In February, Cryptome is briefly shut down by Network Solutions for alleged DMCA violations after it posted a "Microsoft legal spy manual". Microsoft withdraws the complaint 3 days later and the website is restored. In March, PayPal stopped processing donations to Cryptome and froze the account due to "suspicious activities". The account was restored after an "investigation" by PayPal. Cryptome ended on bad terms with Wikileaks, with Young directly accusing them of selling classified material and calling them "a criminal organization". In a separate interview, he called Assange a narcissist and compared him to Henry Kissinger. Young also accused George Soros and the Koch brothers of "backing Wikileaks generously".
2011: In July, Cryptome named the alleged CIA analyst who found Osama Bin Laden. In September, Cryptome published a list of Intelligence and National Security Alliance members, alleging that they were spies. On September 1 Cryptome published the unredacted United States diplomatic cables leak a day before Wikileaks.
2012: In February, the Cryptome website was hacked to infect visitors with malware.
2013: In February, Cryptome's website, email and Twitter account were compromised, exposing whistleblowers and sources that had corresponded with Cryptome via email. Cryptome blamed hackers Ruxpin and Sabu, who was an FBI informant at the time. In June two US Secret Service agents visited Cryptome to request removal of a former presidential Bush family email allegedly hacked by Guccifer. In August, a complaint about Cryptome's identification of alleged Japanese terrorists led Network Solutions to briefly shut down the site. In October Cryptome informed its users that Network Solutions had generated logs of site's visitors, and that requests to delete the logs were not being honored. (According to Network Solutions's website, logs are deleted after thirty days and Cryptome could choose to prevent the logging.)
2014: Cryptome attempted to raise $100,000 to fund the website and its other disclosure initiatives. In June, Cryptome was pulled offline again when malware was found infecting visitors to the site. In July, Cryptome said it would publish the remaining NSA documents taken by Edward Snowden in the "coming weeks".
2015: In September, Cryptome announced that their encryption keys are compromised. A few days later, Cryptome filed for incorporation in New York. Later that month, a GCHQ document leaked by Edward Snowden revealed that the agency is monitoring visits to Cryptome. In October, a sold edition (USB stick) of the Cryptome archive was observed to contain web server logs, containing clues to the identities of Cryptome visitors. The logs had been mailed out to users who ordered the site's archive at least since 2007. Cryptome denied the logs were real, and accused the discoverer of forging the data and other forms of corruption. Cryptome later confirmed they were real. Cryptome posted pictures of logs dating back to the site's creation, claiming that Cryptome is for sale. Cryptome later claimed that the sale is a parody and that "Cryptome has no logs, never has", noting that their "various ISPs have copious logs of many kinds" along with metadata and that Cryptome tracks these "to see what happens to our files".
2016: In April, Cryptome published thousands of credit-card numbers, passwords and personal information allegedly belonging to Qatar National Bank's clients. In July, Cryptome alleged LinkNYC was "tracking Cryptome's movements through the city" after the company responded to Cryptome's social media posts by attempting to prevent them from photographing the company's installations.
Reception
A 2004 The New York Times article assessed Cryptome with the headline, "Advise the Public, Tip Off the Terrorists" in its coverage of the site's gas pipeline maps. Reader's Digest made an even more alarming assessment of the site in 2005, calling it an "invitation to terrorists" and alleging that Young "may well have put lives at risk".
A 2007 Wired article criticized Cryptome for going "overboard".
The Village Voice featured Cryptome in its 2008 Best of NYC feature, citing its hosting of "photos, facts, and figures" of the Iraq War.
WikiLeaks accused Cryptome of executing a "smear campaign" in 2010 after Cryptome posted what it alleged were email exchanges with WikiLeaks insiders, which WikiLeaks disputed.
Cryptome was awarded the Defensor Libertatis (defender of liberty) award at the 2010 Big Brother Awards, for a "life in the fight against surveillance and censorship" and for providing "suppressed or otherwise censored documents to the global public". The awards committee noted that Cryptome had engaged with "every protagonist of the military-electronic monitoring complex".
In 2012, Steven Aftergood, the director of the Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy, described Young and Cryptome as "fearless and contemptuous of any pretensions to authority" and "oblivious to the security concerns that are the preconditions of a working democracy. And he seems indifferent to the human costs of involuntary disclosure of personal information." Aftergood specifically criticized Cryptome's handling of the McGurk emails, saying "it's fine to oppose McGurk or anyone else. It wasn't necessary to humiliate them".
In 2013, Cindy Cohn, then the legal director of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, praised Cryptome as "a really important safety valve for the rest of us, as to what our government is up to."
In 2014, Glenn Greenwald praised and criticized Cryptome, saying "There is an obvious irony to complaining that we're profiting from our work while [Cryptome] tries to raise $100,000 by featuring our work. Even though [Cryptome] occasionally does some repellent and demented things—such as posting the home addresses of Laura Poitras, Bart Gellman, and myself along with maps pointing to our homes—[they also do] things that are quite productive and valuable. On the whole, I'm glad there is a Cryptome and hope they succeed in raising the money they want."
Giganews criticized Cryptome for posting unverified allegations which Giganews described as completely false and without evidence. Giganews went on to question Cryptome's credibility and motives, saying "Cryptome's failure to contact us to validate the allegations or respond to our concerns has lessened their credibility. It does not seem that Cryptome is in search for the truth, which leaves us to question what are their true motives."
Peter Earnest, a 36-year veteran of the CIA turned executive director of the International Spy Museum and chairman of the board of directors of the Association for Intelligence Officers criticized Cryptome for publishing the names of spies, saying it does considerable damage and aids people that would do them harm.
See also
Cryptome quotes
Cypherpunks
Distributed Denial of Secrets
Espionage
Open government
Secrecy
WikiLeaks
References
External links
Official:
Cryptome Index
Natsios Young Research
YouTube channel
Mirrors:
WikiLeaks Search of Cryptome Archive and Tweets
WikiLeaks mirror
Cryptome dataset 1996-2016 - 102,000 files on the Internet Archive
The Cryptome Archives hosted by The Cthulhu
Siteprotect.net mirror
Other:
Why All the Snowden Docs Should Be Public: An Interview with Cryptome (Cox, Joseph, Vice/Motherboard, July 16, 2014)
Older, quieter than WikiLeaks, Cryptome perseveres (Associated Press, Mar. 9, 2013)
Wikileaks' estranged co-founder becomes a critic (Q&A)
Young and Natsios radio interview with Emmanuel Goldstein on Off The Hook. (February 2012, WBAI)
Open Source Design 01: The architects of information (Domus June 2011)
An Excerpt From 'This Machine Kills Secrets': Meet The 'Spiritual Godfather Of Online Leaking' (Greenberg, Andy, September 17, 2012)
Technology websites
Cypherpunks
Internet properties established in 1996
1996 establishments in the United States
Whistleblowing in the United States
Online archives of the United States
News leaks
Information sensitivity
Classified documents | [
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217043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Bay%20%28Lake%20Michigan%29 | Green Bay (Lake Michigan) | Green Bay is an arm of Lake Michigan, located along the south coast of Michigan's Upper Peninsula and the east coast of Wisconsin. It is separated from the rest of the lake by the Door Peninsula in Wisconsin, the Garden Peninsula in Michigan, and the chain of islands between them, all formed by the Niagara Escarpment. Green Bay is some long, with a width ranging from about ; it is in area.
At the southern end of the bay is the city of Green Bay, Wisconsin, where the Fox River enters the bay. The Leo Frigo Memorial Bridge (formerly known as the Tower Drive bridge) spans the point where the bay begins and the Fox River ends, as the river flows south to north into the bay. Around mid-bay are Sturgeon Bay and the Peshtigo River. The Sturgeon Bay serves the city named after the bay as a shortcut for large ships to use to bypass the Door Peninsula, while the Peshtigo River serves Peshtigo and Crivitz. Locally, the bay is called the Bay of Green Bay to distinguish it from the city.
The bay is located in parts of five counties in Wisconsin (Brown, Door, Kewaunee, Marinette, Oconto), and two in Michigan (Delta, Menominee).
History
Oconto is home to Copper Culture State Park, which has remains dated to around 5000-6000 BC. It is a burial ground of the Copper Culture Indians. This burial ground is considered to be the oldest cemetery in Wisconsin and one of the oldest in the nation. The Ho-Chunk believe that they were created on the shores of Green Bay at a place called Red Banks.
The French Jesuit, Roman Catholic priest, and missionary, Father Claude-Jean Allouez said the first Mass in Oconto on December 3, 1669.
The bay was named la baie des Puants (literally, "the bay of the Stinks") by the French explorer Jean Nicolet as shown on many French maps of the 17th and 18th centuries. According to George R. Stewart, the French received the name from their Indian guides, who called the natives living near Green Bay by a derogatory word meaning "Stinkers", thus the bay was the "Bay of the Stinkers", but this name perplexed the French, and Jacques Marquette thought the name might relate to the smell of the swamps when he explored the area in May 1673. His fellow explorer Louis Joliet, with two canoes and five voyageurs of French-Indian ancestry (Métis) were on their way to find the Mississippi River. They travelled up the Fox River, nearly to its headwaters. The French also called the bay Baie Verte, and the English kept this name as Green Bay. The name of the bay in the Menominee language is Pūcīhkit, or "bay that smells like something rotting".
In 1671 and 1673, Louis André and Jacques Marquette described fluctuations in the water level of the bay and discussed what they thought caused them.
Ferromanganese nodules, currents, reefs, and fish
Ferromanganese nodules have been found in the bay. Todorokite occurs within the nodules.
There are numerous reefs of exposed bedrock in the Porte des Mortes passage and in the bay.
North of the peninsula, warm water from Green Bay flows into Lake Michigan on the surface, while at the same time, cold lakewater enters Green Bay deep underneath.
In a study looking at the contents' of fish stomachs, walleye were found to each between 5-6% and lake whitefish and yellow perch over the course of a year. However, south of Chambers Island, walleye eat considerably more lake whitefish in May and June. Walleye were found to eat more yellow perch on an annual basis, but not more than 15% of their overall diet during any particular month.
Walleye and Lake whitefish in Green Bay for the most part do not compete for the same prey, especially south of Chambers Island. Lake whitefish and yellow perch in the bay compete strongly for the same prey south of Chambers Island, and compete moderately north of it.
Environmental concerns
Areas of concern
According to the Environmental Protection Agency, "Areas of Concern are designated by the International Joint Commission as geographic areas in the Great Lakes basin having severe environmental degradation. There are 43 Areas of Concern with 26 in the United States, 17 in Canada, and five shared by the two countries."
Background
Lower green Bay Area of Concern was designated in 1987 under the Great Lakes Water Quality agreement.
It was designated by these sources of pollution:
Affected by runoff pollution from urban and rural areas, municipal and industrial wastewater discharges and degraded habitats.
Industrialization was a major factor in this becoming contaminated
High turbidity, sedimentation, fluctuating dissolved oxygen, frequent algal blooms, degraded fish/wildlife/plant populations and adverse toxicant impacts.
This AOC is a shallow environment that has a rapid recycling system which also contributes to water quality issues
Beneficial Use Impairments
Beneficial Use Impairments (BUI) are a change in the chemical, physical or biological integrity of the Great Lakes system sufficient to cause significant environmental degradation. The International Joint Commission identified 14 BUIs listed below. All BUIs that have been designated for an AOC, must be removed for the AOC to be considered restored and begin the delisting process.
Green Bay BUI's:
Restrictions on fish and wildlife consumption
Tainting of fish and wildlife flavor
Degradation of fish and wildlife populations
Fish tumors or other deformities
Degradation of aesthetics
Restriction on dredging activities
Loss of fish and wildlife habitat
Bird/animal deformities or reproductive problems
Excess of nutrients from pollutants
Restrictions on drinking water consumption, or taste and odor
Beach closings
Degradation of microorganism populations
Timeline of restoration
Since 1988 over three quarters of the 120 remedial actions recommended by the lower green bay remedial action plan have been implemented or initiated.
Industrialization was a major factor regarding the Lower Green Bay becoming contaminated; significant contributors were land water use (agriculture, logging, industry), high turbidity, sedimentation, frequent algal blooms, degraded fish/wildlife/plant populations and adverse toxicant impacts.
1988: First stage of action plan is released
1993: Update to action plan, current progress is released and future goals are identified
2003: USFWS releases an environmental assessment and restoration plan for the AOC
2003-2008: E.Coli measured consistently on beaches, shows overall health is good, but more projects needed to delist
2009: Wisconsin DNR identifies delisting targets for each of the BUI's
2010-2011: Laws passed to reduce/ban phosphorus in household materials, reduce phosphorus runoff from farms, and set new water quality standards.
2011: Stage 2 action plan update is released, describing key actions taken since 199, and identified future projects associated with the different BUI's
2012: Update action plan, US army Corps of Engineers begins Cat Island restoration project, and 360,000 cubic yards of PCB-contaminated sediments are dredged
2013: UofW extension released fact sheet of BUIs status in the AOC, judge rules that all companies EPA considers responsible for PCB contamination must complete the required cleanup work
Cleanup
Past Emergency Clean Up: In 1999 and 2000, EPA oversaw a dredging project done by some of the paper companies about 3 miles upstream from the mouth of the Lower Fox River. It removed 80,000 cubic yards of PCB-contaminated sediment, containing 3,400 pounds of PCBs.
2019 marks the 16th year of clean up of the lower Green Bay. River clean up is scheduled for late March depending on ice conditions. Monitoring will continue to study fish, water, and PCB Concentrations. Once the lower Green Bay clean up is complete long term monitoring will still be done on the entirety of the river.
See also
Peshtigo Fire: a firestorm that affected land on both sides of Green Bay, and the deadliest fire in the history of the United States
References
Bays of Michigan
Bays of Wisconsin
Bodies of water of Brown County, Wisconsin
Bodies of water of Delta County, Michigan
Bodies of water of Door County, Wisconsin
Bodies of water of Kewaunee County, Wisconsin
Bodies of water of Marinette County, Wisconsin
Bodies of water of Menominee County, Michigan
Bodies of water of Oconto County, Wisconsin
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|
217045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sama%20%28Sufism%29 | Sama (Sufism) | Sama (, Persian, Urdu and - samā‘un) is a Sufi ceremony performed as dhikr. Sama means "listening", while dhikr means "remembrance". These performances often include singing, playing instruments, dancing, recitation of poetry and prayers, wearing symbolic attire, and other rituals. Sama is a particularly popular form of worship in Sufism.
In 2008, UNESCO confirmed the "Mevlevi Sama Ceremony" of Turkey as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
Etymology
The term sama stems from the root-verb meaning acceptance by tradition, from which are derived the words سَمْع (sam‘un) and اِسْتِمَاع (’istimā‘un, listening), often paired with نَقْل (naqlun) and تَقْلِيد (taqlīdun, tradition). It may have been in use since the 10th century to refer to a type of dhikr (remembrance of God), a ceremony used by various Sufi orders, particularly the Chishti order of the sub-continent. It often involves prayer, song and dance. An alternative etymology for Sema maybe the greek σῆμα - sêma , which means tomb, significant or signal (ex. Semantics, Polysemy e.t.c.).
Origin
The origination of Sama in the Mevlevi Order of Sufis is credited to Rumi, Sufi master and creator of the Mevlevis. The story of the creation of this unique form of dhikr is that Rumi was walking through the town marketplace one day when he heard the rhythmic hammering of the goldbeaters. It is believed that Rumi heard the dhikr, "la ilaha ilallah" or in English, "There is no god but Allah" in the apprentices beating of the gold and was so entranced in happiness he stretched out both of his arms and started spinning in a circle (sufi whirling). With that the practice of Sama and the dervishes of the Mevlevi order were born.
Similarly, Abu Sa`id, (357 A.H.) (967 C.E.) was born in Mayhana, a town near Sarakhs, in Iran, bordering Turkmenistan. He is noted for establishing a rule for conduct in the khanaqah and also for the introduction of music (sama'), poetry and dance, as part of the Sufi collective devotional ritual of dhikr.
Current practice
Mevlevi
The Whirling Dervishes of the Mevlevi order are probably the best-known practitioners of Sama. Mevlevi practitioners of sema are adult initiates into the order, which historically only meant men. Participants move as a group in a circle while also turning each individually.
Art is "self expression" and Sama is "selfless expression"-an experience of "fanaa". Fanaa (Arabic: فناء fanāʾ ) in Sufism is the "passing away" or "annihilation" of the self.
Alevi/Bektashi
Sema is prominent in the ceremonies of the Alevi community of Turkey and the closely related Bektashi Order.
The most common forms of Alevi sema include kirklar semahı (sema of the forty) and turnalar semahı (crane sema). They are performed by both male and female teenagers, often in mixed groups, and participants turn facing each other in pairs or small groups and do not necessarily whirl as individuals. Many cemevleri (Alevi meetinghouses) have organized sema groups that perform at events such as the annual Hacı Bektaş Veli Festival.
Tannoura
In Egypt, the Mevlevi form of Sama is known as tannoura and has been adopted (with some modifications) by other Sufi orders as well. It is also performed as a folk and concert dance.
Symbolism
The Sama represents a mystical journey of man's spiritual ascent through mind and love to perfection. Turning towards the truth, the follower grows through love, deserts his ego, finds the truth and arrives at perfection. He then returns from this spiritual journey as a man who has reached maturity and a greater perfection, so as to love and to be of service to the whole of creation.
Rumi has said in reference to Sama', "For them it is the Sama' of this world and the other. Even more for the circle of dancers within the Sama' who turn and have in their midst, their own Ka'aba." This relates Sama' to the pilgrimage to Mecca, in that both are intended to bring all who are involved closer to God.
Components
Sama emphasizes singing, but also includes the playing of instruments, particularly for introductions and accompaniments. However, only instruments which are symbolic and not considered profane are used. The most common of these are the tambourine, bells, and flute. It often includes the singing of hymns, called qawl and bayt. Poetry is often included in the ceremony as well, because while it is inadequate by itself, it works together with aid in spiritual contemplation. Any poetry, even the erotic, can be applied to God, and thus used for this ceremony. However, the listener's heart must first be pure, or the dancing components of sama' will make these people full of lust instead of love for God. Additionally, being in love with a person rather than with God clouds a person's mind when they are listening to erotic poetry. Verses from the Qur'an are never used for this purpose, and not only because their meanings are said to be somewhat dulled through repetition. Qur'anic verses are never to be set to meditation, nor ornamented or improvised in any way, so that they remain sacred texts.
Purpose
Sama is a means of meditating on God through focusing on melodies and dancing. It brings out a person's love of God, purifies the soul, and is a way of finding God. This practice is said to reveal what is already in one's heart, rather than creating emotions. All of a person's doubt disappears, and the heart and soul can communicate directly with God. The immediate goal of sama' is to reach wajd, which is a trance-like state of ecstasy. Physically, this state may include various and unexpected movements, agitation, and all types of dancing.
Another state that people hope to reach through sama' is khamra, which means "spiritual drunkenness".
Ultimately, people hope to achieve the unveiling of mysteries and gain spiritual knowledge through wajd.
Sometimes, the experience of wajd becomes so strong that fainting or even, in extreme circumstances, death, occurs.
Etiquette
Participants in sama are expected to remain silent and still, and controlled throughout the ceremony, unless wajd occurs. This way, a higher degree of spiritual contemplation can be reached. Participants must restrain themselves from movement and crying until they reach a point in which they can no longer hold back. At this point, wajd can be reached. It is essential that the trance-like experience of wajd be genuine and not faked for any reason. Also, people must maintain proper intent and actions must be present throughout the sama'; otherwise, they cannot experience the ceremony's intended positive effects.
Controversy
Muslims are divided into two groups regarding the issue of sama and the use of music in general: 1) Opponents, particularly of the Salafi/Wahabbi sect. 2) Advocates, who are of the majority Shias.
Advocates view chants as a required practice for spiritual growth. Al-Ghazzali wrote a chapter entitled "Concerning Music and Dancing as Aids to the Religious Life", where he emphasized how the practices of music and dance are beneficial to Muslims, as long as their hearts are pure before engaging in these practices.
Opponents find music as an Innovation bidah and associated with infidelity. They compare the physical sensations experienced by a person in the state of wajd to a state of physical drunkenness, and therefore do not condone it.
In practice
Due to differences in culture between Muslim groups, participation in musical performance is condoned in some and considered questionable in others. Meditation and Sufi practices are allowed in Islam as long as they are within the limits of the Shari'ah (Islamic law).
People from all classes and walks of life can participate, although there is debate between Sufis and legalists about whether novice Sufis and ones more advanced in their faith are capable of achieving the same positive results from sama'. The same debate exists for the young, and whether they are capable of overcoming their lust and clearing their hearts to worship God.
See also
Qawwali - A form of sama in South Asia
Hadhra - Arab Sufi dhikr
Notes
External links
The Mevlevi Sema Ceremony
Images of Stages of Sema ceremony
Ritual dances
Sufism
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
Meditation
Islamic terminology | [
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217046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Three%20Musketeers | The Three Musketeers | The Three Musketeers (, ) is a French historical adventure novel written in 1844 by French author Alexandre Dumas. It is in the swashbuckler genre, which has heroic, chivalrous swordsmen who fight for justice.
Set between 1625 and 1628, it recounts the adventures of a young man named d'Artagnan (a character based on Charles de Batz-Castelmore d'Artagnan) after he leaves home to travel to Paris, hoping to join the Musketeers of the Guard. Although d'Artagnan is not able to join this elite corps immediately, he is befriended by three of the most formidable musketeers of the age – Athos, Porthos and Aramis, "the three musketeers" or "the three inseparables" – and becomes involved in affairs of state and at court.
The Three Musketeers is primarily a historical and adventure novel. However, Dumas frequently portrays various injustices, abuses and absurdities of the Ancien Régime, giving the novel an additional political significance at the time of its publication, a time when the debate in France between republicans and monarchists was still fierce. The story was first serialised from March to July 1844, during the July Monarchy, four years before the French Revolution of 1848 violently established the Second Republic.
The story of d'Artagnan is continued in Twenty Years After and The Vicomte of Bragelonne: Ten Years Later.
Origin
Dumas presents his novel as one of a series of recovered manuscripts, turning the origins of his romance into a little drama of its own. In the preface, he tells of being inspired by a scene in Mémoires de Monsieur d'Artagnan (1700), a historical novel by Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras, printed by Pierre Rouge in Amsterdam, which Dumas discovered during his research for his history of Louis XIV. According to Dumas, the incident where d'Artagnan tells of his first visit to M. de Tréville, captain of the Musketeers and how, in the antechamber, he encountered three young Béarnese with the names Athos, Porthos and Aramis, made such an impression on him that he continued to investigate. That much is true – the rest is fiction: He finally found the names of the three musketeers in a manuscript titled Mémoire de M. le comte de la Fère, etc. Dumas "requested permission" to reprint the manuscript; permission was granted:
Now, this is the first part of this precious manuscript which we offer to our readers, restoring it to the title which belongs to it, and entering into an engagement that if (of which we have no doubt) this first part should obtain the success it merits, we will publish the second immediately.
In the meanwhile, since godfathers are second fathers, as it were, we beg the reader to lay to our account and not to that of the Comte de la Fère, the pleasure or the ennui he may experience.
This being understood, let us proceed with our story.
The Three Musketeers was written in collaboration with Auguste Maquet, who also worked with Dumas on its sequels (Twenty Years After and The Vicomte of Bragelonne: Ten Years Later), as well as The Count of Monte Cristo. Maquet would suggest plot outlines after doing historical research; Dumas then expanded the plot, removing some characters, including new ones and imbuing the story with his unmistakable style.
The Three Musketeers was first published in serial form in the newspaper Le Siècle between March and July 1844.
Plot summary
In 1625 France, d'Artagnan leaves his family in Gascony and travels to Paris to join the Musketeers of the Guard. At a house in Meung-sur-Loire, an older man derides d'Artagnan's horse. Insulted, d'Artagnan demands a duel. But the older man's companions instead beat d'Artagnan unconscious with a cooking pot and a metal tong that breaks his sword. His letter of introduction to Monsieur de Tréville, the commander of the musketeers, is also stolen. D'Artagnan resolves to avenge himself upon the older man, who is later revealed to be the Comte de Rochefort, an agent of Cardinal Richelieu, who is passing orders from the cardinal to his spy, Lady de Winter, usually called Milady de Winter or simply "Milady".
In Paris, d'Artagnan visits Monsieur de Tréville at the headquarters of the musketeers, but without the letter, Tréville politely refuses his application. He does, however, write a letter of introduction to an academy for young gentlemen which may prepare his visitor for recruitment at a later time. From Tréville's window, d'Artagnan sees Rochefort passing in the street below and rushes out of the building to confront him, but in doing so he offends three musketeers, Athos, Porthos and Aramis, who each demand satisfaction; d'Artagnan must fight a duel with all of them that afternoon.
As d'Artagnan prepares himself for the first duel, he realizes that Athos's seconds are Porthos and Aramis, who are astonished that the young Gascon intends to duel them all. As d'Artagnan and Athos begin, Cardinal Richelieu's guards appear and attempt to arrest d'Artagnan and the three musketeers for illegal dueling. Although they are outnumbered four to five, the four men win the battle. D'Artagnan seriously wounds Jussac, one of the cardinal's officers and a renowned fighter. After learning of this, King Louis XIII appoints d'Artagnan to Des Essart's company of the King's Guards and gives him forty pistoles.
D'Artagnan hires a servant named Planchet, finds lodgings and reports to Monsieur des Essart, whose company is a less prestigious regiment in which he will have to serve for two years before being considered for the musketeers. Shortly after, his landlord speaks to him about the kidnapping of his wife, Constance Bonacieux. When she is presently released, d'Artagnan falls in love at first sight with her. She works for Queen Anne of France, who is secretly having an affair with the English duke of Buckingham. The king, Louis XIII, gave the queen a gift of diamond studs, but she gives them to her lover as a keepsake. Cardinal Richelieu, who wants war between France and England, plans to expose the tryst and persuades the king to demand that the queen wear the diamonds to a soirée that the cardinal is sponsoring.
Constance tries to send her husband to London to fetch the diamonds from Buckingham, but the man is instead manipulated by Richelieu and thus does not go, so d'Artagnan and his friends intercede. En route to England, the cardinal's henchmen repeatedly attack them and only d'Artagnan and Planchet reach London. Before arriving, d'Artagnan is compelled to assault and nearly to kill, the Comte de Wardes, a friend of the cardinal, cousin of Rochefort and Milady's lover. Although Milady stole two of the diamond studs, Buckingham provides replacements while delaying the thief's return to Paris. D'Artagnan is thus able to return a complete set of jewels to Queen Anne just in time to save her honour. In gratitude, she gives him a beautiful ring.
Shortly afterward, d'Artagnan begins an affair with Madame Bonacieux. Arriving for an assignation, he sees signs of a struggle and discovers that Rochefort and M. Bonacieux, acting under the orders of the cardinal, have assaulted and imprisoned Constance. D'Artagnan and his friends, now recovered from their injuries, return to Paris. D'Artagnan meets Milady de Winter officially and recognizes her as one of the cardinal's agents, but becomes infatuated with her until her maid reveals that Milady is indifferent toward him. Entering her quarters in the dark, he pretends to be the Comte de Wardes and trysts with her. He finds a fleur-de-lis branded on Milady's shoulder, marking her as a felon. Discovering his identity, Milady attempts to kill him but d'Artagnan eludes her. He is later ordered to the Siege of La Rochelle.
He is informed that the queen has rescued Constance from prison. At an inn, the musketeers overhear the cardinal asking Milady to murder Buckingham, a supporter of the Protestant rebels at La Rochelle who has sent troops to assist them. Richelieu gives her a letter that excuses her actions as under orders from the cardinal himself, but Athos takes it. The next morning, Athos bets that he, d'Artagnan, Porthos and Aramis and their servants can hold the recaptured St. Gervais bastion against the rebels for an hour, for the purpose of discussing their next course of action. They resist for an hour and a half before retreating, killing 22 Rochellese in total; d'Artagnan is made a musketeer as a result of this feat.
They warn Lord de Winter and the duke of Buckingham. Milady is imprisoned on arrival in England, but she seduces her guard, Felton (a fictionalization of the real John Felton) and persuades him to allow her to escape and to kill Buckingham himself. Upon her return to France, Milady hides in a convent where Constance is also staying. The naïve Constance clings to Milady, who sees a chance for revenge on d'Artagnan and fatally poisons Constance before d'Artagnan can rescue her. The musketeers arrest Milady before she reaches Cardinal Richelieu. They bring an official executioner, put her on trial, sentence her to death, and execute her.
After her execution, the four friends return to the Siege of La Rochelle. The cardinal's guards arrest d’Artagnan and take him to the cardinal. When questioned about Milady's execution, d'Artagnan presents her letter of pardon as his own. Impressed with d'Artagnan's wilfulness and secretly glad to be rid of Milady, the Cardinal destroys the letter and writes a new order, giving the bearer a promotion to lieutenant in the Tréville company of musketeers, leaving the name blank. D'Artagnan offers the letter to Athos, Porthos and Aramis in turn but each refuses it; Athos because it is below him, Porthos because he is retiring to marry his wealthy mistress and Aramis because he is joining the priesthood. D'Artagnan, though heartbroken and full of regrets, finally receives the promotion he had coveted.
Characters
Musketeers
Athos – Comte de la Fère: he has never recovered from his marriage to Milady and seeks solace in wine. He becomes a father figure to d'Artagnan.
Porthos – M. du Vallon: a dandy, fond of fashionable clothes and keen to make a fortune for himself. The least cerebral of the quartet, he compensates with his homeric strength of body and character.
Aramis – René d'Herblay, a handsome young man who hesitates between his religious calling and his fondness for women and scheming.
D'Artagnan – Charles de Batz de Castelmore d'Artagnan: a young, foolhardy, brave and clever man seeking to become a musketeer in France.
Musketeers' servants
Planchet – a young man from Picardy, he is seen by Porthos on the Pont de la Tournelle spitting into the river below. Porthos takes this as a sign of good character and hires him on the spot to serve d'Artagnan. He turns out to be a brave, intelligent and loyal servant.
Grimaud – a Breton. Athos is a strict master and only permits his servant to speak in emergencies; he mostly communicates through sign language.
Mousqueton – originally a Norman named Boniface; Porthos, however, changes his name to one that sounds better. He is a would-be dandy, just as vain as his master. In lieu of pay, he is clothed and lodged in a manner superior to that usual for servants, dressing grandly in his master's old clothes.
Bazin – from the province of Berry, Bazin is a pious man who waits for the day his master (Aramis) will join the church, as he has always dreamed of serving a priest.
Others
Milady de Winter – a beautiful and evil spy of the cardinal, she is also Athos's ex-wife. D'Artagnan impersonates a rival to spend a night with her, attracting her deadly hatred.
Rochefort is a more conventional agent of the cardinal. Following their duel on the road to Paris, d'Artagnan swears to have his revenge. He loses several opportunities, but their paths finally cross again towards the end of the novel.
Constance Bonacieux – the queen's seamstress and confidante. After d'Artagnan rescues her from the cardinal's guard, he immediately falls in love with her. She appreciates his protection, but the relationship is never consummated.
Monsieur Bonacieux – Constance's husband. He initially enlists d'Artagnan's help to rescue his wife from the Cardinal's guards, but when he himself is arrested, he and the cardinal discover they have an understanding. Richelieu turns Monsieur Bonacieux against his wife and he goes on to play a role in her abduction.
Kitty – a servant of Milady de Winter. She dislikes her mistress and adores d'Artagnan.
Lord Winter – brother of Milady's second husband, who died of a mysterious disease (apparently poisoned by Milady). He imprisoned Milady upon her arrival in England and decided to send her overseas in exile. Later, he took part in Milady's trial.
Historical characters
King Louis XIII of France – presented by Dumas as a fairly weak monarch often manipulated by his chief minister.
Queen Anne of Austria – the unhappy queen of France.
Cardinal Richelieu – Armand Jean du Plessis, the king's chief minister, who plots against the queen in resentment at having his advances rebuffed. Dumas describes him as being "36 or 37" though in 1625 Richelieu was 40.
M. de Tréville – captain of the musketeers and something of a mentor to d'Artagnan, though he has only a minor role.
George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham – a handsome and charismatic man used to getting his way: he thinks nothing of starting a war between England and France for his personal convenience. His courtship of Anne of Austria gets her in trouble.
John Felton – a Puritan officer assigned to guard Milady and warned about her ways, he is nonetheless seduced and fooled by her in a matter of days and assassinates Buckingham at her request.
Editions
Les Trois Mousquetaires was translated into three English versions by 1846. One of these, by William Barrow (1817–1877), is still in print and fairly faithful to the original, available in the Oxford World's Classics 1999 edition. To conform to 19th-century English standards, all of the explicit and many of the implicit references to sexuality were removed, adversely affecting the readability of several scenes, such as the scenes between d'Artagnan and Milady.
One recent English translation is by Richard Pevear (2006), who, though applauding Barrow's work, states that most of the modern translations available today are "textbook examples of bad translation practices" which "give their readers an extremely distorted notion of Dumas' writing."
Adaptations
Film
The Three Musketeers (1921), a silent film adaptation starring Douglas Fairbanks.
The Three Musketeers (1948), a 1948 adaptation starring Van Heflin, Lana Turner, June Allyson, Angela Lansbury and Gene Kelly.
The Three Musketeers (1973), an adaptation by Richard Lester starring Oliver Reed, Frank Finlay, Richard Chamberlain and Michael York. This was only the first half of the Dumas novel, with the rest appearing in the following year's "The Four Musketeers".
D'Artagnan and Three Musketeers (1978), a popular Soviet musical featuring Mikhail Boyarsky
The Three Musketeers (1993), a 1993 Disney adaptation starring Charlie Sheen, Kiefer Sutherland, Oliver Platt and Chris O'Donnell.
The Musketeer, a 2001 film.
The Three Musketeers (2011), directed by Paul W. S. Anderson and starring Luke Evans, Ray Stevenson and Milla Jovovich.
Television
The novel has been adapted also for television in live-action and animation.
Live-action
The BBC has adapted the novel on three occasions.
The Three Musketeers, a 1954 BBC adaptation in six 30-minute episodes, starring Laurence Payne, Roger Delgado, Paul Whitsun-Jones and Paul Hansard
The Three Musketeers, a 1966 BBC adaptation in ten 25-minute episodes, directed by Peter Hammond and starring Jeremy Brett, Jeremy Young and Brian Blessed
The Musketeers, a 2014 series by Adrian Hodges, is the newest BBC adaptation starring Tom Burke, Santiago Cabrera, Howard Charles and Luke Pasqualino as the titular musketeers.
Young Blades is an American/Canadian television series that aired on PAX in 2005. The series serves as a sequel to the novels, centered on the son of d'Artagnan, played by Tobias Mehler.
A series adapted for Korean history aired in 2014.
Animation
Walt Disney Productions produced a Silly Symphony cartoon called, Three Blind Mouseketeers, which is loosely based on the novel in 1936, in which the characters are depicted as anthropomorphic animals.
A two-part adaptation aired on The Famous Adventures of Mr. Magoo, with Magoo portraying D'Artagnan.
The Three Musketeers was a series of animated shorts produced by Hanna-Barbera's as part of The Banana Splits Comedy-Adventure Hour and The Banana Splits & Friends show.
The Three Musketeers was a Hanna-Barbera animated special from 1973. It was part of the 1970s-80s CBS anthology series Famous Classic Tales that was produced by Hanna-Barbera's Australian division and often aired around the holidays between Thanksgiving and New Year's Day.
Dogtanian and the Three Muskehounds is a 1981 Spanish–Japanese anime adaptation, where the characters are anthropomorphic dogs. A sequel, The Return of Dogtanian, was released in 1989 by BRB Internacional, Thames Television and Wang Film Productions. Set 10 years after of the original, it's loosely based on the novel The Vicomte de Bragelonne. A key difference between the two Dogtanian adaptions and Dumas' novel is that the character traits of Athos and Porthos were interchanged, making Athos the extrovert and Porthos the secretive noble of the group.
In 1989, Gakken produced a new anime adaptation called The Three Musketeers Anime, this time with human characters, which features several departures from the original.
Albert the Fifth Musketeer is a 1994 French animated series featuring a new musketeer, the titular Albert.
Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers, a direct-to-video animated movie produced by Walt Disney Pictures and the Australian office of DisneyToon Studios, directed by Donovan Cook and released on 17 August 2004.
A Barbie adaption of the tale by the name of Barbie and the Three Musketeers was made in 2009.
Stage
The first stage production was in Dumas' own lifetime as the opera Les Trois Mousquetaires with a libretto by Dumas himself and music by Albert Visetti.
The Three Musketeers is a musical with a book by William Anthony McGuire, lyrics by Clifford Grey and P. G. Wodehouse and music by Rudolf Friml. The original 1928 production ran on Broadway for 318 performances. A 1984 revival ran for 15 previews and 9 performances.
In 2003, a Dutch musical 3 Musketiers with a book by André Breedland and music & lyrics by Rob & Ferdi Bolland premiered, which went on to open in Germany (both the Dutch and German production starring Pia Douwes as Milady De Winter) and Hungary.
Playwright Peter Raby, composer George Stiles and lyricist Paul Leigh have written another adaptation titled The 3 Musketeers, One Musical For All, originally produced by the now defunct American Musical Theatre of San Jose.
In 2006, an adaptation by Ken Ludwig premiered at the Bristol Old Vic. In this version, d'Artagnan's sister Sabine, "the quintessential tomboy," poses as a young man and participates in her brother's adventures.
In 2018, The Dukes performed an outdoor promenade production in Williamson Park, Lancaster, adapted by Hattie Naylor: in this version d'Artagnan was a young woman aspiring to be a musketeer.
Video games and board games
In 1995, publisher U.S. Gold released Touché: The Adventures of the Fifth Musketeer by video game developers Clipper Software, a classic point-and-click adventure game. In 2005, Swedish developer Legendo Entertainment published the side-scrolling platform game The Three Musketeers for Windows XP and Windows Vista. In July 2009, a version of the game was released for WiiWare in North America and Europe under the title The Three Musketeers: One for All!. In 2009, Canadian developer Dingo Games self-published The Three Musketeers: The Game for Windows and Mac OS X. It is the first game to be truly based on the novel (in that it closely follows the novel's story). 2009 also saw the publication of the asymmetric team board game The Three Musketeers "The Queen's Pendants" (Настольная игра "Три мушкетера") from French designer Pascal Bernard by the Russian publisher Zvezda. In 2010, a co-operative game called "Mousquetaires du Roy" was released by Ystari and Rio Grande. The alternative spelling of "Roy" was taken from the old French and is rumoured to be preferred over the regular spelling because the publishers desire to have a letter "Y" in the name of the games they publish. Designed by François Combe and Gilles Lehmann for 1-5 players, the medium heavy game depicts the quest to retrieve the Queen's diamonds, while at the same time fending off disasters back in Paris. A sixth player expansion, called "Treville" was also made available in 2010.
In 2010, Anuman Interactive launched The Three Musketeers, a hidden object game on PC and MAC. Players follow d'Artagnan in his quest to become a king's musketeer.
Web Series
In 2016, KindaTV launched a web series based on the story of The Three Musketeers, called "All For One". It follows a group of college students, mainly Dorothy Castlemore and is centred around a sorority- Mu Sigma Theta (MST). The majority of characters have been gender-swapped from the original story and most character names are based on the original characters.
It covers several themes including the LGBT community, mental health, long-distance relationships and college life.
Other
Publisher Albert Lewis Kanter (1897–1973), created Classic Comics for Elliot Publishing Company in 1941 with its debut issues being The Three Musketeers. The Three Mouseketeers was the title of two series produced by DC Comics; the first series was a loose parody of The Three Musketeers.
In 1939, American author Tiffany Thayer published a book titled Three Musketeers (Thayer, 1939). This is a re-telling of the story in Thayer's words, true to the original plot but told in a different order and with different points of view and emphasis from the original.
Fantasy novelist Steven Brust's Khaavren Romances series have all used Dumas novels (particularly the D'Artagnan Romances) as their chief inspiration, recasting the plots of those novels to fit within Brust's established world of Dragaera. His 2020 novel The Baron of Magister Valley follows suit, using The Count of Monte Cristo as a starting point.
Sarah Hoyt wrote a series of Historical Murder mysteries with the Musketeers as the protagonists. (Hoyt wrote the novels under the name Sarah d'Almeida.)
Tansy Rayner Roberts wrote Musketeer Space, a space opera retelling of the original book in which almost all characters have a different gender, as a weekly serialized novel from 2014 to 2016.
In popular culture
Literature
In the book The Assault, The Three Musketeers is quoted in the Prologue as the protagonist had the story read to him by Mr. Beumer, a lawyer who later becomes senile and in morbidity.
The American translator, Lawrence Ellsworth is currently translating The d'Artagnan Romances entirely and he has also written a 2-volume novel called The Rose Knight's Crucifixion that is a parallel novel to The Three Musketeers and most of the characters from The Three Musketeers and Sir Percy Blakeney from The Laughing Cavalier and The First Sir Percy by Baroness Orczy appear. The protagonist's physical appearance, however, is based on Quasimodo from Victor Hugo's Notre-Dame of Paris.
Film and television
In the movie The Man in the Iron Mask, the aging musketeers come out of retirement and reunite to save France from the spoiled, cruel young King Louis XIV (played by Leonardo DiCaprio). The movie features Jeremy Irons as Aramis, John Malkovich as Athos, Gerard Depardieu as Porthos and Gabriel Byrne as D’Artagnan.
In Slumdog Millionaire, Jamal Malik's final question was to correctly identify the name of the third musketeer- which was Aramis. Jamal did so and won twenty million rupees.
In the film Django Unchained, one of the slaves, owned by Calvin Candie, is named D'Artagnan.
Video games
In Pokémon Black and White, the Pokémon Cobalion, Terrakion and Virizion, known as the Swords of Justice, are based on the Three Musketeers. Cobalion represents Athos, Terrakion represents Porthos and Virizion represents Aramis. The fourth Sword of Justice, Keldeo, represents d'Artagnan.
Music
The Smiths song You've Got Everything Now features the line: "I've seen you smile, but I've never really heard you laugh" and is borrowed from a narrative description of Athos:
Ppcocaine's song "Three Musketeers" shares little with the novel but its title.
References
External links
. Plain text format.
History of Dumas' Musketeers, shows links between the characters and actual history.
Comprehensive collection of Dumas links
The Three Musketeers. Scanned public domain editions in PDF format from Archive.org, some w/ illustrations, introductions and other helpful material.
"The Paris of The Three Musketeers", by E. H. Blashfield and E. W. Blashfield. Scribner's Magazine, August 1890. Cornell University Library.
Cooper, Barbara T., "Alexandre Dumas, père", in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 119: Nineteenth-Century French Fiction Writers: Romanticism and Realism, 1800–1860, edited by Catharine Savage Brosman, Gale Research, 1992, pp. 98–119.
Hemmings, F. W. J., "Alexandre Dumas Père", in European Writers: The Romantic Century, Vol. 6, edited by Jacques Barzun and George Stade, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1985, pp. 719–43.
Foote-Greenwell, Victoria, "The Life and Resurrection of Alexandre Dumas", in Smithsonian, July 1996, p. 110.
Thayer, Tiffany, Three Musketeers, New York: Citadel Press, 1939. (On the hard cover, the title is printed as Tiffany Thayer's Three Musketeers.)
Discussion of the work, bibliography and links
Bibliography and references for ''The Three Musketeers
1844 French novels
French adventure novels
French historical novels
French novels adapted into films
French novels adapted into plays
Novels adapted into comics
Novels adapted into video games
French novels adapted into television shows
Novels by Alexandre Dumas
Novels first published in serial form
Novels set in Early Modern France
Novels set in the 1620s
Works originally published in Le Siècle
1844 in France
Cultural depictions of Cardinal Richelieu
Cultural depictions of Louis XIII
Novels set in the 17th century | [
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|
217047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orsanmichele | Orsanmichele | Orsanmichele (; "Kitchen Garden of St. Michael", from the Tuscan contraction of the Italian word orto) is a church in the Italian city of Florence. The building was constructed on the site of the kitchen garden of the monastery of San Michele which no longer exists.
Located on the Via Calzaiuoli in Florence, the church was originally built as a grain market in 1337 by Francesco Talenti, Neri di Fioravante, and Benci di Cione. Between 1380 and 1404, it was converted into a church used as the chapel of Florence's powerful craft and trade guilds. On the ground floor of the square building are the 13th-century arches that originally formed the loggia of the grain market. The second floor was devoted to offices, while the third housed one of the city's municipal grain storehouses, maintained to withstand famine or siege. Late in the 14th century, the guilds were charged by the city to commission statues of their patron saints to embellish the facades of the church. The sculptures seen today are copies, the originals having been removed to museums (see below).
Interior
Inside the church is Andrea Orcagna's bejeweled Gothic Tabernacle (1355–59) encasing a repainting by Bernardo Daddi's of an older icon of the "Madonna and Child".
Exterior
The facades held 14 architecturally designed external niches, which were filled from 1399 to around 1430. The three richest guilds opted to make their figures in the far more costly bronze, which cost approximately ten times the amount of the stone figures.
Modern assessment
Orsanmichele's statuary is a relic of the fierce devotion and pride of Florentine trades, and a reminder that great art often arises out of a competitive climate. Each trade hoped to outdo the other in commissioning original, groundbreaking sculptures for public display on Florence's most important street, and the artists hired and materials used (especially bronze) indicate the importance that was placed on this site.
Today, all of the original sculptures have been removed and replaced with modern duplicates to protect them from the elements and vandalism. The originals mainly reside in the museum of Orsanmichele, which occupies the upper floor of the church, and can be seen on every Monday, the only day when the museum is open. Two works by Donatello are in other Florentine museums: St. George and its niche are in the Bargello, and St. Louis of Toulouse is in the museum of the Basilica di Santa Croce.
References
Bibliography
Campbell. 2011. Italian Renaissance art. Farnborough: Thames & Hudson Ltd.
External links
Museums in Florence - Orsanmichele Church and Museum
The Orsanmichele Museum
National Gallery of Art, exhibition Orsanmichele
khan academy video
Buildings and structures completed in 1337
14th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Roman Catholic churches in Florence
Gothic architecture in Florence
Sculpture galleries in Italy | [
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|
217053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury%20Park%20station | Finsbury Park station | Finsbury Park is an intermodal interchange station in north London. It serves a number of National Rail, London Underground and bus services. The station is the third busiest Underground station outside Zone 1, with over 33 million passengers using the station in 2019.
Name and location
The station is named after the nearby Finsbury Park, one of the oldest of London's Victorian parks, opening in 1869.
The interchange consists of a National Rail station, a London Underground station and two bus stations, all interconnected. The main entrances are by the eastern bus station on Station Place. The National Rail ticket office here lies in between one entrance marked by the Underground roundel symbol, while the other is marked by the National Rail symbol, and provides direct access to the main line platforms. A new, larger western entrance by Wells Terrace and Goodwin Place opened in December 2019, as part of the upgrade of the station. There is also a narrow side entrance to the south on the A503 Seven Sisters Road (currently closed). The complex is located in Travelcard Zone 2.
London Buses routes 4, 19, 29, 106, 153, 210, 236, 253, 254, 259, W3, W7, night routes N19, N29, N253, N279, serve the station.
History
Finsbury Park is on the route of the East Coast Main Line from King's Cross to the north of England and Scotland. The southern section of this was built in stages during the 1840s and early 1850s by the Great Northern Railway (GNR). Tracks were first laid through Finsbury Park in 1850 to the GNR's temporary terminus at Maiden Lane just north of the permanent terminus at King's Cross (which opened in 1852). The first station at Finsbury Park opened on 1 July 1861 and was originally named Seven Sisters Road (Holloway).
Soon after the first station opened, the Edgware, Highgate and London Railway (EH&LR) began construction of a line from Finsbury Park to Edgware. The GNR took over the EH&LR shortly before its opening on 22 August 1867. The station was given its current name Finsbury Park on 15 November 1869. The Edgware branch platforms were on each side of the main tracks. The southbound ("up") track of the branch crossed over the main line by a bridge on its way into the station.
The Great Northern & City Railway (GN&CR) was an underground railway planned to provide a tunnel link between Finsbury Park and Moorgate in the City of London as an alternative London terminus for GNR trains. The tunnels were constructed with a large diameter to accommodate this service but a dispute between the two companies prevented the GN&CR connecting its tunnels to the GNR platforms. The GN&CR tunnels, instead, terminated beneath the main line station without a connection to the surface and the line operated as a shuttle between Finsbury Park and Moorgate. The line opened on 14 February 1904 and on 1 September 1913, it was taken over by the Metropolitan Railway.
The Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway (GNP&BR) (now London Underground's Piccadilly line) opened on 15 December 1906 between Finsbury Park and Hammersmith in west London. The tube railway originated as the Great Northern and Strand Railway (GN&SR) in 1897 and was initially supported by the GNR as a means of relieving congestion on its main line into King's Cross by constructing a tube line under the GNR's tracks from Alexandra Palace to King's Cross and then to the Strand. The GN&SR was taken over in 1901 by a consortium led by Charles Yerkes before any work had been carried out and the section north of Finsbury Park was cancelled. The GN&SR was merged with the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway to form the GNP&BR. It was constructed with the smaller-diameter tube tunnels common to other underground railways being constructed in London at that time. Its platforms were constructed by the GNR parallel with the GN&CR's platforms beneath the main line station.
The transport interchange at Finsbury Park had long been recognised as a severe bottle-neck for passengers heading north from central London and calls had been regularly made to improve the situation by extending northwards one of the two underground lines serving the station. Until the mid-1920s this had been resisted by the GNR and its successor the LNER as a threat to its suburban passenger traffic, but mounting pressure finally forced the LNER to relinquish its veto and lift its objections to the Underground making an extension.
With financial support from the government, the Underground began construction of an extension of the Piccadilly line northwards to Cockfosters and the first section, to Arnos Grove, opened on 19 September 1932. The route was opened fully on 31 July 1933.
By 1935 the GNR had become part of the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER). In 1935 London Underground announced its New Works Programme. This included plans to take over the steam-operated LNER branch lines from Finsbury Park to Edgware, High Barnet and Alexandra Palace – collectively known as the "Northern Heights" lines. These routes were to be joined to the Northern City Line by the construction of new tracks from Drayton Park to the surface at Finsbury Park as had originally been intended by the GN&CR. Trains would then have been able to run from any of the three LNER termini to Moorgate. The Northern City Line tunnels from Drayton Park to Finsbury Park would have been taken out of use. A separate connection between Archway Underground station (then named Highgate) and East Finchley station was also planned, including a new Underground station below the then-existing surface station at Highgate.
In early 1939 London Underground announced that the Drayton Park to Alexandra Palace route would begin operation in autumn 1940 and the branch was transferred to the control of the Northern line. The start of the Second World War caused the postponement and eventual cancellation of this and much of the other plans, leaving operations at Finsbury Park unchanged. The surface connection between Drayton Park and Finsbury Park was abandoned and the Northern City Line continued to run between Moorgate and Finsbury Park in tunnel. Traffic on the Highgate and Alexandra Palace branch diminished and it was closed to passengers in 1954 although it was retained for freight to Edgware and stock movements to Highgate Depot.
London Underground had for many years been planning a new route across central London to relieve pressure on the central sections of the Piccadilly and Northern lines. In the early 1960s the plans were consolidated into a single plan for the Victoria line. The route of the new line was designed to provide the maximum number of interchanges with other Underground and British Rail lines as possible, and Finsbury Park was an ideal candidate for this. The plan called for the reconfiguration of the four underground platforms used by the Northern City Line and the Piccadilly line. To allow the construction works necessary for the provision of cross-platform interchanges between the Piccadilly and the Victoria lines the Northern City service to Finsbury Park was ended on 3 October 1964. After this date trains from Moorgate ran only as far as Drayton Park.
The Northern City platforms became the southbound platforms for both the Piccadilly and Victoria lines which were connected to the previously dead-end tunnels to the north of the platforms. The old southbound Piccadilly line platform then became the Victoria line northbound platform, with the northbound Piccadilly line platform unchanged. New connecting tunnels were constructed. There are cross-over connections between each pair of northbound and southbound tunnels to enable stock transfers, given that the Victoria line is otherwise completely self-contained.
The first section of the Victoria line, including Finsbury Park, opened between Walthamstow Central and Highbury & Islington on 1 September 1968. When the Victoria line was built in the 1960s, the walls in Finsbury Park station were decorated with mosaics of duelling pistols, which can still be seen. This was based on a mistaken identification of Finsbury Park with Finsbury Fields, which was used by Londoners since medieval times for archery and sports, and also associated with 18th-century duels and one of the first hot air balloon flights. Finsbury Fields was close to the present-day Finsbury Square, south. At the same time the long entrance subways and the Wells Terrace booking hall (at the bus station end) were rebuilt to a high standard.
London Underground continued to use the Edgware branch occasionally for stock movements between its depot at Highgate and Finsbury Park until September 1970. The tracks were removed in 1971 and the platforms at Finsbury Park which served this line were demolished; their location is now the pedestrian access to the eastern station entrance. The bridge over Stroud Green Road which carried the tracks was removed. The abutment walls remain.
In 1976 part of the abandoned Northern Heights plan was completed in reverse. The Northern City Line, which had originally run to the underground part of the station was transferred from London Underground to British Rail. An unfinished surface connection between Drayton Park and Finsbury Park begun as part of the "Northern Heights" project was completed to make it possible to bring trains to the surface at Finsbury Park and run through trains from Moorgate on to the north. The service commenced operation on 8 November 1976.
Station upgrade
In the late 2010s, the station was upgraded and refurbished throughout, including the provision of step free access, ticket barriers and a new, larger western entrance to the bus station, Goodwin Street and Wells Terrace.
Step free access to both the Piccadilly and Victoria lines, as well as to platforms 1&2 and 5&6 of the National Rail station was completed in January 2019. The new western entrance was constructed in collaboration with Telford Homes, the developer of "City North" - a residential and commercial development adjacent to the station. This new, larger entrance opened in December 2019, replacing an older entrance constructed in the 1970s, which closed in July 2016 as part of the City North development works.
Accidents and incidents
On 9 November 1959 a freight train ran away and collided with an empty coaching-stock train. The collision occurred on a bridge over a road, severely damaging the bridge.
On 8 May 1974, musician Graham Bond died after getting run over by a Piccadilly line train at the station.
On 17 December 1992, Jonathan Zito was stabbed to death in the station.
Current and future National Rail services
Current services
The above-ground National Rail station, which has a separate ticket office to the Underground station, is managed and served by Great Northern. Trains from Moorgate and King's Cross form inner suburban services to Stevenage via Hertford North and Welwyn Garden City and outer suburban services start from Kings Cross towards Peterborough and Cambridge. Inner suburban service formerly did not serve the Moorgate branch at night and at weekends, being diverted to London Kings Cross instead. There are currently six platforms but only five tracks, as platforms 6 and 7 share a track (though platform 6 is no longer separately numbered or utilised). The platforms were renumbered on 19 May 2013 to prepare for two new up platforms, with all existing numbers increased by 2. Typically, platform 1 is used by southbound suburban services to Moorgate, platform 2 by southbound regional services to King's Cross and southbound Thameslink services, platform 7 (and occasionally also platform 5) by northbound regional services from King's Cross and northbound Thameslink Services, and platform 8 by northbound suburban services from Moorgate.
Thameslink services
In 2018, as part of the Thameslink Programme, Finsbury Park was linked to the Thameslink network via a new tunnel which connects the Great Northern Route to the lines into . This has enabled through services to run from and Peterborough via Finsbury Park and to , Horsham and .
Currently not all trains labelled on the train as 'Thameslink' actually travel through the Thameslink core, as many serve King's Cross instead. During the week there are four trains an hour in each direction through the core to/from Finsbury Park, two to/from Peterborough to Horsham and two to/from Brighton to Cambridge. On Saturdays from 15 December 2019 there is one train per hour in each direction between Brighton and Cambridge, two trains per hour in each direction to/from Peterborough and Horsham. On Sundays there is only one train per hour in each direction to/from Gatwick Airport to Cambridge.
The introduction of Thameslink services at Finsbury Park was part of the Thameslink Programme, and in the connected 'RailPlan 2020' consultation it was stated that they planned to start a peak hours service of two trains an hour from Welwyn Garden City to Blackfriars from May 2018 and a two trains per hour service from Cambridge to Maidstone East from December 2019. However, neither of these services yet exists, probably due to the fact they require a frequency of 24 trains per hour (tph) to be going through the Thameslink core, and currently the highest frequency is 20tph. Automatic Train Operation (ATO) will be required to achieve 24tph, and this is not yet fully implemented.
New Platform 1
In February 2008 Network Rail published its East Coast Main Line Route Utilisation Strategy (ECMLRUS). This recommended improvements to the tracks able to carry passenger trains between Alexandra Palace Station and Finsbury Park. In March 2009 Network Rail published its CP4 Delivery Plan 2009, which involved the bringing back into service of an abandoned southbound platform; this plan was confirmed in a June 2010 update to the plan. Regular use of this new platform, Platform 1, commenced at the December 2013 timetable change. and since that date regular use of platform 3 has ceased, with platforms 1 and 2 now used instead. Since the December 2015 timetable change, the Northern City line to Moorgate operates through until end of service during the week and at weekends, rather than diverting to Kings Cross at weekends.
Other station facilities
British Transport Police maintain a presence at Finsbury Park and have a police station at the Wells Terrace entrance.
London Underground
The station is served by the Piccadilly and Victoria lines. Although thought of as a 'deep-level' tube station, Finsbury Park has no escalators as its lines are less than 6 m below street level.
Access to the Piccadilly and Victoria line platforms was previously by staircase only, reached via two narrow passages that prevented the installation of ticket barriers. As part of the upgrade of the station in the 2010s, ticket barriers were installed at both the eastern and western entrances to the station, as well as the provision of step free access throughout the station.
See also
Graham Bond musician (died at the station).
References
Citations
Sources
External links
London Transport Museum Photographic Archive
, when the Northern City Line was still operated by the Metropolitan line
Piccadilly line stations
Victoria line stations
London Underground Night Tube stations
Railway stations in the London Borough of Islington
Tube stations in the London Borough of Islington
Former Great Northern Railway stations
Former Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1861
Former Great Northern and City Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1904
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1964
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1965
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1906
Thameslink railway stations
1861 establishments in England
Unopened Northern Heights extension stations
Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom | [
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217057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duccio | Duccio | Duccio di Buoninsegna ( , ; – ) was an Italian painter active in Siena, Tuscany, in the late 13th and early 14th century. He was hired throughout his life to complete many important works in government and religious buildings around Italy. Duccio is considered one of the greatest Italian painters of the Middle Ages, and is credited with creating the painting styles of Trecento and the Sienese school. He also contributed significantly to the Sienese Gothic style.
Biography
Although much is still unconfirmed about Duccio and his life, there is more documentation of him and his life than of other Italian painters of his time. It is known that he was born and died in the city of Siena, and was also mostly active in the surrounding region of Tuscany. Other details of his early life and family are as uncertain, as much else in his history.
One avenue to reconstructing Duccio's biography are the traces of him in archives that list when he ran up debts or incurred fines. Some records say he was married with seven children. The relative abundance of archival mentions has led historians to believe that he had difficulties managing his life and his money. Due to his debts, Duccio's family dissociated themselves from him after his death.
Another route to filling in Duccio's biography is by analyzing the works that can be attributed to him with certainty. Information can be obtained by analyzing his style, the date and location of the works, and more. Due to gaps where Duccio's name goes unmentioned in the Sienese records for years at a time, scholars speculate he may have traveled to Paris, Assisi and Rome.
Nevertheless, his artistic talents were enough to overshadow his lack of organization as a citizen, and he became famous in his own lifetime. In the 14th century Duccio became one of the most favored and radical painters in Siena.
Artistic career
Where Duccio studied, and with whom, is still a matter of great debate, but by analyzing his style and technique art historians have been able to limit the field. Many believe that he studied under Cimabue, while others think that maybe he had actually traveled to Constantinople himself and learned directly from a Byzantine master.
Little is known of his painting career prior to 1278, when at the age of 23 he is recorded as having painted twelve account book cases. Although Duccio was active from 1268 to about 1311 only approximately 13 of his works survive today.
Of Duccio's surviving works, only two can be definitively dated. Both were major public commissions: the "Rucellai Madonna" (Galleria degli Uffizi), commissioned in April 1285 by the Compagnia del Laudesi di Maria Vergine for a chapel in Santa Maria Novella in Florence; and the Maestà commissioned for the high altar of Siena Cathedral in 1308, which Duccio completed by June 1311.
Style
Duccio's known works are on wood panel, painted in egg tempera and embellished with gold leaf. Differently from his contemporaries and artists before him, Duccio was a master of tempera and managed to conquer the medium with delicacy and precision. There is no clear evidence that Duccio painted frescoes.
Duccio's style was similar to Byzantine art in some ways, with its gold backgrounds and familiar religious scenes, however it was also different and more experimental. Duccio began to break down the sharp lines of Byzantine art, and soften the figures. He used modeling (playing with light and dark colors) to reveal the figures underneath the heavy drapery; hands, faces, and feet became more rounded and three-dimensional. Duccio's paintings are inviting and warm with color. His pieces consisted of many delicate details and were sometimes inlaid with jewels or ornamental fabrics. Duccio was also noted for his complex organization of space. He organized his characters specifically and purposefully. In his "Rucellai Madonna" (c. 1285) the viewer can see all of these qualities at play.
Duccio was also one of the first painters to put figures in architectural settings, as he began to explore and investigate depth and space. He also had a refined attention to emotion not seen in other painters at this time. The characters interact tenderly with each other; it is no longer Christ and the Virgin, it is mother and child. He flirts with naturalism, but his paintings are still awe inspiring. Duccio's figures seem to be otherworldly or heavenly, consisting of beautiful colors, soft hair, gracefulness and fabrics not available to mere humans.
He influenced many other painters, most notably Simone Martini, and the brothers Ambrogio and Pietro Lorenzetti.
Followers
In the course of his life, Duccio had many pupils even if it is not known if they were true pupils who were formed and matured artistically within his workshop, or they were simply painters who imitated his style. Many of the artists are anonymous, and their connection to Duccio has emerged only from analysis of a body of work with common stylistic traits. The first pupils, who can be referred to as a group as first-generation followers, were active between about 1290 and 1320 and include the Master of Badia a Isola, the Master of Città di Castello, the Aringhieri Master, the Master of the Collazioni dei Santi Padri and the Master of San Polo in Rosso.
Another group of followers, who could be termed followers of the second generation, were active between about 1300 and 1335 and include Segna di Bonaventura, Ugolino di Nerio, the Master of the Gondi Maestà, the Master of Monte Oliveto and the Master of Monterotondo. It should, however, be said that Segna di Bonaventura was already active prior to 1300 and so he overlaps as to period both the first and second generation of followers.
A third group followed Duccio only several years after his death, which shows the impact his painting had on Siena and on Tuscany as a whole. The artists of this third group, active between about 1330 and 1350, include Segna di Bonaventura's sons, that is, Niccolò di Segna and Francesco di Segna, and a pupil of Ugolino di Nerio: the Master of Chianciano.
Some of the artists were influenced by Duccio alone to the point of creating a decided affinity or kinship between their works and his. Among them was the Master of Badia a Isola, and Ugolino di Nerio, along with Segna di Bonaventura and their sons. Other artists were influenced also by other schools, and these include the Aringhieri Master (think of the massive volumes of Giotto), and the Master of the Gondi Maestà (who shows the influence also of Simone Martini).
The case of Simone Martini and Pietro Lorenzetti is somewhat different. Both artists painted works that have affinities with Duccio: for Simone from about 1305, and Pietro from about 1310 onwards. However, from the outset their work showed distinctive individual features, as can be seen in Simone's Madonna and Child no. 583 (1305–1310) and in Pietro's Orsini Triptych, painted at Assisi (about 1310–1315). Later the two developed styles with completely independent characteristics such that they acquired an artistic standing that elevates them well beyond being labelled simply as followers of Duccio.
Gallery
Known surviving works
Madonna with Child – Tempera and gold on wood, Museo d'Arte Sacra della Val d'Arbia, Buonconvento, near Siena
Gualino Madonna – Tempera and gold on wood, Galleria Sabauda, Turin
Madonna with Child and two Angels (Also known as the Crevole Madonna; c. 1280) – Tempera and gold on wood, Museo dell'Opera Metropolitana, Siena
Madonna with Child enthroned and six Angels (c. 1285) – Also known as the Rucellai Madonna / Madonna Rucellai – Tempera and gold on wood, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy (on deposit from Santa Maria Novella)
Crucifix – Tempera on wood, Odescalchi Collection, Rome, formerly in the Castello Orsini at Bracciano
Crucifix (Grosseto) (1289) – Church of San Francesco, Grosseto
Madonna of the Franciscans (c. 1300) – Tempera and gold on wood, Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena
Triptych: Crucifixion and other Scenes c. 1302–08 Royal Collection Trust
Assumption and Crowning of the Virgin – Stained glass window, Siena Cathedral
Maestà – Tempera and gold on wood, Museum of Fine Arts Bern, Switzerland
Madonna and Child – Tempera and gold on wood, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (formerly in the Stoclet Collection, Brussels, Belgium)
Madonna with Child and six Angels – Tempera and gold on wood, Galleria Nazionale dell'Umbria, Perugia, Italy
Polyptych: Madonna and Child with Saints Augustine, Paul, Peter, Dominic, four angels and Christ blessing (also known as Dossale no. 28; c. 1305) – Tempera and gold on wood, Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena
Polyptych no. 47: Madonna and Child with Saints Agnes, John the Evangelist, John the Baptist, and Mary Magdalene; ten Patriarchs and Prophets, with Christ blessing – Tempera and gold on wood, Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena
The Surrender of the Castle of Giuncarico – Fresco, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena
Maestà with Episodes from Christ's Passion – Tempera and gold on wood – Massa Marittima Cathedral, Italy
Small Triptych: Flagellation of Christ; Crucifixion with Angels; Deposition in the Tomb – Tempera and gold on wood, Società di Esecutori di Pie Deposizioni, Siena
Small Triptych: Madonna and Child with four Angels, Saints Dominic, Agnes and seven Prophets / Madonna con Bambino e con quattro angeli, i santi Domenico, Agnese, e sette profeti – Tempera and gold on wood – The National Gallery, London, England
Portable Altarpiece: Crucifixion with Christ blessing; St Nicholas; St Gregory – Tempera and gold on wood, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, United States
Small Triptych: Crucifixion with Angels; Annunciation and Madonna with Child and Angels; Stigmata of St Francis with Madonna and Christ enthroned – Tempera and gold on wood, UK Royal Collection
Maestá (Madonna with Child Enthroned and Twenty Angels and Nineteen Saints) – Tempera and gold on wood, Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Siena
Maestà (The Temptation of Christ on the Mountain) – Tempera and gold on wood – The Frick Collection, New York
The Crucifixion (c.1315)– Tempera and gold on wood – New-York Historical Society, New York
References
Sources
Further reading
Bellosi, Luciano (1999). Duccio: The Maestà. New York: Thames and Hudson. .
Bellosi, Luciano; Ragionieri, Giovanna (2003). Duccio di Buoninsegna. Giunti Editore. .
Deuchler, Florens (1984). Duccio. Milan: Electa. .
Jannella, Cecilia (1991). Duccio di Buoninsegna. Scala/Riverside. .
External links
www.DuccioDiBuoninsegna.org 130 works by Duccio
"The Missing Madonna: The story behind the Met's most expensive acquisition" The New Yorker Magazine, July 11 & 18, 2005, by Calvin Tomkins
Duccio in Panopticon Virtual Art Gallery
Duccio di Buoninsegna at the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC
Carl Brandon Strehlke, "Archangel by the Workshop of Duccio di Buoninsegna (cat. 88)" in The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works, a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication.
Gothic painters
Italian male painters
Painters from Siena
Trecento painters
1310s deaths
13th-century births
13th-century Italian painters
14th-century Italian painters
Catholic painters | [
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|
217062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simone%20Martini | Simone Martini | Simone Martini ( – 1344) was an Italian painter born in Siena.
He was a major figure in the development of early Italian painting and greatly influenced the development of the International Gothic style.
It is thought that Martini was a pupil of Duccio di Buoninsegna, the leading Sienese painter of his time. According to late Renaissance art biographer Giorgio Vasari, Simone was instead a pupil of Giotto di Bondone, with whom he went to Rome to paint at the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Giotto also executing a mosaic there. Martini's brother-in-law was the artist Lippo Memmi. Very little documentation of Simone's life survives, and many attributions are debated by art historians. According to E. H. Gombrich, he was a friend of Petrarch and had painted a portrait of Laura.
Biography
Simone was doubtlessly apprenticed from an early age, as would have been the normal practice. Among his first documented works is the Maestà of 1315 in the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena. A copy of the work, executed shortly thereafter by Lippo Memmi in San Gimignano, testifies to the enduring influence Simone's prototypes would have on other artists throughout the 14th century. Perpetuating the Sienese tradition, Simone's style contrasted with the sobriety and monumentality of Florentine art, and is noted for its soft, stylized, decorative features, sinuosity of line, and courtly elegance. Simone's art owes much to French manuscript illumination and ivory carving: examples of such art were brought to Siena in the fourteenth century by means of the Via Francigena, a main pilgrimage and trade route from Northern Europe to Rome.
Simone's other major works include the Saint Louis of Toulouse Crowning His Brother Robert of Anjou (1317, now Museo di Capodimonte, Naples); this work was painted during a stay in Naples at the request of the king. During this stay, putative pupils were his son Francesco, Gennaro di Cola, and Stefanone.
Among other of Simone's works, he also painted the Saint Catherine of Alexandria Polyptych in Pisa (1319) and the Annunciation with St. Margaret and St. Ansanus at the Uffizi in Florence (1333), as well as frescoes in the San Martino Chapel in the lower church of the Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi. Francis Petrarch became a friend of Simone's while in Avignon, and two of Petrarch's sonnets (Canzoniere 96 and 130) make reference to a portrait of Laura de Noves that Simone supposedly painted for the poet (according to Vasari). A Christ Discovered in the Temple (1342) is in the collections of Liverpool's Walker Art Gallery.
Simone Martini died while in the service of the Papal court at Avignon in 1344.
Gallery
See also
Memmo di Filippuccio
Sources
External links
Frescoes by Simone Martini in the Lower Basilica in Assisi
Art of Simone Martini
Simone Martini – Gothic Painter
Simone Martini at the National Gallery of Art
1280s births
1344 deaths
13th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
14th-century Italian painters
Painters from Siena
Gothic painters
Catholic painters | [
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|
217088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20chorale%20harmonisations%20by%20Johann%20Sebastian%20Bach | List of chorale harmonisations by Johann Sebastian Bach | Johann Sebastian Bach's chorale harmonisations, alternatively named four-part chorales, are Lutheran hymn settings that characteristically conform to the following:
four-part harmony
SATB vocal forces
pre-existing hymn tune allotted to the soprano part
text treatment:
homophonic
no repetitions (i.e., each syllable of the hymn text is sung one time)
Around 400 of such chorale settings by Bach, mostly composed in the first four decades of the 18th century, are extant:
Around half of that number are chorales which were transmitted in the context of larger vocal works such as cantatas, motets, Passions and oratorios. A large part of these chorales are extant as autographs by the composer, and for nearly all of them a colla parte instrumental and/or continuo accompaniment are known.
All other four-part chorales exclusively survived in collections of short works, which include manuscripts and 18th-century prints. Apart from the Three Wedding Chorales collection (BWV 250–252), these are copies by other scribes and prints only published after the composer's death, lacking context information, such as instrumental accompaniment, for the individual harmonisations.
Apart from homophonic choral settings, Bach's Lutheran hymn harmonisations also appear as:
sung chorale fantasias in some of Bach's larger vocal works
hymn melodies for which Bach composed or improved a thorough bass accompaniment, for instance as included in Georg Christian Schemelli's Musicalisches Gesang-Buch
harmonisations included in purely instrumental compositions, most typically organ compositions such as chorale preludes or chorale partitas.
History
The compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach that had been printed during his lifetime were nearly exclusively instrumental works. Moreover, by the time Bach died in 1750 it was forgotten that a few of his vocal works (BWV 71, BWV 439–507,...) had indeed been printed in the first half of the 18th century. In the period between the publication of The Art of Fugue in the early 1750s, and the publication of further works from 1900, only one group of Bach's works was published: his four-part chorales.
The most complete 18th century publication of chorales by J. S. Bach is Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach's edition in four volumes, published by Breitkopf from 1784 to 1787. About half of the chorale harmonisations in this collection have their origin in other extant works by Bach. This collection went through four more editions and countless reprintings until 1897. Several other collections of chorales by J. S. Bach were published, some of these using the original C-clefs or different texts.
The loss of musical material from Bach's death to the first printings of chorale collections may have been substantial. Not only are many works the chorales were extracted from no longer extant but there is no way of knowing how much of all the harmonisations that were once compiled the current collections include. For example, there is no way of knowing how many of the 150 harmonisations first proposed for sale in 1764 also appear in Princess Anna Amalia's manuscript which ultimately forms the basis of the Breitkopf edition. As to the chorale melodies with figured bass, current collections include less than one hundred of them whereas those proposed for sale in 1764 numbered 240.
The chorale harmonisations BWV 250–438 were probably all extracted from lost larger vocal works. For six of them the work they have been derived from has been identified. Bach's chorale harmonisations are all for a four-part choir (SATB), but Riemenschneider's and Terry's collections contain one 5-part SSATB choral harmonisation (Welt, ade! ich bin dein müde, Riemenscheider No. 150, Terry No. 365), not actually by Bach, but used by Bach as the concluding chorale to cantata Wer weiß, wie nahe mir mein Ende, BWV 27.
Some harmonisations exist in different keys, i.e. pitches, in 18th-century sources: for instance a Bach cantata autograph gives the four-part chorale in one key, and the same harmonisation is found in one or more of the early chorale compilations in a different key.
Manuscripts
The first record of the existence and sale of groups of collected chorale harmonisations and chorale melodies with figured bass extracted from larger works by J.S. Bach is from 1764, fourteen years after Bach's death. In that year the firm Breitkopf und Sohn announced for sale manuscript copies of 150 chorale harmonisations and 240 chorale melodies with figured bass by J.S. Bach.
In 1777 Johann Kirnberger started an active letter campaign to induce Breitkopf to publish a complete set of chorale harmonisations. Kirnberger's letters emphasize his motivation to have the chorales printed in order to preserve them for the benefit of future generations. The manuscript to be used once belonged to C. P. E. Bach, who sold it through Kirnberger to Princess Anna Amalia of Prussia (for twelve louis d'or). It is presumed that this manuscript contained neither the text of the chorales nor any reference to the larger works from which the harmonisations had been taken. The manuscript's harmonisations extracted only the vocal parts and ignored the instrumental parts and the continuo, even though all of Bach's chorale settings included both instrumental parts and continuo. The instrumental parts were either independent, so called obbligato instrumental parts, or mostly doubled the vocal parts sometimes separating from it for a very few beats, and the continuo had its bass mostly double the vocal bass at the lower octave, but could also separate from it for a very few beats. Finally in some cases, for reasons unknown, whoever extracted the chorale from the larger work, changed the key of the setting.
"Y" manuscript hypothesis Hypothetical early autograph collection of chorale harmonisations from which Bach would have selected settings he later integrated into his larger vocal works.
Larger vocal works manuscripts Mostly extant as autograph score and/or as parts written out under Bach's supervision: many of these works, such as cantatas and Passions, include four-part chorales
Three Wedding Chorales autograph Bach's autograph of the wedding chorales BWV 250–252, written between 1734 and 1738.
Dietel manuscript, a.k.a. Dietel Collection and, in German, Choralsammlung Dietel
Earliest of the extant larger collection of chorale harmonisations manuscripts. It contains 149 chorale harmonisations (not 150 as is written on its title page) and originated around 1735. The music in the manuscript was copied by Johann Ludwig Dietel, one of Bach's pupils from the Thomasschule.
Printed editions
A few chorale harmonisations had been published before Bach adopted them into his larger vocal works, and are therefore listed as spurious in the third annex of the BWV catalogue:
, also known as closing movement of cantata BWV 27: five-part harmonisation published, for instance, in Vopelius' 1682 Neu Leipziger Gesangbuch, p. 947.
Cantata BWV 43, movement 11: harmonisation by published in 1652, later adopted in Vopelius' Neu Leipziger Gesangbuch: "Ermuntre dich, mein schwacher Geist", p. 70.
Cantata BWV 8, movement 6 (BWV 8/6): Daniel Vetter's four-part setting of "Liebster Gott, wann werd ich sterben", published in 1713.
Several more harmonisations stay close to the version published by Vopelius: for example "Christus, der ist mein Leben", BWV 281, is a variant of the harmonisation found in the Neu Leipziger Gesangbuch, with added embellishments and the harmonic structure altered for one of the tune's four phrases.
Printed collections of Bach's harmonisations usually provide an alphabetical collation of the chorales, that is, ranged alphabetically by text incipit of the hymn. Some editions contain an alphabetical index at the end of the compilation, for instance at the end of the final volume of C. P. E. Bach's 18th-century collection. Other editions, such as the Breitkopf compilations of 1892 and 1899, present the chorales themselves in alphabetical order. However, not all of these alphabetical collations result in analogous chorale sequences. Some mayor differences in this respect result from chorales that are known by different names: in that case it depends on the editor which name is used for the collation. For example, the melody of "Ach, lieben Christen, seid getrost" also being known as "Wo Gott der Herr nicht bei uns hält" it is an editor's discretion whether BWV 256 is found early on or near the end of an alphabetically sorted collection.
18th century
Some of Bach's voice and thoroughbass settings published in Georg Christian Schemelli's 1736 Musicalisches Gesang-Buch are better known in their four-part realisation included in the chorale harmonisation collections.
Chorales published by Birnstiel (200) In 1765 F. W. Birnstiel published 100 chorales in Berlin. The edition had been initiated by F. W. Marpurg and completed, edited and supplemented with a preface and a list of errata by C. P. E. Bach. A second volume of 100 was issued by the same publisher in 1769, edited by J. F. Agricola. C. P. E. Bach criticised this publication as being full of mistakes in an article which was published in Hamburg in the Staats- und Gelehrte Zeitung des Hamburgischen unpartheyeschen Correspondenten on 30 May 1769, in which he also claimed that some of the chorale harmonisations included in the volume had not been composed by his father.
C. P. E. Bach's edition for Breitkopf (371) After Kirnberger died in 1783, C. P. E. Bach became Breitkopf's editor for the chorales, which he then published in four parts:
Vol. I (1784): Nos. 1–96
Vol. II (1785): Nos. 97–194
Vol. III (1786): Nos. 195–283
Vol. IV (1787): Nos. 283–370
Since the number 283 was used twice (last number of Vol. III and first number of Vol. IV), the collection actually contained 371 items. The collection also contained several doubles (e.g. No. 156 is identical to No. 307): it totalled 348 independent harmonisations.
19th century
C. P. E. Bach's selection of 371 chorale harmonisations was republished a few times in the 19th century, for instance by Carl Ferdinand Becker in 1832 (third edition), and by Alfred Dörffel in 1870.
Bach Gesellschaft (larger vocal works + 3 + 185) The Bach-Gesellschaft Ausgabe (BGA, Bach Gesellschaft edition) kept the chorale settings that were part of a larger vocal work (cantata, motet, Passion or oratorio) together with these larger vocal works and added the Three Wedding Chorales to its 13th volume containing wedding cantatas. The remaining separate four-part chorales, purged from doubles, were ordered alphabetically and numbered from 1 to 185 in the 39th volume which was published in 1892.
Richter's edition for Breitkopf (389) In the late 19th century Bernhard Friedrich Richter collected all straightforward chorale harmonisations that had appeared in the BGA edition —including as well the separate ones as those from larger vocal works—, added a "Herr Gott, dich loben alle wir" harmonisation from a variant version of Cantata 130, and numbered all of these chorales in alphabetical order. The set contained a few doubtful and spurious settings (e.g. from Telemann cantatas which at the time were still attributed to Bach), but four-part settings which were part of a more complex texture (e.g. the fifth movement of Cantata 22 where the vocal homophony is supplemented by instrumental figuration) were not always included by Richter. The set was published by Breitkopf as Joh. Seb. Bach: 389 Choral-Gesänge für gemischten Chor in 1899.
20th century
The Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis, published in 1950, did not assign a separate BWV number to harmonisations contained in extant larger vocal works such as cantatas and Passions. The Three Wedding Chorales were assigned the numbers 250 to 252, and the 185 (+1: see below) four-part chorales contained in Vol. 39 of the BGA edition were given, in the same order, the numbers 253 to 438.
Terry (405) Published in 1929, Charles Sanford Terry's J. S. Bach's Four-Part Chorales contains 405 chorale harmonisations and 95 melodies with figured bass. The collection was reprinted 1964, with a foreword by Walter Emery.
Riemenschneider (371) Albert Riemenschneider's collection of 371 chorales was published in 1941. It contained the same 371 settings as the C. P. E. Bach edition for Breitkopf, but with a few differences in the collation. In some cases Riemenschneider restored some information about obbligato instrumental parts based on extant larger works, e.g. his No. 270 from cantata BWV 161, or about the continuo bass line if this does not exactly coincide with the vocal bass, e.g. his No. 29 from cantata BWV 32 and his No. 35 from the Christmas Oratorio. Riemenschneider did however not restore original keys to the extant larger works, but instead kept the chorales in the keys as they had been published in the Breitkopf collection, e.g. his No. 22, in E-flat major, comes from cantata BWV 180 where it is in F major. At times the key signature in Riemenschneider's edition does not correspond to the key, for instance No. 19, in G minor but written with a "Dorian" G key signature. This too is presumably reproduced from the Breitkopf edition, which would have followed a common 17th- and 18th-century practice.
Editio Musica Budapest (388) Editio Musica Budapest (EMB) published Imre Sulyok's edition of 388 chorale harmonisations in 1982. With a few differences (e.g. a de-doubling of the near-identical BWV 253 and 414, and some differences in the collation) the collection is largely comparable to the Richter edition.
Kalmus (389) Kalmus republished the 389 chorales of Richter's collection.
NBA The New Bach Edition published the Three Wedding Chorales and the four-part chorales contained in the Dietel collection in 1991 (Series III, Vol. 2/1). The chorales from C. P. E. Bach's collection were published in 1996 (Series III, Vol. 2/2). Vol. 3 of the same series, published in 2002, contains a few chorales of doubtful authenticity found in other manuscripts and early editions. Vol. 9 of the second series, published in 2000, contains a few doubtful chorales found in various Passions. Better known chorale harmonisations are also contained in other volumes of series I (cantatas), II (Passions and oratorios) and V (e.g. BWV 299 as contained in the Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach).
21st century
Czarnecki (413) Christopher Czarnecki (editor). J.S. Bach 413 Chorales. SeeZar Publications, 2014.
Dahn (420) Luke Dahn (editor). J.S. Bach Chorales: a new critical and complete edition arranged by BWV catalogue number with text and historical contextual information included for each chorale with numerous indices included in the appendix. LuxSitPress, 2017.
Chorale harmonisations in various collections
Most of Bach's known chorale harmonisations are movements in his extant cantatas, motets, Passions and oratorios. These are compositions which have a BWV number ranging from 1 to 249. BWV 250 to 438 is the range of the separate four-part chorales. Chorale harmonisations with a number above 438 are mostly later additions to the BWV catalogue. The 5th chapter of the 1998 edition of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV2a) contains the chorales BWV 250–438, and some later additions (BWV 500a, 1084, 1089 and 1122–1126).
Numbering conventions
All BWV numbers used in the listings below are according to the latest version of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis and further updates of these numbers found at the Bach Digital website. When a BWV number is followed by a slash ("/"), the number or letter after that slash indicates the movement in the composition.
Settings from Schemellis Gesangbuch are indicated by their BWV number (BWV 439–507), by the number of the hymn in the original publication (Nos. 1–954), and, between brackets, the number of the setting in Vol. 39 of the BGA edition (1–69).
A cross-reference between Lutheran hymns, their Zahn number, and their appearance in compositions by Bach (including, but not limited to, the chorale harmonisations) can be found pp. 471–481 of BWV2a.
In larger vocal works
More than 200 of Bach's over 400 homophonic chorale harmonisations survived in his larger vocal works.
In church cantatas
Four-part chorales also appearing as cantata movements composed by Johann Sebastian Bach (verse incipits, and their translations by Pamela Dellal, from the Emmanuel Music website unless otherwise indicated): BWV 1/6: "Wie bin ich doch so herzlich froh" ("How happy I am", v. 7 of "Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern")
• 2/6: "Das wollst du, Gott, bewahren rein" ("This, God, you would keep pure", v. 6 of Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein")
• 3/6: "Erhalt mein Herz im Glauben rein" ("If my heart remains pure in faith", v. 18 of "Ach Gott, wie manches Herzeleid")
• 4/8
• 5/7
• 6/6
• 7/7
• 9/7
• 10/7
• 12/7
• 13/6
• 14/5
• 16/6
• 17/7
• 18/5
• 19/7
• 20/7=/11
• 22/5
• 24/6
• 25/6
• 26/6
• 28/6
• 29/8
• 30/6
• 31/9
• 32/6
• 33/6
• 36/4 and /8
• 37/6
• 38/6
• 39/7
• 40/3, /6 and /8
• 41/6
• 42/7
• 44/7
• 45/7
• 46/6
• 47/5
• 48/3 and /7
• 52/6
• 55/5
• 56/5
• 57/8
• 59/3
• 60/5
• 62/6 64.
• 64/2, /4 and /8
• 65/2 and /7
• 66/6
• 67/4 and /7
• 69/6
• 69a/6
• 70/7 and /11
• 72/6
• 73/5
• 74/8
• 75/7=/14
• 76/7=/14
• 77/6
• 78/7 79.
• 79/3 and /6
• 80/8
• 81/7
• 83/5
• 84/5
• 85/6
• 86/6
• 87/7
• 88/7
• 89/6
• 90/5
• 91/6
• 92/9
• 93/7
• 94/8
• 95/1 (extract: 282) and /7
• 96/6
• 97/9
• 99/6
• 100/6
• 101/7
• 102/7
• 103/6
• 104/6
• 105/6
• 107/7
• 108/6
• 110/7
• 111/6
• 112/5
• 113/1 and /8
• 114/7
• 115/6
• 116/6
• 117/4=/9
• 119/9
• 120/6
• 120a/8
• 121/6
• 122/6
• 123/6
• 124/6
• 125/6
• 126/6
• 127/5
• 128/5
• 129/5
• 130/6
• 133/6
• 135/6
• 136/6
• 137/5
• 139/6
• 140/7
• 144/3 and /6
• 145/a and /5
• 146/8
• 147/6=/10
• 148/6
• 149/7
• 151/5 153.
• 153/1, /5 and /9
• 154/3 and /8
• 155/5
• 156/6
• 157/5
• 158/4
• 159/5
• 161/6
• 162/6
• 164/6
• 165/6
• 166/6
• 167/5
• 168/6
• 169/7
• 171/6
• 172/6
• 174/5
• 175/7
• 176/6
• 177/5
• 178/7
• 179/6
• 180/7
• 183/5
• 184/5
• 185/6
• 187/7
• 188/6
• 190/7
• 194/6 and /12
• 195/6
• 197/5 and /10
• 197a/7 (≈398)
Spurious chorale harmonisations in Bach's autographs: BWV 8/6
• 27/6 (=Anh. 170)
• 43/11
Chorale harmonisations from spurious or doubtful cantatas (or: cantata versions) in the Richter/Kalmus collection of 389 chorale harmonisations: No. 130: from a doubtful version of BWV 130
• No. 219: BWV 218/5 = TWV 1:634/5: "Komm, Gott Schöpfer, Heiliger Geist", by Telemann
• No. 387: BWV 219/5 = TWV 1:1328/5: "Wo Gott der Herr nicht bei uns hält", by Telemann
In motets
Chorale harmonisations appearing in Bach's motets: BWV 226/2
• 227/1=/11, /3 (SSATB) and /7
• 229/2
In Passions
In St Matthew Passion
Four-part chorales appearing in the St Matthew Passion: BWV 244/3, /10, /15≈/17, /25, /32, /37, /40, /44, /46, /54 and /62
• 244b/29
In St John Passion
Four-part chorales appearing in the St John Passion: BWV 245/3, /5 (=BWV 416), /11, /14, /15, /17, /22, /26, /28, /37 and /40
In St Mark Passion pasticcio
For his own performances of the Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet Passion Bach composed and/or reworked a few of its chorales: No. 9b: "So gehst du nun, mein Jesu" (BWV 500a)
• No. 14: "O hilf Christe, Gottes Sohn" (BWV 1084)
• No. 29: "O Traurigkeit, o Herzeleid" (BWV deest)
In oratorios
Ascension Oratorio
Four-part chorale appearing in the Ascension Oratorio: BWV 11/6
Christmas Oratorio
Four-part chorales in Bach's Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248: Part I/5 and /9
• II/3, /8 and /14
• III/5, /10 and /12
• IV/7
• V/4 and /11
• VI/6 and /11
In chorale collections
Somewhat less than 200 of Bach's chorale harmonisations only survived in early collections containing multiple, usually short, works.
Three Wedding Chorales, BWV 250–252
186 four-part chorales in BGA Vol. 39, BWV 253–438
The Bach Gesellschaft published 185 four-part chorales in the 39th volume of its complete Bach-edition. The BWV 253–438 range, which, in its original collation, was based on the BGA publication does however contain 186 chorales. The difference is that BWV 279, (near-)identical to BWV 158/4, was not retained in the BGA set:
BGA No. 26 → "Christ lag in Todesbanden", BWV 278
not in BGA Vol. 39: "Christ lag in Todesbanden", BWV 279 (≈BWV 158/4, in BGA Vol. 32)
BGA No. 27 → "Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam", BWV 280
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In the 1725 Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach
Included in the second Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach (started 1725): BWV 299: "Dir, dir, Jehova, will ich singen" (included as No. 39, in both a four-part chorale version and a voice and bass version)
• BWV 397: "O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort" (included as No. 42 in a voice and bass version = BWV 513)
With a voice and bass variant in Schemellis Gesangbuch
Two-part versions in Schemellis Gesangbuch: No. 40 (3), BWV 447 → BWV 297
• No. 281 (18), BWV 481 → BWV 413
• No. 293 (22), BWV 499 → BWV 410
• No. 296 (23), BWV 500 ↔ BWV 500a, four-part variant in St Mark Passion pasticcio
• No. 315 (26), BWV 501 → BWV 412
• No. 320 (27), BWV 441 → BWV 441* or deest
• No. 397 (32), BWV 452 → BWV 299
• No. 488 (37), BWV 461 → BWV 320
• No. 741 (53), BWV 470 → BWV 357
• No. 779 (55), BWV 506 → BWV 424
• No. 881 (63), BWV 488 → BWV 258
• No. 894 (65), BWV 495 → BWV 405
Other four-part chorales in early manuscripts
Authenticated as Bach's after the first edition (1950) of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis: BWV 1089: "Da Jesus an dem Kreuze stund"
• BWV 1122: "Denket doch, ihr Menschenkinder"
• BWV 1123: "Wo Gott zum Haus nicht gibt sein Gunst"
• BWV 1124: "Ich ruf zu dir, Herr Jesu Christ"
• BWV 1125: "O Gott, du frommer Gott"
• BWV 1126: "Lobet Gott, unsern Herren"
• BWV deest: "Liebster Gott, wenn werd ich sterben"
See also
List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach
List of Bach cantatas (BWV 1–231)
List of songs and arias of Johann Sebastian Bach (BWV 439–518)
References
Sources
Johann Theodor Mosewius. Johann Sebastian Bach in seinen Kirchen-Cantaten und Choralgesängen. Berlin: T. Trautwein, 1845.
Further reading
External links
"Other Vocal Works sorted Thematically", Department of Computing Science, University of Alberta
"Index to Texts and Translations of Bach Cantatas and Other Vocal Works – Part 7: Chorales BWV 250–438"
Thomas Braatz: "The History of the Breitkopf Collection of J. S. Bach's Four-Part Chorales", September 2006; retrieved 21 May 2009.
Scores in Capella format
Sortable Index of the Chorales by J.S. Bach at
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|
217089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade%20agreement | Trade agreement | A trade agreement (also known as trade pact) is a wide-ranging taxes, tariff and trade treaty that often includes investment guarantees. It exists when two or more countries agree on terms that help them trade with each other. The most common trade agreements are of the preferential and free trade types, which are concluded in order to reduce (or eliminate) tariffs, quotas and other trade restrictions on items traded between the signatories.
The logic of formal trade agreements is that they outline what is agreed upon and the punishments for deviation from the rules set in the agreement. Trade agreements therefore make misunderstandings less likely, and create confidence on both sides that cheating will be punished; this increases the likelihood of long-term cooperation. An international organization, such as the IMF, can further incentivize cooperation by monitoring compliance with agreements and reporting third countries of the violations. Monitoring by international agencies may be needed to detect non-tariff barriers, which are disguised attempts at creating trade barriers.
Trade pacts are frequently politically contentious since they may change economic customs and deepen interdependence with trade partners. Increasing efficiency through "free trade" is a common goal. For the most part, governments are supportive of further trade agreements.
There have been however some concerns expressed by the WTO. According to Pascal Lamy, Director-General of the WTO, the proliferation of regional trade agreements (RTAs) "...is breeding concern — concern about incoherence, confusion, exponential increase of costs for business, unpredictability and even unfairness in trade relations." The position of the WTO is that while the typical trade agreements (called preferential or regional by the WTO) are useful to a degree, it is much more beneficial to focus on global agreements in the WTO framework such as the negotiations of the current Doha round.
The anti-globalization movement opposes such agreements almost by definition, but some groups normally allied within that movement, e.g. green parties, seek fair trade or safe trade provisions that moderate real and perceived ill effects of globalization.
Classification of trade pacts
By number and type of signatories
There are three different types of trade agreements. The first is unilateral trade agreement, this is what happens when a country wants certain restrictions to be enforced but no other countries want them to be imposed. This also allows countries to decrease the amount of trade restrictions. That is also something that does not happen often and could impair a country.
The second is classified as bilateral (BTA) when signed between two sides, where each side could be a country (or other customs territory), a trade bloc or an informal group of countries (or other customs territories). Both countries loosen their trade restrictions to help businesses, so that they can prosper better between the different countries. This definitely helps lower taxes and it helps them converse about their trade status. Usually, this revolves around subsided domestic industries. Mainly the industries fall under automotive, oil, or food industries.
A trade agreement signed between more than two sides (typically neighboring or in the same region) is classified as multilateral. These face the most obstacles- when negotiating substance, and for implementation. The more countries that are involved, the harder it is to reach mutual satisfaction. Once this type of trade agreement is settled on, it becomes a very powerful agreement. The larger the GDP of the signatories, the greater the impact on other global trade relationships. The largest multilateral trade agreement is the North American Free Trade Agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
By geographical region
These are between countries in a certain area. The most powerful ones include a few countries that are near each other in a geographical area. These countries often have similar histories, demographics and economic goals.
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was established on January 1, 1989, between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. This agreement was designed to reduce tariff barriers in North America.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was formed in 1967 between the countries of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. It was established to promote political partnership and maintain economic stability throughout the region.
By level of integration
There are a variety of trade agreements; with some being quite complex (European Union), while others are less intensive (North American Free Trade Agreement). The resulting level of economic integration depends on the specific type of trade pacts and policies adopted by the trade bloc:
Separate
Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA)
Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT)
Preferential Trade Arrangement (PTA)–limited scope and depth of tariffs reduction between the customs territories.
Free Trade Agreement establishing a Free Trade Area (FTA)–extensive reduction or elimination of tariffs on substantially all trade allowing for the free movement of goods and in more advanced agreements also reduction of restrictions on investment and establishment allowing for the free movement of capital and free movement of services
Common market–FTA with significantly reduced or eliminated restrictions on the freedom of movement of all factors of production, including free movement of labour and of enterprise; and coordination in economic policy
Currency union–sharing the same currency
Composite
Customs union–FTA with common external tariffs of all signatories in respect to non-signatory countries
Customs and monetary union–Customs union with Currency union
Economic union–Customs union with Common market
Economic and monetary union (EMU)–Economic union with Currency Union
Fiscal Union–common coordination of substantial parts of the fiscal policies (proposed step between EMU and Complete economic integration)
Special agreements
World Trade Organization treaty
agreements in the WTO framework (Textile Agreement and others)
the now defunct Multilateral Agreement on Investment (in the OECD framework)
By the World Trade Organization
Typically the benefits and obligations of the trade agreements apply only to their signatories.
In the framework of the World Trade Organization, different agreement types are concluded (mostly during new member accessions), whose terms apply to all WTO members on the so-called most-favored basis (MFN), which means that beneficial terms agreed bilaterally with one trading partner will apply also to the rest of the WTO members.
All agreements concluded outside of the WTO framework (and granting additional benefits beyond the WTO MFN level, but applicable only between the signatories and not to the rest of the WTO members) are called preferential by the WTO. According to WTO rules, these agreements are subject to certain requirements such as notification to the WTO and general reciprocity (the preferences should apply equally to each of the signatories of the agreement) where unilateral preferences (some of the signatories gain preferential access to the market of the other signatories, without lowering their own tariffs) are allowed only under exceptional circumstances and as temporary measure.
The trade agreements called preferential by the WTO are also known as regional (RTA), despite not necessarily concluded by countries within a certain region. There are currently 205 agreements in force as of July 2007. Over 300 have been reported to the WTO. The number of FTA has increased significantly over the last decade. Between 1948 and 1994, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the predecessor to the WTO, received 124 notifications. Since 1995 over 300 trade agreements have been enacted.
The WTO is further classifying these agreements in the following types:
Goods covering:
basic preferential trade agreement (a.k.a. partial scope agreement)
free trade agreement
customs union
Services covering:
Economic Integration Agreement–any agreement, including a basic PTA, that covers also services
See also
Trade and development
Trade creation
Trade preference
Permanent Normal Trade Relations (PNTR)
Lists:
List of international trade topics
List of free trade agreements
List of trade blocs
References
External links
ITC's Market Access Map, an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements.
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]
|
217091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20songs%20and%20arias%20by%20Johann%20Sebastian%20Bach | List of songs and arias by Johann Sebastian Bach | Songs and arias by Johann Sebastian Bach are compositions listed in Chapter 6 of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV 439–524), which also includes the Quodlibet. Most of the songs and arias included in this list are set for voice and continuo. Most of them are also spiritual, i.e. hymn settings, although a few have a worldly theme. The best known of these, "Bist du bei mir", was however not composed by Bach.
An aria by Bach was rediscovered in the 21st century, and was assigned the number BWV 1127. Further hymn settings and arias by Bach are included in his cantatas, motets, masses, passions, oratorios and chorale harmonisations (BWV 1–438 and later additions). The second Anhang of the BWV catalogue also lists a few songs of doubtful authenticity.
Songs, arias and Quodlibet, BWV 439–524
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0439.000" | 439
| data-sort-value="304.003" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Ach, dass nicht die letzte Stunde" (Schemelli #831; tune #56)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 279a" | 39: 279
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 256" | III/2.1: 210
| ↔ Z 6721; text by Neumeister
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0440.000" | 440
| data-sort-value="304.004" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Auf, auf! die rechte Zeit ist hier" (Schemelli #171; tune #11)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 279b" | 39: 279
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 211" | III/2.1: 123
| data-sort-value="↔ Z 0705" | ↔ Z 705; text by Opitz
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0441.000" rowspan="2" | 441
| data-sort-value="304.005" rowspan="2" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1730-01-01" | or earlier
| chorale setting "Auf, auf, mein Herz, mit Freuden"
| rowspan="2" | F maj.
| SATB
|
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 095" | III/2.1: 67
| rowspan="2" | after Z 5243; text by Gerhardt
| rowspan="2" |
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Auf, auf, mein Herz, mit Freuden" (Schemelli #320; tune #27)
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 279c" | 39: 279
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 227" | III/2.1: 152
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0442.000" | 442
| data-sort-value="304.006" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Beglückter Stand getreuer Seelen" (Schemelli #570; tune #39)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 280a" | 39: 280
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 239" | III/2.1: 176
| after Z 5970; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0443.000" | 443
| data-sort-value="304.007" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Beschränkt, ihr Weisen dieser Welt" (Schemelli #689; tune #47)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 280b" | 39: 280
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 247" | III/2.1: 192
| ↔ Z 7765; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0444.000" | 444
| data-sort-value="304.008" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Brich entzwei, mein armes Herze" (Schemelli #303; tune #24)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 280c" | 39: 280
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 224" | III/2.1: 146
| after Z 7110–7111a; → Z 7111b; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0445.000" | 445
| data-sort-value="304.009" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Brunnquell aller Güter" (Schemelli #335; tune #29)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 281a" | 39: 281
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 229" | III/2.1: 156
| after Z 6252b; text by Franck, J.
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0446.000" | 446
| data-sort-value="304.010" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Der lieben Sonnen Licht und Pracht" (Schemelli #39; tune #2)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 281b" | 39: 281
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 202" | III/2.1: 106
| after Z 5659; text by Scriver
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0447.000" | 447
| data-sort-value="304.011" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Der Tag ist hin, die Sonne gehet nieder" (Schemelli #40; tune #3)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 281c" | 39: 281
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 203" | III/2.1: 108
| data-sort-value="after Z 0923; ↔ BWV 297" | after Z 923; ↔ BWV 297; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0448.000" | 448
| data-sort-value="304.012" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Der Tag mit seinem Lichte" (Schemelli #43; tune #4)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 282a" | 39: 282
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 204" | III/2.1: 110
| after Z 7512b; text by Gerhardt
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0449.000" | 449
| data-sort-value="305.001" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Dich bet ich an, mein höchster Gott" (Schemelli #396; tune #31)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 282b" | 39: 282
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 231" | III/2.1: 160
| ↔ Z 2437; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0450.000" | 450
| data-sort-value="305.002" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Die bittre Leidenszeit beginnet abermal" (Schemelli #258; tune #17)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 282c" | 39: 282
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 217" | III/2.1: 134
| after Z 7429; text by
|
|- id="Schemellis Gesangbuch No. 13" style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0451.000" | 451
| data-sort-value="305.003" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Die güldne Sonne" (Schemelli #13; tune #1)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 283" | 39: 283
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 201" | III/2.1: 104
| after Z 8015; text by Gerhardt
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0452.000" | 452
| data-sort-value="305.004" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Dir, dir, Jehova, will ich singen" (Schemelli #397; tune #32)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 284a" | 39: 284
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 232" | III/2.1: 162
| data-sort-value="after BWV 0299" | after BWV 299; → Z 3068; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0453.000" | 453
| data-sort-value="305.005" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Eins ist not! ach Herr, dies Eine" (Schemelli #112; tune #7)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 284b" | 39: 284
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 207" | III/2.1: 116
| ↔ Z 7129; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0454.000" | 454
| data-sort-value="305.006" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Ermuntre dich, mein schwacher Geist" (Schemelli #187; tune #12)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 284c" | 39: 284
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 212" | III/2.1: 124
| after Z 5741; text by Rist
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0455.000" | 455
| data-sort-value="305.007" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Erwürgtes Lamm, das die verwahrten Siegel" (Schemelli #580; tune #43)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 285a" | 39: 285
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 243" | III/2.1: 184
| after Z 3138; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0456.000" | 456
| data-sort-value="305.008" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Es glänzet der Christen inwendiges Leben" (Schemelli #572; tune #40)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 285b" | 39: 285
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 240" | III/2.1: 178
| after Z 6969; text by Richter
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0457.000" | 457
| data-sort-value="305.009" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Es ist nun aus mit meinem Leben" (Schemelli #847; tune #57)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 286a" | 39: 286
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 257" | III/2.1: 212
| after Z 6969; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0458.000" | 458
| data-sort-value="305.010" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Es ist vollbracht! Vergiss ja nicht dies Wort" (Schemelli #306; tune #25)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 286b" | 39: 286
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 225" | III/2.1: 148
| after Z 2692; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0459.000" | 459
| data-sort-value="305.011" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Es kostet viel, ein Christ zu sein" (Schemelli #522; tune #38)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 286c" | 39: 286
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 238" | III/2.1: 174
| after Z 2727; text by Richter
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0460.000" | 460
| data-sort-value="305.012" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Gib dich zufrieden und sei stille" (Schemelli #647; tune #45)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 288a" | 39: 288
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 245" | III/2.1: 188
| after Z 7415; text by Gerhardt
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0461.000" | 461
| data-sort-value="305.013" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Gott lebet noch" (Schemelli #488; tune #37)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 288b" | 39: 288
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 237" | III/2.1: 172
| after Z 7951; ↔ BWV 320; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0462.000" | 462
| data-sort-value="305.014" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Gott wie groß ist deine Güte" (Schemelli #360; tune #30)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 289a" | 39: 289
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 230" | III/2.1: 158
| text by Schemelli; → Z 7937
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0463.000" | 463
| data-sort-value="305.015" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Herr, nicht schicke deine Rache" (Schemelli #78; tune #5)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 289b" | 39: 289
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 205" | III/2.1: 112
| after Z 6863; text by Opitz
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0464.000" | 464
| data-sort-value="305.016" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Ich bin ja, Herr, in deiner Macht" (Schemelli #861; tune #58)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 290a" | 39: 290
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 258" | III/2.1: 214
| after Z 5869a; text by Dach
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0465.000" | 465
| data-sort-value="306.001" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Ich freue mich in dir" (Schemelli #194; tune #13)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 290b" | 39: 290
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 213" | III/2.1: 126
| after Z 5138; text by Ziegler, C.
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0466.000" | 466
| data-sort-value="306.002" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Ich halte treulich still" (Schemelli #657; tune #46)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 290c" | 39: 290
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 246" | III/2.1: 190
| text by ; → Z 5082
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0467.000" | 467
| data-sort-value="306.003" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Ich lass dich nicht" (Schemelli #734; tune #51)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 291a" | 39: 291
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 251" | III/2.1: 200
| after Z 7455; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0468.000" | 468
| data-sort-value="306.004" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Ich liebe Jesum alle Stund" (Schemelli #737; tune #52)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 291b" | 39: 291
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 252" | III/2.1: 202
| after Z 4731; → Z 4732
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0469.000" | 469
| data-sort-value="306.005" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Ich steh an deiner Krippen hier" (Schemelli #195; tune #14)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 292a" | 39: 292
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 214" | III/2.1: 128
| ↔ Z 4663; text by Gerhardt
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0476.000" | 476
| data-sort-value="306.016" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Ihr Gestirn, ihr hohlen Lüfte" (Schemelli #197; tune #15)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 294b" | 39: 294
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 215" | III/2.1: 130
| after Z 3703; text by Franck, J.
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0471.000" | 471
| data-sort-value="306.021" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Jesu, deine Liebeswunden" (Schemelli #139; tune #10)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 292c" | 39: 292
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 210" | III/2.1: 122
| text by ?; → Z 1302
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0470.000" | 470
| data-sort-value="306.022" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Jesu, Jesu, du bist mein" (Schemelli #741; tune #53)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 292b" | 39: 292
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 253" | III/2.1: 204
| data-sort-value="↔ BWV 0357" | ↔ BWV 357; → Z 6446
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0472.000" | 472
| data-sort-value="306.032" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Jesu, meines Glaubens Zier" (Schemelli #119; tune #8)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 293a" | 39: 293
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 208" | III/2.1: 118
| after Z 6453; text by Sacer
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0473.000" | 473
| data-sort-value="306.033" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Jesu, meines Herzens Freud" (Schemelli #696; tune #48)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 293b" | 39: 293
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 248" | III/2.1: 194
| after Z 4797–4798; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0474.000" | 474
| data-sort-value="306.034" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Jesus ist das schönste Licht" (Schemelli #463; tune #33)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 293c" | 39: 293
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 233" | III/2.1: 164
| after Z 6412; text by Richter
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0475.000" | 475
| data-sort-value="306.035" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Jesus, unser Trost und Leben" (Schemelli #333; tune #28)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 294a" | 39: 294
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 228" | III/2.1: 154
| after Z 4918; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0477.000" | 477
| data-sort-value="306.037" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Kein Stündlein geht dahin" (Schemelli #869; tune #60)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 294c" | 39: 294
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 260" | III/2.1: 218
| after 4243b; text by Franck, M.?
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0478.000" | 478
| data-sort-value="306.038" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Komm, süßer Tod" (Schemelli #868; tune #59)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 295a" | 39: 295
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 259" | III/2.1: 216
| → Z 4400
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0479.000" | 479
| data-sort-value="306.039" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Kommt, Seelen, dieser Tag" (Schemelli #936; tune #67)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 295b" | 39: 295
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 267" | III/2.1: 232
| → Z 5185; text by Löscher
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0480.000" | 480
| data-sort-value="306.040" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Kommt wieder aus der finstern Gruft" (Schemelli #938; tune #68)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 296a" | 39: 296
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 268" | III/2.1: 234
| → Z 4709; text by Löscher
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0481.000" | 481
| data-sort-value="306.041" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Lasset uns mit Jesu ziehen" (Schemelli #281; tune #18)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 296b" | 39: 296
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 218" | III/2.1: 136
| after Z 7886b; ↔ BWV 413; text by Birken
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0482.000" | 482
| data-sort-value="307.002" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Liebes Herz, bedenke doch" (Schemelli #467; tune #34)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 297a" | 39: 297
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 234" | III/2.1: 166
| after Z 6434; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0483.000" | 483
| data-sort-value="307.003" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Liebster Gott, wann werd ich sterben" (Schemelli #873; tune #61)
| E♭ maj.
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 297b" | 39: 297
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 261" | III/2.1: 220
| after Z 6634; text by Neumann
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0484.000" | 484
| data-sort-value="307.004" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Liebster Herr Jesu, wo bleibst du so lange" (Schemelli #874; tune #62)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 298a" | 39: 298
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 262" | III/2.1: 222
| ↔ Z 3969; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0485.000" | 485
| data-sort-value="307.005" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Liebster Immanuel, Herzog der Frommen" (Schemelli #761; tune #54)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 298b" | 39: 298
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 254" | III/2.1: 206
| after Z 4932c; text by Fritsch
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0488.000" | 488
| data-sort-value="307.008" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Meines Lebens letzte Zeit" (Schemelli #881; tune #63)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 299b" | 39: 299
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 263" | III/2.1: 224
| after Z 6380; ↔ BWV 381
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0486.000" | 486
| data-sort-value="307.016" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Mein Jesu, dem die Seraphinen" (Schemelli #121; tune #9)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 298c" | 39: 298
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 209" | III/2.1: 120
| after Z 5988; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0487.000" | 487
| data-sort-value="307.017" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Mein Jesu! was vor Seelenweh" (Schemelli #283; tune #19)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 299a" | 39: 299
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 219" | III/2.1: 138
| text by Schemelli?; → Z 8383
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0489.000" | 489
| data-sort-value="307.019" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Nicht so traurig, nicht so sehr" (Schemelli #574; tune #41)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 300a" | 39: 300
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 241" | III/2.1: 180
| after Z 3342; text by Gerhardt?
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0490.000" | 490
| data-sort-value="307.020" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Nur mein Jesus ist mein Leben" (Schemelli #700; tune #49)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 300b" | 39: 300
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 249" | III/2.1: 196
| after Z 8404c
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0491.000" | 491
| data-sort-value="307.021" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "O du Liebe meiner Liebe" (Schemelli #284; tune #20)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 300c" | 39: 300
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 220" | III/2.1: 140
| after Z 6693; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0492.000" | 492
| data-sort-value="307.022" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "O finstre Nacht, wenn wirst du doch vergehen" (Schemelli #891; tune #64)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 301b" | 39: 301
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 264" | III/2.1: 226
| ↔ Z 6171; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0493.000" | 493
| data-sort-value="307.023" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "O Jesulein süß, o Jesulein mild" (Schemelli #203; tune #16)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 302a" | 39: 302
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 216" | III/2.1: 132
| after Z 2016a; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0494.000" | 494
| data-sort-value="307.024" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "O liebe Seele, zieh die Sinnen" (Schemelli #575; tune #42)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 302b" | 39: 302
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 242" | III/2.1: 182
| → Z 7787
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0495.000" | 495
| data-sort-value="307.025" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "O wie selig seid ihr doch, ihr Frommen" (Schemelli #894; tune #65)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 302c" | 39: 302
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 265" | III/2.1: 228
| after Z 1583; ↔ BWV 405; text by Dach
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0496.000" | 496
| data-sort-value="307.026" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Seelenbräutigam" (Schemelli #472; tune #35)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 303b" | 39: 303
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 235" | III/2.1: 168
| after Z 3255a–b; ↔ BWV 409; text by Drese
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0497.000" | 497
| data-sort-value="307.027" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Seelenweide" (Schemelli #710; tune #50)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 303c" | 39: 303
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 250" | III/2.1: 198
| after Z 1286; text by Drese
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0499.000" | 499
| data-sort-value="308.002" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Sei gegrüßet, Jesu gütig" (Schemelli #293; tune #22)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 304b" | 39: 304
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 222" | III/2.1: 143
| after Z 3889b; ↔ BWV 410; text by Keymann
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0498.000" | 498
| data-sort-value="308.008" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Selig, wer an Jesum denkt" (Schemelli #292; tune #21)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 304a" | 39: 304
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 221" | III/2.1: 142
| → Z 4846
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0500.000" | 500
| data-sort-value="308.010" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "So gehst du nun, mein Jesu hin" (Schemelli #296; tune #23)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 304c" | 39: 304
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 223" | III/2.1: 144
| after Z 7631b; ↔ BWV 500a; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0501.000" | 501
| data-sort-value="308.012" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "So gibst du nun, mein Jesu, gute Nacht" (Schemelli #315; tune #26)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 304d" | 39: 304
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 226" | III/2.1: 150
| data-sort-value="after Z 0849; ↔ BWV 412" | after Z 849; ↔ BWV 412; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0502.000" | 502
| data-sort-value="308.013" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "So wünsch ich mir zu guter Letzt" (Schemelli #901; tune #66)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 305a" | 39: 305
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 266" | III/2.1: 230
| ↔ Z 5892; text by Rist
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0503.000" | 503
| data-sort-value="308.014" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Steh ich bei meinem Gott" (Schemelli #945; tune #69)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 305b" | 39: 305
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 269" | III/2.1: 236
| after Z 5207; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0504.000" | 504
| data-sort-value="308.015" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Vergiss mein nicht, dass ich dein nicht vergesse" (Schemelli #475; tune #36)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 306a" | 39: 306
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 236" | III/2.1: 170
| after Z 4779; text by Arnold
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0505.000" | 505
| data-sort-value="308.016" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Vergiss mein nicht, ..., Mein allerliebster Gott" (Schemelli #627; tune #44)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 306b" | 39: 306
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 244" | III/2.1: 186
| text by Arnold; → Z 4233
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0506.000" | 506
| data-sort-value="308.017" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Was bist du doch, o Seele, so betrübt" (Schemelli #779; tune #55)
| A min.
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 307b" | 39: 307
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 255" | III/2.1: 208
| after Z 1837; ↔ BWV 424; text by
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0507.000" | 507
| data-sort-value="308.018" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-12-31" | 1735–1736 or earlier
| song "Wo ist mein Schäflein, das ich liebe" (Schemelli #108; tune #6)
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.39: 308" | 39: 308
| data-sort-value="III/02 1: 206" | III/2.1: 114
| after Z 5958a; text by
|
|- style="background: #F5F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0508.000" | 508
| data-sort-value="309.001" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-07-01" | 1718-11-16 (GHS)after 1733–1734 (AMB)
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 25" | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 25: aria "Bist du bei mir"
| E♭ maj.
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 036" | 432: 3639: 309
| data-sort-value="V/04: 102" | V/4: 102
| after Stölzel (Diomedes)
|
|- style="background: #F5F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0509.000" | 509
| data-sort-value="309.003" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1728-07-01" | 1725–1733 (AMB)
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 41" | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 41: aria "Gedenke doch, mein Geist, zurücke"
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 052" | 432: 5239: 310
| data-sort-value="V/04: 128" | V/4: 128
|
|
|-
| data-sort-value="0510.000" | 510
| data-sort-value="309.004" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1728-07-01" | 1725–1733
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 12" | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 12: song "Gib dich zufrieden und sei stille"
| F maj.
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 030" | 432: 3039: 311
| data-sort-value="V/04: 091" | V/4: 91
|
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0511.000" | 511
| data-sort-value="309.005" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1728-07-01" | 1725–1733
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 13a" | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 13a: song "Gib dich zufrieden und sei stille"
| G min.
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 031" | 432: 3139: 287
| data-sort-value="V/04: 091" | V/4: 91
| text by Gerhardt; → BWV 512
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0512.000" | 512
| data-sort-value="309.006" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1728-07-01" | 1725–1733
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 13b" | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 13b: song "Gib dich zufrieden und sei stille"
| E min.
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 031" | 432: 3139: 287
| data-sort-value="V/04: 091" | V/4: 91
| data-sort-value="after BWV 0511; ↔ BWV 315" | after BWV 511; ↔ BWV 315, Z 7417a; text by Gerhardt
|
|- style="background: #F5F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0513.000" | 513
| data-sort-value="309.007" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1728-07-01" | 1725–1733 (AMB)
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 42" | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 42: song "O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort"
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 052" | 432: 5239: 301
| data-sort-value="V/04: 129" | V/4: 129
| data-sort-value="↔ BWV 0397" | ↔ BWV 397; text by Rist
|
|- style="background: #F5F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0514.000" | 514
| data-sort-value="309.008" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1728-07-01" | 1725–1733 (AMB)
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 35 | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 35: song "Schaffs mit mir, Gott"
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 048" | 432: 4839: 303
| data-sort-value="V/04: 125" | V/4: 125
| text by Schmolck
|
|-
| data-sort-value="0515.000" | 515
| data-sort-value="309.009" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-07-01" | after 1733–1734
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 20a | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 20a: aria "So oft ich meine Tobackspfeife"
| D min.
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 034" | 432: 34
| data-sort-value="V/04: 098" | V/4: 98
| by Bach, G. H.?; → BWV 515a
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0515.A00" | 515a
| data-sort-value="309.010" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-07-01" | after 1733–1734
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 20b | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 20b: aria "So oft ich meine Tobackspfeife"
| G min.
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 034" | 432: 3439: 309
| data-sort-value="V/04: 098" | V/4: 98
| data-sort-value="after BWV 0515" | after BWV 515
|
|- style="background: #F5F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0516.000" | 516
| data-sort-value="309.011" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-07-01" | after 1733–1734 (AMB)
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 33 | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 33: aria "Warum betrübst du dich"
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 046" | 432: 4639: 307
| data-sort-value="V/04: 121" | V/4: 121
|
|
|- style="background: #F5F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0517.000" | 517
| data-sort-value="309.012" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1735-07-01" | after 1733–1734 (AMB)
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 40 | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 40: song "Wie wohl ist mir, o Freund der Seelen"
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 051" | 432: 5139: 307
| data-sort-value="V/04: 128" | V/4: 128
| text by
|
|-
| data-sort-value="0518.000" | 518
| data-sort-value="309.013" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1738-12-31" | after 1725
| data-sort-value="Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 37 | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 37: aria "Willst du dein Herz mir schenken" a.k.a. "Aria di G(i)ovannini"
|
| V Bc
| data-sort-value="000.43 2: 049" | 432: 4939: 311
| data-sort-value="V/04: 126" | V/4: 126
|
|
|- style="background: #F6E3CE;"
| data-sort-value="0519.000" | 519
| data-sort-value="310.002" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1736-07-01" | 1736?
| Five Hymns from SBB Bach P 802 No. 1: "Hier lieg ich nun, o Vater aller Gnaden"
|
| V Bc
|
|
| by Krebs, J. L.?; in Spitta III, pp. 401–403
|
|- style="background: #F6E3CE;"
| data-sort-value="0520.000" | 520
| data-sort-value="310.003" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1736-07-01" | 1736?
| Five Hymns from SBB Bach P 802 No. 2: "Das walt mein Gott, Gott Vater, Sohn und heilger Geist"
|
| V Bc
|
|
| by Krebs, J. L.?; in Spitta III, pp. 401–403
|
|- style="background: #F6E3CE;"
| data-sort-value="0521.000" | 521
| data-sort-value="310.004" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1736-07-01" | 1736?
| Five Hymns from SBB Bach P 802 No. 3: "Gott, mein Herz dir Dank zusendet"
|
| V
|
| data-sort-value="III/03: 000" | III/3
| by Krebs, J. L.?; in Spitta III, pp. 401–403
|
|- style="background: #F6E3CE;"
| data-sort-value="0522.000" | 522
| data-sort-value="310.005" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1736-07-01" | 1736?
| Five Hymns from SBB Bach P 802 No. 4: "Meine Seele, lass es gehen, wie es in der Welt jetzt geht"
|
| V
|
|
| by Krebs, J. L.?; in Spitta III, pp. 401–403
|
|- style="background: #F6E3CE;"
| data-sort-value="0523.000" | 523
| data-sort-value="310.006" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1736-07-01" | 1736?
| Five Hymns from SBB Bach P 802 No. 5: "Ich gnüge mich an meinem Stande"
|
| V
|
|
| by Krebs, J. L.?; in Spitta III, pp. 401–403
|
|- style="background: #E3F6CE;"
| data-sort-value="0524.000" | 524
| data-sort-value="310.007" | 6.
| data-sort-value="1707-09-15" | 1707 – July 1708
| Quodlibet (incomplete; wedding?)
|
| data-sort-value="SATB Bc" | SATB (SBBB) Bc
| data-sort-value="000.82 2: 000" | NBG 322
| data-sort-value="I/41: 069" | I/41: 69
|
|
|}
Sacred songs and arias from Schemelli's Songbook (BWV 439–507)
The hymnal or song book known as Schemellis Gesangbuch, published 1736 in Leipzig by Georg Christian Schemelli, contained 954 hymns; 69 of these, listed here, were accompanied by a melody and a figured bass.
BWV 439 – Ach, dass nicht die letzte Stunde
BWV 440 – Auf, auf! die rechte Zeit ist hier
BWV 441 –
BWV 442 – Beglückter Stand getreuer Seelen
BWV 443 – Beschränkt, ihr Weisen dieser Welt
BWV 444 – Brich entzwei, mein armes Herze
BWV 445 – Brunnquell aller Güter
BWV 446 – Der lieben Sonnen Licht und Pracht
BWV 447 – Der Tag ist hin, die Sonne gehet nieder
BWV 448 – Der Tag mit seinem Lichte
BWV 449 – Dich bet' ich an, mein höchster Gott
BWV 450 – Die bittre Leidenszeit beginnet abermal
BWV 451 – Die güldne Sonne voll Freud und Wonne
BWV 452 – Dir, dir Jehovah, will ich singen
BWV 453 – Eins ist Not! ach Herr, dies Eine
BWV 454 – Ermuntre dich, mein schwacher Geist
BWV 455 – Erwürgtes Lamm, das die verwahrten Siegel
BWV 456 – Es glänzet der Christen
BWV 457 – Es ist nun aus mit meinem Leben
BWV 458 – Es ist vollbracht! vergiss ja nicht
BWV 459 – Es kostet viel, ein Christ zu sein
BWV 460 – Gib dich zufrieden und sei stille
BWV 461 – Gott lebet noch; Seele, was verzagst du doch?
BWV 462 – Gott, wie groß ist deine Güte
BWV 463 – Herr, nicht schicke deine Rache
BWV 464 – Ich bin ja, Herr, in deiner Macht
BWV 465 – Ich freue mich in dir
BWV 466 – Ich halte treulich still und liebe
BWV 467 – Ich lass' dich nicht
BWV 468 – Ich liebe Jesum alle Stund'
BWV 469 – Ich steh' an deiner Krippen hier
BWV 470 – Jesu, Jesu, du bist mein
BWV 471 – Jesu, deine Liebeswunden
BWV 472 – Jesu, meines Glaubens Zier
BWV 473 – Jesu, meines Herzens Freud
BWV 474 – Jesus ist das schönste Licht
BWV 475 – Jesus, unser Trost und Leben
BWV 476 – Ihr Gestirn', ihr hohen Lufte
BWV 477 – Kein Stündlein geht dahin
BWV 478 – Komm, süßer Tod, komm, selge Ruh
BWV 479 – Kommt, Seelen, dieser Tag
BWV 480 – Kommt wieder aus der finstern Gruft
BWV 481 – Lasset uns mit Jesu ziehen
BWV 482 – Liebes Herz, bedenke doch
BWV 483 – Liebster Gott, wann werd' ich sterben?
BWV 484 – Liebster Herr Jesu! wo bleibest du so lange?
BWV 485 – Liebster Immanuel, Herzog der Frommen
BWV 486 – Mein Jesu, dem die Seraphinen
BWV 487 – Mein Jesu! was für Seelenweh
BWV 488 – Meines Lebens letzte Zeit
BWV 489 – Nicht so traurig, nicht so sehr
BWV 490 – Nur mein Jesus ist mein Leben
BWV 491 – O du Liebe meiner Liebe
BWV 492 – O finstre Nacht
BWV 493 – O Jesulein süß, o Jesulein mild
BWV 494 – O liebe Seele, zieh' die Sinnen
BWV 495 – O wie selig seid ihr doch, ihr Frommen
BWV 496 – Seelen-Bräutigam, Jesu, Gottes Lamm
BWV 497 – Seelenweide, meine Freude
BWV 498 – Selig, wer an Jesum denkt
BWV 499 – Sei gegrüßet, Jesu gütig
BWV 500 – So gehst du nun, mein Jesu, hin
BWV 501 – So giebst du nun, mein Jesu, gute Nacht
BWV 502 – So wünsch' ich mir zu guter Letzt
BWV 503 – Steh' ich bei meinem Gott
BWV 504 – Vergiss mein nicht, dass ich dein nicht
BWV 505 – Vergiss mein nicht, vergiss mein nicht
BWV 506 – Was bist du doch, o Seele, so betrübet
BWV 507 – Wo ist mein Schäflein, das ich liebe
Songs and arias from the second Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach (BWV 508–518)
BWV 508 – Bist du bei mir (on a melody by Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel)
BWV 509 – Gedenke doch, mein Geist, aria
BWV 510 – Gib dich zufrieden, chorale
BWV 511 – Gib dich zufrieden, chorale
BWV 512 – Gib dich zufrieden, chorale
BWV 513 – O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, chorale
BWV 514 – Schaffs mit mir, Gott, chorale
BWV 515 – So oft ich meine Tobackspfeife, aria
BWV 515a – So oft ich meine Tobackspfeife
BWV 516 – Warum betrübst du dich, aria
BWV 517 – Wie wohl ist mir, o Freund der Seelen
BWV 518 – Willst du dein Herz mir schenken
Five hymns from a manuscript by Johann Ludwig Krebs (BWV 519–523)
are five hymns as collected by Johann Ludwig Krebs (1713–1780) and published by Breitkopf & Härtel in 1917.
BWV 519 – Hier lieg ich nun
BWV 520 – Das walt' mein Gott
BWV 521 – Gott mein Herz dir Dank
BWV 522 – Meine Seele, lass es gehen
BWV 523 – Ich gnüge mich an meinem Stande
Quodlibet (BWV 524)
BWV 524 – Wedding Quodlibet (fragment)
Added to the BWV catalogue in the 21st century (BWV 1127)
BWV 1127 – "Alles mit Gott und nichts ohn' ihn" (strophic aria composed in Weimar in 1713, rediscovered in 2005)
Doubtful works from BWV Anh. II (BWV Anh. 32–41)
BWV Anh. II lists eight songs in Christian Hofmann von Hofmannswaldau's Deutsche Übersetzungen und Gedichte and two in Sperontes' Singende Muse an der Pleiße as possibly composed by Bach.
From Deutsche Übersetzungen und Gedichte
BWV Anh. 32 – Sacred Song "Getrost mein Geist, wenn Wind und Wetter krachen" (doubtful)
BWV Anh. 33 – Sacred song "Mein Jesus, spare nicht" (doubtful)
BWV Anh. 34 – Sacred Song "Kann ich mit einem Tone" (doubtful)
BWV Anh. 35 – Sacred Song "Meine Seele lass die Flügel" (doubtful)
BWV Anh. 36 – Sacred song "Ich stimm' itzund ein Straff-Lied an" (doubtful)
BWV Anh. 37 – Sacred song "Der schwarze Flügel trüber Nacht" (doubtful)
BWV Anh. 38 – Sacred song "Das Finsterniß tritt ein" (doubtful)
BWV Anh. 39 – Song "Ach was wollt ihr trüben Sinnen" (doubtful)
From Singende Muse an der Pleiße
BWV Anh. 40 – Song (Text lost; doubtful)
BWV Anh. 41 – Song (doubtful)
Spurious work from BWV Anh. III (BWV Anh. 158)
BWV Anh. 158 – Aria "Andro dall' colle al prato", by Johann Christian Bach
Other BWV numbers referring to a single aria
In the church cantata range of BWV numbers (BWV 1–200):
BWV 53 – "Schlage doch, gewünschte Stunde" (probably spurious, by Melchior Hoffmann)
BWV 200 – "Bekennen will ich seinen Namen" (based on an aria included in Ein Lämmlein geht und trägt die Schuld, a passion-oratorio by Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel)
References
External links
Schemellis Gesangbuch BWV 439–507 with scores and videos for each song
(MP3) Bach Solo Songs, 27 November 2016: Devotional songs, as well as their counterparts in chorus, and classic Bach instrumentals at lottelehmannleague.org/singing-sins-archive (Hawaii Public Radio broadcast)
Bach
Songs and Arias by Johann Sebastian Bach, List of | [
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|
217094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muryeong%20of%20Baekje | Muryeong of Baekje | Muryeong of Baekje (462–523, r. 501–23) was the 25th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. During his reign, Baekje remained allied with Silla against Goguryeo, and expanded its relationships with China and Japan.
Background
The Tomb of King Muryeong calls him King Sama (斯摩), and records his birth year as 462.
The Samguk Sagi calls him King Muryeong, with the personal name (휘) of Sama (斯摩). He is described as the second son of the 24th king Dongseong. He became king when Dongseong was assassinated by the court official Baekga. The following year, he crushed a planned rebellion by Baekga.
Other records
China's Liang shu gives his surname as Yeo and personal name as Yung, and states that he restored Baekje into a strong nation.
Japan's Nihonshoki gives his birth year as 461, and describes him as the son of the 21st king Gaero. It is said Buyeo Gonji, the brother of King Gaero went to Japan to serve Emperor Yūryaku with King Muryeong's mother, and she went into labor as their ship was passing by a small Japanese island. He was called Semakishi (嶋君) and King Shima (斯麻王) in Japanese records because he was born in an island.
Some scholars claim Muryeong ruled the Yamato region under the name of King Bu before he moved to Baekje to be a king of kings (tae-wang, 大王).
Reign
In 501, he sent an army to attack Goguryeo's Sugok-seong. In 503, he repelled an attack by the Mohe. In 507, he successfully countered another attack by Goguryeo and Mohe forces. In 512, Goguryeo conquered two castles, but Muryeong personally led 3,000 men to destroy the Goguryeo army. In 523, he ordered the building of a fortified wall to defend the northern border.
According to both historical and archeological sources, contact and trade between China and Baekje increased during Muryeong's reign. In 512, according to the Liang shu, Muryeong sent Baekje's first mission to the newly established court of the Chinese Liang Dynasty. A second mission was sent in 521, announcing various victories over Goguryeo. In reply, the Liang emperor bestowed various titles on him, including "Great General Tranquilizing the East (寧東大將軍)" and "King of Baekje". These titles were also found engraved on a tablet in King Muryeong's tomb.
In 503, he sent a bronze mirror, and in 513 and 516, Confucian scholars to Japan.
Legacy
In 1971, King Muryeong's tomb was excavated in Songsan-ri, Gongju, South Korea, where he was buried with his queen.
In 2001, Japan's emperor Akihito told reporters "I, on my part, feel a certain kinship with Korea, given the fact that it is recorded in the Chronicles of Japan that the mother of Emperor Kanmu was of the line of King Muryong of Baekje." It was the first time that a Japanese emperor publicly acknowledged Korean blood in the imperial line. According to the Shoku Nihongi, Emperor Kanmu's mother, Takano no Niigasa is a descendant of Prince Junda, son of Muryeong, who died in Japan in 513 (Nihon Shoki Chapter 17).
Family
Father: Dongseong of Baekje
Mother: unknown
Queen: not named but tomb epitaph records her death in 525.
1st son: 26th King, Seong of Baekje (聖王, ?–554) – before he was king he was known as Buyeo Myeong (扶餘明) or Buyeo Myeongnong (扶餘明禯).
2nd son: Prince Junda (淳陀太子, ?–513) – known in Baekje as "Buyeo Junta", settled in Japan and became ancestor of the Yamato clan.
3rd son: Shigakishi (斯我君, ?–?) – known in Baekje as Buyeo Sa'a. He was sent to Japan in 505 as a political hostage to Emperor Buretsu of Japan.
Popular culture
Portrayed by Lee Jae-ryong in the 2013 MBC TV series The King's Daughter, Soo Baek-hyang.
See also
List of monarchs of Korea
History of Korea
List of Korea-related topics
Tomb of King Muryeong
References
Content in this article was copied from Samguk Sagi Scroll 23 at the Shoki Wiki, which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 (Unported) (CC-BY-SA 3.0) license.
Further reading
Kim, Won-Yong. “The Tomb of King Muryong of the Paekche Dynasty.” Asian Pacific Quarterly of Cultural and Social Affairs (Seoul) 3:3 (Winter 1971): 34-46.
Paik, Seung-gil. "Excavation of the Tomb of Paekche King Muryong." Korea Journal 11:8 (August 1971): 48-51.
External links
Article on King Muryong's Ascension to the Throne
Yamato (和) and Takano (高野) clans : the descendant of prince Junda, son of Muryeong
462 births
523 deaths
Baekje rulers
Baekje Buddhists
Korean Buddhist monarchs
6th-century monarchs in Asia
5th-century Korean people
6th-century Korean people | [
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217104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20welfare%20function | Social welfare function | In welfare economics, a social welfare function is a function that ranks social states (alternative complete descriptions of the society) as less desirable, more desirable, or indifferent for every possible pair of social states. Inputs of the function include any variables considered to affect the economic welfare of a society. In using welfare measures of persons in the society as inputs, the social welfare function is individualistic in form. One use of a social welfare function is to represent prospective patterns of collective choice as to alternative social states. The social welfare function provides the government with a simple guideline for achieving the optimal distribution of income.
The social welfare function is analogous to the consumer theory of indifference-curve–budget constraint tangency for an individual, except that the social welfare function is a mapping of individual preferences or judgments of everyone in the society as to collective choices, which apply to all, whatever individual preferences are for (variable) constraints on factors of production. One point of a social welfare function is to determine how close the analogy is to an ordinal utility function for an individual with at least minimal restrictions suggested by welfare economics, including constraints on the number of factors of production.
There are two major distinct but related types of social welfare functions:
A Bergson–Samuelson social welfare function considers welfare for a given set of individual preferences or welfare rankings.
An Arrow social welfare function considers welfare across different possible sets of individual preferences or welfare rankings and seemingly reasonable axioms that constrain the function.
Bergson–Samuelson social welfare function
In a 1938 article, Abram Bergson introduced the social welfare function. The object was "to state in precise form the value judgments required for the derivation of the conditions of maximum economic welfare" set out by earlier writers, including Marshall and Pigou, Pareto and Barone, and Lerner. The function was real-valued and differentiable. It was specified to describe the society as a whole. Arguments of the function included the quantities of different commodities produced and consumed and of resources used in producing different commodities, including labor.
Necessary general conditions are that at the maximum value of the function:
The marginal "dollar's worth" of welfare is equal for each individual and for each commodity
The marginal "diswelfare" of each "dollar's worth" of labor is equal for each commodity produced of each labor supplier
The marginal "dollar" cost of each unit of resources is equal to the marginal value productivity for each commodity.
Bergson showed how welfare economics could describe a standard of economic efficiency despite dispensing with interpersonally-comparable cardinal utility, the hypothesization of which may merely conceal value judgments, and purely subjective ones at that.
Auxiliary specifications enable comparison of different social states by each member of society in preference satisfaction. These help define Pareto efficiency, which holds if all alternatives have been exhausted to put at least one person in a more preferred position with no one put in a less preferred position. Bergson described an "economic welfare increase" (later called a Pareto improvement) as at least one individual moving to a more preferred position with everyone else indifferent. The social welfare function could then be specified in a substantively individualistic sense to derive Pareto efficiency (optimality). Paul Samuelson (2004, p. 26) notes that Bergson's function "could derive Pareto optimality conditions as necessary but not sufficient for defining interpersonal normative equity." Still, Pareto efficiency could also characterize one dimension of a particular social welfare function with distribution of commodities among individuals characterizing another dimension. As Bergson noted, a welfare improvement from the social welfare function could come from the "position of some individuals" improving at the expense of others. That social welfare function could then be described as characterizing an equity dimension.
Samuelson (1947, p. 221) himself stressed the flexibility of the social welfare function to characterize any one ethical belief, Pareto-bound or not, consistent with:
a complete and transitive ranking (an ethically "better", "worse", or "indifferent" ranking) of all social alternatives and
one set out of an infinity of welfare indices and cardinal indicators to characterize the belief.
He also presented a lucid verbal and mathematical exposition of the social welfare function (1947, pp. 219–49) with minimal use of Lagrangean multipliers and without the difficult notation of differentials used by Bergson throughout. As Samuelson (1983, p. xxii) notes, Bergson clarified how production and consumption efficiency conditions are distinct from the interpersonal ethical values of the social welfare function.
Samuelson further sharpened that distinction by specifying the Welfare function and the Possibility function (1947, pp. 243–49). Each has as arguments the set of utility functions for everyone in the society. Each can (and commonly does) incorporate Pareto efficiency. The Possibility function also depends on technology and resource restraints. It is written in implicit form, reflecting the feasible locus of utility combinations imposed by the restraints and allowed by Pareto efficiency. At a given point on the Possibility function, if the utility of all but one person is determined, the remaining person's utility is determined. The Welfare function ranks different hypothetical sets of utility for everyone in the society from ethically lowest on up (with ties permitted), that is, it makes interpersonal comparisons of utility. Welfare maximization then consists of maximizing the Welfare function subject to the Possibility function as a constraint. The same welfare maximization conditions emerge as in Bergson's analysis.
Arrow social welfare function (constitution)
Kenneth Arrow (1963) generalizes the analysis. Along earlier lines, his version of a social welfare function, also called a 'constitution', maps a set of individual orderings (ordinal utility functions) for everyone in the society to a social ordering, a rule for ranking alternative social states (say passing an enforceable law or not, ceteris paribus). Arrow finds that nothing of behavioral significance is lost by dropping the requirement of social orderings that are real-valued (and thus cardinal) in favor of orderings, which are merely complete and transitive, such as a standard indifference curve map. The earlier analysis mapped any set of individual orderings to one social ordering, whatever it was. This social ordering selected the top-ranked feasible alternative from the economic environment as to resource constraints. Arrow proposed to examine mapping different sets of individual orderings to possibly different social orderings. Here the social ordering would depend on the set of individual orderings, rather than being imposed (invariant to them). Stunningly (relative to a course of theory from Adam Smith and Jeremy Bentham on), Arrow proved the general impossibility theorem which says that it is impossible to have a social welfare function that satisfies a certain set of "apparently reasonable" conditions.
Cardinal social welfare functions
A cardinal social welfare function is a function that takes as input numeric representations of individual utilities (also known as cardinal utility), and returns as output a numeric representation of the collective welfare. The underlying assumption is that individuals utilities can be put on a common scale and compared. Examples of such measures can be:
life expectancy,
per capita income.
For the purposes of this section, income is adopted as the measurement of utility.
The form of the social welfare function is intended to express a statement of objectives of a society.
The utilitarian or Benthamite social welfare function measures social welfare as the total or sum of individual incomes:
where is social welfare and is the income of individual among individuals in society. In this case, maximizing the social welfare means maximizing the total income of the people in the society, without regard to how incomes are distributed in society. It does not distinguish between an income transfer from rich to poor and vice versa. If an income transfer from the poor to the rich results in a bigger increase in the utility of the rich than the decrease in the utility of the poor, the society is expected to accept such a transfer, because the total utility of the society has increased as a whole. Alternatively, society's welfare can also be measured under this function by taking the average of individual incomes:
In contrast, the max-min or Rawlsian social welfare function (based on the philosophical work of John Rawls) measures the social welfare of society on the basis of the welfare of the least well-off individual member of society:
Here maximizing societal welfare would mean maximizing the income of the poorest person in society without regard for the income of other individuals.
These two social welfare functions express very different views about how a society would need to be organised in order to maximize welfare, with the first emphasizing total incomes and the second emphasizing the needs of the worst-off. The max-min welfare function can be seen as reflecting an extreme form of uncertainty aversion on the part of society as a whole, since it is concerned only with the worst conditions that a member of society could face.
Amartya Sen proposed a welfare function in 1973:
The average per capita income of a measured group (e.g. nation) is multiplied with where is the Gini index, a relative inequality measure. James E. Foster (1996) proposed to use one of Atkinson's Indexes, which is an entropy measure. Due to the relation between Atkinsons entropy measure and the Theil index, Foster's welfare function also can be computed directly using the Theil-L Index.
The value yielded by this function has a concrete meaning. There are several possible incomes which could be earned by a person, who randomly is selected from a population with an unequal distribution of incomes. This welfare function marks the income, which a randomly selected person is most likely to have. Similar to the median, this income will be smaller than the average per capita income.
Here the Theil-T index is applied. The inverse value yielded by this function has a concrete meaning as well. There are several possible incomes to which a Euro may belong, which is randomly picked from the sum of all unequally distributed incomes. This welfare function marks the income, which a randomly selected Euro most likely belongs to. The inverse value of that function will be larger than the average per capita income.
The article on the Theil index provides further information about how this index is used in order to compute welfare functions.
Axioms of cardinal welfarism
Suppose we are given a preference relation R on utility profiles. R is a weak total order on utility profiles—it can tell us, given any two utility profiles, if they are indifferent or one of them is better than the other. A reasonable preference ordering should satisfy several axioms:
1. Monotonicity, i.e., if the utility of an individual increases while all other utilities remain equal, R should strictly prefer the second profile. E.g., it should prefer the profile (1,4,4,5) to (1,2,4,5). This is related to Pareto optimality.
2. Symmetry, i.e., R should be indifferent to permutation of the numbers in the utility profile. E.g., it should be indifferent between (1,4,4,5) and (5,4,1,4).
3. Continuity: for every profile v, the set of profiles weakly better than v and the set of profiles weakly worse than v are closed sets.
4. Independence of unconcerned agents, i.e., R should be independent of individuals whose utilities have not changed. E.g., if R prefers (2,2,4) to (1,3,4), then it also prefers (2,2,9) to (1,3,9); the utility of agent 3 should not affect the comparison between two utility profiles of agents 1 and 2. This property can also be called locality or separability. It allows us to treat allocation problems in a local way, and separate them from the allocation in the rest of society.
Every preference relation with properties 1–4 can be represented as by a function W which is a sum of the form:
where w is a continuous increasing function.
It is also reasonable to require:
5. Independence of common scale, i.e., the relation between two utility profiles does not change if both of them are multiplied by the same scalar (e.g., the relation does not depend on whether we measure the income in cents, dollars or thousands).
If the preference relation has properties 1–5, then the function w belongs to the following one-parameter family:
for ,
for ,
for .
This family has some familiar members:
The limit when is the leximin ordering;
For we get the Nash bargaining solution—maximizing the product of utilities;
For we get the utilitarian welfare function—maximizing the sum of utilities;
The limit when is the leximax ordering.
If, in addition, we require:
6. the Pigou–Dalton principle,
then the parameter p, in the above family, must be at most 1.
See also
Aggregation problem
Gorman polar form
Arrow's impossibility theorem
Community indifference curve
Distribution (economics)
Economic welfare
Extended sympathy
Justice (economics)
Liberal paradox
Social choice theory
Welfare economics
Production-possibility frontier
Notes
References
Kenneth J. Arrow, 1951, 2nd ed., 1963, Social Choice and Individual Values
Abram Bergson (Burk),"A Reformulation of Certain Aspects of Welfare Economics," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 52(2), February 1938, 310–34
Bergson–Samuelson social welfare functions in Paretian welfare economics from the New School.
James E. Foster and Amartya Sen, 1996, On Economic Inequality, expanded edition with annexe, .
John C. Harsanyi, 1987, “interpersonal utility comparisons," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, 955–58
Also available as: a journal article.
Jan de Van Graaff, 1957, "Theoretical Welfare Economics", 1957, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lionel Robbins, 1935, 2nd ed.. An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science, ch. VI
, 1938, "Interpersonal Comparisons of Utility: A Comment," Economic Journal, 43(4), 635–41
Paul A. Samuelson, 1947, Enlarged ed. 1983, Foundations of Economic Analysis, pp. xxi–xxiv & ch. VIII, "Welfare Economics,"
_, 1977. "Reaffirming the Existence of 'Reasonable' Bergson–Samuelson Social Welfare Functions," Economica, N.S., 44(173), p pp. 81–88. Reprinted in (1986) The Collected Scientific Papers of Paul A. Samuelson, pp. 47–54.
_, 1981. "Bergsonian Welfare Economics", in S. Rosefielde (ed.), Economic Welfare and the Economics of Soviet Socialism: Essays in Honor of Abram Bergson, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 223–66. Reprinted in (1986) The Collected Scientific Papers of Paul A. Samuelson, pp. 3 –46.
Sen, Amartya K. (1963). "Distribution, Transitivity and Little's Welfare Criteria," Economic Journal, 73(292), pp. 771–78.
_, 1970 [1984], Collective Choice and Social Welfare (description), ch. 3, "Collective Rationality."
_ (1982). Choice, Welfare and Measurement, MIT Press. Description and scroll to chapter-preview links.
Kotaro Suzumura (1980). "On Distributional Value Judgments and Piecemeal Welfare Criteria," Economica, 47(186), p pp. 125–39.
_, 1987, “social welfare function," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, 418–20
Welfare economics
Social choice theory
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|
217105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine%20Stories%20%28Salinger%29 | Nine Stories (Salinger) | Nine Stories (1953) is a collection of short stories by American fiction writer J. D. Salinger published in April 1953. It includes two of his most famous short stories, "A Perfect Day for Bananafish" and "For Esmé – with Love and Squalor". (Nine Stories is the U.S. title; the book is published in many other countries as For Esmé - with Love and Squalor, and Other Stories.)
The stories are:
"A Perfect Day for Bananafish"
"Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut"
"Just Before the War with the Eskimos"
"The Laughing Man"
"Down at the Dinghy"
"For Esmé – with Love and Squalor"
"Pretty Mouth and Green My Eyes"
"De Daumier-Smith's Blue Period"
"Teddy"
External links
A summary of the Nine Stories
1953 short story collections
Short story collections by J. D. Salinger
Little, Brown and Company books | [
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|
217107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation%20%28disambiguation%29 | Confirmation (disambiguation) | Confirmation predominantly refers to a rite of passage, mostly (but not exclusively) Christian:
Confirmation
Confirmation (Latter Day Saints)
Confirmation (Lutheran Church)
Confirmation (Roman Catholic Church)
Chrismation, or confirmation (Eastern Christianity)
Confirmation or confirm may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Confirmation (film), a 2016 television film about Anita Hill and Clarence Thomas
The Confirmation, a 2016 Canadian film
"Confirmation" (composition), a 1945 jazz standard by Charlie Parker
Confirmation (Barry Harris and Kenny Barron album), 1992
Confirmation (Tommy Flanagan album), 1982
"Confirmation", a 2020 song by Justin Bieber from Changes
Science and philosophy
Confirmation, a part of the scientific method
Confirmation holism, the claim that a single scientific theory cannot be tested in isolation
Bayesian confirmation theory, a quantitative, as opposed to a qualitative, theory of confirmation
Non-Bayesian confirmation theory, in the philosophy of science, an extension by Donald A. Gillies of Karl Popper's theory of corroboration
Verificationism, adherence to the verification principle proposed by A. J. Ayer in Language, Truth and Logic
Other uses
Confirm Project, an intended computer reservation and distribution system
Probate, known in Scotland as confirmation
Senate confirmation, a process of confirming a presidential nominee by the United States Senate
Tenure, at universities in Australia and New Zealand, referred to as confirmation
See also
Conformation (disambiguation)
Conformity (disambiguation) | [
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|
217109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20bad | Public bad | A public bad, in economics, is the symmetrical opposite of a public good. Air pollution is the most obvious example since it is non-excludable and non-rival, and negatively affects welfare.
Whereas public goods are typically under-provided by decentralized decision making (the market), public bad will generally be over-provided, since the parties generating the public bad do not account for the negative effects (or externality) imposed on others. One possibility to mitigate the existence of public bad is the intervention of a third party, typically the state.
In "green economics", it is a good that produces socially undesirable results (or an externality in standard economics). Most "green economists" advise measuring such impacts back to the present from the seventh generation. Thus in the golf course example, both the recreation and the negative impacts from deforestation, associated habitat and biodiversity loss, and pesticide toxicity would be estimated across those generations and some amortization applied to determine whether the golf course was a public benefit or a public bad from the point of view of that seventh generation.
Green economists argue that the costs of public bads are hidden as externalities from the businesses that cause them — meaning the market is not working correctly. The legal challenge is to create a system that takes into account these costs. The United States Environmental Protection Agency is an example of an attempt to make sure the costs of public bads are taken into account, although some groups on the right and left have criticized the value of its efforts.
See also
social cost
externality
References
Welfare economics
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217115 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordination | Ordination | Ordination is the process by which individuals are consecrated, that is, set apart and elevated from the laity class to the clergy, who are thus then authorized (usually by the denominational hierarchy composed of other clergy) to perform various religious rites and ceremonies. The process and ceremonies of ordination vary by religion and denomination. One who is in preparation for, or who is undergoing the process of ordination is sometimes called an ordinand. The liturgy used at an ordination is sometimes referred to as an ordination.
Christianity
Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican churches
In Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy, ordination is one of the seven sacraments, variously called holy orders or cheirotonia ("Laying on of Hands").
Apostolic succession is considered an essential and necessary concept for ordination, in the belief that all ordained clergy are ordained by bishops who were ordained by other bishops tracing back to bishops ordained by the Apostles who were ordained by Christ, the great High Priest (, ), who conferred his priesthood upon his Apostles (, , , and ).
There are three "degrees" of ordination (or holy orders): deacon, presbyter, and bishop. Both bishops and presbyters are priests and have authority to celebrate the Eucharist. In common use, however, the term priest, when unqualified, refers to the rank of presbyter, whereas presbyter is mainly used in rites of ordination and other places where a technical and precise term is required.
Ordination of a bishop is performed by several bishops; ordination of a priest or deacon is performed by a single bishop. The ordination of a new bishop is also called a consecration. Many ancient sources specify that at least three bishops are necessary to consecrate another, e.g., the 13th Canon of the Council of Carthage (AD 394) states, "A bishop should not be ordained except by many bishops, but if there should be necessity he may be ordained by three," and the first of "The Canons of the Holy and Altogether August Apostles" states, "Let a bishop be ordained by two or three bishops," while the second canon thereof states, "Let a presbyter, deacon, and the rest of the clergy, be ordained by one bishop"; the latter canons, whatever their origin, were imposed on the universal church by the Seventh Ecumenical Council, the Second Council of Nicaea, in its first canon.
Only a person ordained to the priesthood may administer certain sacraments (most especially, hear confessions, anointing the sick- unction, or celebrating any Mass- the Eucharist).
Details peculiar to the various denominations
The Catholic Church teaches that one bishop is sufficient to consecrate a new bishop validly (that is, for an episcopal ordination actually to take place). In most Christian denominations that retain the practice of ordination, only an already ordained (consecrated) bishop or the equivalent may ordain bishops, priests, and deacons. However, Canon Law requires that bishops always be consecrated with the mandate (approval) of the Roman Pontiff, as the guarantor of the Church's unity. Moreover, at least three bishops are to perform the consecration, although the Apostolic See may dispense from this requirement in extraordinary circumstances (for example, in missionary settings or times of persecution).
In the Roman Catholic Church, those deacons destined to be ordained priests are often termed transitional deacons; those deacons who are married before being ordained, as well as any unmarried deacons who chose not to be ordained priests, are called permanent deacons. Those married deacons who become widowers have the possibility of seeking ordination to the priesthood in exceptional cases.
While some Eastern churches have in the past recognized Anglican ordinations as valid, the current Anglican practice, in many provinces, of ordaining women to the priesthood—and, in some cases, to the episcopate—has caused the Orthodox generally to question earlier declarations of validity and hopes for union. The Roman Catholic Church has never recognized Anglican orders as valid. Anglicanism recognizes Roman Catholic and Orthodox ordinations; hence, clergy converting to Anglicanism are not "re-ordained".
Some Eastern Orthodox churches recognize Roman Catholic ordinations while others "re-ordain" Roman Catholic clergy (as well as Anglicans) who convert. However, both the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches recognize Orthodox ordinations.
In the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, ordinations have traditionally been held on Ember Days, though there is no limit to the number of clergy who may be ordained at the same service. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, ordinations may be performed any day of the year on which the Divine Liturgy may be celebrated (and deacons may also be ordained at the Presanctified Liturgy), but only one person may be ordained to each rank at any given service, that is, at most one bishop, one presbyter, and one deacon may be ordained at the same liturgy.
Notes
There have long existed orders of clergy below that of deacon. In the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches (and, until 1970, in the Roman Catholic Church), a person has to be tonsured a cleric and be ordained to sundry minor orders prior to being ordained a deacon. Although a person may be said to be ordained to these orders, such ordinations are not reckoned as part of the sacrament of Holy Orders; in the Eastern Orthodox, the term Cheirothesia ("imposition of hands") is used for such ordinations in contrast to Cheirotonia ("laying on of hands") for ordinations of deacons, presbyters, and bishops.
The following are positions that are not acquired by ordination:
Becoming a monk or nun or, generally, a member of a religious order, which is open to men and women; men in religious orders may or may not be ordained. Anglican nuns may, like their male counterparts, be ordained as well.
Offices and titles such as pope, patriarch, archbishop, archpriest, archimandrite, archdeacon, etc., which are given to ordained persons for sundry reasons, e.g., to rank them or honor them.
Cardinals are simply a large collegiate body who are electors of and the senior-most counselors to the Pope, and are not a fourth order beyond bishop. At presently nearly all cardinals are bishops, although several are priests, having been granted a dispensation from being ordained a bishop by the Pope (most of these were elevated by the Pope for services to the Church, and are over 80, thus not having the right to elect a pope or have active voting memberships in Vatican departments). As recently as 1899 there was a cardinal who was a deacon when he died, having been a cardinal for 41 years (Teodolfo Mertel). There have even been noble lay men, or men who only possessed minor orders (now called ministries, and carried out by seminarians and laypeople) who at one time were made cardinals. Cardinals are considered princes in diplomatic protocol and by the Church, and even if they are not ordained bishops and cannot perform episcopal functions such as ordination, they have both real and ceremonial precedence over all non-cardinal patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops. Some have discussed the possibility in Catholicism of having women serve as cardinals or, more realistically in the short-term, as sub-deacons, since they cannot be ordained.
In the Church of England, the priest of the diocese who oversees the process of discernment, selection and training of ordinands is usually called the "Diocesan Director of Ordinands", commonly shortened to "DDO". He or she may have a team of assistants, who may be called Assistant DDOs or Vocations Advisers.
Protestantism
In most Protestant churches, ordination is the rite by which their various churches:
recognize and confirm that an individual has been called by God to ministry,
acknowledge that the individual has gone through a period of discernment and training related to this call (e.g. having graduated from a seminary), and
authorize that individual to take on the office of ministry.
For the sake of authorization and church order, and not for reason of 'powers' or 'ability', individuals in most mainline Protestant churches must be ordained in order to preside at the sacraments (Baptism and Holy Communion), and to be installed as a called pastor of a congregation or parish.
Some Protestant traditions have additional offices of ministry to which persons can be ordained. For instance:
most Presbyterian and Reformed churches maintain a threefold order of ministry of pastor, elder, and deacon. The order of Pastor, the only one of the three orders considered "clergy", is comparable to most other denominations' pastoral office or ordained ministry. The order of elder comprises lay persons ordained to the ministries of church order and spiritual care (for example, elders form the governing bodies of congregations and are responsible for a congregation's worship life). In many Presbyterian churches, the pastor or minister is seen as a "teaching elder" and is equal to the other elders in the session. The order of deacon comprises lay persons ordained to ministries of service and pastoral care. Those who fill this position may be known as "ruling elders".
Deacons are also ordained in the Lutheran, Methodist and in most of the Baptist traditions.
For most Protestant denominations that have an office of bishop, including many Lutheran and Methodist churches, this is not viewed as a separate ordination or order of ministry. Rather, bishops are ordained ministers of the same order as other pastors, simply having been "consecrated" or installed into the "office" (that is, the role) of bishop. However, some Lutheran churches also claim valid apostolic succession.
Some Protestant churches – especially Pentecostal ones – have an informal tier of ministers. Those who graduate from a bible college or take a year of prescribed courses are licensed ministers. Licensed ministers are addressed as "Minister" and ordained ministers as "Reverend." They, and also Evangelical pastors, are generally ordained at a ceremony called "pastoral consecration".
Non-denominational
In Christianity, the term non-denominational refers to those churches that have not formally aligned themselves with an established denomination, or remain otherwise officially autonomous. This, however, does not preclude an identifiable standard among such congregations. Non-denominational congregations may establish a functional denomination by means of mutual recognition of or accountability to other congregations and leaders with commonly held doctrine, policy and worship without formalizing external direction or oversight in such matters. Some non-denominational churches explicitly reject the idea of a formalized denominational structure as a matter of principle, holding that each congregation must be autonomous.
Non-denominational is generally used to refer to one of two forms of independence: political or theological. That is, the independence may come about because of a religious disagreement or political disagreement. This causes some confusion in understanding. Some churches say they are non-denominational because they have no central headquarters (though they may have affiliations with other congregations.) Other churches say they are non-denominational because their belief structures are unique.
Members of non-denominational churches often consider themselves simply "Christians". However, the acceptance of any particular stance on a doctrine or practice (for example, on baptism), about which there is not general unanimity among churches or professing Christians, may be said to establish a de facto credal identity. In essence, this would mean that each non-denominational church forms its own unofficial "denomination" with a specific set of tenets as defined by the beliefs and practices of its own congregation.
Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses consider an adherent's baptism to constitute ordination as a minister. Governments have generally recognized that Jehovah's Witnesses' full-time appointees (such as their "regular pioneers") qualify as ministers regardless of sex or appointment as an elder or deacon ("ministerial servant"). The religion asserts ecclesiastical privilege only for its appointed elders, but the religion permits any baptized adult male in good standing to officiate at a baptism, wedding, or funeral.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, a rite of ordination is performed to bestow either the Aaronic or Melchizedek priesthood (Hebrews 5:4–6) upon a worthy male member. As in the Anglican, Roman Catholic and Orthodox traditions, great care is taken to assure that the candidate for priesthood is ordained by those with proper authority and ordained properly and validly; thorough records of priesthood ordination are kept by the church. Ordination is performed by the laying on of hands. Ordination to the office of priest in the Aaronic priesthood gives the ordained person the authority to:
baptize converts and children over the age of 8 into the church
bless and administer the sacrament (the Lord's Supper)
participate in, or perform, ordinations of others to the Aaronic Priesthood or its offices
collect fast offerings for the Bishop (usually ordained Deacons and Teachers perform this)
Ordination to the Melchizedek priesthood includes the authority to perform all the duties of the Aaronic priesthood, as well as ordain others to the Melchizedek or Aaronic priesthood, perform confirmations, bless and anoint the sick with oil, bless and dedicate graves, and other such rites. There are five offices within the Melchizedek Priesthood to which one could potentially be ordained:
Elder
High Priest
Patriarch
Seventy
Apostle
"Ordination to an office in the Aaronic Priesthood is done by or under the direction of the bishop or branch president. Ordination to an office in the Melchizedek Priesthood is done by or under the direction of the stake or mission president. To perform a priesthood ordination, one or more authorized priesthood holders place their hands lightly on the person’s head."
Latter-day Saints believe in a line of priesthood authority that traces back to Jesus Christ and his apostles. LDS adherents believe the church's founder, Joseph Smith, was ordained under the hands of apostles Peter, James, and John, who appeared to Smith as angelic messengers in 1829.
Islam
Muslims do not formally ordain religious leaders. Ordination is viewed as a distinct aspect of other religions and is rejected. Islam does not have a formal and separated clergy.
Religious leaders are usually called Imams or Sheikhs or Maulana. The title Imam (when used outside the historic Shi'ite context) refers to someone who leads in prayer and can also be used in a linguistic sense for anyone who leads other Muslims in congregational prayers. Sheikh is an Arabic word meaning "old man" and is used as an honorable title for a learned man; Shaikhah refers to a woman learned in Islamic issues. This title is usually more prevalent in the Arabic countries. The word Maulana is a title bestowed upon students who have graduated from a Madrasa (Islamic theological school) throughout the Indian subcontinent region. Although different Muslim schools, universities or madrasas might follow different graduation ceremonies upon a student's completion of a 4-year B.A. of Islamic Studies or a 7–8 Alim Course, these ceremonies do not in any way symbolize ordination.
Judaism
The ordination of a rabbi within Judaism is referred to as Semikhah
(, "leaning [of the hands]", also semichut, , "ordination", or semicha lerabanim , "rabbinical ordination").
The term is derived from a Hebrew word which means to "rely on", in the sense of "lean on", and hence "to be authorized".
While the Hebrew word semikhah is rendered as "ordination" in English, a rabbi is not a priest per se, but primarily functions as a legal scholar and teacher of Torah; and in fact, for many religious purposes the presence of a rabbi is not necessary. (For example, at prayer, a minyan (quorum) of ten lay-people is both necessary and sufficient; thus the saying "nine rabbis do not constitute a minyan, but ten cobblers can".)
Recently, in some denominations, Semikhah, or semicha lehazzanut, may refer to the ordination of a hazzan (cantor);
while others use the term "investiture" to describe the conferral of cantorial authority.
Buddhism
The tradition of the ordained monastic community (sangha) began with the Buddha, who established orders of monks and later of nuns. The procedure of ordination in Buddhism is laid down in the Vinaya and Patimokkha or Pratimoksha scriptures. There exist three intact ordination lineages nowadays in which one can receive an ordination according to the Buddha's teachings:
Dharmaguptaka Lineage
Mulasarvastivadin Lineage
Theravada Lineage
Mahayana
Saicho repeatedly requested that the Japanese government allow the construction of a Mahayana ordination platform. Permission was granted in 822 CE, seven days after Saicho died. The platform was finished in 827 CE at Enryaku-ji temple on Mount Hiei, and was the first in Japan. Prior to this, those wishing to become monks/nuns were ordained using the Hinayana precepts, whereas after the Mahayana ordination platform, people were ordained with the Bodhisattva precepts as listed in the Brahma Net Sutra.
Theravada
Pabbajja is an ordination procedure for novice Buddhist monks in the Theravada tradition.
Fully ordained nuns
The legitimacy of fully ordained nuns (bhikkhuni/bhiksuni) has become a significant topic of discussion in recent years. Texts passed down in every Buddhist tradition record that Gautama Buddha created an order of fully ordained nuns, but the tradition has died out in some Buddhist traditions such as Theravada Buddhism, while remaining strong in others such as Chinese Buddhism (Dharmaguptaka lineage). In the Tibetan lineage, which follows the Mulasarvastivadin lineage, the lineage of fully ordained nuns was not brought to Tibet by the Indian Vinaya masters, hence there is no rite for the ordination of full nuns. However th 14th Dalai Lama has endeavored for many years to improve this situation. In 2005, he asked fully ordained nuns in the Dharmaguptaka lineage, especially Jampa Tsedroen, to form a committee to work for the acceptance of the bhiksuni lineage within the Tibetan tradition, and donated €50,000 for further research. The "1st International Congress on Buddhist Women’s Role in the Sangha: Bhikshuni Vinaya and Ordination Lineages" was held at the University of Hamburg from July 18–20, 2007, in cooperation with the University's Asia-Africa Institute. Although the general tenor was that full ordination was overdue, the Dalai Lama presented a pre-drafted statement saying that more time was required to reach a decision, thus nullifying the intentions of the congress.
Posthumous ordination
In Medieval Sōtō Zen, a tradition of posthumous ordination was developed to give the laity access to Zen funeral rites. Chinese Ch’an monastic codes, from which Japanese Sōtō practices were derived, contain only monastic funeral rites; there were no provisions made for funerals for lay believers. To solve this problem, the Sōtō school developed the practice of ordaining laypeople after death, thus allowing monastic funeral rites to be used for them as well.
New Kadampa Tradition
The Buddhist ordination tradition of the New Kadampa Tradition-International Kadampa Buddhist Union (NKT-IKBU) is not the traditional Buddhist ordination, but rather one newly created by Kelsang Gyatso. Although those ordained within this organisation are called 'monks' and 'nuns' within the organisation, and wear the robes of traditional Tibetan monks and nuns, in terms of traditional Buddhism they are neither fully ordained monks and nuns (Skt.: bhikshu, bhikshuni; Tib.: gelong, gelongma) nor are they novice monks and nuns (Skt.: sramanera, srameneri; Tib.: gestul, getsulma).
Unlike most other Buddhist traditions, including all Tibetan Buddhist schools, which follow the Vinaya, the NKT-IKBU ordination consists of the Five Precepts of a lay person, plus five more precepts created by Kelsang Gyatso. He is said to view them as a “practical condensation” of the 253 Vinaya vows of fully ordained monks.
There are also no formal instructions and guidelines for the behaviour of monks and nuns within the NKT. Because the behaviour of monks and nuns is not clearly defined “each Resident Teacher developed his or her own way of ‘disciplining’ monks and nuns at their centres ...”.
Kelsang Gyatso's ordination has been publicly criticised by Geshe Tashi Tsering as going against the core teachings of Buddhism and against the teachings of Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelugpa school from which Kelsang Gyatso was expelled
Unitarian Universalism
As Unitarian Universalism features very few doctrinal thresholds for prospective congregation members, ordinations of UU ministers are considerably less focused upon doctrinal adherence than upon factors such as possessing a Masters of Divinity degree from an accredited higher institution of education and an ability to articulate an understanding of ethics, spirituality and humanity.
In the Unitarian Universalist Association, candidates for "ministerial fellowship" with the denomination (usually third-year divinity school students) are reviewed, interviewed, and approved (or rejected) by the UUA Ministerial Fellowship Committee (MFC). However, given the fundamental principle of congregational polity, individual UU congregations make their own determination on ordination of ministers, and congregations may sometimes even hire or ordain persons who have not received UUA ministerial fellowship, and may or may not serve the congregation as its principle minister/pastor.
Wicca
In the Neo-Pagan religion of Wicca, a person's initiation is regarded as an induction and ordination as a priestess or priest. The rites which a person undergoes to become a priestess or priest, and the education and years of study required differ according to denomination.
Ordination of women
The ordination of women is often a controversial issue in religions where either the office of ordination, or the role that an ordained person fulfills, is traditionally restricted to men, for various theological reasons.
In Christianity
The Christian priesthood has traditionally been reserved to men. Some claim that women were ordained deacons in the first millennium of Christianity, but their claims are disputed. After the Protestant Reformation and the loosening of authority structures within many denominations, most Protestant groups re-envisioned the role of the ordained priesthood. Many did away with it altogether. Others altered it in fundamental ways, often favoring a rabbinical-type married minister of teaching (word) and discarding any notion of a sacrificial priesthood. A common epithet used by Protestants (especially Anglicans) against Catholics was that Catholics were a 'priest-ridden' people. Hatred for priests was a common element of anti-Catholicism and pogroms against Catholics focused on expelling, killing, or forcefully 'laicizing' priests.
Beginning in the twentieth century, many Protestant denominations began re-evaluating the roles of women in their churches. Many now ordain women. According to the biblical book of Judges, a wise and brave woman named Deborah was the fourth judge of the ancient Israelites. She was instrumental in implementing a strategic military strategy that delivered the Israelites from the oppressive Canaanite king Jabin. Likewise, Jael was courageous and primary in the Israelite victory. Her prudent actions killed the commander Sisera after he fled on foot following the battle. Within the Book of Judges, there is a repetitive cycle of sin and deliverance. There is also a proposition regarding the cyclical offenses: "In those days Israel had no king; all the people did whatever seemed right in their own eyes" (Jdg. 21:25). Based partially upon the leadership of the prophetess, Deborah, some Protestant and non-denominational organizations grant ordination to women. Other denominations refute the claim of a precedent based on Deborah's example because she is not specifically described as ruling over Israel, rather giving judgments on contentious issues in private, not teaching publicly, neither did she lead the military. Her message to her fellow judge Barak in fact affirmed the male leadership of Israel. The United Church of Canada has ordained women since 1932. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America ordains women as pastors, and women are eligible for election as bishops. The Episcopal Church in the United States of America ordains women as deacons, priests and bishops. The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church ordains women at all levels including deacon, priest and bishop. Other denominations leave the decision to ordain women to the regional governing body, or even to the congregation itself; these include the Christian Reformed Church in North America and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church. The ordination of women in the latter half of the 20th century was an important issue between Anglicans and Catholics since the Catholic Church viewed the ordination of women as a huge obstacle to possible rapprochement between the two churches.
The Catholic Church has not changed its view or practice on the ordination or women, and neither have any of the Orthodox churches; these churches represent approximately 65% of all Christians worldwide. In response to the growing call for the ordination of women, Pope John Paul II issued the statement Ordinatio sacerdotalis in 1995. In it, he gave reasons why women cannot be ordained, and defined that the Holy Spirit had not conferred the power to ordain women upon the Church. In the wake of this definitive statement, many theologians considered the issue settled, but many continue to push for the ordination of women in the Catholic Church. Some have even begun protest churches.
In Judaism
Policy regarding the ordination of women differs among the different denominations of Judaism. Most Orthodox congregations do not allow female rabbis, while more liberal congregations began allowing female rabbis by the middle of the twentieth century.
Ordination of LGBT persons
Most Abrahamic religions condemn the practice of homosexuality and the Bible is has been interpreted that in Romans 1 that homosexuals are "worthy of death". Interpretation of this passage, as with others potentially condemning homosexuality varies greatly between and within different denominations. Beginning in the late 20th century, and moreso in the early 21st century, several mainline denominational sects of Christianity and Judaism in the US and Europe endorsed the ordination of openly LGBT persons. See LGBT clergy in Christianity.
The United Church of Christ ordained openly gay Bill Johnson in 1972, and lesbian Anne Holmes in 1977.
While Buddhist ordinations of openly LGBT monks have occurred, more notable ordinations of openly LGBT novitiates have taken place in Western Buddhism.
See also
Ordination exams
Ordination (statistics)
References
External links
J. Frederick, 2001 "What Presbyterians Believe about ordination", Presbyterians Today, May 2001
Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church (LEPC)
Buddhist monasticism
Religious terminology
Ecclesiology
Religious rituals
Rites of passage | [
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|
217116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic%20equilibrium | Dynamic equilibrium | In chemistry, a dynamic equilibrium exists once a reversible reaction occurs. Substances transition between the reactants and products at equal rates, meaning there is no net change. Reactants and products are formed at such a rate that the concentration of neither changes. It is a particular example of a system in a steady state.
In physics, concerning thermodynamics, a closed system is in thermodynamic equilibrium when reactions occur at such rates that the composition of the mixture does not change with time. Reactions do in fact occur, sometimes vigorously, but to such an extent that changes in composition cannot be observed. Equilibrium constants can be expressed in terms of the rate constants for reversible reactions.
Examples
In a new bottle of soda, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the liquid phase has a particular value. If half of the liquid is poured out and the bottle is sealed, carbon dioxide will leave the liquid phase at an ever-decreasing rate, and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the gas phase will increase until equilibrium is reached. At that point, due to thermal motion, a molecule of CO2 may leave the liquid phase, but within a very short time another molecule of CO2 will pass from the gas to the liquid, and vice versa. At equilibrium, the rate of transfer of CO2 from the gas to the liquid phase is equal to the rate from liquid to gas. In this case, the equilibrium concentration of CO2 in the liquid is given by Henry's law, which states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the liquid. This relationship is written as
where K is a temperature-dependent constant, P is the partial pressure, and c is the concentration of the dissolved gas in the liquid. Thus the partial pressure of CO2 in the gas has increased until Henry's law is obeyed. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the liquid has decreased and the drink has lost some of it fizzes.
Henry's law may be derived by setting the chemical potentials of carbon dioxide in the two phases to be equal to each other. Equality of chemical potential defines chemical equilibrium. Other constants for dynamic equilibrium involving phase changes, include partition coefficient and solubility product. Raoult's law defines the equilibrium vapor pressure of an ideal solution
Dynamic equilibrium can also exist in a single-phase system. A simple example occurs with acid-base equilibrium such as the dissociation of acetic acid, in an aqueous solution.
CH3COOH <=> CH3COO- + H+
At equilibrium the concentration quotient, K, the acid dissociation constant, is constant (subject to some conditions)
In this case, the forward reaction involves the liberation of some protons from acetic acid molecules and the backward reaction involves the formation of acetic acid molecules when an acetate ion accepts a proton. Equilibrium is attained when the sum of chemical potentials of the species on the left-hand side of the equilibrium expression is equal to the sum of chemical potentials of the species on the right-hand side. At the same time, the rates of forwarding and backward reactions are equal to each other. Equilibria involving the formation of chemical complexes are also dynamic equilibria and concentrations are governed by the stability constants of complexes.
Dynamic equilibria can also occur in the gas phase as, for example when nitrogen dioxide dimerizes.
2NO2 <=> N2O4;
In the gas phase, square brackets indicate partial pressure. Alternatively, the partial pressure of a substance may be written as P(substance).
Relationship between equilibrium and rate constants
In a simple reaction such as the isomerization:
there are two reactions to consider, the forward reaction in which the species A is converted into B and the backward reaction in which B is converted into A. If both reactions are elementary reactions, then the rate of reaction is given by
where kf is the rate constant for the forward reaction and kb is the rate constant for the backward reaction and the square brackets, [..] denote concentration . If only A is present at the beginning, time t=0, with a concentration [A]0, the sum of the two concentrations, [A]t and [B]t, at time t, will be equal to [A]0.
The solution to this differential equation is
and is illustrated at the right. As time tends towards infinity, the concentrations [A]t and [B]t tend towards constant values. Let t approach infinity, that is, t→∞, in the expression above:
In practice, concentration changes will not be measurable after . Since the concentrations do not change thereafter, they are, by definition, equilibrium concentrations. Now, the equilibrium constant for the reaction is defined as
It follows that the equilibrium constant is numerically equal to the quotient of the rate constants.
In general they may be more than one forward reaction and more than one backward reaction. Atkins states that, for a general reaction, the overall equilibrium constant is related to the rate constants of the elementary reactions by
See also
Equilibrium chemistry
Mechanical equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium
Radiative equilibrium
References
External links
http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/DynamicEquilibriumExample/
Equilibrium chemistry
Thermodynamics | [
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|
217117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement | Agreement | Agreement may refer to:
Agreements between people and organizations
Gentlemen's agreement, not enforceable by law
Trade agreement, between countries
Consensus, a decision-making process
Contract, enforceable in a court of law
Meeting of the minds (a.k.a. mutual agreement), a common understanding in the formation of a contract
Pact, convention, or treaty between nations, sub-national entities, organizations, corporations
Arts and media
Agreement, a 1978 book of poetry by Peter Seaton
Agreement (film), a 1980 Bollywood film
Science and mathematics
Agreement (linguistics) or concord, a change in the form of a word depending on grammatical features of another word
Consistency, logical agreement between two or more propositions
Reliability (statistics) in the sense of, for example, inter-rater agreement
Other uses
Agreement (political party), a Polish political party
Operation Agreement, a British 1942 military operation during the Western Desert Campaign
See also
Disagreement
Agrément, an agreement by a state to receive members of a diplomatic mission | [
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|
217118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minesweeper | Minesweeper | A minesweeper is a small warship designed to remove or detonate naval mines. Using various mechanisms intended to counter the threat posed by naval mines, minesweepers keep waterways clear for safe shipping.
History
The earliest known usage of the naval mine dates to the Ming dynasty. Dedicated minesweepers, however, only appeared many centuries later during the Crimean War, where they were deployed by the British. The Crimean War minesweepers were rowboats trailing grapnels to snag mines. Minesweeping technology picked up in the Russo-Japanese War, using aging torpedo boats as minesweepers.
In Britain, naval leaders recognized before the outbreak of World War I that the development of sea mines was a threat to the nation's shipping and began efforts to counter the threat. Sir Arthur Wilson noted the real threat of the time was blockade aided by mines and not invasion. The function of the fishing fleet's trawlers with their trawl gear was recognized as having a natural connection with mine clearance and, among other things, trawlers were used to keep the English Channel clear of mines. A Trawler Section of the Royal Navy Reserve became the predecessor of the mine sweeping forces with specially designed ships and equipment to follow. These reserve Trawler Section fishermen and their trawlers were activated, supplied with mine gear, rifles, uniforms and pay as the first minesweepers. The dedicated, purpose-built minesweeper first appeared during World War I with the Flower-class minesweeping sloop. By the end of the War, naval mine technology had grown beyond the ability of minesweepers to detect and remove.
Minesweeping made significant advancements during World War II. Combatant nations quickly adapted ships to the task of minesweeping, including Australia's 35 civilian ships that became auxiliary minesweepers. Both Allied and Axis countries made heavy use of minesweepers throughout the war. Historian Gordon Williamson wrote that "Germany's minesweepers alone formed a massive proportion of its total strength, and are very much the unsung heroes of the Kriegsmarine." Naval mines remained a threat even after the war ended, and minesweeping crews were still active after VJ Day.
After the Second World War, Allied countries worked on new classes of minesweepers ranging from 120-ton designs for clearing estuaries to 735-ton oceangoing vessels. The United States Navy even used specialized mechanized landing craft to sweep shallow harbors in and around North Korea.
, the U.S. Navy had four minesweepers deployed to the Persian Gulf to address regional instabilities. The Royal Navy also has four minesweepers stationed in the Persian Gulf as part of the 9th Mine Counter-Measures Squadron.
Operation and requirements
Minesweepers are equipped with mechanical or electrical devices, known as "sweeps", for disabling mines. The modern minesweeper is designed to reduce the chances of it detonating mines itself; it is soundproofed to reduce its acoustic signature and often constructed using wood, fiberglass or non-ferrous metal, or is degaussed to reduce its magnetic signature.
Mechanical sweeps are devices designed to cut the anchoring cables of moored mines, and preferably attach a tag to help the subsequent localization and neutralization. They are towed behind the minesweeper, and use a towed body (e.g. oropesa, paravane) to maintain the sweep at the desired depth and position. Influence sweeps are equipment, often towed, that emulate a particular ship signature, thereby causing a mine to detonate. The most common such sweeps are magnetic and acoustic generators.
There are two modes of operating an influence sweep: MSM (mine setting mode) and TSM (target simulation mode or target setting mode). MSM sweeping is founded on intelligence on a given type of mine, and produces the output required for detonation of this mine. If such intelligence is unavailable, the TSM sweeping instead reproduces the influence of the friendly ship that is about to transit the area. TSM sweeping thus clears mines directed at this ship without knowledge of the mines. However, mines directed at other ships might remain.
The minesweeper differs from a minehunter; the minehunter actively detects and neutralises individual mines. Minesweepers are in many cases complementary to minehunters, depending on the operation and the environment; a minesweeper is, in particular, better suited to clearing open-water areas with large numbers of mines. Both kinds of ships are collectively called mine countermeasure vessels (MCMV), a term also applied to a vessel that combines both roles. The first such ship was , also the first warship to be constructed from fiberglass.
Notable minesweepers
– famous for her escape from Surabaya in 1942 disguised as a tropical island
– formerly commanded by Charles, Prince of Wales
– research vessel of Jacques-Yves Cousteau; the ex-Royal Navy vessel J826
– museum ship at Omaha, Nebraska
– the first combined MCMV and the first warship constructed from GRP. Now converted to a yacht club's club house and moored on the foreshore between Leigh-on-Sea and Westcliff in Essex, England
– The last surviving U.S. Navy MSO hull, it is in process of being restored as a museum
– Grounded on a reef in the Philippines in 2013.
– Royal Canadian Navy minesweeper lost in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Boltenhagen and Pasewalk, East German minesweepers purchased by Malta and used as patrol boats P29 and P31 and sunk as diving sites in 2007 and 2009.
See also
List of minesweeper classes
Demining
Destroyer minesweeper
List of mine warfare vessels of the United States Navy
List of mine countermeasure vessels of the Royal Navy
List of mine warfare vessels of the Second World War
References
Further reading
Bruhn, David D.. (2006). Wooden Ships and Iron Men: The U.S. Navy's Ocean Minesweepers, 1953-1994. Heritage Books. .
Bruhn, David D.. (2009). Wooden Ships and Iron Men: The U.S. Navy's Coastal and Motor Minesweepers, 1941-1953. Heritage Books. .
Lund & Ludlam. (1978) Out Sweeps! The Story of the Minesweepers in World War II. Foulsham/New English Library . Minesweeping by the wartime Royal Navy.
External links
Pewter Aircraft | Vickers Wellington DWI of 1 GRU used to clear magnetic mines
Ex HNLMS M880 - Mahu - MSI (Dutch)
Swedish Minesweeper from 1941 M 20 webpage still operational
"Fighting The Submarine Mine - How Navies Combat A Deadly Sea Weapon" October 1941
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217119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifting%20cultivation | Shifting cultivation | Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned while post-disturbance fallow vegetation is allowed to freely grow while the cultivator moves on to another plot. The period of cultivation is usually terminated when the soil shows signs of exhaustion or, more commonly, when the field is overrun by weeds. The period of time during which the field is cultivated is usually shorter than the period over which the land is allowed to regenerate by lying fallow.
This technique is often used in LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries) or LICs (Low Income Countries). In some areas, cultivators use a practice of slash-and-burn as one element of their farming cycle. Others employ land clearing without any burning, and some cultivators are purely migratory and do not use any cyclical method on a given plot. Sometimes no slashing at all is needed where regrowth is purely of grasses, an outcome not uncommon when soils are near exhaustion and need to lie fallow.
In shifting agriculture, after two or three years of producing vegetable and grain crops on cleared land, the migrants abandon it for another plot. Land is often cleared by slash-and-burn methods—trees, bushes and forests are cleared by slashing, and the remaining vegetation is burnt. The ashes add potash to the soil. Then the seeds are sown after the rains.
Political ecology
Shifting cultivation is a form of agriculture or a cultivation system, in which, at any particular point in time, a minority of 'fields' are in cultivation and a majority are in various stages of natural re-growth. Over time, fields are cultivated for a relatively short time, and allowed to recover, or are fallowed, for a relatively long time. Eventually a previously cultivated field will be cleared of the natural vegetation and planted in crops again. Fields in established and stable shifting cultivation systems are cultivated and fallowed cyclically. This type of farming is called jhumming in India.
Fallow fields are not unproductive. During the fallow period, shifting cultivators use the successive vegetation species widely for timber for fencing and construction, firewood, thatching, ropes, clothing, tools, carrying devices and medicines. It is common for fruit and nut trees to be planted in fallow fields to the extent that parts of some fallows are in fact orchards. Soil-enhancing shrub or tree species may be planted or protected from slashing or burning in fallows. Many of these species have been shown to fix nitrogen. Fallows commonly contain plants that attract birds and animals and are important for hunting. But perhaps most importantly, tree fallows protect soil against physical erosion and draw nutrients to the surface from deep in the soil profile.
The relationship between the time the land is cultivated and the time it is fallowed are critical to the stability of shifting cultivation systems. These parameters determine whether or not the shifting cultivation system as a whole suffers a net loss of nutrients over time. A system in which there is a net loss of nutrients with each cycle will eventually lead to a degradation of resources unless actions are taken to arrest the losses. In some cases soil can be irreversibly exhausted (including erosion as well as nutrient loss) in less than a decade.
The longer a field is cropped, the greater the loss of soil organic matter, cation-exchange-capacity and in nitrogen and phosphorus, the greater the increase in acidity, the more likely soil porosity and infiltration capacity is reduced and the greater the loss of seeds of naturally occurring plant species from soil seed banks. In a stable shifting cultivation system, the fallow is long enough for the natural vegetation to recover to the state that it was in before it was cleared, and for the soil to recover to the condition it was in before cropping began. During fallow periods soil temperatures are lower, wind and water erosion is much reduced, nutrient cycling becomes closed again, nutrients are extracted from the subsoil, soil fauna decreases, acidity is reduced, soil structure, texture and moisture characteristics improve and seed banks are replenished.
The secondary forests created by shifting cultivation are commonly richer in plant and animal resources useful to humans than primary forests, even though they are much less bio-diverse. Shifting cultivators view the forest as an agricultural landscape of fields at various stages in a regular cycle. People unused to living in forests cannot see the fields for the trees. Rather they perceive an apparently chaotic landscape in which trees are cut and burned randomly and so they characterise shifting cultivation as ephemeral or 'pre-agricultural', as 'primitive' and as a stage to be progressed beyond. Shifting agriculture is none of these things. Stable shifting cultivation systems are highly variable, closely adapted to micro-environments and are carefully managed by farmers during both the cropping and fallow stages. Shifting cultivators may possess a highly developed knowledge and understanding of their local environments and of the crops and native plant species they exploit. Complex and highly adaptive land tenure systems sometimes exist under shifting cultivation. Introduced crops for food and as cash have been skillfully integrated into some shifting cultivation systems. Its disadvantages include the high initial cost, as manual labour is required.
In Europe
Shifting cultivation was still being practised as a viable and stable form of agriculture in many parts of Europe and east into Siberia at the end of the 19th century and in some places well into the 20th century. In the Ruhr in the late 1860s a forest-field rotation system known as Reutbergwirtschaft was using a 16-year cycle of clearing, cropping and fallowing with trees to produce bark for tanneries, wood for charcoal and rye for flour (Darby 1956, 200). Swidden farming was practised in Siberia at least until the 1930s, using specially selected varieties of "swidden-rye" (Steensberg 1993, 98). In Eastern Europe and Northern Russia the main swidden crops were turnips, barley, flax, rye, wheat, oats, radishes and millet. Cropping periods were usually one year, but were extended to two or three years on very favourable soils. Fallow periods were between 20 and 40 years (Linnard 1970, 195). In Finland in 1949, Steensberg (1993, 111) observed the clearing and burning of a swidden 440 km north of Helsinki. Birch and pine trees had been cleared over a period of a year and the logs sold for cash. A fallow of alder (Alnus) was encouraged to improve soil conditions. After the burn, turnip was sown for sale and for cattle feed. Shifting cultivation was disappearing in this part of Finland because of a loss of agricultural labour to the industries of the towns. Steensberg (1993, 110-152) provides eye-witness descriptions of shifting cultivation being practised in Sweden in the 20th century, and in Estonia, Poland, the Caucasus, Serbia, Bosnia, Hungary, Switzerland, Austria and Germany in the 1930s to the 1950s.
That these agricultural practices survived from the Neolithic into the middle of the 20th century amidst the sweeping changes that occurred in Europe over that period, suggests they were adaptive and in themselves, were not massively destructive of the environments in which they were practiced.
The earliest written accounts of deforestation in Southern Europe begin around 1000 BC in the histories of Homer, Thucydides and Plato and in Strabo's Geography. Forests were exploited for ship building, and urban development, the manufacture of casks, pitch and charcoal, as well as being cleared for agriculture. The intensification of trade and as a result of warfare, increased the demand for ships which were manufactured completely from forest products. Although goat herding is singled out as an important cause of environmental degradation, a more important cause of forest destruction was the practice in some places of granting ownership rights to those who clear felled forests and brought the land into permanent cultivation. Evidence that circumstances other than agriculture were the major causes for forest destruction was the recovery of tree cover in many parts of the Roman empire from 400 BC to around 500 AD following the collapse of Roman economy and industry. Darby observes that by 400 AD "land that had once been tilled became derelict and overgrown" and quotes Lactantius who wrote that in many places "cultivated land became forest" (Darby 1956, 186). The other major cause of forest destruction in the Mediterranean environment with its hot dry summers were wild fires that became more common following human interference in the forests.
In Central and Northern Europe the use of stone tools and fire in agriculture is well established in the palynological and archaeological record from the Neolithic. Here, just as in Southern Europe, the demands of more intensive agriculture and the invention of the plough, trading, mining and smelting, tanning, building and construction in the growing towns and constant warfare, including the demands of naval shipbuilding, were more important forces behind the destruction of the forests than was shifting cultivation.
By the Middle Ages in Europe, large areas of forest were being cleared and converted into arable land in association with the development of feudal tenurial practices. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, the demands of iron smelters for charcoal, increasing industrial developments and the discovery and expansion of colonial empires as well as incessant warfare that increased the demand for shipping to levels never previously reached, all combined to deforest Europe. With the loss of the forest, so shifting cultivation became restricted to the peripheral places of Europe, where permanent agriculture was uneconomic, transport costs constrained logging or terrain prevented the use of draught animals or tractors. It has disappeared from even these areas since 1945, as agriculture has become increasingly capital intensive, rural areas have become depopulated and the remnant European forests themselves have been revalued economically and socially.
Classical authors mentioned large forests, with Homer writing about "wooded Samothrace", Zakynthos, Sicily, and other woodlands. These authors indicated that the Mediterranean area once had more forest; much had already been lost, and the remainder was primarily in the mountains.
Although parts of Europe remained wooded, by the late Iron Age and early Viking Ages, forests were drastically reduced and settlements regularly moved. The reasons for this pattern of mobility, the transition to stable settlements from the late Viking period on, or the transition from shifting cultivation to stationary farming are unknown. From this period, plows are found in graves. Early agricultural peoples preferred good forests on hillsides with good drainage, and traces of cattle enclosures are evident there.
In Italy, shifting cultivation was no longer used by the common era. Tacitus describes it as a strange cultivation method, practiced by the Germans. In 98 CE, he wrote about the Germans that their fields were proportional to the participating cultivators but their crops were shared according to status. Distribution was simple, because of wide availability; they changed fields annually, with much to spare because they were producing grain rather than other crops. A W Liljenstrand wrote in his 1857 doctoral dissertation, "About Changing of Soil" (pp. 5 ff.), that Tacitus discusses shifting cultivation: "arva per annos mutant". This is the practice of shifting cultivation.
During the Migration Period in Europe, after the Roman Empire and before the Viking Age, the peoples of Central Europe moved to new forests after exhausting old parcels. Forests were quickly exhausted; the practice had ended in the Mediterranean, where forests were less resilient than the sturdier coniferous forests of Central Europe. Deforestation had been partially caused by burning to create pasture. Reduced timber delivery led to higher prices and more stone construction in the Roman Empire (Stewart 1956, p. 123). Although forests gradually decreased in northern Europe, they have survived in the Nordic countries.
Many Italic peoples saw benefits in allying with Rome. When the Romans built the Via Amerina in 241 BCE, the Falisci settled in cities on the plains and aided the Romans in road construction; the Roman Senate gradually acquired representatives from Faliscan and Etruscan families, and the Italic tribes became settled farmers.
Classical writers described peoples who practiced shifting cultivation, which characterized the Migration Period in Europe. The exploitation of forests demanded displacement as areas were deforested. Julius Caesar wrote about the Suebi in Commentarii de Bello Gallico 4.1, "They have no private and secluded fields ("privati ac separati agri apud eos nihil est") ... They cannot stay more than one year in a place for cultivation’s sake" ("neque longius anno remanere uno in loco colendi causa licet"). The Suebi lived between the Rhine and the Elbe. About the Germani, Caesar wrote: "No one has a particular field or area for himself, for the magistrates and chiefs give year by year to the people and the clans, who have gathered together, as much land and in such places as seem good to them and then make them move on after a year" ("Neque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet proprios, sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui tum una coierunt, a quantum et quo loco visum est agri attribuunt atque anno post alio transire cogunt" [Book 6.22]).
Strabo (63 BCE—c. 20 CE) also writes about the Suebi in his Geography (VII, 1, 3): "Common to all the people in this area is that they can easily change residence because of their sordid way of life; they do not cultivate fields or collect property, but live in temporary huts. They get their nourishment from their livestock for the most part, and like nomads, pack all their goods in wagons and go on to wherever they want". Horace writes in 17 BCE (Carmen Saeculare, 3, 24, 9ff.) about the people of Macedonia: "The proud Getae also live happily, growing free food and cereal for themselves on land they do not want to cultivate for more than a year" ("Vivunt et rigidi Getae, / immetata quibus iugera liberas / fruges et Cererem ferunt, / nec cultura placet longior annua").
Simple societies and environmental change
A growing body of palynological evidence finds that simple human societies brought about extensive changes to their environments before the establishment of any sort of state, feudal or capitalist, and before the development of large scale mining, smelting or shipbuilding industries. In these societies agriculture was the driving force in the economy and shifting cultivation was the most common type of agriculture practiced. By examining the relationships between social and economic change and agricultural change in these societies, insights can be gained on contemporary social and economic change and global environment change, and the place of shifting cultivation in those relationships.
As early as 1930 questions about relationships between the rise and fall of the Mayan civilization of the Yucatán Peninsula and shifting cultivation were raised and continue to be debated today. Archaeological evidence suggests the development of Mayan society and economy began around 250 AD. A mere 700 years later it reached its apogee, by which time the population may have reached 2,000,000 people. There followed a precipitous decline that left the great cities and ceremonial centres vacant and overgrown with jungle vegetation. The causes of this decline are uncertain; but warfare and the exhaustion of agricultural land are commonly cited (Meggers 1954; Dumond 1961; Turner 1974). More recent work suggests the Maya may have, in suitable places, developed irrigation systems and more intensive agricultural practices (Humphries 1993).
Similar paths appear to have been followed by Polynesian settlers in New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, who within 500 years of their arrival around 1100 AD turned substantial areas from forest into scrub and fern and in the process caused the elimination of numerous species of birds and animals (Kirch and Hunt 1997). In the restricted environments of the Pacific islands, including Fiji and Hawaii, early extensive erosion and change of vegetation is presumed to have been caused by shifting cultivation on slopes. Soils washed from slopes were deposited in valley bottoms as a rich, swampy alluvium. These new environments were then exploited to develop intensive, irrigated fields. The change from shifting cultivation to intensive irrigated fields occurred in association with a rapid growth in population and the development of elaborate and highly stratified chiefdoms (Kirch 1984). In the larger, temperate latitude, islands of New Zealand the presumed course of events took a different path. There the stimulus for population growth was the hunting of large birds to extinction, during which time forests in drier areas were destroyed by burning, followed the development of intensive agriculture in favorable environments, based mainly on sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and a reliance on the gathering of two main wild plant species in less favorable environments. These changes, as in the smaller islands, were accompanied by population growth, the competition for the occupation of the best environments, complexity in social organization, and endemic warfare (Anderson 1997).
The record of humanly induced changes in environments is longer in New Guinea than in most places. Agricultural activities probably began 5,000 to 9,000 years ago. However, the most spectacular changes, in both societies and environments, are believed to have occurred in the central highlands of the island within the last 1,000 years, in association with the introduction of a crop new to New Guinea, the sweet potato (Golson 1982a; 1982b). One of the most striking signals of the relatively recent intensification of agriculture is the sudden increase in sedimentation rates in small lakes.
The root question posed by these and the numerous other examples that could be cited of simple societies that have intensified their agricultural systems in association with increases in population and social complexity is not whether or how shifting cultivation was responsible for the extensive changes to landscapes and environments. Rather it is why simple societies of shifting cultivators in the tropical forest of Yucatán, or the highlands of New Guinea, began to grow in numbers and to develop stratified and sometimes complex social hierarchies?
At first sight, the greatest stimulus to the intensification of a shifting cultivation system is a growth in population. If no other changes occur within the system, for each extra person to be fed from the system, a small extra amount of land must be cultivated. The total amount of land available is the land being presently cropped and all of the land in fallow. If the area occupied by the system is not expanded into previously unused land, then either the cropping period must be extended or the fallow period shortened.
At least two problems exist with the population growth hypothesis. First, population growth in most pre-industrial shifting cultivator societies has been shown to be very low over the long term. Second, no human societies are known where people work only to eat. People engage in social relations with each other and agricultural produce is used in the conduct of these relationships.
These relationships are the focus of two attempts to understand the nexus between human societies and their environments, one an explanation of a particular situation and the other a general exploration of the problem.
Feedback loops
In a study of the Duna in the Southern Highlands of New Guinea, a group in the process of moving from shifting cultivation into permanent field agriculture post sweet potato, Modjeska (1982) argued for the development of two "self amplifying feed back loops" of ecological and social causation. The trigger to the changes were very slow population growth and the slow expansion of agriculture to meet the demands of this growth. This set in motion the first feedback loop, the "use-value" loop. As more forest was cleared there was a decline in wild food resources and protein produced from hunting, which was substituted for by an increase in domestic pig raising. An increase in domestic pigs required a further expansion in agriculture. The greater protein available from the larger number of pigs increased human fertility and survival rates and resulted in faster population growth.
The outcome of the operation of the two loops, one bringing about ecological change and the other social and economic change, is an expanding and intensifying agricultural system, the conversion of forest to grassland, a population growing at an increasing rate and expanding geographically and a society that is increasing in complexity and stratification.
Resources are cultural appraisals
The second attempt to explain the relationships between simple agricultural societies and their environments is that of Ellen (1982, 252–270). Ellen does not attempt to separate use-values from social production. He argues that almost all of the materials required by humans to live (with perhaps the exception of air) are obtained through social relations of production and that these relations proliferate and are modified in numerous ways. The values that humans attribute to items produced from the environment arise out of cultural arrangements and not from the objects themselves, a restatement of Carl Sauer's dictum that "resources are cultural appraisals". Humans frequently translate actual objects into culturally conceived forms, an example being the translation by the Duna of the pig into an item of compensation and redemption. As a result, two fundamental processes underlie the ecology of human social systems: First, the obtaining of materials from the environment and their alteration and circulation through social relations, and second, giving the material a value which will affect how important it is to obtain it, circulate it or alter it. Environmental pressures are thus mediated through social relations.
Transitions in ecological systems and in social systems do not proceed at the same rate. The rate of phylogenetic change is determined mainly by natural selection and partly by human interference and adaptation, such as for example, the domestication of a wild species. Humans however have the ability to learn and to communicate their knowledge to each other and across generations. If most social systems have the tendency to increase in complexity they will, sooner or later, come into conflict with, or into "contradiction" (Friedman 1979, 1982) with their environments. What happens around the point of "contradiction" will determine the extent of the environmental degradation that will occur. Of particular importance is the ability of the society to change, to invent or to innovate technologically and sociologically, in order to overcome the "contradiction" without incurring continuing environmental degradation, or social disintegration.
An economic study of what occurs at the points of conflict with specific reference to shifting cultivation is that of Esther Boserup (1965). Boserup argues that low intensity farming, extensive shifting cultivation for example, has lower labor costs than more intensive farming systems. This assertion remains controversial. She also argues that given a choice, a human group will always choose the technique which has the lowest absolute labor cost rather than the highest yield. But at the point of conflict, yields will have become unsatisfactory. Boserup argues, contra Malthus, that rather than population always overwhelming resources, that humans will invent a new agricultural technique or adopt an existing innovation that will boost yields and that is adapted to the new environmental conditions created by the degradation which has occurred already, even though they will pay for the increases in higher labor costs. Examples of such changes are the adoption of new higher yielding crops, the exchanging of a digging stick for a hoe, or a hoe for a plough, or the development of irrigation systems. The controversy over Boserup's proposal is in part over whether intensive systems are more costly in labor terms, and whether humans will bring about change in their agricultural systems before environmental degradation forces them to.
In the contemporary world and global environmental change
The estimated rate of deforestation in Southeast Asia in 1990 was 34,000 km² per year (FAO 1990, quoted in Potter 1993). In Indonesia alone it was estimated 13,100 km² per year were being lost, 3,680 km² per year from Sumatra and 3,770 km² from Kalimantan, of which 1,440 km² were due to the fires of 1982 to 1983. Since those estimates were made huge fires have ravaged Indonesian forests during the 1997 to 1998 El Niño associated drought.
Shifting cultivation was assessed by the FAO to be one of the causes of deforestation while logging was not. The apparent discrimination against shifting cultivators caused a confrontation between FAO and environmental groups, who saw the FAO supporting commercial logging interests against the rights of indigenous people (Potter 1993, 108). Other independent studies of the problem note that despite lack of government control over forests and the dominance of a political elite in the logging industry, the causes of deforestation are more complex. The loggers have provided paid employment to former subsistence farmers. One of the outcomes of cash incomes has been rapid population growth among indigenous groups of former shifting cultivators that has placed pressure on their traditional long fallow farming systems. Many farmers have taken advantage of the improved road access to urban areas by planting cash crops, such as rubber or pepper as noted above. Increased cash incomes often are spent on chain saws, which have enabled larger areas to be cleared for cultivation. Fallow periods have been reduced and cropping periods extended. Serious poverty elsewhere in the country has brought thousands of land-hungry settlers into the cut-over forests along the logging roads. The settlers practice what appears to be shifting cultivation but which is in fact a one-cycle slash and burn followed by continuous cropping, with no intention to long fallow. Clearing of trees and the permanent cultivation of fragile soils in a tropical environment with little attempt to replace lost nutrients may cause rapid degradation of the fragile soils.
The loss of forest in Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines during the 1990s was preceded by major ecosystem disruptions in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia in the 1970s and 1980s caused by warfare. Forests were sprayed with defoliants, thousands of rural forest dwelling people were uprooted from their homes and moved driven into previously isolated areas. The loss of the tropical forests of Southeast Asia is the particular outcome of the general possible outcomes described by Ellen (see above) when small local ecological and social systems become part of a larger system. When the previous relatively stable ecological relationships are destabilized, degradation can occur rapidly. Similar descriptions of the loss of forest and destruction of fragile ecosystems could be provided from the Amazon Basin, by large scale state sponsored colonization forest land (Becker 1995, 61) or from the Central Africa where what endemic armed conflict is destabilizing rural settlement and farming communities on a massive scale.
Comparison with other ecological phenomena
In the tropical developing world, shifting cultivation in its many diverse forms, remains a pervasive practice. Shifting cultivation was one of the first forms of agriculture practiced by humans and its survival into the modern world suggests that it is a flexible and highly adaptive means of production. However, it is also a grossly misunderstood practice. Many casual observers cannot see past the clearing and burning of standing forest and do not perceive often ecologically stable cycles of cropping and fallowing. Nevertheless, shifting cultivation systems are particularly susceptible to rapid increases in population and to economic and social change in the larger world around them. The blame for the destruction of forest resources is often laid on shifting cultivators. But the forces bringing about the rapid loss of tropical forests at the end of the 20th century are the same forces that led to the destruction of the forests of Europe, urbanization, industrialization, increased affluence, populational growth and geographical expansion and the application the latest technology to extract ever more resources from the environment in pursuit of wealth and political power by competing groups. However we must know that those who practice Agriculture are at the receiving end of the social stratum.
Studies of small, isolated and pre-capitalist groups and their relationships with their environments suggests that the roots of the contemporary problem lie deep in human behavioral patterns, for even in these simple societies, competition and conflict can be identified as the main force driving them into contradiction with their environments.
Alternative practice in the pre-Columbian Amazon basin
Slash-and-char, as opposed to slash-and-burn, may create self-perpetuating soil fertility that supports sedentary agriculture, but the society so sustained may still be overturned, as above (see article at Terra preta).
See also
Agroecology
Inga alley cropping
Milpa
References
Bibliography
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External links
Seeing the Garden in the Jungle
Farmer Power, the Continuing Confrontation between Subsistence Farmers and Development Bureaucrats by Tony Waters at Ethnography.com
Agriculture and the environment
Agriculture by type
Rural community development
Forest management | [
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217122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertible%20matrix | Invertible matrix | In linear algebra, an n-by-n square matrix is called invertible (also nonsingular or nondegenerate), if there exists an n-by-n square matrix such that
where denotes the n-by-n identity matrix and the multiplication used is ordinary matrix multiplication. If this is the case, then the matrix is uniquely determined by , and is called the (multiplicative) inverse of , denoted by . Matrix inversion is the process of finding the matrix that satisfies the prior equation for a given invertible matrix .
A square matrix that is not invertible is called singular or degenerate. A square matrix is singular if and only if its determinant is zero. Singular matrices are rare in the sense that if a square matrix's entries are randomly selected from any finite region on the number line or complex plane, the probability that the matrix is singular is 0, that is, it will "almost never" be singular. Non-square matrices (m-by-n matrices for which ) do not have an inverse. However, in some cases such a matrix may have a left inverse or right inverse. If is m-by-n and the rank of is equal to (), then has a left inverse, an -by- matrix such that . If has rank (), then it has a right inverse, an -by- matrix such that .
While the most common case is that of matrices over the real or complex numbers, all these definitions can be given for matrices over any ring. However, in the case of the ring being commutative, the condition for a square matrix to be invertible is that its determinant is invertible in the ring, which in general is a stricter requirement than being nonzero. For a noncommutative ring, the usual determinant is not defined. The conditions for existence of left-inverse or right-inverse are more complicated, since a notion of rank does not exist over rings.
The set of invertible matrices together with the operation of matrix multiplication (and entries from ring R) form a group, the general linear group of degree n, denoted .
Properties
The invertible matrix theorem
Let A be a square n by n matrix over a field K (e.g., the field R of real numbers). The following statements are equivalent (i.e., they are either all true or all false for any given matrix):
There is an n-by-n matrix B such that .
The matrix A has a left inverse (that is, there exists a B such that ) or a right inverse (that is, there exists a C such that ), in which case both left and right inverses exist and .
A is invertible, that is, A has an inverse, is nonsingular, and is nondegenerate.
A is row-equivalent to the n-by-n identity matrix In.
A is column-equivalent to the n-by-n identity matrix In.
A has n pivot positions.
A has full rank; that is, .
Based on the rank A=n, the equation has only the trivial solution x = 0. and the equation Ax = b has exactly one solution for each b in Kn.
The kernel of A is trivial, that is, it contains only the null vector as an element, ker(A) = {0}.
The columns of A are linearly independent.
The columns of A span Kn.
.
The columns of A form a basis of Kn.
The linear transformation mapping x to Ax is a bijection from Kn to Kn.
. In general, a square matrix over a commutative ring is invertible if and only if its determinant is a unit in that ring.
The number 0 is not an eigenvalue of A.
The transpose AT is an invertible matrix (hence rows of A are linearly independent, span Kn, and form a basis of Kn).
The matrix A can be expressed as a finite product of elementary matrices.
Other properties
Furthermore, the following properties hold for an invertible matrix A:
(A−1)−1 = A;
(kA)−1 = k−1A−1 for nonzero scalar k;
(Ax)+ = x+A−1 if A has orthonormal columns, where + denotes the Moore–Penrose inverse and x is a vector;
(AT)−1 = (A−1)T;
For any invertible n-by-n matrices A and B, (AB)−1 = B−1A−1. More generally, if A1, ..., Ak are invertible n-by-n matrices, then ;
det A−1 = (det A)−1.
The rows of the inverse matrix V of a matrix U are orthonormal to the columns of U (and vice versa interchanging rows for columns). To see this, suppose that UV = VU = I where the rows of V are denoted as and the columns of U as for . Then clearly, the Euclidean inner product of any two . This property can also be useful in constructing the inverse of a square matrix in some instances, where a set of orthogonal vectors (but not necessarily orthonormal vectors) to the columns of U are known. In which case, one can apply the iterative Gram–Schmidt process to this initial set to determine the rows of the inverse V.
A matrix that is its own inverse (i.e., a matrix A such that and ), is called an involutory matrix.
In relation to its adjugate
The adjugate of a matrix can be used to find the inverse of as follows:
If is an invertible matrix, then
In relation to the identity matrix
It follows from the associativity of matrix multiplication that if
for finite square matrices A and B, then also
Density
Over the field of real numbers, the set of singular n-by-n matrices, considered as a subset of Rn×n, is a null set, that is, has Lebesgue measure zero. This is true because singular matrices are the roots of the determinant function. This is a continuous function because it is a polynomial in the entries of the matrix. Thus in the language of measure theory, almost all n-by-n matrices are invertible.
Furthermore, the n-by-n invertible matrices are a dense open set in the topological space of all n-by-n matrices. Equivalently, the set of singular matrices is closed and nowhere dense in the space of n-by-n matrices.
In practice however, one may encounter non-invertible matrices. And in numerical calculations, matrices which are invertible, but close to a non-invertible matrix, can still be problematic; such matrices are said to be ill-conditioned.
Examples
An example with rank of n-1 to be a non-invertible matrix
We can easily see the rank of this 2*2 matrix is one, which is n-1≠n, so it is a non-invertible matrix.
Consider the following 2-by-2 matrix:
The matrix is invertible. To check this, one can compute that , which is non-zero.
As an example of a non-invertible, or singular, matrix, consider the matrix
The determinant of is 0, which is a necessary and sufficient condition for a matrix to be non-invertible.
Methods of matrix inversion
Gaussian elimination
Gaussian elimination is a useful and easy way to compute the inverse of a matrix. To compute a matrix inverse using this method, an augmented matrix is first created with the left side being the matrix to invert and the right side being the identity matrix. Then, Gaussian elimination is used to convert the left side into the identity matrix, which causes the right side to become the inverse of the input matrix.
For example, take the following matrix: The first step to compute its inverse is to create the augmented matrix Call the first row of this matrix and the second row . Then, add row 1 to row 2 (). This yields Next, subtract row 2, multiplied by 3, from row 1 (), which yields Finally, multiply row 1 by -1 () and row 2 by 2 (). This yields the identity matrix on the left side and the inverse matrix on the right: Thus,
Newton's method
A generalization of Newton's method as used for a multiplicative inverse algorithm may be convenient, if it is convenient to find a suitable starting seed:
Victor Pan and John Reif have done work that includes ways of generating a starting seed. Byte magazine summarised one of their approaches.
Newton's method is particularly useful when dealing with families of related matrices that behave enough like the sequence manufactured for the homotopy above: sometimes a good starting point for refining an approximation for the new inverse can be the already obtained inverse of a previous matrix that nearly matches the current matrix, for example, the pair of sequences of inverse matrices used in obtaining matrix square roots by Denman–Beavers iteration; this may need more than one pass of the iteration at each new matrix, if they are not close enough together for just one to be enough. Newton's method is also useful for "touch up" corrections to the Gauss–Jordan algorithm which has been contaminated by small errors due to imperfect computer arithmetic.
Cayley–Hamilton method
The Cayley–Hamilton theorem allows the inverse of to be expressed in terms of , traces and powers of :
where is dimension of , and is the trace of matrix given by the sum of the main diagonal. The sum is taken over and the sets of all satisfying the linear Diophantine equation
The formula can be rewritten in terms of complete Bell polynomials of arguments as
Eigendecomposition
If matrix A can be eigendecomposed, and if none of its eigenvalues are zero, then A is invertible and its inverse is given by
where is the square (N×N) matrix whose i-th column is the eigenvector of , and is the diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are the corresponding eigenvalues, that is, . If
is symmetric, is guaranteed to be an orthogonal matrix, therefore . Furthermore, because is a diagonal matrix, its inverse is easy to calculate:
Cholesky decomposition
If matrix A is positive definite, then its inverse can be obtained as
where L is the lower triangular Cholesky decomposition of A, and L* denotes the conjugate transpose of L.
Analytic solution
Writing the transpose of the matrix of cofactors, known as an adjugate matrix, can also be an efficient way to calculate the inverse of small matrices, but this recursive method is inefficient for large matrices. To determine the inverse, we calculate a matrix of cofactors:
so that
where |A| is the determinant of A, C is the matrix of cofactors, and CT represents the matrix transpose.
Inversion of 2 × 2 matrices
The cofactor equation listed above yields the following result for matrices. Inversion of these matrices can be done as follows:
This is possible because is the reciprocal of the determinant of the matrix in question, and the same strategy could be used for other matrix sizes.
The Cayley–Hamilton method gives
Inversion of 3 × 3 matrices
A computationally efficient matrix inversion is given by
(where the scalar A is not to be confused with the matrix A).
If the determinant is non-zero, the matrix is invertible, with the elements of the intermediary matrix on the right side above given by
The determinant of A can be computed by applying the rule of Sarrus as follows:
The Cayley–Hamilton decomposition gives
The general inverse can be expressed concisely in terms of the cross product and triple product. If a matrix (consisting of three column vectors, , , and ) is invertible, its inverse is given by
The determinant of A, , is equal to the triple product of , , and —the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the rows or columns:
The correctness of the formula can be checked by using cross- and triple-product properties and by noting that for groups, left and right inverses always coincide. Intuitively, because of the cross products, each row of is orthogonal to the non-corresponding two columns of (causing the off-diagonal terms of be zero). Dividing by
causes the diagonal elements of to be unity. For example, the first diagonal is:
Inversion of 4 × 4 matrices
With increasing dimension, expressions for the inverse of A get complicated. For , the Cayley–Hamilton method leads to an expression that is still tractable:
Blockwise inversion
Matrices can also be inverted blockwise by using the following analytic inversion formula:
where A, B, C and D are matrix sub-blocks of arbitrary size. (A must be square, so that it can be inverted. Furthermore, A and must be nonsingular.) This strategy is particularly advantageous if A is diagonal and (the Schur complement of A) is a small matrix, since they are the only matrices requiring inversion.
This technique was reinvented several times and is due to Hans Boltz (1923), who used it for the inversion of geodetic matrices, and Tadeusz Banachiewicz (1937), who generalized it and proved its correctness.
The nullity theorem says that the nullity of A equals the nullity of the sub-block in the lower right of the inverse matrix, and that the nullity of B equals the nullity of the sub-block in the upper right of the inverse matrix.
The inversion procedure that led to Equation () performed matrix block operations that operated on C and D first. Instead, if A and B are operated on first, and provided D and are nonsingular, the result is
Equating Equations () and () leads to
where Equation () is the Woodbury matrix identity, which is equivalent to the binomial inverse theorem.
If A and D are both invertible, then the above two block matrix inverses can be combined to provide the simple factorization
By the Weinstein–Aronszajn identity, one of the two matrices in the block-diagonal matrix is invertible exactly when the other is.
Since a blockwise inversion of an matrix requires inversion of two half-sized matrices and 6 multiplications between two half-sized matrices, it can be shown that a divide and conquer algorithm that uses blockwise inversion to invert a matrix runs with the same time complexity as the matrix multiplication algorithm that is used internally. Research into matrix multiplication complexity shows that there exist matrix multiplication algorithms with a complexity of operations, while the best proven lower bound is .
This formula simplifies significantly when the upper right block matrix is the zero matrix. This formulation is useful when the matrices and have relatively simple inverse formulas (or pseudo inverses in the case where the blocks are not all square. In this special case, the block matrix inversion formula stated in full generality above becomes
By Neumann series
If a matrix A has the property that
then A is nonsingular and its inverse may be expressed by a Neumann series:
Truncating the sum results in an "approximate" inverse which may be useful as a preconditioner. Note that a truncated series can be accelerated exponentially by noting that the Neumann series is a geometric sum. As such, it satisfies
.
Therefore, only matrix multiplications are needed to compute terms of the sum.
More generally, if A is "near" the invertible matrix X in the sense that
then A is nonsingular and its inverse is
If it is also the case that has rank 1 then this simplifies to
p-adic approximation
If A is a matrix with integer or rational coefficients and we seek a solution in arbitrary-precision rationals, then a p-adic approximation method converges to an exact solution in , assuming standard matrix multiplication is used. The method relies on solving n linear systems via Dixon's method of p-adic approximation (each in ) and is available as such in software specialized in arbitrary-precision matrix operations, for example, in IML.
Reciprocal basis vectors method
Given an square matrix , , with rows interpreted as vectors (Einstein summation assumed) where the are a standard orthonormal basis of Euclidean space (), then using Clifford algebra (or Geometric Algebra) we compute the reciprocal (sometimes called dual) column vectors as the columns of the inverse matrix . Note that, the place "" indicates that "" is removed from that place in the above expression for . We then have , where is the Kronecker delta. We also have , as required. If the vectors are not linearly independent, then and the matrix is not invertible (has no inverse).
Derivative of the matrix inverse
Suppose that the invertible matrix A depends on a parameter t. Then the derivative of the inverse of A with respect to t is given by
To derive the above expression for the derivative of the inverse of A, one can differentiate the definition of the matrix inverse and then solve for the inverse of A:
Subtracting from both sides of the above and multiplying on the right by gives the correct expression for the derivative of the inverse:
Similarly, if is a small number then
More generally, if
then,
Given a positive integer ,
Therefore,
Generalized inverse
Some of the properties of inverse matrices are shared by generalized inverses (for example, the Moore–Penrose inverse), which can be defined for any m-by-n matrix.
Applications
For most practical applications, it is not necessary to invert a matrix to solve a system of linear equations; however, for a unique solution, it is necessary that the matrix involved be invertible.
Decomposition techniques like LU decomposition are much faster than inversion, and various fast algorithms for special classes of linear systems have also been developed.
Regression/least squares
Although an explicit inverse is not necessary to estimate the vector of unknowns, it is the easiest way to estimate their accuracy, found in the diagonal of a matrix inverse (the posterior covariance matrix of the vector of unknowns). However, faster algorithms to compute only the diagonal entries of a matrix inverse are known in many cases.
Matrix inverses in real-time simulations
Matrix inversion plays a significant role in computer graphics, particularly in 3D graphics rendering and 3D simulations. Examples include screen-to-world ray casting, world-to-subspace-to-world object transformations, and physical simulations.
Matrix inverses in MIMO wireless communication
Matrix inversion also plays a significant role in the MIMO (Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output) technology in wireless communications. The MIMO system consists of N transmit and M receive antennas. Unique signals, occupying the same frequency band, are sent via N transmit antennas and are received via M receive antennas. The signal arriving at each receive antenna will be a linear combination of the N transmitted signals forming an N × M transmission matrix H. It is crucial for the matrix H to be invertible for the receiver to be able to figure out the transmitted information.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Moore-Penrose Inverse Matrix
Linear algebra
Matrices
Determinants
Matrix theory | [
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217131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osroene | Osroene | Osroene or Osrhoene (; ) was an ancient region and state in Upper Mesopotamia. The Kingdom of Osroene, also known as the "Kingdom of Edessa" ( / "Kingdom of Urhay"), according to the name of its capital city (now Şanlıurfa, Turkey), existed from the 2nd century BC, up to the 3rd century AD, and was ruled by the Abgarid dynasty. Generally allied with the Parthians, the Kingdom of Osroene enjoyed semi-autonomy to complete independence from the years of 132 BC to AD 214. Though ruled by a dynasty of Arab origin, the kingdom's population was mainly Aramean, with a Greek and Parthian admixture. In addition, the city's cultural setting was fundamentally Aramaic, alongside strong Parthian influences, though some Arab cults were also attested at Edessa.
The ruling Abgarid dynasty was deposed by the Romans during the reign of Roman Emperor Caracalla (211–217), probably in 214 or 216, and Osroene was incorporated as a province, but it was briefly reestablished during the reign of Roman emperor Gordianus III (238-244). Christianity came early to Osroene. From 318, Osroene was a part of the Diocese of the East. By the 5th century, Edessa had become a main center of Syriac literature and learning. In 608, the Sasanian emperor, Khosrow II (590–628), took Osroene. It was briefly reconquered by the Byzantines, but in 638 it fell to the Arabs as part of the Muslim conquests.
Background and context
Osroene, or Edessa, was one of several states that acquired independence from the collapsing Seleucid Empire through a dynasty of the nomadic Nabataean Arab tribe from Southern Canaan and North Arabia, the Osrhoeni, from 136 BC. Osroene's name either derives from the name of this tribe, or from Orhay (Urhay), the original Aramaic name of Edessa. Arab influence had been strong in the region.
Osroene endured for four centuries, with twenty-eight rulers occasionally named "king" on their coins. Most of the kings of Osroene were called Abgar or Manu and settled in urban centers.
Osroene was generally allied with the Parthian Empire. After a period under the rule of the Parthian Empire, it was absorbed into the Roman Empire in 114 as a semiautonomous vassal state, and incorporated as a simple Roman province in 214. There is an apocryphal legend that Osroene was the first state to have accepted Christianity as state religion, but there is not enough evidence to support that claim.
Population and culture
Though most of Osroene's rulers were from the Abgarid dynasty of Arab origin, the kingdom's population was mainly Aramean, with a Greek and Parthian admixture. In addition, though Arab cults were attested at Edessa (the twins Monimos and Azizos), its cultural setting was fundamentally Aramaic, alongside strong Parthian influences. Thus, according to Maurice Sartre: "It would hence be absurd to regard Edessa as solely an Arab city, for its culture owed very little to the nomadic Arabs of the region". Later, within the Roman Empire, Edessa was the most important center of Syriac Christianity. Under the Nabataean dynasties, Osroëne became increasingly influenced by Syriac Christianity, and was a centre of local reaction against Hellenism.
In his writings, Pliny the Elder refers to the natives of Osroene and the Kingdom of Commagene as Arabs and the region as Arabia. Abgar II is called "an Arab phylarch" by Plutarch, while Abgar V is described as "king of the Arabs" by Tacitus.
The Edessene onomastic contains many Arabic names. The most common one in the ruling dynasty of Edessa being Abgar, a well-attested name among Arabic groups of antiquity. Some members of the dynasty bore Iranian names, while others had Arab names. Judah Segal notes that the names ending in "-u" are "undoubtedly Nabatean". The Abgarid dynasts spoke "a form of Aramaic".
It was in the region in which the legend of Abgar V originated.
In Roman sources
The area of the kingdom was perhaps roughly coterminous with that of the Roman province of Osrhoene. The great loop of the Euphrates was a natural frontier to the north and west. In the south Batnae was capital of the semi-autonomous principality of Anthemusia until its annexation by Rome, in AD 115. The eastern boundary is uncertain; it may have extended to Nisibis or even to Adiabene in the first century AD. Ḥarrān, however, only 40 km south of Edessa, always maintained its independent status as a Roman colonia.
Edessa, the capital of the ancient kingdom, was a fortress of considerable strength and a staging post both large and nearest to the Euphrates. It was an important road junction; an ancient highway, along which caravans carried merchandise from China and India to the West, met there a north-south road connecting the Armenian Highlands with Antioch. Inevitably, Edessa figured prominently on the international stage.
In 64 BC, as Pompey waged war on the Parthian Empire, Abgar II of Osrhoene had sided with the Romans when Lucius Afranius occupied Upper Mesopotamia. The king was initially an ally of the Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus in his campaign against the Parthians in 53 BC, but Roman historians allege that he betrayed Crassus by leading him to deviate from his safe route along the river and instead into an open desert, where the troops suffered from the barrenness and thus were vulnerable to cavalry attack. Abgar is said to have met with Surenas, the Parthian general, and informed him of the Roman movements. The enormous and infamous Battle of Carrhae followed and destroyed the entire Roman army. Just prior to the battle, Abgar made a pretext to ride away. However, modern historians have questioned whether Abgar intended to betray the Romans and instead may have simply been leading them along an old Arab trade route. According to a Syriac source, Abgar died later that year.
In the early 2nd century AD, King Abgar VII joined the Emperor Trajan's campaign into Mesopotamia and entertained him at court. The king later rebelled against the Romans, however, which led to the Roman general Lucius Quietus sacking Edessa and putting an end to Osrhoene's independence in 116. In 123, during the reign of Hadrian, the Abgarid dynasty was restored with the installation of Ma'nu VII, and Osroene was established as a client kingdom of the Empire. After the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 under Marcus Aurelius, forts were built and a Roman garrison was stationed in Nisibis (now Nusaybin. In 195, following a civil war in which the kingdom had supported his rival Pescennius Niger, Septimius Severus mounted an invasion and annexed the territory as a new province, making Nisibis the capital. However, the emperor did allow the king, Abgar XI, to retain the city of Edessa and a small territory surrounding it. In 213, the reigning king was deposed by Caracalla, and the remaining territory was incorporated into the Roman province of Osroene.
According to legends (without historical justification), by 201 AD or earlier, under King Abgar the Great, Osroene became the first Christian state. It is believed that the Gospel of Thomas emanated from Edessa around 140. Prominent early Christian figures have lived in and emerged from the region such as Tatian the Assyrian, who came to Edessa from Hadiab (Adiabene). He made a trip to Rome and returned to Edessa around 172-173. Tatian was the editor of the Diatessaron, which was the primary sacred text of Syriac-speaking Christianity until in the 5th century the bishops Rabbula and Theodoret suppressed it and substituted a revision of the Old Syriac Canonical Gospels (as in the Syriac Sinaiticus and Curetonian Gospels).
Then, Edessa was again brought under Roman control by Decius and it was made a center of Roman operations against the Sasanian Empire. Amru, possibly a descendant of Abgar, is mentioned as king in the Paikuli inscription, recording the victory of Narseh in the Sassanid civil war of 293. Historians identify that Amru as Amru ibn Adi, the fourth king of the Lakhmids, which was then still based in Harran, not yet moved to al-Hirah in southern Mesopotamia.
Many centuries later, Dagalaiphus and Secundinus duke of Osrhoene, accompanied Julian in his war against the Sasanian emperor, Shapur II, in the 4th century.
Roman province
The independence of the state ended probably in ; during Caracalla's reign the monarchy was abolished by the Roman Empire and Osroene was incorporated it as a province (colonia). It was a frontier province, lying close to the Persian empires with which the Romans were repeatedly at war, and was taken and retaken several times. As it was on the frontier it had a Roman legion stationed there. Legio III Parthica and its Castrum (homebase) may have been Rhesaina, but that is uncertain.
Following Emperor Diocletian's tetrarchy reform during his reign (284-305), it was part of the diocese of the East, in the praetorian prefecture of the same name.
According to the late-4th-century Notitia Dignitatum, it was headed by a governor of the rank of praeses, and it was also the seat of the dux Mesopotamiae, who ranked as vir illustris and commanded (c. 400) the following army units:
Equites Dalmatae Illyriciani, garrisoned at Ganaba.
Equites Promoti Illyriciani, Callinicum.
Equites Mauri Illyriciani, Dabana.
Equites Promoti indigenae, Banasam
Equites Promoti indigenae, Sina Iudaeorum.
Equites Sagittarii indigenae, Oraba.
Equites Sagittarii indigenae, Thillazamana.
Equites Sagittarii indigenae Medianenses, Mediana.
Equites Primi Osrhoeni, Rasin.
Praefectus legionis quartae Parthicae, Circesium.
(an illegible command, possibly Legio III Parthica), Apatna.
as well as, 'on the minor roll', apparently auxiliaries:
Ala Septima Valeria Praelectorum, Thillacama.
Ala Prima Victoriae, Tovia -contra Bintha.
Ala Secunda Paflagonum, Thillafica.
Ala Prima Parthorum, Resaia.
Ala Prima nova Diocletiana, inter Thannurin et Horobam.
Cohors Prima Gaetulorum, Thillaamana.
Cohors Prima Eufratensis, Maratha.
Ala Prima Salutaria, Duodecimo constituta.
According to Sozomen's Ecclesiastical History, "there were some very learned men who formerly flourished in Osroene, as for instance Bardaisan, who devised a heresy designated by his name, and his son Harmonius. It is related that this latter was deeply versed in Grecian erudition, and was the first to subdue his native tongue to meters and musical laws; these verses he delivered to the choirs" and that Arianism, a more successful heresy, met with opposition there.
Rulers
See also
Edessa
Arameans
Aramaic language
Syriac language
Syria (region)
Diocese of the Orient
References
Sources
External links
Notitia dignitatum
States and territories established in the 2nd century BC
States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century
Ancient Armenia
History of Assyria
Parthian Empire
132 BC
130s BC establishments
Roman client kingdoms
Roman buffer states
Edessa
Post-Imperial Assyria | [
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|
217133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability%20vector | Probability vector | In mathematics and statistics, a probability vector or stochastic vector is a vector with non-negative entries that add up to one.
The positions (indices) of a probability vector represent the possible outcomes of a discrete random variable, and the vector gives us the probability mass function of that random variable, which is the standard way of characterizing a discrete probability distribution.
Examples
Here are some examples of probability vectors. The vectors can be either columns or rows.
Geometric interpretation
Writing out the vector components of a vector as
the vector components must sum to one:
Each individual component must have a probability between zero and one:
for all . Therefore, the set of stochastic vectors coincides with the standard -simplex. It is a point if , a segment if , a (filled) triangle if , a (filled) tetrahedron , etc.
Properties
The mean of any probability vector is .
The shortest probability vector has the value as each component of the vector, and has a length of .
The longest probability vector has the value 1 in a single component and 0 in all others, and has a length of 1.
The shortest vector corresponds to maximum uncertainty, the longest to maximum certainty.
The length of a probability vector is equal to ; where is the variance of the elements of the probability vector.
See also
Stochastic matrix
Dirichlet distribution
References
Probability theory
Vectors (mathematics and physics) | [
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|
217138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20anatomy%20in%20the%2019th%20century | History of anatomy in the 19th century | The history of anatomy in the 19th century saw anatomists largely finalise and systematise the descriptive human anatomy of the previous century. The discipline also progressed to establish growing sources of knowledge in histology and developmental biology, not only of humans but also of animals.
Anatomical science
Sommerring
Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring originally published a clear, accurate and precise system in German (1791–1796), then in Latin (1794–1800). There was a second German edition in 1800–1801 and a further eight-volume edition (1841–1844) revised and with additional material by Th.L.W. Bischoff, Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle, E.H. Huschke, Theile, G.G. Valentin, , and Rudolph Wagner. The arrangement of the edition is:
Vol. 1: Wagner details the life, correspondence and literary writings of Sommerring;
Vol. 2: Anatomy of the bones and ligaments;
Vol. 3: Anatomy of the muscles and the vascular system by Theile;
Vol. 4: microscopic anatomy of the nervous system by Valentin, including the brain, the spinal cord, and the ganglia;
Vol. 5: Anatomy of the organs by Huschke – this part of the work had been left incomplete by Sommerring but he had left extensive material to work on;
Vol. 6: An entire and complete system of general anatomy, deduced from personal observation by Henle and other careful observers, the materials being in general new, and in all instances confirmed and rectified;
Vol. 7: Developmental biology of mammals and humans, by Bischoff;
Vol. 8: Pathological anatomy of the human body, by Vogel, but only the generalities of the subject.
This was translated into French by Jourdan, and published in 1846 under the name of Encyclopedie anatomique. The eighth volume was translated into English in the year 1847.
Bichat
The Anatomie Generale of Xavier Bichat is a monument of his scientific ability and scholarship. His Anatomie Descriptive is distinguished by clear and natural arrangement, precise and accurate description, and the general ingenuity with which the subject is treated. The physiological observations are in general correct, often novel, and always highly interesting. Bichat died during the preparation of the third volume and the work was completed by P.J. Roux and M.F.R. Buisson.
Gray
Henry Gray, an English anatomist and surgeon at St. George's Hospital, published Gray's Anatomy. With the artist abilities and help of Henry Vandyke Carter, Gray produced an inexpensive and accessible anatomy textbook for medical students. Dissecting unclaimed bodies from workhouse and hospital mortuaries through the Anatomy Act of 1832, the two worked for 18 months on what would form the basis of the book. Their work was first published in 1858.
Social and political issues
The growth of medical science and medical practice created an increased demand for human cadavers for use in medical colleges, particularly for anatomy demonstrations. Before the 19th century, most were bodies of executed criminals or, more rarely, corpses donated by relatives. The reason being, having the body dissected after death was considered to be a fate worse than death. The Murder Act of 1752 permitted that the bodies of murderers be dissected after death to contribute to medical knowledge. After the criminal was hanged, medical students would be there as the body was taken down from the gallows and would argue over who would dissect the body, making the anatomist as feared as the executioner himself. However, as demand began to outstrip supply, shortage of corpses often discouraged medical schools from scrutinizing their suppliers too closely. Criminal elements were attracted to the lucrative trade and resurrectionists, or body snatchers, resorted to grave robbing to supply the market. The scale of the problem can be seen from the 1831 confessions of the London Burkers, who admitted to stealing 500–1000 bodies for anatomists, over a twelve-year career. They received 8–10 guineas for each cadaver accepted.
The practices of the body snatchers caused widespread fear and revulsion as the indignities and humiliation of exhumation were compounded by the horror of being the subject of dissection. The criminal temptations ultimately led to the 1827–1828 West Port murders in Edinburgh, UK, where likely candidates were killed and sold for cash. The murders led to the passing of the Anatomy Act 1832 which finally provided for an adequate and legitimate supply of corpses.
Bibliography
Burch, Druin (2007). Digging up the Dead: The Life and Times of Astley Cooper, an Extraordinary Surgeon. Chatto & Windus, London.
MacDonald, H.P. (2005) Human Remains: Episodes in Human Dissection
Porter, R. (1997) The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present , pp314–320
Richardson, R. (2001) Death, Dissection and the Destitute
Rosner, L. (2010) The Anatomy Murders: Being the True and Spectacular History of Edinburgh's Notorious Burke and Hare and of the Man of Science Who Abetted Them in the Commission of Their Most Heinous Crimee
Sappol, M. (2002) A Traffic of Dead Bodies: Anatomy and Embodied Social Identity in Nineteenth-century America
References
External links
Account of public destruction of an anatomy school
Animation of 19th century illustrations showing head dissections
19th Century
Anatomy | [
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|
217141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Got%C5%8D%20Islands | Gotō Islands | The are Japanese islands in the East China Sea, off the western coast of Kyūshū. They are part of Nagasaki Prefecture.
Geography
There are 140 islands, including five main ones: , , , , and .
The group of islands runs approximately from Osezaki Lighthouse, Fukue Island to Tsuwazaki Lighthouse, Nakadōri Island. Its center is near Naru Island at about .
To the north is Tsushima Island in the Tsushima Strait and to the east is Kyūshū and the rest of Nagasaki Prefecture. It is about from the port of Nagasaki. The Tsushima Current (a branch of the Kuroshio) passes around the islands.
The southern of the two principal islands, Fukue, measures approximately north-to-south by east-to-west; the northern, Nakadōri Island, measures approximately north-to-south by east-to-west at its widest point. Most of Nakadōri Island, however, is quite narrow, measuring less than wide for much of its length. Some dome-shaped hills command the old castle town of Fukue. The islands are highly cultivated; deer and other game abound, and trout are plentiful in the mountain streams.
As a result of a merger on August 1, 2004, the city of Gotō was established. It occupies Fukue, Hisaka, and Naru islands, and seven inhabited ones. The town of Shin-Kamigotō, itself the product of a simultaneous, separate merger in 2004, occupies Nakadōri and Wakamatsu islands, two of the five main islands of the Gotō archipelago, in addition to the small inhabited islands of Arifuku, Kashiragashima, Hinoshima, Ryōzegaura, and Kirinoko and a great number of uninhabited islets.
The small island of Kabajima is east of Hisaka Island and northeast of Fukue Island. It belongs to Gotō City.
Demographics
In 2005, there were 76,311 inhabitants on the islands.
An important historical element is the roots of Christianity in Japan within the islands. Some of the inhabitants are descended from Christians of the Catholic Church ("Kakure Kirishitan"), who came to their faith upon the introduction of Christianity to Japan via Portuguese missionaries in the late 16th century. These Japanese were many times persecuted and tortured by the Japanese shogunates for their beliefs, all the way into the early Meiji period. Until recently Hanare Kirishitans still lived there; the majority either returned to Catholicism after it was legalized in the 19th century or reverted to earlier practices. The islands have numerous Catholic churches, the oldest and most famous of which is Dōzaki church, built in 1868 and located about north of Fukue port. The islands are part of the Archdiocese of Nagasaki.
Products
Marine products, such as oysters and sea urchins, are the main products of the island. The natural camellia oil of Fukuejima is famous in Japan for cosmetic use. Cankoro-mochi, simple and traditional confections made from mochi and sliced and dried sweet potato is a kind of "soul food" for Goto natives. Cancoro-mochi is a good, inexpensive souvenir. It becomes sweeter when sliced (5 mm – 1 cm thick) and toasted in a toaster oven.
Tourism
Fukue city is a typical jokamachi in Japan, but the most interesting point is that the old castle in Fukue (called Ishida Castle) was built last in Japanese history. The year after the castle was completed, Japan opened their nation because of the Meiji Restoration. Today, the castle is used as the Goto high school and is contributing to the education of young Goto natives. Most of the castle area inside the stone walls are opened for public, you'll be able to see even the school grounds (which is also old castle heritage) if you ask for permission from the school administration office.
Transportation
The Gotō-Fukue Airport (FUJ/RJFE) is on Fukue Island.
Ferry services from Nagasaki and Sasebo are offered by Kyusyu Shosen Co. Ltd. Both standard ferry and hydrofoil services operate.
There are also regular bus services on Fukue island.
See also
Barakamon—Anime/manga series set on Fukue Island.
Hidden Christian Sites in the Nagasaki Region
Citations
General references
External links
Goto city tourism association
Archipelagoes of Japan
Archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean
Islands of Nagasaki Prefecture
Islands of the East China Sea
Japanese archipelago | [
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|
217149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing%20power | Purchasing power | Purchasing power is the amount of goods and services that can be purchased with a unit of currency. For example, if one had taken one unit of currency to a store in the 1950s, it would have been possible to buy a greater number of items than would be the case today, indicating that the currency had a greater purchasing power in the 1950s.
If one's monetary income stays the same, but the price level increases, the purchasing power of that income falls. Inflation does not always imply falling purchasing power of one's money income since the latter may rise faster than the price level. A higher real income means a higher purchasing power since real income refers to the income adjusted for inflation.
Traditionally, the purchasing power of money depended heavily upon the local value of gold and silver, but was also made subject to the availability and demand of certain goods on the market. Most modern fiat currencies, like US dollars, are traded against each other and commodity money in the secondary market for the purpose of international transfer of payment for goods and services.
As Adam Smith noted, having money gives one the ability to "command" others' labor, so purchasing power to some extent is power over other people, to the extent that they are willing to trade their labor or goods for money or currency.
For a price index, its value in the base year is usually normalized to a value of 100. The purchasing power of a unit of currency, say a dollar, in a given year, expressed in dollars of the base year, is 100/P, where P is the price index in that year. So, by definition, the purchasing power of a dollar decreases as the price level rises.
Adam Smith used an hour's labour as the purchasing power unit, so value would be measured in hours of labour required to produce a given quantity (or to produce some other good worth an amount sufficient to purchase the same).
EUROSTAT defines purchasing power standard (PPS) as an artificial currency unit.
See also
Big Mac Index
Collective buying power
Constant purchasing power accounting
Consumer price index
Consumerism
Consumption (economics)
Fair trade
Free trade
Group buying
Group purchasing organization
Measuring economic worth over time
Purchasing power of the U.S. dollar
Purchasing power parity
References
External links
MeasuringWorth.com has a calculator with different measures for bringing values in Pound sterling from 1264 to the present and in US Dollars from 1774 up to any year until the present. The Measures of Worth page discusses which would be the most appropriate for different things.
Purchasing Power Calculator by Fiona Maclachlan, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project. | [
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217151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3n%2C%20Guanajuato | León, Guanajuato | León () is the most populous city and municipal seat of the municipality of León in the Mexican state of Guanajuato. In the 2020 Intercensal Survey, INEGI reported 1,721,626 people living in the municipality of León, making it the fourth-most populous municipality in Mexico. The metropolitan area of León recorded a population of 2,140,094 in the 2020 state Census, making it the seventh most populous metropolitan area in Mexico. León is part of the macroregion of Bajío within the Central Mexican Plateau.
León has a strong leather industry, offering shoes, boots, belts, jackets, and other leather accessories to national and international markets. The leather industry earned its inhabitants the nickname of "green belly" (panzaverde in Spanish) because of the green tainting in the workers' bodies resulting from treating leather. Its first-class services and hotel industry make it an important commercial center in Mexico with numerous options for entertainment, gastronomy, leisure activities, arts, and recreation. It is also considered one of the most environmentally friendly cities in Mexico and has a high number of cyclists, in part because of integrating a network of bike lanes into the SIT system. In March 2012, it received an award as "City Water Champion", mainly due to great progress in the areas of sanitation, wastewater reuse, and energy cogeneration from biogas.
Geography
Climate
Leon generally has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cwa) with summer rainfall (according to Köppen climate classification, Cwa) that closely borders on a semi-arid climate. The average annual temperature is , the warmest month is May with a maximum average of , and the coolest month is January with a minimum average temperature of . Outside the city microclimate island, the ranges tend to be higher, with maximum averages reaching higher than in the city, and minimum averages lowered by or more. In the villages located in between the northern mountains the climate changes; it is considered subtropical highland climate (Cwb according to Köppen climate classification), the average annual temperature is around .
Leon averages of precipitation annually, which mainly occurs during the summer and early autumn (from late May through October) generally with thunderstorms in the evening. There is usually a discrepancy about whether Leon's valley is either sub-humid or semi-arid. Depending on the methodology, it can be considered as being either one or the other. With Köppen's methodology, there needs to be more than of annual precipitation for Leon to be considered as humid subtropical; according to several weather stations it may have both (humid subtropical and semiarid) terminologies applied to it. The years considered in the study may also be a determinant factor (more frequently used for international purposes is a 30 years data compilation). Years of average rainfall are rare; the usual pattern is bi-modal, with some large string of dry years usually related to La Niña phenomenon (slightly higher than ) followed by other years (around 5) related to El Niño that make up the average (with higher than ). Snowfall is extremely rare. The latest snowfall recorded in Leon was in 1997, although there have been other years of registered slushy snow since 1997.
Economy
The city of Leon is well known for its leather and footwear industry. But in the last decade, the city has also developed important economic activity in the automotive industry.
Industrial parks
About 70 percent of all shoes made in Mexico come from León and the surrounding area. In addition to the leather works, there are also industrial chemical, plastic, polymer, transportation, and container companies. The presence of the automotive industry includes a General Motors plant in the nearby municipality of Silao. In the financial sector, León is home to the national headquarters of Banco del Bajío, owned by Salvador Oñate, and to the regional headquarters of Banamex and HSBC, among other banks.
Customs facility
A newly built facility within GTO Inland Port's premises speeds up the logistics process. Clearing customs in a border city or seaport is no longer a requirement for companies located in GTO Inland Port; now they use this very convenient facility.
Rail container facility
A rail container yard is now offering inter-modal services for rail transportation. The facility is operated by the largest rail company in Mexico and has one of the longest rail spurs in the country.
Expositions
In the Poliforum there are trade fairs throughout the year. The principal two are Sapica (Shoe Fair), and ANPIC (suppliers of the shoe industry).
History
In the León area there are ten distinct archeological zones, dating from the pre-classic Mesoamerican period. Most of these are identified with the Chupícuaro culture. By the Classic period, the area was under Teotihuacan and Toltec influence. In the 13th century, the Chichimecas, mostly of the Guamare and Guachichil subgroups, overran the area, migrating from an area of what is now San Luis Potosí. They remained through the Colonial period.
In 1530, Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán arrived with allied Tarasco Indians to the area, naming it Nuestra Señora. Homesteads were granted by the governor of Nueva Galicia Francisco Vásquez de Coronado to Spaniards Rodrigo de Vázquez and Juan de Jasso. Farming and cattle-raising were introduced here around 1546 by the Spaniards, but these settlers were under constant threat by the Chichimecas, who recognized the Spanish as invaders. These settlers requested assistance from the viceregal authorities in Mexico City.
As a response, viceroy Martín Enríquez de Almanza ordered the founding of a city here, with the name of León in 1575. To carry out the order, Juan Bautista de Orozco founded the village of León on 20 January 1576, creating its first town council and laying out its initial streets. In 1580, it attained the rank of "alcadía mayor" meaning it has governing authority of much of the land and smaller towns surrounding it from the Sierra de Comanja to the Lerma River. For example, two other towns founded in the area were San Miguel and Coecillo. In San Miguel, the Spaniards settled the Otomi peoples and in Coecillo were settled the Purépechas, Mexicas and the Chichimecas that did not oppose Spanish rule. As the population of the area grew, a number of municipalities would eventually break off, such as San Francisco del Rincón, Purísima del Rincón (Purísima Concepción), Cd. Manuel Doblado (San Pedro Piedra Gorda), Huanímaro, Abasolo, Cuerámaro and Pénjamo.
In 1582, the first hospital of San Cosme y San Damián was established by Father Espino.
The Jesuits arrived to León in 1731, founding the "Compañía Vieja" which is now the site of the Temple of the Immaculate. They also constructed the Temple of the New Company, which would become the cathedral, however they never finished it as they were expelled from Mexico in 1767. On 2 July 1732 arrived an image of Our Most Holy Mother of Light. She would later be declared the patron saint of the city, in 1849.
The population of the area suffered epidemics in 1643, droughts in 1630 and 1712–1714, famines in 1714 and 1786, and flooding in 1637, 1749, 1762, and 1803.
Independence forces under José Rafael de Iriarte arrived to the town on 4 October 1810. However, two months later royalist forces under Felix Calleja retook the locality, with insurrectionist sympathizers facing reprisals. About 2,000 insurgents on horses attacked the town but were repulsed by Count Pérez Gálvez. Royalist forces were attacked here in 1817 by Francisco Javier Mina without success. The town remained in royalist hands until the end of the Mexican War of Independence, when Agustín de Iturbide arrived. The town did not celebrate its first Grito de Dolores to mark independence until 1825. In 1827 it became one of the four "departments" of the newly created state of Guanajuato, and in 1830, it gained city status.
In 1840, Father Ignacio Aguado founded the College of San Francisco de Sales and the College of La Madre Santísima was founded in 1844.
During La Reforma War, the city changed hands various times between Liberal and Conservative forces between 1858 and 1860. The most notable battle of that war here was when General José Iniesta attacked the town on 18 February 1859. In that same year, León even separated for a time from the rest of the state of Guanajuato.
In 1862, the bishopric of León was founded, separating the city of León and nine other municipalities such as Irapuato, Guanajuato and Dolores Hidalgo from the bishopric of Michoacán. Bishop Diez de Sollano opened the Conciliar Seminary in 1864. This bishop consecrated the Basilica Cathedral in 1866, even though it was not completed, giving the image of the Virgin of the Light a permanent home.
From 1863 to 1866, the French occupied León during the French Intervention, with Emperor Maximillian visiting the city in 1864. His arrival was much celebrated here, with fireworks and a hot air balloon exhibition put on by the Alemán brothers. However, when Liberal forces finally had permanent control over the town, two incidents occurred. On 30 September 1867, Coronel Cecilio Delgado Estrada ordered his men to shoot over the heads of people who prayed in the streets, causing some to be wounded. Another incident of this type occurred in 1877. The second was more permanent. The Liberals decommissioned the convent and college of Saints Peter and Paul, converting it into offices for city government. It remains such to this day.
On 2 January 1946, a mob gathered in the plaza in front of the municipal palace to protest elections seen as illegitimate. These protesters were fired upon, killing many. This plaza has been named the "Plaza of the Martyrs" in their honor.
Government
Notable sites
Cathedral
The main church is called the Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of the Light and is the seat of the Archdiocese of Leon. Construction of the church was begun in 1746 by the Jesuits and is a combination of Baroque and Neo Classic architectural styles. Construction was halted only eight months after it began when the Jesuit order was expelled from Mexico by the Spanish Crown. The Obregon family, however, took over its construction, continuing into the 19th century. The Archdiocese of Leon was created in 1864, with its first bishop, José María de Jesús Diez de Sollano y Dávalos helping to get the towers and cupola completed as he chose the church as the seat. It was finally completed and consecrated on 16 March 1866. Pope Benedict XVI officiated a mass here in 2012.
Expiatorio
Its full name is the Santuario Expiatorio del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús (Expiatory Sanctuary of the Sacred Heart of Jesus). Construction of this shrine was begun in 1920 by Bernardo Chavez with the support of Bishop Emeterio Valverde y Téllez. It is neo-Gothic in design, based on the old European medieval cathedrals but much of the outside wallspace is without decoration. Its work was halted by the Cristero Wars. Since then construction has continued off and on and it is considered 90% complete. An important source of income for the shrine's construction is the sale of crypts. This practice was begun in 1924. A chapel dedicated to the Virgin of Lourdes was begun in 1935 and later a chapel dedicated to the Virgen of Guadalupe, which is separate from the main building, built between 1935 and 1939. A shrine with stained glass windows includes local allegories.
Municipal Palace
The current Municipal Palace is of Ionic architectural style and occupies part of the site of the old "Colegio Grande del Seminario de los Padres Paulinos" (Grand Seminary College for Pauline Priests) who had to abandon the city in 1860.
From 1861 to 1867 it was a military barracks. After the French Intervention, it was remodeled to conserve its original architecture by Coronel Octaviano Rosado to become the seat of government on 21 March 1869. The patio of the building contains (in 1972) a bronze statue of Benito Juárez to commemorate the centennial of his death. Since then, the building has had a number of additions such as the dome that now covers this patio, and a number of murals. These murals were painted in 1972 and 1973 by Jesus Gallardo covering the walls of the main stairwell and the hallway of the upper floor around the patio.
Millennium's Gate
This monument was built to celebrate the arrival of the new millennium and has become a landmark for arrival into the city. There was some concern that the monument would not be ready for New Year's 2000, however the 45-meter tall tower on five plinths was completed on time. It was built in a 5,400 square meter plaza, planted with trees. The project cost 4.5 million pesos.
Arch of the Causeway of the Heroes (Arco de la Calzada de los Héroes)
This arch (Arco de la Calzada de los Héroes, in Spanish), topped by a bronze lion, began construction in 1896 and has been modified a number of times since then. The first lion was added in 1943 by Francisco Lozornio Castillo made of bricks and mortar. This was replaced by the bronze one in 1958. The idea for a bronze lion was that of the matador Antonio Velázquez, a native of Leon, whose bravery in the ring earned him the nickname of the "Heart of Leon" ("Corazón de León", in Spanish). Not long before his death in 1959, he complained that the brick lion should be replaced with a better work of art, causing something of a commotion in the Leon community. This caught the attention of sculptor Humberto Peraza Ojeda who made the one that sits atop the arch today.
Forum Cultural Guanajuato
It is a cultural complex, entertainment and artistic formation space that promotes the professionalization of regional artists, the formation of audiences, as well as cultural tourism. It has several spaces:
Wigberto Jiménez Moreno State Library: With more than 170 thousand volumes, the State Institute of Culture offers the services of this library with a capacity to attend up to 2 thousand 400 users per day, through: General reading room, Children's Library and Baby's Library, Specialized Collections and Braille Room.
Guanajuato's Art and History Museum: The cultural identity, the historical roots, the evolution and the artistic production of Guanajuato, from prehistory to the present day, are the collection and vocation of this Museum that has: Regional history and art room, Sculpture room, Temporary Exhibition Hall, Mateo Herrera Auditorium and Bookstore.
Bicentennial Theater: Being considered as the best opera theater in Latin America, it is an avant-garde venue with the capacity to accommodate 1,500 people and where you can enjoy various artistic expressions such as: Opera, Music, Theater and Dance.
Academic Unit for Culture and Art: Attached to the University of Guanajuato, it offers the following programs: Degree in Culture and Art, Diploma, Workshops and Courses.
Explora Park
This recreational park is tailored towards families and has lots of walking paths and green grass. There is a body of water in the park with a bridge over which people can feed ducks with food provided by the park. There is also a zip line, life-size aircraft, and a science building.
Transportation
Del Bajío International Airport
The Del Bajío International Airport (Guanajuato International Airport) serves the city, although it is located in the neighboring city of Silao.
Cycling
The city's bicycle paths are extensive. Leon is one of the most bicycle-friendly large cities in Latin America and has an extraordinary track record in active transport, keeping the biking and walking share above 39% of the total trips, one of the highest values in Latin American cities.
Integrated Transportation System
Integrated Transportation System (ITS) (Sistema Integrado de Transporte in Spanish) refers to the development and implementation of a Bus rapid transit system named “Optibús”. Since 28 September 2003, the Integrated Transport Optibús has operated despite an existing need for a subway system "Metro", which originally was planned construction with two lines.
The system was the first of its kind in Mexico. Leon was the first city in the country with a BRT system, before it was implemented in Mexico City as Metrobús and Guadalajara as Macrobús.
Optibús System
The current route system is divided into four categories. These are:
Trunk routes: They consist of eight main lines that cross the city from end to end. The buses are also known as Orugas (caterpillars in Spanish) due to its articulated midsection. They have capacity for 175 passengers. The Optibús transit system consists of 52 stations located in the central area of the main avenues of the city.
Feeder and auxiliary routes: These are urban bus routes that were integrated into the regular system, as a stop as they have one or more transfer stations, and are identified by the letter A (feeder route / yellow decals) or X (auxiliary route / blue decals).
Conventional routes: These routes circulate through most of the city and are distinguished by having the corporative colors from its owners: orange, red, pink, purple, and green.
Suburban roads: Roads circulate outside or on the city edge communities as Comanjilla, Duarte, Loza de los Padres, La Hacienda, etc.
There are currently three permanent transfer stations (San Jeronimo, Delta de Jerez and San Juan Bosco), two micro-stations (Santa Rita - Parque Juarez), which are the endpoints for trunk routes, feeder routes and auxiliary routes. Passengers at these stations are allowed to transfer without cost from any of these lines.
In addition, as a control measure, the “PagoBús” system has been instituted; this is an electronic card system that allows users to streamline their access to stations and bus and thus save money. There are 2 types of cards: Preferential and General, cost rates with 50 and 15% lower total cost.
The environmental benefits of the system are also high, not least because the system introduced articulated buses using Euro IV technology and ultra low sulfur, resulting in 5,600 tons of CO2 reduction annually.
Public transportation statistics
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in León, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 78 min. 21% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 20 min, while 40% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 5.1 km, while 2% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.
Education and research
Universities
Universidad de Guanajuato
National Autonomous University of Mexico
Ibero-American University
Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education
[Universidad Tecnológica de México]] (UNITEC) Campus León
Instituto Politécnico Nacional (UPIIG-IPN) Campus Guanajuato
Polytechnic of Guanajuato
Instituto Tecnológico de León
[https://www.universidaddeleon.edu.mx/ Universidad de León
Universidad De La Salle Bajío
Universidad Tecnológica de León
Sports
Football
The city's main professional Association football team is Club León, which is one of the foremost teams in Mexico, eight-time league champion, now playing in the Liga MX. The team's stadium, Estadio León, also bears a Catalan name: Nou Camp. FIFA World Cup games have been played there (1970 and 1986).
A new franchise with the name of Curtidores appeared in the Primera División A in the mid-1990s, but, after being champion in 1999 and earning the right to play in the Primera División, was sold and moved to Puebla to become Puebla, F.C. In 2007 a new franchise named Union de Curtidores began playing at Segunda división.
Nowadays, there are several football teams in the city playing in the Tercera División: Atlético ECCA, Juventud Cuerera and Conmudaj, among some others. Club Leon also has a women's section that plays in Liga MX Femenil.
Rally Mexico (WRC)
Since 2004 the city has hosted the headquarters of Rally Mexico located at the Centro de Convenciones Poliforum Leon, which is one round of the World Rally Championship. Thousands of fans camp at the nearby Sierra de Lobos and Sierra de Guanajuato mountains to watch the rally; the service park is also located and visited by fans at the Poliforum Leon. The Rally takes place in three cities: Guanajuato, Silao and León.
Basketball
Since 2004, León has a basketball team, Lechugueros, which plays in the Liga Nacional de Baloncesto Profesional (LNBP). They play in the Domo de la Feria (formerly known as Auditorio Municipal). Before this team, the city had other professional basketball teams: Lechugueros (original franchise), Zapateros, Pony-León and Atléticos. These teams participated in the CIMEBA (Circuito Mexicano de Básquetbol), which was the main basketball league of Mexico in the 1970s and 1980s.
Baseball
León had two baseball teams in the Liga Mexicana de Beisbol: Cachorros de León, in the late 1970s, and Bravos de León, in the late 80's. Bravos, after becoming champions of the league in 1990, and due to financial problems, were sold and moved to Minatitlán, Veracruz. After many years of unsuccessful attempts to bring back baseball to Leon it was announced on November 1, 2016, by the assembly of presidents of the Mexican League, the approval the entry of Leon, Guanajuato, subject to certain conditions. The Bravos De Leon returned to play in 2017.
Tennis
León has been a host city for the yearly ATP Challenger Tour since 1992.
Golf
Leon hosts an annual event on the Web.com Tour. In 2015 the event was held from April 13–19.
Notable natives and residents
Columba Bush, wife of former Florida governor and 2016 presidential candidate Jeb Bush. They met in 1970 when he was teaching English in León.
Chucho Castillo, world champion boxer
María Grever, composer
Teo González, comedian and former football player
Lucía Méndez, entertainer
Juan José Origel, entertainer
Felipe Zetter, Mexican-born football player Club Atlas & Mexico national football team, 1950 FIFA World Cup
Twin towns – sister cities
León is twinned with:
Bogotá, Colombia
Cangas de Onís, Spain
Havana, Cuba
Irving, United States
Laredo, United States
Las Vegas, United States
León, Nicaragua
León, Spain
Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
San Diego, United States
Suzhou, China
Fermo, Italy
References
Bibliography
External links
Official Portal de León website.
Cities in Mexico
Municipalities of Guanajuato
Populated places established in 1576
1576 establishments in New Spain | [
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|
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