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217914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rote%20learning | Rote learning | Rote learning is a memorization technique based on repetition. The methods resets on the premise that the recall of repeated material becomes faster the more one repeats it. Some of the alternatives to rote learning include meaningful learning, associative learning, spaced repetition and active learning.
Versus critical thinking
Rote learning is widely used in the mastery of foundational knowledge. Examples of school topics where rote learning is frequently used include phonics in reading, the periodic table in chemistry, multiplication tables in mathematics, anatomy in medicine, cases or statutes in law, basic formulae in any science, etc. By definition, rote learning eschews comprehension, so by itself it is an ineffective tool in mastering any complex subject at an advanced level. For instance, one illustration of rote learning can be observed in preparing quickly for exams, a technique which may be colloquially referred to as "cramming".
Rote learning is sometimes disparaged with the derogative terms parrot fashion, regurgitation, cramming, or mugging because one who engages in rote learning may give the wrong impression of having understood what they have written or said. It is strongly discouraged by many new curriculum standards. For example, science and mathematics standards in the United States specifically emphasize the importance of deep understanding over the mere recall of facts, which is seen to be less important. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics stated: More than ever, mathematics must include the mastery of concepts instead of mere memorization and the following of procedures. More than ever, school mathematics must include an understanding of how to use technology to arrive meaningfully at solutions to problems instead of endless attention to increasingly outdated computational tedium.However, advocates of traditional education have criticized the new American standards as slighting learning basic facts and elementary arithmetic, and replacing content with process-based skills. In math and science, rote methods are often used, for example to memorize formulas. There is greater understanding if students commit a formula to memory through exercises that use the formula rather than through rote repetition of the formula. Newer standards often recommend that students derive formulas themselves to achieve the best understanding. Nothing is faster than rote learning if a formula must be learned quickly for an imminent test and rote methods can be helpful for committing an understood fact to memory. However, students who learn with understanding are able to transfer their knowledge to tasks requiring problem-solving with greater success than those who learn only by rote....
On the other side, those who disagree with the inquiry-based philosophy maintain that students must first develop computational skills before they can understand concepts of mathematics. These people would argue that time is better spent practicing skills rather than in investigations inventing alternatives, or justifying more than one correct answer or method. In this view, estimating answers is insufficient and, in fact, is considered to be dependent on strong foundational skills. Learning abstract concepts of mathematics is perceived to depend on a solid base of knowledge of the tools of the subject. Thus, these people believe that rote learning is an important part of the learning process.
By nation and culture
While the system is widely practiced in schools in Hong Kong, China, Brazil, Canada, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Singapore, Japan, Romania, Italy, South Korea, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Malta, Myanmar, Kenya, Greece, and Vietnam, it has been criticized by numerous academics.
In computer science
Rote learning is also used to describe a simple learning pattern used in machine learning, although it does not involve repetition, unlike the usual meaning of rote learning. The machine is programmed to keep a history of calculations and compare new input against its history of inputs and outputs, retrieving the stored output if present. This pattern requires that the machine can be modeled as a pure function — always producing same output for same input — and can be formally described as follows:
f() → () → store ((),())
Rote learning was used by Samuel's Checkers on an IBM 701, a milestone in the use of artificial intelligence.
See also Memoization.
Learning methods for school
The flashcard, outline, and mnemonic device are traditional tools for memorizing course material and are examples of rote learning.
See also
References
External links
Academic pressure in East Asian culture
Education reform
Learning methods
Memory
Pedagogy | [
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217916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive%20vote%20of%20no%20confidence | Constructive vote of no confidence | The constructive vote of no confidence (, ) is a variation on the motion of no confidence that allows a parliament to withdraw confidence from a head of government only if there is a positive majority for a prospective successor. The principle is intended to ensure governments' stability by making sure that a replacement has enough parliamentary support to govern.
The concept was introduced on a national scale in West Germany's 1949 constitution which remains in force after the German reunification; it has been adopted since the 1970s in other nations as Spain, Hungary, Lesotho, Israel, Poland, Slovenia, Albania and Belgium.
Germany
Governments in the post-WW1 Weimar Republic were very unstable. As there was no election threshold for the Reichstag, it was possible to get a seat with as little as 0.4 percent of the vote. This resulted in a fragmented parliament, making it difficult for a government to retain a majority. Furthermore, as the Kaiserreich had not been a parliamentary system, the politicians who had served in the pre-war Reichstag had little experience with coalition governments which were an absolute necessity given the fractured political landscape. The parties representing the political center (SPD, Zentrum and Progressive People's Party) had come together for the Reichstag Peace Resolution during World War I and experienced cross-party cooperation in the :de:Interfraktioneller Ausschuss, but those efforts were directed against the government of Kaiser Oberste Heeresleitung and chancellor, not the work of a coalition of parties supporting a government agenda with difficult Realpolitik considerations. In addition, those parties only achieved a parliamentary majority (the so called Weimar Coalition) once in the history of the Weimar Republic - in the inaugural Weimar National Assembly. Despite the name, the Weimar Coalition was not the most common type of government during the Weimar Republic, Germany instead being governed by center right coalitions including the German People's Party (monarchist and thus opposed to the Republican Weimar Coalition in 1919) as well as the Center Party and the German Democratic Party with either the social democrats or the far right German National People's Party joining those coalitions or providing confidence and supply to a minority government. Under the Weimar Constitution, a Chancellor (or Reichskanzler as he was then called) would frequently be voted out of office without a successor in sight, often over trivial policy differences or personal grudges. While in the German Empire (1871-1918) the chancellor was appointed or dismissed exclusively on the say-so of the emperor, the Reichstag had no formal mechanism of holding the chancellor accountable. When Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg had drawn the ire of the Reichstag majority over his misshandling of the Zabern Affair, they voted that they had lost their confidence in him, but the Kaiser wanted him to stay chancellor and the Reichstag had no recourse on the matter. The framers of the Weimar constitution explicitly inserted a provision that the chancellor needed the confidence of the Reichstag. However, the constitution also contained the :de:Ersatzkaiser in the very strong role of the Reichspräsident who could hire and fire chancellors at will just as the Kaiser had been entitled to. A Weimar Republic chancellor thus needed the support of both the president and the Reichstag and neither needed to present a workable alternative or consult the other when dismissing the chancellor. This proved especially problematic after the 1925 German presidential election made the octogenarian right wing monarchist officer Paul von Hindenburg president, a man who frequently clashed with and tried to undermine the SPD, the biggest party in the Reichstag from 1919 to 1932. In less than 14 years of the Republic, there was a succession of 14 Chancellors with 20 governments. Many of them were forced to rely on the emergency provisions of Article 48 just to conduct the basic business of government; in the latter years, this frequently led to the imposition of cabinets dependent on the confidence of the President, Paul von Hindenburg. This instability was helped by and seen as contributing to the rise of the Nazi Party. After the 1930 German Reichstag election there was no longer any workable government majority due to the Communist Party of Germany (then holding on to the Social fascism thesis and thus unwilling to form a Popular Front Government) and the Nazi party holding 184 out of 577 seats between them and them frequently cooperating cynically on motions to disrupt procedures and hamper the government. After the July 1932 German Reichstag election things turned from bad to worse as the Nazis and the Communists now combined for 319 out of 605 seats, giving them the power to vote down any motion and dismiss every government through a vote of no confidence without being able (or willing) to propose any constructive measures of their own.
However, the Free State of Prussia (by far Germany's largest and most populous) had a slightly different constitutional setup at the time, which required a positive majority in favor of a new government to unseat the sitting government. Thus Otto Braun served as Prime Minister of Prussia from 1920 to the Preußenschlag coup d'etat in 1932 with only two interruptions, providing much more democratic stability in Prussia than at the Reich level.
To prevent the type of instability seen on the Reich level during the Weimar Republic and taking a cue from the Prussian model, two provisions were included in the 1949 German constitution, the Basic Law () They stipulate that Bundeskanzler (Federal Chancellor), as the function is now called, may be removed from office by majority vote of the Bundestag ("Federal Diet", the German Federal Parliament) only if a prospective successor also has the support of a majority:
Article 67. (1) The Bundestag can express its lack of confidence in the Federal Chancellor only by electing a successor with the majority of its members and by requesting the Federal President to dismiss the Federal Chancellor. The Federal President must comply with the request and appoint the person elected.
(2) Forty-eight hours must elapse between the motion and the election.
Article 68. (1) If a motion of a Federal Chancellor for a vote of confidence is not assented to by the majority of the members of the Bundestag, the Federal President may, upon the proposal of the Federal Chancellor, dissolve the Bundestag within twenty-one days. The right to dissolve shall lapse as soon as the Bundestag with the majority of its members elects another Federal Chancellor.
(2) Forty-eight hours must elapse between the motion and the vote thereon.
As a result, the failure of a motion of confidence does not automatically force either the resignation of the cabinet or a new election. Rather, the cabinet may continue as a minority government if there is not a positive majority for a prospective successor. This mechanism of triggering early elections was used three times at the federal level, in 1972 after Willy Brandt narrowly survived an attempt to unseat him in 1983 after Helmut Kohl wished to cement his ascension via constructive vote of no confidence (the FDP had switched from supporting Helmut Schmidt and the SPD to backing Kohl and the CDU/CSU two years after the 1980 German federal election) and in 2005 when Gerhard Schröder wished to obtain a new mandate from the electorate in the face of falling poll numbers, criticism from members of his own party and the loss in the 2005 North Rhine-Westphalia state election (a state his party had governed since 1966). While president Horst Köhler at first hesitated to grant Schröder's request to dissolve the Bundestag, he ultimately did so and the German Federal Constitutional Court refused to undo Köhler's action as it deemed the issue a political question tacitly endorsing the new convention.
For a motion of no confidence, a majority of all Bundestag members is needed to elect a new chancellor, so not participating in the vote has the same effect as voting no (or abstaining). This was of importance in the first, ultimately unsuccessful use of this instrument.
Also, the Federal President may dissolve the legislature only after the failure of a motion of confidence, and the legislature may not dissolve itself either. This provision is intended to limit the power of the President. One consequence of this is that in contrast to many other parliamentary democracies, the Chancellor does not petition the President to dissolve the legislature. Rather, a Chancellor needs to (deliberately) lose a motion of confidence in order to force a snap election.
While Carlo Schmid is generally considered the main contributor to this constitutional innovation, the concept was actually introduced after World War I in the Free State of Prussia. It was a major reason why Prussia was governed by a stable centre-left coalition without interruption from 1919 to 1932 in contrast to the unstability of the national governments.
History of use
Since 1949, two constructive votes of no confidence have been attempted (both by CDU against SPD), and only the second was successful.
1972: Rainer Barzel vs. Willy Brandt (failed vote)
On 27 April 1972, an attempt to vote Chancellor Willy Brandt (SPD) out of office by opposition leader Rainer Barzel (CDU) failed by only two votes. This came as a surprise since it was known that several members of the SPD-FDP coalition strongly opposed Brandt's Ostpolitik and the government no longer had a clear majority after several deputies either switched over to the opposition or announced they would vote for the no-confidence motion. The numerous defections theoretically dropped the coalition to just 246 votes. The opposition nominally had 250, one vote over the 249 needed to topple Brandt.
The voting was influenced by tactics. The law on specifies that the Chancellor is elected in a secret ballot, which applies in the motion of no confidence as well. To hamper their “faithless” deputies from voting for Barzel, the leadership of the SPD urged them not to participate in the vote; since a majority of all deputies is needed for a successful vote, not participating has the same effect as voting no, and it can be checked or enforced unlike secret ballot. Only the members of government and a few protesting coalition deputies (several from FDP, only Günter Müller from SPD) went to the voting booth, the first to ensure that dissenting deputies from CDU might remain secret.
Despite this, Brandt believed he was finished, and the SPD had girded itself to be consigned to opposition. A number of unions went on strike in anticipation of Brandt's defeat. In the end, only 260 votes were cast: 247 with yes, 10 with no, 3 abstaining; the remaining 236 were either absent or invalid. It was thus clear that the missing votes were within the CDU faction. In June 1973, CDU member Julius Steiner admitted to Der Spiegel magazine to have abstained from voting. Later, he claimed to have received 50,000 DM in return from one of the leading SPD figures, Karl Wienand. Leo Wagner of the CSU was suspected to have received a bribe as well, but conclusive evidence could not be found. After the 1990 German reunification, it became clear that the bribe money that was offered to several CDU politicians came from the East German Stasi (secret police), who at the time saw a need for Brandt to stay in power. That is somewhat ironic since Brandt's Ostpolitik is today seen as one of the major steps that eventually led to the implosion of East Germany in 1989. Brandt in turn would resign only two years later over the Guillaume affair which involved one of his personal assistants having been a Stasi spy.
However, as the government was no longer backed by a majority in parliament, on 22 September, Chancellor Brandt proposed a Motion of confidence to the Bundestag. He lost intentionally to make way for the 1972 West German federal election in November, which he won decisively.
1982: Helmut Kohl vs. Helmut Schmidt (successful vote)
On 1 October 1982, Helmut Schmidt was voted out of office in favor of Helmut Kohl, marking the end of the SPD-FDP coalition. The vote was much easier than the 1972 one since it was clear that the FDP wanted to switch over to the CDU. Indeed, the FDP was already in negotiations at the time the vote happened. The FDP was no longer content with SPD economic policy and at the same time, the SPD was internally divided over NATO stationing of nuclear missiles in Germany. Still, the vote succeeded by a majority of only seven votes.
To obtain a clearer majority in the Bundestag (which seemed to be in reach according to the polls), after the vote, Helmut Kohl put up a motion of confidence in which the new CDU-FDP coalition intentionally voted against the Chancellor that it just put into power. This trick allowed for the dissolution of the Bundestag according to Article 68 of the Grundgesetz (see above). Still, the action triggered an appeal to the Federal Constitutional Court, which, in a somewhat helpless ruling in February, upheld the move but set criteria for such motions in future. The new Bundestag was elected in March 1983, yielding a strong majority for the new coalition, which eventually lasted until 1998.
2005: Gerhard Schröder's motion of confidence
After the governing SPD lost to the CDU in the 2005 North Rhine-Westphalia state election, Chancellor Gerhard Schröder announced on 25 May that he would call federal elections "as soon as possible" (the standard term would have been in September 2006). To achieve it, Schröder put up a motion of confidence (Article 68) urging members not to vote for his government like his predecessors. The motion was defeated in the Bundestag on 1 July 2005 by 151 (about 43 % of the SPD and most Greens, who were a part of the government) to 296 (the whole CDU and FDP) with 148 abstaining (most of the SPD and some Green "Realos"). After the Federal President dissolved the Bundestag and some deputies protested, the Federal Constitutional Court, once again, allowed such move in August. The 2005 German federal elections were held on 18 September. Schröder's SPD-Green coalition lost seats largely due to arrival of a new party, The Left, shunned by all the others, so even the victorius CDU/CSU led by Angela Merkel with the FDP did not achieve a majority. On October 10 it was announced that the two major parties would form a grand coalition. Schröder agreed to cede the chancellorship to Merkel, but the SPD would hold the majority of government posts and retain considerable control of government policy. Merkel was elected Chancellor on 22 November.
Spain
A very similar system to the German one was adopted in the new Constitution of Spain of 1978 for the national Cortes (parliament) and also came into force in territorial assemblies (parliaments/assemblies of autonomous communities). Despite Spanish constitutional history being very different from that of Germany (and Spain deciding to have the monarchy protected by an entrenched clause while Germany had been a Republic since 1919), the German Basic Law was seen as "success model" at the time and this is just one of several provisions the framers of the Spanish constitution lifted wholesale from the German model. Some, like the equivalent of the controversial Article 155 of the Spanish constitution which deals with Federal execution have never been used in practice in Germany.
The Prime Minister of Spain (President of the Government) must resign if he proposes a vote of confidence to the Congress of Deputies (the lower chamber of the Cortes Generales, Spanish parliament) and is defeated, or alternatively, if the Congress censures the government on its own initiative. However, when a censure motion is introduced, a prospective replacement candidate for Prime Minister must be nominated at the same time. If the censure motion carries, the replacement candidate is deemed to have the confidence of the Congress and automatically ascends as Prime Minister.
Article 113
1. The Congress of Deputies may require political responsibility from the Government by adopting a motion of censure (no confidence) by overall (absolute) majority of its Members.
2. The motion of censure (no confidence) must be proposed by at least one tenth of the Members of Congress of Deputies and shall include a candidate for the office of the Presidency of the Government.
3. The motion of censure (no confidence) may not be voted until five days after it has been submitted.
During the first two days of this period, alternative motions may be submitted.
4. If the motion of censure (no confidence) is not adopted by the Congress of Deputies, its signatories may not submit another during the same period of sessions.
Article 114
1. If the Congress of Deputies withholds its confidence from the Government, the latter shall submit its resignation to the King, whereafter the President of the Government shall be nominated in accordance with the provisions of Article 99.
2. If the Congress of Deputies adopts a motion of censure (no confidence), the Government shall present its resignation to the King and the candidate included in it shall be understood to have the confidence of the Chamber for the purposes provided in section 99. The King shall appoint him President of the Government.
There have been five attempted constructive votes of no confidence. The first successful vote came on 1 June 2018, when Mariano Rajoy (People's Party) was voted out in favour of Pedro Sánchez (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party).
Hungary
Under the October 1989 democratic revision of the 1949 Constitution, the National Assembly of Hungary could not remove the Prime Minister of Hungary unless a prospective successor was nominated (and elected) at the same time:
Article 39A (1):
A motion of no confidence in the Prime Minister may be initiated by a written petition, which includes the nomination for a candidate for the office of Prime Minister, by no less than one-fifth of the Members of the National Assembly. A motion of no-confidence in the Prime Minister is considered a motion of no-confidence in the Government as well. Should, on the basis of this motion, the majority of the Members of the National Assembly withdraw their confidence, then the candidate nominated for Prime Minister in the motion shall be considered to have been elected.
Use
In March 2009 the prime minister Ferenc Gyurcsány (Hungarian Socialist Party, MSZP) announced he would hand over his position to a politician with a higher support of the parliament parties. The opposition Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ) refused most candidates for the post proposed by the MSZP, but on 30 March 2009, Gordon Bajnai managed to get the backing of both parties. A constructive motion of no confidence against Ferenc Gyurcsány took place on 14 April and Bajnai became Prime Minister.
Fundamental Law of Hungary
The new Constitution of Hungary, the Fundamental Law in force from 2012, has almost identical provisions that allow only constructive vote of no confidence by the absolute majority of the National Assembly of Hungary.
Article 21
(1) One-fifth of the Members of the National Assembly may, together with the designation of a candidate for the office of Prime Minister, submit a written motion of no-confidence against the Prime Minister.
(2) If the National Assembly supports the motion of no-confidence, it thereby expresses its lack of confidence in the Prime Minister and simultaneously elects the person proposed for the office of Prime Minister in the motion of no-confidence. For such decision of the National Assembly, the votes of more than half of the Members of the National Assembly shall be required.
(3) The Prime Minister may put forward a confidence vote. The National Assembly expresses its lack of confidence in the Prime Minister if more than half of the Members of the National Assembly do not support the Prime Minister in the confidence vote proposed by the Prime Minister.
(4) The Prime Minister may propose that the vote on a proposal submitted by the Government be simultaneously a confidence vote. The National Assembly expresses its lack of confidence in the Prime Minister if it does not support the proposal submitted by the Government.
(5) The National Assembly shall decide on the question of confidence after the third day, but no later than eight days following the submission of the motion of no-confidence or of the Prime Minister’s motion pursuant to Paragraphs (3) or (4).
Lesotho
Subsection (8) of section 87 of the Constitution of Lesotho stipulates that a motion of no confidence in the Prime Minister of Lesotho is of no effect unless the National Assembly nominates one of its members to be appointed prime minister in place of the incumbent:
A resolution of no confidence in the Government of Lesotho shall not be effective for the purposes of subsections (5)(a) and (7)(e) unless it proposes the name of a member of the National Assembly for the King to appoint in the place of the Prime Minister.
Israel
The constructive vote of no confidence has been in place since the direct election of the Prime Minister of Israel was abolished in 2001. By a vote of no confidence the Knesset (parliament) did not elect new prime minister but only proposed a formateur: a presumptive nominee charged with seeking to form a new government. The candidate proposed then might or might not secure a positive vote of confidence before becoming prime minister. The system, therefore, did not guarantee continuity in the same way as the constructive vote of no confidence was used in Germany and elsewhere. Amendment No. I of the Basic Law of Government 2001 removed the formateur, switching to a conventional constructive vote of no confidence. The Basic Law of Government 2001 provides in Section 28 (b):
An expression of no confidence in the Government shall be done by means of a resolution of the Knesset, adopted by the majority of its Members to express confidence in another Government that announced basic guidelines of its policy, its make-up and the distribution of functions among Ministers, as stated in article 13 (d). The new Government shall be established once the Knesset has expressed confidence in it, and from that time the Ministers shall go into office.
Poland
The Constitution of Poland (1997) states that the Sejm (lower chamber of the National Assembly of Poland) may remove the Council of Ministers of Poland (cabinet) only by a resolution (adopted by absolute majority) which specifies the name of the new Prime Minister.
Article 158
The Sejm shall pass a vote of no confidence in the Council of Ministers by a majority of votes of the statutory number of Deputies, on a motion moved by at least 46 Deputies and that shall specify the name of a candidate for Prime Minister. If such a resolution has been passed by the Sejm, the President of the Republic shall accept the resignation of the Council of Ministers and appoint a new Prime Minister as chosen by the Sejm, and, on his application, the other members of the Council of Ministers and accept their oath of office.
A motion to pass a resolution referred to in para. 1 above, may be put to a vote no sooner than 7 days after it has been submitted. A subsequent motion of a like kind may be submitted no sooner than after the end of 3 months from the day the previous motion was submitted.
Albania
The Constitution of Albania (1998 as amended in 2008 and 2012) stipulates also that only constructive vote of no confidence may be adopted by the absolute majority of the unicameral Assembly (parliament) deputies.
Article 104 [Motion of confidence]
1. The Prime Minister has the right to submit to the Assembly a motion of confidence in the Council of Ministers. If the motion of confidence is voted by fewer than half of all the members of the Assembly, within 48 hours from the voting on the motion, the Prime Minister asks the President of the Republic to dissolve the Assembly.
2. The President dissolves the Assembly within 10 days from receipt of the request. A request for a motion of confidence may not be submitted during the period when a motion of no confidence according to article 105 is being examined.
3. The motion may not be voted on unless three days have passed from its submission.
Article 105 [Motion of no confidence]
1. One fifth of the deputies have the right to submit for voting in the Assembly a motion of no confidence in the Prime Minister in office, proposing a new Prime Minister.
2. The Assembly may vote a motion of no confidence against the Prime Minister only by electing a new Prime Minister with the votes of more than half of all its members.
3. The President of the Republic decrees the discharge of the Prime Minister in office and the appointment of the elected Prime Minister no later than 10 days from the voting on the motion in the Assembly.
Slovenia
According to the Constitution of Slovenia (1991 as amended in 1997, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2006 and 2013) the National Assembly (Državni zbor, lower chamber of the parliament) may pass a motion of no confidence in the Government only by electing a new prime minister.
Article 116 [Vote of no confidence]
The National Assembly may pass a vote of no confidence in the Government only by electing a new President of the Government on the proposal of at least ten deputies and by a majority vote of all deputies. The incumbent President of the Government is thereby dismissed, but together with his ministers he must continue to perform his regular duties until the swearing in of a new Government.
No less than forty-eight hours must elapse between the lodging of a proposal to elect a new President of the Government and the vote itself, unless the National Assembly decides otherwise by a two-thirds majority vote of all deputies, or if the country is at war or in a state of emergency.
Where the President of the Government has been elected on the basis of the fourth paragraph of Article 111, a vote of no confidence is expressed in him if on the proposal of at least ten deputies, the National Assembly elects a new President of the Government by a majority of votes cast.
Article 117 [Vote of confidence]
The President of the Government may require a vote of confidence in the Government. If the Government does not receive the support of a majority vote of all deputies, within thirty days the National Assembly must elect a new President of the Government or in a new vote express its confidence in the incumbent President of the Government, or failing this, the President of the Republic dissolves the National Assembly and calls new elections. The President of the Government may tie the issue of confidence to the adoption of a law or to some other decision in the National Assembly. If such decision is not adopted, it is deemed that a vote of no confidence in the Government has been passed.
No less than forty-eight hours must elapse between the requirement of a vote of confidence and the vote itself.
Belgium
The Kingdom of Belgium adopted constructive vote of no confidence in the Constitution of Belgium (1994 coordinated text) article considering the dissolution of parliament.
Article 46 [Reasons for Dissolution]
(1) The King has only the right to dissolve the Chamber of Representatives if the latter, with the absolute majority of its members:
1) either rejects a motion of confidence in the federal Government and does not propose to the King, within three days from the day of the rejection of the motion, the nomination of a successor to the Prime Minister;
2) or adopts a motion of disapproval (no confidence) with regard to the federal Government and does not simultaneously propose to the King the nomination of a successor to the Prime Minister.
(2) The motions of confidence and disapproval can only be voted on after a delay of forty-eight hours after the introduction of the motion.
(3) Moreover, the King may, in the event of the resignation of the federal Government, dissolve the Chamber of Representatives after having received its agreement expressed by the absolute majority of its members.
(4) The dissolution of the Chamber of Representatives entails the dissolution of the Senate.
(5) The act of dissolution involves the convoking of the electorate within forty days and of the Chambers within two months.
Westminster systems
In partisan Westminster systems, a constructive vote of no confidence is normally not required. A prime minister faced with a vote of no confidence must either resign immediately or request a dissolution of parliament and fresh elections. This system is normally stable because strong political parties in the Westminster system ensure a very small number of viable candidates to replace a prime minister, and also ensures frequent and stable majority governments.
However, this was not always the case historically, especially in Westminster systems without clearly defined political parties. In such circumstances, it was often the case that the sitting prime minister would be unpopular with parliamentarians but also might not have a viable successor who could have a better command of the parliament. In such cases, it was informally expected that parliament refrain from a vote of no confidence unless there was a reasonably obvious successor, in which case the prime minister would usually be expected to resign without recourse to fresh elections.
On the other hand, if a prime minister in a nonpartisan Westminster system sustained a vote of no confidence in spite of the lack of an obviously viable successor then depending on the circumstances he might have up to two alternatives to resignation: call fresh elections or attempt to continue governing in spite of the non-confidence vote.
See also
Parliamentary system
Parliamentary sovereignty
Motion of no confidence
References
German constitutional law
Motions of no confidence
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217919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whanganui%20campaign | Whanganui campaign | The Whanganui campaign was a brief round of hostilities in the North Island of New Zealand as indigenous Māori fought British settlers and military forces in 1847. The campaign, which included a siege of the fledgling Whanganui settlement named "Petre", was among the earliest of the 19th century New Zealand Wars that were fought over issues of land and sovereignty.
Background
The settlement of Petre, preferably known as "Wanganui" by its settlers, was established by the New Zealand Company in 1840. William Wakefield stated that he had purchased the land for the settlement from the local Māori in November 1839, which some Māori disputed. By 1845, the settlement had grown to about 200 people and about 60 houses. The surrounding area was inhabited by about 4000 Māori, with whom the settlers traded for food. There was nevertheless friction over the occupation of the land, which some Māori chiefs denied having sold, with New Zealand Company surveyors reporting obstruction and harassment.
In March 1846, hostilities broke out in the nearby Hutt Valley over similar issues of disputed land occupation. One of the most prominent fighters in Hutt Valley was Te Mamaku, a principal chief of the Ngāti-Hāua-te-Rangi tribe of the Upper Whanganui. The settlers in Whanganui became worried that the conflict would expand to encompass their region, so requested military protection.
A force made up of the 58th Regiment (5–6 officers, 4 sergeants and 160 men), Royal Artillery (4 men with 2 12-pounder guns on garrison carriages), Royal Engineers (1 officer with tools for 200 men), Commissariat (1 officer with salt provisions for two months and £500), and Medical (1 officer)—landed from HMS Calliope at Wanganui in December 1846 to construct the garrison's stockade. Lieutenant Thomas Bernard Collinson, Royal Engineers, noted:
Dec. 13. We landed in boats at the mouth of the Wanganui River: all the rivers on that coast of Cook's Straits have bar harbours; and had to make 4 miles up to the village. This was rather an exciting march, as we had no idea what sort of reception we should meet; and might have to fight our way. Happily the prestige of the "Hoia" (i.e. Soldiers) was still considerable, and we entered the little settlement in peaceful triumph; to the great joy of the few white settlers.
There, Collinson and Captain Joseph Henry Laye, 58th Regiment, selected the hill pā of Pukenamu at the town's northern end for the Rutland Stockade, and commenced its construction. Another 100 soldiers from the Grenadier Company of the 65th Regiment arrived in May 1847. The York Stockade was built on high ground to the south. The establishment of the garrison led Te Mamaku to anticipate further government intervention. He vowed to fight the soldiers but not the settlers.
Attack and siege
Hapurona Nga Rangi, a minor chief of Putiki, was employed by Midshipman Crozier of the gunboat, to build a house for him in the Rutland stockade. Whilst Nga Rangi collected his wages on 16 April 1847, he suffered a severe gunshot wound to the head from the discharge of Crozier's pistol. The ball passed through his right cheekbone and lodged somewhere in his skull. The shot was claimed to have been accidental and Crozier was restrained whilst the incident was investigated. Nga Rangi was placed under the care of Dr Thomas Moore Philson of the 58th Regiment, and when sufficiently recovered from his wound, confirmed that the shot had been accidental.
A small party of Māori nevertheless decided to exact utu (revenge, or recompense) for the blood-letting. They attacked John Alexander Gilfillan and family at home on 18 April with tomahawks, killing his wife and three of their children, severely wounding Gilfillan and his second daughter, and leaving two infant babies untouched. Five of the six killers were captured by lower Whanganui Māori and handed over to the British; four were court-martialled in Whanganui and hanged at Rutland Stockade. The execution inflamed the situation, prompting a much larger revenge attack.
Between 500 and 600 heavily armed Māori formed a taua (war party) that travelled down the Whanganui River in war canoes in early May, plundering and burning settlers' houses and killing cattle. The warriors killed and mutilated a soldier from the 58th Regiment who ventured out of the town. The town's residents began sleeping in a small group of fortified houses, abandoning their homes each night.
On 19 May, Te Mamaku's warriors made their first attack on the town, approaching from the west and north, effectively besieging the settlement. More homes were ransacked. The British gunboat fired from the river, mortally wounding Maketu, a chief. Rockets were fired at besiegers from two armed boats on 24 May when Governor George Grey arrived. The governor was accompanied by Tāmati Wāka Nene, future Māori king Te Wherowhero and several other northern chiefs in a bid to defuse the situation.
In June reconnaissance missions were mounted up the valley of the Whanganui River from the garrison—which now contained 500 to 600 soldiers—resulting in some minor skirmishes. By mid-winter Māori leaders, recognising they had reached a stalemate and conscious that their potato-planting season was approaching, decided to launch a full attack on the town to draw troops from their forts.
On 19 July, some 400 Māori fighters approached the town from the low hills inland, occupying a ridge at St John's Wood where they had dug trenches and rifle-pits and later thrown up breastworks. About 400 imperial soldiers commanded by William Anson McCleverty became involved in a series of skirmishes along a narrow pathway through swampy ground. After being bombarded with artillery fire, Māori forces charged on the troops, who responded with a bayonet charge, halting the Māori advance. Māori withdrew to the trenches and breastworks, maintaining fire on the British troops until nightfall. Three British soldiers died and one was wounded in the clash; three Maori were killed and about 12 wounded in the so-called Battle of St John's Wood.
On 23 July, Te Mamaku's forces, at least 600 men, returned to their entrenchments on the hill at St John's Wood and planted a red ensign. McCleverty readied his forces to defend the town and move out to engage. The guns opened fired on a few Maori appearing on the low hills, who then retired. The chief of Putiki, granted permission to talk with the opponents, ventured out with the interpreter, Mr Duncan, and spoke with Te Oro, Te Mamaku's brother. Aware of danger of artillery fire, and being that the soldiers would not attack their entrenchments, Maori forces would retire the next day, determined not to have peace, ending the war for the winter.
Soon after, Wanganui settlers ventured out of town again, returned to their farms, settled matters of cattle losses with their besiegers and re-established trade with them, such that peace was generally established about two months later. In February 1848, Grey and Te Mamaku negotiated a peace settlement to the underlying long-unsettled land question. Collinson observed in 1855:
"Thus ended the last serious disturbance that has occurred in New Zealand up to the present date; and as the peace was confirmed and strengthened in 1848, by the payment of the £1,000 for the land, and the complete concession by the whole of the natives concerned of the block claimed by the New Zealand Company; it may be considered that the peace and prosperity of this populous and troublesome district is as permanently established as that of any settlement in the Colony."
Twelve years of economic cooperation and development followed, with the gradual alienation of yet more Māori land which led to more conflict
References
Further reading
Barthorp, Michael (1979). To Face the Daring Māori. Hodder and Stoughton.
Belich, James (1988). The New Zealand Wars. Penguin.
New Zealand Wars
Conflicts in 1846
Conflicts in 1847
Conflicts in 1848
1847 in New Zealand
1846 in New Zealand
1848 in New Zealand
History of Manawatū-Whanganui
April 1847 events
May 1847 events
June 1847 events
July 1847 events | [
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217921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fest | Fest | Fest may refer to:
Fest, Danish/German/Norwegian/Swedish/Breton for party
Fest, a type of festival
The Fest, music festival in Gainesville, Florida
Joachim Fest (1926–2006), German historian and journalist
Fest Magazine, is an Edinburgh Festival review magazine
Fest, a fictional planet in the Star Wars franchise
FEST may refer to:
FEST (Faculty of Moscow State Forest University)
Federation of Engineering and Shipbuilding Trades
FEST (film festival), an annual film festival in Belgrade, Serbia
FEST e.V. (Forschungsstätte der Evangelischen Studiengemeinschaft / Protestant Institute for Interdisciplinary Research)
Foreign Emergency Support Team, a U.S. government short-notice anti-terrorism unit
See also
Festschrift, a book honoring a respected person, especially an academic, presented during his or her lifetime
Festuca, a genus of about 300 species of perennial tufted grasses, belonging to the grass family Poaceae (subfamily Pooideae) | [
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] |
217926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook%20%28disambiguation%29 | Hook (disambiguation) | A hook is a tool with a curved end.
Hook may also refer to:
Places
United Kingdom
Hook, East Riding of Yorkshire, a village and civil parish
Hook, Hart, Hampshire, a small town and civil parish
Hook railway station
Hook, Fareham, Hampshire, a village
Hook, London, a suburban area
Hook, Pembrokeshire, a village
Hook, Wiltshire, a small village
Other
Hook Island, Queensland, Australia
Hook Point, Queensland, Australia
Hook Peninsula, County Wexford, Ireland
Hook, New Zealand
Hook River, New Zealand
Hook of Holland or The Hook, a port town in the Netherlands
Hook granite massif, Zambia
Language
Hook (diacritic), a diacritical mark attached to letters in various alphabets
Hook above, a diacritical mark above letters in the Vietnamese alphabet
Rhotic hook, a diacritical mark attached to symbols in the International phonetic alphabet
Arts and entertainment
"Hook" (Blues Traveler song), from their 1994 album, Four
Hook (film), a 1991 fantasy film by Steven Spielberg continuing J. M. Barrie's Peter and Wendy
Hook (video game), four video games based on the film
Hook (filmmaking), a cinematic technique to grab the viewer's interest
Hook (music), a catchy musical passage
Hook (Transformers), several characters in the Transformers universe
Captain Hook, a fictional pirate in J. M. Barrie's play Peter Pan and other works
Mr. Hook, a character in several 1940s American animated cartoon shorts produced for the US Navy
The Hook (1963 film), a 1963 Korean War war film
The Hook (1976 film), a 1976 giallo film
The Hook (2004 film), a 2004 French thriller film
The Hook (album), by Jukka Tolonen
The Hook (screenplay), an unproduced screenplay by playwright Arthur Miller
Narrative hook, a literary technique designed to grab the reader's interest
Trooper Hook, the title character of Trooper Hook, a 1957 Western film, played by Joel McCrea
Sports
Hook (bowling), a curving ball
Hook (boxing), a boxing punch
Hook (cricket), a shot in cricket
Hook shot, a type of shot in basketball
Hooking (ice hockey), a penalty
Hook, part of the hook and ladder trick play in football
Hook shot, in a type of misplayed golf shot
Curveball, a type of baseball pitch
People
Hook (surname), a list of people
Hook (nickname), a list of people
Other uses
Hook., author abbreviation of English botanist William Jackson Hooker (1785–1865)
Hook.f., author abbreviation of English botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817–1911), the son of William Jackson Hooker
Hook (computer programming), a computer programming technique
Telephone hook, an electrical switch which indicates when the telephone has been hung up
Battle of the Hook, of the Korean war
Mil Mi-6, a Soviet/Russian heavy transport helicopter nicknamed "Hook"
Hook Lighthouse, Ireland
Hook Windmill, East Hampton, New York
The Hook, a classic urban legend
Hook Continental, a passenger train running between London's Liverpool Street Station and Harwich Parkeston Quay
The Hook (newspaper), a weekly Virginia newspaper from 2002 to 2013
WFFM, a radio station licensed to Ashburn, Georgia, formerly branded "Hook FM"
Angle (journalism)
See also
Hooke (disambiguation)
Hooked (disambiguation)
Hooks (disambiguation)
Hook echo, a feature visible on radar indicative of tornadic rotation in a thunderstorm
Hook Gang, a late-19th-century American street gang and later river pirates in New York City | [
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217936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husum%20%28disambiguation%29 | Husum (disambiguation) | Husum may refer to:
Husum, Washington, an unincorporated community in the White Salmon River Valley in the state of Washington
Husum, a town in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany
Husum, Lower Saxony, a municipality in Lower Saxony, Germany
Husum, Sweden, a municipality in Sweden
Husum (Copenhagen), a neighbourhood in Copenhagen, Denmark
Husum, another name for the Danish Protest Pig breed | [
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217940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraut | Kraut | Kraut is a German word recorded in English from 1918 onwards as a derogatory term for a German, particularly a German soldier during World War I and World War II. Its earlier meaning in English was as a synonym for sauerkraut, a traditional Central and Eastern European food.
Etymological foundations
In German, the term means "herb", or designates the leaves and stem of a plant as opposed to the root. The term is more often used in compound nouns for herbs, and also for cabbage and cabbage products:
Weißkraut = white cabbage (also called Weißkohl)
Blaukraut or Rotkraut = red cabbage (also called Rotkohl)
Sauerkraut = fermented white cabbage or 'sour cabbage'
Unkraut = weed
Bohnenkraut = savory
Rübenkraut = thick sugar beet syrup
The plural Kräuter is commonly used (herbs, weeds) when talking about spices, but is often replaced by Gewürz which can refer to any spice.
Slang
It was recorded as a colloquial term for Germans by the mid-19th century. During World War I Kraut came to be used in English as a derogatory term for a German. In World War II it was used mainly by American soldiers and less so by British soldiers, who preferred the terms Jerry or Fritz. It is considered offensive by Germans.
Demonym
The Bauer Krauts were an atom-level hockey team based in Kitchener, Ontario (known as "Berlin, Ontario" prior to the outbreak of the First World War) in the twentieth century.
Music
Krautrock is a popular term for a form of experimental German prog rock of the late 1960s and 1970s. Krautrock was typified by acts such as Amon Düül II, Kraftwerk, Neu!, Tangerine Dream, Faust, Can and David Bowie on his "Berlin Trilogy" albums Low, "Heroes", and Lodger, as well as many others.
Kraut was the name of a New York punk rock band in the 1980s. Their song "All Twisted" was the first independent video to air on MTV.
"Magic Kraut" is the name of a song in the album Fresh by Teddybears.
Industrial rock band KMFDM’s song “Kraut” appears on the b-side of their “Juke Joint Jezebel” single, and on their Extra, Vol. 3 compilation.
Krauts with Attitude is the title of the record released in Germany in 1991 which is credited for playing a prominent role in establishing the German hip hop scene.
The Swedish indie rock band Peter Bjorn and John composed the track titled "School of Kraut".
See also
Krautrock
List of terms used for Germans
List of ethnic slurs
References
Ethnic and religious slurs
Pejorative terms for European people
Anti-German sentiment
English words | [
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217943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By%C5%8Dd%C5%8D-in | Byōdō-in | is a Buddhist temple in the city of Uji in Kyoto Prefecture, Japan, built in the late Heian period. It is jointly a temple of the Jōdo-shū (Pure Land) and Tendai-shū sects.
History
This temple was originally built in 998 in the Heian period as a rural villa of high-ranking courtier Minamoto no Shigenobu, Minister of the Left. After he died, one of the most powerful members of the Fujiwara clan, Fujiwara no Michinaga, purchased the property from the courtier's widow. The villa was made into a Buddhist temple by his son Fujiwara no Yorimichi in 1052. Being one of the World Heritage sites of Japan, the Byodoin Temple buildings and Buddha statues have a long history of about 1000 years.
In East Asian Buddhism, there is the Three Ages of Buddhism, which are three divisions of time following Buddha's passing. The Mappo, which is also translated as the Age of Dharma Decline, is the degenerate Third Age of Buddhism, also known as the Latter Day of the Law. It was widely believed that the year 1052 marked the first year of the beginning of the end-of-the-world. This theory captured the heart of many aristocrats and monks, which as a result, people became more devout in Buddhism and believed in the ideology of Buddhist Pure Land. In the following year, Amida-do Hall (Phoenix Hall) was completed in whose interior sits the 2.4 meters tall Amida Buddha statue created by Jōchō, who is claimed to have been the best Buddhist sculptor in the Heian Period.
Masashige Kusunoki, a samurai warrior who was fighting against the army of the Ashikaga Clan, set a fire around Byodoin Temple in 1336, which resulted in many of the temple buildings were burnt down with only a few surviving.
The Byodoin Temple gradually expanded into a massive Temple complex during the Kamakura Period, where Jodo-in Temple was opened due to the renovation of Byodoin Temple in 1496; Rakan-do Hall was established in 1640; Saisho-in Temple was established in 1654.
A full-scale renovation of the Amida-do Hall (Phoenix Hall) was undertaken in 1670, during which the front doors were replaced. Two sub-temples, Jodo-in Temple belonging to the Jodo Sect and Saisho-in Temple belonging to the Tendai Sect, began to cooperate and made a great effort to maintain the operation of Byodoin Temple. In 1698, Uji was devastated by a large fire and Byodoin Temple was badly damaged. The walls and doors of Phoenix Hall were ruined after this incident. However, as a result of the deterioration of the temple, people's will for Phoenix Hall's preservation and renovation became enthusiastic.
During the Meiji Period (1868–1912) and Showa Period (1926–1989), large scale renovation of the Phoenix hall was undertaken. The Phoenix Hall and Amida Buddha statue were designated as National Treasures in 1951, which Phoenix Hall was also selected for the design as the obverse of the 10 yen coin. Then, the Temple Bell, the praying Bodhisattva on Clouds, the Canopy, the paintings on the door and walls of Cho-do Hall of Phoenix Hall were designated as National Treasures.
The Byodoin Temple was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage as one of the Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto in 1994. Large scale renovation on the garden, the canopy of Amida Buddha statue and the overall outlook of the Phoenix Hall continues in the Heisei Period (1989–2019) until today.
The most famous building in the temple is the or the Amida Hall, constructed in 1053. It is the only remaining original building, surrounded by a scenic pond; additional buildings making up the compound were burnt down during a civil war in 1336.
The Temple complex
The Phoenix Hall
The main building in Byōdō-in, the Phoenix Hall consists of a central hall, flanked by twin wing corridors on both sides of the central hall, and a tail corridor. The central hall houses an image of Amida Buddha. The roof of the hall displays statues of the Chinese phoenix, called hōō in Japanese. The building is regarded as almost the sole remaining example from the Fujiwara Regent Period, which is also considered as one of the most important cultural assets of Japan.
The Phoenix Hall, completed in 1053, is the exemplar of Fujiwara Amida halls. It consists of a main rectangular structure flanked by two L-shaped wing corridors and a tail corridor, set at the edge of a large artificial pond. Though its official name is Amida-dō, it began to be called Hōō-dō, or Phoenix Hall, in the beginning of the Edo period. This name is considered to derive both from the building's likeness to a phoenix with outstretched wings and a tail, and the pair of phoenixes adorning the roof.
Inside the Phoenix Hall, a single image of Amida (c. 1053) is installed on a high platform. The Amida sculpture is made of Japanese cypress and is covered with gold leaf. It was executed by Jōchō, who established a new canon of proportions and a new technique, yosegi, in which multiple pieces of wood are carved out like shells and joined from the inside. The statue measures about three meters high from its face to its knees. Sitting in a meditation position with his back slightly hunched, his body is relaxed without any tension. His hand gesture is called 'Inso', which both hands are placed on the lap, palms facing upward, thumbs and forefingers form a circle. This gesture is a variation of the Dhyana Mudra (Meditation Mudra), which suggests concentration of the Good Law. The Urna, which is the white dot on his forehead between the eyes, is the Third Eye of the Amida Buddha, a symbol of awakening and the ability to see the suffering of all creatures. The serene smile of the statue represents the nobility of the Buddha after attaining Enlightenment. With a harmonious and gentle facial expression, he is looking slightly downward, which shows the state of meditation, as well as the feeling of merciful grace towards the audience. His hair is short and curled, along with Ushnisha, which is the pointed topknot located on the center of the head.
Applied to the walls of the hall are small relief carvings of celestials, the host believed to have accompanied Amida when he descended from the Western Paradise to gather the souls of believers at the moment of death and transport them in lotus blossoms to Paradise. Raigō paintings on the wooden doors of the Phoenix Hall, depicting the Descent of the Amida Buddha, are an early example of Yamato-e, Japanese-style painting, and contain representations of the scenery around Kyoto.
There is a Jōdo-shiki garden with a pond in front of the building, which in 1997 was dredged as part of an archeological dig. As the temple faces the East, it suggests that the audience need to cross the Aji-ike pond in front of the Phoenix Hall, in order to reach Buddhist Pure Land. The gardens are a nationally designated Historic Site and Place of Scenic Beauty.
The Kannon-do Hall
The Kannon-do Hall is an Important Cultural Property, established on the former site of the main hall around 1230, during the Early Kamakura Period. The hall structure is simple, which follows the classical design from the Tenpyo period (710-794), having two different form bent to support the roof. It is currently under renovation and not open to the public.
Japan commemorates the building's longevity and cultural significance by displaying its image on the 10 yen coin, and the 10,000 yen note features the phoenix image. In December 1994, UNESCO listed the building as a World Heritage Site as part of the "Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto". The Phoenix Hall, the great statue of Amida inside it, and several other items at Byōdō-in are national treasures.
A half-size replica of the temple was completed on June 7, 1968 in the Valley of the Temples (O'ahu, Hawaii).
The Japanese post has issued three definitive postage stamps showing the phoenix hall, each prepaying the then postal rate for a surface mail foreign letter: 1950, 24 yen 1957 and 30 yen 1959. Stamps were produced by the costly engraving method, showing the appreciation of the hall.
Yorin-an Shoin Residence
It is a residence as well as one of the sub-temples in the precinct. Built in the early Edo Period (around 17th century), the roof is thatched with Japanese cypress bark, which the materials used for construction were believed came from remains of the Momoyama Castle. The interior wall paintings were the works produced by artists who belonged to the studio run by Sansetsu Kano, while the garden is said to have been designed by Sansai Hosokawa.
Hoshokan Museum
As the former temple museum which opened in 1965 had become outdated, an innovative third-generation museum was opened on March 1, 2001, which is named the Hoshokan Museum. This museum achieved a significantly improved storage and display environment for national treasures from the Byodoin Temple, including the Temple Bell, 26 statues of the Praying Bodhisattva on Clouds and a pair of Phoenix from the rooftop of Phoenix Hall. It is the first comprehensive museum run by a religious organisation. The majority of the museum buildings are hidden underground, so that the exterior outlook of museum's blends with Phoenix Hall and other building complexes within the temple. Due to its design, the interior of the museum receives sufficient natural sunlight, as well as artificial lighting to keep the exhibition halls bright and comfortable for audience's experience.
Entry to the complex grounds costs 600 yen for adults, and includes access to the gardens and the museum. An entry pass to the Phoenix Hall, which was newly restored in March 2014, costs an additional 300 yen and can be purchased near the gate. The tour is conducted in Japanese, however English paper guide book is provided.
Byodoin Tea Salon Toka
A tea salon to try authentic Uji green tea in the precinct of Byodoin Temple. Tea leaves harvested in the tea fields of Uji City or neighbouring farms are used. Certified Japanese Tea Instructors will provide tea to visitors with the finest care and knowledge. Open Monday to Sunday but closed on Tuesday, from 10:00 to 16:30. Last order is at 16:00.
Gallery
See also
Battle of Uji (1180)
List of National Treasures of Japan (temples)
List of National Treasures of Japan (sculptures)
List of National Treasures of Japan (paintings)
List of National Treasures of Japan (crafts-others)
For an explanation of terms concerning Japanese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhist art, and Japanese Buddhist temple architecture, see the Glossary of Japanese Buddhism.
Shinden-zukuri
References
External links
Official homepage (in Japanese)
Official homepage (in English)
Japan National Tourism Organization: Byodo-in Temple
Byodo-in - World History Encyclopedia
998 establishments
10th-century Buddhist temples
Buddhist temples in Kyoto Prefecture
Gardens in Kyoto Prefecture
World Heritage Sites in Japan
National Treasures of Japan
Important Cultural Properties of Japan
1052 establishments in Asia
Places of Scenic Beauty
Historic Sites of Japan
11th-century establishments in Japan
10th-century establishments in Japan
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217946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemon%20battery | Lemon battery | A lemon battery is a simple battery often made for the purpose of education. Typically, a piece of zinc metal (such as a galvanized nail) and a piece of copper (such as a penny) are inserted into a lemon and connected by wires. Power generated by reaction of the metals is used to power a small device such as a light-emitting diode (LED).
The lemon battery is similar to the first electrical battery invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, who used brine (salt water) instead of lemon juice. The lemon battery illustrates the type of chemical reaction (oxidation-reduction) that occurs in batteries. The zinc and copper are called the electrodes, and the juice inside the lemon is called the electrolyte. There are many variations of the lemon cell that use different fruits (or liquids) as electrolytes and metals other than zinc and copper as electrodes.
Use in school projects
There are numerous sets of instructions for making lemon batteries and for obtaining components such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), electrical meters (multimeters), and zinc-coated (galvanized) nails and screws. Commercial "potato clock" science kits include electrodes and a low-voltage digital clock. After one cell is assembled, a multimeter can be used to measure the voltage or the electric current from the voltaic cell; a typical voltage is 0.9 V with lemons. Currents are more variable, but range up to about 1 mA (the larger the electrode surfaces, the bigger the current). For a more visible effect, lemon cells can be connected in series to power an LED (see illustration) or other devices. The series connection increases the voltage available to devices. Swartling and Morgan have published a list of low-voltage devices along with the corresponding number of lemon cells that were needed to power them; they included LEDs, piezoelectric buzzers, and small digital clocks. With the zinc/copper electrodes, at least two lemon cells were needed for any of these devices. Substituting a magnesium electrode for the zinc electrode makes a cell with a larger voltage (1.5−1.6 V), and a single magnesium/copper cell will power some devices. Note that incandescent light bulbs from flashlights are not used because the lemon battery is not designed to produce enough electric current to light them. By multiplying the average current of a lemon (0.001A/ 1mA) by the average (lowest) voltage (potential difference) of a lemon (0.7V) we can conclude that it would take more than 6 million lemons to give us the power of an average 4320W car battery.
Variations
Many fruits and liquids can be used for the acidic electrolyte. Fruit is convenient, because it provides both the electrolyte and a simple way to support the electrodes. The acid involved in citrus fruits (lemons, oranges, grapefruits, etc.) is citric acid. The acidity, which is indicated by the measured pH, varies substantially.
Potatoes have phosphoric acid and work well; they are the basis for commercial "potato clock" kits. Potato batteries with LED lighting have been proposed for use in poor countries or by off-grid populations. International research begun in 2010 showed that boiling potatoes for eight minutes improves their electrical output, as does placing slices of potatoes between multiple copper and zinc plates. Boiled and chopped plantain pith (stem) is also suitable, according to Sri Lankan researchers.
Instead of fruit, liquids in various containers can be used. Household vinegar (acetic acid) works well. Sauerkraut (lactic acid) was featured in one episode of the US television program Head Rush (an offshoot of the MythBusters program). The sauerkraut had been canned, and became the electrolyte while the can itself was one of the electrodes.
Zinc and copper electrodes are reasonably safe and easy to obtain. Other metals such as lead, iron, magnesium, etc., can be studied as well; they yield different voltages than the zinc/copper pair. In particular, magnesium/copper cells can generate voltages as large as 1.6 V in lemon cells. This voltage is larger than obtainable using zinc/copper cells. It is comparable to that of standard household batteries (1.5 V), which is useful in powering devices with a single cell instead of using cells in series.
Learning outcomes
For the youngest pupils, about ages 5–9, the educational goal is utilitarian: batteries are devices that can power other devices, so as long as they are connected by a conductive material. Batteries are components in electrical circuits; hooking a single wire between a battery and a light bulb will not power the bulb.
For children in the age range 10−13, batteries are used to illustrate the connection between chemistry and electricity as well as to deepen the circuit concept for electricity. The fact that different chemical elements such as copper and zinc are used can be placed in the larger context that the elements do not disappear or break down when they undergo chemical reactions.
For older pupils and for college students, batteries serve to illustrate the principles of oxidation-reduction reactions. Students can discover that two identical electrodes yield no voltage and that different pairs of metals (beyond copper and zinc) yield different voltages. The voltages and currents from series and parallel combinations of the batteries can be examined.
The current that is output by the battery through a meter will depend on the size of the electrodes, how far the electrodes are inserted into the fruit, and how close to each other the electrodes are placed; the voltage is fairly independent of these details of the electrodes.
Chemistry
Most textbooks present the following model for the chemical reactions of a lemon battery. When the cell is providing an electric current through an external circuit, the metallic zinc at the surface of the zinc electrode is dissolving into the solution. Zinc atoms dissolve into the liquid electrolyte as electrically charged ions (Zn2+), leaving 2 negatively charged electrons (e−) behind in the metal:
This reaction is called oxidation. While zinc is entering the electrolyte, two positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) from the electrolyte combine with two electrons at the copper electrode's surface and form an uncharged hydrogen molecule (H2):
This reaction is called reduction. The electrons used in the copper to form the molecules of hydrogen are transferred from the zinc through an external wire connecting between the copper and the zinc. The hydrogen molecules formed on the surface of the copper by the reduction reaction ultimately bubble away as hydrogen gas.
Experiment results
This model of the chemical reactions makes several predictions that were examined in experiments published by Jerry Goodisman in 2001. Goodisman notes that numerous recent authors propose chemical reactions for the lemon battery that involve dissolution of the copper electrode into the electrolyte. Goodisman excludes this reaction as being inconsistent with the experiments, and notes that the correct chemistry, which involves the evolution of hydrogen at the copper electrode but also can use silver instead of copper, has been known for many years. Most of the detailed predictions of the model apply to the battery's voltage that is measured directly by a meter; nothing else is connected to the battery. When the electrolyte was modified by adding zinc sulfate (ZnSO4), the voltage from the cell was reduced as predicted using the Nernst equation for the model. The Nernst equation essentially says how much the voltage drops as more zinc sulfate is added. The addition of copper sulfate (CuSO4) did not affect the voltage. This result is consistent with the fact that copper atoms from the electrode are not involved in the chemical reaction model for the cell.
When the battery is hooked up to an external circuit and a significant electric current is flowing, the zinc electrode loses mass, as predicted by the zinc oxidation reaction above. Similarly, hydrogen gas evolves as bubbles from the copper electrode. Finally, the voltage from the cell depended upon the acidity of the electrolyte, as measured by its pH; decreasing acidity (and increasing pH) causes the voltage to fall. This effect is also predicted by the Nernst equation; the particular acid that was used (citric, hydrochloric, sulfuric, etc.) does not affect the voltage except through the pH value.
The Nernst equation prediction failed for strongly acid electrolytes (pH < 3.4), when the zinc electrode dissolves into the electrolyte even when the battery is not providing any current to a circuit. The two oxidation-reduction reactions listed above only occur when electrical charge can be transported through the external circuit. The additional, open-circuit reaction can be observed by the formation of bubbles at the zinc electrode under open-circuit. This effect ultimately limited the voltage of the cells to 1.0 V near room temperature at the highest levels of acidity.
Energy source
The energy comes from the chemical change in the zinc when it dissolves into the acid. The energy does not come from the lemon or potato. The zinc is oxidized inside the lemon, exchanging some of its electrons with the acid in order to reach a lower energy state, and the energy released provides the power.
In current practice, zinc is produced by electrowinning of zinc sulfate or pyrometallurgical reduction of zinc with carbon, which requires an energy input. The energy produced in the lemon battery comes from reversing this reaction, recovering some of the energy input during the zinc production.
Smee cell
From 1840 to the late 19th century, large, voltaic cells using a zinc electrode and a sulfuric acid electrolyte were widely used in the printing industry. While copper electrodes like those in lemon batteries were sometimes used, in 1840 Alfred Smee invented a refined version of this cell that used silver with a rough platinum coating instead of a copper electrode. Hydrogen gas clinging to the surface of a silver or copper electrode reduces the electric current that can be drawn from a cell; the phenomenon is called "polarization". The roughened, "platinized" surface speeds up the bubbling of the hydrogen gas, and increases the current from the cell. Unlike the zinc electrode, the copper or platinized silver electrodes are not consumed by using the battery, and the details of this electrode do not affect the cell's voltage. The Smee cell was convenient for electrotyping, which produced copper plates for letterpress printing of newspapers and books, and also statues and other metallic objects.
The Smee cell used amalgamated zinc instead of pure zinc; the surface of amalgamated zinc has been treated with mercury. Apparently amalgamated zinc was less prone to degradation by an acidic solution than is pure zinc. Amalgamated zinc and plain zinc electrodes give essentially the same voltage when the zinc is pure. With the imperfectly refined zinc in 19th century laboratories they typically gave different voltages.
In popular culture
In the video game Portal 2, antagonist GLaDOS was embedded into a potato-battery-run computer for a significant part of the game.
In The Big Bang Theory Season 6 episode "The Proton Resurgence", Leonard and Sheldon's childhood hero Professor Proton (Bob Newhart) attempts to show the group a potato battery, which amazes Penny.
In the Bones Season 6 episode "The Blackout in the Blizzard", Angela and the other "squints" build a massive potato battery array in an attempt to power a cell phone. Illustrating the pathetically low output of such a system, it is successful for only a handful of seconds while using dozens of potatoes.
In the episode "Lemons" of the television program Red Dwarf (tenth series (Series X)), the crew travel 4,000 miles from Britain to India in 23 AD in order to get lemons to build a lemon battery to power up their time machine's returner remote.
In the sixth episode of the final season of Mystery Science Theater 3000, the main villain Pearl Forrester tried taking over the world using potato batteries, only for her plans to be ruined by Professor Bobo.
In NCIS Season 7 episode 8, "Power Down", Abby Sciuto uses lemons as a power source for her stereo when she runs out of batteries during a blackout.
In Magnum P.I., Season 3, episode 2, "Easy Money", Magnum uses a lemon battery to charge a walkie-talkie.
In Terry Pratchett and Stephen Baxter's The Long Earth, the devices used to step from one universe to another appear to be powered by potato batteries.
In Anne with an E Season 2 episode 10, "The Growing Good of the World," Anne and her classmates use potato batteries to prove to their town how much they've learned from their new teacher's unconventional teaching methods.
See also
List of battery types
Alessandro Volta
Electrochemical cell
Galvanic cell
Galvanic corrosion
Lasagna cell
Penny battery
References
Further reading
Description of an acid cell with zinc & copper electrodes, including a JAVA-based animation. The animation shows zinc dissolving into the electrolyte, electrons flowing from the zinc to the copper electrodes, and little hydrogen bubbles coming off the copper electrode. The animation also suggests that a single cell can light an LED, which is not possible for LEDs that emit visible light.
Online preview only.
External links
Lemon Battery video. Cool and fun animated video explaining in great detail how a lemon battery works from the inside.
Orange battery video. The orange battery powers an inexpensive digital watch.
. Three potato cells in series power a calculator.
Disposable batteries
Biodegradable materials | [
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217947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premenstrual%20syndrome | Premenstrual syndrome | Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) refers to emotional and physical symptoms that regularly occur in the one to two weeks before the start of each menstrual period. Symptoms resolve around the time menstrual bleeding begins. Different women experience different symptoms. The common emotional symptoms include irritability and mood changes. The common physical symptoms include acne, tender breasts, bloating, and feeling tired. These are nonspecific symptoms and may be seen in women without PMS. Often PMS-related symptoms are present for about six days. An individual's pattern of symptoms may change over time. Symptoms do not occur during pregnancy or following menopause.
Diagnosis requires a consistent pattern of emotional and physical symptoms occurring after ovulation and before menstruation to a degree that interferes with normal life. Emotional symptoms must not be present during the initial part of the menstrual cycle. A daily list of symptoms over a few months may help in diagnosis. Other disorders that cause similar symptoms need to be excluded before a diagnosis is made.
The cause of PMS is unknown, but the underlying mechanism is believed to involve changes in hormone levels. Reducing salt, alcohol, caffeine, and stress along with increasing exercise is typically all that is recommended in those with mild symptoms. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation may be useful in some. Anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen or naproxen may help with physical symptoms. In those with more significant symptoms birth control pills or the diuretic spironolactone may be useful.
Up to 80% of women report having some symptoms after ovulation and before the beginning of menstruation, but these symptoms generally do not cause substantial disruption. These symptoms qualify as PMS in approximately 20 to 30% of pre-menopausal women. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a more severe form of PMS that has greater psychological symptoms. PMDD affects 3 to 8% of pre-menopausal individuals. Antidepressant medication of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors class may be used for PMDD in addition to the usual measures for PMS.
Signs and symptoms
More than 200 different symptoms have been associated with PMS. Common emotional and non-specific symptoms include stress, anxiety, difficulty with sleep, headache, feeling tired, mood swings, increased emotional sensitivity, and changes in interest in sex. Problems with concentration and memory may occur. There may also be depression or anxiety.
Physical symptoms associated with the menstrual cycle – but not necessarily with PMS, which is symptoms that appear before menstruation, rather than during menstruation – include bloating, lower back pain, cramps in the pelvic area, constipation/diarrhea, swelling or tenderness in the breasts, cyclic acne (acne that appears and disappears at predictable times during the menstrual cycle), joint or muscle pain, and food cravings. The exact symptoms and their intensity vary significantly from person to person, and even somewhat from cycle to cycle and over time. Most people with premenstrual syndrome experience only a few of the possible symptoms, in a relatively predictable pattern.
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a severe form of premenstrual syndrome affecting 3–8% of menstruating women.
Causes
While PMS is linked to the luteal phase, the causes of PMS are not clear, but several factors may be involved. Changes in hormones during the menstrual cycle seem to be an important factor, with changing hormone levels affecting some more than others. PMS occurs more often in those who are in their late 20s and early 40s, have at least one child, have a family history of depression, and have a past medical history of either postpartum depression or a mood disorder.
Diagnosis
There are no laboratory tests or unique physical findings to verify the diagnosis of PMS. The three key features are:
The chief complaint is one or more of the emotional symptoms associated with PMS. Irritability, tension, or unhappiness are typical emotional symptoms.
Symptoms appear predictably during the luteal (premenstrual) phase, reduce or disappear predictably shortly before or during menstruation, and remain absent during the follicular (preovulatory) phase.
The symptoms must be severe enough to interfere with the woman's everyday life.
Mild PMS is common, and more severe symptoms would qualify as PMDD. PMS is not listed in the DSM-IV, unlike PMDD. To document a pattern and determine if it is PMDD, potentially affected women may keep a prospective record of their symptoms on a calendar for at least two menstrual cycles. This will help to establish if the symptoms are, indeed, limited to the premenstrual time, predictably recurring, and disruptive to normal functioning. A number of standardized instruments have been developed to describe PMS, including the Calendar of Premenstrual syndrome Experiences (COPE), the Prospective Record of the Impact and Severity of Menstruation (PRISM), and the Visual Analogue Scales (VAS).
Other conditions that may better explain symptoms must be excluded. A number of medical conditions are subject to exacerbation at menstruation, a process called menstrual magnification. These conditions may lead women who do not have PMS to incorrectly believe that they have PMS, when the underlying disorder is some other medical problem, such as anemia, hypothyroidism, eating disorders and substance abuse. A key feature is that these conditions may also be present outside of the luteal phase. Conditions that can be magnified perimenstrually include depression or other affective disorders, migraine, seizure disorders, fatigue, irritable bowel syndrome, asthma, and allergies. Problems with other aspects of the female reproductive system must be excluded, including dysmenorrhea (pain during the menstrual period, rather than before it), endometriosis, perimenopause, and adverse effects produced by oral contraceptive pills.
The National Institute of Mental Health research definition compares the intensity of symptoms from cycle days 5 to 10 to the six-day interval before the onset of the menstrual period. To qualify as PMS, symptom intensity must increase at least 30% in the six days before menstruation. Additionally, this pattern must be documented for at least two consecutive cycles.
Management
Many treatments have been tried in PMS. Reducing salt, caffeine, and stress along with increasing exercise is typically all that is recommended in those with mild symptoms. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation may be useful in some. Anti-inflammatories such as naproxen may help with physical symptoms. A healthy diet, reduced consumption of salt, caffeine and alcohol, and regular exercise may be effective for women in controlling water retention. In those with more significant symptoms birth control pills may be useful.
Diuretics have been used to handle water retention. Spironolactone has been shown in some studies to be useful.
Antidepressants
SSRIs like fluoxetine, sertraline can be used to treat severe PMS. Those with PMS may be able to take medication only on the days when symptoms are expected to occur. Although intermittent therapy might be more acceptable to some, this might be less effective than continuous regimens. Side effect such as nausea and weakness are however relatively common.
Hormonal medications
Hormonal contraception is commonly used; common forms include the combined oral contraceptive pill and the contraceptive patch. This class of medication may cause PMS-related symptoms in some and may reduce physical symptoms in others. They do not relieve emotional symptoms.
Progesterone support has been used for many years but evidence of its efficacy is inadequate.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists can be useful in severe forms of PMS but have their own set of significant potential side effects.
Alternative medicine
Tentative evidence supports vitamin B6 and chasteberry. Data are insufficient to determine an effect of St. John's wort, soy, vitamin E, and saffron. Evening primrose oil may be useful.
There is tentative evidence that acupressure and acupuncture may help to reduce PMS symptoms and improve women' quality of life.
Prognosis
PMS is generally a stable diagnosis, with susceptible individuals experiencing the same symptoms at the same intensity near the end of each cycle for years. Treatment for specific symptoms is usually effective.
Even without treatment, symptoms tend to decrease in perimenopausal women. However, those who experience PMS or PMDD are more likely to have significant symptoms associated with menopause, such as hot flashes.
Epidemiology
PMS, in which mild to moderate symptoms affect some facet of the person's life, occurs in about 20 to 30% of premenopausal women; the more severe symptoms of PMDD affect 3 to 8% of premenopausal women.
Among females of reproductive age living in India, the prevalence of PMS is 43%; the prevalence among adolescents is even higher.
History
PMS was originally seen as an imagined disease. Women who reported its symptoms were often told it was "all in their head". Woman’s reproductive organs were thought to have complete control over them. Women were warned not to divert needed energy away from the uterus and ovaries. This view of limited energy very quickly ran up against a reality in 19th century America that young girls worked extremely long and hard hours in factories; newspapers in the 19th century were peppered with remedies to help in the "tyrannous processes" of the menstrual cycle. In 1873 Edward Clarke published an influential book titled Sex in Education. Clarke came to the conclusion that female operatives suffer less than schoolgirls because they "work their brain less". This suggested that they have stronger bodies and a reproductive "apparatus more normally constructed". Feminists later took opposition to Clarke's argument that women should not leave the private sphere by showing that women could function in the world outside the home in spite of natural body functions.
The formal medical description of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and the more severe, related diagnosis of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) goes back at least 70 years to a paper presented at the New York Academy of Medicine by Robert T. Frank titled "Hormonal Causes of Premenstrual Tension". The specific term premenstrual syndrome appears to date from an article published in 1953 by Dalton and Greene in the British Medical Journal. Since then, PMS has been a continuous presence in popular culture, occupying a place that is larger than the research attention accorded it as a medical diagnosis. It has been argued that women are partially responsible for the medicalization of PMS. By legitimizing this disorder, women have contributed to the social construction of PMS as an illness. It has also been suggested that the public debate over PMS and PMDD was impacted by organizations who had a stake in the outcome including feminists, the American Psychiatric Association, physicians and scientists. Until the 1950s, there was little research done surrounding PMS and it was not seen as a social problem. By the 1980s, however, viewing PMS in a social context had begun to take place.
Alternative views
Some supporters of PMS as a social construct believe PMDD and PMS to be unrelated issues: according to them, PMDD is a product of brain chemistry, and PMS is a product of a hypochondriatic culture, i.e. a culture-bound syndrome. Most studies on PMS and PMDD rely solely on self-reporting. According to sociologist Carol Tavris, Western women are socially conditioned to expect PMS or to at least know of its existence, and they, therefore, report their symptoms accordingly. The anthropologist Emily Martin argues that PMS is a cultural phenomenon that continues to grow in a positive feedback loop, and thus is a social construction that contributes to learned helplessness or convenient excuse. Tavris says that PMS is blamed as an explanation for rage or sadness. The decision to call PMDD an illness has been criticized as inappropriate medicalization. In both cases, they are referring to the emotional aspects, not the normal physical symptoms that are present.
See also
Menstrual leave
References
External links
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
Direct Online Health Encyclopaedia: Premenstrual syndrome (UK) at NHS
"Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) (Premenstrual Tension)" at Merck Manual
Menstrual cycle
Syndromes
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217957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temples%20%28band%29 | Temples (band) | Temples are an English rock band, formed in Kettering, England in 2012 by singer and guitarist James Bagshaw and bassist Tom Walmsley. The band's lineup was later completed with the addition of keyboardist and rhythm guitarist Adam Smith and drummer Rens Ottink.
They have released three studio albums, two EPs, and a number of singles. Their debut album, Sun Structures, was released in 2014 and charted at number seven in the UK. They are signed to ATO Records and have toured internationally both as a support act and as the headliner.
History
The band was initially formed as a home studio project in mid 2012. Walmsley and Bagshaw had known each other for years before these projects. It was at this point that they were in rival bands based in their hometown of Kettering. The duo had later worked together in The Moons, with Bagshaw also having sessioned with the Lightning Seeds and co-fronted another earlier Kettering band Sukie who formed in 2006 and charted at No 1 in the UK Indie Chart with their debut single "Pink-A-Pade". Sukie were featured in the fanzine "Siren", edited and created by Walmsley to document Kettering's music scene.
The duo uploaded four self-produced tracks to YouTube, which caught the attention of Heavenly Recordings founder Jeff Barrett, who agreed to release the band's debut single "Shelter Song" in November 2012. They then enlisted fellow Kettering resident drummer, Samuel Lloyd Toms (Secret Fix, ex-Koolaid Electric Company) and keyboard player Adam Smith and started rehearsing as a band, so they could play their songs live, having never played live as a band before. The band released their second single "Colours To Life" in June 2013.
In an interview with Sound of Boston, lead vocalist James Bagshaw noted that signing on to Heavenly Records did not change their recording process. "Nothing changed, everything stayed exactly the same... At no point did they say, you know, go into the studio. If they did, we probably wouldn’t have signed to them because we liked the idea of what we were doing," Bagshaw stated. Temples' personal gear during recording comes from various gear from Vox and Orange Amps, along with synthesizers like the Roland VK-8 Combo Organ.
Bagshaw also commented on the difficulty in selecting which tracks to release as singles. The melodic nature of "Mesmerise" was a main reason why Temples chose to release it as a single; "I guess melody is something that assigns a single because that’s the thing that people listen to. But for us, we always found it very hard to choose singles… it might not be commercially viable, but that one sounds more catchy," said Bagshaw.
Having played major UK and European festival and supported the likes of Suede, Mystery Jets, Kasabian and The Vaccines alongside select headline dates, the band announced their first headline UK tour to take place in October 2013. In November 2013, Temples announced their self-produced debut album, Sun Structures, which was released on 5 February 2014. The band embarked on a headlining tour around Europe, North America, and Australia. On 30 July 2014, the band performed for the first time on US television performing "Shelter Song" on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. Temples also performed "Shelter Song" on The Ellen Degeneres Show on 29 September 2014.
The band's relative lack of airplay on major radio stations in the UK, especially BBC Radio 1, has been criticized by fellow musician and fan Noel Gallagher.
They debuted two new songs live in 2015, entitled 'Henry's Cake' and 'Volcano/Savior' respectively. The band confirmed that they were working on a new album via Instagram on 9 July 2015. The band spent much of the first half of 2016 recording new material before embarking on a number of European festival dates. On 26 September 2016 the band announced a new single, "Certainty".
The band released their second studio album, Volcano, on 3 March 2017.
In early 2018, drummer Samuel Toms left the band to concentrate on his solo project Secret Fix, and has gone on to join Fat White Family. The band have made no announcement regarding Toms' departure, with Toms himself only confirming his departure in December 2018 months after the band had toured with PAUW drummer Rens Ottink and released press shots with just the other three band members. Toms acknowledged that fans were contacting him regarding his departure from the band, as the band had made no comment. Toms admitted that he was asked to leave the band for reasons he did not wish to divulge, but also claimed that he had been thinking of leaving the band since shortly after joining the band, as he was not able nor allowed to contribute musically. The band also parted ways with Heavenly Recordings in 2018.
Temples' third studio album, Hot Motion, was released by ATO Records on 3 September 2019.
Band members
Current
James Edward Bagshaw – lead vocals, lead guitar
Adam Thomas Smith – rhythm guitar, keyboards, backing vocals
Thomas Edward James Walmsley – bass guitar, backing vocals
Rens Ottink – drums
Former
Samuel Toms – drums
Jack Prince – drums
Discography
Studio albums
Sun Structures (5 February 2014) UK No. 7
Volcano (3 March 2017) UK No. 23
Hot Motion (27 September 2019) UK No. 51
Remix album
Sun Restructured (10 November 2014)
EPs
Shelter Song EP (7 July 2014)
Mesmerise Live EP (16 September 2014)
Singles
"Shelter Song" / "Prisms" (12 November 2012)
"Colours to Life" / "Ankh" (24 June 2013)
"Keep In the Dark" / "Jewel of Mine Eye" (7 October 2013)
"Mesmerise" (20 November 2013)
"Move with the Season" (3 November 2014)
"Certainty" (26 September 2016)
"Strange or Be Forgotten" (10 January 2017)
"Hot Motion" (2019)
"You're Either On Something” (2019)
"Paraphernalia" (2 September 2020)
References
External links
English indie rock groups
Musical groups established in 2012
English psychedelic rock music groups
People from Kettering
2012 establishments in England
ATO Records artists
Fat Possum Records artists
Heavenly Recordings artists | [
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217961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twinkie%20defense | Twinkie defense | "Twinkie defense" is a derisive label for an improbable legal defense. It is not a recognized legal defense in jurisprudence, but a catch-all term coined by reporters during their coverage of the trial of defendant Dan White for the murders of San Francisco city Supervisor Harvey Milk and Mayor George Moscone. White's defense was that he suffered diminished capacity as a result of his depression, a symptom of which was a change in diet from healthy food to Twinkies and other sugary foods.
Contrary to common belief, White's attorneys did not argue that the Twinkies were the cause of White's actions, but that their consumption was symptomatic of his underlying depression. The product itself was only mentioned in passing during the trial. White was convicted of voluntary manslaughter rather than first-degree murder, and served five years in prison.
Origin
The expression derives from the 1979 trial of Dan White, a former San Francisco police officer and firefighter who was serving as a city district supervisor up until assassinating Mayor George Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk on November 27, 1978. At the trial, psychiatrist Martin Blinder testified that White had been depressed at the time of the crime, and pointed to several behavioral changes indicating White's depression: he had quit his job; he shunned his wife; and although normally clean-cut, he had become slovenly in appearance. Furthermore, White had previously been a fitness fanatic and health food advocate, but had begun consuming junk food and sugar-laden soft drinks like Coca-Cola. As an incidental note, Blinder mentioned theories that elements of diet could worsen existing mood swings. Another psychiatrist, George Solomon, testified that White had "exploded" and was "sort of on automatic pilot" at the time of the killings. The fact that White had killed Moscone and Milk was not challenged, but – in part because of the testimony from Blinder and other psychiatrists – the defense successfully convinced the jury that White's capacity for rational thought had been diminished; the jurors found White incapable of the premeditation required for a murder conviction, and instead convicted him of voluntary manslaughter. Public protests over the verdict led to the White Night Riots.
Diminished capacity
Twinkies were only mentioned incidentally in the courtroom during the White trial, and junk food was a minor aspect of the defense presentation. The defense did not claim that White was on a sugar rush and committed the murders as a result. However, one reporter's use of the term "Twinkie defense" became popular, leading to a persistent misunderstanding by the public. The misunderstanding was mentioned at the end of Milk, Gus Van Sant's 2008 biopic of Harvey Milk. In a bonus feature on the DVD version of The Times of Harvey Milk, a documentary on Milk's life and death, White's lawyers explain what they actually argued in court.
The actual legal defense that White's lawyers used was that his mental capacity had been diminished, and White's consumption of junk food was presented to the jury as one of many symptoms, not a cause, of White's depression.
In stories covering the trial, satirist Paul Krassner had played up the angle of the Twinkie, and he would later claim credit for coining the term "Twinkie defense". The day after the verdict, columnist Herb Caen wrote in the San Francisco Chronicle about the police support for White, himself a former policeman, and their "dislike of homosexuals" and mentioned "the Twinkie insanity defense" in passing. News stories published after the trial, however, frequently reported the defense arguments inaccurately, claiming that the defense had presented junk food as the cause of White's depression and/or diminished capacity, instead of having been symptomatic of an existing depression. Dan White committed suicide seven years later.
As a result of negative publicity from the White case and others, the term diminished capacity was abolished in 1982 by Proposition8 and the California legislature and was replaced by the term diminished actuality, referring not to the capacity to have a specific intent, but to whether the defendant actually had the required intent to commit the crime with which he or she was charged. Additionally, California's statutory definitions of premeditation and malice required for murder were eliminated by the state's legislature, with the return to common law definitions. By this time, the "Twinkie defense" had become such a common term that one lawmaker had waved a Twinkie in the air while making his point during a debate.
Supreme Court
During oral Supreme Court arguments in United States v. Gonzalez-Lopez, 548 U.S. 140 (2006), Justice Antonin Scalia referred to the Twinkie defense with regard to the right to counsel of choice as perhaps more important than the right to effective assistance of counsel: "I don't want a competent lawyer. I want a lawyer who's going to get me off. I want a lawyer who will invent the Twinkie defense. ... I would not consider the Twinkie defense an invention of a competent lawyer. But I want a lawyer who's going to win for me."
See also
Affluenza
Chewbacca defense
Gay panic defense
The San Ysidro McDonald's massacre, blamed by the gunman's widow in part on monosodium glutamate in McDonald's food
The Dead Kennedys' version of "I Fought the Law", which is about the Milk–Moscone murders and includes a mention of the Twinkie defense ("Twinkies are the best friend I ever had").
Trial and Error, a 1997 film in which an attorney attempts to increase his client's blood sugar so that he may use the Twinkie defense
References
Further reading
California Penal Code Section 25-29 from Findlaw
Trial and Error by Paul Tatara for CNN on June 6, 1997. Retrieved March 20, 2006.
Weiss, Mike (2010). Double Play: The Hidden Passions Behind the Double Assassination of George Moscone and Harvey Milk, Vince Emery Productions.
External links
Snopes: The Twinkie Defense
"Myth of the 'Twinkie defense'" - San Francisco Chronicle, November 23, 2003
Criminal defenses
LGBT history in San Francisco
History of LGBT civil rights in the United States
Harvey Milk
Mental health law
1979 introductions
Legal terminology from popular culture
Misconceptions
1979 in LGBT history | [
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217962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological%20defense | Biological defense | Biological defense may refer to:
Biological defense mechanism, a form of adaptation that promotes the survivability of an organism by protecting it from its natural enemies, such as predators (Anti-predator adaptation) or pathogens (Immune system)
In law, a claim that some biological factor present in the defendant provides a defense against the accused crimes, as in the so-called Twinkie defense
Biodefense, defense against biological warfare | [
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217966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow%20Warrior | Rainbow Warrior | Rainbow Warrior(s), rainbow warrior(s), or Warriors of the Rainbow may refer to
Legend of the Rainbow Warriors, an environmentalist belief of fulfilling a Native American prophecy, or one of the things named after this legend
In the arts
Books
Warriors of the Rainbow (1962) by William Willoya and Vinson Brown
Film and television
The Rainbow Warrior (film), 1992, about the Greenpeace ship
Warriors of the Rainbow: Seediq Bale, 2011 Taiwanese film
"The Rainbow Warrior", an episode from season 2 of He-Man and the Masters of the Universe
Music
"Rainbow Warrior", song by Bleak House, notable for inspiring "Welcome Home (Sanitarium)" by Metallica
"Rainbow Warrior", song by The Buggles on their album Adventures in Modern Recording
"Rainbow Warrior", song by Cobalt 60 on their album Twelve
"Rainbow Warrior", song by Swedish band Europe
"Rainbow Warrior", song by Faroese band Týr
"Rainbow Warrior", term used in Reggae music, referring to "Rainbow Country" Jamaica
Ships
Rainbow Warrior (1955), former fishing trawler Sir William Hardy, acquired by Greenpeace in 1978 and sunk by the French intelligence service in 1985
Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, in 1985
Rainbow Warrior (1957), auxiliary three-masted schooner, acquired by Greenpeace in 1989
Rainbow Warrior (2011), purpose-designed Greenpeace ship
Sports
Hawaii Rainbow Warriors, sports teams at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
The Rainbow Warriors or Rainbow Warrior, nickname for Jeff Gordon's auto racing team or car
Other uses
Rainbow Warrior, self-description of executed murderer Joseph Mitchell Parsons (referring to Jeff Gordon)
Rainbow warrior, nickname for Swedish human rights activist Linnéa Claeson
Rainbow warriors, colloquial name for Greenpeace activists
Rainbow warriors, LGBT rights activists, referring to LGBT movement's rainbow flag; see LGBT social movements
Rainbow Warriors, a Space Marine chapter in Warhammer 40,000
Rainbow Warrior (video game), 1989 videogame developed by Greenpeace
See also
Rainbow flag
Rainbow Family
Rainbow Gathering | [
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217975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10BROAD36 | 10BROAD36 | 10BROAD36 is an obsolete computer network standard in the Ethernet family. It was developed during the 1980s and specified in IEEE 802.3b-1985.
The standard supports 10 Mbit/s Ethernet signals over standard 75 ohm cable television (CATV) cable over a 3600-meter range. 10BROAD36 modulates its data onto a higher frequency carrier signal, much as an audio signal would modulate a carrier signal to be transmitted in a radio station. In telecommunications engineering, this is a broadband signaling technique. Broadband provides several advantages over the baseband signal used, for instance in 10BASE5. Range is greatly extended (3600 meters, versus 500 meters for 10BASE5), and multiple signals can be carried on the same cable. 10BROAD36 can even share a cable with standard television channels.
Standardization
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers standards committee IEEE 802 published the standard that was ratified in 1985 as an additional section 11 to the base Ethernet standard. It was also issued as ISO/IEC 8802-3 in 1989.
Deployment
10BROAD36 was less successful than its contemporaries because of the high equipment complexity (and cost) associated with it. The individual stations are much more expensive due to the extra radio frequency circuitry involved; however the primary extra complexity comes from the fact that 10BROAD36 is unidirectional. Signals can only travel one direction along the line, so head-end stations must be present on the line to repeat the signals (ensuring that no packets travel through the line indefinitely) on either another, backwards direction frequency on the same line, or another line entirely. This also increases latency and prevents bidirectional signal flow.
The extra complexity outweighed the advantage of reusability of CATV technology for the intended campus networks and metropolitan area networks. An installer at Boston University using the Ungermann-Bass product noted that no installers understood both the digital and analog aspects of the system.
In wide area networks it was quickly replaced by fiber-optic communication alternatives, such as 100BASE-FX (which provided ten times the data rate). Interest in cable modems was revived for residential Internet access, through later technologies such as the Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) in the 1990s.
See also
10PASS-TS
Notes
References
External links
Ethernet standards | [
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217982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddyshack | Caddyshack | Caddyshack is a 1980 American sports comedy film directed by Harold Ramis, written by Brian Doyle-Murray, Ramis, and Douglas Kenney, and starring Chevy Chase, Rodney Dangerfield, Ted Knight, Michael O'Keefe, and Bill Murray. Doyle-Murray also has a supporting role.
Caddyshack was Ramis's directorial debut and boosted the career of Dangerfield, who was previously known mostly for his stand-up comedy. Grossing nearly $40 million at the domestic box office (the 17th-highest of the year), it was the first of a series of similar comedies. A sequel, Caddyshack II (1988), followed, although only Chase reprised his role and the film was poorly received.
The film has a cult following and was described by ESPN as "perhaps the funniest sports movie ever made."
Plot
Danny Noonan (Michael O'Keefe) works as a caddie at the exclusive Bushwood Country Club to earn enough money to go to college. Danny caddies for Ty Webb (Chevy Chase), a mischievous but avid golfer and the son of one of Bushwood's co-founders. Danny tries to gain favor with Judge Elihu Smails (Ted Knight), the country club's arrogant co-founder and director of the caddie scholarship program, by caddying for him. Meanwhile, Carl Spackler (Bill Murray), a mentally unstable groundskeeper who lives in the maintenance building, is sent by his Scottish supervisor Sandy McFiddish (Thomas A. Carlin) to hunt a gopher that is damaging the course. He attempts to kill it with a rifle and high-pressure hose but fails.
Al Czervik (Rodney Dangerfield), a loud and free-spirited nouveau riche golfer and successful real estate developer, begins attending the club as a guest of member Drew Scott (Brian McConnachie). Czervik distracts Smails as he tees off, causing his shot to go badly. Later, frustrated by slow play, Czervik wagers with Smails. Smails is furious for losing the bet and throws his putter, injuring an elderly woman. Danny takes the blame for the incident to gain Smails' favor. Smails encourages him to apply for the caddie scholarship.
At Bushwood's annual Fourth of July banquet, Danny and his girlfriend Maggie (Sarah Holcomb) work as waiting staff. Czervik continues to annoy Smails and the older club members, while amusing and gaining favor with the younger club members, as well as the staff, to whom he consistently hands out generous amounts of cash as tips. Danny becomes attracted to Lacey Underall (Cindy Morgan), Smails' promiscuous niece, who is visiting for the summer and frequents the club.
Later, Danny wins the Caddy Day golf tournament and the scholarship, earning him an invitation from Smails to attend the christening ceremony for his boat at the nearby Rolling Lakes Yacht Club. Smails' boat is sunk at the event after an accident involving Czervik's larger boat. Returning home, Smails discovers Lacey and Danny in bed at his house. Expecting to be fired or to have the scholarship revoked, Danny is surprised when Smails only demands that he keep the incident secret.
Unable to bear the continued presence of the uncouth Czervik, Smails confronts him and announces that he will never be granted membership. Czervik counters by announcing that he would never consider being a member: he insults the country club and claims to be there merely to evaluate buying it and developing the land into condominiums. After a brief fight and exchange of insults, Webb suggests they discuss the situation over drinks. After Smails demands satisfaction, Czervik proposes a team golf match with Smails and his regular golfing partner Dr. Beeper (Dan Resin) against Czervik and Webb. Against club rules, they also agree to a $20,000 wager on the match, which quickly doubles to $40,000. That evening, Webb practices for the game against Smails and his errant shot brings him to meet Carl; the two share a bottle of wine and a joint.
The match is held the next day. Word spreads of the stakes involved, drawing in a crowd of club members and employees. During the game, Smails and Beeper take the lead, while Czervik, to his chagrin, is "playing the worst game of his life;" at the same time Webb slowly cracks over his own awful game. Czervik reacts to Smails' wisecracks by angrily doubling the wager to $80,000 per team. When his own ricocheting ball strikes his arm, Czervik fakes an injury in hopes of having the contest declared a draw. Lou (Brian Doyle-Murray), the caddy manager who is acting as an umpire, tells Czervik his team will forfeit unless they find a substitute. When Webb chooses Danny, Smails threatens to revoke his scholarship, but Czervik promises Danny that he will make it "worth his while" if he wins. Danny chooses to play.
Upon reaching the final hole, the score is tied. Judge Smails scores a birdie. Danny has to complete a difficult putt to win. Czervik again doubles the wager based on Danny making the putt. Danny's putt leaves the ball hanging over the edge of the hole. At that moment, in his latest attempt to kill the gopher, Carl detonates plastic explosives that he has rigged around the golf course. Several explosions shake the ground and cause the ball to drop into the hole, handing Danny, Webb and Czervik victory on the wager. Smails refuses to pay, so Czervik beckons two intimidating men (Moose and Rocco), whose favor Czervik gained over his time at the club, to "help the judge find his checkbook." As Smails is chased across the course, Czervik leads a wild party at the clubhouse, attended by all of the onlookers at the match. Some distance away, the gopher emerges from underground, unharmed, and dances to the film's main theme, "I'm Alright", amid the smoldering ruins of the golf course.
Cast
Production
The film was inspired by writer and co-star Brian Doyle-Murray's memories of working as a caddie at Indian Hill Club in Winnetka, Illinois. His brothers Bill and John Murray (production assistant and a caddy extra) and director Harold Ramis also had worked as caddies when they were teenagers. Many of the characters in the film were based on characters they had encountered through their various experiences at the club, including a young woman upon whom the character of Maggie is based and the Haverkamps, a doddering old couple, John and Ilma, longtime members of the club, who can barely hit the ball out of their shadows. The scene involving a Baby Ruth candy bar being thrown into the swimming pool was based on a real-life incident at Doyle-Murray's high school. The scene in which Al Czervik hits Judge Smails in the genitals with a struck golf ball happened to Ramis on what he said was the second of his two rounds of golf, on a nine-hole public course.
The film was shot over eleven weeks during the autumn of 1979; Hurricane David in early September delayed production. Golf scenes were filmed at the Rolling Hills Golf Club (now the Grande Oaks Golf Club) in Davie, Florida. According to Ramis, Rolling Hills was chosen because the course did not have any palm trees. He wanted the film to feel that it was in the Midwest, not Florida. The explosions that take place during the climax of the film were reported at the nearby Fort Lauderdale airport by an incoming pilot, who suspected that a plane had crashed. The Fourth of July dinner and dancing scene was filmed at the Boca Raton Hotel and Club in Boca Raton, Florida, while the yacht club scene was shot at the Rusty Pelican Restaurant in Key Biscayne, Florida.
The scene that begins when Ty Webb's golf ball crashes into Carl Spackler's shack was not in the original script. It was added by director Harold Ramis after realizing that two of his biggest stars, Chevy Chase and Bill Murray, did not appear in a scene together. The three met for lunch and wrote the scene. This is the only film that Chase and Murray have appeared in together.
Murray improvised much of the "Cinderella story" scene based on two lines of stage direction. Ramis gave him direction to act as a child. Murray hit flowers with a grass whip while fantasizing aloud about winning the Masters Tournament; a major golf tournament. Murray was with the production for only six days, and all of his dialogue was heavily embellished by his spontaneous improvisations.
Cindy Morgan said that a massage scene with Chevy Chase was improvised, and her reaction to Chase dousing her back with the massage oil, where she exclaimed "You're crazy!" was genuine. A scene in which her character dove into the pool was acted by a professional diver. Before the diver took over, she was led to the diving board by the crew and carefully directed up the ladder since she could not wear her contact lenses near the pool and was legally blind without them.
A deal was made with John Dykstra's effects company for visual effects, including lightning, stormy sky effects, flying golf balls and disappearing greens' flags. The gopher was part of the effects package. Dykstra's technicians added hydraulic animation to the puppet, including ear movement, and built the tunnels through which it moved.
The production became infamous for the amount of drug usage which occurred on-set, with supporting actor Peter Berkrot describing cocaine as "the fuel that kept the film running."
Reception
Critical response
Caddyshack was released on July 25, 1980, in 656 theaters, and grossed $3.1 million during its opening weekend; it went on to make $39,846,344 in North America, and $60 million worldwide.
The film was met with underwhelming reviews in its original release, with criticism towards the disorganized plot, though Dangerfield and Murray's comic performances were well received. Roger Ebert gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four and wrote, "Caddyshack feels more like a movie that was written rather loosely, so that when shooting began there was freedom—too much freedom—for it to wander off in all directions in search of comic inspiration." Gene Siskel gave the film three out of four stars, saying it was "funny about half of the time it tries to be, which is a pretty good average for a comedy." Dave Kehr, in his review for the Chicago Reader, wrote, "The first-time director, Harold Ramis, can't hold it together: the picture lurches from style to style (including some ill-placed whimsy with a gopher puppet) and collapses somewhere between sitcom and sketch farce." Vincent Canby gave it a mixed review in The New York Times, describing it as "A pleasantly loose-limbed sort of movie with some comic moments, most of them belonging to Mr. Dangerfield."
Nevertheless, the film has gained a cult following in the years after its release and has been positively reappraised by many film critics. The film holds a 73% approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes, based on 59 (mostly contemporary) reviews, with an average rating of 6.56/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Though unabashedly crude and juvenile, Caddyshack nevertheless scores with its classic slapstick, unforgettable characters, and endlessly quotable dialogue." Christopher Null gave the film four stars out of five in his 2005 review, and wrote, "They don't make 'em like this anymore … The plot wanders around the golf course and involves a half-dozen elements, but if you simply dig the gopher, the caddy, and the Dangerfield, you're not going to be doing half bad."
Tiger Woods said that he liked the film, and played Spackler in an American Express commercial based on the film. Many of the film's quotes are part of popular culture.
Ramis noted in the DVD documentary that TV Guide had originally given the film two stars (out of four) when it began showing on cable television in the early 1980s, but over time the rating had gone up to three stars. In 2009, he said, "I can barely watch it. All I see are a bunch of compromises and things that could have been better," such as the poor swings of everyone, except for O'Keefe.
Denmark was the only place outside the United States where Caddyshack was initially a hit. The distributor had cut 20 minutes to emphasize Bill Murray's role.
Accolades
This film is also second on Bravo's "100 Funniest Movies."
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2000: AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – #71
2005: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:
Carl Spackler: "Cinderella story. Outta nowhere. A former greenskeeper, now, about to become the Masters champion. It looks like a mirac... It's in the hole! It's in the hole! It's in the hole!" – #92
2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:
#7 Sports Film
Soundtrack
In anticipation of the movie, the Kenny Loggins single "I'm Alright" was released nearly three weeks before the movie opened and became a top ten hit the last week of September 1980. CBS Records also issued a soundtrack to Caddyshack later that year. It included ten songs, four of which were performed by Kenny Loggins, including the aforementioned "I'm Alright."
Sequel
There was a sequel, Caddyshack II (1988), which did poorly at the box office and is considered one of the worst sequels of all time.
Books
In 2007, Taylor Trade Publishing released The Book of Caddyshack, an illustrated paperback retrospective of the movie, with cast and crew Q&A interviews. The book was written by Scott Martin.
In April 2018, Flatiron Books published Caddyshack: The Making of a Hollywood Cinderella Story by Chris Nashawaty, detailing the making of the film.
Caddyshack restaurants
On June 7, 2001, Bill Murray, Brian Doyle-Murray and their brothers opened a themed restaurant inspired by the film at the World Golf Village, near St. Augustine, Florida. The restaurant is meant to resemble the fictional Bushwood Country Club, and serves primarily American cuisine. The brothers are all active partners and make occasional appearances at the restaurant. Three more Caddyshack restaurants were opened, in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina; Orlando; and Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida; these are now closed, leaving the original St. Augustine, Florida their flagship location, open to fans and diners.
Bill Murray and two of his brothers were in attendance when another venue opened in Rosemont, Illinois, in April 2018.
References
External links
Caddyshack, an homage to Doug Kenney, ESPN/Golf Digest, April 2004
"Caddyshack Culture" – Meta-critique from the erstwhile Suck.com.
2009 documentary Caddyshack: The Inside Story on IMDB
1980 films
1980s satirical films
1980s screwball comedy films
1980s sports comedy films
American films
American satirical films
American screwball comedy films
American sports comedy films
1980s English-language films
Fictional gophers
Films about social class
Films directed by Harold Ramis
Films featuring puppetry
Films scored by Johnny Mandel
Films set in Nebraska
Films shot in Florida
Films with screenplays by Brian Doyle-Murray
Films with screenplays by Douglas Kenney
Films with screenplays by Harold Ramis
Golf films
Orion Pictures films
Warner Bros. films
1980 directorial debut films
1980 comedy films | [
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217985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buss%20Island | Buss Island | Bus, Buss, or Busse Island was a phantom island in the North Atlantic Ocean. It was recorded as discovered during the third expedition of Martin Frobisher in September 1578 by sailors aboard the ship Emanuel of Bridgwater (a "busse") and was indicated on maps as existing between Ireland and mythical Frisland at about 57° N. The island was then named for the type of vessel that its discoverers used. It is believed that Frobisher took Greenland for Frisland and Baffin Island for Greenland and Emanuel, returning home, made a mistake in dead reckoning and mistook optical effects near Greenland at around 62° N for new land.
A Thomas Shepard claimed to have explored and mapped the island from Golden Lion of Dunkirk in 1671. As Atlantic traffic increased, the island's existence was less certain and its supposed size was greatly reduced. By 1745, it was apparent there was no island at the site claimed and it was renamed the Sunken Land of Buss, as the supposed area was relatively shallow. The island or 'site of sunken island' persisted on charts into the 19th century. Its existence at the location was finally disproved by John Ross in Isabella in 1818 during his first Arctic expedition, finding no depth at .
References
Phantom islands of the Atlantic
Islands of the North Atlantic Ocean
History of Greenland | [
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217987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag%20Fire%20Decree | Reichstag Fire Decree | [[Image:Verboten Zeitung 1933.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Das Andere Deutschlands final issue, announcing its own prohibition (Verbot) by the police authorities on the basis of the Reichstag fire decree]]
The Reichstag Fire Decree () is the common name of the Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State''' () issued by German President Paul von Hindenburg on the advice of Chancellor Adolf Hitler on 28 February 1933 in immediate response to the Reichstag fire. The decree nullified many of the key civil liberties of German citizens. With Nazis in powerful positions in the German government, the decree was used as the legal basis for the imprisonment of anyone considered to be opponents of the Nazis, and to suppress publications not considered "friendly" to the Nazi cause. The decree is considered by historians as one of the key steps in the establishment of a one-party Nazi state in Germany.
Background
Hitler had been appointed Chancellor of Germany only four weeks previously, on 30 January 1933, when he was invited by President von Hindenburg to lead a coalition government. Hitler's government had urged von Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag and to call elections for 5 March.
On the evening of 27 February 1933—six days before the parliamentary election—fire broke out in the Reichstag chambers. While the exact circumstances of the fire remain unclear to this day, what is clear is that Hitler and his supporters quickly capitalized on the fire as a means by which to catalyse their consolidation of power. Hitler almost immediately blamed the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) for causing the blaze, and believed the fire would result in more Germans supporting the Nazis. According to Rudolf Diels, Hitler was heard shouting through the fire "these sub-humans do not understand how the people stand at our side. In their mouse-holes, out of which they now want to come, of course they hear nothing of the cheering of the masses."
Seizing on the burning of the Reichstag building as the supposed opening salvo in a communist uprising, the Nazis were able to throw millions of Germans into a convulsion of fear at the threat of Communist terror. The official account stated:
The burning of the Reichstag was intended to be the signal for a bloody uprising and civil war. Large-scale pillaging in Berlin was planned for as early as four o'clock in the morning on Tuesday. It has been determined that starting today throughout Germany acts of terrorism were to begin against prominent individuals, against private property, against the lives and safety of the peaceful population, and general civil war was to be unleashed…
Within hours of the fire, dozens of Communists had been thrown into jail. The next day, officials in the Prussian Ministry of the Interior, which was led by Hermann Göring, discussed ways to provide legal cover for the arrests. Ludwig Grauert, the chief of the Prussian state police, proposed an emergency presidential decree under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, which gave the president the power to take any measure necessary to protect public safety without the consent of the Reichstag. It would have suspended most civil liberties under the pretence of preventing further Communist violence. There had already been discussions within the Cabinet about enacting such measures. Justice Minister Franz Gürtner, a member of the Nazis' coalition partner, the German National People's Party (DNVP), had actually brought a draft decree before the cabinet on the afternoon of 27 February.
When the proposed decree was brought before the Reich Cabinet, Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick, the only Nazi in the cabinet who had a portfolio, added a clause that would allow the cabinet to take over the state governments if they failed to maintain order. Notably, the cabinet would have been allowed to do this on its own authority. Frick was well aware that the Interior portfolio had been given to the Nazis because it was almost powerless; unlike his counterparts in the rest of Europe, he had no power over the police. He saw a chance to extend his power over the states and thus begin the process of Nazifying the country.
At an emergency cabinet meeting, Hitler declared that the fire now made it a matter of "ruthless confrontation of the KPD"—a confrontation that could not be "made dependent on judicial considerations." Though Vice Chancellor Franz von Papen objected to the clause giving the Reich cabinet the power to take over the state governments if necessary, the decree was approved. Shortly thereafter, President von Hindenburg signed the decree into law.
The decree consisted of six articles. Article 1 indefinitely suspended most of the civil liberties set forth in the Weimar Constitution, including habeas corpus, inviolability of residence, secrecy of the post and telephone, freedom of expression and of the press, the right to public assembly, and the right of free association, as well as the protection of property and the home. Articles 2 and 3 allowed the Reich government to assume powers normally reserved for the federal states. Articles 4 and 5 established draconian penalties for certain offenses, including the death penalty for arson to public buildings. Article 6 simply stated that the decree took effect on the day of its proclamation.
Text of the decree
The preamble and Article 1 of the Reichstag Fire Decree show the methods by which the civil rights enshrined in the Weimar Constitution were legally abolished by the Hitler Government:
Effects
The decree was not accompanied by any written guidelines from the Reich government; this omission gave wide latitude in interpreting the decree to Nazis like Göring, who as Prussian interior minister was the commander of the largest police force in Germany. The Länder not yet in the Nazis' grasp largely restricted themselves to banning the Communist press, Communist meetings and demonstrations, and detaining leading KPD officials. In Prussia, however, summary arrests of KPD leaders were common, thousands were imprisoned in the days following the fire, and the total number of arrests in Prussia on the basis of the Reichstag Fire Decree in the two weeks following 28 February is believed to be in the vicinity of 10,000. Göring had actually employed such tactics even before the decree, only to have them thrown out by the courts—a check that no longer had any effect with the decree in place.
Among the German communists arrested on the basis of the Reichstag Fire Decree was KPD chairman Ernst Thälmann; while KPD founding members Wilhelm Pieck and Walter Ulbricht—later to be leaders in postwar East Germany—were among those who escaped arrest and lived in exile.
Göring issued a directive to the Prussian police authorities on 3 March, stating that in addition to the constitutional rights stripped by the decree, "all other restraints on police action imposed by Reich and State law" were abolished "so far as this is necessary … to achieve the purpose of the decree." Göring went on to say that
In keeping with the purpose and aim of the decree the additional measures … will be directed against the Communists in the first instance, but then also against those who co-operate with the Communists and who support or encourage their criminal aims. … I would point out that any necessary measures against members or establishments of other than Communist, anarchist or Social Democratic parties can only be justified by the decree … if they serve to help the defense against such Communist activities in the widest sense.
Within two weeks of the Reichstag Fire Decree taking effect, Reich Commissars were sent out to take over the other states; the heavy-handed repression that was occurring in Prussia quickly spread to the rest of the Reich.
Despite the virulent rhetoric directed against the Communists, the Nazis did not formally ban the KPD right away. Not only did they fear a violent uprising, but they hoped the KPD's presence on the ballot would siphon off votes from the Social Democratic Party (SPD). However, while the KPD managed to win 81 seats, it was an open secret that the KPD deputies would never be allowed to take their seats; they were thrown in jail as quickly as the police could track them down. Increasingly, the courts treated KPD membership as an act of treason. Thus, for all intents and purposes, the KPD was banned as of 6 March, the day after the election.
Just over three weeks after the passage of the Reichstag Fire Decree, Hitler further tightened his grasp on Germany by the passage of the Enabling Act. This act gave Hitler's cabinet the power to decree laws without being passed by the Reichstag—effectively giving Hitler dictatorial powers. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis did not even count the arrested KPD deputies for the purposes of determining a quorum. They also used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to detain several SPD deputies. Many others fled into exile. All of this ensured that it would pass with over 85 percent of the deputies who were present and voting, far more than the two-thirds majority required in the constitution. As it turned out, the session took place in such an intimidating atmosphere that the Enabling Act would have garnered the required supermajority even if all KPD and SPD deputies had been present.
In his book, The Coming of the Third Reich, British historian Richard J. Evans argued that the Enabling Act was legally invalid, in part because of the Reich Commissars' role in Nazifying the states. Evans argued that the states were "not properly constituted or represented" in the Reichsrat, and therefore that chamber's vote to pass the Enabling Act was "irregular."
In theory, Article 48 gave the Reichstag the power to demand the cancellation of the measures taken to enforce the Reichstag Fire Decree. However, any realistic chance of it being cancelled ended in July; by this time the other parties had either been banned outright or intimidated into dissolving themselves, and the Nazi Party had been declared the only legal party in Germany.
The Reichstag Fire Decree remained in force for the duration of the Nazi era, allowing Hitler to rule under what amounted to martial law. Along with the Enabling Act, it formed the legal basis for Hitler's dictatorship. Thousands of Hitler's decrees, such as those which turned Germany into a one-party state, were explicitly based on its authority, and hence on Article 48. This was a major reason Hitler never formally abolished the Weimar Constitution, though it no longer had any substantive value after the passage of the Enabling Act.
The Nazis' use of the Reichstag Fire Decree to give their dictatorship the appearance of legality, combined with the broader misuse of Article 48, was fresh on the minds of framers of the postwar Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. They opted to significantly curb the powers of the president, to the point that he has little de facto executive power.
See also
Gleichschaltung Rule by decree
References
Further reading
Reichstagsbrandverordnung - Original German source text at Wikisource''
External links
1933 in law
1933 in Germany
Emergency laws in Germany
Law in Nazi Germany
Reichstag building
Political and cultural purges
Repealed German legislation
Law in Weimar Republic
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217994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life%20cycle | Life cycle | Life cycle, life-cycle, or lifecycle may refer to:
Science and academia
Biological life cycle, the sequence of life stages that an organism undergoes from birth to reproduction ending with the production of the offspring
Life-cycle hypothesis, in economics
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, in psychoanalysis
Business
Enterprise life cycle, the process of changing a business enterprise
Project life cycle
Product lifecycle, the stages in the lifespan of a commercial or consumer product
New product development, the process of bringing a new product to market
Life-cycle assessment, the analysis of the environmental impacts associated with a product
Technology lifecycle, the commercial gain of a product
Software
Software development life cycle
Software release life cycle
Object lifetime of an object in object-oriented programming
Program lifecycle phases are the stages a computer program undergoes, from initial creation to deployment and execution
Systems engineering
Systems development life cycle, a process for planning, creating, testing, and deploying an information system in all phases of existence
Arts and entertainment
Lifecycles: A Story of AIDS in Malawi, a 2003 Canadian film
Life Cycles (The Word Alive album), 2012
Life Cycle (Dave Holland album), 1983
Life Cycle (Sieges Even album), 1988
Life Cycle (Whit Dickey album), 2001
Lifecycle (album), a 2008 album by Yellowjackets
Other uses
Jewish life cycle, a series of traditions associated with major life events in Judaism
Records life-cycle, the treatment of records from their creation to archiving or destruction
See also
Adobe LiveCycle, a server software product used to build applications that automate business processes
Life history (disambiguation) | [
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218003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegant%20variation | Elegant variation | Elegant variation is a writer's substitution of "one word for another for the sake of variety". The term was introduced in 1906 by H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler in The King's English. In their meaning of the term, they focus particularly on instances when the word being avoided is a noun or its pronoun. Pronouns are themselves differences intended to avoid awkward repetition, and deviations are so often necessary, that they should be used only when needed. The Fowlers recommend that "variations should take place only when there is some awkwardness, such as ambiguity or noticeable monotony, in the word avoided".
History
Henry Fowler's later Dictionary of Modern English Usage, published in 1926, keeps the same definition, but more explicitly cautions against overuse of variations or synonyms by writers who are "intent on expressing themselves prettily", rather than "conveying their meaning clearly", adding that "there are few literary faults so prevalent." Fowler then quotes examples of when variations should have been used, and when they should not have been used.
Since the term was established in 1906, it has been referred to in style and usage guides, but the original meaning has seen a number of variations. For example Bryan A. Garner suggests that when Fowler uses the word "elegant", he actually means the opposite—"inelegant"—because, according to Garner, at the time Fowler wrote, the word "elegant" was an "almost pejorative" word. Garner also claims that Fowler used the term elegant variation to refer to the "practice of never using the same word twice in the same sentence or passage". That is not Fowler's definition, and, as Richard W. Bailey points out, in misrepresenting Fowler, "Garner has created a linguist made of straw". Nevertheless, following Garner, inelegant variation has been used by others, including Gerald Lebovits and Wayne Schiess.
Michael Edgeworth McIntyre favors gratuitous variation, as fitting in with insights from
biological evolution, perception psychology, and
music.
Examples
In A Dictionary of Modern English Usage an example is given of a sentence that would be better with a variation:
H. W. Fowler suggests that sentence would be improved by changing "serious" to "grave", because "seriously" and "serious", in that case, do not relate to the same thing.
In The King's English (1906), Fowler gives as an example this passage from The Times:
In that example, The Emperor, His Majesty, and the Monarch all refer to the same person. Fowler points out that such extreme variations make it difficult to follow the sense of the sentence when the reader is distracted by "wondering what the King will be called next time". If a writer must choose between "monotonous repetition" and "clumsy variation", which are both undesirable, Fowler suggests picking the one that seems natural.
Among sub-editors at The Guardian, "gratuitous synonyms" are called "povs", an acronym of "popular orange vegetables"—a phrase that was removed from the draft of an article about carrots in the Liverpool Echo. Charles W. Morton similarly wrote of an "elongated yellow fruit", a presumed synonym of "banana" that was used in the Boston Evening Transcript.
Garner's Modern American Usage cites examples given by Morton, including "elongated yellow fruit" and others: pool balls ("the numbered spheroids"); Bluebeard ("the azure-whiskered wifeslayer"); Easter-egg hunt ("hen-fruit safari"); milk ("lacteal fluid"); oysters ("succulent bivalves"); peanut ("the succulent goober"); songbird ("avian songster"); truck ("rubber-tired mastodon of the highway").
The science fiction writing guide Turkey City Lexicon calls elegant variations the "Burly Detective" Syndrome after the character Mike Shayne who is called by euphemisms such as "the burly detective" or "the red-headed sleuth" in the series.
A French language example
In French the use of elegant variations is considered essential for good style. A humorist imagined writing a news article about Gaston Defferre: "It's OK to say Defferre once, but not twice. So next you say the Mayor of Marseille. Then, the Minister of Planning. Then, the husband of Edmonde. Then, Gaston. Then, Gastounet and then ... · Well, then you stop talking about him because you don't know what to call him next."
See also
Antonomasia, the use of an epithet to name a person
Kenning
Pleonasm
Purple prose
Thesaurus
Verbosity
References
Citations
Sources
External links
The King's English, Chapter III
Language varieties and styles | [
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218006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Pivarunas | Mark Pivarunas | Mark Anthony Pivarunas (born 31 October 1958) is an American Catholic sedevacantist bishop and the Superior General of the Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen (CMRI).
Biography
Early life and family
Mark Anthony Pivarunas was born to his father, Walter Pivarunas, and to an ethnic Italian mother, on 31 October 1958, in Chicago, Illinois, United States. He was baptized on 7 December of the same year, in Seven Holy Founders Church in the same city. He received his first Communion on 7 May 1966, and was confirmed on 6 June 1967.
He has three brothers and a sister.
Religious life
Pivarunas entered the religious life in the sedevacantist Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen (CMRI) in September 1974. After a year's postulancy, he entered the novitiate on 8 September 1975, taking the religious name of Brother Mary Tarcisius. He made his first profession of vows on 12 September 1976. On 12 September 1980, he made his final profession of vows.
In May 1984, he was among those of the CMRI who removed Francis Schuckardt, founder of the congregation, under controversial circumstances.
Priesthood
Pivarunas received the usual seminary training. On 27 June 1985, in the CMRI's Mount Saint Michael, having received the commendation of his superiors, he, along with two others, was ordained a priest by Bishop George Musey of Galveston, Texas, United States, a sedevacantist bishop who was in contact with the CMRI after the ousting of Schuckardt. Musey's episcopal lineage, like that of most other sedevacantist bishops, traces to the Vietnamese sedevacantist bishop Ngô Đình Thục.
In 1984, in Mount Saint Michael, Father Pivarunas founded Mater Dei Seminary. In 1989, the seminary was relocated to Omaha, Nebraska, United States. It serves as the major seminary of the CMRI to this day.
Superior Generalship
In August 1989, Pivarunas, now thirty years old, was elected to the post of Superior General of the CMRI, succeeding Father Denis Chicoine.
Pivarunas traveled extensively throughout Nebraska, United States, and into neighboring states to provide the Mass and sacraments.
Episcopacy
In January 1991, Bishop Moisés Carmona of Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico, another sedevacantist bishop whose episcopal lineage traces to Thục, visited Mount Saint Michael. Before his return to Mexico, on 1 February 1991, he left behind a letter expressing his desire to consecrate as bishop whomever the congregation chooses. On 3 April 1991, Pivarunas was elected to be consecrated a bishop.
In accordance with Catholic practice, he discontinued the use of his religious name, "Tarcisius," and in accordance with the CMRI Constitutions, resigned his post as the Superior General. He was succeeded by Father Casimir M. Puskorius.
On 24 September 1991, in Mount Saint Michael, Pivarunas was consecrated a bishop by Carmona.
On 30 November 1993, in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States, Pivarunas consecrated the sedevacantist Father Daniel Dolan a bishop.
In 1995, Pivarunas was re-elected as the Superior General of the CMRI, succeeding Puskorius. He remains the Superior General to this day.
On 11 May 1999, in Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico, with Dolan assisting as co-consecrator, Pivarunas consecrated Father Martín Dávila of the sedevacantist Sociedad Sacerdotal Trento (Priestly Society of Trent) a bishop.
Since his episcopal consecration, Pivarunas has traveled to the United States, Mexico, Canada, New Zealand, South America, and Europe to provide Confirmation and other sacraments to several thousand children and adults. There are over a hundred priests and Religious under his spiritual care.
He resides in Omaha, Nebraska, United States, serving there as the Superior General of the CMRI and as the Rector of Mater Dei Seminary.
References
External links
Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen
Traditional Catholic Sermons
1958 births
Living people
People from Chicago
American people of Lithuanian descent
American people of Italian descent
Thục line bishops
Sedevacantists
American traditionalist Catholics | [
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218011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics%20and%20the%20English%20Language | Politics and the English Language | "Politics and the English Language" (1946) is an essay by George Orwell that criticised the "ugly and inaccurate" written English of his time and examines the connection between political orthodoxies and the debasement of language.
The essay focuses on political language, which, according to Orwell, "is designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable, and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind". Orwell believed that the language used was necessarily vague or meaningless because it was intended to hide the truth rather than express it. This unclear prose was a "contagion" which had spread to those who did not intend to hide the truth, and it concealed a writer's thoughts from himself and others. Orwell encourages concreteness and clarity instead of vagueness, and individuality over political conformity.
Summary
Orwell relates what he believes to be a close association between bad prose and oppressive ideology:
One of Orwell's points is:
The insincerity of the writer perpetuates the decline of the language as people (particularly politicians, Orwell later notes) attempt to disguise their intentions behind euphemisms and convoluted phrasing. Orwell says that this decline is self-perpetuating. He argues that it is easier to think with poor English because the language is in decline; and, as the language declines, "foolish" thoughts become even easier, reinforcing the original cause:
Orwell discusses "pretentious diction" and "meaningless words". "Pretentious diction" is used to make biases look impartial and scientific, while "meaningless words" are used to stop the reader from seeing the point of the statement. According to Orwell: "In certain kinds of writing, particularly in art criticism and literary criticism, it is normal to come across long passages which are almost completely lacking in meaning."
Five passages
Orwell chooses five passages of text which "illustrate various of the mental vices from which we now suffer." The samples are: by Harold Laski ("five negatives in 53 words"), Lancelot Hogben (mixed metaphors), an essay by Paul Goodman on psychology in the July 1945 issue of Politics ("simply meaningless"), a communist pamphlet ("an accumulation of stale phrases") and a reader's letter in Tribune (in which "words and meaning have parted company"). From these, Orwell identifies a "catalogue of swindles and perversions" which he classifies as "dying metaphors", "operators or verbal false limbs", "pretentious diction" and "meaningless words". (See cliches, prolixity, peacock terms and weasel words.)
Orwell notes that writers of modern prose tend not to write in concrete terms but use a "pretentious Latinized style" (compare Anglish). He claims writers find it is easier to gum together long strings of words than to pick words specifically for their meaningparticularly in political writing, where Orwell notes that "[o]rthodoxy ... seems to demand a lifeless, imitative style". Political speech and writing are generally in defence of the indefensible and so lead to a euphemistic inflated style.
Orwell criticises bad writing habits which spread by imitation. He argues that writers must think more clearly because thinking clearly "is a necessary first step toward political regeneration". He later emphasises that he was not "considering the literary use of language, but merely language as an instrument for expressing and not for concealing or preventing thought".
"Translation" of Ecclesiastes
As a further example, Orwell "translates" Ecclesiastes 9:11:
– into "modern English of the worst sort":
Orwell points out that this "translation" contains many more syllables but gives no concrete illustrations, as the original did, nor does it contain any vivid, arresting images or phrases.
The headmaster's wife at St Cyprian's School, Mrs. Cicely Vaughan Wilkes (nicknamed "Flip"), taught English to Orwell and used the same method to illustrate good writing to her pupils. She would use simple passages from the King James Bible and then "translate" them into poor English to show the clarity and brilliance of the original. Walter John Christie, who followed Orwell to Eton College, wrote that she preached the virtues of "simplicity, honesty, and avoidance of verbiage", and pointed out that the qualities Flip most prized were later to be seen in Orwell's writing.
Remedy of Six Rules
Orwell said it was easy for his contemporaries to slip into bad writing of the sort he had described and that the temptation to use meaningless or hackneyed phrases was like a "packet of aspirins always at one's elbow". In particular, such phrases are always ready to form the writer's thoughts for him, to save him the bother of thinkingor writingclearly. However, he concluded that the progressive decline of the English language was reversible and suggested six rules which, he claimed, would prevent many of these faults, although "one could keep all of them and still write bad English".
Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print. (Examples that Orwell gave included "ring the changes", "Achilles' heel", "swan song", and "hotbed". He described such phrases as "dying metaphors" and argued that they were used without knowing what was truly being said. Furthermore, he said that using metaphors of this kind made the original meaning of the phrases meaningless because those who used them did not know their original meaning. He wrote that "some metaphors now current have been twisted out of their original meaning without those who use them even being aware of the fact".)
Never use a long word where a short one will do.
If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
Never use the passive where you can use the active.
Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.
Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.
Publication
"Politics and the English Language" was first noted in Orwell's payment book of 11 December 1945. The essay was originally published in the April 1946 issue of the journal Horizon (volume 13, issue 76, pages 252–265); it was Orwell's last major article for the journal.<ref>I Belong to the Left, p.431</ref> The essay was originally intended for George Weidenfeld's Contact magazine but it was turned down.
From the time of his wife's death in March 1945 Orwell had maintained a high work rate, producing some 130 literary contributions, many of them lengthy. Animal Farm had been published in August 1945 and Orwell was experiencing a time of critical and commercial literary success. He was seriously ill in February and was desperate to get away from London to the island of Jura, Scotland, where he wanted to start work on Nineteen Eighty-Four.
"Politics and the English Language" was published nearly simultaneously with another of Orwell's essays, "The Prevention of Literature". Both reflect Orwell's concern with truth and how truth depends upon the use of language. Orwell noted the deliberate use of misleading language to hide unpleasant political and military facts and also identified a laxity of language among those he identified as pro-Soviet. In "The Prevention of Literature" he also speculated on the type of literature under a future totalitarian society which he predicted would be formulaic and low grade sensationalism. Around the same time Orwell wrote an unsigned editorial for Polemic in response to an attack from Modern Quarterly. In this he highlights the double-talk and appalling prose of J. D. Bernal in the same magazine, and cites Edmund Wilson's damnation of the prose of Joseph E. Davies in Mission to Moscow.
Critical reception
In his biography of Orwell, Michael Shelden called the article "his most important essay on style", while Bernard Crick made no reference to the work at all in his original biography, reserving his praise for Orwell's essays in Polemic, which cover a similar political theme. John Rodden asserts, given that much of Orwell's work was polemical, that he sometimes violated these rules and Orwell himself concedes that if you look back through his essay, "for certain you will find that I have again and again committed the very faults I am protesting against". Rodden also says that Terry Eagleton had praised the essay's demystification of political language but had later become disenchanted with Orwell.
Linguist Geoffrey Pullumdespite being an admirer of Orwell's writingcriticised the essay for "its insane and unfollowable insistence that good writing must avoid all phrases and word uses that are familiar". Orwell's admonition to avoid using the passive voice has also been criticised. Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage refers to three statistical studies of passive versus active sentences in various periodicals, stating: "the highest incidence of passive constructions was 13 percent. Orwell runs to a little over 20 percent in 'Politics and the English Language'. Clearly he found the construction useful in spite of his advice to avoid it as much as possible".
Introductory writing courses frequently cite this essay. A 1999 study found that it was reprinted 118 times in 325 editions of 58 readers published between 1946 and 1996 that were intended for use in college-level composition courses.
In 1981, Carl Freedman's article "Writing Ideology, and Politics: Orwell's 'Politics and the English Language' and English Composition" set in motion a "wide variety of critiques, reconsiderations, and outright attacks against the plain style" that Orwell argues for. The main issue found was Orwell's "simplistic faith about thought and language existing in a dialectical relation with one another; others quickly cut to the chase by insisting that politics, rightly considered, meant the insertion of an undercutting whose before every value word the hegemony holds dear". These critics also began to question Orwell's argument for the absoluteness of the English language, and asked whose values and truths were being represented through the language.
Louis Menand criticized the essay in a 2003 retrospective of the author in The New Yorker, saying that Orwell "makes it seem that the problem with fascism (and the rest) is, at bottom, a problem of style." However "ugliness has no relation to insincerity or evil, and short words with Anglo-Saxon roots have no relation to truth or goodness." Menand continued "All politics, (Orwell) writes, "is a mass of lies, evasions, folly, hatred and schizophrenia." And by the end of the essay he has damned the whole discourse."
Orwell's writings on the English language have had a large impact on classrooms, journalism and other writing. George Trail, in "Teaching Argument and the Rhetoric of Orwell's 'Politics and the English Language'", says that "A large part of Orwell's rhetorical approach consists of attempting at every opportunity to acquire reader participation, to involve the reader as an active and engaged consumer of the essay. Popular journalism is full of what may be the inheritance of Orwell's reader involvement devices". Haltom and Ostrom's work, Teaching George Orwell in Karl Rove's World: 'Politics and the English Language' in the 21st Century Classroom, discusses how following of Orwell's six rules of English writing and speaking can have a place in the high school and university setting.
Connection to other works
Orwell's preoccupation with language as a theme can be seen in protagonist Gordon Comstock's dislike of advertising slogans in Keep the Aspidistra Flying, an early work of his. This preoccupation is also visible in Homage to Catalonia, and continued as an underlying theme of Orwell's work for the years after World War II.
The themes in "Politics and the English Language" anticipate Orwell's development of Newspeak in Nineteen Eighty-Four. Michael Shelden calls Newspeak "the perfect language for a society of bad writers ... because it reduces the number of choices available to them". Shelden says that Newspeak first corrupts writers morally, then politically, "since it allows writers to cheat themselves and their readers with ready-made prose".
See also
Academese
Plain English
Pleonasm
Verbosity
The Elements of Style A Dictionary of Modern English Usage''
Orwell Awards
Doublespeak Award
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Politics and the English Language – Reformatted for online reading and printing
1946 essays
English language
Essays by George Orwell
Essays in literary criticism
Works originally published in Horizon (magazine) | [
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218020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatinae | Anatinae | The Anatinae are a subfamily of the family Anatidae (swans, geese and ducks). Its surviving members are the dabbling ducks, which feed mainly at the surface rather than by diving. The other members of the Anatinae are the extinct moa-nalo, a young but highly apomorphic lineage derived from the dabbling ducks.
There has been much debate about the systematical status and which ducks belong to the Anatinae. Some taxonomic authorities only include the dabbling ducks and their close relatives, the extinct moa-nalos. Alternatively, the Anatinae are considered to include most "ducks", and the dabbling ducks form a tribe Anatini within these. The classification as presented here more appropriately reflects the remaining uncertainty about the interrelationships of the major lineages of Anatidae (waterfowl).
Systematics
The dabbling duck group, of worldwide distribution, was delimited in a 1986 study to include eight genera and some 50–60 living species. However, Salvadori's teal is almost certainly closely related to the pink-eared duck, and other genera are likewise of unresolved affiliation. The peculiar marbled duck, formerly tentatively assigned to the dabbling ducks, is thought to be a diving duck or even a distinct subfamily.
This group of ducks has been so named because its members feed mainly on vegetable matter by upending on the water surface, or grazing, and only rarely diving. These are mostly gregarious ducks of freshwater or estuaries. These birds are strong fliers and northern species are highly migratory. Compared to other types of duck, their legs are located more towards the centre of their bodies. They walk well on land, and some species feed terrestrially.
"Puddle ducks" generally feed on the surface of the water or feed on very shallow bottoms. They are not equipped to dive down several feet like their diving counterparts. The most prominent difference between puddle ducks and divers are the size of the feet. A puddle duck's feet are generally smaller because they do not need the extra propulsion to dive for their forage.
Another distinguishing characteristic of puddle ducks when compared to diving ducks is the way in which they take flight when spooked or are on the move. Puddle ducks spring straight up from the water, but diving ducks need to gain momentum to take off, so they must run across the water a short distance to gain flight.
History of classification
Traditionally, most ducks were assigned to either the shelducks, the perching ducks, and the dabbling and diving ducks; the latter two were presumed to make up the Anatinae. However, the perching ducks turned out to be a paraphyletic assemblage of various tropical waterfowl that happened to evolve the ability to perch well in their forested habitat. Several of these, such as the Brazilian teal, were subsequently assigned to the Anatinae.
As for the diving ducks, mtDNA cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 sequence data indicates that they are fairly distant from the dabbling ducks. The morphological similarities are due to convergent evolution.
In addition, the genus Anas, as traditionally defined, is not monophyletic; several South American species belong to a distinct clade which would include the Tachyeres steamer-ducks. Other species, such as the Baikal teal, should also be considered distinct.
Genera
The following genera are (with one exception) unequivocal dabbling ducks:
Amazonetta – status not fully resolved, most likely a dabbling duck
Sibirionetta – Baikal teal
Spatula
Mareca
Lophonetta – crested duck
Speculanas –bronze-winged duck
Anas
The three known genera and four known species of moa-nalos all became extinct around AD 1000. They formerly occurred on the Hawaiian Islands and were derived from dabbling ducks, possibly even from a close ancestor of the mallard:
Chelychelynechen
Thambetochen
Ptaiochen
Subfossil remains of a small, flightless dabbling duck have been recovered on Rota in the Mariana Islands. These cannot be assigned to a known genus, but probably are closest to Anas. A most bizarre duck-like bird, Talpanas lippa has been found on the Hawaiian island of Kauai. Because of its unique apomorphies (it seems to have had small eyes high and far back on its head), the placement of this anatid is likewise unresolved; only dabbling ducks and true geese are with certainty known to have colonized the Hawaiian archipelago.
Another bizarre insular anatine was Bambolinetta from the Late Miocene of Tuscana, then part of the Tuscano-Sardinian insular landmass. Flightless or at least a poor flyer, it instead shows adaptations for wing-propelled diving, occupying a similar ecological niche to that of penguins and plotopterids.
Frequently placed into the Anatinae are these genera, whose relationships must be considered uncertain at present:
†Chenoanas?
†Dunstanetta (Johnstone's duck)
†Lavadytis
†Pinpanetta
†Tirarinetta
Oxyurini (stiff-tailed ducks)
Heteronetta (black-headed duck)
Nomonyx (masked duck)
Oxyura
Biziura – Oxyurini?
Aix – Tadorninae?
Cairina – may be paraphyletic, with one species in Tadorninae and the other closer to diving ducks
Callonetta – Tadorninae?
Chenonetta – Tadorninae?
Pteronetta – may belong into a distinct clade with Cyanochen
Nettapus – part of ancient Gondwanan lineage?
Mergini - (seaducks)
Chendytes (extinct)?
Shiriyanetta (extinct)
Polysticta
Somateria
Histrionicus
Camptorhynchus (extinct)
Melanitta
Clangula
Bucephala
Mergellus?
Lophodytes?
Mergus?
On the other hand, the following genera, usually considered to belong into the Tadorninae, may actually be dabbling ducks:
Sarkidiornis
Tachyeres
References
External links
Ducks
Bird subfamilies | [
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218022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired%20%28Jeff%20Beck%20album%29 | Wired (Jeff Beck album) | Wired is the third solo album by British guitarist Jeff Beck, released on Epic Records in 1976. An instrumental album, it peaked at No. 16 on the Billboard 200 and has been certified platinum by the RIAA.
Background and content
Of the album tracks, four are originals by Narada Michael Walden and one by Jan Hammer. Max Middleton contributed the homage to Led Zeppelin, "Led Boots", and Beck chose to interpret the Charles Mingus ode to saxophonist Lester Young, "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat", from the classic 1959 jazz album Mingus Ah Um. These last two tracks have been long-time staples of Beck's performance repertoire.
Reception
Wired received mostly positive reviews when it was released. In Rolling Stone, the reviewer cited it as being full of "fire and imagination". However, Robert Christgau faulted it as technically proficient but soulless, calling it "mindless trickery". Engineer Peter Henderson later said of the album, "I listened to that a few years later and it sounded like it had been recorded direct to cassette. I don't think it was one of my finer moments."
Writing for AllMusic, Mark Kirschenmann said, "Within a two-year span, the twin towers Blow by Blow and Wired set a standard for instrumental rock that even Beck has found difficult to match. On Wired, with first-rate material and collaborators on hand, one of rock's most compelling guitarists is in top form."
The album peaked at No. 16 on the Billboard 200 in August 1976, spending a total of 25 weeks on the chart. In the UK it spent five weeks on the chart and reached No. 35. The album has been certified platinum by the RIAA.
Release history
In addition to the conventional two channel stereo version the album was also released by Epic in 1976 in a four channel quadraphonic edition on LP record and 8-track tape. The quad LP release was encoded in the SQ matrix system.
The album was first released on CD in 1985 in Japan. In 2001 a remastered stereo edition of the CD was reissued internationally.
The album was reissued in stereo in the United States on the hybrid Super Audio CD format in 2016 by Analogue Productions. The same year it was also reissued by Epic in Japan as a hybrid multichannel SACD. The Japanese SACD version has the entire stereo album, but also adds the complete quad album on the same disc adapted for 5.1 surround sound. This marks the first time that the quad version has been reissued in a digital format.
Track listing
Personnel
Jeff Beck – guitars
Max Middleton – Hohner clavinet, Fender Rhodes electric piano
Jan Hammer – synthesizer; drums (on "Blue Wind")
Wilbur Bascomb – bass
Narada Michael Walden – drums (on "Led Boots", "Come Dancing", "Sophie" and "Play with Me"); piano (on "Love Is Green")
Richard Bailey – drums (on "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat" and "Head for Backstage Pass")
Ed Greene – second drum kit (on "Come Dancing")
Additional personnel
George Martin – producer
Chris Bond – assistant producer
Jan Hammer – producer on "Blue Wind"
Pete Henderson, Dennis McKay, John Mills, John Arias – engineers
Geoff Emerick – mixing engineer
Bruce Dickinson – reissue producer
References
External links
Jeff Beck - Wired (1976) album review by Mark Kirschenmann, credits & releases at AllMusic
Jeff Beck - Wired (1976) album releases & credits at Discogs
Jeff Beck - Wired (1976) album credits & user reviews at ProgArchives.com
Jeff Beck - Wired (1976) album to be listened as stream on Spotify
Jeff Beck albums
Jazz fusion albums by English artists
1976 albums
Epic Records albums
Albums produced by George Martin | [
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218025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blow%20by%20Blow | Blow by Blow | Blow by Blow is the second album released under the name "Jeff Beck" (rather than "the Jeff Beck Group"). It was recorded in October 1974 and released via Epic Records in 1975. A purely instrumental album, it peaked at No. 4 on the American Billboard 200 and was certified platinum by the RIAA.
Background and content
After the dissolution of the power trio Beck, Bogert & Appice (BBA) in spring 1974, Beck took time for session work with other groups. In December, a half-hearted "audition" for The Rolling Stones took place, Beck jamming blues with the band for one day, before realising their musical styles were not compatible.
During this period, Beck decided to record an all-instrumental album, bringing back keyboardist Max Middleton from the second Jeff Beck Group. He hired George Martin to produce after hearing his work with the Mahavishnu Orchestra's 1974 album Apocalypse. According to Carmine Appice, who played with Beck in BBA, he was involved in the writing and recording process of Blow by Blow but his parts were edited out after a dispute with Beck's management. The fourth key contributor to Blow by Blow after Beck, Middleton, and Martin was Stevie Wonder, who gave Beck his songs "Cause We've Ended as Lovers" and "Thelonius", with Wonder playing clavinet on the latter uncredited. The former song appeared on Wonder's 1974 album Stevie Wonder Presents: Syreeta, made with then-wife Syreeta Wright, while Wonder never recorded "Thelonius" himself. A cover of the Beatles song "She's a Woman" was selected, as well as the composition "Diamond Dust" by Bernie Holland of the group Hummingbird consisting of musicians from the second Beck Group. The other five tracks were band originals with Beck and Middleton the main writers, and the last track on each side featured string arrangements by Martin. Beck dedicated "Cause We've Ended as Lovers" to fellow guitarist Roy Buchanan, with an acknowledgement to Wonder.
Release
Blow by Blow was released on 29 March 1975. It was a hit in the US, reaching number four on the Billboard album charts, eventually selling a million copies. It remains Beck's highest-charting album.
On 27 March 2001, a remastered edition for compact disc was reissued by Legacy Records, Epic and its parent label Columbia Records now a division of Sony Music Entertainment.
Track listing
Personnel
Musicians
Jeff Beck – guitars
Max Middleton – keyboards
Phil Chen – bass (identified as "Phil Chenn")
Richard Bailey – drums, percussion
Stevie Wonder – uncredited clavinet on "Thelonius"
Technical
George Martin – production, orchestral arrangement
Denim Bridges – engineering
Artwork
John Berg – design
John Collier – cover art
See also
1975 in music
Jeff Beck discography
References
External links
Jeff Beck - Blow by Blow (1975) album review by Mark Kirschenmann, credits & releases at AllMusic
Jeff Beck - Blow by Blow (1975) album releases & credits at Discogs
Jeff Beck - Blow by Blow (1975) album credits & user reviews at ProgArchives.com
Jeff Beck - Blow by Blow (1975) album to be listened as stream on Spotify
1975 albums
Jeff Beck albums
Albums produced by George Martin
Jazz fusion albums by English artists
Epic Records albums
Albums arranged by George Martin | [
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218026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%20Mega%20Therion | To Mega Therion | To Mega Therion (Greek for "The Great Beast") may refer to:
The Beast (Revelation), one of two beasts described in the Book of Revelation
Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), British poet, mountaineer, occultist, and founder of Thelema
Music
Megatherion, a former name for the band Therion
To Mega Therion (album), a 1985 album by extreme metal band Celtic Frost
Songs
"To Mega Therion", a song by Sinister from the 1995 album Hate
"To Mega Therion", a song by Therion from the 1996 album Theli
"To Mega Therion", a song by In Slaughter Natives from the 1992 album Enter Now the World
Other uses
Tomegatherion, a fictional character in the video game Body Harvest
See also
Megatherium, an extinct genus of ground sloths
Therion (disambiguation) | [
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218029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XCOM | XCOM | XCOM (originally called X-COM) is a science fiction video game franchise featuring an elite international organization tasked with countering alien invasions of Earth. The series began with the strategy video game X-COM: UFO Defense created by Julian Gollop's Mythos Games and MicroProse in 1994. The original lineup by MicroProse included six published and at least two canceled games, as well as two novels. The X-COM series, in particular its original entry, achieved a sizable cult following and has influenced many other video games; including the creation of a number of clones, spiritual successors, and unofficial remakes.
A reboot series was published by 2K Games, beginning with the strategy video game XCOM: Enemy Unknown, developed by Firaxis Games and released in 2012 to critical and commercial success. It was followed by the prequel The Bureau: XCOM Declassified and the sequel XCOM 2.
Games
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Release
! scope="col" | Platforms
! scope="col" | Developer
! scope="col" | Publisher
|-
| UFO: Enemy Unknown (a.k.a. X-COM: UFO Defense)
|
| DOS Amiga CD32 PlayStation Windows
| Mythos GamesMicroProse
| MicroProse
|-
| X-COM: Terror from the Deep
|
| DOS PlayStation Windows
| MicroProse
| MicroProse
|-
| X-COM: Apocalypse
|
| DOS Windows
| Mythos GamesMicroProse
| MicroProse
|-
| X-COM: Interceptor
|
| Windows
| MicroProse
| MicroProse
|-
| X-COM: First Alien Invasion
|
| Windows
| Hasbro Interactive
| Hasbro
|-
| X-COM: Enforcer
|
| Windows
| Hasbro Interactive
| Infogrames
|-
| X-COM: Genesis
| Unreleased
| Windows
| Hasbro Interactive
| None
|-
| X-COM: Alliance
| Unreleased
| Windows
| Hasbro InteractiveInfogrames
| None
|-
| XCOM: Enemy Unknown
|
| Android iOS Linux OS X PlayStation 3 PlayStation Vita Windows Xbox 360
| Firaxis Games
| 2K Games
|-
| The Bureau: XCOM Declassified(previously known as XCOM)
|
| OS X PlayStation 3 Windows Xbox 360
| Irrational Games2K Australia2K Marin
| 2K Games
|-
| XCOM: Enemy Within <small>(expansion of XCOM: Enemy Unknown)</small>
|
| Android iOS Linux OS X PlayStation 3 PlayStation Vita Windows Xbox 360
| Firaxis Games
| 2K Games
|-
| XCOM 2 (sequel to XCOM: Enemy Unknown)
|
| Android iOS Linux OS X PlayStation 4 Switch Windows Xbox One
| Firaxis Games
| 2K Games
|-
| XCOM 2: War of the Chosen (expansion of XCOM 2)
|
| Android iOS Linux macOS PlayStation 4 Switch Windows Xbox One
| Firaxis Games
| 2K Games
|-
| XCOM: Chimera Squad|
| Windows
| Firaxis Games
| 2K Games
|}
Original X-COM games
The X-COM core series consisted of four main games published by MicroProse: UFO: Enemy Unknown (also known as X-COM: UFO Defense, PC and Amiga in 1994, Sony PlayStation in 1995), X-COM: Terror from the Deep (PC in 1995, PlayStation in 1996), X-COM: Apocalypse (PC in 1997) and X-COM: Interceptor (PC in 1998). The premise of the franchise is that an alien invasion beginning in 1999 prompts the creation of a clandestine paramilitary organization codenamed X-COM (an abbreviation of "Extraterrestrial Combat") by a coalition of funding nations. The player is charged with leading this force and tasked to secretly engage and research the alien threat. The sequels, against new alien invasions, are set underwater (Terror from the Deep, set in 2040), in a futuristic megacity (Apocalypse, set in 2084), and in space (Interceptor, set in 2067 and making it a prequel to Apocalypse).UFO: Enemy Unknown, featuring a turn-based ground combat system, remains the most popular and successful game in the series, having been often featured on various lists of best video games of all time. The first sequel, Terror from the Deep, was quickly created by MicroProse's internal team; based on the same game engine and used largely identical gameplay mechanics. Apocalypse took several new directions with the series, introducing an optional real-time combat system and shifting the aesthetics to a retro-futuristic style. A spin-off game, Interceptor, constitutes a hybrid of a strategy game and a space combat flight simulator.
After Interceptor, Hasbro Interactive purchased MicroProse, acquiring its studios and the X-COM brand. There were talks of X-COM toys, comics, and even a cartoon show. A budget range, turn-based tactical play-by-mail multiplayer game Em@il Games: X-COM was released in 1999. In 2001, Hasbro published X-COM: Enforcer, a poorly received third-person shooter loosely based on the events of Enemy Unknown, marking a low point in the series. The X-COM games were also released as part of four compilation releases: X-COM (Collector's Edition) (1998), X-COM Collection (1999) and X-COM: Complete Pack (2008), as well as in 2K Huge Games Pack in 2009.
At least two more major titles have been planned for this series. One of them was X-COM: Genesis, a real-time strategy and tactics game "going back to the roots but in full 3D." Another was X-COM: Alliance (also known as X-COM 4 and the project Fox Force Five), an Aliens-inspired mix of strategy game and first-person perspective tactical shooter, using the licensed original Unreal Engine. However, both of these projects were cancelled after ex-MicroProse Hasbro Interactive studios were all shut down in 1999-2000 (with Alliance being later abortively reactivated in 2001-2002 before being quietly cancelled again without any official announcement). Terry Greer, a former senior artist and head of game design at MicroProse UK, disclosed: "We'd also discussed other avenues for future games including time travel, retaking the solar system (with interplanetary distances playing a significant role in recruitment and resources), and resistance movement concept where you had to fight back after the world was taken and humanity was totally under the alien yoke."OpenXcom is an open source re-implementation of the first game in the series intended to fix all the bugs and enable modding. OpenApoc is a similar open source project for X-COM: Apocalypse.
New XCOM games
In 2010, 2K Marin announced they were working on re-imagining of X-COM, relabeled as XCOM. It was described as a tactical and strategic first-person shooter that would combine elements from the original X-COM alongside a new setting and viewpoint while keeping some main concepts from the original game series. The setting received a complete overhaul, now based in the early 1960s, with the original XCOM organization being a secret U.S. federal agency. Originally planned for 2011, the game was repeatedly redesigned by different studios before being finally released in 2013 as The Bureau: XCOM Declassified for Windows, OS X, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.
In 2012, Firaxis Games (led by MicroProse co-founder Sid Meier) announced the development of a Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 strategy game XCOM: Enemy Unknown, a "re-imagination" of UFO: Enemy Unknown with real-time strategic view, turn-based combat and destructible tactical environments more in vein of the original X-COM game and set in a more contemporary setting than the XCOM game by 2K Marin. XCOM: Enemy Unknown was released later that same year to critical acclaim, winning multiple "Game of the Year" awards. X-COM creator Julian Gollop hailed it as "a phoenix rising from the ashes of the X-COM disaster," saying that "it’s amazing that after 20 years, a brand that had gone so badly in the wrong direction has finally been put right." It was also ported to Android, iOS, OS X, Linux, and PlayStation Vita.
In 2013, Firaxis released a downloadable content for the base game XCOM: Enemy Unknown titled XCOM: Enemy Within. It was made available on Steam (which requires Enemy Unknown to play), as well as for iOS, the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 (those versions are standalone and do not require Enemy Unknown).
In 2015, Firaxis announced a sequel, XCOM 2. It was released in 2016 for Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, OS X, and Linux (Later ported to several other platforms, including the Nintendo Switch, but not iOS). Its expansion, XCOM 2: War of the Chosen, followed in 2017. The next game in the series, XCOM: Chimera Squad, was released in April 2020, for Windows. Unlike the global scale of previous games, Chimera Squad focused on a specific city, giving the player control of a diverse squad of humans and aliens. The game introduced several changes to game mechanics, such as replacing randomly generated and customizable squad members with preset and unique soldiers, and utilizing "interleaved turns" (mixing turn order between the opposing teams during combat) instead of a team-by-team turn system.
Julian Gollop's unofficial gamesThe Dreamland Chronicles: Freedom Ridge was a game for the PC and PlayStation 2 by Julian Gollop's Mythos Games (creators of UFO: Enemy Unknown and X-COM: Apocalypse), claimed to having been "essentially a remake of the first X-Com with 3D graphics." The Dreamland Chronicles was canceled in 2001 and Mythos Games soon ceased to exist.Laser Squad Nemesis is a 2002 low-budget PC turn-based tactics game developed by Gollop's next company Codo Technologies and very similar to the turn-based Battlescape combat system of the first X-COM. In 2005, Codo Technologies and publisher Namco also released Rebelstar: Tactical Command, a Game Boy Advance turn-based tactical role-playing game that too was reminiscent of the early Battlescape system.Phoenix Point is a strategy and turn-based tactics video game for Windows, and OS X that has the open world, strategic layers of the X-COM style games of the 1990s like Enemy Unknown and Apocalypse together with the presentation and tactical mechanics of the more recent Firaxis reboot games. The game was developed by Gollop with Snapshot Games, an independent game studio in Bulgaria. Phoenix Point, described as a spiritual successor to X-COM, was released in December 2019.
Other media
Literature
Two X-COM novels have been published based on the first game in the series: Diane Duane's X-COM: UFO Defense - A Novel (1995, ) and Vladimir Vasilyev's Enemy Unknown (1997). The reboot series' novel is titled XCOM 2: Resurrection by Greg Keyes and was published in 2015, bridging the plots of XCOM and its sequel.
MicroProse's manual/documentation writer John Possidente also wrote three short stories, "Decommissioning", "Manley's Deposition", and "Moray in the Wreck", taking place between the events of the first two games in the series. More recently, X-COM co-designer Dave Ellis and artist Jon McCoy released a free online tribute digital comic titled Deep Rising, with music created by X-COM composer John Broomhall.
Board game
A board game entitled XCOM: The Board Game, designed by Eric M. Lang and based on the 2012 reboot, was released on January 28, 2015, by Fantasy Flight Games.
Intellectual property rights
The trademark for the X-COM name was filed on May 25, 1995, by MicroProse Software. According to Julian Gollop, "They wanted us to do a deal where we would sign over any rights that we might have in return for some cash plus a high royalty on X-COM: Apocalypse. They more or less insisted on it, otherwise they were threatening to cancel the Apocalypse project, so there was a lot of bluff involved." Following the acquisition and subsequent merger of MicroProse with Hasbro, the X-COM intellectual property (IP) was also transferred to Hasbro Interactive on August 19, 1998. Due to financial difficulties, Hasbro Interactive was sold to Infogrames Entertainment SA on January 29, 2001. As part of this transfer, the X-COM IP was legally transferred to Infogrames on December 21, 2001 (shortly thereafter, Infogrames was renamed Atari SA). In 2005, Atari SA transferred several IPs to Take-Two Interactive Software Inc. and X-COM was transferred with them on June 12, 2005.
The X-COM IP is currently owned by Take-Two and its subsidiaries; by 2007, first rumors emerged that Irrational Games (who are owned by Take-Two) were developing a new X-COM title (this game eventually became The Bureau: XCOM Declassified). In May 2007, 2K Games (a subsidiary of Take-Two) inherited the X-COM franchise and re-released Terror from the Deep on Steam. In September 2008, UFO: Enemy Unknown, Apocalypse, Interceptor and Enforcer were also re-released as downloadable titles. 2K Games' XCOM, which had been in development since 2003 (prior to the IP acquisition), was finally completed and released in 2012.
Inspired titles
Because of the series' popularity, various other developers have created spiritual successor games similar in theme and tone of the X-COM games (sometimes called "X-COM clones"; Julian Gollop also himself called turn-based tactical game genre in general as "sons of Rebelstar" in a reference to one of his earlier games). The level to which they borrow from the original series varies.
Commercial games
Abomination: The Nemesis Project is a real-time tactics / action game developed by Hothouse Creations and released by Eidos Interactive for the PC in 1999 that has been touted as "X-COM meets Day of the Dead in real-time."
Aliens versus Humans is a UFO: Enemy Unknown clone for the iPhone, iPad and Android. Gollop highlighted it an example of "indie remakes" in his "X-Com legacy" chart.Guardians: Agents of Justice was an unreleased game by Simtex and MicroProse, which was described as "a superhero version of X-COM."
Incubation: Time Is Running Out is a turn-based combat PC game that was considered to be "what X-Com Apocalypse should have been". It was developed and released by German company Blue Byte in 1997.
Isomer was an indie strategy game project, currently abandoned, that was also heavily influenced by the X-COM series as well as other games such as Dwarf Fortress and Minecraft. It blends realtime strategy combat with world exploration and sandbox gameplay.
UFO: Aftermath is a 2003 single-player PC strategy and real-time tactics game which was heavily influenced by the X-COM series and used elements of the Mythos Games' canceled The Dreamland Chronicles. It was created by Czech company ALTAR Interactive and published by Tri Synergy.
Aftermath was followed by two sequels: UFO: Aftershock in 2005 and UFO: Afterlight in 2007.
UFO: Extraterrestrials, a PC strategy / turn-based tactics game that is an unofficial sequel to the X-COM games, developed by Czech developer Chaos Concept and released by Tri Synergy in 2007.
The follow-up game, UFO2Extraterrestrials: Shadows over Earth was originally supposed to be released in Q4 of 2012, but as of 2021 has no official release date. It still remains in development simultaneously with UFO2Extraterrestrials: Battle for Mercury which is announced to launch Spring of 2021.
UFO Online (unrelated to UFO Online: Fight for Earth) is a free-to-play, tactical MMORPG that is available only in Russian.
UFO Online: Fight for Earth is a Steam and browser-based massively multiplayer tactical game. Gollop called it "actually more a clone of Incubation." It can be played in the free-to-play system using a micropayment system to generate revenue.
Xenonauts is a PC strategy game by British independent studio Goldhawk Interactive, again heavily influenced by the X-COM series. It is being marketed as a Cold War-era (1979 instead of 1999) re-imagining of the original UFO: Enemy Unknown and an answer to 2K's The Bureau: XCOM Declassified which alienated some of the X-COM fanbase due to its FPS-based gameplay. The game missed several release dates, but was finally released in June 2014.
Xenonauts 2 is currently in development.
The franchise was also referenced in the Civilization series of strategy video games that had partially inspired X-COM in first place. The original game received an unofficial sequel in the 1997 expansion set Civ II: Fantastic Worlds for MicroProse's Civilization II, in a scenario set on the Phobos moon of Mars. Firaxis' Civilization V features a unit type named XCOM Squad.
Fan games
Fan-remake projects for UFO: Enemy Unknown have included X-com - Last Hope (a mod of Half-Life 2 released in 2006), UFO: The Two Sides (development halted in 2011 due to copyright issues), UFO: Cydonia's Fall (canceled in 2012), X-COM: Origin (canceled in 2013), and The Rebel Squad (an also defunct project by Sam Liu).
UFO: Alien Invasion is an open source, cross-platform, 3D strategy / turn-based tactics fan game heavily influenced by the X-COM series.
A similar open source game, but which never left a pre-release phase (last updated in 2011) was X-Force: Fight for Destiny.
Another, Project Xenocide, was aborted in 2010.
Xenowar is an open source, simple tactical game for the Android and Windows.
X-Com: Tactical is a board game reproducing the squad tactics element of the first game.
See also Laser Squad: a science fiction tactical game by the original creators of X-COM and an immediate predecessor of X-COM (UFO: Enemy Unknown originally began development as Laser Squad 2).
Rebelstar series: precursor games to both Laser Squad and the X-COM'' series, also created by the same developers.
References
External links
XCOM Commanders: Jake Solomon and Julian Gollop interviewed at Firaxis Games
Enemy Unknown: An X-COM Retrospective at GameSpy
2K Games franchises
Fictional paramilitary organizations
Take-Two Interactive franchises
Video game franchises introduced in 1994 | [
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218030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aya%20Kamikawa | Aya Kamikawa | is a Tokyo municipal official. With her election in April 2003, she became the first openly transgender person to seek or win elected office in Japan.
Life
Aya Kamikawa was born on January 25, 1968, in Tokyo's Taitō Ward. She is the second child of three. She attended Hosei University Second Senior High School, an all-boys school.
In 1990, Kamikawa graduated from Hosei University with a degree in Business Administration. She began to work in the field of public relations whilst presenting masculine. In 1995, she resigned from her post, citing stress associated with gender dysphoria, and began hormone replacement therapy. In 1998, she was diagnosed with gender identity disorder by a psychiatrist. In 1999, she started working at a private company whilst presenting feminine. She also changed her name to Aya that same year.
In 2003, Kamikawa, then a 35-year-old writer, submitted her election application papers with a blank space for "sex". She won a four-year term as an independent under huge media attention, placing sixth of 72 candidates running for 52 seats in the Setagaya ward assembly, the most populous district in Tokyo. Despite the government counting her win as part of the number of men elected to public office, she stated that she would work as a woman. Her platform was to improve rights for women, children, the elderly, the handicapped, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people.
In 2005, subsequent to the passage of Japan's GID law, Kamikawa was finally able to change the sex designator on her koseki to female.
Kamikawa was the only openly transgender official in Japan until the 2017 election of Tomoya Hosoda.
Bibliography
, Inawami Shoten, 2007,
See also
List of transgender people
LGBT culture in Tokyo
Ayako Fuchigami
References
External links
Text of the GID Act
1968 births
Living people
21st-century Japanese women politicians
Transgender and transsexual politicians
Transgender and transsexual women
LGBT politicians from Japan
21st-century Japanese women writers
Politicians from Tokyo
21st-century LGBT people | [
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218031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%20Mega%20Therion%20%28album%29 | To Mega Therion (album) | To Mega Therion (meaning the great beast in Greek) is the debut studio album by Swiss extreme metal band Celtic Frost, released on 27 October 1985 by Noise Records. The cover artwork is a painting by H. R. Giger entitled Satan I. The album was a major influence on the then-developing death metal and black metal genres.
Reception
Ned Raggett in his review for AllMusic wrote, "The bombastic 'Innocence and Wrath' starts To Mega Therion off on just the appropriate note – Wagnerian horn lines, booming drums, and a slow crunch toward apocalypse. ... With that setting the tone, it's into the maddeningly wild and woolly Celtic Frost universe full bore, Warrior roaring out his vocals with glee and a wicked smile while never resorting to self-parodic castrato wails. 'The Usurper' alone is worth the price of admission, an awesome display of Warrior's knack around brute power and unexpectedly memorable riffs." According to Raggett, "other prime cuts" include "Circle of the Tyrants", "Dawn of Megiddo", "Tears in a Prophet's Dream", "Eternal Summer" and "Necromantical Screams". Raggett concludes his review by stating that the album "is and remains death metal at its finest". Canadian journalist Martin Popoff considers the album "a black metal landmark" and "the most consistent example of early death metal that exist". He remarks how "the band had decided to delve more unto the extreme" and praised Tom Warrior's "surprisingly accomplished" lyrics and the mix of death, black and doom metal with a pinch of ambient music.
Track listing
All songs written by Tom G. Warrior, except where noted.
Personnel
Celtic Frost
Tom G. Warrior – guitars, vocals, effects, co-producer, assistant engineer
Dominic Steiner – bass, bass effects
Reed St. Mark – drums, percussion, effects
Additional musicians
Martin Ain – bass (tracks 2 and 3 on 1999 re-release; songs originally from Tragic Serenades EP)
Wolf Bender – French horn (tracks 1, 4 and 10)
Claudia-Maria Mokri – additional vocals (tracks 2, 6 and 10)
Horst Müller, Urs Sprenger – sound effects (track 9)
Production
Horst Müller – producer, engineer, mixing
Rick Lights – assistant engineer
Karl Walterbach – executive producer
References
Further reading
Shapiro, Marc (1993). "The Birth of Death: A Speed Demonology". Guitar presents Speed Demons of Metal, 6–9, 23, 110–112.
Celtic Frost albums
1985 debut albums
Noise Records albums
Albums with cover art by H. R. Giger | [
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218039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Hamilton | Richard Hamilton | Richard Hamilton may refer to:
Military
Richard Hamilton (officer) (died 1717), Irish officer
Richard Hamilton (Medal of Honor) (1836–1881), American Civil War sailor
Richard Vesey Hamilton (1829–1912), British admiral and First Naval Lord
Sportsmen
Richard Hamilton (boxer), competed at the Boxing at the 1988 Summer Olympics for Jamaica
Richard Hamilton (basketball) (born 1978), American basketball player
Richard Hamilton (rower) (born 1973), British Olympic rower
Rick Hamilton (Richard R. Hamilton, born 1970), American football player
Others
Richard Hamilton, 4th Viscount Boyne (1724–1789), Irish MP for Navan
Richard Hamilton (actor) (1920–2004), American actor
Richard Hamilton (artist) (1922–2011), British painter and collage artist
Richard Hamilton (BBC journalist), author of 2011 book The Last Storytellers
Richard S. Hamilton (born 1943), American mathematician
Richard Hamilton (mining) (1855–1943), mine manager at Boulder, Western Australia
Richard Hamilton (winemaker) (1792–1852), founder of winery in South Australia
See also
Richard Hamilton Rawson | [
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218044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland%27s%20Call | Ireland's Call | "Ireland's Call" is a song used as a national anthem by some sports competitors representing the island of Ireland, originally and most notably the men's rugby union team. It was commissioned by the Irish Rugby Football Union (IRFU) for the 1995 World Cup, because a small number of the IRFU's members are Ulster unionists from Northern Ireland who would regard the use of the anthem of the Republic of Ireland ("The Soldier's Song") as inappropriate.
While some all-island sports governing bodies use "The Soldier's Song" in international competition (for example, the Golfing Union of Ireland and Irish Athletic Boxing Association) others do not, and many have followed the IRFU in adopting "Ireland's Call", including Hockey Ireland, the Irish Cricket Union, rugby league team, korfball team, and A1 Grand Prix team. The song has attracted some opposition, both on musical grounds and from Irish nationalists who would prefer "The Soldier's Song". Journalist Malachy Clerkin wrote on its 20th anniversary, "It has run the gamut with a sceptical and often hostile public, from deep loathing to grudging acceptance to growing pockets of reasonably throated support."
Rugby history
From the Partition of Ireland until the 1930s, no flag or anthem was used at IRFU internationals. After objections from clubs in the then Irish Free State, a compromise was agreed to use an IRFU flag, with "The Soldier's Song" at matches in the Free State, "God Save the King" at those in Northern Ireland, and no anthem at away matches. Ulster unionist players are not expected to sing "The Soldier's Song". There were no senior internationals in Northern Ireland from 1954 to 2007. Des Fitzgerald declined to play a 1982 B international in Belfast as "God Save the Queen" would be played. Before a 1954 Five Nations match in Ravenhill, Belfast, players from the Republic refused to take the field until after "God Save the Queen" had finished. Cahir Healy negotiated a compromise whereby the Royal Salute was played instead of the full anthem, and promised that future internationals would be played in Dublin. The incident was hushed up. Playing all matches at Lansdowne Road suited the IRFU in any case, since gate receipts would be larger than at Ravenhill.
Unionist opposition to "The Soldier's Song" was strengthened on 25 April 1987, when an IRA roadside bomb, intended to kill judge Maurice Gibson, also damaged a car carrying three of the senior squad from Belfast to Dublin for training. David Irwin and Philip Rainey recovered but Nigel Carr's rugby career was ended by his injuries. The next month, at the inaugural Rugby World Cup, captain Donal Lenihan objected that all other teams would have an anthem. At the last minute before the side's opening match in Athletic Park, Wellington, a James Last cassette recording of "The Rose of Tralee" was borrowed from Phil Orr; the music and poor recording quality attracted much criticism and no anthem was played for later matches. At the 1991 World Cup, there was no anthem away to Scotland, Ireland's only game outside Dublin.
For the 1995 World Cup in South Africa, the IRFU decided to commission a song from Phil Coulter. His composition, "Ireland's Call", has since been played alongside "The Soldier's Song" at matches within the Republic, and on its own elsewhere. Ireland's match against England at Croke Park in the 2007 Six Nations Championship was of historic significance because of the Rule 42 ban and the memory of Bloody Sunday 1920; The Irish Times commented, '"The Soldier's Song" and "Ireland's Call" were belted out with such hair-raising intensity that men and women were crying as they sang'. Prior to the 2007 resumption of internationals at Ravenhill Stadium, Belfast, the IRFU decided that only "Ireland's Call" would be played, not "God Save the Queen", prompting complaints from some unionists that this did not match the playing of "The Soldier's Song" in Dublin.
Other sports
Other all-island teams have adopted "Ireland's Call" for similar reasons to the IRFU's. The men's and women's hockey teams, having previously used the "Londonderry Air", adopted "Ireland's Call" in 2000, including for Olympic qualification matches, but the Olympic Council of Ireland standard "The Soldier's Song" was used at Rio 2016, its first post-independence appearance at the Olympics. At the 2000 Rugby League World Cup, the Ireland team had "The Soldier's Song" at a match in England, but no anthem at a match in Belfast. In the years before 2008 it "used neutral symbols and anthems such as 'Ireland's Call'". Rugby League Ireland adopted "The Soldier's Song" for the 2008 World Cup, explaining "'The Soldier's Song' has always been played at amateur level and it was a unanimous decision to extend this policy to the professional game." By the 2017 World Cup it had reverted to "Ireland's Call". The Irish Waterski and Wakeboard Federation adopted "Ireland's Call" on a one-off basis for the 2016 EA Wakeboard Championships, because they were in Coleraine in "very close proximity to a Loyalist Estate". The National Coarse Fishing Federation of Ireland's policy document states that it 'is a 32 county body and as such the anthem will be "Ireland’s Call" except in circumstances where this may cause discomfort or embarrassment. On such occasions the only permitted deviation allowed is "The Soldier's Song".'
Song
The song was written by Phil Coulter in 1995. He said he composed it because he loved hearing a combination of Irish accents singing together.
It was first broadcast simultaneously on the Kelly show in Northern Ireland and The Late Late Show in the Republic, sung by Andrew Strong accompanied by the Portadown Male Voice Choir.
Lyrics
At most games today, only the first verse is sung, followed by the chorus in the same key. The chorus is then repeated in a higher key; at the end, the last line is repeated. Several Irish-language translations have been made for Gaelscoil pupils, with the title .
Ireland's Call
Come the day and come the hour,
Come the power and the glory!
We have come to answer our country's call,
From the four proud provinces of Ireland
Ireland, Ireland,
Together standing tall!
Shoulder to shoulder,
We'll answer Ireland's call!
From the mighty Glens of Antrim,
From the rugged hills of Galway!
From the walls of Limerick, and Dublin Bay,
From the four proud provinces of Ireland!
Ireland, Ireland,
Together standing tall!
Shoulder to shoulder,
We'll answer Ireland's call!
Hearts of steel and heads unbowing,
Vowing never to be broken!
We will fight, until we can fight no more,
From the four proud provinces of Ireland!
Ireland, Ireland,
Together standing tall!
Shoulder to shoulder,
We'll answer Ireland's call!
Ireland, Ireland,
Together standing tall!
Shoulder to shoulder,
We'll answer Ireland's call!
We'll answer Ireland's call!
Irish lyrics (example)
Glaoch na hÉireann
Chugainn an lá is chugainn an dúshlán,
Ré na cumhachta is na glóire!
‘Sé glaoch na tíre a fhreagróimís,
Ó cheithre chúige na hÉireann!
Éire, Éire,
Is treise sinn mar shlua!
Gualainn le gualainn,
Éireoidh linn gan dua!'''
Variants
Coulter subsequently rewrote the lyrics to be sung in the Celtic Thunder singing tour, when he collaborated with Sharon Browne, the original producer of Celtic Woman. The rewritten lyrics have a somewhat more martial theme, with lines like "meet our destiny with glory" and "Till our final requiem is spoken".
References
Sources
Citations
External links
"20 Years of Irelands Call", from The John Murray Show, RTÉ Radio One, 26 February 2015
"L'Appel de l'Irlande", 2015 documentary in French and English from L'Équipe''
Ireland national rugby union team songs
Irish patriotic songs
1995 songs
Songs written by Phil Coulter
Sporting songs | [
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218045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophrys | Ophrys | The genus Ophrys is a large group of orchids from the alliance Orchis in the subtribe Orchidinae. They are widespread across much of Europe, North Africa, Caucasus, the Canary Islands, and the Middle East as far east as Turkmenistan.
These plants are remarkable in that they successfully reproduce through pseudocopulation, that is, their flowers mimic female insects to such a degree that amorous males are fooled into mating with the flowers, thereby pollinating them. There are many natural hybrids.
They are referred to as the "bee orchids" due to the flowers of some species resemblance to the furry bodies of bees and other insects. Their scientific name Ophrys is the Greek word for "eyebrow", referring to the furry edges of the lips of several species.
Ophrys was first mentioned in the book "Natural History" by Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD).
Biology
They are terrestrial or ground orchids from central to South Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor, up to the Caucasus Mountains, but mostly in the Mediterranean region. They have been said to be the most important group of European terrestrial orchids.
During summer, all Ophrys orchids are dormant as underground bulbous tubers, which serve as a food reserve. In late summer/autumn they develop a rosette of leaves. Also a new tuber starts to grow and matures until the following spring; the old tuber slowly dies. The next spring the flowering stem starts to grow. During flowering the leaves have already started to wither.
Most Ophrys orchids are dependent on symbiotic fungi. Transplanting specimens, especially wild specimens, is difficult, sometimes impossible, due to this symbiosis unless a large amount of surrounding earth is also taken with the plant. All orchids are protected under CITES II and should not be removed or disturbed in habitat.
The shiny, basal leaves have a green or bluish color. Two to twelve flowers grow on an erect stem with basal leaves. These species are successfully cultivated by specialist growers of terrestrial orchids and are reported to be difficult to grow, being sensitive to rotting and damping off diseases if not properly subjected to a cool and dry aestivation period over the summer months with no water.
Pollination
Orchids of the genus Ophrys use sexual deception to attract pollinators to their flowers. In sexual deception, an orchid attracts male pollinators by producing the sex pheromone of virgin female pollinators in addition to providing visual and tactile cues (Schiestl 2005; Schluter et al. 2009; Stokl et al. 2009). These signals stimulate mating behavior in the male pollinators, which then attempt copulation, called “pseudocopulation”, with the orchid labellum (Schluter et al. 2009). During pseudocopulation, pollen from the flower's column becomes attached to some part of the pollinator, usually the head or abdomen, and the pollinator inadvertently carries and transfers this pollen to other flowers when they are once again enticed into pseudocopulation. While the morphological cues such as the shape and texture of the labellum play a role especially at close range in inducing the pollinator mating behavior, the orchid's pheromone mimic, or allomone, has been shown to play the most important role in enticing pollinators to the flower (Schiestl 2005; Schluter et al. 2009).
The allomone produced by an orchid is specific to its pollinator, of which it usually only has one (Ayasse et al. 2007; Gogler et al. 2009, Schluter et al. 2009). The allomone is a mixture of alkenes and alkanes (Schiestl and Cozzolino 2008). There are one or more active species in this mixture that account for the attraction of pollinators (Vereeken and Schiestl 2008). Pollinators and orchids use the same chemical compounds in the same absolute amounts in their pheromones and allomones, respectively (Schiestl 2008).
Every Ophrys orchid has its own pollinator insect and is completely dependent on this species for its survival. Duped males are less likely to return and may ignore other plants of the same species. Only about 10% of an Ophrys population gets pollinated. This is enough to preserve the population, since each Ophrys orchid produces about 12,000 minute seeds.
Species
Almost 2,000 names have been proposed for species, subspecies, and "nothospecies" (i.e. species of hybrid origin) within the genus. The number of species recognized varies very widely between authorities. Flora Europaea in 1980 and Pedersen & Faurholdt in 2007 listed about 20 species in Europe as a whole; Buttler in 1991 increased this to 53 for slightly larger geographical area; Delforge in 1995 gave a total of 130 species. By contrast, a molecular phylogenetic study in 2008 suggested that there were around 10 distinguishable groups.
The need for further study is indicated. For the moment (May 2014), we follow the lead of Kew Botanical Garden's, the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families in provisionally recognizing the following taxa:
Ophrys apifera Huds. – Bee orchid - Central and southern Europe, North Africa, east to Iran
Ophrys × arachnitiformis Gren. & Philippe - False spider orchid (hybrid O. fuciflora × O. sphegodes) - western and central Europe from France and Britain to Sicily and Hungary
Ophrys argolica H.Fleischm. – Argolian bee-orchid
Ophrys argolica subsp. aegaea (Kalteisen & H. R. Reinhard) H. A. Pedersen & Faurh. - Greek islands
Ophrys argolica subsp. argolica - Greece
Ophrys argolica subsp. biscutella (O. Danesch & E. Danesch) Kreutz - southern Italy, Croatia
Ophrys argolica subsp. crabronifera (Sebast. & Mauri) Faurh. - central and southern Italy
Ophrys argolica subsp. elegans (Renz) E. Nelson - Cyprus
Ophrys argolica subsp. lesbis (Gölz & H. R. Reinhard) H. A. Pedersen & Faurh. - western Turkey and the Greek Islands
Ophrys argolica subsp. lucis (Kalteisen & H. R. Reinhard) H. A. Pedersen & Faurh. - Turkey, Syria, Greek islands
Ophrys atlantica Munby – Atlantic Bee-orchid - Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia
Ophrys bertolonii Moretti – Bertoloni's bee-orchid - from Spain to Serbia
Ophrys bombyliflora Link – Bumblebee orchid - Mediterranean Basin and Canary Islands
Ophrys cilicica Schltr. – Cilician bee-orchid - Turkey, Syria, Iran (note that Cilicia means southern Turkey)
Ophrys ferrum-equinum Desf. – Horseshoe bee-orchid - Albania, Greece, Turkey
Ophrys ferrum-equinum subsp. ferrum-equinum - Albania, Greece, Turkey
Ophrys ferrum-equinum subsp. gottfriediana (Renz) E.Nelson - Greece
Ophrys fuciflora (F.W.Schmidt) Moench – Late spider-orchid - from Britain to Iraq
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. andria (P.Delforge) Faurh. - Greek islands
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. apulica O.Danesch & E.Danesch - southern Italy including Sicily
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. biancae (Tod.) Faurh. - Sicily
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. bornmuelleri (M.Schulze) B.Willing & E.Willing - Turkey, Cyprus, Greek islands, Syria, Palestine, Israel, Iraq
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. candica E.Nelson ex Soó - southern Italy including Sicily, plus Greece and Turkey
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. chestermanii (J. J. Wood) H. Blatt & W. Wirth - Sardinia
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. elatior (Paulus) R. Engel & Quentin Germany, Switzerland, France, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. fuciflora - from Britain to Syria
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. grandiflora (H. Fleischm. & Soó) Faurh. - Turkey, Cyprus
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. lacaitae (Lojac.) Soó - Italy, Malta, Croatia
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. oblita (Kreutz, Gügel & W. Hahn) Faurh., H. A. Pedersen & S. G. Christ - Greece, Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Israel
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. oxyrrhynchos (Tod.) Soó - southern Italy including Sicily
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. pallidiconi Faurh. - Turkey
Ophrys fuciflora subsp. parvimaculata O. Danesch & E. Danesch - Italy
Ophrys fuciflora var. ziyaretiana (Kreutz & Ruedi Peter) Faurh. & H. A. Pedersen - Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Israel
Ophrys fusca Link – Sombre bee-orchid, dark bee-orchid - from Portugal to Turkey
Ophrys fusca subsp. blitopertha (Paulus & Gack) Faurh. & H.A.Pedersen - Turkey, Greek islands
Ophrys fusca subsp. cinereophila (Paulus & Gack) Faurh.- Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria
Ophrys fusca subsp. fusca - from Portugal to Turkey
Ophrys fusca subsp. iricolor (Desf.) K.Richt. - from Portugal to Turkey
Ophrys fusca subsp. pallida (Raf.) E. G. Camus in E. G. Camus & A. A. Camus - Sicily, Tunisia, Algeria
Ophrys insectifera L. – Fly orchid - much of Europe from Spain to Russia and Finland
Ophrys insectifera nothosubsp. tytecaeana P. Delforge - France
Ophrys insectifera subsp. aymoninii Breistr. France, Spain
Ophrys insectifera subsp. insectifera - much of Europe from Spain to Russia and Finland
Ophrys isaura Renz & Taubenheim - Turkey
Ophrys kojurensis Gölz - Iran
Ophrys konyana Kreutz & Ruedi Peter - Turkey
Ophrys kopetdagensis K.P. Popov & Neshat. - Turkmenistan
Ophrys kotschyi H. Fleischm. & Soó – Cyprus bee-orchid, Kotschy's bee-orchid - Greece, Cyprus
Ophrys kotschyi subsp. ariadnae (Paulus) Faurh. - Greek islands and mainland
Ophrys kotschyi subsp. cretica (Soó) H.Sund. - Crete and other Greek islands
Ophrys kotschyi subsp. kotschyi – Cyprus
Ophrys kreutzii W.Hahn - Turkey
Ophrys lepida S. Moingeon & J.-M. Moingeon - Sardinia
Ophrys lunulata Parl. - Sicily
Ophrys lutea Cav. – Yellow bee-orchid - from Portugal and Morocco to Syria
Ophrys lutea subsp. aspea (Devillers-Tersch. & Devillers) Faurh. - Tunisia, Libya
Ophrys lutea subsp. galilaea (H. Fleischm. & Bornm.) Soó - from Portugal and Morocco to Syria
Ophrys lutea subsp. lutea - from Portugal and Morocco to Turkey
Ophrys lutea subsp. melena Renz - Greece, Albania
Ophrys lycia Renz & Taubenheim - Turkey
Ophrys omegaifera H. Fleischm. – Omega bee-orchid - from Portugal and Morocco to Syria
Ophrys omegaifera var. basilissa (C. Alibertis, A. Alibertis & H.R. Reinhard) Faurh - Greece
Ophrys omegaifera subsp. dyris (Maire) Del Prete - Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Balearic Islands
Ophrys omegaifera subsp. fleischmannii (Hayek) Del Prete - Crete and other Greek islands
Ophrys omegaifera subsp. hayekii (H. Fleischm. & Soó) Kreutz - Sicily, Algeria, Tunisia
Ophrys omegaifera subsp. israelitica (H. Baumann & Künkele) G. Morschek & K. Morschek - Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Cyprus, Greece
Ophrys omegaifera subsp. omegaifera - Turkey, Greek islands
Ophrys omegaifera subsp. apollonae or Ophrys apollonae - Greek islands, Turkey
Ophrys pseudomammosa Renz - Turkey, Greece
Ophrys reinholdii Spruner ex Fleischm. – Reinhold's bee-orchid - from Croatia to Turkey
Ophrys reinholdii subsp. antiochiana (H. Baumann & Künkele) H.Baumann & R.Lorenz - Turkey, Syria
Ophrys reinholdii subsp. reinholdii - from Croatia to Turkey
Ophrys reinholdii subsp. straussii (H. Fleischm.) E. Nelson - Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Cyprus, Greek islands
Ophrys schulzei Bornm. & Fleischm. - Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon
Ophrys scolopax Cav. – Woodcock bee-orchid - from Morocco and Portugal to Hungary and Iran
Ophrys scolopax subsp. apiformis (Desf.) Maire & Weiller - Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco
Ophrys scolopax subsp. conradiae (Melki & Deschâtres) H.Baumann & al. - Corsica, Sardinia, Italy
Ophrys scolopax subsp. cornuta (Steven) E.G. Camus - Italy, Hungary, the Balkans, Crimea, Turkey, Caucasus
Ophrys scolopax subsp. heldreichii (Schltr.) E.Nelson Greece, Turkey
Ophrys scolopax var. minutula (Gölz & H.R. Reinhard) H.A. Pedersen & Faurh - Turkey, Greek islands
Ophrys scolopax subsp. rhodia (H.Baumann & Künkele) H.A. Pedersen & Faurh. - Greek islands
Ophrys scolopax subsp. scolopax - from Portugal to Iran
Ophrys speculum Link – Mirror bee-orchid, mirror orchid - from Portugal to Syria
Ophrys speculum subsp. lusitanica O.Danesch & E.Danesch - Spain, Portugal
Ophrys speculum subsp. regis-ferdinandii (Acht. & Kellerer ex Renz) Soó - Turkey, Greek islands
Ophrys speculum subsp. speculum - from Portugal to Syria
Ophrys sphegodes Mill. – Early spider-orchid - from Britain and Portugal to Iran
Ophrys sphegodes nothosubsp. jeanpertii (E.G. Camus) Del Prete & Conte - France, Spain, Balkans (O. sphegodes subsp. araneola × O. sphegodes subsp. sphegodes)
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. aesculapii (Renz) Soó ex J.J.Wood - Greece
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. araneola (Rchb.) M.Laínz - Germany, Switzerland, France, Spain, Italy, Yugoslavia
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. atrata (Rchb.f.) A.Bolòs - from Portugal to Serbia
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. aveyronensis J.J.Wood - France, Spain
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. catalcana Kreutz - European Turkey
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. cretensis H.Baumann & Künkele - Crete and other Greek islands
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. epirotica (Renz) Gölz & H.R.Reinhard - Albania, Greece
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. gortynia H.Baumann & Künkele - Crete and other Greek islands
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. helenae (Renz) Soó & D.M.Moore - Albania, Greece
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. mammosa (Desf.) Soó ex E.Nelson - from the Balkans to Turkmenistan
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. passionis (Sennen) Sanz & Nuet - France, Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, mainland Italy
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. sipontensis (R.Lorenz & Gembardt) H.A.Pedersen & Faurh. - Apulia
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. sphegodes - from Britain and Spain to Hungary and the Balkans
Ophrys sphegodes subsp. spruneri (Nyman) E.Nelson - Crete and other Greek islands
Ophrys tenthredinifera Willd. - from Portugal and Morocco to Turkey
Ophrys tremoris Gämperle & Gölz - Turkey
Ophrys ulupinara W.Hahn - Turkey
Ophrys umbilicata Desf. - from the Balkans to Iran
Ophrys umbilicata subsp. beerii Shifman - Israel
Ophrys umbilicata subsp. bucephala (Gölz & H.R.Reinhard) Biel - Turkey and the Greek islands
Ophrys umbilicata subsp. calycadniensis Perschke - Turkey
Ophrys umbilicata subsp. flavomarginata (Renz) Faurh. - Cyprus, Syria, Israel
Ophrys umbilicata subsp. lapethica (Gölz & H.R.Reinhard) Faurh. - Cyprus
Ophrys umbilicata subsp. latakiana (M.Schönfelder & H.Schönfelder) Faurh. & H.A.Pedersen - Turkey, Syria
Ophrys umbilicata subsp. umbilicata - from the Balkans to Iran
Ophrys urteae Paulus - Turkey
Ophrys zagrica Gölz - Iran
In popular culture
Sexually deceptive orchids in the genus Ophrys feature in the 2002 movie, 'Adaptation', written by Charlie Kaufman. The film follows a screenwriter attempting to adapt the novel 'The Orchid Thief' into a movie screenplay. The species appearing in the movie may be Ophrys speculum.
The naturalist David Attenborough discusses the unusual pollination systems among Ophrys orchids in his 1995 BBC television series 'The Private Life of Plants', as well as the book accompanying the series.
References
External links
Extensive information and beautiful slides
Ophrys picture database
Orchids of Greece, slide show.
Orchideae genera
Orchids of Europe
Flora of North Africa
Flora of Turkey
Flora of Turkmenistan
Flora of Iran
Flora of the Canary Islands | [
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218050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnadenia | Gymnadenia | Gymnadenia is a genus of flowering plants in the orchid family (Orchidaceae) containing 22 terrestrial species. The former genus Nigritella is now included in Gymnadenia.
They can be found in damp meadows, fens and marshes, and on chalk or limestone, often in alpine regions of Europe and Asia from Portugal to Kamchatka, including China, Japan, Mongolia, Siberia, the Himalayas, Iran, Ukraine, Germany, Scandinavia, Great Britain, etc. The fragrant orchid (Gymnadenia conopsea) has been introduced into the USA and is reportedly naturalized in Connecticut.
These hardy terrestrial orchids are deciduous. They survive the winter through their corms, two deep-cut tubers (more like tuberous roots). Long lanceolate green leaves grow at the bottom of the stem. There are some small leaves at the stop of the stem.
They flower during the summer. The inflorescence is a dense cylindrical spike between 5 and 30 cm long. It can consists of up to 150 small pleasant-smelling flowers. It is recently discovered that eugenol and isoeugenol, floral volatile scent compounds, are catalyzed by single type of enzyme in Gymnadenia species and gene encoding for this enzyme is first functionally characterized gene in this species so far. Their color can vary from pale purple to pink and white. The lip is wide with three lobes. The marginal petals are horizontal. There is a long, thin, threadlike spur.
Several species were formerly classified under Nigritella. The nothogeneric name ×Gymnigritella was used for hybrids between these two groups.
Species
, Plants of the World Online accepted the following species and hybrids. ([N] = formerly placed in Nigritella, [GN] = formerly placed in ×Gymnigritella.)
Gymnadenia archiducis-joannis (Teppner & E.Klein) Teppner & E.Klein [N] – Austria
Gymnadenia austriaca (Teppner & E.Klein) P.Delforge [N] – C. Europe to Pyrenees
Gymnadenia bicolor (W.Foelsche) W.Foelsche & O.Gerbaud
Gymnadenia bicornis Tang & K.Y.Lang – Tibet
Gymnadenia borealis (Druce) R.M.Bateman, Pridgeon & M.W.Chase
Gymnadenia buschmanniae (Teppner & Ster) Teppner & E.Klein [N] – Italy
Gymnadenia carpatica (Zapal.) Teppner & E.Klein [N] – E. Carpathians
Gymnadenia conopsea (L.) R.Br. – fragrant orchid, Europe to Temp. E. Asia
Gymnadenia corneliana (Beauverd) Teppner & E.Klein – SW. Alps
Gymnadenia crassinervis Finet – China
Gymnadenia densiflora (Wahlenb.) A.Dietr.
Gymnadenia dolomitensis Teppner & E.Klein [N] – S. Alps
Gymnadenia emeiensis K.Y.Lang – China (Sichuan)
Gymnadenia frivaldii Hampe ex Griseb. – Balkan Pen. to S. Carpathians
Gymnadenia gabasiana (Teppner & E.Klein) Teppner & E.Klein [N] – Pyrenees
Gymnadenia hygrophila (W.Foelsche & Heidtke) W.Foelsche, Heidtke & O.Gerbaud
Gymnadenia lithopolitanica (Ravnik) Teppner & E.Klein [N] – SE. Alps
Gymnadenia miniata (Crantz) Hayek
Gymnadenia nigra (L.) Rchb.f. [N] – Europe, Israel
Gymnadenia odoratissima (L.) Rich. – Europe
Gymnadenia orchidis Lindl. – Himalaya to China
Gymnadenia rhellicani (Teppner & E.Klein) Teppner & E.Klein [N] – W. Alps
Gymnadenia runei (Teppner & E.Klein) Ericsson – Sweden
Gymnadenia stiriaca (Rech.) Teppner & E.Klein
Gymnadenia taquetii Schltr. – Korea
Gymnadenia widderi (Teppner & E.Klein) Teppner & E.Klein [N] – NE. Alps, C. Italy
Hybrids
Gymnadenia × abelii (Asch. & Graebn.) J.M.H.Shaw
Gymnadenia × borisii Stoj., Stef. & T.Georgiev
Gymnadenia × chanousiana G.Foelsche & W.Foelsche (G. rhellicani × G. conopsea) [GN] – France
Gymnadenia × delphineae (M.Gerbaud & O.Gerbaud) M.Gerbaud & O.Gerbaud (G. corneliana × G. rhellicani) GN) – France
Gymnadenia × eggeriana O.Gerbaud (G. austriaca var. gallica × G. rhellicani) [N] – France
Gymnadenia × fohringeri (Griebl) J.M.H.Shaw
Gymnadenia × geigelsteiniana (B.Baumann & H.Baumann) J.M.H.Shaw
Gymnadenia × godferyana (G.Keller) W.Foelsche (G. conopsea × G. rubra) [GN] – Alps
Gymnadenia × hedrenii (W.Foelsche) J.M.H.Shaw
Gymnadenia × heufleri (A.Kern.) Wettst. – Alps
Gymnadenia × hubertii (Griebl) J.M.H.Shaw
Gymnadenia × intermedia Peterm. – Europe
Gymnadenia × kaeseri (Braun-Blanq.) Oddone
Gymnadenia × moritziana (Brügger ex Nyman) Oddone
Gymnadenia × petzenensis (F.Fohringer & Redl) Oddone
Gymnadenia × pyrenaeensis W.Foelsche [GN] – Pyrenees
Gymnadenia × schwerei (G.Keller) J.M.H.Shaw
Gymnadenia × teppneri (W.Foelsche) Oddone
Gymnadenia × trummeriana (W.Foelsche) J.M.H.Shaw
Gymnadenia × truongiae (Demares) W.Foelsche (G. conopsea × G. corneliana) [GN] – France
Gymnadenia × turnowskyi (W.Foelsche) W.Foelsche (G. conopsea × G. lithopolitanica) [GN] – Austria
Gymnadenia × wettsteiniana O.Abel [N] – Alps
Further reading
Delforge, P. 1998. Contribution taxonomique et nomenclaturale au genre Gymnadenia (Orchidaceae). (Nomenclatural and taxonomical contribution to the genus Gymnadenia (Orchidaceae). Nat. Belg. 79(4): 251-256.
Notes
References
External links
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218052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Tartu | University of Tartu | The University of Tartu (UT; , ) is a university in the city of Tartu in Estonia. It is the national university of Estonia. It is the only classical university in the country, and also its biggest and most prestigious university. It was founded under the name of Academia Gustaviana in 1632 by Baron Johan Skytte, the Governor-General (1629–1634) of Swedish Livonia, Ingria, and Karelia, with the required ratification provided by his long-time friend and former student – from age 7 –, King Gustavus Adolphus, shortly before the king's death on 6 November in the Battle of Lützen (1632), during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).
Nearly 14,000 students are at the university, of whom over 1,300 are foreign students. The language of instruction in most curricula is Estonian, some more notable exceptions are taught in English, such as semiotics, applied measurement science, computer science, information technology law, and European Union–Russia studies.
The historical buildings of the university are included in the European Heritage Label list as "embodiment of the ideas of a university in the Age of Enlightenment". The university is a member of the Coimbra Group and the Utrecht Network.
History
Academia Gustaviana
The Academia Gustaviana in the then-Swedish province of Livonia was the second university founded in the Swedish Empire, following Uppsala University (in Uppsala, Sweden proper) and preceding the Academy of Åbo (in Turku, Finland). A precursor to the academy had been a Jesuit grammar school Gymnasium Dorpatense, founded by Stefan Batory (then king of Poland–Lithuania) in 1583 and existing to 1601, when Tartu (Dorpat) was under Polish–Lithuanian rule.
The first students matriculated between 20 and 21 April 1632. The opening ceremony of Academia Dorpatensis (Academia Gustaviana) took place on 15 October in the same year. The academy in Tartu functioned with philosophy, law, theology, and medical faculties enjoying the privileges of the University of Uppsala. On account of the Russian–Swedish war, the University of Tartu moved to Tallinn in 1656, and in 1665, it closed down. In the 17th century, the future outstanding Swedish scholars Urban Hiärne, Olof Verelius, , and others studied at the university. Among the academic staff were , professor of history (the history of Livonia, the first scientific approach to Estonian folklore) and Georg Mancelius, professor of theology (author of the first Latvian-German dictionary in 1638).
With the reestablishment of the university in 1690 as the Academia Gustavo-Carolina, Tartu became a university town again. Academic staff of the new university included , professor of mathematics (the first in the world to deliver lectures based on Newton's theory), , professor of rhetoric and poetry, , professor of medicine (founder of balneology, and discoverer of natural mineral water springs) and Michael Dau, professor of philosophy as well as of rhetoric and poetry. Just under a decade after being reconstituted, as a result of the coalition against Sweden (Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Saxony-Poland-Lithuania) and the Great Famine of 1695–1697, the university moved from Tartu to Pärnu. Eventually, Academia Gustavo-Carolina, which had opened in Pärnu on 28 August 1699, was closed as a result of the surrender of Pärnu to Russian forces on 12 August 1710 during the Great Northern War. According to the terms of the capitulation, the Russians agreed to maintain the university in Pärnu. However, the university was only reopened in 1802 by the Baltic German Ritterschaften, when the new German-speaking University was relaunched and had its new charter confirmed by the reform-minded Tsar Alexander I of Russia.
Universität Dorpat
The university was reopened by the Baltic Germans in Estonia in April 1802. The language of instruction at Dorpat was German from 1802 to 1893. During that time, Dorpat had a dual nature in that it belonged both to the set of German(-language) and Russian universities. Financially and administratively, the latter was more important; intellectually and regarding the professoriate and students, the former was more important (over half the professors came from Germany, at least another third were Baltic Germans). Among the 30 German-language universities, of which 23 were inside the German Empire, Dorpat was the 11th in size. In teaching, the university educated the local Baltic German leadership and professional classes, as well as staff, especially for the administration and health system of the entire Russian Empire. In scholarship, it was an international university; the time between 1860 and 1880 was its "golden age".
The freedom to be a half-German university ceased with the rise of nationalist tendencies in Russia, which held homogenization more important than retaining a bilingual university. Between 1882 and 1898, russification in language, appointments, etc., was imposed, with some exceptions (such as the Divinity School, which the state feared would be used by the Orthodox clergy to teach dangerous Protestant views and was thus allowed to continue in German until 1916). By 1898, when both the town and the university were renamed Yuryev, virtually all distinguished scholars from Germany had left. The University of Yuryev existed until 1918, when during part of the fall term, it was reopened, under German occupation, as Dorpat. Russian academic staff and students took refuge in Voronezh in Russia, giving rise to the foundation of Voronezh State University, which traces its own history back to the foundation of the University of Tartu and still holds several physical properties of the latter.
University of Tartu (1919–)
Since Estonia became independent in 1918, the University of Tartu has been an Estonian-language institution since 1919. The university was named Ostland-Universität in Dorpat during the German occupation of Estonia in 1941–1944 and Tartu State University (Estonian: Tartu Riiklik Ülikool) in 1940–1941 and 1944–1989, during the Soviet occupation. During Soviet rule, although Estonian remained the principal language of instruction, some courses were taught in Russian, with several Russian curricula. Estonia regained independence in 1991, and the full recovery of academic autonomy of the university can be dated to 1992. Presently, no courses are taught in Russian.
The last decade has been marked by organizational and structural changes, as well as adaptations to various university models (American, Scandinavian, German) against the background of the Soviet and Baltic German past. Most recently, the university has been and is still being marked by the adaptation of the Bologna declaration in Estonia generally and Tartu specifically, leading to major changes in curricula and studies, as well as by strong organizational centralization attempts. Recent plans also include the abolition of the Chair system (an Americanization) and of the faculties, which is supposed to lead to four large divisions (humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and medicine) under briefly serving deans and rector-appointed financial administrators.
Buildings
The university's four museums, botanical gardens, and sports facilities are, by and large, open to the general public. The university possesses some 150 buildings, 30 of which are outside of Tartu; 31 of its buildings decorate the city as architectural monuments. However, the current reforms include attempts to sell, or have the state co-sponsor, several of these buildings and monuments, as well as sports facilities, as they are not seen as part of the university's mission proper.
At the same time, numerous university buildings and student dormitories have been recently constructed or renovated, such as the Von Bock House. Many of the new buildings are built at Maarjamõisa (about 2 km southwest of the historical university centre), such as the Technology Institute, the Biomedical Center, the Chemistry building, and the new Physics building.
Research
Lectinology, the science of lectins, was founded at the University of Tartu in 1888 with the publication of Peter Hermann Stillmark's thesis about the isolation of ricin.
According to the university administration, the most remarkable recent research achievements have been in the fields of molecular and cell biology, laser medicine, materials science, laser spectroscopy, biochemistry, and psychology.
UT is the flagship of Estonian science, ranking in the top 1% of the world's most-cited universities and research institutions in these fields (as of March 2018):
› Clinical medicine
› Chemistry
› Environment and ecology
› Geoscience
› Plant and animal science
› Social sciences
› Molecular biology and genetics
› Biology and biochemistry
› Neuroscience and behaviour
› Psychiatry and psychology.
UT accounts for 56% of Estonia's national research output. Also, more than half of the PhD theses in Estonia are defended at UT and over 2,000 high-level research articles (those covered by citation indices like "SCI Expanded", "SSCI", or "A&HCI") are published annually. About 50 UT scientists are among the top 1% of the most-cited scientists in the world.
UT has excelled among the Baltic universities in winning European Research Council grants. The prestigious ERC grant has been awarded to Professor of Molecular Systems Biology Mart Loog, Professor of Nanomedicine Tambet Teesalu, and Professor of International Law Lauri Mälksoo.
Entrepreneurship
University of Tartu has contracts with 154 business partners in the amount of 10.2 million euros. UT is one of the largest development partners for the private and public sector in the Baltics. The university also works closely with international businesses such as Swedbank, The Linde Group, Pfizer, ABB Corporate Research, SUPER APPLI Inc, Eesti Energia Group, Telia AS, and many more.
UT has spun off more than 60 start-ups, including software companies Reach-U and Positium providing location-based solutions, biotechnology company Icosagen etc. The success story of the last 15 years is the technology for the ME-3 strain of Lactobacillus fermentum bacterium, allowing its use in the food industry. Student satellite ESTCube-1, developed collectively by UT staff and students, and successfully deployed into orbit in 2013, made Estonia the 41st space nation in the world. Scientists from UT and the Estonian University of Life Sciences have developed a new peat-based material that enables building inexpensive energy-efficient 3D-printed houses. The innovative robotic mannequin technology known as Rakuten Fits Me, a virtual dressing room, was originally developed in cooperation with researchers of UT Institute of Technology.
UT encourages its students and scholars to develop an entrepreneurial mindset and apply their knowledge to the economy. The University has set a goal to integrate entrepreneurship courses into every curriculum.
Structure
The academic structure of the university consists of institutes and colleges of four faculties (valdkond).
While mainly located in Tartu, the university also operates in Narva, Pärnu, Tallinn, and Viljandi. Narva and Pärnu Colleges are part of the Faculty of Social Sciences, Viljandi Culture Academy belongs to the Faculty of Arts and Humanities. The School of Law Tallinn office, University of Tartu Tallinn representation and the Estonian Marine Institute are located in the Estonian capital.
Studies
Nearly a quarter of the whole Estonian university student population studies at the University of Tartu. While most of the curricula are taught in Estonian, a number of degree programmes have English as a medium of instruction.
About 35% of UT's study courses are offered partly or fully online – as web-based courses in Moodle, video lectures, webinars, e-portfolios, and massive open online courses.
Some 56 bachelor's and 72 master's programmes are available, including 26 programmes in English.
Bachelor's studies
The university offers 56 different curricula on the bachelor's level, including the open university curriculum. Three bachelor's degree programmes out of 56 are fully taught in English:
Business administration
Medicine
Science and technology
Master's studies
University of Tartu has 72 study programmes on master's level. These programmes include 24 international master's programmes in English:
Humanities
Philosophy
Semiotics
Sound and Visual Technology
Folkloristics and heritage studies
European Languages and Cultures
Social sciences
Contemporary Asian and Middle Eastern Studies
Educational technology
European Union – Russia studies
Democracy and governance
Information technology law
Innovation and technology management
International law and human rights
International relations and regional studies
Quantitative economics
Wellness and spa service design and management
Science and technology
Actuarial and financial engineering
Applied measurement science
Bioengineering
Computer science
Excellence in analytical chemistry
Geoinformatics for urbanised society
Materials Science and Technology
Robotics and computer engineering
Software engineering
Doctoral studies
Around 120 doctoral degrees are defended annually, which make up more than half of the total number in Estonia. The language of instruction for most of the PhD programmes (35) is English. Four programmes at least partly have Estonian as a medium of instruction. These programmes are: Estonian and Finno-Ugric Linguistics, Law, History, and Pharmacy.
In addition, over 45,000 learners typically enroll in lifelong learning courses each year.
Rankings and reputation
The QS World University Rankings ranked the University of Tartu 301st in the world in 2018, and the top-ranked university in the Baltics. The university is also ranked 3rd in the Emerging Europe and Central Asia region. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings placed it in the 251–300 range among world universities. It is the only university in the Baltic countries to place among the top 200 universities in Europe. UT belongs to top 1% of world's most cited universities in 10 research areas.
University of Tartu also won first place in Central and Eastern Europe by a number of venture capital money raised by the unicorn startups founded by its alumni.
Alumni
According to the university, as of 2016, Tartu alumni comprise 100% of Estonian judges; 99% of Estonian doctors, dentists, and pharmacists; 95% of Estonian judicial prosecutors; 87% of members of the Estonian Bar Association; 60% of the ministers in the Estonian government; and 40% of the members of the Riigikogu (Estonian Parliament).
International cooperation
University of Tartu has around 1,200 international students from 90 countries. The vast majority come from Russia, Finland, and Ukraine.
In the Erasmus programme for student exchange, the University of Tartu cooperates with more than 800 universities.
University has also received good reviews from foreign students and an International Student Satisfaction Award based on student feedback.
The University of Tartu participates in the LERU-CE7 (LERU and a group of Central-European universities), the European University Association EUA, Coimbra Group, The Guild of European Research Intensive Universities, and the Utrecht Network. It has signed bilateral co-operation agreements with about 70 universities.
See also
List of early modern universities in Europe
Tartu University Clinic
Tartu University Library
Tartu University Press
Tartu Semiotic School
Copenhagen-Tartu school
Tartu Ülikool 350
University of Tartu Old Observatory
Tartu Students' Nature Conservation Circle
References
Bibliography
Die Universitäten Dorpat/Tartu, Riga und Wilna/Vilnius 1579–1979. Beiträge zu ihrer Geschichte und ihrer Wirkung im Grenzbereich zwischen West und Ost. Herausgegeben von Gert von Pistohlkors, Toivo U. Raun, Paul Kaegbein. Köln; Wien 1987 (Quellen und Studien zur baltischen Geschichte; 9). [Zweites Internationales Marburger Symposium zu Problemen der baltischen Sozial- und Kulturgeschichte]. [Lectures in German and English]
Further reading
External links
University of Tartu Official YouTube Channel
Universities and colleges in Estonia
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Educational institutions established in the 1630s
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218056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacamptis | Anacamptis | Anacamptis is a genus of flowering plants in the orchid family (Orchidaceae); it is often abbreviated as Ant in horticulture. This genus was established by Louis Claude Richard in 1817; the type species is the pyramidal orchid (A. pyramidalis) and it nowadays contains about one-third of the species placed in the "wastebin genus" Orchis before this was split up at the end of the 20th century, among them many that are of hybrid origin. The genus' scientific name is derived from the Greek word anakamptein, meaning "to bend backwards".
These terrestrial orchids occur on grasslands, limestone or chalk deposits, or on dunes in Eurasia, from the Mediterranean region to Central Asia.
Systematics
Except the pyramidal orchid (A. pyramidalis), all species of Anacamptis seem to form a clade around the green-veined orchid (A. morio). They have a diploid chromosome number of 32 or 36. A useful character for distinguishing Anacamptis from Orchis – where the green-veined orchid clade was formerly included – is the basal fusion of the three sepals in Anacamptis.
The few bigeneric hybrids are typically between closely related genera, in particular Serapias. Hybrids between the pyramidal orchid and the early purple orchid (Orchis mascula), found in Cumbria (UK) in 1997, proved short-lived because of the highly divergent genomic lineages of the parents.
Species
, the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families accepts 11 species, two with subspecies:
Anacamptis boryi (Rchb.f.) R.M.Bateman (S Greece, Crete)
Anacamptis collina (Banks & Sol. ex Russell) R.M.Bateman (Mediterranean to S Turkmenistan)
Anacamptis coriophora (L.) R.M.Bateman (Europe, Mediterranean to W Asia)
Anacamptis cyrenaica (E.A.Durand & Barratte) H.Kretzschmar
Anacamptis israelitica (H.Baumann & Dafni) R.M.Bateman (N. Israel, Palestine)
Anacamptis laxiflora (Lam.) R.M.Bateman – Loose-flowered Orchid, Lax-flowered Orchid, Jersey Orchid (WC Europe, Mediterranean to C Asia)
Anacamptis morio (L.) R.M.Bateman – Green-winged Orchid, Green-veined Orchid
Anacamptis morio subsp. caucasica (K.Koch) H.Kretzschmar
Anacamptis morio subsp. champagneuxii (Barnéoud) H.Kretzschmar (W Mediterranean)
Anacamptis morio subsp. longicornu (Poir.) H.Kretzschmar (W & C Mediterranean)
Anacamptis morio subsp. morio
Anacamptis morio subsp. picta (Loisel.) Jacquet & Scappat.
Anacamptis morio subsp. syriaca (E.G.Camus) H.Kretzschmar
Anacamptis palustris (Jacq.) R.M.Bateman(Europe, Mediterranean to C Asia)
Anacamptis palustris subsp. elegans (Heuff.) R.M.Bateman (Europe to C Asia)
Anacamptis palustris subsp. palustris (WC Europe, Mediterranean to Iran)
Anacamptis palustris subsp. robusta (T.Stephenson) R.M.Bateman (W Morocco)
Anacamptis papilionacea (L.) R.M.Bateman – Butterfly Orchid (Mediterranean to Iran)
Anacamptis pyramidalis (L.) Rich. – Pyramidal Orchid
Anacamptis sancta (L.) R.M.Bateman (E Mediterranean to Caucasus)
Selected nothospecies
Anacamptis × timbali nothosubsp. albuferensis (A. coriophora × A. palustris subsp. robusta) (Mallorca)
Anacamptis × gennarii nothosubsp. bornemanniae (A. morio subsp. longicornu × A. papilionacea) (N Africa, Sardinia)
Anacamptis × duquesnei (A. palustris × A. pyramidalis) (France)
Anacamptis × feinbruniae (A. israelitica × A. papilionacea)
Anacamptis × gennarii (A. morio × A. papilionacea) (W Mediterranean)
Anacamptis × laniccae (A. morio × A. pyramidalis) (Switzerland, France, Italy)
Anacamptis × lesbiensis (A. pyramidalis × A. sancta) (E Aegean Islands)
Anacamptis × simorrensis (A. coriophora × A. pyramidalis) (France, Italy, Greece)
Anacamptis × van-lookenii (A. papilionacea × A. pyramidalis) (France)
Intergeneric hybrids
× Anacamptiplatanthera (Anacamptis × Platanthera) – accepted name
× Anacamptorchis (Anacamptis × Orchis) – unplaced name
× Dactylocamptis (Anacamptis × Dactylorhiza) – accepted name
× Gymnanacamptis (Anacamptis × Gymnadenia) – accepted name
× Ophramptis (Anacamptis × Ophrys) – unplaced name
× Serapicamptis (Anacamptis × Serapias) – accepted name
References
Notes
(2004): Morphological and molecular investigation of the parentage and maternity of A. × albuferensis (A. robusta × A. fragrans), a new hybrid from Mallorca, Spain. Taxon 53(1): 43-54. HTML abstract
(2003): Molecular phylogenetics and evolution of Orchidinae and selected Habenariinae (Orchidaceae). Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 142(1): 1–40. PDF fulltext
External links
Kew Scientist, issue 12, October 1997
Orchideae genera
Flora of Central Asia | [
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218062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Academy%20of%20Turku | Royal Academy of Turku | The Royal Academy of Turku or the Royal Academy of Åbo ( or ; ; ) was the first university in Finland, and the only Finnish university that was founded when the country still was a part of Sweden. It was founded in 1640. In 1809, after Finland became a Grand Duchy under the suzerainty of the Russian czar, it was renamed the Imperial Academy of Turku. In 1828, after the Great Fire of Turku, the institution was moved to Helsinki, in line with the relocation of the Grand Duchy's capital. It was finally renamed the University of Helsinki when Finland became a sovereign nation-state in 1917.
History
The academy was founded in 1640 by Queen Christina of Sweden at the proposal of Count Per Brahe, on base of Åbo Cathedral School (founded 1276). It was the third university in the Swedish Empire, following Uppsala University (founded 1477) and the Academia Gustaviana (now the University of Tartu in Estonia) (1632).
The first printing shop in Finland was established at the academy in 1642. The printer was Peder Walde.
Turku (or Åbo in Swedish) was the largest city in Finland and among the three largest in Sweden, while under Swedish sovereignty. In 1809 Finland was ceded to Russia and the capital of the new Grand Duchy of Finland was relocated to Helsinki in 1812, as Turku was regarded as being too remote from Saint Petersburg — and too near to Stockholm. As a result of the Great Fire of Turku of 1827, which devastated most of the city, the government offices that had remained were finally moved to the new capital, and so also was the university. It continued in Helsinki, first as the Imperial Alexander University in Finland, and, following Finland's independence in 1917, as the University of Helsinki.
There are two universities in Turku today: the Swedish-speaking Åbo Akademi University (founded in 1918) and the Finnish-speaking University of Turku (1920), which both sometimes may claim an academic tradition at the location since the 17th century, in spite of a break for almost a century.
See also
List of early modern universities in Europe
List of universities in Finland (present-day universities)
Further reading
Välimaa J. (2019) "The Founding of the Royal Academy of Turku." in A History of Finnish Higher Education from the Middle Ages to the 21st Century. Springer.
Välimaa J. (2019) "The Academy of Turku During the Last Century of Swedish Rule (1720–1809)." in A History of Finnish Higher Education from the Middle Ages to the 21st Century. Springer.
External links
The University of Helsinki official history (in English) - retrieved 9 March 2014.
Pirkko Forsman Svensson: From monolingual to bi- and multilingual instruction at the University of Helsinki
17th-century establishments in Finland
University of Helsinki
19th century in Helsinki
1640 establishments in Sweden
Deposit libraries
19th century in Turku | [
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218067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellcode | Shellcode | In hacking, a shellcode is a small piece of code used as the payload in the exploitation of a software vulnerability. It is called "shellcode" because it typically starts a command shell from which the attacker can control the compromised machine, but any piece of code that performs a similar task can be called shellcode. Because the function of a payload is not limited to merely spawning a shell, some have suggested that the name shellcode is insufficient. However, attempts at replacing the term have not gained wide acceptance. Shellcode is commonly written in machine code.
When creating shellcode, it is generally desirable to make it both small and executable, which allows it to be used in as wide a variety of situations as possible. Writing good shellcode can be as much an art as it is a science. In assembly code, the same function can be performed in a multitude of ways and there is some variety in the lengths of opcodes that can be used for this purpose; good shellcode writers can put these small opcodes to use to create more compact shellcode. Some reached the smallest possible size while maintaining stability.
Types of shellcode
Shellcode can either be local or remote, depending on whether it gives an attacker control over the machine it runs on (local) or over another machine through a network (remote).
Local
Local shellcode is used by an attacker who has limited access to a machine but can exploit a vulnerability, for example a buffer overflow, in a higher-privileged process on that machine. If successfully executed, the shellcode will provide the attacker access to the machine with the same higher privileges as the targeted process.
Remote
Remote shellcode is used when an attacker wants to target a vulnerable process running on another machine on a local network, intranet, or a remote network. If successfully executed, the shellcode can provide the attacker access to the target machine across the network. Remote shellcodes normally use standard TCP/IP socket connections to allow the attacker access to the shell on the target machine. Such shellcode can be categorized based on how this connection is set up: if the shellcode establishes the connection, it is called a "reverse shell" or a connect-back shellcode because the shellcode connects back to the attacker's machine. On the other hand, if the attacker establishes the connection, the shellcode is called a bindshell because the shellcode binds to a certain port on the victim's machine. There's a peculiar shellcode named bindshell random port that skips the binding part and listens on a random port made available by the operating system. Because of that the bindshell random port became the smallest and stable bindshell shellcode for x86_64 available to this date. A third, much less common type, is socket-reuse shellcode. This type of shellcode is sometimes used when an exploit establishes a connection to the vulnerable process that is not closed before the shellcode is run. The shellcode can then re-use this connection to communicate with the attacker. Socket re-using shellcode is more elaborate, since the shellcode needs to find out which connection to re-use and the machine may have many connections open.
A firewall can be used to detect outgoing connections made by connect-back shellcode as well as incoming connections made by bindshells. They can therefore offer some protection against an attacker, even if the system is vulnerable, by preventing the attacker from connecting to the shell created by the shellcode. This is one reason why socket re-using shellcode is sometimes used: it does not create new connections and therefore is harder to detect and block.
Download and execute
Download and execute is a type of remote shellcode that downloads and executes some form of malware on the target system. This type of shellcode does not spawn a shell, but rather instructs the machine to download a certain executable file off the network, save it to disk and execute it. Nowadays, it is commonly used in drive-by download attacks, where a victim visits a malicious webpage that in turn attempts to run such a download and execute shellcode in order to install software on the victim's machine. A variation of this type of shellcode downloads and loads a library. Advantages of this technique are that the code can be smaller, that it does not require the shellcode to spawn a new process on the target system, and that the shellcode does not need code to clean up the targeted process as this can be done by the library loaded into the process.
Staged
When the amount of data that an attacker can inject into the target process is too limited to execute useful shellcode directly, it may be possible to execute it in stages. First, a small piece of shellcode (stage 1) is executed. This code then downloads a larger piece of shellcode (stage 2) into the process's memory and executes it.
Egg-hunt
This is another form of staged shellcode, which is used if an attacker can inject a larger shellcode into the process but cannot determine where in the process it will end up. Small egg-hunt shellcode is injected into the process at a predictable location and executed. This code then searches the process's address space for the larger shellcode (the egg) and executes it.
Omelette
This type of shellcode is similar to egg-hunt shellcode, but looks for multiple small blocks of data (eggs) and recombines them into one larger block (the omelette) that is subsequently executed. This is used when an attacker can only inject a number of small blocks of data into the process.
Shellcode execution strategy
An exploit will commonly inject a shellcode into the target process before or at the same time as it exploits a vulnerability to gain control over the program counter. The program counter is adjusted to point to the shellcode, after which it gets executed and performs its task. Injecting the shellcode is often done by storing the shellcode in data sent over the network to the vulnerable process, by supplying it in a file that is read by the vulnerable process or through the command line or environment in the case of local exploits.
Shellcode encoding
Because most processes filter or restrict the data that can be injected, shellcode often needs to be written to allow for these restrictions. This includes making the code small, null-free or alphanumeric. Various solutions have been found to get around such restrictions, including:
Design and implementation optimizations to decrease the size of the shellcode.
Implementation modifications to get around limitations in the range of bytes used in the shellcode.
Self-modifying code that modifies a number of the bytes of its own code before executing them to re-create bytes that are normally impossible to inject into the process.
Since intrusion detection can detect signatures of simple shellcodes being sent over the network, it is often encoded, made self-decrypting or polymorphic to avoid detection.
Percent encoding
Exploits that target browsers commonly encode shellcode in a JavaScript string using percent-encoding, escape sequence encoding "" or entity encoding. Some exploits also obfuscate the encoded shellcode string further to prevent detection by IDS.
For example, on the IA-32 architecture, here's how two NOP (no-operation) instructions would look, first unencoded:
90 NOP
90 NOP
This instruction is used in NOP slides.
Null-free shellcode
Most shellcodes are written without the use of null bytes because they are intended to be injected into a target process through null-terminated strings. When a null-terminated string is copied, it will be copied up to and including the first null but subsequent bytes of the shellcode will not be processed. When shellcode that contains nulls is injected in this way, only part of the shellcode would be injected, making it incapable of running successfully.
To produce null-free shellcode from shellcode that contains null bytes, one can substitute machine instructions that contain zeroes with instructions that have the same effect but are free of nulls. For example, on the IA-32 architecture one could replace this instruction:
B8 01000000 MOV EAX,1 // Set the register EAX to 0x000000001
which contains zeroes as part of the literal (1 expands to 0x00000001) with these instructions:
33C0 XOR EAX,EAX // Set the register EAX to 0x000000000
40 INC EAX // Increase EAX to 0x00000001
which have the same effect but take fewer bytes to encode and are free of nulls.
Alphanumeric and printable shellcode
An alphanumeric shellcode is a shellcode that consists of or assembles itself on execution into entirely alphanumeric ASCII or Unicode characters such as 0-9, A-Z and a-z. This type of encoding was created by hackers to hide working machine code inside what appears to be text. This can be useful to avoid detection of the code and to allow the code to pass through filters that scrub non-alphanumeric characters from strings (in part, such filters were a response to non-alphanumeric shellcode exploits). A similar type of encoding is called printable code and uses all printable characters (0-9, A-Z, a-z, !@#%^&*() etc.). An similarly restricted variant is ECHOable code not containing any characters which are not accepted by the ECHO command. It has been shown that it is possible to create shellcode that looks like normal text in English.
Writing alphanumeric or printable code requires good understanding of the instruction set architecture of the machine(s) on which the code is to be executed. It has been demonstrated that it is possible to write alphanumeric code that is executable on more than one machine, thereby constituting multi-architecture executable code.
In certain circumstances, a target process will filter any byte from the injected shellcode that is not a printable or alphanumeric character. Under such circumstances, the range of instructions that can be used to write a shellcode becomes very limited. A solution to this problem was published by Rix in Phrack 57 in which he showed it was possible to turn any code into alphanumeric code. A technique often used is to create self-modifying code, because this allows the code to modify its own bytes to include bytes outside of the normally allowed range, thereby expanding the range of instructions it can use. Using this trick, a self-modifying decoder can be created that initially uses only bytes in the allowed range. The main code of the shellcode is encoded, also only using bytes in the allowed range. When the output shellcode is run, the decoder can modify its own code to be able to use any instruction it requires to function properly and then continues to decode the original shellcode. After decoding the shellcode the decoder transfers control to it, so it can be executed as normal. It has been shown that it is possible to create arbitrarily complex shellcode that looks like normal text in English.
Unicode proof shellcode
Modern programs use Unicode strings to allow internationalization of text. Often, these programs will convert incoming ASCII strings to Unicode before processing them. Unicode strings encoded in UTF-16 use two bytes to encode each character (or four bytes for some special characters). When an ASCII (Latin-1 in general) string is transformed into UTF-16, a zero byte is inserted after each byte in the original string. Obscou proved in Phrack 61 that it is possible to write shellcode that can run successfully after this transformation. Programs that can automatically encode any shellcode into alphanumeric UTF-16-proof shellcode exist, based on the same principle of a small self-modifying decoder that decodes the original shellcode.
Platforms
Most shellcode is written in machine code because of the low level at which the vulnerability being exploited gives an attacker access to the process. Shellcode is therefore often created to target one specific combination of processor, operating system and service pack, called a platform. For some exploits, due to the constraints put on the shellcode by the target process, a very specific shellcode must be created. However, it is not impossible for one shellcode to work for multiple exploits, service packs, operating systems and even processors. Such versatility is commonly achieved by creating multiple versions of the shellcode that target the various platforms and creating a header that branches to the correct version for the platform the code is running on. When executed, the code behaves differently for different platforms and executes the right part of the shellcode for the platform it is running on.
Shellcode analysis
Shellcode cannot be executed directly. In order to analyze what a shellcode attempts to do it must be loaded into another process. One common analysis technique is to write a small C program which holds the shellcode as a byte buffer, and then use a function pointer or use inline assembler to transfer execution to it. Another technique is to use an online tool, such as shellcode_2_exe, to embed the shellcode into a pre-made executable husk which can then be analyzed in a standard debugger. Specialized shellcode analysis tools also exist, such as the iDefense sclog project which was originally released in 2005 as part of the Malcode Analyst Pack. Sclog is designed to load external shellcode files and execute them within an API logging framework. Emulation based shellcode analysis tools also exist such as the sctest application which is part of the cross platform libemu package. Another emulation based shellcode analysis tool, built around the libemu library, is scdbg which includes a basic debug shell and integrated reporting features.
See also
Alphanumeric code
Computer security
Buffer overflow
Exploit (computer security)
Heap overflow
Metasploit Project
Shell (computing)
Shell shoveling
Stack buffer overflow
Vulnerability (computing)
References
External links
Shell-Storm Database of shellcodes Multi-Platform.
An introduction to buffer overflows and shellcode
The Basics of Shellcoding (PDF) An overview of x86 shellcoding by Angelo Rosiello
An introduction to shellcode development
Contains x86 and non-x86 shellcode samples and an online interface for automatic shellcode generation and encoding, from the Metasploit Project
a shellcode archive, sorted by Operating system.
Microsoft Windows and Linux shellcode design tutorial going from basic to advanced.
Windows and Linux shellcode tutorial containing step by step examples.
Designing shellcode demystified
ALPHA3 A shellcode encoder that can turn any shellcode into both Unicode and ASCII, uppercase and mixedcase, alphanumeric shellcode.
Writing Small shellcode by Dafydd Stuttard A whitepaper explaining how to make shellcode as small as possible by optimizing both the design and implementation.
Writing IA32 Restricted Instruction Set Shellcode Decoder Loops by SkyLined A whitepaper explaining how to create shellcode when the bytes allowed in the shellcode are very restricted.
BETA3 A tool that can encode and decode shellcode using a variety of encodings commonly used in exploits.
Shellcode 2 Exe - Online converter to embed shellcode in exe husk
Sclog - Updated build of the iDefense sclog shellcode analysis tool (Windows)
Libemu - emulation based shellcode analysis library (*nix/Cygwin)
Scdbg - shellcode debugger built around libemu emulation library (*nix/Windows)
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] |
218068 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactylorhiza | Dactylorhiza | Dactylorhiza is a genus of flowering plants in the orchid family Orchidaceae. Its species are commonly called marsh orchids or spotted orchids. Dactylorhiza were previously classified under Orchis, which has two round tubers.
Description
They are hardy tuberous geophytes. In a thickened underground stem, they can store a large amount of water to survive arid conditions. The tuber is flattened and finger-like. The long leaves are lanceolate and, in most species, also speckled. They grow along a rather long stem which reaches a height of . Leaves higher on the stem are shorter than leaves lower on the stem. The inflorescence, compared to the length of the plant, is rather short. It consists of a compact raceme with 25-50 flowers. These develop from axillary buds. The dominant colors are white and all shades of pink to red, sprinkled with darker speckles.
Taxonomy
Etymology
The name Dactylorhiza is derived from Greek words δάκτυλος daktylos 'finger' and ῥίζα rhiza 'root', referring to the palmately two- to five-lobed tubers of this genus.
Species
Many species in this genus hybridise so readily that species boundaries themselves are vague (but see), with regular name changes and no clear answers. A few species colonise very well onto fresh industrial wastes such as pulverised fuel ash, where vast hybrid swarms can appear for a decade or more, before ecological succession replaces them.
Dactylorhiza alpestris : Alpine Dactylorhiza (Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians).
Dactylorhiza angustata (France).
Dactylorhiza aristata : Keyflower (E. China to Alaska).
Dactylorhiza aristata var. aristata : Keyflower (E. China to Alaska).
Dactylorhiza aristata var. kodiakensis : Kodiak Keyflower (Aleutian Is. to SW. Alaska).
Dactylorhiza armeniaca (Turkey) - has become synonym of Dactylorhiza euxina subsp. armeniaca (Hedrén) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza atlantica Kreutz & Vlaciha (Morocco)
Dactylorhiza baldshuanica (C. Asia).
Dactylorhiza baltica (Eastern Europe) (synonym of Dactylorhiza longifolia (Neuman) Aver.)
Dactylorhiza baumanniana (N. Greece).
Dactylorhiza baumanniana subsp. smolikana (B. Willing & E. Willing) H. Baumann & R. Lorenz (Greece)
Dactylorhiza bohemica (EC. Europe).
Dactylorhiza cordigera (Fr.) Soó (SE. Europe to Ukraine).
Dactylorhiza cordigera subsp. bosniaca (N. Balkan Pen).
Dactylorhiza cordigera subsp. cordigera (SE. Europe to Ukraine).
Dactylorhiza cordigera var. graeca (H.Baumann) Presser)
Dactylorhiza cordigera subsp. pindica (B. Willing & E. Willing) H. Baumann & R. Lorenz (NW. Greece).
Dactylorhiza cordigera var. rhodopeia Presser (Greece, Southeastern Europe, Europe)
Dactylorhiza cordigera subsp. siculorum (Romania to W. Ukraine).
Dactylorhiza ebudensis (Wief. ex R.M. Bateman & Denholm) P. Delforge : Hebridean marsh orchid
Dactylorhiza elata (Poir.) Soó : Stately Dactylorhiza (W. Europe to NW. Africa).
Dactylorhiza elata subsp. ambigua (Martrin-Donos) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza elata subsp. brennensis (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza elata subsp. elata (NW. Africa).
Dactylorhiza elata subsp. mauritanica B.Baumann & H. Baumann (Morocco, Algeria)
Dactylorhiza elata subsp. sesquipedalis (SW. Europe to Sicilia).
Dactylorhiza euxina (Nevski) Czerep.
Dactylorhiza euxina subsp. armeniaca (Hedrén) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza flavescens (Turkey to C. Asia).
Dactylorhiza foliosa : Richly leaved Dactylorhiza (Madeira).
Dactylorhiza fuchsii (Druce) Soó : common spotted orchid, Fuch's dactylorhiza (Europe to Siberia).
Dactylorhiza fuchsii subsp. carpatica (Batousek & Kreutz) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza fuchsii subsp. fuchsii (Europe to Siberia).
Dactylorhiza fuchsii subsp. hebridensis (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza fuchsii subsp. meyeri (Rchb.f.) Kulikov & E.G.Philippov
Dactylorhiza fuchsii subsp. okellyi (Ireland, W. Great Britain).
Dactylorhiza fuchsii subsp. psychrophila (Europe to Siberia).
Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. sooana (Borsos) Kreutz (Hungary)
Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. sudetica (Poech ex Rchb.f.) H.Baumann
Dactylorhiza gervasiana (Sicilia to S. Italy).
Dactylorhiza graeca (N. Greece) - has become synonym of Dactylorhiza cordigera var. graeca (H.Baumann) Presser)
Dactylorhiza graggeriana (W. Himalaya).
Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Pakistan to SE. Tibet).
Dactylorhiza iberica (Greece to Iran).
Dactylorhiza ilgazica (N. Turkey) - now synonym of Dactylorhiza urvilleana subsp. ilgazica (Kreutz) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza incarnata (L.) Soó : early marsh orchid
Dactylorhiza incarnata var. baumgartneriana (B.Baumann, H.Baumann, R.Lorenz & Ruedi Peter) P.Delforge
Dactylorhiza incarnata subsp. coccinea
Dactylorhiza incarnata subsp. cruenta (Europe to Turkey).
Dactylorhiza incarnata subsp. gemmana (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza incarnata subsp. incarnata (Europe to Mongolia).
Dactylorhiza incarnata nothosubsp. krylovii (W. Europe to Siberia).
Dactylorhiza incarnata subsp. lobelii (Norway to The Netherlands).
Dactylorhiza incarnata subsp. ochroleuca (Europe).
Dactylorhiza incarnata subsp. pulchella (Europe).
Dactylorhiza incarnata nothosubsp. versicolor (Europe)
Dactylorhiza insularis : Island Dactylorhiza (W. Medit. to WC. Italy).
Dactylorhiza kafiriana (NE. Afghanistan to W. Himalaya).
Dactylorhiza kalopissii E.Nelson (N. Greece).
Dactylorhiza kalopissii subsp. macedonica (J.Hölzinger & Künkele) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza kalopissii subsp. pythagorae (Gölz & H.R.Reinhard) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza kulikalonica (C. Asia).
Dactylorhiza lapponica (Laest.ex Hartm.) Soó (N. Europe).
Dactylorhiza lapponica subsp. angustata (Arv.-Touv.) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza lapponica subsp. rhaetica H. Baumann & R. Lorenz (Alps of Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and France)
Dactylorhiza libanotica (Lebanon)
Dactylorhiza longifolia (Europe to C. Asia).
Dactylorhiza macedonica (N. Greece) - now a synonym of Dactylorhiza kalopissii subsp. macedonica (J.Hölzinger & Künkele) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza maculata (L.) Soó : heath spotted orchid, Moorland Spotted Orchid (NW. Africa, Europe to Siberia).
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. battandieri (N. Algeria).
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. caramulensis (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. elodes (Europe).
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. ericetorum : heath spotted orchid (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. islandica (Iceland).
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. kolaensis (Montell) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. maculata (Europe to Siberia).
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. maurusia (Morocco)
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. podesta (Netherlands).
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. rhoumensis (Great Britain)
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. savogiensis (D.Tyteca & Gathoye) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. schurii (Carpathians).
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. sennia (Vollmar) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. transsilvanica (SC. & SE. Europe).
Dactylorhiza magna (C. Asia).
Dactylorhiza majalis (Rchb.) P.F.Hunt & Summerh. : broad-leaved marsh orchid, western marsh orchid, fan orchid, common marsh orchid (Europe).
Dactylorhiza majalis var. brevifolia (Rchb.f.) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza majalis subsp. calcifugiens (Denmark)
Dactylorhiza majalis subsp. majalis (Europe).
Dactylorhiza majalis subsp. occidentalis (W. & SW. Ireland, N. Great Britain) (synonym of Dactylorhiza kerryensis (Wilmott) P.F. Hunt & Summerhayes)
Dactylorhiza majalis subsp. parvimajalis (D.Tyteca & Gathoye) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza majalis subsp. sphagnicola
Dactylorhiza majalis subsp. turfosa (Alps to W. Carpathians) - has become a synonym of Dactylorhiza traunsteineri subsp. turfosa (F.Proch.) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza markusii : Markus' Dactylorhiza (N. Portugal to W. Spain and Italy).
Dactylorhiza nieschalkiorum (N. Turkey).
Dactylorhiza occidentalis (Pugsley) P. Delforge : Irish marsh orchid (synonym of Dactylorhiza kerryensis (Wilmott) P.F. Hunt & Summerhayes)
Dactylorhiza osmanica (Turkey to Syria).
Dactylorhiza osmanica var. anatolica (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza osmanica var. osmanica (Turkey to Syria).
Dactylorhiza pindica (NW. Greece).
Dactylorhiza praetermissa : leopard marsh orchid, southern marsh orchid (W. & NW. Europe)
Dactylorhiza purpurella (T.Stephenson & T.A.Stephenson) Soó : northern marsh orchid (Great Britain, Ireland).
Dactylorhiza purpurella var. maculosa (T. Stephenson)
Dactylorhiza purpurella var. purpurella
Dactylorhiza purpurella var. cambrensis (R.H.Roberts) R.M.Bateman & Denholm 2005
Dactylorhiza pythagorae (E. Aegean Is.) - now a synonym of Dactylorhiza kalopissii subsp. pythagorae (Gölz & H.R.Reinhard) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza romana : Roman Dactylorhiza (Mediterranean)
Dactylorhiza russowii (Klinge) Holub (C. Europe to Siberia)
Dactylorhiza saccifera (Brongn.) Soó : Sack-carrying Dactylorhiza (Mediterranean)
Dactylorhiza saccifera subsp. bithynica (H.Baumann) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza saccifera subsp. gervasiana (Tod.) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza salina (Caucasus to Amur)
Dactylorhiza sambucina : elder-flowered orchid (Europe). Photos
Dactylorhiza sudetica (Europe to Siberia)
Dactylorhiza traunsteineri (Saut. ex Rchb.) Soó : narrow-leaved marsh orchid, Traunstein's Dactylorhiza (Europe to W. Siberia).
Dactylorhiza traunsteineri subsp. carpatica (Slovakia) - has become synonym of Dactylorhiza fuchsii subsp. carpatica (Batousek & Kreutz) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza traunsteineri subsp. turfosa (F.Proch.) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza traunsteineri subsp. curvifolia (N. & NE. Europe).
Dactylorhiza traunsteineri subsp. traunsteineri (Europe to W. Siberia).
Dactylorhiza traunsteineri subsp. wirtgenii (Höppner) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza traunsteinerioides (Pugsley) Landwehr (synonym of Dactylorhiza traunsteineri subsp. traunsteineri)
Dactylorhiza umbrosa (W. & C. Asia to Siberia)
Dactylorhiza urvilleana (Steud.) H.Baumann & Künkele (N. & NE. Turkey to Iran)
Dactylorhiza urvilleana subsp. bithynica (H.Baumann) H. Baumann & R. Lorenz
Dactylorhiza urvilleana subsp. phoenissa B. Baumann & H. Baumann (Lebanon)
Dactylorhiza urvilleana subsp. ilgazica (Kreutz) Kreutz
Dactylorhiza viridis : Frog orchid (Subarctic and subalpine Northern Hemisphere).
Dactylorhiza viridis var. virescens (Temp. Asia, N. America)
Dactylorhiza viridis var. viridis (Subarctic and subalpine Northern Hemisphere)
Hybrids
Note : nothosubspecies = a hybrid subspecies; nothovarietas = subvariety.
Dactylorhiza × abantiana (D. iberica × D. nieschalkiorum) (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × aldenii (D. iberica × D. kalopissii) (Greece).
Dactylorhiza × altobracensis (D. maculata × D. sambucina) (France, Austria).
Dactylorhiza × aschersoniana (D. incarnata × D. majalis) (W. & C. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × aschersoniana nothosubsp. aschersoniana (W. & C. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × aschersoniana nothosubsp. templinensis (D. incarnata subsp. ochroleuca × D. majalis) (C. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × aschersoniana nothovar. uliginosa (D. incarnata subsp.pulchella × D. majalis) (C. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × baicalica (D. incarnata subsp. cruenta × D. salina) (Siberia).
Dactylorhiza × balabaniana (D. iberica × D. urvilleana) (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × bayburtiana (D. euxina × D. umbrosa) (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × beckeriana (C. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × boluiana (D. nieschalkiorum × D. saccifera) (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × bourdonii (D. brennensis × D. incarnata) (France).
Dactylorhiza × braunii (D. fuchsii × D. majalis) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × braunii nothosubsp. braunii (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × braunii nothosubsp. lilacina (D fuchsii × D. majalis subsp. turfosa) (EC. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × braunii nothosubsp. monticola (D. fuchsii subsp. psychrophila × D. majalis) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × braunii nothosubsp. smitakii (D. fuchsii subsp. sooana × D. majalis) (EC. Europe). te
Dactylorhiza × breviceras (D. osmanica × D. urvilleana) (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × carnea (D. incarnata × D. maculata subsp. ericetorum) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × carnea nothosubsp. ampolai (D. incarnata subsp. cruenta × D. maculata) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × carnea nothosubsp. carnea (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × carnea nothosubsp. maculatiformis. (D. incarnata × D. maculata) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × claudiopolitana (D. incarnata × D. schurii) (Europe.
Dactylorhiza × conigerum (D. maculata × D. viridis) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × csatoi (D. cordigera × D. maculata) (SE. Europe).
Dactylorhiza czerniakowskae (C. Asia).
Dactylorhiza × daunia (D. romana × D. saccifera) (S. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × delamainii (D. elata subsp. sesquipedalis × D. maculata) (SW. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × dinglensis (D. maculata subsp. ericetorum × D. majalis subsp. occidentalis) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × dinglensis nothosubsp. dinglensis (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × dinglensis nothosubsp. robertsii (D. maculata subsp. ericetorum × D. majalis subsp. cambrensi) (Great Britain).
Dactylorhiza × dinglensis nothosubsp. senayi (D. maculata subsp. elodes × D. majalis) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × dinglensis nothosubsp. townsendiana (D. maculata subsp. ericetorum × D. majalis) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × dinglensis nothosubsp. vermeuleniana (D. maculata × D. majalis) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × drucei (D. majalis × D. viridis) (W. Europe)
Dactylorhiza × dubreuilhii (D. elata subsp. sesquipedalis × D. incarnata) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × dufftiana (D. majalis × D. traunsteineri) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × dufftii (D. incarnata × D. traunsteineri) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × dufftii nothosubsp. dufftii (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × dufftii nothosubsp. gotlandica (D incarnata subsp. ochroleuca × D. traunsteineri) (Europe). Tuber geophyte
Dactylorhiza × dufftii nothosubsp. stenkyrkae (D. incarnata subsp. cruenta × D. traunsteineri) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × erdingeri (D. sambucina × D. viridis) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza euxina (NE. Turkey to Caucasus).
Dactylorhiza euxinavar. euxina (NE. Turkey to Caucasus).
Dactylorhiza euxinavar. markowitschii (NE. Turkey to Caucasus).
Dactylorhiza × flixensis (D. incarnata subsp. pulchella × D. traunsteineri.) (Switzerland).
Dactylorhiza × formosa (D. maculata subsp. ericetorum × D. purpurella) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × fourkensis (D. baumanniana × D. sambucina) (Greece).
Dactylorhiza × gabretana (D. incarnata × D. maculata × D. sambucina) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × genevensis (D. incarnata × D. latifolia × D. maculata) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × godferyana (D. majalis × D. praetermissa) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × grandis (D. fuchsii × D. praetermissa) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × guilhotii (D. incarnata × D. viridis) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × guillaumeae (D. incarnata × D. sambucina) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × gustavssonii (D. iberica × D. saccifera) (Greece to Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × hallii (D maculata subsp. ericetorum × D. praetermissa) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × hallii nothosubsp. hallii (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × hallii nothosubsp. nummiana (D. maculata subsp. elodes × D. praetermissa) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × hochreutinerana (D. alpestris × D. incarnata) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × insignis (D. praetermissa × D. purpurella) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × ishorica (D. incarnata × D. longifolia) (European Russia).
Dactylorhiza × jenensis (D. maculata subsp. ericetorum × D. traunsteineri) (W. & NC. Europe)
Dactylorhiza × jestrebiensis (D. bohemica × D. majalis) (EC. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × juennensis (D. fuchsii × D. lapponica) (C. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × katarana (D kalopissii × D. saccifera) (Greece).
Dactylorhiza × kelleriana (D. fuchsii × D. traunsteineri) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × kerasovinensis (D. pindica × D. saccifera) (Greece).
Dactylorhiza × kerneriorum (D. fuchsii × D. incarnata) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × kerneriorum nothosubsp. kerneriorum (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × kerneriorum nothosubsp. lillsundica (D. fuchsii × D. incarnata subsp. ochroleuca) (N. & W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × kerneriorum nothosubsp. variablis (D. fuchsii subsp. hebridensis × D. incarnata) (W. Europe). *Dactylorhiza × komiensis (D. hebridensis × D. maculata) (E. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × kopdagiana (D. iberica × D. umbrosa) (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × koutsourana (D. baumanniana × D. smolikana) (Greece).
Dactylorhiza × kuuskiae (D.longifolia × D. traunsteineri) (E. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × latirella (D. incarnata × D. purpurella) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × lehmannii (D. incarnata × D. russowii) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × megapolitana (D. fuchsii × D. russowii) (C. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × metsowonensis (D. kalopissii × D. sambucina) (Greece).
Dactylorhiza × mixtum (D. fuchsii × D. viridis) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × mulignensis (D. incarnata subsp. pulchella × D. majalis) (C. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × nevskii (D. osmanica × D. umbrosa) (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × ornonensis (D. elata subsp. sesquipedalis × D. incarnata × D. maculata) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × paridaeniana (D. elata subsp. sesquipedalis × D. praetermissa) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × pontica (D. urvilleana × D. viridis) (Turkey)
Dactylorhiza × prochazkana (D. bohemica × D. maculata) (EC. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × renzii (D. incarnata × D. nieschalkiorum) (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × rizeana (D. euxina × D. urvilleana) (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × rombucina (D. romana × D. sambucina) (C. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × ruppertii (D. majalis × D. sambucina) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × salictina (D. pindica × D. smolikana) (Greece).
Dactylorhiza × serbica (D. incarnata × D. saccifera) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × serreana (D. graeca × D. lagotis) (Greece).
Dactylorhiza × sivasiana (D. umbrosa × D. urvilleana) (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × sooi (D. alpestris × D. fuchsii.) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × souflikensis (D. baumanniana × D. pindica) (Greece).
Dactylorhiza × stagni-novi (D. brennensis × D. fuchsii) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × szaboiana (D. cordigera × D. sudetica) (SE. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × transiens (D. fuchsii × D. maculata subsp. ericetorum) (Europe)
Dactylorhiza × transiens nothosubsp. corylensis (D. fuchsii subsp. hebridensis × D. maculata)
Dactylorhiza × transienssubsp. ericetorum (Europe). Tuber geophyte
Dactylorhiza × transiens nothosubsp. transiens (Europe). Tuber geophyte
Dactylorhiza × turcestanicum (D. umbrosa × D. viridis) (C. Asia).
Dactylorhiza × vallis-peenae (D. majalis × D. russowii) (C. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × venusta (D. fuchsii × D. purpurella) (Europe).
Dactylorhiza × venusta nothosubsp. hebridella (D. fuchsii subsp. hebridensis × D. purpurella) (Great Britain).
Dactylorhiza × venusta nothosubsp. venusta (Europe)
Dactylorhiza × viridella (D. purpurella × D. viridis) (W. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × vitosana (D. saccifera × D. sambucina) (SE. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × vogtiana (D. iberica × D. incarnata) (Turkey).
Dactylorhiza × vorasica (D. cordigera × D. sambucina) (Greece).
Dactylorhiza × weissenbachiana (D. incarnata × D. lapponica) (C. Europe).
Dactylorhiza × wiefelspuetziana (D. maculata × D. sphagnicola) (W. Europe).
This list follows the World checklist of monocotyledons, periodically amended from the "Orchid Research Newsletter".
Distribution and habitat
These terrestrial orchids grow in basic soils in wet meadows, bogs, heathland and in areas sparsely populated by trees. They are distributed throughout the subarctic and temperate northern hemisphere. It is found across much of Europe, North Africa and Asia from Portugal and Iceland to Taiwan and Kamchatka, including Russia, Japan, China, Central Asia, the Middle East, Ukraine, Scandinavia, Germany, Poland, Italy, France, the United Kingdom, etc. Inclusion of the widespread frog orchid, often called Coeloglossum viride, into Dactylorhiza as per some recent classifications, expands the genus distribution to include Canada and much of the United States.
References
Bibliography
External links
Flora of North America Genus page
Dactylorhiza (Orchidaceae) in European Russia: combined molecular and morphological analysis
Dactylorhiza picture database
Mayank Thakur and V. K. Dixit, Aphrodisiac Activity of Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo in Male Albino Rats, Oxford Journals, Medicine, Evidence-based Compl. and Alt. Medicine, Volume 4, Supplement 1, p. 29-31
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218069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neunkirchen%20%28German%20district%29 | Neunkirchen (German district) | Neunkirchen () is a Kreis (district) in the middle of the Saarland, Germany. Neighboring districts are Sankt Wendel, Kusel, Saarpfalz, Saarbrücken, and Saarlouis.
History
In 1814, the district Ottweiler was created; however, its history can be traced back to 1545 when it was created as Herrschaft Ottweiler, later Amt and Oberamt Ottweiler, and during the Napoleonic times as Kanton Ottweiler. Two years after its creation, it was reorganized in 1816 by order of the Congress of Vienna. In 1866, an attempt to move the district capital to Neunkirchen failed. In 1974, the districts were reorganized, the biggest change however was the change of the capital and thus the name to Neunkirchen. Some parts of the administration remained in Ottweiler.
Geography
The entire district is located in the industrial area, which is centered in Saarbrücken. It is situated on either bank of the Blies, a major tributary of the Saar River.
Coat of arms
The top part of the coat of arms show the lion of Nassau, as the area was ruled by a branch of the house of Nassau (Nassau-Saarbrücken, later Nassau-Ottweiler). In the bottom part it shows the main symbols of the two biggest cities in the district, the rose of Ottweiler and the wheel of Neunkirchen.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Districts of the Saarland | [
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218073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Oklahoma | List of governors of Oklahoma | The following is a list of governors of the State of Oklahoma and Oklahoma Territory.
List of Governors
Governors of Oklahoma Territory
Oklahoma Territory was formally organized on May 2, 1890.
As secretaries of Oklahoma Territory in 1891 and 1901 respectively, Robert Martin and William C. Grimes both served as acting governor whenever the presidentially appointed governorship was vacant.
Governors of the State of Oklahoma
Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory joined the Union as the State of Oklahoma on November 16, 1907.
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional seats, other federal offices, and other governorships held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Oklahoma except where noted. * denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take.
Living former governors of Oklahoma
, there are six former governors of Oklahoma who are currently living at this time, the oldest governor of Oklahoma being George Nigh (served 1963 and 1979–1987, born 1927). The most recent governor of Oklahoma to die was David Hall (served 1971–1975, born 1930), on May 6, 2016. The most recently serving governor of Oklahoma to have died was Henry Bellmon, (served 1963–1967 and 1987–1991) on September 29, 2009.
See also
Governor of Oklahoma
References
Oklahoma
Governors | [
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218074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Pathfinder | HMS Pathfinder | Two ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Pathfinder.
, launched in 1904, was a light cruiser, the lead ship of her class. She was sunk at the start of World War I by , becoming the first ship to ever be sunk by a torpedo fired by submarine.
, launched in 1941, was a P-class destroyer. She served in World War II, sank the German submarines and , and was rendered a constructive loss by air attack off Ramree Island, Burma on 11 February 1945, she was finally broken up at Milford Haven in November 1948.
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218075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS%20Edmund%20Fitzgerald | SS Edmund Fitzgerald | SS Edmund Fitzgerald was an American Great Lakes freighter that sank in Lake Superior during a storm on November 10, 1975, with the loss of the entire crew of 29 men. When launched on June 7, 1958, she was the largest ship on North America's Great Lakes, and she remains the largest to have sunk there. She was located in deep water on November 14, 1975, by a U.S. Navy aircraft detecting magnetic anomalies, and found soon afterwards to be in two large pieces.
For 17 years, Edmund Fitzgerald carried taconite iron ore from mines near Duluth, Minnesota, to iron works in Detroit, Toledo, and other Great Lakes ports. As a workhorse, she set seasonal haul records six times, often breaking her own record. Captain Peter Pulcer was known for piping music day or night over the ship's intercom while passing through the St. Clair and Detroit rivers (between lakes Huron and Erie), and entertaining spectators at the Soo Locks (between Lakes Superior and Huron) with a running commentary about the ship. Her size, record-breaking performance, and "DJ captain" endeared Edmund Fitzgerald to boat watchers.
Carrying a full cargo of ore pellets with Captain Ernest M. McSorley in command, she embarked on her ill-fated voyage from Superior, Wisconsin, near Duluth, on the afternoon of November 9, 1975. En route to a steel mill near Detroit, Edmund Fitzgerald joined a second taconite freighter, . By the next day, the two ships were caught in a severe storm on Lake Superior, with near hurricane-force winds and waves up to high. Shortly after 7:10 p.m., Edmund Fitzgerald suddenly sank in Canadian (Ontario) waters deep, about from Whitefish Bay near the twin cities of Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario—a distance Edmund Fitzgerald could have covered in just over an hour at her top speed.
Edmund Fitzgerald previously reported being in significant difficulty to Arthur M. Anderson: "I have a bad list, lost both radars. And am taking heavy seas over the deck. One of the worst seas I've ever been in." However, no distress signals were sent before she sank; Captain McSorley's last (7:10 p.m.) message to Arthur M. Anderson was, "We are holding our own." Her crew of 29 perished, and no bodies were recovered. The exact cause of the sinking remains unknown, though many books, studies, and expeditions have examined it. Edmund Fitzgerald may have been swamped, suffered structural failure or topside damage, experienced shoaling, or suffered from a combination of these.
The disaster is one of the best known in the history of Great Lakes shipping. Gordon Lightfoot made it the subject of his 1976 hit song "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald" after reading an article, "The Cruelest Month", in the November 24, 1975, issue of Newsweek. The sinking led to changes in Great Lakes shipping regulations and practices that included mandatory survival suits, depth finders, positioning systems, increased freeboard, and more frequent inspection of vessels.
History
Design and construction
Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, invested in the iron and minerals industries on a large-scale basis, including the construction of Edmund Fitzgerald, which represented the first such investment by any American life insurance company. In 1957, they contracted Great Lakes Engineering Works (GLEW), of River Rouge, Michigan, to design and construct the ship "within a foot of the maximum length allowed for passage through the soon-to-be completed Saint Lawrence Seaway." The ship's value at that time was $7 million (equivalent to $ in ). Edmund Fitzgerald was the first laker built to the maximum St. Lawrence Seaway size, which was long, wide, and with a draft. The moulded depth (roughly speaking, the vertical height of the hull) was . The hold depth (the inside height of the cargo hold) was . GLEW laid the first keel plate on August 7 the same year.
With a deadweight capacity of , and a hull, Edmund Fitzgerald was the longest ship on the Great Lakes, earning her the title Queen of the Lakes until September 17, 1959, when the SS Murray Bay was launched. Edmund Fitzgeralds three central cargo holds were loaded through 21 watertight cargo hatches, each of steel. Originally coal-fired, her boilers were converted to burn oil during the 1971–72 winter layup. In 1969, the ship's maneuverability was improved by the installation of a diesel-powered bow thruster.
By ore freighter standards, the interior of Edmund Fitzgerald was luxurious. Her J.L. Hudson Company-designed furnishings included deep pile carpeting, tiled bathrooms, drapes over the portholes, and leather swivel chairs in the guest lounge. There were two guest staterooms for passengers. Air conditioning extended to the crew quarters, which featured more amenities than usual. A large galley and fully stocked pantry supplied meals for two dining rooms. Edmund Fitzgeralds pilothouse was outfitted with "state-of-the-art nautical equipment and a beautiful map room."
Name and launch
Northwestern Mutual named the ship after its president and chairman of the board, Edmund Fitzgerald. Fitzgerald's own grandfather had himself been a lake captain, and his father owned the Milwaukee Drydock Company, which built and repaired ships. More than 15,000 people attended Edmund Fitzgeralds christening and launch ceremony on June 7, 1958. The event was plagued by misfortunes. When Elizabeth Fitzgerald, wife of Edmund Fitzgerald, tried to christen the ship by smashing a champagne bottle over the bow, it took her three attempts to break it. A delay of 36 minutes followed while the shipyard crew struggled to release the keel blocks. Upon sideways launch, the ship created a large wave that "doused" the spectators and then crashed into a pier before righting herself. One man watching the launching had a heart attack and later died. Other witnesses later said they swore the ship was "trying to climb right out of the water". On September 22, 1958, Edmund Fitzgerald completed nine days of sea trials.
Career
Northwestern Mutual's normal practice was to purchase ships for operation by other companies. In Edmund Fitzgeralds case, they signed a 25-year contract with Oglebay Norton Corporation to operate the vessel. Oglebay Norton immediately designated Edmund Fitzgerald the flagship of its Columbia Transportation fleet.
Edmund Fitzgerald was a record-setting workhorse, often beating her own milestones. The vessel's record load for a single trip was in 1969. For 17 years, Edmund Fitzgerald carried taconite from Minnesota's Iron Range mines near Duluth, Minnesota, to iron works in Detroit, Toledo, and other ports. She set seasonal haul records six different times. Her nicknames included "Fitz", "Pride of the American Side", "Mighty Fitz", "Toledo Express", "Big Fitz", and the "Titanic of the Great Lakes". Loading Edmund Fitzgerald with taconite pellets took about four and a half hours, while unloading took around 14 hours. A round trip between Superior, Wisconsin, and Detroit, Michigan, usually took her five days and she averaged 47 similar trips per season. The vessel's usual route was between Superior, Wisconsin, and Toledo, Ohio, although her port of destination could vary. By November 1975, Edmund Fitzgerald had logged an estimated 748 round trips on the Great Lakes and covered more than a million miles, "a distance roughly equivalent to 44 trips around the world."
Up until a few weeks before her loss, passengers had traveled on board as company guests. Frederick Stonehouse wrote:
Because of her size, appearance, string of records, and "DJ captain," Edmund Fitzgerald became a favorite of boat watchers throughout her career. Although Captain Peter Pulcer was in command of Edmund Fitzgerald on trips when cargo records were set, "he is best remembered ... for piping music day or night over the ship's intercom system" while passing through the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers. While navigating the Soo Locks he would often come out of the pilothouse and use a bullhorn to entertain tourists with a commentary on details about Edmund Fitzgerald.
In 1969, Edmund Fitzgerald received a safety award for eight years of operation without a time-off worker injury. The vessel ran aground in 1969, and she collided with SS Hochelaga in 1970. Later that same year, she struck the wall of a lock, an accident repeated in 1973 and 1974. During 1974, she lost her original bow anchor in the Detroit River. None of these mishaps, however, were considered serious or unusual. Freshwater ships are built to last more than half a century, and Edmund Fitzgerald would still have had a long career ahead of her when she sank.
Final voyage and wreck
Edmund Fitzgerald left Superior, Wisconsin, at 2:15 p.m. on the afternoon of November 9, 1975, under the command of Captain Ernest M. McSorley. She was en route to the steel mill on Zug Island, near Detroit, Michigan, with a cargo of of taconite ore pellets and soon reached her full speed of . Around 5 p.m., Edmund Fitzgerald joined a second freighter under the command of Captain Jesse B. "Bernie" Cooper, , destined for Gary, Indiana, out of Two Harbors, Minnesota. The weather forecast was not unusual for November and the National Weather Service (NWS) predicted that a storm would pass just south of Lake Superior by 7 a.m. on November 10.
SS Wilfred Sykes loaded opposite Edmund Fitzgerald at the Burlington Northern Dock #1 and departed at 4:15 p.m., about two hours after Edmund Fitzgerald. In contrast to the NWS forecast, Captain Dudley J. Paquette of Wilfred Sykes predicted that a major storm would directly cross Lake Superior. From the outset, he chose a route that took advantage of the protection offered by the lake's north shore to avoid the worst effects of the storm. The crew of Wilfred Sykes followed the radio conversations between Edmund Fitzgerald and Arthur M. Anderson during the first part of their trip and overheard their captains deciding to take the regular Lake Carriers' Association downbound route. The NWS altered its forecast at 7:00 p.m., issuing gale warnings for the whole of Lake Superior. Arthur M. Anderson and Edmund Fitzgerald altered course northward seeking shelter along the Ontario shore where they encountered a winter storm at 1:00 a.m. on November 10. Edmund Fitzgerald reported winds of and waves high. Captain Paquette of Wilfred Sykes reported that after 1 a.m., he overheard McSorley say that he had reduced the ship's speed because of the rough conditions. Paquette said he was stunned to later hear McSorley, who was not known for turning aside or slowing down, state that "we're going to try for some lee from Isle Royale. You're walking away from us anyway … I can't stay with you."
At 2:00 a.m. on November 10, the NWS upgraded its warnings from gale to storm, forecasting winds of . Until then, Edmund Fitzgerald had followed Arthur M. Anderson, which was travelling at a constant , but the faster Edmund Fitzgerald pulled ahead at about 3:00 a.m. As the storm center passed over the ships, they experienced shifting winds, with wind speeds temporarily dropping as wind direction changed from northeast to south and then northwest. After 1:50 p.m., when Arthur M. Anderson logged winds of , wind speeds again picked up rapidly, and it began to snow at 2:45 p.m., reducing visibility; Arthur M. Anderson lost sight of Edmund Fitzgerald, which was about ahead at the time.
Shortly after 3:30 p.m., Captain McSorley radioed Arthur M. Anderson to report that Edmund Fitzgerald was taking on water and had lost two vent covers and a fence railing. The vessel had also developed a list. Two of Edmund Fitzgeralds six bilge pumps ran continuously to discharge shipped water. McSorley said that he would slow his ship down so that Arthur M. Anderson could close the gap between them. In a broadcast shortly afterward, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) warned all shipping that the Soo Locks had been closed and they should seek safe anchorage. Shortly after 4:10 p.m., McSorley called Arthur M. Anderson again to report a radar failure and asked Arthur M. Anderson to keep track of them. Edmund Fitzgerald, effectively blind, slowed to let Arthur M. Anderson come within a range so she could receive radar guidance from the other ship.
For a time, Arthur M. Anderson directed Edmund Fitzgerald toward the relative safety of Whitefish Bay; then, at 4:39 p.m., McSorley contacted the USCG station in Grand Marais, Michigan, to inquire whether the Whitefish Point light and navigation beacon were operational. The USCG replied that their monitoring equipment indicated that both instruments were inactive. McSorley then hailed any ships in the Whitefish Point area to report the state of the navigational aids, receiving an answer from Captain Cedric Woodard of Avafors between 5:00 and 5:30 p.m. that the Whitefish Point light was on but not the radio beacon. Woodard testified to the Marine Board that he overheard McSorley say, "Don't allow nobody on deck," as well as something about a vent that Woodard could not understand. Some time later, McSorley told Woodard, "I have a 'bad list', I have lost both radars, and am taking heavy seas over the deck in one of the worst seas I have ever been in."
By late in the afternoon of November 10, sustained winds of over were recorded by ships and observation points across eastern Lake Superior. Arthur M. Anderson logged sustained winds as high as at 4:52 p.m., while waves increased to as high as by 6:00 p.m. Arthur M. Anderson was also struck by gusts and rogue waves as high as .
At approximately 7:10 p.m., when Arthur M. Anderson notified Edmund Fitzgerald of an upbound ship and asked how she was doing, McSorley reported, "We are holding our own." She was never heard from again. No distress signal was received, and ten minutes later, Arthur M. Anderson lost the ability either to reach Edmund Fitzgerald by radio or to detect her on radar.
Search
Captain Cooper of Arthur M. Anderson first called the USCG in Sault Ste. Marie at 7:39 p.m. on channel 16, the radio distress frequency. The USCG responders instructed him to call back on channel 12 because they wanted to keep their emergency channel open and they were having difficulty with their communication systems, including antennas blown down by the storm. Cooper then contacted the upbound saltwater vessel Nanfri and was told that she could not pick up Edmund Fitzgerald on her radar either. Despite repeated attempts to raise the USCG, Cooper was not successful until 7:54 p.m. when the officer on duty asked him to keep watch for a boat lost in the area. At about 8:25 p.m., Cooper again called the USCG to express his concern about Edmund Fitzgerald and at 9:03 p.m. reported her missing. Petty Officer Philip Branch later testified, "I considered it serious, but at the time it was not urgent."
Lacking appropriate search-and-rescue vessels to respond to Edmund Fitzgeralds disaster, at approximately 9:00 p.m., the USCG asked Arthur M. Anderson to turn around and look for survivors. Around 10:30 p.m., the USCG asked all commercial vessels anchored in or near Whitefish Bay to assist in the search. The initial search for survivors was carried out by Arthur M. Anderson, and a second freighter, . The efforts of a third freighter, the Toronto-registered , were foiled by the weather. The USCG sent a buoy tender, , from Duluth, Minnesota, but it took two and a half hours to launch and a day to travel to the search area. The Traverse City, Michigan, USCG station launched an HU-16 fixed-wing search aircraft that arrived on the scene at 10:53 p.m. while an HH-52 USCG helicopter with a 3.8-million-candlepower searchlight arrived at 1:00 a.m. on November 11. Canadian Coast Guard aircraft joined the three-day search and the Ontario Provincial Police established and maintained a beach patrol all along the eastern shore of Lake Superior.
Although the search recovered debris, including lifeboats and rafts, none of the crew were found. On her final voyage, Edmund Fitzgeralds crew of 29 consisted of the captain; the first, second, and third mates; five engineers; three oilers; a cook; a wiper; two maintenance men; three watchmen; three deckhands; three wheelsmen; two porters; a cadet; and a steward. Most of the crew were from Ohio and Wisconsin; their ages ranged from 20 (watchman Karl A. Peckol) to 63 (Captain McSorley).
Edmund Fitzgerald is among the largest and best-known vessels lost on the Great Lakes, but she is not alone on the Lake Superior seabed in that area. In the years between 1816, when Invincible was lost, and 1975, when Edmund Fitzgerald sank, the Whitefish Point area had claimed at least 240 ships.
Wreck discovery and surveys
Wreck discovery
A U.S. Navy Lockheed P-3 Orion aircraft, piloted by Lt. George Conner and equipped to detect magnetic anomalies usually associated with submarines, found the wreck on November 14, 1975. Edmund Fitzgerald lay about west of Deadman's Cove, Ontario (about northwest of Pancake Bay Provincial Park), from the entrance to Whitefish Bay to the southeast, in Canadian waters close to the international boundary at a depth of . A further November 14–16 survey by the USCG using a side scan sonar revealed two large objects lying close together on the lake floor. The U.S. Navy also contracted Seaward, Inc., to conduct a second survey between November 22 and 25.
Underwater surveys
From May 20 to 28, 1976, the U.S. Navy dived on the wreck using its unmanned submersible, CURV-III, and found Edmund Fitzgerald lying in two large pieces in of water. Navy estimates put the length of the bow section at and that of the stern section at . The bow section stood upright in the mud, some from the stern section that lay capsized at a 50-degree angle from the bow. In between the two broken sections lay a large mass of taconite pellets and scattered wreckage lying about, including hatch covers and hull plating.
In 1980, during a Lake Superior research dive expedition, marine explorer Jean-Michel Cousteau, the son of Jacques Cousteau, sent two divers from in the first manned submersible dive to Edmund Fitzgerald. The dive was brief, and although the dive team drew no final conclusions, they speculated that Edmund Fitzgerald had broken up on the surface.
The Michigan Sea Grant Program organized a three-day dive to survey Edmund Fitzgerald in 1989. The primary objective was to record 3-D videotape for use in museum educational programs and the production of documentaries. The expedition used a towed survey system (TSS Mk1) and a self-propelled, tethered, free-swimming remotely operated underwater vehicle (ROV). The Mini Rover ROV was equipped with miniature stereoscopic cameras and wide-angle lenses in order to produce 3-D images. The towed survey system and the Mini Rover ROV were designed, built and operated by Chris Nicholson of Deep Sea Systems International, Inc. Participants included the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Geographic Society, the United States Army Corps of Engineers, the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society (GLSHS), and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the latter providing RV Grayling as the support vessel for the ROV. The GLSHS used part of the five hours of video footage produced during the dives in a documentary and the National Geographic Society used a segment in a broadcast. Frederick Stonehouse, who wrote one of the first books on the Edmund Fitzgerald wreck, moderated a 1990 panel review of the video that drew no conclusions about the cause of Edmund Fitzgeralds sinking.
Canadian explorer Joseph B. MacInnis organized and led six publicly funded dives to Edmund Fitzgerald over a three-day period in 1994. Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution provided Edwin A. Link as the support vessel, and their manned submersible, Celia. The GLSHS paid $10,000 for three of its members to each join a dive and take still pictures. MacInnis concluded that the notes and video obtained during the dives did not provide an explanation why Edmund Fitzgerald sank. The same year, longtime sport diver Fred Shannon formed Deepquest Ltd., and organized a privately funded dive to the wreck of Edmund Fitzgerald, using Delta Oceanographic's submersible, Delta. Deepquest Ltd. conducted seven dives and took more than 42 hours of underwater video while Shannon set the record for the longest submersible dive to Edmund Fitzgerald at 211 minutes. Prior to conducting the dives, Shannon studied NOAA navigational charts and found that the international boundary had changed three times before its publication by NOAA in 1976. Shannon determined that based on GPS coordinates from the 1994 Deepquest expedition, "at least one-third of the two acres of immediate wreckage containing the two major portions of the vessel is in U.S. waters because of an error in the position of the U.S.–Canada boundary line shown on official lake charts."
Shannon's group discovered the remains of a crew member partly dressed in coveralls and wearing a life jacket lying face up on the lake bottom alongside the bow of the ship, indicating that at least one of the crew was aware of the possibility of sinking. The life jacket had deteriorated canvas and "what is thought to be six rectangular cork blocks ... clearly visible." Shannon concluded that "massive and advancing structural failure" caused Edmund Fitzgerald to break apart on the surface and sink.
MacInnis led another series of dives in 1995 to salvage the bell from Edmund Fitzgerald. The Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians backed the expedition by co-signing a loan in the amount of $250,000. Canadian engineer Phil Nuytten's atmospheric diving suit, known as the "Newtsuit," was used to retrieve the bell from the ship, replace it with a replica, and put a beer can in Edmund Fitzgeralds pilothouse. That same year, Terrence Tysall and Mike Zee set multiple records when they used trimix gas to scuba dive to Edmund Fitzgerald. The pair are the only people known to have touched the Edmund Fitzgerald wreck. They also set records for the deepest scuba dive on the Great Lakes and the deepest shipwreck dive, and were the first divers to reach Edmund Fitzgerald without the aid of a submersible. It took six minutes to reach the wreck, six minutes to survey it, and three hours to resurface to avoid decompression sickness, also known as "the bends."
Restrictions on surveys
Under the Ontario Heritage Act, activities on registered archeological sites require a license. In March 2005, the Whitefish Point Preservation Society accused the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society (GLSHS) of conducting an unauthorized dive to Edmund Fitzgerald. Although the director of the GLSHS admitted to conducting a sonar scan of the wreck in 2002, he denied such a survey required a license at the time it was carried out.
An April 2005 amendment to the Ontario Heritage Act allows the Ontario government to impose a license requirement on dives, the operation of submersibles, side scan sonars or underwater cameras within a designated radius around protected sites. Conducting any of those activities without a license would result in fines of up to . On the basis of the amended law, to protect wreck sites considered "watery graves", the Ontario government issued updated regulations in January 2006, including an area with a radius around Edmund Fitzgerald and other specifically designated marine archeological sites. In 2009, a further amendment to the Ontario Heritage Act imposed licensing requirements on any type of surveying device.
Hypotheses on the cause of sinking
Extreme weather and sea conditions play a role in all of the published hypotheses regarding Edmund Fitzgeralds sinking, but they differ on the other causal factors.
Waves and weather hypothesis
In 2005, NOAA and the NWS ran a computer simulation, including weather and wave conditions, covering the period from November 9, 1975, until the early morning of November 11. Analysis of the simulation showed that two separate areas of high wind appeared over Lake Superior at 4:00 p.m. on November 10. One had speeds in excess of and the other winds in excess of . The southeastern part of the lake, the direction in which Edmund Fitzgerald was heading, had the highest winds. Average wave heights increased to near by 7:00 p.m., November 10, and winds exceeded over most of southeastern Lake Superior.
Edmund Fitzgerald sank at the eastern edge of the area of high wind where the long fetch, or distance that wind blows over water, produced significant waves averaging over by 7:00 p.m. and over at 8:00 p.m. The simulation also showed one in 100 waves reaching and one out of every 1,000 reaching . Since the ship was heading east-southeastward, it is likely that the waves caused Edmund Fitzgerald to roll heavily.
At the time of the sinking, the ship Arthur M. Anderson reported northwest winds of , matching the simulation analysis result of . The analysis further showed that the maximum sustained winds reached near hurricane force of about with gusts to at the time and location where Edmund Fitzgerald sank.
Rogue wave hypothesis
A group of three rogue waves, often called "three sisters," was reported in the vicinity of Edmund Fitzgerald at the time she sank. The "three sisters" phenomenon is said to occur on Lake Superior as a result of a sequence of three rogue waves forming that are one-third larger than normal waves. The first wave introduces an abnormally large amount of water onto the deck. This water is unable to fully drain away before the second wave strikes, adding to the surplus. The third incoming wave again adds to the two accumulated backwashes, quickly overloading the deck with too much water.
Captain Cooper of Arthur M. Anderson reported that his ship was "hit by two 30 to 35 foot seas about 6:30 p.m., one burying the aft cabins and damaging a lifeboat by pushing it right down onto the saddle. The second wave of this size, perhaps 35 foot, came over the bridge deck." Cooper went on to say that these two waves, possibly followed by a third, continued in the direction of Edmund Fitzgerald and would have struck about the time she sank. This hypothesis postulates that the "three sisters" compounded the twin problems of Edmund Fitzgeralds known list and her lower speed in heavy seas that already allowed water to remain on her deck for longer than usual.
The "Edmund Fitzgerald" episode of the 2010 television series Dive Detectives features the wave-generating tank of the National Research Council's Institute for Naval Technology in St. John's, and the tank's simulation of the effect of a rogue wave upon a scale model of Edmund Fitzgerald. The simulation indicated such a rogue wave could almost completely submerge the bow or stern of the ship with water, at least temporarily.
Cargo-hold flooding hypothesis
The July 26, 1977, USCG Marine Casualty Report suggested that the accident was caused by ineffective hatch closures. The report concluded that these devices failed to prevent waves from inundating the cargo hold. The flooding occurred gradually and probably imperceptibly throughout the final day, finally resulting in a fatal loss of buoyancy and stability. As a result, Edmund Fitzgerald plummeted to the bottom without warning. Video footage of the wreck site showed that most of her hatch clamps were in perfect condition. The USCG Marine board concluded that the few damaged clamps were probably the only ones fastened. As a result, ineffective hatch closure caused Edmund Fitzgerald to flood and founder.
From the beginning of the USCG inquiry, some of the crewmen's families and various labor organizations believed the USCG findings could be tainted because there were serious questions regarding their preparedness as well as licensing and rules changes. Paul Trimble, a retired USCG vice admiral and president of the Lake Carriers Association (LCA), wrote a letter to the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) on September 16, 1977, that included the following statements of objection to the USCG findings:
It was common practice for ore freighters, even in foul weather, to embark with not all cargo clamps locked in place on the hatch covers. Maritime author Wolff reported that depending on weather conditions, all the clamps were eventually set within one to two days. Captain Paquette of Wilfred Sykes was dismissive of suggestions that unlocked hatch clamps caused Edmund Fitzgerald to founder. He said that he commonly sailed in fine weather using the minimum number of clamps necessary to secure the hatch covers.
The May 4, 1978, NTSB findings differed from the USCG. The NTSB made the following observations based on the CURV-III survey:
The NTSB conducted computer studies, testing and analysis to determine the forces necessary to collapse the hatch covers and concluded that Edmund Fitzgerald sank suddenly from flooding of the cargo hold "due to the collapse of one or more of the hatch covers under the weight of giant boarding seas" instead of flooding gradually due to ineffective hatch closures. The NTSB dissenting opinion held that Edmund Fitzgerald sank suddenly and unexpectedly from shoaling.
Shoaling hypothesis
The LCA believed that instead of hatch cover leakage, the more probable cause of Edmund Fitzgeralds loss was shoaling or grounding in the Six Fathom Shoal northwest of Caribou Island when the vessel "unknowingly raked a reef" during the time the Whitefish Point light and radio beacon were not available as navigation aids. This hypothesis was supported by a 1976 Canadian hydrographic survey, which disclosed that an unknown shoal ran a mile farther east of Six Fathom Shoal than shown on the Canadian charts. Officers from Arthur M. Anderson observed that Edmund Fitzgerald sailed through this exact area. Conjecture by proponents of the Six Fathom Shoal hypothesis concluded that Edmund Fitzgeralds downed fence rail reported by McSorley could occur only if the ship "hogged" during shoaling, with the bow and stern bent downward and the midsection raised by the shoal, pulling the railing tight until the cables dislodged or tore under the strain. Divers searched the Six Fathom Shoal after the wreck occurred and found no evidence of "a recent collision or grounding anywhere." Maritime authors Bishop and Stonehouse wrote that the shoaling hypothesis was later challenged on the basis of the higher quality of detail in Shannon's 1994 photography that "explicitly show[s] the devastation of the Edmund Fitzgerald". Shannon's photography of Edmund Fitzgeralds overturned stern showed "no evidence on the bottom of the stern, the propeller or the rudder of the ship that would indicate the ship struck a shoal."
Maritime author Stonehouse reasoned that "unlike the Lake Carriers, the Coast Guard had no vested interest in the outcome of their investigation." Author Bishop reported that Captain Paquette of Wilfred Sykes argued that through their support for the shoaling explanation, the LCA represented the shipping company's interests by advocating a hypothesis that held LCA member companies, the American Bureau of Shipping, and the U.S. Coast Guard Service blameless.
Paul Hainault, a retired professor of mechanical engineering from Michigan Technological University, promoted a hypothesis that began as a student class project. His hypothesis held that Edmund Fitzgerald grounded at 9:30 a.m. on November 10 on Superior Shoal. This shoal, charted in 1929, is an underwater mountain in the middle of Lake Superior about north of Copper Harbor, Michigan. It has sharp peaks that rise nearly to the lake surface with water depths ranging from , making it a menace to navigation. Discovery of the shoal resulted in a change in recommended shipping routes. A seiche, or standing wave, that occurred during the low-pressure system over Lake Superior on November 10, 1975, caused the lake to rise over the Soo Locks's gates to flood Portage Avenue in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, with of water. Hainault's hypothesis held that this seiche contributed to Edmund Fitzgerald shoaling of her hull on Superior Shoal, causing the hull to be punctured mid-body. The hypothesis contended that the wave action continued to damage the hull, until the middle third dropped out like a box, leaving the ship held together by the center deck. The stern section acted as an anchor and caused Edmund Fitzgerald to come to a full stop, causing everything to go forward. The ship broke apart on the surface within seconds. Compressed air pressure blew a hole in the starboard bow, which sank 18 degrees off course. The rear kept going forward with the engine still running, rolled to port and landed bottom up.
Structural failure hypothesis
Another published hypothesis contends that an already weakened structure, and modification of Edmund Fitzgeralds winter load line (which allows heavier loading and travel lower in the water), made it possible for large waves to cause a stress fracture in the hull. This is based on the "regular" huge waves of the storm and does not necessarily involve rogue waves.
The USCG and NTSB investigated whether Edmund Fitzgerald broke apart due to structural failure of the hull and because the 1976 CURV III survey found Edmund Fitzgeralds sections were from each other, the USCG's formal casualty report of July 1977 concluded that she had separated upon hitting the lake floor. The NTSB came to the same conclusion as USCG because:
Other authors have concluded that Edmund Fitzgerald most likely broke in two on the surface before sinking due to the intense waves, like the ore carriers and . After maritime historian Frederick Stonehouse moderated the panel reviewing the video footage from the 1989 ROV survey of Edmund Fitzgerald, he concluded that the extent of taconite coverage over the wreck site showed that the stern had floated on the surface for a short time and spilled taconite into the forward section; thus the two sections of the wreck did not sink at the same time. The 1994 Shannon team found that the stern and the bow were apart, leading Shannon to conclude that Edmund Fitzgerald broke up on the surface. He said:
The stress fracture hypothesis was supported by the testimony of former crewmen. Former Second Mate Richard Orgel, who served on Edmund Fitzgerald in 1972 and 1973, testified that "the ship had a tendency to bend and spring during storms 'like a diving board after somebody has jumped off. Orgel was quoted as saying that the loss of Edmund Fitzgerald was caused by hull failure, "pure and simple. I detected undue stress in the side tunnels by examining the white enamel paint, which will crack and splinter when submitted to severe stress." George H. "Red" Burgner, Edmund Fitzgeralds steward for ten seasons and winter ship-keeper for seven years, testified in a deposition that a "loose keel" contributed to the vessel's loss. Burgner further testified that "the keel and sister kelsons were only 'tack welded'" and that he had personally observed that many of the welds were broken. Burgner was not asked to testify before the Marine Board of Inquiry.
When Bethlehem Steel Corporation permanently laid up Edmund Fitzgeralds sister ship, SS Arthur B. Homer, just five years after going to considerable expense to lengthen her, questions were raised as to whether both ships had the same structural problems. The two vessels were built in the same shipyard using welded joints instead of the riveted joints used in older ore freighters. Riveted joints allow a ship to flex and work in heavy seas, while welded joints are more likely to break. Reports indicate that repairs to Edmund Fitzgeralds hull were delayed in 1975 due to plans to lengthen the ship during the upcoming winter layup. Arthur B. Homer was lengthened to and placed back in service by December 1975, not long after Edmund Fitzgerald foundered. In 1978, without explanation, Bethlehem Steel Corporation denied permission for the chairman of the NTSB to travel on Arthur B. Homer. Arthur B. Homer was permanently laid up in 1980 and broken for scrap in 1987.
Retired GLEW naval architect Raymond Ramsay, one of the members of the design team that worked on the hull of Edmund Fitzgerald, reviewed her increased load lines, maintenance history, along with the history of long ship hull failure and concluded that Edmund Fitzgerald was not seaworthy on November 10, 1975. He stated that planning Edmund Fitzgerald to be compatible with the constraints of the St. Lawrence Seaway had placed her hull design in a "." Edmund Fitzgeralds long-ship design was developed without the benefit of research, development, test, and evaluation principles while computerized analytical technology was not available at the time she was built. Ramsay noted that Edmund Fitzgeralds hull was built with an all-welded (instead of riveted) modular fabrication method, which was used for the first time in the GLEW shipyard. Ramsay concluded that increasing the hull length to resulted in an L/D slenderness ratio (the ratio of the length of the ship to the depth of her structure) that caused excessive multi-axial bending and springing of the hull, and that the hull should have been structurally reinforced to cope with her increased length.
Topside damage hypothesis
The USCG cited topside damage as a reasonable alternative reason for Edmund Fitzgerald sinking and surmised that damage to the fence rail and vents was possibly caused by a heavy floating object such as a log. Historian and mariner Mark Thompson believes that something broke loose from Edmund Fitzgeralds deck. He theorized that the loss of the vents resulted in flooding of two ballast tanks or a ballast tank and a walking tunnel that caused the ship to list. Thompson further conjectured that damage more extensive than Captain McSorley could detect in the pilothouse let water flood the cargo hold. He concluded that the topside damage Edmund Fitzgerald experienced at 3:30 p.m. on November 10, compounded by the heavy seas, was the most obvious explanation for why she sank.
Possible contributing factors
The USCG, NTSB, and proponents of alternative theories have all named multiple possible contributing factors to the foundering of Edmund Fitzgerald.
Weather forecasting
The NWS long-range forecast on November 9, 1975, predicted that a storm would pass just south of Lake Superior and over the Keweenaw Peninsula, extending into the Lake from Michigan's Upper Peninsula. Captain Paquette of Wilfred Sykes had been following and charting the low-pressure system over Oklahoma since November 8 and concluded that a major storm would track across eastern Lake Superior. He therefore chose a route that gave Wilfred Sykes the most protection and took refuge in Thunder Bay, Ontario, during the worst of the storm. Based on the NWS forecast, Arthur M. Anderson and Edmund Fitzgerald instead started their trip across Lake Superior following the regular Lake Carriers Association route, which placed them in the path of the storm. The NTSB investigation concluded that the NWS failed to accurately predict wave heights on November 10. After running computer models in 2005 using actual meteorological data from November 10, 1975, Hultquist of the NWS said of Edmund Fitzgeralds position in the storm, "It ended in precisely the wrong place at the absolute worst time."
Inaccurate navigational charts
After reviewing testimony that Edmund Fitzgerald had passed near shoals north of Caribou Island, the USCG Marine Board examined the relevant navigational charts. They found that the Canadian 1973 navigational chart for the Six Fathom Shoal area was based on Canadian surveys from 1916 and 1919 and that the 1973 U.S. Lake Survey Chart No. 9 included the notation, "Canadian Areas. For data concerning Canadian areas, Canadian authorities have been consulted." Thereafter, at the request of the Marine Board and the Commander of the USCG Ninth District, the Canadian Hydrographic Service conducted a survey of the area surrounding Michipicoten Island and Caribou Island in 1976. The survey revealed that the shoal ran about farther east than shown on Canadian charts. The NTSB investigation concluded that, at the time of Edmund Fitzgeralds foundering, Lake Survey Chart No. 9 was not detailed enough to indicate Six Fathom Shoal as a hazard to navigation.
Lack of watertight bulkheads
Mark Thompson, a merchant seaman and author of numerous books on Great Lakes shipping, stated that if her cargo holds had watertight subdivisions, "the Edmund Fitzgerald could have made it into Whitefish Bay." Frederick Stonehouse also held that the lack of watertight bulkheads caused Edmund Fitzgerald to sink. He said:
Stonehouse called on ship designers and builders to design lake carriers more like ships rather than "motorized super-barges" making the following comparison:
After Edmund Fitzgerald foundered, Great Lakes shipping companies were accused of valuing cargo payloads more than human life, since the vessel's cargo hold of had been divided by two non-watertight traverse "screen" bulkheads. The NTSB Edmund Fitzgerald investigation concluded that Great Lakes freighters should be constructed with watertight bulkheads in their cargo holds.
The USCG had proposed rules for watertight bulkheads in Great Lakes vessels as early as the sinking of Daniel J. Morrell in 1966 and did so again after the sinking of Edmund Fitzgerald, arguing that this would allow ships to make it to refuge or at least allow crew members to abandon ship in an orderly fashion. The LCA represented the Great Lakes fleet owners and was able to forestall watertight subdivision regulations by arguing that this would cause economic hardship for vessel operators. A few vessel operators have built Great Lakes ships with watertight subdivisions in the cargo holds since 1975, but most vessels operating on the lakes cannot prevent flooding of the entire cargo hold area.
Lack of instrumentation
A fathometer was not required under USCG regulations, and Edmund Fitzgerald lacked one, even though fathometers were available at the time of her sinking. Instead, a hand line was the only method Edmund Fitzgerald had to take depth soundings. The hand line consisted of a piece of line knotted at measured intervals with a lead weight on the end. The line was thrown over the bow of the ship and the count of the knots measured the water depth. The NTSB investigation concluded that a fathometer would have provided Edmund Fitzgerald additional navigational data and made her less dependent on Arthur M. Anderson for navigational assistance.
Edmund Fitzgerald had no system to monitor the presence or amount of water in her cargo hold, even though there was always some present. The intensity of the November 10 storm would have made it difficult, if not impossible, to access the hatches from the spar deck (deck over the cargo holds). The USCG Marine Board found that flooding of the hold could not have been assessed until the water reached the top of the taconite cargo. The NTSB investigation concluded that it would have been impossible to pump water from the hold when it was filled with bulk cargo. The Marine Board noted that because Edmund Fitzgerald lacked a draft-reading system, the crew had no way to determine whether the vessel had lost freeboard (the level of a ship's deck above the water).
Increased load lines, reduced freeboard
The USCG increased Edmund Fitzgeralds load line in 1969, 1971, and 1973 to allow less minimum freeboard than Edmund Fitzgeralds original design allowed in 1958. This meant that Edmund Fitzgeralds deck was only above the water when she faced waves during the November 10 storm. Captain Paquette of Wilfred Sykes noted that this change allowed loading to 4,000 tons more than what Edmund Fitzgerald was designed to carry.
Concerns regarding Edmund Fitzgeralds keel-welding problem surfaced during the time the USCG started increasing her load line. This increase and the resultant reduction in freeboard decreased the vessel's critical reserve buoyancy. Prior to the load-line increases she was said to be a "good riding ship" but afterwards Edmund Fitzgerald became a sluggish ship with slower response and recovery times. Captain McSorley said he did not like the action of a ship he described as a "wiggling thing" that scared him. Edmund Fitzgeralds bow hooked to one side or the other in heavy seas without recovering and made a groaning sound not heard on other ships.
Maintenance
NTSB investigators noted that Edmund Fitzgeralds prior groundings could have caused undetected damage that led to major structural failure during the storm, since Great Lakes vessels were normally drydocked for inspection only once every five years. It was also alleged that when compared to Edmund Fitzgeralds previous captain (Peter Pulcer), McSorley did not keep up with routine maintenance and did not confront the mates about getting the requisite work done. After August B. Herbel Jr., president of the American Society for Testing and Materials, examined photographs of the welds on Edmund Fitzgerald, he stated, "the hull was just being held together with patching plates." Other questions were raised as to why the USCG did not discover and take corrective action in its pre-November 1975 inspection of Edmund Fitzgerald, given that her hatch coamings, gaskets, and clamps were poorly maintained.
Complacency
On the fateful evening of November 10, 1975, McSorley reported he had never seen bigger seas in his life. Paquette, master of Wilfred Sykes, out in the same storm, said, "I'll tell anyone that it was a monster sea washing solid water over the deck of every vessel out there." The USCG did not broadcast that all ships should seek safe anchorage until after 3:35 p.m. on November 10, many hours after the weather was upgraded from a gale to a storm.
McSorley was known as a "heavy weather captain" who beat hell' out of the Edmund Fitzgerald and 'very seldom ever hauled up for weather. Paquette held the opinion that negligence caused Edmund Fitzgerald to founder. He said, "in my opinion, all the subsequent events arose because (McSorley) kept pushing that ship and didn't have enough training in weather forecasting to use common sense and pick a route out of the worst of the wind and seas." Paquette's vessel was the first to reach a discharge port after the November 10 storm; she was met by company attorneys who came aboard Sykes. He told them that Edmund Fitzgeralds foundering was caused by negligence. Paquette was never asked to testify during the USCG or NTSB investigations.
The NTSB investigation noted that Great Lakes cargo vessels could normally avoid severe storms and called for the establishment of a limiting sea state applicable to Great Lakes bulk cargo vessels. This would restrict the operation of vessels in sea states above the limiting value. One concern was that shipping companies pressured the captains to deliver cargo as quickly and cheaply as possible regardless of bad weather. At the time of Edmund Fitzgeralds foundering, there was no evidence that any governmental regulatory agency tried to control vessel movement in foul weather despite the historical record that hundreds of Great Lakes vessels had been wrecked in storms. The USCG took the position that only the captain could decide when it was safe to sail.
The USCG Marine Board issued the following conclusion:
Mark Thompson countered that "the Coast Guard laid bare [its] own complacency" by blaming the sinking of Edmund Fitzgerald on industry-wide complacency since it had inspected Edmund Fitzgerald just two weeks before she sank. The loss of Edmund Fitzgerald also exposed the USCG's lack of rescue capability on Lake Superior. Thompson said that ongoing budget cuts had limited the USCG's ability to perform its historical functions. He further noted that USCG rescue vessels were unlikely to reach the scene of an incident on Lake Superior or Lake Huron within 6 to 12 hours of its occurrence.
Legal settlement
Under maritime law, ships fall under the jurisdiction of the admiralty courts of their flag country. As Edmund Fitzgerald was sailing under the U.S. flag, even though she sank in foreign (Canadian) waters, she was subject to U.S. admiralty law. With a value of $24 million, Edmund Fitzgeralds financial loss was the greatest in Great Lakes sailing history. In addition to the crew, of taconite sank along with the vessel. Two widows of crewmen filed a $1.5 million lawsuit against Edmund Fitzgeralds owners, Northwestern Mutual, and its operators, Oglebay Norton Corporation, one week after she sank. An additional $2.1 million lawsuit was later filed. Oglebay Norton subsequently filed a petition in the U.S. District Court seeking to "limit their liability to $817,920 in connection with other suits filed by families of crew members." The company paid compensation to surviving families about 12 months in advance of official findings of the probable cause and on condition of imposed confidentiality agreements. Robert Hemming, a reporter and newspaper editor, reasoned in his book about Edmund Fitzgerald that the USCG's conclusions "were benign in placing blame on [n]either the company or the captain ... [and] saved the Oglebay Norton from very expensive lawsuits by the families of the lost crew."
Subsequent changes to Great Lakes shipping practice
The USCG investigation of Edmund Fitzgeralds sinking resulted in 15 recommendations regarding load lines, weathertight integrity, search and rescue capability, lifesaving equipment, crew training, loading manuals, and providing information to masters of Great Lakes vessels. NTSB's investigation resulted in 19 recommendations for the USCG, four recommendations for the American Bureau of Shipping, and two recommendations for NOAA. Of the official recommendations, the following actions and USCG regulations were put in place:
1. In 1977, the USCG made it a requirement that all vessels of 1,600 gross register tons and over use depth finders.
2. Since 1980, survival suits have been required aboard ship in each crew member's quarters and at their customary work station with strobe lights affixed to life jackets and survival suits.
3. A LORAN-C positioning system for navigation on the Great Lakes was implemented in 1980 and later replaced with Global Positioning System (GPS) in the 1990s.
4. Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRBs) are installed on all Great Lakes vessels for immediate and accurate location in event of a disaster.
5. Navigational charts for northeastern Lake Superior were improved for accuracy and greater detail.
6. NOAA revised its method for predicting wave heights.
7. The USCG rescinded the 1973 Load Line Regulation amendment that permitted reduced freeboard loadings.
8. The USCG began the annual pre-November inspection program recommended by the NTSB. "Coast Guard inspectors now board all U.S. ships during the fall to inspect hatch and vent closures and lifesaving equipment."
Karl Bohnak, an Upper Peninsula meteorologist, covered the sinking and storm in a book on local weather history. In this book, Joe Warren, a deckhand on Arthur M. Anderson during the November 10, 1975, storm, said that the storm changed the way things were done. He stated, "After that, trust me, when a gale came up we dropped the hook [anchor]. We dropped the hook because they found out the big ones could sink." Mark Thompson wrote, "Since the loss of the Fitz, some captains may be more prone to go to anchor, rather than venturing out in a severe storm, but there are still too many who like to portray themselves as 'heavy weather sailors.'"
Memorials
The day after the wreck, Mariners' Church in Detroit rang its bell 29 times; once for each life lost. The church continued to hold an annual memorial, reading the names of the crewmen and ringing the church bell, until 2006 when the church broadened its memorial ceremony to commemorate all lives lost on the Great Lakes.
The ship's bell was recovered from the wreck on July 4, 1995. A replica engraved with the names of the 29 sailors who lost their lives replaced the original on the wreck. A legal document signed by 46 relatives of the deceased, officials of the Mariners' Church of Detroit and the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historic Society (GLSHS) "donated the custodian and conservatorship" of the bell to the GLSHS "to be incorporated in a permanent memorial at Whitefish Point, Michigan, to honor the memory of the 29 men of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald." The terms of the legal agreement made the GLSHS responsible for maintaining the bell, and forbade it from selling or moving the bell or using it for commercial purposes. It provided for transferring the bell to the Mariners' Church of Detroit if the terms were violated.
An uproar occurred in 1995 when a maintenance worker in St. Ignace, Michigan, refurbished the bell by stripping the protective coating applied by Michigan State University experts. The controversy continued when the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum tried to use the bell as a touring exhibit in 1996. Relatives of the crew halted this move, objecting that the bell was being used as a "traveling trophy." , the bell is on display in the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum in Whitefish Point near Paradise, Michigan.
An anchor from Edmund Fitzgerald lost on an earlier trip was recovered from the Detroit River and is on display at the Dossin Great Lakes Museum in Detroit, Michigan. The Dossin Great Lakes Museum also hosts a Lost Mariners Remembrance event each year on the evening of November 10. Artifacts on display in the Steamship Valley Camp museum in Sault Ste. Marie, include two lifeboats, photos, a movie of Edmund Fitzgerald and commemorative models and paintings. Every November 10, the Split Rock Lighthouse in Silver Bay, Minnesota, emits a light in honor of Edmund Fitzgerald.
On August 8, 2007, along a remote shore of Lake Superior on the Keweenaw Peninsula, a Michigan family discovered a lone life-saving ring that appeared to have come from Edmund Fitzgerald. It bore markings different from those of rings found at the wreck site, and was thought to be a hoax. Later it was determined that the life ring was not from Edmund Fitzgerald, but had been lost by the owner, whose father had made it as a personal memorial.
The Royal Canadian Mint commemorated Edmund Fitzgerald in 2015 with a colored silver collector coin, with a face value of $20.
Musical and theater tributes
In 1976, Ontario singer-songwriter Gordon Lightfoot wrote, composed, and recorded the song "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald" for his album Summertime Dream. On NPR's Weekend Edition Saturday on February 14, 2015, Gordon Lightfoot said he was inspired to write the song when he saw the name misspelled "Edmond" in Newsweek magazine two weeks after the sinking; Lightfoot said he felt that it dishonored the memory of the 29 who died. Lightfoot's popular ballad made the sinking of Edmund Fitzgerald one of the best-known disasters in the history of Great Lakes shipping. The original lyrics of the song show a degree of artistic license compared to the events of the actual sinking: it states the destination as Cleveland instead of Detroit. Also, in light of new evidence about what happened, Lightfoot has modified one line for live performances, the original stanza being: When suppertime came the old cook came on deck,Saying 'Fellas, it's too rough to feed ya.'At 7 p.m. a main hatchway caved in, He said, 'Fellas, it's been good to know ya.' Lightfoot changed the third line to "At 7 p.m. it grew dark, it was then".
In 1986, writer Steven Dietz and songwriter/lyricist Eric Peltoniemi wrote the musical Ten November in memory of Edmund Fitzgeralds sinking. In 2005, the play was re-edited into a concert version called The Gales of November, which opened on the 30th anniversary of the sinking at the Fitzgerald Theater in St. Paul, Minnesota.
A piano concerto titled The Edmund Fitzgerald was composed by American composer Geoffrey Peterson in 2002; it premiered by the Sault Symphony Orchestra in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, in November 2005 as another 30th-anniversary commemoration.
Commercialization
The fame of Edmund Fitzgeralds image and historical narrative have made it public domain and subject to commercialization. A "cottage industry" has evolved across the Great Lakes region from Two Harbors, Minnesota, to Whitefish Point, the incident's "ground zero". Memorabilia on sale include Christmas ornaments, T-shirts, coffee mugs, Edmund Fitzgerald Porter, videos, and other items commemorating the vessel and its loss.
See also
List of maritime disasters
List of shipwrecks in the Great Lakes
List of storms on the Great Lakes
MV Derbyshire, a British bulk carrier lost in 1980 under similar circumstances
Notes
References
External links
from Telescope magazine
Image gallery I and Image gallery II of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald from Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary collection
Images of the Edmund Fitzgerald from the Minnesota Historical Society
The sinking of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald, November 10, 1975, from the University of Wisconsin
Yesterday's news, November 10, 1975: Edmund Fitzgerald reported missing from the Minneapolis Star Tribune
1958 ships
Great Lakes freighters
Maritime incidents in 1975
Merchant ships of the United States
Rogue wave incidents
Shipwrecks of Lake Superior
Ships lost with all hands
November 1975 events in North America
Queen of the Lakes
Ships built in River Rouge, Michigan | [
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218076 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keweenaw%20Peninsula | Keweenaw Peninsula | The Keweenaw Peninsula ( , sometimes locally /ˈkiːvənɔː/) is the northernmost part of Michigan's Upper Peninsula. It projects into Lake Superior and was the site of the first copper boom in the United States, leading to its moniker of "Copper Country." As of the 2000 census, its population was roughly 43,200. Its major industries are now logging and tourism, as well as jobs related to Michigan Technological University and Finlandia University.
Geology
The ancient lava flows of the Keweenaw Peninsula were produced during the Mesoproterozoic Era as a part of the Midcontinent Rift between 1.096 and 1.087 billion years ago. This volcanic activity produced the only strata on Earth where large-scale economically recoverable 97 percent pure native copper is found.
Much of the native copper found in the Keweenaw comes in either the form of cavity fillings on lava flow surfaces, which has a ”lacy” consistency, or as "float" copper, which is found as a solid mass. Copper ore may occur within conglomerate or breccia as void or interclast fillings. The conglomerate layers occur as interbedded units within the volcanic pile.
The Keweenaw Peninsula and Isle Royale, formed by the Midcontinent Rift System, are the only sites in the United States with evidence of prehistoric aboriginal mining of copper. Artifacts made from this copper by these ancient indigenous people were traded as far south as present-day Alabama. These areas are also the unique location where chlorastrolite, the state gem of Michigan, can be found.
The northern end of the peninsula is sometimes referred to as Copper Island (or "Kuparisaari" by Finnish immigrants), although this term is becoming less common. It is separated from the rest of the peninsula by the Keweenaw Waterway, a natural waterway which was dredged and expanded in the 1860s across the peninsula between the cities of Houghton (named for Douglass Houghton) on the south side and Hancock on the north.
A Keweenaw Water Trail has been established around Copper Island. The Water Trail stretches approximately and can be paddled in five to ten days, depending on weather and water conditions.
The Keweenaw Fault runs fairly lengthwise through both Keweenaw and neighboring Houghton counties. This ancient geological slip has given rise to cliffs. U.S. Highway 41 (US 41) and Brockway Mountain Drive, north of Calumet, were constructed along the cliff line.
Climate
Lake Superior significantly controls the climate of the Keweenaw Peninsula, keeping winters milder than those in surrounding areas. Spring is cool and brief, transitioning into a summer with highs near . Fall begins in September, with winter beginning in mid-November.
The peninsula receives copious amounts of lake-effect snow from Lake Superior. Official records are maintained close to the base of the peninsula in Hancock, Michigan, where the annual snowfall average is about . Farther north, in a community called Delaware, an unofficial average of about is maintained. At Delaware, the record snowfall for one season was in 1979. Averages over certainly occur in the higher elevations closer to the tip of the peninsula.
History
Beginning as early as seven thousand years ago and apparently peaking around 3000 B.C., Native Americans dug copper from the southern shore of Lake Superior. This development was possible in large part because, in this region, large deposits of copper were easily accessible in surface rock and from shallow diggings. Native copper could be found as large nuggets and wiry masses. Copper as a resource for functional tooling achieved popularity around 3000 B.C., during the Middle Archaic Stage. The focus of copper working seems to have gradually shifted from functional tools to ornamental objects by the Late Archaic Stage c. 1200 B.C. Native Americans would build a fire to heat the rock around and over a copper mass and, after heating, pour on cold water to crack the rock. The copper was then pounded out, using rock hammers and stone chisels.
The Keweenaw's rich deposits of copper (and some silver) were extracted on an industrial scale beginning around the middle of the 19th century. The industry grew through the latter part of the century and employed thousands of people well into the 20th century. Hard rock mining in the region ceased in 1967 though copper sulfide deposits continued for some time after in Ontonagon. This vigorous industry created a need for educated mining professionals and directly led in 1885 to the founding of the Michigan Mining School (now Michigan Technological University) in Houghton. Although MTU discontinued its undergraduate mining engineering program in 2006, the university continues to offer engineering degrees in a variety of other disciplines. (In 2012 mining engineering was restarted in the re-formed Department of Geological and Mining Engineering and Sciences.)
Running concurrently with the mining boom in the Keweenaw was the white pine lumber boom. Trees were cut for timbers for mine shafts, to heat the communities around the large copper mines, and to help build a growing nation. Much of the logging at the time was done in winter due to the ease of operability with the snow. Due to the logging practices at that time, the forest of the Keweenaw looks much different today from 100 years ago.
US 41 terminates in the northern Keweenaw at the Michigan State Park housing Fort Wilkins. US 41 was the so-called "Military Trail" that started in Chicago in the 1900s and ended in the Keweenaw wilderness. The restored fort has numerous exhibits.
For detailed information on the region's mineralogical history, see the virtual tour of the peninsula written by the Mineralogical Society of America, found in "External links" on this page. Information on the geological formations of the region are also detailed.
From 1964 to 1971, the University of Michigan and Michigan Technological University cooperated with NASA and the U.S. Navy to run the Keweenaw Rocket launch site.
Communities
A partial list of towns in the Keweenaw Peninsula:
Ahmeek
Albion
Allouez
Atlantic Mine
Baltic
Bete Grise
Blue Jacket
Boot Jack Point
Bumbletown
Calumet
Centennial
Centennial Heights
Central Mine
Chassell
Chickensville
Clifton
Copper Falls
Copper Harbor
Craig
Delaware
Dodgeville
Dollar Bay
Dreamland
Eagle Harbor
Eagle River
Florida location
Freda
Gay
Gratiot location
Gregoryville
Hancock
Hecla Location
Henwood
Houghton
Hubbell
Hurontown
Jacobsville
Kearsarge
Lac La Belle
Lake Linden
Lake Medora
Laurium
Linwood
Little Betsy
Mandan
Mason
Mellonsville
Mohawk
Misery Bay
Ojibway
Old Victoria
Osceola
Painesdale
Pelkie
Phillipsville
Phoenix
Pryor's Location
Quincy
Rabbit Bay
Red Jacket
Redridge
Ripley
Seeberville
Seneca location
Senter
South Kearsarge location
South Range
Swedetown
Tamarack
Tapiola
Tecumseh
Toivola
Trimountain
West Tamarack
White City
Wyoming location (Helltown)
Yellow Jacket
See also
Copper mining in Michigan
Keweenaw National Historical Park
Thimbleberry
References
Further reading
.
, focuses on three companies, Calumet & Hecla, Copper Range, and Quincy, in a study of native copper mining and copper-sulfide mining on Upper Michigan's Keweenaw Peninsula.
.
Primary sources
.
External links
Keweenaw Convention & Visitors Bureau
Keweenaw Peninsula Chamber of Commerce
Keweenaw Time Traveler
Copper Country Explorer
Copper mines in Michigan
Peninsulas of Michigan
Regions of Michigan
Upper Peninsula of Michigan
Landforms of Houghton County, Michigan
Landforms of Keweenaw County, Michigan
Geography of Houghton County, Michigan
Geography of Keweenaw County, Michigan
Volcanism of Michigan
Rift volcanism
Extinct volcanism | [
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218077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund%20Fitzgerald%20%28disambiguation%29 | Edmund Fitzgerald (disambiguation) | SS Edmund Fitzgerald was an American freighter that sank in Lake Superior in 1975.
Edmund Fitzgerald may also refer to:
"The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald", a 1976 song about the shipwreck, by Gordon Lightfoot
Edmund B. Fitzgerald (1926–2013), American businessman, and son of the namesake (1895–1986) of the ship
The Edmund Fitzgerald (band), a UK math rock group | [
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218078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayek | Hayek | Hayek, Hayki or AlHayki is a surname:
As a variant spelling of the Czech name Hájek, which originally meant "a grove", it commonly occurs in Czech place names. It occurs among Polish Jews in a Polish language spelling as Chajek.
The family name AlHayki, Haiki, Hayek, Hayeck, Haiek or Haick ( or ), variants of Howayek (), is also common in the Arab world, primarily among Lebanese Christians. The name means "weaver" in Arabic.
Notable people with the surname include:
European surname
Gustav von Hayek (1836–1911), Czech-born Austrian naturalist, father of botanist August von Hayek
August von Hayek (1871–1928), Austrian botanist, father of economist Friedrich Hayek
Friedrich A. Hayek (1899–1992), Austrian-British, Nobel Memorial Prize winning economist and political philosopher
Frank Forest (born Frank Hayek, 1896–1976), American singer and actor
Julie Hayek (born 1960), American beauty queen and actress
Peter Hayek (born 1957), retired American ice hockey player
Thaddaeus Hagecius ab Hayek (1525–1600), Czech physician and astronomer
Peter Hajek, British psychologist
Arabic surname
Antoine Hayek (1928–2010), Roman Catholic Archbishop of Baniyas of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church 1989–2006
Dina Hayek (born Collet Bou Gergis, 1982), popular Lebanese singer
Gebran Hayek (1927–1992), Lebanese journalist and editor in chief of Lisan-al-Hal the oldest Lebanese daily newspaper
Ignace Antoine II Hayek (Antun Hayek, 1910–2007), Patriarch of Antioch of the Syriac Catholic Church 1968–1998
Nicolas Hayek (1928–2010), Lebanese–Swiss co-founder of the Swatch Group
Renée Hayek, Lebanese writer and novelist
Rita Hayek (born 1987), Lebanese actress
Salma Hayek (born 1966), Mexican actress of Lebanese descent
Sami Hayek (born 1972), Mexican furniture designer of Lebanese descent, brother of Salma
Samuel Hayek (born 1953), Israeli real-estate businessman of Iraqi-Jewish descent
Hossam Haick (born 1975), Israeli-Arab scientist and engineer.
See also
Hájek, the original Czech form of the name
Haik (disambiguation)
Arabic-language surnames
Surnames of Czech origin | [
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218079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dai%20people | Dai people | The Dai people (Burmese: ရှမ်းလူမျိုး; ; ; ; , ; , ; ) refers to several Tai-speaking ethnic groups living in the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture and the Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture of China's Yunnan Province. The Dai people form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. By extension, the term can apply to groups in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Myanmar when Dai is used to mean specifically Tai Yai, Lue, Chinese Shan, Tai Dam, Tai Khao or even Tai in general. For other names, please see the table below.
Name ambiguity
The Dai people are closely related to the Lao and Thai people who form a majority in Laos and Thailand. Originally, the Tai or Dai, lived closely together in modern Yunnan Province until political chaos and wars in the north at the end of the Tang and Song Dynasty and various nomadic peoples prompted some to move further south into modern Laos then Thailand. As with many other officially recognized ethnic groups in China (See Gaoshan and Yao), the term Dai at least within Chinese usage is an umbrella term and as such has no equivalent in Tai languages who have only more general terms for 'Tai peoples in general' (e.g., Tai Lue: , but this term refers to all Dai people, not including Zhuang) and 'Tai people in China' (e.g., '), both of which include the Zhuang for example which is not the case in the Chinese and more specific terms, as shown in the table below. Therefore the word Dai, like with the aforementioned Yao, is a Han Chinese cultural concept which has now been adopted by other languages such as English, French and German (see respective Wikipedias). As a solution in the Thai language, however, as in English, the term Tai Lue can be used to mean Dai, despite referring to other groups as in the table below. This is because the two main groups actually bear the same name, both meaning 'Northern Tai' (lue and nüa are cognate).
Although they are officially recognized as a single people by the Chinese state, these Tai people form several distinct cultural and linguistic groups. The two main languages of the Dai are Dai Lü (Sibsongbanna Dai) and Dai Nüa (Daihong Dai); two other written languages used by the Dai are Tày Pong and Tai Dam. They all are Tai languages, a group of related languages that includes Thai, Lao and Zhuang and part of the Tai–Kadai language family. Various dialects of the Tai/Dai language family are spoken from Assam, India to Taiwan and Shanxi Province, China. The Dai people follow their traditional religion as well as Theravada Buddhism and maintain similar customs and festivals (such as Songkran) to the other Tai-speaking peoples and more broadly, in regards to some cultural aspects, to the unrelated dominant ethnic groups of Myanmar, Cambodia and Sri Lanka. They are among the few natives groups in China who nominally practice the Theravada school of Buddhism. The term Tai in China is also used sometimes to show that the majority of peoples who subsumed under "Dai" nationality are mainly speakers of Thai languages (i.e. Southwestern Tai languages). Some use the term Daizurian to refer specifically to the sinicized Tai people living in Yunnan. The term is derrived from the Chinese term 傣族人; pinyin: Dǎizúrén which is translated in Shan as တႆးၸူး taj4 tsuu4 meaning "the Tai who are in association/united".
Tai subgroups
Languages
Peoples classified as Dai in China speak the following Southwestern Tai languages.
Tai Lü language ()
Tai Nüa language (; Shan language)
Tai Dam language ()
Tai Ya language () or Tai Hongjin ()
Yunnan (1998:150) lists 4 major Tai language varieties.
Tai Lü language (): 400,000 speakers in Sipsongpanna, Menglian County, Jinggu County, Jiangcheng County, etc.
Tai Nüa language (): 400,000 speakers in Dehong, Gengma, Shuangjiang, Tengchong, Baoshan, Longling, Changning, Cangyuan, Lancang, Zhenkang, Jingdong, etc.
Tai Rui (): 40,000 speakers in Jinping, Maguan, Malipo counties, etc.
Tianxin (): 20,000 speakers in Wuding, Luquan, Yongren, Dayao counties, etc. Representative dialect: Tianxin (), Wuding County
History
Early period
In 109 BCE, the Han Dynasty established the Yizhou prefecture in the southwest of Yi (modern day parts of Yunnan, Sichuan, and Guizhou). In the twelfth century, the Dai (called Dai-Lue or Tai-Lue at this period) established the Jinghong Golden Hall Kingdom in Sipsong Panna (modern Xishuangbanna). Jinghong was the capital of this kingdom. The population of the kingdom was over one million and recognized the Chinese as their sovereign according to local records. The king had political and economic power and controlled most of the land and local water system.
Yuan and Ming period
During the Yuan Dynasty, the Dai became subordinate to Yunnan (itself recently conquered by the Mongols). Hereditary leaders were appointed by the authorities among the minorities of the region. This system continued under the Ming Dynasty and the feudal systems during this period allowed manorial lords to establish political power along with its own army, prisons, and courts. However, some Dai communities had their own aspects of class, political structures, and land ownership that differed considerably from other groups. Also during the Ming Dynasty, eight Dai tusi (chieftains) controlled the region with each having their own economic and political power. Although Buddhism has had a presence in Yunnan since at least the 7th century, the Dai converted to Theravada Buddhism during the 15th and 16th centuries.
Qing and modern China
The Qing Dynasty kept the Yuan and Ming system intact but with some differences. The Qing had more economic power in the region and routinely sent officials to the area for direct supervision and control. This well-established system was only fully replaced by the Chinese government in 1953. 1953 also marked the end of the ancient ruling family that was in place since the Jinghong Kingdom. The last king, Chao Hmoam Gham Le (Dao Shixun in Chinese), then became the deputy head of Xishuangbanna prefecture.
Exodus
The original areas of the Tai Lue included both sides of the Mekong River in the Sipsongpanna. According to the Tai Lue, there were five city-states on the east bank and six on the west, which with Jinghong formed twelve rice field divisions with all twelve having another 32 small provinces. These were:
On the west bank - Rung, Ha, Sae, Lu, Ong, Luang, Hun, Phan, Chiang Choeng, Hai, Chiang Lo and Mang;
On the east bank - La, Bang, Hing, Pang, La, Wang, Phong, Yuan, Bang and Chiang Thong (present-day Luang Prabang). (These names are transcribed according to their Thai Language pronunciations not their Tai Lue(Dai) pronunciations. If transcribed according to their Tai Lue pronunciations they would be as follows: Hung, Ha, Sae, Lu, Ong, Long, Hun, Pan, Cheng Choeng, Hai, Cheng Lo, Mang, La, Bang, Hing, Pang, La, Wang, Pong, Yon, Bang and Cheng Tong)
Some portions of these Tai Lue either voluntarily moved or were forcibly herded from these city-states around one to two hundred years ago, arriving in countries of present-day Burma, Laos and Thailand.
Cuisine
The staple food of the Dai people is rice. Dai people in the Dehong area mainly eat japonica rice.
Bamboo rice is a famous snack of the Dai people. It is made by putting glutinous rice in a fragrant bamboo tube, soaking with water for 15 minutes, and baking with fire.Pineapple purple rice is also a well-known Dai dish.
Raw, fresh, sour, and spicy are the characteristics of Dai cuisine. Dai people believe that eating sour foods can make their eyes bright, help digestion, and also help relieve heat. Sweet can remove fatigue. Spicy can increase appetite. Acid is considered the most delicious flavor in Dai cuisine, and all dishes and snacks are mainly sour, such as sour bamboo shoots, sour pork.
Tai Lue in Thailand
In Thailand there are Tai Lue in many provinces of the upper regions of Northern Thailand; these provinces are:
Chiang Rai: Mae Sai, Chiang Khong and Chiang Saen districts (a portion fled to Chiang Rung at the outbreak of the Ayuthian-Burman War)
Chiang Mai: Samoeng and Doi Saket districts
Nan: Tha Wang Pha, Pua, Chiang Klang and Thung Chang districts (the greatest number, fleeing from the Saiyaburi and Sipsongpanna regions)
Phayao: Chiang Muan and Chiang Kham districts (many in number)
Lampang: Mueang Lampang and Mae Tha districts
Lamphun: Mueang Lamphun and Ban Thi districts
Festival
The festivals of the Dai people are mostly related to religious activities. The main festivals include door closing festival, door opening festival and water splashing festival.
The closing festival is fixed on September 15 in the Dai calendar (the middle of July in the Gregorian calendar). The opening door festival, the time fixed in the Dai calendar on December 15 (the middle of October in the Gregorian calendar). In the two festivals on the same day, all of people will go to the Buddhist temple to hold ritual activities. People will offer foods, flowers and coins to the Buddha. The three months between the closing door festival and the opening door festival are the "close" time of the year, the most religious time of the year.
The Water-Sprinkling Festival is a traditional festival of the Dai people, meaning the New Year of June. The time is in the late June or early July of the Dai calendar (the middle of April in the Gregorian calendar). Held about 10 days after the Qingming festival, it symbolizes "the most beautiful day". The holiday usually lasts three days. In the early morning of the festival, the people of the Dai village went to the Buddhist temple to clean the figure of Buddha. After the ceremony of the Buddhist temple, the young men and women pour water on each other. Then groups of people marched around, sprinkling pedestrians as a blessing. These represent blessings.
Culture and religion
Religion
The Dai are mainly Theravada Buddhists. Dai Buddhism also contains many shamanistic beliefs and practices. The Dai were animists before Buddhism became popular and their belief in natural spirits continues. Until very recently, every Dai village had at least one Buddhist temple while larger villages had two to five temples. Many of their Buddhist temples were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Parents commonly sent their sons (from 7 to 18 years old) to the temples as a form of schooling. The boys stayed three years or more learning how to write, read, and practice the faith. Afterwards, most boys or young men returned to secular society although a few stay at the temple to become monks. This education has led to high literacy rates and knowledge of the Dai script among Dai men that today exceed 80 percent.
A few Dai practice Islam. These specific Dai are often called "Parshi Dai" or "Dai Hui". Hui (Chinese Muslim) merchants from Dali and other parts of Yunnan settled in Xishuangbanna in the early 19th century. These settlers assimilated and intermarried with the locals which eventually led to the creation of a unique Dai and Sino-Islamic culture. The present Parshi Dai have a material culture identical to their Buddhist counterparts. They speak the same language, wear similar dress, have similar customs, rituals, and diet.
Literature and science
The Dai have historically had a rich array of astronomical and literary works. The Dai have their own calendar that begins in the year 638 and have many astronomical books on calculating solar and lunar eclipses (most written in Dai script). Historical documents, legends, stories, poetry, fables, and children's stories are also plentiful.
Dwellings
Traditional Dai villages are mainly located in bamboo plains near rivers or streams. Dai homes are usually built on stilts and some are square in shape. A few houses are two-story with the upper story being the living space and the bottom story as a storehouse. The bottom story can sometimes be wall-less.
Economy
As an effect of living in a subtropical region, subsistence for many Dai include the use and growing of rice, coffee rubber, tea, sugar, and many types of fruits. The Dai also have a highly developed handicraft industry which includes weaving, oil-pressing, winemaking, and bamboo work. Since the 1980s, tourism has become a source of revenue for the Dai in Xishuangbanna in consequence of airports being built in Jinghong and Mangshi. The increase of infrastructure and living standards in the region has led the Dai to assimilate into the mainstream Chinese economy better than other minorities.
Marriage and women's roles
Historically, marriage was mainly between members of similar social or economic class and polygamy was common among chieftains. Dai society has traditionally been patriarchal with women having low status and unable to inherit property. Girls (from age 7 or 8) were responsible for caring for younger children and domestic duties. When they became older, working in the rice fields to clear weeds, harvest, plant, etc. was included into their responsibilities. Today, Dai women and youth have more freedoms then they did in the past and some women (with access to education) have entered into professional careers like teaching or nursing.
Gallery
References
Works cited
Zhu, Liangwen (1992). The Dai: Or the Tai and Their Architecture & Customs in South China. Bangkok, Thailand, and Kunming, Yunnan, China: D D Books and The Science and Technology Press of Yunnan.
Les Dai de Chine: Zhongguo de Dai zu (in French), Jean A. Berlie, 136 pages, Paris, France, published in 1990.
External links
Photos related to Dai Theravada Buddhism
Site including information on some endangered Tai scripts
Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden
Tai peoples
Ethnic groups in Laos
Ethnic groups in Myanmar
Ethnic groups in Thailand
Ethnic groups in Vietnam
Ethnic groups officially recognized by China | [
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218081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muriel%20Spark | Muriel Spark | Dame Muriel Sarah Spark (née Camberg; 1 February 1918 – 13 April 2006) was a Scottish novelist, short story writer, poet and essayist.
Life
Muriel Camberg was born in the Bruntsfield area of Edinburgh, the daughter of Bernard Camberg, an engineer, and Sarah Elizabeth Maud (née Uezzell). Her father was Jewish, born in Edinburgh of Lithuanian immigrant parents, and her English mother had been raised Anglican. She was educated at James Gillespie's School for Girls (1923–35), where she received some education in the Presbyterian faith. In 1934–35 she took a course in "commercial correspondence and précis writing" at Heriot-Watt College. She taught English for a brief time, and then worked as a secretary in a department store.
In 1937 she became engaged to Sidney Oswald Spark, thirteen years her senior, whom she had met in Edinburgh. In August of that year, she followed him out to Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), and they were married on 3 September 1937 in Salisbury. Their son Samuel Robin was born in July 1938. Within months she discovered that her husband was manic depressive and prone to violent outbursts. In 1940 Muriel left Sidney and temporarily placed Robin in a convent school, as children were not permitted to travel during the war. She returned to Britain in early 1944, taking residence at the Helena Club in London. She worked in Intelligence for the remainder of World War II. She provided money at regular intervals to support her son. Spark maintained it was her intention for her family to set up home in England, but Robin returned to Britain with his father later to be brought up by his maternal grandparents in Scotland.
Between 1955 and 1965 she lived in a bedsit at 13 Baldwin Crescent, Camberwell, south-east London. After living in New York City for some years, she moved to Rome, where she met artist and sculptor Penelope Jardine in 1968. In the early 1970s they settled in Tuscany, in the village of Oliveto, near to Civitella in Val di Chiana, of which in 2005 Spark was made an honorary citizen. She was the subject of frequent rumours of lesbian relationships from her time in New York onwards, although Spark and her friends denied their validity. She left her entire estate to Jardine, taking measures to ensure that her son received nothing.
Spark died in 2006 and is buried in the cemetery of Sant'Andrea Apostolo in Oliveto.
Literary career
Spark began writing seriously, under her married name, after World War II, beginning with poetry and literary criticism. In 1947 she became editor of the Poetry Review. This position made Spark one of the only female editors of the time. Spark left the Poetry Review in 1948. In 1953 Muriel Spark was baptized in the Church of England but in 1954 she decided to join the Roman Catholic Church, which she considered crucial in her development toward becoming a novelist. Penelope Fitzgerald, a fellow novelist and contemporary of Spark, wrote that Spark "had pointed out that it wasn't until she became a Roman Catholic ... that she was able to see human existence as a whole, as a novelist needs to do". In an interview with John Tusa on BBC Radio 4, she said of her conversion and its effect on her writing that she "was just a little worried, tentative. Would it be right, would it not be right? Can I write a novel about that – would it be foolish, wouldn't it be? And somehow with my religion – whether one has anything to do with the other, I don't know – but it does seem so, that I just gained confidence." Graham Greene, Gabriel Fielding and Evelyn Waugh supported her in her decision.
Her first novel, The Comforters, was published to great critical acclaim in 1957. It featured several references to Catholicism and conversion to Catholicism, although its main theme revolved around a young woman who becomes aware that she is a character in a novel.
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1961) was even more successful. Spark displayed originality of subject and tone, making extensive use of flashforwards and imagined conversations. It is clear that James Gillespie's High School was the model for the Marcia Blaine School in the novel. Her residence at the Helena Club was the inspiration for the fictional May of Teck Club in The Girls of Slender Means published in 1963.
Archive and biography
In the 1940s Spark began to keep a record of her professional and personal activities that developed into a comprehensive personal archive containing diaries, accounts and cheque books and tens of thousands of letters. Spark used her archive to write her autobiography, "Curriculum Vitae", and after its publication in 1992 much of the material was deposited at National Library of Scotland.
Spark refused permission for publication of a biography of her by Martin Stannard. Penelope Jardine holds publication approval rights, and the book was posthumously published in July 2009. On 27 July 2009 Stannard was interviewed on Front Row, the BBC Radio 4 arts programme. According to A. S. Byatt, "she [Jardine] was very upset by the book and had to spend a lot of time going through it, line by line, to try to make it a little bit fairer".
Honours and acclaim
Spark received the James Tait Black Memorial Prize in 1965 for The Mandelbaum Gate, the US Ingersoll Foundation TS Eliot Award in 1992 and the David Cohen Prize in 1997. She became an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1967 and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1993 for services to literature. She was twice shortlisted for the Booker Prize, in 1969 for The Public Image and in 1981 for Loitering with Intent. In 1998, she was awarded the Golden PEN Award by English PEN for a "Lifetime's Distinguished Service to Literature".
Spark received eight honorary doctorates including Doctor of the University degree (Honoris causa) from her alma mater, Heriot-Watt University in 1995; a Doctor of Humane Letters (Honoris causa) from the American University of Paris in 2005; and Honorary Doctor of Letters degrees from the Universities of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, London, Oxford, St Andrews and Strathclyde.
In 2008, The Times ranked Spark as No. 8 in its list of "the 50 greatest British writers since 1945". In 2010, Spark was posthumously shortlisted for the Lost Man Booker Prize of 1970 for The Driver's Seat.
Relationship with her son
Spark and her son Samuel Robin Spark at times had a strained relationship. They had a falling out when Robin's Orthodox Judaism prompted him to petition for his late great-grandmother to be recognized as Jewish. (Spark's maternal grandparents, Adelaide Hyams and Tom Uezzell, had married in a church. Tom was Anglican. Adelaide's father was Jewish, but her mother was not; Adelaide referred to herself as a "Jewish Gentile.") Spark reacted by accusing him of seeking publicity to further his career as an artist. Muriel's brother Philip, who himself had become actively Jewish, agreed with her version of the family's history. During one of her last book signings in Edinburgh, she told a journalist who asked if she would see her son again: "I think I know how best to avoid him by now."
Bibliography
Novels
The Comforters (1957)
Robinson (1958)
Memento Mori (1959)
The Ballad of Peckham Rye (1960)
The Bachelors (1960)
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1961)
The Girls of Slender Means (1963)
The Mandelbaum Gate (1965)
The Public Image (1968) – shortlisted for Booker Prize
The Driver's Seat (1970) – shortlisted for Booker Prize
Not To Disturb (1971)
The Hothouse by the East River (1973)
The Abbess of Crewe (1974)
The Takeover (1976)
Territorial Rights (1979)
Loitering with Intent (1981) – shortlisted for Booker Prize
The Only Problem (1984)
A Far Cry from Kensington (1988)
Symposium (1990)
Reality and Dreams (1996)
Aiding and Abetting (2000)
The Finishing School (2004)
Other works
Tribute to Wordsworth (edited with Derek Stanford, 1950)
Child of Light (a study of Mary Shelley) (1951)
The Fanfarlo and Other Verse (1952)
Selected Poems of Emily Brontë (1952)
John Masefield (biography, 1953)
Emily Brontë: Her Life and Work (with Derek Stanford; 1953)
My Best Mary (a selection of letters of Mary Shelley, edited with Derek Stanford, 1953)
The Brontë letters (1954)
Letters of John Henry Newman (edited with Derek Stanford, 1957)
The Go-Away Bird and Other Stories (short stories, 1958)
Voices at Play (short stories and plays, 1961)
Doctors of Philosophy (play, 1963)
Collected Poems I (1967)
Collected Stories I (1967)
The Very Fine Clock (children's book, illustrations by Edward Gorey, 1968)
Bang-bang You're Dead (short stories, 1982)
Mary Shelley (complete revision of Child of Light, 1987)
Going Up to Sotheby's and Other Poems (1982)
Curriculum Vitae (autobiography, 1992)
The French Window and the Small Telephone (limited edition, 1993)
Complete Short Stories (2001)
All the Poems (2004)
Reviews
Lingard, Joan (1981), review of Loitering with Intent, in Murray, Glen (ed.), Cencrastus No. 6, Autumn 1981, pp. 41 & 42
Notes
References
Works on Spark's writing
Jardine, Penelope, ed. 2018. A Good Comb. New Directions.
External links
The Official Website of Dame Muriel Spark (Last Internet Archive capture of defunct website - 5 March 2016)
Muriel Spark personal archive at National Library of Scotland
The Muriel Spark Papers at Washington University in St. Louis
Muriel Spark fonds at University of Victoria, Special Collections
Guardian obituary, 17 April 2006
In their own words BBC interview 3 December 1971 (Video, 30 mins)
Chrysalis: a poem by Muriel Spark from TLS, 17 January 2008
"Dame Muriel Spark", Fellows Remembered, The Royal Society of Literature
1918 births
2006 deaths
Scottish Jewish writers
Alumni of Heriot-Watt University
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Scottish Roman Catholics
Scottish writers
Ghost story writers
David Cohen Prize recipients
James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients
People educated at James Gillespie's High School
Writers from Edinburgh
People from Camberwell
Prix Italia winners
Roman Catholic writers
Scottish Catholic poets
Scottish expatriates in Italy
Scottish women novelists
Scottish people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
20th-century English novelists
21st-century British novelists
20th-century British women writers
21st-century British women writers
Scottish women poets
20th-century Scottish poets
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
20th-century Scottish women
Christian novelists | [
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27192359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrick%20Vroom | Hendrick Vroom | Hendrick Vroom can refer to:
Hendrick Cornelisz Vroom, Dutch painter
Hendrik Vroom, Gold Coast colonial official and businessman | [
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218085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kettering%20University | Kettering University | Kettering University (formerly General Motors Institute of Technology) is a private university in Flint, Michigan. It offers bachelor's and master's degrees in STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) and business fields. Kettering University undergraduate students are required to complete at least five co-op terms to graduate. Students gain paid work experience in a variety of industries with Kettering's more than 550 corporate partners, and graduate with professional experiences accompanying their degree.
Kettering University is named after inventor and former head of research for General Motors, Charles F. Kettering. He was a distinguished inventor, researcher, and proponent of cooperative education.
History
Establishment
Founded as The School of Automotive Trades by Albert Sobey under the direction of the Industrial Fellowship of Flint on October 20, 1919, Kettering University has a long legacy with the automotive industry. The university became known as the Flint Institute of Technology in 1923 before being acquired by General Motors in 1926. It was renamed as the General Motors Institute of Technology and eventually the General Motors Institute in 1932.
Once referred to as the "West Point of the Automobile industry," GMI focused on creating business and industry leaders through the unique co-op model (following the development of this program at the University of Cincinnati in 1907). GMI also pioneered freshman-level manufacturing courses (Production Processes I & II), and automotive degree specialties. A fifth-year thesis requirement was added in 1945, and the Institute was granted the ability to award degrees. The first bachelor's degree was awarded on August 23, 1946.
The co-op program required applicants to find a GM division to be their sponsor. Work and school were mixed in six-week rotations, dividing the student body into A-section and B-section. At any given time, when A-section was in school, B-section was at work. After six weeks, B-section would go back to school and so on. This resulted in students moving eight times per year and a 48-week school/work year. Because General Motors used the school to train its engineers, tuition was partially subsidized. In June 1979 (the Class of 1984) co-op rotations were expanded to twelve weeks.
Split from GM
After GM reduced operations in Flint, the company and the university separated on July 1, 1982. The name of the institution became "GMI Engineering & Management Institute" and the letters "GMI" were retained to allow easy identification with the old General Motors Institute. The university began charging full tuition as an independent private university. The university kept the cooperative education model, expanding the number of co-op employers for students. The university also began offering graduate programs for both on- and off-campus students.
Name change and expansion of programs
The university's name was formally changed to Kettering University on January 1, 1998, in honor of Charles Kettering. The name change allowed the university to create a separate identity from General Motors as well as publicize the fact that academic programs were expanding beyond just automotive-related offerings.
The university launched a physics program in 1995, and had the first ABET-accredited applied physics program in the world in 2013. A chemical engineering program as well as a pre-med course of study were launched in 2008. The chemical engineering program received ABET accreditation in 2013. The computer science program received ABET accreditation in 2007. The university added an applied biology program in 2013.
Academics
Kettering University offers Bachelor of Science degrees and offers master's degrees. Some masters programs are offered online, as the school launched distance education programs in 2015. Most undergraduate programs require completion of 160 credit hours for graduation. Kettering also offers students more than 40 minors, concentrations, specialties, and courses of study.
Accreditation
As an institution, Kettering University programs are regionally accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. A number of academic programs at the University have specific accreditation as well:
Rankings
Kettering University ranked 13th nationally among non-Ph.D.-granting engineering universities and seventh nationally among mechanical engineering programs in the 2017 U.S. News and World Report "Best Colleges" edition. The university also received a 'Best in the Midwest' designation from the Princeton Review.
Kettering ranked 12th nationally and first in the Midwest and Michigan in Return on Investment in PayScale.com's 2015 Return on Investment Rankings. PayScale.com also ranked Kettering 15th nationally and first in Michigan in its 2014 Salary Potential rankings. A 2015 CNNMoney.com article examining the top private colleges in the country in return on investment ranked Kettering 10th, noting that Kettering is sending graduates "out into the world with the skills employers are looking for."
An article in the 2014 issue of Automobile magazine listed Kettering University among five universities nationwide that students looking to break into the auto industry should attend. The article noted that Kettering University offers "a unique program that doesn't merely prepare students to work but puts them to work—three months in school, followed by three months on the job, repeat until graduation."
Kettering University was ranked 137th on Business Insiders 2014 list of "The 600 Smartest Colleges in America."
Research
Kettering University faculty have received ten Major Research Instrumentation (MRI) grants from the National Science Foundation since 2013, the most MRI grants in Michigan over that period of time. The grants have allowed Kettering to add equipment that includes an X-Ray Diffractometer, an X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) instrument, a motion capture system, a High-Throughput and High-Resolution Three-Dimensional Tissue Scanner with Internet-Connected 3D Virtual Microscope for Large-Scale Automated Histology, and the only 4G LTE Wireless system on a college campus in the country.
Kettering University is a partner with the federal government's U.S. Ignite program, which brings super high speed internet capabilities to Flint, Michigan. The technology will bring new healthcare, crime prevention, and educational opportunities to Flint. Kettering University also received a $1 million neighborhood stabilization grant from the United States Department of Justice in 2014 and is also participating as a research agent on the grant along with the University of Michigan and Michigan State University.
Research in Kettering University's Crash Safety Center has directly impacted national standards for child safety seats. The Crash Safety Center was featured on a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation segment in 2014 examining the effectiveness of pet harnesses for vehicles.
FIRST Robotics
Kettering University opened the FIRST Robotics Competition Community Center, the first facility of its kind on any college campus in the country, in 2014. Michigan Governor Rick Snyder attended the grand opening.
The facility provides work areas for eight FIRST teams with room to expand and allow space for as many as 16 teams. There is also a regulation size practice field as well as a machining lab. High school students on teams housed in the facility have access to Kettering University's faculty, staff, and students as mentors and the campus facilities. Approximately 25 percent of Kettering University's student body participated in FIRST Robotics in high school.
The intent of the facility is to create more opportunities for pre-college students, particularly students from underserved or financially disadvantaged populations, to gain exposure to science and engineering education and career possibilities. Kettering University also received a National Science Foundation grant in 2014 to provide scholarship to academically talented financially disadvantaged students who participated in high school robotics programs.
FIRST Robotics founder and famous inventor Dean Kamen, who has an honorary degree from Kettering University, toured the FIRST Robotics Community Center and spoke during a 2015 FIRST competition on Kettering's campus.
In his 2015 State of the State address, Michigan Governor Rick Snyder praised Kettering University's efforts in FIRST Robotics, calling the university a "true leader."
Academic departments
Applied Biology: Launched in 2013, Kettering University's lab-oriented Applied Biology program has a strong focus on the molecular and cellular levels. The program includes significant hands-on opportunities in labs, courses, and undergraduate research, including the Bell-Kagle Research Internship, a paid, full-time research co-op position available to freshmen. Research being done by Kettering's Applied Biology faculty includes determining medicinal and antioxidant value of discarded fruit parts and finding more durable joint replacement materials.
Business: The Kettering University Department of Business prepares students to be fluent in the languages of innovation, markets, and global competition at home and abroad. Recent research by faculty in the department includes examining ways to improve delivery processes in supply chains, the factors that influence users to adopt mobile banking, and the financial benefits for companies that embrace environmentally friendly practices.
Chemical Engineering: Kettering University's chemical engineering program is one of only six accredited programs in the state of Michigan. Students in the program work on synthesizing new materials, transform combinations of elements of matter, and develop processes to do it all safely. Students work on ways to better use limited petroleum resources, or design new processes to produce life-saving antibiotics and vaccines. The department received a Major Research Instrumentation grant from the National Science Foundation in 2014 to acquire an X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) instrument to support research on atmospheric pressure plasma on different surfaces.
Chemistry and Biochemistry: Chemistry majors choose concentrations in marketing, management, electrical engineering, industrial engineering, mechanical engineering, bioengineering, or fuel cells—a track to prepare for careers in alternative energy. Biochemistry majors take additional classes in biology and learn life sciences at the molecular and cellular levels to prepare for careers in the chemical, pharmaceutical, or biotechnology fields.
Computer Science: Computer Science majors take core courses in the art, science, and theory of computing, including operating systems, software construction, modern programming language concepts, and computing professionalism. Concentrations are available in Computer Gaming and Systems and Data Security. Bioinformatics students take a broad range of courses before undertaking work in genetic coding and learning how to algorithmically analyze and exploit the information contained in a strand of DNA. The department features one of the world's top experts on opportunistic mobile social networks.
Electrical and Computer Engineering: Kettering University electrical engineering students take six core courses then design their curriculum to fit their professional goals. Computer engineering students focus on embedded computers built into many modern products, learning skills including writing real-time operating systems. ECE faculty Kevin Bai and Xuan Zhou were featured in a 2014 Fortune (magazine) article discussing the future of battery technology.
Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering: Industrial Engineering students learn about process engineering with graduates impacting a variety of fields including healthcare, manufacturing, retail, and more. The Industrial Engineering program was ranked first in the country among non-Ph.D.-granting programs in the country in the 2014 U.S. News and World Report 'Best Colleges' edition. Industrial Engineering faculty member Justin Young was featured in a 2015 Fast Company article examining the future of ergonomics.
Liberal Studies: Kettering University's liberal studies department supplements the university's science, engineering, math, and business programs with courses that help students understand cultural heritages and societies, develop communication and critical thinking skills, and understand ethics and the global economy.
Mathematics: Kettering University's mathematics program teaches students the fundamentals of both modern and classical math, including calculus and complex variables to matrix and control theory. The Kettering Department of Mathematics hosted an international statistics conference focusing on urban communities and crime data in 2014.
Mechanical Engineering: Kettering's Mechanical Engineering program was ranked seventh in the country in the 2017 U.S. News and World Report 'Best Colleges' edition. Students in the program customize their degree by earning a specialty concentration or by earning a minor in areas that include Automotive Engineering Design, Bioengineering Applications, Machine Design & Advanced Materials, and Alternative Energy.
Physics: Kettering University has the only ABET-accredited applied physics program in the world and also offers a degree in engineering physics. Both the applied physics and engineering physics programs focus on materials science, applied optics and acoustics, and nanotechnology. Physics faculty are doing research that includes developing alternative ocular cancer treatments and developing improved technology for non-electric warming blankets for infants in areas of the world with limited access to electricity.
Cooperative and experiential learning
All Kettering University undergraduate students are required to complete some form of experiential learning for every degree program. Cooperative education begins as early as a student's freshman year. Student schedules typically alternate between academic terms that include classes and labs and full-time employment with one of Kettering's more than 550 partner organizations. Typically, a student maintains employment with the same organization throughout the program.
Cooperative experience is paid, with freshman students earning an average of $14.20 per hour on their co-op terms and upperclassmen earning an average of $18.44 per hour. 98 percent of Kettering University graduates are employed or accepted into graduate school within six months of graduation.
Culminating Undergraduate Experience (thesis)
Kettering University undergraduates are required to complete a Culminating Undergraduate Experience to represent the combination of class and lab work with hands-on work experience on a focused study topic. Students can complete a thesis with their co-op sponsor or with research faculty, nonprofit community organizations, entrepreneurs, or other business ventures. Topics include new product development, process improvement, community enrichment, and new business planning.
Pre-med course of study
Kettering University launched a pre-med course of study in 2008. Kettering's pre-med program also has early assurance agreements with both Michigan State University College of Human Medicine and Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine (LECOM), ensuring Kettering pre-med students admittance to the schools upon graduation. In 2013 Kettering and Hurley Medical Center announced the launch of a physician scribe program, providing co-op jobs for Kettering students at Hurley. An endowed scholarship was created in 2014 to support Flint-area students interested in pursuing a pre-med course of study to attend Kettering.
Innovation to Entrepreneurship course of study
Kettering's Innovation to Entrepreneurship course of study encourages students to focus on utilizing their technical skills to improve the lives of others for the greater good and achieve fulfillment in the process. Topics covered in the program include innovation, entrepreneurship, business model development, prototyping, and commercialization. In 2014, Kettering University dedicated an opportunity lab called the T-Space that provides students with access to 3D printing, laser cutting, soldering, and other tools aimed at supporting entrepreneurial thinking.
Kettering University also houses the Kettering Entrepreneur Society, an organization that meets regularly and provides seed funding for viable student business startup ideas.
Kettering University received a "Best in Class" award from the Kern Engineering Entrepreneurial Network (KEEN) for infusing entrepreneurship across the university in 2010.
Harvard Business School feeder
Kettering University is one of the feeder universities to Harvard Business School. In a 2013 interview with Fortune (magazine), Harvard Business dean of admissions Dee Leopold said, "We love Kettering in Flint." In 2015, Kelly Quinn, assistant director of admissions for Harvard Business, called Kettering students a "good fit" for Harvard Business School.
Study abroad
Kettering offers a variety of study abroad opportunities to students. Kettering students study at universities in Germany, China, Australia, and England. To promote study abroad, Kettering provides a $1,500 travel stipend to offset travel and living expenses. The Oswald Student Fellows program and the Ronald G. Greenwood Memorial Scholarship grant funds each term to qualified students.
Campus
Kettering University's campus is situated on approximately 90 acres of land along the Flint River on the west side of Flint. In 2012, as part of the university's mission to be an active leader in the revitalization of the city of Flint, Kettering began purchasing distressed properties from the Genesee County Land Bank, razing blighted structures, and taking over maintenance, mowing, and upkeep of the properties.
Kettering has successfully received neighborhood stabilization grants from the Department of Justice and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to support revitalization of neighborhoods near campus and form a walkable connector from Kettering's campus to ongoing developments downtown Flint and on the campus of the University of Michigan–Flint.
Campus Master Plan
In 2014, Kettering University unveiled a new Campus Master Plan.
The first phase of the plan will be construction of a new mixed-use Learning Commons building that will include some academic department functions, offer increased access to flexible, technology-enabled, collaborative spaces, a new, modern library, new food service venues and options, and other resources. It will also have space to accommodate alumni and other campus guests, integrating them into the campus community for the entirety of their visit. Completion of the Learning Commons is targeted for 2019.
Future phases will include construction of a new residence hall, new research facilities, and a raised connector across Chevrolet Avenue that pays homage to a bridge that existed when the property was home to the General Motors Chevrolet Division. The current Academic Building will include increased lab and community space, including for pre-college programming.
Kettering University General Motors Foundation Automotive Research Area
In April 2015, Kettering University announced a $2 million naming donation from the General Motors Foundation to construct the Kettering University General Motors Foundation Automotive Research Area. The facility will be an automotive proving ground on a piece of campus that is the former site of the Chevrolet Division, or Chevy in the Hole. The proving ground will be built on a 19-acre parcel of land at the corner of Chevrolet Avenue and Bluff Street.
The proving ground will be an outdoor lab facility that will include various test areas as well as a dense research 4G LTE Advanced wireless infrastructure. It will enable new opportunities to enhance classroom and lab experiences for students and expand research opportunities for faculty and industry partners. It will be the only facility of its kind on a college campus in the United States.
The project will also complement a major city of Flint project on the opposite side of the Flint River called Chevy Commons. The project will convert a Flint-owned portion of Chevy in the Hole into an urban park that includes wetlands, woodlands, grasslands, green spaces and recreation trails.
Academic Building
Kettering University's Academic Building was the first building constructed on campus and features a prominent entrance with "General Motors Institute" etched into stone above the door. That entrance is featured in Kettering University's seal.
The building currently includes several labs, including a Polymer Processing Lab, Ergonomics Lab, a Work Design Lab, Applied Biology labs, Chemical Engineering labs, an Advanced Power Electronics Lab, Haptics Lab, Acoustics Lab, and many other lab spaces. The building also houses McKinnon Theater, the Humanities Art Center, a library, and departmental offices for Computer Science, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, Business, Liberal Studies, Applied Biology, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Physics, and Chemical Engineering.
Campus Center
The Campus Center is Kettering University's main administration building and includes the Office of the President, Student Life, Admissions and Financial Aid, University Advancement and External Relations, Alumni Engagement, Multicultural Student Initiatives, and Sponsored Research.
The Campus Center also houses three food service areas, including B.J.'s Lounge, a student center that was renovated with new, technology-enabled, flexible space in 2013. Kettering's Campus Safety headquarters are also in the Campus Center. In 2012, the university unveiled a state-of-the-art campus safety system with the support of the Lear Corporation, making the university's campus one of the safest in the country.
The Campus Center also provides community space, including classroom space for Oxford Virtual Academy and a regional office of the Michigan Small Business Development Center.
C.S. Mott Science and Engineering Building
The C.S. Mott Science and Engineering Building opened in 2003 and houses departmental offices as well as classroom space for Mechanical Engineering, Chemistry, and Biochemistry. The building includes several labs, including a powertrain lab, Kettering University's Crash Safety Center, a fuel cell lab, bioengineering labs, and other core science and engineering labs for students. The building also houses the T-Space, a student-driven opportunity lab with access to 3D printing, laser cutting, soldering, and other tools aimed at supporting entrepreneurial thinking.
Frances Willson Thompson Hall
Kettering University's residence hall is the sole on-campus student housing facility. All students are required to live in the residence hall during their freshman year.
All rooms in the building are single, air-conditioned rooms. Residents share community bathrooms located at intersections of each hallway. The building also includes lounge areas, a community kitchen, gaming space, and computer labs. Gaming consoles and other materials are available to check out in the facility, and the residence life staff creates several programs throughout the year for students living in the dorms.
Many students have created murals in the hallways of Thompson Hall, creating a living history of the many tenants in the buildings since it opened.
Connie and Jim John Recreation Center
Kettering's recreation center opened in 1995 and includes a 25-yard pool, indoor track, tennis, basketball, and racquetball courts, free weights, exercise equipment, an aerobics room, and meeting rooms.
Kettering University's commencement ceremonies are typically hosted in the recreation center. The facility has also hosted President Barack Obama during a 2008 campaign stop and Mitt Romney during the 2012 presidential campaign. King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden visited campus and spoke in the recreation center in 2008 Former Michigan State basketball star Mateen Cleaves hosted a basketball camp at the facility in 2014.
Innovation Center
The Innovation Center at Kettering University, a 9,000-square-foot incubator for entrepreneurs, opened in 2010. The Innovation Center was the first Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certified building in Genesee County.
The center provides space for companies looking to grow their business, perfect their underlying technologies, and explore potential collaborations with Kettering University faculty, students, and corporate partners. The building includes technology-enabled collaborative space as well as laboratory and office spaces. Lab spaces feature wet and dry research capabilities and have designs that are easily reconfigurable to meet the needs of tenants. Customizable office spaces are also available. An art exhibit from the Mott-Warsh Collection is on a long-term rotational loan.
Atwood Stadium
Kettering University acquired Atwood Stadium, a 11,000-seat stadium that was previously designated a city park, from the city of Flint in 2013.
The stadium, which opened in 1929, has hosted many sporting events, concerts, political rallies, and other community events. President John F. Kennedy appeared there, and many successful athletes from Flint began their careers there, such as All American Lynn Chandnois of Michigan State, Leroy Bolden, Ellis Duckett, Tony Branoff, Heisman Trophy winner Mark Ingram Jr., and Olympic Gold Medalist Claressa Shields.
Kettering has made major repairs to the stadium, including fixing masonry work, restrooms, concessions areas, locker rooms, and lighting. in 2015, Kettering University replaced the turf in the stadium with a state-of-the-art field turf, making Atwood one of only three venues in the state of Michigan (the others are Ford Field and Michigan Stadium) with this field surface. With the replacement of the field surface, the field was expanded and lined to support NCAA/MLS soccer and men's and women's lacrosse play in addition to football.
Kettering University has constructed temporary ice rinks in the stadium and offered free open ice skating in the winters of 2014 and 2015.
Flint Children's Museum
The Flint Children's Museum, located on the campus of Kettering University, offers hands-on experiences for children ages two to ten. The museum features rotating exhibits that change every three months. Exhibit themes include How Things Work, Performing Arts, Health and Fitness, Our Town, and Discovery Zone.
The museum also features an outdoor educational area called Sproutside. The learning area was constructed in 2007 with support from the Ruth Mott Foundation and the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.
Student life
Nearly half of Kettering University's student body lives in the university's residence hall or in the Campus Village Apartments complex adjacent to campus. Many others live near campus in fraternity and sorority housing or private rentals, making the university's campus community close-knit. A variety of activities and organizations give students plenty of social outlets on and near campus.
Clubs/organizations
Kettering Student Government sponsors dozens of clubs to promote an atmosphere conducive to social interaction as well as to supplement educational opportunities for students by providing more options to arts and entertainment on campus. Kettering University's student grilling club was featured in an article in USA Today in 2013.
Clubs include a scuba diving club, an anime club, a fencing club, several sports and athletic clubs, dance clubs, fine and performing arts clubs, car clubs, and academic clubs. Kettering University also has student chapters for many professional organizations and societies, including the Society of Women Engineers, the National Society of Black Engineers, and oSTEM.
Service Saturdays
Kettering University students participate in monthly Service Saturdays, completing a variety of service projects in partnership with community organizations in the city of Flint. In 2014, 392 students volunteered and served more than 1,200 combined hours.
SAE Competition Teams
Kettering University competes in the Society of Automotive Engineering’s Collegiate Design Series by building competition vehicles to compete in the Baja SAE, Formula SAE, SAE Aero Design, and SAE Clean Snowmobile Challenge competitions. Starting in 2018 Kettering University began competing in the SAE AutoDrive Challenge, where students convert a Chevrolet Bolt vehicle into a SAE level 4 autonomous vehicle by the 3rd year of competition.
Each year, students design and build vehicles for national and international competitions. In 2015, Kettering's Clean Snowmobile Challenge team finished in the top two at its international competition for the fourth straight year (including a first-place finish in 2014). The Formula SAE team finished 10th at its competition in Lincoln, Nebraska in 2014, following a best-ever seventh-place finish in 2013.
DECA
Kettering University has a collegiate DECA team. Collegiate DECA helps students develop as business leaders by participating in competitions that promote career awareness, civic consciousness, social intelligence, and leadership. Competitions include activities in business, design, entrepreneurship, finance, accounting, foodservice, hospitality, information technology, management, marketing, and sales, among other areas.
Kettering students won 13 awards at a state of Michigan competition in 2015 and three awards at the international conference in Washington D.C. in 2014.
Model United Nations
Kettering University has a student Model United Nations (MUN) team. MUN teams feature students that roleplay as United Nations delegates and simulate United Nations committees at conferences or competitions.
Kettering University's team, which was formed in 2010, won its first-ever prize at an international competition at American Model United Nations in November 2014 and won prizes at Harvard University in 2015 as well.
Greek life
Greek Life on the Kettering/GMI campus begin in 1921. The first officially recognized organization was not formed until 5 years later as the White Elephants. Several other local fraternities would appear on campus during the following years. However, because during this time GMI was not accredited, no national/international recognized fraternities appeared on campus. When GMI did receive accreditation in 1962, the university would require all local fraternities to join a national/international fraternity. Many of the current fraternities on campus came from that transition. Currently, Kettering University has an active Greek system, which is recognized as an excellent source of service opportunities and leadership training. More than 40 percent of the student body is currently involved in a fraternity or sorority.
Many North American Interfraternity Conference (IFC) fraternities have chapters at Kettering as do several National Panhellenic Conference (NPC) sororities. The National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) has several local chapters that are also affiliated with Kettering. IFC, NPC, and NPHC each have a school-wide council with representatives from each member organization. These councils are designed to facilitate communication between the different groups, and to facilitate relations with the university on matters such as school-wide events and membership.
Intramural sports
Kettering University offers intramural sports opportunities to students year-round. Sports offered include basketball, flag football, softball, soccer, volleyball, innertube water polo, outdoor broomball, volleyball, racquetball, Wiffleball home run derby, and more. The campus includes indoor basketball, tennis, and racquetball courts, a swimming pool, an indoor track, an outdoor track, softball and soccer fields, a sand volleyball court, and Atwood Stadium.
Kettering was recognized for having one of the best Intramural Sports programs in the United States by bestcolleges.com.
Student media
The low-power radio station WKUF-LP (94.3 FM) is run by Kettering University students and staff. It was founded in November 2004 and features music from several genres and talk programs from a variety of hosts.
Kettering University also has a student-run newspaper called The Technician. A print edition is published three times per term and an online edition is also published.
Notable alumni
Kettering University has approximately 25,000 alumni, including nearly 1,000 who are C-level executives with major companies . Kettering University graduates have the highest starting salary and salary potential of any university in Michigan, according to PayScale.com in 2017. In 2015, Kettering was listed 12th in the nation in return-on-investment by Payscale.com and 10th in the nation of all private universities and colleges by CNNMoney.com.
Kettering University graduates have attained prominent positions in a wide range of industries.
Mary Barra, CEO of General Motors, is a 1985 Kettering University graduate. During her commencement speech at the university in 2013, Barra noted that her education at Kettering played a key role in her career. She stated, "the practical, real-world experience that a Kettering education provides is as practical today as it was 30 years ago." Barra and former General Motors President Edward Nicholas Cole, a 1933 Kettering University graduate, give Kettering two graduates who have appeared on the cover of Time.
Raj Nair, the Ex Group Vice President of Ford Motor Company Engineering, is a 1987 Kettering graduate. Nair received a reader's choice award for Fortune magazine's Businessperson of the Year in the autos category in 2014.
Bob Kagle, a 1978 graduate, is one of the most successful venture capitalists in Silicon Valley history and was an early investor in eBay and Instagram. Kagle has been a longtime supporter of Kettering University, including launching a mentoring program for youth in the Flint community and supporting an endowment for research co-op positions for students majoring in biology, chemistry and biochemistry, and chemical engineering.
Karenann Terrell, a 1986 graduate, is the Chief Information Officer for Walmart. Paul Bascobert, a 1987 graduate, is the president of Bloomberg Businessweek. Rhonda Winter, a 1983 graduate, is the Chief Information Officer for the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. David Kenny, a 1984 graduate, is the CEO of The Weather Channel. Matt Borland, a 1994 graduate, is the former crew chief for NASCAR driver Ryan Newman. Gene Stefanyshyn, a 1981 graduate, is Vice President of Innovation and Racing Development for NASCAR. Henry Juszkiewicz, a 1976 graduate, is the chairman and CEO of Gibson Guitar Corporation.
See also
Association of Independent Technological Universities
Notes
References
External links
Engineering universities and colleges in Michigan
Education in Flint, Michigan
Private universities and colleges in Michigan
Educational institutions established in 1919
General Motors facilities
Universities and colleges in Genesee County, Michigan
1919 establishments in Michigan
University, Kettering
Technological universities in the United States | [
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218089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskegon%20River | Muskegon River | Muskegon River is a river in the western portion of the lower peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan. The river source is located at Houghton Lake in Roscommon County, flowing out of the North Bay into neighboring Missaukee County. The river passes through Clare County, Osceola County, Mecosta County, Newaygo County, and Muskegon County, and generally flows southwesterly to its mouth at Muskegon, Michigan, where it empties into Muskegon Lake. Muskegon Lake is connected to Lake Michigan via a mile-long channel. The river has several major branches, such as the Hersey River, Cedar Creek and Little Muskegon River. The primary river channel is long and drains an area of .
In September 2002 an often cited article, National Geographic raised concerns about a controversial deal made with Nestle Waters North America giving them permission "to bottle up to 210 million gallons (about 800 million liters) a year from an aquifer north of Grand Rapids, Michigan that recharges the Muskegon River".
History
Like many of its neighboring streams, the Muskegon was one of the favored logging rivers during the boom years of the 1880s-1890s, and a keen eye can still pick out remnants of stray logs left over from the spring logging runs which are embedded on the river bottom. Also the river has a unique native american heritage to it for fishing and hunting
Winfield Scott Gerrish is credited with revolutionizing lumbering in Michigan by building a seven-mile-long logging railroad from Lake George to the Muskegon River. However, there were several Michigan logging railroads in operation in the 1850s including the seven-mile-long Blendon Lumber Company railroad in Ottawa County which was the first in the state to employ a steam locomotive in May 1857.
Wildlife
There is abundant wildlife, including otters, waterfowl, white-tailed deer, and eagles and, although development has been creeping in, the upper reaches are still fairly remote and natural with much of the surrounding land composed of state-owned tracts.
The Muskegon State Game Area is an 8,411 acre section of land which overlays the Muskegon River on the section between Maple Island Road and US Route 31. This state game area is accessible for licensed hunters. Permits can be obtained for whitetail deer hunting and waterfowl hunting. The Muskegon State Game Area spans both Muskegon County and Newaygo County.
Recreation
In recent years, the river has gained a certain measure of fame as a recreational fishery, boasting large migratory steelhead, brown trout and planted Chinook Salmon.
People have also taken quite a liking to paddling down the river. It is Michigan's second largest river only to the Grand River. It is surprisingly quite slow, making it perfect for beginners learning in either a kayak or canoe.
Being such a peaceful river, it promises ample opportunities for viewing wildlife. This factor attracts tourists from across the state, and the world.
Camping is another popular activity around the river with there being several shoreline parks, and campgrounds. There are also various inns and cabins down the river that can provide a night, week's or a month's accommodations.
Hunting is popular in the forests near by on public hunting land.
Crossings
There are approximately 31 bridge crossings over the Muskegon River waterway. These bridge crossing include motorized vehicle crossings, railroads, and several pedestrian/bicycle trail crossings. The majority of the bicycle and pedestrian trail crossings are former railroad bridges which have been converted to non-motorized traffic.
Dams
The three major dams of the Muskegon River (Rogers, Hardy and Croton) generate about 45,600 kilowatts, with about 30,000 of that from Hardy Dam. That is enough electricity to serve a community of nearly 23,000. The smaller Reedsburg Dam is near the source of the Muskegon River.
Cities and towns along the river
Houghton Lake, Michigan
Leota, Michigan
Evart, Michigan
Hersey, Michigan
Big Rapids, Michigan
Newaygo, Michigan
Muskegon, Michigan
See also
Houghton Lake
Lake Michigan
List of rivers in Michigan
References
Rivers of Michigan
Rivers of Roscommon County, Michigan
Rivers of Missaukee County, Michigan
Rivers of Muskegon County, Michigan
Rivers of Osceola County, Michigan
Rivers of Mecosta County, Michigan
Rivers of Newaygo County, Michigan
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218091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream%20function | Stream function | The stream function is defined for incompressible (divergence-free) flows in two dimensions – as well as in three dimensions with axisymmetry. The flow velocity components can be expressed as the derivatives of the scalar stream function. The stream function can be used to plot streamlines, which represent the trajectories of particles in a steady flow. The two-dimensional Lagrange stream function was introduced by Joseph Louis Lagrange in 1781. The Stokes stream function is for axisymmetrical three-dimensional flow, and is named after George Gabriel Stokes.
Considering the particular case of fluid dynamics, the difference between the stream function values at any two points gives the volumetric flow rate (or volumetric flux) through a line connecting the two points.
Since streamlines are tangent to the flow velocity vector of the flow, the value of the stream function must be constant along a streamline. The usefulness of the stream function lies in the fact that the flow velocity components in the x- and y- directions at a given point are given by the partial derivatives of the stream function at that point.
For two-dimensional potential flow, streamlines are perpendicular to equipotential lines. Taken together with the velocity potential, the stream function may be used to derive a complex potential. In other words, the stream function accounts for the solenoidal part of a two-dimensional Helmholtz decomposition, while the velocity potential accounts for the irrotational part.
Two-dimensional stream function
Definitions
Lamb and Batchelor define the stream function for an incompressible flow velocity field as follows. Given a point and a point ,
is the integral of the dot product of the flow velocity vector and the normal to the curve element In other words, the stream function is the volume flux through the curve . The point is simply a reference point that defines where the stream function is identically zero. A shift in results in adding a constant to the stream function at .
An infinitesimal shift of the position results in a change of the stream function:
.
From the exact differential
the flow velocity components in relation to the stream function
have to be
in which case they indeed satisfy
the condition of zero divergence resulting from flow incompressibility, i.e.
Definition by use of a vector potential
The sign of the stream function depends on the definition used.
One way is to define the stream function for a two-dimensional flow such that the flow velocity can be expressed through the vector potential
Where if the flow velocity vector .
In Cartesian coordinate system this is equivalent to
Where and are the flow velocity components in the cartesian and coordinate directions, respectively.
Alternative definition (opposite sign)
Another definition (used more widely in meteorology and oceanography than the above) is
,
where is a unit vector in the direction and the subscripts indicate partial derivatives.
Note that this definition has the opposite sign to that given above (), so we have
in Cartesian coordinates.
All formulations of the stream function constrain the velocity to satisfy the two-dimensional continuity equation exactly:
The last two definitions of stream function are related through the vector calculus identity
Note that in this two-dimensional flow.
Derivation of the two-dimensional stream function
Consider two points A and B in two-dimensional plane flow. If the distance between these two points is very small: δn, and a stream of flow passes between these points with an average velocity, q perpendicular to the line AB, the volume flow rate per unit thickness, δΨ is given by:
As δn → 0, rearranging this expression, we get:
Now consider two-dimensional plane flow with reference to a coordinate system. Suppose an observer looks along an arbitrary axis in the direction of increase and sees flow crossing the axis from left to right. A sign convention is adopted such that the flow velocity is positive.
Flow in Cartesian coordinates
By observing the flow into an elemental square in an x-y Cartesian coordinate system, we have:
where u is the flow velocity parallel to and in the direction of the x-axis, and v is the flow velocity parallel to and in the direction of the y-axis. Thus, as δn → 0 and by rearranging, we have:
Continuity: the derivation
Consider two-dimensional plane flow within a Cartesian coordinate system. Continuity states that if we consider incompressible flow into an elemental square, the flow into that small element must equal the flow out of that element.
The total flow into the element is given by:
The total flow out of the element is given by:
Thus we have:
and simplifying to:
Substituting the expressions of the stream function into this equation, we have:
Vorticity
The stream function can be found from vorticity using the following Poisson's equation:
or
where the vorticity vector – defined as the curl of the flow velocity vector – for this two-dimensional flow has i.e. only the -component can be non-zero.
Proof that a constant value for the stream function corresponds to a streamline
Consider two-dimensional plane flow within a Cartesian coordinate system. Consider two infinitesimally close points and . From calculus we have that
Say takes the same value, say , at the two points and , then is tangent to the curve at and
implying that the vector is normal to the curve . If we can show that everywhere , using the formula for in terms of , then we will have proved the result. This easily follows,
Properties of the stream function
The stream function is constant along any streamline.
For a continuous flow (no sources or sinks), the volume flow rate across any closed path is equal to zero.
For two incompressible flow patterns, the algebraic sum of the stream functions is equal to another stream function obtained if the two flow patterns are super-imposed.
The rate of change of stream function with distance is directly proportional to the velocity component perpendicular to the direction of change.
References
Citations
Sources
Continuum mechanics
Fluid dynamics
External links
Joukowsky Transform Interactive WebApp | [
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218093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulophia | Eulophia | Eulophia, commonly known as corduroy orchids, is a genus of about two hundred species of flowering plants in the orchid family, Orchidaceae. Most Eulophia orchids are terrestrial but some are deciduous while others are evergreen. They either have an underground rhizome or pseudobulbs on the surface and those species with leaves have them on the end of a fleshy stem. The flowers are arranged on a thin flowering spike, the flowers having sepals which are larger than the petals. The genus is widely distributed but most species are found in Africa and Asia, usually growing in shady places with grass or shrubs in forests.
Description
Orchids in the genus Eulophia are mostly terrestrial herbs with either an underground rhizome or pseudobulbs on the surface. The only two epiphytic species occur on Madagascar. Many species have no leaves, but when leaves are present they are long and narrow, sometimes pleated. The flowers are borne on a flowering stem which sometimes appears before the leaves with a few to many flowers. The flowers in some species are small but others have large, showy flowers in a wide range of colours. The sepals are usually larger than the petals but the labellum has three lobes and a spur or pouch at its base.
Taxonomy and naming
The genus Eulophia was first formally described by John Lindley in 1821 and the description was published in The Botanical Register. Because Robert Brown had previously used the name Eulophia in describing Lissochilus speciosus, and the name of that species was changed to Eulophia speciosa, Brown is the accepted author of the name. "Eulophia" is derived from the Ancient Greek words eu meaning "good", "well" or "true" and lophos meaning "mane", "crest", "comb", "tuft" or "ridge", possibly referring to the labellum callus of some species.
Distribution and habitat
Orchids in the genus Eulophia are distributed in shady rainforests or in open scrub or woodland in the tropics and subtropics of Africa, India, Asia, Queensland, and the Americas, although most are found in Africa. Many can survive the dry season through their large bulbous ‘corms’. Some species, such as Eulophia petersii, have adapted to very arid environments and are among the few orchids to have truly evolved desert living species.
Use in horticulture
In the frost-free, semi-arid areas of Southern California, many Eulophia species, such as E. macra, E. petersii, E. plantaginea, and E. speciosa, can be grown outdoors year-round in well-drained pots with cactus/succulent potting mix (although E. speciosa prefers being grown in pure white sand), as long as they are given ample light through the winter and a drier winter resting period. Warmer growers, such as E. pulchra and possibly even the extremely rare and difficult E. cucullata (the foxglove orchid), can probably be grown outdoors in the warmer south areas of Florida and Hawaii, also. The generally large, underground, fleshy rhizome indicates a sympodial growth habit, and this makes Eulophias fairly easy to divide and propagate, provided the grower is gentle.
Species
See List of Eulophia species
Hybrids
Primary hybrids
As of 9 Sept 2021, the following primary hybrids have been registered with the Royal Horticultural Society:
Eulophia 'Allan Abel' (E. streptopetala x E. guineensis)
Eulophia 'Douglas McMurtry' (E. ovalis x E. speciosa)
Eulophia × flavopurpurea (E. cristata x E. millsonii)
Eulophia 'Jaco Truter' (E. hereroensis x E. streptopetala)
Eulophia 'Jeannie Wolff' (E. streptopetala x E. speciosa)
Eulophia 'John Davison' (E. euglossa x E. andamanensis)
Eulophia 'Memoria Alexis Pardo' (E. guineensis x E. andamanensis)
Eulophia 'Michael Tibbs' (E. guineensis x E. speciosa)
Eulophia 'Olive Delight' (E. cooperi x E. hereroensis)
Eulophia × pholelana (E. ovalis x E. zeyheriana)
Eulophia 'Shamara' (E. euglossa x E. guineensis)
Intergeneric hybrids
As off 9 Sept 2021, the following intergeneric hybrids made with Eulophia as the seed/pod (capsule-bearing) parent have been registered with the Royal Horticultural Society:
Cymbidilophia 'Jumbo Kehong' (E. andamanensis x Cymbidiella pardalina)
Euclades 'Indianopolis' (E. guineensis x Oeceoclades saundersiana)
Eulobidium 'Rakthai' (E. andamanensis x Cymbidium aloifolium)
Eulomangis 'Jumbo Gram' (E. graminea x Grammangis spectabilis)
Eulomangis 'Jumbo Keith' (E. andamanensis x Grammangis spectabilis)
Eulomangis 'Jumbo Pete' (E. petersii x Grammangis ellisii)
Eulophyllum 'Jumbo Keith' (E. andamanensis x Grammatophyllum measuresianum)
Eulosellia 'Jumbo Nilotica' (E. graminea x Ansellia africana)
Eulosellia 'Jumbo Nilotica' (E. graminea x Ansellia africana)
Graphophia 'SAJVOL Germinator' (E. petersii x Graphorkis concolor)
A further three intergeneric hybrids have been registered with Eulophia as the pollen parent:
Euclades 'Saint Léger' (Oeceoclades cordylinophylla x E. guineensis)
Eulophyllum 'Jumbo Amos' (Grammatophyllum scriptum x E. andamanensis)
Gramcymbiphia 'Jumbo Lovely' (Grammatocymbidium 'Lovely Melody' x E. guineensis)
Gallery
References
External links
Eulophiinae genera | [
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218103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renfe%20Feve | Renfe Feve | Renfe Feve is a division of state-owned Spanish railway company Renfe Operadora. It operates most of Spain's of railway. This division of Renfe was previously a stand-alone company named FEVE (Ferrocarriles de Vía Estrecha, Spanish for "Narrow-gauge railways"). On 31 December 2012, the Spanish government simplified the organization of train companies merging Feve into Renfe and Adif. The rolling stock and the brand FEVE was transferred to Renfe (renamed to "Renfe Feve") and the infrastructures were transferred to Adif.
History
FEVE was created in 1965, as a successor to the government-run organisation EFE (Explotación de Ferrocarriles por el Estado), which was created by the Miguel Primo de Rivera administration in 1926 to take over failed private railways. Following the creation of Renfe in 1941, to which the ownership of all Spanish broad-gauge railways were transferred to, EFE had in practice become the operator of a collection of exclusively narrow-gauge lines. The present status of FEVE, as a government-owned commercial company, dates from 1965.
The new company continued to absorb independent railway lines (, , , & ), where the existing concession holders had been unable to be profitable. Most were converted to (if not already built in that gauge). However, from 1978 onwards, with the introduction of regional devolution under the new Spanish constitution, FEVE also began transferring responsibility for a number of its operations to the new regional governments. This happened in Catalonia (FGC) in 1979, in a portion of the Basque (Euskotren) network in 1982, in the Valencian Community (FGV) in 1986, and with the Majorcan Railways (SFM) in 1994. That did not however occur in the Region of Murcia, where the narrow-gauge railway network remained under FEVE control. The above-mentioned EFE (Explotación de Ferrocarriles por el Estado) also operated the Carabanchel – Chamartín de la Rosa suburbano railway in the city of Madrid. That railway became part of the Madrid Metro when control of that line was transferred to the Community of Madrid in the early-1980s, later integrated as the present-day Line 10.
On 31 December 2012, the company disappeared due to the merger of the narrow gauge network FEVE and the broad gauge network RENFE. The infrastructure was transferred to Adif and the rolling stock was transferred to Renfe Operadora. The operation of the narrow gauge network continued under the same conditions after the reorganization.
FEVE network
The great majority of the narrow-gauge lines that were operated by FEVE before it disappeared were located along or near Spain's Atlantic Ocean and Bay of Biscay coastline, which stretches from Galicia in the northwest, through Asturias and Cantabria to the Basque Country (with a branch extending into Castile and León). Together they formed a large and strategically important system, which was why – unlike the other, more isolated regional railways – they have been retained under the integrated management of FEVE.
FEVE operated of track, of which were electrified.
Transcantábrico line
An exclusive tourist service operated by FEVE is a long line, the Transcantábrico, which runs along the entire length of Spain's north coast, and has connected the cities of San Sebastián, Bilbao, Santander, Oviedo and Ferrol to Leon since 1982. Operated as a holiday service, the carriages of the train are furnished with bedrooms, lounges and restaurants and voyages typically last eight days and seven nights.
FEVE also operated "normal" regional (express and stopping) services (in sections) from Ferrol to Hendaye (some sections operated now by regional operators). One of the longest regular (non-tourist) FEVE service operated between Leon and Bilbao (a journey of some 7 hours).
Commuter services
FEVE also operated a range of cercanías or commuter services. The main commuter area is Cercanías Asturias, where the dense five-line FEVE network was totally integrated with the RENFE lines and works effectively as a regional metro system.
The Bilbao area has a line running from Bilbao's Concordia station to the large town of Balmaseda, calling at local villages and settlements on its way through Biscay, as well as the main towns of Basurto, Sodupe, Aranguren, and Zalla.
Two commuter lines begin at Santander railway station and terminate at Liérganes and Cabezón de la Sal.
In southern Spain, Renfe Feve operates the historic Cartagena-Los Nietos Line.
Goods operations
FEVE's rails transported approximately 460 million tonnes of goods each year, accounting for a large part of the company's business. The products one may expect to see on board their goods trains include iron, steel and coal, fueling much of the country's industry.
Companies operating former FEVE services
Euskotren and Metro Bilbao - in the Basque Country (there is an connecting line between the FEVE and EuskoTren networks in Bilbao)
FGC - around Barcelona
FGV - in the Valencian Community
SFM - on the island of Majorca
Metro de Madrid - in the city of Madrid.
See also
Transport in Spain
History of rail transport in Spain
Narrow gauge railways in Portugal
References
External links
RENFE FEVE website (Spanish)
Transcantábrico website (English)
Railway companies of Spain
Metre gauge railways in Spain
Renfe
1965 establishments in Spain | [
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218107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australo-Melanesian | Australo-Melanesian | Australo-Melanesians (also known as Australasians or the Australomelanesoid race or Australoid race) is an outdated historical grouping of various people indigenous to Melanesia and Australia. Groups that were controversially included are found in parts of Southeast Asia, and South Asia.
While most authors included Papuans, Aboriginal Australians and Melanesians (mainly from Fiji, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu), there was controversy about the inclusion of the various Southeast Asian populations grouped as "Negrito", or a number of dark-skinned tribal populations of the Indian subcontinent.
The concept of dividing humankind into three, four or five races (often called Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid, and Australoid) was introduced in the 18th century and further developed by Western scholars in the context of "racist ideologies" during the age of colonialism. With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Physical Anthropologists stated: "The belief in “races” as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past."
Terminological history
The term "Australoid" was coined in ethnology in the mid 19th century, describing tribes or populations "of the type of native Australians". The term "Australioid race" was introduced by Thomas Huxley in 1870 to refer to certain peoples indigenous to South and Southeast Asia and Oceania. In physical anthropology, Australoid is used for morphological features characteristic of Aboriginal Australians by Daniel John Cunningham in his Text-book of Anatomy (1902). An Australioid (sic, with an additional -i-) racial group was first proposed by Thomas Huxley in an essay On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind (1870), in which he divided humanity into four principal groups (Xanthochroic, Mongoloid, Negroid, and Australioid). Huxley's original model included the native inhabitants of South Asia under the Australoid category. Huxley further classified the Melanochroi (Peoples of the Mediterranean race) as a mixture of the Xanthochroi (northern Europeans) and Australioids.
Huxley (1870) described Australioids as dolichocephalic; their hair as usually silky, black and wavy or curly, with large, heavy jaws and prognathism, with skin the color of chocolate and irises which are dark brown or black.
The term "Proto-Australoid" was used by Roland Burrage Dixon in his Racial History of Man (1923). In The Origin of Races (1962), Carleton Coon expounded his system of five races (Australoid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Congoid and Capoid) with separate origins. Based on such evidence as claiming Australoids had the largest, megadont teeth, this group was assessed by Coon as being the most archaic and therefore the most primitive and backward. Coon's methods and conclusions were later discredited and show either a "poor understanding of human cultural history and evolution or his use of ethnology for a racialist agenda." Bellwood (1985) uses the terms "Australoid", "Australomelanesoid" and "Australo-Melanesians" to describe the genetic heritage of "the Southern Mongoloid populations of Indonesia and Malaysia".
Terms associated with outdated notions of racial types, such as those ending in "-oid" have come to be seen as potentially offensive and related to scientific racism.
Controversies
The populations grouped as "Negrito" (the Andamanese – from the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean), the Semang and Batek peoples (from Malaysia), the Maniq people (from Thailand), the Aeta people, the Ati people, and certain other ethnic groups in the Philippines, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka and a number of dark-skinned tribal populations in the interior of the Indian subcontinent (some Dravidian-speaking groups and Austroasiatic-speaking peoples, like the Munda people) were also suggested by some to belong to the Australo-Melanesian group, but there were controversies about this inclusion.
The inclusion of Indian tribes in the group was not well-defined, and was closely related to the question of the original peopling of India, and the possible shared ancestry between Indian, Andamanese, and Sahulian populations of the Upper Paleolithic.
The suggested Australo-Melanesian ancestry of the original South Asian populations has long remained an open question. It was embraced by Indian anthropologists as emphasizing the deep antiquity of Indian prehistory. Australo-Melanesian hunter-gatherer and fisherman tribes of the interior of India were identified with the Nishada Kingdom described in the Mahabharata. Panchanan Mitra (1923) following Vincenzo Giuffrida-Ruggeri (1913) recognizes a Pre-Dravidian Australo-Veddaic stratum in India.
Alternatively, the Dravidians themselves have been claimed as originally of Australo-Melanesian stock, a view held by Biraja Sankar Guha among others.
South Indian tribes specifically described as having Australo-Melanesian affinities include the Oraon, Munda, Santal, Bhil, Gondi, the Kadars of Kerala, the Kurumba and Irula of the Nilgiris, the Paniyans of Malabar, the Uralis, Kannikars, Muthuvan and Chenchus.
But other Indian anthropologists of the post-colonial period, such as S. P. Sharma (1971) and D. N. Majumdar (1946, 1965), have gone as far as claiming Australo-Melanesian ancestry, to a greater or lesser extent, for almost all the castes and tribes of India.
Individuals with Australo-Melanesian phenotypes existed possibly also in East Asia (in and toward the south of East Asia) at least since Middle Paleolithic, but were largely displaced by migrations of Eastern Eurasian rice farmers since Neolithic, who may have spread from Siberia or Central China to Southeastern Asia during Mesolithic and Neolithic and after adopting farming to the rest of Southeast Asia and Oceania.
Criticism based on modern genetics
After discussing various criteria used in biology to define subspecies or races, Alan R. Templeton concludes in 2016: "[T]he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no."
References
Pseudoscience
Historical definitions of race
Biological anthropology | [
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218110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth%20Colony | Plymouth Colony | Plymouth Colony (sometimes Plimouth) was an English colonial venture in America from 1620 to 1691 at a location that had previously been surveyed and named by Captain John Smith. The settlement served as the capital of the colony and developed as the town of Plymouth, Massachusetts. At its height, Plymouth Colony occupied most of the southeastern portion of Massachusetts.
Plymouth Colony was founded by a group of Puritan Separatists initially known as the Brownist Emigration, who came to be known as the Pilgrims. It was the second successful colony to be founded by the English in the United States after Jamestown in Virginia, and it was the first permanent English settlement in the New England region. The colony established a treaty with Wampanoag Chief Massasoit which helped to ensure its success; in this, they were aided by Squanto, a member of the Patuxet tribe. Plymouth played a central role in King Philip's War (1675–1678), one of several Indian Wars, but the colony was ultimately merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other territories in 1691 to form the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
Despite the colony's relatively short existence, Plymouth holds a special role in American history. Most of the citizens of Plymouth were fleeing religious persecution and searching for a place to worship as they saw fit, whilst wanting the groups around them to adhere to their beliefs, rather than being entrepreneurs like many of the settlers of Jamestown in Virginia. The social and legal systems of the colony became closely tied to their religious beliefs, as well as to English custom. Many of the people and events surrounding Plymouth Colony have become part of American folklore, including the American tradition of Thanksgiving and the monument of Plymouth Rock.
History
Origin
Plymouth Colony was founded by a group of English Puritans who came to be known as the Pilgrims. The core group (roughly 40% of the adults and 56% of the family groupings) were part of a congregation led by William Bradford. They began to feel the pressures of religious persecution while still in the English village of Scrooby, near East Retford, Nottinghamshire. In 1607, Archbishop Tobias Matthew raided homes and imprisoned several members of the congregation. The congregation left England in 1608 and emigrated to the Netherlands, settling first in Amsterdam and then in Leiden.
In Leiden, the congregation gained the freedom to worship as they chose, but Dutch society was unfamiliar to them. Scrooby had been an agricultural community, whereas Leiden was a thriving industrial center, and they found the pace of life difficult. The community remained close-knit, but their children began adopting the Dutch language and customs, and some also entered the Dutch Army. They also were still not free from the persecutions of the English Crown. English authorities came to Leiden to arrest William Brewster in 1618 after he published comments highly critical of the King of England and the Anglican Church. Brewster escaped arrest, but the events spurred the congregation to move farther from England.
The congregation obtained a land patent from the Plymouth Company in June 1619. They had declined the opportunity to settle south of Cape Cod in New Netherland because of their desire to avoid the Dutch influence. This land patent allowed them to settle at the mouth of the Hudson River. They sought to finance their venture through the Merchant Adventurers, a group of businessmen who principally viewed the colony as a means of making a profit. Upon arriving in America, the Pilgrims began working to repay their debts.
Using the financing secured from the Merchant Adventurers, the Colonists bought provisions and obtained passage on the Mayflower and the Speedwell. They had intended to leave early in 1620, but they were delayed several months due to difficulties in dealing with the Merchant Adventurers, including several changes in plans for the voyage and in financing. The congregation and the other colonists finally boarded the Speedwell in July 1620 in the Dutch port of Delfshaven.
Mayflower voyage
Speedwell was re-rigged with larger masts before leaving Holland and setting out to meet Mayflower in Southampton, England, around the end of July 1620. The Mayflower was purchased in London. The original captains were Captain Reynolds for Speedwell and Captain Christopher Jones for Mayflower. Other passengers joined the group in Southampton, including William Brewster, who had been in hiding for the better part of a year, and a group of people known to the Leiden congregation as "The Strangers." This group was largely made up of people recruited by the Merchant Adventurers to provide practical assistance to the colony and additional hands to work for the colony's ventures. The term was also used for many of the indentured servants.
Among the Strangers were Myles Standish, who was the colony's military leader; Christopher Martin, who had been designated by the Merchant Adventurers to act as shipboard governor during the trans-Atlantic trip; and Stephen Hopkins, a veteran of a failed colonial venture that may have inspired Shakespeare's The Tempest. The group who later became the Leiden Leaders after the merging of ships included John Carver, William Bradford, Edward Winslow, William Brewster, and Isaac Allerton.
The departure of the Mayflower and Speedwell was beset by delays. Further disagreements with the Merchant Adventurers held up the departure in Southampton. A total of 120 passengers finally departed on August 5–90 on the Mayflower and 30 on the Speedwell. Leaving Southampton, the Speedwell suffered significant leakage, which required the ships to immediately put in at Dartmouth. The leakage was partly caused by being overmasted and being pressed too much with sail. Repairs were completed, and a further delay ensued as they awaited favorable winds. The two ships finally set sail on August 23; they traveled only two hundred miles beyond Land's End before another major leak in the Speedwell forced the expedition to return again to England, this time to the port of Plymouth. The Speedwell was found to be unseaworthy; some passengers abandoned their attempt to emigrate, while others joined the Mayflower, crowding the already heavily burdened ship. Later, it was speculated that the crew of the Speedwell had intentionally sabotaged the ship to avoid having to make the treacherous trans-Atlantic voyage. The delays had significant consequences; the cost of the repairs and port fees required that the colonists sell some of their vital provisions. More importantly, the late-autumn voyage meant that everyone had to spend the coming winter on board the Mayflower off Cape Cod in increasingly squalid conditions.
The Mayflower departed Plymouth, England on September 6, 1620 with 102 passengers and about 30 crew members in the small, long ship. The seas were not severe during the first month in the Atlantic but, by the second month, the ship was being hit by strong north-Atlantic winter gales, causing it to be badly shaken with water leaks from structural damage. There were many obstacles throughout the trip, including multiple cases of seasickness and the bending and cracking of a main beam of the ship. One death occurred, that of William Button.
After two months at sea, they sighted land on November 9, 1620 off the coast of Cape Cod. They attempted to sail south to the designated landing site at the mouth of the Hudson but ran into trouble in the region of Pollock Rip, a shallow area of shoals between Cape Cod and Nantucket Island. With winter approaching and provisions running dangerously low, the passengers decided to return north to Cape Cod Bay and abandon their original landing plans.
Prior exploration and settlements
The Pilgrims were not the first Europeans in the area. John Cabot's discovery of Newfoundland in 1497 had laid the foundation for the extensive English claims over the east coast of North America. Cartographer Giacomo Gastaldi made one of the earliest maps of New England , but he erroneously identified Cape Breton with the Narragansett Bay and completely omitted most of the New England coast. European fishermen had also been plying the waters off the New England coast for much of the 16th and 17th centuries.
Frenchman Samuel de Champlain had explored the area extensively in 1605. He had specifically explored Plymouth Harbor, which he called "Port St. Louis," and he made an extensive and detailed map of it and the surrounding lands. He showed the Patuxet village (where the town of Plymouth was later built) as a thriving settlement. However, an epidemic wiped out up to 90 percent of the Indians along the Massachusetts coast in 1617–1619, including the Patuxets, before the arrival of the Mayflower. The epidemic has traditionally been thought to be smallpox, but a recent analysis has concluded that it may have been a lesser-known disease called leptospirosis. The absence of any serious Indian opposition to the Pilgrims' settlement may have been a pivotal event to their success and to English colonization in America.
Popham Colony, also known as Fort St. George, was organized by the Plymouth Company (unrelated to Plymouth Colony) and founded in 1607. It was settled on the coast of Maine and was beset by internal political struggles, sickness, and weather problems. It was abandoned in 1608.
Captain John Smith of Jamestown had explored the area in 1614 and is credited with naming the region New England. He named many locations using approximations of Indian words. He gave the name "Accomack" to the Patuxet settlement on which the Pilgrims founded Plymouth, but he changed it to New Plymouth after consulting Prince Charles, son of King James. A map published in his 1616 work A Description of New England clearly shows the site as "New Plimouth."
In the Mayflower settlers' first explorations of Cape Cod, they came across evidence that Europeans had previously spent extensive time there. They discovered remains of a European fort and uncovered a grave that contained the remains of both an adult European male and an Indian child.
Landings at Provincetown and Plymouth
The Mayflower anchored at Provincetown Harbor on November 11, 1620. The Pilgrims did not have a patent to settle this area, and some passengers began to question their right to land, complaining that there was no legal authority to establish a colony. In response to this, a group of colonists drafted and signed the first governing document of the colony, the Mayflower Compact, while still aboard the ship as it lay off-shore. The intent of the compact was to establish a means of governing the colony, though it did little more than confirm that the colony would be governed like any English town. It did, however, serve the purpose of relieving the concerns of many of the settlers. This social contract was written and signed by 41 Puritan men. It was modeled on the church covenants that Congregationalists used to form new congregations. It made clear that the colony should be governed by "just and equal laws," and those who signed it promised to keep those laws.
The group remained on board the ship through the next day, a Sunday, for prayer and worship. They finally set foot on land at Provincetown on November 13. The first task was to rebuild a shallop, a shallow draft boat that had been built in England and disassembled for transport aboard the Mayflower. It would remain with the Pilgrims when the Mayflower returned to England. On November 15, Captain Myles Standish led a party of 16 men on an exploratory mission, during which they disturbed an Indian grave and located a buried cache of Indian corn. The following week, Susanna White gave birth to son Peregrine White on the Mayflower. He was the first child born to the Pilgrims in the New World. The shallop was finished on November 27, and a second expedition was undertaken using it, under the direction of Mayflower master Christopher Jones. Thirty-four men went, but the expedition was beset by bad weather; the only positive result was that they found an Indian burial ground and corn that had been intended for the dead, taking the corn for future planting. A third expedition along Cape Cod left on December 6; it resulted in a skirmish with Indians known as the "First Encounter" near Eastham, Massachusetts. The colonists decided to look elsewhere, having failed to secure a proper site for their settlement, and fearing that they had angered the Indians by taking their corn and firing upon them. The Mayflower left Provincetown Harbor and set sail for Plymouth Harbor.
The Mayflower dropped anchor in Plymouth Harbor on December 16 and spent three days looking for a settlement site. They rejected several sites, including one on Clark's Island and another at the mouth of the Jones River, in favor of the site of a recently abandoned settlement which had been occupied by the Patuxet tribe. The location was chosen largely for its defensive position. The settlement would be centered on two hills: Cole's Hill, where the village would be built, and Fort Hill, where a defensive cannon would be stationed. Also important in choosing the site was that the prior villagers had cleared much of the land making agriculture relatively easy. Fresh water for the colony was provided by Town Brook and Billington Sea. There are no contemporaneous accounts to verify the legend, but Plymouth Rock is often hailed as the point where the colonists first set foot on their new homeland.
The area where the colonists settled had been identified as "New Plymouth" in maps which John Smith published in 1614. The colonists elected to retain the name for their own settlement, in honor of their final point of departure from England: Plymouth, Devon.
First winter
On December 21, 1620, the first landing party arrived at the site of Plymouth. Plans to build houses, however, were delayed by bad weather until December 23. As the building progressed, 20 men always remained ashore for security purposes while the rest of the work crews returned each night to the Mayflower. Women, children, and the infirm remained on board the Mayflower, and many had not left the ship for six months. The first structure was a common house of wattle and daub, and it took two weeks to complete in the harsh New England winter. In the following weeks, the rest of the settlement slowly took shape. The living and working structures were built on the relatively flat top of Cole's Hill, and a wooden platform was constructed atop nearby Fort Hill to support the cannon that would defend the settlement.
During the winter, the Mayflower colonists suffered greatly from lack of shelter, diseases such as scurvy, and general conditions on board ship. Many of the men were too infirm to work; 45 out of 102 pilgrims died and were buried on Cole's Hill. Thus, only seven residences and four common houses were constructed during the first winter out of a planned 19. By the end of January, enough of the settlement had been built to begin unloading provisions from the Mayflower.
The men of the settlement organized themselves into military orders in mid-February, after several tense encounters with local Indians, and Myles Standish was designated as the commanding officer. By the end of the month, five cannons had been defensively positioned on Fort Hill. John Carver was elected governor to replace Governor Martin.
On March 16, 1621, the first formal contact occurred with the Indians. Samoset was an Abenaki sagamore who was originally from Pemaquid Point in Maine. He had learned some English from fishermen and trappers in Maine, and he walked boldly into the midst of the settlement and proclaimed, "Welcome, Englishmen!" It was during this meeting that the Pilgrims learned how the previous residents of Patuxet had died of an epidemic. They also learned that an important leader of the region was Wampanoag Indian chief Massasoit, and they learned about Squanto (Tisquantum) who was the sole survivor from Patuxet. Squanto had spent time in Europe and spoke English quite well. Samoset spent the night in Plymouth and agreed to arrange a meeting with some of Massasoit's men.
Massasoit and Squanto were apprehensive about the Pilgrims, as several men of his tribe had been killed by English sailors. He also knew that the Pilgrims had taken some corn stores in their landings at Provincetown. Squanto himself had been abducted in 1614 by English explorer Thomas Hunt and had spent five years in Europe, first as a slave for a group of Spanish monks, then as a freeman in England. He had returned to New England in 1619, acting as a guide to explorer Capt. Robert Gorges, but Massasoit and his men had massacred the crew of the ship and had taken Squanto.
Samoset returned to Plymouth on March 22 with a delegation from Massasoit that included Squanto; Massasoit joined them shortly after, and he and Governor Carver established a formal treaty of peace after exchanging gifts. This treaty ensured that each people would not bring harm to the other, that Massasoit would send his allies to make peaceful negotiations with Plymouth, and that they would come to each other's aid in a time of war.
The Mayflower set sail for England on April 5, 1621, after being anchored for almost four months in Plymouth Harbor. Nearly half of the original 102 passengers had died during the first winter. As William Bradford wrote, "of these one hundred persons who came over in this first ship together, the greatest half died in the general mortality, and most of them in two or three months' time". Several of the graves on Cole's Hill were uncovered in 1855; their bodies were disinterred and moved to a site near Plymouth Rock.
First Thanksgiving
In November 1621, the surviving pilgrims celebrated a harvest feast which became known in the 19th century as "The First Thanksgiving". The feast was probably held in early October 1621 and was celebrated by the 53 surviving Pilgrims, along with Massasoit and 90 of his men. Three contemporaneous accounts of the event survive: Of Plymouth Plantation by William Bradford; Mourt's Relation probably written by Edward Winslow; and New England's Memorial by Plymouth Colony Secretary (and Bradford's nephew) Capt. Nathaniel Morton. The celebration lasted three days and featured a feast that included numerous types of waterfowl, wild turkeys and fish procured by the colonists, and five deer brought by the indigenous people.
Early relations with the Native Americans
After the departure of Massasoit and his men, Squanto remained in Plymouth to teach the Pilgrims how to survive in New England, such as using dead fish to fertilize the soil. For the first few years of colonial life, the fur trade was the dominant source of income beyond subsistence farming, buying furs from Natives and selling to Europeans. Governor Carver suddenly died shortly after the Mayflower returned to England. William Bradford was elected to replace him and went on to lead the colony through much of its formative years.
As promised by Massasoit, numerous indigenous arrived at Plymouth throughout the middle of 1621 with pledges of peace. On July 2, a party of Pilgrims led by Edward Winslow (who later became the chief diplomat of the colony) set out to continue negotiations with the chief. The delegation also included Squanto, who acted as a translator. After traveling for several days, they arrived at Massasoit's village of Sowams near Narragansett Bay. After meals and an exchange of gifts, Massasoit agreed to an exclusive trading pact with the Plymouth colonists. Squanto remained behind and traveled throughout the area to establish trading relations with several tribes.
In late July, a boy named John Billington became lost for some time in the woods around the colony. It was reported that he was found by the Nausets, the same native tribe on Cape Cod from whom the Pilgrims had unwittingly stolen corn seed the prior year upon their first explorations. The colonists organized a party to return Billington to Plymouth, and they agreed to reimburse the Nausets for the corn which they had taken in return for the boy. This negotiation did much to secure further peace with the tribes in the area.
During their dealings with the Nausets over the release of John Billington, the Pilgrims learned of troubles that Massasoit was experiencing. Massasoit, Squanto, and several other Wampanoags had been captured by Corbitant, sachem of the Narragansett tribe. A party of ten men under the leadership of Myles Standish set out to find and execute Corbitant. While hunting for him, they learned that Squanto had escaped and Massasoit was back in power. Standish and his men had injured several Native Americans, so the colonists offered them medical attention in Plymouth. They had failed to capture Corbitant, but the show of force by Standish had garnered respect for the Pilgrims and, as a result, nine of the most powerful sachems in the area signed a treaty in September, including Massasoit and Corbitant, pledging their loyalty to King James.
In May 1622, a vessel named the Sparrow arrived carrying seven men from the Merchant Adventurers whose purpose was to seek out a site for a new settlement in the area. Two ships followed shortly after carrying 60 settlers, all men. They spent July and August in Plymouth before moving north to settle in Weymouth, Massachusetts at a settlement which they named Wessagussett. The settlement of Wessagussett was short-lived, but it provided the spark for an event that dramatically changed the political landscape between the local native tribes and the settlers. Reports reached Plymouth of a military threat to Wessagussett, and Myles Standish organized a militia to defend them. However, he found that there had been no attack. He therefore decided on a pre-emptive strike, an event which historian Nathaniel Philbrick calls "Standish's raid". He lured two prominent Massachusett military leaders into a house at Wessagussett under the pretense of sharing a meal and making negotiations. Standish and his men then stabbed and killed them. Standish and his men pursued Obtakiest, a local sachem, but he escaped with three prisoners from Wessagussett; he then executed them. Within a short time, Wessagussett was disbanded, and the survivors were integrated into the town of Plymouth.
Word quickly spread among the indigenous tribes of Standish's attack; many natives abandoned their villages and fled the area. As noted by Philbrick: "Standish's raid had irreparably damaged the human ecology of the region…. It was some time before a new equilibrium came to the region." Edward Winslow reports in his 1624 memoirs Good News from New England that "they forsook their houses, running to and fro like men distracted, living in swamps and other desert places, and so brought manifold diseases amongst themselves, whereof very many are dead". The Pilgrims lost the trade in furs which they had enjoyed with the local tribes, and which was their main source of income for paying off their debts to the Merchant Adventurers. Rather than strengthening their position, Standish's raid had disastrous consequences for the colony, as attested by William Bradford in a letter to the Merchant Adventurers: "we had much damaged our trade, for there where we had most skins the Indians are run away from their habitations". The only positive effect of Standish's raid seemed to be the increased power of the Massasoit-led Wampanoag tribe, the Pilgrims' closest ally in the region.
Growth of Plymouth
A second ship arrived in November 1621 named the Fortune, sent by the Merchant Adventurers one year after the Pilgrims first set foot in New England. It arrived with 37 new settlers for Plymouth. However, the ship had arrived unexpectedly and also without many supplies, so the additional settlers put a strain on the resources of the colony. Among the passengers of the Fortune were several of the original Leiden congregation, including William Brewster's son Jonathan, Edward Winslow's brother John, and Philip Delano (the family name was earlier "de la Noye") whose descendants include President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. The Fortune also carried a letter from the Merchant Adventurers chastising the colony for failure to return goods with the Mayflower that had been promised in return for their support. The Fortune began its return to England laden with £500 worth of goods (equivalent to £ in 2010, or $ at PPP), more than enough to keep the colonists on schedule for repayment of their debt. However, the Fortune was captured by the French before she could deliver her cargo to England, creating an even larger deficit for the colony.
In July 1623, two more ships arrived: the Anne under the command of Captain "Master" William Peirce and Master John Bridges, and the Little James under the command of Captain Emanuel Altham. These ships carried 96 new settlers, among them Leideners, including William Bradford's future wife Alice and William and Mary Brewster's daughters Patience and Fear. Some of the passengers who arrived on the Anne were either unprepared for frontier life or undesirable additions to the colony, and they returned to England the next year. According to Gleason Archer, "those who remained were not willing to join the colony under the terms of the agreement with the Merchant Adventurers. They had embarked for America upon an understanding with the Adventurers that they might settle in a community of their own, or at least be free from the bonds by which the Plymouth colonists were enslaved. A letter addressed to the colonists and signed by thirteen of the merchants recited these facts and urged acceptance of the new comers on the specified terms." The new arrivals were allotted land in the area of the Eel River known as Hobs Hole, which became Wellingsley, a mile south of Plymouth Rock.
In September 1623, another ship arrived carrying settlers destined to refound the failed colony at Weymouth, and they stayed temporarily in Plymouth. In March 1624, a ship arrived bearing a few additional settlers and the first cattle. A 1627 division of cattle lists 156 colonists divided into twelve lots of thirteen colonists each. Another ship arrived in August 1629, also named the Mayflower, with 35 additional members of the Leiden congregation. Ships arrived throughout the period between 1629 and 1630 carrying new settlers, though the exact number is unknown; contemporaneous documents indicate that the colony had almost 300 people by January 1630. In 1643, the colony had an estimated 600 males fit for military service, implying a total population of about 2,000. The estimated total population of Plymouth County was 3,055 by 1690, on the eve of the colony's merger with Massachusetts Bay. It is estimated that the entire population of the colony at the point of its dissolution was around 7,000. For comparison, it is estimated that more than 20,000 settlers had arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony between 1630 and 1640 (a period known as the Great Migration), and the population of all New England was estimated to be about 60,000 by 1678. Plymouth was the first colony in the region, but it was much smaller than Massachusetts Bay Colony by the time they merged.
Military history
Myles Standish
Myles Standish was the military leader of Plymouth Colony from the beginning. He was officially designated as the captain of the colony's militia in February 1621, shortly after the arrival of the Mayflower in December 1620. He organized and led the first party to set foot in New England, an exploratory expedition of Cape Cod upon arrival in Provincetown Harbor. He also led the third expedition, during which Standish fired the first recorded shot by the Pilgrim settlers in an event known as the First Encounter. Standish had training in military engineering from the University of Leiden, and it was he who decided the defensive layout of the settlement when they finally arrived at Plymouth. Standish also organized the able-bodied men into military orders in February of the first winter. During the second winter, he helped design and organize the construction of a large palisade wall surrounding the settlement. Standish led two early military raids on Indian villages: the raid to find and punish Corbitant for his attempted coup, and the killing at Wessagussett called "Standish's raid". The former had the desired effect of gaining the respect of the local Indians; the latter only served to frighten and scatter them, resulting in loss of trade and income.
Pequot War
The first major war in New England was the Pequot War of 1637. The war's roots go back to 1632, when a dispute arose between Dutch fur traders and Plymouth officials over control of the Connecticut River Valley near modern Hartford, Connecticut. Representatives from the Dutch East India Company and Plymouth Colony both had deeds which claimed that they had rightfully purchased the land from the Pequots. A sort of land rush occurred as settlers from Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies tried to beat the Dutch in settling the area; the influx of English settlers also threatened the Pequot. Other confederations in the area sided with the English, including the Narragansetts and Mohegans, who were the traditional enemies of the Pequots. The event that sparked formal hostilities was the capture of a boat and the murder of its captain John Oldham in 1636, an event blamed on allies of the Pequots. In April 1637, a raid on a Pequot village by John Endicott led to a retaliatory raid by Pequot warriors on the town of Wethersfield, Connecticut, where some 30 English settlers were killed. This led to a further retaliation, where a raid led by Captain John Underhill and Captain John Mason burned a Pequot village to the ground near modern Mystic, Connecticut, killing 300 Pequots. Plymouth Colony had little to do with the actual fighting in the war.
When it appeared that the war would resume, four of the New England colonies (Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, New Haven, and Plymouth) formed a defensive compact known as the United Colonies of New England. Edward Winslow was already known for his diplomatic skills, and he was the chief architect of the United Colonies. His experience in the United Provinces of the Netherlands during the Leiden years was key to organizing the confederation. John Adams later considered the United Colonies to be the prototype for the Articles of Confederation, which was the first attempt at a national government.
King Philip's War
Metacomet was the younger son of Massasoit and the heir of Massasoit's position as sachem of the Pokanoket and supreme leader of the Wampanoag. Known to the English as King Philip, he became sachem upon the sudden death of his older brother Wamsutta, also known as Alexander, in 1662.
The cause of the war stems from the increasing numbers of English colonists and their demand for land. As more land was purchased from the Native Americans, they were restricted to smaller territories for themselves. Native American leaders such as King Philip resented the loss of land and looked for a means to slow or reverse it. Of specific concern was the founding of the town of Swansea, which was located only a few miles from the Wampanoag capital at Mount Hope. The General Court of Plymouth began using military force to coerce the sale of Wampanoag land to the settlers of the town.
The proximate cause of the conflict was the death of a Praying Indian named John Sassamon in 1675. Sassamon had been an advisor and friend to King Philip; however, Sassamon's conversion to Christianity had driven the two apart. Accused in the murder of Sassamon were some of Philip's most senior lieutenants. A jury of twelve Englishmen and six Praying Indians found the Native Americans guilty of murder and sentenced them to death. To this day, some debate exists whether King Philip's men actually committed the murder.
Philip had already begun war preparations at his home base near Mount Hope where he started raiding English farms and pillaging their property. In response, Governor Josiah Winslow called out the militia, and they organized and began to move on Philip's position. King Philip's men attacked unarmed women and children in order to receive a ransom. One such attack resulted in the capture of Mary Rowlandson. The memoirs of her capture provided historians with much information on Native American culture during this time period.
The war continued through the rest of 1675 and into the next year. The English were constantly frustrated by the Native Americans' refusal to meet them in pitched battle. They employed a form of guerrilla warfare that confounded the English. Captain Benjamin Church continuously campaigned to enlist the help of friendly Native Americans to help learn how to fight on an even footing with Philip's warrior bands, but he was constantly rebuffed by the Plymouth leadership who mistrusted all Native Americans, thinking them potential enemies. Eventually, Governor Winslow and Plymouth military commander Major William Bradford (son of the late Governor William Bradford) relented and gave Church permission to organize a combined force of English and Native Americans. After securing the alliance of the Sakonnet, he led his combined force in pursuit of Philip, who had thus far avoided any major battles in the war that bears his name. Throughout July 1676, Church's band captured hundreds of Native American warriors, often without much of a fight, though Philip eluded him. Church was given permission to grant amnesty to any captured Native Americans who would agree to join the English side, and his force grew immensely. Philip was killed by a Pocasset Indian, and the war soon ended as an overwhelming English victory.
Eight percent of the English adult male population is estimated to have died during the war, a rather large percentage by most standards. The impact on the Native Americans was far higher, however. So many were killed, fled, or shipped off as slaves that the entire Native American population of New England fell by sixty to eighty percent.
Final years
In 1686, the entire region was reorganized under a single government known as the Dominion of New England; this included the colonies of Plymouth, Rhode Island, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. In 1688, New York, West Jersey, and East Jersey were added. The President of the Dominion Edmund Andros was highly unpopular, and the union did not last. The union was dissolved after news of the Glorious Revolution reached Boston in April 1689, and the citizens of Boston rose up and arrested Andros. When news of these events reached Plymouth, its magistrates reclaimed power.
The return of self-rule for Plymouth Colony was short-lived, however. A delegation of New Englanders led by Increase Mather went to England to negotiate a return of the colonial charters that had been nullified during the Dominion years. The situation was particularly problematic for Plymouth Colony, as it had existed without a formal charter since its founding. Plymouth did not get its wish for a formal charter; instead, a new charter was issued, combining Plymouth Colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony, and other territories. The official date of the proclamation was October 17, 1691, ending the existence of Plymouth Colony, though it was not put into force until the arrival of the charter of the Province of Massachusetts Bay on May 14, 1692, carried by the new royal governor Sir William Phips. The last official meeting of the Plymouth General Court occurred on June 8, 1692.
Life
Religion
The most important religious figure in the colony was John Robinson, an original pastor of the Scrooby congregation and religious leader of the separatists throughout the Leiden years. He never actually set foot in New England, but many of his theological pronouncements shaped the nature and character of the Plymouth church. For example, Robinson stated that women and men have different social roles but neither was lesser in the eyes of God. He taught that men and women have distinct but complementary roles in church, home, and society as a whole, and he referred to women as the "weaker vessel", quoting from 1 Peter 3:7. In matters of religious understanding, he proclaimed that it was the man's role to "guide and go before" women.
The Pilgrims themselves were separatist Puritans, Protestant Christians who separated from the Church of England. They sought to practice Christianity as was done in the times of the Apostles. Following Martin Luther's and John Calvin's Reformation, they believed that the Bible was the only true source of religious teaching and that any additions made to Christianity had no place in Christian practice, especially with regard to church traditions such as clerical vestments or the use of Latin in church services. In particular, they were strongly opposed to the Anglicans' episcopal form of church government. They believed that the church was a community of Christians who made a covenant with God and with one another. Their congregations had a democratic structure. Ministers, teachers, and lay church elders were elected by and responsible to the entire congregation (Calvinist Federalism). Each congregation was independent of all the others and directly subject to Christ's government (theocracy), hence the name Congregationalism. The Pilgrims distinguished themselves from another branch of Puritans in that they sought to "separate" themselves from the Anglican Church, rather than reform it from within. It was this desire to worship from outside of the Anglican Communion that led them first to the Netherlands and ultimately to New England.
Each town in the colony was considered a single church congregation; in later years, some of the larger towns split into two or three congregations. Church attendance was mandatory for all residents of the colony, while church membership was restricted to those who had converted to the faith. In Plymouth Colony, it seems that a simple profession of faith was all that was required for acceptance as a member. This was a more liberal doctrine than the congregations of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, where it was common to conduct detailed interviews with those seeking formal membership. There was no central governing body for the churches. Each individual congregation was left to determine its own standards of membership, hire its own ministers, and conduct its own business.
The church was the most important social institution in the colony. The Bible was the primary religious document of the society, and it also served as the primary legal document. Church membership was socially vital. Education was carried out for religious purposes, motivated by a determination to teach the next generation how to read the Bible. The laws of the colony specifically asked parents to provide for the education of their children, "at least to be able duly to read the Scriptures" and to understand "the main Grounds and Principles of Christian Religion". It was expected that the male head of the household would be responsible for the religious well-being of all its members, children and servants alike.
Most churches used two acts to sanction its members: censure and being "put out". Censure was a formal reprimand for behavior that did not conform with accepted religious and social norms, while being "put out" meant to be removed from church membership. Many social breaches were dealt with through church discipline rather than through civil punishment, from fornication to public drunkenness. Church sanctions seldom held official recognition outside church membership and seldom resulted in civil or criminal proceedings. Nevertheless, such sanctions were a powerful tool of social stability.
The Pilgrims practiced infant baptism. The public baptism ceremony was usually performed within six months of birth. Marriage was considered a civil ceremony, rather than a religious one. Such an arrangement may have been a habit that had developed during the Leiden years, as civil marriage was common in the Netherlands. However, the Pilgrims saw this arrangement as biblical, there being no evidence from Scripture that a minister should preside over a wedding.
Besides the theology espoused by their religious leaders, the people of Plymouth Colony had a strong belief in the supernatural. Richard Greenham was a Puritan theologian whose works were known to the Plymouth residents, and he counseled extensively against turning to magic or wizardry to solve problems. The Pilgrims saw Satan's work in nearly every calamity that befell them; the dark magical arts were very real and present for them. They believed in the presence of malevolent spirits who brought misfortune to people. For example, in 1660, a court inquest into the drowning death of Jeremiah Burroughs determined that a possessed canoe was to blame. Massachusetts Bay Colony experienced an outbreak of witchcraft scares in the 17th century, but there is little evidence that Plymouth was engulfed in anything similar. Witchcraft was listed as a capital crime in the 1636 codification of the laws by the Plymouth General Court, but there were no actual convictions of witches in Plymouth Colony. The court records only show two formal accusations of witchcraft. The first was of Goodwife Holmes in 1661, but it never went to trial. The second was of Mary Ingram in 1677 which resulted in trial and acquittal.
Marriage and family life
Edward Winslow and Susanna White both lost their spouses during the harsh winter of 1620–1621, and the two became the first couple to be married in Plymouth. Governor Bradford presided over the civil ceremony.
In Plymouth Colony, "courtships were usually initiated by the young people themselves, but as a relationship progressed toward something more permanent, the parents became more directly involved." Parents were concerned with the moral and religious qualities of the proposed spouse, as well as the financial means of each party's family. The first step toward marriage was generally a betrothal or pre-contract, a ceremony carried out before two witnesses in which the couple pledged to wed in due time. The couple's intentions were published several weeks or months after the betrothal was contracted. "A betrothed couple was considered to have a special status, not married but no longer unmarried either." Sexual contact was prohibited between a betrothed couple, but the penalty for it was one-fourth of what it was for single persons, and records indicate a relatively high number of babies born less than nine months after a wedding ceremony.
Marriage was considered the normal state for all adult residents of the colony. Most men first married in their mid-twenties and women around age 20. Second marriages were not uncommon, and widows and widowers faced social and economic pressures to remarry; most widows and widowers remarried within six months to a year. Most adults who reached marriageable age lived into their sixties, so effectively two-thirds of a person's life was spent married.
Women in Plymouth Colony had more extensive legal and social rights compared to 17th-century European norms. They were considered equal to men before God from the perspective of the Church. Women were, however, expected to take traditionally feminine roles, such as child-rearing and maintaining the household. Plymouth women enjoyed extensive property and legal rights, unlike European women who had few rights. A wife in Plymouth could not be "written out" of her husband's will and was guaranteed a full third of the family's property upon his death. Women were parties to contracts in Plymouth, most notably prenuptial agreements. It was common for brides-to-be (rather than their fathers) to enter into contractual agreements on the consolidation of property upon marriage. In some cases, especially in second marriages, women were given exclusive right to retain control of their property separately from their husbands. Women were also known to occasionally sit on juries in Plymouth, a remarkable circumstance in seventeenth century legal practice. Historians James and Patricia Scott Deetz cite a 1678 inquest into the death of Anne Batson's child, where the jury was composed of five women and seven men.
Family size in the colony was large by modern American standards, though childbirth was often spaced out, with an average of two years between children. Most families averaged five to six children living under the same roof, though it was not uncommon for one family to have grown children moving out before the mother had finished giving birth. Maternal mortality rates were fairly high; one birth in thirty ended in the death of the mother, resulting in one in five women dying in childbirth. However, "the rate of infant mortality in Plymouth seems to have been relatively low." Demos concludes that "it appears that the rate of infant and child mortality in Plymouth was no more than 25 per cent".
Childhood, adolescence, and education
Children generally remained in the direct care of their mothers until about the age of 8, after which it was not uncommon for the child to be placed in the foster care of another family. Some children were placed into households to learn a trade, others to be taught to read and write. It was assumed that children's own parents would love them too much and would not properly discipline them. By placing children in the care of another family, there was little danger of them being spoiled.
Adolescence was not a recognized phase of life in Plymouth colony, and there was no rite of passage which marked transition from youth to adulthood. Several important transitions occurred at various ages, but none marked a single "coming of age" event. Children were expected to begin learning their adult roles in life quite early by taking on some of the family work or by being placed in foster homes to learn a trade. Orphaned children were given the right to choose their own guardians at age 14. At 16, males became eligible for military duty and were also considered adults for legal purposes, such as standing trial for crimes. Age 21 was the youngest at which a male could become a freeman, though for practical purposes this occurred some time in a man's mid-twenties. Twenty-one was the assumed age of inheritance, as well, although the law respected the rights of the deceased to name an earlier age in his will.
Actual schools were rare in Plymouth colony. The first true school was not founded until 40 years after the foundation of the colony. The General Court first authorized colony-wide funding for formal public schooling in 1673, but only the town of Plymouth made use of these funds at that time. By 1683, though, five additional towns had received this funding.
Education of the young was never considered to be the primary domain of schools, even after they had become more common. Most education was carried out by a child's parents or foster parents. Formal apprenticeships were not the norm in Plymouth; it was expected that a foster family would teach the children whatever trades they themselves practiced. The church also played a central role in a child's education. As noted above, the primary purpose of teaching children to read was so that they could read the Bible for themselves.
Government and laws
Organization
Plymouth Colony did not have a royal charter authorizing it to form a government, yet some means of governance was needed. The Mayflower Compact was the colony's first governing document, signed by the 41 Puritan men aboard the Mayflower upon their arrival in Provincetown Harbor on November 21, 1620. Formal laws were not codified until 1636. The colony's laws were based on a hybrid of English common law and religious law as laid out in the Bible. The colonial authorities were deeply influenced by Calvinist theology, and were convinced that democracy was the form of government mandated by God.
The colony offered nearly all adult males potential citizenship. Full citizens, or "freemen", were accorded full rights and privileges in areas such as voting and holding office. To be considered a freeman, adult males had to be sponsored by an existing freeman and accepted by the General Court. Later restrictions established a one-year waiting period between nominating and granting of freeman status, and also placed religious restrictions on the colony's citizens, specifically preventing Quakers from becoming freemen. Freeman status was also restricted by age; the official minimum age was 21, although in practice most men were elevated to freeman status between the ages of 25 and 40, averaging somewhere in their early thirties. The colony established a disabled veterans' fund in 1636 to support veterans who returned from service with disabilities. In 1641, the Body of Liberties developed protections for people who were unable to perform public service. In 1660, the colonial government restricted voting with a specified property qualification, and they restricted it further in 1671 to only freemen who were "orthodox in the fundamentals of religion".
The colony's most powerful executive was its Governor, who was originally elected by the freemen but was later appointed by the General Court in an annual election. The General Court also elected seven Assistants to form a cabinet to assist the governor. The Governor and Assistants then appointed Constables who served as the chief administrators for the towns, and Messengers who were the main civil servants of the colony. They were responsible for publishing announcements, performing land surveys, carrying out executions, and a host of other duties.
The General Court was the chief legislative and judicial body of the colony. It was elected by the freemen from among their own number and met regularly in Plymouth, the capital town of the colony. As part of its judicial duties, it would periodically call a Grand Enquest, which was a grand jury of sorts elected from the freemen, who would hear complaints and swear out indictments for credible accusations. The General Court, and later lesser town and county courts, would preside over trials of accused criminals and over civil matters, but the ultimate decisions were made by a jury of freemen.
The General Court as the legislative and judicial bodies, and the Governor as the chief executive of the colony constituted a political system of division of power. It followed a recommendation in John Calvin's political theory to set up several institutions which complement and control each other in a system of checks and balances in order to minimize the misuse of political power. In 1625, the settlers had repaid their debts and thus gained complete possession of the colony. The colony was a de facto republic, since neither an English company nor the King and Parliament exerted any influence—a representative democracy governed on the principles of the Mayflower Compact ("self-rule").
Laws
As a legislative body, the General Court could make proclamations of law as needed. These laws were not formally compiled anywhere in the early years of the colony; they were first organized and published in the 1636 Book of Laws. The book was reissued in 1658, 1672, and 1685. These laws included the levying of "rates" or taxes and the distribution of colony lands. The General Court established townships as a means of providing local government over settlements, but reserved for itself the right to control specific distribution of land to individuals within those towns. When new land was granted to a freeman, it was directed that only the person to whom the land was granted was allowed to settle it. It was forbidden for individual settlers to purchase land from Native Americans without formal permission from the General Court. The government recognized the precarious peace that existed with the Wampanoag, and wished to avoid antagonizing them by buying up all of their land.
The laws also set out crimes and their associated punishment. There were several crimes that carried the death penalty: treason, murder, witchcraft, arson, sodomy, rape, bestiality, adultery, and cursing or smiting one's parents. The actual exercise of the death penalty was fairly rare; only one sex-related crime resulted in execution, a 1642 incidence of bestiality by Thomas Granger. Edward Bumpus was sentenced to death for "striking and abusing his parents" in 1679, but his sentence was commuted to a severe whipping by reason of insanity. Perhaps the most notable use of the death penalty was in the execution of the Native Americans convicted of the murder of John Sassamon; this helped lead to King Philip's War. Though nominally a capital crime, adultery was usually dealt with by public humiliation only. Convicted adulterers were often forced to wear the letters "A.D." sewn into their garments, much in the manner of Hester Prynne in Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel The Scarlet Letter.
Several laws dealt with indentured servitude, a legal status whereby a person would work off debts or be given training in exchange for a period of unrecompensed service. The law required that all indentured servants had to be registered by the Governor or one of the Assistants, and that no period of indenture could be less than six months. Further laws forbade a master from shortening the length of time of service required for his servant, and also confirmed that any indentured servants whose period of service began in England would still be required to complete their service while in Plymouth.
Official seal
The seal of the Plymouth Colony was designed in 1629 and is still used by the town of Plymouth. It depicts four figures within a shield bearing St George's Cross, apparently in Native-American style clothing, each carrying the burning heart symbol of John Calvin. The seal was also used by the County of Plymouth until 1931.
Geography
Boundaries
Without a clear land patent for the area, the settlers settled without a charter to form a government and, as a result, it was often unclear in the early years what land was under the colony's jurisdiction. In 1644, "The Old Colony Line"—which had been surveyed in 1639—was formally accepted as the boundary between Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth.
The situation was more complicated along the border with Rhode Island. Roger Williams settled in the area of Rehoboth in 1636, near modern Pawtucket. He was forcibly evicted in order to maintain Plymouth's claim to the area. Williams moved to the west side of the Pawtucket River to found the settlement of Providence, the nucleus for the colony of Rhode Island, which was formally established with the "Providence Plantations Patent" of 1644. Various settlers from both Rhode Island and Plymouth began to settle along the area, and the exact nature of the western boundary of Plymouth became unclear. The issue was not fully resolved until the 1740s, long after the dissolution of Plymouth Colony itself. Rhode Island had received a patent for the area in 1693, which had been disputed by Massachusetts Bay Colony. Rhode Island successfully defended the patent, and a royal decree in 1746 transferred the land to Rhode Island along the eastern shore of the Narragansett Bay, including the mainland portion of Newport County and all of modern Bristol County, Rhode Island. The border itself continued to be contested by Massachusetts, first as a colony and later as a state, until as late as 1898, when the boundary was settled and ratified by both states.
Counties and towns
For most of its history, the town was the primary administrative unit and political division of the colony. Plymouth Colony was not formally divided into counties until June 2, 1685, during the reorganization that led to the formation of the Dominion of New England. Three counties were composed of the following towns.
Barnstable County on Cape Cod:
Barnstable, the shire town (county seat) of the county, first settled in 1639 and incorporated 1650.
Eastham, site of the "First Encounter", first settled 1644 and incorporated as the town of Nauset in 1646, name changed to Eastham in 1651.
Falmouth, first settled in 1661 and incorporated as Succonesset in 1686.
Rochester, settled 1638, incorporated 1686.
Sandwich, first settled in 1637 and incorporated in 1639.
Yarmouth, Originally named Mattacheese by the native Americans, it was named for a seaport at the mouth of the Yar river in England and incorporated in 1639.
Bristol County along the shores of Buzzards Bay and Narragansett Bay; part of this county was later ceded to Rhode Island:
Taunton, the shire town of the county, incorporated 1639 and grew due to the early discovery of bog-iron.
Bristol, incorporated 1680 and including the former locations of Sowams and Montaup (Mount Hope), which were Massasoit's and King Philip's capitals, respectively. Ceded to Rhode Island in 1746 and is now part of Bristol County, Rhode Island.
Dartmouth, incorporated 1664. Dartmouth was the site of a significant massacre by the Indian forces during King Philip's War. It was also the location of a surrender of a group of some 160 of Philip's forces who were later sold into slavery.
Freetown, Originally known as "Assonet" to the natives, and "Freemen's Land" by its first settlers. Settlement records are lost however it was incorporated under its current name in July 1683.
Little Compton, incorporated as Sakonnet in 1682, ceded to Rhode Island in 1746 and is now part of Newport County, Rhode Island.
Rehoboth, first settled 1644 and incorporated 1645. Nearby to, but distinct from the Rehoboth settlement of Roger Williams, which is now the town of Pawtucket, Rhode Island.
Swansea, founded as the township of Wannamoiset in 1667, incorporated as town of Swansea in 1668. It was here that the first English casualty occurred in King Philip's War.
Plymouth County, located along the western shores of Cape Cod Bay:
Plymouth, the shire town of the county and capital of the colony. This was the original 1620 settlement of the Mayflower Pilgrims, and continued as the largest and most significant settlement in the colony until its dissolution in 1691.
Bridgewater, purchased from Massasoit by Myles Standish, and originally named Duxburrow New Plantation, it was incorporated as Bridgewater in 1656.
Duxbury, founded by Myles Standish, it was incorporated in 1637. Other notable residents of Duxbury included John Alden, William Brewster, and Governor Thomas Prence.
Marshfield, settled 1632, incorporated 1640. Home to Governor Edward Winslow. Also home to Josiah Winslow, who was governor of the colony during King Philip's War, and to Peregrine White, the first English child born in New England.
Middleborough, incorporated 1669 as Middleberry. Named for its location as the halfway point on the journey from Plymouth to Mount Hope, the Wampanoag capital.
Scituate, settled 1628 and incorporated 1636. The town was the site of a major attack by King Philip's forces in 1676.
Demographics
English
The settlers of Plymouth Colony fit broadly into three categories: Pilgrims, Strangers, and Particulars. The Pilgrims were a Puritan group who closely followed the teachings of John Calvin, like the later founders of Massachusetts Bay Colony to the north. (The difference was that the Massachusetts Bay Puritans hoped to reform the Anglican church from within, whereas the Pilgrims saw it as a morally defunct organization and removed themselves from it.) The name "Pilgrims" was actually not used by the settlers themselves. William Bradford used the term to describe the group, but he was using it generically to define them as travelers on a religious mission. The Pilgrims referred to themselves as the Saints, First Comers, Ancient Brethren, or Ancient Men. They used such terms to indicate their place as God's elect, as they subscribed to the Calvinist belief in predestination. "The First Comers" was a term more loosely used in their day to refer to any of the Mayflower passengers. There were also a number of indentured servants among the colonists. Indentured servants were mostly poor children whose families were receiving church relief and "homeless waifs from the streets of London sent as laborers".
In addition to the Pilgrims, the Mayflower carried "Strangers", the non-Puritan settlers placed on the Mayflower by the Merchant Adventurers who provided various skills needed to establish a colony. This also included later settlers who came for other reasons throughout the history of the colony and who did not adhere to the Pilgrim religious ideals. A third group known as the "Particulars" consisted of later settlers who paid their own "particular" way to America, and thus were not obligated to pay the colony's debts.
The presence of outsiders such as the Strangers and the Particulars was a considerable annoyance to the Pilgrims. As early as 1623, a conflict broke out between the Pilgrims and the Strangers over the celebration of Christmas, a day of no particular significance to the Pilgrims. Furthermore, a group of Strangers founded the nearby settlement of Wessagussett and the Pilgrims were highly strained by their lack of discipline, both emotionally and in terms of resources. They looked at the eventual failure of the Wessagussett settlement as Divine Providence against a sinful people. The residents of Plymouth also used terms to distinguish between the earliest settlers of the colony and those who came later. The first generation of settlers called themselves the Old Comers or Planters, those who arrived before 1627. Later generations of Plymouth residents referred to this group as the Forefathers.
Historian John Demos did a demographic study in A Little Commonwealth (1970). He reports that the colony's average household grew from 7.8 children per family for first-generation families to 8.6 children for second-generation families and to 9.3 for third-generation families. Child mortality also decreased over this time, with 7.2 children born to first-generation families living until their 21st birthday. That number increased to 7.9 children by the third generation. Life expectancy was higher for men than for women. Of the men who survived until age 21, the average life expectancy was 69.2 years. Over 55 percent of these men lived past 70; less than 15 percent died before the age of 50. The numbers were much lower for women owing to the difficulties of childbearing. The average life expectancy of women at the age of 21 was 62.4 years. Of these women, fewer than 45 percent lived past 70, and about 30 percent died before the age of 50.
During King Philip's War, Plymouth Colony lost eight percent of its adult male population. By the end of the war, one-third of New England's approximately 100 towns had been burned and abandoned, and this had a significant demographic effect on the population of New England.
Native Americans
The Native Americans in New England were organized into loose tribal confederations, sometimes called "nations". Among these confederations were the Nipmucks, the Massachusett, the Narragansett, the Niantics, the Mohegan, and the Wampanoag. Several significant events dramatically altered the demographics of the Native American population in the region. The first was "Standish's raid" on Wessagussett, which frightened Native American leaders to the extent that many abandoned their settlements, resulting in many deaths through starvation and disease. The second, the Pequot War, resulted in the dissolution of the Pequot tribe and a major shift in the local power structure. The third, King Philip's War, had the most dramatic effect on local populations, resulting in the death or displacement of as much as 80% of the total number of Native Americans of southern New England and the enslavement and removal of thousands of Native Americans to the Caribbean and other locales.
Black and indigenous slaves
Some of the wealthier families in Plymouth Colony owned slaves that were considered the property of their owners, unlike indentured servants, and passed on to heirs like any other property. Slave ownership was not widespread and very few families possessed the wealth necessary to own slaves. In 1674, the inventory of Capt. Thomas Willet of Marshfield includes "8 Negroes" at a value of £200. In the July 29th, 1680 codicil to the will of Peter Worden of Yarmouth, he bequeathed ownership of his "Indian servant" to his wife Mary, to be passed on to their son Samuel upon her decease. The unnamed slave was dutifully recorded in the January 21st, 1681 inventory of Worden's estate at the original purchase price of £4 10s. Other inventories of the time valued "Negro" slaves at £24–25 each (equivalent to £ in 2010, or $ at PPP), well out of the financial ability of most families. A 1689 census of the town of Bristol shows that, of the 70 families that lived there, only one had a black slave. So few were black and indigenous slaves in the colony that the General Court never saw fit to pass any laws dealing with them.
Economy
The largest source of wealth for Plymouth Colony was the fur trade. The disruption of this trade caused by Myles Standish's raid at Wessagussett created great hardship for the colonists for many years and was directly cited by William Bradford as a contributing factor to the economic difficulties in their early years. The colonists attempted to supplement their income by fishing; the waters in Cape Cod bay were known to be excellent fisheries. However, they lacked any skill in this area, and it did little to relieve their economic hardship. The colony traded throughout the region, establishing trading posts as far away as Penobscot, Maine. They were also frequent trading partners with the Dutch at New Amsterdam.
The economic situation improved with the arrival of cattle in the colony. It is unknown when the first cattle arrived, but the division of land for the grazing of cattle in 1627 represented one of the first moves towards private land ownership in the colony. Cattle became an important source of wealth in the colony; the average cow could sell for £28 in 1638 (£ in 2010, or $ at parity). However, the flood of immigrants during the Great Migration drove down the price of cattle. The same cows sold at £28 in 1638 were valued in 1640 at only £5 (£ in 2010, or $ at parity). Besides cattle, there were also pigs, sheep, and goats raised in the colony.
Agriculture also made up an important part of the Plymouth economy. The colonists adopted Indian agricultural practices and crops. They planted maize, squash, pumpkins, and beans. Besides the crops themselves, the Pilgrims learned productive farming techniques from the Indians, such as proper crop rotation and the use of dead fish to fertilize the soil. In addition to these native crops, the colonists also successfully planted Old World crops such as turnips, carrots, peas, wheat, barley, and oats.
Overall, there was very little cash in Plymouth Colony, so most wealth was accumulated in the form of possessions. Trade goods such as furs, fish, and livestock were subject to fluctuations in price and were unreliable repositories of wealth. Durable goods such as fine wares, clothes, and furnishings represented an important source of economic stability for the residents.
Currency was another issue in the colonies. In 1652 the Massachusetts legislature authorized John Hull to produce coinage (mintmaster). "The Hull Mint produced several denominations of silver coinage, including the pine tree shilling, for over 30 years until the political and economic situation made operating the mint no longer practical." Mostly political for King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland deemed the "Hull Mint" high treason in the United Kingdom which had a punishment of hanging, drawing and quartering. "On April 6, 1681, Randolph petitioned the king, informing him the colony was still pressing their own coins which he saw as high treason and believed it was enough to void the charter. He asked that a writ of Quo warranto (a legal action requiring the defendant to show what authority they have for exercising some right, power, or franchise they claim to hold) be issued against Massachusetts for the violations."
Legacy
The events surrounding the founding and history of Plymouth Colony have had a lasting effect on the art, traditions, mythology, and politics of the United States of America, despite its short history of fewer than 72 years.
Art, literature, and film
The earliest artistic depiction of the Pilgrims was actually done before their arrival in America; Dutch painter Adam Willaerts painted a portrait of their departure from Delfshaven in 1620. The same scene was repainted by Robert Walter Weir in 1844, and hangs in the Rotunda of the United States Capitol building. Numerous other paintings have been created memorializing various scenes from the life of Plymouth Colony, including their landing and the "First Thanksgiving", many of which have been collected by Pilgrim Hall, a museum and historical society founded in 1824 to preserve the history of the Colony.
Several contemporaneous accounts of life in Plymouth Colony have become both vital primary historical documents and literary classics. Of Plimoth Plantation (1630 and 1651) by William Bradford and Mourt's Relation (1622) by Bradford, Edward Winslow, and others are both accounts written by Mayflower passengers that provide much of the information which we have today regarding the trans-Atlantic voyage and early years of the settlement.
Benjamin Church wrote several accounts of King Philip's War, including Entertaining Passages Relating to Philip's War, which remained popular throughout the 18th century. An edition of the work was illustrated by Paul Revere in 1772. The Sovereignty and Goodness of God provides an account of King Philip's War from the perspective of Mary Rowlandson, an Englishwoman who was captured and spent some time in the company of Native Americans during the war. Later works, such as "The Courtship of Miles Standish" by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, have provided a romantic and partially fictionalized account of life in Plymouth Colony.
There are also numerous films about the Pilgrims, including the several film adaptations of "The Courtship of Miles Standish"; the 1952 film Plymouth Adventure starring Spencer Tracy; and Desperate Crossings: The True Story of the Mayflower, a 2006 television documentary produced by the History Channel.
In 1970, the United States Postal Service issued a three hundred and fiftieth-year commemorative stamp recognizing the English dissenters first landing at the modern day settlement of Provincetown, Massachusetts in 1620.
Thanksgiving
Each year, the United States celebrates a holiday known as Thanksgiving on the fourth Thursday of November. It is a federal holiday and frequently involves a family gathering with a large feast, traditionally featuring a turkey. Civic recognitions of the holiday typically include parades and football games. The holiday is meant to honor the First Thanksgiving, which was a harvest feast held in Plymouth in 1621, as first recorded in the book New England's Memorial by Nathaniel Morton, secretary of Plymouth Colony and nephew of Governor William Bradford.
The annual Thanksgiving holiday is a fairly recent creation. Throughout the early 19th century, the U.S. government had declared a particular day as a national day of Thanksgiving, but these were one-time declarations meant to celebrate a significant event, such as victory in a battle. The northeastern states began adopting an annual day of Thanksgiving in November shortly after the end of the War of 1812. Sarah Josepha Hale, editor of Boston's Ladies' Magazine, wrote editorials beginning in 1827 which called for the nationwide expansion of this annual day of thanksgiving to commemorate the Pilgrim's first harvest feast. After nearly 40 years, Abraham Lincoln declared the first modern Thanksgiving to fall on the last Thursday in November in 1863. Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Congress ultimately moved it to the fourth Thursday in November. After some sparring as to the date, the holiday was recognized by Congress as an official federal holiday in 1941.
Some of the modern traditions which have developed alongside the Thanksgiving holiday are the National Football League's Thanksgiving Day games and the annual Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York City.
Plymouth Rock
One of the enduring symbols of the landing of the Pilgrims is Plymouth Rock, a large granodiorite boulder that was near their landing site at Plymouth. However, none of the contemporary accounts of the actual landing makes any mention that the Rock was the specific place of landing. The Pilgrims chose the site for their landing not for the rock, but for a small brook nearby that was a source of fresh water and fish.
The first identification of Plymouth Rock as the actual landing site was in 1741 by 90-year-old Thomas Faunce, whose father had arrived in Plymouth in 1623, three years after the supposed event. The rock was later covered by a solid-fill pier. In 1774, an attempt was made to excavate the rock, but it broke in two. The severed piece was placed in the Town Square at the center of Plymouth. In 1880, the intact half of the rock was excavated from the pier, and the broken piece was reattached to it. Over the years, souvenir hunters have removed chunks from the rock, but the remains are now protected as part of the complex of living museums. These include the Mayflower II, a recreation of the original ship; Plimoth Plantation, a historical recreation of the original 1620 settlement; and the Wampanoag Homesite, which recreates a 17th-century Indian village.
Political legacy
The democratic setup of Plymouth Colony had a strong influence on shaping democracy in both England and America. William Bradford's History of Plimoth Plantation was widely read in the motherland. It influenced the political thought of Puritan politician and poet John Milton, assistant to Oliver Cromwell, and philosopher John Locke. For example, Locke referred to the Mayflower Compact in his Letters Concerning Toleration. In America, Plymouth Colony initiated a democratic tradition that was followed by Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628), Connecticut Colony (1636), the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (1636), the Province of New Jersey, and Pennsylvania (1681). Roger Williams established Providence Plantations specifically as a safe haven for those who experienced religious persecution, thereby adding freedom of conscience to Plymouth's democratic model.
The Mayflower Society
The General Society of Mayflower Descendants, or The Mayflower Society, is a genealogical organization of individuals who have documented their descent from one or more of the 102 passengers who arrived on the Mayflower in 1620. The Society, founded at Plymouth in 1897, claims that tens of millions of Americans are descended from these passengers, and it offers research services for people seeking to document their descent.
See also
English colonial empire
European colonization of the Americas
British colonization of the Americas
Colonial America
Plantation (settlement or colony)
List of colonial governors of Massachusetts (includes Plymouth)
Locations related to Plymouth Colony
Alexander Standish House
Burial Hill, site of the first fort at New Plymouth, originally known as Fort Hill
Cole's Hill, contained the original cemetery at New Plymouth, later moved to Burial Hill
First Parish Church in Plymouth, the modern descendant of the Scrooby congregation that founded Plymouth Colony
First Parish Church (Duxbury, Massachusetts), another early congregation founded by the Pilgrims
Harlow Old Fort House, a private house built in 1677 in Plymouth, partially out of timbers of the original fort built in 1621
Jabez Howland House
Jenney Grist Mill
John and Priscilla Alden Family Sites
Leyden Street, claimed to be the first street in Plymouth Colony
Myles Standish Burial Ground contains remains of several important Pilgrims, including Myles Standish
Plymouth Village Historic District
Town Brook Historic and Archaeological District
Monuments and other commemorations
Myles Standish Monument State Reservation
National Monument to the Forefathers
Pilgrim Hall Museum
Pilgrim Monument
Plimoth Plantation
Plymouth Antiquarian Society
Plymouth Rock
Notes
References
Works cited
External links
Colonial America: Plymouth Colony 1620—A short history of Plymouth Colony hosted at U-S-History.com, includes a map of all of the New England colonies.
The Plymouth Colony Archive Project—A collection of primary sources documents and secondary source analysis related to Plymouth Colony.
Pilgrim ships from 1602 to 1638—Pilgrim ships searchable by ship name, sailing date and passengers.
History of the Town of Plymouth 1620...—Free Google eBook; PDF format
1620 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
1691 disestablishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Colonial United States (British)
Dominion of New England
Former English colonies
History of the Thirteen Colonies
Massachusetts culture
Plymouth, Massachusetts
Politically motivated migrations
Pre-statehood history of Massachusetts
States and territories disestablished in 1691
States and territories established in 1620 | [
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218111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-necked%20raven | White-necked raven | The white-necked raven (Corvus albicollis) is somewhat smaller (50–54 cm in length) than the common raven or its nearest relative, the thick-billed raven C. crassirostris. It is native to eastern and southern Africa.
Description
The white-necked raven has a much shorter tail than the common raven, as well as a deeper bill with a white tip that is almost as strongly arched as that of the thick-billed raven. Though predominantly black, the throat, breast and neck show a faint purple gloss. There is a large patch of white feathers on the nape of the neck.
Soars well with shallower wingbeats than other Corvidae.
Measurements
Length 50 – 54 cm
Wingspan 752 – 860 mm (17 unsexed birds)
Weight 762 - 865g
Vocalisation
Often described as a raven with a sore throat, it has very similar calls to the common raven, but with a more husky note. It has a croak like the other raven species but with a more whispering note. Like all corvids, the White-necked raven is capable of vocal mimicry. However, this behavior is only ever recorded in captivity.
Distribution and habitat
It occurs in eastern and southern Africa in open, mountainous country. It is quite commonly found in small towns and villages as long as there are mountains or hills for roosting and nesting relatively nearby.
Behaviour
Most of this bird's food is obtained from the ground, but it will take food from trees as well. It has been seen to drop a tortoise from a height on to hard ground, preferably on rocks, and then swoop down to eat it, or even pick it up again if not sufficiently broken. White-necked ravens will also readily take carrion from road kills. Fruit, grain, insects, small reptiles, peanuts and human food are also readily taken, and the bird forages in back yards and gardens quite openly. Like all or most raven species, White-necked ravens form flocks after leaving their parents and, once fully matured, will pair off and form territories. They are often found in the company of other scavengers such as kites or vultures.
Nests are bowls of sticks lined with grass, hair, and wool, built mainly on cliff ledges but occasionally found in trees. There are usually 3-5 eggs laid.
References
External links
White-necked raven - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
Photos
Videos, photos and sounds
white-necked raven
Birds of East Africa
Birds of Southern Africa
white-necked raven
Talking birds
white-necked raven
white-necked raven | [
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218113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ndre%20Nordstrand | Søndre Nordstrand | Søndre Nordstrand (Southern Nordstrand) is a borough of the city of Oslo, Norway. It is the southernmost borough of Oslo, bordering Nordstrand. As of 2020 it has 39,066 inhabitants and the highest rate of immigrant population at 56%. It is the only borough of Oslo that has a majority-minority population.
Neighborhoods in Søndre Nordstrand include:
Holmlia
Hvervenbukta
Mortensrud
Hauketo
Prinsdal
Bjørndal
Klemetsrud
References
Boroughs of Oslo
Ethnic enclaves in Norway | [
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218114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furuset | Furuset | Furuset is residential and suburban area, situated in the northeast of Oslo, Norway. It was a separate borough of Oslo up to January 1, 2004, when it became part of the new borough of Alna. Furuset is a suburb in eastern Groruddalen, consisting of both residential blocks and houses.
Furuset Church (Furuset Kirke) was built during 1980. The church belongs to Ellingsrud Furuset parish and Østre Aker deanery. The church is located at Ulsholtveien 37, just south of Furuset Cultural Park (Furuset kulturpark).
References
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218115 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Hanshaugen | St. Hanshaugen | St. Hanshaugen (Norwegian for St. John's Hill) is a borough of the city of Oslo, Norway.
Area
It has a triangular shape, with its northern border just north of the buildings of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation and Ullevål University Hospital, and south of the University of Oslo campus at Blindern. In the east, the boundary runs just west of the river Akerselva, then down Storgata before it turns north, up Grensen, Pilestredet and Suhms gate.
The borough has its name from St. Hanshaugen Park that lies centrally within it, where the citizens used to celebrate summer solstice (St. Hans in Norwegian). The park was planted by the city in the years 1876-86; it has a pavilion, and a reflecting pool covering a reservoir. The neighbourhood St. Hanshaugen is located west and south of the park, with shopping, eating and public transport where the streets Ullevålsveien and Waldemar Thranes gate meets. There is also the traditional restaurant Schrøder, known for one of its regulars, Jo Nesbøs fictional figure Harry Hole.
To the southeast of the park is Oslo’s oldest building – Aker Kirke, built around 1100, but restored from ruins around 1860, and then again in the 1950s in a more authentic style. Next to the church is the cemetery Vår Frelsers gravlund, created in 1808 as a result of the great famine and cholera epidemic of the Napoleonic Wars. The nearby area around Damstredet and Telthusbakken is interesting since it retains the small town character of Oslo in the first part of the 19th century.
To the southwest of the park is Bislett stadion, founded in 1907. Finished in 1940, this was the main venue of the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo. The stadium was demolished in 2004, and a new stadion was built in its place.
The borough also contains the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, the cemeteries Nordre Gravlund and Vestre Aker, and Youngstorget – home of the Norwegian labour movement.
Park
St. Hanshaugen is one of Oslo's largest parks, just north of the city centre. This popular recreational area is great for walks, and from the top of the hill you have a nice view of Oslo.
St. Hanshaugen was originally a bare rock hill. In the 1840s the name St. Hanshaugen ("midsummer hill") came into use, as the hill was a popular place for midsummer celebrations. In 1855 it was decided that parts of the hill was to be planted, and a big part of the hill was turned into a park in the next 30 years. The park also got a park keeper house, an artificial creek and a pavilion on the square Festplassen, and the park was expanded. Through the years, a number of statues were also placed in the park. In 1936, the park got an open-air café on Festplassen - the square on top of the hill - which is still a popular summer café today.
Demographics
January 1, 2020, there were 38,945 people living in the borough. Of the population in 2004 13,093 (49%) were male. There were 1,918 immigrants from western countries and 2,488 from non-western countries. The countries with most immigrants were Sweden (789), Denmark (272), Pakistan (191), Somalia (188) and Vietnam (182). There were 537 births in 2003, and 260 deaths. The same year 8,139 people moved into the borough, while 8,101 moved out. The average income for the borough was NOK 262,534, somewhat higher than the average for the city of 254,429.
In 2001, 59.4% of those over 20 years old in private households were living alone (national average 37.5%). Of the remainder, 15.7% were cohabitants and 24.9% married (national average 12.2% and 50.2% respectively).
Politics
In the municipal election of 2007 all borough councils became elective, until then most had been appointed by the city council. Labour and the Conservatives each gained 4 seats, the Socialist Left have 3, the Liberals 2, the Progress Party and the Red Electoral Alliance 1 each.
The municipal election of 2011 changed the composition of the council. The Conservative Party became the biggest, winning 5 seats, while Labour kept its 4, the Liberal Party its 2, and the Red Party its 1 seat. The Socialist Left and the Progress Party lost one seat each, ending at 2 and 0, respectively. The Green Party won its first St. Hanshaugen-seat. This result allowed Torunn Kanutte Husvik of the Labour Party to continue as leader of the borough council.
In the 2015 municipal election, the Conservative Party and Labour won 4 seats each, though the former remained the largest party in terms of votes. The Green Party had a breakthrough election, winning 3 seats, while the Liberal Party retained its 2 seats and the Socialist Left and the Red Party won 1 seat each. After the election, the Conservatives, the Greens and the Liberals signed a cooperation agreement, making Anne Christine Kroepelien of the Conservative Party the new leader of the borough council.
References
External links
History (in Norwegian)
Map (pdf)
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218116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enabling%20Act%20of%201933 | Enabling Act of 1933 | The Enabling Act (German: ) of 1933, officially titled ("Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich"), was a law that gave the German Cabinet—most importantly, the Chancellor—the powers to make and enforce laws without the involvement of the Reichstag or Weimar President Paul von Hindenburg. Critically, the Enabling Act allowed the Chancellor to bypass the system of checks and balances in the government and the laws created under it could explicitly violate individual rights prescribed in the Weimar Constitution.
In January 1933 Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler convinced President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint him as chancellor, the head of the German government. Four weeks into his chancellorship, the Reichstag building caught fire in the middle of the night. Hitler blamed the incident on the communists and was convinced the arson was part of a larger effort to overthrow the German government. Using this justification, Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to enact the Reichstag Fire Decree. The decree abolished most civil liberties including the right to speak, assemble, protest, and due process. Using the decree the Nazis declared a state of emergency and began to arrest, intimidate, and purge their political enemies. Communists and labor union leaders were the first to be arrested and interned in the first Nazi concentration camps. By clearing the political arena of anyone willing to challenge him, Hitler submitted a proposal to the Reichstag that would immediately grant all legislative powers to the cabinet. This would in effect allow Hitler's government to act without concern to the constitution.
Despite outlawing the communists and repressing other opponents, the passage of the Enabling Act was not a guarantee. Hitler allied with other nationalists and socialist factions and they steamrolled over the Social Democrats in the March 5, 1933 German Federal Election. That election would be the last multiparty election held in a united Germany until 1990, fifty-seven years later, and occurred in an atmosphere of extreme voter intimidation on the part of the Nazis. Contrary to popular belief, Adolf Hitler did not command a majority in the Reichstag voting on the Enabling Act. The majority of Germans did not vote for the Nazi party, as Hitler's total vote was less than 45% despite the terror and fear fomented by his repression. In order for the enabling act to be passed the Nazis implemented a strategy of coercion, bribery, and manipulation. Hitler removed any remaining political obstacle so his coalition of conservatives, nationalists, and National Socialists could begin building the Nazi dictatorship. The Communists had already been repressed and were not allowed to be present or to vote, and some Social Democrats were kept away as well. In the end most of those present voted for the act, except for the Social Democrats, who all voted against it.
The act passed in both the Reichstag and Reichsrat on 23 March 1933, and was signed by President Paul von Hindenburg later that day. Unless extended by the Reichstag, the act would expire after four years. With the Enabling Act now in force, the chancellor could pass and enforce unconstitutional laws without any objection. The combined effect of the two laws ultimately transformed Hitler's cabinet into a legal dictatorship and laid the groundwork for his totalitarian regime. The Nazis dramatically escalated the political repression, the party now armed with the Enabling Act outlawed all political activity and by July, the Nazis were the only legal party allowed to participate. The Reichstag from 1933 onward effectively became the rubber stamp parliament that Hitler always wanted. The Enabling Act would be renewed twice and would be rendered null once Nazi Germany collapsed to the Allies in 1945.
The passing of the Enabling Act is significant in German and world history as it marked the formal transition from the democratic Weimar Republic to the totalitarian Nazi dictatorship. From 1933 onwards Hitler continued to consolidate and centralize power via purges, and propaganda. The Hitlerian purges reached their height with the Night of the Long Knives. Once the purges of the Nazi party and German government concluded, Hitler had total control and authority over Germany and began the process of rearmament. Thus began the political and military struggles that ultimately culminated in the Second World War.
Background
After being appointed Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, Hitler asked President von Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag. A general election was scheduled for 5 March 1933. A secret meeting was held between Hitler and 20 to 25 industrialists at the official residence of Hermann Göring in the Reichstag Presidential Palace, aimed at financing the election campaign of the Nazi Party.
The burning of the Reichstag, depicted by the Nazis as the beginning of a communist revolution, resulted in the presidential Reichstag Fire Decree, which among other things suspended freedom of press and habeas corpus rights just five days before the election. Hitler used the decree to have the Communist Party's offices raided and its representatives arrested, effectively eliminating them as a political force.
Although they received five million more votes than in the previous election, the Nazis failed to gain an absolute majority in parliament, and depended on the 8% of seats won by their coalition partner, the German National People's Party, to reach 52% in total.
To free himself from this dependency, Hitler had the cabinet, in its first post-election meeting on 15 March, draw up plans for an Enabling Act which would give the cabinet legislative power for four years. The Nazis devised the Enabling Act to gain complete political power without the need of the support of a majority in the Reichstag and without the need to bargain with their coalition partners. The Nazi regime was unique compared to its contemporaries most famously Joseph Stalin because Hitler did not seek to draft a completely new constitution whereas Stalin did so. Technically the Weimar Constitution of 1919 remained in effect even after the Enabling Act, only losing force when Berlin fell to the Soviet Union in 1945 and Germany surrendered.
Preparations and negotiations
The Enabling Act allowed the National Ministry (essentially the cabinet) to enact legislation, including laws deviating from or altering the constitution, without the consent of the Reichstag. Because this law allowed for departures from the constitution, it was itself considered a constitutional amendment. Thus, its passage required the support of two-thirds of those deputies who were present and voting. A quorum of two-thirds of the entire Reichstag was required to be present in order to call up the bill.
The Social Democrats (SPD) and the Communists (KPD) were expected to vote against the Act. The government had already arrested all Communist and some Social Democrat deputies under the Reichstag Fire Decree. The Nazis expected the parties representing the middle class, the Junkers and business interests to vote for the measure, as they had grown weary of the instability of the Weimar Republic and would not dare to resist.
Hitler believed that with the Centre Party members' votes, he would get the necessary two-thirds majority. Hitler negotiated with the Centre Party's chairman, Ludwig Kaas, a Catholic priest, finalizing an agreement by 22 March. Kaas agreed to support the Act in exchange for assurances of the Centre Party's continued existence, the protection of Catholics' civil and religious liberties, religious schools and the retention of civil servants affiliated with the Centre Party. It has also been suggested that some members of the SPD were intimidated by the presence of the Nazi Sturmabteilung (SA) throughout the proceedings.
Some historians, such as Klaus Scholder, have maintained that Hitler also promised to negotiate a Reichskonkordat with the Holy See, a treaty that formalized the position of the Catholic Church in Germany on a national level. Kaas was a close associate of Cardinal Pacelli, then Vatican Secretary of State (and later Pope Pius XII). Pacelli had been pursuing a German concordat as a key policy for some years, but the instability of Weimar governments as well as the enmity of some parties to such a treaty had blocked the project. The day after the Enabling Act vote, Kaas went to Rome in order to, in his own words, "investigate the possibilities for a comprehensive understanding between church and state". However, so far no evidence for a link between the Enabling Act and the Reichskonkordat signed on 20 July 1933 has surfaced.
Text
As with most of the laws passed in the process of Gleichschaltung, the Enabling Act is quite short, especially considering its implications. The full text, in German and English, follows:
Articles 1 and 4 gave the government the right to draw up the budget and approve treaties without input from the Reichstag.
Passage
Debate within the Centre Party continued until the day of the vote, 23 March 1933, with Kaas advocating voting in favour of the act, referring to an upcoming written guarantee from Hitler, while former Chancellor Heinrich Brüning called for a rejection of the Act. The majority sided with Kaas, and Brüning agreed to maintain party discipline by voting for the Act.
The Reichstag, led by its President, Hermann Göring, changed its rules of procedure to make it easier to pass the bill. Under the Weimar Constitution, a quorum of two-thirds of the entire Reichstag membership was required to be present in order to bring up a constitutional amendment bill. In this case, 432 of the Reichstag's 647 deputies would have normally been required for a quorum. However, Göring reduced the quorum to 378 by not counting the 81 KPD deputies. Despite the virulent rhetoric directed against the Communists, the Nazis did not formally ban the KPD right away. Not only did they fear a violent uprising, but they hoped the KPD's presence on the ballot would siphon off votes from the SPD. However, it was an open secret that the KPD deputies would never be allowed to take their seats; they were thrown in jail as quickly as the police could track them down. Courts began taking the line that since the Communists were responsible for the fire, KPD membership was an act of treason. Thus, for all intents and purposes, the KPD was banned as of 6 March, the day after the election.
Göring also declared that any deputy who was "absent without excuse" was to be considered as present, in order to overcome obstructions. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to detain several SPD deputies. A few others saw the writing on the wall and fled into exile.
Later that day, the Reichstag assembled under intimidating circumstances, with SA men swarming inside and outside the chamber. Hitler's speech, which emphasised the importance of Christianity in German culture, was aimed particularly at appeasing the Centre Party's sensibilities and incorporated Kaas' requested guarantees almost verbatim. Kaas gave a speech, voicing the Centre's support for the bill amid "concerns put aside", while Brüning notably remained silent.
Only SPD chairman Otto Wels spoke against the Act, declaring that the proposed bill could not "destroy ideas which are eternal and indestructible." Kaas had still not received the written constitutional guarantees he had negotiated, but with the assurance it was being "typed up", voting began. Kaas never received the letter.
At this stage, the majority of deputies already supported the bill, and any deputies who might have been reluctant to vote in favour were intimidated by the SA troops surrounding the meeting. In the end, all parties except the SPD voted in favour of the Enabling Act. With the KPD banned and 26 SPD deputies arrested or in hiding, the final tally was 444 in favour of the Enabling Act against 94 (all Social Democrats) opposed. The Reichstag had adopted the Enabling Act with the support of 83% of the deputies. The session took place under such intimidating conditions that even if all SPD deputies had been present, it would have still passed with 78.7% support. The same day in the evening, the Reichsrat also gave its approval, unanimously and without prior discussion. The Act was then signed into law by President Hindenburg.
Voting on the Enabling Act
Consequences
Under the Act, the government had acquired the authority to enact laws without either parliamentary consent or control. These laws could (with certain exceptions) even deviate from the Constitution. The Act effectively eliminated the Reichstag as active player in German politics. While its existence was protected by the Enabling Act, for all intents and purposes it reduced the Reichstag to a mere stage for Hitler's speeches. It only met sporadically until the end of World War II, held no debates and enacted only a few laws. Within three months of the passage of the Enabling Act, all parties except the Nazi Party were banned or pressured into dissolving themselves, followed on 14 July by a law that made the Nazi Party the only legally permitted party in the country. With this, Hitler had fulfilled what he had promised in earlier campaign speeches: "I set for myself one aim ... to sweep these thirty parties out of Germany!"
During the negotiations between the government and the political parties, it was agreed that the government should inform the Reichstag parties of legislative measures passed under the Enabling Act. For this purpose, a working committee was set up, co-chaired by Hitler and Centre Party chairman Kaas. However, this committee met only three times without any major impact, and rapidly became a dead letter even before all other parties were banned.
Though the Act had formally given legislative powers to the government as a whole, these powers were for all intents and purposes exercised by Hitler himself. After its passage, there were no longer serious deliberations in Cabinet meetings. Its meetings became more and more infrequent after 1934, and it never met in full after 1938.
Due to the great care that Hitler took to give his dictatorship an appearance of legality, the Enabling Act was renewed twice, in 1937 and 1941. However, its renewal was practically assured since all other parties were banned. Voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and Nazi-approved "guest" candidates under far-from-secret conditions. In 1942, the Reichstag passed a law giving Hitler power of life and death over every citizen, effectively extending the provisions of the Enabling Act for the duration of the war.
Ironically, at least two, and possibly three, of the penultimate measures Hitler took to consolidate his power in 1934 violated the Enabling Act. In February 1934, the Reichsrat, representing the states, was abolished even though Article 2 of the Enabling Act specifically protected the existence of both the Reichstag and the Reichsrat. It can be argued that the Enabling Act had been breached two weeks earlier by the Law for the Reconstruction of the Reich, which transferred the states' powers to the Reich and effectively left the Reichsrat impotent. Article 2 stated that laws passed under the Enabling Act could not affect the institutions of either chamber.
In August, Hindenburg died, and Hitler seized the president's powers for himself in accordance with a law passed the previous day, an action confirmed via a referendum later that month. Article 2 stated that the president's powers were to remain "undisturbed" (or "unaffected", depending on the translation), which has long been interpreted to mean that it forbade Hitler from tampering with the presidency. A 1932 amendment to the constitution made the president of the High Court of Justice, not the chancellor, first in the line of succession to the presidency—and even then on an interim basis pending new elections. However, the Enabling Act provided no remedy for any violations of Article 2, and these actions were never challenged in court.
In the Federal Republic of Germany
Article 9 of the German Constitution, enacted in 1949, allows for social groups to be labeled ("hostile to the constitution") and to be proscribed by the federal government. Political parties can be labeled enemies to the constitution only by the (Federal Constitutional Court), according to Art. 21 II. The idea behind the concept is the notion that even a majority rule of the people cannot be allowed to install a totalitarian or autocratic regime such as with the Enabling Act of 1933, thereby violating the principles of the German constitution.
Validity
In his book, The Coming of the Third Reich, British historian Richard J. Evans argued that the Enabling Act was legally invalid. He contended that Göring had no right to arbitrarily reduce the quorum required to bring the bill up for a vote. While the Enabling Act only required the support of two-thirds of those present and voting, two-thirds of the entire Reichstag's membership had to be present in order for the legislature to consider a constitutional amendment. According to Evans, while Göring was not required to count the KPD deputies in order to get the Enabling Act passed, he was required to "recognize their existence" by counting them for purposes of the quorum needed to call it up, making his refusal to do so "an illegal act". (Even if the Communists had been present and voting, the session's atmosphere was so intimidating that the Act would have still passed with, at the very least, 68.7% support.) He also argued that the act's passage in the Reichsrat was tainted by the overthrow of the state governments under the Reichstag Fire Decree; as Evans put it, the states were no longer "properly constituted or represented", making the Enabling Act's passage in the Reichsrat "irregular".
Portrayal in films
The 2003 film Hitler: The Rise of Evil contains a scene portraying the passage of the Enabling Act. The portrayal in this film is inaccurate, with the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree (which in practice, as the name states, was a decree issued by President Hindenburg weeks before the Enabling Act) merged into the Act. Non-Nazi members of the Reichstag, including Vice-Chancellor von Papen, are shown objecting. In reality the Act met little resistance, with only the centre-left Social Democratic Party voting against passage.
This film also shows Hermann Göring, speaker of the house, beginning to sing the "Deutschlandlied". Nazi representatives then stand and immediately join in with Göring, all other party members join in too, with everyone performing the Hitler salute. In reality, this never happened.
See also
Streitbare Demokratie
References
1933 in law
1933 in Germany
Emergency laws in Germany
Law in Nazi Germany
Government of Nazi Germany
Legal history of Germany
Political repression in Nazi Germany
Repealed German legislation
Constitutional amendments
1933 in politics
March 1933 events | [
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218119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagene | Sagene | Sagene is a borough of the city of Oslo, Norway. The area became part of the city of Oslo (then Christiania) in 1859. The name Sagene itself is the plural of the Norwegian word for "saw", reflecting all the old industrial mechanical saws powered by the river Akerselva in this area in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Area
The borough of Sagene includes the neighborhoods of Sagene, Bjølsen, Iladalen (Ila), Sandaker, Åsen, and Torshov. It is the smallest borough of Oslo, but compared to its relatively small size, it has a noteworthy population by Norwegian standards. In the west its border is the street Uelandsgate and the cemetery (gravlund) Nordre gravlund. In the north it borders Tåsen and Storo. The border then follows the valley Torshovdalen in the east, and borders the areas of Rodeløkka and Grünerløkka is the south.
Running through the borough of Sagene is the river Akerselva which has contributed in shaping the culture and history of the borough. The
river has been exploited for energy, and along it for a thousand years, mills and turbines have been operating.
The main street is called Vogts Street. and it's in Torshov. The tram goes down this street, which is the most busy street in the Sagene/Torshov borough. The street is highly urbanised with plenty of stores and coffee shops. Vogts gate is in the heart of Torshov.
History
Norway's oldest industrial building - Glads Mølle papermill - is located in Sagene. The cradle of industrialism in Norway stood here in the
mid-19th century with establishments such as Graahs Spinneri and Hjula Væveri. Author Oskar Braaten (1881–1939) grew up and got
inspiration for his books in this environment. Today the old factories are filled by modern industries, in large parts with media, information technology (IT) and graphical businesses. Small wooden houses along the streets Maridalsveien and Sandakerveien are memories of the incoming dwellings of the 18th century, while the laborers' housing of the 19th century was built in concrete.
Sagene Church (Sagene Kirke) was designed by architect Christian Furst. It was opened in 1891 and is monumental for the area.
The church was built in Neo-Gothic style revival style and it was consecrated in 1891. The altarpiece is a copy of the one in the cathedral in Antwerp. The altarpiece was executed by the painter Christen Brun (1828-1905) and shows the removal of Jesus from the cross.
After the World War I the area around Torshov (now part of the borough of Sagene) and Sagene was planned to be a "city within the city"
with some 2,000 apartments. This can still be experienced in Torshov today. The esteemed Soria Moria building from 1928 houses theatre,
cinemas, restaurants and other cultural events and offerings.
In 2003 Sagene was one of the four boroughs in Oslo with direct elections to the boroughs council, the rest being appointed by the city council. During the period 2003-2007 the leader of the borough council was Tone Tellevik Dahl from the Labour party, with her deputy being Jan Fredrik Pedersen from the Socialist Left Party. The borough council consisted of 5 representatives for the Socialist Left, 4 for Labour, 2 each for Conservatives and Progress and 1 each for the Red Electoral Alliance and the Liberals. In the 2007 borough election Labour became the largest party, with 5 representatives, the Socialist Left and the Conservatives both getting 3 seats, the Liberals 2 and Progress and the Red Electoral Alliance 1 each.
Parks
Bjølsenparken is 34 acres and known for a beautiful linden tree-lined street which runs north-south along the park's highest point.
Iladalen Park is in the borough of Iladalen. The 27.9 acre park was established in 1948.
Sports
Skeid is traditionally a Torshov team with a good reputation of producing successful talents to Norwegian football.
Sagene Depot
Sagene Depot (Norwegian: Sagene vognhall) is a repurposed tram depot in Stockfleths gate at Sagene in Oslo, Norway. Two hall units, several apartments and offices, a forge and a workshop constitute the depot. The two hall units are preserved, and are now used as a cultural meeting place.
In 1902, three years after the Sagene Line had opened, Kristiania Kommunale Sporveie built one hall unit for the tramway.[1] An additional hall unit was later constructed.
References
Boroughs of Oslo | [
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218121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torshov | Torshov | Torshov is a neighborhood north of Grünerløkka and Lilleborg in the borough Sagene in Oslo, Norway. Oslo Tramway (Trikken i Oslo) provides connections with lines running between Majorstuen and Kjelsås. Vogts gate serves as the main street of the neighborhood. Along Vogts gate are several coffee shops, restaurants and cafes. The Torshov public school was built in 1878. Torshov was separated from Sagene as a separate congregation in 1930. The local sports club is Skeid Fotball.
Torshov Church
Torshov church (Torshov kirke) was consecrated in 1958. The church is located in Torshov kirkepark, between Åsengata and Nordkappgata. The building was built of stone and wood with copper plates, and has 400 seats. The church was designed by the architects Ulf Nyquist and Per Sunde, while the interior decorations were designed by Frithjof Tidemand-Johannessen.
Etymology
The area is named after an old farm, Torshov gård (Old Norse Þórshof). The first element is the genitive of Þórr, the last element is hof, meaning shrine or temple. Torshov is a relatively common farm name in Norway. Farms with the name are also found in Enebakk, Gjerdrum, Jevnaker, Lørenskog, Løten, Sigdal, Torsnes, Trøgstad and Vang.
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218124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%BCnerl%C3%B8kka | Grünerløkka | Grünerløkka is a borough of the city of Oslo, Norway. Grünerløkka became part of the city of Oslo (then Christiania) in 1858. Grünerløkka was traditionally a working class district, however since the late 20th century the area has increasingly undergone gentrification. Although it is located in the East End, it is relatively more expensive than other parts of the East End.
Etymology
The first element was derived from the surname Grüner. The last element is the definite form of løkke, meaning "paddock".
Grünerløkka was named after Friedrich Grüner (1628-1674) who served as chief administrator (Oberhauptmann) and the master of the mint (myntmester) at Christiania from 1651 until his death in 1674. Grüner purchased the Kings Mill (Kongens mølle) and surrounding acreage in the area from King Christian V of Denmark in 1672.
History
Thorvald Meyer (1818–1909) bought parts of the Grünerløkka area in 1861. The industrialist built the main street of Grünerløkka, now named Thorvald Meyers gate. During the 19th century, Grünerløkka became a working-class area. Several factories were placed here because of the advantages of being located close to the Akerselva River. Christiania Seildugsfabrikk from 1856 and Aktieselskapet Herkules from 1898 were two of the factories established.
Grünerløkka is located with the parish of Paulus Church (Paulus kirke). In 1866, Paulus parish had a total population of 13,600. By 1900, the parish population had risen to 22,000. At that time, only five streets in Oslo had a population above 3000. Of these, three were located in Grünerløkka: Markveien, Thorvald Meyers gate and Toftes gate. In 1864, a square meter had been priced at about 30 Norwegian shilling Active selling of property started in 1865. However, even as Thorvald Meyer offered low-priced land, almost no one bought any of it until after 1868.
The park square called Olaf Ryes plass has its name from Norwegian-Danish General Olaf Rye (1791–1849). It was an open field well into the 1880s. The property was bought by Oslo kommune from members of the Grüner family in 1883. A narrow diagonal street was built which led from Markveien to Thorvald Meyers gate. It had a stopping spot for horses and carriages at the middle point. This section is now a pedestrian park square.
Politics
As a borough of Oslo, Grünerløkka is governed by the city council of Oslo as well as its own borough council. The council leader is Geir Jensen from the Green Party and the deputy leader is Vemund Rundberget, of the Labour Party. The Green Party has the most seats. The 15 seats are distributed among the following political parties for the 2019-2023 term:
4 from the Green Party (Miljøpartiet de Grønne)
3 from the Labour Party (Arbeiderpartiet)
3 from the Conservative Party (Høyre)
2 from the Red Party (Rødt)
2 from the Socialist Left Party (Sosialistisk Venstreparti)
1 from the Liberal Party (Venstre)
Sports
The neighbourhood has its own sports club, Grüner, which was founded in 1914 with ice hockey and football as the most important activities. Grüner Fotball plays its home games at Dælenenga idrettspark and currently is part of the third division of the Norwegian football system. The ice hockey team plays the home games at Grünerhallen.
Notable landmarks
Sportsklubben av 1909
Alexander Kiellands plass (Oslo)
Åmodt bro
Ankerbrua
Ankertorget
Birkelunden
Blå
Foss Brewery
Foss videregående skole
Freia
Frydenberg
Grünerhallen
Keyserløkka
Kulturkirken Jakob
Kunsthøgskolen i Oslo
Olaf Ryes plass
Qadis
Parkteatret
Paulus kirke
Prinds Christian Augusts Minde
Ring 2 (Oslo)
Sagene ring
Schou Brewery
Sinsenkrysset
Sofienberg
Sofienberg kirke
Sofienberg Park
Gallery
References
Other sources
Tvedt, Knut Are, ed (2000). "Grünerløkka" in Oslo byleksikon (Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget. 4th ed. pp. 170–171)
External links
Grünerløkka, official website (City of Oslo)
Guide to Grünerløkka visitoslo.com
Munch's Grünerløkka
Boroughs of Oslo
Working class in Europe | [
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218125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ullern | Ullern | Ullern is a borough of the city of Oslo, Norway.
History
The borough has its name from an old farm, Norse Ullarin. The first element is the genitive case of the name of the Norse god Ullr. The last element is vin, meaning pasture or meadow. In Medieval times, the farm belonged to the monastery at Hovedøya. Following the Reformation in 1536, the farmland was separated between the crown and the local canon. Formally divided into lower and upper Ullern in 1740, both farms were bought by Herman Severin Løvenskiold, in 1878 and 1866 respectively.
At the time Ullern was a part of the rural municipality Aker. Signs of urbanization began in the 1800s, when Skøyen and areas along the Lysaker River, which divides Ullern from Bærum, began developing into industrial sites. The 1872 opening of the Drammen Line railway was a catalyst for further building activity, as were the 1912 opening of the Smestad Line and the 1919 extension of the Skøyen Line to Lilleaker. The two latter lines were later extended further, in 1935 and 1924 respectively. In 1942, a connection between the two lines, between Jar and Sørbyhaugen, was opened, providing public rail transportation to the northern part of Ullern. In 1948, Ullern became a part of Oslo, when Oslo absorbed the entire Aker municipality. In the post-World War II period, the villa-dominated housing was supplemented by tower blocks, scattered across the borough.
Geography
Neighborhoods in the borough of Ullern include Lysejordet, Øraker, Lilleaker, Sollerud, Vækerø, Bestum, Ullern, Bjørnsletta, Ullernåsen, Montebello, Hoff and Skøyen.
The borough borders the Lysaker River and Bærum municipality in the west, Lysakerfjorden and Bygdøy in the south, Frogner borough in the east and Vestre Aker borough in the north. Before the borough mergers of 2003, the neighboring boroughs were Røa and Vinderen in the north and Uranienborg-Majorstuen and Bygdøy-Frogner in the east.
The hill Ullernåsen reaches 201 metres above sea level. It is known for its volcanic origin.
Transportation
Ullern is served by the Lilleaker Line and Skøyen Line of the Oslo Tramway, the Kolsås Line of the Oslo T-bane and the Drammen Line railroad. The stations within the borough are Øraker, Lilleaker, Sollerud, Furulund, Bestum, Ullern, Abbediengen, Hoff and Skøyen (Oslo Tramway); Bjørnsletta, Åsjordet, Ullernåsen and Montebello (Oslo T-bane); and Skøyen (Drammen Line). Defunct stations are Bestum (Oslo Tramway); Lysakerelven, Old Bjørnsletta, Sørbyhaugen, Husebybakken (Oslo T-bane) and Bestun (Drammen Line).
The European route E18 runs through the southern part of the borough. At Vækerø, the Norwegian national road 160 branches off and heads north-east, passing Furulund station, the Old Bjørnsletta station and Lysakerelven station before crossing the Oslo-Bærum border at Jar. The Ring 3 starts at Lysaker, crosses the Oslo-Bærum border in the southern Granfoss Tunnel, emerges at Mustad before entering the northern Granfoss Tunnel, finally emerging near Ullern Church. It passes the Radium Hospital before continuing into Vestre Aker at Smestad.
The residents also have access to boat traffic from nearby Lysaker, and until 1998 access to the now-defunct Oslo Airport, Fornebu.
Business
Major commercial areas are found at Lilleaker, Vækerø and Skøyen. The shopping mall CC Vest is located at Lilleaker, partially utilizing the former locales of the manufacturing company O. Mustad & Son. A locomotive production company, Thunes Mekaniske Værksted, had its localities at Thune, but is now defunct. Until the 2000s, Norges Varemesse ran a large convention center at Skøyen. The Norwegian Radium Hospital, opened in 1931, is located at Montebello. Slightly east of the Radium Hospital is Smestad fire station, opened in 1947. There are several schools in the borough, but no institutions of higher education.
Culture
Ullern is a parish in the Church of Norway, but the borders do not correspond with the borough borders. The parish was separated from Vestre Aker in 1906, and later on Røa and Skøyen were separated from Ullern, in 1957 and 1984 respectively. Ullern church, serving the parish of Ullern, was raised in 1903. The parish of Skøyen had its church raised in 1989. The parishes of Ullern and Skøyen are parts of Vestre Aker deanery, in turn a part of the Diocese of Oslo.
The local newspaper is Ullern Avis Akersposten. Aftenposten is widespread as well.
Sports
The local multi-sports team is Ullern IF. It was founded in 1909, and absorbed the neighboring teams Bestum IF and Liull in 1972. Their home field, used for football and bandy matches, is located near Lysakerelven station. The indoor arena Ørakerhallen is used for handball and basketball matches; its basketball team last won the national title in 1996. The tennis club Ullern TK split from Ullern IF in 1992, and has its courts at Blokkajordet. Since 2000 it also owns 25% of the national tennis arena at Hasle. Notable players include Thorvald Moe and Jan Frode Andersen.
Ullern had several ski jumping hills in the past. Ullernbakken in Ullernåsen was demolished in 1958. Another hill, Husebybakken, was the venue of the competition Husebyrennet between 1879 and 1891. The competition was moved to the hill Holmenkollen in 1892, starting the Holmenkollen ski festival.
In addition, boat sports are popular. The rowing club Bestumkilen RK and the canoeing club Oslo KK are based in Bestumkilen, an arm of Lysakerfjorden. Leisure boating is also widespread.
Politics
As a borough of Oslo, Ullern is governed by the city council of Oslo as well as its own borough council. The council leader is Carl Oscar Pederson from the Conservative Party, and the deputy leader is Ingrid Hopp, also of the Conservative Party. The Conservative Party has the most seats. The 15 seats are distributed among the following political parties for the 2019-2023 term:
8 from the Conservative Party (Høyre)
2 from the Labour Party (Arbeiderpartiet)
2 from the Green Party (Miljøpartiet de Grønne)
1 from the Progress Party (Fremskrittspartiet)
1 from the Socialist Left Party (Sosialistisk Venstreparti)
1 from the Liberal Party (Venstre)
The administration is headquartered at Hoff.
References
Boroughs of Oslo | [
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218126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamle%20Oslo | Gamle Oslo | Gamle Oslo is a borough of the city of Oslo, Norway. The name means "Old Oslo", and the district contains Old Town.
The borough has several landmarks and large parks, including the Edvard Munch Museum, the Botanical Gardens and a medieval park.
During the time that present Oslo was named Christiania, this area was called Oslo. H. P. Lovecraft alludes to the fact in his story The Call of Cthulhu:
Neighborhoods of Oslo belonging to this borough are:
Ekebergskråningen
Enerhaugen
Ensjø
Etterstad
Gamlebyen
Grønland
Helsfyr
Kampen
Tøyen
Vålerenga
Valle-Hovin
The borough also includes islands and islets in the Oslofjord: Kavringen, Nakholmen, Lindøya, Hovedøya, Bleikøya, Gressholmen, Rambergøya, Langøyene and Heggholmen.
In the municipal election of 2007 all borough councils became elective, until then most had been appointed by the city council. Labour became the largest party with 5 representatives, the Socialist Left have 3, the Conservatives, Liberals and the Red Electoral Alliance 2 each, and the Progress party 1.
Politics
As a borough of Oslo, Gamle Oslo is governed by the city council of Oslo as well as its own borough council. The council leader is Emil Snorre Alnæs from the Green Party and the deputy leader is Agnes Viljugrein, of the Labour Party. The Green Party has the most seats. The 15 seats are distributed among the following political parties for the 2019–2023 term:
4 from the Green Party (Miljøpartiet de Grønne)
3 from the Labour Party (Arbeiderpartiet)
2 from the Conservative Party (Høyre)
2 from the Socialist Left Party (Sosialistisk Venstreparti)
2 from the Red Party (Rødt)
1 from the Liberal Party (Venstre)
1 from the Progress Party (Fremskrittspartiet)
Squatting
Places formerly known for squatting, includes Brakkebygrenda (a.k.a. Brækkers).
Gallery
References
Boroughs of Oslo | [
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218128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranienborg | Uranienborg | Uranienborg can be:
Uranienborg, Norway
Uraniborg (or Uranienborg), the astronomical/astrological observatory of Tycho Brahe on the island of Hven. | [
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218129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majorstuen | Majorstuen | Majorstuen is a particularly affluent neighbourhood in the Frogner borough in the inner part of Oslo, Norway.
Majorstuen is known for its vibrant downtown and especially its shopping area. The area has several elegant townhouses c. 1880–1890. The area is also an important public transport junction in Oslo, where all metro lines, three tram lines and five bus lines operate. It is served by Majorstuen station.
The name
The neighborhood was named after a well-known public house that was located on the east side of Sørkedalsveien. Dating from the 1700s, the house was named for Captain Michael Wilhelm von Sundt (1679–1753). The last element is the finite form of stue 'cabin, house with a single room'. There has long been a disagreement about the forms Majorstuen and Majorstua: stuen is the articulated form when stue is treated as a masculine, and stua is the articulated form when it is treated as a feminine noun. The original pronunciation was -stua (Norwegian feminine inflection) but, because Danish was the only written language in Norway well into the 19th century, the name was written -stuen (Danish common gender inflection). The locals say either, but the local borough council has also adopted Majorstuen as the official name of the area. (For a similar disagreement, see Akerselva.)
Majorstuen Church
Majorstuen Church (Majorstuen kirke) was consecrated on 26 March 1926 as Priest's Church (Prestenes kirke) when it was built for the funds collected among Norwegian clergymen. Oslo Municipality took over the church in the 1960s and changed its name to Majorstuen Church. Majorstuen Church was designed by architects August Nielsen (1877–1956) and Harald Sund (1876–1940) in the style of Classicism with influences of art deco and neo-baroque. The main church has 400 seats and was built of brick. The chapel, Cappella Johannea, is decorated with frescos with themes from the Book of Revelation, executed by the artist Per Vigeland (1904–1968) in 1932. The altar picture is titled: The Christian Hope (Det kristne håp). The tapestry is by designer and textile artist, Else Marie Jakobsen.
Majorstuen School
Majorstuen school is the primary and secondary school in Majorstuen. The school was designed by architect Bredo Henrik Berntsen (1877–1957). The first phase was completed in 1908.
Majorstuen Station
Majorstuen station (Majorstuen stasjon) is the last common point for all subway lines on the western side of Oslo. The station was opened in 1898 as the terminus for Holmenkollbanen. It remained so until Smestadbanen was completed in 1912. In 1928 the tunnel to the National Theatre station (called the Underground Railway) was built. The original station building was built in 1916, when Tryvandsbanen was completed. It was designed by Erik Glosimodt who also designed a number of shelters and station buildings along Holmenkollbanen. It had two entrances, one for Holmenkollbanen, and one for Smestadbanen. When the work of underground track started, the station was destroyed. The current Majorstuen station dates to 1930 and was designed by Kristoffer Lange.
References
Other sources
Sandnes, Jørn; Ola Stemshaug (1997, 3rd edition 2007) Norsk Stadnamnleksikon (4th edition)'' (Det Norske Samlaget)
External links
Majorstuen
Majorstuen Church
Majorstuen School
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218130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bjerke%20%28borough%29 | Bjerke (borough) | Bjerke is a borough of the city of Oslo, Norway.
The most densely populated residential areas, including the high-rise apartment blocks of Linderud, are located along Trondheimsveien (Norwegian National Road 4). The shopping centre at Linderud is also home to the borough council's administrative headquarters. The northern areas of the borough are bordered by the vast woodlands of Oslomarka. Bjerke Upper Secondary School is located here.
Districts
Linderud
Lofthus (on the border with Nordre Aker borough)
Tonsenhagen
Årvoll
Veitvet
Økern
Risløkka
Politics
As a borough of Oslo, Bjerke is governed by the city council of Oslo as well as its own borough council. The council leader is Lars Fuglesang from the Labour Party and the deputy leader is Hans Husum, of the Socialist Left Party. The Labour Party has the most seats. The 15 seats are distributed among the following political parties for the 2019-2023 term:
5 from the Labour Party (Arbeiderpartiet)
3 from the Conservative Party (Høyre)
2 from the Socialist Left Party (Sosialistisk Venstreparti)
2 from the Green Party (Miljøpartiet de Grønne)
1 from the Progress Party (Fremskrittspartiet)
1 from the Liberal Party (Venstre)
1 from the Red Party (Rødt)
References
Boroughs of Oslo | [
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218131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B8a | Røa | Røa is a neighbourhood and a former administrative borough of the city of Oslo, Norway. In 2004 the borough of Røa was merged with neighbouring Vinderen to become Vestre Aker borough.
Røa is a suburb of Oslo, located approximately 7 kilometers away from downtown Oslo. Most of Røa consists of single-family detached home and duplex houses. Its centre has been heavily urbanized in recent years, with shopping centres, offices and apartment blocks. Røa is served by the Røa Line, which uses 11 minutes to Majorstuen and 13 minutes to Nationaltheatret in downtown Oslo.
Neighbourhoods of Oslo | [
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218132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsfyr-Sinsen | Helsfyr-Sinsen | Helsfyr-Sinsen was a borough of the city of Oslo, Norway up to January 1, 2004, when it was split and merged into Alna and Gamle Oslo boroughs. It consisted of the neighborhoods Helsfyr, Teisen, Etterstad, Keyserløkka, Lille Tøyen, Valle, Løren, Carl Berners plass, Rosenhoff and Sinsen.
Neighbourhoods of Oslo
Gamle Oslo | [
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218134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinsen | Sinsen | Sinsen is a mixed residential and commercial area in Grünerløkka borough of Oslo, Norway. The westernmost part of Sinsen is part of the borough Nordre Aker.
The Sinsen Interchange, located on the border between the boroughs of Nordre Aker, Grünerløkka and Bjerke, was the first roundabout in Norway. It has since developed into a multi-lever intersection, with both Ring 3, National Road 4 and the Sinsen Line of the Oslo Tramway routes around. "North of the Sinsen Interchange" is common expression in the Norwegian district debates, where inhabitants of Oslo are accused of being ignorant of the country north of the interchange. The expression cropped up in revues during the 1960s, and is probably due to that Sinsen then was the end point for the main road leading into Oslo from the north.
The area is served by the Sinsen Line of the Oslo Tramway. The Oslo T-bane serves the neighborhood at Sinsen Station,
while the Gjøvik Line serves the area at Grefsen Station.
The name
The neighbourhood is named after the old farm Sinsen (Norse Sinnsin, from *Sinnsvin). The first element is the genitive of sinn n 'road', the last element is vin f 'fungible'. The area was an important crossroads also in old times, where the road from the bottom of Oslofjord ramified into the road east to Romerike and north to Maridalen/Hadeland.
References
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218135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stovner | Stovner | Stovner is a borough located to the far north east of the city of Oslo, Norway. Historically, Stovner was the name of a farm in the municipal borough "Østre Aker". Østre Aker merged with Oslo in 1948, both instigated and followed by a massive expansion of the city settlement. Today's Stovner borough is constructed atop the home fields of the Stovner farm, the first record of which dates back to the 14th century, as well as on the fields of several other farms that were situated in the area covered by the borough. The bulk of the modern high-rise structures were built by Selvaag and completed in the first half of the 1970s, together with several schools, a subway line into central Oslo, and an administrative center for the borough. The last three stations of Grorudbanen — Rommen, Stovner and Vestli — are in the Stovner borough.
Stovner is the borough in Oslo and Norway with the highest density of immigrants. The proportion of newborns with an immigrant background was per. 2017 at 80%.
References
Boroughs of Oslo
Ethnic enclaves in Norway | [
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218137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bygd%C3%B8y | Bygdøy | Bygdøy or Bygdø is a peninsula situated on the western side of Oslo, Norway. Administratively, Bygdøy belongs to the borough of Frogner; historically Bygdøy was part of Aker Municipality and became part of Oslo in 1948.
Bygdøy is a popular recreation area and is among the most fashionable residential areas in Norway, where the most expensive properties in the entire country are found. Bygdøy is also the home of five national museums as well as a royal estate. The wealthy of Christiania acquired country houses in Bygdøy during the 18th and 19th centuries; by the 19th century Bygdøy had become a favourite of the wealthy in the capital region and exclusively settled by the wealthy and their servants.
Tourism
Bygdøy has parks and forests, and beaches including the Huk ordinary and nudist beach. In 1885, there were only 111 houses at Bygdøy, but today, most of the huge gardens are split into smaller patches of land, making Bygdøy largely a residential zone but retaining a profile of upscale demographics. Bygdøy Royal Estate (Bygdøy kongsgård), the official summer residence of the King of Norway, and Oscarshall, site of the Queen Joséphine Gallery, are also located here. Large parts of the area such as the Bygdøy Royal Estate are protected from development.
In the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, a memorial for the victims of the catastrophe was initiated by the Norwegian government. The memorial is located on the western shore of Bygdøy and was officially unveiled by HM King Harald V on 19 October 2007.
Museums
Bygdøy is also the site of five museums
Kon-Tiki Museum (Kon-Tiki Museet) – houses exhibits from the expeditions of Thor Heyerdahl
Norwegian Museum of Cultural History (Norsk Folkemuseum) – an open-air museum with buildings, relocated from towns and rural districts
Viking Ship Museum (Vikingskipshuset) – houses the Oseberg ship, Gokstad ship and Tune ship
Norwegian Maritime Museum (Norsk Maritimt Museum) – exhibits on coast culture and maritime history
Fram Museum (Frammuseet) – site of the ship Fram used by Roald Amundsen
Etymology
The name is from Norse times (Bygðey). The first element is bygð 'built district' (= area with houses and population) – in Norse times this was the only inhabited island in the inner part of Oslofjord. The last element is ey 'island'. (Bygdøy was originally an island, but it became a peninsula because of post-glacial rebound.)
The island belonged to the Cistercian monastery at Hovedøya, but it was confiscated by the Crown in 1532. The name was then changed to "Ladegaardsøen". The first element in this new name was ladegård m 'farm to give a manor (here Akershus fortress) income'. The last element -øen is the Danish finite form of ø 'island'. The old name was revived in 1877. It was first spelled "Bygdø", but from 1918 officially spelled "Bygdøy". However, the name Bygdø is preferred by many of its inhabitants and other West End inhabitants.
Transportation
Bygdøy is accessible by bus, as the Oslo Public Transport Administration's bus line n.30 runs every 10 minutes from Nydalen via Sentrum and Nationaltheatret. Between April and October, the neighborhood can also be reached by the local public ferry departing from Aker Brygge every 30 minutes. Cars are allowed and there is a large parking lot in front of the Kon-Tiki Museum.
References
External links
Kon-Tiki Museum - Thor Heyerdahl's Research Foundation
Bygdøy, Oslo's Museum Centre
Neighbourhoods of Oslo | [
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218138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frogner | Frogner | Frogner is a residential and retail borough in the West End of Oslo, Norway, with a population of 59,269 as of 2020. In addition to the original Frogner, the borough incorporates Bygdøy, Uranienborg and Majorstuen. The borough is named after Frogner Manor, and includes Frogner Park. The borough has the highest real estate prices in Norway.
Etymology
The borough is named after the old Frogner Manor. The Norse form of the name was Fraunar (plural form), and is likely derived from the word frauð 'manure' — meaning 'fertilized fields'. (See also Frogn and Tøyen.) English-speaking foreigners may assume the word “Frogner” to be related to the English word frog but these words are not congnates. The word for “frog” in Norwegian is “frosk”.
Note that, even if not universal, it is quite usual among the Oslo population to pronounce Frogner more close to the spelling 'Frongner' rather than Frogner (some do say Frogner as well, both are allowed).
History
The area became part of the city of Oslo (then Christiania) in 1878. The borough was originally the grounds of an 18th-century country estate, Frogner Manor. The manor is now the site of Oslo City Museum. The Vigeland Sculpture Park is located in Frogner Park (Frognerparken)
A majority of the houses in the borough were built around 1900. Frogner has historically been and continues to be an affluent area of Oslo.
Districts
Traditional districts of Oslo belonging to the borough are:
Bygdøy
Frogner
Majorstuen
Uranienborg
Politics
As a borough of Oslo, Frogner is governed by the city council of Oslo, as well as its own borough council. The council leader is Jens Lie from the Conservative Party and the deputy leader is Carl-Henrik Bastiansen, also of the Conservative Party. The Conservative Party has the most seats. The 15 seats are distributed among the following political parties for the 2019–2023 term:
7 from the Conservative Party (Høyre)
2 from the Labour Party (Arbeiderpartiet)
2 from the Green Party (Miljøpartiet de Grønne)
1 from the Progress Party (Fremskrittspartiet)
1 from the Socialist Left Party (Sosialistisk Venstreparti)
1 from the Liberal Party (Venstre)
1 from the Red Party (Rødt)
Frogner in modern times
The Bygdøy peninsula is the current site of the Viking ship Museum, Norsk Folkemuseum (Norwegian Museum of Cultural History), the Maritime Museum, the Kon-Tiki Museum, and the ship Fram, used by Roald Amundsen for his Antarctic expedition. The royal estate of Bygdøy kongsgård and the Oscarshall palace are also located here. Bygdøy has several public beaches and is a popular recreational area.
On January 1, 2004, the previous borough of Uranienborg-Majorstuen and Bygdøy-Frogner were merged with Frogner, creating the current, larger borough.
The borough is known for its many villas and parks. It is one of the most expensive boroughs in Oslo due its central location, proximity to parks, marinas and attractive architecture, and the historical legacy of being a choice residential district for the upper classes during the 19th century.
Many of these expansive estates are now embassies, diplomatic missions, and other diplomatic representations.
Museums
The Vigeland Museum, located in Frogner Park where the artist Gustav Vigeland lived and worked for nearly two decades. . It is the world's largest sculpture park made by a single artist, and is one of Norway's most popular tourist attractions. The park is open to visitors all year round. The unique sculpture park is Gustav Vigeland's lifework with more than 200 sculptures in bronze, granite and wrought iron. Vigeland was also in charge of the design and architectural layout of the park. The Vigeland installation was mainly completed between 1939 and 1949. Most of the sculptures are placed in five units along an 850 meter long axis: The Main gate, the Bridge with the Children's playground, the Fountain, the Monolith plateau and the Wheel of Life.
Oslo City Museum is situated at Frogner Manor in Frogner Park. It is a museum of cultural history with one of the largest collections of paintings in Norway. The history of Oslo is illustrated by thematic exhibitions showing, among other things, the development of Oslo and the city's cultural and commercial activities.
The Bygdøy peninsula - a short ferry journey from the city center - boasts several museums, including the Viking Ship Museum (Vikingskipshuset), the Kon-Tiki Museum, Norwegian Maritime Museum and the Norwegian Folk Museum.
The Norwegian Maritime Museum (Norsk Maritime Museum) was founded in 1914 and is a national museum with the responsibility to collect, research, and teach Norwegian maritime cultural heritage. A collection of Norwegian traditional boats is exhibited in the central hall and the museum also stages temporary exhibitions.
The Norwegian Folk Museum (Norsk Folkemuseum) includes the world's first open air museum when it was established in 1881. It currently features over 160 buildings from a range of rural areas in Norway. The Gol Stave Church dating from 1200CE is one of five medieval buildings at the museum.
The Viking Ship Museum houses three spectacular examples of 9th and 10th century Scandinavian sea vessels - including the fully intact Oseberg ship - which were used as high status tombs. A collection of Viking weapons, utensils and talismans, buried with the ships, is also on display.
The Kon-Tiki Museum is named after the raft on which Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1947. Alongside the raft, the museum houses various artefacts related to Heyerdahl's other expeditions and a changing program of temporary exhibitions explores his life and work.
Noteworthy buildings
The main building at Frogner Manor (Frogner Hovedgård) dates back to approximately 1790 . Historical interiors from the late 18th century. Today the building is part of Oslo Museum. Frogner Manor is located on a former estate in an area that became part of today's borough The estate is now the site of Frognerparken.
Frogner Church (Norwegian: Frogner kirke) is a church in the Frogner borough of the city of Oslo, Norway. The congregation is part of the Church of Norway, the country's state church.
Frogner Park
Frogner Park (), north of the city centre, is Oslo's biggest park and one of its most popular recreational areas, both for its neighbours and for people from other parts of the city. On a summer day the park is full of people who come to run, walk with a dog, picnic, play badminton or sunbathe. Frognerparken has Norway's biggest collection of roses; a total of 14,000 plants of 150 different species.
Frogner Stadion and open-air bath is located in one corner of the park, towards Majorstua. In the corner by Frogner plass are Frogner Manor House and the Oslo City Museum. Frognerparken includes Vigelandsparken (Vigeland Sculpture Park), Oslo's most visited attraction, and has a summer-open café, a restaurant and Norway's biggest playground. A large open-air skating rink, maintained only during the winter, is free of charge to visitors. Many Norwegians own their own skates, but one can also rent skates at the site or take skating lessons.
Food and entertainment
Frogner is home to several restaurants and bars - including Feinschmecker, Alex Sushi and Bagatelle, while a range of cafés offer simpler food.
References
External links
Oslo City Museum
The Viking Ship Museum
Vigeland Sculpture Park
The Kon-Tiki Museum
Boroughs of Oslo | [
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] |
218144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinderen | Vinderen | Vinderen is a neighbourhood in the Vestre Aker borough of Oslo, Norway. It was a separate borough until 1 January 2004, when it was incorporated into the newly established borough of Vestre Aker.
Its amenities include Vinderen station.
The prosperous avenue of Tuengen Allé in Vinderen was the childhood home of Queen Sonja of Norway at 1B; and the current embassy of China in Norway at 2B. During 2015 will the Queens childhood home be moved to Maihaugen in Lillehammer.
10C Tuengen Alle is the functionalist Villa Stenersen, designed by architect Arne Korsmo and was built from 1937 to 1939 for the financier, art collector, and author Rolf Stenersen and his family. Stenerson bequeathed the Villa Stenersen to the State of Norway as a home for the Prime Minister. Odvar Nordli lived in the house, but the building has since been used for cultural purposes.
References
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218145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grefsen | Grefsen | Grefsen is a neighbourhood in the city of Oslo, Norway.
Grefsen was a part of the municipality of Aker before the Second World War, later incorporated into Oslo. Together with Kjelsås, Grefsen then formed the borough Grefsen-Kjelsås until 1 January 2004, when they became part of the new borough of Nordre Aker.
The Gjøvik Railway Line goes through the area, but Grefsen Station is actually located closer to the neighbourhood of Disen. The Kjelsås Tram Line also runs through the area. The local sports field Grefsen stadion is the home field of Kjelsås IL.
There are four schools in the area, Grefsen Elementary School (year 1-7), Engebråten Middle School (year 8-10), Morellbakken Middle School (year 8-10) and Nydalen High School (year 11-13). Nydalen High School used to be Grefsen High School until 2014, when it was renovated and changed name.
Grefsen Church (Grefsen kirke) was consecrated in 1940.
The name
The neighbourhood is named after the old farm Grefsen (Norse , from ). The first element is 'steep hillside' (derived from the verb 'dig (out)'), the last element is f 'meadow'. The old farm had Akerselva as its western border, and the hillside/riverside down to the river is very steep. The adjacent hill Grefsenåsen is named after the farm.
Notable people
Peter Andreas Morell, campaigned for better education for Grefsen
Jon Øigarden, Norwegian Actor grew up in Grefsen
References
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218147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjels%C3%A5s | Kjelsås | Kjelsås is one of the northern neighbourhoods of Oslo and a mountain situated in Nordre Aker, the northern borough of Oslo, Norway.
History
Together with Grefsen, Kjelsås was part of the borough Grefsen-Kjelsås until January 1 2004, when they both became part of the new borough of Nordre Aker. Grefsen and Kjelsås were also part of the former municipality of Aker before the second world war, when the City of Oslo was confined to today's central areas.
Geography
The district of Kjelsås offers ski jumps, slalom slopes and vast woodland areas for hiking. Lake Maridalsvannet, located close to the woodlands, provides Oslo with its drinking water and is also the source of the Akerselva river, (formerly Frysjaelven). Akerselva is the dividing line between many areas of Oslo including the northern suburbs. Traditionally seen as Eastern or Western Oslo depending on which side of the river one is on. This distinction is even found in the name of the river. Akerselva (East) and Akerselven (West). However, although located east of the river, Kjelsås is often not defined as "west" or "east" side but neutral.
Structures
The Norwegian Museum of Science and Technology was moved to Kjelsås in 1985. The museum complex has a total of 20,000 m² floor space. Adjacent to the museum lies Kjelsås Station which is a station of the Gjøvik Line. The Kjelsås Line is served by the Oslo Tramway routes 12 (part-time) and 11.
Sports clubs
The sports club Kjelsås IL has football-, handball- and basketball-teams. The elite football team, Kjelsås Fotball has their stadium at Grefsen, called "Grefsen stadion". Myrer IL is the local volleyball club of Kjelsås.
People from Kjelsås
Kristian Kjelling, handball player.
Wenche Myhre, singer and actress.
Kristian Skylstad, artist.
Jan Christensen, artist.
Ida Ekblad, artist.
Truls Heggero, artist.
Frode Olav Olsen Urkedal, chess player.
Eirik Brandsdal, cross country skier
Neighbourhoods of Oslo
Mountains of Oslo | [
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] |
218148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordstrand | Nordstrand | Nordstrand may refer to:
Places
Germany
Nordstrand, Germany, a peninsula in Germany
Nordstrand (Amt), a former municipality in Nordfriesland, Germany
Norway
Nordstrand, Norway, a borough in Oslo, Norway
Søndre Nordstrand, a borough in Oslo, Norway
Nordstrand Church, a church in Oslo, Norway
Nordstrand IF, a sports club in Oslo, Norway
Nordstrand Station, a railway station in Oslo, Norway
Nordstrand, Møre og Romsdal, a village in Giske, Norway
People
Morten Nordstrand, a Danish professional footballer
Rickard Nordstrand, a Swedish kickboxer
See also
Nordstrands Blad, a newspaper in Oslo, Norway | [
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218150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grorud | Grorud | Grorud is a borough of the city of Oslo, Norway. The borough contains the Ammerud, Grorud, Kalbakken, Rødtvet, Nordtvet and Romsås areas. To the north of the borough is the forest of Lillomarka. The borough is the smallest in Oslo, with fewer than 30 000 inhabitants.
The area now known as Grorud was mostly farm land until after World War II, an exception being Grorud proper, where mining was an important livelihood. Granite from Grorud is seen in many buildings in downtown Oslo - with the lion sculptures in front of Stortinget, the Norwegian Parliament being the most famous example. Textile industries were also a part of the urbanization of Grorud, with the river Alna and its waterfalls as power supply.
The railway station at Grorud, from 1854, is one of the oldest in Norway and was a hub of the whole Grorud Valley for many years until the arrival of urbanization and the subway. Some of the old farms are still present in the Grorud landscape, although apartment buildings now are a more dominant part of the scenery.
Traditionally a borough inhabited by the working class, Grorud has in the last few decades had a great influx of immigrants. The proportion of newborns with immigrant background was per. 2017 at 70%. Because of these statistics Grorud is a recurring theme in Norwegian immigration politics.
Politics
As a borough of Oslo, Grorud is governed by the city council of Oslo as well as its own borough council. The council leader is Anders Røberg-Larsen from the Labour Party and the deputy leader is Alejandro Decap, of the Socialist Left Party. The Green Party has the most seats. The 15 seats are distributed among the following political parties for the 2019-2023 term:
7 from the Labour Party (Arbeiderpartiet)
2 from the Progress Party (Fremskrittspartiet)
2 from the Conservative Party (Høyre)
2 from the Red Party (Rødt)
1 from the Socialist Left Party (Sosialistisk Venstreparti)
1 from the Green Party (Miljøpartiet de Grønne)
Notable people
Trygve Lie, First Secretary-General of the United Nations
Willy Bakken († 2010) popular culture writer
Jan Bøhler (b. 1952), politician, member of parliament
Flamur Kastrati (b. 1991), Norwegian footballer, from Rødtvet
References
Gallery
Boroughs of Oslo
Ethnic enclaves in Norway | [
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218151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekeberg | Ekeberg | Ekeberg is a neighborhood in the city of Oslo, Norway. The Norway Cup soccer tournament takes place at Ekebergsletta every summer. "Sletta" means "the plain". The painting "The Scream" by Edvard Munch is painted from Utsikten ("the view"), a part of Ekeberg.
In the area are a number of old Iron Age grave mounds and Bronze Age ritual sites. This establish the area of Ekeberg as one of the oldest inhabited places around Oslo. During the Middle Ages, the farm of Ekeberg belonged to Hovedøya Abbey. The area was later taken by the crown.
From 1760, the farm of Ekeberg was run by an appointed owner, and his relatives owned the farm thereafter. In the area, a number of small homesteads under the main farm was erected the following century. The first suburban settlement came around 1900, and the early suburb was raised in the years prior to 1935. Many of the early houses are still present in the area. Ekeberg belonged to Oslo from 1947.
In 1926 Roald Amundsen's airship Norge, was on its way from Italy to Svalbard, stopped in Oslo, mooring at Ekeberg at a specially-constructed mast, the foundation of which can still be seen today at the north end of the park.
The farm land (Ekebergsletta) cultivated crops until 1950, and the farm still had goats and small cattle up to 1965. The neighborhood of Ekeberg is situated on a bluff overlooking the city. During the 19th century, the air was considered excellent for tuberculosis patients.
Shortly after World War II, there were discussions on how to use the area, and the idea of an airport for Oslo was suggested. This was rejected, and the Labour party politician Rolf Hofmo, who had survived internment at the concentration camp of Sachsenhausen during the Second World War, proposed the idea of a free area for sport and other activities.
Ekeberg-Bekkelaget was a borough of Oslo up to January 1, 2004, when it became part of the Gamle Oslo and Nordstrand boroughs.
Ekeberg as a geographical area was mentioned by Snorri Sturluson in his Saga of the Kings. In the northern part of the area the farm "Ekeberg Hovedgård" is located. The fields of the farm are now a part of Ekebergsletta and the camp ground where the main building still stands.
The name: Old Norse Eikaberg - the first element is the genitive plural case of eik f 'oak', the last element is berg n 'mountain'.
Sculpture Park
A sculpture park, Ekebergparken Sculpture Park opened in 2013 on the initiative of the Norwegian businessman and multimillionaire Christian Ringnes. The park contains numerous works of art from Norwegian and international artists, among others, Salvador Dalí, Lynn Chadwick, Richard Hudson and Per Ung. The sculpture park is located in an area that has been open space and public park since the 1800s.
In literature
Many Norwegian authors and poets have written poems and appraisals of the area. Among them Henrik Wergeland, Hans E. Kinck, and Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, who also wrote down the local folklore from the area, concerning the Ekeberg Troll, living inside the hill. Hans Christian Andersen and Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson apparently established their friendship while admiring the view of the city. Later, Ingeborg Refling Hagen lived in the area, establishing a cultural work which was known as the Ekeberg Colony.
A curious mentioning of the area occurs in the cult novel The Call of Cthulhu by H. P. Lovecraft, written in 1926. Here it is stated that the surviving sailor Gustaf Johansen lived in "an old house at Egeberg" where he died after ramming Cthulhu head on with a fishing vessel.
External links
nl:Ekeberg (Sande) | [
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218153 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bekkelaget | Bekkelaget | Bekkelaget is a neighborhood in the borough Nordstrand in Oslo, Norway.
Originally, Bekkelaget was the maritime area south of Oslo city, in Aker municipality adjacent to the Bunnefjorden. With the opening of the Østfold Line, Bekkelaget station was opened, and the elevated area between Ekeberg and Nordstrand was built up and more densely populated. This area was called Bekkelagshøgda, while the maritime area became known as Nedre Bekkelaget. This area is separated by Ormsund with Ormøya.
Until 2004 Bekkelaget and adjacent Ekeberg constituted its own borough, Ekeberg-Bekkelaget.
Bekkelaget is known nationwide for the sports club Bækkelagets SK. The local rowing club is Ormsund RK.
See also
1953 Bekkelaget landslide
References
Neighbourhoods of Oslo | [
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218154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sogn%2C%20Oslo | Sogn, Oslo | Sogn was a district of the city of Oslo, Norway until January 1, 2004, when it became part of the Nordre Aker district.
The name was chosen in 1972, as the city council decided to divide Oslo into 34 districts. Each district had 13 members of a district committee, elected by the city council for four years. The district committee decided on the local name Sogn.
Sogn and Berg are probably the oldest known farm estates in the district. Hovedbølet on Berg farm estate is placed outside of the district limits today. Sognsvann gave its name to the farm estate Sogn, which was divided into three Sogngårder: Østre Sogn, Vestre Sogn and Lille Sogn (Nordberg). Known names were taken by other areas or institutions: Nordberg (parish), Tåsen school district / voting district, and Korsvoll school district / voting district. Berg-area is divided by its district border to the west, with Berg school (and farm estate) just outside its district border.
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218155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellerud | Hellerud | Hellerud was a borough of the city of Oslo, Norway up to January 1, 2004, when it became part of the new borough of Alna. It is also a traditional neighbourhood located within this area to the south of Tveita and Haugerud and north of Oppsal. It borders on the forest of Østmarka.
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218156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98stensj%C3%B8 | Østensjø | Østensjø () is a borough of the city of Oslo, Norway.
The borough is in the southeastern part of Oslo. It is well known for its proximity to the forested area of Østmarka, a popular resort and hiking area for the citizens of Oslo and Lørenskog. Østensjø consists of the suburbs of Bøler, Oppsal and Manglerud, all located around Lake Østensjøvannet. The Østensjøvannet area has been a protected wildlife reserve since 1992.
Østensjø has traditionally been a Norwegian middle and working class borough, compared to the more immigrant
populated boroughs in Oslo East End, like Alna, Grorud, Stovner and Søndre Nordstrand.
The club IL Manglerud Star which is known for ice hockey and football is located here.
References
Boroughs of Oslo
Working class in Europe | [
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] |
218157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B8ler | Bøler | Bøler () is a south-eastern suburb of Oslo, Norway. It is one of the more picturesque areas of Oslo. Østmarka forest and lake Nøklevann are in its immediate vicinity. Infrastructure-wise, it has a shopping center , two elementary schools, a public bath, a library, a church and a stop on the Østensjøbanen metro line.
History
The name Bøler comes from Old Norse bæl (farm). The area was mostly built up in the late 1950s, with high-rise buildings and smaller houses.
Bøler was a separate borough of the city of Oslo, Norway from the mid-1980s up to December 31, 2003, when it became part of the borough of Østensjø.
Nearby locations
Ulsrud
Bogerud
Østensjøvannet
Abildsø
Oppsal
Skullerud
References
External links
Neighbourhoods of Oslo | [
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218158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culpa | Culpa | Culpa is a Latin, Spanish, and Portuguese word meaning guilt or fault.
It may also be referring to:
Criminal negligence, called culpa in several legal systems
Mea culpa, the Latin phrase for "it is my fault"
Culpa (film), a 1993 Cuban film directed by Jorge Molina
La culpa (Mexican series), a Mexican telenovela produced by Yuri Breña and Pinkye Morris for Televisa
La Culpa (Argentine film), a 1969 Argentine film directed by Kurt Land starring Libertad Leblanc and Carlos Estrada | [
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218159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roms%C3%A5s | Romsås | Romsås is a neighborhood in the city of Oslo, Norway. Located northeast of Groruddalen, at the edge of Lillomarka, Romsås was formerly its own borough but was merged into the larger borough of Grorud on January 1, 2004. The name Romsås originated with the Romsås farm which by 1850 was one of the biggest farms in Østre Aker.
History
With the expansion of Oslo after the Second World War, Oslo kommune granted OBOS a permit to build a new borough in 1967. Construction started in 1969. The borough was formally established in 1973.
Subdivisions
Romsås is divided into six borettslag named after local geographical features: Orremyr, Emanuelfjell, Svarttjern, Røverkollen, Ravnkollen, and Tiurleiken. There are also six kindergartens, two elementary schools, a middle school, an assisted living facility (Romsåslia), and a center (Romsås senter) with social housing, a retirement home, shops and services, and a swimming pool. A subway station is located under the center, 50 m below ground level.
With the exception of Romsåslia and the church, all buildings are located on the inside of a single road which starts at Grorud and loops back on itself in the shape of an elongated “q”.
Romsås Church
Romsås Church (Romsås kirke) is a 220-seat brick church designed in a postmodern style by architect Arne E. Sæther, with an altarpiece by Nina Sundbye. It was built on the ruins of an earlier wooden structure which burned down in 1986, and was inaugurated in 1995. As the site was formerly a landfill, the church has suffered significant subsidence damage since its construction.
References
External links
Romsås Janitsjar
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218161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambertseter | Lambertseter | Lambertseter () is a suburb of the city of Oslo, Norway, and is part of the borough of Nordstrand.
Lambertseter was built over a short period starting from 1951, and was the very first modern suburb of Oslo. A Tram line was built to the neighborhood in 1957 and the Oslo T-bane metro system came in 1966, serving the Lambertseter station.
Lambertseter was also the name of a borough of Oslo until 1 January 2004.
Lambertseter also has a multi-use sports Stadium.
References
Geography of Oslo | [
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218162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manglerud | Manglerud | Manglerud () is a borough in the Østensjø district of Oslo, Norway. Manglerud was built in the 1960s as a suburb to Oslo, connected by the Oslo T-bane metro system.
Sport
Ice hockey
The suburb is perhaps most known for its ice hockey team, Manglerud Star, which plays in the GET-ligaen, the highest level of Norwegian hockey. They are two times Norwegian champions, in 1977 and in 1978.
Notable people
Paul Waaktaar-Savoy, member of the Norwegian band a-ha
Magne Furuholmen, member of the Norwegian band a-ha
Marius Müller, musician
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218165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20C.%20Stennis | John C. Stennis | John Cornelius Stennis (August 3, 1901April 23, 1995) was an American politician who served as a U.S. Senator from the state of Mississippi. He was a Democrat who served in the Senate for over 41 years, becoming its most senior member for his last eight years. He retired from the Senate in 1989, and is, to date, the last Democrat to have been a U.S. Senator from Mississippi. Furthermore, at the time of his retirement, Stennis was the last United States Senator to have served during the Presidency of Harry Truman.
While attending law school, Stennis won a seat in the Mississippi House of Representatives, holding office from 1928 to 1932. After serving as a prosecutor and state judge, Stennis won a special election to fill the U.S. Senate vacancy following the death of Theodore G. Bilbo. He won election to a full term in 1952 and remained in the Senate until he declined to seek re-election in 1988. Stennis became the first Chairman of the Senate Ethics Committee and also chaired the Committee on Armed Services and the Committee on Appropriations. He also served as President pro tempore of the Senate from 1987 to 1989. In 1973, President Richard Nixon proposed the Stennis Compromise, whereby the hard-of-hearing Stennis would be allowed to listen to, and summarize, the Watergate tapes, but this idea was rejected by Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox.
Stennis was a zealous supporter of racial segregation. Along with James Eastland, he supported the Dixiecrat ticket in 1948 headed by Strom Thurmond, and signed the Southern Manifesto, which called for massive resistance to the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education. He also voted against the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. He supported the extension of the Voting Rights Act in 1982 but voted against the establishment of Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a national holiday. He was also the trial level prosecutor of Brown v. Mississippi (1936). The transcript of the trial indicated Stennis was fully aware that the confession was obtained by subjecting three black defendants to brutal whippings and hanging by the officers.
Early life and education
John Stennis was born into a middle-class family in Kemper County, Mississippi, as the son of Hampton Howell Stennis and Margaret Cornelia Adams. His great-grandfather, John Stenhouse, emigrated from Scotland to Greenville, South Carolina, just before the American Revolution.
He received a bachelor's degree from Mississippi State University in Starkville (then Mississippi A&M) in 1923. In 1928, Stennis obtained a law degree from the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, where he was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, and Alpha Chi Rho fraternity. While in law school, he won a seat in the Mississippi House of Representatives, in which he served until 1932. Stennis was a prosecutor from 1932 to 1937 and a circuit judge from 1937 to 1947, both for Mississippi's Sixteenth Judicial District. He was the prosecuting attorney in a case where three African Americans had been beaten and tortured for a confession; in Brown v. Mississippi, the Supreme Court ruled that it was a clear deception of court and jury by the presentation of testimony known to be perjured, and a clear denial of due process.
Stennis married Coy Hines, and together they had two children, John Hampton and Margaret Jane. His son, John Hampton Stennis (1935–2013), an attorney in Jackson, Mississippi, ran unsuccessfully in 1978 for the United States House of Representatives, defeated by the Republican Jon C. Hinson, then the aide to U.S. Representative Thad Cochran.
U.S. Senate
Early career
Upon the death of Senator Theodore Bilbo in 1947, Stennis won the special election to fill the vacancy, winning the seat from a field of five candidates (including two sitting Congressmen, John E. Rankin and William M. Colmer). He was elected to a full term in 1952, and was reelected five more times. From 1947 to 1978, he served alongside James Eastland; thus Stennis spent 31 years as Mississippi's junior senator even though he had more seniority than most of his colleagues. He and Eastland were at the time the longest serving Senate duo in American history, later broken by the South Carolina duo of Strom Thurmond and Fritz Hollings. He later developed a good relationship with Eastland's successor, Republican Thad Cochran.
Leading up to the 1948 Democratic National Convention, Stennis supported the drafting of General Dwight D. Eisenhower as the Democratic nominee amid wide-ranging suspicion that President Truman could not win re-election, considering Eisenhower an acceptable candidate to Southerners. The declaration of support for civil rights at the Democratic National Convention had resulted in Southern members dissatisfied with the move and seeking to espouse their own ideology in the form of a rebellion, Stennis and Eastland being the only sitting Senators to openly back the movement. According to biographer Maarten Zwiers, Stennis was less forward in his racism than Eastland and initially hesitated to take an outspoken position against civil rights, likely underestimating the contempt for the civil rights backing of the national party in Mississippi. He adopted harsher condemnation of the program after receiving criticism.
In July 1948, the Senate voted on anti-poll tax legislation. Stennis said Congress did not have the constitutional authority to enact such a measureit had been brought up for political expediency.
On December 2, 1954, the Senate voted to "condemn" Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy on two counts by a vote of 67 to 22. Two days later, Stennis advocated for the Senate to adopt rule changes proposed by the Special Censure Committee.
In March 1955, Stennis supported legislation that would increase the national cotton acreage with an amendment providing increases in cotton planting and wheat acreage.
Beginning in early 1956, along with Eastland, Allen Ellender, and Strom Thurmond, Stennis was one of several senators to meet in the office of Georgia Senator Richard Russell. Randall Bennett Woods describes the group as being "out for blood" and being pushed by extremists in their respective states to show Southerners would not be intimidated by the North.
In January 1958, Senators received a report on the development of intermediate and intercontinental missiles from Bernard A. Schriever. During two interviews after its release, Stennis said attention should be placed on the speed of production and he was satisfied with the contents of the report pertaining to the development of PGM-17 Thor.
In May 1958, responding to President Eisenhower's placing the Arkansas National Guard under federal control and sending in the 101st Airborne Division to escort and protect nine black students' entry to the all-white, public Little Rock Central High School, Stennis announced he had challenged the legality of placing guardsmen there. He stated that the Eisenhower administration had violated both the U.S. Constitution and federal laws, also believing President Eisenhower was neither "reckless nor mischievous".
During the 1960 presidential election campaign, Stennis advocated for Mississippi voters to back Democratic presidential nominee John F. Kennedy rather than a slate of unpledged electors. Mississippi was won in the general election by the unpledged electors.
In July 1961, after Senate Republicans announced that they would cooperate with the Kennedy administration's enlarged defense bill, Stennis stated the possibility of the program requiring a boost in taxes but that he would not vote for an increase until the Senate had made every effort toward finding another way to make the payment.
In early 1962, as the Justice Department retaliated against a Mississippi official charged with refusing to register black voters, Stennis led Southern senators in opposition to the Kennedy administration's literacy test bill during a debate on the measure.
In September 1963, Stennis, Eastland, and Georgia Senator Richard Russell jointly announced their opposition to the ratification of the nuclear test ban treaty. Stennis announced his opposition to the treaty on the Senate floor, arguing that its enactment would lead to military disadvantages. The opposition was viewed as denting hopes of the Kennedy administration to be met with minimal disagreement during the treaty's appearance before the Senate.
In 1966, Stennis was initiated as an honorary member of the Delta Lambda chapter (Mississippi State) of Alpha Kappa Psi fraternity.
In June 1967, Stennis announced that the Senate Ethics Committee would give "early preliminary consideration" to misconduct charges against Senator Edward V. Long of Missouri.
Stennis wrote the first Senate ethics code, and was the first chairman of the Senate Ethics Committee. In August 1965, Stennis protested the Johnson administration's emergency supplemental appropriation request for the Vietnam War. In August 1967, Stennis advocated for an expansion of bombing North Vietnam to hasten what he believed would be the war's conclusion, adding that either restrictions or a pause could be a mistake. In July 1969, Stennis proposed dividing South Vietnam into two zones and one would be used for the United States to attempt ending the war. In December, Stennis supported the creation of a special commission by President Richard Nixon with the intent of investigating alleged Vietnamese civilian slayings at the hands of American soldiers.
In July 1968, Stennis served as floor manager of a bill intended to ease congestion that had throttled American airports in recent days by providing increased equipment and personnel, publicly saying the legislation had been put off for too long.
In 1969, Stennis introduced the Nixon administration's proposal for a draft lottery that would subject all potential draftees to a one-year period where they could be called, Stennis saying that studies would be conducted to see about hearings on the matter in 1970, ahead of the then-current law expiring in 1971. An aide for the senator confirmed his support for the administration's policy.
1970s
In January 1970, Stennis stated his intent to call on presidential candidates in the upcoming presidential election to visit states outside of the South and tell parents, "I'll do to your schools what we've done to the schools in Mississippi, Alabama and Louisiana if I'm elected President" predicting any candidate who did so would be defeated.
In February, Stennis was named as one of the members of Congress to sit on a subcommittee created to study whether the United States needed another nuclear‐powered aircraft carrier priced at $640million.
On February 12, White House Press Secretary Ronald L. Ziegler said President Nixon was in favor of the North and the South being treated equally on the issue of segregation, refusing to interpret his remarks as an endorsement of the Stennis amendment. Several days later, on February 18, the Senate voted 56 to 36 in favor of the Stennis amendment, Stennis afterward stating that the vote was "a landmark... a new gateway... a turning point." Stennis admitted he did not expect a difference in the temperament of the South, but that it could potentially lead to the North understanding the importance of the issue to southerners in having to maintain the same policy. Around the same time, Stennis sponsored an amendment requiring "equal treatment of schools segregated by law (de jure) and those segregated as a result of residential patterns (de facto.)" It was rejected by the Senate on April 1. In May, Stennis opined that the Supreme Court had dodged its duty by passing on the question of the legality or illegality of segregated schools outside of the South. Stennis said the question "must and should be decided as promptly as possible because a political decision is being made to continue the in integration efforts in the South but leave the other areas of the country virtually untouched." In June, as the Senate passed a $4.8billion education bill, it also defeated an amendment by Stennis to strike certain restrictions in an amendment by Senator Jacob K. Javits for aid to desegregating schools.
In 1971, Stennis sponsored a measure to enforce school desegregation laws in areas where segregation had been caused by residential patterns and in communities where segregation had been sanctioned by law. Stennis said the measure would eliminate what he called a double standard where Southern schools were forced to integrate their communities or face a loss of federal aid while Northern schools were allowed to remain segregated. The policy, noted for its similarity to the amendment sponsored by Stennis the previous year, was passed in the Senate on April 22 in a 44 to 34 vote.
In May 1971, Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard sent a letter to Stennis concerning an amendment by Harold Hughes to the draft extension bill, warning that the bill could lead to base closings and serious economic problems.
In July 1972, Stennis said it was essential that Congress appropriate $20.5million for the funding of military supplies and research to meet the basic requirements for the national defense program.
In January 1973, Stennis was shot twice in the left side of his chest and left thigh outside his Washington home by two teenagers. The suspects apparently robbed him of his wallet, a watch, and twenty-five cents.
On January 23, 1974, sources disclosed that Stennis had met with Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Thomas H. Moorer for discussions on military snooping in the White House allegations, a Moorer spokesman confirming the meeting but downplaying it as "a routine courtesy call traditionally made in the opening days of a Congressional session".
On February 9, Stennis met privately with Charles Radford, a member of the United States Navy who admitted removing documents from the files of Henry Kissinger in addition to delivering them to the Pentagon. After the meeting's conclusion, Stennis said Radford "was cooperative fully and I have no complaints about him".
In April, Stennis attended the Annual Convention of the Mississippi Economic Council at the Mississippi State Coliseum in Jackson, Mississippi. President Nixon said "no State in the Union is represented by men in the Congress of the United States who more vigorously speak up for their States and for the Nation than has the State of Mississippi" and Stennis would be among those "when they write profiles in courage".
In May 1974, amid the Senate's voting to approve a bill increasing public access to Government information and documents, Stennis opposed an amendment by Maine Senator Edmund Muskie that would have deleted some guidelines for federal judges involving classified information, on the grounds that they were "flirting here with things that can be deadly and dangerous to our national welfare". The amendment passed 56 to 29.
In November 1974, Stennis announced his intent to advocate for the creation of a congressional fact‐finding committee to investigate the possibility of a conspiracy being behind price disparities.
In March 1976, amid the Senate voting unanimously to seat Henry Bellmon, Stennis was one of nine Democrats to vote alongside Republicans to put aside a motion declaring the Senate unable to determine a winner and the seat would require a special election to fill the vacancy. Later that month, Wisconsin Senator William Proxmire requested Stennis delay action on the nomination of Albert Hall as Assistant Secretary of the Air Force. In May, Stennis and Texan John Tower cosponsored a measure to remove the Select Committee on Intelligence's legislative jurisdiction over Defense Department intelligence operations, the amendment being defeated 63 to 31. In June 1976, Stennis joined a coalition of Democrats endorsing Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter for the presidency. The New York Times assessed Stennis and Eastland as jointly "trying to pull Mississippi out for Mr. Carter" in their first campaign for a national Democrat in decades.
In February 1977, after President Jimmy Carter selected Paul Warnke as his nominee for Director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, Stennis announced that Warnke had agreed to testify before the Armed Services Committee. On April 16, President Carter announced his approval for full or substantial funding of the Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway. The New York Times wrote that Carter's approval had prevented him from "having to fight with" Stennis, Eastland, and John J. Sparkman. In June, Stennis authorized a request by Colorado Democrat Gary Hart to delay hearings on the promotion of Donn A. Starry to United States Army Training and Doctrine Command; Starry was later confirmed to the position. In July, President Carter sent Stennis a letter stating his decision on deployment would come after he received reports on the neutron bomb from the Pentagon and the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. After the November death of Arkansas Senator John L. McClellan, Stennis was seen as a potential chairman of the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee in the event Warren Magnuson did not attempt to take the position himself.
In April 1978, after President Carter announced a halt on production of neutron weapons, Stennis was known to be one of the senators dissatisfied with the decision. In July, Stennis introduced an amendment to the Endangered Species Act which would authorize any head of a government agency to be able to decide whether the individual's agency had a project that outweighed the importance of preserving a species. The amendment was defeated 76 to 22.
In September 1978, after the House voted to approve a $37billion defense spending bill, Stennis made moves toward producing a new bill that maintained similar attributes to the House-passed measure with the exception of the carrier. Defense Secretary Harold Brown issued a statement a short time afterward praising Stennis and Representatives Melvin Price and George H. Mahon as "dedicated and patriotic Americans", rhetoric that was seen as matching the tone "evidently designed to repair the rift the veto opened between the White House and defense leaders in Congress" used by President Carter in his own statement. In October, the Carter administration disclosed that President Carter had reversed his choice to not approve construction of the large nuclear‐powered aircraft carrier. Carter was said to have personally assured Stennis he would not veto the carrier.
1970 re-election campaign
Vietnam
In April 1970, in response to the Nixon administration's choice to back efforts by the South Vietnamese in Cambodia, senators made moves toward ending funding for American military aid there. Stennis and Michigan Senator Robert P. Griffin described the operation as one limited in scale and with the purpose of destroying sanctuaries of the North Vietnamese and Vietcong in Cambodia on the South Vietnam border. In July, Stennis advocated for the United States adopting an Anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system to safeguard against Soviet SS‐9 intercontinental ballistics missiles and called on fellow senators to recall "the grim fact of rapidly increasing Russian strategic forces which could place this country in jeopardy in the years ahead." In August, as the Senate voted to bar the United States from paying larger allowances to allied troops in Vietnam than it pays to American soldiers, Stennis said he was impressed with the legislation and that he would be in favor if "some adjustment can be made consistent with our honor". Stennis also pledged to try arranging an agreement between the two chambers on the final military procurement bill. Stennis furthered that the United States "would have to observe any commitments it might have already made, and that some delicacy might be necessary since American forces are leaving Vietnam." In September, the Senate voted on the McGovern–Hatfield Amendment, a proposal that would have required the end of military operations in Vietnam by December 31, 1970, and a complete withdrawal of American forces halfway through the next year. Stennis argued the amendment was constitutional and that Congress had "the sole power to appropriate money". The amendment was defeated in a vote of 55 to 39.
In May 1971, the Senate rejected legislation designed to prohibit assignments of draftees to combat in Vietnam after the end of the year without consent on the part of the draftees. Stennis said the legislation would have caused the creation of two classes of soldiers where one group could fight and the other could not while arguing that any army unit "would be rendered inoperative if each man's record had to be reviewed by the commanders before they acted in an emergency".
In March 1972, John D. Lavelle was relieved of duty as commander of the Seventh Air Force in Southeast Asia due to alleged misconduct over bombing missions in Vietnam, President Nixon announcing the appointment of Creighton W. Abrams as Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army by Nixon in June. A week later, during a Senate floor speech, Stennis announced a full hearing would be conducted around the pending retirement of Lavelle, his announcement coming in light of new testimony linking Creighton W. Abrams to an unauthorized bombing of North Vietnam. The move by Stennis was viewed as serving "to complicate further an already intricate series of changes at the top of the Army's command structure". On September 13, Stennis said there was a conflict in the testimony of Abrams and Lavelle regarding the intricacies of the strikes, specifying the difference in who was behind them and their planning. This difference, he stated, would need further inspection from the committee, declining to specify the particular conflict in their account while speaking to newsmen. Later that month, Lavelle sent Stennis a letter detailing his activities and other information pertaining to the case.
In April 1973, Stennis, in a statement drafted at Walter Reed Army Hospital while he was still recovering from gunshot injuries, called for legislation that would prevent the President from restoring American troops in Vietnam without congressional backing. The Senate, in a vote of 71 to 18, approved a similar measure in July, barring the president from being able to commit American armed forces to future foreign hostilities without the consent of Congress. Stennis sent a letter to Edmund Muskie advising that cluttering the "war powers bill with other matters" would give the measure the possibility of overriding a veto.
In May 1974, Stennis announced the Senate Armed Services Committee had approved $21.8billion in weapons production and research for the upcoming fiscal year, a 5.6 percent decrease in the funding requested by the Nixon administration.
Other foreign policy issues
In May 1970, Stennis argued against an amendment by Frank Church and John Sherman Cooper that if enacted would prohibit funds for retaining American troops in Cambodia, telling Senate Foreign Relations Committee Chairman J. William Fulbright he did not understand how a president could select a date without assurance there would be no reversals in battle. After Stennis recalled President Nixon's having made an estimate on when the U.S. would exit the conflict, Fulbright said Stennis had confirmed his belief that Nixon did not mean it when he said American involvement in Cambodia would be over by July 1. Stennis then charged Fulbright with putting words in his mouth.
On May 12, 1971, Stennis introduced legislation curbing the ability of the president to commence war without congressional consent. Stennis called the choice to declare war "too big a decision for one mind to make and too awesome a responsibility for one man to bear" and that he was aiming for Congress to give consideration to the idea posed in his measure for roughly a year before drafting any legislation. The introduction of the measure was viewed "as one of those potentially historic moments when the action of one man can turn the tide of policy". In June, the Senate turned down an amendment by Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy that would have enabled young men registering for the draft have the right to lawyer and hearings in the style of a courtroom before their local draft boards. With multiple amendments still needing to be voted on by the chamber, Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield afterward announced that Stennis, Hugh Scott, and himself would present a petition to end a debate.
On July 31, 1972, Stennis announced his support for the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty.
In September 1973, the White House disclosed President Nixon had written Stennis, Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield, and Senate Minority Leader Hugh Scott to urge Senate approval of the full weapons budget requested by his administration. Days later, the Senate rejected an amendment by Mansfield requiring a reduction in American troops abroad in a vote of 51 to 44 after initially voting in favor of it. Along with Texan Lloyd Bentsen, Stennis was noted as one of two Democratic senators to have backed the Nixon administration who were absent during the first vote.
In September 1974, Stennis argued in favor of the $82.5billion defense appropriations bill the Senate sent to the White House, a measure noted for having a $4.4billion decrease in the amount requested by the Ford administration for the 1975 fiscal year, saying it was not reducing "the muscle of America's military".
In May 1977, Washington Senator Henry M. Jackson named Stennis as one of the senators who was part of a bipartisan attempt to develop, in reference to the SALTII treaty, "the kind of agreement that... will stabilize the situation in the world." By May 1979, The New York Times wrote that Stennis was one of the moderate senators who would swing the vote on the SALTII treaty and along with West Virginia Senator Robert Byrd was viewed as "possibly timing their decisions to influence other waverers". On June 19, Stennis, Robert Byrd, and Frank Church consented to the Senate Armed Services Committee holding separate hearings on SALTII on July 23, allowing the Senate Foreign Relations committee to have two weeks as the only committee reviewing the treaty.
At the end of January 1978, Stennis announced his opposition to the Panama Canal treaties, citing their causing the U.S. to withdrawal from the Canal Zone too rapidly, a move that he furthered would leave the U.S. "highly uncertain what is going to happen down there".
In July 1978, the Senate voted to approve the construction of a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier and military spending bill authorizing the Pentagon to spend $36 billion for weapons. Stennis stated his hope and prediction "that this will be the last bill that will have a carrier of this type".
In September 1979, Stennis held a private meeting with U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance over the Soviet brigade in Cuba. Stennis also met with President Carter for a discussion on future arms spending which failed to resolve a disagreement over budget increases that could potentially determine the fate of the proposed treaty to limit strategic arms. Stennis said after the meeting he believed the senators had made some progress with Carter. Later that month, on September 27, President Carter signed the Panama Canal Act of 1979 into law, saying in part, "I particularly want to thank Senators Stennis and Levin and Congressmen Murphy, Bowen, and Derwinski for their outstanding leadership in resolving the many difficult issues embodied in this act." In October, during a committee hearing, Stennis stated his opposition to suggestions recommending that the Senate postpone action on the strategic arms treaty with the Soviet Union until the following year, and that he believed the treaty debate in the Senate should continue on the ground that the issue would likely be more clear at the present time than it possibly would months later. Stennis, by then considered an influential member of the Senate to newer members in both parties, was seen as "useful to President Carter in trying to stave off attempts to delay or kill the pact". In December, the Senate Armed Services Committee agreed on a formula for making public a report condemning the pending nuclear arms treaty with the Soviet Union on the condition that the report would not make any specific recommendation to the Senate while concluding that the treaty was not in the "national security interests" of the United States without undergoing major changes. Making the report public was seen as a victory to opponents of the treaty but also by Senate aides as having a larger impact on Stennis's authority, the aides citing Stennis finally having bent to pressure from senators opposed to the treaty over issuing the report and possibly weakening his control over the committee.
Watergate
In October 1973, during the Watergate scandal, the Nixon administration proposed the Stennis Compromise, wherein the hard-of-hearing Stennis would listen to the contested Oval Office tapes and report on their contents, but this plan went nowhere. Time magazine ran a picture of John Stennis that read: "Technical Assistance Needed". The picture had his hand cupped around his ear.
In January 1974, during a telephone interview, Stennis indicated his intent to investigate on allegations of military spying in the White House, saying he did not expect the White House to intervene with the inquiry and confirmed he was not familiar with the spying until news reports. After Nixon's resignation, Stennis opposed pursuing criminal charges, arguing that his leaving office was enough punishment. The resignation was followed a month later by President Ford's pardon of Nixon, a move Stennis and other conservative Democrats favored.
1976 re-election campaign
In January 1974, Stennis said his health was without complications (from the shooting in 1973) and that he would be running for another term in 1976. Stennis was re-elected without opposition.
1980s
In November 1980, Defense Secretary Harold Brown sent two letters to Stennis complaining that the House of Representatives had added $7.5billion in new programs and deleted $5billion in administration programs for a net increase of $2.5billion and urging the Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Defense instead approve the administration's budget. The Senate instead approved $161billion, $6billion more than what the administration proposed and $3.5million more than approved in the House.
In early 1981, Stennis was replaced by John Tower as Chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee. Virginia Senator John Warner said: "With no disrespect to Senator John Stennis, our former chairman, John Tower will provide a more vigorous thrust to the committee."
In spring 1981, Stennis predicted there would be larger opposition to military spending in the event of new proposals in favor of more funds being allocated. The New York Times referred back to Stennis in July when Senator Mark Hatfield conducted his first detailed foray into military spending as chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee. In a Senate floor speech, Stennis warned that "great pressure" to an increase would persist with continued showing of a deficit in the federal budget and Americans would stop supporting the military and its budget "if our military forces do not show real improvement without damaging the health of our economy".
In June 1982, Stennis was renominated for a seventh term, defeating Charles Pittman and radio station owner Colon Johnston by a large margin. Stennis faced political operative Haley Barbour in the general election. Barbour's supporters poked fun at Stennis's age, an issue the senator made self-deprecating comments about. President Ronald Reagan met with Stennis during the general election and promised he would not campaign for Barbour, despite Reagan's taping an ad for Barbour attacking Stennis for his age.
Stennis lost his left leg to cancer in 1984 and subsequently used a wheelchair.
Stennis was named President pro tempore of the United States Senate during the 100th Congress (1987–1989). During his Senate career he chaired, at different times, the Select Committee on Standards and Conduct, and the Armed Services, and Appropriations Committees.
In February 1988, along with Robert Byrd and John Melcher, Stennis was one of three senators to attend the traditional reading of the farewell address of President George Washington by North Carolina Senator Terry Sanford.
In February 1988, Stennis was one of twelve Democrats to support the Reagan administration-backed $43million aid to Nicaraguan rebels.
In June 1988, Stennis voted against a bill authorizing the use of the death penalty on drug dealers convicted of murder.
A dinner in honor of Stennis was held on June 23, 1988, in the Sheraton Ballroom of the Sheraton Washington Hotel. President Reagan delivered an address praising Stennis for his service in the Senate and announced "as an expression of the Nation's gratitude for the public service of the man we honor tonight, the Navy's next nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, CVN-74, will be christened ."
Civil rights record
Based on his voting record, Stennis was an ardent supporter of racial segregation. In the 1950s and 1960s, he vigorously opposed the Voting Rights Act, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Civil Rights Act of 1968; he signed the Southern Manifesto of 1956, supporting filibuster tactics to block or delay passage in all cases.
Earlier, as a prosecutor, he sought the conviction and execution of three sharecroppers whose murder confessions had been extracted by torture, including flogging. The convictions were overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in the landmark case of Brown v. Mississippi (1936) which banned the use of evidence obtained by torture. The transcript of the trial indicated Stennis was fully aware the suspects had been tortured.
Later in his political career, Stennis supported one piece of civil rights legislation, the 1982 extension of the Voting Rights Act, which passed in the Senate by an 85–8 vote. A year later, he voted against establishing Martin Luther King, Jr. Day as a federal holiday. Stennis campaigned for Mike Espy in 1986 during Espy's successful bid to become the first black Congressman from the state since the end of Reconstruction.
Opposition to Bork
Stennis opposed President Ronald Reagan's nomination of Robert Bork to the U.S. Supreme Court. On October 23, 1987, Stennis voted with all but two Democrats and six Republicans to defeat Bork's nomination.
Retirement and death
In 1982, his last election, Stennis easily defeated Republican Haley Barbour. Declining to run for re-election in 1988, Stennis retired in 1989, having never lost an election. He took a teaching post at his alma mater, Mississippi State University, working there until his death in Jackson, Mississippi, at the age of 93. One of his student aides at Mississippi State University, David Dallas, wrote and performed a one-man play about his time with the Senator.
At the time of Stennis's retirement, his continuous tenure of 41 years and 2months in the Senate was second only to that of Carl Hayden. (It has since been surpassed by Robert Byrd, Strom Thurmond, Ted Kennedy, Daniel Inouye, Patrick Leahy, and Orrin Hatch, leaving Stennis eighth).
Stennis died on April 23, 1995 at St. Dominic-Jackson Memorial Hospital in Jackson, Mississippi at the age of 93. He is buried at Pinecrest Cemetery in Kemper County.
Naming honors
John C. Stennis Space Center
John C. Stennis Center for Public Service Training and Development
John C. Stennis National Student Congress of the National Forensic League
John C. Stennis Lock and Dam
John C. Stennis Institute of Government
John C. Stennis Scholarship in Political Science
John C. Stennis Vocational Complex
USS John C. Stennis Aircraft carrier and Carrier Strike Group
John C. Stennis Oral History Collection at Mississippi State University in Starkville
John C. Stennis Memorial Hospital in Dekalb, Mississippi
Stennis International Airport
See also
List of United States Congress members killed or wounded in office
Notes and references
Stennis Center for Public Service. "Tribute to John C. Stennis". Retrieved June 16, 2005.
External links
"John C. Stennis, A Senator's Senator." Episode of Mississippi Masters, produced by Mississippi Educational Network, made available on the American Archive of Public Broadcasting by the University of Georgia Brown Media Archive
A Gentleman From Mississippi
Stennis Center for Public Service
USS John C. Stennis website
John C. Stennis Space Center
NASA Biography
John C. Stennis Institute of Government
Biographical Sketch of John C. Stennis, via Mississippi State University
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20th-century American politicians | [
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218169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangling%20modifier | Dangling modifier | A dangling modifier (also known as a dangling participle or illogical participle) is a type of ambiguous grammatical construct whereby a grammatical modifier could be misinterpreted as being associated with a word other than the one intended. A dangling modifier has no subject and is usually a participle. A writer may use a dangling modifier intending to modify a subject while word order may imply that the modifier describes an object, or vice versa. Such ambiguities can lead to difficulty in comprehension or, in some cases, unintentional humor.
Some dangling modifiers attempt to describe a nebulous, unmentioned party that does not appear in the sentence. An example appears in the sentence Turning the corner, a handsome school building appeared. The modifying clause Turning the corner is supposed to describe the behavior of the narrator (or other observer), but within the sentence, the "turning" action attaches either to the "handsome school building" or to nothing at all. Similarly, in the sentence At the age of eight, my family finally bought a dog, the modifier At the age of eight is "dangling." In the grammar of the sentence, it could either mean the family was eight years old when it bought the dog or even that the dog was eight when it was bought. However, At the age of eight was presumably intended to specify the narrator's age when the family "finally bought a dog".
Dangling-modifier clauses
As an adjunct, a modifier clause is normally at the beginning or the end of a sentence and usually attached to the subject of the main clause, as in "Walking down the street (clause), the man (subject) saw the beautiful trees (object)." However, when the subject is missing or the clause attaches itself to another object in a sentence, the clause is seemingly "hanging" on nothing or on an entirely inappropriate noun. It thus "dangles", as in these sentences:
Walking down Main Street, the trees were beautiful.
Reaching the station, the sun came out.
In the first sentence, the adjunct clause may at first appear to modify "the trees", the subject of the sentence. However, it actually modifies the speaker of the sentence, who is not explicitly mentioned. In the second sentence, the adjunct may at first appear to modify "the sun", the subject of the sentence. Presumably, there is another, human subject who did reach the station and observed the sun coming out, but since this subject is not mentioned in the text, the intended meaning is obscured. Therefore this kind of sentence is considered incorrect in standard English.
Strunk and White's The Elements of Style provides another kind of example, a misplaced modifier: I saw the trailer peeking through the window. Presumably, this means the speaker was peeking through the window, but the placement of the clause "peeking through the window" makes it sound as though the trailer were doing so. The sentence can be recast as "Peeking through the window, I saw the trailer."
Strunk and White describe as "ludicrous" another of their examples (an "unclear on the concept" stab at the ablative absolute): "Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very cheap." The author obviously meant that the house was dilapidated, but the construction suggests that the speaker or writer was dilapidated.
Bernstein offers another ludicrous example: "Roaring down the track at seventy miles an hour, the stalled car was smashed by the train." The adjunct is meant to modify "train" as it is the train roaring down the track. But the subject of the main clause is "the stalled car". The writer is suggesting that the stalled car, which really isn't moving at all, is roaring down the track. The sentence could be better written: "Roaring down the track at seventy miles an hour, the train smashed the stalled car." Or: "The stalled car was smashed by the train, roaring down the track at seventy miles an hour."
Follett provides yet another ludicrous example: "Leaping to the saddle, his horse bolted." In this example, the noun or pronoun intended to be modified isn't even in the sentence. A clearer rewrite could be: "As he leapt into the saddle, his horse bolted." In the rewrite, the non-finite adjunct clause is replaced by a finite subordinate clause.
These examples illustrate a writing principle that dangling participles violate. Follett states the principle: "A participle at the head of a sentence automatically affixes itself to the subject of the following verb – in effect a requirement that the writer either make his [grammatical] subject consistent with the participle or discard the participle for some other construction." Strunk and White put it this way: "A participle phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject."
Dangling participles should not be confused with clauses in absolute constructions, which are considered grammatical. Because the participle phrase in an absolute construction is not semantically attached to any single element in the sentence, it is easily confused with a dangling participle. The difference is that a participle phrase is intended to modify a particular noun or pronoun, but is instead erroneously attached to a different noun, whereas an absolute clause is not intended to modify any noun at all. An example of an absolute construction is:
The weather being beautiful, we plan to go to the beach today.
Non-participial modifiers
Non-participial modifiers that dangle can also be troublesome:
After years of being lost under a pile of dust, Walter P. Stanley, III, left, found all the old records of the Bangor Lions Club.
The above sentence from a photo caption in a newspaper suggests that it is the subject of the sentence, Walter Stanley, who was buried under a pile of dust, and not the records. It is the prepositional phrase "after years of being lost under a pile of dust" which dangles.
In the film Mary Poppins, Mr. Dawes Sr. dies of laughter after hearing the following joke:
"I know a man with a wooden leg called Smith."
"What was the name of his other leg?"
In the case of this joke, the placement of the phrase "called Smith" implies that it is the leg that is named Smith, rather than the man.
Another famous example of this humorous effect is by Groucho Marx as Captain Jeffrey T. Spaulding in the 1930 film Animal Crackers:
Though under the most plausible interpretation of the first sentence, Captain Spaulding would have been wearing the pajamas, the line plays on the grammatical possibility that the elephant was instead.
Strunk and White offer this example: "As a mother of five, and with another on the way, my ironing board is always up." Is the ironing board (grammatical subject) really the mother of five? Less ambiguous: "As the mother of five, and with another on the way, I always keep my ironing board up." Or: "My ironing board is always up, because I am a mother of five, with another on the way."
Modifiers reflecting the mood or attitude of the speaker
Participial modifiers can sometimes be intended to describe the attitude or mood of the speaker, even when the speaker is not part of the sentence. Some such modifiers are standard and are not considered dangling modifiers: "Speaking of [topic]", and "Trusting that this will put things into perspective", for example, are commonly used to transition from one topic to a related one or for adding a conclusion to a speech.
Usage of "hopefully"
Since about the 1960s, controversy has arisen over the proper usage of the adverb hopefully. Some grammarians object to constructions such as "Hopefully, the sun will be shining tomorrow." Their complaint is that the term "hopefully" ought to be understood as the manner in which the sun will shine. In order to modify the whole sentence to convey the attitude of the speaker, they say, the "hopefully" should be moved to the end: "the sun will be shining tomorrow, hopefully."
"Hopefully" used in this way is a disjunct (cf. "admittedly", "mercifully", "oddly"). Disjuncts (also called sentence adverbs) are useful in colloquial speech for the concision they permit.
No other word in English expresses that thought. In a single word we can say it is regrettable that (regrettably) or it is fortunate that (fortunately) or it is lucky that (luckily), and it would be comforting if there were such a word as hopably or, as suggested by Follett, hopingly, but there isn't. [...] In this instance nothing is to be lost – the word would not be destroyed in its primary meaning – and a useful, nay necessary term is to be gained.
What had been expressed in lengthy adverbial constructions, such as "it is regrettable that ..." or "it is fortunate that ...", had of course always been shortened to the adverbs "regrettably" or "fortunately". Bill Bryson says, "those writers who scrupulously avoid 'hopefully' in such constructions do not hesitate to use at least a dozen other words – 'apparently', 'presumably', 'happily', 'sadly', 'mercifully', 'thankfully', and so on – in precisely the same way."
Merriam-Webster gives a usage note on its entry for "hopefully"; the editors point out that the disjunct sense of the word dates to the early 18th century and has been in widespread use since at least the 1930s. Objection to this sense of the word, they state, became widespread only in the 1960s. The editors maintain that this usage is "entirely standard".
Yet the choice of "regrettably" above as a counterexample points out an additional problem. At the time that objection to "hopefully" became publicized, grammar books relentlessly pointed out the distinction between "regrettably" and "regretfully". The latter is not to be used as a sentence adverb, they state; it must refer to the subject of the sentence. The misuse of "regretfully" produces worse undesired results than "hopefully", possibly contributing to disdain for the latter. The counterpart hopably was never added to the language.
See also
Double entendre
Garden-path sentence
Syntactic ambiguity
References
External links
Hopefully fails to modify sentence elements. Originally citing Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words
English usage controversies
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218172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyn | Lyn | Lyn or LYN may refer to:
People
Given name
Lyn (singer), South Korean singer
Lyn, pseudonym of South Korean Warcraft III player Park June (professional gamer)
Lyn Ashley, Australian actress who worked in the United Kingdom on television during the 1960s
Lyn Brown (politician), British politician
Lyn Collingwood, Australian television and film actress
Lyn Harding, British actor
Lyn Hejinian, American poet, essayist, translator and publisher
Lyn James, Welsh actress
Lyn Parker (born 1952), British civil servant, diplomat, and legal scholar
Surname
David Lyn (1927-2012), Welsh actor and director
Euros Lyn, Welsh director for television
In science and technology
Lynx (constellation), standard abbreviation
Lyn (locomotive), a British narrow gauge railway locomotive built in 1897 for the Lynton and Barnstaple Railway
Lyn (Src family kinase), in biochemistry
LyN, a video game engine
In fiction
Lyn Me, a character in the Star Wars universe
Lyndis, a character from the Fire Emblem series
Other uses
Lyn, Ontario, Canada, a community within the township of Elizabethtown-Kitley
Lyon–Bron Airport (IATA code LYN)
Lyn Fotball, Norwegian football club from Oslo established in 1896
See also
Lynn (disambiguation)
Linn (disambiguation)
Unisex given names | [
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218181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet%20Offensive | Tet Offensive | The Tet Offensive (, "1968 Yang Earth Monkey Tet event", also , "General offensive and uprising of Tet Mau Than") was a major escalation and one of the largest military campaigns of the Vietnam War. It was launched on January 30, 1968 by forces of the Viet Cong (VC) and North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) against the forces of the South Vietnamese Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), the United States Armed Forces and their allies. It was a campaign of surprise attacks against military and civilian command and control centers throughout South Vietnam. The name is the truncated version of the Lunar New Year festival name in Vietnamese, Tết Nguyên Đán, with the offense chosen during a holiday period as most ARVN personnel were on leave. The purpose of the wide-scale offensive by the Hanoi Politburo was to trigger political instability, in a belief that mass armed assault on urban centers would trigger defections and rebellions.
The offensive was launched prematurely in the late night hours of 30 January in the I and II Corps Tactical Zones of South Vietnam. This early attack allowed allied forces some time to prepare defensive measures. When the main operation began the next morning, the offensive was countrywide and well coordinated; eventually more than 80,000 PAVN/VC troops struck more than 100 towns and cities, including 36 of 44 provincial capitals, five of the six autonomous cities, 72 of 245 district towns, and the southern capital. The offensive was the largest military operation conducted by either side up to that point in the war.
Hanoi had launched the offensive in the belief that it would trigger a popular uprising leading to the collapse of the South Vietnamese government. Although the initial attacks stunned the allies, causing them to lose control of several cities temporarily, they quickly regrouped, beat back the attacks, and inflicted heavy casualties on PAVN/VC forces. The popular uprising anticipated by Hanoi never happened. During the Battle of Huế, intense fighting lasted for a month, resulting in the destruction of the city. During their occupation, the PAVN/VC executed thousands of people in the Massacre at Huế. Around the U.S. combat base at Khe Sanh, fighting continued for two more months.
The offensive was a military and political defeat for North Vietnam, as neither uprisings nor ARVN unit defections had occurred in South Vietnam. However this offensive had far reaching consequences due to its effect on the views of the Vietnam War by the American public and the world broadly. General Westmoreland reported that defeating the PAVN/VC would require 200,000 more American soldiers and activation of the reserves, prompting even loyal supporters of the war to see that the current war strategy required re-evaluation. The offensive had a strong effect on the U.S. government and shocked the U.S. public, which had been led to believe by its political and military leaders that the North Vietnamese were being defeated and incapable of launching such an ambitious military operation; American public support for the war declined as a result of the Tet casualties and the ramping up of draft calls. Subsequently, the Johnson Administration sought negotiations to end the war, which were derailed in a secret agreement between then Presidential Candidate Richard Nixon and Nguyễn Văn Thiệu.
The term "Tet offensive" usually refers to the January–February 1968 offensive, but it can also include the so-called "Mini-Tet" offensive that took place in May and the Phase III offensive in August, or the 21 weeks of unusually intense combat which followed the initial attacks in January.
Background
South Vietnam Political Context
Leading up to the Tet Offensive were years of marked political instability and a series of coups after the 1963 South Vietnamese coup. In 1966, the leadership in South Vietnam, represented by the Head of State Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ were persuaded to commit to democratic reforms in an effort to stabilize the political situation at a conference in Honolulu. Prior to 1967, the South Vietnamese constituent assembly was in the process of drafting a new constitution and eventual elections. The political situation in South Vietnam, after the 1967 South Vietnamese presidential election, looked increasingly stable. Rivalries between South Vietnam's generals were becoming less chaotic, and Thiệu and Kỳ formed a joint ticket for the election. Despite efforts by North Vietnam to disrupt elections, higher than usual turnouts saw a political turning point towards a more democratic structure and ushered in a period of political stability after a series of coups had characterized the preceding years.
Protests, campaigning and the atmosphere of elections had been interpreted by the Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam and Lê Duẩn as signs that the population would embrace a 'general uprising' against the government of South Vietnam. The Politburo sought to exploit perceived instability and maintain political weakness in South Vietnam.
United States War Strategy
During fall 1967, the question whether the U.S. strategy of attrition was working in South Vietnam weighed heavily on the minds of the American public and the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson. General William C. Westmoreland, the commander of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), believed that if a "crossover point" could be reached by which the number of communist troops killed or captured during military operations exceeded those recruited or replaced, the Americans would win the war. There was a discrepancy, however, between the order of battle estimates of the MACV and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) concerning the strength of VC guerrilla forces within South Vietnam. In September, members of the MACV intelligence services and the CIA met to prepare a Special National Intelligence Estimate that would be used by the administration to gauge U.S. success in the conflict.
Provided with an enemy intelligence windfall accrued during Operations Cedar Falls and Junction City, the CIA members of the group believed that the number of VC guerrillas, irregulars, and cadre within the South could be as high as 430,000. The MACV Combined Intelligence Center, on the other hand, maintained that the number could be no more than 300,000. Westmoreland was deeply concerned about the possible perceptions of the American public to such an increased estimate since communist troop strength was routinely provided to reporters during press briefings. According to MACV's chief of intelligence, General Joseph A. McChristian, the new figures "would create a political bombshell", since they were positive proof that the North Vietnamese "had the capability and the will to continue a protracted war of attrition".
In May, MACV attempted to obtain a compromise from the CIA by maintaining that VC militias did not constitute a fighting force but were essentially low-level fifth columnists used for information collection. The agency responded that such a notion was ridiculous since the militias were directly responsible for half of the casualties inflicted on U.S. forces. With the groups deadlocked, George Carver, CIA deputy director for Vietnamese affairs, was asked to mediate the dispute. In September, Carver devised a compromise: The CIA would drop its insistence on including the irregulars in the final tally of forces and add a prose addendum to the estimate that would explain the agency's position. George Allen, Carver's deputy, laid responsibility for the agency's capitulation at the feet of Richard Helms, the director of the CIA. He believed that "it was a political problem ... [Helms] didn't want the agency ... contravening the policy interest of the administration."
During the second half of 1967 the administration had become alarmed by criticism, both inside and outside the government, and by reports of declining public support for its Vietnam policies. According to public opinion polls, the percentage of Americans who believed that the U.S. had made a mistake by sending troops to Vietnam had risen from 25 percent in 1965 to 45 percent by December 1967. This trend was fueled not by a belief that the struggle was not worthwhile, but by mounting casualty figures, rising taxes, and the feeling that there was no end to the war in sight. A poll taken in November indicated that 55 percent wanted a tougher war policy, exemplified by the public belief that "it was an error for us to have gotten involved in Vietnam in the first place. But now that we're there, let's win – or get out." This prompted the administration to launch a so-called "success offensive", a concerted effort to alter the widespread public perception that the war had reached a stalemate and to convince the American people that the administration's policies were succeeding. Under the leadership of National Security Advisor Walt W. Rostow, the news media then was inundated by a wave of effusive optimism.
Every statistical indicator of progress, from "kill ratios" and "body counts" to village pacification, was fed to the press and to the Congress. "We are beginning to win this struggle", asserted Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey on NBC's Today show in mid-November. "We are on the offensive. The territory is being gained. We are making steady progress." At the end of November, the campaign reached its climax when Johnson summoned Westmoreland and the new U.S. Ambassador, Ellsworth Bunker, to Washington, D.C., for what was billed as a "high-level policy review". Upon their arrival, the two men bolstered the administration's claims of success. From Saigon, pacification chief Robert Komer asserted that the CORDS pacification program in the countryside was succeeding, and that sixty-eight percent of the South Vietnamese population was under the control of Saigon while only seventeen percent was under the control of the VC. General Bruce Palmer Jr., one of Westmoreland's three Field Force commanders, claimed that "the Viet Cong has been defeated" and that "He can't get food and he can't recruit. He has been forced to change his strategy from trying to control the people on the coast to try to survive in the mountains."
Westmoreland was even more emphatic in his assertions. At an address at the National Press Club on 21 November, he reported that, as of the end of 1967, the communists were "unable to mount a major offensive ... I am absolutely certain that whereas in 1965 the enemy was winning, today he is certainly losing...We have reached an important point when the end begins to come into view." By the end of the year the administration's approval rating had indeed crept up by eight percent, but an early January Gallup poll indicated that forty-seven percent of the American public still disapproved of the President's handling of the war. The American public, "more confused than convinced, more doubtful than despairing ... adopted a 'wait and see' attitude." During a discussion with an interviewer from Time magazine, Westmoreland defied the communists to launch an attack: "I hope they try something because we are looking for a fight."
North Vietnam
Party politics
Planning in Hanoi for a winter-spring offensive during 1968 had begun in early 1967 and continued until early the following year. According to American sources, there has been an extreme reluctance among Vietnamese historians to discuss the decision-making process that led to the general offensive and uprising, even decades after the event. In official Vietnamese literature, the decision to launch the Tet offensive was usually presented as the result of a perceived U.S. failure to win the war quickly, the failure of the American bombing campaign against North Vietnam, and the anti-war sentiment that pervaded the population of the U.S. The decision to launch the general offensive, however, was much more complicated.
The decision signaled the end of a bitter, decade-long debate within the North Vietnamese Government between first two, and then three factions. The moderates believed that the economic viability of North Vietnam should come before support of a massive and conventional southern war and they generally followed the Soviet line of peaceful coexistence by reunifying Vietnam through political means. Heading this faction were party theorist Trường Chinh and Minister of Defense Võ Nguyên Giáp. The militant faction, on the other hand, tended to follow the foreign policy line of the People's Republic of China and called for the reunification of the nation by military means and that no negotiations should be undertaken with the Americans. This group was led by Communist Party First Secretary Lê Duẩn and Lê Đức Thọ (no relation). From the early to mid-1960s, the militants had dictated the direction of the war in South Vietnam. General Nguyễn Chí Thanh the head of Central Office for South Vietnam (COSVN), headquarters for the South, was another prominent militant. The followers of the Chinese line centered their strategy against the U.S. and its allies on large-scale, main force actions rather than the protracted guerrilla war espoused by Mao Zedong.
By 1966–1967, however, after suffering massive casualties, stalemate on the battlefield, and destruction of the northern economy by U.S. aerial bombing, there was a dawning realization that if current trends continued, Hanoi would eventually lack the resources necessary to affect the military situation in the South. As a result, there were more strident calls by the moderates for negotiations and a revision of strategy. They felt that a return to guerrilla tactics was more appropriate since the U.S. could not be defeated conventionally. They also complained that the policy of rejecting negotiations was in error. The Americans could only be worn down in a war of wills during a period of "fighting while talking". During 1967 things had become so bad on the battlefield that Lê Duẩn ordered Thanh to incorporate aspects of protracted guerrilla warfare into his strategy.
During the same period, a counter-attack was launched by a new, third grouping (the centrists) led by President Hồ Chí Minh, Lê Đức Thọ, and Foreign Minister Nguyễn Duy Trinh, who called for negotiations. From October 1966 through April 1967, a very public debate over military strategy took place in print and via radio between Thanh and his rival for military power, Giáp. Giáp had advocated a defensive, primarily guerrilla strategy against the U.S. and South Vietnam. Thanh's position was that Giáp and his adherents were centered on their experiences during the First Indochina War and that they were too "conservative and captive to old methods and past experience... mechanically repeating the past."
The arguments over domestic and military strategy also carried a foreign policy element, as North Vietnam, like South Vietnam, was largely dependent on outside military and economic aid. The vast majority of North Vietnam's military equipment was provided by either the Soviet Union or China. Beijing advocated that North Vietnam conduct a protracted war on the Maoist model, fearing that a conventional conflict might draw China in, as had happened in the Korean War. They also resisted the idea of negotiating with the allies. Moscow, on the other hand, advocated negotiations, but simultaneously armed Hanoi's forces to conduct a conventional war on the Soviet model. North Vietnamese foreign policy therefore consisted of maintaining a critical balance between war policy, internal and external policies, domestic adversaries, and foreign allies with "self-serving agendas."
To "break the will of their domestic opponents and reaffirm their autonomy vis-à-vis their foreign allies", hundreds of pro-Soviet, party moderates, military officers, and intelligentsia were arrested on 27 July 1967, during what came to be called the Revisionist Anti-Party Affair. All of the arrests were based on the individual's stance on the Politburo's choice of tactics and strategy for the proposed general offensive. This move cemented the position of the militants as Hanoi's strategy: the rejection of negotiations, the abandonment of protracted warfare, and the focus on the offensive in the towns and cities of South Vietnam. More arrests followed in November and December.
General offensive and uprising
The operational plan for the general offensive and uprising had its origin as the "COSVN proposal" at Thanh's southern headquarters in April 1967 and had then been relayed to Hanoi the following month. The General was then ordered to the capital to explain his concept in person to the Military Central Commission. At a meeting in July, Thanh briefed the plan to the Politburo. On the evening of 6 July, after receiving permission to begin preparations for the offensive, Thanh attended a party and died of a heart attack after drinking too much. An alternative account is that Thanh died of injuries sustained in a U.S. bombing raid on COSVN after having been evacuated from Cambodia.
After cementing their position during the Party crackdown, the militants sped up planning for a major conventional offensive to break the military deadlock. They concluded that the Saigon government and the U.S. presence were so unpopular with the population of the South that a broad-based attack would spark a spontaneous uprising of the population, which, if the offensive was successful, would enable the North Vietnamese to sweep to a quick, decisive victory. Their basis for this conclusion included: a belief that the South Vietnamese military was no longer combat-effective; the results of the 1967 presidential election (in which the Thiệu/Kỳ ticket had only received 24 percent of the popular vote); the Buddhist crises of 1963 and 1966; well-publicized anti-war demonstrations in Saigon; and continuous criticism of the Thiệu government in the southern press. Launching such an offensive would also finally put an end to what have been described as "dovish calls for talks, criticism of military strategy, Chinese diatribes of Soviet perfidy, and Soviet pressure to negotiate—all of which needed to be silenced."
In October, the Politburo decided on the Tet holiday as the launch date and met again in December to reaffirm its decision and formalize it at the 14th Plenary session of the Party Central Committee in January 1968. The resultant Resolution 14 was a major blow to domestic opposition and "foreign obstruction". Concessions had been made to the center group, however, by agreeing that negotiations were possible, but the document essentially centered on the creation of "a spontaneous uprising in order to win a decisive victory in the shortest time possible."
Contrary to Western belief, General Giáp did not plan or command the offensive himself. Thanh's original plan was elaborated on by a party committee headed by Thanh's deputy, Phạm Hùng, and then modified by Giáp. The Defense Minister may have been convinced to toe the line by the arrest and imprisonment of most of the members of his staff during the Revisionist Anti-Communist Party Affair. Although Giáp went to work "reluctantly, under duress", he may have found the task easier due to the fact that he was faced with a fait accompli. Since the Politburo had already approved the offensive, all he had to do was make it work. He combined guerrilla operations into what was basically a conventional military offensive and shifted the burden of sparking the popular uprising to the VC. If it worked, all would be well and good. If it failed, it would be a failure only for the Communist Party militants. For the moderates and centrists, it offered the prospect of negotiations and a possible end to the American bombing of the North. Only in the eyes of the militants, therefore, did the offensive become a "go for broke" effort. Others in the Politburo were willing to settle for a much less ambitious "victory".
The PAVN official history states that the objectives of the Tet offensive were to: annihilate and cause the total disintegration of the bulk of the puppet army, overthrow the "puppet" (South Vietnamese) regime at all administrative levels, and place all government power in the hands of the people. Annihilate a significant portion of the American military's troop strength and destroy a significant portion of his war equipment in order to prevent the American forces from being able to carry out their political and military missions; on the basis, crush the American will to commit aggression and force the United States to accept defeat in South Vietnam and end all hostile actions against North Vietnam. In addition, using this as the basis, they would achieve the immediate goals of the revolution, which were independence, democracy, peace, and neutrality in South Vietnam, and then move toward achieving peace and national unification.
The operation would involve a preliminary phase, during which diversionary attacks would be launched in the border areas of South Vietnam to draw American attention and forces away from the cities. The general offensive and uprising would then commence with simultaneous actions on major allied bases and most urban areas, and with particular emphasis on the cities of Saigon and Huế. Concurrently, a substantial threat would have to be made against the U.S. Khe Sanh Combat Base. The Khe Sanh actions would draw PAVN forces away from the offensive into the cities, but Giáp considered them necessary in order to protect his supply lines and divert American attention. Attacks on other U.S. forces were of secondary, or even tertiary importance, since Giáp considered his main objective to be weakening or destroying the South Vietnamese military and government through popular revolt. The offensive, therefore, was aimed at influencing the South Vietnamese public, not that of the U.S. There is conflicting evidence as to whether, or to what extent, the offensive was intended to influence either the March primaries or the November presidential election in the U.S.
According to General Trần Văn Trà, the new military head of COSVN, the offensive was to have three distinct phases: Phase I, scheduled to begin on 30 January, would be a countrywide assault on the cities, conducted primarily by VC forces. Concurrently, a propaganda offensive to induce ARVN troops to desert and the South Vietnamese population to rise up against the government would be launched. If outright victory was not achieved, the battle might still lead to the creation of a coalition government and the withdrawal of the Americans. If the general offensive failed to achieve these purposes, follow-up operations would be conducted to wear down the enemy and lead to a negotiated settlement; Phase II was scheduled to begin on 5 May and Phase III on 17 August.
Preparations for the offensive were already underway. The logistical build-up began in mid-year, and by January 1968, 81,000 tons of supplies and 200,000 troops, including seven complete infantry regiments and 20 independent battalions made the trip south on the Ho Chi Minh Trail. This logistical effort also involved re-arming the VC with new AK-47 assault rifles and B-40 rocket-propelled grenade launchers, which granted them superior firepower over the ARVN. To pave the way and to confuse the allies as to its intentions, Hanoi launched a diplomatic offensive. Foreign Minister Trinh announced on 30 December that Hanoi would rather than could open negotiations if the U.S. unconditionally ended Operation Rolling Thunder, the bombing campaign against North Vietnam. This announcement provoked a flurry of diplomatic activity (which amounted to nothing) during the last weeks of the year.
South Vietnamese and U.S. military intelligence estimated that PAVN/VC forces in South Vietnam during January 1968 totaled 323,000 men, including 130,000 PAVN regulars, 160,000 VC and members of the infrastructure, and 33,000 service and support troops. They were organized into nine divisions composed of 35 infantry and 20 artillery or anti-aircraft artillery regiments, which were, in turn, composed of 230 infantry and six sapper battalions.
U.S. unpreparedness
Suspicions and diversions
Signs of impending communist action were noticed among the allied intelligence collection apparatus in Saigon. During the late summer and fall of 1967 both South Vietnamese and U.S. intelligence agencies collected clues that indicated a significant shift in communist strategic planning. By mid-December, mounting evidence convinced many in Washington and Saigon that something big was underway. During the last three months of the year intelligence agencies had observed signs of a major North Vietnamese military buildup. In addition to captured documents (a copy of Resolution 13, for example, was captured by early October), observations of enemy logistical operations were also quite clear: in October, the number of trucks observed heading south through Laos on the Hồ Chí Minh Trail jumped from the previous monthly average of 480 to 1,116. By November this total reached 3,823 and, in December, 6,315. On 20 December, Westmoreland cabled Washington that he expected the PAVN/VC "to undertake an intensified countrywide effort, perhaps a maximum effort, over a relatively short period of time."
Despite all the warning signs, however, the allies were still surprised by the scale and scope of the offensive. According to ARVN Colonel Hoang Ngoc Lung the answer lay with the allied intelligence methodology itself, which tended to estimate the enemy's probable course of action based upon their capabilities, not their intentions. Since, in the allied estimation, the communists hardly had the capability to launch such an ambitious enterprise: "There was little possibility that the enemy could initiate a general offensive, regardless of his intentions." The answer could also be partially explained by the lack of coordination and cooperation between competing intelligence branches, both South Vietnamese and American. The situation from the U.S. perspective was summed up by an MACV intelligence analyst: "If we'd gotten the whole battle plan, it wouldn't have been believed. It wouldn't have been credible to us."
From early to late 1967, the U.S. command in Saigon was perplexed by a series of actions initiated by the PAVN/VC in the border regions. On 24 April a U.S. Marine Corps patrol prematurely triggered a PAVN offensive aimed at taking Khe Sanh Combat Base, the western anchor of the Marines' defensive positions in Quảng Trị Province. For 49 days during early September and lasting into October, the PAVN began shelling the U.S. Marine outpost of Con Thien, just south of the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). The intense shelling (100–150 rounds per day) prompted Westmoreland to launch Operation Neutralize, an intense aerial bombardment campaign of 4,000 sorties into and just north of the DMZ.
On 27 October, an ARVN battalion at Sông Bé, the capital of Phước Long Province, came under attack by an entire PAVN regiment. Two days later, another PAVN regiment attacked a U.S. Special Forces border outpost at Lộc Ninh, in Bình Long Province. This attack sparked a ten-day battle that drew in elements of the U.S. 1st Infantry Division and the ARVN 18th Division and left 800 PAVN troops dead at its conclusion.
The most severe of what came to be known as "the Border Battles" erupted during October and November around Dak To, another border outpost in Kon Tum Province. The clashes there between the four regiments of the PAVN 1st Division, the U.S. 4th Infantry Division, the 173rd Airborne Brigade and ARVN infantry and Airborne elements, lasted for 22 days. By the time the fighting was over, between 1,200 and 1,600 PAVN and 262 U.S. troops had lost their lives. MACV intelligence was confused by the possible motives of the North Vietnamese in prompting such large-scale actions in remote regions where U.S. artillery and aerial firepower could be applied indiscriminately, which meant that tactically and strategically, these operations made no sense. What the North Vietnamese had done was carry out the first stage of their plan: to fix the attention of the U.S. command on the borders and draw the bulk of U.S. forces away from the heavily populated coastal lowlands and cities.
Westmoreland was more concerned with the situation at Khe Sanh, where, on 21 January 1968, a force estimated at 20,000–40,000 PAVN troops had besieged the U.S. Marine garrison. MACV was convinced that the PAVN planned to stage an attack and overrun the base as a prelude to an all-out effort to seize the two northernmost provinces of South Vietnam. To deter any such possibility, he deployed 250,000 men, including half of MACV's U.S. maneuver battalions, to I Corps.
This course of events disturbed Lieutenant General Frederick Weyand, commander of U.S. forces in III Corps, which included the Capital Military District. Weyand, a former intelligence officer, was suspicious of the pattern of communist activities in his area of responsibility and notified Westmoreland of his concerns on 10 January. Westmoreland agreed with his estimate and ordered 15 U.S. battalions to redeploy from positions near the Cambodian border back to the outskirts of Saigon. When the offensive did begin, a total of 27 allied maneuver battalions defended the city and the surrounding area. This redeployment may have been one of the most critical tactical decisions of the war.
Before the offensive
By the beginning of January 1968, the U.S. had deployed 331,098 Army personnel and 78,013 Marines in nine divisions, an armoured cavalry regiment, and two separate brigades to South Vietnam. They were joined there by the 1st Australian Task Force, a Royal Thai Army regiment, two South Korean Army infantry divisions, and the Republic of Korea Marine Corps brigade. South Vietnamese strength totaled 350,000 regulars in the Army, Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps. They were in turn supported by the 151,000-man South Vietnamese Regional Forces and 149,000-man South Vietnamese Popular Forces, which were the equivalent of regional and local militias.
In the days immediately preceding the offensive, the preparedness of allied forces was relatively relaxed. Hanoi had announced in October that it would observe a seven-day truce from 27 January to 3 February for the Tet holiday, and the South Vietnamese military made plans to allow recreational leave for approximately half of its forces. General Westmoreland, who had already cancelled the truce in I Corps, requested that South Vietnam cancel the upcoming cease-fire, but President Thiệu (who had already reduced the cease-fire to 36 hours), refused to do so, claiming that it would damage troop morale and only benefit communist propagandists.
On 28 January, eleven VC cadres were captured in the city of Qui Nhơn while in possession of two pre-recorded audio tapes whose message appealed to the populace in "already occupied Saigon, Huế, and Da Nang". The following afternoon, General Cao Văn Viên, chief of the South Vietnamese Joint General Staff, ordered his four Corps' commanders to place their troops on alert. Yet, there was still a lack of a sense of urgency on the part of the allies. If Westmoreland had a grasp of the potential for danger, he did not communicate it very well to others. On the evening of 30 January, 200 U.S. officers—all of whom served on the MACV intelligence staff—attended a pool party at their quarters in Saigon. According to James Meecham, an analyst at the Combined Intelligence Center who attended the party: "I had no conception Tet was coming, absolutely zero ... Of the 200-odd officers present, not one I talked to knew Tet was coming, without exception."
Westmoreland also failed to communicate his concerns adequately to Washington. Although he had warned the President between 25 and 30 January that "widespread" communist attacks were in the offing, his admonitions had tended to be so oblique or so hedged with official optimism that even the administration was unprepared. No one – in either Washington or Vietnam – was expecting what happened.
Weyand invited CBS News Correspondent John Laurence and Washington Post reporter Don Oberdorfer to his III Corps headquarters in the week before the Tet offensive to alert them that a major enemy attack was coming "just before or just after Tet." He said the Vietnamese had too much respect for the holiday to attack during Tet itself. Weyand said he had moved 30 U.S. and South Vietnamese battalions closer to Saigon to defend the city.
Offensive
Whether by accident or design, the first wave of attacks began shortly after midnight on 30 January as all five provincial capitals in II Corps and Da Nang, in I Corps, were attacked. Nha Trang, headquarters of the U.S. I Field Force, was the first to be hit, followed shortly by Ban Mê Thuột, Kon Tum, Hội An, Tuy Hòa, Da Nang, Qui Nhơn, and Pleiku. During all of these operations, the PAVN/VC followed a similar pattern: mortar or rocket attacks were closely followed by massed ground assaults conducted by battalion-strength elements of the VC, sometimes supported by PAVN regulars. These forces would join with local cadres who served as guides to lead the regulars to the most senior South Vietnamese headquarters and the radio station. The operations, however, were not well coordinated at the local level. By daylight, almost all communist forces had been driven from their objectives. General Phillip B. Davidson, the new MACV chief of intelligence, notified Westmoreland that "This is going to happen in the rest of the country tonight and tomorrow morning." All U.S. forces were placed on maximum alert and similar orders were issued to all ARVN units. The allies, however, still responded without any real sense of urgency. Orders cancelling leaves either came too late or were disregarded.
At 03:00 on 31 January PAVN/VC forces attacked Saigon, Cholon, and Gia Định in the Capital Military District; Quảng Trị (again), Huế, Quảng Tín, Tam Kỳ and Quảng Ngãi as well as U.S. bases at Phú Bài and Chu Lai in I Corps; Phan Thiết, Tuy Hòa and U.S. installations at Bong Son and An Khê in II Corps; and Cần Thơ and Vĩnh Long in IV Corps. The following day, Biên Hòa, Long Thanh, Bình Dương in III Corps and Kien Hoa, Dinh Tuong, Gò Công, Kiên Giang, Vĩnh Bình, Bến Tre, and Kien Tuong in IV Corps were assaulted. The last attack of the initial operation was launched against Bạc Liêu in IV Corps on 10 February. A total of approximately 84,000 PAVN/VC troops participated in the attacks while thousands of others stood by to act as reinforcements or as blocking forces. PAVN/VC forces also mortared or rocketed every major allied airfield and attacked 64 district capitals and scores of smaller towns.
In most cases, the defense was led by the South Vietnamese. Local militia or ARVN forces, supported by the South Vietnamese National Police, usually drove the attackers out within two or three days, sometimes within hours; but heavy fighting continued several days longer in Kon Tum, Buôn Ma Thuột, Phan Thiết, Cần Thơ, and Bến Tre. The outcome in each instance was usually dictated by the ability of local commanders—some were outstanding, others were cowardly or incompetent. During this crucial crisis, however, no South Vietnamese unit broke or defected to the communists.
According to Westmoreland, he responded to the news of the attacks with optimism, both in media presentations and in his reports to Washington. According to closer observers, however, the General was "stunned that the communists had been able to coordinate so many attacks in such secrecy", and he was "dispirited and deeply shaken." According to Clark Clifford, at the time of the initial attacks, the reaction of the U.S. military leadership "approached panic". Although Westmoreland's appraisal of the military situation was correct, he made himself look foolish by continuously maintaining his belief that Khe Sanh was the real objective of the North Vietnamese and that 155 attacks by 84,000 troops was a diversion (a position he maintained until at least 12 February). Washington Post reporter Peter Braestrup summed up the feelings of his colleagues by asking "How could any effort against Saigon, especially downtown Saigon, be a diversion?"
Saigon
Although Saigon was the focal point of the offensive, the PAVN/VC did not seek a total takeover of the city. Rather, they had six primary targets to strike in the downtown area: the headquarters of the ARVN Joint General Staff, Tan Son Nhut Air Base, the Independence Palace, the US Embassy in Saigon, the Republic of Vietnam Navy Headquarters and Radio Saigon. Elsewhere in the city or its outskirts, ten VC Local Force Battalions attacked the central police station and the Artillery Command and the Armored Command headquarters (both at Gò Vấp). The plan called for all these initial forces to capture and hold their positions for 48 hours, by which time reinforcements were to have arrived to relieve them.
The defense of the Capital Military District was primarily a South Vietnamese responsibility and it was initially defended by eight ARVN infantry battalions and the local police force. By 3 February they had been reinforced by five ARVN Ranger Battalions, five Marine Corps, and five ARVN Airborne Battalions. U.S. Army units participating in the defense included the 716th Military Police Battalion, seven infantry battalions (one mechanized), and six artillery battalions.
At the Armored Command and Artillery Command headquarters on the northern edge of the city the PAVN planned to use captured tanks and artillery pieces but the tanks had been moved to another base two months earlier and the
Breechblock breechblocks of the artillery pieces had been removed, rendering them useless.
One of the most important targets, from a symbolic and propagandistic point of view, was Radio Saigon. Its troops had brought along a tape recording of Hồ Chi Minh announcing the liberation of Saigon and calling for a "General Uprising" against the Thiệu government. They seized the building, held it for six hours and, when running out of ammunition, the last eight attackers destroyed it and killed themselves using explosive charges, but they were unable to broadcast due to the cutting off of the audio lines from the main studio to the tower as soon as the station was seized.
The US Embassy in Saigon, a massive six-floor building situated within a four-acre compound, had been completed only in September. At 02:45 it was attacked by a 19-man sapper team that blew a hole in the surrounding wall and charged through. With their officers killed in the initial attack and their attempt to gain access to the building having failed, the sappers simply occupied the chancery grounds until they were all killed or captured by U.S. reinforcements that were landed on the roof of the building six hours later. By 09:20 the embassy and grounds were secured, with the loss of five U.S. personnel.
At 03:00 on 31 January, twelve VC sappers approached the Vietnamese Navy Headquarters in two civilian cars, killing two guards at a barricade at Me Linh Square and then advanced towards the base gate. The sound of gunfire alerted base sentries who secured the gate and sounded the alarm. A .30-caliber machine gun on the second floor of the headquarters disabled both cars and killed or wounded several sappers while the Navy security force organized a counterattack. Simultaneously a U.S. Navy advisor contacted the U.S. military police who soon attacked the VC from adjoining streets, the resulting crossfire ended the attack, killing eight sappers with two captured.
Small squads of VC fanned out across the city to attack various officers and enlisted men's billets, homes of ARVN officers, and district police stations. Provided with "blacklists" of military officers and civil servants, they began to round up and execute any that could be found.
On 1 February General Nguyễn Ngọc Loan, chief of the National Police, publicly executed VC officer Nguyễn Văn Lém, captured in civilian clothing, in front of photographer Eddie Adams and a film cameraman. That photography, with the title of Saigon Execution won the 1969 Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography and is widely seen as a defining moment in the Vietnam War for its influence on public opinion in the U.S. about the war, even being called "the picture that lost the war".
Outside the city proper two VC battalions attacked the U.S. logistical and headquarters complex at Long Binh Post. Biên Hòa Air Base was struck by a battalion, while the adjacent ARVN III Corps headquarters was the objective of another. Tan Son Nhut Air Base, in the northwestern part of the city, was attacked by three battalions. A combat-ready battalion of ARVN paratroopers, awaiting transport to Da Nang, went instead directly into action supporting the United States Air Force's 377th Security Police Squadron and the U.S. Army's 3rd Squadron, 4th Cavalry Regiment in halting the attack. A total of 35 PAVN/VC battalions, many of whose troops were undercover cadres who had lived and worked within the capital or its environs for years, had been committed to the Saigon objectives. By dawn most of the attacks within the city center had been eliminated, but severe fighting between VC and allied forces erupted in the Chinese neighborhood of Cholon around the Phú Thọ racetrack, southwest of the city center, which was being used as a staging area and command and control center by the PAVN/VC. Bitter and destructive house-to-house fighting erupted in the area. On 4 February, the residents were ordered to leave their homes and the area was declared a free fire zone. Fighting in the city came to a close only after a fierce battle between the ARVN Rangers and PAVN forces on 7 March.
On the morning of 2 March 1968, while patrolling north of Tan Son Nhut Air Base near the small village of Quoi Xuan to locate VC rocket sites, Company C, 4th Battalion, 9th Infantry Regiment walked into an ambush losing 48 killed in just 8 minutes. U.S. forces claimed they killed 20 VC. Specialist Nicholas J. Cutinha would be posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions at Quoi Xuan. General Fillmore K. Mearns would describe this as "a classic example of a properly executed ambush." The following day as US troops swept the area they were engaged by VC forces in an 8-hour battle losing 3 dead while killing 10 VC.
While their attacks on Saigon had been quickly repulsed, in early March, more than 20 VC battalions remained near Gia Định Province, threatening Saigon. While most of these units had suffered heavy losses in the offensive, their continued presence applied pressure on Saigon and prevented the reestablishment of South Vietnamese Government control. From 11 March to 7 April, Allied forces launched Operation Quyet Thang to pacify the area around Saigon. The operation was considered a success and the U.S. claimed 2,658 VC killed and 427 captured. It was followed immediately by Operation Toan Thang I (8 April – 31 May) which expanded the security operation across III Corps and resulted in a further 7645 VC killed and 1708 captured for South Vietnamese losses of 708 killed, U.S. losses of 564 killed and other Allied losses of 23 killed.
Huế
At 03:40 on the foggy morning of 31 January, allied defensive positions north of the Perfume River in the city of Huế were mortared and rocketed and then attacked by two battalions of the PAVN 6th Regiment. Their target was the ARVN 1st Division headquarters located in the Citadel, a three-square mile complex of palaces, parks, and residences, which were surrounded by a moat and a massive earth and masonry fortress. The undermanned ARVN defenders, led by General Ngô Quang Trưởng, managed to hold their position, but the majority of the Citadel fell to the PAVN. On the south bank of the river, the PAVN 4th Regiment attempted to seize the local MACV headquarters, but was held at bay by a makeshift force of approximately 200 Americans. The rest of the city was overrun by PAVN forces which initially totaled approximately 7,500 men. Both sides then rushed to reinforce and resupply their forces. Lasting 25 days, the battle of Huế became one of the longest and bloodiest single battles of the Vietnam War.
During the first days of the North Vietnamese occupation, U.S. intelligence vastly underestimated the number of PAVN troops and little appreciated the effort that was going to be necessary to evict them. General Westmoreland informed the Joint Chiefs that "the enemy has approximately three companies in the Huế Citadel and the marines have sent a battalion into the area to clear them out." A later assessment ultimately noted three Marine and 11 Vietnamese battalions engaged at least 8 PAVN/VC battalions of the PAVN 6th Regiment, not including the large number of forces outside the city.
Since there were no U.S. formations stationed in Huế, relief forces had to move up from Phu Bai Combat Base, eight kilometers to the southeast. In a misty drizzle, U.S. Marines of the 1st Marine Division and soldiers of the 1st ARVN Division and Marine Corps cleared the city street by street and house by house, a deadly and destructive form of urban combat that the U.S. military had not engaged in since the Battle of Seoul during the Korean War, and for which neither side were trained. Because of poor weather conditions, logistics problems and the historical and cultural significance of the city, American forces did not immediately apply air and artillery strikes as widely as they had in other cities.
VC forces around Huế included six main-force battalions, while two PAVN regiments operated in the area. As the battle unfolded three more PAVN regiments redeployed from Khe Sanh arrived as reinforcements. The North Vietnamese plan of attack on Huế involved intensive preparation and reconnaissance. Over 190 targets, including every government and military installation on both sides of the river would be hit on January 31 by a force of five thousand. Other forces would block American and ARVN reinforcement routes, mainly Highway 1. Over half of the ARVN 1st Division was on holiday leave and PAVN commanders believed the population of Huế would join the fight as a part of the General Uprising.
Outside Huế, elements of the U.S. 1st Cavalry Division and the 101st Airborne Division fought to seal PAVN access and cut off their lines of supply and reinforcement. By this point in the battle 16 to 18 PAVN battalions (8,000–11,000 men) were taking part in the fighting for the city itself or the approaches to the city. Two of the PAVN regiments had made a forced march from the vicinity of Khe Sanh to Huế in order to participate. During most of February, the allies gradually fought their way towards the Citadel, which was taken only after twenty-five days of intense struggle. The city was not declared recaptured by U.S. and ARVN forces until 25 February, when members of the ARVN 2nd Battalion, 3rd Regiment, 1st Division raised the South Vietnamese flag over the Palace of Perfect Peace.
During the intense action, the allies estimated that PAVN forces had between 1,042 and 5,000 killed and 89 captured in the city and in the surrounding area. 216 U.S. Marines and soldiers had been killed during the fighting and 1,609 were wounded. 421 ARVN troops were killed, another 2,123 were wounded, and 31 were missing. More than 5,800 civilians had lost their lives during the battle and 116,000 were left homeless out of an original population of 140,000. 40–50% of Huế was destroyed by the end of the battle.
In the aftermath of the recapture of the city, the discovery of several mass graves (the last of which were uncovered in 1970) of South Vietnamese citizens of Huế sparked a controversy that has not diminished with time. The victims had either been clubbed or shot to death or simply buried alive. The official allied explanation was that during their initial occupation of the city, the PAVN had quickly begun to systematically round up (under the guise of re-education) and then execute as many as 2,800 South Vietnamese civilians that they believed to be potentially hostile to communist control. Those taken into custody included South Vietnamese military personnel, present and former government officials, local civil servants, teachers, policemen, and religious figures. Historian Gunther Lewy claimed that a captured VC document stated that the communists had "eliminated 1,892 administrative personnel, 38 policemen, 790 tyrants." The North Vietnamese officer, Bùi Tín, later further muddied the waters by stating that their forces had indeed rounded up "reactionary" captives for transport to the North, but that local commanders, under battlefield exigencies, had executed them for expediency's sake.
General Trưởng believed that the captives had been executed by the communists in order to protect the identities of members of the local VC infrastructure, whose covers had been blown. The exact circumstances leading to the deaths of those citizens of Huế discovered in the mass graves may never be known exactly, but most of the victims were killed as a result of PAVN and VC executions, considering evidence from captured documents and witness testimonies among other things.
Khe Sanh
The attack on Khe Sanh, which began on 21 January before the other offensives, probably served two purposes—as a real attempt to seize the position or as a diversion to draw American attention and forces away from the population centers in the lowlands, a deception that was "both plausible and easy to orchestrate." In Westmoreland's view, the purpose of the base was to provoke the North Vietnamese into a focused and prolonged confrontation in a confined geographic area, one which would allow the application of massive U.S. artillery and air strikes that would inflict heavy casualties in a relatively unpopulated region. By the end of 1967, MACV had moved nearly half of its manoeuvre battalions to I Corps in anticipation of just such a battle.
Westmoreland—and the American media, which covered the action extensively—often made inevitable comparisons between the actions at Khe Sanh and the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ, where a French base had been besieged and ultimately overrun by Viet Minh forces under the command of General Giáp during the First Indochina War. Westmoreland, who knew of Nguyen Chi Thanh's penchant for large-scale operations—but not of his death—believed that this was going to be an attempt to replicate that victory. He intended to stage his own "Dien Bien Phu in reverse."
Khe Sanh and its 6,000 U.S. Marine Corps, Army and ARVN defenders was surrounded by two to three PAVN divisions, totaling approximately 20,000 men. Throughout the siege, which lasted until 8 April, the allies were subjected to heavy mortar, rocket, and artillery bombardment, combined with sporadic small-scale infantry attacks on outlying positions. With the exception of the overrunning of the U.S. Special Forces camp at Lang Vei, however, there was never a major ground assault on the base and the battle became largely a duel between American and North Vietnamese artillerists, combined with massive air strikes conducted by U.S. aircraft. By the end of the siege, U.S. Air Force, Marine Corps, and Navy aircraft had dropped 39,179 tons of ordnance in the defense of the base.
The overland supply route to the base had been cut off, and airborne resupply by cargo aircraft became extremely dangerous due to heavy PAVN antiaircraft fire. Thanks to innovative high-speed "Super Gaggles", which utilized fighter-bombers in combination with large numbers of supply helicopters, and the Air Force's utilization of C-130 Hercules cargo aircraft employing the innovative LAPES delivery method, aerial resupply was never halted.
When the Tet offensive began, feelings ran high at MACV that the base was in for a serious attack. In I Corps, the Tet Truce had been cancelled in apprehension of a communist assault that never happened. The offensive passed Khe Sanh by and the intermittent battle continued. Westmoreland's fixation upon the base continued even as the battle raged around him in Saigon. On 1 February, as the offensive reached its height, he wrote a memo for his staff—which was never delivered—stating: "The enemy is attempting to confuse the issue ... I suspect he is also trying to draw everyone's attention from the area of greatest threat, the northern part of I Corps. Let me caution everyone not to be confused."
In the end, a major allied relief expedition (Operation Pegasus) launched by all three brigades of the 1st Cavalry Division reached Khe Sanh on 8 April, but PAVN forces were already withdrawing from the area. Both sides claimed that the battle had served its intended purpose. MACV estimated that 5,500 PAVN troops had been killed and considerably more wounded. During the entire battle from 1 November 1967 to 14 April 1968, 730 U.S. personnel were killed and another 2,642 wounded. Khe Sanh Base was later closed on 5 July 1968 because the base was seen as having less of a strategic importance than before.
Aftermath
Except at Huế and mopping-up operations in and around Saigon, the first surge of the offensive was over by the second week of February. The U.S. estimated that during the first phase (30 January – 8 April) approximately 45,000 PAVN/VC soldiers were killed and an unknown number were wounded. For years this figure has been held as excessively optimistic, as it represented more than half the forces involved in this battle. Stanley Karnow claims he confirmed this figure in Hanoi in 1981. Westmoreland himself claimed a smaller number of enemies disabled, estimating that during the same period 32,000 PAVN troops were killed and another 5,800 captured. The South Vietnamese suffered 2,788 killed, 8,299 wounded, and 587 missing in action. U.S. and other allied forces suffered 1,536 killed, 7,764 wounded, and 11 missing.
North Vietnam
The leadership in Hanoi was despondent at the outcome of their offensive. Their first and most ambitious goal, producing a general uprising, had ended in a dismal failure. In total, about 85,000–100,000 PAVN/VC troops had participated in the initial onslaught and in the follow-up phases. Overall, during the "Border Battles" of 1967 and the nine-month winter-spring campaign, 45,267 PAVN/VC troops had been killed in action.
Hanoi had underestimated the strategic mobility of the allied forces, which allowed them to redeploy at will to threatened areas; their battle plan was too complex and difficult to coordinate, which was amply demonstrated by the 30 January attacks; their violation of the principle of mass, attacking everywhere instead of concentrating their forces on a few specific targets, allowed their forces to be defeated piecemeal; the launching of massed attacks headlong into the teeth of vastly superior firepower; and last, but not least, the incorrect assumptions upon which the entire campaign was based. According to General Tran Van Tra: "We did not correctly evaluate the specific balance of forces between ourselves and the enemy, did not fully realize that the enemy still had considerable capabilities, and that our capabilities were limited, and set requirements that were beyond our actual strength.
The PAVN/VC effort to regain control of the countryside was somewhat more successful. According to the U.S. State Department, the VC "made pacification virtually inoperative. In the Mekong Delta, the Viet Cong was stronger now than ever and in other regions the countryside belongs to the VC." General Wheeler reported that the offensive had brought counterinsurgency programs to a halt and "that to a large extent, the VC now controlled the countryside". This state of affairs did not last; heavy casualties and the backlash of the South Vietnamese and Americans resulted in more territorial losses and heavy casualties.
The heavy losses inflicted on VC units struck into the heart of the infrastructure that had been built up for over a decade. MACV estimated that 181,149 PAVN/VC troops had been killed during 1968. According to General Tran Van Tra, 45,267 PAVN/VC troops had been killed during 1968 From this point forward, Hanoi was forced to fill nearly 70% of the VC's ranks with PAVN regulars. PRG Justice Minister Trương Như Tảng said that the Tet offensive had wiped out half of the VC's strength, while the official Vietnamese war history notes that by 1969, very little communist-held territory ("liberated zones") existed in South Vietnam. Following the Tet offensive and subsequent U.S.–South Vietnamese "search and hold" operations in the countryside throughout the rest of 1968, the VC's recruiting base was more or less wiped out; the official Vietnamese war history later noted that "we could not maintain the level of local recruitment we had maintained in previous years. In 1969 we were only able to recruit 1,700 new soldiers in Region 5 (compared with 8,000 in 1968), and in the lowlands of Cochin China we recruited only 100 new soldiers (compared with 16,000 in 1968)." As also noted by the official history, "because our armed local forces had suffered severe losses, guerrilla operations had declined." However, this change had little effect on the overall result of the war, since in contrast to the VC, the PAVN had little difficulty making up the casualties inflicted by the offensive. Some Western historians have come to believe that one insidious ulterior motive for the campaign was the elimination of competing southern members of the Party, thereby allowing the northerners more control once the war was won.
It was not until after the conclusion of the first phase of the offensive that Hanoi realized that its sacrifices might not have been in vain. General Tran Do, PAVN commander at the battle of Huế, gave some insight into how defeat was translated into victory:
On 5 May Trường Chinh rose to address a congress of Party members and proceeded to castigate the Party militants and their bid for quick victory. His "faction-bashing" tirade sparked a serious debate within the party leadership which lasted for four months. As the leader of the "main force war" and "quick victory" faction, Lê Duẩn also came under severe criticism. In August, Chinh's report on the situation was accepted in toto, published, and broadcast via Radio Hanoi. He had single-handedly shifted the nation's war strategy and restored himself to prominence as the Party's ideological conscience. Meanwhile, the VC proclaimed itself the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam, and took part in future peace negotiations under this title.
The Lê Duẩn faction, which favoured quick, decisive offensives meant to paralyse South Vietnam-United States responses, was replaced by Giáp and Trường Chinh, who favoured a strategy of more protracted, drawn-out conventional warfare. High-intensity, conventional big-unit battles were replaced with smaller-scale, quick attack and quick withdrawal operations to continually put pressure on the allied forces at the same time that mechanised and combined-arms capabilities were being built. The plan for a popular uprising or people's war was abandoned for a greater combination of guerrilla and conventional warfare. During this period, the PAVN would undergo a significant strategic re-structuring, being built into a combined-arms capable force while continually applying pressure on the U.S./ARVN with lighter infantry units. In line with the revamped strategy of Hanoi, on April 5, 1969, COSVN issued Directive 55 to all of its subordinate units: "Never again and under no circumstances are we going to risk our entire military force for just such an offensive. On the contrary, we should endeavor to preserve our military potential for future campaigns."
The PAVN official history describes the first phase of the Tet offensive as a "great strategic victory" that "killed or dispersed 150,000 enemy soldiers including 43,000 Americans, destroyed 34 percent of the American war reserve supplies in Vietnam, destroyed 4,200 strategic hamlets and liberated an additional 1.4 million people."
South Vietnam
South Vietnam was a nation in turmoil both during and in the aftermath of the offensive. Tragedy had compounded tragedy as the conflict reached into the nation's cities for the first time. As government troops pulled back to defend the urban areas, the VC moved in to fill the vacuum in the countryside. The violence and destruction witnessed during the offensive left a deep psychological scar on the South Vietnamese civilian population. Confidence in the government was shaken, since the offensive seemed to reveal that even with massive American support, the government could not protect its citizens.
A political rivalry had also re-emerged after the 1967 South Vietnamese presidential election, when the coalition between Nguyen Van Thieu and Air Force commander Nguyen Cao Ky re-emerged. Nguyen Cao Ky would be sidelined for the duration of the war afterwards, retaining his position was Vice President.
The human and material cost to South Vietnam was staggering. The number of civilian dead was estimated by the government at 14,300 with an additional 24,000 wounded. 630,000 new refugees had been generated, joining the nearly 800,000 others already displaced by the war. By the end of 1968, one of every twelve South Vietnamese was living in a refugee camp. More than 70,000 homes had been destroyed in the fighting and perhaps 30,000 more were heavily damaged and the nation's infrastructure had been virtually destroyed. The South Vietnamese military, although it had performed better than the Americans had expected, suffered from lowered morale, with desertion rates rising from 10.5 per thousand before Tet to 16.5 per thousand by July. 1968 became the deadliest year of the war to date for the ARVN with 27,915 men killed.
Moreover, in addition to the heavy civilian casualties inflicted in the battle by U.S. forces to retake the cities from the PAVN/VC, the presence of VC fighters in the villages exposed their rural bases to attack. Writes Marilyn B. Young:
In Long An province, for example, local guerrillas taking part in the May—June offensive had been divided into several sections. Only 775 out of 2,018 in one section survived; another lost all but 640 out of 1,430. The province itself was subjected to what one historian has called a "My Lai from the Sky" – non-stop B-52 bombing.
In the wake of the offensive, however, fresh determination was exhibited by the Thiệu government. On 1 February Thiệu declared a state of martial law, and on 15 June, the National Assembly passed his request for a general mobilization of the population and the induction of 200,000 draftees into the armed forces by the end of the year (a decree that had failed to pass only five months previously due to strong political opposition). This increase would bring South Vietnam's troop strength to more than 900,000 men. Military mobilization, anti-corruption campaigns, demonstrations of political unity, and administrative reforms were quickly carried out. Thiệu also established a National Recovery Committee to oversee food distribution, resettlement, and housing construction for the new refugees. Both the government and the Americans were encouraged by a new determination that was exhibited among the ordinary citizens of South Vietnam. Many urban dwellers were indignant that the communists had launched their attacks during Tet, and it drove many who had been previously apathetic into active support of the government. Journalists, political figures, and religious leaders alike—even the militant Buddhists—professed confidence in the government's plans.
Thiệu saw an opportunity to consolidate his personal power and he took it. His only real political rival was Vice President Kỳ, the former Air Force commander, who had been outmaneuvered by Thiệu in the presidential election of 1967. In the aftermath of Tet, Kỳ supporters in the military and the administration were quickly removed from power, arrested, or exiled. A crack-down on the South Vietnamese press also ensued and there was a worrisome return of former President Ngô Đình Diệm's Cần Lao Party members to high positions in the government and military. By the summer of 1968, the President had earned a less exalted sobriquet among the South Vietnamese population, who had begun to call him "the little dictator."
Thiệu had also become very suspicious of his American allies, unwilling to believe (as did many South Vietnamese) that the U.S. had been caught by surprise by the offensive. "Now that it's all over", he queried a visiting Washington official, "you really knew it was coming, didn't you?" Lyndon Johnson's unilateral decision on 31 March to curtail the bombing of North Vietnam only confirmed what Thiệu already feared, that the Americans were going to abandon South Vietnam to the communists. For Thiệu, the bombing halt and the beginning of negotiations with the North brought not the hope of an end to the war, but "an abiding fear of peace." He was only mollified after an 18 July meeting with Johnson in Honolulu, where Johnson affirmed that Saigon would be a full partner in all negotiations and that the U.S. would not "support the imposition of a coalition government, or any other form of government, on the people of South Vietnam."
United States
The Tet offensive created a crisis within the Johnson administration, which became increasingly unable to convince the American public that it had been a major defeat for the communists. The optimistic assessments made prior to the offensive by the administration and the Pentagon came under heavy criticism and ridicule as the "credibility gap" that had opened in 1967 widened into a chasm.
At the time of the Tet offensive, the majority of the American public perceived that the war was not being won by the United States and its allies, despite assurances from the President and military leaders that such was the case. No matter that the PAVN/VC lost about 30,000 of their best troops in the fighting at Tet, they were capable of replacing those lost with new recruits from North Vietnam. In 1969, the year after the Tet battles, the US suffered 11,780 killed, the second highest annual total in the war. This was a clear indication that the North Vietnamese were capable of ongoing offensive actions, despite their losses at Tet. Most Americans were tired of suffering so many casualties without evidence that they were going to stop anytime in the foreseeable future. Walter Cronkite, anchorman of the CBS Evening News and a World War II combat veteran, argued for negotiations as an honorable way out in a Special Report based on his journalism in Vietnam broadcast on CBS TV in March.
The shocks that reverberated from the battlefield continued to widen: On 18 February 1968 MACV posted the highest U.S. casualty figures for a single week during the entire war: 543 killed and 2,547 wounded. As a result of the heavy fighting, 1968 went on to become the deadliest year of the war for the US forces with 16,592 soldiers killed. On 23 February the U.S. Selective Service System announced a new draft call for 48,000 men, the second highest of the war. On 28 February Robert S. McNamara, the Secretary of Defense who had overseen the escalation of the war in 1964–1965, but who had eventually turned against it, stepped down from office.
Troop request
During the first two weeks of February, Generals Westmoreland and Wheeler communicated as to the necessity for reinforcements or troop increases in Vietnam. Westmoreland insisted that he only needed those forces either in-country or already scheduled for deployment and he was puzzled by the sense of unwarranted urgency in Wheeler's queries. Westmoreland was tempted, however, when Wheeler emphasized that the White House might loosen restraints and allow operations in Laos, Cambodia, or possibly even North Vietnam itself. On 8 February, Westmoreland responded that he could use another division "if operations in Laos are authorized". Wheeler responded by challenging Westmoreland's assessment of the situation, pointing out dangers that his on-the-spot commander did not consider palpable, concluding: "In summary, if you need more troops, ask for them."
Wheeler's promptings were influenced by the severe strain imposed upon the U.S. military by the Vietnam commitment, one which had been undertaken without the mobilization of its reserve forces. The Joint Chiefs had repeatedly requested national mobilization, not only to prepare for a possible intensification of the war, but also to ensure that the nation's strategic reserve did not become depleted. By obliquely ordering Westmoreland to demand more forces, Wheeler was attempting to solve two pressing problems. In comparison with MACV's previous communications, which had been full of confidence, optimism, and resolve, Westmoreland's 12 February request for 10,500 troops was much more urgent: "which I desperately need ... time is of the essence". On 13 February, 10,500 previously authorized U.S. airborne troops and marines were dispatched to South Vietnam. The Joint Chiefs then played their hand, advising President Johnson to turn down MACV's requested division-sized reinforcement unless he called up some 1,234,001 marine and army reservists.
Johnson dispatched Wheeler to Saigon on 20 February to determine military requirements in response to the offensive. Both Wheeler and Westmoreland were elated that in only eight days McNamara would be replaced by the hawkish Clark Clifford and that the military might finally obtain permission to widen the war. Wheeler's written report of the trip, however, contained no mention of any new contingencies, strategies, or the building up the strategic reserve. It was couched in grave language that suggested that the 206,756-man request it proposed was a matter of vital military necessity. Westmoreland wrote in his memoir that Wheeler had deliberately concealed the truth of the matter in order to force the issue of the strategic reserve upon the President.
On 27 February, Johnson and McNamara discussed the proposed troop increase. To fulfill it would require an increase in overall military strength of about 400,000 men and the expenditure of an additional $10 billion during fiscal 1969 and another $15 billion in 1970. These monetary concerns were pressing. Throughout the fall of 1967 and the spring of 1968, the U.S. was struggling with "one of the most severe monetary crises" of the period. Without a new tax bill and budgetary cuts, the nation would face even higher inflation "and the possible collapse of the monetary system". Johnson's friend Clifford was concerned about what the American public would think of the escalation: "How do we avoid creating the feeling that we are pounding troops down a rathole?"
According to the Pentagon Papers, "A fork in the road had been reached and the alternatives stood out in stark reality." To meet Wheeler's request would mean a total U.S. military commitment to South Vietnam. "To deny it, or to attempt to cut it to a size which could be sustained by the thinly stretched active forces, would just as surely signify that an upper limit to the U.S. military commitment in South Vietnam had been reached."
Reassessment
To evaluate Westmoreland's request and its possible impact on domestic politics, Johnson convened the "Clifford Group" on 28 February and tasked its members with a complete policy reassessment. Some of the members argued that the offensive represented an opportunity to defeat the North Vietnamese on American terms while others pointed out that neither side could win militarily, that North Vietnam could match any troop increase, that the bombing of the North be halted, and that a change in strategy was required that would seek not victory, but the staying power required to reach a negotiated settlement. This would require a less aggressive strategy that was designed to protect the population of South Vietnam. The divided group's final report, issued on 4 March, "failed to seize the opportunity to change directions... and seemed to recommend that we continue rather haltingly down the same road."
On 1 March, Clifford had succeeded McNamara as Secretary of Defense. During the month, Clifford, who had entered office as a staunch supporter of the Vietnam commitment and who had opposed McNamara's de-escalatory views, turned against the war. According to Clifford: "The simple truth was that the military failed to sustain a respectable argument for their position." Between the results of Tet and the meetings of the group that bore his name, he became convinced that deescalation was the only solution for the United States. He believed that the troop increase would lead only to a more violent stalemate and sought out others in the administration to assist him in convincing the President to reverse the escalation, to cap force levels at 550,000 men, to seek negotiations with Hanoi, and turn responsibility for the fighting over to the South Vietnamese. Clifford quietly sought allies and was assisted in his effort by the so-called "8:30 Group" – Nitze, Warnke, Phil G. Goulding (Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs), George Elsey and Air Force Colonel Robert E. Pursely.
On 27 February, Secretary of State Dean Rusk had proposed that a partial bombing halt be implemented in North Vietnam and that an offer to negotiate be extended to Hanoi. On 4 March, Rusk reiterated the proposal, explaining that, during the rainy season in the North, bombing was less effective and that no military sacrifice would thus occur. This was purely a political ploy, however, since the North Vietnamese would probably again refuse to negotiate, casting the onus on them and "thus freeing our hand after a short period...putting the monkey firmly upon Hanoi's back for what was to follow."
While this was being deliberated, the troop request was leaked to the press and published in The New York Times on 10 March. The article also revealed that the request had begun a serious debate within the administration. According to it, many high-level officials believed that the U.S. troop increase would be matched by the communists and would simply maintain a stalemate at a higher level of violence. It went on to state that officials were saying in private that "widespread and deep changes in attitudes, a sense that a watershed has been reached."
A great deal has been said by historians concerning how the news media made Tet the "turning point" in the public's perception of the war. Popular CBS anchor Walter Cronkite stated during a news broadcast on February 27, "We have been too often disappointed by the optimism of the American leaders, both in Vietnam and Washington, to have faith any longer in the silver linings they find in the darkest clouds" and added that, "we are mired in a stalemate that could only be ended by negotiation, not victory." Far from suffering a loss of morale, however, the majority of Americans had rallied to the side of the president. A Gallup poll in January 1968 revealed that 56 percent polled considered themselves hawks on the war and 27 percent doves, with 17 percent offering no opinion. By early February, at the height of the first phase of the offensive, 61 percent declared themselves hawks, 23 percent doves, and 16 percent held no opinion. Johnson, however, made few comments to the press during or immediately after the offensive, leaving an impression of indecision on the public. It was this lack of communication that caused a rising disapproval rating for his conduct of the war. By the end of February, his approval rating had fallen from 63 percent to 47 percent. By the end of March the percentage of Americans that expressed confidence in U.S. military policies in Southeast Asia had fallen from 74 to 54 percent.
By 22 March, President Johnson had informed Wheeler to "forget the 100,000" men. The President and his staff were refining a lesser version of the troop increase – a planned call-up of 62,000 reservists, 13,000 of whom would be sent to Vietnam. Three days later, at Clifford's suggestion, Johnson called a conclave of the "Wise Men". With few exceptions, all of the members of the group had formerly been accounted as hawks on the war. The group was joined by Rusk, Wheeler, Bundy, Rostow, and Clifford. The final assessment of the majority stupefied the group. According to Clifford, "few of them were thinking solely of Vietnam anymore". All but four members called for disengagement from the war, leaving the President "deeply shaken." According to the Pentagon Papers, the advice of the group was decisive in convincing Johnson to reduce the bombing of North Vietnam.
Johnson was depressed and despondent at the course of recent events. The New York Times article had been released just two days before the Democratic Party's New Hampshire primary, where the President suffered an unexpected setback in the election, finishing barely ahead of Senator Eugene McCarthy. Soon afterward, Senator Robert F. Kennedy announced he would join the contest for the Democratic nomination, further emphasizing the plummeting support for Johnson's administration in the wake of Tet.
The President was to make a televised address to the nation on Vietnam policy on 31 March and was deliberating on both the troop request and his response to the military situation. By 28 March Clifford was working hard to convince him to tone down his hard-line speech, maintaining force levels at their present size, and instituting Rusk's bombing/negotiating proposal. To Clifford's surprise, both Rusk and Rostow (both of whom had previously been opposed to any form of deescalation) offered no opposition to Clifford's suggestions. On 31 March, President Johnson announced the unilateral (although still partial) bombing halt during his television address. He then stunned the nation by declining to run for a second term in office. To Washington's surprise, on 3 April Hanoi announced that it would conduct negotiations, which were scheduled to begin on 13 May in Paris.
On 9 June, President Johnson replaced Westmoreland as commander of MACV with General Creighton W. Abrams. Although the decision had been made in December 1967 and Westmoreland was made Army Chief of Staff, many saw his relief as punishment for the entire Tet debacle. Abrams' new strategy was quickly demonstrated by the closure of the "strategic" Khe Sanh base and the ending of multi-division "search and destroy" operations. Also gone were discussions of victory over North Vietnam. Abrams' new "One War" policy centered the American effort on the takeover of the fighting by the South Vietnamese (through Vietnamization), the pacification of the countryside, and the destruction of communist logistics. The new administration of President Richard M. Nixon would oversee the withdrawal of U.S. forces and the continuation of negotiations.
Phase II
To further enhance their political posture at the Paris talks, which opened on 13 May, the North Vietnamese opened the second phase of the general offensive in late April. U.S. intelligence sources estimated between February and May the North Vietnamese dispatched 50,000 men down the Ho Chi Minh Trail to replace losses incurred during the earlier fighting. Some of the most prolonged and vicious combat of the war opened on 29 April and lasted until 30 May when the 8,000 men of the PAVN 320th Division, backed by artillery from across the DMZ, threatened the U.S. logistical base at Đông Hà, in northwestern Quảng Trị Province. In what became known as the Battle of Dai Do, the PAVN clashed savagely with U.S. Marine, Army and ARVN forces before withdrawing. The PAVN lost an estimated 2,100 men according to US/ARVN claims, after inflicting casualties on the allies of 290 killed and 946 wounded.
During the early morning hours of 4 May, PAVN/VC units initiated the second phase of the offensive (known by the South Vietnamese and Americans as "Mini-Tet") by striking 119 targets throughout South Vietnam, including Saigon. This time, however, allied intelligence was better prepared, stripping away the element of surprise. Most of the communist forces were intercepted by allied screening elements before they reached their targets. 13 VC battalions, however, managed to slip through the cordon and once again plunged the capital into chaos. Severe fighting occurred at Phu Lam, (where it took two days to root out the VC 267th Local Force Battalion), around the Y-Bridge and at Tan Son Nhut. By 12 May, however, it was all over. VC forces withdrew from the area leaving behind over 3,000 dead.
The fighting had no sooner died down around Saigon than U.S. forces in Quảng Tín Province suffered a defeat when the PAVN 2nd Division attacked Kham Duc, the last Special Forces border surveillance camp in I Corps. 1,800 U.S. and ARVN troops were isolated and under intense attack when MACV made the decision to avoid a situation reminiscent of that at Khe Sanh. Kham Duc was evacuated by air while under fire, and abandoned to the North Vietnamese.
The PAVN/VC returned to Saigon on 25 May and launched a second wave of attacks on the city. The fighting during this phase differed from Tet Mau Than and "Mini-Tet" in that no U.S. installations were attacked. During this series of actions, VC forces occupied six Buddhist pagodas in the mistaken belief that they would be immune from artillery and air attack. The fiercest fighting once again took place in Cholon. One notable event occurred on 18 June when 152 members of the VC Quyet Thang Regiment surrendered to ARVN forces, the largest communist surrender of the war. The actions also brought more death and suffering to the city's inhabitants. A further 87,000 were made homeless while more than 500 were killed and another 4,500 were wounded. During part of the second phase (5 May – 30 May) U.S. casualties amounted to 1,161 killed and 3,954 wounded,
Phase III
Phase III of the offensive began on 17 August and involved attacks in I, II and III Corps. Significantly, during this series of actions only North Vietnamese forces participated and targets were military in nature, with less concise attacks against city-targets. The main offensive was preceded by attacks on the border towns of Tây Ninh, An Lộc, and Loc Ninh, which were initiated in order to draw defensive forces from the cities. A thrust against Da Nang was preempted by the U.S. Marines' Operation Allen Brook. Continuing their border-clearing operations, three PAVN regiments asserted heavy pressure on the U.S. Special Forces camp at Bu Prang, in Quang Duc Province, five kilometers from the Cambodian border. The fighting lasted for two days before the PAVN broke contact; the combat resulted in US/ARVN claiming 776 PAVN/VC casualties, 114 South Vietnamese and two Americans.
Saigon was struck again during this phase, but the attacks were less sustained and once again repulsed. As far as MACV was concerned, the August offensive "was a dismal failure". In five weeks of fighting and after the loss of 20,000 troops, the previous objectives of spurring an uprising and mass-defection had not been attained during this "final and decisive phase". Yet, as historian Ronald Spector has pointed out "the communist failures were not final or decisive either".
The horrendous casualties and suffering endured by PAVN/VC units during these sustained operations were beginning to tell. The fact that there were no apparent military gains made that could possibly justify all the blood and effort just exacerbated the situation. During the first half of 1969, more than 20,000 PAVN/VC troops rallied to allied forces, a threefold increase over the 1968 figure.
See also
Tet 1969
VC and PAVN battle tactics, after Tet
References
Bibliography
Part 1, Part 2
Vietnam: History of the Bulwark B2 Theater, Volume 5: Concluding the 30 Years War. Southeast Asia Report No. 1247 , Washington, D.C.; Foreign Broadcast Information Service; 1983
Primary sources
The 1968 Battles of Quang Tri City& Hue, US Army Center for Military History
CIA: Intelligence Warning of the Tet Offensive in South Vietnam; An Interim Study; April 8, 1968
The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff; The Joint Chiefs of Staff and the War in Vietnam 1960–68, Part 2, Section 48
Library of Congress Country Studies: Vietnam & The Tet Offensive. 1987
MILESTONES: 1961–1968, U.S. Involvement in the Vietnam War: The Tet Offensive, 1968
Vietnam January–August 1968, Foreign Relations Series
Historiography and memory
Laurence, John (2002) The Cat from Hue: a Vietnam War Story, Public Affairs Press (New York),
www.tfpike.com
External links
Government
Westmoreland request for troops Feb 12 (#68)
General information
General notes by O.Khiara
A Viet Nam Reappraisal Clark M. Clifford
Bibliography: The Tet Offensive and the Battle of Khe Sanh
Tet Offensive Research Project
United States History: Tet Offensive
1968 in South Vietnam
Attacks on diplomatic missions of the United States
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1968
Battles involving Vietnam
Battles of the Vietnam War involving Australia
Battles of the Vietnam War involving New Zealand
Battles of the Vietnam War involving Thailand
Battles of the Vietnam War involving South Korea
Campaigns of the Vietnam War
History of South Vietnam
Military history of the United States during the Vietnam War | [
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218183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downhill%20%28ski%20competition%29 | Downhill (ski competition) | Downhill is a form of alpine skiing competition. Whereas the other alpine skiing events (slalom, giant slalom, super giant slalom, and combined) emphasize turning and technique, downhill emphasizes "the six components of technique, courage, speed, risk, physical condition and judgement", according to the FIS "International Ski Competition Rules (ICR)". Speeds of up to are common in international competition. Athletes must have an aerodynamically efficient tuck position to minimize drag and increase speed.
The term, "downhill skiing", is also used as a synonym for alpine skiing as a recreational activity.
History
The rules for downhill skiing competitions were originally developed by Sir Arnold Lunn for the 1921 British National Ski Championships. A speed of was first achieved by Johan Clarey at the 2013 Lauberhorn World Cup, beating the previous record of , set by Italian Stefan Thanei in 2005.
Course
The FIS has rules for downhill courses that encompass their general characteristics, width, safety precautions, vertical drop, course length, style and placement of gates.
General characteristics – As a test of "technique, courage, speed, risk, physical condition and judgement", the course requires the athlete to adapt to the technically demanding terrain and layout of gates.
Width – Courses are typically wide with allowances for the approaches to "lips, drop-offs and jumps".
Safety – Obstacles on courses are expected to be protected with nets, fences, or pads.
Vertical drop – Vertical drop ranges from for men and for women. Races with two runs may be shorter.
Course length – Courses require an accurate means of measurement for length.
Gates – Gates consist of pairs of twin poles with a rectangular panel between the poles. Gates have an or larger opening.
Equipment
Equipment for the downhill is different from the alpine events that are lower-speed. Skis are 30% longer than those used in slalom, for more stability at high speed. They usually have rounded, low-profile tips rather than pointed tips. Ski poles are bent so as to curve around the body as the racer stays in a "tuck position" and may have aerodynamic, cone-shaped baskets. As in other alpine disciplines, downhill racers wear skin-tight suits to minimize drag, and helmets are mandatory.
In an attempt to increase safety, the 2003–2004 season saw the FIS increase the minimum sidecut radius for downhill skis to from , and impose minimum ski lengths for the first time: for men, and for women.
Races
In all forms of downhill, both at a local youth-level as well as the higher FIS international level, racers are allowed extensive preparation for the race, which includes daily course inspection and discussion with their coaches and teammates as well as several practice runs before the actual race. Racers do not make any unnecessary turns while on the course, and try to do everything they can to maintain the most aerodynamic position while negotiating turns and jumps.
Unlike slalom and giant slalom, where racers have the times of two runs combined, the downhill race is a single run. Times are typically between 1½ and 2½ minutes for World Cup courses and must be over 1 minute in duration to meet international minimum standards. Tenths and hundredths and, occasionally, thousandths of seconds count: World Cup races and Olympic medals have sometimes been decided by as little as one or two hundredths of a second, and ties are not unheard of.
The most successful all-time winners of World Cup downhill races are Annemarie Moser-Pröll of Austria (36 wins, 7 women's titles) and Franz Klammer of Austria (25 wins, 5 men's titles). Lindsey Vonn of the U.S. is currently dominant in woman's downhill racing with a lifetime total of 37 World Cup downhill wins and 7 women's titles.
Risks
On some courses, such as the Lauberhorn course in Wengen, Switzerland, and the Hahnenkamm course in Kitzbühel, Austria, speeds of up to are common. Safety netting and padding are placed where race officials anticipate potential crashes. Despite these safety precautions, the ski racing community is well aware of the inherent risks of downhill skiing, for it is possible for racers to suffer serious injury or death while practising or competing. Three deaths among World Cup racers in recent years in downhill training or during a race were those of Austrians Gernot Reinstadler (1991) and Ulrike Maier (1994), and Frenchman Régine Cavagnoud (2001). Also in 2001, Swiss downhiller Silvano Beltrametti was paralyzed in a high-speed crash and 1984 Olympic gold medalist Bill Johnson suffered permanent brain damage that eventually led to a crippling stroke which left him unable to function without assistance. Most recently Frenchman David Poisson was killed in a training crash in 2017. Speaking to media after Poisson's death, French former downhiller Luc Alphand noted that "eliminating risk entirely in downhill is impossible".
Men's World Cup podiums
In the following table men's downhill World Cup podium results in the World Cup since the first season in 1967. Winners receive a distinctive crystal globe.
Women's World Cup podiums
In the following table women's downhill World Cup podium results in the World Cup since the first season in 1967. Winners receive a distinctive crystal globe.
Downhill at the "big competitions"
Medal table
Medalists
(*) - also served as WCH (GS and Combined were competed as well but did not count four WOG)
See also
List of men's World Cup Downhill title winners
List of women's World Cup Downhill title winners
List of Olympic medalists in men's Downhill
List of Olympic medalists in women's Downhill
List of Paralympic medalists in men's Downhill
List of Paralympic medalists in women's Downhill
List of World Champions in Downhill
List of men's downhill races in the FIS Alpine Ski World Cup
References
Alpine skiing | [
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] |
218185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20anarchist%20communities | List of anarchist communities | This is a list of anarchist communities representing any society or portion thereof founded by anarchists that functions according to anarchist philosophy and principles. Anarchists have created and been involved in a plethora of community experiments since the 19th century. There are numerous instances in which a community organizes itself along philosophically anarchist lines to promote regional anarchist movements, counter-economics and countercultures. These have included intentional communities founded by anarchists as social experiments and community oriented projects, such as collective organizations and cooperative businesses. There are also several instances of mass society "anarchies" that have come about from explicitly anarchist revolutions, including Makhnovia in Ukraine, Revolutionary Catalonia in Spain and the Shinmin autonomous region in Manchuria.
Mass societies
Active societies
Past societies
Intentional communities
Active communities:
Past communities:
Community projects
Active Projects
Past Projects
See also
Lists of ungoverned communities
List of socialist states
Communist state
List of stateless societies
Permanent autonomous zone – a community that is autonomous from the generally recognized government or authority structure
Zomia – the ungoverned highlands of Southeast Asia, held as an analogous anarchist society by professor James C. Scott
References
Further reading
External links
An Anarchist FAQ - Section I - What would an anarchist society look like?, hosted on Infoshop.org.
An Anarchist FAQ - What are some examples of "Anarchy in Action"?, hosted on Infoshop.org.
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] |
218187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norefjell | Norefjell | Norefjell is a mountain range in the Scandes Mountains system in Norway. It stretches between the valleys of Eggedal (west) and Hallingdal (east). It covers parts of the municipalities Flå, Sigdal, and Krødsherad, all in the county Buskerud.
The highest peaks within the mountain range are:
Gråfjell,
Høgevarde,
Norefjell Ski Resort is an alpine ski resort located in the municipality Krødsherad. It is about one and a half hours drive north of Oslo. Norefjell was host to the downhill and giant slalom competitions of the 1952 Winter Olympics.
The Norefjell mountain range is named after the old farm Nore (see Noresund). The last element is fjell meaning 'mountain'.
References
External links
1952 Winter Olympics official report. pp. 36–8.
On The Snow - Norefjell (English)
Norefjell Skiresort Official website
Oslo Vinterpark Official website
Mountain ranges of Norway
Krødsherad
Flå
Sigdal
Mountains of Viken | [
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218188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noresund | Noresund | Noresund is a small village in Krødsherad in the county of Buskerud, Norway.
Noresund is located on Lake Krøderen. Highway 7 (Riksvei 7) passes through the village. Norefjell Ski Area is located 3 kilometers northwest of Noresund. The population of Noresund is 331 (2006).
Noresund is perhaps best known for with association with the Krødsherad Rectory Natural Monument (Krødsherad prestegård naturminne). This is the site of the oak tree known as The Old Master. This tree was made famous by the poetry of clergyman and poet Jørgen Moe. In 1853 Moe became a resident chaplain in Sigdal and Krødsherad, a position he held for ten years. At Noresund he found inspiration for one of his most famous poems, "The Old Master" (den gamle Mester).
The name
The first element is the name of the farm Nore (Norse Nórar), the last element is sund n 'sound, strait'. The name of the farm is the plural of nór n 'narrow strait' - so the meaning of the name Noresund is 'strait-strait'. The actual strait divides Lake Krøderen in two parts (Upper K. and Lower K.). The farm Nore has also given name to the mountain Norefjell.
References
External links
Den gamle Mester
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218191 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadbasket | Breadbasket | The breadbasket of a country or of a region is an area which, because of the richness of the soil and/or advantageous climate, produces large quantities of wheat or other grain. Rice bowl is a similar term used to refer to Southeast Asia; and California's Salinas Valley is sometimes referred to as America’s salad bowl. Such regions may be the subject of fierce political disputes which may even escalate into full military conflicts.
Breadbaskets have become important within the global food system: concentrating global food-production in a small number of countries, and (in countries such as India) in small geographic regions.
History
Classical antiquity
Sicily and Africa were considered the breadbaskets of the Roman Republic. Later on, Egypt was considered the breadbasket of the Roman Empire. Crimea was the source of a huge quantity of grain supplied to Greek city-states, especially Athens.
Environmental issues
As climate change increase weather variability around the world, the likelihood of multiple breadbaskets failing at one time increases dramatically.
Africa
In South Africa, the Free State province is often considered the country's breadbasket due to its wheat, sunflower, and maize fields. The Overberg region in the Western Cape is also known as the breadbasket of South Africa due to its large wheat fields, as well as fruit growing.
Zimbabwe, formerly known as Rhodesia, was known as the breadbasket of Africa until 2000, exporting wheat, tobacco, and corn to the wider world, especially to other African nations. However today, Zimbabwe, is a net importer of foodstuffs from the Western World.
There seems to be more of a debate if Zimbabwe was the bread basket of Africa, as over a 55-year period Zimbabwe never topped a 10% share of maize on the continent. From 1960 to 1980 it only hit 6% lower then Kenyas' contribution and on par with Nigeria.
Morocco
Since subsistence agriculture was the dominant economic system in most of Morocco's history, it's difficult to speak of a breadbasket region. All regions produced their own wheat and barley to feed themselves and their livestock. With the European commercial penetration in the second half of the 19th century, Morocco started to export wheat to Europe despite the objection of the ulama (religious establishment). The Chaouia and Doukkala plains became the most important suppliers of wheat for export. This is logical given their proximity to the coast. The ports of Casablanca and Feddala, today's Mohammedia, serviced the Chaouia Plain while the port of Mazagan serviced Doukkala.
After Morocco's independence, agriculture in Doukkala became geared toward irrigation so less area has been devoted to wheat, whereas Chaouia maintained its status as a major wheat-producing region thanks to its dark soil called tirs and relatively abundant rainfall (avg. 400 mm/year).
Asia
Europe
The Americas
North America
In Canada, a major grain-growing area is called the Canadian prairies. Sometimes the province of Saskatchewan, also known for producing a huge supplement of potash, is further singled out from within this region as the main breadbasket of Canada.
In the United States, an important region is the Corn Belt, where maize and soybeans are major crops, which generally extends from the Great Lakes south through Missouri. Further to the west in both the United States and Canada, east of the Rocky Mountains, is the Wheat Belt, where the climate is too severe for maize or soybeans.
During the Civil War, the Shenandoah Valley was known as the Breadbasket of the Confederacy.
Additionally, the San Joaquin Valley in California has also been called the breadbasket of the world. The San Joaquin Valley produces the majority of the 12.8% of the United States' agricultural production (as measured by dollar value) that comes from California. Grapes—table, raisin, and, to a lesser extent, wine—are perhaps the valley's highest-profile product, but equally (if not more) important are cotton, nuts (especially almonds and pistachios), citrus, and vegetables. 70% of the world's and 100% of the U.S. supply of almonds comes from the valley. Oranges, peaches, garlic, tangerines, tomatoes, kiwis, hay, alfalfa and numerous other crops have been harvested with great success. According to the 2002 Census of Agriculture's ranking of market value of agricultural products sold, nine of the nation's top 10, and 12 of the top 20, producing counties are in California.
South America
During the 19th and 20th centuries, Argentina was known as the breadbasket of the world, due to the importance that agriculture had, and still has, in the country. Argentina's cereal cultivation is found in the Pampas region, which encompasses the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Córdoba and La Pampa. Within this region, many cities, such as Pergamino, Venado Tuerto and Rosario, are one of the most fertile areas in the continent. Some of the plantations include soybeans, corn, wheat, barley, sunflower and peanut, among others.
In the 19th century, access to the Californian and Australian markets made wheat export a very lucrative activity, leading to the Chilean wheat cycle. In the mid-19th century, those countries experienced large gold rushes, which created a large demand for wheat. Chile was at the time the "only wheat producer of some importance in the Pacific".
Brazil is also seen as a breadbasket, as it is the world's largest supplier of coffee and contains vast tracts of arable land.
Oceania
Australia
The Murray-Darling Basin is seen as Australia's breadbasket, being the source of 40% of the nation's agricultural income, a third of the wheat harvest, 95 percent of the rice crop and other products such as fruit, wine and cotton.
New Zealand
When New Zealand became a British colony, the fertile lands produced food that would be shipped back to England, causing New Zealand to become colloquially known (occasionally along with Australia) as Britain's breadbasket, subsequently leading to the Dunedin being the first ship to complete a truly successful transport of refrigerated meat. She was refitted with a refrigeration machine with which she took the first load of frozen meat from New Zealand to the United Kingdom.
References
Further reading
Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 27 February 2014. A Roadmap to Building Myanmar into the Food Basket of Asia, by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh
Agricultural terminology | [
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218197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny%20Reb | Johnny Reb | Johnny Reb is the national personification of the common soldier of the Confederacy. During the American Civil War and afterwards, Johnny Reb and his Union counterpart Billy Yank were used in speech and literature to symbolize the common soldiers who fought in the Civil War in the 1860s. The symbolic image of Johnny Reb in Southern culture has been represented in its novels, poems, art, public statuary, photography, and written history. According to the historian Bell I. Wiley, who wrote about the common soldiers of the Northern and the Southern armies, the name appears to have its origins in the habit of Union soldiers calling out, "Hello, Johnny" or "Howdy, Reb" to Confederate soldiers on the other side of the picket line.
Johnny Reb has been used as a nickname for veteran Confederate soldiers, as well as to refer to white natives of the states that formerly belonged to the Confederacy. The sobriquet is still commonly used in scholarly writing by Southern and Northern authors; for example, Robert N. Rosen, a Jewish native of South Carolina who has written extensively about the roles Southern Jews played in the Confederate States Army, refers to "Jewish Johnny Rebs". The term Johnny Reb is still sometimes used in popular writing and in news media. In 2000, The Los Angeles Times published an article by the historian Eric Foner entitled, Chief Johnny Reb, in reference to Jefferson Davis, the Confederate president. A 2018 book review by historian Drew Gilpin Faust appeared in The Wall Street Journal under the title Billy Yank and Johnny Reb.
Johnny Reb is often pictured as a Confederate Soldier in gray wool uniform with the typical kepi-style forage cap made of wool broadcloth or cotton jean cloth with a rounded, flat top, cotton lining, and leather visor. He is often shown as well with his weapons or with the Confederate flag, sometimes both.
Use in media
"Johnny Reb" is a Confederate soldier's song written in 1959 by Merle Kilgore and popularized by Johnny Horton.
"Johnny Reb and Billy Yank" (1956–1959) was a comic strip about the American Civil War featuring Johnny Reb as a character.
"Johnny Reb" is the name of a wargame first published in 1983
"Johnny Reb" is addressed in the lyrics of a song by R.E.M. called "Swan Swan H" on their 1986 album Lifes Rich Pageant.
See also
Brother Jonathan
Edwin Francis Jemison
Billy Yank
Uncle Sam
References
American culture
American folklore
National symbols of the Confederate States
Cultural history of the American Civil War
DC Comics characters
American mascots
Military slang and jargon
National personifications
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218204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20PS/2 | IBM PS/2 | The Personal System/2 or PS/2 is IBM's second generation of personal computers. Released in 1987, it officially replaced the IBM PC, XT, AT, and PC Convertible in IBM's lineup. Many of the PS/2's innovations, such as the 16550 UART (serial port), 1440 KB 3.5-inch floppy disk format, 72-pin SIMMs, the PS/2 port, and the VGA video standard, went on to become standards in the broader PC market.
The PS/2 line was created by IBM partly in an attempt to recapture control of the PC market by introducing the advanced yet proprietary Micro Channel architecture (MCA) on higher-end models. These models were in the strange position of being incompatible with the IBM-compatible hardware standards previously established by IBM and adopted in the PC industry. However, IBM's initial PS/2 computers were popular with target market corporate buyers, and by September 1988 IBM reported that it had sold 3 million PS/2 machines. This was only 18 months after the new range had been introduced.
Most major PC manufacturers balked at IBM's licensing terms for MCA-compatible hardware, particularly the per-machine royalties. In 1992, Macworld stated that "IBM lost control of its own market and became a minor player with its own technology."
The OS/2 operating system was announced at the same time as the PS/2 line and was intended to be the primary operating system for models with Intel 80286 or later processors. However, at the time of the first shipments, only IBM PC DOS 3.3 was available. OS/2 1.0 (text-mode only) and Microsoft's Windows 2.0 became available several months later. IBM also released AIX PS/2, a UNIX operating system for PS/2 models with Intel 386 or later processors.
Predecessors
1981 IBM PC
1983 IBM PC XT
1984 IBM Portable Personal Computer
1984 IBM PCjr
1984 IBM PC AT
1986 IBM PC Convertible
1986 IBM PC XT 286
Technology
IBM's PS/2 was designed to remain software compatible with their PC/AT/XT line of computers upon which the large PC clone market was built, but the hardware was quite different. PS/2 had two BIOSes: one named ABIOS (Advanced BIOS) which provided a new protected mode interface and was used by OS/2, and CBIOS (Compatible BIOS) which was included to be software compatible with the PC/AT/XT. CBIOS was so compatible that it even included Cassette BASIC. While IBM did not publish the BIOS source code, it did promise to publish BIOS entry points.
Micro Channel Architecture
With certain models to the IBM PS/2 line, Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) was also introduced. MCA was conceptually similar to the channel architecture of the IBM System/360 mainframes. MCA was technically superior to ISA and allowed for higher speed communications within the system. The majority of MCA's features would be seen in later buses with the exception of: streaming-data procedure, channel-check reporting, error logging and internal bus-level video pass-through for devices like the IBM 8514. Transfer speeds were on par with the much later PCI standard. MCA allowed one-to-one, card to card, and multi-card to processor simultaneous transaction management which is a feature of the PCI-X bus format.
Bus mastering capability, bus arbitration, and a primitive form of plug-and-play management of hardware were all benefits of MCA. Gilbert Held in his 2000 book Server Management observes: "MCA used an early (and user-hostile) version of what we know now as 'Plug-N′-Play', requiring a special setup disk for each machine and each card." MCA never gained wide acceptance outside of the PS/2.
When setting up the card with its disk, all choices for interrupts and other changes were accomplished automatically by the PC reading the old configuration from the floppy disk. This made necessary changes, then recorded the new configuration to the floppy disk. This meant that the user must keep that same floppy disk matched to that particular PC. For a small organization with a few PCs, this was annoying, but less expensive and time consuming than bringing in a PC technician to do installation. But for large organizations with hundreds or even thousands of PCs, permanently matching each PC with its own floppy disk was a logistical nightmare. Without the original, (and correctly updated) floppy disk, no changes could be made to the PC's cards.
In addition to the technical setup, legally, royalties were required for each MCA-compatible machine sold. There was nothing unique in IBM insisting on payment of royalties on the use of its patents applied to Micro Channel-based machines. Up until that time, some companies had failed to pay IBM for the use of its patents on the earlier generation of Personal Computer.
Keyboard/mouse
Layout
The PS/2 IBM Model M keyboard used the same 101-key layout of the previous IBM PC/AT Extended keyboard, itself derived from the original IBM PC keyboard. European variants had 102 keys with the addition of an extra key to the right of the left Shift key.
Interface
PS/2 systems introduced a new specification for the keyboard and mouse interfaces, which are still in use today (though increasingly supplanted by USB devices) and are thus called "PS/2" interfaces. The PS/2 keyboard interface, inspired by Apple's ADB interface, was electronically identical to the long-established AT interface, but the cable connector was changed from the 5-pin DIN connector to the smaller 6-pin mini-DIN interface. The same connector and a similar synchronous serial interface was used for the PS/2 mouse port.
The initial desktop Model 50 and Model 70 also featured a new cableless internal design, based on use of interposer circuit boards to link the internal drives to the planar (motherboard). Additionally these machines could be largely disassembled and reassembled for service without tools.
Additionally, the PS/2 introduced a new software data area known as the Extended BIOS Data Area (EBDA). Its primary use was to add a new buffer area for the dedicated mouse port. This also required making a change to the "traditional" BIOS Data Area (BDA) which was then required to point to the base address of the EBDA.
Another new PS/2 innovation was the introduction of bidirectional parallel ports which in addition to their traditional use for connecting a printer could now function as a high speed data transfer interface. This allowed the use of new hardware such as parallel port scanners, CD-ROM drives, and also enhanced the capabilities of printers by allowing them to communicate with the host PC and send back signals instead of simply being a passive output device.
Graphics
Most of the initial range of PS/2 models were equipped with a new frame buffer known as the Video Graphics Array, or VGA for short. This effectively replaced the previous EGA standard. VGA increased graphics memory to 256 KB and provided for resolutions of 640×480 with 16 colors, and 320×200 with 256 colors. VGA also provided a palette of 262,144 colors (as opposed to the EGA palette of 64 colors). The IBM 8514 and later XGA computer display standards were also introduced on the PS/2 line.
Key monitors and their maximum resolutions:
8504: 12″, 640×480, 60 Hz non-interlaced, 1991, monochrome
8507: 19″, 1024×768, 43.5 Hz interlaced, 1988, monochrome
8511: 14″, 640×480, 60 Hz non-interlaced, 1987
8512: 14″, 640×480, 60 Hz non-interlaced, 1987
8513: 12″, 640×480, 60 Hz non-interlaced, 1987
8514: 16″, 1024×768, 43.5 Hz interlaced, 1987
8515: 14″, 1024×768, 43.5 Hz interlaced, 1991
8516: 14″, 1024×768, 43.5 Hz interlaced, 1991
8518: 14″, 640×480, 75 Hz non-interlaced, 1992
9515: 14″, 1024×768, 43.5 Hz interlaced, 1992
9517: 16″, 1280×1024, 53 Hz interlaced, 1991
9518: 14″, 640×480, non-interlaced, 1992
38F4737: 10", 640×480, non-interlaced, 1989, amber monochrome plasma screen; this display was exclusive to models P70 and P75
In truth, all "XGA" 1024×768 monitors are multimode, as XGA works as an add-on card to a built-in VGA and transparently passes-thru the VGA signal when not operating in a high resolution mode. All of the listed 85xx displays can therefore sync 640×480 at 60 Hz (or 720×400 at 70 Hz) in addition to any higher mode they may also be capable of. This however is not true of the 95xx models (and some unlisted 85xx's), which are specialist workstation displays designed for use with the XGA-2 or Image Adapter/A cards, and whose fixed frequencies all exceed that of basic VGA – the lowest of their commonly available modes instead being 640×480 at 75 Hz, if not something much higher still. It is also worth noting that these were still merely dual- or "multiple-frequency" monitors, not variable-frequency (also known as multisync); in particular, despite running happily at 640×480/720×400 and 1024×768, an (e.g.) 8514 cannot sync the otherwise common intermediate 800×600 "SVGA" resolution, even at the relatively low 50 to 56 Hz refresh rates initially used.
Although the design of these adapters did not become an industry standard as VGA did, their 1024×768 pixel resolution was subsequently widely adopted as a standard by other manufacturers, and "XGA" became a synonym for this screen resolution. The lone exception were the bottom-rung 8086-based Model 25 and 30, which had a cut-down version of VGA referred to as MCGA; the 286 models came with VGA. This supported CGA graphics modes, VGA 320x200x256 and 640x480x2 mode, but not EGA or color 640x480.
VGA video connector
All of the new PS/2 graphics systems (whether MCGA, VGA, 8514, or later XGA) used a 15-pin D-sub connector for video out. This used analog RGB signals, rather than four or six digital color signals as on previous CGA and EGA monitors. The digital signals limited the color gamut to a fixed 16 or 64 color palette with no room for expansion. In contrast, any color depth (bits per primary) can be encoded into the analog RGB signals so the color gamut can be increased arbitrarily by using wider (more bits per sample) DACs and a more sensitive monitor. The connector was also compatible with analog grayscale displays. Unlike earlier systems (like MDA and Hercules) this was transparent to software, so all programs supporting the new standards could run unmodified whichever type of display was attached. (On the other hand, whether the display was color or monochrome was undetectable to software, so selection between application displays optimized for color or monochrome, in applications that supported both, required user intervention.) These grayscale displays were relatively inexpensive during the first few years the PS/2 was available, and they were very commonly purchased with lower-end models.
The VGA connector became the de facto standard for connecting monitors and projectors on both PC and non-PC hardware over the course of the early 1990s, replacing a variety of earlier connectors.
Storage
Apple had first popularized the 3.5" floppy on the Macintosh line and IBM brought them to the PC in 1986 with the PC Convertible. In addition, they could be had as an optional feature on the XT and AT. The PS/2 line used entirely 3.5" drives which assisted in their quick adoption by the industry, although the lack of 5.25" drive bays in the computers created problems later on in the 1990s as they could not accommodate internal CD-ROM drives. In addition, the lack of built-in 5.25" floppy drives meant that PS/2 users could not immediately run the large body of existing IBM compatible software. However IBM made available optional external 5.25" drives, with internal adapters for the early PS/2 models, to enable data transfer.
In the initial lineup, IBM used 720 KB double density (DD) capacity drives on the 8086-based models and 1440 KB high density (HD) on the 80286-based and higher models. By the end of the PS/2 line they had moved to a somewhat standardized capacity of 2880 KB.
The PS/2 floppy drives lacked a capacity detector. 1440 KB floppies had a hole so that drives could identify them from 720 KB floppies, preventing users from formatting the smaller capacity disks to the higher capacity (doing so would work, but with a higher tendency of data loss). Clone manufacturers implemented the hole detection, but IBM did not. As a result of this a 720 KB floppy could be formatted to 1440 KB in a PS/2, but the resulting floppy would only be readable by a PS/2 machine.
PS/2s primarily used Mitsubishi floppy drives and did not use a separate Molex power connector; the data cable also contained the power supply lines. As the hardware aged the drives often malfunctioned due to bad quality capacitors.
The PS/2 used several different types of internal hard drives. Early models used MFM or ESDI drives. Some desktop models used combo power/data cables similar to the floppy drives. Later models used DBA ESDI or Parallel SCSI. Typically, desktop PS/2 models only permitted use of one hard drive inside the computer case. Additional storage could be attached externally using the optional SCSI interface.
Memory
Later PS/2 models introduced the 72-pin SIMM which became the de facto standard for RAM modules by the mid-1990s in mid-to-late 486 and nearly all Pentium desktop systems. 72-pin SIMMs were 32/36 bits wide and replaced the old 30-pin SIMM (8/9-bit) standard. The older SIMMs were much less convenient because they had to be installed in sets of two or four to match the width of the CPU's 16-bit (Intel 80286 and 80386SX) or 32-bit (80386 and 80486) data bus, and would have been extremely inconvenient to use in Pentium systems (which featured a 64-bit memory bus). 72-pin SIMMs were also made with greater capacities (starting at 1mb and ultimately reaching 128mb, vs 256kb to 16mb and more commonly no more than 4mb for 30-pin) and in a more finely graduated range (powers of 2, instead of powers of 4).
Many PS/2 models also used proprietary IBM SIMMs and could not be fitted with commonly available types. However industry standard SIMMs could be modified to work in PS/2 machines if the SIMM-presence and SIMM-type detection bridges, or associated contacts, were correctly rewired.
Models
At launch, the PS/2 family comprised the Model 30, 50, 60 and 80; the Model 25 was launched a few months later.
The PS/2 Models 25 and 30 (IBM 8525 and 8530, respectively) were the lowest-end models in the lineup and meant to replace the IBM PC and XT. Model 25s came with either an 8086 CPU running at 8 MHz, 512 KB of RAM, and 720 KB floppy disks, or 80286 CPU. The 8086s had ISA expansion slots and a built-in MCGA monitor, which could be either color or monochrome, while the 80286 models came with VGA monitor and ISA expansion slots. A cut-down Model M with no numeric keypad was standard, with the normal keyboard being an extra-cost option. There was a very rare later model called the PS/2 Model 25-SX which sported either a 16 MHz or 20 MHz 386 CPU, up to 12 MB of memory, IDE hard drive, VGA Monitor and 16 bit ISA slots making it the highest available model 25 available denoted by model number 8525-L41.
The Model 30 had either an 8086 or 286 CPU and sported the full 101-key keyboard and standalone monitor along with three 8-bit ISA expansion slots. 8086 models had 720 KB floppies while 286 models had 1440 KB ones. Both the Model 25 and 30 could have an optional 20 MB ST-506 hard disk (which in the Model 25 took the place of the second floppy drive if so equipped and used a proprietary 3.5" form factor). 286-based Model 30s are otherwise a full AT-class machine and support up to 4 MB of RAM.
Later ISA PS/2 models comprised the Model 30-286 (a Model 30 with an Intel 286 CPU), Model 35 (IBM 8535) and Model 40 (IBM 8540) with Intel 386SX or IBM 386SLC processors.
The higher-numbered models (above 50) were equipped with the Micro Channel bus and mostly ESDI or SCSI hard drives (models 60-041 and 80-041 had MFM hard drives). PS/2 Models 50 (IBM 8550) and 60 (IBM 8560) used the Intel 286 processor, the PS/2 Models 70 (IBM 8570) and 80 used the 386DX, while the mid-range PS/2 Model 55SX (IBM 8555-081) and used the 16/32-bit 386SX processor. The Model 50 was revised to the Model 50Z still with 10MHz 80286 processor, but with memory run at zero wait state, and a switch to ESDI hard drives. Later Model 70 and 80 variants (B-xx) also used 25 MHz Intel 486 processors, in a complex called the Power Platform.
The PS/2 Models 90 (IBM 8590/9590) and 95 (IBM 8595/9595/9595A) used Processor Complex daughterboards holding the CPU, memory controller, MCA interface, and other system components. The available Processor Complex options ranged from the 20 MHz Intel 486 to the 90 MHz Pentium and were fully interchangeable. The IBM PC Server 500, which has a motherboard identical to the 9595A, also uses Processor Complexes.
Other later Micro Channel PS/2 models included the Model 65SX with a 16 MHz 386SX; various Model 53 (IBM 9553), 56 (IBM 8556) and 57 (IBM 8557) variants with 386SX, 386SLC or 486SLC2 processors; the Models 76 and 77 (IBM 9576/9577) with 486SX or 486DX2 processors respectively; and the 486-based Model 85 (IBM 9585).
The IBM PS/2E (IBM 9533) was the first Energy Star compliant personal computer. It had a 50 MHz IBM 486SLC processor, an ISA bus, four PC card slots, and an IDE hard drive interface. The environmentally friendly PC borrowed many components from the ThinkPad line and was composed of recycled plastics, designed to be easily recycled at the end of its life, and used very little power.
The IBM PS/2 Server 195 and 295 (IBM 8600) were 486-based dual-bus MCA network servers supporting asymmetric multiprocessing, designed by Parallan Computer Inc.
The IBM PC Server 720 (IBM 8642) was the largest MCA-based server made by IBM, although it was not, strictly speaking, a PS/2 model. It could be fitted with up to six Intel Pentium processors interconnected by the Corollary C-bus and up to eighteen SCSI hard disks. This model was equipped with seven combination MCA/PCI slots.
PS/2 portables, laptops and notebooks
IBM also produced several portable and laptop PS/2s, including the Model L40 (ISA-bus 386SX), N33 (IBM's first notebook-format computer from year 1991, Model 8533, 386SX), N51 (386SX/SLC), P70 (386DX) and P75 (486DX2).
The IBM ThinkPad 700C, aside from being labeled "700C PS/2" on the case, featured MCA and a 486SLC CPU.
6152 Academic System
The 6152 Academic System was a workstation computer developed by IBM's Academic Information Systems (ACIS) division for the university market introduced in February 1988. The 6152 was based on the PS/2 Model 60, adding a RISC Adapter Card on the Micro Channel bus. This card was a co-processor that enabled the 6152 to run ROMP software compiled for IBM's Academic Operating System (AOS), a version of BSD UNIX for the ROMP that was only available to select colleges and universities.
The RISC Adapter Card contained the ROMP-C microprocessor (an enhanced version of the ROMP that first appeared in the IBM RT PC workstations), a memory management unit (the ROMP had virtual memory), a floating-point coprocessor, and up to 8MB of memory for use by the ROMP. The 6152 was the first computer to use the ROMP-C, which would later be introduced in new RT PC models.
Marketing
During the 1980s, IBM's advertising of the original PC and its other product lines had frequently used the likeness of Charlie Chaplin. For the PS/2, however, IBM augmented this character with the following jingle:
Another campaign featured actors from the television show M*A*S*H playing the staff of a contemporary (i.e. late-1980s) business in roles reminiscent of their characters' roles from the series. Harry Morgan, Larry Linville, William Christopher, Wayne Rogers, Gary Burghoff, Jamie Farr, and Loretta Swit were in from the beginning, whereas Alan Alda joined the campaign later.
The profound lack of success of these advertising campaigns led, in part, to IBM's termination of its relationships with its global advertising agencies; these accounts were reported by Wired magazine to have been worth over $500 million a year, and the largest such account review in the history of business.
Overall, the PS/2 line was largely unsuccessful with the consumer market, even though the PC-based Models 30 and 25 were an attempt to address that. With what was widely seen as a technically competent but cynical attempt to gain undisputed control of the market, IBM unleashed an industry backlash, which went on to standardize VESA, EISA and PCI. In large part, IBM failed to establish a link in the consumer's mind between the PS/2 MicroChannel architecture and the immature OS/2 1.x operating system; the more capable OS/2 version 2.0 did not release until 1992.
The firm suffered massive financial losses for the remainder of the 1980s, forfeiting its previously unquestioned position as the industry leader, and eventually lost its status as the largest manufacturer of personal computers, first to Compaq and then to Dell. From a high of 10,000 employees in Boca Raton before the PS/2 came out, only seven years later, IBM had $600 million in unsold inventory and was laying off staff by the thousands.
After the failure of the PS/2 line to establish a new standard, IBM was forced to revert to building ISA PCs—following the industry it had once led—with the low-end PS/1 line and later with the more compatible Aptiva and PS/ValuePoint lines.
Still, the PS/2 platform experienced some success in the corporate sector where the reliability, ease of maintenance and strong corporate support from IBM offset the rather daunting cost of the machines. Also, many people still lived with the motto "Nobody ever got fired for buying an IBM". In the mid-range desktop market, the models 55SX and later 56SX were the leading sellers for almost their entire lifetimes. Later PS/2 models saw a production life span that took them into the late 1990s, within a few years of IBM selling off the division.
See also
Successors
IBM PS/ValuePoint
Ambra Computer Corporation
IBM Aptiva
Concurrent
IBM PS/1
Notes
References
Further reading
Burton, Greg. IBM PC and PS/2 pocket reference. NDD (the old dealer channel), 1991.
Byers, T.J. IBM PS/2: A Reference Guide. Intertext Publications, 1989. .
Dalton, Richard and Mueller, Scott. IBM PS/2 Handbook . Que Publications, 1989. .
Held, Gilbert. IBM PS/2: User's Reference Manual. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1989. .
Hoskins, Jim. IBM PS/2. John Wiley & Sons Inc., fifth revised edition, 1992. .
Leghart, Paul M. The IBM PS/2 in-depth report. Pachogue, NY: Computer Technology Research Corporation, 1988.
Newcom, Kerry. A Closer Look at IBM PS/2 Microchannel Architecture. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Norton, Peter. Inside the IBM PC and PS/2. Brady Publishing, fourth edition 1991. .
Outside the IBM PC and PS/2: Access to New Technology. Brady Publishing, 1992. .
Shanley, Tom. IBM PS/2 from the Inside Out. Addison-Wesley, 1991. .
External links
IBM Type 8530
IBM PS/2 Personal Systems Reference Guide 1992 - 1995
Computercraft - The PS/2 Resource Center
Model 9595 Resource, covers all PS/2 models and adapters
PS/2 keyboard pinout
Computer Chronicles episode on the PS/2
IBM PS/2 L40 SX (8543)
PS/2
OS/2
16-bit computers
32-bit computers
Computer-related introductions in 1987 | [
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